Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity 0262240351

Citation preview

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fikret Yegiil

The Architectural History Foundation New York, New York

The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England

1992 by the Architectural History Foundation and The Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Printed and bound in the United States of America.

All rights reserved. No parts of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Library of Congress Catalog!ng«in Publication Data Yegill, Fikret K.. 1942Baths and bathing in classical antiquity/Fikret YegiiJ. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-262-24035-1 I Baths, Public—Rome. 2. Rome—Antiquities. I. Title. DG97.Y45 1992 39T.64—dc20 91-24855 CIP

The Architectural History Foundation is a publicly supported, not-for-profit foundation Directors; William Butler, Colin Eisler, Elizabeth G. Miller, Victoria Newhouse, Annalee Newman, Adolf K. Placzek, Adele Chatfield-Taylor. Editorial Board; David G. De Long, University of Pennsylvania; Christoph L. Frommel, Bibliotheca Hertziana, Rome; William H. Jordy, Brown University, Emeritus; Barbara Miller l^nc, Bryn Mawr College; Henry A. Millon, CASVA, National Gallery of Art, Wash­ ington, D.C.; Marvin Trachtenberg, Institute of Fine Ans, New York Ciry.

Fikret Yegiil is Professor of the History of Architecture and Chair of the An History Department at the University of California at Santa Barbara. All photographs not credited are from the author's collection.

Designed bv Sylvia Steiner. Publication of this book has been aided by a grant from The Millard Meiss Publication Fund of the College Art Association of America. [MM]

The preparation of this volume was made possible by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, an indepen­ dent federal agency.

Contents

Preface

vhi

Introduction

i

1

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

2

Bathing and Baths in the Roman World

3

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths 48

4

Thermo-Mineral Baths

92

5

The Thermae of Rome

128

6

Baths of North Africa

i«4

7

Baths and Gymnasia in Asia Minor

8

Baths and Bathing in the Late Antique and Early Byzantine World 314 Epilogue

6 30

250

350

Appendices

A

Ancient Medicine and Bathing

B

Heating and Water Supply of Roman Baths

352

C Architectural Elements and Motifs of North African Baths

396

D Architectural Elements and Motifs of Baths in Asia Minor 414 Noles

424

Selected Bibliography

Glossary

Index

487 495

474

356

Preface

Baths and Bathing in Classical A ntiquity attempts to fulfill the dual purpose announced by its title? it is a book about the architecture of baths as well as the insti­ tution of bathing. It includes topographical, archaeo­ logical, and historical information about a fairly large number of bath buildings across the Roman world and attempts to analyze their architecture. It is a theme book and a source book. The approach is mainly geo­ graphical, rather than chronological, because regional characteristics are judged to be more meaningful than period characteristics. Two exceptions are the sections on the origins and the early development of Roman baths, and on late antique and Byzantine baths—the former starts a tradition, the latter transforms and trans­ mits it to new cultures. Certain regions, such as Rome, Italy. North Africa, Asia Minor, and to a lesser extent Gaul, are emphasized over central and northwest Europe and England. This was a choice determined mainly by my interests and knowledge; baths in the Mediterranean zone ace also larger and more elaborate than their northern European

counterpans. A considerable proportion of the latter are military or fortress baths, and hence they represent a special category of investigation. The Greek portion of Classical antiquity’ clearly re­ ceives less emphasis than the Roman—significant ex­ amples of Greek baths arc discussed in a single chapter. Yet, I trust this chapter will be judged adequate to place Roman baths within the larger context of bathing in the Classical world, providing the architectural and cultural background for their relationship to the bona fide public Greek baths during the Classical and Hel­ lenistic periods. Several new works are announced in Janet De Laine’s recent article on the state of scholarship on “bath stud­ ies.” There is room for many more, since the sites occu­ pied by this important architectural type cover a vast area, and only a few comprehens i ve stud i es of baths and bathing have appeared since Daniel Krencker’s Die trierer Kaiserfhermen in 1929 ’ For generations of ar­ chitectural historians and archaeologists Krcncker has been to bath studies what Beazley is to Greek vase paint­

ing a nd, withou t dou bt, h i s work wi 11 cont i nue to reta i n its importance. It is true that much new material has come to light since 1929. but equally important is the fact that some things that were clearly visible to Krencker, and accurately recorded by him, have been lost. There will be new directions in future work on baths: (a) general studies that aim to integrate the cultural component of bathing into the architecture of baths; (b) regional studies and area surveys of a more factual nature. The first approach, whose importance is under­ lined by De Laine, and which this book attempts to adopt, humanizes the study of Roman baths. Baths arc seen not merely as (he sturdiest row of half-ruined vaults and the heaviest concentration of rubble and concrete on archaeological sites (although they do often encompass forefront developments in Roman building technology). They are viewed not merely as coarse ly bu i 11 she 11s for a pu rel y fu net iona I act i v ity. On the contrary, they represent a popular social institution that offers numerous and often uncommonly sophisti­ cated glimpses of ancient customs and beliefs. Fresh, even controversial views are possible through sympa­ thetic and creative investigation of the great wealth of epigraphical, literary, archaeological, and iconographical material. A case in point is the recent article by Katherine Dunbabin on the “Pleasures and Dangers of the Baths.”2 Through a carefu 1 study of a n u m ber of late Roman inscriptions, epigrams, and the decorative imag­ ery of baths, Dunbabin explores the double themes of a “sense of beauty and pleasure” in baths and a “fear of the dangers inherent in bathing.” Because baths are among the most plentiful of an­ cient architectural types, the second approach—area studies and surveys—is also necessary. We lack a full, methodical record of the thousands of large and small baths scattered across the vast realm occupied by the Roman Empire. No single scholar or volume can or should undertake such a responsibility. Rather, re­ gional studies should be encouraged—a “corpus of Roman baths”—with the collaboration of many

scholars. The present volume incorporates a fairly large num­ ber of new and unpublished architectural drawings, most of them plans. Some of the new drawings are based on several sources, often revised by my field ob­ servations and measurements. In these redrawings the most prominent source is acknowledged, when it is

Preface

identifiable. While I have been able to do the great majority of these, I gratefully acknowledge assistance from the excellent drafting of Cherie Mohr and Diane Favro. The aim of redrawing was to improve rhe quality and accuracy of the plans and, in a large number of cases, to standardize the graphic representation and designations of spatial functions by letters. I have at­ tempted to adopt a reasonably consistent and accurate designation of spaces on the new drawings. However, the drawings I have garnered from a variety' of pub­ lished sources (and reproduce unchanged here) do not always follow the same standard of space designations. The identification of spaces in bath architecture is diffi­ cult. often impossible, since functions could change over the long life of a building. Generally, I adopted Krencker’s letter designations: C is caldarium, Fis frigi­ darium, Fis tepidarium (in the large bathsand thermae a small space between the frigidarium and the calda­ rium); A Is apodyterium (changing room, sometimes also a lounge); P or Pa is palaestra, £ is laconicum (sweating room), N is natatio (swimming pool). Heated rooms between the frigidarium and the calda­ rium (often arranged in a row) are designated by num­ bers, i.e., I, 2, J. In small baths, often there is only one such room, w hich may be designated simply as tepida­ rium, T The entrance area(s) is v, vestibule; service area or yard is s; furnace ( praefiirnium) is / and la­ trines are I or la. Baths in the West as well as the East often display one or more large interior multipurpose halls or galleries. Architectural features and the size of these halls vary greatly. Some are thought to serve the function of an indoor exercise space or a “basilica” (basilica tbermarum)-, they are indicated by the let­ ters B or S. My interest in baths and bathing goes back to the early 1970s when I started working on the imperial bath-gymnasium complex at Sardis and, by extension, the bath-gymnasium complex of Asia Minor as a new architectural type reflecting the dual cultural heritage of the land. The good advice and encouragement of the late George M. A. Hanfmann, my teacher and the former director of Sardis Archaeological Expedition, played a fundamental role in shaping this book. His successor at Sardis, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr., longtime friend and colleague, continued to offer help and interest in the subject. My teachers and senior colleagues in Roman architecture, the lace Frank E. Brown and Wil­ liam L. MacDonald, read parts of the manuscript and

ix

supported the project. Time spent with Bill, debating controversial and untidy aspects of Roman architec­ ture, and in particular Roman bath design, was invalu­ able (even venturing the simple, confounding question, “Why was bathing so popular among the Romans?’’). My knowledge of Nonh African baths was helped by the delightful companionship of Margaret and Robert Alexander. I owe much to several Turkish colleagues: Jale Inan on Side and Perge; Baki Ogun on Kaunos; Kenan Erim on Aphrodisias. 1 drew on the ex­ pertise and friendship of Linda Rutland Gillison, who edited and corrected the manuscript for Greek and Latin. A University of California Regents Fellowship and several General Research grants from UCSB pro­ vided partial funds toward the production of the large number of architectural drawings and photographs for this book. I am grateful to these University of California agencies for their continued support. I offer thanks to those at the Architectural History Foundation: managing editor, Karen Banks; production manager. Jo Ellen Ackerman; and publisher, Victoria Newhouse, for their grace and elegance in seeing through a long and difficult manuscript to its final book form. An Ailsa Mellon Bruce Senior Fellowship (1985-86) allowed me to enjoy the benefits of a full year of research and writing at the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Ans, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. I ex­ press my thanks to Dean Henry Millon for creating a stimulating environment for study. The deepest gratitude is owed to my parents to whom the volume is dedicated. Neither could properly read it, and what is in it belongs to a world very different from their own. But they made possible for me the free­ dom co choose and the delight to pursue such matters. I wish my mother could have lived to see completed the book whose long preparation she followed with inter­ est. She would have been pleased to know that her son, who appeared “personally answerable to every bath the Romans ever built,” could remain concent and idle, for a time at least.

Introduction

"The way in which a civilization integrates bath­ ing into its daily life, as well as the type of bach­ ing it prefers, yields an insight into the inner nature of that period. . . "The idea of leisure implies a concern for matters that lie outside our practical values. The intensity’ of life can be only tasted and fully ap­ preciated when rhythmic pulls of activity and leisure—doing and not doing—are able to operate as two strongly magnetic poles." — S. Giedion, Architecture and the Phenomena of Transition, 238, 252.

Bathing in the ancient world, especially in the world of the Romans, went far beyond the functional and hy­ gienic necessities of washing. It was a personal regener­ ation and a deeply rooted social and cultural habit—in the full sense of the word, an institution. For the aver­ age Roman a visit to the public baths in the afternoon was an irreplaceable part of the day’s routine. Ordinar­ ily, hot bathing would be preceded by various games and physical exercise in the palaestra. As the direct inheritors of the Greek gymnasium and the Greek ideal of a balance between body and mind, the Romans sought to incorporate an intellectual dimension into the wide scope of their bathing activities. Many of the larger bathing complexes contained lecture halls, li­ braries, and promenades. The relationship between the gymnasium and the bath, a microcosm of the larger value systems represented by the Greek East and the Roman West, always remained a critical issue in the development of Roman baths. In Asia Minor, w'here Greek forms of life continued unbroken into the Roman era, the gymnasium never completely disappeared as an athletic and educational institution and, combined with the hot baths as a bath-gymnasium, formed the kernel of a new architectural type. The subject of bathing in antiquity holds a certain appeal to both the specialist and the layperson because of the warmth, richness, and immediacy of the human activities it represents. The leisurely and sensuous

Baths and Bathin g in Classical Antiquity

world of Roman baths — eating, drinking, massage, or simply the pleasures of companionship in an intimate and luxurious setting—interests us. Few can suppress a smile while reading in the Satyricon about the antics of Petronius’s comical hero, Trimalchto, who was carried out of the baths on a litter, all bundled up in soft blankets, accompanied by a mob of well-wishers, ser­ vants, and slaves. It is easy to empathize with Seneca, w’ho complained about losing a night’s sleep because of the rude and incessant noises coming from the public baths that adjoined his lodgings. We are especially in­ trigued because antiquity has taken what is, to us, a basic and prosaic function and elevated it to the level of a cultural and recreational act, a civic institution for which there is no real counterpart in modern Western civilization. Consequently, we are invited to view and analyze Western society with a fresh and critical eye. In contrast to the dichotomy that has existed in al­ most all post-Classical cultures between a physically oriented lifestyle and a mentally oriented one, ancient bathing represented a balanced ideal between the two; but unlike most ideals, the attainment of this one was within the power of ordinary' people. The enormous popu lariry and short-lived nature of various health fads and exercise fashions of our day stem, perhaps, from the fundamental and uncomfortable gap in our lives between the body and mind, and reveal the yearnings of our culture to bridge it. Sociologically. Roman baths, with their inclusive rather than exclusive policy, and their vast appeal to the masses regardless of sex, color, creed, or wealth, were the epitome of democratic ideals and institutions. Smail baths were owned privately and operated as a commercial enterprise but were, ordinarily, open to the public. Few citizens were so poor that they could not afford the trifling entrance fee. Many of the larger establishments were partially or wholly subsidized by the city, the state, or a wealthy private patron. Fully aware of the beneficial role played by’ baths in the health, education, and entertainment of the people, the Roman state and its leading citizens placed the building and maintenance of baths at the top of the list of social responsibilities and strove to make them as attractive and accessible as possible to the masses. The younger Pliny’s crowning act of generosity was the do­ nation of close to a million sesterces to Como, his na­ tive town in northern Italy, for the construction,

decoration, and upkeep of a public bach. After the de­ vastating earthquake of a.d. 17, the emperor Tiberius granted 6 million ses/ercesforthe rebuilding of Sardis, in western Asia Minor. The main pan of this sum was spent in laying out a monumental bath-gymnasium complex and a colonnaded avenue constituting the kernel of the city center. The larger, imperial establish­ ments provided the perfect vehicle of propaganda for the state and the system. Many contained special shrines for the worship of the Imperial Cult. In their lavish and magnificent interiors, decorated with tro­ phies, inscriptions, and sculpture, the baths reflected

the might and the splendor of the empire and the munif­ icence of the emperor, source of all peace and prosper­ ity. In the program of health, education, and recreation that they offered, communal and personal well-being took on immediate and tangible form. Architecturally, baths occupied a vanguard position in the development of Roman building technology*. Some of the earliest uses of concrete as a building mate­ rial and most innovative applications of concrete aesthetics — bold, curvilinear forms, vaults, and domes — started with bath buildings. Not only were the baths an effective testing ground for new ideas, but because of their position between purely’ utilitarian structures and the more conservative, traditional forms of religious and public architecture (such as temples and basi licas), they were instrumental in bringing wide­ spread acceptance of new ideas and revolutionary style into the realm of architecture proper. In the grand inte­ riors of the baths, Greek orders were combined with Roman vaults. By accentuating and defining the im­ mense vertical heights and curved surfaces of the walls w ith hard, horizontal cornice lines, by bridging cavern­ ous. vaulted expanses with rows of columns and tightly stretched, straight entablatures—in such ways did ac­ cessible and familiar forms contain and tame the inac­ cessible and unfamiliar. As a formal synthesis between Greek and Roman sensibilities, the architecture of the baths thus gave classicism a new dimension. Although the development of this new visual order had been in the making from the early* Roman Empire onward, some of its most successful and ambitious creations are repre­ sented byr the great thermae of the third and fourth centuries In better-preserved examples, such as the Thermae of Diocletian in Rome or the Imperial Ther­ mae in Trier, the powerful massing of generously pro­ portioned vaults, buttresses, and ribs, and the broad

Introduction

facades punctuated by large, arched windows estab­ lished an important link with medieval architecture. The development and success of Roman baths owe much to breakthrough discoveries in heating technol­ ogy at the end of the second century* B.c., particularly the form of radiant floor heating known as the hypo* caust. Although the hypocaust and its various simpler versions appear to have been developed quite indepen­ dently in Greece (Olympia) and Italy (Pompeii), its full architectural exploitation, resulting in the creation of a bath design based on order of usage and gradation of ambient temperatures, belongs to the Romans. Small baths, and baths located in exceptionally arid regions, could function with surprisingly little water, preserving their precious supplies in cistcmsand reser­ voirs. Larger baths, on the other hand, where the sump­ tuous display of water in pools, fountains, and cascades was an essential element of design, depended on aque­ ducts for (heir generous and steady supply. It would be hard to imagine Roman baths and the Roman custom of daily bathing without envisioning the technical perfec­ tion of this efficient and spectacular system that brought water from faraway sources, in conduits through hills and on arches across val leys, to supply the urban public. During the time of Trajan, c. 100, Rome alone was served by nine aqueducts supplying a total of nearly one million cubic meters of water daily, an esti­ mated three hundred gallons per person per day, a fig­ ure unmatched until recent times. The remains of this spectacular network is still visible around Rome, as well as in some of the remotest comers of what was once a vast empire; aqueducts stretching across the landscape on majestic arches tell an important part of the story of Roman urbanization that more popular ac­ counts of Rome’s military prowess and expansion do not. Public baths in cities were served directly from distribution tanks (linked to aqueducts) and were ac­ corded primacy over private uses. Some of the larger baths, such as the Thermae of Caracalla or the Thermae of Diocletian, were served by special branch aqueducts tapped directly from the main line The great reservoir of the former had a capacity of approximately eighty thousand cubic meters, about one-twelfth of the daily supply of the city of Rome. Categorizing the architecture of baths typologically and chronologically is a frustrating task. Even in the most experimental of bath designs there is an underly­

3

ing structure to the plan that reflects the traditional order of usage. This order, loosely considered, con­ sisted of a sequence of cold, tepid, and hot rooms, iden­ tified as frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium. Two basic planning categories can be suggested, the symmetrical and the asymmetrical. Between the two, many regional variations of partially symmetrical or “half-axial” schemes, such as the Baths of Julia Memmia at Bulla Regia or the Baths of Faustina at Miletus, exist (see Figs. 245, 373). These baths are often of medium size and reflect the restrictions of a difficult site or the limitations of a modest budget. In the fully symmetrical type, a number of rooms and halls are arranged as mirror images about a main axis that culmi­ nates in a large, single caldarium, the primary' hot bath­ ing hall. This type is represented predominantly, though not exclusively, by the larger establishments. The more elaborate of these, known as “imperial ther­ mae.” were created by the architects of the capital by the middle or the second half of the first century* after Christ, and were assimilated throughout the vast do­ main of the Roman Empire. They’ covered extensive gardens and sports grounds and included a ring of sec­ ondary, quasi-cultural functions around the main bath block. The grand layouts of the imperial thermae share the same formal qualities of planning found in the more ambitious of the imperial fora and, like them, display the Roman penchant for creating a total artificial envi­ ronment. much like a miniature city in size, sense, and symbol. In overall design and content they also seem (o display an intriguing kinship with Mediterranean gar­ den architecture, with which they share some charac­

teristics: shaping large landscape forms for human use; contrasting formal and informal design natures; control­ ling water as an element of design. Very little hard evi­ dence remains to illustrate this hypothesis, how’ever. The asymmetrical type covers the great majority of smaller bathing establishments, or balneae, widely spread through the cities. An early and very' predomi­ nant tendency was to arrange a row of parallel, barrelvaulted halls next to a colonnaded exercise court. This important type, sometimes referred to as the Pompeian type, had started in Campania by the early second cen­ tury B.c.; the earliest example we have is the Stabian Baths in Pompeii (see Figs. 59. 60). It also found fre­ quent but modest application in the layouts of house and villa baths of the late republic.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

A more dynamic approach involved centralized or partially centralized compositions created by an un­ sparing use of curvilinear elements. Tight, economic planning, a near*obsession with circular, semicircular, ova), and polygonal forms, and a snug circumambiva­ lent geometry set about diagonal axes, characterize many of these designs that defy categorization. To be sure, there were functional reasons for these configura­ tions. The concentric arrangement of centralized shapes satisfies the primary requirement of a thermal building for heat conservation, a lesson chat had long been learned from Greek baths. The thrust-and-counterthrust principle of vaulted structures favors tight groupings. Their amazing irregularity, often quite freely and untidily expressed on the exterior and in elevation, was as much a response to dense urban con­ ditions as a deliberate attempt to break free of the ac­ customed usages of Classical compositions. Yet, examples such as the Small Baths at Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, the Baths at Thenae in Tunisia, the Forum Baths at Khamissa and the Baths of Pompeianus at Oued Athmenia, both in Algeria, and the Baths on the Lechaion Road at Corinth, stand as bold and creative experiments of planning and reflect nothing less than outbursts of individual genius (sec Figs. 101,102, 294, 296,297). Few rules governed the distribution of baths in the cities. The manner in which public baths, large or small, related to the larger urban whole seems to have been determined by pragmatic concerns rather than theoretical principles. Small baths penetrated the fab* ric of the city and functioned as true neighborhood establishments: Rome had 856 by the end of the fourth century, Constantinople over 150, Ostia, Athens, and Timgad, over a dozen. In the major cities an even distri* bution of large baths and thermae serving districts and quarters appears to have been desirable, but this goal must have been very difficult to achieve because of the vast land requirements of these complexes. The Ther­ mae of Agrippa and the Thermae of Nero in Rome were extremely close to each other and shared the outdoor facilities of an extensive park and canal system laid out by Agrippa Those of Titus and Trajan virtually over* lapped on the southeast end of the Oppian Hill al* though there was a major level difference between them; they were built over land made available by the demolition of Nero’s Golden House. The Baths of Faus* tina in Miletus and the Large Baths at Dougga were

4

pushed to the periphery' of the city, while the Large Nonh Baths in Timgad and the CG Baths in Sardis were left outside the city walls. Yet, many thermae cook proud positions in city centers next to temples, basili­ cas, and markets. At Sardis, Miletus, Ge rasa, Djemila, and Bulla Regia baths opened directly into colonnaded streets were major urban lifelines. The Hadrianic Baths at Lepcis Magna, with its grand oval palaestra across from the Severan ny*mphaeum, constituted a crucial de* sign element in the visual articulation of one of the city’s main connective systems (see Fig. 199). At Ephe« sus, the ends of the Arcadianne, the grand boulevard that led from the theater to the harbor, were articulated by two major baths of the imperia! type (see Fig. 335). Less dramatic but no less sophisticated was the articula* tion of an irregular crossing of four streets by the Large South Baths at Timgad (see Fig. 267). With a fountain at the intersection, and three semicircular exedrae of un­ equal size, the gifted composer of this extraordinary complex invited the street into his building and estab­ lished a visual and functional dialogue between public and private space. Why was bathing so important to Roman society? Why were there so many baths in every Roman town and vi 11 age? Why were ba ths so intense ly used and 1 i ked ? No simple and definite response answers these questions; no formula explains all. But some general considera­ tions may be offered. Bathing was important to the Roman society because it was a daily habit. The structure of the Roman day reserved the afternoon and evening for leisure, to bal* ance morning hours devoted to hard work and business. Already, by the beginning of the empire, spending the larger part of the afternoon in the public baths and palaestrae had became a tradition, an unquestionable part of national life and identity. Bathing helped to in­ tegrate the individual in the mainstream of national culture. Barbarians, philosophers (their long, “dirty” beards always a subject of ridicule), and those (such as Christians) considered to be on the fringes of Roman society because of their beliefs disdained bathing, just as comparable elements of Greek society had once dis­ dained the Greek love of gymnastics and the gymna­ sium. Not to bathe would have been un-Roman. Why did bathing become a daily habit? Bathing was a physically and psychologically satisfying experience.

Introduction

The experience of the hath—the warm. clear water, the shiny, marble surfaces, the steamy atmosphere, the murmuring and echoing of genial sounds, the aroma of perfumed ointments, the intimacy of massage and pub­ lic nudity—involved the awakening of all the senses

Thermal sensibility alone was an extremely powerful stimulant for the creation of a feeling of relaxation, comfort, well-being, and happiness. Bathing cleansed physical as well as moral stains. A freshly bathed person felt light and optimistic; a number of clichés and epi­ grams from late antiquity that allude to the ability' of baths to deliver the bather from pain and worry attest to this culturally shared belief. Moreover, physical exercise for all ages almost always accompanied bathing as a means of keeping fit and healthy. The feelings of regeneration and rebirth of the body achieved through exercise and bathing acted as an effective conic for the mind, too. Hence, bathing, from its earliest history, was considered as a serious therapeutic measure and received full support and au­ thority from ancient medicine. A fairly detailed regi­ men of bathing modes for the treatment of various maladies and disorders had been worked out by Greek and Roman doctors and health special ists: among them, the recommendations of Cel sus and Galen were partic­ ularly important in influencing the bathing habits of the Romans. Bathing was also a social ly satisfying experience. The cozy warmth of the baths and their classless world of nudity encouraged friendships and intimacy. For sev­ eral hours a day, at least, baths cook the individual out of his shell and gave him a place in life. It made him share a sensory experience with others and feel good. Bathing was not only a pleasurable experience in it­ self but a prelude and preparation for more, the eve­ ning meal or the banquet. In the structure of the Roman day the bath preceded dinner and served as the occa­ sion for inviting friends or receiving an invitation. Ex­ pectation of pleasure heightens its enjoyment. Bathing can be seen as a stage in the leisurely sequence of ex­ pectations in the Roman day. Dinner, an artful and highly social affair, was its culmination? it combined the enjoyment of food and wine with poetry, music, and dance. With the relaxing and reassuring conversa­ tion and companionship of friends, dinner was the final reward in a world made perfect and capsulated into one privileged experience. Bathing and baths held the promise of that perfect world.

5

This civilized Roman world was essentially one in which physical, social, and mental pleasures—the sensual awareness that forms the very core of existence —were sought after, welcomed, savored, and shared. Although philosophers like Seneca often attributed softness and effeminacy to the luxury and excess of the baths, most Romans enjoyed the offerings of their mate­ rial culture. Even the frequent criticism of the baths for the alleged sexual licentiousness they encouraged was circumstantial. The dream world created by the public baths was enjoyed by all. In the sumptuous settings of the imperial thermae, aptly dubbed “people’s palaces” or “pagan cathedrals,” even the poorest could escape the dusty streets for a few hours a day and share the empire’s wealth and. perhaps, ideologies. Baths gave the Romans the world they wanted, a world in which one was pleased to linger.

1

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

In Homer’s world, bathing in warm water was consid­ ered a healthy and refreshing experience, a special re­ ward rese rved for heroes at t he en d o f a t ri p o r a battle, a luxury made possible by peace. There are frequent ref­ erences to warm-water bathing as a component of the good life in the /AW and the Odyssey. Odysseus’s de­ scription of the bath Circe gave him upon his arrival on her island evokes the pleasures of the process: “When the bright copper [cauldron] was boiling, she sat me down in a bath and washed me with water from the cauldron mixed with cold to a comfortable heat, sluic­ ing my head and shoulders till all the painful weariness was gone from my limbs. My bath done, she rubbed me with olive oil, clothed me in a fine tunic . . ” ‘ Un­ doubtedly, Odysseus was treated well by Circe, but this show of affection was not merely an extravagant device to retain a wayward and wayworn lover. After all, Odys­ seus was no stranger to stylish bathing; the bath pre­ pared for him by King Al ci nous and Queen Arete when he was their guest at Phaeacia was equally sumptuous, even though he was not personally attended by the queen.2 Athenaeus, writing at the end of the second century', admired the sophistication of Homeric society w*hose heroes and aristocracy were “acquainted with bathing, as a refreshment from the toil, in various forms; they relaxed their weariness in the sea, which is

especially good for the nerves; they loosened their ten­ sion of the muscles by bath-tubs, they anointed them­ selves with oil so that when the water dried, their bodies might not become stiff. For example, the men who returned from reconnaissance ‘washed away in the sea the chick sweat from their shins and necks and thighs’ [Iliad, 10, 572]. and having in this way re­ freshed themselves, they went ‘to the polished tubs and bathed, and. smearing themselves with olive oil, they sat down to their meal.’ “3 After the Peloponnesian Wars the common people’s increasing awareness and acceptance of the benefits and pleasures of bathing is made evident by the fre­ quent negative opinions expressed in Greek literature against bathing as a social habit. The conservative view

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

attacked pleasure bathing as a sign of decadence and weakening of the moral fiber that held the Greek nation together. A more philosophical approach, which held the body in disdain and aspired toward the frugaI life­ style of the Spartans (who bached only in cold water, “Laconian style"), considered bathing an affectation. In Plato’s Atlantis, hot bathing is an aristocratic privi­ lege reserved for kings During the fourth and third ce ntu ries b . C., the growl ng Gree k bourgeoi si e c hose to imitate the lifestyle of the kings rather than that of the hardy Spartans and passed the enjoyable habit on to its Roman conquerors.4 But the story of baths in antiquity must begin with the Greek gymnasium. By incorporating full washing and bathing facilities into its regular program, the gymna­ sium created the social and architectural context for one of the earliest forms of communal bathing in an­ cient society and exerted a formative influence in the subsequent development of baths. Most significantly, however, it provided the primary inspiration for Roman bathing, which incorporated physical exercise as a fundamental part of its routine. Whether the rela­ tionship was real and reciprocal, as in Asia Minor dur­ ing the imperial era, or theoretical and thematic, as in the West, the gymnasium and bath from the outset fol­ lowed a parallel and cognate development. Accepting and rejecting each other throughout their history', they always maintained a meaningful-connection.

The Naturefüf the Greek Gymnasium The barban an prince Anacharsis, one of the seven sages of the ancient world, in self-imposed exile in Athens in the sixth century b.c., observed that “in every city of the Greeks there is a designated place where they go ma^f daily” and added, “I mean the gymnasium."5 Al­ though the kind of athletic training and competition rdiinuined in the gymnasium did not make much sense to Anacharsis, the gymnasium was a characteristic land­

mark of every Greek city and retained its special posi­ tion among the other urban institutions, even under Roman rule .6 So significant and emphatic was its role as an institution representing Hellenic life and culture that, wherever Greek colonies were formed, the gymna­ sium was one of the first buildings around which the community took shape.7 The gymnasium was uniquely conceived as an insti­ tution for the military and athletic training of young citizens as well as for their intellectual and artistic

development. The goals of civic education in sixth­ century Athens merged physical aspects of training the body with musical and intellectual training of the mind. In time, this tradition assumed an official charac­ ter whose goals were mainly military' and athletic. Dur­ ing the Hellenistic era, these programs, known as ephebic education, became widespread and included subjects of a general intellectual nature .8 These courses admitted free-born males (epbebes) of eighteen years of age. Participation was initially compulsory, but from the third century b.c. onward, it became a voluntary' privilege of the upper classes.9 Apart from its primary function as the seat of ephebic education, the gy mnasium assumed a much wider func­ tional scope, encouraging the growth of secondary civic functions and foreshadowing their incorporation into the social and cultural fabric of Roman baths.,n Vitruvius tells us how Aristippus, shipwrecked on the island of Rhodes, went into the city and headed straight for the gymnasium, where he lectured on philosophy and received many gifts (Book 6, Introduction). Schol­ ars traveling under less exigent conditions than Aristip­ pus were also welcome in the gymnasium: itinerant rhetoricians, philosophers, doctors, poets, and musi­ cians were encouraged to stay and give lectures or per­ formances. These additional activities were often incorporated into the regular educational program and attended by both ephebes and the general public.11 The large r au d i en ces and I nc reased educati ona I activity necessitated the construction of libraries and auditoria in many Hellenistic gymnasia; later, under the Roman Empire, libraries, lecture rooms, and auditoria became a part of the physical ambience of the great baths. These auditoria could have served general civic functions other than lectures and classroom education. According to Polybius, Gaius Sul pi ci us Gallus held hearings in the gymnasium of Sardis for ten days during his investigations of complaints against King Eumenes ofPergamon, c. 164 B.c.12 In Alexandria, Mark Anthony proclaimed the division of the lands to (he East co a crowd gathered in the gymnasium.13 Without doubt, the most festive and popular events associated with the Greek gymnasium were the large public dinners and banquets held there, evidenced by a wealth of classical documents spanning the entire pe­ riod from early Hellenistic to late Roman times. Some of these affairs appear to have been public or private gatherings of serious intention, often marked by re­

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

ligious observations and sacrifices, such as the festival undertaken in Samos in honor of the dedication of the gymnasium to Zeus Eleutheros in the fourth century B.c.14 At (he feast regularly given in the gy mnasium of Daphne at the conclusion of religious processions, the sacrificial cow was slaughtered and cut up inside the gymnasium, and the citizens took part in a big state dinner. After the feast, they’ were allowed to take the leftovers home.15 Other feasts seem to have been occa­ sions for lighthearted entertainment, such as the private dinner recorded on an early-third-century papyrus from Oxyrhyn chus, Egypt: “Eudameon invites y’ou to dine at the gymnasium in honor of his son

Nilus. . . In Apamea on the Meander, Kephisodoros, the gymnasiarch (principal administrator of the facility), was honored for his generosity in giving banquets and set­ ting up in the gymnasium cult statues of King Eumenes 11 (reign 197-160 B.c.) and his son Attalos III (reign 138-133 B.C.).'7 This occasion is typical of many’ other ceremonies, sacrifices, games, and banquets cele­ brating the birthdays and inauguration anniversaries of deified rulers who were commonly associated with the gymnasium. Starting in the third century B.c., the cults of the traditional gods of the gymnasium, Hermes and Heracles, began to be shared with and even replaced by those of the Hellenistic ruling families—the Ptole­ mies. the Sel eue ids, and the Atta I ids. in the post-Alex­ andrian world, the gymnasium emerged as the principal seat of the Ruler Cult, foreshadowing later observances of the Imperial Cult under the Roman Empire.18 Since the gymnasium was a public institution» its ad­ ministration was entrusted to one of the more distin­ guished and wealthy citizens, w*ho was given the official title of gymnasiarch for a temporary period. If a willing and able benefactor could be found, the office could even be held for a lifetime.19 Ordinarily, a gym­ nasiarch directed only one gymnasium; in rare cases, he supervised more than one or all the gymnasia in a city. The authority of the gymnasiarch was great, but his duties were also demanding. These included educa­ tional ones such as arranging and appointing teachers, guest lecturers, and trainers, as well as purely utilitar­ ian ones such as overseeing the daily care and mainte­ nance of the building and its equipment. If baths formed a part of the establishment, he was responsible for seeing that they were properly heated. All this was

8

done at his own expense or with very little help from the city treasury' or other fellow citizens. The gymna­ siarch also performed the religious rites and sacrifices, organized games and competitions, and distributed the winners’ prizes. But by far the costliest of his obliga­ tions seems to have been the furnishing of free oil for the athletes.20 Even with the best intentions and great private wealth, the enormous expenses of (he gymnasia some­ times exceeded the resources of a gymnasiarch, who w’ould be forced to appeal to the generosity of royal and private patrons.2’ This was done in basically two ways: collecting piecemeal and often one-time donations; or, obtaining a large sum of money or other capital from a single source, investing it, and using the interest for the running expenses of one or more gymnasia. Normally, the administration of such a foundation was the respon­ sibility’ of the gy*mnasiarch or a board of magistrates, or of the gerousia, a prestigious association of the elders. The conditions of the donation were, however, written in the form of a testament with the particular expendi­ tures specified by the donor. Although long-term foun­ dations were occasionally established to cover the construction or upkeep of a gymnasium, the majority of recorded endowments and gifts to local gymnasia are short accounts of free distribution of oil for everyday use or during athleticcontests. An exception from Halicarnassos illustrates well just how civic munificence operated at its best in a Greek city': Diodotos, a wealthy citizen, contributed 10,000 drachme for the construc­ tion of agymnasium, c. 280-250B.c. Fundscametoan end while the building was still incomplete, the wood­ work unfinished. A new campaign was opened. To spur on the hesitant citizens, a plaque listing their contribu­ tions was placed inside the unfinished gymnasium. Yet the funds were still insufficient, so once more Diodotos came to the rescue with an unspecified large sum. In the end, the building commissioner had in his budget 3 3.400 drachme under Diodotos’s name, and the grati­ tude of the mother city to its leading benefactor was expressed by the placement of a golden wreath and a bronze statue in the newly finished gymnasium.22

Gymnasium Architecture “Schools began with a man under a tree who did not know he was a teacher discussing his realization with a few who did not know they were students. . . . Soon spaces were erected and the first schools became.’’25

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

Th i s reflect ionone he nat ure of sc hoo I by th e lat e Am eri • can architect Louis I. Kahn might have been inspired by the beginnings of the Greek gymnasium evoking the memo ry of Pl ato teach i n g at the Acad e my o f At he ns and Aristotle at the Lykeion. The desire for companionship and participation in games must have brought youths together in suitable areas in or around the early Greek cities. A suitable area for the kind of activities they were interested in — running, wrestling, jumping, ball games, and the like — could have been a flat ground of ample size border­ ing on a green and wooded area offering protection from the sun for the spec«tors. Perhaps it was within easy reach of a water source, ideally a stream, in which the hot and dusty contestants could wash, cool them­ selves, and swim. Frequently, these activities cook place near sacred places, the shrine of a deity or hero, or a rustic sanctuary'. An area fitting this description was m ore I i kc I y to be ou tsi d e the c ity than t n i ts busy center; isolation, which guaranteed more independence, might have been an attraction for the youthful popula­

tion of a Greek town, it may also have been the pres­ ence of a responsive audience that attracted teachers and philosophers to such a peaceful setting.24 These two aspects—the active, sportive life of youth and the contemplative realization of the man under the tree— constitute the essence of the Greek gymnasium, an in­ stitution chat served and balanced the education of the mind and body. We do not know much about the pre-Classical Athen­ ian gymnasia—the Academy, the Lykeion, and the Cynosarges—except that all three occupied large areas outside the city and might have been walled-in, simple, quadrangular enclosures. All three seem to have included a separate track for running (Figs. 1, 2).25 Cimon is reported to have been responsible for changing the dry site of the Academy into a magnificent park by planting plane trees.26 The archaic and Classi­ cal gymnasia at Thebes, Corinth, and Elis seem also to have been quite simple, a loose distribution of rudi­ mentary shelters and porticoes in an open park. The increasing civic and educational functions of the gymnasium and the evolution of the city structure itself modified the park-gymnasium concept during the fourth century B.C.; the gymnasium was pushed into the city, often to a central position near the agora. The open, suburban gy mnasium plan had to give way to the more compact organization of a quadriporticus, or

9

■•palaestra building/’ In a sense, the dispersed ele­ ments of the old pastoral gymnasium were pulled to­ gether around an orthogonal courtyard and fitted into the checkerboard of an Ionic city plan. The problem of the sports grounds and the running tracks was more difficult to handle . A number of solutions were tried: in Miletus and Alexandria, the running tracks were arranged along streets; in Priene, they extended along the city'wall, outside the city grid (Figs. 3,4); in Samos, they were laid parallel to the seashore (see note 33; Fig. 5). Seemingly more unusual was the gymnasium of Nicaea: according to Strabo’s description, it was situated at the crossing of the main streets, with a simultaneous view of the four gates of the city.27 By the second half of the fourth century B.c, the gymnasium had already developed a more or less stan­ dard form comprised of two basic elements: a peristyle building with rooms around a colonnaded courtyard (normally, the palaestra), and an extension of sports grounds and running tracks outside.28 A true quadri­ porticus, a peristyle surrounding all four sides of a courtyard, seems to be the most advanced solution to the organization of a palaestra.29 The first gymnasium with a quadriporticus palaestra is from Delphi, 334 B.c. (Fig. 6).30 The best example of a gymnasium with a fully developed peristyle court is the third-century-B.C. establishment in Olympia (Figs. 7, 8).31 In this build­ ing the expression of a complete courtyard building is attained not only by having a four-sided colonnade, but also by surrounding this quadriporticus with rooms and halls on all sides. More important in terms of the plan and the architec­ tural expression of the building is the extent to which one side of the peristy le colonnade is emphasized over the others. Either one colonnade is taller than the rest ( "Rhodian colonnade“), as in the Hellenistic gymna­ sium at Miletus (Figs. 9. 10), or it is a double colon­ nade, as in the Lower Gymnasium in Priene (see Fig. 4) and the Palaestra of the Granite in Delos—an architec­ tural feature recommended by Vitruvius as a protection from rain.32 Sometimes one wing of the palaestra domi­ nated the others by emphasizing one or more rooms, often the central one. In fully developed schemes, this emphasis is achieved in a number of ways: by making the room substantially larger chan the others? by open­ ing it up to the courtyard through a colonnade; by uti­ lizing a richer treatment of interior decoration; by introducing axial icy. The latter might be achieved by

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

10

Fig. 1 The Academy. Athens. Restored hypothetical site plan (M. Barbie du Bocagc).

Plan DE

l Académie et m: ses Environs ntt/

Pour le V ovajc du Jeune Ana ¿bars ta Par MB ARBJE fiVtioCAGE

%

Mat

Tourde Two* le Muontiaope

• •Ir/jt/rTfrtAr £ Plattn

»S

f.rirraUe rtwasrec ri Ptatte

A*6'ffviijelnlt

(-T-T-^7----- —------------

| F

n

i

I ! ¿00

'ietsejt/e IniMCi* I i aoa

P.irte 'iftnajHi

J‘.i/lTIE^J>E

I. A VH.l.F. /»'Athènes (n*«nde PLrr

The Greek Gvmnasium and the Greek Bath

11

Fig. 4 Lower Gymnasium, Prient. Restored perspective (Krischen).

Fig. 2 The Academy. Athens. Plan (Travlos).

L ■

Fig. 5 Hellenistic gymnasium, Samos. Hypothetical plan (Martini).

Fig. 3 Lower Gymnasium, Priene. Plan of palaestra (Kleiner).

■

■

■

■.----------- L./

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 6 Gymnasium, Delphi. Palestra and running tracks.

Fig. “ Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia. Site plan (gymna* sium and palaestra upper left) (Hermann).

12

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

Fig. 8 Palaestra. Olympia. Plan (Kunze and Schleif).

Fig. 10 Hellenistic Gymna­ sium, Miletus. Restored perspective, looking west (von Gerkan and Krischen).

13

Fig. 9 Hellenistic Gymnasium, Miletus. Plan (Yegiil after von Gerkan and Krischen).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

H

creating a visual terminus, as an apse or exedra, or by means of a projection or recession on the colonnaded frontage, or by the symmetrical disposition of the flank* ing units. This type of planning is not restricted to Hel­ lenistic palaestrae; it is seen also in a series of contemporary- cult buildings such as the Heroon in Ca­ lydon (Figs. 11, 12) and thcTemenosof the Ruler Cult in Pergamon. It is of particular interest for its influence on the design of baths and gymnasia during the Roman imperial era.55

Vitruvius and the Elements of Gymnasia The most authoritative ancient description of the plan and the functions of the Greek gymnasium is found in Vitruvius, writing at the end of the first century B.c. (Book 5,10 on baths, and 5,11 on palaestrae; Fig. 13) Although Vitruvius’s terminology and designations have been largely borne out by epigraphical evidence, one should accept his guidance (as in other subjects) in a general sense and not expect to find a close corre­ spondence between his model and any of the known Greek and Hellenistic palaestrae. The attempt to ex­ plain the plans of all ancient gymnasia and baths ac­ cording to Vitruvius’s rigid and theoretical rules, regardless of their date, their location, and other idio­ syncratic conditions, persists as an all too common error in some modem interpretations. Vitruvius might have been describing one particular, real building that he had seen—a restricted view based on a single, wel ldeveloped example unknown to us, possibly from southern Italy. Alternatively, his views might have been the result of an ideal, theoretical synthesis of gymna­ sium plans, for it is doubtful that he had ever seen some of the more important gymnasia in Greece. It also helps to remember that Vitruvius was writing for a Roman audience (albeit one with Hellenized tastes) at a time when the Hellenistic gymnasium was undergoing criti­ cal changes.54 Although Vitruvius did not consider the building of palaestrae an Italian custom, he was willing to accept them because of their architectural advantages. He rec­ ommended single colonnades on three sides of the pa­ laestra and a double colonnade on the side oriented toward the south. He designated the rooms for general use behind the single colonnades as "exedrae" and de­ scribed them as ’’roomy recesses with seats in them, where philosophers, rhetoricians and others who de­ light in learning may sit and converse"; these might be

Fig. 11 Heroon, Calydon. Plan (Yegiil after Dygvve).

Fig. 12 Heroon, Calydon. Restored perspective (Dygwe).

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

15

classrooms, meeting rooms, even libraries. The most important room of the fourth side (facing south, with the double colonnade), was the epbebeum. distin­ guished as “the young men’s hall in the middle; this is a very’ spacious exedra with seats in it.”35 Among the other individually designated rooms with assigned functions arc the coryceum (room of the punching bag for boxing practice) and the conisterium (room for dusiing and powdering the body before and/or after exercise), both to the right of the ephcbcum, and the loutron (cold-water washing room), on the extreme

Fig. 13 Restored plan of Vitruvian gymnasium (Yegiil after Morgan).

right. To the left of the cphebeum is the elaeotbesium (room for oiling the bodies of athletes, possibly also for oil storage), and at the extreme left comer of the palaestra is a suite of rooms for hot and cold baching, including a circular laconicum for sweating?6 The cphebeum, prominent in size and position, is one of the rare elements of the Greek palaestra that is archaeologically identifiable. Vitruvius docs not men­ tion the changing room, the apodyterium, which we know from other sources and which must have been an important element in the layout of the palaestra. If the epbebeum, the “young men’s hall in the middle, ’ ’ also served as the main classroom or lecture room, as it did in the Ix>wer Gymnasium at Priene, there would be little ground for confusion between the two elements (Fig. 14; see Fig. 3). If, however, the cphebeum func­ tioned more like a club room where the athletes and voung men engaged tn conversation, rested, and mas­ saged each other (as suggested in Norman Gardiner’s reconstruction from vase paintings of life in the Greek gymnasium), its social and educational functions could be merged with those of the apodyterium (Fig. 15; see Figs. 20-22)?7 In the majority of palaestrae, and espe­ cially in the more developed ones, the separation be­ tween the two functions is quite clear. In Olympia, the changing rooms occupy the south gallery, next to the double entrances; the ephcbcum is situated in the mid­ dle of the north side flanked by two rooms of equal size (see Fig. 8). In the Gymnasium at Delos, the ephebeum has an internal row of scats and is located centrally on the north side of the courtyard (£) while the apodyter­ ium (A) is on the west side and opens into the ambula­ tory through a smaller doorway (Fig. 16). Miletus, Priene, Eretria, and the Palaestra of the Lake in Delos, on the other hand, display one central and prominent room which can be quite securely identified as the ephebeum although it is impossible to know which of

Bachs and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 14 Epheheum of the Lower Gymnasium in Priene. Restored view (Krischen).

Fig. 15 Hypothetical view from a palaestra: Attic redfigure crater (Berlin Anti­ quarium. no. 2180).

16

Fig. 16 Gymnasium, Delos. Plan (YegUl after Audiat).

the other rooms functioned as the changing room (Figs. 17, 18; see Figs. 9, 3). The major constituents of the gymnasium that

ace outside the palaestra are the open and covered tracks for running or promenading; long, roofed colon­ nades, intended for use in unfavorable weather, are differentiated from unroofed tracks, and designated by Vitruvius as xystus and xysta, respectively.39 The rela­ tionship between them and the palaestra seems to have been a very flexible one based on the nature of the terrain and the general layout of the gymnasium com­ plex. In Olympia, Delos, and Priene. the sports arena is located next to the palaestra, and appears as an exten­ sion of it (see Figs. 7, 16, 4). In Delphi, it is located on an upper terrace parallel to the palaestra below (see Fig. 6); in Pergamon, the running tracks or promenades are integrated into the overall composition of the splendid complex hugging the steep hillside in a series of buttressed terraces (see Figs 366. 367).

Bathing Facilities in the Greek Gymnasium The only element of the traditional Greek gymnasium connected with washing and bathing is the loutron. In the early Greek gym nasi a, the loutron was undoubtedly an open-air space set aside for cold-water ablutions, and equipped accordingly with elevated basins or sim­ ple shower arrangements. From the second half of the sixth century’ onward, washing and fountain scenes in­ volving men and women became frequent on vase paintings; some of these can be identified as actual scenes of bathing in the palaestra. A late-sixth-century vase in the Berlin Antikcn Museum (Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz) shows a small edifice with four women washing their bodies under sprays of water emanating from lion- and boar-headed spouts placed high above their shoulders (Fig. 19). The structure seems to have been designed for this purpose, incorpo­ rating a pool in which the women stand knee-high in water.59 The view is toward the side of a tiled, gabled

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

18

Fig. I” Gymnasium. Eretria. Plan (Richardson). Fig. 18 Palestra of the Lake, Delos Plan (YegUl after Delorme).

roof, carried by three slender Doric columns. The fau­ cets are attached to the columns just below the capitals; it appears as if the water is carried up in conduits

embedded inside the column shafts. More convincing as a palaestra scene is the late-sixth­ century black-figure Athenian hydria from the Rijksmu­ seum in Leiden, in which six athletes are represented. (Fig. 20).40 In the middle, two athletes are showering and washing their bodies vigorously in a structure with two clearly marked side walls and a middle row of col­ umns supporting a pediment. The water issues forth from panther-headed spouts placed high above shoul­ der level on the back wall. On either side of the shower structure are a pair of athletes under a tree applying oil to their bodies; their tunics hang down from the branches of the trees. The illustration, representing a surprisingly elegant and well-developed bathing struc­

ture set in park-like surroundings, conforms well with our idea of the archaic gymnasium. Finally, a very clear representation of athletes washing and scraping them­ selves in the palaestra comes from a red-figure kylix (c. 430 B.c.) in the British Museum (Fig. 21). Three young athletes are around an elevated, round basin (labrutn); another is sluicing the head and shoulders of a crouch­ ing comrade from a Jug The activities represented here are very close to those of another palaestra bathing scene preserved only in the watercolor copy of a redfigure vase illustrated in Karl Sudhoffs book: while three athletes are washing, the fourth is fi 11 ing the basin with a bucket of water. On the back wall hang an oil flask, strigils, and, possibly, the rope-and-pulley appa­ ratus used to pull water up from a well (Fig. 22) Although it is difficult to date details precisely, it appears that covered bathing arrangements in Greek

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

19

fig. 20 Detail from a black-figure hydria with palaestra scene: Athletes washing (Rijksmuseum Van Oudheden. PC63)

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 21 Red-figure kylix: Athletes washing in the palaestra, two views (British Museum^ E83).

20

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

gymnasia developed early. Their origin roughly coin­ cides with the appearance of the word loutron in texts of the late fifth and early fourth centuries B.C.’2 The identification of the loutron in actual Hellenistic pa­ laestrae has been a relatively easy task because of the discovery of water-supply and drainage systems, fre­ quently coupled with elevated basins or tubs of lime­ stone or marble. The washing room usually occupies a sheltered position in one of the comers of the building, as recommended by Vitruvius, in Olympia, the only rooms connected with washing are in the northcast and northwest corners of the palaestra (see Fig. 8). The

northeast comer room has a large square basin of lime­ stone; in the northwest room, there are freshwater inlets in the north wall which probably served a row of elevated basins. A row of marble basins can still be seen on the north wall of the northwest comer room in the Lower Gymnasium in Priene. This room is easily identilied as the loutron; running water was supplied through lion-headed spouts positioned above the basins (Fig. 23).45 In the upper gymnasium of Pergamon. the middle room (£) of the west wing retains (he original row of marble basins despite the drastic changes this area underwent during the Roman era (see Figs. 366-368). In Delphi, the loutron is treated as an independent outdoor area immediately to the north­ west of the palaestra. Ten marble basins with lion­ headed spouts are arranged in a long row under the retaining wall of the upper terrace; in the middle of this precinct is a large circular pool with steps (10 m. diam­ eter, 1.80 m. depth), where the athletes could cool themselves and even swim, enjoying the magnificent view of the Pleistus Valley under the formidable heights of Mount Parnassus (Fig. 24; see Fig. 6).44 Quite apart from the loutron, or cold-water washroom, Vitruvius describes rather elaborate bath­ ing facilities in the palaestra, which utilize a techni­ cally advanced system of heating and water distribution, as well as specialized bathing and service spaces, in fixed relationship to one another. The bath­ ing suite is assigned to the corner of the palaestra to the left of the ephebeum (see Fig. 13) It is composed of the following units: frigidarium (cold-water pool room) situated to the left of the elaeothesium; con ea­ rn erata sudatio (hot, wet-steam room, twice as long as it is wide, and covered by a barrel vault); 1 aeon i cum (hot, dry-steam room, situated at the comer, domed); calda lavatio (warm bathing room, next to the I aeon i-

21

cum); and a furnace room reached by a passage from the frigidarium. None of these heated units has been substantiated in any of the known gymnasia predating the Roman era. Undoubtedly, Vitruvius’s descriptions and terminology reflect the advances in heating and bathing technology of his day; at the time, many Greek gymnasia were renovated to include hot bathing facili­ ties, and many of the baths in Campania, Italy, had al­ ready taken decisive steps toward the fusion of bath with palaestra. Yet. Vitruvius was describing, essen­ tially, a theoretical and academic entity; neither a true Greek gymnasium nor a proper Roman bath is in evi­ dence in his description. Greek gymnastics required the body to be covered with oil and dusted lightly before taking exercise. The effectiveness of hot water and steam in removing this greasy, muddy mixture from the skin should have en­ couraged the early development of hot water washing facilities; but neither actual remains of Greek palaes­ trae, nor palaestra I washing scenes in vase paintings give any indication of heating apparatus or the use of hot water. Still, the Grcek/Hellenistic palaestra might have had, in addition to the loutron, a room that could be heated—possibly by the simple use of portable charcoal braziers—for warm oil massage fol lowing ex­ ercise. The designation for such a space is the aleipterion; but. it would be a mistake to connect the Greek gymnasium with the elaborate thermal functions with which this term came to be identified under the Roman Empire.4’ The best candidates for aleipteria might be the round and oval rooms of the gymnasia at Assos, Thera, and Eretria (see Fig. 17); they can also be viewed as steam rooms for sweat-bathing, prototypes for Roman laconica.

The Gymnasium in a Changing World In Aristophanes’s Clouds, Right Logic disapproves of the growing interest in hot bathing in current Greek culture and laments that young men waste their time chattering in public baths instead of going to the gymna­ sium.46 Thus, very early in the history of Classical bathing, the poet alludes to the existence of an antithetical relationship between the gymnasium and the public baths. Three centuries after Aristophanes, the historian Po­ sidonius of Apamea (c. 135-51 b.c.) was indignant at the Syrians, who, “in their soft and flabby laziness” transformed their gymnasia into baths.47 If (he truth be

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquit)

Fig. 22 Red-figure vase: Athletes washing in the palestra (watercolor render­ ing, original lost, drawing by D. Favro).

Fig. 24 Gymnasium, Delphi General view looking east. Loutron in the foreground.

n

The Creek Gymnasium and the Creek Bath

known. the Syrians were not the only ones who de­ served censure for allowing elaborate systems of hot bathing in their gymnasia. During the Hellenistic pe­ riod. the renovation of gymnasia to include facilities for hot bathing spread like an epidemic across the eastern Mediterranean. Although the exact stages of this devel­ opment are difficult to make out. it is clear that by the first century b.c. a change of attitude toward the tradi­ tional gymnastic institution had been well established. This change is reflected not only in the large numbers of new structures dedicated solely to bathing, but also by the significant modifications imposed on the exist­ ing gymnasia, and by the introduction of new and com­ plicated thermal facilities, which, in time, came to dominate all other parts and functions of the building. Of the ten gymnasia recorded from the time of Augus­ tus, only four appear to be sportive and educational in nature, referred to specifically as “gymnasion” in the inscriptions; the rest were conceived predominantly as baths, or /fcrAavecbv.48 Not surprisingly, the gradual disappearance of the traditional Greek gymnasium and the transformation of existing ones with the addition of hot baths gave rise to confusions in terminology. An old gymnasium that had been renovated by the addition of bathing facilities could still be designated as a “gymnasion” in deference to its original form, or as a balaneion, in recognition of its new function. A new establishment, combining the traditional palaestral elements with hot baths, could also be dedicated as a gymnasium or as baths. Some­ times these two designations were interchangeably and quite indifferently used for the same building. Two in­ scriptions in Greek found in Lagina and Panamara, both in Asia Minor, mention Tiberius Flavius Mcnandros and his wife Flavia Leontis, who constructed an atrium in a monument referred to as “gymnasion” in the first text and “balaneion” in the second.49 Other inscriptions, some supported by archaeologi­ cal evidence, testify to the new fusion of the heated baths with the gymnasium. The majority record dona­ tions of money for heating “gymnasium baths,” or merely (he “gymnasium.” None of these inscriptions, however, describes how the heating was actually done. The earliest reference to heating a gymnasium is from Chios; an inscription of 239-236 B.c. records that Attalos I donated some money to the gymnasium for this purpose.50 The mid-second-century-B.c. phase of the Palaestra of the Lake in Delos is another early instance

23

of the introduction of hydrotherapcutic installations into a gymnasium, which included a sweat chamber covered by a vault. These renovations reduced the pa­ laestra of the original building to an attached, second­ ary’ courtyard. The presence of a large Italian population at Delos might have been instrumental in effecting such a fundamental transition from a Greek gymnasium to a Roman bath.5’ Conversely, the long and venerable tradition behind a site such as Olympia prevented its gymnasium from including any heated bathing facilities, even in Roman times; nevertheless, a separate balaneion to the southwest of the gymnastic complex existed for the use of athletes from the late fifth century b.C. onward. The baths occupying the west wing of the upper terrace of the gymnasium in Perga mon were added around the middle of the first century; they are, without doubt, one of the earliest full-fledged thermal establishments of the Roman im­ perial era in Asia Minor (sec Figs. 366-368; infra, Chapter 7).52

The forces that were instrumental in bringing about the fusion of (he Greek gymnasium and the heated bath in the centuries before and after Christ had been oper­

ating since the earliest days of these institutions. Two major factors contributed to this process; first, the de­ cline of the athletic ideal with a corresponding shift in emphasis from a physical to an intellectual mode of education; second, the rising popularity of hot bathing and hydrotherapy. The delicate balance between mind and body, the fundamental concept of Greek gymnastics, was not an easy one to maintain in the face of changing tendencies in Greek thought and philosophy. As early as the fifth century B.c., a conflict existed between these two main components of the educational system. Xenophon pro­ tested against the excessive adulation of physical suc­ cess in the Olympic Games and supported the intellectual ideal in his writings; Pindar justified physi­ cal exercise as a privilege of the higher classes and exulted in the Olympic triumphs. Both Plato and Aris­ totle accepted physical training as an essential pan of the educational program of gymnasia as long as it was combined with liberal arts and music, and as long as its ultimate objective was military fitness. The infiltra­ tion of the physically oriented archaic gynasium with popular intellectual and philosophical pursuits— exercitatio etdelectatio, as Cicero describes it—must equally have had its critics. This is indicated, somewhat

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

anachronistical!}’, in De Oratore: Crassus pointedly re­ minds Catulus that “gymnasia were invented many gen­ erations before philosophers began to babble in them. ’53 By the middle of the fourth century B.c.. the Greek gy mnasium had changed from a physically cen­ tered concern to a mentally centered one, with a notice­

able increase in the importance of literary and intellectual subjects paralleled by an increase in the number of libraries associated with gymnasia.54 The slow but steady acceptance of hot bathing (a practice whose functional advantages were obvious) in the context of the Greek gymnasium w as paralleled by the popularity of bathing in bona fide public baths. Both developments were manifestations of the overall evolution of the concept of bathing in Greek society. In the post-Alexandrian world of the eastern Mediterra­ nean. the private ablution of bathing in individual tubs or basins was being replaced by bathing as a means of total bodily regeneration with social meaning. During this period, Greek culture was also touched by a growth of individualism and a love of personal comfort and pleasure; these tendencies nurtured both ordinary public baths and gym nasia-wi th-baths which catered to the urban bourgeoisie and its ideals of the good life. Nevertheless, the reciprocal (and sometimes antitheti­ cal) relationship between the gymnasium and the bath, culminating in the fusion of these two institutions by the end of the first century B.C.. irrevocably linked ex­ ercise with bathing and baths with gymnasia in Roman

culture.

Greek Baths The bathing facilities available in the palaestra were primarily for the use of the athletes and those who vis­ ited the gymnasium. In addition to these, public baths (balaneia) in urban centers for secular usage, and in sanctuaries for ritual purposes, existed in Greece from the fifth century B.C. onward. Arhenaeus mentions that the Sybarites already enjoyed heated baths in the sixth century’ b.c.55 In the Sanctuary of Aphaia in Aegina two rooms fitted w’ith basins and tubs were reserved for the bathing needs of the pilgrims.56 In Athens, the presence of a number of baths from the Classical period onward is attested by literary and archaeological sources. Of these, the baths located outside the Dipylon Gate, on the road to the Academy, have been dated in the fifth

century by the excavators.57

24

The heating systems of the Greek baths were ex­ tremely simple until the first century B.C. In the major­ ity’ of the early examples, a mechanical method of heating the bathing room did not exist. The steam from the hot bathwater or the heat from a charcoal brazier would have been quite sufficient to heat the low, cramped, and windowless spaces allocated for bathing purposes. More ingenious was the system that utilized a special, dual-purpose stove that boiled the water and heated the adjacent chamber either by direct convec­ tion or by a simple method of circulating the hot gasses behind the wall (the widespread application of this system in Pompeian houses and villas is described in Chapter 3).The mid-fourth-ccntury baths at Olympia (111 Period) also utilized a furnace-boiler combination

which was located in the outdoor service area created between the two rectangular bathing halls. The furnace was stoked from the outside, while the boiler, embed­ ded in the thickness of the wall, supplied hot water directly to the new- bathing unit, which contained

twenty-one hip baths (see Fig. 475. see also Appendix B).50 The planning of the Greek bath shows a simplicity and functionalism, whether for practical cleaning or

for ritualistic purposes, that is characterized by rectan­ gular or irregularly shaped units clustered around one or more circular chambers. The circular room, the tbolos, is the distinguishing architectural element in these baths. Quite apart from its functional efficacy in enclosing the greatest possible space within the small­ est perimeter (hence, its maximal conservation of heat), the tholos imparts a sense of unity and organiza­ tion to the plan. The circular rooms were reserved pri­ marily for hot bathing; in the older establishments, they were heated by steam from hot water or by braziers, and by simpler forms of floor heating in the later ones. Usu­ ally, individual tubs for total immersion or half-sized tubs for sitting (hip baths) were arranged side by side along the wall of a rectangular room or around the pe­ riphery of a circular room. The latter had the advantage of not having to deal with comers. The hip baths were made like individual niches, or booths, carved into the rock, or were built up of brick or mortar; the covered sides and the top protected the bather against being splashed with water from his neighbors.59 In some of the examples, niches above the bathers were intended for scoring clothes (Figs- 25, 26).

The Greek Gymnasium and (hr Greek Bath

Fig. 2$ Hip baths from the Greek baths in the Sanctuary of Apollo. Cyrene. Niches for storing clothing above (Ginouves).

Fig. 26 Greek baths. Gortys. View of rotunda G (Ginouves).

25

Another significant characteristic of some of the early Greek baths is their tendency' to adapt their design co the natural forms of caves and rock. The chambers were partially' carved into the soft rock and roofed over by a relatively small amount of upper construction and con* ical domes. These baths might have owed their inspira* tion to ancient establishments built over grottoes and springs believed to have been sacred to certain chthonic powers and nymphs. By enclosing and envel­ oping a hot spring — a dramatic and wondrous mani­ festation of nature—they also introduced a new and positive dimension to the use of the rotunda, a shape whose symbolic associations in architecture reach back to the earliest times.60 The Greek Baths in the Sanctuary of Apollo in Cyrene (Tripolitania, Libya). dating to the early Hellenistic pe* riod, remained largely unchanged into the Antonine times. They are carved partly into virgin rock and situ* ated over a sacred spring; undoubtedly, they were in* tended primarily for religious and ritualistic use (Fig. 27). Two circular rooms w ith peripheral niches (A and B) and an irregularly shaped, interconnected double unit (Cand D) with masonry hip baths are prominent. Water from a well (£) was carried into the rooms through conduits cut into the rock. No permanent heat­ ing system has been found; water, heated in bronze cauldrons over an open fireplace, would have been carried into rooms for the use of the bathers. Pits or depressed areas in the middle of the tholoi might have been used to receive red«hot stones to heat these rooms and create steam.61 Another rock-cut bath of early Hel­ lenistic date using primitive technology is from Piraeus (Fig. 28a, b). Two tholoi of almost equal size are con­ nected by a rectangular hall; the larger holds nearly thirty’ hip baths.62 Dated from the late third or early second century b.c., the Ocniadai baths are constructed entirely out of limestone (Fig. 29). The larger of the two tholoi (A, 6.80 m. in diameter) must have been intended for bathing in tepid water; it holds only seven round basins arranged around its perimeter. The smaller (B, 5.20 m. in diameter) contains twenty-five tightly packed basins and might have been used for steam baths or for hot ablutions from a common caul­ dron placed in the center of the room. A rectangular room (F) with a large, square water tank (r) is believed to have served as a primitive frigidarium allowing total immersion in unheated water.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

26

Fig. 2“ Greek baths in the Sanctuary of Apollo. Cyrene. Plan (Goodchild.)

A meaningful separation of these functions can be

observed more directly in the second stage of the baths in Gortys. Arcadia (first half of the third century B.c). which display one of the earliest uses of heating canals under the floor (see Appendix B). Even more important than the heating system, the plan of the Gortys baths is a clear prototype of bath design (Fig. 30; see Fig. 453). Two large circular rooms (G and C) surrounded by spaces for secondary use (waiting, undressing, en­ trance) and service (furnaces, boilers, reservoirs) are enclosed within a square structure of masonry. A third, smaller tholos (£) could have been a dry steam room, or laconicum.64 Although the overall organization of the Gortys baths might have been imposed by an early house that is believed to have occupied the site, the resulting plan type is a logical model in bath design already encountered in the late fifth or early fourth century B.c. in the Centaur Baths In Corinth. In this plan type, a girdle of secondary spaces envelopes and insulates the primary spaces within a rectilinear format (Fig 31) There are no circular rooms in the Centaur Baths; instead, a large, square hall is positioned in the center of the composition (Z). The hall is paved by a pebble mosaic representing a four-spoked wheel with concentric bands; the northwest corner is occupied by an ithyphallic donkey; in the northeast, a centaur

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

2"

Fig. 28 Greek baths, Piraeus (Ginouvés). a. Plan b. Sections

tI ur(

í U»

LA A I J cinc BES

COtfAC

jssl

JU« L A II TIN II KI

Battis and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 30 Greek baths. Gortvs. Plan (Ginouvês).

Fig. 29 Greek baths. Oeniadai. Plan ( Lawrence).

5 M1TUI

«

28

0

H — ■

X$F6ST

$

Fig. 31 Centaur Baths. Corinth. Partial plan ( Yegül after Williams).

2 o

3

5m

The Greek Gymnasium and the Greek Bath

chases a small feline, che motif that inspired the mod­ ern name given to the establishment Although the ex­ cavators suggest that the Centaur Room was a steam room directly connecting through an open window’ to the room with the steam-gencrating furnace-boiler on the north (5), the possibility of its use as an ordinary, hot-water bathing room should not be disregarded. One item of considerable interest and significance is the space east of the Centaur Room (room 3), inter­ preted to be a dining room (a function ordinarily not encountered in ancient baths, although a semiofficial dining space is often included tn gymnasia and cult centers). It is suggested that the present baths may only be a part of a large public complex, serving possibly as a social gathering place, or lesebe. Unfortunately, very little of this interesting, early example of a Greek bath remains to clarify our understanding of the way the spaces functioned in relationship to one another.65 The large number and variety of Greek baths spread throughout Lower and Upper Egypt from the Ptolemaic period to the Arab conquests provide the architectural historian an excellent opportunity to study tradition and innovation in the design and structure of these baths, despite the serious problem of dating them. Most are simple structures constructed in mud brick with a limited use of baked brick, limestone, and stucco; the spaces are covered by small cupolas or vaults using traditional pitch-brick systems, although mortared rub­ ble was also used during the Roman period. Of particu­ lar interest are the baths at Qasr-Qarun/Dionysias. south of Fayoum, which display a double-shell plan consisting of a prominent tholos for hot bathing (C), enveloped by a rectilinear matrix of spaces (Fig. 32). The tholos (3.70 m. in diameter), probably covered by a dome of baked brick, is hidden within a structure of square exterior and is encircled by a corridor. In the first phase, individual tubs (or booths) making circular niches outlined the perimeter of the tholos. In the center was a platform for water and drainage. In the second phase the peripheral tubs are replaced by a cir­ cular pool in the middle, suggesting a change in the function of the room from hot-water bathing (cal darium?) to cold-water bathing (frigidarium?). No me­ chanical system of floor or wall heating existed in any period. The water must have been heated in a small room on the southeast (room 5), which had a furnace, and carried into the tholos. The room adjacent to the furnace on the north (room L) has been interpreted co

29

Fig 32 Baths at Qasr-Qarun/ Dionysias (Egypt). Partial plan, Severan (Yegul after Schwartz and Wild).

T

be a sweat room; if so. it had to be heated by braziers. Although the baths at Qasr-Qarun/Dionysias are dated in the Roman imperial period (“no later chan Se­ veran“), the simplicity of their heating system and the use of i ndividual tu bs attests the Ion gevi ry of trad itional Greek and Hellenistic baths in the conservative atmo­ sphere of Egypt. The double-shell planning of the welldeveloped tholos is, however, a variation, even an innovation, that sets the Qasr-Qarun baths apart from the known types.66 From the earliest days, plans of Greek public baths display an interest in defining functions by employing only a few units, like the tholos; even the more elabo­ rate later examples do not demonstrate an awareness of a well-defined order of use. nor of the premises for establishing such an order. Planning based on the prin­ ciple of temperature gradation is a contribution justly credited to the Romans.

2

Bathing and Baths in the Roman World

”1 must go and have a bath. Yes, it’s time. I leave: I get myself some towels and follow my servant. I run and catch up w ith the others who are going to the baths and I say to them one and all, 'How are you? Have a good bath’ Have a good supper!' " 1 These beguiling words taken from the pages of a schoolboy’s exercise book, used roughly 1,800 years ago, vividly express the im­ portance of bathing in Roman civilization. The univer­ sal acceptance of bathing as a central event in daily life belongs to the Roman world and it is hardly an exaggera­ tion to say that at the height of the empire, the baths embodied the ideal Roman way of urban life? Apart from their normal hygienic functions, they provided facilities for sports and recreation. Their public nature created the proper environment—much like a city club or community center—for social intercourse

varying from neighborhood gossip to business discus­ sions. There was even a cultural and intellectual side to the baths since the truly grand establishments, the ther­ mae, incorporated libraries, lecture halls, colonnades, and promenades and assumed a character like the Greek gymnasium. Agrippa’s census of 33 b.c. counted 170 small baths in Rome; by the early fifth century their number had grown to 856? Even the smallest villages of remote provinces were proud of their public baths. Among the most effective punishments that could be imposed by the government on a community was the closing down of its baths for a period of time.4 For the Romans, bathing was a luxury and a necessity. A man, freshly bathed, appeared and felt radiant? Hark­ ing back to Homeric accounts of bathing, it was a plea­ sure deserved at the end of a hot and dusty day of hard work or travel, a civilized treat expected from a consid­ erate host, or a comfort to be relished on a cold day. The bathing scene described byApuleius, in the second cen­ tury, reads like a passage from the Odyssey: “And he called his maid . . and said-. ‘Carry this gentleman’s packet into the chamber and lay it up safely, and bring quickly from the cupboard oil to anoint him and towel to rub him. and other things necessary; and then bring

Bathing and Baths in the Roman 'iorld

my guest to the nearest baths, for I know' he is very weary of so iong and difficult travel.’ ” * Even without such an obliging host, it was customary for the wealthy to instruct their servants to maintain and prepare the private hot baths in their suburban villas in anticipation of their arrival in the country'. Ci­ cero’s concern is typical: “I think I shall arrive at my Tusculan villa either on the seventh or the day after. See that everything is ready there; for perhaps I shall have several others with me, and 1 expect we shall stay there for some considerable time. If there is no basin [la­ brum] in the bath see that there is one, and so with everything necessary for everyday life and health.”“ The younger Pliny's description of his Lauren tian villa and its very commodious bathing facilities — hot and cold swimming pools, exercise and ball courts, and up-to-date heating system — brims with just pride. Still, he expressed satisfaction in recalling that in the small village of Vicus Augustanus, near Ostia, there were three public baths that could be used conve­ niently as an alternative to bathing at home during an unannounced arrival or too short a stay.®

The Luxury of Bathing Notwithstanding the luxurious bathing facilities avail­ able in the homes and country estates of the wealthy, bathing was a public affair in Roman society; bathing facilities in middle- and lower-class tenements and town houses were virtually nonexistent.9 Even in the more comfortable dwellings of the atrium type, one or two chambers rucked away with the kitchen (and often sharing its stove) sufficed to serve this function. Elabo­ rately designed and elegantly decorated bathing quarters such as in the House of Menander in Pompeii (I, 10, 4) were exceptional. It is possible that these cramped facilities were used predominantly by slaves and servants when they were unable to go to the public baths (see Fig. 139a). The quality of design and construction of the public baths, on the other hand, was far above average, and in some cases, luxurious, as in the proverbial ”freedman’s baths." Unfortunately, it is difficult to visualize the wealth of these interiors because the actual remains of luxury are scantily preserved: the decorations of the lofty vaults are gone; the walls and the floors have been stripped of their polychrome marble veneer; the silver basins and spigots, the bronze lion-head fountains, are missing; the sculpture and ornament exist only in frag­

31

mentary form, if at all. However, archaeological excavati ons on three cont i nents attest the bas i c re I i ab i 1 ity of ancient written accounts of the opulence of certain bathing palaces—although some authors cared much less for this ostentatious display of wealth chan others. The most vivid and glowing account of the "perfect bath,” by two contemporaries of the first century. Mar­ tial and Statius, is the description of the Baths of Clau­ dius Etruscus, a small, luxury establishment belonging to a freedman (possibly located on the Quirinal Hill in Rome).10 "If you do not bathe in the warm waters of Etruscus, you will die unbathed, Oppianus’" ex­ claimed Martial. He admired the mildness of its waters and the serenity of its light, but most of all the richness of its multicolored marbles originating from distant quarries: the green Laconian marble, the purple, streaked marble from Phrygia, and the golden yellow (giallo antico) from Numidia, and added poetically: "The rich alabaster pants with dry heat, and snakestone [serpentine] is warm with a subtle fire. ’ ’ Statius’s eulogy to the same bathsis more elaborate. Laden with literary and mythological metaphors, the description is florid to the point of conceit: "Toil and care, depart! 1 sing of the baths that sparkle with bright marbles! . . . Come, then, ye nymphs of the waters, turn hither your clean countenances and bind up your glass-green tresses with tender wine-shoots, your bodies all unclothed as you

emerge from the deep springs and torture your satyr­ lovers with the sight.’’ The nymphs of whom Statius was singing were not from the streams of faraway, clas­ sical lands, but were those who dwelled on the Seven Hills of Rome and mingled in the waters of its aque­ ducts, especially the two that served the Baths of Etruscus—the pure Aqua Virgo ("the Maiden”), ex­ cellent for swimming, and the chilly Aqua Marcia, born among snowy hills According to Statius, every' room was flooded with daylight, everything was etched in brightness and clarity; nothing was commonplace in Etruscus's baths: the doorways were of solid marble, the ceilings were radiant, walls carried pictorial repre­ sentations in mosaic, and even the fixtures were not of ordinary bronze but of silver. There is no denying the pleasurable sensory experi­ ences offered by most public baths: vast spaces filled with light; marble tubs sparkling with clear, warm water; gentle soothing massage; perfumed oils and soft, fresh towels. Martial summed up the public sentiment when he admired the extraordinary luxuries offered by

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

the baths built by an emperor about whom he had noth­ ing good to say: "What was worse than Nero? What is better than Nero’s hoc baths? ’’'1 But it was also Martial who was willing to forgo these luxuries and plead with charming modesty for a few basic needs and comforts that dignified human life, among which baching counted as one: "Rufus, my simple tastes demand but modest things to smooch my path: good wine and food, a barber and a bath; a chessboard and pieces; a friend whose castes and mine agree. . . . Warrant these things to me Rufus, even at |remote, Butunti, and keep yourself Nero’s warm baths." 12

The Social Nature of Bathing The Baths of Etruscus in Rome, and others like it, ca­ tered to a wealthy class. Some of che baching establish­ ments might have appealed to certain interests and professional groups, and even became club-like centers, much like certain cafés or lounges become the preferred meeting places of similar interest groups in modem cities. The great number and diffusion of the smaller baths make such a hypothesis logical.13 The unique decoration of the Hunting Baths in Lcpcis Magna, adorned with paintings of the hunt and the cap­ ture of African wild beasts, has prompted the theory that this could have been a special bathing establish­ ment for hunters or for the merchants who supplied live animals for circuses and amphitheaters (see Fig. 198). In the Baths of Julia Memmia in Bulla Regia, the keystones of some of the smaller arches are decorated with various symbols—crowns and crescents—that belong to associations linked with the theater.14 in the Nonh (Cluny) Baths of Paris, the consoles that support the main vaulting of the frigidarium are carved in the shape of boats that navigated rhe Seine. An association of Seine shippers is known to have existed from the time of Tiberius, in the first half of the first century. Could this Seine transportation association be responsi­ ble for the construction of the Cluny Baths? Libanius informs us that the eighteen tribes of late antique An­ tioch owned a bath and each tribe competed with the

others to make its baths the finest.13 But, as a general rule, a majority of the more than eight hundred small baths and eleven thermae of fourth-century Rome were open to anyone who could pay the trifling entrance fee; some, with special en­ dowments, were even free. People naturally had their

32

favorites where the}’ mixed freely and enjoyed seeing familiar faces — sometimes, that of the emperor him­ self. The precedent goes back to earlier days: King An­ tiochus Epiphanes (c. 175 B.c.), one of the Seleucid rulers of Syria, was know*n for his habit of frequenting the public baths and mixing indiscriminately with the commoners. In a story illustrating the king’s odd and misplaced generosity, he had a large jar of the costliest perfumed oil poured over the head of a man who had expressed happiness for the privilege of bathing with a king; the poor man slipped and fell on the oily floor of the baths which greatly amused the monarch and his retinue.16 Tradition dies hard, especially if it is backed by sound political motives: many a Roman emperor visited the public baths and enjoyed bathing in the company of his subjects . *’ This undoubtedly provided the emperor, or the high-powered political aspirant, with a chance to appeal for public support and to in­ crease popularity. The baths were, indeed, the ideal institution with which to create the illusion of a class­ less society—one where wise man and fool, rich and poor, privileged and underdog, could rub shoulders and enjoy the benefits afforded by the Roman imperial system.18 The social and recreational component of bathing achieved, for better or worse, the status of fine art under the empire. According to the stem, republican sensibilities of Seneca, it was certainly for the worse. One of the best descriptions of daily activities in a small city bath is found in his critical, satirical account of the deafening noises coming from the bath over which he once had lodgings: panting and grunting hearties as they swing weights; the smacking noise of body massage; someone yelling out the scores of a ball game; and the commo­ tion caused by a thief caught stealing. To these noises were added the singing of the man who likes his own voice under rhe vaulted halls; the enthusiast who splashes indelicately in the publ ic pool; the shrill voice of the hair-plucker advertising his trade, or worse, the yelling of his victims; and the incessant cries of the cake-seller, the sausage-seller, the candyman. each with his peculiar tone and style.19 Ordinarily, men and women bathed separately, al­ though some of the emperors tolerated mixed bathing. According to Varro, the first public baths in Rome were established as two connected buildings, one for men, the other for women.20 Many inscriptions indicate a certain physical separation of the sexes in the same

Bobing and Baths in the Roman acrid

building or in different buildings by designating them

as “baths of men” {balneum virile), or “baths of women" {balneum muliebre). but it is not always clear what is meant.2’ The former arrangement is rec­ ommended by Vitruvius and it is the solution evident in the Stabian Baths and Forum Baths in Pompeii (see Figs. 58, 65*).22 In both of these republican establishments, men’s and women’s sections have separate entrances but share the same exercise courts and the same heating and service facilities. Such independent units for dif­ ferent sexes, even in the largest baths, were extremely rare in the empire. The common practice was to assign the sexes different hours for bathing: women bathed in the morning, men in the afternoon Martial’s and Juvenal's frequent references to women who exercised in the palaestra or bathed with men sug­ gest an increase of mixed bathing in the second half of the first century.25 However, these are satirical ac­ counts that question the respectability of heterosexual bathing and suggest that women who visited such baths were of dubious reputation. It may have been the rising scandals that moved Hadrian to place a prohibition against mixed bathing ("lavacra pro sexibus separavit”) 24 Consider this inscription found in 1870 on the premises of a private bath in Trasrevere, in Rome: “By the order of the mighty god Sylvanus, women are pro­ hibited from stepping into the swimming pool reserved for men. ”25 Cou Id this prohibition be taken as evidence that women, too, could be aggressors? While it is diffi­ cult co evaluate this enigmatic notice. Laneiani com­ ments: “This inscription shows chat police regulations were not enough to keep fast women in order ... the owners of the baths were obliged to resort to the intervention of the gods.’’26

The Ritual of Bathing The Roman workday started with the sun and was con­ fined to the morning hours; by noon, or soon after, all business for the day was finished. After a light lunch, and perhaps a short siesta, men went to the baths and stayed there for several hours.27 Two o’clock in the afternoon (the eighth hour in the Roman system) is specified as the best time co bathe in a number of Mar­ tial’s epigrams.28 In one (4,8), he parcels out the day’s hours into appropriate activities and assigns the eighth hour to palaestral sports and bathing. “This hour [the eighth] tempers the warm baths [of Nero]”—an hour or two earlier the vapors would be excessive and the heat

33

immoderate.29 This is convincing enough but part of the reason must also have been the desire to establish regular hours for the public baths, and allow sufficient time for their cleaning and maintenance. Martial, who had been accused of laziness by one Pocitus for not publishing a book for a whole year, tried to defend himself by showing how busy he was with dai ly respons ibi lities : com p 1 ete ly exhausted by the end of the day, he even visited the baths rather late, at the tenth hour.50 The rulers themselves were no exception when they were very’ busy: in a letter to Tiberius, Au­ gustus invoked his friend’s sympathy for having to sacri­ fice his meal and postpone his bath until the first hour of the night (c. 6:00 p.m.) because of pressing duties.51 Night bathing was not unheard of, but it was not usual and not encouraged. One of the prime targets of Juvenal’s satirical arrows arc déclassé society women who failed to visit the baths before evening, leaving their unfortunate guests at home nearly dead of hunger.52 The drunken ardor of an uncouth drinking party such as Trimalchio’s could drive revelers to the baths regardless of the lateness of the hour (but that was a private party and a private bath). There are occa­ sional references co artificial lighting of public baths, and oil lamps have been found in large quantities in the excavation of certain baths. Ordinarily, though, baths depended on large and we 11-placed windows for their illumination and closed per imperial {or municipal) order before daylight completely faded.55 If the diffi­ culty and extra cost of artificial lighti ng were two major impediments to night bathing, security was another. We do not know’ how strict these municipal or state restrictions were or how long they stayed in effect, but in 424. the Baths of Zcuxippus in Constantinople were artificially lighted and the expenses met from public revenue.54 The younger Pliny summarized the essentials in the sequence of bathing: “I am oiled, I take my exercise, I have my bath.’’ This was the rudimentary order of the Roman afternoon — a mild form of exercise followed by hot baths, after which the much enjoyed main meal of the day. dinner (cena), was eaten.55 Two centuries later, the system had scarcely changed: after public business. Alexander Severus read, then exercised, had himself massaged with oil, and bathed.56 A w’e 11-to-do Roman was accompanied to the public baths by his slaves carrying his bathing paraphernalia: exercise and bathing garments, sandals, linen towels.

Baths and bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 33 Illustrations of uten­ sils used in baths (Naples Archaeological Museum).

and his toilet kit—the cista (a cylindrical metal box) which contained anointing oils and perfume in flasks (ampulla and alabaster). several strigils (a metal blade with a slightly curved end used to scrape down rhe excess oil from the body), and probably a sponge (Figs. 33,34).37A poo r person carried his own bu ndle, or had it carried by an old, home-grown servant. It was a sym­ bol of status to go to the baths attended by an army of

well-groomed slaves and to be carried back on a sedan chair.38 Most Romans, however, could only afford the services of a single professional attendant who anointed, strigiled, and rubbed them down. Profes­ sional masseurs and specialists in depilation could be found in almost every bath. The first thing to do upon arrival at the baths was to undress; even the humblest bathing establishments had a special room, the cipodyterium, assigned for this pur­ pose; larger baths might have a number of apodyteria, including heated ones for winter use. The furniture of these rooms must have consisted of wooden cabinets or chests—all since perished—for the safekeeping of clothes and personal effects. More permanent are the niches, shelves, and cubbyholes quite frequently found in baths; in the poorer establishments wooden pegs and wall hangers might have sufficed (Figs. 35-37). Ma­ sonry' benches are preserved in some of the apodyteria; others might have had wooden ones for servants to sit on and keep watch over their masters’ clothes (petty theft in public baths was a common though much de­ spised occurrence).39 In the baths described by Lucian

34

Fig. 34 A strigil (Naples Archaeological Museum).

there was a special room in which slaves could wait while their masters bathed. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not think it proper to exercise or bathe in the nude but neither did they consider it proper to enter the exercise ground or the hot rooms of the baths in street clothes and shoes.40 Information on bath garments is scanty’; they probably varied much according to season, climate, and regional customs. Trimalchio wore a light tunic (“red shirt ”) while play’ing ball; masculine Phialenis took her exer­ cises vigorously in a skimpy garment like a bikini, her body’ covered with the yellow sand of the palaestra.41 More explicit is the description of the endromis, a wrap of rough texture worn over the lighter clothing

after gymnastic exercises, probably native to the colder regions of the Alps; Martial sent one to a friend with this appealing message; “This shaggy’ nursling of a weaver on the Seine | Paris], a barbarian garb that has a Spartan name, a thing uncouth, but not to be despised in cold December—we send you as a gift, a foreign endromis . . . [that] the searching cold may not pass into your moist limbs, or Iris overwhelm you with a sudden shower. You will laugh at winds and rains, clad in this

gift”42 Alexander Severus returned from the public baths to the palace in his bathing costume wearing only a pur­ ple cloak over it.43 Among the traditional gear and clothing supplied by the same emperor for his newly appointed judicial officers were two garments for use in the forum, two for home, and one for the baths.44

Bathing and Baths in the Run - ’A irid

35

Fig. 35 Womens apodytenum in Stabiaii Baths. Pompeii

There is no description of these garments but they might have been simple linen wraps covering the lower half of the body, somewhat like a Scottish kilt. Wooden clogs or sandals constituted the proper footwear at the baths since they would protect the feet from dirty’water as well as from excessive floor heat in some of the hotter rooms. It w’ould be a mistake to presume that the average Roman engaged in strenuous exercise before taking his bath, like the stripling athletes of the Greek gymna­ sium. Roman gymnastics was merely a prelude to bath­ ing, a form of recreation, and not intended as training for competition. It was a social habit that had its roots in preventive medicine (see Appendix A). The “athletes” were often elderly and not necessarily in good shape, but they hoped to improve their health and ward off disease through exercise (Fig. 38).

Despite variations in detail of theory and application, the ancient medical profession was united in the belief that bathing, exercise, massage, anddietw'ere principal elements in establishing and maintaining a regimen for good health. Celsus. a medical writer who lived in the

first half of the first century, recognized the benefits of bathing and exercise for a healthy body, but considered vigorous routines, such as the athletes followed, to be potentially detrimental for ordinary people since “. . . any break in the routine of the exercise, owing to the necessities of civil life, affects the body injuri­ ously.” 4$ Among the useful exercises, he listed reading aloud, walking, running, drilling, and playing hand­ ball. But the w’orkout was to come to an end as soon as a light sweat built up, before the body was completely tired out/6

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

36

Bathing and Baths in the Roman ^orld

37

Fig. 38 Cartoon view of sportive activities in a palaes­ tra (courtesy of A. Fremura).

Galen, the famed physician of the court of Marcus Aurelius in mid-second century, also emphasized the medical benefits of exercise in conjunction with bath­ ing. In his essay on "Exercise with the Small Ball” {De parvae pilae exercitu). he recommended light ball games over other, more strenuous sports as a form of exercise well suited co those who led an intellectual life; they also provided a good basis for military train­ ing. Ball games developed all parts of the body in a balanced way, were not expensive or time consuming, and could be practiced safely by all age groups, for maximum benefits. Galen suggested that they, as all other forms of exercise, should be followed by massage with oil and sometimes by hot bathing.47 (See Appen­ dix A.) A special room for ball games, comparable to the sphairisterion of the Greek palaestra, must have been fairly usual in Roman public baths; one certainly ex­ isted in the Baths of Claudius Etruscus. It seems to have gained considerable popularity among the Romans, ex­ isting either as an independent facility or as a part of a fashionable villa.48 Among the ocher palaestral sports, running, wres­ tling, boxing, and fencing were mentioned, although

their practice was not limited to the palaestra; many of the larger baths had spacious halls chat could be used for indoor athletics. Juvenal mocked brazen society w’omen, who worked out with weights and dumbbells, for infringing upon a branch of sports {halter) that was obviously considered a reserve of the serious male ath­ lete.49 Swimming or rolling a metal hoop with a hooked

stick (trochus) might have been thought more suitable exercise for women. Swimming was a popular sport among the Romans, but it is hard to know if it was done in the baths. Literary evidence suggests that, although the ability to swim and to swim well 5vas acclaimed as a worthy skill and included in the education of wealthy young men, the proper place for serious swimming was in the sea or in rivers.50 Baths often had pools {piscinae) large enough to swim in, but even the largest of these pools, the natatio of the imperial thermae, barely reached a depth of 1 to 1.20 meters. Few are known that included a deep end for diving or other technical features for competition swimming. Swimming in these pools must, therefore, have been limited to a few easy strokes, with most of the bathers enjoying leisurely w’ading and splashing. The Great Palaestra in Pompeii

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

38

and the palaestra in Herculaneum had pools that were well over 2 meters in depth, but these were regular "gymnasia” serving exclusively for athletic training and competitions and were not connected with baths

(Fig. 39)?' The time spent in the palaestra of the baths was pleas­ ant, but the delights awaiting inside were pleasanter still. There were precious few- who were so engrossed in their exercise as to not stop everything and hurry inside with the first sounding of the tintinnabulum, the bell that announced the opening of the hot baths (Fig. 40).52 One greeted a friend about to start his bath with the wish for a good bath, ''Bene lava!'' or "Solvus laves!'' and, afterward, hoped that he had washed well, "Salve lotus!" Some might have preferred the eastern (Alex­ andrian) mode of saluting an acquaintance with a slight bow, "Peripsuma su" ("Your humble servant’’).5* Formulaic bathing salutations are particularly com­ mon in Latin inscriptions (Fig. 41). Often framed in tabulae or tabellae ansatae, and placed at the en­

trances and exits of baths, they are accompanied by mosaic representations of typical palaestcal imple­ ments (strigiles, uryballi, and ampullae) and, more significantly, by the outlines of bathing sandals (soleae} indicating the direction of movement (even a pair of sandals side by side, turned in opposite direc­ tions)?4 Although representations of soleae do occur in buildings other than baths, and might have a variety of meanings (usually to ward off the evil eye), their significant position in baths hints at the existence of a rudimentary order of circulation. Taken in conjunction with other evidence, these inscribed bathing saluta­ tions and representations of soleae can help interpret the nature and uses of Roman bath architecture?5 The order of bathing required a movement from warm to hot through a number of intercommunicating rooms of varying temperatures; the primary' stations in this sequence can be identified as the tepidarium and the cal da ri urn?6 Bathing terminated with a cold plunge in the frigidarium?7 Most bathers perceived benefits from spending some time in one of the special sweating chambers, the laconicum or the sudatorium, the former often specified as having a hot but dry atmo­ sphere?8 Anointing was essential to exercise, either be­ fore or after (or both), and in many baths special warm rooms with various designations seem to have been pro-

Fig. 39 North wing and swimming pool of the palaestra. Herculaneum.

Fig. 4Ü Tintinnabulum from a bath (Naples Archaeological Museum)

Bathing and Baths in (he Roman ’A orId

Fig. 41 Mosaic floor inscrip­ tion from the palaestra of Baths Hl 28, Anemurium: "You have washed well” (courtesy of J. Russell).

vided for massage with oil (aleipterion, destrietarium, unctoriutn).*9 It was also customary to terminate hot bathing by rubbing the body with specially pre­ pared cosmetics, oils, and perfumed unguents. Any­ where along this course, deviations, omissions, or repetitions were possible; one bached as one wished. The order, if one could call it an order, was not a fixed routine. It was more like a general framework that al­ lowed variations, and it received its inspiration, if not its outward shape, from the current recommendations of doctors and the medical traditions of antiquity. Bathers must have spent most of their time in the caldarium and the frigidarium. the main halls for hot and cold bathing, as well as for a wide variety of social, sportive, and recreational activities and even perform­ ances. A mosaic panel at the entrance of a bath in An­ tioch shows three jugglers and, perched upon the left arm of one, a monkey-like animal.60 Mountebank per­ formances given in theaters and amphitheaters were very popular in antiquity. Public baths, with their com­ modious halls, palaestrae, and gardens—and an everready and enthusiastic audience—seem to have served as idea! stages for traveling jugglers, gymnasts, conjurers, jesters, and musicians. A certain Ursus, who lived during Hadrian’s reign, was famed for playing a game with a glass ball; his performances attracted large

39

crowds in four of the thermae of Rome (Thermae of Trajan, Agrippa, Titus, and Nero) Ursus composed his own epitaph and hoped to preserve the memory of his fame and unusual skill for posterity; his wish seems to

have been granted in a modest way.61 Eating and drinking would have infused merriment into any group in the hot baths since vendors of victuals and wine were readily available. For some, this might have meant a light refreshment, an aperitif before din­ ner; others took it more seriously and made a meal of it. Aemilius ate lettuce, eggs, and cels and tried to excuse his appetite by commenting that he did not take dinner at home.62 But Philostratus fell down a long flight of steps to his death on his way back at night from a spirited party at the thermal baths in Sinucssa, famed for its curative waters: “He would not have incurred such great danger, ye Nymphs, if he had drunk your waters instead,” Martial sagely comments.63 The high-vaulted ceilings and large semicircular or arched window's of the caldaria and frigidaria were much admired by the bathers; references in ancient literature to the pleasing daylight and brightness of these lofty spaces are frequent. The enjoyment of the view through these large windows as one bathed im­ mersed in a pool, or even the possibility of getting a tan (some baths had a solarium or a beliocaminus, special rooms with unglazed windows for sunbathing} were among the pleasures that made bathing a sensual experi­ ence (see Appendix B). The public, by and large, seems to have enjoyed not only the illumination but also the excessive heat of the caldarium, equating abundance with luxury. Martial poked fun at the baths of one Tucca, whose caldarium, though resplendent in rare marbles and gems, was $0 chilly that Tucca was advised to use the frigidarium to heat the caldarium!64 There are anecdotal references and criticism of baths so prodigiously and senselessly heated that direct contact with the floor or walls of the caldarium caused the bather serious burns.65 A good bath called for a good dinner to make a per­ fect day. “It is little consolation to bathe in luxury and perish in starvation,” observed Martial,66 and he pro­ ceeded to sharpen his lively wit on the subject of dinner as a culmination of bathing in no less than eight epi­ grams.67 To dine alone was something of a social dis­ grace for some and an outright disaster for spongers who hoped to feast sumptuously at the expense of a rich acquaintance. Philo swore that he never dined at

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquih

home but he might not have dined at all if no one in­ vited him.68 Cotta was more discriminating and re­ quired serious courting at the baths; even Martial had drawn a blank on him;

[f you would feast at Cotta’s board. The baths your only chance afford To get an invitation. I never yet with him have dined My naked charms do not, I find Excite his admiration.69

Bathing and Morality “What is bathing when you think of it—oil, sweat, filth, greasy water, everything revolting . . .” Such was the assessment of bathing by the emperor and phi­ losopher Marcus Aurelius, or, rather, his assessment of material life in general.70 “Baths, wine and women corrupt our bodies, but these things make life itself,’’ was the Cynics’ acknowledgment of the same question, found frequently on inscriptions, epitaphs, or scratched informally on toilet seats in public latrines.7’ The two views are not, actually, all that divergent, ex­ cept that popular philosophy was able to come to terms w’ith material life and its transient pleasures, and Stoic philosophy could not. While resting at the country house that once be­ longed to the hero of the Second Punic War. Scipio Africanus (c. 200 B.C.), Seneca saw the small, dark baths the famous general had used. Drawing a contrast between old and new, he deplored the accustomed lux­ ury of the baths of his own day: “ [Today], we think ourselves poor and mean if our walls are not resplen­ dent with large and costly mirrors; if our marbles from Alexandria are not set off by mosaics of Num i di an stone \giallo antico}-, . . . if our vaulted ceilings are not buried in glass [mosaic]; if our swimming pools are not lined with Thasian marble, once a rare and wonderful sight in any temple; . . . and, finally, if water is not poured from silver spigots. . . What a vast number of statues, of columns that support nothing but are built for decoration, merely in order to spend money! And what masses of water fall crashing from level to level! We have become so luxurious that we have nothing but precious stones to walk upon.” He proceeded co con­ trast the overly lighted contemporary' baths with the welcome darkness of the old ones such as the Stabian Baths or the Forum Baths in Pompeii (Fig. 42; see Fig.

40

35). ”... for our ancestors did not think that one could have a hot bath except in darkness . . . nowa­ days, however, people regard baths as fit only for moths if they have not been so arranged that they receive the sun all day long through the widest of windows, if men can not bathe and get a coat of tan at the same time, and if they can not look out from their bath-tubs over stretches of land and sea.“ Regretting the overheating of the new baths and the habit of bathing every day, instead of once a week as the old Romans used to do, he concluded: “Now that spick-and-span bathing estab­

lishments have been devised, men are really fouler than of yore.” 72 Writing during the first half of the first century, Sen­ eca was giving voice to a moralizing attitude that disap­ proved of the increasingly luxurious lifestyle of his day compared with the frugal manners that accompanied military and manly virtues of the past. Seneca was not alone: the disapproval of the excessive material luxury represented by baths; the objection to the worldly and

wasteful lifestyle encouraged by them; and the con­ demnation of the sexual licentiousness and moral de­ linquency associated with the baths were among the major issues raised by conservative critics and con­ stituted the basis of Christian opposition to bathing several centuries later. The eider Pliny deplored displays of luxury in w omen’s baths, with their floors of silver, although he was quite proud of the Roman technical achievement

that brought water to the baths.75 A contemporary of both Pliny and Seneca, Demetrius the Cynic entered the Thermae of Nero during the ceremonies of dedication and delivered to the aristocracy congregated there a speech denouncing luxurious baths and bathing. It was the wrong place and the wrong time for outspokenness; he narrowly escaped with his life.74 It is noteworthy that the generations hypercritical toward the increas­ ing material comforts of life, and of the baths in particu­ lar, belonged to the early decades of the empire. Cicero, of the late republic, had no quarrels with the modest bathing establishments of his day. In the second half of the first century, Martial, Statius, and the younger Pliny accepted the public baths as legitimate and quite in line with the luxuries offered by the impe­ rial system. The elder Pliny was also worried about excessive anointing and bathing as grim indications of a spread­ ing social disease; he criticized in a satirical vein the

Bathing and Baths in the Roman lorid

41

rig. 42 Men s caldarium with schola labrum in Forum Baths, Pompeii. Limited illumination provided by windows cut in the vault (Fototeca).

“broiling baths by which they have persuaded us that food is cooked in our bodies so chat everybody leaves them the weaker for treatment, and the most submis­ sive are carried out to be buried . . ,’’7* Pliny’s para­ bolic humor finds its counterpart in Seneca, who spoke about the “fashionable hear” of his day as a proper conflagration and quipped “lhat a slave condemned for some criminal offense now ought to be batbed alive’’’76 From their inception in Classical Greece the public baths were censured for their appeal to sensual plea­ sures, and they were accorded a place at the other end of the moral scale from the gymnasium. Baths were associated with an effete and wasteful lifestyle, which was said to have ensnared the well-born youth of Aristo­ phanes's Athens. Centuries later, the Roman historian Tacitus described this way of life, “the lounge, the

bath, the banquet,” as a form of vice brought by the conquering Romans to Britain, which seduced the native inhabitants of the island.77 These refinements affected every class of society in Rome or abroad. So me of the emperors 1 ived amid bat hs and banquets in their imperial residences. The parvenu found excel lent opportunities to display his wealth and stage his petty affectations in the permissive world of the public bath. The tramp, the vagabond, or the ordi­ nary lout also found in public baths an atmosphere ready for uncouth and boorish behavior. There were those who treated the crowd to unsolicited concerts or vulgar recitals of their own poetry. Young Algernon displayed six rings on his fingers, and young Maro dis­ played his physique and gathered applause.78 Drinking in excess was another offensive habit often connected with public baths: “This is one of youth’s

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

42

popular vices," complained Seneca, "to build up strength [by exercise in the palaestra] in order to drink on the threshold of the baths amid the unclad bathers; nay. even soak in wine and then immediately rub off the sweat which they have promoted by many a glass of liquor’ "79 The elder Pliny went so far as to claim that

century later, despite growing Christian influence, things had not changed much concerning the atten­ tions some prostitutes received in the baths from those in high places. Ammianus Marcellinus, a historian of

there were many who used the sweat chambers merely in order to raise their thirst.60 Gluttony and ovcrindulgence were generally

plored how the nobles of his day brazenly competed with one another to win the favors of a new’ prostitute who appeared in public baths.67 Obviously, prostitutes of both sexes could be found in or around the public baths, and bathing with courte­ sans was the proper prelude to intimate relationships. More exclusive "bathing parties" for the rich could be arranged, as indicated in a passage from Plautus, an early-second-century-B.c playwright, where the pimp Lycus tries to lure Collybius into the baths to enjoy "a nicely cushioned couch with a nice lady to love" and a love-bach with plenty of wine and perfumed unguents from an obliging bath attendant.88 The baths were cer­ tainly not only places to seek i I licit pleasures but also to find the cure for the same. In that, they had a clear advantage over other localities because they offered the potion of the purge along with the phial of corruption. One even visited the baths to "sweat out" and "sober up" after a night of indiscretion and indulgence.69 The objection to bathing on ethical grounds reflects the beliefs and convictions of its exponents and the overall moral atmosphere of the period as much as it expresses a judgment on the baths themselves. Often, the subject is used only as a vehicle to express views on larger issues and requires consideration of the full con­ text for a fair assessment. Given the order of the typical Roman day, and the characteristics of ancient economy, one cannot seriously fault the baths for caking up too much of the afternoon and promoting laziness. That they provided a w*holesome and altogether realistic form of recreation for the great majority of the public is sufficient defense against the perhaps justifiable claim that the baths induced indulgent and crude behavior. Such behavior and sexual promiscuity, too, would have existed in the Roman society with or without the help

frowned upon and the wise realized the dangers of bathing on a full stomach. Seneca’s fare in his old age was frugal: after the bath he would eat only some bread without even bothering to sit down,8' a moralizing point made in contrast to the indiscretions of the nouveaux riches, who stumbled into the baths after a gross feast. Such foolishness elicited a mock warning from Juvenal against a mistake few would live to repeat: "But you’ll pay the price all too soon, my friend, when you undress and waddle into the bath, your belly swol­ len with undigested peacock meat — a lightning heart­ attack with no time to make your final will.” 62 The subject that attracted the greatest public censure was the alleged immoral and sexual indiscretions asso­ ciated with baths. Throughout Roman history, many viewed the world of the public baths with varying de­ grees of distaste and reprobation. Despite the lingering existence of a republican tradition of modesty and re­ straint, and the frequent prohibitions against mixed bathing by most of the emperors, the baths still pro­ vided one of the major opportunities for exposing the naked and seminaked body in public.8> Athcnacus tells

that Phryne, the famed courtesan and model who posed as Aphrodite for the painter Apelles and the sculptor Praxiteles, was very beautiful; one could, however, not easily catch a glimpse of her in the nude because she was too modest to go to the public baths.84 Most of the Roman courtesans did not share Phryne’s bashfulness about visiting the public baths with men although they seem to have been well versed in their own brand of coyness. Martial mentions being teased and taunted by Galla: "When I compliment your face, when I admire your legs and hands, you are accustomed to say, Galla. 'Naked I shall please you more,’ yet, you continually avoid taking a bath with me Surely, you are not afraid. Galla, that I shall not please you? ” 85 It is reported that Emperor Elagabalus (213—222) gathered in a public building ail the prostitutes from public places, includ­ ing the baths, and lectured them on sexual matters.86 A

the fourth century, looked back with nostalgia upon the moral greatness of Rome’s republican past and de­

of the baths. Even Seneca, a man "who held that the good life was a matter of waging continuous war on bodily plea­ sure."90 bathed frequently. Moreover, as a Stoic he could not resist viewing life as a metaphor for a public bath; "The program of life is the same as that of a bath­ ing establishment: sometimes things will be thrown at

Bathing and Baths in the Roman * odd

you, and sometimes they will strike you by accident.” has one translation?’ Had Seneca been can ing his phi­ losophy on a toilet seat, he might have preferred a shorter and more popular version: “Life is a bath. All paddle about in its great pool, some sink, some swim.”

Balneae and Thermae Small baths and large baths coexisted throughout the Roman Empire and the primary difference between

balneae and thermae seems to have been one of owner­ ship and scale. Balneae were small establishments, pri­ vately owned and fitting into available city lots as best they could (often sharing walls with other structures). Thermae were, almost without exception, owned by the state, or the city; they occupied large areas, some­ times several city blocks, and often, as in Rome, they stood free in the middle of an open, park-like precinct. Their architecture appears not to have been hampered by budget considerations (see Figs. 68-70; infra, Chapter 3).92 Although there were no rigid rules as to when a bath should be called a balneum and w*hen a thermae, it is significant chat the Regional Catalogues of the mid­ fourth century indicate the distinction by naming the eleven thermae of Rome individually but giving only a total for the balneae.9’ An inscription of the Severan period (early third century) from Lanuvium, in central Italy, illustrates the difference between thermae and balneae in the clearest terms: under the empire, the community prospered and was able to “build thermae to replace the balneae which were very old and had gone out of use.”94 Other communities aspired to transform their dilapidated, small baths into fine ther­ mae under the favorable conditions of the empire. Judged by ancient literary and epigraphical sources, however, the difference between thermae and balneum appears to have allowed a certain amount of inter­ changeability and confusion even in its own day (Fig. 43)?’ There is also some confusion as to when a bath was private and when it was public. The confusion exists because the difference between the legal and social meaning of these terms is not sufficiently clear.96 From the users’ viewpoint, most baths, balneae as well as thermae, were public because they were open to all, and their use was not generally restricted to a special group or class of people, in this study, the term “public

43

baths” will be used in keeping with its social meaning, not ownership.97 It would be possible to regard, on epigraphical and literary grounds, “summer baths” (thermae estivates) and “winter baths” (thermae hiemales) as descrip­ tions and classifications of Roman baths. Of the dozen or so inscriptions that employ these terms, only a few were act ua I ly fou nd i ns i de the bat hs to wh i ch they m ust have referred?" None of the inscriptions explains or describes any special design feature that could justify the classification of these baths as summer or winter baths, and there is no consistent design characteristic in baths where inscriptions with such designations were found. Therefore, it might not be valid to assert that the winter bath type should display a more compact and energy-conscious design chan the summer bath type; temperature of the water source might, however, have had something to do with it. In at least one instance, we are informed that Emperor Aurelian (c. 270) “planned to erect a public bath in the Transtiberine district as a winter bath since here there was no supply of fairly cold water.“99

Bath Economics Patronage and Ownership During the early Hellenistic period, the building and operation of baths required permission from local rulers, and baths had to pay a certain percentage of their income as tax. Yet, despite the high taxes and small admission charges, increasing public interest in bath­ ing made the operation of baths a lucrative business concern.100 The same can be said for the Roman period. The business acumen of certain republican leaders found an outlet in operating baths; in one particular case, at the beginning of the first century' B.c., Sergius Orata marketed a bath-related discovery—the floor­ heating system known as the hypocaust. Orata, a suc­ cessful entrepreneur, did not invent the hypocaust, but he seems to have been the first to use the system to heat his fishponds and oyster beds on the Gulf of Baiae be­ fore he applied it to baths (see Appendix B). Baths also were established as a form of public gift. Royal and aristocratic patronage led the list as attested by dozens of baths known u ndcr th e na m c of the emper­ ors who sponsored them in Rome, in Italy, and in the provinces. When the large expense of initiating a bath could not be defrayed from a single source, dual or

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

44

Fig 43 Inscription plaque advertising the Baths of M. Crassus Frugi. Pompeii: "The Baths of Marcus Crassus Frugi. Thermae of Sea water and balneum of fresh water Januarius. freedman” (Naples Archaeological Museum. #3829).

multiple patronage was sought as an effective and popu­ lar solution. In this system, funds were provided par­ tially by state and partially by private subscriptions.101 In Rome, the first great bathing complex that can be recognized as “thermae” proper was built by Marcus Agrippa. Augustus’s trusted friend and general; upon his death in 12 b.C. . Agrippa left these baths bearing his name, with all their parks and gardens, for the free use of Roman people.102 Licinius Sura, Trajan’s friend and general, also left baths for the use of the people.1 Construction of large baths in Rome and the provinces, as well as provision of free bathing for all, was a popular and important application of the state program of hy­ giene and recreation. Whether the funds for such dis­ plays of generosiry came from the private estates of the emperor or from the state treasury is often not speci­ fied; that both sources could be tapped is logical. Some of the imperial undertakings seem to have carried a deliberate political edge, such as the thermae that Titus constructed partially over the Golden House of Nero? these baths not only destroyed part of the unpopular private estate but opened it up for people’s use. The baths erected by the orders of Emperor Tacitus on the site of a house he owned might have been intended co emphasize the emperor’s selfless surrender of his hold­ ing for the benefit of the public.’04 After the devastating earthquake of 1n in Asia Minor, the rebuilding of the city center in Sardis, including the gigantic bath-gymnasium complex, was made possible by the generous relief funds provided by Tiberius.’05 Many of the smaller cities of southwestern Asia Minor

benefited from the tight fiscal policy of Vespasian. Ac­ cording to an inscription, the baths in Cadyanda were built with the money Vespasian “saved for the city”: likewise, in Patara. Balbura, and Aperlca baths and aque­ ducts were the results of general economy in spending.106 Citizens who occupied high public positions were expected co make major contributions toward building projects, social welfare, and public entertainment at the assumption of their office and throughout their ten­ ure, rather than draw a salary from it. This unique and beneficial system constituted the economic basis of the civic and social structure of antiquity and was known as summa honoraria. In Italy, a man like the younger Pliny, who gave his native tow*n Comum (Como) 500,000 sesterces for the decoration of the public baths and an additional 200,000 for their maintenance (and probably an additional 500.000 sesterces, at least, for their construction), represents the epitome of pri­ vate munificence.’07 In Bulla Regia. Tunisia, the daugh­ ter of the consular Memmii family. Julia Mcmmia. contributed toward the construction of a sizable bath­ ing complex in town; a statue base dedicated to the consul was found inside the staircase entrance of the baths.108 During the prosperous centuries of the em­ pire. the generosity of private donors like Pliny w*as matched in the eastern provinces by millionaire philan­ thropists such as Herodes Atticus of Athens and Publius Ve di us Antoninus of Ephesus. The latter gave Ephesus a fine bath-gymnasium, and dedicated it to Artemis and to his close friend, Antoninus Pius, the emperor.'09 Dio

Bathing and Baths in the Roman ttnrld

Chrysostom of Prusa (Bursa. Turkey) regarded civic munificence as the highest moral virtue attainable and. in public discourses, propounded an ambitious beauti­ fication program for his city, which included an aque­ duct, colonnades, a library, and a bath.110 Whether motivated by local patriotism and the spirit of true philanthropy, or as a political device for the purpose of gaining popularity, the results of these dona­ tions meant an improved urban environment for the citizens. Contributions toward public entertainment, games, and festivals often vied with those given for buildings and services and reached a peak under Marcus Aurelius. Rome viewed with consternation the enthusiasm and extravagance displayed by certain pa­ trons in the provinces, especially in Asia Minor, and

attempted to control the trend.111 Antoninus Pius or­ dered any city with sufficient numbers of public build­ ings to channel any additional sums donated toward the construction of new ones into maintenance of those already in existence. This, however, did not stop Ephe­ sus from getting its third (or fourth) colossal bath­ gymnasium complex during his reign. Pius must have considered contributions for building projects an act of public virtue preferable to the self-serving generosity of those who donated lavishly for transient forms of entertainment.1'2 Public munificence could also take the form of es­ tablishing an endowment that paid part of or all the expenses of a bath: subsidies to pay for the general maintenance of the building, as well as the heating, water, and oil costs, were fairly common. A secondcentury inscription from Misenum, Italy, records a lifetime donation of four hundred cartloads of good-q ua 1 i ty wood for heat ing the publ i c baths.113 Ob • taining the wood supply for baths was not always so simple. According to a fourth-century source, wood was sent to some of the public baths of Rome (the ther­ mae?) by other cities and corporations through a com­ plicated system of subventions. For its free supply of wood Rome depended on Terracina (which, in turn, relied on the free com from Puteoli; if Terracina did not get its free com, Rome’s baths did not get their wood). The transportation of wood for the baths of Rome was the guild duty of the salt workers of Ostia.114 The liberal/tas of a patron could be specified co ex­ tend over a period of time—day, year, or in perpetuity.

The beneficiaries could be a certain group of people, a family, a particular person, or everybody. In 33 B.C., in

Ostia Regional plan (Carandini and Panella).

69

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

70

Fig. Baths of the Swimmers, Ostia. Plan (Yegul after Carandini and Panella).

A

A

*

Fig. “4 Baths of Neptune, Ostia. Plan (Krencker).

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

Fig. "5 Baths of Neptune. Ostia. Neptune mosaic, fngi* da num (DAI)

71

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

72

Fig “6 Baths (second half of the first century B.C.), Glanum (Saint-Rdmy-deProvence). Plan (Yegul after Grenier).

Fig. "8 North Baths, Lugdunum Convenarum (Saint-Bertrand-deComminges). Plan (Yegiil after Grenier).

Fig. Second Baths. Derventum (Drevant). Plan (Yegiil after Grenier).

O

5

U U U

10m I

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

3

Fig. “9 North Baths. East Baths, and U est Baths. Cemenelum (Cimiez) Plan (YegUl after Benoit)

W€ST BATHS

O

IO

UITU---------f

F------------ La— ■

■

40 M |

Baths and Bathing m Classical Antiquity

simplicity’of the Pompeian arrangement, with the bath block adjacent and parallel to rhe palaestra, had to be compromised by restrictions of the urban site. In all three baths, the frigidarium is the architecturally dis* tinctive element, its size and design foreshadowing the boxy’, wide-apsed, basilical halls of the lace empire. In the North Baths, this monumental hall (F, 9X 17.8m.), known locally as the “Temple of Apollo,” is extremely well preserved, its walls rising to a height of over 10 meters (Fig. 80). The construction — small, squared blocks intercepted by bands of brick (petit appareil) — i s q u i te co m m on in t he region and of very hi gh qual • ity. More exceptional, although not unknown in Gaul and the Midi, is the brick-ribbed barrel vault, a transla« t ion into brick of the stone-ribbed vau Iting of the “Tem­ ple of Diana” in Nîmes. The impact of republican Rome on the architecture of its western provinces was surprisingly small; Gaul and Spain remained essentially faithful to their provin­ cial versions of Hellenistic and Greco-Punic architec­ ture, shaped by local building techniques and traditions. The model offered by Gian urn reveals that

Fig. 80 Nonh Raths, Cemenelum ( Cimiez). View of frigidarium from west (Benoit ).

'4

the relationship was closely tied to the political and administrative structure. The introduction of Italian building types, essentially civic structures such as the forum-basilica combination, the theater and the amphi­ theater, and the public bath, came quite abruptly dur­ ing the Augustan settlement, soon after the conquest of the region by Julius Caesar. In subsequent centuries, much that was built followed the distinctive mode and style of this remarkable architectural outburst of the Julio-Claudian period. The immediate sources and models for the European provinces were the republi­ can colonics of northern Italy. These colonies, situated in the northern plains and the foothills of the Apen­ nines, closely approximated the geographical (and to a certain extent, demographical and political) structure of the transalpine regions. They served as intermediary centers and as Rome’s outposts for experimentation and dissemination of building forms and ideas.35 Unfor­ tunately, hardly any baths predating the imperial era remain from the much rebuilt cities of this region. The baths io republican Cosa, if excavated, might yield valu­ able evidence. In Velleia, another republican colony in the Apennines, south of Piacenza, the baths display a row of parallel bathing halls with double caldaria, pos­ sibly separating men and women (Fig. 81). The men’s frigidarium is of particular interest: it is arranged as a palaestra-natatio combination (F/P) with a swimming pool at the center of a compact, square, colonnaded courtyard.This is clearly an innovation in terms of the Pompeian models and one that crops up again in the Augustan baths of Conimbriga in Portugal (see infra). A variation of the Pomjpeian type, employed in the European provinces with considerable persistence, is discerned in the symmetrical disposition of the bathing halls and sometimes also (he palaestra along a single axis (Krencker’s “row type”). This type followed the introduction of the Pompeian scheme almost immedi­ ately, in the w*estern and northern provinces. None of the surviving examples is earlier than the mid-first cen­ tury and many belong to the second and third centuries. Perhaps (he most striking and earliest of this group are the Flavian double baths in Gisacum (VieilEvreux), Normandy. The plan is a straightforward ap­ plication of the row type in which bathing functions are separated with a diagrammatic clarity (Fig. 82). The bath block is composed of symmetrically disposed rows of men’s and women’s units which divide the large rectangular enclosure into two unequal parts; the

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

Fig. 81 Republican Baths, Velkia. Plan. hypothetical reconstruction (Yegtll after Aurigemma).

Fig. 82 Flavian Baths, Gis arum (Vieil-Évreux. Normandy). Plan (Krencker).

■5

smaller southern one is the service court. The plan of the block can be read as a series of cross shaped mod­ ules: the projections of the “crosses” house the pools of the frigidaria (F) and the caldaria (C); the recesses connecting them are the tepidaria (7). The circular rooms (lacónica, £), positioned at the extreme ends of the block outside the rectangular enclosure, are later additions to the original scheme.35 In Alonnes (Le Mans), also in Normandy, the same idea of double com­ position is expressed in a pair of identical bathing rows sharing a courtyard and an open-air swimming pool (Fig. 83)« In the second-century Forum Baths in Lug­ dunum Convenarum (Sainc-Bertrand de-Commingcs), axiality is emphasized by including the palaestra on the same axis as the frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium. More sophisticated compositions developing a symmetrical disposition of the secondary elements about the main axis can be seen in the baths of the festival sanctuary at Champlieu, in the baths at Verdes, and in the First Baths of Derventum (Fig. 84).36

A grou p of four m i 1 itary and m u n ic ipa I bat hs fro m th e northwestern provinces, which are closely related in plan, are a m ong the earl i est a pp I i cations of stri ctly symmetrical planning. These are the Fortress Baths at Vindonissa (mid-first century’; Fig. 85), the Legionary Baths at Exet er (c. 60 - 6 5), che coio nía bat hs at Avent i • cum (Avenches; Fig. 86). and the Legionary Fortress Baths at Isca (Caerleon; Figs. 86. 87). The last two are of early Flavian date. The axial arrangement of the major bathing halls—frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldariura — reveals a more monumental and sophisti­ cated planning style than that evidenced by the Pompeian examples. Noting the similar axial arrange­ ment of this group and of the Thermae of Titus in Rome, scholars who published descriptions of these baths proposed them to be the forerunners of the imperial thermae of the capital. This hypothesis gains strength only if it can be shown that the architects of the am­ bitious imperial projects of Rome were the same ones who traveled with the legions in the provinces (al­ though axiality and symmetry were familiar planning concepts in Rome and the eastern provinces long be­ fore the Flavian period) .37 Another provincial example of a well-developed row-type bath is the recently excavated complex of West and East Baths in Mirabriga, Portugal (Pig- 88). The location of these baths in the bottom of a small 'V'alley may have restricted the development of a full

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

76

Fig 83 Double Baths, Alonnes (Le Mans). Plan (Yegüi after Krencker).

Fig. First Baths, Den en turn (Drevant). Plan (Krencker). Fig. 85 Fortress Baths. Vindonissa. Plan (Yegüi after Krencker and Laur-Belart).

o

6

20 m

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

Fig. 86 Baths, Aventicum (Avenches) Plan i left i. Legionary Fortress Baths. Isca (Caerieon). Plan (right i (courtesy of I>. Zienkiewic?}

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

78

Fig. 87 Legionary Fortress Baths. Isca (Caerleon). Hypo­ thetical plan (Yegiil after Zienkiewicz).

palaestra, although there is a courtyard along the north­ west facade of the West Baths. The two establishments (men’s and women's?) are independent of each ocher except for an el-shaped colonnade between them and a shared public latrine.50 The Trajanic version of the South Baths in Conimbriga, Portugal, can be classified with the single-axis, row-type building writ large. They provide an excel­ lent illustration of contemporary' Gallic influence on the architecture of the Iberian peninsula. The Trajanic scheme drastically altered the east-west orientation of its I ate-Augustan predecessor, transforming a compact

unit of four rooms next to a pool court (essentially the Pompeian plan type) into a much enlarged, north­ south succession of bathing halls (Figs. 89 - 92) Al­ though the main axis is emphasized by three lofty cross vaults covering these halls, two circular, domed units expand the composition in the east-west direction. The east rotunda, the larger of the two (diameter 9 m.), with four diagonally placed niches, is undoubtedly a classically conceived laconicuni; the other, heated indi­ rectly from the tepidarium and communicating with one of the frigidarium pool alcoves, may have been a “wet-steam room” as suggested by the excavators. The

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

call central space of the frigidarium, coo, expands lacer­ ally into two pool alcoves, separated from the main hall by a screen of square pillars. With its service courts, the bath block approximates a square, roughly 34 meters to a side. On the north is an entrance court, a palaestra with a very large, rectangular natatio (N2). On the

south, elevated on an artificial terrace some 5 5 meters above the sharply sloping ground, a second palaestra commanded a fine view through a hypothesized brick arcade (P2)- A pair of decorative apses (or exedrae covered by semidomes) articulate the east and west walls; the full length of the north wall, which screens the service areas of the caldarium, was fronted by a colonnaded terrace. Raised some 3.5 meters above the level of the courtyard, it was reached by a monumental flight of stairs positioned exactly at the center of this

side (see Figs. 91.92). Following Grimal's theories on the Roman “garden-gymnasium” concept in villa ar­ chitecture, the excavators have conceived this area as a garden-palaestra and proposed a sumptuous planting scheme. One might propose that the palaestra proper,

for exercise, was the featureless courtyard on the north whereas the southern one was a decorative and hand­ some promenade court, intended for meditative pleasures.40 There is no doubt that the influence of the capital and its luxurious thermae — such as the Thermae of Agrippa with its sumptuous gardens, canals, and artifi­ cial lake, or Apo llodorus’s Thermae of Trajan — can be seen in some of the Gallo-Roman and Iberian creations of the second and third centuries. Strongly axial and symmetrical layouts, ambitious handling of structural elements, and, perhaps, the introduction of literary and pastoral themes are evidence of this important influ­ ence. The Gallo-Roman and northwestern baths were provincial variations, combining the functional (some­ times military) efficacy and realistic economies of the simpler row types with the grace and grandeur of impe­ rial thermae. Some are small-scale models of wellknown imperial types; others introduce a fresh and truly original outlook to bath planning.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

KO

Fig. 89 South Baths (late Augustan). Conimbriga. Portugal. Plan (Ye gut after Alarcio and Etienne).

Fig. 90 South Baths (late Augustan), Conimbriga, Portugal. Restored cutaway perspective (Alarcio and Etienne).

The Intermediary or Half-Axial Type The bathing establishment depicted on Fragment 3 3 of the Marble Plan of Rome represents a type more ad­ vanced than the schemes on other fragments (see Fig. 69b). A cow of five parallel and interconnecting bath­ ing rooms with apsidal projections are grafted onto a large rectangular hall (C), which serves as a collecting center for these units and others around It. Two en­ trances from the street, one through a short corridor, the other through an ample vestibule (^4), lead into C. The row of bath halls occupies one side of a porticoed palaestra; at least two other sides of the palaestra are lined with shops. Room D, larger than the rest and dis­ playing an apsed projection in the center (presumably containing a heated pool), is a good candidate for a caldarium while C may be the frigidarium. The midsecond-century Forum Baths in Ostia display the same

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

basic composition as on Fragment 33. with a division of spaces into two distinct zones. A stepped row’ of bath­ ing halls on the south constitutes the heated zone and opens into a triangu lar-shaped palaestra; on the north. a centrally located frigidarium with three cross-vaulted bays opens onto side halls through columnar screens. These extensions of the frigidarium probably served as apodyteria; at the extremities are entrance halls, di­ rectly accessible from the street (see Figs. 73. 69b). These schemes constitute an "intermediary“ cype be­ tween the single-axis Pompeian plan and the fully sym­ metrical imperial type. Its predominant circulation pattern is a full ring (clockwise or counterclockwise), beginning and ending in the frigidarium/apodyterium area. Unlike the imperial schemes, in which two identi­ cal circuits converge on a core of major halls which forms the composition’s main axis, the intermediary type often displays only one circulation ring. This is composed of a number of bathing halls that are shifted off a more or I ess recogni zable bu 11 d i ng axi s—a con fig-

uration generally named “half-axial.”41 The targe baths situated on the ancient coastline of Ostia, southeast of Porta Marina (Reg. IV, 10, 1), pro­ vide an excellent illustration of the intermediate cype in which the elements of the row and the ring types have been combined (Fig. 93) < Although the exact re­ lationship of some spaces to the apparent circulation pattern is obscured by later renovations and inadequate excavation, a distinct bath block composed of three heated halls can be discerned and readily compared with the Baths of Neptune in the same city (see Fig. 74). The bath block is separated along its entire length from a spacious palaestra by a frigidarium; this arrange­ ment is quite similar to that of the Forum Baths at Ostia though of lesser formality. The apse of the caldarium and the sumptuous pool pavilion projecting from the frigidarium arc Severan additions.42 The intermediary type represents neither a specific plan type nor a particular chronological stage in the evolution of bach planning, It is merely a useful classifi­ cation system. This type has a number of closely related variants and derives much of its formal structure from early imperial bath plans. Once established by the end of the first century, the relationship between the “im­ perial” and “intermediary” baths appears to have been largely a reciprocal borrowing of random characteris­ tics rather than a strict chronological or evolutionary sequence. Indeed, one of the more interesting exam-

81

Fig. 91 South Baths (late Trajanic), Conimbriga. Portugal. Plan (Alarcao and Etienne).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 92 South Baths (late Trajanic). Conimbriga, Portugal. Restored perspective (AlarcSo and Etienne).

82

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

pies chat can be included in (he ranks of the interme­ diary type is a second-century establishment described in detail by Lucian (Fig. 94) .4J A very early and unusual application of the interme­ diary type in Italy is the public bath complex at Massaciuccoli, near Pisa, an interesting combination of a bath with a nymphaeum, or monumental fountain structure (Fig. 95) 44 Known locally as the “Baths of Nero,” the handsome brick-faced concrete structure probably dates no later chan the end of the first or beginning of the second century, it occupies the slope of a hill in three terraces: the upper terrace contains a large, rect­ angular cistern; (he narrow middle terrace is developed as a long nymphaeum wall articulated by nine niches housing pools and fountains and displaying statuary, much of which was unearthed during numerous exca­ vations since 1756. The bath block, a rectangular struc­ ture measuring 19 X 32 meters, occupies the lower terrace. A! chough t he original layout is obsc u red by poor preservation, later modifications, and subdivisions, it is not difficult to recognize the basic half-axial arrangement with a row of four heated rooms (K, X, T, and 5) along the west front. The northwest comer room, 5 (or S and T), now badly damaged, must have been (he caldarium. A tall, cross-vaulted feigidarium, H(F), and its broad eastern extension as a pool, occupies the center of the block and establishes an axis bisecting the mid­ dle niche of the nymphaeum. The visual and functional unity of the composition was enhanced dramatically by the cascading stream of water that originally linked the nymphaeum to the frigidarium pool via an arched opening in the center of the separating wall. More economical and flexible than the imperial ther­ mae, the baths of the intermediary and half-axial type were ideally suited to densely developed, crowded urban conditions. This may largely explain their great popularity in North African cities from Alexandria to Volubilis. In Madaurus, located in the highlands of Al­ geria, both of the city’s two public baths display com­ pact, half-axial plans (see Figs. 254, 255). The same is true for (he Summer and Winter Baths in Thuburbo Majus in Numidia (see Figs. 260,285). Other examples of this type from Africa come from Bulla Regia, El Djem, Gigthis, and Hippo Regius (see Figs. 245, 250, 251, 265). The type could also be suitably employed as a second bathing establishment in cities such as Timgad that already had an imperial thermae and perhaps sev­ eral other medium and small baths.

Fig. 93 Maritime Baths (Porta Marina Baths), Ostia. Plan (Yegiil after Becatti).

0

5 10________30 m ------ s------------ :

84

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 9h Lucian’s Barhs of Hippias. ' Restored plan (Yegiil).

|C MALL »’GOOO S’2F' ‘ENTRANCE ?*Al1HAtriVi

J

hAIl

’0»

RETREATS’RECEPTION el

'N'

9 -MOT CORRIDOR - Ttl'OARh'M

R'Q*

* CAPACIOUS ROOMS TO 'JNORESS IN'

T ROOM «e» MASSAGE

S 'HALL TO LINSER on« STfctOui

LOuMMS

AROOT»ERtA

5 -All «11« COLD POOLS FP'G' OARlUM « Oat ONG “ALL vi'h APSES' TEPlDARIUM

tO'MALL «.th THREE HOT

H

SLiGHTL*

POOlS- ¿ALDAS'.m

WAHMEP APARTMENT'

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

Fig. 95 "Baths of Nero." Massaciuccoli (near Pisai Plan and section (Yegul after Minto).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Among the hundreds of balneae and the eleven ther­ mae of Rome, many, no doubt, must have belonged to the intermediary category. Two whose plans are known to us with some degree of accuracy are the Thermae of Empress Helena near Porta Maggiore, originally a part of the Villa of Heliogabatus on the eastern slopes of the Caelian Hill (Fig. 96),4S and the Baths of Maxentius, high on the southeast comer of the Domus Augusuna on the Palatine (Fig. 97).46 The impressive ruins of the latter have always been visible, although often mis­ dated as Severan; of the former, only the cisterns re­ main. but an incomplete plan has been recorded by Palladio. In the Thermae of Helena, a straight row of heated rooms behind a colonnaded frontage echoes the ar­ rangement of one-half of a conventional imperial ther­ mae, like that of Caracalla, notwithstanding the caldarium with its si ightIy projecting bowed apse at the end of the row. which is typical of the smaller baths. A palaestra may have occupied the roughly square lacuna on the northeast comer of the plan (see Fig. 96). In the Baths of Maxentius, a large rectangular frigidacium with apsidal ends (F) is integrated into the fronta 1 group of hea ted rooms by means of a te p i dari u m (T) and an octagonal hall with diagonal niches (see Fig. 97). This hall, although hardly an unfamiliar ele­ ment in bath design (especially in the late Roman period), assumes new importance as a central collect­ ing space, and helps to create a distinct and powerful axis that distinguishes the scheme from others of the intermediary' type.47 The close planning relationship between the Baths of Maxentius and the Baths-with Heliocaminus in Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli (another good example of the intermediary' type) has been noted, especially the stepped arrangement of their ap­ sidal and round halls facing the southwest through large windows (Fig. 98).49 To this group one can add the Large Baths and the Small Baths, also from the Imperial Villa in Tivoli. The Large Baths display a remarkably orderly distribution, balancing a straight frontal row of heated halls with an amply disposed progression of spaces (palaestra, en­ trance hall (B), natatio (N), and cross-vaulted frigidarium) perpendicular to them which constitute an axis terminating in the round heliocaminus (Z) (Figs. 99, 100a, b).49 The spaces have generous proportions and effect comfortable, well-articulatcd transitions; the massing is bold and quiet. The design is less innovative

86

Fig. 96 Thermae of Helena. Rome. Partial plan (Palladio).

Fig. 9" Thermae of Maxentius. Palatine. Rome. Plan (Hermann).

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Bach>

Fig. 98 Baths-withHeliocaminus. Hadrian's Mila, Tivoli. Plan (Hermann).

Fig. 99 Large Baths, Hadrian s Villa. Tivoli. Plan (Krendcer).

o

40

29

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity'

Fig. 100 Large Baths. Hadrian's Villa. Tivoli (Mirick). a. Section north-south through frigidarium and apodyterium. b. Section east-west through frigidarium and palaestra.

89

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

Fig. 101 Small Baths. Hadrian’s Villa. Tivoli. Phn (courtesy of B M Boyle and W. L. MacDonald >.

{:i^s

(perhaps, less ‘ interesting”) than that of its immediate neighbor to the west, the Small Baths, but no less profes­ sional in the conception and handling of architectural entities. This was clearly the work of a highly skilled architect, well versed in the design of thermae, who sought creativity and variety within conventional vi­ sual and spatial parameters. It is a plan that would have delighted the Bcaux-Arts critics of the nineteenth century. The urge for experimentation and surprise seems to have reached a peak in the tightly composed, dynamic spatial units of the Small Baths. This building is a rare gem in Roman thermal design and a worthy exponent of the revolutionary architectural thinking that typi­ fies the villa and its celebrated master (Figs. 101,102a, b).50 Yet. underlying this composition of creative var­ iegation, there is a tight and deliberate geometry; it is perfectly within reason to assume that both of these baths were the work of the same skillful composer. Most baths discussed under the half-axial/interme­

WE

ST

----- *

FLANK *

= ___ *---------------

akj.

im

diary' category, with their bold use of curvilinear and octagonal elements, undulating frontage, and restless periphery, were more adaptable for novelty and variety than the imperial thermae. The latter were restrained by rules of symmetry and formal composition, blockyout 1 i n es, an d self- contai ne d m ass i ng, and a i med to pro­ duce an austere form of grandeur. Furthermore, the baths of the intermediary type were small enough to allow a great many of the structural experiments and feats required for (he creation of dynamic spaces. It was. perhaps, not accidental that many of the bathing establishments intended for private and semiprivate use, such as villa baths, eschewed fully symmetrical plans. The bathing suite of the suburban villa in Piazza Armerina, Sicily (roughly contemporary with the Baths of Maxentius at Rome and possibly created for the same imperial patron), is one of the last brilliant examples from the western Roman world of this tendency—a project in which deviation from the norm appears to have been the goal (Figs. 103, 104).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

tig. 102 Small Baths. Hadrian’s Villa. Tivoli. Re­ stored axonometric new (courtesy of B M. Boyle and W. L. MacDonald) a. Roofs partially cut away, h. Roofs restored

90

The Origins and Early Development of Roman Baths

91

Fig. 10d Baths of the Villa at Piazza Armerina. Plan ( Yegül ).

Fig. 103 Villa, Piazza Armerina. Sicily, Plan (Wilson).

4

Thermo-Mineral Baths

The importance of thermal baths and therapeutic bath­ ing is well attested in ancient literary' and epigraphical sources, and often, by the actual remains of elaborate establishments at or near natural hot springs. Nothing can give a better indication of the popularity of these baths in antiquity than the hundreds of modern spas located over the same thermal sources spread through­ out the Mediterranean and Europe, from Syria to Scot­ land. Many of these thermal centers continue the old traditions of curative bathing. Some are even built di­ rectly on top of the Roman ruins, discouraging archaeo­ logical investigation. Consequently, we know less about the planning and operation of thermal baths than we do of regular or artificially heated baths. This is also due, in part, to their relative isolation and inaccessibil­ ity, since the majority of thermal establishments are situated outside the major towns, secluded in deep lush valleys or hollows, and, in part, to the fact that their

remains are scanty and overgrown. The popularity of spas, ancient or modem, depends on the curative qualities of their waters: their natural heat, mineral content, electricity, and radioactivity. Vi­ truvius devoted an entire chapter in Book Eight to the properties ofwaters in the ancient world. Some of these waters were praised for their fine quality and taste — “so delightful to drink that one does not think with regret of the . . . Marcian aqueduct ”1 But there were sources described as harmful or deadly, such as “a spring at Terracina, called the spring of Neptune, which caused the death of chose who thoughtlessly drank from it”; or. the lake at Chrobs in Thrace, which was lethal not only for those who drank its waters but also for those who bathed in it.2 According co Vitruvius-. “Every hot spring has healing properties because it has been boiled with foreign substances, and thus acquires a new useful quality. For example, sulphur springs cure pains in the sinews, by warming up and burning out the corrupt humours of the body by their heat. Aluminous springs, used in the treatment of the limbs when enfeebled by paralysis or the stroke of any such

malady, introduce warmth through the open pores,

Thermo-Miner*! Radii

counteracting the chill by the opposite effect of their heat, and thus equably restoring the limbs co their former condition. Asphaltic springs, taken as purges, cure internal maladies.”5 Pliny the Elder discussed the medicinal qualities of mineral waters in the 51st Book of his Natural History. A multitude of benefits from these waters are listed, some with miraculous and religious associations; others are more empirical in nature, taken as purgatives or as cures for special maladies affecting the liver, kid­ neys, and digestive tract. Thermo-mi neral waters, dis­ cussed separately, were believed to be especially effective against muscular pains, rheumatism, and arthritis—ailments for which people most commonly seek rel ref i n spas today.4 The benefi ts of seawater were also widely acknowledged by Pliny. Seawater was known to have tonic effects on nervous patients as well as those suffering from consumption. If the sea was not

Fig. 105 Map of Bay of Puteoli, Baiae, and the Phlegraean Fields (Yegiil).

93

available, seawater was brought inland for the use of those who could afford it. Augustus bached in heated seawater and sulphurous water from the springs at An io to allievace his arthritic pains.5 Nero’s Golden House is reported to have had baths artificially supplied with mineral water and seawater.6 An inscription found in 1749 near the Herculaneum Gate in Pompeii advertises the Baths of M. Crassus Frugi as an establishment combining seawater and freshwater bathing (“Thermae M. Crassi Frugi. Aqua marina, et balnfeum] aqua dolci”) (see Fig. 43).7 Although nei­ ther the technical arrangement nor the location of these remarkable baths is known, it is reasonable to expect that they were situated somewhere near or on the Pompeian shore.® Pliny informs us that the same Cras­ sus, who was probably a consul under Neto, owned an even more extraordinary bathing establishment at Baiae. This establishment appears to have been built in the sea (perhaps like an offshore oil platform), around or over a natural hot spring. The spring was bom in the seabed and forced itself up through the surface in spec­ tacular clouds of steam.’ Another interesting combina­ tion of fresh springwater and seawater bathing might have been the one described by Statius for the elegant villa of Pollio Felix at Sorrento, with “steam pouring from the twin domes of its baths. ” 10

Baiae and the Phlegraean Fields The most extensive and important center of thermo­ mineral bathing in antiquity was the region around the Gulf of Puteoli (Pozzuoli) and the Cumaean Peninsula, in Campania. Located immediately northwest of the Bay of Naples and Vesuvius, the region must once have been the staging ground of extensive volcanic activity (Fig. 105). It was known in antiquity, aptly, as the Phlegraean Fields—“fields devoured by fire.” Vast stretches of extinct and semiextinct craters, collapsed crater lakes, thick forests of impenetrable macchi, caves, hollows and fissures in the volcanic rock giving out sulphuric gasses and hundreds of hot mineral springs, must have made the Phlegraean Fields awe­ some in a desolate. Dantesque way. In contrast to the inland stretches, the coastline and the coastal hills, with their mild climate and lush vegetation, were a popular location for the villas and the pleasure estates of the Roman aristocracy. The center of this most cov­ eted resort world was Baiae and its beautiful bay, south­ west of the Gulf of Puteoli.11

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

“Lieus beatac Veneris aureum Baias” (Baiae. the golden shore of blessed Venus! Baiae, (he bewitching gift of proud nature!) was the poetic praise accorded to Baiae by Martial.12 Association of Baiae with the god­ dess of love was no idle appropriation. Besides being the site of an early sanctuary' of Venus, Baiae possessed everything to make an ideal playland for the unre­ strained enjoyment of sensual delights. The pleasure­ seekers of the Roman w’orld made most of the life offered by it: idleness, wild parties and drunken orgies on land and sea, corruption and vice — this was an aspect of the fascinating world of Baiae which the an­ cient writers never grew* tired of describing, even though many took a moralizing and critical stand.1' Seneca allowed himself to visit Baiae once, but did not stay long, summing it up as “a resort of vice” (deversorium vitioruni)

From Augustus onward, Baiae was particularly* fa* vored by’ the royal family and many of the old republi­ can villas passed into imperia! hands. According to Suetonius, Nero started the construction of a gigantic pool surrounded by porticoes intended to receive all the thermal waters of Baiae.15 Alexander Severus con*

structed for his mother, Julia Mamaca, a palace with baths and swimming pool {palatium cum stagno).'6 By the fourth and fifth centuries the name of Baiae had come to be used as a generic term for "spa/ ’ and several poems in the Anthologia Latina eulogize the waters of the famed site.1" Although the early Church denounced the city' for its immorality , Baiae was not abandoned as a cure center until the major eruptions of Montenuovo altered the geological structure of the region on September 29, 1538, and destroyed most of the thermal sources.,fi A few of the damaged baths were restored under the Spanish viceroy Don PedroofAragon, c. 1665. The best testimony co the continued use of the site during the Middle Ages is an early-thirteenth-century poem in Latin by Peter of Eboli. court poet to the Swabian kings. The poem, entitled De Balneis Puteolants, describes individually the baths of 8aiae and environs and the diseases cured by each. It was meant to serve as a practi­ cal guide to bathers and enjoyed great popularity and success in numerous versions and reproductions. Ten of the twenty surviving copies are profusely illustrated and constitute for the study of thermo-mineral bathing a unique iconographical source of inestimable value (Fig. 106a, b. c). The immediate models for the poem

94

and its strikingly detailed and explicit illustrations ap­ pear to have been contemporary treatises and manuals, now lost, but more significantly, inscriptions describ­ ing the baths and their curative qualities. There is good

reason to believe that some illustrations were modeled after Classical prototypes, such as wall paintings and stucco representations from the Roman baths of Baiae that had survived into the Middle Ages.’9 Vitruvius gives a general idea of the simple bathing facilities that had developed in this area: " . . . in the mountains near Baiae . . . there are places excavated to serve as sweating-rooms [sudationes] where the hot vapors rising from below penetrates the earth by the violence of its heat . . . and so produces remarkably good sweat!ng*rooms."20 The natural sweating rooms described by Vitruvius appear to have been, for the most part, caves, hollows, and underground passages left more or less in their natural state or developed into a series of rudimentary, barrel vaulted chambers. A sim­ ple cure establishment typical of the region might have been represented by the barrel-vaulted units carved into the soft tufa on top of the hill opposite the Aragon­ ese Castle, reported in late-ninetecnth-ccntury sources. Each "cave” wfas decorated with engaged columns or pilasters and contained ten masonry beds (klinaíj, arranged along the long sides of the room, and ten basins which were individually supplied with water from the hot spring at the end of the cave.21 The ruins of a three- or four-story development known as the Stufe di Nerone (Ovens of Nero) occupy­ ing the entire flank of Punta Epitaffio, the promontory north of the Bay of Baiae. facing Lake Lucrinus, repre­ sents a more elaborate thermal establishment. These baths were cal led "bal neum Trituli" in the Middle Ages (Fig. 107); they were still in operation and very’ popu­ lar in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, w’hen Don Pedro of Aragon placed the celebrated marble epi­ taph on Punta Epitaftio which lists the various treat­ ments and cures effected by the miraculous properties of the steaming stufe. The uppermost level must have contained the hottest water sources: the middle level still displays several chambers carved in the rock with klinaicut along their perimeter. The lower level, more monumental and better preserved than the rest, con­ sists of several tall, rectangular, barrel-vaulted rooms with tufa reticulate walls encrusted with stucco. It ap­ pears that the hot vapors were admitted into the middle and low’er chambers through pipesand passages carved

Thermo-Mineral Bath?

Fig. 106 Illustrations from

De

Baineis Puteolanis. a. "Balneum Bulla” (Vatican) b. "Balneum De Arcu” (Vatican) c. "Balneum Trituli" (Paris. Bib. Nat. *1313)

i

Baths and Bathing in Gassical Antiquity

96

Fig. 10? Balneum Trituli, Baiae (Paoli. 1768).

into the rock. The stone beds of the middle level give an idea of the usage of thermal baths: the patients sat or reclined on these short beds while perspiring after treatment by dry heat.22 This was in keeping with the progressive medical view expressed by Celsus: “Sweat­ ing also is elicited in two ways, either by dry heat or by the bath [moist heat). The dry’ heat is the heat of . . . some natural sweating places, where hot vapor rising from the ground is confined within a building, as we have it in the myrtle groves above Baiae.”23 The nature of the thermo-mineral phenomena of the region and the technical and architectural setups built around them on the volcanic hills were described with great precision by Dio in the early third century: “The

mountains here, which lie close to the inner bodies of water, have springs which send forth a great deal of fire mingled with water . . . from this association the water is heated and the fire moistened. The water on its way down the foothills to the sea runs into reservoirs and the inhabitants conduct the steam from it through pipes into upper rooms where they use the steam for vapor baths; for the higher it ascends from the earth and from the water, the drier it becomes. Costly apparatus is in use for turning both the vapor and water into prac­ tical use. and they are very serviceable indeed for the uses of daily life and also for effecting cures.”24 The large bathing establishment at Agnano (between Pozzuoli and Naples, near Bagnoli) supplies good evi­

Thermû-Mtneral Baths

dence for the use of natural steam in the heating of a thermo-mineral bath. In the records of the fifth and sixth centuries, these baths, called Thermae Alin arum. were regarded as a grand complex, comparable to those in Baiae. They were reconstructed under Vandal kings in the early sixth century, and remained popular until the volcanic and geological changes in the region made their use impossible in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The remains of the Agnano complex, arranged on several terraces extending east-west on the steep slopes of Monte Spina, were excavated in 1898 and 1911.2$ The nucleus of the large edifice constitutes a tightly packed group of six or seven semicircular, circular, and octagonal halls recalling the arrangement of the Smalt Baths at Tivoli (Fig. 108). The construction, concrete faced with opus reticulatum and brick, also suggests a Hadrianic date. To the east of this nucleus is a vast extens i on com posed of a dozen or more vau Ite d, rectan­ gular rooms and corridors constructed in later periods. All of the major rooms of the original core were heated by hot volcanic vapors; the vapors either passed di­ rectly into these rooms (as in the semicircular room V) or heated the rooms by passing under their hypocausted floors. Some of them seem to have been sup­ plied with additional heat; for example, the circular room IF (possibly a laconicum) was served by furnaces (praefurnia) along with the natural sources. The steam, when admitted into a room through semicircu­ lar apertures in the walls, was probably intended for curative purposes (inhalation) as well as for heating. The primary source of the hot steam, reaching tempera­ tures c. 100° C, seems to have been the now extinct crater of Agnano; steam was conducted into the baths through tunnels reaching a depth of 30 meters or more. An elaborate system of pipes and several large settling tanks (also heated by piped steam) seem to have sup­ plied copious amounts of mineral water to the establishment.

The Hillside Complex at Baiae The first scientific exploration of Baiae took place be­ tween 1941 and 1943 and resumed after war. in 1950 to 1951, under the direction of Amedeo Maiuri. Al­ though the investigations are far from complete, a large section of the hill overlooking the bay (between its crown, “Sella di Baia,” and the shoreline marked by two conspicuous domed structures, the so-called tern-

9"

pics of Venus and Diana) has been excavated and opened to the public as an archaeological park (Figs. 109-112). Underwater exploration of the coastline at Baiae and at Punta Epitaffio in more recent years (aided by the periodic changing of sea level, a geological phenome­ non known as “bradyseismic movement” which is characteristic of the Campanian coast) and aerial pho­ tography have revealed the existence of extensive wa­ terfront building, coastal roads, colonnades, and moles as wel I as marble statu a ry of e xceptional ly h igh q u al icy. At Baiae, the terraced arrangement of the hillside con­ tinues underwater, raising the possibility that some of the architectural landmarks of the ancient resort, which are represented on a number of souvenir glass flasks (such as the lighthouse, stagnum, oyster beds, even bathing complexes and royal villas) may have been situated along the now submerged ancient sea­ shore or even built out into the sea (Fig. 113a, b. c).2â Maiuri described Baiae as a “thermal city whose sev­ eral plants utilized several thermo-mineral springsand vapor outlets. And the distribution of its various sectors followed the usual town-planning rules; the buildings, in large, detached rectangular blocks facing the gulf, housed either actual thermal halls or residential, rest­ ing and sight-seeing quarters” (see Figs. Ill, 112).27 Despite considerable archaeological and architectural investigations of the area since 1950, the question of whether the development at Baiae represents a gigantic complex of public baths and thermo-mi neral cure facil­ ities, or private villas, or hotels, hostels, and hospitals, has never been—and, perhaps, will never be— properly settled. Simply, what was the function of these elaborately terraced structures, stairs, ramps, and domed units that overlooked the magnificent view? There is no doubt that some of the smaller establish­ ments built over the hot-water and steam sources always served as baths. Were the larger complexes, per­ istyles, and exedrae extensions of the baths, or were they (or had they originally been) private villas and pleasure estates? From the apparent confusion of the vast, terraced hillside at Baiae, it is possible to disentangle three rec­ ognizable zones in plan (see Fig. 111). The nonhem zone, known as the Ambulatio Complex, and the mid­ dle one, the Thermae of Sosandra, are colossal rectangu­ lar precincts molding the hillside into numerous terraces, peristyles, and exedrae linked to each other by

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquin

9«

Fig. 108 Thermal baths ('Thermae Almarum"), Agnano (between Pozzuoli and Naples). Plan (Macchioro). Fig. 109 Hillside Complex at Baiae, looking south toward Punta del Castello.

Thermo-Mineral Baths

99

Fig. 110 Hillside Complex at Baiae. Thermae of Sosandra. looking northwest (Fototeca).

Fig. Ill Hillside Complex at Baiae. Plan (Maiuri).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

100

Fig. 112 Hillside Complex at Baiae. Section through the Thermae of Sosandra (Borriello and d‘Ambrosio).

Fig. 113 Ancient souvenir glass flasks with engraved de­ signs representing selected baths and waterfront struc­ tures of Baiae and environs. a. Piombino flask b. Odemira (Portugal) flask c. Museo Borgio flask.

A

M

E fefi

P’

£

IL

J

I V A

DRAWING of engraved designs on Piombino flask—representation of Ripa Puteolana and Palatium of Baiae, with stagnum and ostriaria beside it.

ENGRAVED DESIGNS on another glass flask from Odemira. Portugal. These show theater near waterfront (ripa), solarium, bath and other buildings.

Thermo-Mineral Baths

stairs, ramps, arcades, and cryptoporticoes. The south­ ern zone extends as an irregular, wedge-shaped area comprised of three or four independent bathing com­ plexes which were built at different times and arranged on the hill in stepped and sometimes overlapping fash­ ion. In addition to these architectural groupings, there are three major bath complexes, each distinguished by a conspicuously large, domed unit. Two of these com­ plexes, the Temple of Venus and the Temple of Diana (misapprehended as “temples” since the seventeenth century), are located at the south and north ends of the archaeological 2one; the third, the Temple of Mercury, is higher up and forms a part of the lower terrace of the Ambulatio Complex.28 I believe that the structures occupying the hillside development at Baiae were predominantly public in nature and constituted the heart of the famous spa. Baiae, like any major thermo-mi neral complex with a picturesque site and attractive plan. combined the facil­ ities of a medicinal center with those of a recreational one. Over the centuries, it developed into a mu It ¡fac­ eted estab I i sh ment not at al I un 1 i ke some of the popu I ar centers of balneology’ in Europe today, with their elabo­ rate curative facilities, sanatoria, and luxurious casi­ nos. The site answered the needs for short-term stays, mainly for recreation, as well as for full cures of several weeks’ or several months’ duration. A rheumatic person might have taken the waters for a three-week cure pe­ riod, while a consumptive might have stayed a season or longer, to benefit from the mild climate. I imagine that the residential facilities for longer stays were largely outside the immediate hi 11 zone; with the ex­ ception of private villas, these might not have been prepossessing. The location of the palace (identified on the souvenir glass flasks with the word “Palatium”) — or perhaps numerous royal residences—is likely to have been outside the archaeological park on the hill­ side. It might have been located on the hill occupied by the Aragonese Castle, or on Punta Epitaffio, or directly on the ancient shoreline now entirely covered by the sea (see Figs. 113,10 5) ,29 The excavated portion of the hill appears to have been for the use and enjoyment of the public. It was occupied by structures for curative and recreational ablutions: from individual bathing units to large communal pools; from rows of private chambers for hydrotherapeutic treatment and rest to impressive barrel-vaulted and domed halls of ceremo­ nial nature; from secluded promenades to public the­

101

aters. Although the functions and precise identification of many of these elements remain unclear, the intent of molding the entire hillside into a well-knit architec­ tural and scenographic whole is a familiar attitude in Roman architecture

The South Precinct The south precinct is occupied by independent baths of similar design: each bath is composed of a small, domed rotunda or octagon attached to a row of three or more parallel, rectangular chambers (Fig. 114; see Fig. 111). The plans are comparable to those of the republi­ can baths of Campania, diffused throughout the empire also during the later periods; here, however, one cru­ cial element of the type, the palaestra, is missing. This may reflect the fact that physical exercise was often not recommended in conjunction with hydrotherapeutic bathing. Although the small complexes in the south precinct appear to be architecturally self-contained and func­ tionally independent, they are related by stairs, ramps, and subterranean passages, and. to a certain extent, are spatially overlapping. These transitional zones were de­ veloped as terraces, balconies, pergo I a ted walkways, and small, irregularly disposed courtyards and breezew'ays. The portions of the buildings superimposed and partially buried in the hill must have been used as com­ mon service areas. Irregular disposition of the bathing units across the face of the hill is explained by the natural distribution of hot springs and the vicissitudes of construction spanning roughly two and a half centuries. Hot mineral water traveled by' conduits directly into some of the chambers and filled pools for private or public ablutions. Other units, probably the small, domed ones, must have been intended for sweat­ bathing in natural steam conducted through under­ ground galleries and tunnels into these chambers. Some of these galleries and caves might even have been utilized in their natural state as cure centers (sec Fig. 106a). That a complicated system of underground chambers, corridors, and tunnels was developed by Roman engineers in order to exploit the sources lo­ cated deep inside the mountain and conduct the water u p i nto the bath i ng fac i 1 i t i es for safe use by t he publ i c is attested by actual discoveries in the area, as well as hinted at in the previously quoted passage where Dio comments that "costly apparatus is in use for turning

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

102

Fig. IN South Precinct, Baiae. Plans at different levels (Borriello and d’Ambrosio).

both the vapor and water into practical use” (see note 24). One of the most remarkable of these subterranean systems, dubbed the Great Antrum by its explorers (and related to a hypothetical “temple” and “sacred area”), starts u nder the bath i ng estab I i sh m ent s t tu ated i m medi­ ate ly above the west corner of the Sosandra Complex. The tunnel burrows some 50 meters under the surface for a length of 300 meters, where two springs still pro­ duce boiling hot water and steam.50 The most striking architectural establishment of the south precinct is a large rectangular structure (c. 40 X 15 m.) with a central exedra on the southeast end of the excavated area (Fig. 115; see Fig. 114). The planofthis building is symmetrical and well proportioned; the construction is uniformly opus tn lxturn. The spacious,

semidomed apse (12 m. in diameter) is entirely occupied by a pool and faces three rectangular halls; the middle hall, closed off by’ a brick wall at a later date, might originally have been open to the pool along a wide colonnaded frontage. A pair of cross-vaulted square rooms with barrel-vaulted rectangular exten­ sions flank the exedra. Originally, the apse had eight

small niches; later they were replaced by three larger ones. These apparently* functioned as fountains. A pas­ sage through the center of the apse leads into a trape­ zoidal reservoir. Quite logically, Maiuri proposed the structure to be a nymphaeum.51 The well-proportioned and generous placement of secondary spaces around the exedra suggests that this interpretation should be taken in a broader sense possibly to include the func-

Thermo-Mi neral Baths

103

Fig. 115 South Precinct. Baue Apsed Hall (nymphaeum triclinium), plan {Yegül after Borriello and d’AmbfOMO).

cions of a dining hall and a pavilion for che entertain­ ment of guests. .Noting similarities of construction and detail. Maiuri also suggested that this nymphaeum/triclinium was contemporary with and formed a part of the great, domed bath complex, the so-called Temple of Venus below the hill, to the ease of the modem road. The differences in planning of the two schemes, and their divergent alignments, seem co indicate, however, that they were independent, though possibly related, com­ plexes. Unfortunately, the architectural elements that may have linked the two structures are irrevocably lost except fora 70-meter-long terrace stretching along the east side of the nymphaeum/triclinium as a formal land­ scape feature, possibly a planted promenade (such as the Vitruvian xystus), comparable to the portico of the Ambu latió Complex (see infra). A group of two. or possibly three, small thermal es­ tablishments, distributed over three partially superim­ posed levels, occupies the area between the Hadrianic nymphaeum/triclinium and the Sosandra Complex (Fig. 116; see Figs 111, 114). The lower-level baths are comprised of a small, domed rotunda (6.40 m. in diameter, 4.50 m. high) and two major rectangular rooms, plus some half-dozen secondary units. Some of

these rooms, arranged enfilade, display hypocausted floors that utilize natural steam for heat. The reticulate walls and vaulting of this complex are decorated with a fine set of Pompeian second-style stucco murals and paintings dating from Augustan to Flavian/Trajanic pe­ riods. The subject is predominantly Dionysian with a special interest in palaestra I sports and bathing.52 The rotunda, which may originally have been a laconicum, and the major rectangular rooms were made into cisterns at a later date.

Thermae of Sosandra The large rectangular precinct (c. 50 X 100 m.) occu­ pying the northern stretches of the hillside is named Thermae of Sosandra based on the discover)’ of a draped statue of the goddess Sosandra (dated c. the early fifth century B.C.) inside one of the large rooms with niches. The thermae is connected with other structures on the terraced hillside by a pair of long, parallel stairs that also serve as linear boundaries. The entire formally conceived complex occupies three distinct terraces (see Figs. Ill, 112). The uppermost terrace is de­ signed as a U-shaped colonnade open to the view. A pavilion with three units projects from the center of the

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

104

Fig. 116 The upper (west) Hillside Complex and the "Ambulatio Villa/’ Bawe. Plans at different levels (Borriello and d’Ambrosio).

rear colonnade. Behind this colonnade, against the hill, is a row of chambers decorated in stucco and fine mo­ saic pavements. The middle terrace is formed by a grand exedra with eleven radially arranged chambers behind a curved arcade (Fig. 117; see Fig. 110) . A cir­ cular pool of 6-meter diameter is positioned in the center of the exedra, and marks the symmetrical center of this striking composition. The pool is connected with a grotto that must have contained the source; sev­ eral reservoirs are located directly behind and above the exedra. Nine meters below the exedra, the lower terrace is a large, square, arcaded enclosure entirely filled by a swimming pool (34.8 X 28.6 m ). which

receives its water directly from a hot sulphurous spring. Small rooms on all four sides of the arcaded

enclosure open onto the pool. The function of this self-contained and orderly pre­ cinct is controversial .53 Maiuri’s suggestion that the ex­ edra served as a “theater-nymphaeum” combination for musical performances, declamations, light plays, and mime—an open-air odeum—is attractive, and in

the light of what we know about Baiaen lifestyle, quite plausible. The design allows for a handsome arrange­ ment of gallery and auditorium with several seats sup­ ported by the sloping roof of the exedra. The lower terrace with its vast pool can only be explained as a

Thermo-Minerjl Baths

105

Fig. Il" Thermae of Sosandra. Baiae. The great exedra. looking north.

public natatio for thermal waters. The small rooms be­ hind the arcades could have been used for rest cures after taking the waters, for massage. and. possibly, for individual ablutions. The Thermae of Sosandra must be interpreted as a kind of pool club: exactly the right kind of architectural setting for the amusement of both the younger set as well as their arthritic seniors, who watched the revelers from their poolside chaises longues—or klinai. This was the perfect social arena for upper-middle-class spa society with its dinner par­ ties, beach parties, pool parties, and the theatrical and musical show's so vividly described in ancient sources.

The overall design of the Thermae of Sosandra. with its classically balanced and highly formalized building up of theatrical elements on successive terraces, is in the spirit of some Hellenistic and late republican sanc­ tuaries such as the Sanctuary’ of Fortuna at Palestrina, where the principles of scénographie architecture arc dramatically displayed. The presence of the aquatic ele­ ment at Baiae. however, must have imparted to the complex a festive and ephemeral quality. It is hardly surprising that the general appearance and some details of the design recall the architecture of luxury villas with their mock gymnasia and stadia. It is very likely that this complex, or others like it, was what Dio had in mind when he wrote that Nero poisoned his aunt Domicia and promptly built a “gymnasium” on her estates in

Baiae.34 A Neronean date has, indeed, been suggested for the opus reticulatum -faced concrete construction of the Sosandra Complex.

The Villa with the Ambulatio Separated from the Thermae of Sosandra on the north by a long, straight flight of steps is the so-called Ambulatio Villa. The large complex stretches for a length of I IO meters across the hill, and saddles it in no fewer than five or six parallel terraces. The total distance in height between the top and the bottom of the complex is 28 to 30 meters. Judged by its fine opus reticulatum con­ struction in tufa, the Ambulatio is believed to have been the oldest establishment on the hill, dated at the end of the second or early first century B.c. (see Figs.

116, 109).35 The compl ex, wh i ch i s not strict ly a vil la. rece ived i is name from the well-preserved upper terrace with a central tow of piers supporting a covered arcade—the Ambulatio. The Ambulatio extends the full 106-meter length of the complex and is terminated on the north by an apse. In the middle, a spacious, apsidal hall, whose lateral walls are articulated by niches, is probably a nvmphaeum. It opens on the arcade through two col­ umns in antis. A row of interconnected, vaulted cis­ terns behind the Ambulatio were supplied by an aqueduct ofAugustan date. These, and other cisterns on

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

106

the hill, must have supplied freshwater to the various bath i ng establishments. The vaulting of the cisterns and of the Ambulatio (now collapsed) supported an upper­ most terrace behind which, at an even higher level (reaching almost the watershed “Sella di Daia"), is lo­

calling it another large villa. Notwithstanding the stan­ dards of good scholarship, gains acquired through cau­ tion may not always offset losses suffered by stifling the

cated a suite of modest-sized rooms entered by a small, peristyle courtyard. Opening out into some of the terraces below’ the Ambulatio are rows of vaulted chambers; some are carved into the slope like artificial grottoes and contain basins and fountains. The retain­ ing walls of the terraces arc articulated by rows of arches alternating between half-columns, an elegant and functional facade motif that started gaining popu­ larity during the late republican era. At the lower end of the complex is a wide terrace (c. 90X35 m.) separated from other structures at the bottom of the bill by a cryptoporticus, or sunken corridor. The northern onethird of this terrace is occupied by the large vaulted halls and great domed rotunda of the Temple of Mercury’. Noting the domestic scale of the peristyle suite occu­ pying the crown of the composition, de Angelis d’Ossat suggested that the complex must originally have been conceived as a sumptuous republican villa. The rest of the vast, multi terraced establishment with its rows of chambers fitted out with thermal facilities, however, reflects an institutional and public character. It is highly probable that the up per peristyle suite started its life as a villa; but rhe rest of the complex, from the beginning, must have been intended for public use as a center in which therapeutic and valetudinarian func­ tions could be combined with recreational ones. A therapeutic center much like the two examples from Baiae may have been the large complex situated on the western slopes of the Varano hill at Stabiae. Combining vast colonnaded courtyards, long porti­ coes, corridors, sun decks, and suites of rooms with hot and cold bathing facilities served by mineral springs, the handsome and sprawling development (and a few others like it in the region) was. according to di Capua, most likely a grand hoteI-cu«-sanatorium, or hospi­ talia. which combined hydrotherapy with physical therapy and rest?6 To coin a building type without firm ancient authority is serious business, but di Capua’s analysis of the forms and functions of this interesting establishment and his attempts to define and deduce from this ana lysis a new building type, whether dubbed bospitalia or not, seems more meritorious chan just

Temple (Thermae) of .Mercury

imagination.

Even if (he excavationsand the investigations of the last few decades had not established Baiae as an important thermal city, the fame of the site would have been as­ sured by four domed buildings of daring proportions, which have always remained visible and conspicuous

amid the verdant growth. Local tradition, at the same time, distinguished and obscured these impressive structures by erroneously calling them “temples," al­ though, as domed rotundas housing thermal springs and large communal pools, they occupy a special posi­ tion in the development of Roman architecture. None has been excavated. The earliest of the group, suggesting a date no later than early Julio-Claudian, is the Temple of Mercury, which occupies the north end of the w ide terrace at the bottom of the Ambulatio Complex (Figs. 118,119: see Figs. 111, 114). The cluster of spaces that comprises the Temple of Mercury includes several barrel-vaulted, rectangular halls attached to the great rotunda. Note­ worthy are a n octagonal hal 1 wi th a segm en ca I (“ pu m pkin") dome and a small square hall with barrel-vaulted extensions. The structure is almost entirely in opus reticulatum in tufa with a minimum use of brick. The construction of the dome is in cone-shaped tufa blocks laid radially—a late republican method also in evi­ dence in (he larger dome of the Temple (Thermae) of Apollo on Lake Avemus. The imperial practice, as best illustrated by the dome of the Pantheon, was all-concrete construction, laid down in horizontal layers.37 The overall plan, an overblown version of some inde­ pendent baths on the southern zone of the hillside, indicates that primary inspiration came from Campan­ ian and Pompeian baths. The stepped arrangement of secondary spaces also recalls schemes such as the An­ tonine Forum Baths in Ostia. This touch of sophistica­ tion may be explained by the later date assigned to some of the secondary units, particularly the projecting octagonal hall and the room with the pumpkin dome. The hemispherical dome of the rotunda, preserved intact, displays an oculus and four square windows halfwav down its curvature. It has a diameter of 21.55 meters (almost one-half the size of the dome of the

Thermo’Mineral Bath*

10"

Fig. 118 Thermae of Mercury, Baiae. Eighteenth-century engraving of the interior (Paoli).

Fig. 119 Thermae of Mercury. Baiae. Section north-south through A-B'C'D, looking east, above; section easiwest through B. looking north (Borriello and d'Ambrosio).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity*

Pantheon), and a height roughly equivalent to this di­ ameter. Four semicircular niches are placed diagonally between the major and minor entrances. Opposite the major eastern entrance, now defunct, a rectangular niche contains the outlet for the hot mineral water,

108

Fig. 120 Thermae of Venus. Baiae. general view (DAI).

which has its source deep inside the hill.58 The interior of the rotunda is now filled with debris and water, nearly level with the top of the deep niches. All architectural decoration—the marble veneer of the walls, the continuous cornice at the springing of the dome, and the stuccowork—is gone. But the sudden impact of the sheer volume cannot fail to impress visi­ tors who step into the stark structure through the narrow entrance. Recall of the Pantheon is inevitable. An eighteenth-century' engraving by Paoli, before the bradyseismic movement raised the water table, gives a more accurate picture of how the interior of the

rotunda should look (see Fig. 118).

Temple (Thermae) of Venus Among the other domed “temples” of Baiae. that of Venus offers the most advanced structural and spatial articulation. Separated from the rest of the thermal es­ tablishments on the hill by the modem road and closer to the shore, the well-preserved rotunda is part of a much larger complex composed of several contiguous barrel-vaulted halls to the east, south, and west, and a quadripartite, centrally planned pavilion attached on the diagonal, on the southwest comer. As with the Tem­ ple of Mercury, the rotunda of the Temple of Venus was probably intended as a great public hall for the baths, and was occupied by a vast, communal thermo-mineral

pool (Figs. 120, 121) ” The rotunda of the Temple of Venus is placed on a massive, square base, but it is octagonal on the outside with eight projecting buttresses at the comers. The inte­ rior of the lower zone is comparable to the Temple of Mercury: a circular hall. 263 meters in diameter with four deep semicircular niches. Above, rose a hemi­ spherical umbrella, or” pumpkin dome.” composed of eight concave segments alternating with eight convex ones. Each side of the octagon, below' the dome, is flat and pierced by a wide, arched window. There was a very narrow balcony below the windows, both interior and exterior, carried by miniature arches springing from projecting travertine consoles. Such maeniana are seen on other buildings of the early to mid-second century, such as the Canopus and the Roccabruna

Fig. 121 Thermae of Venus. Baiae Southwest comer rotunda, restoration sketch of interior (Fototeca).

Thermo-Mineril Baths

tower at Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli and the domed pavil­ ion in the Gardens of Sallust in Rome. The interior of the rotunda was encrusted with marble up co the base of the windows, the dome in mosaic. No projecting cor­ nice line seems to have interrupted the vertical rise of interior surfaces between the walls and the dome. Con­ struction of the drum is in a mixture of opus reticulatu m and brie k. The do me is in concre te, us i ng carefu 1 ly graded aggregate — from a heavy Vesuvian pumice at the base to a light yellow tufa above. The advanced construction techniques, special architectural details, and sophisticated structure introducing a peripheral ring of windows below the dome point to a Hadrianic date and link the buildingwithsomeof the experimen­ tal projects of the Villa in Tivoli. The design of the annexed pavilion on the southwest comer of the rotunda displays an even greater degree of spatial and structural sophistication (see Fig. 121) 40 A tall central space defined by undulating concave and convex walls (or four projecting semicircular niches connected by convex wall sections) is encircled by three small, circular rooms opening onto the main space. The fourth circular room required by the geome­ try of the design is lacking on the side of the pavilion attached to the large rotunda. The central space was roofed by eight segments of an umbrella dome rising over the undulating wall surface. Each segment, except the eastern, is pierced by an arched window just below the vault. Light is also admitted into the structure through these satellite units, which display quadripar­ tite or octa partite u m bre 11 a do m es. The remarkab le continuicy of vertical and horizontal curvilinear surfaces, and the fluidity' of space bound by the rigid octagonal geometry’ find their closest parallels in the octagonal ha 11 of the Sma 11 Baths and t he Vesti bu 1 e of Piazza d ’ Oro of Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli. The domed temples of Baiae and environs not only underline the vanguard position occupied by Cam­ pania in the development of centrally planned build­ ings; some, such as the Temple of Venus, provide the “missing link” between the simple domical structures found in republican and early imperial Campania and the spatially expanding, multiniched creations of the late empire. It is no w onder that the Temple of Venus and its unique annex became a source of inspiration for the architects of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen­ turies and were recorded (albeit with serious errors) by artists such as Giuliano da Sangallo and Palladio.41

109

Temple (Thermae) of Diana The third of the domed thermal establishments at Baiae. the Temple of Diana, is located on the northcast edge of the archaeological zone, close to the harbor; it is hemmed in by the Cumaean railway on one side and the town on the other. Like the thermal complexes of Mer­ cury* and Venus, the great rotunda of the Temple of Diana is a part of an architectural whole that includes a number of rectangular halls to the south, now deeply buried and inaccessible, arranged more or less symmet­ rically on the north-south axis of the composition. The rotunda, 29.50 meters in diameter, has an octagonal exterior, and stands quite independent at the end of this axis. The interior is articulated by alternating rec­ tangular and semicircular niches; above the niches, at the springing of the plain but slightly egg-shaped dome, are eight large windows. The construction is concrete with a facing of courses of tufa blocks alternat­ ing with courses of brick (opus vittatuni) up to the level of the window arches. Above this is a zone of brick; then the dome continues in brick-faced con­ crete. The rotunda is buried to the level of the win­ dows, but nearly one-half of the dome is preserved up to the crown and presents a stilted profile, which may account for its thin-shelled and somewhat Oriental ap­ pearance, like a Sassanid dome. The extrados is fully expressed. Noting these characteristics, de Angelis d’Ossat proposed an early-third-century date for the structure, “an experimental work of early Severan age,” rather than the commonly accepted secondcentury date.42 He further raised the interesting hypo­ thesis that the Temple of Diana, unlike the other great domes of Baiae, might not have been a thermal bath

but the main hall of a dynastic complex honoring the Severan family’.45

Temple (Thermae) of Apollo The largest in the series of domed thermae, the Temple of Apollo (first known as the Temple of the Cumaean Sibyl), is located outside of Baiae, on the eastern shore of Lake Avemus. The structure, brick-faced concrete, and the design, a circular drum rising on an octagonal base, offer a close comparison to the Temple of Diana. It has been assigned a mid-second-century date. Ac­ cording to a sketch by Francesco di Giorgio, who saw the edifice before it suffered major damage in the erup­ tion of 1538, a cluster of smaller circular/octagonal

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

110

and square rooms were attached to the large rotunda (Fig. 122).44 The dome, preserved only at its lower zone, was apparently plain and perhaps hemispherical. Pierced by a row of arched windows at its springing, it had a daring span of 36.60 meters, only 6.60 meters less chan the Pantheon in Rome.

Thermo-Mineral Baths Outside the Phlegraean Fields For the aristocracy of Rome, Baiae remained the ulti­ mate resort, but there were many ocher spas to choose from in Campania or closer to the capital, in the hilly

country co the north, east, and southeast. For example, the baths at Sinuessa, situated on the Via Appia eight miles from Minturnae on the Bay of Naples, had a repu­ tation for curing insanity in men and infertility in women; Claudius, in his last days, went there to regain his health and strength/5 Farther afield, hundreds of thermo-mi neral baths were available at local and re­ gional levels. To attempt a complete survey of these baths and spas would be outside the aims of this study. A few examples, therefore, represent the planning and development of the general type.

Types of Thermal Establishments

Fig. 122 "Temple of Apollo.” Baiae. Sketch plan by Francesco di Giorgio Martini (Uffizi *329 recto).

Roughly, three or four different types of thermo-min­ eral baths (or stages in the development of a particular establishment) can be isolated. In the first stage, often the oldest one, the thermal site is used in its natural state, or with minimum architectural embellishment. A rudimentary improvement of the hot springs and the creation of large and small open-air pools fed from the source, and perhaps some simple shelters, constitute this primitive and rustic state. Many country spas throughout the Middle East and Turkey still operate at this level of sophistication. The development of ther­ mal sites like Valchetca near Veii in Italy, Aquae Sulis (Bach) in England, and Aquae Helveticae (Baden-ont he-Limmat) in Switzerland was preceded by such rus­ tic arrangements characterized by communal pools in the open air. Use of the latter two sites for thermal bathing goes back to local Celtic populations of the Iron Age. The creation of an enclosed “pool hall,” the most characteristic element of thermo-mineral baths, be­ longs to the next stage of development. These halls are architecturally quite conspicuous, often rectangular.

Thermo-Mineral B«h*

and roofed by timber or masonry systems; they display very little regional variation. Whether they occur as an individual element within a simple establishment, or as part of a more complex» multicellular plan, they are easily recognized by their voluminous interiors and large pools, which almost entirely occupy the floor space. Ordinarily, they are not heated except for the natural heat of the thermal water and steam. A good example of a scheme that seems co have re* tained its simplicity’ even at the height of the imperial era is (he bathing complex at Aquae Helveticae near Augusta Raurica. Here, several open-air communal pools and individual basins supplied by as many as nine* teen different sources ace distributed on successive terraces along the River Limmat (Fig. 123). Situated at the north end of this group is a large rectangular pool hall with thick walls and an apse on its short, west side. The pool (llX15m.) was fed wi t h m i neral water from an altar-like fountain located inside the apse. The site is mentioned by Tacitus as a popular thermal resort and was sacred to Mithras, Mercury’, and Bacchus.46 Another presumably simple example was the com­ plex of mineral ba tits 20 kilometers west of Haskovo,

L

Fig. 123 Thermal baths. Aquae Helveticae (Baden an der Limmat, Switzerland). Plan (Heinz).

111

Bulgaria, situated at the eastern end of the Rhodope Mountains (c. 100 km. northwest of Hadrianopolis). A rescue excavation in 1936 revealed four groups of baths along the left bank of the River Banska; only one rectangular pool hall is well preserved. The pool (8 X 15m.) with steps terraced diagonally at the corners and along the southeast end, fills the entire floor; it re­ ceived water directly from the source through a sophis­ ticated arrangement of holes in the floor slabs (Fig. 124).47 The thermo-mineral baths at Augusta Traiana itself (c. 15 km. west of Stara Zagora, on the slopes of Sredna Gora) are more elaborate, consisting of a compact group of four major rectangular halls with numerous annexed rooms (Fig. 125). Two of the larger halls con­ tain pools (A and ff) The water was supplied from a vaulted square reservoir located above the main hot spring, positioned diagonally against the building. Ac­ cording to the dedicatory inscription, the baths and a shrine to the nymphs (possibly a yet unexcavated nymphaeum) were erected c. 163 by Ulpius Hierony­ mus, a citizen of Augusta Traiana. The inscription refers to several of the rooms of the complex by name: a J ou­ tran, two apodyteria, and a frigidarium. In an "unheated” thermal bath such designations are unusual and they are conventional in intent rather than func­ tional. The building was repaired during the late Roman period and, judging by coin evidence, was in continuous use until the early Middle Ages.4* More interesting is the plan of the baths at Aquae Flaviae in northern Portugal, where two principal pool halls, a rectangular and a domed, circular one, are pow­ erfully juxtaposed (Fig. 126). The rectangular hall dis­ plays a basilica-like arrangement with five pairs of columns on the sides and a large communal pool (10 X 13.8 m.) in the middle. A srnal I niche on the short south side housed the statues of Aesculapius and Hygicia. The round hall with the circular pool (8 m. in diameter) is articulated by four rectangular niches with pools carved into the thickness of the wall. The mineral water, which comes from a source c. 300 meters away at a scalding temperature of 70’ C, was collected in a vaulted cistern. An elaborate cold-water system of pipes and canals existed.49 A more advanced or elaborate stage in the develop­ ment of thermal complexes is represented by the com­ bination of an unheated thermal suite with a regular, artificially heated one. The degree of integration be-

Batbs and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

112

Fig. 124 Mineral baths, Haskovo, Bulgaria. Plan of a pool (Hoddinott).

tween the artificially heated section and the naturally heated units varies considerably. In the thermo*mineral complex at Civitavecchia, Italy, there is full integration of the parts; at Aquae Sul is (Bath), England, artificially heated units compose quasi-independent elements at both ends of the complex. At Badenweiler. Germany, separation of the zones is more clearly defined; the architectural relationship is more formal. Functionally, however, overall planning in mosteases permits opera­ tion of artificial and natural sections of the baths inde­ pendently as well as interdcpcndently, allowing for choice. Baths at Civitavecchia (Centumcellae) and Veit The baths at Civitavecchia (also known as "Taurine Baths, ’ ’ from Aqua Tau ri wh i c h su pplied the baths wit h fresh water) represent a major thermal center that de­ veloped over time.50 The ruins cover an area well over four acres, divided into north and south sections by a road. The northern zone was excavated in 1912 and 1922; very little is known about the southern exten­ sion. It appears that the core of the original complex, dated to the early first century B.c. (probably Sul Ian), is comprised of a long peristyle building that occupies the western half of the site (Fig. 127). The northern extension of the peristyle was devel­ oped on the north-south axis as a thermal center with numerous large and small rooms for bathing and resting as well as special poo) halls and apsidal halls. A tholos (IF, 6.50 m. in diameter) contained a circular pool that received natural hot waters from the source. Conspicu­ ous above the others is a large rectangular pool hall (B,

Fig. 125 Mineral baths, Augusta Traiana (near St ara Zagora, Bulgaria). Plan (Hoddinott).

Fig. 126 Thermal baths, Aquae Flaviae (Chavez, Portugal). Plan (Krencker).

Thermo-Mineral Baths

Fig. 12“ Thermo-mineral bath complex (Taurine Baths), Civitavecchia. Plan (Yegul).

113

Baths and Bathing in Qassical Antiquity

11-4

Hg. 128 Taurine Baths. Civitavecchia. Apsidal hall B. looking south (Fotoieca).

10.1 X 16.5 m.), displaying a basilical plan with a double row of Ionic columns on the two long sides of (he pool and an apse on the shoo, north side (Fig. 128). The columns of the east side were replaced by rectangu­ lar piers at a later date, when perhaps the original timber roof was changed into a concrete barrel vault. Eight individual-sized basins (c. 0.40 m. deep) around the pool, and interconnected with it, permit private ablutions. A large number of votive objects found dur­ ing the excavations and an altar of Hadrianic date dis­ covered inside the apse and dedicated to the nymphs suggest the possibility that the apsed hall was con­

ceived as a shrine to the tutelary deities of the springs. An acdicular niche positioned in the middle of the apse, behind the altar, supports this theory (Fig. 129). Hot mineral water (at c. 476 C) was introduced into the hall, also at this location, through lead pipes connect­ ing the apse with the source. Although structural reno­ vations and the vaulting may well belong co the

Hadrianic period, the earlier, timber-roofed basilica in opus quasi reticulatum (the structural technique used throughout the western half of the northern zone) may have belonged to the first or late republican architectural organization of this well-known

regional spa?1 Immediately to the east of the basilical hall, and sepa­ rated from it by the screen of piers, is another large pool hall (C, 11.7 X 23.0 m.) believed to be a Hadrianic addition to the Trajanic core of the complex to its south. It is enclosed by thick walls articulated by alter­ nating semicircular and rectangular niches. Consider­ able portions of the upper walls, including large thermal windows on the east and west ends of the hall, and the daring brick-faccd concrete vaulting, are still standing (Fig. 130). Werner Heinz believes that (he well-preserved tripartite lunette window over the cen­ tral apse on the south side, a type later to be made popular by Palladio, is one of (he earliest applications

Thermo-MinerZ ?-•

Fig. 129 Taurine Baths. Civitavecchia. Apsidal hall B. apse and altar (Fototeca).

of this window type in bach architecture. The discovery of window glass, some even set in wooden frames, con­ firms that these large expanses were glazed. The Trajanic core consists of a suite of rooms arranged in parallel cows and follows the conventional order of a regular bath, including a hypocausted, larg­ ish, apsed hall (4) interpreted as a caldarium and one with freshwater pools (F), interpreted as a frigidarium. A peripheral corridor and partially sunken service courtyard (5), situated to the southeast of the large pool hall, provided service to the numerous heated rooms and pools. It would have been possible to use this heated suite in connection with or independent of the pool hall, or the older, western section of the baths. The zone south of the road appears to have been arranged in three major building complexes, oriented diagonally (southeast/northw'est) to the rest of the scheme. At least one of these partially* preserved build­ ing groups ( Rome. Restored perspective of the frigidarium (Iwanoff ).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

bronzes, medals, [and] lamps that a museum [the Farnes i na| was fo rme d wit h (he m / ’M The bu I k of t he Fa rncse collection was later taken to the Naples Archaeological Museum. Among well-known pieces are the Farnese

1 $4

Fig. 16“ The Punishment of Dirce ("The Farnese Bull”) (Archaeological Museum of Naples).

Hercules. Achilles and Troilos, the Punishment of Dirce (the “Farnese Bull”; Fig. 167), a colossal Athena, a Victory, a Maenad, and a heroic male nude; there arc also reports of an equestrian group, a head of Antoninus Pius, and the head from a full statue of Caracalla. Among the few pieces whose exact locations in the original building are known, thanks to a sketch plan by

Anion i o da Sangal I o the You nge r, are the pai r of ‘ ‘weary Herculeses” (the Farnese Hercules and its pendant, the

so-called Latin Hercules) positioned in rhe extreme intercolumniations of (he colonnade that divides the frigidarium from its extension to the west.55 Fortunately, interest in the building was not re­ stricted to random treasure hunts during this period when much of the glory of Old Rome was being ran­ sacked for the glory of New Rome. Besides Giuliano da Sangallo, who sketched the thermae during the course of the Farnese excavations, the building was measured, drawn, and studied by many artists and architects. Among the more notable are Francesco di Giorgio, Gio­ vanni Antonio Dosio, Fra Giocondo, Baldassarre Peruzzi, Sebastiano Serlio. and Palladio (Fig. 168).56 The first modem study of the Thermae of Caracalla was un­ dertaken by Abel Blouet. a Prix de Rome winner. Blouet conducted a series of test excavations and published the results in a sumptuous folio volume in 1828.57 This was followed by Russian architect S. A. 1 wan off's resto­ ration studies of the thermae in 1847 and 1848, which were published with a long and competent commen­ tary by the n oted a rc haeol ogist C. Hu e Isen i n 1898 (see noie 56). Blouet’s and IwanofTs beautiful watercolor restorations are often inventive and unrealistic, but for the reader who is willing to divest them of their BeauxArts garb (chough i t is a pi ty to do so), there is m uch that is based on fact or reasonable surmise. The thermae became the center of considerable small-scale excavation and surface investigation in the nineteenth century (1824-29, 1868, 1870-72, 1878-79,1881)?® In 1900-1901 and 1911-12, the subterranean service zone of the southwest front of the bath block was investigated. This was found to consist of four spacious intercommunicating vaulted corridors parallel to the building; below them w-ere drainage canals. These service corridors are connected by an un­

derground passage with extensive basement rooms and corridors under the southwest exedra of the precinct (Fig. 169; see Fig. 163).99 The galleries between the exedra and the bath block had been converted to house a water-powered mill (¿7) and a large mithraeum (Af) (Fig. 170) 60 Shortly after World War II, E. Brodner conducted a short field investigation aimed primarily at testing some of the theories of the late D. Krencker, her t eac he r;Brddner‘s accurate observations won her schol­ arly acclaim.61 The sloping site w-as altered by creating a vast rectan­ gular platform (c. 353X335m.). partially cut into the hill on the south and southwest sides. The north front of this vaulted terrace housed shops and offices in two stories (sec Figs. 141, 162). Above, the rectilinear boundaries of the precinct were delineated by a colon­ nade raised c. 0.50 meter by steps. The bath block (c. 120 X 220 m.) stands in the middle of it. On the east and west, partially screened by the colonnade, the pe­ ripheral belt features a pair of wide apsed exedrae mirroring each other across open space. Each exedra is encircled by a barrel-vaulted corridor and contains three units: a rectangular hall (D) fianked by octagonal andapsidal halls (see Fig. 169). Room D opens into the

The Thermie vf Rome

155

Fig. 168 Thermae of Caracalla, Rome. Restored sections and facades by Palladio ( RIBA M. U).

ambulatory of the peribolus through a wide colonnade. A pair of circular stairs in the comers of the room, built into the thickness of the wall, give access to the roof. The octagonal hall C is covered by a dome raised over the octagonal base by the use of structural devices simi­ lar to pendentives. The middle of the long south side of the peribolus is arranged as one-half of a stadium — a semiellipse with seats raised partially on a gigantic cistern. Spectators watching a competition on a typical summer afternoon could enjoy the handsome southwest facade of the bath block and the fiery reflection of the setting sun on its large glass windows. The stadium is flanked by rectan­ gular halls with open colonnaded fronts. Based on ar­ chitectural comparison to other libraries, these halls are interpreted as libraries (see note 127). The exca­ vated southwest hall ( A variation of the same contrasting composition idea in bath design—but a more skillful combination of the curvilinear and rectilinear zones—can be seen in the Antonine Forum Baths in Ostia (see Fig. 73). The main entrance to the Baths of Licinius is from a narrow alley on the north side that leads down by way of the stairs to a small, square peristyle courtyard (11.5 X 11.5 m.), some 6 meters below street level. This may be the atrium thermarum which was re­ stored under Gratian during the late fourth century ac­ cording to the dedication of a statue base found on the site The twelve marble columns of the peristyle carry arches that spring from small, plain impost blocks sup­ ported by acanthus-and-lotus capitals; the ambulatory is cross-vaulted (Figs. 234, 235) . The floor is paved in mosaic of geometric design; the walls retain their re­ vetment of green marble. The short span (less than 8 m.) and the mosaic pavement of this atrium or entrance hall may point to a timber-trussed roof with clerestory lighting. The pendant to the atrium is an oblong, colon­ naded courtyard (14 X 16 m.) open to the sky—the palaestra proper (Figs. 236, 237). It is situated on the northwest corner of the building and appears to have provided a lower entrance to the baths from the street, later blocked (Fig. 238). The cram ped, irregular build­ ing lot unquestionably played a major part, for the slightly oblique disposition of this element in relation to the rest of the scheme, and its inaccessibility from the main street, are extremely unusual features in

palaestrae. The sloping site facilitated the raising of the heated southwestern zone of the building on a terrace in order to create the service courts and subterranean corridors. Although the mosaic floors of the heated rooms have

Baths of North Africa

211

Fig. 233 Baths of Licinius,

Dougga. Frigidarium. looking through the southeast arcade

toward the northeast wall.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

212

Fig. 235 Baths of Licinius. Dougga. Atrium, detail of cross-vaulting.

Fig. 23-1 Baths of Licinius,

Dougga. View of atrium,

looking east toward the entrance stairway (Fototeca).

been entirely demolished, the major service artery—a tunnel that forks under the caldarium and connects with the service courts—and the furnace units (s-s) serving the pool of the caldarium are well preserved. The dynamic and interlocking composition of the heated zone—especially the unique multilinear de­ sign of the caldarium and the tepidarium—stands out as a convincing testimony that the lesson of Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli and its Small Baths was not lost on the

architect of this provincial bathing structure, with its indisputable moments of brilliance. All of the baths discussed so far have been partially or totally excavated. Efforts at reconstructing what appear to be very interesting variations of the imperial type for the baths in Fcriana (Thelepte), in Tunisia, andGuelma (Calama), in Algeria, are frustrated not so much by the lack of physical remains as by the total lack of archaeo­ logical activity. In fact, both structures are among the

Baths of North Afnca

213

Fig. 236 Baths of Licinius.

Dougga. Double doors

between the east extension of the frigidarium and the

palaestrae. Fig. ¿3" Baths of Licinius,

Dougga. Palaestra, looking southeast.

Baths and Bathing In Classical Antiquity

2M

Fig. 238 Baths of Licinius.

Dougga. Lower (south) en*

trance through the palaestra.

Fig. 240 Large Baths, Feriana.

Fig. 241 Large Baths, Feriana. Section UV', north-south, Fig. 239 Large Baths, Feriana.

through the frigidarium. look­

Plan (Krencker).

ing east. Restored, above; as

preserved, below (Krencker).

Baths o f N orth Africa

i 15

more impressive baths in North Africa for their remains.

Fig.

Few sites can match in impact the power and magnifi­ cence of the mins of the Baths in Feriana rising over the high and lonely plateau.51 The major walls and the springingof the great cross vault of the frigidarium (F) are preserved up to 14 to 16 meters above the unexca­ vated ground (Figs. 239-241). The construction is en­ tirely of mortared rubble faced with small, squared blocks or brick of excellent workmanship. Krencker suggests a cross plan with three barrel-vaulted short arms; we are on much surer ground with the better* preserved eastern long arm (11 m. wide, also barrel* vaulted), which may have housed a swimming pool. The walls facing each other have two tiers of superim* posed rectangular niches, six on each side; those of the second story, fully visible, are terminated by arched heads. Although there is little doubt that the frigida* riuin occupied a central and dominant position, it is impossible to tell how it related to the rest of (he scheme: to the entrance element (and possibly a pa­ laestra) on the east and heated units on the west. A caldarium projectingout from the budding mass on the west is likely; more enigmatic, however, is the trifoliate chamber occupying the southwest corner (C), re* stored on Krencker's plan based on what seems to be barely sufficient field evidence. The interesting but questionable early plan of the complex by ’'Saladin” shows a symmetrica! pair of trifoliate units and no pro­ jecting caldarium. This brings to mind the possibility of double caldaria, not common in Africa. Very' little is known about the overall layout of the Baths in Gue 1 ma except that the building must have been symmetrically disposed about the east*west axis. The best-preserved unit, the frigidarium (F), is a large rectangular hall (14X22 m.) with four transverse arches in cut stone springing from consoles preserved 10 meters above the floor (Figs. 242, 243). The pro­ posal by Gscll and Krencker of a flat wooden ceiling supported by the transverse arches is certainly plausi­ ble. especially since the upper stretches of the wall, preserved some 4 meters above the consoles and the springing of the arches, show no curvature at all. None­ theless, the flat roof and the large mural surfaces pierced by small arched windows and arched passage­ ways are definitely more in keeping with the boxy image of a late antique or medieval hall than the frigi­ darium of a Roman bath.32

2a2

Baths. Guelma Plan

Fig. 2-43 Baths, Guelma. Restored view of the frigida­ rium. looking southeast

(Krencker).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

216

The position of the large pool on the plan, confined

inside a rectangular chamber, (TV) and opening into the frigidarium (F) through an arch in the middle of the east wall, though much less imposing, can be com­ pared with the natatio of the Baths in Feriana; smaller arches on the short sides of the hall connect small, compartmentalized pools without side passages. The caldarium appears to be situated at the end of the main east-west axis and includes a single projecting apse. Bot h of these bu i 1 di ngs. j udged si mply by constru ction, suggest a third-century date more than a second-cen­ tury one, but no hard dating evidence is available. Legionary Fortress Baths. Lambaesis The last thermae to be discussed in this category may not strictly belong to the imperial type although it cer­ tainly is a formally and symmetrically conceived and elaborately laid-out scheme, which should be viewed as an experimental and unique variation of the type. The Legionary Fortress Baths in Lambaesis is located in the southeast quarter of the castrum, it occupies a very sizable rectangular lot (c. 60 X 110 m.), surrounded on four sides by streets, its west front directly on the main, colonnaded avenue (Fig. 244). The north onethird of the lot is taken up by a colonnaded palaestra and its dependencies; there is a spacious and wellplanned service court at the back of the south side with an elaborate miniature aqueduct on arches bringing water into the baths. The original building may be con­ temporary with the other Large Thermae of Lambaesis (the so-called Palais du Légat), late second century with third-ccntury alterations.33 The plan of the Legionary Baths in Lambaesis illus­ trates a rare type with double bathing circuits through two independent frigidaria converging on a single cal­ darium (a “forked circuit“). The north-south building axis is marked by a large projecting caldarium of cruci­ form plan connected directly with a circular, multifoliatc, heated chamber (probably alaconi cum). There is no recognizable cross axis. The entire west facade of the building, the main entrance side facing the palaes­

tra, is occupied by a long gallery (B/X, comparable to the basilical hall B in the Large Thermae on the same site). This was probably a third-century addition to the baths, serving as a general entrance hall and apodyterium. The original entrances must have been the pair of vestibules (e) leading directly into the double frigi­ daria. Beyond the long gallery B is a row of symmetri­ cally arranged heated halls leading to the

Fig. 244 Legionary Fortress

Baths (“Lagerthermen"), Lambaesis. Plan (Yegül after Krencker).

Baihs of Xonh Africa

ca 1 dari u m by way of the rou nd, m u h i fol i ate laconicum The former is also connected to the frigidaria through a pair of rectangular. heated halls (T-T). The prescribed sequence of use was: e-F-Z-2-3-C-T-F.i4 The position of the heated rooms (Z-2-2'-/') on the palaestra or the entrance side reversed the logical order of the unheated and heated zones of the basic layout of the Roman bath, and introduced functional and practical difficulties in servicing the furnaces of the heated units facing the palaestra. Interestingly, a similar "reverse arrange­ ment” was tried out on a group of second-century' bath­ gymnasium complexes in Ephesus, Asia Minor (infra, Chapter 7). In Lambaesis. a narrow, subterranean corri­ dor served the heated rooms and the laconicum on the north side; more elaborate heating and water-supply services are collected within exceptionally well-pre­ served service courtyards on the south side. The multilobate. circular unit (£/3) bordering the caldarium on the north was roofed by a small dome (7.2 m. diameter); the eight deep semidomed "lobes," or niches, reach down to the mosaic floor; four of them contain doors. Traces of paintings were found on the walls of these niches; one of the paintings was reported to represent the head of Neptune. The niches as well as the main space were heated directly by hypocaust. The specific, functional design of this centralized multilobate room, and its position in the overall composition, make it a good candidate for a laconicum; if so, it was, indeed, one of the most imaginative and powerfully stated among Roman lacónica Despite the general lack of spatial and visual refinement, the Legionary Baths in Lambaesis display a mature and professional handling of technical and functional problems. It is hard not to imagine behind this project the hand of a competent army engineer who was not too shy to experiment in a subject that encouraged experimentation.

Half-.Axial Type and Its Variations In the half-axial type only one-half of the symmetrical scheme is developed. Axlality is established by the fri­ gidarium, which starts a circulation ring in one direc­ tion only, clockwise or counterclockwise. The axis of a strong plan is emphasized by symmetrically disposed secondary units flanking the frigidarium, as observable in the Baths ofJulia Memmia in Bulla Regia, or the West Baths at El Djem (see Figs. 245, 250). These two exam­ ples are very close to a regular imperial scheme. In others, such as the West Baths at Gigthis, the North

’I"

Baths at Hippo Regius, and the Small Baths at Madaurus, the primary axis is vague because it has not been estab­ lished by secondary units (see Figs. 251, 265, 254). Perhaps one would be justified in c lassi lying these baths simply as medium-sized establishments with "ring" circulation. The appeal of the half-axial plan type was particu­ larly strong in North Africa. The major factors that con­ tributed to its popularity were undoubtedly economy and flexibility. Smaller than most imperial thermae, the baths tn this general category were cheaper to build and to operate.35 With less stringent requirements for sym­ metry and axial ity, they also could fit the irregular building lots of crowded cities with much greater ease than the imperial thermae. Although North Africa, as a geographical region, offers the largest number and wid­ est variations of baths in this category, the type was neither created in nor transmitted by way ofAfrica. (For the early development of the “half-axial type” Italy and its connection with the Pompeian/Campanian baths of the late republic, see Chapter 3.) Africa was, however, the land where the type was fully exploited and most creatively used.5* Baths ofJulia Memmia, Bulla Regia Dating late in the second century, these baths were made possible through the generosity of the consular Memmius family of Bulla Regia, in Tunisia; with a long, arcaded porch, they face the major street which leads from the theater (Figs 245, 246).57 The building is sited some 2.40 meters below street level; the main floor is reached by two symmetrical stairways leading down from a spacious, cross-vaulted vestibule. The de­ sign is characterized by a pair of long rectangular halls (B-B) flanking the centrally positioned, cross-vaulted frigidarium. Given the absence of an open-air palaestra, the pendant halls (8.75 X25 6 m.) were probably used for recreational and athletic purposes. They arc connected with each other by the apodyterium (¿4), another very long hall (5.7 X 26.0 m.) conveniently situated between the frigidarium and the vestibule. The arcaded recesses of its north wall must have housed benches and lockers for storing the clients’ clothes (Fig. 247). The same structural motif of shallow ar­ caded niches (a series of projecting piers connected by arches) was a ppi ied at a larger scale on the 1 on g wa I Is of the pendant halls (B-B). Each hall was roofed, not by a long barrel vault, as one might expect, but by three cross vaults, each defining, more or less, a square bay.

Baths and Bathing In Classical Antiquity

Fig. 245 Baths of Julia

Memmia, Bulla Regia. Plan (Yegiil after Thebert).

Fig. 246 Baths of Julia Memmia, Bulla Regia.

Approach and entrance from the street (Fototeca)

218

Baths vt V r:v vr.. ¿

Fig.

l-C

Baths of Julia

Memmia. Bulla Regia. Hall ( Fototeca).

B

219

The heated zone is composed of three rectangular halls describing a counterclockwise (Ieft going) ring and a caldarium (C) shifted left, or east, of the main north­ south axis The central portion of the caldarium. of modest di mens ions (c. 8.8 X 9.2 m.). was cove red by a cross vault; but. as is typical of African caldaria, it ex­ pands in deep alcoves housing pools to the north and south, and in a bow*-ended alcove to the east. The walls of the frigidarium are preserved to a height of 12 to 14 meters or more (Fig. 248). The north wall displays a large arched window under the vaulting (not a fully open lunette or ’’thermal window”) and the springing of the cross vault that covered the central portion of the oblong hall (10.9 X 15.6 m). Side pools flanked by passages face each other on the cast and the west (Fig 249); there is no third pool or nacatio. The north and south walls are mirror images of each other: slightly recessed, tall middle bays, crowned by arches, are flanked by a pair of deep semicircular niches—- the "triumphal arch" motif is distinctly recognizable al­ though it is impossible to know if the motif was also emphasized by revetment (see Fig. 248). The east and west walls display a tripartite composition but with reverse emphasis: the large, deep, shadowed cavities of the pools in the center arc balanced on the sides by pairs of doors with segmental arches. The balanced composition and the harmonious proportions of this lofty room illustrate the Classical understanding of symmetry remarkably well.

The keystones of the smaller arches of the niches in the frigidarium are decorated by crowns and crescents over staffs, symbols or emblems belonging to certain religious associations (sodalitates) responsible for am­ phitheater games. Identification of these symbols has prompted the question of whether the use of these baths was reserved, at least in part, for these associa­ tions. It would be highly unlikely for baths of this size

Fig. 2-tS Baihs ûfjulia

Memmia. Bulla Regia. Frigidarium north wall.

looking northwest.

and complexity to be fully private; how*ever, it is conceivable—especially if these groups had shared the construction expenses of the baths with the Memmii—for the members of the sodaIHates to have had a permanent representation in the baths and the use of its spacious basilical halls for their meetings. The long hall on the east (f7), with its northern end por­ tioned off as a private office or a chapel (or a shrine for the Muses), seems to be eminently suitable for such purposes.

Baths and Bathing tn Classical Antiquity

West Baths, El Djem The West Baths in El Djem, Tunisia, are too poorly preserved to allow a clear comparison with the Baths of Julia Memmia. They are defined by a rectangular block (c. 45 X 50 m.) attached to a colonnaded palaestra to the east; this palaestra is built over an extensive system of barrel-vaulted cisterns (Fig. 250).*8 A colonnaded porch or corridor runs along the south and east sides of the building, the south side facing the street. The east half of the bath block, the unheated zone, displays an orderly and almost perfectly symmetrical layout around a well-defined east-west axis. The heated units lying to the west of the north-south wall separating the two zones were poorly preserved when the French archaeologist L. Drappicr excavated the building in 1901-2. The main objectives of this excavation were to recover and remove the extensive and handsome mo­ saic floors covering all of the unheated units except the frigidarium, which is paved in gray marble. Between Drappicr's and Krencker’s plans and my re­ cent site observations, it seems clear that even if the heated sections of the baths were not strictly symmetri­ cal. the distribution of the major units (especially the extreme north and south) is fairly well balanced. The critical question is the position and the design of the caldarium. In his 1913 plan, Krencker showed it as a very’ small square room with two deep rectangular pro­ jections for pools shifted to the left (south) of the build­ ing axis. Although (he German architect-scholar might have found some evidence, since destroyed, for restor­ ing the characteristic interior arrangement of the room, the derivation was undoubtedly based to a large extent on analogy to the caldaria of other medium-sized baths with half-axial plan. A row of intercommunicating heated rooms (directly served by a subterranean corri­ dor outside) leading to a corner caldarium is quite typi­ cal of half-axial schemes and can readily be seen in both the Large and Small Baths of Madaurus, in the Baths of Julia Memmia at Bulla Regia, and in the West Baths of Gigthis (see Figs. 254, 255, 245, 251). The heated units of the latter building provide a particularly good example for construction of the same elements of the West Baths at El Djem. The plan of the frigidarium, with its side pools flanked by a pair of squarish halls (A-A). is close to that of the large Thermae in Lambaesis, or to one-half of the frigidarium of the Small Baths in Madaurus, except that in El Djem, a third pool, slightly larger than the cwo,

220

Fig. 24$ Baths of Julia

Memmia, Bulla Regia Frigidarium. looking east (Fototeca).

Fig. 250 West Baths, El Djem. Plan (Yegul).

Baths of North Kfnca

Fig. 251 West Baths, Gigthis. Plan (Yegiil after Krencker).

221

strengthens the axiality of the composition (see Fig. 226). The entrances into the building are also unclear. Drappier suggested a main entrance from the south, the street side, which would create a circulation order somewhat incongruent with that suggested by the dis­ position and logic of the scheme. The order of use in Roman baths, however, was never so rigid as to impose an unalterable pattern. Furthermore, secondary en­ trances from the palaestra must have existed; the best candidates for these would have been the pair of pas­ sages on the extreme north and south comers of the building (c-e and/or units v-v) leading more directly into the frigidarium/apodyterium. The inconsistencies of the plan and the circulation pattern of this bath, burdened with a profusion of small spaces despite the apparent order of symmetry, may be explained in part by the alterations and renovations undertaken during the reign of Constantine and Constantius (333-337).59

West Baths, Gigthis The West Baths in Gigthis, Tunisia, are remembered

for their uniquely conceived circular palaestra with four apsidal exedrae at the corners. The rectangular block (c. 40 X 60 m.) on the west side of the palaestra is in a poor state of preservation, its walls standing no more than c. 1.0 to 1 5 meters; but thanks to the sturdy construction of the massive ashlar blocks, the general layout of the baths is quite intelligible (Fig. 251).40 The frigidarium is placed directly on the east-west axis of the composition, entered from the circular palaestra through a small, rectangular vestibule. The main hall has the shape of an inverted T. With a span of 12 meters but fairly thick walls (c. 1.0 m ), the room must have been covered by a timber roof. The side pools, the pairs of semicircular niches on the long walls, mirroring each other, and especially the rectangular alcove (not a pool) created in the middle of the west side, opposite the main entrance, cstabl ish a strong sense of symmetry and axiality which is obscured as soon as the threshold of the heated 2one is crossed. The suggested movement is a counterclockwise (left-going) ring through ABC into a small, square caldarium with its projecting pool niches. The return to the frigidarium is by way of a spacious tepidarium (T), almost as big as the calda­ rium, which also has a small, heated pool. Both the caldarium and the northwest corner unit (7), which resembles a second caldarium, were cross-vaulted. The latter, a rectangular room with projecting comet but-

Balhs and Bathing in Classical Antiquit)'

tresses, is an easily recognizable element, also used in the baths at El Djetn and the Summer Baths in Thuburbo Majus. The construction date for the West Baths in Gigthis is uncertain, but its conformation co the second-century orientation of the city, and the careful ashlar work, indicate a date in the second half of the same century. Large Balhs and Small Balhs. Madaurus Both of these well-preserved and we 11-published baths are located close to each other in the northern quarter of the Algerian highland city.41 Both are easily reached from the main thoroughfare which follows a northwest-southeast direction, but the orientation ne­ cessitated placement of the heated zone and attendant service yards on the street side; consequently, neither bach could present to the street a hard, urban facade with an entrance porch (Figs 252, 253) Given the similarity of construction techniques, it can be pro­ posed that they are contemporary projects by the same architect or workshop/2 The date can be fixed to the end of the second or the beginning of the third centurysi nee statue bases with inscriptions honoring Septi mi us Severus, his wife Julia Domna, and his sons Caracalla and Gcta, as well as dedications to Caracalla as em­ peror, have been found in both establishments. Repairs and restorations under Julian (361-363) and Valentinian (364) are also attested by inscriptions. The last reference is co the rebuilding of the fallen vaulting and some of the suspensurae of the hypocaust system dur­ ing the reign of Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius (ad. 407-408); apparently, the baths—either the Large or the Small — had fallen out of use before this much needed repair.*5 In both of these schemes, a row of three heated rooms on the south-sou chwest is balanced by what can be de­ scribed as a row- of larger spaces on the north-northeast, composed of a frigidarium next to a fairly spacious, rectangular hall (5) of multipurpose use (Figs 254. 255) . Both buildings have remarkably similar en­ trances inside small elbows made in the southeast comers of the bath blocks. Also similar are the elon­ gated halls (b and h)—rather like corridors— associated with the entrances, occupying almost the full length of the east and the west sides of the Small Baths, and the southeast side of the Large Baths (Fig. 256) . They may have served as apodyteria The propor­ tions, design, and disposition of these galleries, with

222

their long walls pierced by numerous well-preserved windows (seven of them in the Large Baths), arc idio­

syncratic design features for .Madaurus. The square frigidarium of the Small Baths displays a pronounced cross-axial formation with symmetrically disposed side pools and an apsidal extension marking the north-south axis (Figs. 257, 258; see Fig. 254). This axis is picked up and repeated formally, but not visually, by’ an apsidal heated room (///) that is located on the same alignment of the frigidarium extension and is almost the same size. On the other hand, two of the pools in the rectangular frigidarium of the Large Baths are placed on adjacent sides of the room, without any attempt at axial ity (Fig. 259; see Fig. 255). The back wall of the larger pool, situated on the shorter end of the room, opens to the outside through three windows; in the middle is a fountain shaped like a stepped cas­ cade. A pair of doors flanking a central niche on the southeast wall connect the frigidarium with a large rec­ tangular hall (5), whose heavy walls and strongly pro­ jecting buttresses suggest a cross-vaulted roof. The oblong hall (5) of the Small Baths, which occupies exactly the same position between the frigidarium and the entrance and must have been used for a similar purpose, can be recognized as the counterpart of this

space. Summer Balhs, Thuburbo Majus The Summer Baths in Thuburbo Majus, Tunisia, arc located southwest of the Forum of the small Roman colony whose tortuous streets and densely built town center reflect the pattern of the early Punic settlement (Figs. 260-262).44 Occupying an area of 2,400 square meters, the Summer Baths are the foremost public bath­ ing establishment of this modest provincial town, which supported, besides this major complex, half a dozen other, smaller neighborhood baths at the height of its economic growth in the early third century. The designation as ‘ Summer Baths” is based on the authority of a mid-fourth-century inscription found in the building that records a restoration under Constans

II (c. 361).° Judged by the construction style of small square blocks fortified by larger ashlar, the complex may suggest a date at the end of the second century or early third. A well-designed palaestra, the “Peristyle of the Petronii,” joins the building on the northeast. This handsome structure, probably dedicated to Alexander Severus and Julia Mamaea. was added in 255, an act of civic generosity by Petronius Felix and his sons, at-

Baths of >onh \fnca

223

Fig. 252 Madaurus, city plan

.......

1-

■

■

■

■

■

MHHhTfHII

“Caserma" Baths and “Gymnasium " Baths at Magnesia on the Meander; Caracallan Bath-Gymnasium at Ankara Magnesia on the Meander, the well-known and cre­ ative center of Hellenistic architecture, has two bath­ gymnasium complexes of the imperial type: the baths east of the highway, erroneously identified as the Ca­ serma (mil itary barracks) by Humann, and the so-called Gymnasium Baths in the western section of the city (Figs. 346-349). Humann’s designation of the large building in the eastern section of the city, next to the stadium, as “Ca­ serma” has been challenged by Staccioli, who recog­ nized the typical bath-gymnasium scheme in the overall layout of the ruins. The best-preserved element of the “Caserma” Baths is the long ambulacrum (A). The projecting piers support ashlar arches creating a row of vaulted side chambers; the tall central gallery is

lit by clerestory windows, placed directly above the niches. This long hall can be compared with the one in the Stadium Baths at Laodiceia, and with the betterpreserved impressive apodyterium of the Faustina Baths in Miletus (see Figs. 341. 342, 373-375). It is entered from the large field to the southeast, presumed to be the palaestra. The asymmetrical relationship of the halls comprising the heated zone (CC—probably the caldarium—1 and 2) bears comparison to the unique, asymmetrical arrangement of the heated halls

Baths and Gymnasia in Asia Minor

flanking the caldarium of the baths at Hierapolis (see Figs. 347, 344). R. Staccioli’s suggestion of dating the building in the Constantinian era is, I think, a century too conservative.'’ For the Gymnasium Baths, unexcavated and hope­ lessly overgrown. a date can be suggested no later than the middle of the second century (see Figs. 329. 3 46). The plan of the complex, recorded by Humann at the turn of the century, displays a minor order of rooms (a-b-c) inserted between the outer row and the inner row; the inner row' is a single long hall with projecting piers connected by arches (B/A), which disrupts the overall symmetry of the scheme by projecting out from the bath block. Distant, but adhering to the basic structure of the type displayed in the Gymnasium Baths of Magnesia on the Meander, is the large Caracallan Bath-Gymnasium in Ankara, far in the highlands of central Asia Minor. This building displays a more complex and “impure” design since two tiers of major and minor spaces have been inserted between the outer and inner rows (Fig. 350). The secondary halls are all recognizable ele­ ments in the vocabulary of bath architecture of Asia Minor, and do not disrupt the essential functional rela­ tionship between the inner and outer rows or between the interior and the palaestra. The complex at Ankara must have been one of the largest of its kind, since the excavated portions of the bath block represent only one-ha If of the fully symmetrical layout; the building would measure roughly 140 X 180 meters, with a truly gigantic palaestra on the east (c 95 X 95 m.). thirty-three columns to a side.18

U-Shaped Halls and Reversed Circulation The secon d p I an type is characteri zed by a mon u m c n ta I corridor, or L’-shaped ambulacrum, enveloping three sides of the bath block, ’rhe most significant aspect of this planning type is the changed relationship between the bath building and the palaestra, as best exemplified by two early- to mid-second-century establishments in Ephesus, the East Bath-Gymnasium and the Theater Bath-Gymnasium, and one from Alexandria Troas.

East Bath-Gymnasium and Theater BathGymnasium, Ephesus In the East Bath-Gymnasium at Ephesus, the palaestra is located on the south, the same side as the row of heated halls (Figs. 351, 352; see Fig. 323).,9 The en-

2 “9

Fig. 348 Caserma Baths. Mag­

nesia on the Meander. Long

hall

A

(ambulacrum), looking

northeast.

Fig. 3^9 Caserma Baths. .Mag­

nesia on the Meander. Long hall

A,

southeast wall second-

story level.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 350 Caracallan ((ankinkapi) Baths, Ankara.

Restored plan (Vann after

280

Fig. 351 East BathGymnasium, Ephesus Plan

(Vann after Miltner).

T

n

Akok).

LjnrFig. 352 East Bath-

Gymnasium, Ephesus. Re­ stored perspective (Miltner).

Baths and Gymnasia in Asia Minor

Fig. 353 Theater Bath-

Gymnasium. Ephesus. Plan (Yegul after Keil).

Fig. 354 Theater BathGymnasium, Ephesus. View

looking northwest across the palaestra toward the bath block.

¿81

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

trance (e) into the compound is still by way of the palaestra through a gate situated on the north-south main axis (r). Partially sunken double service corri­ dors block direct access into the bath block. The con­ nection between these two zones is by way of the extended arms of the U-shaped ambulacrum, through circuitous corridors at their southern ends. The circu­ lation is completely reversed, first proceeding north along the whole length of these gallery arms, then turn­ ing back south toward the row of heated halls. The frigidarium is also on the side away from the palaestra, hindering the desirable accessibility of the large swim­ ming pool from the exercise ground. The same general orientation is followed in the The­ ater Bath-Gymnasium at Ephesus, except that the "monumental corridors” (B/A-B/A) do not wrap around the heated row completely (Figs. 353. 354).20 Consequently, the connection between the palaestra and the bath block is maintained only by going through the halls at the extreme ends of the heated row (ti-rand 14). This awkward situation must have impaired the normal sequence of bathing and forced a reversed rela­ tionship between the heated and unheated areas of the complex, unless the baths were served by separate en­ trances. Perhaps partly to alleviate this problem, two entrances (v-v) from the street directly into the monu­ mental corridors have been introduced in this

complex.

Bath-Gymnasium, Alexandria Troas The close similarity in the plan and construction techniques between the Bath-Gymnasium at Alexandria Troas and the East Bath-Gymnasium of Ephesus has prompted some scholars to suggest a specific relation­ ship between these buildings, separated from each other by considerable distance: either the two projects were by the same architect, or, more likely, they were commissioned by the same patron, hence built in awareness of each other (Figs. 355 - 358). The patron is tentatively identified as Herodes Atticus, a very wealthy philanthropist who was the procurator of Asia in 135 and had his headquarters, presumably, in Ephe­ sus. We also know from a passage in Philostratus that Atticus provided Alexandria Troas with an aqueduct, which could logically be associated with a bath though

none is mentioned.21 The position of the palaestra at Alexandria Troas and its connection with the bath block are as yet unclear. If it was situated west of the complex, on the side of the

282

heated halls, the comparison to the East Baths would be more cogent. What appears to be a monumental en­ trance into the bath block in the middle of rhe east side might have been no more than a recess or exedra open­ ing into the ambulacrum, comparable to hall M (possi­ bly an internalized imperial hall) of the Theater Baths in Ephesus (see Figs. 353.355). The proper models for the square central unit (P) of Alexandria Troas (the most impressive portion of the ruins still standing, its tall ashlar piers connected by lofty arches) come from the Bath-Gymnasium Complex at Sardis (BCH) and the Vedius Bath-Gymnasium at Ephesus (see Figs. 358360). These comparisons indicate that the planning of the complex in Alexandria Troas admitted influences outside of the general type (or a specific prototype it might have followed) and allowed certain elements and motifs from other current and presumably popular models. One wonders what led to the adoption of this some­ what awkward plan type, which weakens the relation­ ship between the bath and the palaestra. The girdling arms of the U-shaped ambulacrum do provide excellent insulation for the heated zone of the baths, but it seems more likely that the real reason for this plan was the desire to provide large and flexible interior spaces that fulfilled a variety of functions. These long, spacious halls with well-lit, call, vaulted ceilings might have been conceived, really, as in door plazas or “streets” for civic and athletic uses, particularly effective in busy urban centers

Bath and Palaestra Unified on the Same Axis The third type, represented by three primary and wellinvestigated examples, the Antonine Bath-Gymnasium of Vedius at Ephesus.22 the Bath-Gymnasium Complex at Sardis,23 and the Bath-Gymnasium at Aezane,24 com­ bines the characteristics of the two types previously discussed. The main axes of these complexes arc roughly east-west, through the caldarium and the pa­ laestra. The palaestrae, easily accessible from the streets, arc connected with the outer (western) row of heated halls through several rows of secondary or pre­ paratory spaces; circulation moves along a direct line into the bathing halls proper, then returns to the frigidarium situated on the main axis, roughly between the caldarium and the palaestra. In the Bath-Gymnasium of Vedius, the ambulacrum is retained as a vast, H-shaped hall constituting a zone between the palaestra and the western halls (B B) (Fig.

Baths and Gymnasia in Asia Miner

283

Fig. 355 Bath-Gymnasium. Alexandria Troas. Restored

plan (Yegul after Koldewey and Smith).

Fig. 356 Bath •Gymnasium.

Alexandria Troas. Long hall

IF, east wall.

Fig. 35’’ Bath-Gymnasium, Alexandria Troas. Central

hall

P,

looking northeast

Fig. 358 Bath-Gymnasium, Alexandria Troas. Central

hall P. detail of ashlar arches connecting the corner piers.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

359; see Fig. 333)- On the west, it borders on an archi­ tectural group of two oblong halls (A-A) joined by a central square room (previously compared with P of Alexandria Troas), an extension of the frigidarium which is lodged between the arms of the H. In the much grander establishments at Sardis and Aezane, the Hshaped ambulacra have disappeared; a number of sym­ metrically disposed, vaulted halls provide the transition from the palaestra to the heated zone of the baths (Figs. 360. 361). The architectural group of doubl e rectangu lar halls con nectcd by a cen tra I unit, on the other hand, has become truly monumental. In Sardis, the great barrel-vaulted, double, semi domed apses (BSH and W/) are joined by a very tall, presumably domed central hall (BCH) (Fig. 362; see Fig. 334). It seems logical to expect that these halls assumed social and athletic functions comparable to those suggested for the ambulacra. The discovery in Sardis of a statue base dedicated to Emperor Lucius Verus, in situ, on the semicircular apse podium of the south long hall (BSH), suggests that we should include civic and cere­ monial intentions in the use of these spaces.25 The most i mportant characteristic of the third type is the organization of the palaestra in relation to the bath block. The arrangement largely follows the example of the Harbor Bath-Gymnasium of Ephesus in the sense that the palaestra court is linked with the serving spaces of the bath block—the entrance halls, lounges, apodyteria—along a broad frontage (see Fig. 336). In the Bath-Gymnasium in Sardis and the Vedius BathGymnasium in Ephesus, the most conspicuous element of the palaestra, the Kaisersaal (Af), is transferred to the same side as the bath block and incorporated into its mass and structure. This is a remarkably effective de­ sign. The new position of the Kaisersaal, directly on the main axis of symmetry of the complex and flanked by identical square halls, imparts a powerful sense of order and hierarchy to the planning of the bath-gymna­ sium complex in Asia Minor (Figs. 363, 364; see Figs. 359. 360). The creation of a void at the end of the building axis increases the impact of this axis. In Sardis, the focal terminus was further emphasized by an im­ pressive, two-storied, pedimented motif crowning a wide apse (Fig. 365).

Asymmetrical Types The large numbers of bathing establishments whose plans are not symmetrically conceived range from the

28-t

Fig. 359 Vedius BathGymnasium. Ephesus. Plan (Yegiil after Keil).

C

>

■

plan (Yegiil).

Fig. 361 Bath-Gymnasium,

Aezane. Plan (Naumann).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 362 Bath-Gymnasium Complex. Sardis. Axonometrie restoration study of the

central hall (HCH) and the frigidarium (Ycgül)

Fig 363 Bath-Gymnasium

Complex. Sardis. Restored section/elevation through the

palaestra looking west toward

the Marble Court (Yegiil).

286

Baths and Gvmnasia in Ami M»w

B&tf Fig. 364 Bath-Gymnasium

Complex, Sardis. Marble Court

{Kaisersaal).

looking west across the palaestra.

Fig. 365 Bath-Gymnasium Complex, Sardis Marble

Court. "Pedimented Gate’ (restored)

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

288

Fig. 366 Hellenistic

Gymnasium, Pergam on. Plan of the Roman period showing

the East and the West Baths of the Upper Terrace (Yegiil after Schazmann).

conditions (Figs. 366 - 369; see also the early imperial baths and cult hall in Pergamon, Fig. 370). The West Baths, daring sometime during the second half of the

first century, had to be accommodated inside the roughly triangular and steeply sloping land behind the west wing of the Upper Gymnasium terrace. The west wing proper of the Hellenistic gymnasium retained its original loutron (£), or cold washing rooms. The five main rooms of the West Baths are piled from south to north in 3-2-1 fashion: the apex of the triangle on the north is occupied by an apsidal caldarium (

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

the emperor (c. 17.1%). The second group of con­ sumers consisted of public users such as military and official establishments, theaters, fountains, and baths (c. 44.3%). The third were private parties, houses, and industries (c. 38.6%).129 The baths occupied an impor­ tant position among the various public establishments and enjoyed the highest priority in the official water allocation. They were served directly from the caste I la by mains tapped near the bottom of the tanks, and the water flowed with greater head than that for private uses tapped higher up. Vitruvius describes the order and the hierarchy of the allotment thus: “When it |water] has reached the city, build a reservoir with a distribution tank \casteUum aquae\ in three compart­ ments connected with the reservoir to receive the water: and let the reservoir have three pipes, one for each of the connecting tanks, so that when the water runs over from the tanks at the ends, it may run into the one between them. From this central tank, pipes will be taken co all the basins and fountains; from the second

tank, to baths, so that they may yield an annual income to the state; and from the third, to private houses, so that water for public use will not run short.” 130 The legalized and privileged position of the public baths in tapping the city water is also made clear by Frontinus: “The right to granted water does not pass either to heirs, or to any new proprietor of the land. The public bathing establishments had from old times the privilege that water once granted to them should re­ main forever. We know this from old resolutions of the Senate.” 131 Even when a bathing establishment was served di­

rectly by a main line from a castellum or a branch from an aqueduct, a major reservoir was necessary for the collection and distribution of water to various parts of the baths. One of the most impressive of these must have been the reservoir for the Thermae of Caracalla served by Aqua Antoniniana, a special branch of Aqua Marcia (see Fig. 162). Located on the west side of the great precinct, and partially extending under the seats of the stadium, these double-storied, vaulted, and mul­ tichambered cisterns had a capacity of c. 40,000 cubic meters—nearly thirty times the quantity necessary to fill the great natatio (c. 1,400 m3) and equal to nearly one-twenty-fourth of the daily water supply of Rome (seen. 110). Another branch of Aqua Marcia served the great reservoir of the Thermae of Diocletian, later known as “Botte di Termini” and demolished in 1876

in the construction of the Termini train station. The trapezoidal structure was situated between the baths and the Viminal Hill, just outside the south side of the bath precinct, and measured c. 16X91 meters. Popularly known as the “Sette Sale” (Seven Halls), the reservoir for the Thermae of Trajan is also a multichambered, barrel-vaulted structure positioned on the highest part of the hill, to the northeast of the baths (see Figs. 154, 156).132 The well-preserved structures

above the reservoir (thought to have been a wine cellar for Roman officers) are askew in relation to the Ther­ mae of Trajan and conform, rather, to that of Domus Aurea and the Thermae of Titus. They were long be­ lieved to be associated with the latter. The construction style and the brick stamps, all from 106-107, confirm the Trajanic date. The overall size of the reservoir is 46.5 X 37.0 meters; the vaulted chambers are 8 meters high and still retain their opus signfnum lin­ ing. The Sette Sale were served by Aqua Traiana. brought in in 109, when Frontinus was the water com­ missioner. 133 A fragment of a lead pipe inscribed A^(ua| 7r|aiana| was found inside the baths. The source of the aqueduct is near Lake Bracciano, northwest of Rome, ic entered the city at Janiculum. parallel co Via Aurelia, and supplied water io the 14th Transtiberian Region (the Trastevcrc) before crossing the Tiber somewhere north of Tiber Island. Dedicated in 25 b.c. (as a “gymnasium”), the Ther­ mae of Agrippa opened in 19 b.c. with the completion of Aqua Virgo. These baths, situated in the middle of sumptuous gardens, next to the artificial lake called the Stagnum and the Euripus Canal, received 19,000 cubic meters of water dai ly, over one • thi rd of the tota 1 flow of Aqua Virgo.134 The Thermae of Nero in Campus Martius were also served originally by Aqua Virgo. When the establishment was restored and enlarged during the third century, the water supply was increased by bring­ ing in a new source, Aqua Alexandria.133 Constructed in 226 under Alexander Severus, Aqua Alexandria was the last major aqueduct for Rome. The system of supplying water via an aqueduct to a central bath reservoir found widespread application outside of Rome, too. Although at least a part of the Roman baths in Hierapolis used the natural hot springs for w*hich the site is famous, a reservoir to the northcast of the baths was supplied with fresh water. The baths built by Hadrian in Antioch were connected with the city aqueduct started under Trajan.136 The water needs

Heating and *ater Supply of Roman Baths

of the large Antonine baths in O dessos (Vamai. Bui« garia, were partly supplied by the newly constructed aqueduct whose source lay near the village of Vinica. northeast of the city.137 The development of the water-supply system of the Hadrianic Baths at Lepers .Magna emphasizes the critical importance of water for baths in dry climates and illus­ trates the ingenuity of the citizens of Lepcis in solving this problem. The bath complex was served first by a series of deep wells and roof tanks; more substantial ci stems were added later, forming an elongated wing southeast of the bath block next to Wadi Lcbda. The wadi is dry for most of the year, but during the wet season, water-lifting devices might have been utilized to supplement the cisterns. The cistems are composed of nine chambers (4.60 X 5.60 m., 4.70 m. high), seven of which are rectangular and vaulted. A group of new cisterns situated north of the baths and connected with the old ones were served by’ the newly finished aqueduct. This last measure largely solved the water problem of the large complex. A tersely worded in­ scription in Latin expresses we 11 the pride of the donor, Quintus Servilius Canditus, who, in 119-120. “searched for water, found a rich source, raised it and brought it by an aqueduct, at his own expense.“

Fountains and Nymphaea in Baths The visual enjoyment of water and waterplay made fountains and pools a logical component of baths. Al­ though fountains and hydraulic installations associated with water display were found in many of the smaller baths of Italy, Nonh Africa, and Asia Minor, the most spectacular demonstrations of wacerplay in the context of baths were* undoubtedly the imperial thermae. Both in the Thermae of Caracalla and the Thermae of Diocle­ tian, the entire expanse of natatio walls was treated as an elaborate fountain ensemble, with baroque facades of aediculae projecting and receding in three stories (see Figs. 175, 182. 187). Adorned with architectural elements in polychromatic marble, mosaics, and statu­ ary, these fountain-walls are closely related to the spec­ tacular Independent nymphaea so popular throughout the Roman cities of Asia Minor and the East. The newly excavated room M of the South Gate Baths in Perge features a modest arrangement of combined wall-foun­ tain and pool (sec Fig. 384). The large, semicircular, semi domed exedrae (Dand N) on the peri bo I us wall of Trajan’s Thermae were designed as a pair of elaborate

395

nymphaea facing the vast expanse of the park-like space (see Figs. 154, 159, 160). Each exedra was articulated by eleven rectangular niches (2.10 m. wide, 4.20 m. high. 0.90 m. deep). Horizontal canals lined with opus signinum and crusty lime deposits in the niches indi­ cate their use as fountains.139 Quite recently T. Lorenz proposed that the famous Dioscuri displayed on the Quirinal Hill originally’ belonged to a nymphaeum lo­ cated at the bend of two ancient streets at this location (see Fig. 189). According to this theory, upon the building of the Thermae of Constantine, the nym­ phaeum was connected with the baths and the Dioscuri were brought together to form a closely knit group (supra, Chapter 5. n. 93). The so-called Baths of Nero at Massaciuccoli, near Pisa, represent one of the most interesting and imagina­ tive combinations of a bath and a nymphaeum (supra, Chapter 3)< The baths, arranged in three terraces, are situated on the sloping ground of Monte Aquilata (see Fig 95). The upper terrace, which had perhaps once served as a palaestra, houses a large underground cis­ tern. Connecting this cistern with the baths proper on

the lower terrace is a long nymphaeum wall articulated by nine niches and pools. The wall and the pools were encrusted in marble and adorned with statuary. The central niche with the larger pool is directly on the major building axis which terminates against the nata­ tio of the frigidarium. The water theme is enhanced architecturally by unifying the cistern, nymphaeum, and frigidarium on the same axis and linking the nymphaeum pool, visually and physically, with (he pool of the frigidarium by means of an open stream of cascading water.140 There is little doubt that the association of baths and water assumed a religious and metaphorical meaning in Classical culture. The salubrious and spiritual qualities of water were significant for all baths but particularly those connected with natural springs. These baths often included shrines arranged as nymphaea dedicated in honor of the nymphs and water deities who pro­ tected the source and ensured its health-giving proper­

ties. The inscription from the thermo-mi neral baths at Stara Zagora (Augusta Traiana), in Bulgaria, is typical; the baths and the nymphaeum were erected in 163 in honor of the nymphs and for the enjoyment of the citi­ zens through the generosity of Ulpius Hieronymus, the chief priest of the Imperial Cult, and his wife, the priestess.141

Appendix C Architectural Elements and Motifs of North African Baths

Palaestrae Internalized Palaestrae Of over a dozen imperial thermae from Africa, only two, the Antonine Thermae at Carthage and the Urge East Thermae at Mac tar, Algeria, display the pair of in­ ternalized palaestrae typical of the large imperial type of Rome (see Figs. 206-208, 215). It is quite possible that the Thermae at Utica (see Fig. 211) and those at (Jthina (Oudna) also had palaestrae flanking their large frigidaria. The palastrae of the Antonine Thermae in Carthage were perfect squares (37.4 X 37.4 m., ten columns to a side) and seem to have followed the model set by the Thermae of Nero in Rome, whereas the great hemicycles of the west ambulatory’ of the palaes­

trae in Ma eta r might have derived their inspiration from the Thermae of Trajan (sec Figs. 150,154).

Palaestrae as Colonnaded Courtyards Contiguous to the Bath Block Palaestrae as large colonnaded courtyards attached to one side of the bath block ace more common in large and medium-sized establishments. Although little re­ mains of it now, a vast square palaestra bordered on the east (unheated) entrance side of the Large West Ther­ mae in Cherchcl {see Fig 228). The north side en­ trances of the Legionary Baths (Lagerthermeri) and the Large Baths ( "Palais du Legal”) in Lambaesis were also occupied by colonnaded courtyards that may have served as entrance courts and palaestrae (see Figs. 244, 226). Krencker proposed a palaestra on the east side of the West Baths in El Djem, whose western ambulatory' might have served as a colonnaded entrance porch for the baths (sec Fig. 250). The restricted site must have forced the reduction of the palaestra into a narrow, stone-paved courtyard placed along the north side of the Large Baths at Djemila, rather than on the east side of the building where the main entrance, opening di­ rectly on the Cardo, is located (see Figs. 220, 221). In Hippo Regius, an elegant Corinthian colonnade borders the entire north half of the Large North Baths

Architectural Elements and Motifs of North African Baths

(see Fig. 265). The area proposed for a palaestra is a marble -paved courtyard (hardly a su itab 1 e pav i n g m ate rial for sports) between this colonnade and the south­ west comer of the building where the major service facilities are located. Although not confirmed by exca­ vations. the location of the palaestra on the flat ground to the east of the building, next to the frigidarium and the natatio, would be logical to expect. The crow’ded conditions at the Sanctuary of Apollo at Cyrenc left very little room for the palaestra of the Trajan ic/Hadrianic Baths (Figs 487. 488). A narrow, paved courtyard de­ fined by a curving colonnade originally surrounded the south and west sides of the building. The baths, dam­ aged extensively during the Jewish revolt of 115. were rebuilt four years later under Hadrian (Phase II) and extended toward the west to occupy practically all

available palaestra space.1

Apsidal, Semicircular, Circular Palaestrae One of the best-preserved and most impressive pa­ laestrae from North Africa is the great rectangular en­ closure with apsidal ends bordering on the north front of the Hadrianic Thermae in Lepcis Magna (see Figs. 199-201). Responding to the existing street system, this vast, partially paved, colonnaded enclosure (c 30 X 100 m.) was shifted east off the main axis of the baths. It should be perceived more as a monumental plaza for the town than as an exercise court reserved for the use of the bathers. It was an important feature of early-third-century urban development, its apsidal pro­ jection on the east serving as a powerful visual terminus co the wide, colonnaded avenue leading straight up from the Severan harbor, as well as a subtle counter­ point to the concave facade of the nymphaeum situated at the juncture where the colonnaded avenue bends southeast. A pair of apsidal structures, each with an independent quadriporticus and projecting exedrae. open into the north ambulatory of the palaestra There is no firm evidence indicating their function, but judg­ ing by their symmetrical disposition in relation to the overall design of the palaestra and their formal but ele­ gant appearance, they may have been intended for civic

and ceremonial uses. The semicircular enclosure of the Large South Baths at Timgad might have had a civic function, too, and appears to be very much a part of the street system surrounding the trapezoidal lot on which the baths are located (see Figs. 267. 269) Compared with the subtle handling of masses and voids and of public and private

3^**

space at Timgad, the vast palaestra of the West Baths at Gigthis— a perfect circle of 60-meter diameter inside a square—appears bland. Four diagonally positioned semicircular exedrae (the northeast one was never fin­ ished) project from the circular, colonnaded enclo­ sure; the southeast one. larger than the rest, may have served as public latrines (see Fig. 251). Small Oblong Courtyards In a number of North African baths the palaestra! functions may have been assumed by relatively small, oblong, porticoed courtyards that fit into the overall configuration of the plan in a compact manner; in some cases, they appear as a roofed hall among the other bathing spaces. In the Thermae of Licinius in Dougga (Thugga), this element, a small, rectangular, colon­ naded enclosure (P), functions as an internalized pa­ laestra (it may have been reached independently from the narrow alley on the south). It is placed slightly oblique to the alignment of the building and destroys the symmetry of the composition (see Figs. 231, 237. 238). The steep site and the small building lot may explain this deviation, but a careful look at the site and plan reveals that the architect could have, had he really desired, fitted in a pair of identical palaestrae flanking the frigidarium. The palaestra of the Thermae of Licinius can be com­ pared with the small atrium/palaesira of the Winter Baths at Thuburbo Majus (see Figs. 285, 287). This minute hall (9 X 12 m.), a late addition, was intended to serve as a secondary entrance to the building, like an atrium; it opens to the street through a modest, colon­ naded porch. The floor, which lacks the difference of level created by the usual stylobate step, is paved en­ tirely with a handsome mosaic carpet. Four spiralfluted columns of yellow Numidian marble (giallo anticd} carried an impluviate roof. Larger in size and more attuned to the requirements of an exercise court are the palaestrae of the Byzantine City Baths in Ptolemais. in Cyrenaica, and the Large Baths at Sbeitla. in Tunisia, two sites separated from each other by one thousand miles (Figs. 489,490). The oblong courtyard (16.7 X 24.3 m.) of the fourth-cen­ tury baths in Ptolemais bordered on a main thorough­ fare, the Decumanus, along its long (southeast) side through a colonnaded porch. The interior peristyle dis­ played handsome spiral-fluted columns of blue marble carrying Corinthian capitals. The opus sectile floor and

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Fig. 48“ Sanctuary of Apollo, Cyrene. with Trajanic/

Hadrianic Baths. Plan ( Mohr/ Yegiil after Goodchild).

Fig. 488 Hadrianic Baths (II Phase), Sanctuary of Apollo,

Cyrene. Restored view of the

frigidarium (Cuastini and Stucchi).

398

Architectural Elements and Motifs of North African Baths

399

Fig. 490 Large (Double) Baths, Sbeitla (Tunisia). Plan

( Yegül after Duval).

Fig. 489 Byzantine Baths.

Ptolémaïs. Plan (YegüJ after

Kraeling),

\

H

0

5

CARDO

10

30m

LTVLJ-------1___________ ---------------- A

Baihs and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

the walls were entirely encrusted in marble. An octago­ nal pool (4.45 m. across) occupying the center of the peristyle and five individual basins carved as niches in the thickness of (he east wall were later additions when the functions of the palaestra were combined with those of a frigidarium. The palaestra at Sbeitla is posi­ tioned between the main bathing establishment, to the east, and much smaller secondary baths to the west. A mosaic-paved rectangular court (l7X27m.) with paired marble columns between square comer piers is directly connected with the frigidaria of both baths and was probably used by both.2

Bastlical Halls In the last category of palaestra described, it is easy to see how the functions of an entrance court, a social concourse, an exercise court, and even a frigidarium, could merge. Compact in size and well integrated into the overall design of the building, these palaestrae are closely related to another type of indoor space serving a variety of social and sportive functions. Described ran­ domly as "palaestra” (or gymnasium), ambulatio, ba­ silica tbernuirum, or simply as la grande salle, these halls are commonly rectangular, sometimes roofed in timber, normally unheated, and positioned in proxim­ ity to the entrance and the frigidarium. It is not easy co classify them since they are represented by a great vari­ ety of shapes. Variations in the formal structure of an architectural type may obscure similarities of function, just as a variety of functions may be expressed by for­ mally similar structures. In either case, we are con­ fronted with the frustrating problem of function and terminology: what were these spaces used for and what should w*e call them? Consistency' may not be called for, especially since antiquity was not consistent tn naming them and allowed a great deal of variance be­ tween architectural form and social usage.

Long Rectangular Halls —or Corridors One of the most easily recognizable forms of the basili­ cal type is an unusually long rectangular hall. This can be seen in the Large Thermae at Lambaesis. the Thermae of Julia Memmia at Bulla Regia, theTrajanic/Hadrianic Baths at Cyrene, and the Large Baths at Madaurus (Fig. 491; see Figs. 226. 245,488, 255). In Lambaesis, (his hall is situated between the palaestra and the frigida­ rium; it is roughly five times as long as it is wide, its walls articulated by shallow niches, and its ends are

4(H)

partitioned off by short, colonnaded screens creating exedrae, or lounges (see Fig. 491b). In Bulla Regia, the halls appear as a symmetrical pair on both sides of the

frigidarium (see Fig. 491a); a third hall, which maybe included in this type, borders on the frigidarium on the north (entrance) side and connects the pair of halls mentioned. These corridor-like halls, easily accessible from the outside and forming a spatial prelude to the frigidarium, undoubtedly served a variety of social, even athletic purposes. Could they also have served as apodyteria? The long hall that had been singled out for this function during the Trajanic phase of the baths in Cyrene was enlarged and made into a frigidarium by the addition of a pool at its west end during its Hadrianic rebuilding (see Fig. 491c). Since this hall was divided into several units by columnar screens, its function as a changing room seems to have continued unimpaired.

Wide Rectangular Halls The large rectangular hall (B) preceding the frigida­ rium of the Large Baths at Djemila represents another type of basilical hall that must have served the same hypothetical social and sportive functions as the elon­ gated halls (Fig. 492b; see Figs. 220, 223) The hall in Djemila can be compared to hall H of the Large South Baths in Timgad, whose axis is shifted northeast of the frigidarium because of (he irregularity of the site (Fig. 492e; see Fig. 267). The same unit can be recognized in the Forum Baths at Khamissa bordering fully along the east side of the frigidarium (5, Fig. 49 2c; see Fig. 296). In some of the larger baths, such as the Large North Baths at Timgad (S). or the West Baths at El Djem (S), or the Large Thermae at Lambaesis (5), these halls occur as symmetrical pairs flanking the frigidarium (Fig. 492a, d. f;see Figs. 217, 250, 226) . Easily reach­ able from the outside as well as from the heated rooms of the bath, they could have been used as apodyteria. In baths where they occur in addition to one large rectan­ gular or elongated basilical hall, such as in Djemila or in the Large Thermae of Lambaesis, it is impossible to

determine which might have been the proper apodyterium. Did the clients undress in the large single hall, which was more directly related to the entrance, or did they move on through this grand foyer to the pair of halls for changing? One of the most imaginative applications of these multipurpose halls in bath architecture belongs in the category of the small baths (Fig. 493) The best repre­ sentatives of the type come from Timgad and are often

Architectural Element» ¿nd Motifs of North African Baths

•iOl

Fig. -*01 Long rectangular halls or corridors. North

Africa ( YegW i. a. Baths of Julia Memmia. Bulla Regia

b. Large Thermae. Lambaesis c. Trajanic/Hadriarnc Baths,

Cyrene

o 5 h=TL-n-j

10

te

20"»

D

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

402

Fig. 492 Wide rectangular halls. North Africa (Yegiil).

a. Large Nonh Baths. Timgad b Large Baths, Djemila c. Forum Baths. Khamissa

d. West Baths. El Djem e. Large South Baths. Timgad

f. Large Thermae. Lambaesis

\

—1---------

(

)

(

)

r

11

n

1I

n 1—

if I

n

E 0

10

20" d

Architectural Elements and Motifs of North African Baths

-i»2 East Baths. V\sa I Caria i Partial plan i Yegul

after von Dienst i

semicircular and rectangular niches, each containing a fountain or a small, private plunge (Fig. 503d; see Figs. 360, 362, 328). The central pool is immense (8.8 X 40.4 m., 1.1 m. deep); it has apsidal ends and three steps along the long sides. To the west, this pool hall opens into the central hall {BCR} through a monu­ mental triumphal arch motif, which, in turn, leads into the caldarium. The interior of the Caracallan BathGymnasium, in Ankara, is designed much like its coun­ terpart at Sardis with alternating semicircular and rectangular niches; unlike Sardis, however, the hall in Ankara is flanked by long ambulacra with projecting piers, and it is directly accessible from the palaestra (Fig. 504; see Figs. 350, 5O3e). The simple, long rectangular hall as frigidarium is noticeably absent in the southern and southwestern provinces of Caria. Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. Al­ though there is much variance among the individual examples, the frigidarium type frequently used in these provinces is a fairly featureless rectangular hall close to

a square in proportions, fully (as in the Faustina Baths in Miletus or Baths III-2B in Anemurium) or partially (as in the Urge Baths in Side) occupied by a rectangular pool (see Figs. 373, 378, 401, 402). The baths of the eastern and western provinces display no element that quire follows the disposition of the long, barrel-vaulted frigidaria of Asia Minor. Following the structural and spatial order of Roman thermae closely, frigidaria of the western baths are often cross-vaulted with individually vaulted pool alcoves as spatial dependencies. Of partic­ ular interest is the frigidarium-nacado combination of the Roman baths at Samos where a cross-vaulted square central hall opens into a semicircular exedra articu­ lated by a row of shallow, arched niches (see Figs. 404, 405). The sources for this arrangement must come from examples such as the frigidarium of the Large Baths in Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (see Fig. 99).

Halls with Projecting Piers: Caldaria These halls appear almost exclusively as caldaria in the baths of the imperial type positioned at the end of the

Baths and Bathing in Classical Aniiquiiy

418

Fig. 503 Long halls with cen­

tral pools (frigidaria), Asia

Minor (Yegiil). a Harbor Bath-Gymnasium, Ephesus b East Bath-Gymnasium,

-

_____ ft

A

rtfljl.

Ephesus

c Vedius Bath-Gymnasium.

A

Ephesus

d Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis

e £ankinkapi (Caracallan)

Baths, Ankara

B

main symmetry axis. Usually, three spacial bays are ere* ated by four pairs of massive piers of ashlar connected with each other by brick (rarely stone) arches—or vaults. The deep niches or alcoves between the piers are usually occupied by heated pools. A tall barrel vault, rising above the lateral arches, spans the hall in the short direction. The main vault may reach a height of 20 meters or more. The thinner walls connecting the piers are non-load-bearing. In this group the three bath­ gymnasia of Ephesus—Harbor, East, and Vedius—as well as those of Sardis, Aezane, Ankara. Caunos, and possibly Alexandria Troas can be included (Fig 505; sec Figs. 336, 351,359, 360, 361. 350, 300, 355).' There is a superficial similarity between these halls with their massive frame structure of piers and bays and some of the caldaria of the imperial thermae in Rome, Fasolo pointed out the organizational correspondence between the Harbor Bath-Gymnasium of Ephesus and the row of heated halls of the Thermae of Titus as repre­ sented on the Palladio plan (see Fig. 152) 6 There are, nevertheless, fundamental differences between the two; the giant cross vaults of the Roman thermae create an expanding and plastic sense of space compared with the restricted space under the barrel vaults of Asian caldaria, whose rectilinear piers appear imprisoned within the confinement of the solid walls.

Halls with Deep Niches: Caldaria Halls of a second large rectangular ty pe, which were predominantly, though not exclusively, used as cal­ daria, are characterized by deep rectangular and semi­ circular niches carved into the thickness of masonry' walls (Fig. 506). These niches reach down to floor level. The walls are constructed of either solid ashlar work (as in Hierapolis, Laodiceia, and Tripolis; see

Architectural Element* and Motifs of Baths in

asu

Minor

-»19

Fig >U4 Çankjnkapj iCaracalhn i Baths. Ankara

Restored cutaw ay perspective of the frigidarium i Akok ).

Figs. 344,341,342), where the support system cannot be described as independent “point-piers,” or they arc constructed in mixed ashlar and small blocks (as in the Capito Baths and Faustina Baths in Miletus, or the West and East Baths of the Pergamene Gymnasium; see Figs. 301,303, 373.376, 377, 366, 368, 369), where there is a structurally effective pier system but it is buried in the thickness of the wall. In the latter the structure is not isolated and pulled out of the wall; rather, both the carrying and the fill elements of the wall are integrated into a massive and homogeneous whole, not unlike the “piers” of the Pantheon in Rome. In some examples, a semicircular (and semidomed) niche in the center of the longwalls is flanked by a pair of rectangular niches: the middle hall of the Baths of Capito and the main caldarium of the Baths of Faustina in Miletus, the caldaria of the Theater Bath-Gymnasium in Ephesus, the East Baths of the Pergamene Gymna­ sium, and the Upper Gymnasium Baths in Prienc (Fig. 506B: a,b,d;see Figs. 301, 303. 373, 375, 353, 366); or, a rectangu I ar niche in the center of the long walls is flanked by a pair of semicircular niches: the caldaria of the baths in Hierapolis and in Aphrodisias, the symmet­

rical pair of halls (double caldaria?) of the Stadium Baths in Laodiceia, the caldarium of CG Baths in Sardis, the caldarium of the Hadrianic phase of the baths in Samos, and the apsed middle hall (?*, possibly the frigidacium) of the Roman Baths in Caunos (Fig. 506A; see Figs. 344, 343, 341, 300). It is possible to view- the second category in two subgroups: (A) (he short ends of the hall terminate in plain walls or plain, vaulted al­ coves (Fig.506A: a, b. c, d, e, f); (B) one or bo th of the end walls terminate in semicircular and semidomed apses imparting a sense of direction and axial iry (Fig. 506B: a, b. c, d, e), such as the caldarium of the Faus­ tina Baths in Miletus (see Figs. 373, 376, 377), and the West and East Baths of the Hellenistic Gymnasium at Pergamon (see Fig. 366).’

Simple Rectangular Halls with Apses The simple barrel-vaulted rectangular hall with plain walls terminating in an apse constitutes a type com­ monly employed as caldarium in small and medium­ sized baths. Its use in imperial baths is rare (the two apsidal halts on either side of the Caracallan Baths in Ankara being an exception, Fig. 350). The walls of

Baihs and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

420

Fig. 505 Halls with projecting piers (caldaria), Asia Minor (Yegül).

a. Harbor Bath-Gymnasiums Ephesus

b, East Bath-Gymnasium,

Ephesus c Vedius Bath-Gymnasium,

Ephesus

d Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis e. Bath-Gymnasium, Alexandria Troas

f. Harbor Baths. Caunos

nyHHHir D d

Architectural Elements and Moüfs of Baths in Asia Minor

Fig. 5U6 Halls with deep niches i caldana 1. Asia Minor I Yegiil I

Short ends terminating tn flat walls or vaulted recesses.

A

a. BathGymnasium. Hierapolis

b. Hadrianic Baths. Aphrodisias c CG Baths. Sardis d. Stadium Baths. Laodiceia e. Roman Baths. Samos

Short ends terminating in apses.

B.

a. Baths of Faustina. Miletus b. Capito Baths, Miletus

c West Baths. Upper Gymnasium, Perga mon

d. East Baths. Upper Gymnasium. Perga mon e Harbor Baths. Caunos

421

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

these halls are not articulated by niches or recesses; the space is kept simple and stark. The main apse, however, expands to (he full width of the room and dominates the space; on the outside it is a strong facade element, often projecting from a row of parallel halls and open­ ing out to the landscape through large windows.8 It is a popular motif in the southern and southwestern prov­ inces in Asia Minor but also current in western bath planning. Numerous apsidal halls can be seen in Rough Cilicia: in the Bath 5B of Iotape and Bach II I IB and III-2Bof Anemurium. they arc employed in doubles and triples, the direction of the apses alternating (see Figs. 398, 399, 401, 402). In the Small Baths of Aspendos, a sin­ gle apsidal hall projects next to the caldarium (see Fig. 380). The projecting apsed hall is a distinguishing ele­ ment of the baths in many of the mountain cities of Lycia (Oenoanda, Kadyanda, Pinara. Tlos. and Arycanda; see Figs. 388, 390, 396, 394), and on the coast of central Lycia (Patara, see Fig. 392). At Perge’s South Gate Baths, a pair of apsidal halls are positioned next to each other in stepped fashion (sec Fig. 384). These baths provide one of the most monumental applications of the simple apsidal hall of Asia Minor.

Circular Rooms The use of circular chambers in Asia Minor is relatively rare Where they do occur they appear to have been applied without much consciousness of their architec­ tural potential. The}’ were used either as hot-steam rooms, with or without pools, following the Vitruvian formula, or, more frequently, as passage elements (or "heat locks”) connecting two different spaces with each other. In cither case, they were conceived primar­ ily as utilitarian elements displaying slightly decorative

intentions. Some examples can be found in the Claudian Baths of Capito in Miletus, the CG Baths in Sardis, the East Baths of the Upper Gymnasium in Pergamon, the Agora Baths in Side, and the Roman Baths in Samos (see Figs. 301, 304, 366, 383, 404,405). They were never used in the baths of the imperial type The most interesting use of the round chamber as an expressive element of bath planning in Asia Minor comes from the Roman baths at Caunos (see Fig. 300). Positioned directly on the axis between the caldarium and a rectangular hall with deep niches (F, possibly the frigidarium), and creating back-to-back curves with the

422

apse (and the semidome) of the latter, (he circular chamber of the Caunos Baths attempts to exploit the dynamic potential of the curve and the countercurve, the apse and the circle, characteristic of late Roman hath planning in Rome and the western provinces.

Halls for the Imperial Cult (Kaisersale) Characteristic of many bath-gymnasium complexes of Asia Minor is the so-called Kaisersaal ( imperial hall or somet i mes' ‘ Marble Hall”), often a si m pl e and spac ious rectangular hall or court associated with the Imperial Cult: a "Hall of Honor” for the ruling as well as the past, deified emperors and the imperial family; such hails contained provisions for the observance of the cult ritual at public or private levels.9 Normally, these halls opened into the palaestra through a screen of col­ onnades and displayed strikingly rich marble facades of superimposed aediculae. At least three good examples come from Ephesus: the Harbor Bath-Gymnasium, the East Bath-Gymnasium, and the Vedius Bath-Gymnasium (see Figs. 336, 337, 351, 352, 359). The positioning of the Kaisersaal on the building axis of the last-named example also provides a close parallel to the Marble Court of the bath-gymnasium at Sardis, an imperial hall now entirely restored (see Figs. 298, 360, 363. 364). According to the inscription carved on the first-story' architrave, the Marble Court was dedicated to Emperor Septi mius Severus, his wife Julia Domna, and their sons Caracalla and Gcta (see Fig. 365) Although no cult images were found in Sardis, a table-shaped altar (the "Eagle Tabic”) of imperial date, found reused inside the synagogue next door, might have been the altar of the Imperial Cult that once stood inside the main, west apse of t he Marble Cou rt. ’0 Other examp les, not so wel I preserved, come from Hicrapolis, Aphrodisias, and Ankara. The design origins of the imperial hall can be traced back to the ephebeum of the Hellenistic gymnasium (see Figs. 3, 14). Although the ephebeum cannot be shown to be directly connected with any cult activity', the Hellenistic Ruler Cult, an adjunct and forerunner of the Roman Imperial Cult, had been admitted into the gymnasium. Along with the Greek gymnasium and the heroon, as well as various centers of the Ruler Cult in the late Hellenistic world (such as the Kaisareion in Alexandria or the Heroon at Calydon, see Figs. 11, 12), many of the closely related porticus or quadriporticus buildings provide a social and

Architectural EIetnent$ and Uoufs of Baths ui Asia Hjnor

architectural background for the Roman Kaisersaal.'1 The Kaisersaal of the Roman baths desen es special emphasis not only because of the unusual visual wealth offered by its marble ornament and rich sculptural pro­ gram, but also because of its complex and symbolic relationship with the Imperial Cult expressed through the iconography of its architecture The polychromatic splendor of the multitiered columnar arrangements, the projecting and receding aediculae. and the rich mar­ ble statuary, may allude to kingly and palatial subjects and imperial themes. Inscriptions and statuary dis­ played in these halls also suggest a linkage between them and the Imperial Cult.’2 The drastic transformation of the simple interior of the Hellenistic ephebeum to a lavishly ornamented hall was in response to drastic changes in the function and social meaning of this space: instead of a main club room or classroom of an educational program, it be­ came a space meaningful for the entire city, dedicated to honor the reigning emperor and his family and the worship of the Imperial Cult in whose name the might and the magnificence of the Roman state were repre­ sented. It was fitting that, alongside the official temples dedicated to the Imperial Cult, a special place in the baths should be set aside for the same political intent and inspiration, for it was mostly in these luxurious ‘■palaces” for the people that the ideals of personal well-being took a concrete shape. And it was easy to impress the bather, relaxed in the warm water of a sparkling marble basin, that all good was owed to the prosperity made possible by a strong state and a divinely inspired, benevolent emperor. While the upper terrace of the Hellenistic Gymna­ sium in Pergamon was being reorganized to fit hot baths on the east wing of the peristyle, rooms on the north wing were enlarged and renovated to accommo­ date new needs. Hall G was rebuilt, with double apses and complexe marble decoration replacing the earlier Hellenistic exedra (Figs. 366, 367). The architrave in­ scription from this room honors the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as gods: this may confirm the observance of the Imperial Cult in this space and hence its identification as a Kaisersaal.'* To its west, hall H. or the Hellenistic ephebeum, received marble decora­ tion but retained its function during the Roman era as a ceremonial place as well as, possibly, an educational one, a classroom or a lecture room. The Hadrianic Baths in Hierapolis have two rectangu­

423

lar ha) Is facing each other across the palaestra and sepa­ rated from it by columnar screens. The northern unit, slightly larger and more open chan the southern one, and one which also exhibits a row of niches on its back walls, could have been intended for the Imperial Cult, although nothing remains of the original decoration (see Fig. 344). The same arrangement of double halls, a cult hall and a lecture room, facing each other across the palaestra, appears in two Ephesian bath-gymnasia: the lavishly decorated north hall of the Harbor BathGymnasium was the cult room, while the equally large pendant on the south was probably intended for meet­ ings and lectures (see Figs. 336, 337). This formula was followed in the East Bath-Gymnasium where two halls of moderate size faced each other across a palaes­ tra of mode rate size (see Figs. 351.352). The west hal 1, displaying a prominent central apse, a continuous po­ dium along its back walls, and an aedicular architecture over it, has been identified as the Kaisersaal; the east hall, entered through three symmetrically placed doors, was probably the center of sophistic activities in town and possibly connected with the renowned So­ phist philosopher Flavius Damianus, a citizen of Ephe­ sus, who may have dedicated this space, along with the cult hall, to Emperor Septimi us Severus.’4

Notes

Preface 1. J. Delaine, "Recent Research on Roman Baths," Journal of Roman Archaeology 1, 1938, 11 - 32 A very recent major ad­ dition is Inge Nielsen’s Thermae et Balnea. The Architecture and Cultural History of Roman Public Baths. 2 vols., Aarhus. 1990 See also the comprehensive bibliography (including "working" plans) on Roman baths by H. Manderscheid, Biblio* graphie zum römische Badewesen. Berlin, 1988.

2. K. M. Dunbabin. "Baiarum Grata Voluptas- Pleasuresand Dangers of the Baths,” PBSR 57, 1989,6-46. pls. 3-15.

Chapter I 1 Homer, Odyssey (trans. E. V. Rieu), 10, 165. 2. Ibid., 8, 233. 3. Athcnaeus, The Deipnosopbists (trans. C. H. Gulick), I,

24d-c

4 R. Ginouvès, Balaneutike. Paris. 1962. 216 ff.; H Licht, Sexual Life in Ancient Greece. New York, 1934, 99 ff. The new attitude toward bathing can be linked with the idea of ka loskagatbos («aâôç Kàvcrtfdç), a Greek concept which can be described roughly as the doctrine of "good and true men," and which gained popularity during the fourth and third centuries c. According to this notion, a person's sense of nobility could B. be measured by his style of living. Although a certain elegance, even a certain degree of mannered magnanimity, could be en« gendered by such an aristocratic attitude, it could easily degen­ erate into a luxurious and sybaritic lifestyle that centered around various forms of physical vanity; excesses of bathing and body-care were among its chief affectations. The aestheti­ cism and hyperclegance of the idle aristocracy of Athens, the "golden youth,” frequently provided material for criticism and mockery in ancient literature, echoed centuries later by the moral concerns expressed by the Romans on the subject of bathing. For a discussion of the origins and nature of kaioska gathos, see W. Donlan, "The Origins of xûvaftoç, AfP. 94.4, 1973. 365-74. For the Greek notion of the good life and the cult of the body, sec C M Bowra, The Greek Experience. New York, 1958, 85-102, esp. 92-94. See also V. Ehrenberg, The People of Aristophanes, Cambridge, Mass.. 1951, 99 ff.

5. Dio Chrysostom, Discourses (trans H. L. Crosby), 32, 9; Lu­ cian, Anacbarsis an Athletics (trans. A. H. Harmon). 6. Writing at the beginning of the second century, the urban amenities listed by Dio Chrysostom of Prusa include '’agora, theater, gymnasia, stoa" (Discourses. 48, 9). The gymnasium leads another list of urban amenities by Aellus Aristides of Symrna, who lived in the second century; "gymnasia, fountains, propvlaea. temples, shops, and schools" (Aellus Aristides, Roman Oration [Eiç Pityrçv; The ruling power], 97) Pausa­ nias’s criteria for a proper city are expressed in a description of Panopeus. "a city of the Phocaeans, if city ft can be called that has no government offices, no gymnasium, no theater, no agora.

:«•

‘

-|25

no water conducted to a fountain * (Pausanias Description of Greece (trans. W.H.S. Jones). 10, 4. 1 >

12. Polybius, Histories, 31,6.

7. In giving a legendär}'account of the colonization of Sardinia. Diodorus Siculus, a first-century-B c historian said that the leader lolaus “built gymmsia and temples of the gods and ev­ erything else that made human life happy " The happiness Dio­ dorus had in mind roust have been rhe kind attainable only in an urban setting in which the gymnasium and gymnastic educa­ tion symbolized rhe ideals of civilized behavior Diodorus of Sicily (trans. CH Oldfather), 5, 15. 12

14. J. Robert and L. Robert. “Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG 82, 1969. 493-94, no. 436.

8 It would seem that a certain sense of liberalism and sponta­ neity of the early gymnastic training was lost with its formaliza­ tion into a state-controlled educational program The initiation of the youth into the social and political activities of their elders, and the close personal relationship between the pupil and the teacher could have been among the qualities most se­ verely damaged. H. Marrou. A History of Education in Antiq­ uity (trans. G. Lamb), New York. 1964. 56. See also R. Manin. L'Urbanisme dans le Grec antique, Paris, 1956. 2“5; and A. R. Hands. Charities and Social Aid in Greece and Rome. London, 1968. 116-19.

9. A HM. Jones, Tbe Greek City, Oxford. 1940, 224; Marrou. Education. 157. In the Greek East, the diffusion of Hellenic culture went hand in hand with the diffusion of the gymna­ sium. The custom of establishing gymnasia also took root among non-Greek communities that aspired to embrace Hel­ lenic culture. Egypt, particularly, provides us with an extraor­ dinary amount of information about the proliferation and prominence of gymnasia during the Ptolemaic and Roman pe­ riods. See T. A. Brady, "The Gymnasium in Ptolemaic Egypt.” The University ofMissouri Studies 113, 1936, 9- 20; P. Jouget, “Remarques sur I’Sphebie dans l igypte romaine. ” RPbil 34. 1930, 43-56; idem, La vie municipal dans TEgypte ro­ maine, Paris, 1911, 68-70, 318-22. The city of Tyana, in re­ mote Cappadocia (central Anatolia), had a gymnasium at the end of the second century B.C.: SEG, I. no. 466; also see list of 128 gymnasium sices in J. Oehler. "Gymnasium,” Real-Ency­ clopedia (ed. G. Wissowa and W. Kroll), Stuttgart. 1912, 2006-8; for additions see D Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor, Princeton, 1950, II, 852-53- Even the Jews ofJerusa­ lem under the rule of Antiochus Epiphanes (c. 175 B.C ) peti­ tioned the king for the establishment of a gymnasium and the institution of ephebic training. Second Book of Maccabees, 4, 9-14. In view of Antiochus’s deliberate attempts at Helleniz­ ing the Jews under his rule, we might take this petition with a grain of salt.

10. C. A. Forbes, “Expanded Uses of the Greek Gymnasium,” CP 40, 1945. 32-42. 11. M. Guarducci. "Poeti vagantl e conferenzieri dcll’ctä eilenistica. Ricerche di epigrafia greca nel campo della ietteratura e del costume,” Memorie dei lincei 6, II 9. Rome, 1929, 62755; Forbes, “Expanded Uses,” 33-36. Agias. the head of the gymnasium (gvmnasiarch) in Pergamon, around 133 B.C., was honored for receiving cordially all lecturers who came from abroad. J. Jacobsthal. “Die Arbeiten zu Pergamon,” AM 28, 1908, 380, no. 2. The Athenian ephebesof 123-122 B.C. were commended for their “faithful attendance at the lectures of Zenodotus at the Pcolemeion and the Lyceum, and likewise of all the philosophers in the Lyceum and the Academy through­ out the school year." LG. II, no. 1006. 19. At Samothrace, a de­ cree informs us of the lectures and performances in the local gymnasium by visiting doctors, architects, musicians, and writ­ ers. P M. Fraser, inscriptions on Stone in Samothrace (Sa­ mothrace, 11.1, ed. K. Lehmann), New York, 1959, no. 8.

13. Plutarch, Lives, Anthony. 54. 3-4.

15. E. Ziebarth, A us dem griechischen Schulwesen, Berlin, 1914, 158. A public feast was held at the gymnasium at Acgialc on Amorgos at the end of the second century B.C ; a carcass of beef was displayed as the pièce de résistance. IG, XU.7. no. 515; see also IG. IV, no. 4.

16.

POxy (ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt), XVH. no. 2147.

17. OGIS (ed Dittengerger), I. no. 3- For other inscriptions re­ cording observances of the royal cult associated with gymnasia, see L. Robert. Études Anatoliennes, Paris. 1937, 175-76. 239; Robert and Robert, "Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG. 1953, 169. no. 178. 18. R. Mellor, Thea Roma. Tbe Worship of tbe Goddess Roma in the Greek World, Gottingen, 1975, csp. 20-21 19. J. Delorme, Gymnasion, Paris, 1960. 260 ff ; Jones, Greek City, 221 -23, 325; Magie, Roman Rule, II, 62. 855-60; Marrou, Education. 163; V Chapot, Le Province romaine dAsie, Paris. 1904, 226, 278 ff.: Hands, Charities, 141-42. 20. A stele pur up bv the people in the gymnasium at Eretria, Greece, c. 100 b.C., honoring their virtuous and indefatigable gym nasi arch Elpinikos, may be taken as typical in re-creating the concerns of this important office: R. B Richardson and T W. Heermance, “Inscriptions from the Gymnasium at Ere­ tria.” AJA 11, 1896. 173-95. A mid-second-century-B.c. in­ scription from Beroea, in Macedonia, recorded the oath taken by the gymnasiarch and the rules according to which the office was conducted. J.M.R. Cormack. "The Gymnasiarchal Law of Beroea,” Ancient Macedonia, 11, Thessalonica, 1977, 139-50; SEG. XXVll.no. 261. 21. A primary source for donations and endowments for gymna­ sia of the Greek and Roman periods is B Laum, Süßungen in der griechischen und römischen Antike, Leipzig, 1964 (re­ print of 1914 original), vols. 1, II. esp. nos. 28, 90, and 129See also W. Liebcnam, Städteverwaltung im römischen Kai­ serreiche, Leipzig, 1900, 117-21; Ziebarth, Schulwesen, 70-71. 22 A. Wilhelm, “Inschriften aus Halicamassos undTheangela.” ÖJh 11, 1908, 53 f., nos. I, 2. In Pergamon, the gymna­ siarch Diodorus contributed generously toward the rebuilding and maintenance of the city’s magnificent gymnasium complex and urged rhe other citizens co contribute by starting a benefit society for the project, 127 b.C. H. Hepding. "Die Inschriften," AM 32, 1907, 257, no. 8; OGIS, 11, no. 764.

23. V. Scully, Jt,

Louis Kahn, New York. 1962. 115.

24. Plato, in his ideal city, conceived the gymnasium outside the city center, situated in the green and shady atmosphere of a park. Plato, Laws, VI, 761D; Critias, 112C. 25. W Judeich. Topographie von Athen. Munich. 1931. 41214; J. Travlos. Pictorial Dictionary ofAncient Athens. Lon­ don. 1971. 42-53. fig 59; 345, fig 219: 379, 340; see also Pausanias, 2, 378-96. For a discussion on the nature and early development of the Greek Gymnasium, see Stephen L. Glass, “The Greek Gymnasium; Some Problems,” in The Archaeology of the Olympics, ed W J. Raschke, Madison, 1988, 155-73 26. Plutarch,

Lives. Cimon, 13, 8.

27. Strabo, Geography. 12, 4, 7.

Notes to pages 9-21

28. The architectural and terminological relationship between “gymnasium” and “palaestra” can be confusing. Architectur­ ally« the palaestra can be identified as an independent Mructure of the quadri port icus type In this form, it was often privately owned and functioned as a school for younger children, or it was generally known as a school for wrestling. Its architectural restrictions made the palaestra suitable for sports that did not require vast open spaces. A palaestra is a part of a gy mnasium although it can exist without a gymnasium: but no gymnasium can be complete without a palaestra. Delorme. Gymnasion, 267-70: N Gardiner. Athletics in tbe Ancient World, Oxford, 1930. 72: Marrou, Education, 180; Glass, “The Greek Gymna­ sium,” 162-67. 29. The role and significance of the open courtyard as a defin­ ing and form-giving element can vary considerably. It depends, roughly, upon the excent to which the periphery of the court is occupied bv rooms. Practical and economical reasons might make it impossible and unnecessary co surround all four sides of a courtyard with rooms; three, two, or even one side could prove quite sufficient. Although these factors affect the architectural tenor of the composition — a building “attached” to a courtyard as opposed to one “made” by it —the basic idea of unify ing the diverse functions of an institution by relating its rooms to setniopen colonnades and to a central architecturally fixed open space remains unchanged 30. J Jannoray, I.e Gymnase Fouilles de Delphes, Paris, 1953, 11 ff ; Delorme, Gymnasion, 76-80, figs. 10-12. 31. Delorme, Gymnasion. 102 - 14; E. Kunze and H. Schleif, IV. Bericbt uber Ausgrabungen in Olympia, Berlin, 1944, 831; L. Drees. Olympia. London. 1968, 46-47; A. Mallwitz, Olympia und seine Bauten. Munich. 1972, 280-84. It has re­

cently been suggested that in Epidaurus, the large quadriporticus building commonly identified as a palaestra Is a banqueting hall, although the reasons supporting this hypothesis are no more cogent than the reasons for the traditional palaestra argu­ ment (R. A. Tomlinson, Epidaurus, Austin. Tex . 1983, 78-82).

32 Vitruvius, 5, 11, I. Cf. n 34.

33. Once established in Delphi and Olympia, there appears to be little change in the basic palaestra type (a courtyard build­ ing with an interior peristyle colonnade) until the Roman era. Delorme suggested two main plan types, the “municipal” and the “panhcllcnicThe municipal type is a smaller, simpler es­ tablishment intended to serve only one town and its immediate neighbor* The panhellenic type is, ordinarily, a gymnasium where the panhellenic games took place: Olympia, Epidaurus, Delphi, Pergamon. Gymnasia of this type are more impressive in size and facilities, better built and better adapted to accommodate large numbers of contestants and audience. This classi­ fication Is, however, merely for convenience. There is no sharp demarcation between the two suggested types and many oc­ cupy intermediate positions between the two. Delorme. Gym­ nasion, 409-17. The recent excavation and the resulting reconstruction proposed for the gymnasium at Samos (early third century b.c.) represents one of the largest Hellenistic gymnasia known (see Fig. 5). The design proposed by W. Mar­ tini shows a rectangular loutron with a large, square swimming pool in the center (c. 14.80 X 15.70 m.) flanked by a pair of vast peristyle courtyards; one is named palaestra. The 250mecer-long southern front of the complex, along the sea, was built up with a covered running track (xystus), tribunes for the spectators, and a stadium. The overall design follows the earlier model provided by the Delphi gy mnasium. During the first and second centuries, the gymnasium complex in Samos

H 26

was entirely covered over by a monumental Roman bath which retained the alignment and some of the ashlar foundations of the earlier building and incorporated some of the architectural ornament as spolia Until harder field evidence can be pro­ duced. the exciting proposal for the Samos gymnasium must re­ main hypothetical. W. Man ini. Das Gymnasium von Samos (Deutsche Archäologisches Instituts. XVI), Bonn. 1984, 3-102, fig 40, see also review by F. K. Yegül in AJA 90. October 1986, 496-98.

34. Delorme. Gymnasion, 489-94; idem, “Étude architectu­ rale sur Vitnive, V, 11, 2,” ¿K7/73. 1949. 398-420. 35. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture (trans. M. H. Morgan). New York, I960. 159-62. 36. An original document of foremost importance that informs us about the general disposition of the Greek gymnasium of the second century b.c is the inventory of the Gymnasium at Delos under the archonate of Callicratos, 156-155 b.c. The names of different parts of the building given in relation to each other and in connection with the votive objects displayed inside them are: exedra (ephebeion. epbebeum in Latin), apodyte rion, sphairisterion, epistasion (?), and loutron. J. Auditat. “La Gymnase de Delos et l’inventaire de Kallistratos.“ RCH 54, 1930. 95- 130. A separate function apparent from an inscrip­ tion was brought to my attention by D. R. jordan; enkritertos oikos was a room in the gymnasium where the athletes were examined as candidates before the games. 1 know of no other reference to it IG, IV, no. 203. A special room for ball games, referred to as the sphairisterion (sphaeristerium in Latin) in inscriptions though not in Vitruvius, appears to have been a stock element of the Greek palaestra. Inscriptions from Delphi and Delos, which record the construction of spbairisteria as spaces with carefully leveled floors of “black earth,” indicate that a sphairisterion could be an outdoor ball court as well as an indoor one (E. Bourguet, Épigraphie, les comptes du 4e siècle, Fouilles de Delphes, 111.5), Paris. 1932, no. 3862; BCH 23, 1899, 37, 566 f. See also H. A. Harris. Sport in Greece and Rome, New York, 1969. 84 ff; J Delorme. “Sphairisterion et gymnase à Delphes, à Délos et ailleurs,” BCH 106,1982, 53-73-

37. One should, however, consider that the cramming of many activities next to each other in the gymnasium or the palaestra scenes on Greek vases may have been the result of pictorial ne­ cessity, a desire for maximum representation. N. E. Gardiner, Athletics. 82 ff . pl. 44 (Attic red-figure callix crater, Berlin An­ tiquarium, no. 2180), pl. 45 (Attic red-figure kylix. Thomwaldsen Museum. Copenhagen); Jones. Greek City, 220-21: Delorme, Gymnasion, 269-300. 38. Vitruvius, 5, 11, 339. For an early but important collection of bathing and palaes­ tra scenes on vases, see K. Südhoff, Aus dem antiken Badewe sen, Berlin, 1910; for the Berlin vase pp. 62-63, fig. 46. Sec also E. Pfuhl. Malerei und Zeichnung der Griechen, Munich. 1923, 316, 318, fig. 295, and B. Schröder, Der Sport im Alter­ tum, Berlin, 1927. Representations of bathing scenes in Roman art, especially in major painting, arc relatively rare. A good ex­ ample are the paintings from the apse of the caldarium in the House of Menander in Pompeii (see Fig. 139a).

40. Südhoff, Antike Badewesen, 59-61, figs. 45a, 45b M. Robertson, in his Greek Painting, Geneva, 1959, 87-88, identifies the scene as “men washing at fountain.” 41. Gardiner. Athletics. 85. figs 60a, 60b, Südhoff, Antike Badewesen, 50-51, fig. 40. 42. Ginouves, Balaneutike, 129 n. 7.

\otes te pjíe* 21 - Ji

43. T. Wiegand and H. Schrader, Priene. Berlin. 190-». 2“0?1: m. Schede. Die Ruinen von Priene. Berlin 1965 83-84. figs. 99. 100. In the Gymnasium at Delos, che room identified as “loutron” with the help of the ’Inventory of Calhstratos" occupies a comparable position to its counterpart in Priene The northwest comer room in the gymnasium of Erctna origi­ nally had several interconnected basins, four of which have been preserved (see Fig. 17). P Auberson and K. Schefold. Führer durcb Bretria. Bcm 1972, 99-104. 44. The Gymnasium at Samos might have had a similar precinct for the loutron, with even a larger, square pool (c. 15 X 15 m.) (see Fig. 5). The loutron of the Nemea gymnasium, dated to the third century b.c., displays an unusual arrangement The south half of the west wing of the gymnasium is one level lower than the rest and divided into roughly three equal parts Stairs lead down to a large plunge pool, about I meter in depth; the side units have rows of connected basins along their exterior walls. C. Blegen, ' Excavations at Nemea, 1926,” AJA 3!, 192?. 4 30-35. The excavations in the gymnasium area in Corinth have uncovered an underground bathing chamber containing rows of tub-shaped basins of poros. Water was conducted into the basins in lead pipes with lion-headed spouts of limestone. The washroom is connected with an open courtyard with a swimming pool. This arrangement, dated to the Hellenistic pe­ riod. is quite atypical of an independent Greek bath. Could it have been a part of the Hellenistic gymnasium that was a pre­ cursor to the Roman one occupying this area?J. Wiseman, ’’The Gymnasium Area at Corinth, 1969-1970,” Hesperia 41, 1972, 42, fig. 5. 1-

45. The earliest reference to an aieipterion in connection with a gymnasium is from an inscription dated 274 B.C. found in Delos: IG, XI, 2, no. 199; Delorme. Gymnasion. 301-3; also see A. Mau. RF., 2745. Jn an inscription about the mysteries of Andania, there is a section related to warm oil unctions and baths: an agoranomos is reminded of his duties of supplying sufficient dry wood for the aieipterion, which is said to be in daily use from four co seven o’clock. /G, V, 1, no*. 1390 and 1106. In a separate study Clive Foss analyzed che meaning of the term aieipterion in connection with two inscriptions found in rhe Roman bath-gymnasium complex in Sardis. By studying documents dating from the fourth century' B.c. to the late fourth century (including a tenth-century text in the Souda). Foss concluded that although the text* dating up to the time of Augustus reveal a consistent implication that aieipterion'' is a special heated room, a pan of a gymnasium or a bath, a change in the meaning of the term took place under the Roman Empire when it was used to indicate the whole of the bathing establishment. C. Foss. ‘Aieipterion,’’ GRBS 16.2, 1975, 26. 21746. Wrong Logic: . Watch how deftly I expose his vaunted education. Against the hot baths, first of all, he enjoys a pro« hibicion. What, I pray, is the rationale? What is wrong with a bath? Right Logic: It’s worst of all for a growing boy; it reduces him to lath. Wrong Logic: Just a minute! I’ve got you there; from my hold you’ll never wrest. Of Zeus’ sons who labored most, whom do you regard the best? Right Logic: Herakles without doubc, he is che strongest of the lot Wrong Logic: Were not his baths at Thermopylae always steam­ ing hot? Right Logic: By quibbling like this are lad* ruined I declare; the bath-houses it fills and leaves the gymnasium bare. (Aristophanes, Clouds in The Complete Plays of Aristophanes (trans. M. Hadas), 1971, 129-30).

4’ Posidonius (ed. F Jacoby). V, 21 OF, and XU, 527E See De­ lorme, Gymnasion, 246.

48. Delorme, Gymnasion, 244-45 n. 4. 49. C. Diehl and G. Cousin, ‘Inscriptiones de Lagina,” BCH 2, 188^, 145; 51, 1927, 63.

Stiffungen. 11. "2, no. 62. 51 J. Delorme, Les Palestres (Expédition Archéologique de Delos, XXV), Paris, 1961, 141-47; idem, Gymnasion, 247 52 . P. Schazmann, Das Gymnasion (AJtertümer von Pergamon, VI. 2), Berlin, 1923, 83-84; Delorme, Gymnasion, 248 An 50 Laum,

important document ofc. 130-100 B.C., from Sescos in the Dardanelles, provides a clear illustration of a case where the late Hellenistic gymnasium of the town was linked with hoc baths: Menas, the gymnaslarch, in addition to being honored for his generosity and his exemplary performance of the regular duties of his office (such as educating and disciplining the cphebe* and the neoi, providing supplies and equipment for the gymnasium, establishing a new racing competition, sacrific­ ing on the birthday* of the king), is commended for providing the baths annexed to the gy mnasium (OG/S, no. 339 — IBM. [V, 2, no. 1000; also see Hands, Charities. l43,D-55)Aninscription of 84 B.c. from Priene records that the gyranasiarch Aemilius Sextus Zosimus donated funds for heating the ”steam bath” (KQffw^ttyMov) all winter long and supplied oil to the baths and the gymnasium (F M. von Gaertringen, Inscbriften von Priene. Berlin, 1906, 112, 1.63-64,86-87; 113. 1.78. Also see SIG, 340-41). At Cyme, Asia Minor, about 2 B.c., the neoi received a bath building from Lucius Vaccius and some property whose income would be applied by the gymnasiarch toward the maintenance of these baths (IGRR. IV, no. 1302; Magic. Roman Rule. II, 885).

53. Plato, Laws. Vil, 795B-796, 813-815; VIII. 832E-835; Aristotle, Politics, Vlll. 1337-1339; Cicero, De Oratore. 2, 5, 21. 54. The graduating ephebic class donated one hundred manu­ script rolls each year to the library of the Pcolemaion of Athens (ZG. II, nos. 465-466, 480). The library of the gymnasium at Halicarnassos had works by local and visiting scholars (P. Le Bas and W. H. Waddington. Voyage archéologique en Grèce et en Asie Mineure, HI, 3, Pari*, 1876, 391, no. 1618). Inscrip« rions from Pergamon mention a ’’gymnasium library" of the second century B.C. (H. Hepding, "Die Arbciten zu Pergamon: Die Inscbriften,” AM 33, 1908, 383-84) . According to its cat­ alogue, the library of the gymnasium in Rhodes might have contained a special collection on cultural politics (L. Robert. * ' Notes d Épi graphie Hel lénlstique, * ’ BCH 59, 1935.424-25; idem, "Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG 51. 1938, 447, no. 265). Another special collection seems to have been kept tn the li bracy of the second-century b.c. gymnasium at Tauromcnion (Taormina), Sicily. An alphabetical list of historical authors has been preserved, inscribed on the wall plaster. See G Manganaro. "Una biblioteca scorica nell gin nasi 0 di Tauromenione e il P Oxy. 1241," PP29. 1974, 384-409; see also C. Callmer, "Antike Blbliothekcn," OpArcb 10, 1944. 145-94. 55. Athenaeus. The Deipnosopbisis, 12, 518. 56. Ginouvès. Balaneutike, 385-86; A. Fürtwangler. Aegina, das tieiligtum der Apbaia, Munich, 1900, 94-95. 57. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary, 180-81, fig. 236.

Notes to p ages 24-32

58. A small rectangular room (2.30 X 2.50 m.) located north­ east of the lower Gymnasium terrace in Delphi appears from the discovery of a single hip bath built into the structure co have been intended for pleasure baching Dated in the fifth cen­ tury BC, the Delphi baths are among the earliest examples that make double use of a furnace as a stove and a boiler; the hot air from the large fire chamber of che boiler is circulated into the room by terra-cotta pipes and through the perforated brick walls R. Ginouvès, "Une salle de bain Hellénistique à Delphes,’* BCHTb, 1952, 546-59. For Olympia, Kunze and Schleif, Olympia ¡V, 32 ff-: Mallwitz, Olympia, 270-72. This system, or its variations, continued to be used in the many small bathing establishments in the eastern Mediterranean well into the Roman era even when advanced techniques of floor heating were made possible 59. Ginouvès, Balaneutike, 12-17, 192, tigs. 5-9; J M. Cook, "Bath-Tubs in Ancient Greece,” GaR6, 1959, 31-41, pls. 189-92.

60. Compare the plans of some of the rock-carved Greek baths such as the ones in Gyrene and Piraeus to the prehistoric sanc­ tuary groupings in Malta, In Gigantija on the island of Gozo, and in Hagar Qim. S. Giedion. Architecture and tbe Phenome­ non of Transition, Cambridge, Mass., 1971, 20-68, esp. 4852, figs. 14, 18, 19 61. R. G. Goodchild, Kyrene und Apollonia, Zurich, 1971, 135; S Stucchi, Arcbitettura cirenaiaca, Rome, 1975, 47980. See also G R H. Wright, "Cyrene: A Survey of Certain Rock* Cut Features to the South of the Sanctuary of Apollo, " JHS 77, 1957, 301-10. 62. Ginouvès, Balaneutike. 158-59.

63. Ginouvès, Ridaneutike, 159, 194; A. W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture. Baltimore, 1967, 269, fig. 155; J. M. Sears, “A Greek Bath,” AJA 8, 1904, 216-26. 64. Ginouvès, Balaneutike, 126, 185, 206-7; idem. "L’Établissement thermal de Gorrys d’Arkadie," BCH79. 1955, 331-34. 65. C. K. Williams, 11, Corinth 1976: Forum Southwest," peria Á6. 1977, 45-53, fig. 2. 66. J. Schwarz and H. Wild, Qasr-Qarun/Dionysias Cairo. 1950. 54-62, pls. 8-14.

Hes­

1948,

Chapter 2 1. Corpus Glossariorum Latinorum (ed. G. Goetz), Leipzig, 1892, 22 ff. In this excerpt taken from a collection of bilingual schoolbooks known as Hermeneumata Ps. Dositbeana, dated c. 200- 300, a Roman schoolboy describes going to the baths after school. "Bathing" contributes a significant segment of the "scenes from daily life" or narratives {de conversation* coti­ diana') chat make up the typical Roman day. Others are getting up, school, business, lunch, dinner, and bedtime. The texts we have are all medieval copies dating from the late seventh ceotury onward. For a new approach co the nature and meaning of the Hermeneumata, and a new version copied by one Conrad Celtes at Sponheira in 1495, sec A. C. Dlonisotti, "From Auso­ nius’ Schooldays? A Schoolbook and its Relatives," JRS 72, 1982, 83-125.

2. The construction, management, and supervision of Roman baths, public and private, were regularized by a complex sys­ tem of legal codes and provisions. A wealth of literary and epi­ graphical sources allow us to appreciate the breadth and thoroughness of its coverage and the seriousness with which

428

this legal framework was applied across the vast empire over time. For a richly documented discussion of baths as repre­ sented in the broad spectrum of Roman law and civic codes, see O. Robinson, "Baths; An Aspect of Roman Local Govern­ ment Law," in Sodalitas. Scritii in onare di Antonio Guarino, Naples, 1984, III, 1065-82. A useful new source on Roman baths and bathing life in general is the exhibition catalogue edited by Marinella Pasquinucci and prepared in connection with an exhibition in the recently excavated baths at Vada (near Pisa). A very large portion of the catalogue is devoted to numerous short essays by no fewer than twenty-two authors ex­ ploring the development of Roman baths and bathing. The essay's reflect popular and traditional viewpoints, but there is a delightful set of new cartoons created by Alberto Fremura illus­ trating aspects of the Roman bathing world; they are as amusing as they are didactic. M. Pasquinucci, ed.. Terme romane e Vila quotidiana, Modena, 1987. A more specialized modem study which provides a critical assessment of Roman baths and bath­ ing based on literary and epigraphical evidence, and In particu­ lar on a new examination of the Scriptores Historia* Augusta*, is by E. W. Menen. Bäder und Radegepfiogenbeiten in der Darstellung der Historia Augusta (Antiquitas Reihe 4. Band 16). Bonn, 1983- Merten aptly warns the reader that attribution of the bath-related habits and activities of certain emperors in this fourth-century source may reflect contemporary ethics and codes of desirable imperial conduct rather than historical fact. Yet, while the information concerning the acts of particular emperors may be misleading, it is still a useful source for baths since it is based (even at an anecdotal level) on faces and ac­ tual. widely disseminated social habits garnered from the world of baths.

3. Notltia Urbis Regionum (written c. 334-357): 11 thermae, 856 balnea. Curiosum Urbis Romae Regionum XIV (written c. 357-403): 10 thermae, 856 balnea. R. Valeniini and G. Zucchecti, Codice topográfico della cittd di Roma. Rome, 1940.1. 153-54; H. Jordan, Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, Berlin. 1981 (reprint of 1907), II, 568, 573. 4. Libanius, Opera, II (ed. R. Foerster, 1909-27). 305 On public baths as a vital necessity of civic life in ancient towns and villages, see L. Robert, RPhil 18. 1943, 115 ff.

5. Seneca, Apocolocyntosis DM Claudii (The pumpkinification of Claudius; trans. A. N. Athanassakis, 1973), 13, 2. 6. Apuleius, The Golden Ass (trans. W. Adlington and S. Gaselee), I, 23. 7. Cicero, Letters to his Friends (trans. W. G. Williams). 14, 20. 8. Pliny, Letters, 2. 17, 26 Also see 2, 6 for the description of the Tusculan villa and its baths. 9 • An exception is the bath on the second floor of the House of the Painted Vaults in Ostia (III, 5-1). J. Packer. "The Insulae of Imperial Ostia," MAAR 31, 1971, 169 (room 10).

10. Martial (trans. W.C .A. Ker), 6, 42 Statius, Silvae (trans. S. H. Mozley), 1. 5. 11. Martial (trans. W.C.A. Ker), 7, 34. 12. Martial (trans. J. Pott). 2,48. 13. F K Yegül, "The Small City Bath in Clxssical Antiquity,"

ArcbCl 31, 1979, 113 14. A. Beschaouch. R. Hanoune, and Y. Thébert. Les Ruines de Bulla Regia, Rome, 1977, 31 ff. 15. Libanius. Opera 11, 231,245 16. Athenaeus. The Deipno&ophists, V, 194a-b; also Polybius, Histories, 26. 1. 12 ff

1" Ina popular anecdote, Hadrian was surprised to see an old soldier acquaintance in rhe public baths rubbing bis back against the marble wall because be could not afford to keep slaves or pay the bath attendants to massage him The emperor gave him slaves and money for their upkeep A few davs later, again at the public baths, a row of old men scraping themselves busily against the walls and columns confronted him: the witty emperor disappointed them by saying that the}' should take turns rubbing each other down (SHA, Hadrian. I”. 5} Titus and Alexander Severus are reported to have used the public baths frequently and in the company of the people (Suetonius, Titus, 8, 2; SHA, Alex. Sev., 13,1).

28. The Roman day was divided into twelve hours from sunrise to sunset and from sunset to sunrise. An hour was one «twelfth of the time in either one of these periods; consequently, its length varied from season to season. Midday was the sixth hour. E. D. Thatcher calculated that the tench hour would approxi­ mate 2:30-3:00 P.M. in winter and 4:00-4:30 p.m. in summer. An approximate conversion table for Roman time from the first to the twelfth hour for winter and summer is given in E Brödner, Die römischen Thermen und das antike Badewesen, Darmstadt, 1983, 128; E. D. Thatcher. “The Open Rooms of the Terme del Foro at Ostia,” MAAR 24, 1956. 181 n. 40.

18. The egalitarian nature of bathing did not cover the slaves although they accompanied their masters to the baths or worked in bathing establishments as attendants. In an amusing epigram of Martial (8, 67), the rude caller who had arrived for dinner at an untimely hour—barely midday “-was cold that the household was quite unprepared to receive guests because the slaves and servants had all left for baths in the city. It ap* pears that when the slaves did not bathe at home, the)* used the public baths during the hours between the women’s session in the morning and the men’s in the afternoon. Universal themes, the enjoyment of the thermal environment ar physical, social, and psychological levels, arc explored sensitively by L. Hes* chong, Thermal Delight in Architecture, Cambridge, Mass , 1979, esp. 44-49.

30. Martial, 10, 70; 3. 36.

19. Seneca, Letters, 56. 20. Varro,

On the Latin Language, 11,41, 68.

21. ‘Balnea virilia utraque et muliebre,” ILS (“Dessau, 11, no. 5683; CIL, XTV, no. 2121) from Lanuvium, Italy; “balneum virile ct muliebre,” CIL. IX, no. 1667, from Bcncvcntum, Italy; ‘ pacer testamentjo) legavit ut ex reditu eius summ[ae) in perpe* mum viri et impuberes atriusque sexuus gratis laventur,” CIL, IX, no. 720. from Bononia; ‘Alfia P. fplia] Quart[a balneum| muliebre a solo [fecic|, eadem lapide va(rio ex)omavit, labrum acn[eum] cum foculo sedes posu[it pecunia sua],M CIL, IX, no. 3677, about baths reserved for women, from Marsi Marruvium. Under Alexander Severus, a “balnea feminarum." which was a part of the imperial palace and cared for by eunuchs, is reported (SHA. A lex. Sev., 23. 5). The same emperor punished the soldiers who were bathing and drinking in the “women's baths” at Daphne, a fashionable suburb of Antioch on the Orontes (SHA, Alex. Sev., 53. Iff). 22. Vitruvius, 5, 10, 1. 23. Martial. 7. 67; 3. 51; 3, 72; 11,47; Juvenal, Satires, 6,412 ff.: Pliny, H.H., 33, 152-53 24. SHA, Hadrian, 18, 10. The ban was revoked under Marcus Aurelius, but raised under Elagabalus. (SHA. Marcus Aurelius, 33, 8; Heliogabalus, 31,7; Alex. Sev.. 54, 2. See also Dio Cas­ sius. Roman History, 69, 8, and Codex Justinlanus (ed. P KmgerandT. Mommsen, Berlin, 1893), 5, 18; 11, 2.

CIL, V, no. 579. 26. R. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light ofRecent Discov­ eries, London, 1897, 92. An inscription recording recent resto­ 25.

rations of the thermal baths at Pharzimonites (Havza). in Pantos, Asia Minor, informed the citizens that “Jovinux made separate halls for men and women in the interests of decency ’’ SEG, IV, no. 729; L. Robert, “Epigrammes relatives 3 des gou< vemeurs." Hellenical. 1948, 83

27. Vitruvius, 5, 10. 1. Pliny’s elderly friend Spurinna bathed around 3:00 p.m. in the winter and 2:00 P.M. in the summer (Pliny, Letters, 3, 1,8).

29. Martial (trans. W C A Ker), 10, 48.

31. Suetonius,

Augustus, 76, 2.

32. Juvenal. Satires, 6, 421 f. 33. Alexander Severus “donated oil for the lighting of the baths, whereas previously these were not open before dawn and were closed before sunset” (SHA, Alex. Sev. [trans. D. Magie], 24, 6). The early closing hours were reinstated by Em­ peror Tacitus to avoid possible nighttime disturbance (SHA, Tacitus, 10). 34. Cod. Jus., 8, 11, 19 (“Cod. Theod., 15, 1, 52). 35. Pliny. Letters (trans. B. Rad ice), 9. 36. In the Hermeneumata (sec n. 1). the bathing sequence is clear and in roughly the following order: arriving ar the baths, preferably with an escort (slave, servant carrying bathing guar and garments); pay­ ing a fee, undressing, and storing clothes and belongings; hav­ ing the body oiled and anointed (possibly in a special room); taking a sweat bath followed by being immersed in a hot cub; going (outside^) to the cold pool and swimming in it; scraping the body wich a scrigil and having it dried thoroughly with a towel by an attendant (“Give me a towel, dry me well, head and shoulders, chest and belly, hands and sides, back and thighs, knees and shanks, feet and heels.“); dressing (“Go, dress yourself e legantly and wcl I—grab your master and dress!”); concluding wishes upon bathing and thanking the bath master for a good bath and going home (“Bathe well, and may it all go well with you! I give thanks to the bach master, he washes warmly; farewell, master!”). 1 give thanks to Linda Gil* I (son for helping me with these passages. See Dionlsotti, “From Ausonius' Schooldays,” 102-3. 36. SHA, Alex. Sev. (trans. D. Magie), 30, 4 ff.: “After reading he would devote himself co exercise, either ball playing, or running or some mild wrestling Then, after having himself rubbed with oil, he would bathe, but rarely, if ever, in a hot bath, for he always used a swimming pool, remaining in ic about an hour; and before he cook any food he would drink about a pint of cold water from the Claudian aqueduct. On coming out of the bath he would cake a quantity of milk and bread, some eggs, and a drink of mead.” 3’’. in the Forum Baths in Pompeii, attached co a Urge ring, were found several sizes of scrigils and an ampulla, obviously from the toilet kit of a bather. The collection Is now in the Naples Archaeological Museum. See illustration in J. O. Overbeck, Pompeji und seinen Gabüuden. Altertümer und Kunst­ werken. Leipzig, 1844, 322, fig. 245 See also Martial, 12, 82; 14, 51; 82, 7; Apuleius, Florida, 1,9. 34; Plautus, The Per­ sian. 1. 3, 44.

Sores ro pages 34-39

430

38. ”. . . one of these pampered people . . . when he had been lifted by hands from the bath and placed in his sedan Chair, said question ingly: Am 1 now seared?' ’’ Seneca, Moral Essays (trans. J. W Rasore). 10. 12. 7. Sec also Lucian. The Wisdom o/Nigrinus (trans. A. Harmon), 34, and Petronius. Sa­ tyricon (trans. E. 11. Warmingcon), 27-29 f.

50. Elder Cato was proud that his son’s strict athletic education enabled him "to swim lustily through the eddies and billows of the Tiber.” Plutarch, Cato Major (trans. B. Perrin), 20, 45. See also Suetonius. Augustus, 64; Cicero, Pro Caelio, 15, 36; Horace, Odes, 3, 7, 25; 3, 12, 7; Ovid, Tristia, 3, 12. 21: Seneca. Letters, 83, 5.

39. Mania!. 12, 70; Seneca, Letters, 56, 2, Apuleius, Tbe Golden Ass, 9, 21. The problem was an old one: epigraphical evidence from the Greek gymnasium in Pergamon reveals that the gymnasiarch Metrodorus, who renovated the baths, took precautionary measures against theft of bathers’ clothes. P. Schazmann, Das Gymnasion (Alcertumcr von Pergamon, VI. 2). Berlin. 1923, 6.

51. According to Dio Cassius. Maecenas. Augustus’s close friend and a noted patron of the arts in Rome, was the first to build a heated public swimming pool in Rome; unfortunately a de script ion of this pool is not given. Roman History, 55, 7, 6. One of the few deep professional swimming pools of the Roman world of which we have a full archaeological record is :n the palaestra at Herculaneum The natatioof the Legionary Fortress Baths at Isca (Caerleon, Wales) also had a deep end reaching 1.60 m

40. In refuting the claim (hat the Senian Baths had been chosen the meeting place between Licinius and Caeli us in order to exchange poison (so that Licinius could be caught in the act), Cicero argued: “For why had she specially fixed on the public baths, where I do not see that there could be any hiding-place for men in their togas? For if they were in the vestibule they would not be hidden; but if they wanted to pack themselves away inside, (hey could not conveniently do so in their shoes and outdoor dress, and perhaps would not be admitted— unless possibly that lady of influence had bought the favor of the bath-man [balneaior} by her usual farthing deal." Pro Cuelio (trans R. Gardner), 26, 63 41. Martial. 7, 67. 42. Martial (trans. WC.A. Ker). 4,19; also see 14, 126. Martial also mentions the "galericulum," a small, tight-fitting cap made of skin that was worn by the more fashionable youths in the palaestra in order to protect their hair from oil (14. 50). 43 SHA,

Alex. Sev., 42, 1

44 Ibid., 42, 4. 45 Cels us, De Medicina (ed. and trans. W. G. Spencer). 1,1, 4 2-

46. Ibid.. 1. 2, 6-7, Compare Athenaeus: "He . . who would enjoy health should have recourse to suitable exercises to provoke abundant perspiration and, also to the baths, in order to moisten and soften the body . . . “ Tbe Deipnoso pbists (trans. C. B. Gulick). II. 45d. 4?. H. A. Harris, Sport in Greece and Rome. New York, 1972, 92-94; J.P.V.D. Balsdon, Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome, New York, 1969, 163-66, Martial differentiated five kinds of ball games played in the baths: pila (handball), pda paganica (feather-ball), fbllis (bladder-ball), barpastum (scrimmage­ ball), and pila trigonalls. The last«mentioned, as the name im« plies, was a game for three: the opponents stood roughly at the three points of a triangle and tried to fake and feint each other as they passed several balls back and forth. Unlike the solo ex­ ercises. most of the ball games had the advantage of also being good spectator sports; games like barpastum or pila trigonalls (as in Trtmalchio's game in the Satyricori} attracted other bathers to stand around in the palaestra and watch. Martial. 4, 19; 7, 32; 7, 67; 12. 82; 14, 45-48.

48. Each of the younger Pliny’s country villas had a sphaeri sterium which was part of its bathing suite. In the Laurentian villa it was "open to the warmth of the afternoon sun. " In the Tusculan villa, it was built over the apodyterium and was large enough "to admit of several different kinds of games played at once, each with its own circle of spectators." Letters (trans. W. Melmoth), 2, 17, 12; 5,6, 27. 49 Juvenal, Satires. 6, 421 f.; also Martial, ’’.67.

52. Martial, 14, 163. 53. From a mosaic inscription from Brescia, Italy; ILS, no. 5725. 54. Two inscriptions in Greek, placed inside the mosaic thresh­ olds of two major doors of a bathing establishment in Anemur­ ium, in Rough Cilicia, Asia Minor, spell out these baching salutations (see Fig. 42). According to James Russell, Director of the excavations, the first inscription greeted the bather Xoboon (“Have a nice wash!") "as he commenced his bath proceeding from the apodyterium across the threshold of the frigidarium." The second. tioboov (“You have washed well!"), "mark|ed| the formal completion of his ablu« cions as he stepped beyond the boundary (of the baching unit] back again into the palaestra.” J. Russell, "Mosaic Inscriptions from the Palaestra at Anemurium," AnatSt 24, 1974, 101 f.; idem, Tbe Mosaic Inscriptions of Anemurium (Erganzungsbfinde 2U den Tituli Asiac Minoris, Xlll), Vienna, 1987, 28-34, nos. 3, 4, figs 2-4.

koAox;

55. For a list of Latin inscriptions from North Africa expressing bathing greetings, see R. Cagnat. BAC 169. 1916, clxix. Greek equivalents of these salutations are quite rare Russell fncludes two of the more interesting ones (see n. 54); one was found in the villa bath ac Mansoura, Cyprus: AOTEI 4>L4O0A AACCOC" ("You wash well who love the sea!"), dated to the fourth or fifth century. The ocher is from the Villa of (he Seasons in Argos: “ Y71E NON AO THE" (“Be healthy and wash!"), dated to lace fifth or sixth century. Also see D. Levi, Antiocb Mosaic Pavements, Princeton, 1947.1. 261 ff.; R GinouvSs, Balaneutike, Paris, 1962, 223-24.

"KaACIC

56. Vitruvius, 5, 10. 1-2, and 5, 10, 5. Pliny, Letters, 5, 6, 26; Seneca. Letters, 86. 11. Celsus, De Medicina, 1, 3 and 1, 4, CIL. VI, no. 1703. The space recognized as cepidarium is also named as cella media by Galen, "middle" not only in refer­ ence co its physical position in che building, but also because of its heating, warmer than che first room (frigidarium) but less warm than the "next one” (caldarium). Galen. DeMetboda Medendl (=C. G Kflhn 1821-33. X, 723). 11, 10. 57. "Celia frigidaria," Pliny,

Letters. 5, 6, 25.

58. Vitruvius (trans. M. H Morgan), 5, 10, 5: " Laconicum sudationesque sunt coniungendae tepidario" (“The sweating

chamber should adjoin the cepidarium"). These terras also ap< pear in the inscription of C. Ulius and C. P, Aninius from Pompeii (C1L, 1, no. 1251) and in conjunction with sweat bathing: Seneca, Letters, 51,6; Celsus, De Medicina, 3, 27, 3. 59. The terminology and the formal designations given to these special rooms should be taken only xs a general guide since cbe meanings of some of the terms are not entirely consistent in an­ cient sources and inscriptions over centuries of usage and com ing from a vast geographical span.

Not« to page*

60 Levi, Mosaic Pavements, 1, 2’3-"": 11. pl 63e 61. CH. VI, no. 9797 (=Dessau, IL no. 51*3)

62. Martial, 12, 19. 63. Martial (trans. W.C A Ker), 11.82. 64. Martial. 9, 75. 65. Pliny, Letters, 3. 14. Sec also Seneca. Letters. 86. 10. 66. Martial (trans. J. Pott). 1. 59. 67. Martial himself was a cordial host who strived to arrange a “perfect time” for his friends; ‘ You will dine nicely, Julius Cerialis, at my house,’ said he, ‘You will be able to observe the eighth hour; we will bathe together: you know how near Stephanus’ baths are to me. First, there will be . . lettuce useful for relaxing the bowels, and shoots from tender leeks . . ,’ ” then, followed a long list of other delectables. Martial (trans. W.C.A. Ker), 11, 52. 68. Martial, 5, 47. 69. Martial (trans. FA. Wright), 1, 23 70. Marcus Aurelius C. R. Haines)

Antoninus (Meditations], 8, 24 (trans

"Balnea, vina, venus corrumpunt corpora nostra, sed vitam faciund, ” CIL, VI, no. 15258. See also: ILS, no. 8157; CIL, III no. 12274. 72. Seneca, Letters (trans R M. Gummere), 86. 71

-*31

" . . . even fathers-in-law avoided bathing with their sons in­ law, because they were ashamed to uncover their nakedness. Afterwards, however, when they had learned from the Greeks their freedom in going naked, the}' in rum infected the Greeks with the practice even when women were present.” Cicero, On Moral Duties, 1, 35; Plutarch, Cato tbe Elder (trans. B. Perrin), 20, 5. 84. Athcnaeus, Tbe Deipnosopbists (trans. C. D. Yonge), 13, 59 f 85. Martial (trans. W.C.A. Ker), 3, 51; see also 3, 72 and 3, 93. 86. SHA, Elagabalus, 26. 3 87. Ammianus Marcellinus, 28, 4, 988. Plautus. Poenulus (trans. P Nixon), 690-700 ff. See also H. Licht, Sexual Life in Ancient Greece, New York, 1934, 406. In Tbe Art of Love (trans. J H Mozley), 3, 634 f., Ovid refers to public baths as a convenient place of assignation for lovers; “What is the use of guarding women . . . when, while the guardian keeps the girl's clothes outside the baths, hidden lovers lurk safely within?” 89. Columella condemns the debauchees of his own day (sec­ ond half of the first century), who attended gluttonous feasts, cured their indigestion by steaming out their bodies in laconica, and aroused a thirst by drying out the moisture of their bodies. On Agriculture (trans H. B Ash), 1,16. 90. Balsdon,

Life and Leisure, 32.

73. Pliny, A'.f/., 33, 152.

91. Seneca. Letters (trans. R. M. Gummere), 107, 2.

74. Philostratus, The Life ofApollonius (trans. F.C. Conybeare). 4, 42: “ . . and delivered himself of a philippic against people who bathed, declaring that they enfeebled and polluted themselves; and he showed that such institutions were a useless expense.”

92. Robinson, "Roman Local Government Liw,” 1066-68; R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia. Oxford I960, 416-17; Balsdon. Life and Leisure, 28; J. Carcopino. Daily Life in Ancient Rome (trans. E. O. Lorimer), New Haven, 1941, 254 ff.; J. Marquardt, Privatleben der Römer. Leipzig, 1886, 272. Martial draws on the distinction between balneum and thermae as a source of irony and humor when he balks at the newly constructed mar­ ble thermae of Tucca, which, for all its pomp and luxury, was colder than the simple, private balneum of the same individual; he mockingly suggests that Tucca “put the balneum under the thermae” — so that the former (of wood) could heat the latter. Martial. 9, 75, 10; 3, 20, 15.

75. Pliny, N.H. (trans. H. Rackham), 24, 26. 76. Seneca, Letters (trans. R. M. Gummere), 86, 10. Commo­ dity, a late-second-century emperor, reportedly, bathed seven or eight times a day (SHA. Commodus, 1,9) 77. Tacitus,

Agricola, 21.

78. Seneca, Letters, 56; Martial, 6, 81; 3, 44; 11, 59: 9, 33 “Many there are who recite their writings in the middle of the Forum, or in the baths. How pleasantly the vaulted space echoes the voice’ That delights the frivolous, who never ask themselves this, whether what they do is in bad taste or out of season.” Horace, Satires (trans. H. R. Fairclough), 1,4, 76-80. 79. Seoeca, Letters (trans R. M. Gummere), 122, 6; Quinti­ lian, Education of tbe Orator (trans. H. E. Butler), 1,6, 44. 80. ‘The most cautious of these topers we see getting them­ selves boiled In hot baths and being carried out of the bathroom unconscious, and others actually unable co wait to get to the dinner cable, no, not even to put their clothes on, but straight away on the spot, while still naked and panting, they snatch up huge vessels [of winej as if co show off their strength, and pour down the whole of the contents, so as to bring them up again at once, and then drink another draught.” Pliny, NIL (trans H. Rackham), 14, 139 f 81. Seneca, Letters, 83, 5. Alexander Severus would take only a very light refreshment of bread, eggs, and milk after his bath (SHA, Alex. Sev., 30, 5).

82. Juvenal, Satires (trans. P. Green), 1. 141 f. 83. Cicero advised the Romans to keep their old custom which prohibited grown-up sons from bathing with their fathers. Plu­ tarch also mentions this custom in regard co Caro Major:

93 Curiosum Urbis Romae Regionum X/Vand the Notitia Regionum are two very important fourth-century documents giving a list of the urban topography of Rome. The former is dated to c. 375 and the latter to c. 354 but both are believed to be edition* of an inventory written during the reign of Constantine.

94. CIL, X, no. 2101 (=ILS, no. 5686; Dessau, II, I). See also PHny, Letters, 10, 23 f ; E de Ruggiero, Dizionario Epigrafico di Anticbitä Romane, Rome, 1895 (reprint, 1961), 965. 95. Ruggiero, Dizionario, 964 ff. In some inscriptions, the term lavatio is also used to indicate a small bath, though lavatio is used less commonly by ancient writers; CIL, XIV, nos. 2978-2979. Lavacra publica, ILS, 111, no. 6091; lavacrum balnearum publicarum, no. 5689; lavacrum tbermarum Antoninianarum, no 613. Lavatio or lavatrina arc more com­ mon in the early usage to denote a simple washroom, often in connection with the kitchen in a house Varro, On tbe Latin Language 5. 119; 9, 68 The name of a small bath inscribed as "Bal Surae” on Fragment 21 of the Marble Plan of Rome is given as “thermae” in the Regional Catalogues. Dio Cassius, writing in Greek, calls baths of Agrippa and those of Titus both thermae and balaneion. Roman History, 54, 29, 4; 66, 25, 1. Martial, on the other hand, is quite consistent tn designating

Notes to pages h3--h

small baths as ’ balneum” and 'balnea'’ in the plural 2, 1966, 55-59, XVI« 1, 1967, 6771; XV111-2. 1969. 87-93; idem, Aphrodisias, City of Venus Aphrodite, New York, 1986, 95 ff. See also L. Crema. "I monu« menti architcttonici Afrodisiensi,” MonAnt 38, 1939, 26381. fig 39; E.Will, “Lc mines d’Aphrodisias cn Caric,’’ RA 11-12, 1938. 231-35, fig. 4; Krencker, Kaiserthermen, 288, fig. 427.

15. P. Verzone, L'Urbanistica di Hierapalis di Frigia (Atti del XVI Congrcsso di Storla dell'Architettura), Rome, 1969; 7-8; idem, "Hicrapolis di frigia nei lavori della Missione Archeologica Italians.’’ in Un decennio di ricerche archeologicbe, Rome. 1978, I, 391 -475; Krencker, Kaiserthermen, 289-95, figs. 428, 431; K. Humann and C Cichorius. Altertümer von Hierapolis, Berlin, 1898, 11. 16. The same arrangemem has been used in the unexcavated baths northeast of the Nymphaeum in Laodiceia (M on Bean’s site map). A caldarium with deep niches flanked on the north­ east by at least two parallel halls (the heated row) can be dis­ cerned on site. The construction is in massive blocks of ashlar. The piers of the flanking spaces carry cut stone arches. If the scheme was a symmetrical one (it is highly probable that it was), the frontage of the heated row would measure 65-70 m. 17. K, Humann, J. Kohte, and C. Watzinger. Magnesia am Me­ ander, Berlin, 1904, 29-30, figs. I, 17; R. A. Staccioli, "Sulla cosidetta ‘Caserma’ di Magnesia al Meandro," ArcbCl9, 1957,

250-56, pls. 105-8. 18. N. Dolunav, "Turk Tarih Kummu adtna Yapilan (^ankinkapi Hafriyati," Redeten 19, 1941, 261 ff.; M.Akok, "Ankara §ehrindeki Roma Hamami,” TürkArkDerg XVII-1, 1968, 1-13 (includes a set of fine piciuresque restoration drawings by Akok); Ward-Perkins, imperial Architecture, 280.

19 Keil, Führer, 123-24; idem, 6jhBeibl27, 1931, 25-51; 28, 1933. 5-12. fig. 2; Miltner. Ephesos, 75-78. 20. Keil, Führer, 77-9; idem, ÖJbBeibl 25, 1929, 42-46. tig 24: 26, 1930. 18-22, fig. 8: Miltner, Ephesos, 73-74. 21. A.C.G. Smith. "Gymnasium at Alexandria Troas—Evidence for an Outline Reconstruction," AnatSt 29, 1979, 23-50, esp. 47; 46R. Koldcwcy, "Das Bad von Alexandria-Troas," AM 9, 1884, 36-48; Phllostratus, Lives of the Sophists, 2, 1, 3. See also J M. Cook. The Troad, an Archaeological and Topo­ graphical Study, Oxford. 1973. 200 ff. 22. Unearthed between 1927 and 1930 by Joseph Keil, the Bath «Gymnasium of Vedius is one of the most completely exca­ vated bathing establishments from Asia Minor. With the help of two building inscriptions (an architrave inscription from the palaestra and a copy of the same on a marble plaque found in room ///), it has been possible to establish that the building was referred to as a "gymnasium" and dedicated to Artemis and the emperor, Antoninus Pius, by his notable and rich Ephesian friend, Publius Vedius Antoninus, c. 161. The rectilinear com­ plex (76 X 130 m ) is located near the north end of the city, next to the stadium. Keil, OJhBeibl, 24, 1929, 23-58, fig. 17; 25. 1929, 21-23. pl 2; 26, 1930. 17-18; idem, Führer, 5155, fig. 27; Miltner, ÖJhBeibl 42, 1955, 23-26. fig. 8; idem, Ephesos, 58-68. fig. 50; Krencker, Kaiserthermen, 277-78, fig. 426; Ward-Perkins, imperial Architecture, 292-95.

454

23. Occupying a central position in the busy downtown area of the Roman city, directly on the Marble Avenue, the Bath-Gym­ nasium Complex at Sardis is a rectangular structure, 120 X 170 m (20,400 sq. m. including the palaestra, c 5.5 acres), one of the largest of its kind in Asia Minor. Some 60-65 per­ cent of the building was excavated and partially restored over a period of sixteen years by an American team under the direc­ tion of George M. A. Hanfmann. Annual preliminary reports of the excavation have been published by Hanfmann in BASOR

(^Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research). The final Report on the building: Ycgül, Bath-Gymnasium Complex (1986). For a shorter account: Ycgül. "Bath Gymna­ sium Complex in Sardis," in Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times (ed. G.M.A. Hanfmann), Cambridge, Mx«., 1983 (hereafter SPRT). 148-61.

24. After a few sondages undertaken by D. Krencker and M. Schede in 1926, the building has been uncovered since 1978 by R. Naumann, who has firmly identified it as a bath«gymnasium of the imperial cype (110 X 125 m.) with a large square palaestra on the northeast (74 X 74 m). The plan displays close affinity to the complex at Sardis (especially the two long apsidal halls, as a special zone between the heated row of halls and the frigidarium; also cf. Vedius Bath-Gymnasium), but the scheme in Aezane is smal ler and simpler than that in Sardis. R. Naumann, "Aezanoi: Bericht über die Ausgrabungen und Unter­ suchungen 1978," AA 95, 1980, 123-35; idem, "Aizanoi, Bericht über die Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen 1979 und " 1980. AA 97, 1982, 345 ff; idem, "Aizanoi. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen 1981 und 1982,” AA 99, 1984, 453-56.

25. BASOR 154. 1959, 13-16. fig. 4; 157, I960, 7-10, figs 2. 3. 26. P. Schazmann, Das Gymnasion. Berlin, 1923,5- 12,80-84 27. Ibid . 52-92. 28. Miltner, ÖJhBeibl A2, 1955, 34 f.43, 1956-58, 18 f ; 44, 1959, 251 -55, fig. 120; 45, I960, 2-9. 29. A. von Gerkan, F. Krischen, and T. Weigand. Thermen und Palaestren, Milet, 1.9, Berlin, 1928. 50-88. fig. 115: Kleiner. Milet, 101-9, fig 74. 30. The Large Baths and the Small Baths in Aspcndos. imposing structures with several astonishingly we 11«preserved main halls (including large sections of the brick vaulting), clearly belong to this type (see Figs 379-382). Neither hxs been excavated or studied (Lanckoronskl, Städte Pamhyliens, 1, 91 -93, figs. 69-70). The better-investigated Agora Baths in Side (see Fig. 383) may be included in the same group (A. M. Manse I, Die Ruinen von Side, Berlin, 1963, 148-55; idem, Side, Ankara, 1978, 221-40, figs. 247, 257). The South Gate Baths in Perge may essentially belong to this group, but the picturesque mass­ ing of the row of stepped, apsidal heated halls, and the incor­ poration of the palaestra (and possibly a cult hall, or a museion) to the north and east suggest, in this case, the work­ ings of a more sophisticated design impetus (see Figs. 384386. 310, 311). Although in its main lines the scheme has a wide geographical range, its concentration in the south may justify the notion of a Pamphylian subgroup (A M Mansel, "Bericht über Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in Pamphylien in den Jahren 1957-1972," AA 90, 1975» 49-96). The unexcavated ruins of the Baths in Saga lassos, magnificently lo­ cated on the main colonnaded avenue of the Pisidian highland city, appear to point to a similar layout (see Fig. 387) This is only one of the many impressive bathing establishments from the region about which one should reserve judgment until a full surface survey or proper excavations are undertaken.

x :r'

pjïf

31. Two types of apses can be diffcrcnluted The first is made as a continuous extension of the long «'alls of the room and forms an unbroken extension of its space The second, sepa­ rated from the room by a traverse arch in ashlar ; like a **tnumphal arch ’), creates a separate spatial compartment, in this cvpe, the apsidal compartment is often filled by a pool Exam* pies of the first type are: Baths Mk t. Oenoanda. Small Baths. Aspendos; Baths Hl 2B, Anemurium. Examples of the second type ace: South Gate Baths, Perge; Baths 5B. lotape in Rough Cilicia; Small Baths, Patara; Baths, Arycanda. 32. The construction of a balaneion at Oenoanda is mentioned in an inscription from Rhodiapolis. dated after ad. 151-152, but there is no confirmation that this is the same building as the one identified as a bath on site. R. Ling. 'Building Mk 1 at Oenoanda,” AnatSt 31, 1981, 31-53. figs. 1.5.8; 1GR. III. no. 739 A second, smaller bath complex in Oenoanda. con­ nected with the city's aqueduct, displays a row arrangement with three units, the central one apsed. Comparison co other small Lycian baths (Patara, Si mena, Cadyanda) suggests a Fla« vian date. J. J. Coulton, "The Buildings of Oinoanda.” Proceed­ ings of the Cambridge Philological Society 29, 1983, 8- 10. 33. R. Hebrrdey, Pistdien (TttuliAsiae Minoris, X.l. ed. E. Kalinkaand R. Heberdey), Vienna, 1901. L. Robert. "Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG 86, 1973. 175-76, Ling, "Building Mk I at Oenoanda,” 51-53. 34. G. Bean, Lycian Turkey, London, 1978, 86-87; E. Akur­ gal, Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey, Istanbul, 1978, 261-62, fig 100. 35. The baths at Arycanda have been excavated and surveyed by a Turkish team directed by Cevdec Bayburtluoglu (1978-82), but no excavation reports are yer available. For a summary de­ scription of the site (with map), see the guide to Lycia by C. Bayburtluoglu. Lykia, Ankara (no date, c. 1982), 26-29 The Large Baths (Thermae B) at Tlos are the largest of the "Lycian plan type” (parallel halls with projecting apses); all seven of the double-tiered, arched windows of the apsidal caldarium have been preserved intact. These baths and the Small Baths (Thermae A) in Tlos must have had palaestrae, judging by the large, flat fields joining the buildings and the architectural frag­ ments of a colonnade found on site (Fig. 394). For other exam« pics of the row arrangement, see A. Farrington. "Imperial Bath Buildings in South West Asia Minor,” in Roman Architecture in the Greek World (ed. S. Macready and F. H. Thompson), London. 1987, 50-5936 Rough Cilicia was surveyed in the 1960s by the British In­ stitute of Archaeology in Ankara, which also conducted excava* lions in Ane murium Somay Onurkan identified the two plan types discussed above and searched for their sources. The sug­ gested similarity of the apsed arrangements of the Cilician baths to the baths of the Roman garrison towns in Europe appears to be a curious and intriguing relationship; it may be a superficial likeness. A more solid ground for comparison between the "hall type” and some of the smaller bathing establishments of North Africa could be argued. Even more pertinent would be the connection with the regions farther east, notably with the baths of northern Syria. E. Rosenbaum, G. Huber, and S. Onur­ kan, A Survey of Coastal Cities in Western Cilicia, Ankara. 1967, 69-77, figs. 3, 7, 21, 32. See also G. Huber. “Die Res« taurierung der Thcrme II 7A in Anamur." TürkArkDerg XVIII2. 1969, 47-50, figs. 3, 7; E. Alfoldi (Rosenbaum), "Exca­ vations and Restoration inAnemurium, 1966,” TürkArkDerg XV* 1, 1966. 5-8; L. C. Smith, "Excavation Report. Eski Ana« mur (Anemuriuru), 1967,” TürkArkDerg Wil. 1967,137-40.

•m

3". J Russell, "Excavations at Anemurium, 1973,” TürkArk­ Derg XX11-2, 1975. 121 - 24; idem. "Recent Excavations at Roman Anemurium. 1969-1973," The Proceedings of the Xth Congress of Archaeology, (ed. E. Akurgal), Ankara, 1973,11. 916-20.

38. Besides the recently published bath-gymnasium and the socalled CG Baths in Sardis, the colossal double-apsed halls of "Building C” have been identified by R. Lindley Vann as a part of another major bath-gymnasium complex. The massive ashlar piers of the unexcavated ruins can be seen directly east of the Marble Court, some 100 meters north of the main highway. F. K. Yegül, "Roman Architecture at Sardis,” Sardis, Twenty-Se ten Years of Discovery (ed. E. Gura! nick), Chicago, 1987, 50. 39. Aellus Aristides (ed. B. Keil. Berlin, 1898), 17, 11; 47, 18-21; 29. 30; 23, 20. See C. J. Cadoux, Ancient Smyrna, Oxford, 1938, 181. 40. Aristides (Keil. 1898), 17. 11; 18, 6. CIG, II, no. 3148 (-/GA, IV, no. 1431; II. 16 f., 40 f ); CIG, II, no. 3203 (-/GA, IV, no. 1429,1 19) 41. H. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (trans. G. Lamb), New York, 1964, 305-13; Akurgal, Ancient Civiliza­ tions. 95-99. 42 . An inscription attests to the donation of (be marble decora­ tion of the colonnade by Claudius Verulanus, the bead priest of Asia under Hadrian. The original construction date of the gymnastic establishment, however, is believed to be no later than Domidanic. Keil. Führer, 75; Miltner. Ephesos. 45-6. This gymnasium of the early empire might have incorporated the Hellenistic gymnasium of the city mentioned by Strabo, Geographies, 14, 1, 4. Another good example illustrating the integration of an imperial bath complex into a city’s network of public spaces is the way the Hadrianic Baths in Aphrodisias join on axis with the Porticus of Tiberius. Though not a gymna­ sium proper, this great peristyle could have served as an ath« letic facility in combination with the baths and their palaestra, in much the same way as did the great quadriporticus buildings of Campus Manius in Rome. 43 A.H.S. Megaw./H5 73, 1953. 136 fl.; 74, 1954, 175; 75, 1955. Arch. Supplement, 31-33; 76, 1956, Arch. Supple­ ment, 27-29; 78, 1958, Arch. Supplement, 46-48; 79. 1959, Arch. Supplement. 30. V. Karageorghis. Salamis in Cyprus, Norwich, England, 1969, 167-92; idem, “Recent Dis* coveries at Salamis (Cyprus).” AA 81, 1966. 210-55; idem. "Ten Years of Archaeology in Cyprus, 1953-62,” AA "8. 1963, 581-89

44. For the full epigraphical record from the gymnasium and (he baths and the problems of dating, see T. B. Mitford and I K. Nicolaou, The Greek and Latin Inscriptions from Sala­ mis (Salamis, 6). Nicosia, 1974, 5- 109, inscription nos. 184, esp. 5-6. no. 47 (the late*fifth-century inscription mentioning that Olympius repairs the baths and adds a garden). 45 . R. Roesch. "Dédicace en L'Honneur de Vespasien." BCH 95, 1971, 573-80; for the gymnasiarch of Salamis attested by inscriptions, see p. 577 n. 14. See also). Poulloux. "Le trois gymnases de Salamine de Chypre,” RA, 1966, 2, 337-40.

46. W. Maní ni, Das Gymnasium von Samos, Bonn, 1984, 3102, esp. 41-45. 47. In remote Sebastopol is Catana in Galatia (a town between Ankara and Amissus ¡Samsun]), a mid-second-century gymna­ sium and stadium are mentioned in connection with a "moun« tain maiden” who boasted of acquiring a Greek education there. 1GRR, 115,118.

Sotes to pages 309-313

48. A.H.M. Jones. “The Greeks under the Roman Empire.’' DOP 1?. 1963, 9. For general building activity and prosperity of Asian cities under Roman rule, see G.M.A. Hanfmann, From Croesus to Constantine, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1975, 41-56. 49. Selective epigraphical lists chat collect the inscriptions from Asia Minor referring to gymnasia, gymnasiarchy, and gym­ nastic education during the Roman era can be found in; T. Frank, An Economic Survey ofAncient Rome, Paterson, NJ., 1959, IV, 717-93; D. Magie. Roman Rule in Asia Minor, Princeton, 1950, 652-53, esp 521, n 55; B. Uum, Stiftun­ gen in der griechischen und römischen Antike. Leipzig, 1964 (reprint of 1914 edition) (see selection in F. K. Yegül, “The Bath-Gymnasium Complex in Asia Minor during the Imperial Roman Age” [Ph D. diss., Harvard University, 1975], n. 28) For distribution of oil in gymnasia: L. Robert, Hellenica 4, 1948, 127-31 n. 50. 50. J. Keil. “Das Unterrichtswesen im antiken Ephesos,” AnzWien. Vienna, 1951, 331-36, esp. 334-35 See also Laum, Süßungen, no. 74, and Hirschfeld, The Collected Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum [AGIBM], III.2. Ox­ ford. 1893. no. 481. 51. For lists from Athens: $£6 26, 1976/77, nos. 166-196; from Paros, after 212: S£G 26, 1976/77, no 970; from Chios, 108/109: AM 24. 1899, 416; from lasos, first century, on col­ umns drums: T. Rcinach, “Inscriptions d’Iasos,” SEG6, 1893, 190 f., nos 38-43; fromCfbyris, 73: Hum, Stiftungen, no. 162, from Halicamassos, c. second half of the first century, in connection with a ceremony in a gymnasium: Hirschfcld, AGIBM, JV.l. nos. 898, 905. Sec also L Robert, Etudes Anato­ lien nes. Parts, 1937, 468, no. 2 J. Delorme, Gymnasion, Paris, 1960, 124-25; IGL (Le Bas-Waddington), Hl, no. 502. 52. C. A. Forbes, Neoi. A Contribution to the Study of Greek Associations, Middletown, Conn., 1933, 18-21. 53- These cities are; Cos, (iyanaea, Cyzicus, Halicarnossos, lasos. Mylasa. Pergamon, and Tarsus: Forbes. Neoi, 47-48 n. 14. See also Magie, Roman Rule, 854-55.

54. CIG, II, no. 3524. 55. CIG, 1, no. 2881. Von Gcrkan et al.. Thermen und Palaestren, 158, no. 328. Jn Tralles, toward the end of the first cen­ tury, the freedman Ones irnos (or Chresimus) provided all marble ornamentation of the "caldarium of the gymnasium“ and dedicated it to the emperor, Nerva. CIL, HI, Suppl., no. 7146; AM 8. 1883» no. 15; E. Derenne, TYMNA1T1KA,” Anteil, 1938, 74. no. 9. Another inscription from Tralles mentions three gymnasia in the city; none of these, however, can qualify for “Ü^ Göz,” the massive bath complex of the im­ perial period, since the inscriptions are not later chan the end of the first century; seeJ.R S. Sterrett, “Inscriptions of Tralles," Papers of the American School at Athens, 1, 1882-83, 96, no. 2. Two inscriptions of the imperial period, from Uigina and Panarama (both in southwest Caria), mention the building of an “atrium“ in a building referred to asa “gymnasium“ in the first text and as a “balaneion” In the second. C. Diehl and G. Cousin, "Inscriptions de Lagina,” BCH 2, 1887, 145; 51, 1927,63. 56. Delorme, Gymnasion, 161. Conversely, the baths referred to as a “balaneion“ in Julia Gordos (a small Lydian city near Gordcs),werc enlarged c. 230 by the construction of a "peristoon" (“peristyle? “ palaestra?). Herrmann, “Stadt Julia Gordos,” 100-102. 57. Pliny,

Letters, 10, 39.

456

58. Keil, OJhReihl 25, 1929, 21, 27-28. 59. These and other bath-gymnasia, such as the one from Alex­ andria Troas, are often accepted and referred to as “gymnasia” by modem scholars (as well as by most of the early travelers), who are, however, fully aware of the true and special nature of these establishments. Starting in 1974,1 have attempted to designate this institution as “bath-gymnasium” in various pub­ lications. For a terminological discussion of these Asiatic “gym­ nasia”; Maccanico, “Ginnasi romani,” 32 ff.; Kell, OJbBeibl 25, 1929, 25-27; Smith, "Gymnasium at Alexandria Troas,” 23.

60 A balaneion in Seriphos dedicated to Augustus by a gym na­ si arch: Ki. Xll, 5, no. 512; a balaneion at Ceramus constructed by Hierocles Hermophantou, three-time gymnasiarch, and his wife; JHS 11, 1890, 126, no. 9. A balaneion in Ankara built by and furnished with oil by Tiberius Julius Julianus, who was a gymnasiarch: ArcbEpigrMitt 9, 1885, 117, no. 72. See also the dedicatory inscription on the statue base for Lucius Verus found in situ inside the Bath-Gymnasium at Sardis: C. Foss, “Appendix,” in Yegül, Batb-Gymnasium Complex (1986), 169-70. 61. C. Foss, Ephesus after Antiquity: A Late Antique, Byzan­ tine and Turkish City, Cambridge, 1979, 59-60; Keil, Führer, 116-18; Miltner, Ephesos. 95-100.

62. Hanfmann, Croesus, 55 Justin, Dialogue with Trypbo, see Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History, 4, 18. Sardis, too, attracted a Urge number of teachers and philosophers during the late-an­ tique and early Byzantine periods. Among them were the histo­ rians Eunapius (346-414) and Chrysanthlus. One wonders if these pagan teachers chose to cany on their discourses in the palaestra of the bath gymnasium complex. See C. Foss, “Byzan­ tine Cities of Western Asia Minor” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard Univer­ sity, 1972), 74; Pergamon was a center for Sophist education until the end of the fourth century, 244-48. Marrou. Educa­ tion, 305-13 63- Yegül,

Bath-Gymnasium Complex (1986), 33-36.

64. Hanfmann, Croesus, 55. 65. In a first-century letter, addressed to the Sardian» by Lucius Antonius and reported In Josephus (Jewish Antiquities, 14, 235), the proquaestor reported that the Jewish citizens of Sardis "from the beginning” have had a private place (vol totto t&ov) where they "decide their own business and resolve their differences,” and expressed his consent that they continue these activities. This information indicates a designated place without direct religious associations, definitely not a syna­ gogue. Is it not possible that we have here the implication for an ethnic collegium, a special meeting place for the Jews be­ fore the establishment of the present synagogue? The bold next step would be to suggest that this hypothetical meeting place was located in the palaestra of the bath gymnasium complex along with some of the city’s other clubs. Such a hypothesis helps to explain how the Jewish community of Sardis came, seemingly all of a sudden, to possess such a grand religious monument, which formed an integral part of an important pagan institution. Yegül, “Bath-Gymnasium” (1975), 295 n. 277. See also A. T. Kraabel. “Impact of the Discovery of the Sardis Synagogue,” SPRT, 178-90, esp. 179 66. Yegül, "Bath-Gymnasium”

SPRT, 157.

Chapter 8

15. Acta Iohannis (cd T Zahn). Erlagen. 1880, 13 f., 24, 40, 44 f.

I “Sed qui in Christo semel louis est. non illi necesse est iterum lavari.” Jerome, Leiters, 14.10 (CSEL. 54-S(j),AHM Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602. Oxford 1964.11. 976.

16. “The History of Saint John the Son of Zebedee,” Apocry­ phal Acts of the Apostles (trans. W. Wright), London, 1871.

2. Socrates. Ecclesiastical History. 6, 22. 4 (Patrologiae Cursus Compietus. Series Graeca, ed J. P. Migne. Pans. 1844-91,67).

3. John Chrysostom, 51, 239 (Migne, PG) 4. PalJadius, Dialogas, 9 (ed P. R. Colemen-N'onon. Cam­ bridge. 1928); Socrates, Ecclesiastical History. 6. 18 (Migne. PG. 67). 5. The endowment of the Church of S. Lorenzo in Rome in the fourth century included a bach chat yielded an annual profit of 27 solidi, and chat of S. Vitale brought 40 solidi. Le Liber PonHficalis (ed. L. Duchesne), Paris, 1886-195", 1. 213. 222.

6. For bathing in Christian and Byzantine cultures, see the book-length study by Albrecht Berger, Das fiad in tier byzantiniseber Zeit (Miscellanea Byzantins Monacensia, 27). Mu­ nich. 1982. Also see the short but penetrating essay by Cyril Mango, "Daily Life in Byzantium,’’ JÔBG 31.1. 1981. 327-53, esp. 327-41. In reviewing Berger's study, D. de F. Abrahamse points to the fundamental and conceptual similarity of the two scholars’ views in Speculum 60, January 1985. 119-21. For an early but thorough study of the subject, see J. Zellingcr, Bad und Bader in der altcbristlichen Kirche, Munich, 1928, and Dictionnaire d'Arcbéologie Chrétienne, H. IR, 87 ff. 7 The famous Baths of Zeuxippus were turned first into barracks, then made into a prison called Numera: Mango, "Dally Life,” 339-41; idem, The Brazen House (The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, vol. 4. no. 4), Copen« hagen, 1959, 37 ff.; Berger, Das Bad. 52-55. A monk was re­ ported to be living inside the hypocaust of the Baths of Dagischeus: Scriptores Originum Constantinopolitanarum (ed. T Praeger), Leipzig, 1901,11, 168. The sturdy construe« cion of many of the larger baths must have made them suitable prisons. During the iconoclastic controversy of the eighth cen­ tury, imperial general Michael Lachanadracon imprisoned thirty-eight monks from the monastery of Pelocete on the Sea of Marmara inside che caldarium of the unused baths in Ephesus. C. Foss, Ephesus after Antiquity: A Late Antique, Byzantine and Turkish City, Cambridge, Mass , 1979, 108-9

Script. Orig. Const., 11, 136. 9 F. de Montre my, Les Thermes et L'Hôtel de Cluny. Paris, 1957. 8-15; A. Grenier, Manuel d'archéologie Gallo-Ro­ maine, Paris, I960, ÏV-1, 311 ff, P. M. Duval, Paris Antique,

8

Paris. 1961, 141-61.

10. Berger. Das Bad, 66 f., 93-95.

II Mango, “Daily Life,” 341 n. 25, with particular reference co texts collected by P. Koukoulcs, ffajoatoviyt}; Eftjtcohov tá 2aoypoy>c/ti, Athens. 1950,1, 157-65. 12. Barsanuphius, 336 (ed S. N. Schoinas. Volos, I960); A H.M. Jones, LRE, II, 977; III, 328. 13 Saint Basil, Letters. 137 (Migne. PG, 32, 219 f ); Saint Gregory, Letters, 125-26 (Migne, PG, 37, 21 f.). 14 Jerome, Letters, 45, 4, 1; Augustine, Contra Académicos, 2, 2, 6 (CSEL, 63, 3 f ); Epiphanius. Panorion Haereticorum, 30, 7 (Epiphanios von Konstantia [ed. K. Holl], Leipzig.

28-42. 1*. M. C Leach. “Michelangelo invenlt . . .” Studies in Ico­ nography 5, 1979. 98, fig. 18. Gregorius I Papa, Registrum Epistolarum (cd. P. Ewald

and L. M. Hartmann). Berlin, 1891-99, I, xiii, 3 (“Afonu-

menta Germaniae Histórica. Epistolae). 19. An architrave inscription of the late Roman perfod from the Forum Baths in Ostia refers to the baths as ‘AoMTpov dXtfynow)' (“warding off pain”); Meiggs compared this to a passage in Saint Augustine's Confessions, 9, 12. 32: Saddened by his mother’s death in Oscia, Augustine went to the baths "because I had heard that the baths were called balnea from the Greek. ÍSaÁaveíbv. which means driving away care from the mind. ” As Meiggs pointed out, this is an entirely unconvincing etymology. Earlier uses of similar phrases denoting “delivery from pain and care” or ocher psychologically calmfng effects of baths are known and have been commented upon by L. Robert. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia, Oxford. I960, 475; Robert, “Bulletin Épigraphique,” REG, 1961, no. 854; idem, Hellenica 4. 1948, 76, no. 5; CIL, VI, no 29769. For an Inscription recording a prayer that “the use of the swimming pool |?| may bring health," probably connected with a sixth-century restoration of the bath-gymnasium at Salamis. Cyprus, see T. B. Mitfocd and I. K. Nicolaou, The Greek and Latin Inscriptions from Sala mis (Salamis. 6), Nicosia. 1974. 80. no. 51. For a fuller cover­ age of late antique concepts on the pleasures and dangers of baths, sec K. Dunbabin, "Baiarum grata t'o/Mptôs* pleasures and dangers of the Baths,” PRSR 57. 1989. 6-46. 20 G. B De Rossi, Inscriptions Christianae Urbis Romae, II. Rome, 185’-88, 80-81, oo. 13 (JLCV. no. 15114); Bryan Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity io the Middle Ages.

Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy, A. D. 300- 850, Oxford, 1984,141. 21 Lib. Pont., IJ, 163-64. 22. Robert, Hellenica 4, 1948. 80. no. 918. 23. PG (ed. Migne), “Life of Anthony," 26. 912B/C; "Theo­ dore! of Cyrrhos,” 82,1308 C. Also see Berger, Das Bad, 35-36. 24. The following amusing account is related by C. U. Clark in ' ‘With Moors in Anda! us ia, ” A rts and A rcbaeology 1.6, 1915, 232; “In 1565, Philip’s poor girl bride Elizabeth of Valois, whose death was largely caused by Spanish court ceremonial and ignorance of hygiene, long cherished the desire of taking a bath, and had indeed at last surreptitiously given orders for one to be made ready, when a lady-in-waiting discovered the impi­ ous preparations. In order to disarm Elizabeth’s suspicions, she pretended to approve of it, but at once notified the court physi­ cians They promptly interfered and forbade the desecration, since her majesty was in good health and consequently needed no bath; but, says the French ambassador, from whose letter of November 21 to Catnerine de’ Medici, we take the details, the young queen was seized with violent indigestion the next night, following upon over-indulgence in pork-pie; the nausea and headache induced the doctors to relent ”

25 F. Bacon, Advancement of Learning, Book II, 1605.

Noces (O pages 318-321

26. J. Wesley, Sermon 93, "On Dress.” The notion is found in the Hebrew Fathers such as Phinehas ben Yair: "The doctrines of religion arc resolved into carefulness; carefulness into vigorousness; vigorousness into guiltlessness; guiltlessness into ab­ stemiousness; abstemiousness into cleanliness; cleanliness into godliness ” 27. Clark, "Moors in Andalusia,” 232 Foran interesting study of medieval western attitudes toward bathing and cleanliness (in contrast to those of the Islamic world that followed the Greco-Roman tradition), see Ci. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanli­

ness. Changing Attitudes in France since tbe Middle Ages (trans. J. Birre 11), Cambridge, 1988.

28. Monachus Sangallensis (Nockcrus Ba I bul us), De Carolo Magno (ed. G. Meyer von Knonau), Saint Gall, 1920, 29. c.xxxii: Ward Perkins, Urban Building, 138.

"three hundred or more prostitutes demanding the replace­ ment of the curator in charge of them." Honorius, Epistles. 14, in Patrología Latina (ed J. P. Migne), 80, col. 481. "Besides those in palaces, private baths are occasionally referred to in the charters of early medieval Italy when particularly large and elaborate houses are described. An example is the house in Lucca granted to the church of SS Pietro Gregorio in 783: ’a dwelling house, which has two stories [quae est solarlo], near the church, along with its surrounding land [cum funda­ mento], courtyard, well, bam, and bath . . Ward-Perkins, Public Bu tiding. 147-48.

41. Lib. Pont., I, 245, 247 no. 10. See also R Ktautheimer, "Success and Failure in Late Antique Church Planning," Age of Spirituality: A Symposium (ed K. Weit2mann), New York. 1981, 136. 42. C. S. Fisher in C. H. Kraeling, ed., Gerasa, City of tbe Decapolis, New Haven, 1938, 265-69, pl- 53; A. H. Jones, "In­ scriptions from Jensh." JRS 18, 1928, 168, no. 34.

29. Mango, "Daily Life,” 340-41. 30. Script.

458

Orig. Const., II. 45.

31. Mango, "Daily Life," 340; Tbeopbanes Continuâtes, 336 (ed. 1. Bekkcr), Bonn, 1838; R. Janin. Constantinople Byzan­ tine, Paris. 1964, 221. For the baths in the Marina Palace and the Magnaura Palace, see Theoph Cont., 460-61; Constantius Porphyrogenitus, De ceremoniis aulae fíyzanünae (ed. J. Relske), Bonn. 1829, 214 f.

43.1. Browning. Jerash and tbe Decapoiis, London. 1982, 187- 88. fig 17. At the other end of the Roman world from Gerasa, the fourth/fifth century Christian complex at Tebessa Khalia, in Algeria, combined religious, commercial, and social functions (including a remarkable circular bath) in the broader context of a regional suburban center (Chap. 6).

32. Tbe Syriac Chronicle known as that of Zacharias ofMytilene (trans. F. J. Hamilton and E. W. Brooks), London, 1899, 168.

44. J.H.W.G J.iebeschuetz, Antioch, City and Imperial Ad­ ministration in tbe Later Roman Empire, Oxford, 1972, 136-38; J. A. Sawhill, "The Use of Athletic Metaphors in the Biblical Homilies of St.John Chrysostom” (Ph.D. diss., Prince­ ton University, 1928): C. Spicq, "Gyranastique et Morale,” RBtbl, 1947, 229-42.

33 Ward-Perkins, Public Building, 135-36; Agnellus, Codex Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis (ed. A. T. Rasponi), Bologna, c 1925, 183 and 127. The clerical baths built in Naples by Bishop Nostrianus, in the fifth century, were still known and in operation in the ninth century. For these and other examples of clerical baths in Italy, see Gesta Episcoporum NeapoHta norum (ed. G. Waitz), Hannover, 1878, 406. 34 Between Miletus and Dldyma. a hypocausted suite of bath­ ing rooms is linked with an early Byzantine basilica, possibly indicating a monastery with baths. C. Foss, "Byzantine Cities of Western Asia Minor” (Ph D diss., Harvard University, 1972). 288 The small baths located in the Byzantine sector of (he city in Sardis ("PN Baths”) might have been part of an elaborate late-antique villa and early Byzantine basilica, forming an eccle­ siastical complex. BASOR 166, 1962, 16-19: 170. 1963, 1922. fig. 13. For other examples of baths attached to churches for the use of the clergy or the poor, see Ward-Perkins, Public Building, 137-40, and Berger, Das Bad, 36-38. Also see Die tionnaire Chrétienne. II. 1, "Bains," and IX, "Bains annexés aux basiliques.” 35 Lib. Pont., I. 503-4, 510; Ward-Perkins, 139.

36.

Urban Building,

Gesta Epis Neapol., 418.

37 . Ward-Perkins, Public Building, 140.

Lib. Pont., I, 343. and 502-5. 39 Lib. Pont., 1. 81. 38.

40. Bryan Ward-Perkins observes that the information on palace baths outside Rome is quite scanry in the records. Possible ex­ ceptions are in Pavia, Ravenna, and Syracuse. Tbe evidence for the last is based on a letter of Pope Honorius I’s (625 -638) which alludes to an incident involving the governor of Sicily who was surprised in his bath (presumably in the palace) by

45. The great majority of athletic festivals and games in the eastern Mediterranean ended by the mid- to late-third century after Christ Monuments recording early.third-century victories come from: Caeserea, Tripolis. Tyre, Tarsus, Ascalon, Scythopolis, Sidon, Laodiccia, Hierapolis, Leucas, Bcroca, Zeugma, Chai­ cis, Apamea, Salamis, and Antioch. The original Olympic Games in Elis were prohibited by an imperial decree in a.d. 393. Liebcschuet2, Antioch, 139-40; T. Frank. An Economic Survey ofAncient Rome, Paterson, N.J., IV, 788-89 Along list of ath­ letic games and donations dating from the second and early third centuries in Termessus is prepared by R. Heberdey in ”Gymnastische und ande re agone in Termessus Pisidiac," Ana­ tolian Studies Presented to Sir William M. Ramsay, Manches­ ter, 1923, 195-206. 46 The last reference to ephebic training and contests is in 323 in Egypt: Oxyrbyncbus Papyri (ed. B P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunter), 1898- 1927, 42; to gymnasia, in 370, also in Egypt: POxy, 2110. Also see D. Claude, Die byzantinisebe Stadt im G.Jabrbundert. Munich, 1969, 76; A.H.M. Jones, The Greek City, Oxford, 1940, 253.

47. E. G. Turner. Greek Papyri, Oxford, 1968, 84.

48. In the Shepherd of Hermas ("First Parable”), a Jewish work of the fourth century, the readers are invited to reject the worldly city of the Classical past ' As servants of God, you know chat you are dwellers in a foreign land; your own coun. try, in fact, is far from here. If therefore you know about your own City1, where one day you will go to dwell, why do you buy land, or expensive furniture, palaces or sumptuous habitations here below? They, who make their purchases in (his City, do not intend to return to their true country.” L. S. Mazzolani, Tbe Idea of City in Roman Thought (trans. S. O’Donnell), London, 1970, 218-38, esp. 228.

Xntes (o pages '21 - 32 J

49. Codex Tbeodosianus (cd. T Mommsen i Berlin 190$. XV, 1, 32 (—Cod.Jus., Vin. 11.2) 50. Procopius, Buildings. 5, 4. 1$ (= WorAj. trans H B Dew­ ing. 7 vols., 1914-40, Loebed). 51. W. Liebenam, Stadteverwaltung Im römischen A), forcing a rather untidy compromise

472

between the Old Baths and the half-finished new one. Stucchi suggested that during its last phase the structure represented two different baths, men's and women’s—a view I am not in­ clined to share. R. G. Goodchild, “The Unfinished ‘Imperial* Baths of Leptis Magna,” LA 2, 1965, 15-27, pl. 8; Scucchi, Architettura cirenaiaca, 469-70. For a good plan but faulty identification: E. V. Caffarelli and G. Caputo, The Buried City: Excavations at Leptis Magna, New York, 1966, 107-10, fig. 248.

8. In a quantitative stud}* of eighty-eight Roman baths from Asia Minor. Italy, North Africa, and the European provinces, Berge Aran found that the caldarium constitutes less than 10 percent of the total bath area in Italy and North Africa, and 13-17 per« cent in Asia Minor. The figure for the frigidarium is over 10 percent in Italy and Nonh Africa and considerably under 10 percent in Asia Minor. B Aran, "Anadoluda Roma Devri Mimarlsi” (doktoratezi, Istanbul Teknik Universitesi, 1971). 78-80. 9. Of the 124 caldaria studied by Aran, based on the planime­ tric order of the niches, 22 percent, or the largest proportion, belongs to this type (rectangular projections on three sides of the room, two of the projecting arms symmetrical). It is repre­ sented by an overwhelming majority in North African baths. There are a few late Roman and early Byzantine examples from Asia Minor and Syria, but the earliest uses of the type come from Italy (late republican Baths in Fiesole, Neptune Baths in Ostia, Small and Large Baths at Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli). Aran, Roma Devri, 81-85. 10. Considering the proximity of these sites, one might ask if there was a regional preference for this particular detail in Nu­ midia. 1c is highly plausible, however, that the bow-ended cal­ darium alcove was a direct import from Italy; it appears to have been used as early as the Thermae of Agrippa and, later, in the Thermae of Titus. 11 There is no hard evidence for dating the Barbara Thermae. Based on archaeological material found in the foundation levels, construction technique, architectural decoration and or« nament, a date between early and middle second century has been suggested. The building may well have been started dur­ ing Hadrian’s reign. A Grenier. Manuel ¿'Archéologie, Paris, I960, IV. 1. 362-69; W. Reusch, Augusta Treverorum. Rundgang durch das römische Trier, Trier, 1973; E. Wightman. Roman Trier and the Treveri, London, 1970, 85.

12. A projecting, domed motif, similar to the example from Korn el-Dikka, can be found in the caldarium of the Thermae of Nero in Rome. The circular clement shown in the Palladio plan, however, may be a late addition grafted onto the rectan­ gular hall (see Fig 150). W. Kolataj, “Les fouilles polonaises à Kôm el-Dikka en 1968 et 1969,’’ EtTrav 6. 1972, 148 ff., pls. 1-4 idem, "Recherches architectoniques dans les thermes et le théâtre de Kôm cl-Dikka à Alexandrie," in Das ràmiscb-byzantinisebe Ägypten, Mainz. 1983, 187 ff.

Appendix I) 1. L. Crema and R Maccanico named these halls ambulacra and suggested their use as lounges; both scholars were more in* teresced in the U-shaped and H-shaped combinations of ambula­ cra and their possible relation to western models Krenckcr referred to them as “basilical spaces ’ and designated them with the letter B in his plans. A. Von Gerkan described them as “long halls whose functions are different than pure bathing " J, B. Ward*Perkins picked them out as features unique to the bath planning of Asia Minor and referred to them as "monu­ mental corridors." L. Crema. L'Arcbitettura romana (Encyclo­ pedia Classica, III. vol. 12.1). Turin, 1959. 409: R Maccanico. “Ginnasi Romani ad Efeso,” ArcbCl 15, 1963." 32-60: A. von Gcrkan et al., Tbermen und Palestren, toilet. 1.9. Berlin. 1928. 94; J. B. Ward-Perkins. Roman Imperia! Architecture, New* York, 1981.292-94. For a good demonstration of an early-second-ccntury basilica tbermarum from the Legionary Baths at Caerleon in South Wales, see J. D. Zienkiewicz. Legionary Fortress Batbs at Caerleon, Cardiff. 1986.1, 149-64. esp. fig. 62.

8 Other instances of the use of the heated apsidal hall in large baths, though not of the imperial type, arc the hall la of the East Baths of the Pergamon Gymnasium and the southeast hall J in Faustina Baths in Miletus. In ihese examples, the apses are not expressed on the outside as facade elements The same is true for one of the main halls of the Small Baths in Didyma; next to the apodyterium. it could have served as a ffigidarium since the plain end of the hall houses a cold pool (see Fig. 441). A late-second-century date is suggested for the original structure; the second period which included the rebuilding of the square apodyterium with eight small, cross-vaulted bays may be as late as the fifth century. R. Naumann. "Die Ausgrabu ngen, bei den Thermen Dldyma, ’ ’ Isi Mitt. ,30,1980,177-89.

2. R. A Staccfoli, "Sulla cosidetta Cascrma’ di Magnesia al Meandro, ArcbCl 9, 1957, 250-56, pls. 105- 108. See also Fasolo. “L Architctcura romana di Efeso,” BCSSA 18. 1962," 56; idem. "La Basilica del conciliao de Efeso," Palladio I to II (Nuovo VI), 1956," 20.

9. Tbe Austrian excavators of Ephesus were the ones who first used the term Kaisersaal in the context of Roman baths and suggested the association of these halls with the Imperial Cult. In the Kaisersaal of the Vedius Bath-Gymnasium an altar of the Imperial Cult was found in situ on a platform in front of the main apse; behind the altar. Inside the apse, was a statue of the donor, Publius Vedius Antoninus, a close friend of the emperor Antoninus Plus. The excavators proposed that a statue of Pius originally occupied the position of honor in the apse along with Artemis and the donor. J. Keil, ÓJbfíeibl 24, 1929, 29 f., and 34 f.; F. Miltner, Epbesos, Stadt der Artemis und desJo­ hannes, Vienna, 1958. 61.

3. The East Baths in Nysa. situated east of the stadium, are largely destroyed and overgrown. There are ashlar piers as well as rubble walls where courses of rubble alternate with courses of thin, slab-like schist. The date of the building is unknown Large amounts of Byzantine material incorporated into the con­ struction suggest cither a late date (possibly third or early fourth century) or, more likely, a late reconstruction. A partial plan and a short reference to the building can be found in W. von Dienst, Nysa ad Meandrum, Berlin. 1913. 48, figs. VI, VII.

10. F K. Yegül, "Kaisersaal and the Imperial Cult," AB 64.1, 1982, 7-31, esp. 11-13; idem,'‘The Marble Court of Sardis and Historical Reconstruction," JFA 3 2. 1976, 169-94; idem. "Reconstruction of the Marble Court," in Sardis from Prehis­ toric to Roman Times (G.M.A. Hanfmann, cd ), Cambridge. Mass , 1983, 152-53; M. C. Bclgil. "The Reconstruction of the Marble Court and the Adjacent Areas." in Yegül, Tbe BatbGymnasium Complex at Sardis, Cambridge, Mass 1986, 152-69.

4. F. E. Brown, "The Roman Baths," in Tbe Excavations at Dura Europas (ed. M. I. Rostovneff), New Haven, 1936, 84-

11. Yegül. "Kaisersaal, ' 13 - 19; E. Sjóqvist, “Kaisarcion. A Study in Architectural Iconography." OpRom 18, 1954, 88108; E. Boehringer and E. Kraus, Das Temenos fiir den tlerrscberkult (Altertümer von Pergamon, IX). Berlin. 1937, 60 ff.

106. pl. 6.

5 Although the plan of the caldarium of the baths in Alexan­ dria Troas appears to follow closely the Ephesian examples, es­ pecially the East Bath-Gymnasium, the drawings of the west facade of the Alexandria Troas complex (now entirely de stroyed) by the travelers of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen­ turies clearly show that the entire wall up to the springing of the vault was built in large ashlar blocks. Furthermore, the mid­ dle bay was considerably wider than the side bays, a feature not encountered in any of the Ephesian caldaria except in the cal­ darium of the imperial bach-gymnasium at Sardis. Smith, “Alex­ andria Troas," 34-36 and appendix on early travelers’ drawings, p. 48.

6. Fasolo, "L'Arcbitettura Romana.” 37. 7. A variation of the type under discussion is the articulation of only one long wall with deep niches. The caldarium of the post-Hadrianic phase of the baths in Samos, the caldaria of the Small and the Large Baths in Aspendos. and to a lesser extent, the caldarium of the Large Baths in Side, can be cited (sec Figs 404, 380. 379). The Pamphylian examples, however, exhibit characteristics that are sufficiently different and homogeneous to count as a "group” of their own. Instead of a uniformly spaced row of alternating niches, one or both walls of the room are articulated by large, rectangular, barrel-vaulted recesses housing pools: major semicircular niches are absent.

12. For the sculptural programs of Kaisersale and Oionysiac theme in relation co the image of the emperor as Neo-Dionysus: Yegül, "Katsersaal, ”11-12, 26-27; A. D. Nock, “Notes of the Ruler Cult, I-IV," Essays on Religion and tbe Ancient World (ed. Z. Stewart), Oxford, 1972,1, 144-52; F. Cumont, Les Religions Orientales, Paris, 1963, 195-204. A statue of Sophist Flavius Damianus, the chief priest of the Imperial Cult, was found inside the Kaisersaal of the East Bath-Gymnasium In Ephesus. Damianus wean a full toga and a wreath crown decorated with twelve small busts representing the twelve tra­ ditional gods; the thirteenth element in his crown represents the ruling emperor as divus. 13- M Frankel, Inscbriften von Pergamon (Altertümer von Pergamon, VIII.2), Berlin, 1895, no. 553; P Schazmann, Das Gymnasion (Altertümer von Pergamon, VI.2). Berlin, 1923, 12, 56-58.

14. Miltner, Epbesos, 74-78, fig. 6?; Keil, OJbBeiblZT 1932, 24-49; 28, 1933. 10.

Selected Bibliography

Abbreviations of periodicals and epigraphical sources used in the notes and throughout the text, here given in full, are those listed in rhe American Journal ofArchaeology 95 (1991), 1-16. Abbreviations of classical authors generally follow those sec forth in the Oxford Classical Dictionary. 2nd revised edition, ed. N.G.L. Hammond and H. H. Seul* lard (Oxford, 1970), ix-xxii. Adam, J. P.. La construction romaine, Paris, 1984. Akok. M.. “Ankara §ehrindeki Roma Hamami,” Turk Arkeo* loji Dergtsi. XVll-1 (1968), 1-13

Akurgal, E.» Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey, Is­ tanbul, 1978. Alarcào, J., and R. Etienne, Fouilles de Conimbriga. I: L Ar­ chitecture (Mission Archéologique Français au Portugal. Musée Monographique de Conimbriga), Paris, 1977.

Thuburbo Majus. Les Mosaïques de la Région des Grands Thermes (Corpus des Mosaïques

Alexander, M. A., et al ,

de Tunisie, II), Tunis, 1985.

—, Thuburbo Majus. Les Mosaïques de la Région du Forum, Tunis, 1980. Alvarez Martinez, J. M., “Us termas romanasde Alange,” HabisIU (1972), 267-90. Anderson, J. C., Jr., “The Date of the Thermae Traiani and the Topography of the Oppius Mons, "American Journal ofArchaeology, IXXXIX (1985), 499-509. Andrea, B., and F. Zevi, “Gli sottomarini di Baia,“ del passato, XXVII (1982), 114 ff.

La parola

Aran, B., “Anadolu’da Roma Devrt Mimansi” (doktora tezi, Istanbul Teknik Universités!. 1971).

Ariettl. F„ and D. Candilio, “Terme di Diocleziano,” Bulle*

tino della Commissions Arcbeologica Communale di Roma, XCI (1986), 358-66. Ashby, T., The Aqueducts ofAncient Rome, Oxford, 1935. Auberson, P. E., “Études sur les ‘Thermes de Venus’ à Baiaes,” Rendiconti dell'Accademia di Arcbeologia, Let* teree Relle Arti, Napoli, XXXVIII (1963), 167-76. Auberson, P., and K. Schefold, Fübrer durch Eretria, Bem, 1972.

Au pert. P., “Thermes A. Argos,“ Bulletin de correspon­ dance hellénique, XCVII (1973), 490-500; XCVIII (1974), 764-82.

The Baths ofDiocletian and the Museo Na* zionale Romano. Rome. 1974. ---------- . Velleia, Rome, I960 (reprint of 1940).

Aurigemma, S.,

Avi-Yonah, M., “The Bath of the Lepers at Scythopolis,“ Israel Exploration Journal, XIII (1963), 325-26.

Baatz, D.. “Heizversuch an einer rekonstruierten Kanalhcizung in der Saalburg,“ Saalburgjahrbuch, XXXVI (1976), 31 f-

Selected BiHh-graphs

Ballu, A., ’ Découverte de Grands Thermes dans le quartier sud de la ville,” Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Travaux Mistoriques et Archéologiques 1919. 8"-94

— , Les ruines de Timgad {Antique Tbamugadl}. Paris, 1897.

, Les ruines de Timgad, nouvelles decouvertes.

Blazquez, J. M.. “Las Pinturas Hellenisticas de Qusayr Arara,” Archivo Español de Arqueología, LIV (1981), 157-90; LVl (1983), 169-96.

Biegen, C., “Excavations at Ne mea, 1926,“ American Jour­ nal ofArchaeology, XXXI (192“’),430-35.

Paris, 1903.

Bloch, H., I Bollt laterizi e la storia edillzia romana, Rome, 1947 (reprint. 196“).

Balsdon, J.P.V.D,. Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome. New York, 1969.

Studies Presented to David Moore Robinson, ed. G. E. My-

Barclay, W., don. 1959.

Educational Ideals in the Ancient World, Lon­

Barnea, 1., “Les thermes de Dinogeda,” 225-52.

Dacia. XI {¡96“).

------ -— , “The Name of the Baths near the Forum of Ostia,”

lones and D. Raymond, II. St Louis, 1955, 412 - 18. Blouet, G. A., Restauration calla, París, 1828.

des thermes d'Antonin Cara­

Boehringer, E., and E. Kraus, Das Temenos für den Herrscherkult (Altertümer von Pergamon, IX), Berlín, 1937.

Bartoccinl, R., Le terme di Lepcis, Bergamo. 1929. Bastianclll, S.. “Civitavecchia. Scavi eseguiti neHe terme Taurine oTrajanc,” Notizie degli scavi di antichità. Rome. 1933. 398-421.

Boeswillwald, E.. R. Cagnat. and A. Ballu, Timgad. africaine sous l'empire romaine, Paris, 1905.

----------- . “Nuove esplorazioni eseguiti nelle Terme Tau­ rine,” Notizie degli scavi di antichità, Rome. 1942, 235-52.

Boon, G. C., Isca, the Roman Legionary leon, Cardiff, 1972.

------ — . “Terme Taurine. Il Caldarium di età repubbli« cana.” Bollettino di fnformazionl Centumcellae. Il (1961), 3-7.

1974.

Becatti, G., “Scavodi un edificio termale in Ostia Arnica,” Archeologia Classica, XIX (1967), 170-76. ----------- , “Seconda campagna di scavo nell’edificio tennale di Ostia Antica,” Archeologia Classica, xx ( 1968), 157-60. Beloch, J..

Campanien, Breslau, 1890.

Bendinelli. G , “Le antichc pitture Rospigliosi-Pallavicini nel Museo Nazionale Romano,” Bollettino d'arte, V (1925-26), 147-62. Benoit, F., Cimiez, la Ium, I). Paris, 1977.

ville antique (Fouilles de Cemenc*

Berger, A., Das Bad in der byzantinischer Zeit (Miscel­ lanea Byzantina Monacensia, 27), Munich, 1982. fierthier, A.,

Tiddis, Algiers, 1951

Berti. F . et al , “Le Terme del Nuotatore,“ Studi Miscellanei: 16, Ostia, II, Rome, 1969. Beschaouch, A., R. Hanoune, A. Oliver, Y. Thébert, et al.,

Recherches Archéologiques Franco-Tunisiennes à Bulla Regia. I—Miscellanae (Collections de T École Française de Rome. 28/1), Rome, 1983.

-----------. R. Hanoune. and Y. Thébert, Les ruines de Bulla Regia (Collections de T École Français de Rome, XXVIII),

Bonner, S. F.,

Education in Ancient Rome, Berkeley, 1977. Fortress at Caer-

. Silcbester. The Roman Town of Calleva, London, Borriello, M.. and A. d’Ambrosio, kaliae, 1.14), Florence, 1979. Bossier, G.,

Baiae-Misenum (Forma

L 'Afrique Romaine, Paris, 1901 (2nded).

Bottger, B., “Die römischen Thermen in Varna,” Das Alter­ tum, XXlIl (1977), 29-36. Boucher, M. J. P., “Nouvelles recherchesà Tebessa Kha lia,”

Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire de TÉcole Française de Rome, LXIV (1954), 165-85. ----------- , “Le temple rond de Tebessa Khalia," Libyca, IV (1956), 7-30.

Rowra, C M , The Greek Experience. New York, 1969.

The University of Missouri Studies in Honor of Walter Miller,

Brad}’, T. A., “The Gymnasium in Ptolemaic Egypt,”

XI.3 (1936), 9-20.

Brödner, E., “Der Einfluss des Heizungssystems und der WannWasserversorgung auf die Raugestaltung römische Thermen,” Koldeway-Gesellschaft, Cologne, 1964, 94-99.

, Die römischen Thermen und das antike Bade­ wesen, Darmstadt, 1983. ----------- , “Untersuchungen an den Heizungsan lagen der römischen Thermen in Nordafrika,“ Germania, XXXVI (1958), 103-13.

—------- , Untersuchungen an der Caracallathermen, Ber­

Rome, 1977.

lin, 1951.

The Legionary Bath House and Basilica and Forum at Exeter (Exeter Archaeological Reports, 1).

Technische Gesellschaft. XLIII ( 1976), 249 - 67.

Bi dwell, P. T.,

Exeter, 1979. Biers, J. C., “The Bath Complex at Mirabriga, 1984,“ XVIII (1984), 42-48.

Muse,

--------- , The Great Bath on the Lechaion Road (Corinth, XVII), Princeton, 1985.

--------- . Mirabriga, ed. W. R. Biers (British Archaeological Reports, 451), 1988, 48-117.

Blake, ME., Roman Construction in Italy from Nerva through the Antonines, Philadelphia, 1973.

Un cité

----------- , “Untersuchungen an frühen Hypokaustenlagen,“ ----------- . “Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bades,“ Antike Welte, VIII.4 (1977), 45-56; IX. 1 (1978), 47-57. Brown, F. E., “The Roman Baths,“ in The Excavations at Dura-Europas (Preliminary Report of the Sixth Season,

1932- 1933), ed., M. I. Rostovtzeff. New Haven, 1936, 49-77, 84-106.

Brown, P.. “Christianity and Local Culture in Late Roman Journal of Roman Studies. LVIll (1968), 85-95.

Browning, 1., Jerash and the Decapolis, London, 1982.

Bachs and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Bürgt J., and R. Hoppe, Scbleitheim-luliomagnus. Die römischen Thermen (Antiqua, XIII), Basel, 1985. Butler, H. C, Ancient Architecture in Syria. Northern Syria, Section B (Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions in Syria in 1904-5 and 1909), Leiden, 1920.

--------- . Ancient Architecture in Syria. Southern Syria, Section A (Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions in Syria in 1904-5 and 1909), Leiden, 1919.

4*6

Cecchini, M. G , “Terme di Caracalla. Campagna di scavo 1982-83 lungo il lato orientale,“ Roma. Archeologia nel centro (lavori e Studi Archeologia. VI.2). Rome. 1985, 583-94.

Chapot, V., La Province romaine d'Asie, Paris, 1904.

Christern, J., Das frühchristliche Pilgerheiligtum von Tebessa, Wiesbaden, 1976. Cicerchia, P , “Sui carattere distributivo delle ‘terme con heliocaminus* di Villa Adriana,“ Xenia, IX (1985), 47-62.

in the Ancient World,

--------- , Architecture and Other Arts, New York, 1905.

Clarke, M. L., Higher Education London, 1971.

----------- , and W. K. Prentice, “A Mosaic Pavement and In­ scription from the Baths at Serdjilla, ” Revue archéologique, XXXIX (1901), 62-76.

Claude, D., Die byzantinische Stadt im 6. Jahrhundert. Munich. 1969.

Caffarelli, E. V., and G. Caputo, The Buried City: Excava­ tions al Leptis Magna, New York, 1966.

Cagnat, R.G. and V. G Chapot, Manuel d'archéologie ro­ maine, 1, Paris, 1916. Calderinî, A., “Bagni pubblici nell’Egitto greco romano,” Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendiconti, LI 1 (1919), 297-331.

Callratr, G, “Antike Bibliotheken,“ Opuscula Archaelogia, 111 (1944), 145-94. Calza, G., ed., Rome, 1953.

Scavi di Ostia, Topografia Generale, I,

Roman Ostia, Florence, 1959« Cameron, C.» The Baths of the Romans with Remeasured Restoration Drawings of Palladio, London, 1775. Calza, R., and E. Nash,

Candilio. D., “Terme di Diocleziano — Museo Nazionale Romano: scavo ne I la palestra nord-occidentale," Roma. Archeologia nel centro (Lavori e Studi di Archeologia, VI.2) Rome, 1985. 525-32.

Canina, L., Gli edifizi di Roma antica, 3 vols.. Rome, 1851-56.

Carcapino, J., Daily Life in Ancient Rome (trans. E. O. Lor­ imer), New Haven, 1941. Cardini, M.» L'igienepubblica di Roma antica, Prato, 1909

Carettoni, G , “Terme di Settimio Severo a terme di Massenzio in Palatino,“ Archeologia classica, XXIV (1972), 96-104. ----------- AM. Col ini, L. Cozza, and G. Gatti, La planta marmorea di Roma antica, Rome, I960.

Carpano, C. M., “Osservazioni complementari sulle strutturc della casa romana sotto le terme di Caracalla," Römische Mitteilungen, 79 (1972). Ulf

Canon, L., “Les fouilles de Bulla Regia, les thermes pub­ lics.“ Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Travaux His to riques et Archéologiques, 1915, 184-89. Castagnoli, F., “Il capi tel Io della Pigna Vaticana,“ Bulletino

della Commissions Archeologica Communale di Roma, LXXI (1943-44), 3-30. ----------- , “Le ‘Sette Sale’ cistema della terma di Traiano,“ Archeologia Classica, VIII (1956), 53-55. ----------- , “Topografia dei Campi Flegrei,“ I Campiflegrei nell'archeologia e nella storia (Atti dei Convegni Uncei,

XXXIII). Rome, 1977, 41-79.

Coarelli. F.,

Guida archeologica di Roma, Rome, 1974.

Colini, A. M., “La sala rotonda delle terme di Agrippa,“ Capitolium, XXXI1.9 (1957), 6-14.

----------- , “Le terme di Caracalla,” Capitolium XIII (1938), 275-78. ----------- , “Thermae Anton inianae,” Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica Communale di Roma, XVII-XVIII

(1939). 211. Constans, L. A., Paris. 1916.

Gigthis. Étude d'histoire et d'archéologie,

Cook, J. M., “Bath-Tubs in Ancient Greece,” Rome, VI (1959), 31-41.

Greece and

, The Troad, an Archaeological and Topographi­ cal Study, Oxford, 1973. Coulton, J. )., “The Buildings of Oinuanda,” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, XXIX(1983),8-10. Cousin, G., and G. Deschamps, “Inscriptions de Magnésie du Méandre.” Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, XII (1888), 204-23.

Crema, L., L'Architetlura romana (Enciclopedia Classica, III, vol. 12.1), Turin, 1959. , “1 monumenti architertonici Afrodisiensi,” Mon-

umenti antichi, XXXVIII (1939). 263-81. Crova. B., “Le terme romane nella Campania,“ Atti dell’VIH Convegno nazionale di studi romani, Rome, 1956, 271-88.

The City of Bath, New Haven, 1987. --------- , Roman Rath (Reports of the Research Committee

Cunliffe, B.,

of the Society of Antiquarians of London, No. 24), Oxford, 1969.

--------- , Roman Bath Discovered, London, 1984. d’Arms, J. H., Romans on the Bay of Naples, Cambridge, Mass., 1970.

de Angelis, d’Ossat, G., “L’Architeuura delle ‘terme’ di Bai a,” I Campiflegrei nell'archeologia e nella storia (Atti dei Convegni Lincei, XXXIII), Rome, 1977, 227-74. ----------- . “Tecnica costrutdva e impianti delle terme,” Civiltà romana, XXIII, Rome, 1943, 1-55. , “Il ’Tempio di Venere' a Bala,“ Bulleetino della Commtssione Archeologica Communale di Roma, XII

(1941), 123-31.

Selected Bibliography

de Fine Licht, K., "Scavi alle Sette Sale.1’ Città e Architettura nella Roma Imperiale (Analecta Romana Insututi Dan­ iel, Suppiementum X), Copenhagen 1985. 186-202.

di Capua, F., “Appunti su l’origine e sviluppo delle terme romane.'’ Accademia di architettura, lettere e belle arti, XX, Naples, 1940, 81-160.

--------- . Untersuchungen an den Traiansthermen zu Rom (Analecta Romana Instituti Daniel. Suppiementum

scienza e la tecnica ai tempi di Roma Imperiale (Qua*

VII), Copenhagen, 1974.

demi dellTmpero Studi Romani, IX-X), Rome, 1943-

de Franciscis. A.. “la scultura nei Campi flegrei." ! Campt flegret nell'archeologia e nella storia (Atti dei Convegni

, “t valetudinari e le stazioni di cura a Stabia al tempo degli antic hi romani," Atti XIX Congresso Nazionale d'Idrologio, Naples, 1929.

Lincei, XXXIII), Rome, 1977, 329-45. «-----------, 'Underwater Discoveries Around the Bay of Naples,” Archaeology, XX (1967). 212-15.

Le chauffage per hypocauste dans l'habitat privé. De la place St-Lambert à Liège et à l'Aula Palatina de Trêves (Études et recherches archéologiques de ¡'Université de Liège, XVII), Liege, 1984. de Gcymucllcr, H., Documents inédits sur les thermes d’Agrippa, le Panthéon et les thermes Dioclétien, Lau* Degbomont, J .-M ., Hypocaustes.

sänne, 1883.

de Gregori, G., "Bibliotcche de II'antic hi ta,” Accademie e Biblloteche d'Italia. XI (1937). 9-24. Deichmann, F. W , Studien zur Architektur Konstantino­ pel (Deutsche Beitrage zur Altertumswissenschaft, VI), Baden-Baden, 1956.

De Laine, J., “The ‘Cella Soliaris’ of the Baths of Caracalla: A Reappraisal,” Papers of the British School in Rome, LV (1987), 147-56.

--------- - . “An Engineering Approach to Roman Building Techniques: The Baths of Caracalla in Rome,” British Ar­ cheological Reports, CCXLVI ( 1985), 195 - 205. ----------- . “Recent Research on Roman Baths,” Journal of

Roman Archaeology, I ( 1988), 11 - 32. ---------- -, “Some Observations on the Transition from Greek to Roman Baths in Hellenistic Italy,” Mediterranean Ar­ chaeology. II (1989), 111-25.

della Corte, M., Juventus, un nuovo aspetto della vita pubblica di Pompei, Arpino, 1924. Delle Steile, F. B , A Mannari, et al., Fiesole, Florence, 1984

Le terme romane di

Delorme, J.. “Étude architecturale sur Vitruve,” Bulletin de Correspondance hellénique, LXXJll (1949), 398-420.

--------- , Gymnasion, Paris, i960. ------- — , Les Palestres (Exploration archéologique de Delos, XXV), Paris, 1961.

de Pachtete, F. G., “Sul la Cetla Soliaris des thermes de Caracalla," MelRome XXIX (1909). 401-6. de Ruggiero, E., Dlzionario Epigrafico di Antichità Ro­ mana, Rome, 1961 (reprint of 1895 original).

Syrie Centrale. Architecture, 2 vols.,

des Gagnicrs, J., Laodicée du 1969

Dionisotti, A. C., "From Ausonius’ Schooldays? A School* book and its Relatives,” Journal of Roman Studies, LXXll (1982), 83-125.

Doiunay, N., “TürkTarih Kurumu adina Yapilan Çankinkapj Hafriyati,” BeUeten, XIX (1941), 261 if. Donlan, W., "The Origins of Kaxôç Kayafldç," American Journal ofPhilology, XCIV.4 (1973). 365-74. Doppler, H. W., "Baden in römischer Zeh," Helvetia Ar cheologlca, t (1970-71), 26-32. Downey, G. D., A History ofAntioch in Syria, Princeton.

1961.

----------- . “Imperial Building Records in Malalas,” Byzan­ tinische Zeitschrift. XXXVI(1 (1938). 46-53 Drappier. L., "Les thermes d’El Djem,” Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Archéologiques (1920). 465-71 —------ , "Les thermes de Thuburbo Majus,” Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Archéologiques (1920), 55-75 Dubois, C , Pozzuoles antique; histoire et topographie,

Paris, 1907. Dunbabin, K. A., "Baiarum Grata Voluptas: Pleasures and Dangers of the Baths." Papers of the British School in Rome, LV1I (1989), 6-49.

--------- . The Mosaics of Roman North Africa. Oxford, 1978.

Duncan-Jonts, R., The Economy of the Roman Empire, Cambridge, 1982. Duval, N., and F. Baratte, Tunis, 1973-

Duval. P.-M.,

Les ruines de Sufetula-Sbeitla,

Paris Antique, Paris, 1961.

----------- , “Rapport préliminaire sur les fouilles de Cemenelum (Cimicz), 1943.” Gallia IV (1946), 77-136.

Ecochard, M., Les Bains de Damascus, Beirut, 1942.

de Montremy, F., Les thermes et ¡'Hôtel de Cluny, Paris, 1957.

de Vogua, C.J.M., Paris. 1877.

----------- , “LTdroterapia ai tempi dellTmpero Romano,” La

Lycos—La Nymphée. Paris,

Desnoyers, M., “Neris les Baines (Allier), Ville therme gallo-romaine,” in La médecine en Gaule, ed. A. Pelletier, Paris, 198$, 39-62.

Edelstein, L., “Diatetics," Oxford Classical Dictionary, ed. N.G.L Hammond and H. H. Scullard, Oxford, 1970, 341. ----------- ,“The Relation of Ancient Philosophy to Medi­ cine," Bulletin of the History ofMedicine, XXVI.4 (1952), 307 if. Ed hem Bey, "Fouilles du Tralles,” Bulletin de correspon­ dance hellénique, XXVIII (1904), 54-60.

----------- . “Fouilles et découvertes à Tralles.” Revue archéologique, IV (1904), 348-62. El-Khachab, A. El-Mohsen, Ptolemaic and Roman Baths at Korn al Ah mar (Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte, Supplement X, 1949)

Baîhs and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

----------- . ’‘Les Hammams du Kôm Trougah,” Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. LIV ( 1956), 117-32.

El-Nassery, S. A.. G. Wagner, and G Castel. “Un grand bain gréco« romaine à Karan is.” Bulletin de l'institut Française ¿‘Archéologie Orientale, LXXVI (1976), 231-75

-T8

Fontanille, M. T., “Les bains dans la médecine Gréco-ro­ maine.” in La médecine en Gaule: villes d'eaux, sanctuaires des eaux. ed. A. Pelletier, Paris, 1985, 15-24. Forbes, C. A., “Expanded Uses of the Greek Gymnasium,” Classical Philology, XL (1945),32-42.

Ericson, C. H., Roman Architecture Expressed In Sketches hy Francesco di Giorgio Martini (Commentâtioncs Hu« rtianum Lirterarum. 66), Helsinki, 1980.

socierions, Middletown, Conn., 1933

Erim, K. T., Aphrodisias, City of Venus Aphrodite. New York, 1986.

Forbes. R. J., “Heating,” Studies VI, Leiden (1958), 36-57.

. Annual preliminary reports of the excavations in Aphrodisias, been published by the author in Turk Arkeoloji Dergisi. 1959 ff

Formige. J., “Quelques remarques sur certaines dispositions des thermes romains,” Bulletin de la Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France, 1922, 252-54.

Eschebach, H., ‘’Die Entwicklung der Schola Labri in den Vesuvstädten, dargescellt am Labrum des Manncrcaldariums der stabianer Thermen in Pompeji,” Cronachepompeiane, 111 (1977), 156-76. ----------- , “Die Gebrauchswasserversorguog des antiken Pompeji,” Antike Welt, X 2 (1979), 3-24.

--------- . Die Stabianer Thermen in Pompeji (Deutsches Archäologisches Instituts, Berlin), Berlin, 1979. --------- . Die stadtbauliche Entwicklung des antiken Pompeji (Römische Mitteilungen Ergänzungsheft, XVII), Berlin, 1970.

. ’ Untersuchungen in der Stabianer Thermen zu Pompeji,” Römische Mitteilungen, LXXX (1973), 235-42. Etilinghausen, R., “The Throne and Banquet Hall at Khirbat al-Mafjar.” in From Byzantium to Sasanian Iran and the Islamic World (The L. A. Mayer Memorial Studies in Islamic An and Archaeology, III), Leiden, 1972, 17-65.

Evrard, G., ‘ Une inscription inédite d'Aqua Viva et la carrière des Iunii Bassi,” Mélanges d'archéologie et d'his­ toire de ¡'École Française de Rome, LXXTV ( 1962), 607 - 47.

--------- , Greek Physical Education, New York, 1929 --------- , Neoi. A Contribution to the Study of Greek As­ in Ancient Technology,

Foss, C., "Aleipterion,” Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, XV1.2 (1975), 217-26.

--------- , Byzantine Cities of Western Asia Minor (Ph D. diss., Harvard University, 1972).

--------- , Ephesus after Antiquity: A Late Antique, Byzan­ tine and Turkish City, Cambridge, 1979 Frank, T, An Economic Survey ofAncient Rome, 4 vols., Paterson. NJ., 1959.

Friedlander, L . Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire, 4 vols., trans. L. A. Magnus, New York, 1968.

ar­ chéologie» d'Italia, 1881 - 1897: Materialiper ¡'Etruria e la Sabini (Forma Jtaliae, II 1), Florence, 1972. Gamurrlni, G. F., A. Pasqui, and R. Mcngarclll, Carta

Ganzen J., “Einige Beobachtungen am Thermensaal von Bacucco bei Viterbo,” Archäologischer Anzeiger. XCVI (1981), 131 — 42.

Garbrecht, G., “Die antiken Wasserleitungen Roms,” An­ tike Welt, XV.2 (1984), 2—13

Fabbricotti, E., ”1 bagni nelle prime ville romane,” Cron

, et al., Wasserversorgung im antiken nich, 1983

ache Pompeiane, II (1976), 29-111

Gardiner, N., Athletics in the Ancient World, Oxford, 1930.

----------- . “Il grado di riscaldamento nelle terme romane,” A rcbaeologia, XLV111(1969) ,434-38.

Gaspard, C., “Sculture prove ni ent i delle terme di Caracalla e di Diocleziano,” Rivista dell'lstituto Nationale di Archeologia e Storia dell'Arte. Roma, VI-VII (1983-84), 133-50.

Falconieri, O.,

Inscriptions Athleticae, ÏÎoine, 1669.

Farrington, A., ' Imperial Bath Buildings in the South«West Asia Minor,” in Roman Architecture in the Greek World, ed. S. Macready and F. H Thompson (Occasional Papers of the Society' of Antiquaries of London, X), London, 1987, 50-59.

Bollettino del Centro di Studiper la Storia dell'Architettura, XVIII

Fasolo, F., ’’L'Architecture romana di Efeso,”

(1962), 1-92. -----------, “La basilica del concilio di Efeso: con alcune note sull’architettura romana della vaile del Meandro,” Palladio, I-Il (1956), 14-21. Février. P.-A . Djemila, Algiers, 1968.

Firatli, N., “Recent Archaeological Research in Turkey,”

Anatolian Studies, XXIV (1974), 35. Fisher, C. S.. in Ant iochon-the- Oro mes, ed. R. Stillwell

Rom. Mu­

Ghini, G., “Terme Neronian-Alessandrine,” Roma. Arcbeologia nel cenlro (Lavori e Studi di Archeologia, V1.2), Rome, 1985. 395-99. Ghislanzoni, E., “Gli scavati delle terme Romane a Cirene,” Notizie degli scavi di antichità, Rome, 1916, 5-21.

----------- , “Scavi nelle Terme Antoniniane,”

Notizie degli

scavi di antichità. Rome, 1912, 305-25. Ginouvès, R., Balaneutlke. Paris, 1962. ---------- -, “Chronique des fouilles et découvertes archéologiques en Grèce en 1954—Argos, thermes ro­ maines,” Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, LXXIX (1955), 323-28. ----------- , “L’Établissement thermal de Gortys d'Arcadie,”

Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. LXXIX (1955),

(Publications of the Committee for the Excavations of An­ tioch and Its Vicinity, I), Princeton. 1934, 4-31.

331-34.

—------- . “The Baths of Placcus, ” in Gerasa, City of the Decapods, C. H. Kraeling, ed., New Haven. 1938. 265-69.

Paris, 1958.

-------- -, L'Établissement thermal de Gortys d'Arcadie,

Selected BiNM^uphj

zur Geschichte und Ver­ waltung der stadtrömischen Wasserleitungen, Graz, 1973. Hamilton, R. W., Kbirbat al Mafjar, Oxford, 1959

----------- . “Une salle de bain Hellénistique à Delphes.“ Bul­

Hainzmann, M . Untersuchungen

letin de correspondance hellénique, LXXVI ( J Q s 2 > 546-59.

-----------. “Sur un aspect de révolution des bains en grèce vers le IVe siècle de notre ère.” Bulletin de correspon­ dance hellénique, LXXIX (1955), 133-52.

— -------- , “Khirbat al-Mafjar: the Bath Hall Reconsidered,”

Levant, X (1978), 126-38. ----------- , “Who Built Khirbat al Mafjar?” 61-67.

----------- . and S. Chari tonidis, “Sains romains des Zevgat* Ho,’’ Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, LXXIX (1955), 102-20. Giuliani, C. F., “Note sull architettura nei Campi Flcgrei.“ Campi flegrei nell'archeologia a nella storia (Aici dei Convegnl Lincei, XXXIII). Rome. 19"", 365-"5.

----------- , “Volte e cupolc a doppia calotta in età a Adrianea,” Römische Mitteilungen, LXXXH (I9"5). 329-42.

Gjerstadt, E , “The Palace at Vouni." Corolla Arcbaeologica, Lund, 1932, 145-71. Glass, S. L.» “The Greek Gymnasium: Some Problems,“ in The Archaeology of the Olympics, ed. W. J. Rasche, Madi­ son, 1988, 155-73

-TO

I

Hands, A. R.. Charities Rome, London, 1968.

Levant, I (1969),

and Social Aid in Greece and

Hanfmann, G.M.A., Annual reports of Sardis excavations, published by the author in the Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 1959ff.

— ------- , From Croesus to Constantine, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1975. -----------, ed., Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times, Cambridge, Mass., 1983

Harding, G. L.. The Antiquities ofJordan, New York, 1967 (rev. ed of London, 1959). Harris, H. A.,

Sport in Greece and Rome, New York, 1972.

Goldkühle, F., “Die Ruinen des Venus Tempels von Baiae als Bildmotiv in der Kunst des 17 - 18 Jahrhunderts, “ Bon­

Hartmann. R., “Das Laconicum dec römischen Thermen,“ Römische Mitteilungen, XXXV (1920), 152-69.

nerJahrbücher des Rheinischen Landesmuseums in Bonn, CUX (1959), 272-80 Golfetto, A., Dougga, Basel, 1961. Goodchild, R. G. Kyrene und Apollonia, Zurich, 1971

Heberdev. R., “Gymnastische und andere agone in Termes­ sus Pisidiac,“ in Anatolian Studies Presented to Sir Wil­ liam M. Ramsay, Manchester, 1923, 195-206.

----------- . “The Unfinished 'Imperial* Baths of 1-eptis Magna.“ Libya Antiqua, H (1965), 15-27. Göthein. M., “Der griechische Garten,“ lungen, XXXfV(1909), 100-44.

Athenische Mittei­

Grabar, O., The Alhambra. Cambridge, Mass., 1978.

--------- . The Formation ofIslamic Art, New Haven, 1973 ----------- . “The Paintings of the Six Kings at Qusayr Amrah,”

Ars Orientalis, t (1954), 185-87. ----------- , “Three Seasons of Excavations.“ Ars Orientalis, VIII (1970), 65-86. ----------- , “The Umayyad Palace at Khirhat al-Mafjar.” Ar cbaeology, VIII (1955), 228-35.

Grenier, A., Manuel d’archéologie Gallo-Romaine, IV« I, Paris. I960. Grimai, P.. “Agrippa et le Champs de Mars.“ Revue archéologique, XIX (1942), 24-30.

--------- . Les Jardins romaines, Paris, 1943 (revised ed., 1969).

Groztzfeld. H., Das Bad im arabisch-islamischen telalter. Wiesbaden, 1970.

Mit­

Gsell, S., Cberchel. Antique lol-Caesarea, Algiers. 1952.

— . Les monuments antiques de l’Algérie, 1, Paris, 1901. ----------- , and C. A. Jolly, Khamissa, Mdaourouch, An nouna, 2 vols., Paris, 1914-22. Guattani, G. A., Della Gran Celia Soleare nelle Antonio Caracalla, Rome, 1783«

Terme di

Gwynn, A., Roman Education from Cicero to Quintilian. Oxford. 1926.

Hcberdey, W , Annual reports of Ephesus excavations were published by the author in the Jahreshefte des Österreichi­ schen Archäologischen Instituts in Wien, 1898-1904. (See also J. Keil and F. Miltner.)

--------- , Die römischen Wasserleitungen nach Köln. Die Technik des Wasserversorgung einer antiken Stadt, Bonn, 1972. Heinz. W., “Der Diana Abnoba«Altar in Badenweiler,“ An­ tike Welt (\9H2), 37-41. ----------- . “Die ‘Terme Taurine’ von Civitavecchia—ein römisches Heilbad,“ Antike Welt, IV (1986), 22-43. ----------- . “Römische Bader in Baden-Wörtern berg“ (Ph.D. diss , Tübingen, 1979).

--------- . Römische Thermen. Badewesen und Badeluxus im römischen Reich, Munich, 1983 Heres, T. L., “Un rieerca sulla storia edillzla delle terme di Nettuno ad Ostia Antica (11,4,2) nel periodo postadrianeo.“ Mededelingen van het Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome. XL (1978), 93-112.

----------- , “La storia edilizia delle terrae di Nettuno ad Ostia,“ Mededelingen van bet Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome, XL! (1979), 35-42. Hermann. J. J . Jr., “Observations on the Baths of Maxentius,” Römische Mitteilungen (Ekutsches Archäologisches Instituts, Römische Abteilung), LXXXUI (1976), 403-24.

Herzog, R., “Hochschulpolitik der römischen Kaiser,“ Inschriften der Griechen, ed. G. Pfohl, Darmstadt, 1977, 131-33. • Heschong, L., Thermal Delight in Architecture, Cam* bridge, Mass., 1979.

BaLiis and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Hibbard, H., “Sei pi one Borghese's Garden Palace on the Quirinale,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Histo­ rians, XXIII (1964), 163-92.

Hillenbrand, R., "La Dolce Vita in Early Islamic Syria: the Evidence of later Umayyad Palaces,” Art History, N. 1 (1982), 1-35. Hiltbrunner, O., “Ein Ghost-Word; Lat. LXIII (1985), 102-6.

solearis, ” Glotta,

Hirschfeld, Y.. and G. Solar, “The Roman Thermae at Ham­ mat Gader: Preliminary Report of Three Seasons of Excava­ tion,” Israel Exploration Journal, XXXI (1981), 179-219.

----------- . "Sumptuous Roman Baths Uncovered near the Sea of Galilee,” Biblical Archaeology Review, X.6 (1984), 22-40.

Bulgaria in Antiquity, London, 1975. Holod-Treciak, R.. “Qasral-Hayr,” Archaeology, XXIII Hoddinott, R. F.,

480

Johannowsky. W., "Relazione preliminare sugli scavi di Cales,” Bollettino d'arte, XLVI (1961), 258-67. Johnson, K., “The ‘Terme Nuove’ at Ostia,” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, X (1932), 144-45. Johnston, D. E., “Villas of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight,” in Studies in the Romano-British Villa, ed. M. Todd, Leicester, 1978, 78-82. Jones, A.H.M., ford, 1971.

Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, Ox­

--------- , The Greek City. Oxford, 1940. ----------- , "The Greeks under the Roman Empire,” Dum­ barton Oaks Papers. XVII (1963). 3-19 --------- , The Later Roman Empire, 284 - 602, 3 vols., Ox­ ford, 1964.

(1970), 221-31.

Jones, G.D.B.. “Veil; The Valchetta Baths (‘Bagni della Re­ gina').” Papers of the British School at Rome, XXVlll (I960), 55-69.

Huber, G., “Die Restaurierung der Therme II 7A in Ana­ mur.” Türk Arkeoloji Dergisi, XV1II-2 (1969). 47-50.

Jordan, 8., and J. Perlin. “Solar Energy Use and Litigation in Ancient Times,” Solar Law Reporter, 1.3 (1979), 583-94.

Huelsen, C.. “E. Paulin, Les Therme* de Dioclétien,” Römische Mitteilungen, VII (1892). 308- 11.

Jordan, H., and C. Huelsen, Topographie der Stadt Rom in Alterthum. II, Berlin, 1981 (revised edition of 1907).

--------- , Die Thermen des Agrippa, Rome, 1910. ----------- , “Über die Titusthermen und die Porticus Liviae,” Römische Mitteilungen, IV (1889). 78-79.

Jorio, A . “Sistemadi riscaldamcnto nelleamiche terme pompeiane.” Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica Communale di Roma, LXXXV1 (1981), 167-89.

------- — ( •• Zur Topographie des Quirinales," Rheinisches Museum für Philologie. XLIX (1894), 389-92. Humann, K., "Ausgrabungen in Tralles,” Athenische Mittei­ lungen. XVIII (1893). 395-403 ----------- . and C. Cichorius, Altertümer von Hierapolts,

Jougec, P., “Remarques sur l’éphèbie dans l’Égypte ro­ maine.” Revue de philologie, de littérature et d’histoire anciennes, XXXIV (1930), 43-56.

Berlin, 1898.

Joyce, J. G., "Stichester,” Archaeologia, XLVl (1881), 337.

----------- . J. Kohte, and C. Watzingcr, Magnesia der, Berlin, 1904.

am Mean­

Iacopi, 1., “Soffito dipinco ne lia casa romana sotto le Terme di Caracalla,” Römische Mitteilungen 79(1972),82ff.

----------- . et al., “Terme di Caracalla,” in Roma. Arcbeologia nel centro (Lavori e Studi Archeologia, VI. 2), Rome, 1985, 578-622

Inan. J., “Perge Kaztsi 1982 Çalj§malari,” Kazi Sonuçlan Toplantisi.N (1983), 199-206. ----------- , “Perge Kazisi 1983 Çaliçmalari,” Kazt Sonuçlan

--------- , La vie municipal dans l'Égypte romaine, Paris, 1911.

Jude ich. W.,

Topographie von Athen. Munich, 1931 Gymnastik, Berlin, 1909.

Jüthner, J., Pbilastratos über

Karageorghis, V., “Recent Discoveries at Salamis (Cyprus).” Archäologischer Anzeiger, LXXXI (1966), 210-55.

--------- , Salamis in Cyprus, Norwich, England, 1969. The Baths of Pozzuoli. Oxford, 1959 Keil, J-, Führer durch Ephesos, Vienna, 1957. ----------- , “Das Unterrichtwesen im antiken Ephesos,“ An zeiger der Akademie der Wissenschajten, Vienna, 1951, Kaufmann, C. F.,

Toplantisi.NÏ (1984), 323-30

331-36.

----------- , “Perge Kazisi 1984 Çaliçmalan,” Kazt Sonuçlan Toplanttsi, VII (1985), 397-420.

----------- , Annual reports of Ephesus excavations, published by the author in Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts in Wien, 1929 ff.

Iwanoff, S. A., and C. Huelsen, Architektonische Studien. Aus den Thermen des Caracalla, (II.2. Berlin, 1898. Jackson, R . “Waters and Spas in the Classical World," in The Medicinal History of Waters and Spas, Supplement X, ed. R. Porter, London, 1990, 1-12.

Der Römerkastell Saalburg, Homburg, 1897. Diodes von Karystos: Die griechische Medizin und die Schule des Aristoties, Berlin, 1938. —-— , Paideia; The Ideals of Greek Culture, 4 vols,

Jacobi. L.,

Jaeger, W. W.,

(trans. G. Highec), New York, 1939.

Constantinople Byzantine. Paris, 1964. Jannoray, J., Le Gymnase. Fouilles de Delphes, Paris, 1953 Jashemski, W. F., The Gardens of Pompeii, Sew York, 1979 Janin, R.,

Kinney, D., “Spolia from the Baths of Caracalla in Sta. Maria in Trastevere,” Art Bulletin, LXV1I1.3 (1986), 379-97.

Kleiner, G., Die Ruinen von Milet, Berlin, 1968. Klinghardt, K.,

Türkische Bäder, Stuttgart, 1927.

Kolacaj, W., "Les fouilles polonaises à Kôm el-Dikka (Alex­ andrie) en 1968 et 1969,“ Études et Travaux. Travaux du

Centre d'Arcbéologle Méditerranéenne de l Académie des Sciences Polonaises, Vl(l972), 148-72. _ _ ____ , "Recherches architectoniques dans les thermes et le théâtre de Kôm el-Dikka à Alexandrie,'’ in Das römisch­ byzantinische Ägypten, Mainz, 1983. 187-94.

Koldewey. R , "Das Bad von AJexandria-Troas,” Athenische Mitteilungen. IX (1884), 36-48.

Selected Bibltographs

Kolendo, J., ‘’Parcs à huîtres et viviers à Baiae sur un flacon en verre du Musée National de Varsovie/' Puteoli. I (1977), 108-27. Kraeling, C. H., ed., Haven, 1938.

Gerasa, City of the Decapolis. New

. Ptolemais, City of the Libyan Pentapolis. Chi­

-t81

Levi, D.. Antioch Mosaic Pavements, 2 vols., Princeton, 1947.

Levick. B.. Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minor. Ox ford, 1967. Lewis, D., The Drawings of Andrea Palladio, Washington, DC, 1981-82.

cago, 1962.

Lézine, A., Architecture romaine d'Afrique, Tunis, 1963.

Krencker, D, E. Kruger, H. Lehmann, and H Wacht! er. Die trierer Kaiserthermen, Augsburg, 1929.

— ---- . Carthage. Utique. Etudes d'architecture et d'ur­ banisme. Paris. 1968. -----------. "Palestres ou basiliques?" Revue archéologique.

Kretschmer, F., Bilddokumente römischen Teknik. Düssel­ dorf, 1958.

--------- . Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des antiken Bades und das Bad auf dem Magdalensberg, Dusseldorf. 1961. ----------- . ’’Die Heizung der Aula Palatina.” Germania. XXXllI (1955), 200-210.

-----------, "Hypokausten," 7-41.

Saalburg jahrhuch. XU (1953),

--------- , Les thermes d Antonin à Carthage, Tunis, 1969. --------- , Utique, Tunis, 1970. — ----- , and C. Picard. "Observations sur la ruine des thermes d’Antonin à Carthage," Comptes rendus des

séances de ¡ Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres. 1956. 425-30

Krischen, F , "Das hellenistische Gymnasion von Priene,"

Jahrbuch des deutschen Archäologischen instituts, Kunze, E., and H. Schleif, IV. Bericht über Ausgrabungen in Olympia, Berlin, 1944. Künzl, E.. "Operationsraumc in römischen Thermen,"

Bon

nerJahrbücher des Rheinischen Landesmuseums in Bonn. CLXXXVI (1986), 491-509. La Follette, L. A., "Palladio and ehe Bachs of Trajan Decius: The Recovery of a Third Century Bath Complex in Rome" (Ph D. diss., Princeton University. 1986).

----------- , ’’Le terme Deciane sull’Aventino,”

Archeologia

Laztale, VII (1984), 139-44. Lancet " Populus Thabarbusitanus ec les Gymnasia de Quintus Flavius lappianus,” Libyca. VI (1958). 143-51.

the Light of Recent Discov­

. The Ruins and Excavations ofAncient Rome. Boston. 1897. . "Gli scavi del Colosseo e le terme di Tito," Bulle tino della Commissione Arcbeologica Communale di Roma, 1895, 110-15. --------- , Storia degiiscavi, 2 vols., Rome, 1903. Lanckoronski, K.. Städte Pampbyliens und Pisidiens, 2

vols., Vienna, 1890 and 1892 Landcis. J. G.. Engineering in the Ancient World. Berkeley, 1981. Lassus, J., "L’Archéologie algérienne en 1957," (1958), 228-32.

Licht, H.,

Sexual Life in Ancient Greece. New York. 1934.

Liebenam. W., Städteverwaltung im römischen Kai­ serreiche, Leipzig, 1900 (reprint, Amsterdam, 1967).

XXXVIII-XXXIX (1923-24), 133-50.

Lanciani. R.. Ancient Rome in eries, London, 1897.

XL1X (1957), 98-99.

Libyca, VI

Laum, B., Stiftungen in der griechischen und römischen Antike, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1964 (reprint of 1914 original). Laur-Bclart, R., Die Thermen von Vindonissa (Anzeiger für schweizerische Altertumskunde, Hl), 1931

LepikKopaczynska, "Ugawi o genezie i ewoluueji centra lnego ogrzewania w starozytnosci." Arcbaelogia, VII (1955), 135.

Leveau. P.. and J.-L. Paillet, L'Alimentation en eau de Cesarea de Mauritanie et l aqueduc de Chercbell, Paris, 1976.

Liebeschuetz. J H W.G.. Antioch, City and Imperial Ad­ ministration in the Later Roman Empire. Oxford, 1972. Ling, R., "Building Mk 1 at Oenoanda,” Anatolian Studies, XXXI (1981), 31-53 ----------- , "The Stanze di CVÏ (1979), 33-60.

Veneresx Baiae, " Archeologia,

Lloyd, G.E.R., cd., Hippocratic Writings (trans J Chad­ wick and W. N. Mann), Middlesex. 1978.

Lorenz, T. L., "Montecavallo. Ein Nymphaeum auf dem Quirinal." Mededelingen van het Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome, 1979, 43-57.

Louis, R., "Les fouilles des Fonçaines«Salées en 1942," Gal lia, 1.2 (1943), 27-43. ----------- , "Thermes Gallo-Romaines des Fontaines*SaJées à Saint-Père«sous-Vézelev (Yonne),” Revue archéologie, XI (1938), 233-318. Lucas, G., Die Körperkultur in frühen Epochen cheits-Entwicklung, Berlin, 1969

der Men-

Lugli, G, Itinerio di Roma antica, Rome, 1970.

--------- , I monument! antichi di Roma e suburbio. 3 vols., Rome, 1934. ------- — , "Nymphaea sive Musaea," Atti del IV Congresso Naztonale di Studi Romani, I, Rome, 1938-XVI, 155-68.

,‘La pianta dell'antica casa della Farnesina,”

Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'école Française de Rome. LV (1938), 5-27. --------- , Roma antica, Il centra monumentale, Rome, 1946.

Lupi, C., Nuovi studi sulleuntiche termepisane, Pisa, 1885. Maccanico, R., "Ginnasi romani ad Efeso," Classica, XV (1963), 32-60.

Archeologia

Macchioro, V , "Le terme romane di Agnano," antichi, XXI (1912), 225-84.

Monumenti

t MacDonald. W. L., The Architecture of the Roman Empire, II, New Haven, 1986.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

482

----------- . and M. Boyle. ' The Small Baths at Hadrian’s Villa, " Journal of the Society ofArchitectural Historians. XXXIX (1980), 5-27.

Mansel, A. M., "Bericht über Ausgrabungen und Untersu« chungen in Pamphylien in den Jahren 1957-1972.” Archäologischer Anzeiger, XC (1975), 49-96.

Cumae and the Pblegraean Fields; Ancient Campania, 2 vois.. Hamilton. Ont., 1972. Magie, D., Roman Rule in Asia Minor. 2 vols., Princeton.

--------- , Die Ruinen von Side, Berlin, 1963. --------- . Side, Ankara, 1978. Marcade, J., "Sculptures Argiènnes," Bulletin de correspon dance hellénique. LXXXI (1957), 405-67. Marée. E., “Le grande pitié d’Hippone Royale," Bulletin de 1‘Académie d'Hippone, XXXV (1925), 31-39. --------- . Hippone Royale, Algiers, 1950.

McKay, A. G.,

1950. Maiuri. A,

La Casa del Meandro, 2 vols., Rome, 1932.

----------- , Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, 1927-1958, 2 vols., Rome, 1959

--------- . The Pblegraean Fields. Rome, 1969. - ------- . Pompeii. Rome, 1965. -----------. 'Pompeii: scavo della Grande Palestra’ nd quar­ tiere dell’Anfitcatro.” Notizie degli scavi di antiebita, Rome, 1939. 165-238. ----------- , "II restauro di una termale a Baia,” Bolletino

d'arte. XXIV (1930-31), 244-52. ----------- . “Scopcrta di uo edificio termale nella Rcgio Vil 1.5,36. ’ ’ Notizie degli sea vi di an ticbita, 1950. 116-36. ----------- . "Significato e natura solium nclle terme romane,” La parola del passato, V (1950), 223-27. ----------- . "Terme di Baia, scavi, restauri e lavori di sisremazione,” Bolletino d'arte, XXXVI (1951), 359-64.

E., The Origins and Evolution of the Archi­ tectural Form of the Roman Library (Stud la Antiqua), Makowiecka,

Warsaw. 1978. .Mallwitz, A., Olympia und seine Bauten, Darmstadt, 1972.

Mamboury, E., and T. Wiegand, Die Kaiserpaläste von Konstan tinopel, Bcrli n. 1934. Manderscheid, H., sen, Berlin, 1988

Bibliographie zum römischen Badewe­

•---------- . "Ein Gebaudemodell in Bonn." Bonner

Jahrbücher, CLXXXIII (1983), 429-44. ----------- . "la gestione idrica delle terme di Caracalla: al* cuni osservazioni,” in Les thermes Romains (Collection de L’École Française de Rome, 142), Rome. 1991,49-60.

--------- . ” Quantum aquarum per gradus cum fragore labentium. 'Überlegungen zu Wasserversorgung und Wassemutzting der Caracal lathermen, ” Archäologisches Korre­ spondenzblatt. XVII 1.3 (1988), 291-99. ----------- . "Römische Thermen Aspekte von Architektur, Technik und Ausstattung,” in Die Wasserversorgung an­ tiker Städte, Mai nz. 1988, 101-25.

. Die Skulpturenausstatung der kaizerzeitlichen Thermenanlagen, Berlin, 1981. Manganaro, G , "Una Biblioteca storica nell ginnasio di Tauromenton e il P.Oxy. 1241La Parola del Passato, XXIX (1974), 389-409Mango, C , The Brazen House (The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, IV.4). Copenhagen. 1959----------- . "Daily Life in Byzantium,’'Jahrbuch der ös­ terreichischen Byzantinischen Gesellschaft, XXXI. 1

(1981), 327-53

----------- . "Les nouvelles fouilles d’Hippone: Les thermes de Septime Sévère,” Bulletin de ¡'Académie d'Hippone, XXXVI (1925-30), 7-44.

der Römer, Leipzig, ¡886. Marrou, H.. A History ofEducation in Antiquity (trans. G. Marquardt, J., Privatleben Iamb). New York, 1964. ----------- . "La vie intellectuelle au Forum de Trajan au Forum dAuguste,” Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'École Française de Rome, XLIX (1932), 93 - 110.

Martin, R., L'Urbanisme dans le Grec antique, Paris. 1956. Martini. W., Das Gymnasium von Samos (Deutsches Archäologisches Instituts, Berlin. Samos XVI), Bonn, 1984.

Marvin, M.. “Freestanding Sculptures from the Baths of Car­ acalla,” American Journal ofArchaeology, LXXXVll (1983), 347-84.

Mau, A., Pompeii, Its Life and Ari (trans. F. W. Kelsey), New York, 1982 (reprint of 1902 edition).

Les ruines de Pompei, 3 vols., Paris. 1829. Mazzolani, L. S., The Idea of City in Roman Thought Mazois, F.,

(trans. $ O’Donnell), London, 1970.

Roman Ostia, Oxford, 1960. Mellor, R., Thea Roma. The Worship of the Goddess Roma in the Greek World, Gottingen, 1975. Mengarelli, R., "Civitavecchia,” Atti dell'Accademia Na­ tionale dei Lincei. Rendiconti, V (1923), 321- 48. Meiggs. R.,

, "Civitavecchia. Scavi eseguiti nel 1922 ne I le ’Terme Taurine’ o ‘Traiane,’ ” Notizie degli scavi di antiebità, Rome, 1923, 321-48. Merlin, A., "Les inscriptions des Thermes d’Eté dcThuburbo Majus." Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Tra­ vaux Historiques et Archéologiques, 1916, xci-1.

Merten, E W., Bäder und Bädegepflogenheiten in der Dar­ stellung der Historia Augusta (Anriquitas, reihe 4, band 16), Bonn, 1983. Miltner, F., Ephesos, Stadt der Artemis und des Johannes, Vienna, 1958.

----------- , Annual reports of the Ephesus excavations, pub­ lished by the author in Jabreshefte der Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts in Wien, 1955 ff. Mingazzini, P.. "Le terme di Baia,” I Campi Flegrei neil'arcbeologia e nella storia (Atti dei Convegni Lincei, XXXIII), Rome, 1977, 275-81. Minto, A., "Le terme romane di Massaciuccoli,” mentianttchi, XVII (1921), 405-48.

Monu-

Selected Bibik*rapte

Mirick, H. D., "The Large Batte at Hadrian's Villa ’ Mem oirs of the American Academy in Rome. XI —Nil (193335), 119-26.

Money» J. H., "Clay Spacers from the Romano*Bntish BathHouse at Garden Hill, Hartfield. Sussex.” Antiquaries Journal. LIV.2 (1974), 278-80 Mora, G., "Las termas romanas en Híspanla. " Archivo Español de Arqueología, LÍV (1981 ). 3"-86.

Moreno. P . Tl Farnese ri tróvate, ’’ Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire de l’École Française de Rome. XCIV ( 1982). 379-526. Müller-Wiener, W., Bildlexicon zur Topographie Istan­ buls, Tübingen. 1977. Musil, A.,

Kusejr Amra, 2 vols., Vienna. 190"

¿S3

Ostrow, S. E.. "The Topography of Putcoli and Baiae on the Eight Glass Flasks." Puteoli, HI (1979). 77- 137.

Overbeck, J. O., Pompeji und seinen Gebäuden, Al­ tertümern und Kunstwerken. Leipzig, 1884. Paget, R. F., "The ‘Great Antrum’ at Baiae: A Preliminary Re­ port,” Papers of the British School at Rome, XXXV (1967), 102-12.

Painter, K. S., "Roman Flasks with Scenes of Baiae and Puteoli.’ Journal of Glass Studies, XVII (1975), 54-67. Palladio, Le terme dei romani, Rome, 1797. Panella. C., "Le Terme del Nuotatorc ad Ostia Antica. Scavo e Pubblicazione." Quadern i de la Ricerca Scientiftca— Un Decennio di Ricerche Archéologiebe, II, Rome, 1978, 477-86.

Mylius, H., Die römischen Heilthermen l'on Badenweiler (Römisch-Germanische Forschungen. XII), 1936.

Panimolle, G. P., 1968.

Nash, E.. Pictorial Dictionary ofAncient London, 1968 (2nd cd.).

Paoli, P., Avanzl dell'anticbita a Pozzuoli. Cumae e Baja, Naples. 1768.

Rome. 2 vols..

Naumann. R.. "Aizanoi: Bericht über die Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen 1978," Archäologischer Anzeiger, XCV (1980). 123-36. ----------- . "Aizanoi. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen und der Untersuchungen 1979 und 1980," Archäologischer An­ zeiger, XCVll (1982), 345-56. -----------. "Die Ausgrabungen bei den Thermen Didyma,"

Istanbuler Mitteilungen, XXX (1980), 177-89. --------- . Der Quellbezirk von Nîmes (Denkmäler antiker

Gli acquedotti di Roma antica, Rome,

Pari bi en i, R.. "Contribue! archeologici al lessico latino II, Heliocaminus," Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia. Rendiconti, IV (1925-26), 76-79 ----------- . "Lavori d isolamente delle terme Diodeziane."

Bollettino d'arte, V ( 1911 ). 347 - 61. --------- . Optimus Princeps, II, Messina. 1927. Pasquinucci, M , ed., Terme romane e vita quotidiana, Modena, 1987.

Architektur, IV), Berlin, 1937.

Paulin, E., Restauration des monuments antique. Thermes de Dioclétien, Paris, 1890.

-—— . and F. Naumann, "Aizanoi. Bericht über die Aus­ grabungen und Untersuchungen 1981 und 1982." Archäologischer Anzeiger XCIX (1984). 453-85.

Pelagattl, P., "Scoperta di un cdlticio ccrmalc a Taormina," Cronacbe di archeologia e di storia dell arte (Università di Catania, III), 1964, 25-37.

Neppi-Modona. A., Pisae (Forma Italiac. VII. J). Rome. 1953

Pellegrini, A., "Orti di Asinio Pollione,"

Neuburger. A., The Technical Arts and Sciences of the An­ cients (trans. H. L. Brose), New York. 1969

Nielsen. !.. "Le prime fast dell’evoluzione dcll’edificio ter­ male romane," Analecta Romana Institua Danici. XIV (1985), 81-112.

-------- •. Thermae et Balnea. The Architecture and Cul­ tural History ofRoman Public Baths, 2 vols , Aarhus. 1990. ----------- , and T. Schioler. "The Water System in the Baths of Mithras in Ostia," Analecta Romana Institua Daniel, IX (1980), 149-59.

Bulletino delTlnstitulo di Corrispondenza Archeologica, 1867, 109-19. ----------- . "Le terme Suriane e le casa privata di Traiano,"

Bulletino dellTnstituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, 1868, 177-83

Le nuove scoperte suite origini del Battistero Lateranensa (Memorie, XII. 1. Atti della Pontificia Ac­ Pellicioni, G.,

cademia Romana di Archeologia — Serie 111). Rome. 19"3. 59-67. Pesce, G., "La decorazione del frigidario delle piccole terme di Leptis," Bollettinod’arte, XXXIV (1949), 46-50.

der römischen

Nock, A_ D., "Notes on the Ruler Cult, I-IV," Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, ed. Z. Stewart, I, Oxford,

Pfretzschner, E.. Die Grundrissentwicklung Thermen, Strasbourg, 1909.

1972, 144-52.

Phillips, E. D., Greek Medicine. London, 1973

Noyan. M. E.. and U. öneü, "Hamam Dosyasi — lstanbul’da Hamamlar: Bir Var’mi§, Bir Yok’muç," Çagdaf Çebir, 1.4 (1987), 60-79.

Picard. CG, "Les fouilles de Mactar, 1970-1973."

Oehler, J.. "Gymnasium," Real-Encyclopedia, ed. G WissowaandW. Kroll, Stuttgart, 1912, 2006-8.

Ogan, A., and A. M. Mansel, "Rheigion. KüçükÇekmece Hafriyati,” Belleten, VI (1942), 21-22. Orlandini, P., and D. Adamesteanu, "Gela. Nuovi scavi: L’implanto greco do bagni pubblici presso I’Ospizio," Notiziedegli scavi di antiebità, XIV (I960), 181-202.

Comptes rendus des séances de ¡’Académie des Inscrip­ tions et Belles lettres, Paris, 1974,9-23. ----------- , "Les grand thermes à Mactar." Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Archéologiques, W7.8(1972), 151-53Pietrangcli, C., Ocriculum (ltalia Romana, serie I, vol. 7), Rome. 1943 Plainer, S B , and T. Ashby, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London, 1929.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

Plommer, H., Vitruvius and Later Roman Building Manu­ als, Cambridge. 1973. Poinssot, C., Les ruines de Dougga, Tunis, 1958. ----------- . and R. Länder, “Dougga,” Bulletin archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Archéologiques, 1925 Popilian, G., *‘Thermele de la Slaveni,” Apulum, IX (1971), 627-41.

Poulie. G.. Plans et mosaïques des Bains de Pompeianus près de l'Oud Atbmenia, Algiers, 1880.

Poulloux, J.. “Le trois gymnases de Salamine de Chypre,” Revue archéologique, 1966. 337-40. Race, G., L’/mpero sommerso, Bacoli, 1983

Rade, W., “Pergamon, 1975,” XCJ (1976). 314.

Archäologischer Anzeiger,

‘ Pergamon, 1979. ’ ' A rchaologischer A nzeiger, XCV (1980), 412.

Rakob, F , “Litus Beatae Veneris Au rem Untersuchungen am ‘Venustempd’ in Baiae.” Römische Mitteilungen. LXV1I1 (1961). 114-49------ — , “Die Quellenheiligtum in Zaghouan und die römische Wasserleitung nach Karthago.” Römische Mittei­ lungen, LXXXI (1974). 41-89 Keusch. W.. Augusta Treverorum. römische Trier, Trier. 1973

Rundgang durch das

Ricci, C., “Isolamento e sistemizione delle terme Dioclezlane," Bollettino d'arte. III (1909), 401-5. , “S. Maria degli Angeli e le Terme Diocleziane.”

Bollettino d'arte, HI (1909), 361 -72. Ricci, S., “La ÇvauKfi obvoâoç e la Curia Athletarum presso S. Piecro In Vincoli." Rulletino della Commissione Arcbeologica Communale di Roma, 1891. 185-209Richardson, L., Pompeii. An Architectural History, Balti­ more. 1988.

Richardson, R. B., and T. W. Heermance, “Inscriptions from the Gymnasium at Ere tria,” American Journal ofArchaeol­ ogy, XI (1896), 173-95. Richmond, LA., andJ.M.C. Toynbee, “The Temple of Su lis Minerva at BathJournal of Roman Studies, XLV (1955), 97-105. Rivoira. G. T„ Roman Architecture. London, 1925 (re­ print, New York, 1972).

Robert, L., “Epigrammes relatives à des gouverneurs,” fiel lenica, IV (1948), 35- 114.

--------- , Études Anatoliènnes, Paris, 1937. ----------- , “Une inscription en les bains d’Augusta Trajana,”

Studii Classice. Societatea de studii classice din Republicu Socialist# Romania. XV (1974). 53-61. --------- . Villes d'Asie Mineure, Paris, 1962. Robinson, 0., “Baths: An Aspect of Roman Local Govern­ ment Law,” in Sodalitas. Scritti in onore di Antonio Gua­ rino, Naples, 1984, III. 1065-82.

Rocacelli. C., La sala ottagona delle terme pisane (Arti del III Convegno Nazionale fra srudi di storia de U’architecture. Reale Scuola d’Ingegniere di Pisa. VIII), 1938-39.

48*t

Rodziewicz, M., “Thermes romains près de la Gare Centrale d’Alexandrie." Etudes et travaux. Travaux du Centre

¿'Archéologie Méditerranéenne de ¡ 'Académie des Sciences Polonaises, XI ( 1979), 108-38. Rolland, H., Fouilles de Glanum (supplement of Gallia}, 1946, 49-65.

Romand! i, P.. Topograjla e arcbeologia dell'Africa Ro­ mana (Encyclopedia Classica, X), Turin. 1970. çRook. T., "The Development and Operation of Roman Hy. pocausts,” Journal ofArchaeological Science, V (1978), 269-82.

Relazione tecnica suite scoperte arcbeologiche della città e provincia di Roma negli anni 1871 - 1872, Rosa, P.,

Rome. 1873. Rosenbaum, £., G. Huber, and S. Onurkan. A Survey of Coastal Cities in Western Cilicia, Ankara, 1967.

Rostovtzcff, M., The Social and Economic History Hellenistic World. Oxford, 1967.

of the

Roth-Conges, A., and P. Gros, “Le sanctuaire des eaux à Nîmes,” in La Médecine en Gaule, cd. A. Pelletier, Paris. 1985, 167-92.

Russell. J.. “Mosaic Inscriptions from the Palaestra at Anemurium," Anatolian Studies, XXIV (1974). 95-102. ----------- , “Recent Excavations at Roman Ancmurium, 1969-1973The Proceedings of the Xth Congress ofAr­ chaeology, Il,ed. E. AkurgaI, Ankara, 1973, 916-20.

Saivetti, C. B.. “Il sottosuolo delle terme di Diocleziano nel sec XV] nei disegni nella Biblioteca d’Arte nel Museo di Stato di Berlino,” Studi romani, XVIII (1970), 462-66. Sandkief. A., and D. Selling. “The Heating of Classical Ther­ mae.” Opuscula romana, Xi (1976), 123-25. Sauvaget, J., “Remarques sur les monuments omeyyades 1: châteaux de Syrie." Journal Asiatique, CCXXXI (1939), 1-59. Seamozzi, V., Le terme dei romani disegnate da Andrea Palladio, Vicenza, 1797. Schazmann. P., Das Gymnasion (Altectümer von Pergamon, VI.2), Berlin, 1923.

Schede, M.. Die Ruinen von

Priene, Berlin, 1965

Schioler, T. and Ô. Wikander. “A Roman Water-mill in the Baths of Caracalla,” Opuscula Romana, XIV.4 (1983), 64. 47-

Schroder, B-, Der Sport im Altertum, Berlin, 1927.

Schwartz. J , and H. Wild, Qasr-Qarun/Dionysias 1948, Cairo, 1950. Schwarz. G. T., “Die flavische Thermen ’En Permet’ in Aveoticum. ” Bulletin de I Association Pro Aventtco. XX (1969), 59-68.

Sears, J. M.. “A Greek Bath,” A merican Journal of Archae­ ology, VIII (1904), 216-26. Sedky, K., "Ptolemaic Baths of Kom Ganady,” Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte, LX (1968), 221 - 25.

Scdlmeyer, H., “Le terme imperial Romane.” Palladio, I (1937), 150-56.

Selected Bibliography

48$

Sgobbo. I., “I nuclei monumental i del le terme romane di Bala per la prima volta ríconosciuti.“ Atti del III Congresso Nazionale di Studi Romani, 1. Rome. 19 3 $29 4-309-

Thatcher. E. D., “The Open Rooms of the Terme del Foro at Ostia.” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, XXIV (1956). 169-264.

----------- . “I tempi i di Bala,”I Campi flegrei neil’archeologia e nella sloria (Atti de i Convegno Líncei. XXX111).

ThiiS'Evensen, T. S.. “The Cross-Axis in Roman Architec­ ture, A Symbolic MotiP” Acta Instituti romani Norvegiae, VI (1975), 15-24.

Rome. 1977. 283-321

----- — . “Terme flegree ed origine delle terme romane.”

AHÍ del I. Congresso Nazionale di Studi Romani, 1. Rome. 1928, 186-94.

Shipley. F. W.. Agrippa’s Building Activities in Louis. 1933

Rome, St.

Siebenhüner, H.. “S. Maria degli Angelí in Rome.“ Münch­ enerJahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, VI (1955), 179-86.

Liste des gymnasiarques des Métropoles de l'Égypte romaine, Amsterdam, 196?. Sijpesteijn. P. J..

Sjoqvist. E.. “Kaisarelon, A Study in Architectural Iconogra­ phy.” Opuscula Romana, XVIII (1954), 88-108.

Smith, A.CG., “Gymnasium at Alexandria Troas — Evidence for an Outline Reconstruction,” Anatolian Studies, XXIX (1979), 23-50. Sogliano, A., “Boscoreale. Scopertadi una villa rustica,“ Notizie degii scavi di anticbita, 1895, 207-14.

Squarciapino, M. F., Leptis Magna, Basci, 1966. Staccioli. R. A., “Le ‘rotonde’ delle terme Pom pe lane.” cheologia Classica, VII (1955). 75-84.

----------- . “Lo scavo delle Sette Sale al Colle Oppio,”

Ar

Palia-

tino, X (1966). 275-76. ----------- . “Sugli edificí termali minori,“ Arcbeologia sica, X (1958), 273-?8.

Clas­

Thirion, J., “Un ensemble thermal avec mosaïques à Thina,” Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'École Française de Rome. LXIX (1957), 207-4$. Thomas. E. B.. 1964.

Römische Villen in Pannonien, Budapest,

Thouvenot, R., “Les thermes dits de Gallien à Volubilis,” Publications du service des antiquités du Maroc, 1 (193$). Paris. 11-31

--------- , Volubilis. Paris, 1949. ., and A. l.uquet, “Les thermes de Banasa,” Publica­ tions du sendee des antiquités du Maroc JX, Paris (1951), 9-62.

Tomlinson, R. A., Epidaurus, Austin, Tex., 1983 Traversai. G.» “Osservazioni critiche sul capitello della Pigna in Vaticano,” Arcbeologia Classica, XIX (1967), 106-14.

Travlos, )., Pictorial Dictionary ofAncient Athens, Lon­ don, 1971. Tschira, A.. “Zur römischen Wasserleitungen von Nîmes,” Archäologischer Anzeiger 63 (1948-49), 71 ff.

Tucheit, K., “Bemerkungen zu den Capito-Thermen in Milet,” Mansel'e Armagan— Mélanges Mansel, I. Istan­ bul, ¡974. 147-69

----------- . “Sulla cosídecta Caserroa' di Magnesia al Mean« dro.” Arcbeologia Classica, IX (1957). 250-56.

Turner,). H., “Sergius Orata, Pioneer of Radiant Heating.” Classical Journal, XU II (1948), 486 -87.

----------- . “Terme minori e balnea ne Ila documentazione della Forma Urbis.’” Arcbeologia Classica, XIII (1961), 92-102.

Valentin!, R., and G Zucchctti, città di Roma, I. Rome, 1940.

—----- — . “Tracce di terme ‘Pompeiane’ a Roma,” Amor di Roma, Rome. 1955, 391-401. Striker. C. L., and D. Y. Kuban. "Work at Kalcndcrhanc Camii. Fourth Preliminary Report,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, XXV (1971), 253-58; XXIX (1975), 306-18.

Strocka, V. M., “Römische Bibliotheken," Gymnasium, LXXXV1II (1981), 315-16.

Codice topográfico della

Valet, G , F. Villard, and P. Auberson, Mêgara Hyblaea. Guide des Fouilles (École Française de Rome. Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire. Supplements, (). Rome, 1983. van Berchem, M., “Au pays de Moab d'Êdom.” Journal des savants. VII (1909), 293-309. Van Buren, A. W.» and G. Fraser, “Roman Baths at Leptis,” Memoirs of tbe American Academy in Rome. X (1932),

130-33

Stucchi, S., Arcbitetturu drenaiaca (Monografie di Archeológica Líbica, IX), Rome, 1975.

van Deman, F. B.. The Building ofRoman Aqueducts, Washington. D C, 1934.

. “Le piante delle terme romane d'Africa, e i loro rapporti con quelle di Roma c delTEurope,” Atti V. Con­ vegno Nationale Stati Arcbitetti. Perugia, 1948, Perugia. 1957, 177-86.

van Giffen, A. E., “Thermen en Castel la Heerlen,” uité classique, XVII (1948). 199-236.

Süd ho ff, K.,

Aus dem antiken Radewesen, Berlin, 1910. romanische Palaste,

Swoboda, KM., Römische und Vienna. 1969

Taborelli, L. B., “Le terme della Regio VU’ a Sabratha,” Libya Antiqua, XI-XI1 (19*4--$), 113-46. Tamm, B.. Nero’s Gymnasium in Rome (Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis), Stockholm. 19“0.

Tchalenko, G., Villages Antiques de la Syrie du Nord (In­ stitut Français d’Archéologie de Beyrouth), 3 vols., Paris, 1953.

L'Antiq­

Vann, R. L., “A Study of Roman Construction in Asia Minor: The Ungering Role of a Hellenistic Tradition in Ashlar Ma­ sonry” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1976).

Verducchi, P., “Le terme con cosidetto HeHocaminus,”

Quademi dell'/stituio di Topografía Antica della Univer­ sity di Roma, VTK (1975), 55-95 Verzone, P., “Hierapolis di Frigia nci lavori della Missione Archeo lógica Italiana,” Un decennio di rieberebe arebeolo giche, Rome, 1978. 391-475.

--------- , L 'Urbanística di Hierapolis difrigia (Atti del XVI Congresso di Scoria dcU’Architettura), Rome, 1969.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

486

Vigarello, G., Concepts of Cleanliness; Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages (trans. J. Birrell), Cam* bridge. 1988.

Wright. G.R.H.. "Cyrene- A Survey of Certain Rock-Cut Fea­ tures to the South Sanctuary of Apollo,” Journal of Hellenic Studies, LXXVII (1957), 301-10.

Vighi, R., "Architettura curvilínea romana. La Villa ad esedra dell’Acqua Claudia,” Palladio, V (1941), 145-60.

Yegul, F. K-, "The Bath-Gymnasium Complex in Asia Minor during the Imperial Roman Age" (Ph D. diss., Harvard Uni­ versity, 1975).

Vílucchi, S.. "Le terme di Constantino sul Quirinak* c gli edifici privati di etá precedente,” Rulletino della Commis stone Arcbeologica Communale di Roma, XCl (1986), 350-55.

--------- , The Bath-Gymnasium Complex at Sardis (Ar­ chaeological Exploration of Sardis, Report III), Cambridge, Mass., 1986.

von Dienst. W., Nysa ad Meandrum, Berlin, 1913.

•---------- -, "The Bath Gymnasium Complex in Sardis,” in

Von Gerkan, A., F. Krischen, and T. Weigand, Thermen und Palaestren {Milet, 1.9), Berlin, 1928.

Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times, ed. G.M.A. Hanf-

Vryonis, S., Jr., "The Panegyrisof the Byzantine Saint: A Study in the Nature of a Medieval Institution, its Origins and Fate.” in the Byzantine Saint, ed. S. Heckel (University of Birmingham 14th Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies). London, 1981, 196-226. Warden. P. G., "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered, "Journal of the Society ofArchitectural Historians, XL (1981), 271-78.

Ward-Perkins, B., From Classical Antiquity to the Middle

Ages, Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy, A.D. JOO-850, Oxford, 1984. Ward-Perkins, J. B.. "From the Republic to the Empire: Re­ flections on the Early Provincial Architecture of the Roman West." Journal of Roman Studies, LX (1970), 1-19. ----------- . "Notes on the Structure and Building Methods of Earlv Byzantine Architecture,” in The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors, ed. D. T. Rice, Edinburgh, 1958, 53-104.

--------- . Roman imperial Architecture, New York, 1981. ----------- . and J.M.C. Toynbee, "The Hunting Baths in Lepcis Magna,” Arcbaeologia, XCIll (1949), 165-95.

Wiedemer, H R., "Die Entdeckung der römischen Heilther­ men von Baden—Aquae Helveticae 1967,” Jber Ges. pro Vindo n issa, 1967.83-93

mann, Cambridge, Mass., 1983, 148-61.

----------- , "Hammam — Islamic Baths,”

Macmillan Dictio-

nary ofArt (forthcoming). ----------- , "The Marble Court of Sardis and Historical Recon­ struction,” Journal ofField Archaeology, III. 2 ( 1976), 169-94. , "The Palaestra in Herculaneum as a New Archi­ tectural Type,” forthcoming in Studies tn the History ofArt.

----------- , "Roman Architecture at Sardis,” in Sardis: Twenty-Seven Years ofDiscovery, ed. E. Guralnick, Chi­ cago, 1987, 46-61.

----------- . "The Small City Bath in Classical Antiquity and a Reconstruction Study of Lucian’s ‘Baths of Hippias,’ ” Archeologia Classica, XXX! (1979). 108-31. ----------- , "A Study in Architectural Iconography: Kaisersaalitxd the Imperial Cult,” Art Bulletin, LXIV.l (1982),

7-31. Zehnacker, H., and G. Hal lier, "Les premiers thermes à Vo­ lubilis,” Melanges d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'Êcole Français de Rome, LXXVIl (1965), 118-36.

Zei, C„

Le terme romane di Viterho, 1.9, 1917, 155-70. Kircbe,

Zellinger, J.. Bad und Bàder in der altchristlichen Munich, 1928.

Zevi, F., P. A. Gianfrotta, B. Andrea, et al., Il ninfeo impertali sommerso di Punta Epitaffio, Naples, 1983.

Priene. Ergebnisse der Aus­ grabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 18951898, Berlin, 1904. Wightman, Roman Trier and the Treveri, London, 1970.

Ziebarth, E., Aus dem griecbischen Schulwesen, Berlin, 1914 (reprint 1971).

Wikander, Ö , "The Use of Water-Power in Classical Antiq­ uity,” Opuscula Romana, XIII (1981), 91-104.

Zorzl, G., I disegni delle antichità de Andrea Palladio, Venice, 1959.

Wiegand, T.. and H. Schrader,

Wilhelm. A., "Inschriften aus Halicarnassos und Theangela,” Jabresbefte des österreichischen Archäologischen instituts in Wien, XI (1908). 53« Will, E., "Le ruines d’Aphtodisias en Carie,” Revue archéologique, XI-Xll (1938), 231 -35. Williams, C.K., II, "Corinth 1976: Forum Southwest,” speria, XLVI (1977). 45-53« Winnefeld, H., Oie 1895.

He­

Villa des Hadrian bei Tivoli, Berlin,

W iseman. )., "The Gymnasium Area at Corinth. 19691970,” Hesperia, XLI (1972), 1-42. Wissemann, M., "Das Personal des antiken römischen Bades,” Glotta, J-XH (1984), 80-89

Zienkiewicz, J. D., The Legionary Fortress Raths at Caerleon, 2 vols., Cardiff, 1986.

Glossary

The following glossary contains terms related to baths and bathing. Fuller glossaries on Greek and Roman architecture in genera) will be found in W. B. Dinsmoor, Tbe Architec­ ture of Ancient Greece (London and New York. I960), D. S. Robertson, A Handbook of Greek and Roman Archi­ tecture, 2nd ed. (Cambridge. 1943), and J. B. WardPerkins, Roman Imperial Architecture (New York and London. 1981). Terms are given in their Latin or Greek form depending on the usage preferred in the text. aedile

An elected public officer in Rome responsible for the ad­ ministration and maintenance of public buildings and other municipal supervision. Overseeing the proper heating of public baths was among the important duties of the aediles. aleipterion Originally, a room for the application of oil, “anointing room,” used in relation to the Greek gymnasium. Until the time of Augustus, aleipterion implied a heated space for warm oil unctions. Under the Roman Empire the term was applied more loosely to describe a part or even the whole of a bathing establishment.

alousia The state of being unwashed. An ascetic ideal in early Chris­ tian theology, alousia underlined the importance of bap­ tism as the only acceptable form of Christian bathing.

alveus (-1)

A tub or basin. See labrum, 5.10.4.

scbola labri; see also Vitruvius.

ambulacrum (-a) Ambulatory; a long hall or gallery often associated with Roman baths and bath-gymnasia of Asia Minor (“monumen­ tal corridors’ ) and North Africa. Ambulacra could have served widely varying functions as indoor athletic halls, meeting and ceremonial halls, and galleries for promenad­ ing. Simple rectangular, U- and H shaped forms exist.

a mbulatió

Walkways or corridors associated with planting or colon­ nades in Greek gymnasia and Roman baths (Vitruvius, 5. 11 4). See ambulacrum; xysta. andron Normally, a room for men in Greek houses. In the context of late Roman or Byzantine baths in Syria, used loosely to refer to a hall, a lounge, or a large paved interior courtyard for community* usage

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

apodyterium (-a) The changing room of a bath. Apollodorus of Damascus Master architect of Trajan. According co Dio Cassius, Apollo­ dorus was the creator of the Thermae of Trajan in Rome, perhaps the first fully developed imperia! thermae (Dio Cassius, 69.4.1). Aqua An ton ini ana A special branch of the Aqua Marcia that served the Ther­ mae of Caracalla in Rome. aqueduct A w'ater-supply system in which water was carried from a distant source in conduits buried in the ground or, more dramatically (in Roman usage), raised on a scries of piers and arches to cross low-lying land and valleys. aridus vapor Dry steam. A term used by Martial (6.42) to describe the na­ ture of Lacedaimonian (Spartan) baths or the type of dry heat of the laconicum. See also laconicum, siccus color.

assa sudatio Sweat bath (see sudatorium).

balaneion Greek form for balneum or balineum (see balneum). ball games Among the popular ball games played in the palaestrae of Roman baths, Martial names: pilapaganica (feather-ball) (4.19). follis (bladder-ball) (7.32); barpastum (scrimmage-ball) (4.67); andpila trigonalis (a game with three players trying to catch the ball) (12.28; 14.57). balneae pensiles 'Suspended baths.” Used to refer to hypocaustcd floors supported by pillars (see bypocaust, suspensurae).

balneator An overseer in charge of the daily operation of baths, bath master. See also conductor balinei. balneum (ae) (less frequently, balinea [ae]) Small baths, as distinct from the great public baths (thermae). balneum muliebre Baths for women. The precise meaning of this type of bath is not clear; the term is found mainly in inscriptions. balneum virile Baths for men. The precise meaning of this term is not clear; the term is found mainly in inscriptions.

488

basilica thermarum An imprecise term that denotes a large oblong hall display­ ing the architectural characteristics of a secular “basilica” connected with baths and often roofed in wood, ft must have served a wide variety of general functions, but particu­ larly as a social meeting place or as an indoor “palaestra” for exercise. bath-gymnasium complex A building type that combines some of the elements of a tra­ ditional Greek/Hellenistic gymnasium, especially the col­ onnaded palaestra, with a vaulted Roman bath. The most notable examples come from Asia Minor, where the type probably was developed as early as the mid-first century b.c. See also gymnasium.

bipedales Two-foot-square bricks recommended by Vitruvius for use in the suspensurae of Roman baths (5.10.2).

boilers Metal tanks built in over the furnace to supply hot water to baths. Vitruvius describes a system of three interconnected boilers (not to be confused with his testudines alveo* lorum, which is a system to heat the water and maintain its warmth in hot-water pools: 5.10.1).

Bone di Termini The popular modem term by which the main reservoirs of the Thermae of Diocletian in Rome were known The Botte were demolished in 1878 to make way for the Termini train station. calda lavatio Hot wash room (Vitruvius 5.11.2).

caldarium(-a) The main hot room or rooms of Roman baths. camera sudationis A simple sweat chamber, often used in domestic context, as next to the kitchen. See also concamerata sudatio, laconicum.

capsari us Cloakroom attendant in public baths. castellum aquae A major reservoir served by aqueducts from which water was distributed to part of a city. Rome had a total of 247 castella

Glosun

«i 89

cella solearis (or cella soliaris)

curator aquarum

A term used in the Scriptores Historian Augustae (a fourth-century source), in connection with an unidentified space in the Thermae of Caracalla (SHA. Caracalla, 9) Based on substantial epigraphical evidence from North Africa, it is highly likely that cella solearis (or cella so Harts} was a heated hall in a bath or, possibly, the caldarium itself. The term should not be confused with a solarium or sun deck.

Overseer of public water systems

Celsus

Roman medical writer who lived in the first half of the first century b.c., whose vast medical treatise (De Medicina} in­ cludes the subject of “therapeutic bathing.” channeled hypocaust

An early and simple form of hypocaust that uses a system of channels for the circulation of hot gasses under the floor in­ stead of a fully “hollow” floor supported by pillars (see

hypocaust}. char lies

Minor goddesses personifying beaut)* and grace. Their names were invoked In connection with pleasures and “charms” derived from baths and their soothing warm waters, particularly popular in reference to the qualities of baths in late antique inscriptions; Graces. cista

A cylindrical metal box that was taken to the baths; it con­ tained cosmetic items such as anointing oils and perfumes, strigils, and probably a sponge.

Curia Athletarum The club room or meeting room of a college of professional athletes belonging to the cult of Hercules from Asia Minor established in the Thermae of Trajan in Rome. The location of the Curia Athletarum in the baths is nor known.

De Balneis Puteolanis

An early-thirteenth-ccntury poem in Latin by Peter of Kboli describing individually the thermal baths around Baiae (in the bay of Naples) and environs and the diseases cured by each. A popular practical guide to bathers. De Balneis had numerous profusely illustrated reproductions in the four­ teenth and fifteenth centuries, which constitute an impor­ tant iconographic source for bath studies. De Medicina

See

Celsus.

dendrophori A religious association under the protection of Cybele that emphasized the sanctity of trees and forests. At Baiae, where the cult was particularly strong, a pine decorated with flocks of wool was carried annually at Cybele’s spring festi­ val Whether this sodality had any real or imagined connec­ tion with the corporations that supplied wood for baths is an intriguing question.

destrictarium

A room for the application of w’arm oil (or oil massage) in Roman baths, comparable to the Greek aleipterion.

clipeus According to Vitruvius (5.10.5), a bronze circular disc that could be moved up or down to change the size of the round opening in the domed laconicum, and in this wav regulate the heat in the room.

concamcrata sudatio Vaulted sweat chamber. A term used by Vitruvius to denote a part of the heated baths incorporated into the Greek gym­ nasium (5.11.2) See also laconicum, sudatorium.

conductor balinei

A leaseholder of a bath who was responsible for its daily operation (see balneatof). conisterium

The room for powdering the body before and after exercise in the Greek gymnasium. According to Vitruvius (5.11.2). it was located to the right of the rphebeum. coryceum

The room that contained the punch-bag for boxing practice in the Greek gymnasium (Vitruvius, 5.11.2).

diwan A private lounge or reception hall in Islamic/Arabic socie­ ties, sometimes a part of early Islamic baths.

dromos Running track of the Greek gymnasium. elaeotheshim The room for oiling the body and, possibly, also for oil stor age in the Greek gymnasium (Vitruvius, 5.11.2).

endromis As described in Martial (4.19), a wrap of rough texture worn over lighter clothing after exercise in the palaestra of the Roman baths. The endromis was probably native to the colder regions of the Alps.

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

490

ephcbeum

gerousia

The main room of the Greek gymnasium described by Vitru­ vius (5.11.2) as “the young men’s hall . this is a very spacious exedra with seats in it.” It could have served edu­ cational and social functions.

A quasi-religious organization of the elders with consider­ able political prestige in the Greek city, A Hadrianic in­ scription from Magnesia the Meander informs us that the proper operation of the local baths was entrusted to a spe­ cial committee of the gerousia (RCH 12 ( 1988], 203 f )

ephebic education The primary' national cultural and physical educational program of the Greek youth (epbebes} centered in rhe gymnasium.

fisqiya (fiskiye, Tr

({hgkivoi. Gr).

A jet of water placed in the center of a small pool in the cold room or entrance lounge of Islamic baths, perhaps a vestige of the great pools of Roman frigidaria. The word was clearly derived from the Latin piscina (pool).

fl amnia vaporque The open heat source (brazier or heated stones) of the early laconicum, placed in the center of the circular room (Vitru­ vius, 540.5).

toll is ball games.

See

fornacator Attendant for furnaces and boilers in baths.

fornix An arch or vault; hence, the arched opening (“stoke hole”) of a furnace.

grande salle Modem French term often used to denote a multipurpose hall (often of squarish proportions) connected with the fri­ gidarium and/or apodvterium. This conspicuous ball (sometimes also identified as the basilica tbermarum) ap­ pears to have served social functions in late antique and early Byzantine baths in North Africa and the eastern prov­ inces and gradually replaced the frigidarium in the early Islamic baths.

gymnasiarch In the Greek world, an officer charged with the supervision of a gymnasium or a number of gymnasia in a city. The office and the title continued to retain their importance in Greece and Asia Minor under Roman rule, but denoted the supervision of a bath or bath-gymnasium complex.

gymnasium The primary educational and athletic training institution of the Greek-speaking world. By the beginning of the first cen­ tury B.C., the gymnasium was gradually merging with the Roman bath. In Asia Minor this process resulted in the bath gymnasium combination, which was normally referred to as a gymnasion (see also bath-gymnasium).

hammam (hamam. Tr.) Islamic/Arabic baths.

frigidarium The main cold-water bathing hall, often containing one or several large unheated pools.

Frontinus The author of the famous treatise on the “Aqueducts of Rome” (De Aquis). who was three times a consul and the water commissioner of Rome under Ncrva and Trajan,

harpastum See ball games.

heat lock A modern term used to indicate a relatively small passage element between the caldarium and the frigidarium (in thermae and large baths, Krencker interprets these formally shaped “heat locks” as tepidaria).

Galen Roman physician and medical theoretician from Pergamon who achieved great success as court physician in Rome under Marcus Aurelius. Like Celsus before him, Galen wrote on therapeutic bathing and recommended a clear order of bathing based on temperature gradation and humidity.

galericulum A tight-fitting small cap made of skin that was worn in the palaestra in order to protect the hair from oil (Martial, 14,50).

heliocaminus A special room for sunbathing believed to have been a part of some Roman baths. These rooms enjoyed a southern or southwestern exposure and received the sun through large, possibly unglazed, windows. The word, however, is never found in direct connection with a bath. See also solarium.

Hermaneumaia Ps. Dositheana Bilingual schoolbooks dated c. 200-300 “Bathing” is the subject of “daily conversations” in one of these exercises (see Corpus Glossariorum Latinorum, ed. G, Goetz, Leip­ zig, 1892, 22 f.).

Hippias The skillful architect who designed the small baths much admired by Lucian in his rhetorical essay, “Hippias, or the Bath.”

Glossary

¿91

hospitalia (also, hospitium, -a)

laconicum

Guest chambers, lodgings for guests, inns: places for enter* tain ment for guests.

The hot, dry-steam sweat chamber in Roman baths, often circular in shape as recommended by Vitruvius (5.10.5).

hypocaust

latrine

The major heating system of Roman baths, hypocaust liter­ ally means “a furnace that heats from below.” In the fully developed hvpocaust the floor of the room is supported on short pillars (pilae, suspensurue)-, the hollow space is heated by the circulation of hoi gasses produced by' a fur­ nace (praefurnium), stoked from the outside. The best an* cient description is given by Vitruvius (5.10.2-3).

Toilets, washrooms (derived from

lavatrina).

lavac rum A bath suite that is part of a house; or, generally, a small bath, a balneum. The Baths of Sura on the Aven tine Hill in Rome are referred to as a “gymnasium” by Dio Cassius (Roman History, 68.15.1) and as a lavacrum by Aurelius Victor ( Caesars. 13.8).

imperial hall

See

Kaisersaal.

lava do (sometimes, lavatrina)

See Juventus.

In some inscriptions lavatio is used to indicate a small hath (cf. balneum), particularly in domestic context connected with a kitchen.

iuventus

iwan

lavatrina

A large, vaulted hall, usually open at one end (Islamic architecture).

A washroom, or a small bath room in domestic context; the term is more common in republican usage.

Juventus

loutron

A quasi-military* youth organization started by Augustus; loosely, it is the Roman equivalent of the Greek ephebeia with greater political and aristocratic emphasis

The cold-water washroom of the Greek gymnasium (Vitru­ vius, 5.11.2). lunetie

Kaisersaal (Marmorsaal, ‘ marble hall,” “imperial hall’ )

A modem term first used by the Austrian excavators of Ephesus to describe the richly decorated marble halls of the bath-gymnasia in the city. This type of ceremonial space, often articulated by an apse and opening into the palaestra of the complex, is fairly common in Asia Minor bath-gymna­ sia and may have been associated with the Imperial Cult One of the largest and most impressive examples is the fully reconstructed “Marble Court” of the imperial bath-gymna­ sium in Sardis (a dedicatory inscription honors the emperor Septlmius Severus, his wife Julia Domna, and sons Caracalla and Geca).

See thermal window. majlis al-lahwah

A gathering of friends for entertainment or pleasure in Islamic culture. Such gatherings might have taken place in some of the early Islamic baths and desert castles (such as in Khirbat al-Mafjar) that had large and impressively deco­ rated halls. marble hall See

Kaisersaal.

kapbea (Tr.)

media cella

Thermo mineral baths or bathing resorts in Turkey.

A term used by Vitruvius to denote the middle bath room (tepidarium. q.v.) between the cold bath and the caldarium.

kasr

See qasr.

mikwe

Jewish ritual bath. labrum (-a) A basin often placed inside an apse (schola) in Roman baths (see schola labrf). In Greek usage, a basin for washing, often elevated on a pedestal. Laconian style (bathing) Bathing in cold water, or taking a dry-steam sweat bath (as in a laconicum) in the "manner” of Spartans.

musaeum (-a)

A room for the Muses, dedicated to artistic display and study, sometimes also a nymphaeum. Although not substan­ tiated by ancient authority, such rooms or halls might have been a part of Roman baths: a good example is the “Musaeum” of the Baths of Faustina in Miletus (hall M, see Figs. 373-375); also hah .Win the South Gate Baths in Perge (see Figs 384, 386).

Baths and Rattling in Classical Antiquity

natatio (-¡ones)

Ordinarily, a large unheated swimming pool, open or roofed, as the large swimming pools in Roman baths. The term is also used loosely to refer to the hall of the sw im­ ming pool itself

492

peristoon (ntpuntoov) Possibly a garden or a peristyle courtyard; the term is men­ tioned in an inscription of c. 230 from Julia Gordcs (Lydia). A bath was enlarged by the addition of a peristoon. petit appareil

neoi A Greek association of youths who, having completed their ephebic education, continued their gy mnastic training in some local gymnasia, or in a special gymnasium of their own. An inscription of Augustan date from Cyme mentions a special bath for the neoi (probably in connection with their gymnasium). nymphaeum (*a)

In general use, an elaborate or monumental fountain struc­ ture. Originally, a cave or grotto with running water source sacred to the nymphs, a sanctuary of the nymphs.

Conventional term for opus caementicium with a facing of small, squared blocks following more or less regular courses. It was popular in the provinces, especially in Roman Gaul.

Small pillars (c. 0.60- 1.30 m. high, placed c. 0.80 m. on centers) supporting the hypocaust floor. Usually they arc made of bricks or stone or terra-cotta pipe sections. See also

bypocaust. pila paganica

See ball games. opus africaiuim Masonary style common in North Africa in which a frame­ work of stone uprights and horizontals is filled in by small coursed or random nibblework.

opus caemcnticium Roman concrete; undressed stones, brick fragments, and loose aggregate are laid in a thick mortar of sand, lime, and, in Central Italy and Campania, a volcanic dust known as pozzolona. In Asia Minor the popular local variety of opus caementicium is described as “mortared rubble“ in which pozzolona is replaced by lime.

opus sectile Decorative floor paving or wall incrustation made by multi­ colored scone (often marble) or tile pieces cut in geometric shapes. opus signinum Waterproof mortar floor lining made with crushed brick and chips of terra-cotta and marble; it is commonly used in floors and walls of pools and cisterns.

paidotribes Professional trainer of athletes in the Greek gymnasium. palaestra (-ae) A colonnaded enclosure for athletic exercise; originally a part of the Greek gymnasium, in Roman usage it was the ex­ ercise yard of baths.

pila irigonalis

Sec

bait games.

piscina A pool (sometimes also, piscina pool).

natatoria, a swimming

Pompeian bath type Any of the relatively small baths displaying a plan with a row of vaulted bathing halls arranged next to a palaestra courtyard (“row type’’). The type is very widely diffused and may or may not have been developed in. Pompeii (also “Campanian bath type"), although some of the earliest recorded examples (such as the Stabian Baths) come from Pompeii.

praefumium ( a) (also, propnigeum) Furnace of a Roman bath. The term may denote only the stoke hole {fornix) of the furnace, or the larger area of the furnace or furnaces.

propnigeum

See praefurnium. qasr (also, kasr) A castle or fortified dwelling or palace complex. Some of the early Islamic qasrs include major bathing suites.

Qasr al-Amra Palatine Anthology

A collection of Greek poems and epigrams from late antiq­ uity. Book IX, 606-640, includes many on the subject of baths and bathing.

patera A circular, shallow bowl for pouring libations; in baths, for pouring water over the body.

An eighth-century Umayyad hunting lodge/bath house in Transjordan that displays unusual figurative wall and ceiling paintings with bathing and dancing scenes modeled directly after Classical sources.

Glossary

-*93

Regimen in Health; Regimen in Acute Diseases

solium

Treatises included in the Hippocratic corpus. Thev are par­ ticularly important because they represent the quasi-scientide and medical position taken concerning bathing as a therapeutic activity and include detailed recommendations for different bath types and bathing routines to cure differ­ ent ailments.

A hot water tub in baths In Celsus and some other sources, the term denotes a hot bathing hall with heated pools com­ parable in meaning and usage to the cella solearis.

salutations Popular salutations or greetings to wish a good bath were “Bene lava!” or “Salvus laves!” After the bath, one saluted “Salve lotus!” These sentiments were sometimes inscribed on the mosaic floor at the entrance or exit of some of the bath rooms.

San Bernardo a lie Terme A small circular church in Rome which was convened from the round hall at the southeast corner of the precinct of the Thermae of Diocletian.

sphairisterion (sphaeristerium, L.) A room for ball games in the Greek gymnasium; it might have been introduced into some of the Roman baths Pliny mentions that his country* villas had spbaeristeria as a part of their bathing suites {Letters. 2.17.2; 5 6.27).

stagnuin A pool or pond; any enclosed stretch of water. Agrippa’s Thermae in the Campus Martius in Rome were located near the famous Stagnum of the Gardens of Agrippa. The canal called the Euripus connected the Stagnum with the Tiber. Nero reportedly built a stagnum at Baiae to collect the waters of all the thermo mineral sources. scrtgil (strigilis, L.)

Santa Maria degJi Angeli A very large church in Piazza del Esedra in Rome convened from the great frigidarium of the Thermae of Diocletian by Michelangelo (1561) and Vanvitelli (1749). schola labri

In Roman baths an apse In which a shallow, round basin is placed (Vitruvius, 5.10.4).

A metal blade with a slightly curved end used by Greek ath­ letes or Roman bathers to scrape the excess oil from the body.

sudatorium (or, sudatio) A sweat chamber with “wet heat” as distinct from the “dry heat” of the laconicum (see also concamerata sudatio). The term may have been derived from assa sudatio, the simple, rustic caldarium of the Italian farmhouse (see also

laconicum). Sergius Orata An aristocratic Campanian who lived c. 90-80 b.c. and is popularly credited with the “invention” of the hypocaust (or the balnea pensites) heating system (Pliny, N.H., 9.168; Valerius Maximus, 11.1.1). The allegation is far from provable.

suspensura (ae)

Sente Sale

tegulae mammatae

Modem name given to the great two«storied cistern of the Thermae of Trajan in Rome, located to the northwest of the baths and supplied by Aqua Traiana. siccus calor

large square tiles with projecting bosses {mammatae or “nipples") at their corners and attached to the wall by­ clamps or terra-cotta studs. As an intercapillary walLheating elements in baths, tegulae mammatae represent an earlier and less practical alternative method to the tubuli (q.v.).

"Dry heat” described by Cclsusto be the heat of the laconicum (¿)e Medicina. 2.17).

lepidarium (-a)

solarium

The warm room or rooms in Roman baths. In the context of the imperial thermae, it has been interpreted to be the rela­ tively small heated room (or a “heat lock”) between the caldarium and (he frigidarium.

A sun roof or sun terrace. See also heliocamtnus.

soleae

See soleae balneares. soleae balneares

Wooden clogs or sandals worn in baths. Soleae ire some­ times represented in outline form on the mosaic floors of baths, especially at the entrance of rooms.

In the Vitruvlan description of the hypocaust, the term means “hanging floor” or “suspended floor” (5.10.2-5); more correctly, it denotes a floor supported by the small pillars {j>ilae) of the hypocaust.

tena-cotta studs Cylindrical terra-cotta spikes used to attach plain tiles or tegulae mammatae on the wall instead of the usual metal clamps (Ton-nageln in German publications.ficheen terra cuite, in French).

Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity

494

tesiudines alveolorum (or, tesiudo)

unecorium

A semi cylindrical metal container open at one end and closed at the other designed co heat che water in bath pools and keep it warm (Vitruvius, 5.10.1).

Room for oil massage (see

thermae

Exceptionally large Roman baths that embraced a variety of secondary functions—sportive, educational, and social — besides bathing. Unlike the smaller bathing establishments, the balneae, which were often privately owned, thermae were owned and operated by the city or the state and were open for all. Thermae of the 'imperial type’’ (as defined by Daniel Krencker in 1929), are exceptional in their formal and grandiose plans, characterized by bilateral symmetry about a main axis created by the frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium. See also balneum. thermae estivates

Summer baths. The term is found in inscriptions; its archi­ tectural significance is not clear. thermae hiemates

Winter baths. The term is found in inscriptions; its architec­ tural significance is not clear.

thermal window A large window with an arched head, a lunette, usually placed at the open end of a barrel or cross vault. This was the common window type for illuminating the great halls of Roman thermae — the frigidaria and the caldaria; its vari­ eties were later called "Palladian window/’

tholos

A round structure or room often roofed by a dome. A fre­ quently used room shape and formation in Greek baths and for the sweat chambers of Roman baths; Vitruvius recom­ mends it for the laconicum (5.10.5). tinunnabulum

The bell that announced the opening of the hot baths. Ton-nSgeln

See terra cotta studs. trochus

A hoop (Martial, 14.168; Horace, Odes, 3.24.57). Rolling the trochus with the help of a stick was a popular light ex­ ercise in the palaestrae of Roman baths. tubuli

An intercapillary wall-heating element in Roman baths made up of continuous hollow terra-cotta tiles, normally box-shaped (‘’box tiles”), and connected at one end with the hypocausc. Seneca called them ‘pipes let into the wall” ("inpressi parted bus tubi”; Letters, 90.25) See also tegu-

lae mammatae.

aieipterion).

Vipascum Inscription (metallum vipascense) A fully preserved and informative contract between the authorities in the mining community in Vipasca. Portugal, and the lessee of the local baths. The agreement specifies in detail the conditions of service and maintenance (CfL, II, no. 5181 = 115, Dessau, no 6891).

xystus, xysta The long colonnaded, hence "roofed,” running track of the Greek gymnasium to be used in winter or unfavorable weather (Vitruvius, 511.3-4). Vitruvius differentiates the xystus from the xysta (plural form of xystus), which is the unroofed running track (5 11.4) In Roman usage, and gen­ erally in the context of villas and gardens, xytus and xysta came to denote an open or port!coed promenade planted as a garden, shaped by hedges. The xystus of Pliny’s Laurentian villa was "perfumed by violets” (Letters, 2.17.17).

Index

Figure n um bers appear in italicsfolioic­ ing page numbers. AbdalMalik, 349 Acgina Sanctuary of Aphaia, 24 Aezane, 270. 307 Bath-Gymnasium, 282, 284, 306. 309, 418; 361 Agnano Thermae Alinarum, 96-97; 108 Agrippa, Marcus. 44. 45, 137. 180. SEE A15O Rome: Thermae of Agrippa AinNcchma (Populus Thabarbusi« (anus), 185 AJabanda. 306 AJange: thermal bachs. 439 n. 49 aleipterion, 21, 39, 427 n. 45, 487 Alexander Severus. 33. 34. 45, 94, 137, 139. 152. 176, 206, 222. 394, 431 n. 81 Alexandria, 321, 471 n. 123 Gymnasium, 9 Kaisereion, 138, 422-23 Alexandria Troas; Bath «Gymnasium. 270, 282, 306, 416. 418, 473 n. 5; 355-358, 505 AJonnes (Le Mans): Double Bachs. 75; 83 alousia, 318, 487 ambulacrum. 414, 472 n. I, 487; 501 Ammianus Marcellinus. 42 Anacharsis, 7 Anemurium Baths II-7A, 301, 338; 400 Baths 11-1 IB, 301,338, 422; 399 Baths 1II-2B, 304, 307, 417, 422;

401, 402 Ankara: Caracal lan Baths (flankt rikapi), 278-79, 306, 307. 357, 371, 386. 416, 418, 419, 422; 350,

451. 469, 501, 503, 504 anointing, 38-39, 133. 354-55, 463 n. 21 Antioch on the Ororucs, baths in C. 326; 414 Diocletian, 324, 326 E. 338-39; 426 F, 326 Tiberias. 390 Trajan/Hadrian, 326 Valens, 326 Antiochia ad Cragnum: Baths M2A. 301.338 Antiochus Epiphanes, 32. 425 n. 9 Antoninus, Publius Vedius, 44, 433 n. 112 Antoninus Pius, 44, 45, 176, 473 n. 9 Antoninus of Placentia, 124 Anzio, 322 Apamea on the Meander, 8 Apelles, 42 Aphrodisias, 271

Hadrianic Bath-Gymnasium, 258. 2’3. 2’8, 306, 307. 419, 422, 455 n. 42; 319, 320. 342. 506 Theater Baths. 386; 478 apodvterium, 15,34,50. 130,488; 35-3“ ApolIinaris Sidonius, 135, 178,315, 322, 459 n 57 Apollodorus of Damascus, ¡33» 142, 144, 155. 162, 179, 192, 488 Appius Claudius, 393 Apuleius. 30 Aqua Appia. 391,393 Aqua Claudia. 163, 319 Aquae Calldae (nr. Clermont-Ferrand), 437 n. 17 Aquae Flaviae, 111-12; 126 Aquae Helveticae (Baden an der Lim­ mat), 110.Ill; 123 Aquae Neri, 120: 13? Aquae Suits (Bach), 110, 112, 114-19, 127, 365, 464 n 7; 132-134 Aqua Marcia, 31. 92, 163, 393. 394 Aqua Traiana, 144, 318, 393 Aqua Virgo. 31. 133, 136, 394 Aqueducts, 3. 391-95; 485. 486 architecture of bachs, 2-3 SEE Also plan types: baths and thermae by NAME Arco della Ciambella, 135, 136, 386;

146, 148 Argos: Roman Baths, 464 n. 8 Aristides, Aelius, 306, 424 n. 6 Aristippus, 7 Arles; North Baths (**Palace of Constan* tine0), 323, 440 n. 65, 463 n. 6;

411 Arsinoe. 390 artworks in late antique baths. 322. See also paintings in baths; mosaics; statuary Arycanda: baths, 258, 299; 394. 395 Asclepiades of Prusa, 354, 462 n. 10 Aselli: Villa Rustica, 63 Asia Minor, baths in, 2 50 - 313 architectural elements of, 251, 25456, 414-43 architectural sources, 251 as athletic and educational institu­ tions, 307-13 building materials of, 254, 258, 266, 270 dating and development of types, 304-6. 313 in late antiquity . 313 palaestrae in. 251, 254. 308 plan types, 270-304, 414-23

Aslnius Pollio, 444 n 58 Aspendos Large Baths. 266, 291,454 n. 30

331, 3^9, 381 Small Baths, 266. 422; 332, 380, 382 assa sudatio, 50, 384 Assos: gymnasium, 21 Athenaeus, 6, 42 Athens, 24 Academy, 4.9, 24. 180; I, 2 Cynosargcs, 9 Lyke ion, 9 Augusta Traiana (Sura Zagora), 111. 125. 395: 125 Augustine, Saint, 317 Augustus Caesar, 33, 43, 55, 93, 137, 174 — 75, 354, 434 n. 12 Aurelian, 152 Avcnticum (Avenches): colonia baths, 75. 322.459 n. 57; 86 Avemus, Lake: Temple of Apollo. 106, 109-10; 122

Babiska; Large Baths. 329, 334;

416.

420. 421 Bacon. Francis, 318 Baden-on-the«Limmat. See Aquae Helveticae Badenweiler, 112, 119-20, 439 n. 58;

135 Baiac. 50, 93-96. 125, 180, 183, 317 Hillside Complex, 97-105; 109, 111 Ambulatio Villa, 97, 101, 103, 105; 116 Thermae of Sosandra, 97, 101, 103-5; 110, 112, 117 South Precinct, 101-3; 114, 115 Stufe di Nerone ("Balneum Trituli”). 94-96; 106, 107 "Temple of Apollo.” 109-10; 122 "Temple of Diana," 109 "Temple of Mercury,” 106-8, 136;

118. 119 "Temple of Venus,” 101, 103, 1089; 120, 121 Baiacs (in Tunisia), 440 n. 69 balaneion ( a), 23, 24, 312, 488 ball games, 37.426 n. 36.430 n. 47,488 baineae pensiles, 357 balneator, 46, 488 balneum (-ae). 3, 43. 312, 431 n. 95, 488 "Bal Surae " SEE under Rome Banasa. 186 Baths with Frescoes, 237-38, 391;

284 Small North Baths, 237-38, 404, 411; 282, 493

Index

Banasa (continued) Small We« Baths, 237. 374, 404. 411.465 n. 26; 283, 493. 499 Barsanuphius, 317 Basil, Saint, 317 basilica thermarum. 160, 162, 234, 400. 404. 488 Bach. She Aquae Sulls bach-gymnasium, development of, I, 23-24, 57, 137, 172-77. 183. 185, 251, 254. 256. 304, 30613. 456 ci. 59 bathing as cultural institution, 1 In Asia Minor, 250-51 in Byzantine culture, 314-19 in Greece, 6-9. 14-15, 17-18. 21. 23-26. 29, 41, 424 n. 4, 488 in Nonh Africa, 184-85 in Roman provinces, 55 in Rome, 2.4-5, 7. 30-38, 48, 66, 128. 169. 183 in Turkey. 350-51 equipment for. 33-34; 33, 34 greetings and salutations, 38, 124 origins of in Greek gymnasia, 18, 21, 23 in Italy, 50 in post-Classical times, 314-49 ritual of, 33-35, 37-42, 61. 119. 197, 217, 247, 354,429 n 35, 440 n. 2 therapeutic effects of, 5. 353-55 baths administration of. 46-47, 428 n. 2 costs of operating, 44-47 distribution of, 4, 66 heated, origins of. 23, 24 personnel, 47. 433 n. 125 plan types. 3-4. Sei aiso under plan types public vs. private, as types. 43 and religion, 124-27 restoration and maintenance of, 322-23 socioeconomic basis for, in late antiq­ uity, 321-22 SEE Also UNDER Asia Minor; Nonh Africa; Rome hipedales, 357; 442 Blouet.Abel, 154. 159. 168. 180 boilers, 373-74, 488; 466, 471, 472 Bonifatio (grammacician), 178 Boscoreale La Pisanella, 63; 50 Villa Rustica, 369, 373, 374, 377; 466 Bosra: South Baths. 326; 4/5 “Botte di Termini/’ 394. 446 n. 84, 488 Bougrara. See Gigthis Brad; baths, 329, 334. 338; 416. 422 Brrtdner. E., 154, 157, 160, 162 Brown, Frank E., 338. 339 Bulla Regia, 4, 32, 44. 83 Baths of Julia Memmia, 32, 44, 186, 217-19. 220, 400, 405; 245-

249, 491. 496, 498 Small Baths nr. the Theater, 242-43;

291. 292

496

Cadyanda: baths, 44 Caerleon. See Isca Caesar Augustus. See Augustus Caesar calda lavatio, 21 caldarium, 3, 38, 39, 40, 50, 51, 130. 160, 219» 220, 354, 371,383, 409- 11,417-19» 434 n 4, 472 nn. 8, 9, 473 nn. 5, 7, 488; 42.

204, 271. 310, 316. 317. 468. 469, 471, 498, 499, 505, 506 Cales: Central Baths, 385, 390 Calydon: Heroon. 14, 422-23; 11. 12 camera sudaiionis, 50, 488 Canac, 387 Capitoline Games. 175, 176 Capri, 55 Caracalla, 152, 160, 222, 230, 422 Carthage: Antonine Baths, 186, 19296, 206, 323. 373, 396. 408, 449 n. 8, 472 n. 5; 206-210, 470 Cassiodorus, 162 casiellum aquae, 393-94 Caunos: baths, 251. 258, 418, 419. 422; 300, 312, 313. 505. 506 Celer. 136 cella solearis [soliaris]. 159, 160. 162, 444 n. 65. 445 a. 70, 468 n. 80. 489 Celsus. 96, 185, 353-54 Cemcnelum (Cimiez): baths. 68, 74;

78, 80 Champlieu, 75 Charles V, 318 Cherchel Large West Thermae, 197, 201. 2056, 396. 405, 408-9, 449 n. 8;

228, 495 Small East Baths. 234-35. 411; 272.

273. 499 Chieti: cisterns. 471 n. 132 Chios, 23 Christianity attitudes coward athletics and the gymnasium, 320 attitudes toward bathing, 314-15, 317-20, 457 n. 6 Chronicle of Zacharias, 319 Ciamberlano. Luca, 317; 410 Cicero. 23-24, 31.40, 174, 177, 180 Cimiez. See Cemenelum Cimon, 9, 180 circular rooms, 146, 251, 386-87, 422. See also tholos cista, 34 Civitavecchia: Taurine Baths. 112-16. 125, 448 n. 128; 127-130 clergy, baths of, 458 nn. 33, 34 clothing worn in Roman baths, 34-35. 38 Colosseum. 139 Como, 2, 44 concamerata sudatio, 21, 384. 489 concrete, use of, in baths, 2 Conimbriga South Baths (late Augustan), 78: 89. 90 South Baths (late Trajanic), 78-79, 436 n. 40; 91. 92 conisterium. 15 Constans I, 135, 152, 169

Constans II, 319 Constantine. 169, 319 Constantinople, baths in. 4 Constantine, 324 Dagistheus. 324. 368-69 Eudocius, 324 Helena, 322 Kalenderhane. 324; 413 Kaminia. 324 Oikonomion. 319, 324 Topkapi Palace, 324: 412 Zeuxippus. 33. 315, 324, 457 n. 7 Constantius I. 135 Corinth Baths on the Lecha ion Road, 4 Centaur Baths, 26, 29; 31 gymnasia, 9, 427 n. 44 coryceum, 15, 489 Cosa. 74 costs of operating baths, 44-47 Curia of the Athletes (Curia Athletarum), 176 Cyme, 427 n. 52 Cyrcne Byzantine Baths, 460 n. 79 Greek Baths, Sanctuary of Apol Io. 25, 384; 25. 27 Trajanic/Hadrianic Baths, 397, 400, 404; 487, 488, 491 Damascus. 462 n. 108 Damianus. Flavius, 423. 473 n. 12 Daphne gymnasium, 8 ’women'sbaths/' 429 n. 21 De Aquis (The Aqueducts of Rome). 393;485 De Balneis Puteolanis, 94; 106 Decius, 162 Delaine, J., viii, 160, 465 n. 33 Delos, 426 n. 36 Agora of the Italians, 384, 385 gymnasium, 9, 15,17, 426 n. 36, 427 n. 43 Palaestra of the Lake, 15,23; 18 Delphi baths, 428 n. 58 gymnasium, 9, 17, 21, 426 n. 33. 466 n. 53; 6, 24 Demetrius the Cynic, 40 Derventum (Drevant) First Baths, 75, 404; 84 Second Barks, 68; 77 destrictarium. 39» 61, 489 Didyma Late Roman Baths, 348; 441 Small Baths, 251. 473 n. 8 Dio Cassius, 96,105,133,134,137.142 Dio Chrysostom of Prusa, 45» 432 n. 122 Diocles of Carystus, 353 Dionysias. See Qasr-Qacun Dioscuri. 169. 395, 446 n. 93; 189 diwan, 346. 489; 438 Djemila; Large Baths, 4, 197, 201-2, 210, 369, 374, 396. 400. 405. 408, 411; 219-225. 492. 495 Domesticus, M. Ulpius, 176 Domitian, 135» 175

Index

Domus Aurea See Rome: Golden House of Nero Dos io, Giovanni Antonio, 154, 164; 186 Dougga (Thugga), 4 Baths of Licinius, 206, 212, 231, 391,397, 404, 408, 411;

229-258 Sanctuary of Caelestis, 172 Drcvant. SEE Derventum Drinking in Roman baths, 41-42 Dunbabin, K., vlil Dup6rac. Etienne, 164, 169; 184, 185 Dura Europos: baths, 338, 390, 416. 461 n. 96; 423 - 425

eating in Roman baths, 39, 42 econom i cs of baths ,44-47 education in Greece, 7, 23 in Rome, 177-78 elaeotbestum, 489 Elagabalus, 42, 152 El Djem (Thysdrus): West Baths. 83, 186, 217, 220-21, 246, 386, 391, 396, 400-405, 408, 451 n. 35; 250, 492. 495 Elis: gymnasia, 9 Endelechius, 178 endromis, 34, 489 entertainments in baths, 39 entrance fees, 45, 47 epbebeum, 15, 17, 320, 422-23, 490;

14 ephebic education, 7, 490 Ephesus, 4, 44, 45, 258, 266, 270, 306, 309; 335 East Bath-Gymnasium, 258, 279, 282, 304, 306, 307, 416, 418. 419, 422.423, 449 n. 8; 323. 351.

352, 505, 505 Harbor Bath«Gymnasium, 254, 258, 272, 284, 304, 306-8, 313. 416, 418, 422, 423, 449 n. 8;

522, 336, 337. 501. 503, 505 Scholastic* Baths, 251, 288, 291, 313; 37/. 372 Theater Bath-Gymnasium, 258, 279, 282, 304, 307, 416; 324, 353.

354 Vedius Bath-Gymnasium, 258, 282, 284, 307, 308, 312, 416, 418, 422, 473 n. 9; 321, 333, 359,

503, 505 Epicurus, 447 n. 120 Epidaurus, 138, 426 nn. 31, 33 Epiphanius, 121, 356-57 Eretria: gymnasium, 15,21,427 n. 43;

¡7 Eschebach, H., 379-80, 383, 439 n. 19 Eunapius, 121 Euripus, 136, 137, 441 n. 20 exercise in Roman baths, 35, 37; 38 Exeter, 374 Legionary Baths, 75; 472 ex voto objects, 125; 140

Favendnus, 357, 468 n. 77 Feriana; Urge Baths, 212. 215, 216, 451 n 35; 239-241

Fiesole; Roman Baths. 357; 446 fighting cock has relief, 177; 195 fisqtya, 351. 490 flasks, souvenirs of Baiae and Puteoli, 9". 438 n 28, 113 Fontaines«Salées, 361 387 GallO'Roman Bath, 361; 452 fora, educational use of, 178 forked «circuit plan, 216-17; 244 Forma Urbis See Marble Plan fountains in baths, 83, 125-27, 395. See Also nymphaea Francesco di Giorgio, 109, 154 frigidarium, 3, 21, 38, 50, 74, 130, 190, 192, 201,354, 404-5, 408, 416,434 n. 4. 450 n. 26,461 n. 96, 472 nn. 5, 6, 8, 490; 202,

203. 213. 232. 233> 257-259, 310, 328, 495. 496, 503 Frontinus, Sextus Julius, 393, 394, 490, 494 fuel, 45, 47 furnace. See praefumium furnace room, 21 Galen, 37, 353-54, 490 Gallienus, 235 Gallus, Gaius Sulpicius, 7 Gamaliel II (rabbi), 322 Gardens, attached to imperial thermae, 178-80 Gela, 48, 380; 44. 45 Gerasa, 4, 320 Germany, baths in, 386-87 gerousia, 8, 46, 312, 490 Gigthis (Bougrara), 83, 186 Small Central Baths, 411; 499 West Baths, 172, 186, 217, 220, 221-22, 397, 405; 251. 496 Giocondo, Fra, 154 Gisacum (Vieil -Évreux): baths, 7475; 82 Giuliani, C , 366 Glanum (Saint-Rémy-de-Provencc), 68, 74; 76 Gorrys: baths, 26, 48, 380, 384; 26, 50 Grabar, Oleg. 348-49, 461 n. 103 Granada, 318 Alhambra, 461 grande Mlle. 237, 247, 400, 404, 414, 490; 493 Greece, ancient bathing as a cultural Institution in, 6-9, 14-15, 17-18, 21. 2326, 29,41,424 n. 4 education in, 7, 23 public baths, 24-26, 29, 488 See Also gymnasia in ancient Greece Gregory IV (pope), 320 Gregory Nazianzen, Saint, 317 Gregory the Great (pope), 135, 317 Grimai, Pierre, 179-80 Guelma (Calama): baths, 215, 217, 405,408; 242, 243, 496 gymnasia in ancient Greece, 7-9, 309. 425 n. 9 architecture of, 8-9, 14-15, 1718. 21. 29 bathing in, P. 21, 23- 24, 57; 19-22

as cultic center, 8 decline of, 320 elements of, 426 n. 36 feasting in, 7-8 financing of, 8 with gardens, 180, 448 n. 137 influence on baths In Asia Minor, 251, 254, 307-9, 312-13, 416 influence on Roman baths, 55, 13337, 142, 172-76, 183, 251, 433 n. 2 palaestra essential to, 426 n. 28 panhellenic type. 426 n 33 gymnasiarch, office of, 8, 490 gymnasium Christian attitudes coward, 320-22 purpose of. 353 as term, 312, 490 in villas. 181-83 See also gy mnasia in ancient Greece gymnastics. 172-77

Hadrian, 33, 135.142, 175-76, 186, 190, 192, 273, 319, 397, 429 n. 17, 463 n. 25 Hadrian's Villa. See under Tivoli Halicarnassos; gymnasia. 8, 309, 456 n. 51 halls, multipurpose. SEE basilica tber

marum, grande salle Hammam abSarah, 341; 428 Hammat Gader: 121-24,317,404; J36-139 Haskovo, 111, 124 Havza (Pharzimonites), 322, 429 n. 26, 440 n. 69 heat, types of, 354, 383-84 heating of baths, 3, 40-41,45, 47, 50, 48116-17, 135, 356-89;

442-466, 468. 469. 471-476 fuel. 465 n. 38 temperatures, 380-82 See also boilers; hypocaust; praefurnium; solar energy in bach design heating of gymnasia, 23 beliocaminus, 39, 382-83, 468 n. 79, 490 Herculaneum Forum Baths, 3, 64, 385; 36, 66 House of the Stags, 181 natatio. 430 n. 51 Palaestra, 38, 57, 68,183; 39. 54-56 Suburban Baths, 385, 470 n. 102 Hercules, Cult of, 175-77 Hermeneumata Ps. Dositbeana. 30, 428 n. 1,429 n 35 Herod, king of Judea, 64 Herodes Atticus, 282 Hesychlus, 323 Hierapolis, 258, 271, 306. 394 "Basilica” Baths, 316, 317 Bath-Gymnasium, 273, 278, 418. 419, 422, 423 Urge Baths, 445 n. 82 Hicrius, 178 Hilary (pope), 183 hipbaths. 24, 25, 45, 377; 25, 26. 45

Index

Hippias, 490. See also Lucian; 'Baths of Hippias“ Hippocrates, health regimens of, 353, 493 Hippo Regius (Anaba), 83 Large Nonh Baths, 217, 230-32, 368, 386, 396-9?, 405: 265,

266. 496 Homer, 6 Horace. 174 Huelsen, C., 154, 160 Hüfingen: Roman Baths, 374 hypocaust, 3, 43, 48, 50, 351,35665, 377-81, 466 n. 39, 467 nn. 58, 60, 71. 491; 437, 442-447.

449-453. 476 channel type, 361, 489; 452, 453 modem experiments with. 381 origins of, 377-80

Iliad. 6 JHca (Aquae S), 439 n. 48 illumination in baths, 33, 39, 40, 45 See also windows in baths Imperial Cult, 2, 8, 68, 124. 176, 235, 251,306, 422, 423. 473 nn. 9, 12 halls (Kaisersäle). 68, 254, 422-23. 473 n. 9. 491:337 imperial thermae. Rome, 3; 141. 485 architectural sources of, 133, 183. 251,450 n. 26 facilities, 128, 130, 136-37, 142. 146, 172, 178 gardens in, 136-37, 139, 179-80 influence on baths in Asia Minor, 254 plans, 130-33, 136-46, 154-56. 158, 160, 162, 168-69, 171;

142d, e, 145, ¡47, 150, 151, 152, 154, 157, 162, 163. ¡69. 170, 178, 179. 181. 190 See aiso Rome; thermae inscriptions. 23, 38, 46-47, 313, 318, 356, 430 n. 54. 448 n. 132, 456 n. 49, 493 iotapc: Baths 5B, 301; 398, 422 Isca (Caerleon): Legionary Fortress Baths, 75: 86, 87 Islamic culture, baths in, 339-51 Istanbul, 462 n. 1 (Epilogue). Seeaiso Constantinople Isthmia, 304 Roman Baths, 368 Iwanoff, S.A., 154, 157

Jericho: Winter Palace, 64; 67 Jerome, Saint, 314, 317 John Chrysostom, 314 John 1, Tzimiskes, 319 Julia Gordos (GÖrdes); baths and peristoon, 453 n> 2 Julia Mcmmia, Baths of. See under Bulla Regia Julian (emperor), 315 Justinian (Byzantine emperor), 321, 324, 460 n. 70 Juvenal, 33, 37, 174 Juventus movement, 57, 137, 174-75, 447 n. 107, 491

•*98

Kahn, Louis 1., 9 Kaisersaal 68, 254, 348, 422-23. 448 n 128, 473 nn. 9-12, 491; 337. See Also Imperial Cult Kaiserthermen. SEE Trier: Imperial Thermae kaloskagatbos, 424 n. 4 Karan is; South Baths, 237, 404, 47071 n. 123; 276 Kephisodoros, 8 Khamlssa; Forum Baths, 4, 247. 249, 369, 386, 391,400, 405, 409. 413; 296, 492, 496, 498 Khirbat al-Mafjar, 341,346-49; 435.

436-40 klinai, 94 Korn el-Dikka, 411; 500 Kom Ganady; Ptolemaic baths, 463 n. 5 KomTrougah; Small Baths, 404; 494 Krencker, D., viii-ix, 130. 154, 157, 160, 440 n. 2. 445 n. 68; 142 Kretschmer. F., 381 Kii^Qk ^ekmece (Rhcigion): baths. 460

labrum. SEE schola labrum iaconicum, 15, 21, 38. 50, 135, 354, 383-89, 434 n. 18, 469 n. 100, 491; 62 La Follette, L., 162, 163 Lagertbermen. See Lambaesis: Legion* ary Fortress Baths Lagina; gymnasium and balaneion, 456 n. 55 lambaesis Large Thermae (Palais du Ugat), 201, 202, 205. 206, 216, 396, 400, 404. 405, 411; 226. 227,

491, 492, 495 Legionary Fortress Baths (Lager¡her men). 216- 17, 346, 374, 386, 391,396; 244. 471 Small Baths. 247, 249, 411; 295, 499 Lanciani, R., 23, 162, 164 Januvium, 43 LaocoOn. 146 Laodiceia, 271,273, 306 Bath-Gymnasium by the Stadium, 258, 278, 309, 416, 418, 419, 453 n. 13; 318, 341, 342, 506 unexcavated baths by the Nymphaeum, 454 n. 16 Lateran Palace, baths in, 319-20 latrines, 411, 413 lavacrum, 491

lavatto. See lavatrina lavatrina. 50, 431 n. 95» 491 Le Mans. See Alonncs Leo I (pope), 318 Leo III (pope), 319 Lepcis Magna Hadrianic Baths. 4, 186-92, 202, 206, 374, 395, 397, 405» 408, 411, 432 n. 108, 449 n. 8; 199-

204, 496 Hunting Baths, 32, 184, 242-43, 246, 374, 463 n. 6; 198,289,290 Unfinished Baths, 408, 472 n. 7; 497 lesche, 29 Libanius, 32, 178, 320, 324

libraries in gymnasia, 427 n. 54 public, in Rome, 448 n. 130 in thermae, 130, 178-79, 448 n. 128 Livy, 55 loutron. 15, 17-18, 21, 308, 427 nn. 43, 44,491; 23, 24 Lucan, 174 Lucian; "Bathsof Hippias,” 34, 83,436 n. 43; 94 Lugdunum Convenarum (Saint-Bertrand de Comminges) Forum Baths, 75 North Baths, 68; 78 Lysippus, 136 Madaurus, 83. 186, 220; 252 Large Baths, 222, 400, 405, 408, 409, 413; 255, 259. 491. 498 Small Baths, 217, 220, 222, 409;

253, 254, 256-258 Magnesia on the Meander, 46, 271 “Gymnasium’' Baths, 266, 278-79. 414; 329, 346, 501 Legionary (“Caserma”) Baths, 266. 278-79, 414; 347-349, 501 Maiuri, Amedeo, 97, 103 majUs al lahwab. 349, 491 Maktar: Large East Baths, 196-97, 396, 405, 449 n. 8, 464 n. 21; 212-

216, 496 Malalas, 324 Mamea, Julia, 94, 222 “Marble Hall.'’ SEE Kaisersaal Marble Plan (Forma (Jrbis), 66, 80, 133, 144, 443 n. 44; 68- 70, ¡43,

144 Marcus Aurelius, 37,40 Mark Anthony, 7 Martial, 31-32. 33. 34, 39, 40, 42, 135. 137,431 n. 67 Massaciuccoli; “Baths of Nero,’’ S3, 395'; 95 medicine and bathing, 352-55 Megara Hyblaea, 380 Michelangelo, 164, 387 Midjleyya. baths, 333; 419 Miletus, 258 Baths of Faustina, 4, 251, 266, 278, 291, 308, 323, 414, 41?, 419, 463 n. 6; 330,373, 374, 378,

501, 506 Baths of Vergilius Capito, 251, 254, 307, 308, 386, 419, 422, 460 n. 72; 301 -304, 506 gymnasium, 9, 15; 9. 10 Hellenistic Gymnasium, 256, 308;

301. 305 Hume*i Tepe Baths, 256, 266, 306, 307, 460 n. 72; 306. 307 mineral waters, 92-93 Mirabriga: East and West Baths, 75,78; 88 Mokesus (in Cappadocia): baths, 321 morality and bathing, 40-43 mosaics, 36, 41, 75. 439 Musa, Antoni us, 354 museion, 416; 371. 373, 501

Index

Naples, 55, 319 Archaeological Museum, 154. See MSOBaiae nalalio. 158-59, 197, 408-9, 492. SEE also swimming pools Neapolitan Games, 175 Nemea: gymnasium, 427 n. 44 neat, 312, 492 Néris-Ies-Batns. SEE Aquae Neri Nero, 94, 105, 137, 175 Neronia, 175 Nicaea: gymnasium, 9 Nicholas] (pope), 318 Nielsen. J., 467 n 60 Nîmes: Sacred Spring complex, 127, 249 North Africa, baths in architectural elements of, 396-413 architectural sources, 190. 197. 212. 217. 230-31, 237, 249 gymnasia in, 185 numbers of. 186 palaestrae in, 185-86 plan cvpes, 186, 217, 219-22, 226, 230-40. 242-49; 200, 206,

207. 211, 212, 217, 220, 226, 228, 231, 239, 242, 244, 245, 250. 251, 254, 255

•»99

Maritime Baths (Porta Marina), 81, 322; 93 number of baths in, 66 Oued Arhmenia. 4 Baths of Pompeianus, 4, 249, 386, 409;29’ 498

paidotribes. 312, 492 paintings in baths, 180, 184, 341, 385, 446 n. 92; 198, 431-434 palaestra absent in thermo-mineral baths, 124 in Asia Minor, 251. 254, 284, 291, 304, 306-13, 326, 329. 350;

298, 302, 305, 364 associated spaces, 15, 17, 130, 172, 284, 306. 307-9, 396 bathing facilities tn, 18, 21, 24 colonnade form established, 9-14, 15, 185, 426 nn. 28, 29. 33 covered, 160, 171,234 cultural uses of, 309, 312-13 as feature of public baths, 5 5 in North Africa, 185-86, 196-97, 221. 234, 237, 396-400; 199,

201, 213, 216, 221, 237, 263, 264

nymphaea in baths, 144, 395. 492. See also fountains in baths Nysa: East Baths, 306, 309, 416, 473 n. 3; 502

origins of, 9 Palatine Anthology, 492 Romanization of, 55, 57, 130, 139, 142, 160, 171, 183, 251» 254;

(Odyssey, 6, 30, 355

sports in, 37, 312-13 Palestrina: Sanctuary of Fortuna, 105 Palladio, Andrea. 138-39. 154, 162, 169, 172, 441 n. 19, 445 n. 75;

Oeniadal: baths. 25; 29 Oenoanda; Baths Mk 1, 258, 299;

388-390 Olympia bathing technology at, 377 - 79 Greek Baths, 48, 357, 374. 376-77, 466 nn. 49, 56, 467 n. 61;

474-476 gymnasium. 9. 15, 17, 21, 23; 7, 8 III Period Baths. 24 tholos. 384 Olympic Games, Antioch, 320,458 n. 45 Olympiodorus, 146, 164 opus africanum. 197,492 opus caementicium. 258, 266, 492 opus quasi-reticuiatum, 114 opus reticulatum, 68, 97, 105, 106, 109, 114, 117 opus sectile, 115, 168, 397, 492 opus signinum, 50, 492 opus vittatum, 109. 387 Orata, Sergius, 43, 48. 379. 380, 493 Oribasius of Pergamon, 437 n. 4 Ostia, 4, 55, 435 n. 26 Baths of Mithras, 390 Baths of Neptune, 46, 68,81,391, 435 n. 28; 74. 75 Baths of the Seven Sages, 434 n. 9, 452 n. 67 Baths of the Swimmers, 68, 391,404, 435 n. 27; 71, 72 chronology of the baths, 435 n. 26 Forum Baths, 68, 80-81, 106, 210, 382-83, 432 n. 107; 73

51-53. 61

168 Panarama: gymnasium and balaneion, 456 n. 55 panegyris, 246, 452 n. 65 Pantheon (Rome), 106, 108. 110, 133. 158,419; 144 Paris: North (“Cluny”) Raths. 32, 315;

408. 409 Patara Large Baths, 258, 299; 391 Small Baths. 258, 299, 422; 392, 393 Paul III (pope). 152 Paulin, E., 164, 168, 169, 446 n. 86;

180, 182 Pausanius, 424 n. 6 Pedro of Aragon, 94 Pergamon, 177, 308, 423. 425 nn. 11, 22, 426 n. 33; 195 East and West Baths of Upper Gymna­ sium, 251, 284, 288, 307. 386. 416, 419, 422, 423; 366-369,

447. 501, 506 Middle City Baths. 370 Temenos of the Ruler Cult. 14. 17 Upper Gymnasium, 21, 38, 181 Perge; South Gate Baths. 258. 291, 306, 395. 422, 454 n. 30; 310,

311, 384-386 Peruzzi, Baldassarre. 154.441 n. 12 Peter of EboJi, 94 petit appareil, 74. 258. 492; 330 Phaesells: Small Baths. 445 Phidias, 192

Philip 11 (king of Spain), 318 Philostratus, 125 Phiegraean Fields, 50, 93-110. See auo Baiae Phryne, 42 Piazza Armerina (in Sicily), 89, 320, 411; 103, 104 Pigna Vaticana, 176; 194 pilae, 357, 492; 442-446, 450, 457 Pindar. 23 Piraeus: baths, 25; 28 Piranesi, 164; 187 Pisa: Hadrianic Baths, 387, 389; 479 Pisanella; Villa of Popidus Florus, 51, 63; 50 plan cypes, 3, 13, 130-33, 186, 21617; 142 Asia Minor asymmetrical, 271, 284, 288-301, 304; 366, 371, 373, 379,

380. 384, 388, 389, 398, 399-401 double row of spaces. 271, 272 79; 336, 338. 341, 343. 344.

347. 350 single axis (bathand palaestra), 282, 284; 359-361 U-shaped halls, 271,279-82. 414-23; 351, 353, 355,

501-503 North Africa half axial and variations, 217, 22, 219226, 230-40; 245.

250, 251, 254. 255, 260262, 265. 267 row, 234-38. 242-46; 272. 274-285, 288, 289. 291. 293 symmetrical imperial, 186-93, 196-97, 201-2, 205-6, 210, 212, 215-17, 396-413;

200, 205-207, 211, 212, 217. 220. 226, 228, 229, 23¡, 239. 243, 244 unclassifiable, 246-49; 294-297 Roman half-axial, 3, 80-81,83, 86, 186;

69, 93-104. 142c Pompeian-Campanian. 66-74, 106.138.146.217;68- 79. 81 row, 61,63, 74-79; 46. 47, 50.

59, 60, 67. 82- 88.91. 92. 142a symmetrical imperial, 3, 75, 79, 81, 130, 136, 138, 139-42;

142d, e, 145, 150-152, 154, 162, 163, 178, 179, 181, ¡90, 191 Plato, 6, 7, 23, 180,425 n. 24 Plautus, 42 Pliny the Elder, 40-41,93, 135, 379 Pliny the Younger, 2, 31, 40. 44, 47, 180, 312, 382, 4^0 n. 48 Poitier: Roman Baths, 357; 450 Polybius, 7, 177 Polycleicus, 55 Pompeii, 3, 174 Baths of M. Crassus Frugi, 93; 43 Central Baths, 57, 63, 64, 142, 374;

63, 64, 443

Index

Pompeii (continued) Complex of Julia Felix, 447 n. 107 Forum Baths, 30, 40. 57, 61.64, 363. 385, 390, 469 n. 100; 62,

65. 66 Great Palaestra, 37-38,55, 57,64: 53 House of the Centenario, 51; 49 House of the Faun. 51; 47 House of the Ubyrinth, 50, 51, 67; 47 House of Menander. 31, 125, 426 n 39; 139' House of the Silver Wedding, 51, 63; 46 Republican Baths of Region VIH, 57, 390, 464 nn. 11,23; 57 ' Samnite Palaestra.” 55, 64. 434 n. 14; 51. 52 Stabian Baths, 30, 40,48, 57, 61,63. 64, 180, 357, 363, 373-74. 376, 377, 379, 384-85, 390, 434 n. 19, 464 n. 23. 467 n. 60. 469 n 100; 35. 58-61, 473,

477. 483 Porticoes of Vcnilanus (in Ephesus), 272, 273, 313 Posidonius of Apamea, 21, 23 praefumium. 97, 368-73. 381,428 n. 58, 465 n. 37, 492; 442. 443,

461-465 Praxiteles, 42 Priene, 138, 313 Lower Bath Gymnasium. 9. 15, 17, 21, 3, 4. 14, 23 Upper Bath-Gymnasium, 9, 419 Probus, 1’8 Propertius, h37 n. 13 Pcolemais; City Baths, 397. 471 n. 123;

489 public bathing, popularity of, 24-26, 29, 55, 183. 250, 432 n. 97 Publius Valerius Priscus. SEE Valerius Priscus, Publius Punishment of Dirce (“Farnese Bull"), 154,444 n. 55; 167. See also Naples Punta Epitaffio (in Baiae), 94, 97 Qasr al-Amra. 341,348, 492; 429-434 Qasr al-Hayr Ease Small Baths, 339, 341; 427 Qasr-Qarun (Dionysias): baths, 29; 32 Quintilian, 174, 178

RabiriuA, 142 Ravenna, 319, 321 Regional Catalogues, 43, 179 reservoirs, 393-94 Rhodes; gymnasium, 179 ring*rype plans, 217; 142 Rivolra, G. T., 169 Rome aqueducts, 391-94 AulaMercaco, 142 Bal Surae," 44. 66, 431 n. 95, 435 n. 25; 68. 69. 14! Baths of Hippias, 83; 94 Baths of Juni us Bass us, 4^1 n. 123 baths by Stazione Termini, 436 n. 47 Campus Martius, 180; 144

500

Claudius Etruscus, Baths of, 31, 32, 3’. 381, 390 Curia Athletarum. 175. 176 Farnesina. 154 Flavian Palace, 181 Forum of Trajan, 142 Gardens oftheAcilii, 183; 197 Gardens of Agrippa. 136. 137, 441 n. 20, 448-49 n. 142 Golden House of Nero, 44, 93, 136. 138, 139» 142, 443 nn. 41,47;

151 Maxencius. Basilica of, 443 n. 41 Maxencius. Baths of, 86, 89, 366, 382, 463 n. 6, 464 n. 7; 97 Palazzo Rospigliosi, 169 Pantheon, 106. 108, 110, 133» 158, 419;144 Pigna Vaticana, 176; 194 Saint Paul-Outside-the Walls, church of, 318 San Bernardo alle Terme, church of. 164 5an Pietro in Vtncoli, church of. 175 Santa Maria degli Angell, church of, 164, 168, 493 Santa Maria in Trastcverc, church of, 179 Temple of Peace. 180 Thermae of Agrippa. 4. 44, 79, 13337, 139, 183, 315, 385, 394, 441 nn. 11, 20; ¡43-148 Thermae of Caracalla, 3, 46, 47. 128. 130. 139, 146-62, 169, 176, 1^9, 180, 193, 205, 231, 251. 315, 366» 371, 382, 394, 395. 433 n. 126. 443 n. 41. 444 n. 56, 449 n. 8, 472 n. 5; 141,

161-166. 168-177, 459 Thermae of Constantine, 130, 146, 169-72, 176, 206, 251, 322, 323, 385, 395; ¡41. 188- 190 Thermae of Diocletian, 4, 146, 157, 160, 163-69, 171, 172, 17879, 180, 206, 385, 394, 395, 443 n 41,445 n. 79» 449 n. 8;

180- 187, 410 Thermae of Empress Helena, 86; 96 Thermae of Nero, 4, 31» 33, 40, 130, 137-39» 169. 175, 176» 179» 183, 206, 254. 394, 396, 442 n. 30,445 n. 68; 144, 149. 150,

194 Thermae of Titus. 4, 44, 75, 13942, 169. 254, 408, 411. 418;

141, 151-153 Thermae of Trajan, 4, 79, 130, 139. 142-46, 155, 160. 162, 17576, 179, 192, 193, 251, 309, 357, 385, 394. 395, 396, 405. 408, 411, 442 n. 35, 471 n. 133; 141. 151, 154-160. 444 Thermae of Trajan Decius, 146, 16263; 178. 179 Villa Farnesina (ancient), 181-83:

196 roofing systems, 159-60, 254 Rook, C., 381, 468 n 73 rotundas. See circular rooms

Ruler Cult. Hellenistic, 8, 422-23 running cracks, 1’

Sabracha; Baths of the Region VII. 238, 239. 409; 288. 498 Saepca, 133. 138 Sagalassos: baths, 291; 387 Saint-Bertrand-deComminges See Lug­ dunum Convenarum Saint-R£my*de.Provence. SEBGlanum Salamis: Bath-Gymnasium Complex, 308, 471 n. 137; 403 salutations, 38; 41 Samos: Bath Gymnasium, 9, 308, 312, 417, 419, 422, 426 n. 33, 427 n. 44; 5, 4)4-407, 506 Sangallo, Antonio da, the Younger, 154 Sangallo, Giuliano da, 38’ Sardinia. 425 n. 7 Sardis, 2, 7, 258. 270, 271. 306» 307, 456 n. 65 City Gate (CG) Baths, 4. 386,422; 506 Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, 251, 282. 284, 306, 312, 313. 322.416, 417, 419, 422. 460 n. 62; 298.

299, 328, 334. 360. 362 365. 503, 505. 506 Satyricon. 2 Sbeitla: Large Baths. 397, 400, 405, 409; 490. 498 scbola labrum, 376-77, 493; 42. 456 Scipio Africanus I, 40, 55 Scythians, 384 Seleucia (in Pamphilia): baths, 301; 397 Seneca. 2, 5. 32, 40. 41, 42, 94, 137, 174, 363, 380, 383. 384, 390 Scrdjilla baths, 46, 329, 333; 416 418 Serlio. Sebastiano, 154. 169 “Secte Sale," 144, 394. 443 n. 43. 471 n. 132. 493; 156 Severus (architect), 136 Severus, Alexander. See Alexander Severus Severus, Lucius Septimus. 152, 202. 230, 422,423 Sexes, separation of, in Roman baths, 32-33,40.42. 47 Sicca Veneria (El Kef ). 389 Side Agora Baths. 291.386, 417» 422, 454 n. 30; 383 Harbor Baths, 464 n. 13 Sidonius Apollinaria. See Apollinaris Sidonius Sil Chester: Roman Villa, 361; 453 Sixtus V (pope), 446 n. 84 Smyrna, 271» 306 sodalitates. 219 solar energy in bath design, 382-83 solarium, 382, 493 solium. 160, 468 n. 80, 493 Sorrento: Villa and baths of Pollio Felix, 93 Sparsholt 11: Villa Baths. 365; 457 Spartans, 7, 383 spas. See thermo-mineral baths sphairisterion, 426n.36,493 sports in Roman baths. 37 Stabiae: Varano hill complex» 106

Index

Siagnum (in Rome), 136. 137. 139 Stars Zagora (Augusta Traians), 395 Statius. 30. 41, 93. 381.390 statuary in baths, 146, 152. 154. 169. 180. 192, 202. 206. 226, 230. 322. 324, 443 n. 53,444 n. 55. 447 n. 112, 451 n. 49; 16' steam baths, 469 nn. 89. 91. 96 Strabo, 55 strigil, 34, 38, 493; 34 sudatio. 94 sudatorium. 38, 384, 493 Suetonius, 55, 137 summer baths (thermae estivates), 43. 432 n. 98,494 sunbathing in baths, 39. 40. 162. See also heliocaminus suspensurae, 358, 493; 443, 448 sweat bathing, 50, 51,94, 96. 351, 354, 383-84, 386, 389 swimming pools (natationes), 37-38, 57, 61, 63. 64,68, 74, 130, 138. 142, 158-60. 162, 164, 192. 197. 273, 308. 377, 430 n. 50: 4'4 Syedra; Baths IMA. 301 Syria, baths in, 326-49

Tacitus (emperor). 44 Tacitus (historian). 41, 137. 44*^ n. 109 Tamm, Birgitta. 138 Taormina, 179, 427 n. 54, 435 n. 20 Tebessa Khalia (Theveste): Christian Complex, 198, 243-46, 458 n. 43; 293 tegulae mammatae, 50. 363-65, 464 n. 23, 493; 48. 455, 456 temperatures of baths. 467 n. 70 tepidarium, 38. 50. 130. 354, 493; 48 Termessus Bath Gymnasium, 258, 273, 278. 299, 306, 416; 308. 309,

339-340, 501 terminology of bath types. 43. 66 terra-cotta studs (Ton-ndgeln), 363;

455 testudtnes alveolorum. 373-74, 494; 472, 473 Thatcher. E., 381.382-83. 468 nn. 83.84 Thebes: gymnasium, 9 Thenae: baths, 4, 246-47. 410. 452 n. 67; 294, 498 Theodoric. 315 Theophrastus, 447 n. 120 Thera: gymnasium, 21 thermae, as bath type, 43, 321, 431 n. 95. 494 thermo-mineral baths, 50, 92-127, 355, 379, 439 n. 47, 440 n. 65 tholos, 24-29. 244-46, 494; 293 Thuburbo Majus, 83, 186 Capitoline Baths, 237, 411; 277, 499 Summer Baths, 222, 226. 230, 405, 413; 260-264, 496 Winter Baths, 238. 397.409. 411;

285, 287, 498 Tiberius, 2 Tiddis (Castellum Tidditanorum). 186, 391; 484

501

Ttmgad (Tharaugadi). 55. 83, 186 Baths of Fi lade I fis. 23’, 404,278,493 Capitoline Baths. 404: 493 Large North Baths. 4. 19"-201.202, 205. 369. 3’1. 400. 408, 411, 449 n 8. 4’2 n. 6: 2J’, 218,

461. 46i, 46', 492 Large South Baths. 4. 1^2. 232-34, 35’. 369. 3’1. 397. 400, 408. 411.413. 464 n. 18; 267-271,

461. 464, 492 Small Central Baths. 23". 404; 280,

493 Small East Baths. 23’. 404; 281, 493 Small South Baths. 23". 404; 279, 493 tintinnabulum, 38. 494; 40 Titus. 55. 135. 139 Tivoli; Hadrian's Villa, 4. 249 Baths with-Heliocaminus, 86, 160, 366. 382, 464 nn. 7. 11, 465 n. 34; 98, 460 Large Baths, 86, 160, 180, 365-66. 382, 417, 463 n. 6; 99, 100 Small Baths, 86, 89. 109, 180. 184, 190. 212, 365-66, 382; 101,

¡02 "stadium," 181 Tlos: Large Baths "B.” 301; 396 Ton ndgeln, 363; 455 Trajan, 3. 47, 174, 175. 250,439 n. 52 Tralles. 456 n. 55 Góz Baths, 258, 306. 366, 465 n. 31; 325-327, 458 Trier Barbara Thermae, 190. 192, 35", 411.472 n. Il; 448 Imperial Thermae (Kaisertbermen). 2. 128, 169, 172, 315, 323. 368, 371,385. 411; 191-193.

365, 370, 465, 468 Tripolis, 258. 271, 273, 306. 418 tubuli, 363-65. 381,464 n. 21,494;

442, 443. 454, 455 Turkish baths, 350-51, 467 n. 70

unctorium, 39, 494 Uthina (Oudna); thermae, 396 Utica; Large Thermae, 193. 396, 408, 449 n. 15; 211 Valencinian, 321 Valerian, 232 Valerius Pciscus, Publius. 186 van Heemskerck. Marten. 164; 189 Vanvitelli, Luigi, 164 Varano: Villa Arianna. 63; 50 Varro, 32 vaults, heating of, 365-68 Veii: Vachetta Baths. 110, 116-17, 357; 131, 449 Velleia, 74; 81 Verdes, 75 Vcrus, Lucius, 284 Vespasian. 44. 308, 44’ n. 121 Vieil-Évreux, "4-“5. 38’; 82 Vienna. 174 Vindonissa: Fortress Baths. ”5; 85 Vipascum, 45, 46-4"

Viterbo; Thermae of Bacucco. 38"-89;

480- 482 Vitruvius. 7, 9. 50. 55. 92-93. 94. 357. 363. 382. 470 n. 103 gymnasium in, 14-15. 1", 21.33« 5" on heating of water. 373 on hypocaust, 357 on the laconicum, 384-85 on reservoirs, 394, 471 n. 126 on roofs. 366. 368, 465 n. 35 on seboia labrf. 376 on siting of baths. 468 n. ” Vol ub ilis Baths of Gallienus (South Baths). 235, 411, 464 n. 13; 2'4. 499 Small Baths, 235. 23"; 2'5 Vouni. 380 Walid ibn Yazid, 34" al-Wai id 11. 349 wall-heating systems, 363-65; 443. 454-456. SEE ALSO tegulae mam­

matae; tubuli Ward-Perkins. J. B., 130. 243. 250-51 water, heating of, 3" 3-"5 See also boilers; praefurmum water supply systems, 3, 13. 389-95. 470 nn. 110, 123. 4’1 n. 132 Wesley. John. 318 windows in baths, 39. 382-83. 468 nn. 83. 84. 85, 86, 469 n. 85, 494 winter baths (thermae hiemales). 43. 432 n. 98, 494 Xenophon, 23

xysta (xystus), 17. 137. 448 n 142, 494 Zevgatlio: Roman baths, 374. 463 n. 6