Basic Persian: A grammar and workbook 9780367209766, 9780367209780, 9780429264603

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BASIC PERSIAN

This fully revised second edition of Basic Persian: A Grammar and Workbook comprises an accessible reference grammar and related exercises in a single volume. This book presents twenty grammar units, covering the core material which students would expect to encounter in their first year of learning Persian. Grammar points are followed by multiple examples and exercises which allow students to reinforce and consolidate their learning. Key features include: • • • • • •

a clear, accessible format many useful language examples jargon-free explanations of grammar abundant exercises with full answer key a glossary of Persian-English terms a subject index

Rigorous yet engaging, Basic Persian is suitable for both class use and independent study, making it an ideal grammar reference and practice resource for both beginners and students with some knowledge of the language. Saeed Yousef is Senior Lecturer of Persian at the University of Chicago, USA. He is also a poet and has published books of literary criticism and translations. Hayedeh Torabi was Lecturer of Persian at the University of Chicago, USA. She is a published writer, essayist and translator.

Routledge Grammar Workbooks Other titles available in the Grammar Workbooks series are: Basic Arabic Basic Cantonese Intermediate Cantonese Basic Chinese Intermediate Chinese Basic Dutch Intermediate Dutch

Intensive Basic Latin Intensive Intermediate Latin Basic Persian Intermediate Persian Basic Polish Intermediate Polish Basic Portuguese

Basic German Intermediate German

Basic Russian Intermediate Russian

Basic Irish Intermediate Irish

Basic Spanish Intermediate Spanish

Basic Italian

Basic Swedish Intermediate Swedish

Basic Japanese Intermediate Japanese Basic Korean Intermediate Korean

Basic Welsh Intermediate Welsh Basic Yiddish

For more information on the series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ languages/series/SE0519

BASIC PERSIAN A Grammar and Workbook Second Edition

Saeed Yousef and Hayedeh Torabi

First published 2020 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Saeed Yousef and Hayedeh Torabi The right of Saeed Yousef and Hayedeh Torabi to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-20976-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-20978-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-26460-3 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

CONTENTS

Authors’ preface to second edition Introduction 1 The Alphabet

vii viii 1

2 Nouns and adjectives Singular and plural The connector ezāfe

17

3 Numbers Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative pronouns

26

4 Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

36

5 Simple present tense: other verbs Present progressive with dāshtan

53

6 Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

64

7 Transitive and intransitive Direct and indirect objects Definite and indefinite (2): rā Compound verbs

77

8 Comparison of adjectives Adjectives as nouns Question words Telling the time Some distributives / quantifiers ‘Double negative’

86

9 Imperative

103

v

Contents

vi

10 Infinitive – its uses Past and present stems

113

11 Future tense

121

12 Simple past tense Past progressive tense

128

13 Past participle Perfect tenses

138

14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

147

15 Perfect (or past) subjunctive

163

16 Conditionals and wishes

171

17 From prepositions to conjunctions

183

18 Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

193

19 Relative clauses

205

20 Passive

214

Key to exercises

223

Persian-English glossary

252

Index

275

AUTHORS’ PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

In 2012, as the first edition of the book Basic Persian – A Grammar and Workbook was about to appear, we already knew that we had accomplished something extraordinary by writing a grammar book which was both rigorously instructive and at the same time quite readable and engaging, often adding a touch of humor to both the otherwise dry explanations and the ample examples and exercises. The warm reception of the book over the past few years showed that we were not wrong. We are happy that the demand allowed us to prepare a second edition now. The changes and improvements are minimal, but they will bring the book closer to the perfection we as authors desired to achieve. We have been using the book as a primary source in our classes (using material selected from other sources as texts), and therefore our thanks should primarily go to our students for their helpful suggetstions, like bringing to our attention some words missing on the vocabulary lists or not appearing in the right chapter. We also thank our colleagues from both the University of Chicago and other universities, as well as readers from various countries, for their helpful comments. All the books in the “Grammar and Workbook” series by Routledge – available now for more than a dozen languages – are written according to a uniform concept and format, and we had to stay within these requirements, which included the size of the book and the number of words also. Last but not least, we should thank Routledge for both supporting a second edition and providing us with such a wonderful team of professionals who have helped us in every step along the road. Saeed Yousef and Hayedeh Torabi Chicago, October 2019

vii

INTRODUCTION

viii

This Grammar and Workbook is designed to assist learners of Persian who either have no previous knowledge of the language or need to improve their knowledge through systematic grammar lessons with plenty of exercises. Though not a coursebook, it can be used by instructors of the language as a complementary book for practicing grammar while using other texts for reading. They can always ask their students to turn to this book as a source of reference and practice for each new grammatical subject they are teaching. A second volume (Intermediate Persian) will cover more complicated structures. Persian, which is an Indo-European language using Arabic script, is the official language of Iran and Tajikistan and one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, and to this should be added millions of Persian-speakers scattered in Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, even in China) as well as in western diaspora (North America, Europe, Australia). There are different dialects of Persian, both inside Iran and in neighboring countries. Persian is the English translation of Fārsi (or Pārsi), as the language is called in Iran, and this is the variety you will be learning here. Although in recent times the language has been called Dari in Afghanistan and Tajiki in Tajikistan (mainly for political reasons, which even led to using the Cyrillic alphabet in Tajikistan under the Soviets), the differences in vocabulary and pronunciation are not so significant to make mutual communication impossible, and there is much less difference when it comes to formal, written Persian – the focus of this book – and practically no difference in classical literature, which is shared by all varieties and dialects of Persian. Modern Persian, as the language is called to distinguish it from its older, pre-Islamic stages, has been very simplified. It has no gender and no declension of nouns and adjectives for different persons or cases. Verbs can be conjugated easily after learning one set of conjugational suffixes. And the stress is not a problem either: except in very rare cases, the stress falls on the last syllable (as in French). In translations from Persian into English, there being no gender in Persian, sometimes we have used he, sometimes she or he/she, but it could be either gender so far as the antecedent is not specified through proper nouns.

In transcriptions, the prefixes and suffixes have occasionally been hyphenated to ease distinguishing the different parts of the word, while in pronunciation they are usually pronounced together: dast is ‘hand’ and ‘my hand’ would be dast-am – but it is pronounced das-tam.

Introduction

Transcription Vowels: a

as a in banner

ā

as a in bar

e

as e in belly

i

as i in machine

o

as o in border

u

as u in Lucy

ey

as ey in prey

Diphthongs: ow

as ow in bowl

Consonants: b ch d f g gh h j k kh l

as b in boy as ch in chair as d in day as f in fine as g in goose like r in French Paris as h in horse as j in joy as k in key like ch in German Achtung! as l in lamb

m n p r s sh t v y z zh

as m in mouse as n in nose as p in pen like r in Italian Roma as s in sun as sh in shy as t in toy as v in vase as y in yes as z in zoo like j in French jour

Note: The glottal stop will be shown by an apostrophe (but left out when in initial position).

ix

Introduction

Abbreviations (used mainly in word lists and glossary) adj. (adjective) adv. (adverb) col. (colloquial) conj. (conjunction) fem. (feminine) form. (formal) gr. (grammar) imp. (imperative) interj. (interjection) intr. (intransitive) lit. (literary; literal) masc. (masculine)) n. (noun) neg. (negative)

x

perf. (perfect) pl. (plural) poet. (poetical) pr. (pronoun) prep. (preposition) pres. (present) sg. (singular) so. (someone) sth. (something) subj. (subjunctive) temp. (temporal) tr. (transitive) wrt. (written)

UNIT ONE

The alphabet

1 ‫فصل‬ [alefba¯ ]

‫الفبا‬

1 General remarks about the alphabet Persian is an Indo-European language. Before Islam, several writing systems had been adopted and developed in Iran (or Persia), starting with a semi-alphabetic cuneiform script around 525 bce for Old Persian and then Pahlavi script (derived from Aramaic) for Middle Iranian Languages, parallel to which (and mostly for religious texts) Avestan script was also used. After the Muslim conquest of Persia in 644 ce, the Arabic alphabet was adopted and is still being used. It was slightly modified, however, by adding four letters (to the originally 28 letters) for sounds that do not exist in Arabic. On the other hand, some letters representing sounds particular to Arabic lost their distinct articulations in a process of assimilation. These letters are still used when writing certain words borrowed from Arabic, while the corresponding articulation has not been borrowed and the pronunciation has been ‘Persianized’. Persian, or Perso-Arabic script, is written cursively (or joined up), which means that usually all or most of the letters in a word are connected to each other. Words are written from right to left (unlike numbers that are written from left to right), usually without taking the pen from the paper, and dots and strokes are added (if needed) after the whole word has been written. (For numbers see Unit 3.)

1.1 How to write: the shape It is true that the shape of the letters changes depending on their position (initial, middle, final or alone), but this does not mean that one has to learn 128 different shapes for the 32 letters of alphabet. If for English you have to learn 52 shapes (don’t forget the two sets of small and capital letters!), for Persian you have to learn about 60 shapes. Most of the letters are grouped in groups of two to four letters that are similar in shape and their only difference is the number or position of dots (or strokes, in one case). Therefore, if we consider the basic shapes only (without the dots or strokes), there are only 15 basic shapes to learn: those on the first row in the following table (from right to left). What you see on the subsequent rows are letters with the same shapes but with a different number of dots.

1

1

Table 1.1 The alphabet: a study of the shapes (right to left)

The alphabet

‫هـ‬

‫و‬

‫مـ‬

‫لـ‬

‫کـ‬ ‫گـ‬

‫فـ‬ ‫قـ‬

‫عـ‬ ‫غـ‬

‫سـ صـ ط‬ ‫شـ ضـ ظ‬

‫ر‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ژ‬

‫د‬ ‫ذ‬

‫جـ‬ ‫چـ‬ ‫حـ‬ ‫خـ‬

‫بـ‬ ‫پـ‬ ‫تـ‬ ‫ثـ‬ ‫نـ‬ ‫یـ‬

‫ا‬

The above are the letters in their initial and middle positions, although 9 of them have the same shape in all positions, while others add an arabesque to the left (in direction of writing) or below the base line for their final or alone positions, as we shall see below in Table 1.3.

1.2 How to read: the sounds and the syllable structure The syllable structure is based on CV, CVC and CVCC patterns, where C stands for consonants and V for vowels. The initial C can be a glottal stop, what you always have before an initial vowel in all languages, whether represented by a letter or not. (In Persian always represented by a letter.) As you observe here, a Persian syllable cannot have more than one consonant before the vowel (unlike English and many other languages.)

1.2.1 Vowels Persian has six vowels and two diphthongs, for most of which approximations can be found in English. Contrary to Arabic vowels, the Persian vowels differ qualitatively, not just quantitatively (i.e., their length), although traditionally (and wrongly) they have been divided into ‘short’ and ‘long’ vowels. The first three vowels – the so-called ‘short’ ones – are usually not represented by a letter in writing (when in middle position), but rather by diacritical marks; and these marks are normally not written, except when needed to avoid other possible readings. The following are all the vowels and diphthongs: Vowels: a 2

e

as a in banner. Represented in writing by the diacritical sign ‫ َـ‬placed above the preceding letter. as e in belly. Represented in writing by the diacritical sign ِ ‫ ـ‬placed below the preceding letter.

o ā u i

as o in border. Represented in writing by the diacritical sign ‫ ُـ‬placed above the preceding letter. as a in bar if pronounced without rounding the lips. Represented in writing by the letter alef [ ‫] ا‬. as u in Lucy or Buddha. Represented in writing by the letter vāv [ ‫] و‬. as i in machine. Represented in writing by the letter ye [ ‫] ی‬.

How to read: the sounds and the syllable structure

Diphthongs: ow ey

as ow in bowl. Represented in writing by the letter vāv [ ‫] و‬. as ey in prey. Represented in writing by the letter ye [ ‫] ی‬.

Note 1: All vowels and diphthongs are preceded by a glottal stop when in initial position. This is usually not written in many languages, but in Persian alphabet the letter alef [ ‫ ] ا‬represents this initial glottal stop (or the letter eyn [ ‫] ع‬, which has the same function in Persian). Initial ā would additionally need the diacritical sign “~” (called madd) above alef: “ ‫” آ‬. Writing the sign madd is not optional and in these cases it has to be written. (See also 1.2.3 for glottal stop.) Note 2: The first three vowels (a, e and o), need a letter as carrier in the final position also. For final a and e, this letter is [the ‘silent’] hé [ ‫] ه‬. For final o, the letter vāv [ ‫ ] و‬is used. Note 3: While there are only a few words in Persian that end in the vowels -a and -o, there are many that end in -e. It is useful to know that all the words with a final -e sound in contemporary Persian used to be pronounced with a final -a in early modern Persian, just as they are still pronounced in Afghanistan and Tajikistan, in some provinces in Iran, and in Arabic. You have certainly noticed that many Persian girls’ names (even those originally from Arabic) are written in their Romanization with final -eh, while the same names are written with final -a elsewhere: Fatemeh vs. Fatima, or Aliyeh vs. Aliya, etc. Table 1.2 Vowels and diphthongs in different positions (right to left) Alone

Final

Middle

Initial

‫ه‬

‫ـه‬

َ‫ـ‬

َ‫ا‬

a

‫ه‬

‫ـه‬

ِ‫ـ‬

ِ‫ا‬

e

‫و‬

‫و‬

ُ‫ـ‬

ُ‫ا‬

o

‫آ‬

‫ا‬

‫ا‬

‫آ‬

ā

3

1

Table 1.2 (cont’d)

The alphabet

Alone

Final

Middle

Initial

‫او‬

‫و‬

‫و‬

‫او‬

u

‫ای‬

‫ـی‬

‫یـ‬

‫ایـ‬

i

‫اُو‬

‫و‬

‫و‬

‫اُو‬

ow

‫اِی‬

‫ـی‬

‫یـ‬

‫اِیـ‬

ey

Please note that by ‘initial’ we mean at the beginning of a syllable, not necessarily at the beginning of a word. Sometimes you might need to use the initial form in the middle of a word (after letters that do not connect from left), because it is the beginning of a new syllable.

1.2.2 Consonants: names, sounds and shapes of all letters Persian has 23 consonants (including the glottal stop) represented in writing by 32 letters. This means that 9 letters are in fact redundant and would not have been needed had it not been for some words borrowed from Arabic that use these letters. (See Table 1.4.) The following is a table of all letters in their alphabetical order with their names, sounds and shapes in different positions. The right column shows whether the letter connects from both sides (↔) or only from right (→). The second column from right shows which letters are similar in sound but are written differently. Bold numbers refer to the letter more commonly used for the sound. (See also Table 1.4.) Some observations and remarks: 1

2

4

As you see in in Table 1.3, nine of these letters have only one shape in all positions: numbers 1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20 and 30:  ‫ا د ذ ر ز ژ ط ظ و‬

The rest of the letters have only two shapes: one for initial and middle positions, another (with an Arabesque added) for final and alone positions. 3 There are only three letters with more than two shapes each: ‫( ع‬21), ‫( غ‬22) and ‫( ه‬31). 4 Of the 9 letters that have only one shape, only ‫ ط‬and ‫ ظ‬connect from both sides; the rest are the so-called ‘non-connectors’ that do not connect from left. After letters that do not connect from left, you always have a ‘new start’ and have to write the next letter in its ‘initial’ form – even in the middle of a word – or the ‘alone’ form if it is the last letter.

Sound

carrier for the glottal stop of all vowels and diphthongs in initial position (see 1.2.3); vowel ā in middle and final position (see 1.2.1)

b as in boy

p as in pen

t as in toy

s as in sun

j as in joy

ch as in chair

h as in horse

like ch in German Achtung!

d as in day

Name of letter (as pronounced in Persian)

1. alef

2. be

3. pe

4. te

5. se

6. jim

7. che

8. he

9. khe

10. dāl

Table 1.3 The alphabet: names, sounds and shapes

‫ت‬ ‫ث‬ ‫ج‬

‫ت‬ ‫ث‬ ‫ج‬

‫د‬

‫خ‬

‫ح‬

‫د‬

‫خ‬

‫ح‬

‫چ‬

‫پ‬

‫پ‬

‫چ‬

‫ب‬

‫ا‬

Final

‫ب‬

initial ā

‫ا‬, or‫ آ‬for

Alone

‫د‬

‫خـ‬

‫حـ‬

‫چـ‬

‫جـ‬

‫ثـ‬

‫تـ‬

‫پـ‬

‫بـ‬

‫ا‬

Middle

‫د‬

‫خـ‬

‫حـ‬

‫چـ‬

‫جـ‬

‫ثـ‬

‫تـ‬

‫پـ‬

‫بـ‬

initial ā

‫ا‬, or ‫ آ‬for

Initial

No. 31

↔

Nos. 15, 17

→

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

→

Connects from

No. 19

as carrier of glottal stop, No. 21 (‫[ ع‬eyn]) and hamze

Letters similar in sound

Sound

z as in zoo

r as in rain (more like r in Italian Roma)

z as in zoo

like j in French jour

s as in sun

sh as in shy

s as in sun

z as in zoo

t as in toy

z as in zoo

(glottal stop); see 1.2.3

Name of letter (as pronounced in Persian)

11. zāl

12. re

13. ze

14. zhe

15. sin

16. shin

17. sād

18. zād

19. tā

20. zā

21. eyn

Table 1.3 (cont’d)

‫ع‬

‫ظ‬

‫ط‬

‫ض‬

‫ص‬

‫ش‬

‫س‬

‫ژ‬

‫ز‬

‫ر‬

‫ذ‬

Alone

‫ـع‬

‫ظ‬

‫ط‬

‫ض‬

‫ص‬

‫ش‬

‫س‬

‫ژ‬

‫ز‬

‫ر‬

‫ذ‬

Final

‫ـعـ‬

‫ظ‬

‫ط‬

‫ضـ‬

‫صـ‬

‫شـ‬

‫سـ‬

‫ژ‬

‫ز‬

‫ر‬

‫ذ‬

Middle

‫عـ‬

‫ظ‬

‫ط‬

‫ضـ‬

‫صـ‬

‫شـ‬

‫سـ‬

‫ژ‬

‫ز‬

‫ر‬

‫ذ‬

Initial

↔ ↔

No. 4 Nos. 11, 13, 18

↔

↔

Nos. 11, 13, 20

as carrier of glottal stop, No. 1 (‫[ ا‬alef]) and hamze

↔

↔

↔

→

→

Nos. 5, 15

Nos. 5, 17

Nos. 11, 18, 20

→

Nos. 13, 18, 20

→

Connects from

Letters similar in sound

like r in modern French or German

f as in fine

like r in modern French or German

k as in key

g as in goose

l as in lamb

m as in mouse

n as in nose

v as in vase; see also 1.2.1 for its functions as vowel (u or o) and diphthong (ow)

h as in horse (as consonant); see also 1.2.1 for its functions as vowel (final a or e)

y as in yes (as consonant); see also 1.2.1 for its functions as vowel (i as in machine) and diphthong (ey as in prey)

22. gheyn

23. fe

24. ghāf

25. kāf

26. gāf

27. lām

28. mim

29. nun

30. vāv

31. he

32. ye

‫ی‬

‫ه‬

‫و‬

‫ن‬

‫م‬

‫ل‬

‫گ‬

‫ک‬

‫ق‬

‫ف‬

‫غ‬

‫ی‬

‫ـه‬

‫و‬

‫ن‬

‫م‬

‫ل‬

‫گ‬

‫ک‬

‫ق‬

‫ف‬

‫ـغ‬

‫یـ‬

‫ـهـ‬

‫و‬

‫نـ‬

‫مـ‬

‫لـ‬

‫گـ‬

‫کـ‬

‫قـ‬

‫فـ‬

‫ـغـ‬

‫یـ‬

‫هـ‬

‫و‬

‫نـ‬

‫مـ‬

‫لـ‬

‫گـ‬

‫کـ‬

‫قـ‬

‫فـ‬

‫غـ‬

No. 8

No. 22

No. 24

↔

↔ (as consonant) or → (when final vowel)

→

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

↔

1 The alphabet

Note that the letter ‫( ه‬No. 31) connects from both sides as consonant, but only from right when used as final vowel. 6 In Romanization of Arabic names that use the letter ‫[ ق‬24], western tradition usually uses the letter q (as in Qaddafi or Qatar), to distinguish it from ‫[ غ‬22] (gh, as in Ghana or Maghreb). In Persian, however, there being no difference in pronunciation between ‫ ق‬and ‫ غ‬, normally gh is used for both. 7 The two letters representing the consonant ‘h’ (8 and 31) have the same name also in Persian. To distinguish one from the other, ‫ ح‬is called he-ye jimi

5

(meaning ‘the he that looks like a jim’) or occasionally he-ye hotti (using the word ‫ حُطّی‬from the Abjad numeral system), while ‫ ه‬is called he-ye do-cheshm (meaning ‘the two-eyed he’) or occasionally he-ye havvaz (using the word ‫ هَوَّز‬from the same numeral system).

Some questions you might have: How to connect? ‘Initial’ form in the middle of a word? ‘Alone’ form where you expect it to be the ‘final’ form? Don’t get confused by the names used for different positions of a letter in the word. After letters that do not connect from left, you always need the initial form of the next letter, not the middle one; and you will need the alone form if it is the last letter, not the final one. This can become a problem for only those letters that have more than two basic forms: ‫( ع‬eyn, 21), ‫( غ‬gheyn, 22) and ‫( ه‬he, 31). Let’s suppose that you need to connect the following letters (from right to left, here given in their ‘alone’ form) to make a word:

‫ی‬+‫ب‬+‫ا‬+‫غ‬+‫ر‬+‫م‬ If you check Table 1.3, you will find the different shapes these letters can have in different positions: Name of letter

Alone

Final

Middle

Initial

mim (28)

‫م‬

‫م‬

‫مـ‬

‫مـ‬

re (12) gheyn (22)

‫ر‬

‫ر‬

‫ر‬

‫ر‬

‫غ‬

‫ـغ‬

‫ـغـ‬

‫غـ‬

alef (1)

‫ا‬

‫ا‬

‫ا‬

‫ا‬

‫ب‬

‫ب‬

‫بـ‬

‫بـ‬

‫ی‬

‫ی‬

‫یـ‬

‫یـ‬

be (2)

8

ye (32)

We know that the letters ‫( ر‬re, 12) and ‫( ا‬alef, 1) do not connect from the left (and have only one shape, like all the other letters that do not connect from left), and, therefore, we have a ‘new start’ after them. Now, which forms would you choose and how would you write these letters to make one word? This will be the final shape of the word:

How to read: the sounds and the syllable structure

‫مرغابی‬ As you see, we are writing the letter ‫ غ‬in its initial form here, not middle form, because it comes after ‫( ر‬a ‘non-connector’). After alef also we are using the initial form of ‫( ب‬be, 2), but here the initial and middle forms are the same. (You should only be careful not to add a ‘connecting tail’ to ‫ بـ‬: it would be wrong to write the word as ‫ مرغاـبی‬.) (Curious to know how this word is pronounced and what it means? It is pronounced mor.ghā.bi and means ‘duck.’) Note about joining the letters lām (27) and alef (1). When you want to write alef after letters that connect from both sides, you normally don’t take your pen off the paper and go from the base line straight up. However, if the previous letter is ‫[ ل‬lām], you take the pen off the paper after you have written your initial (or middle) lām and write the alef from above with a slant not unlike a backslash, almost to connect to the base of lām, letting the lām’s hook remain to its left on the base line. The resulting shape, therefore, would not look like “ ‫ ” لـا‬but rather like: (in some fonts and styles looking like this: ‫)ال‬. Regardless of its shape, you should not forget that the last letter in this combination is alef and alef would not connect from the left. Compare:

‫[ الل‬lāl], ‫[ ملل‬melal], ‫[ مالل‬malāl], ‫[ قاب‬ghāb], ‫[ قلب‬ghalb], ‫[ انقالب‬enghelāb]. Table 1.4 Letters with the same sound Most common letter for the sound

Z

‫ز‬

‫س‬

S

‫ت‬

T

H

Gh

‫ق‬

Glottal stop ‫ا‬/ ‫آ‬

Other letters sharing the sound

‫ذ‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ظ‬

‫ث‬ ‫ص‬

‫ط‬

‫ح‬

‫غ‬

‫ع‬

‫ه‬

also hamze; see 1.2.3:

‫ ء‬/‫ ئ‬/ ‫ ؤ‬/ ‫أ‬

9

1 The alphabet

1.2.3 ‘Hamze’ ‫ همزه‬and glottal stop in Persian Hamze is the sign ‫ ء‬used to represent a glottal stop. (In Romanization in this book an apostrophe sign is used for glottal stop, but no sign when it is in initial position, i.e. words that begin with a vowel.) In this regard, it is like the letter ‫[ ع‬eyn], which is used only in borrowings from Arabic and is treated in Persian in the same way as a simple glottal stop. Unlike eyn, however, hamze is not treated as a separate letter, and in Persian it is never in initial position (where alef is usually used) – which means that in dictionaries there is no separate entry for hamze. In words of Arabic origin, it is usually combined (as a diacritical mark) with the three letters representing the so-called ‘long’ vowels:

‫ا=أ‬+‫ء‬ ‫و=ؤ‬+‫ء‬

‫ ی = ئ‬+ ‫( ء‬in which case ‫ یـ‬will lose its dots: ‫)ئـ‬

The last one is the one preferred in contemporary Persian, sometimes replacing ‫ أ‬in middle position, and it is the one used for Persian or non-Arabic words also in middle position when a glide is needed between two vowels, although a recent tendency prefers to replace hamze in such cases by a simple ‫ی‬. Examples: ‫ هاوائی‬or ‫هاوایی‬ (hāvā’i, Hawaii), ‫( تئاتر‬te’ātr, theatre), ‫( سئول‬se’ul, Seoul, capital of South Korea). Some examples of glottal stop in different positions and accompanied by different vowels (almost all of them proper nouns):

10

‫( افغان‬afghān, Afghan) ‫( عرب‬arab, Arab) ‫( اسپانيا‬espāniyā, Spain) ‫( عبری‬ebri, Hebrew) ‫( عراق‬erāgh, Iraq) ‫( سوئد‬su’ed, Sweden) ‫( نيکاراگوئه‬nikārāgu’e, Nicaragua) ‫( اروپا‬orupā, Europe) ‫( عمر‬omar, Omar) ‫( نئون‬ne’on, neon) ‫( مائو‬mā’o, Mao) ‫( آلمان‬ālmān, Germany) ‫( عاليه‬āliye, Aliya) ‫( تئاتر‬te’ātr, theatre)

‫( ساموآ‬sāmo’ā, Samoa) ‫( اوگاندا‬ugāndā, Uganda) ‫( سئول‬se’ul, Seoul) ‫( ایران‬irān, Iran) ‫( اسرائيل‬esrā’il, Israel) ‫ عيسا‬/‫( عيسی‬isā, Jesus) ‫( شعبان‬sha’bān, Shaban, eighth month in Arabic calendar) ‫( الرفاع‬arrefā’, Riffa or Ruffin, a city in Bahrain) ‫( البدع‬albad’, town in Saudi Arabia)

How to read: the sounds and the syllable structure

1.2.4 Hamze and hé [‫]ه‬ In Persian you will often see a hamze placed above a final he [‫]ه‬. That is not a real hamze standing for glottal stop, but rather a small ye [‫ ]ی‬used as a glide when a final ‫ ه‬, in its function as vowel (usually representing final -e), is followed by another -e vowel representing an ezāfe (for ezāfe see 2.3). It changes the pronunciation of -e to -e-ye. Example:

‫[ نامه‬pronounced nāme] → ‫[ نامۀ‬pronounced nāme-ye]. 1.2.5 The four letters with different functions: a review of ‫ ا‬, ‫ و‬, ‫ ه‬and ‫ی‬ Alef and ā [‫آ‬/‫]ا‬ This letter is the carrier of the glottal stop required before all vowels and diphthongs when in inititial position, but it is used in middle and final position also as a simple ā. To sum up:

‫( آ‬with madd above alef) always represents ā in initial position (usually at the beginning of a word, but occasionally in other positions when at the beginning of a syllable). 2. ‫ ا‬represents a, e or o when in initial position (i.e., at the beginning of a syllable, which often means at the beginning of a word). 3. As a glottal stop, it precedes the letters ‫ و‬and ‫ ی‬in initial position to represent the vowels u and i or the diphthongs ow and ey. 4. In middle and final positions (i.e., when not at the beginning of a syllable), ‫ا‬ represents the vowel ā. 1.

11

1 The alphabet

5. With a hamze above alef [‫]أ‬, it is simply a glottal stop in middle and final positions. Vāv [‫]و‬. 1. As a consonant, ‫ و‬has the sound v in all positions. 2. Though there is no w sound in Persian, occasionally between two vowels, as in certain plurals [e.g., ‫آهوان‬, āhuwān, ‘gazelles’], or when the diphthong ow is followed by a vowel, ‫ و‬can have a w sound. 3. It can represent the vowel u in middle and final positions. (In initial position also, when preceded by alef.) 4. It can represent the diphthong ow in middle and final positions. (In initial position also, when preceded by alef.) 5. It can represent the vowel o in final position, occasionally in middle position also, especially after the consonant ‫[ خ‬kh] or in foreign (i.e., Western) words. 6. With a hamze written above vāv [‫]ؤ‬, it is simply a glottal stop in middle and final positions. 7. Owing to certain changes in the phonetic system of the language in the course of its development, sometimes a ‫ و‬is written after the consonant ‫[ خ‬kh] but not pronounced at all, as in the word ‫[ خواهر‬khāhar, ‘sister’]. 8. As number 2 above shows [‫آهوان‬, āhuwān], sometimes ‫ و‬has a double function (: u + w), though written only once. (Comparable to the double functions of ‫ ; ی‬see under ye below, # 4.) Hé [‫]ه‬. 1. As a consonant, ‫ ه‬has the sound h in all positions. 2. In final position (i.e., at the end of a syllable), it can represent the vowels -a (in only one word in contemporary Persian: the word ‫[ نه‬na, ‘no’]) or -e (very common). 3. For hamze-and he [‫ۀ‬, pronounced -e-ye], see 1.2.4 above. Ye [‫]ی‬.

12

1. As a consonant, ‫ ی‬has the sound y in all positions. 2. It can represent the vowel i in middle and final positions. (In initial position also, but only when preceded by alef.) 3. It can represent the diphthong ey in middle and final positions. (In initial position also, but only when preceded by alef.) 4. Sometimes, when functioning as i but followed by another vowel (in which case the glide y is usually required), ‫ ی‬can have a double function as i+y (though written only once), as in the word ‫[ سياه‬siyāh, ‘black’]. (Sometimes you have the same double function in English in i as in piano.)

5. With a hamze written above ye [‫]ئ‬, it is simply a glottal stop in middle and final positions. 6. In very rare cases, in borrowings from Arabic, as seen in ‫‘( عيسی‬Jesus’) mentioned before, a final ‫ ی‬is pronounced as final -ā. In more recent times, though, some would prefer to break from this Arabic tradition and write a final alef instead. You may sometimes see a sign like a short alef on top of such final ‫ی‬ which is meant to be pronounced as -ā, for example ‫ عيسی‬written as ‫عيسی‬ . ٰ

How to read: the sounds and the syllable structure

1.2.6 Three more signs: tashdid, tanvin and sokun Tashdid and tanvin are used almost exclusively for borrowings from Arabic. Tashdid and sokun are very often not written at all, though recommended when they help the reader avoid a different and wrong reading. Tashdid is the sign ّ‫ـ‬placed above a consonant (usually in middle position, never initially) to show that the consonant has to be pronounced twice. This occurs when a syllable ends in a consonantal sound and the next syllable begins with the same consonant: two adjacent similar consonants flanked on both sides by vowels (-VCCV-). In English words, such ‘double consonants’ are never pronounced twice and they only help determine the pronunciation of the preceding vowel (compare later and latter, fury and furry, or diner and dinner). To see how it would really sound in English if a consonant were to be pronounced twice, we would have to choose two words instead of one. Consider, for instance, how you would pronounce the consonant d if you were to say ‘a sad day’ (as distinct from the double d in the middle of words like saddle or sudden). Not many words with Persian origin need tashdid, one example being the word ‫ بچّه‬, pronounced bach-che, ‘child’. More examples:

‫[ معلّم‬mo-al-lem], teacher. ‫[ محمّد‬mo-ham-mad], Muhammad, prophet of Islam. ‫[ مکّه‬mak-ke], Mecca. ‫[ مصدّق‬mo-sad-degh], Mosaddeq, Iran’s nationalist prime minister before the 1953 coup.

Tanvin is the sign ً‫( ـ‬similar to the diacritical sign for the vowel a, but written twice). It is only used in final position and in borrowings from Arabic (it is not recommended for non-Arabic words, though occasionally used), and even in those cases Persian would prefer to use it only above the letter alef. Then that alef would not be pronounced as -ā as one would expect, but as -an. Its function is making adverbs from words of Arabic origin. Examples:

‫نسبت‬

[nes-bat, ‘relation’] → ً‫[ نسبتا‬nes-ba-tan, ‘relatively’]; or ‘after’] → ً‫[ بعدا‬ba’-dan, ‘afterwards’/ ‘later’].

‫بعد‬

[ba’d,

13

‫‪placed on a consonant to show that it is not followed‬ـْ ‪Sokun (or jazm) is the sign‬‬ ‫‪by a vowel (or ‘no vowel is attached to it’). This sign also is hardly ever written,‬‬ ‫‪unless it is found necessary to avoid misreading.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪The alphabet‬‬

‫‪Example:‬‬

‫‪ [sahar, ‘dawn’].‬سَحَر ‪ [sehr, ‘magic’], as distinguished from‬سِحْر‬ ‫)‪Table 1.5 More examples of connecting letters (right to left‬‬ ‫‪Separate letters‬‬ ‫‪in their ‘alone standing’ form‬‬

‫‪Letters connected (wherever‬‬ ‫‪possible) to form words‬‬

‫کـفـشـدـوـز‬

‫کفشدوز‬

‫دـلـپـذـیـر‬

‫دلپذیر‬

‫چـرـاـغـاـنـی‬

‫چراغانی‬

‫هـوـاـشـنـاـسـی‬

‫نـشـیـمـنـگـاـه‬

‫هواشناسی‬

‫نشيمنگاه‬

‫مـشـغـوـلـیـاـت‬

‫مشغوليات‬

‫مـتـرـاـدـفـاـت‬

‫مترادفات‬

‫صـنـدـوـقـچـه‬

‫نـیـرـنـگـبـاـز‬

‫صندوقچه‬

‫نيرنگباز‬

‫زـاـدـوـوـلـد‬

‫زادوولد‬

‫ت‪ -‬ش ـ ک ـ ی ـ ل ـ ا ـ ت ـ ی‬

‫تشکيالتی‬

‫شـکـمـپـرـسـت‬

‫شکمپرست‬

‫مـسـتـغـرـق‬

‫مستغرق‬

‫گـیـاـهـخـوـاـرـاـن‬

‫گياهخواران‬

‫زـاـلـوـصـفـتـاـنـه‬ ‫مـبـعـوـث‬

‫شـیـرـفـهـم‬

‫زالوصفتانه‬ ‫مبعوث‬

‫شيرفهم‬

‫غـضـرـوـفـی‬

‫غضروفی‬

‫ژـرـفـنـگـرـی‬

‫ژرفنگری‬

‫اـسـتـثـمـاـرـگـر‬

‫استثمارگر‬

‫‪14‬‬

Exercises

Exercises

Exercise 1.1 Connect the letters (that are all in their alone form) wherever possible. Example (from right to left):

‫ق د ر ت م ن د ← قدرتمند‬

 1. ‫ه ن ر پ ی ش ه‬

 2. ‫م ش ت ر ک ا ت‬

 3. ‫پ ش ت ی ب ا ن ی‬  4. ‫م ژ گ ا ن ه ا ی ش‬  5. ‫م ذ ب و ح ا ن ه‬

 6. ‫س پ ا س گ ز ا ر م‬  7. ‫ض و ا ب ط‬

 8. ‫و ا ق ع گ ر ا ی ی‬  9. ‫چ ر ا غ س ا ز ی‬

10. ‫ث ن ا گ و ی ا ن‬ 11. ‫م ت ش ب ث‬ 12. ‫ت ن ا ز ع‬

13. ‫ج ن ج ا ل ی‬

14. ‫ا س ت د ل ا ل‬

15. ‫ص و ر ت گ ر‬ 16. ‫ن ظ ر ب ا ز‬ 17. ‫م ص و ب ه‬

18. ‫ح ا ض ر ج و ا ب‬ 19. ‫ق و ر ب ا غ ه‬

20. ‫م س ت خ ل ص‬

Exercise 1.2 Write the following in Persian. For sounds represented by different letters, use the letter most commonly used (shown by bold numbers in Table 1.3). For the first 10 ones, write the diacritical signs also for the vowels a, e, o and the diphthongs ow and ey.

15

1 The alphabet

Example: miz → ‫ميز‬ 1. mard. 2. zan. 3. dokhtar. 4. pesar. 5. pedar. 6. mādar. 7. barādar. 8. shahr. 9. khāne. 10. otāgh. 11. mesvāk. 12. surākh. 13. honarmand. 14. mehmāni. 15. hamishe. 16. parastu. 17. towlidāt. 18. movāzi. 19. pāltow. 20. gorbe.

Exercise 1.3 Write the Romanization of the following Persian words, using the signs and letters that represent the sounds. Diacritical marks for vowels have been added to make only one pronunciation possible. Example: ‫ → مُسافِر‬mosāfer 1.

‫ صورَت‬2. ‫ چِشم‬3. ‫ دَهان‬4. ‫ گوش‬5. ‫ بينی‬6. ‫ زَبان‬7. ‫ اَن ُگشت‬8. ‫ قاشُق‬9. ‫چَنگال‬

10. ‫ آسِمان‬11. ‫ ط ََبس‬12. ‫ مَغازِه‬13. ‫ مُنتَفی‬14. ‫ شِعر‬15. ‫ عِرفانی‬16. ‫ مِصداق‬17. ‫رَوادید‬ 18. ‫ مُخالِف‬19. ‫ ِگرِفتار‬20. ‫اِستِثناء‬

Exercise 1.4 Write again the Romanization of the following words, using the signs and letters that represent the sounds. This time, however, no diacritical marks have been used to help you decide the correct pronunciation. Since you don’t know these words, you should write all possible pronunciations for each word (some of which would have no meaning in Persian and do not exist as words). We do not forget that we cannot have more than one consonant before the vowel in each syllable, and, to make it easier, do not consider tashdid as an option here. Example: ‫ → سفر‬safr, sefr, sofr, safar, safer, safor, sefar, sefer, sefor, sofar, sofer, sofor. (For your information: of these 12 possible pronunciations, only two are currently used as meaningful words in Persian: safar, a very common word meaning travel, and sefr, a less common word used mainly in the sense of a book of The Old Testament. The context usually helps the reader decide which of these two pronunciations is required.) 1. ‫ خشک‬2. ‫ تر‬3. ‫ قاطر‬4. ‫ اسب‬5. ‫ خوب‬6. ‫ کلم‬7. ‫ احمد‬8. ‫ آبله‬9. ‫ دانا‬10. ‫قاضی‬ 16

UNIT TWO

Nouns and adjectives

Singular and plural

The connector ezaˉfe

2 ‫فصل‬

‫اسم و صفت‬ ‫مفرد و جمع‬ ‫]کسرۀ] اضافه‬

Vocabulary Start learning and memorizing your first Persian words. (Some could be just names, or grammatical terms that you can skip.)

‫فَصل‬

fasl

chapter, unit; season (pl. ‫ فصول‬, fo.sul)1

‫اِسم‬

esm

noun (gr.); name (pl. ‫ اسامی‬, a.sā.mi)

‫صِفَت‬

se.fat

adjective (gr.) (pl. ‫صفات‬, se.fāt)

َ‫و‬

va

and

‫مُفرَد‬

mof.rad

singular (gr.)

jam’

plural (gr.)

kas.re

the -e vowel (gr.); its symbol

e.zā.fe

addition; connecting words by adding -e (gr.)

zan

woman; wife

mard

man

khā.nom

Mrs. or Miss, lady

ā.ghā

Mr., gentleman

dokh.tar

girl; daughter

pe.sar

boy; son

‫جَمع‬ ‫کَسرِه‬ ‫اِضافِه‬ ‫زَن‬ ‫مَرد‬ ‫خانُم‬ ‫آقا‬ ‫دُختَر‬ ‫پِسَر‬

1 Though occasionally mentioned in this book, the broken plurals of Arabic words are usually not as common as the Persian plurals, and hardly ever used in colloquial Persian.

17

2 Nouns and adjectives Singular and plural The connector ezaˉ fe

mā.dar

mother

pe.dar

father

bach.che

child; baby

khā.har

sister

ba.rā.dar

brother

kesh.var

country

shahr

city

deh

village

kuh

mountain

khā.ne

house

nā.me

letter

me.dād

pencil

gha.lam

pen

ke.tāb

book (pl. ‫ کتب‬, ko.tob)

daf.tar

notebook (pl. ‫ دفاتر‬, da.fā.ter)

san.da.li

chair

dā.nesh.ju

a college/university student

‫پَرَندِه‬

pa.ran.de

bird

asb

horse

‫آهو‬

ā.hu

gazelle

i.rān

Iran

i.rā.ni

Iranian (n.; adj.)

shā.’er

poet (pl. ‫شعرا‬, sho.’a.rā)

‫مادَر‬ ‫پِدَر‬ ‫بَچّه‬ ‫خواهَر‬ ‫بَرادَر‬ ‫کِشوَر‬ ‫شَهر‬ ‫دِه‬ ‫کوه‬ ‫خانِه‬ ‫نامِه‬ ‫مِداد‬ ‫قَلَم‬ ‫کِتاب‬ ‫دَفتَر‬ ‫صندلی‬ ‫دانِشجو‬ ‫اَسب‬ ‫ایران‬ ‫ایرانی‬ ‫شاعِر‬ ‫شاعِرِه‬ ‫دِرَخت‬

18

‫سِتارِه‬ ‫چِشم‬

shā.’e.re

poetess

de.rakht

tree

se.tā.re

star

cheshm

eye

‫اَبرو‬ ‫گوش‬ ‫بينی‬ ‫سَر‬ ‫صورَت‬ ‫دَست‬ ‫انگشت‬ ‫پا‬ ‫پایان‬ ‫زَبان‬ ‫دُکتُر‬ ‫خوب‬ ‫بَد‬ ‫بُزُرگ‬ ‫کوچِک‬ ‫زشت‬ ‫زیبا‬ ‫روز‬ ‫شَب‬ ‫تاریخ‬ ‫نَزدیک‬ ِ‫نَزدیک‬ ‫محم ِّد مصدّق‬

ab.ru

eyebrow

gush

ear

bi.ni

nose

sar

head

su.rat

face

dast

hand

an.gosht

finger

pā

foot

pā.yān

end

za.bān

tongue; language

dok.tor

doctor

khub

good

bad

bad

bo.zorg

big

ku.chek

small

zesht

ugly

zi.bā

beautiful

ruz

day

shab

night

tā.rikh

history; date (pl. ‫ تواریخ‬, ta.vā.rikh)

naz.dik

Nouns

near (adj.)

naz.di.k-e

near (prep.)

mo.ham.mad[-e] mo.sad.degh

Mohammad Mosaddegh (PM of Iran, 1951–53)

2.1 Nouns There is no grammatical gender in Persian. As a result, nouns do not have gender-specific articles or endings and undergo no inflection in different cases. In

19

2 Nouns and adjectives Singular and plural The connector ezaˉ fe

this regard, even the borrowings from Arabic are usually treated – or are expected to be treated – like Persian words. Just as in English a few words have special feminine forms (actress, poetess, etc.), in Persian also some borrowings from Arabic might use a feminine ending, which, in its ‘Persianized’ form, is a ‘silent hé’ (‫)ه‬ added, pronounced as a final -e sound: ‫[ شاعر‬shā’er, poet], ‫[ شاعره‬shā’ere, ‘poetess’].

2.1.1 Plural of nouns There are two plural endings in Persian that are added to nouns, and there are words borrowed from Arabic that often have their own broken plurals also, although the Persian plural suffixes can be used for these as well and are much more common, especially in colloquial Persian. A. The plural suffix

‫[ ها‬-haˉ ]

The universal and more common plural ending is a stressed -hā suffix (‫)ها‬, which can be added to all nouns, even to those for which other plural forms are also possible. It is usually joined to the noun, although in more recent times the nonjoined style is also becoming popular. Examples:

‫( مرد‬mard, man), ‫( مردها‬mard-hā, men) ‫( زن‬zan, woman), ‫ زنها‬or ‫( زنها‬zan-hā, women) If the noun ends in silent hé (= final -e), however, the -hā suffix is always written separately and never joined. Examples:

‫( خانه‬khāne, house) ends in final -e, and the plural -hā suffix cannot be joined: ‫( خانهها‬khāne-hā, houses). ‫( ده‬deh, village) ends in the consonantal ‫( ه‬hé), which means that the plural -hā suffix is usually joined, although it can be written separately as well: ‫دهها‬ or ‫( دهها‬deh-hā, villages). ‫[ ان‬-aˉn] The other plural suffix is ‫[ ان‬-ān]. Unlike ‫ ها‬, however, this one has certain lim-

B. The plural suffix itations in its usage: 20

1. It is used in formal and written Persian only; never in colloquial Persian. This means by extension that it is never attached to nouns that are used solely or predominantly in colloquial Persian. 2. It is used almost exclusively for animates, provided that they are not foreign words (like ‫[ دکتر‬doktor], ‘doctor’) or too colloquial. (For inanimates see the note on exceptions that follows.) 3. It is always joined in writing and pronounced together with the last sound of the noun. (Ex.: ‫[ زن‬zan, woman], ‫[ زنان‬za-nān, women]; ‫[ مرد‬mard, man], ‫[ مردان‬mar-dān, men].) 4. Since this suffix starts with a vowel, it usually has to be preceded by a glide if the noun also ends in a vowel:

Nouns

• nouns ending in vowel -ā use the glide ‫[ ی‬y]: ‫;آقایان → آقا‬ • nouns ending in vowel -u also often use the glide ‫ دانشجو( ی‬, dāneshju, ‘student’ → ‫ دانشجویان‬, dāneshjuyān, ‘students’), but sometimes simply change the pronunciation of u to uw without adding any letter in writing (‫آهو‬, āhu, ‘gazelle’ → ‫آهوان‬, āhuwān, ‘gazelles’ or ‫ ابرو‬, abru, ‘eyebrow’ → ‫ ابروان‬, abruwān, ‘eyebrows’ – see also 1.2.5/Vāv/ No. 2 and No. 8); • in nouns ending in vowel -i, an additional ‫ ی‬is not written but the glide ‫ی‬ is pronounced (‫ ایرانی‬, irāni, ‘Iranian’ → ‫ ایرانيان‬, irāniyān, ‘Iranians’ – see also 1.2.5/Ye/ No. 4); • in Persian nouns ending in vowel -e, the consonant g [‫ – ]گ‬which is a remnant of the original -ak or -ag ending – is usually used as the glide, and in writing the silent hé is dropped: ‫ پرنده‬, parande, ‘bird’ → ‫ پرندگان‬, parandegān, ‘birds’; • there are no nouns ending in -a and -o in Persian that need the plural suffix -ān, so no need to worry about a glide here; • nouns ending in diphthongs -ow and -ey need no glide (-ow, -ey → -o-wān, -e-yān). Some exceptions: 1. Some nouns like ‫[ خانم‬khānom] and ‫[ بچّه‬bach-che], though referring to animates, form their plurals always with ‫ ها‬: ‫ خانمها‬/‫ خانم‬or ‫ بچّه ها‬/‫چه‬ ّ ‫( ب‬the latter can be found as ‫ بچگان‬in classical Persian poetry only, but we are learning standard, contemporary Persian here). 2. A few nouns that refer to inanimates (at least in modern times), can have their plurals with -ān also in formal/literary Persian:

‫[ درخت‬derakht, ‘tree’] → ‫ درختها‬or ‫‘[ درختان‬trees’]; ‫[ ستاره‬setāre, ‘star’] → ‫ ستارهها‬or ‫‘[ ستارگان‬stars’]; ‫[ روز‬ruz, ‘day’] → ‫ روزها‬or ‫‘[ روزان‬days’]; ‫[ شب‬shab, ‘night’] → ‫ شبها‬or ‫‘[ شبان‬nights’].

21

2 Nouns and adjectives Singular and plural The connector ezaˉ fe

To this group also belong certain parts of body that are in pairs, though not all of them:

‫[ چشم‬cheshm, ‘eye’] → ‫ چشمها‬or ‫‘[ چشمان‬eyes’]; ‫[ دست‬dast, ‘hand’] → ‫ دستها‬or ‫‘[ دستان‬hands’]. But: ‫[ گوش‬gush, ‘ear’] → always ‫‘[ گوشها‬ears’]; or ‫[ پا‬pā, ‘foot’] → always ‫‘[ پاها‬feet’] – ‫[ پایان‬pāyān] being a different (singular) noun meaning end, its plural formed by adding -hā. C. Arabic plurals Arabic plurals, though mentioned on word lists when common in Persian, are almost never as common as Persian plurals for the same words. They are sometimes formed by adding certain suffixes (like -āt) and sometimes involve a change of internal vowels.

2.2 Adjectives Three basic rules about adjectives in Persian: 1. They have only one form and remain unaffected by number, gender and case. 2. They follow the noun they are modifying; the noun can be singular or plural. 3. The modified noun needs a ‘connector’ and this is an -e suffix (known as ‫ اضافه‬ezāfe) added to the noun. If the noun ends in a vowel, a glide (usually ‫ ی‬, y) would be needed between the adjective and the connector -e. If you have two (or more) adjectives, you connect them by either ezāfe or by using the conjunction َ‫[و‬va, ‘and’] between them. This va can be, and often is, pronounced as -o, or as -wo after vowels – and connected (in pronunciation, not in writing) to the previous word. See 2.3 below to learn more about the glide used after different vowels, also about some other functions of ezāfe. Example with one adjective:

‫( مداد‬medād, pencil), ‫( خوب‬khub, good), ‫( مدادِ خوب‬medād-e khub, 22

good pencil), ‫خوب‬

ِ‫( مدادهای‬medād-hā-ye khub, good pencils).

Example with two adjectives:

‫ب کوچک‬ ِ ‫( مدادِ خو‬medād-e khub-e kuchek, good small pencil) or ‫( مدا ِد خوب و کوچک‬medād-e khub-o [/ kub va] kuchek, good

pencil).

‫ اضافه‬or ‫کسرۀ اضافه‬ [kasre-ye] ezaˉfe

and small

2.3 ‫ اضافه‬or ‫[ کسرۀ اضافه‬kasre-ye] ezaˉfe Ezāfe does not connect nouns and adjectives only: it is used in Persian to connect almost any word to another (except adverbs and conjugational or possessive suffixes). A. How it is pronounced and written: a. If the word that needs ezāfe ends in a consonant (or in a diphthong), the vowel -e is simply attached to the last sound of the word – i.e., to the consonant.  Note: Don’t be tempted by the Romanization of ‫ مدادِ خوب‬as medād-e khub to pronounce the ezāfe separately: this -e always forms a new syllable with the consonant that precedes it, and a syllable-based Romanization in this case would be me-dā-de khub. b. After all vowels, ezāfe would need the glide -ye (in pronunciation). c. In writing, in the case of final -a and -e, this -ye is usually written as a hamze on the silent hé = ‫( ۀ‬see 1.2.4): ‫[ خانۀ کوچک‬khāne-ye kuchek, small house]. d. It is written as the letter ye (‫ )ی‬after final -o, -ā and -u: ‫[ پایِ پدر‬pā-ye pedar, father’s foot], etc. e. In words ending in -i, a second ‫ ی‬is not needed to be written, and the letter

‫ ی‬will have a double function then as both -i and -ye (see 1.2.5/Ye/4): ‫[ بينیِ بزرگ‬bini-ye bozorg, big nose].

f. Diphthongs, already ending in a [semi-] consonant, do not need a glide: when ezāfe (namely, -e) is added, -ow is simply pronounced as -o-we and -ey as -e-ye. B. How it functions: a. It connects nouns and adjectives, as we saw above (2.2): noun + ezāfe + adjective: ‫( کتابِ خوب‬ketāb-e khub, ‘good book’); ‫( کتابهایِ خوب‬ketābhā-ye khub, ‘good books’).

23

In most of the other cases, it comes very close to the preposition of in English:

2 Nouns and adjectives

‫کتابِ تاریخ‬ ِ ‫( دس‬dast-e ‫ت دختر‬

b. It connects two nouns with attributive or genitive functions:

Singular and plural

(ketāb-e tārikh, ‘book of history’ = ‘history book’);

The connector ezaˉ fe

dokhtar, ‘hand of girl’ = ‘girl’s hand’).

c. It connects Iranian first names and last names (= attributes), as well as certain honorifics like ‫( آقا‬āghā, ‘Mr.’) and ‫( خانم‬khānom, ‘Mrs.’) and the

‫( محمدِ مصدّق‬mohammad-e mosaddegh, ‫( آقای مصدّق‬āghā-ye mosaddegh, ‘Mr.

last name that follows them: ‘Mohammad Mosaddeq’); Mopsaddeq’).

d. It connects most of the geographical nouns to specific names: ‫کشورِ ایران‬ (keshvar-e irān, ‘Country of Iran’), ‫( کوهِ اورست‬kuh-e everest, ‘Mount of

Everest’).

e. It connects most of the prepositions to their objects:

‫نزدیکِ صندلی‬

(nazdik-e sandali, ‘near the chair’ or ‘in the vicinity of the chair’)

Exercises Exercise 2.1 Give the plural of the following nouns by using the -hā suffix, joining it wherever possible. Example: ‫→ مرد‬ 1.

‫کتاب‬

2.

‫ مردها‬.

‫دانشجو‬

3.

‫شهر‬

4.

‫ده‬

5.

‫پرنده‬

6.

‫آهو‬

7.

10. ‫ شاعره‬11. ‫ خانم‬12. ‫ روز‬13. ‫ خانه‬14. ‫ بچه‬15. ‫ دست‬.

‫صورت‬

8.

‫زبان‬

9.

‫شاعر‬

Exercise 2.2 Give the plural of the following nouns; if more than one plural is possible for a noun, write them all.

24

Example: ‫→ مادر‬

‫ مادرها‬/‫ مادران‬.

‫ دکتر‬2. ‫ زن‬3. ‫ زبان‬4. ‫ شاعر‬5. ‫ ایرانی‬6. ‫ شب‬7. ‫آقا‬ 11. ‫ گوش‬12. ‫ انگشت‬13. ‫ نامه‬14. ‫ صندلی‬15. ‫ پرنده‬.

1.

Exercises

8.

‫خانم‬

9.

‫بچه‬

10.

‫ستاره‬

Exercise 2.3 In which of the following nouns the plural -ān suffix has been wrongly used? (Write the numbers.) 1. ‫ گوشان‬2. ‫ چشمان‬3. ‫ بچگان‬4. ‫ کتابان‬5. ‫ آهوان‬6. ‫ دانشجویان‬7. ‫ درختان‬8. ‫ابروان‬ 9. ‫ بينيان‬10. ‫ تاریخان‬11. ‫ دفتران‬12. ‫ ایرانيان‬13. ‫ دستان‬14. ‫ پدران‬15. ‫ اسبان‬.

Exercise 2.4 Combine the following pairs of words (which can be two nouns or a noun and an adjective) by using ezāfe (and, if needed, a glide), then translate into English. You should decide which word must go first to make a meaningful combination. Example: ‫ مداد‬-‫( مدادِ ابرو → ابرو‬pencil of eyebrow/brow pencil). 1. ‫ خوب‬-‫ مادر‬2. ‫ قلم‬-‫ دختر‬3. ‫ کوچک – ستارهها‬4. ‫ شاعران – بزرگ‬5. ‫ صندليها‬-‫زیبا‬

‫ دستها – زشت‬7. ‫ شب‬-‫ بد‬8. ‫ ایرانی‬-‫ ده‬9. ‫ دانشجو‬-‫ تاریخ‬10. ‫ گوش‬-‫اسب‬ 11. ‫ برادر‬-‫ پسر‬12. ‫ آهو‬-‫ صورت‬13. ‫ نزدیک‬-‫ خانه‬14. ‫ کتاب‬-‫ زبان‬15. ‫ تاریخ‬-‫ کشور‬. 6.

25

UNIT THREE Numbers Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative pronouns

3 ‫فصل‬

‫عد د‬ ‫صفت اشاره‬ ‫ضمير اشاره‬

New words in this unit ‫عدد‬ ‫صفت اشاره‬ ‫ضمير اشاره‬ ‫این‬ ‫اینها‬ ‫آن‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫ساعت‬ ‫نفر‬ ‫کيلو‬ ‫متر‬ ‫تا‬

26

a.dad

number (gr.) (pl. ‫ اعداد‬, a’.dād)

se.fa.t-e e.shā.re

demonstrative adjective (gr.)

za.mi.r-e e.shā.re

demonstrative pronoun (gr.)

in

this [adj. and pr.]

in.hā

these [pr.]

ān

that [adj. and pr.]

ān.hā

those [pr.]

sā.’at

hour; watch; clock (pl. ‫ ساعات‬, sā.’āt)

na.far

person (counting word)

kilu

kilo

metr

metre

tā

‘item’ as counting word (preferably for non-humans)

‫بار‬ ‫دفعه‬ ‫مرتبه‬ ‫دانه‬ ‫جِلد‬

bār

‘time’ as counting word

daf’e

‘time’ as counting word

mar.te.be

‘time’ as counting word

dā.ne

‘item’ as counting word for inanimates

jeld

volume (counting word for books)

‫آخر‬ ‫آخرین‬ ‫واپسين‬ ‫بازپسين‬ ‫اوّل‬

ā.khar

last, final; the end

ā.kha.rin

last, final

vā.pa.sin

last, final [lit.]

bāz.p.sin

last, final [lit.]

av.val

First; at first; firstly; beginning

‫اوّلين‬ ‫نخست‬ ‫نخستين‬ ‫دوّم‬ ‫دوّمين‬ ‫سوّم‬ ‫سوّمين‬ ‫قرن‬ ‫از‬

av.valin

first

no.khost

first [lit.]

no.khos.tin

first [lit.]

dov.vom

second

dov.vo.min

second

sev.vom

third

sev.vo.min

third

gharn

century

az

from; of (prep.)

Cardinal numbers

(For a list of numbers see Table 3.1.)

3.1 Numbers When written as numerals, numbers are written from left to right (as in English) – even when written in the middle of a text that is normally written from right to left.

3.2 Cardinal numbers Cardinal numbers are those that tell how many. The following are the Persian cardinal numbers from 1 to 1001: Table 3.1 Numbers Numeral

Name

Pronunciation

0

0

‫صفر‬

sefr

1

1

‫یک‬

yek

2

2

‫دو‬

do

3

3

‫سه‬

se

4

۴

‫چهار‬

cha.hār

5

۵

‫پنج‬

panj

6

۶

‫شش‬

shesh

7

7

‫هفت‬

haft

27

3

Table 3.1 (cont’d)

Numbers

Numeral

Name

Pronunciation

8

8

‫هشت‬

hasht

9

9

‫نه‬

noh

10

10

‫ده‬

dah

11

11

‫یازده‬

yāz.dah

12

12

‫دوازده‬

da.vāz.dah

13

13

‫سيزده‬

siz.dah

14

1۴

‫چهارده‬

cha.hār.dah

15

1۵

‫پانزده‬

pānz.dah

16

1۶

‫شانزده‬

shānz.dah

17

17

‫هفده‬

hef.dah

18

18

‫هجده‬

hej.dah

19

19

‫نوزده‬

nuz.dah

20

20

‫بيست‬

bist

21

21

‫بيست و یک‬

bis.t-o-yek

30

30

‫سی‬

si

40

۴0

‫چهل‬

che.hel

50

۵0

‫پنجاه‬

pan.jāh

60

۶0

‫شصت‬

shast

70

70

‫هفتاد‬

haf.tād

80

80

‫هشتاد‬

hash.tād

90

90

‫نود‬

na.vad

100

100

‫صد‬

sad

101

101

‫صد و یک‬

sa.d-o-yek

200

200

‫دویست‬

de.vist

300

300

‫سيصد‬

si.sad

Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative pronouns

28

Table 3.1 (cont’d)

Cardinal numbers

Numeral

Name

Pronunciation

400

۴00

‫چهارصد‬

cha.hār.sad

500

۵00

‫پانصد‬

pān.sad

600

۶00

‫ششصد‬

shesh.sad

700

700

‫هفتصد‬

haft.sad

800

800

‫هشتصد‬

hasht.sad

900

900

‫نهصد‬

noh.sad

1000

1000

‫هزار‬

he.zār

1001

1001

‫هزار و یک‬

he.zā.r-o-yek

Note 1: The sign for zero is not much different in this alphabet from the punctuation mark period, which can sometimes be confusing. Note 2: The signs for the numerals 4 (۴), 5 (۵) and 6 (۶) have slightly different shapes in Arabic and are written as ٤, ٥ and ٦ respectively. Both versions, however, are familiar and common in Persian. Note 3: To say tens of or hundreds of, simply add -hā: ‫دهها‬/‫( دهها‬dah-hā, tens

of), ‫( صدها‬sad-hā, hundreds of). To say thousands of, you can add either plural suffix (with -ān being slightly more formal): (hezārān). Example: ‫( دهها شهر‬tens of cities).

‫هزارها‬

(hezār-hā) or

‫هزاران‬

Note 4: The Conjunction َ‫[ و‬va, ‘and’]: in combinations of numbers, the con-

junction َ‫[ و‬va, ‘and’] is used to connect numbers of different orders – for instance, between hundreds and tens and ones. Though always written separately, within numbers this va is always connected to the preceding number in pronunciation and pronounced as -o (see numbers 21, 101 and 1001 in Table 3.1). Even when not within numbers, this va is usually pronounced as -o when connected to the preceding word in pronunciation (a practice very common in spoken Persian) but as va when not connected.

3.2.1 Numbers with nouns Three simple rules: 1. Nouns always come after numbers; 2. nouns always remain singular after numbers, even though, with numbers above 1, the meaning is plural –

29

3 Numbers Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative pronouns

3. in which case, the verb must also be plural for animates, but it can remain singular for inanimates. (For examples with verbs see Unit 4.)

‫[ مداد‬medād, pencil], ‫[ مدادها‬medādhā, pencils], but: ‫[ پنج مداد‬panj medād, five pencils]. As the example shows, after the number ‫ پنج‬, the noun ‫مداد‬ Example:

remains singular.

3.3 Ordinal numbers and fractions Ordinal numbers are those that tell you the order of things in a set, not the quantity. Persian has two slightly different suffixes for ordinal numbers, which are used in two different ways: A. The suffix -omin is added to the number, and the ordinal number is treated as a normal number placed before the noun: ‫[ هفت شهر‬haft shahr, ‘seven cities’] → ‫[ هفتمين شهر‬haftomin shahr, ‘seventh city’]. B. A shorter suffix, just -om, is added to the number, and then the ordinal number is treated as an adjective, meaning that it is placed after the noun, preceded by the connector ezāfe: ‫[ شهرِ هفتم‬shahr-e haftom, ‘seventh city’]. (See 2.3. above for ezāfe.) As it is the case with adjectives, the preceding noun can be singular or plural: ‫[ روزِ ششم‬ruz-e sheshom, ‘sixth day’] or ‫روزهایِ ششم‬ [ruz-hā-ye sheshom, ‘the sixth days’].

Consider the possibility of using a plural noun when two or more ordinal numbers are mentioned:

‫( کتابهای دوّم و سوّم‬the second and third books), vs. (less common): ‫( دوّمين و سوّمين کتابها‬same meaning; in this version using the ‫ کتاب‬also possible).

30

singular

The prepositioned -omin version A is especially more common when the noun has other modifiers also; ‫‘( هفتمين شهر بزرگ‬seventh big city’) is preferred to ‫ شهر بزرگ هفتم‬. On the other hand, the post-positioned -om version (B) is the only option when the ordinal number becomes part of a proper noun, as in ‫( قرنِ بيستم‬gharn-e bistom, the 20th Century) or ‫( داریوش سوم‬Dāryush-e sevvom, Darius III). Similarly, it is the postpositioned -om version (B) that is used for fractions. Formation of fractions is very regular and similar to English, with the only difference being that Persian fractions are not hyphenated in writing, and the ordinal number always remains singular: thus three-eighths would simply be ‫سه هشتم‬ [se hashtom]. (When using numerals, Persian would not use a forward slash in fractions, but rather a horizontal line, with the numerator above the line and the denominator under it. Thus, ۴/٨ would normally not be understood as four-eighths in Persian, but rather as 4.8 [= 4 8/10].)

Note: In the case of number ‫( سی‬si, thirty), the ordinal suffixes are usually written separately, preceded by the letter alef, as ‫( سی ام‬si-yom) and ‫سی امين‬ (si-yomin), both meaning 30th.

Ordinal numbers and fractions

Examples: 4th language: ‫[ چهارمين زبان‬chahāromin zabān] or ‫[ زبانِ چهارم‬zabān-e chahārom]. 10th night: ‫[ دهمين شب‬dahomin shab] or ‫[ شبِ دهم‬shab-e dahom]. 579th book: ‫[ پانصد و هفتاد و نهمين کتاب‬pānsad-o-haftād-o-nohomin ketāb] or ‫[ کتابِ پانصد و هفتاد و نهم‬ketāb-e pānsad-o-haftād-o-nohom]. One-fifth of a day: ‫[ یک پنجمِ روز‬yek panjom-e ruz].

3.3.1 The ‘usual suspects’: first, last & co It is only the first three numbers that have additional or slightly different ordinal forms, as shown in Table 3.2: Table 3.2 Irregular ordinal numbers Type A first

second

‫اوّلين‬

[av.va.lin] less common versions:

‫[ یکمين‬ye.ko.min]; ‫[ نخستين‬no.khos.tin] ‫دوّمين‬ [dov.vo.min]

third

‫سوّمين‬

[sev.vo.min]

Type B

‫اوّل‬

[av.val] less common versions:

‫[ یکم‬ye.kom]; ‫[ نخست‬no.khost] ‫دوّم‬ [dov.vom]

‫سوّم‬

[sev.vom]

The form used in fractions:

‫یکم‬

[ye.kom]

‫دوّم‬

[dov.vom]

‫سوّم‬

[sev.vom]

The words used for ‘last’ are ‫[ آخرین‬ākharin, Type A] and ‫[ آخر‬ākhar, Type B]; in written Persian and more elevated language the words ‫[ واپسين‬vāpasin] or ‫[ بازپسين‬bāzpasin] are also used (for both types: preceding the noun or following it after an ezāfe). Examples: First day: ‫[ روزِ اوّل‬ruz-e avval] or ‫[ اوّلين روز‬avvalin ruz]. Last book: ‫کتابِ آخر‬ [ketāb-e ākhar] or ‫[ آخرینکتاب‬ākharin ketāb]. Two-thirds of the night: ‫دو سوّمِشب‬ [do sevvom-e shab].

31

3 Numbers Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative pronouns

3.4 ‫[ تا‬taˉ] and other counting words (or measuring words): using numbers as pronouns

‫[ تا‬tā] is an almost universal counting word – used, understandably, for countable nouns. In colloquial Persian, ‫ تا‬is frequently used between the number and the noun, but it is rarely used in written (especially more formal) Persian: you usually hear ‫‘( دو تا کتاب‬two books’ or ‘two items of books’) instead of simply ‫‘( دو کتاب‬two books’). This does not mean, however, that using ‫ تا‬is always optional, opted for mainly in colloquial Persian. Here are a few cases where using or not using ‫ تا‬cannot be said to be optional: A. Where it has to be used: When numbers are used as pronouns – i.e., when no noun is mentioned after them – using ‫( تا‬or some other counting word) is obligatory. Answering a question like “How many books do you have?”, you can say ‫‘( پنج کتاب‬Five books.’), but not just ‫‘( پنج‬Five.’), using the number as a pronoun. In the latter case, you should say ‫( پنج تا‬which is like saying “five ones” or “five of those”). B. Where it cannot be used: On the other hand, ‫ تا‬cannot be used a. for uncountable nouns, b. when some other measure word (or count word), such as those used for time, weight, length, etc., is present, and c. after the number ‫[ یک‬yek, ‘one’]: the pronoun form of‫ یک‬is ‫[ یکی‬yeki] (or ‫ یک‬followed by count words like ‫[ دانه‬dāne] and ‫[ عدد‬adad] or, for people, ‫[ نفر‬nafar]). Example: ‫[ دو ساعت‬do sā’at, ‘2 hours’], but not ‫[ دو تا ساعت‬do tā sā’at] (unless, of course, another meaning of ‫‘ =[ ساعت‬watch’ or ‘clock’] is intended.)

Similar to ‫تا‬, in that they can be used after numbers or left out, are words like ‫نفر‬ [nafar, count word for people], ‫[ جلد‬jeld, count word for books], or the more general words ‫[ دانه‬dāne, used mostly for fruit, but also for eggs, grains, pearls, etc.] and ‫[ عدد‬adad, used for inanimate countable nouns]. Examples:

32

‫بيست ایرانی‬ ‫بيست نفر ایرانی‬ ‫بيست نفر‬ ‫یکی از کتابها‬ ‫هفت تا از مدادها‬

bist irāni

twenty Iranians

bist nafar irāni

twenty Iranians, twenty Iranian people

bist nafar

twenty people

yeki az ketāb-hā

one of the books

haft tā az medād-hā

seven of the pencils

‫[ بار‬bār] is the most common word used after numbers when you want to say how many times something happened or was done; ‫[ دفعه‬daf ‘e] and ‫[ مرتبه‬martebe] are also common.

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

Examples:

‫[ چهار بار‬chahār bār, ‘four times’], or ‫[ چهار دفعه‬chahār daf ‘e], ‫[ چهار مرتبه‬chahār martebe]. Modern Iran has adopted the metric system, borrowing many measure words from French: ‫[ کيلو‬kilu, ‘kilo’], ‫[ متر‬metr, ‘metre’], and the like. Note: using numbers as pronouns: the case of ordinal numbers We saw in 3.3 that we only needed to add -in to ordinal number type B (which already ended in -om) to have the ordinal number type A. If we want to use an ordinal number as pronoun, we only add -i (instead of -in) to ordinal number type B. Examples:

‫ده کتاب‬ ‫دهمين کتاب‬ ‫کتابِ دهم‬ ‫دهمی‬

dah ketāb

ten books

dahomin ketāb

the tenth book (A)

ketāb-e dahom

the tenth book (B)

dahomi

the tenth one

See Unit 8 for asking questions about numbers, also for related topics such as Telling the Time and Age and to learn some more words for Fractions.

3.5 Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns Demonstrative adjectives are ‫[ این‬in, ‘this’] and ‫[ آن‬ān, ‘that’]. They can be used for singular and plural nouns: adjectives do not change with number. When used for plural nouns, however, the English translation would then require using ‘these’ and ‘those’. Examples: Singular:

‫[ این خانه‬in khāne, ‘this house’] and ‫[ آن مرد‬ān mard, ‘that man’].

Plural:

‫[ این خانهها‬in khāne-hā, ‘these houses’] and ‫[ آن مردان‬ān mardān, ‘those men’].

Demonstrative pronouns are the same (‫ این‬and

‫ )آن‬for singular, but the plural

ending ‫ ها‬is added for plural (‫ اینها‬and ‫)آنها‬. In formal/literary Persian, the plural forms ‫ اینان‬and ‫ آنان‬are also possible (usually for people).

33

3 Numbers Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative pronouns

Compare usage of singular/plural:

‫‘( این زن‬this woman’) ‫‘( این زنِ زیبا‬this beautiful woman’) ‫‘( این زنهایِ زیبا‬these beautiful women’) ‫‘( این پنج زنِ زیبا‬these five beautiful women’) ‫ زنهای زیبا‬،‫‘( اینها‬these, the beautiful women’) ‫‘( آن خانه‬that house’) ‫‘( آن خانۀ کوچک‬that small house’) ‫‘( آن خانههایِ کوچک‬those small houses’) ‫‘( آن هفت خانۀ کوچک‬those seven small houses’) ‫ خانههای کوچک‬،‫‘( آنها‬those, the small houses’) Exercises Exercise 3.1 Write the following numerals as Persian words. Example: 9 → ‫نُه‬ 1. 100 2. 2 3. 13 10. 0 11. ۴ 12. 1000 18. 7 19. 20 20. ۴0 .

4. 1 5. 10 6. 11 7. 18 8. ۵ 9. 3 13. ۵00 14. 200 15. 2 16. ۶ 17. ۶00

Exercise 3.2 Write the following numerals as Persian numbers and translate into English. Example:

22 → ‫[ بيست و دو‬22]

1. 21  2. 33  3. 1001  4. ۴0۵ 5. 101  6. 799  7. ۴۴  8. ۵۵  9. ۶۶ 10. 910  11. 888  12. ۴9  13. 39۶ 14. 229 15. 1۶3  16. ۶01  17. ۶1 18. 809  19. ۵13 20. 912 .

Exercise 3.3 Translate the following into Persian; use words instead of numerals. 34

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫سی و هفت دفتر → ‪Example: 37 notebooks‬‬ ‫‪1. 482 good books. 2. 33 birds. 3. These 12 ugly chairs. 4. 11 nights. 5. 2 little‬‬ ‫‪stars. 6. Those 60 days. 7. 1 big nose. 8. 16 bad students. 9. 19 hours. 10. 55 kilos.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3.4‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following numbers into Persian and for each give the ordinal num‬‬‫‪bers also by adding -om and -omin suffixes.‬‬ ‫یازده‪/‬یازدهم‪/‬یازدهمين )‪Example: 11 → (right to left‬‬ ‫‪1. 18. 2. 30. 3. 2. 4. 100. 5. 99. 6. 1000. 7. 250. 8. 40. 9. 8. 10. 16.‬‬ ‫‪11. 14.    12. 900.    13. 77.    14. 25.    15. 60.    16. 300.    17. 10.    18. 13.‬‬ ‫‪19.17. 20.19.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3.5‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following into English.‬‬

‫چشم‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫دوّمين قلم ‪  5.‬شبِ سوم ‪  4.‬روزِ سیام ‪  3.‬سیامين روز ‪ 2.‬آن دو‬ ‫این اولين دانشجو ‪  9.‬هفت دهمِ خانه ‪  8.‬چهار ششم ‪  7.‬سه پنجمِ کتاب ‪6.‬‬ ‫پنجمين شاعر خوب ‪ 13.‬آخرین شهر ‪ 12.‬دوازدهمين روز بد ‪ 11.‬شصتمين مداد ‪10.‬‬ ‫نهمی ‪ 18.‬نهمين اسب ‪ 17.‬این آخری ‪ 16.‬سومی ‪ 15.‬چهارمين مرد ایرانی ‪14.‬‬ ‫‪ .‬بيست و ششمی ‪ 20.‬مداد بيست و ششم ‪19.‬‬ ‫بزرگ ‪1.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3.6‬‬ ‫‪ [tā] been used wrongly? (Write the num‬تا ‪In which of the following phrases has‬‬‫)‪bers only.‬‬ ‫کتاب ‪1.‬‬

‫یک قلم تا ‪  5.‬دوازده تا دختر ‪  4.‬یک تا صندلی ‪  3.‬پنج تا مداد ‪  2.‬سه تا‬ ‫ده تا عدد شهر ‪  9.‬یک تا ایرانی ‪  8.‬ده تا ایرانی ‪  7.‬ده تا نفر ایرانی ‪6.‬‬ ‫یک تا دانه ‪  13.‬صد تا متر ‪  12.‬شش تا کيلو ‪  11.‬هجده تا درخت ‪10.‬‬ ‫‪ .‬چهار تا بار ‪  15.‬هزار تا ستاره ‪14.‬‬

‫‪35‬‬

۴ ‫فصل‬

UNIT FOUR

‫ضمير ها‬ :)‫زماِن حال (یا مضارع‬ ‫بودن و داشتن‬

Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have New words in this unit ‫ضمير‬ ‫زمان‬ ‫حال‬ ‫زمانِ حال‬ ‫مضارع‬ ‫یا‬

36

‫من‬ ‫تو‬ ‫او‬ ‫وی‬ ‫آن‬ ‫ما‬ ‫شما‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫ایشان‬ ‫آنان‬ ‫دوست‬ ‫جا‬ ‫اینجا‬ ‫آنجا‬ ‫امشب‬ ‫بودن‬

za.mir za.mān

pronoun (gr.) (pl. ‫ ضمایر‬, za.mā.yer) tense (gr.); time

hāl

state (of being); presently; present

za.mā.n-e hāl

present tense (gr.)

mo.zā.re’

present tense (gr.)

yā

or (conj.)

man

I

to

you (singular)

u

he or she

vey

he or she (form./wrt.)

ān

it; that

mā

we

sho.mā

you (plural)

ān.hā

they; those

i.shān

they (for people only; more polite than ‫)آنها‬

ā.nān

he or she they (for people only; form./wrt.)

dust

friend

jā

place

in.jā

here

ān.jā

there

em.shab

tonight

bu.dan

to be (pres. stem: ‫ باش‬, bāsh)

‫داشتن‬ ‫عالی‬ ‫سياه‬ ‫مشکل‬

dāsh.tan

‫ولی‬ ‫در‬ ‫نام‬ ‫معلّم‬ ‫فارسی‬ ‫آلمان‬ ‫آلمانی‬ ‫عرب‬ ‫عربی‬ ‫دانشگاه‬ ‫کالس‬ ‫درس‬ ‫پنجره‬ ‫اتاق‬ ‫رادیو‬ ‫بيمار‬ ‫برگ‬ ‫آسمان‬ ‫غذا‬ ‫مرغ‬ ‫خر‬ ‫بله‬ ‫بلی‬ ‫آره‬ ‫آری‬ ‫نه‬

ā.li

to have (pres. stem: ‫ دار‬, dār) excellent

si.yāh

black

mosh.kel

difficult (adj.); problem (n., pl. ‫ مشکالت‬mosh. ke.lāt]

va.li

but (conj.)

dar

in (prep.)

nām

name (more formal than ‫ اسم‬, esm)

mo.’al.lem

New words in this unit

teacher

fār.si

Persian (language)

āl.mān

Germany

āl.mā.ni

German

a.rab

Arab (pl. ‫ اعراب‬, a’.rāb)

a.ra.bi

4

Arabic (language)

dā.nesh.gāh

university

ke.lās

class; classroom

dars

lesson

pan.ja.re/-.je.-

window

o.tāgh

room

rā.di.yo

radio

bi.mār

sick (adj.); sick person, patient (n.)

barg

leaf

ā.se.mān

sky

gha.zā

food

morgh

hen; chicken (as food); bird

khar

donkey; a stupid person; stupid

ba.le

yes [stress on bá-]

ba.li

yes [stress on bá-] (wrt.)

ā.re

yes [stress on -ré] (col.)

ā.ri

yes [stress on á-] (poet.)

na

no

37

4

‫نخير‬ ‫خير‬ ‫چرا‬ ‫پرویز‬ ‫مينا‬

Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

na.kheyr

no [stress on -khéyr] (polite)

kheyr

no (polite/form.)

che.rā

yes (used to contradict) (stress on ché-)

par.viz

Parviz; boys’ name

mi.nā

Mina (girls’ name)

4.1 Personal pronouns The personal pronouns are as follows: Table 4.1 Personal pronouns

1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person

Singular

Plural

‫[ من‬man, I]

‫[ ما‬mā, we]

‫[ او‬u, he/she] ‫[ آن‬ān, it]

‫[ آنها‬ānhā, they]

‫[ تو‬to, you/thou]

‫[ شما‬shomā, you]

Some remarks about personal pronouns: • •

• • • 38

‫[ او‬u, he/she]: Modern Persian is a gender-neutral language and as the translation here shows, the pronoun ‫ او‬is not gender-specific. ‫تو‬/‫ شما‬: As one can expect, ‫‘( شما‬you’ plural) is frequently used instead of ‫‘( تو‬thou’) when the relationship is not close enough, or just to show respect

(e.g., to those older than you). In that case, the verb must also be plural. (When the relationship is halfway between intimate and formal, colloquial Persian allows using the plural ‫ شما‬with a singular verb.) ‫[ ایشان‬ishān]: When talking with respect about an absent person or absent people, the pronoun ‫[ ایشان‬ishān, they] is usually used for 3rd person, both singular and plural, and a plural verb is also required. ‫ وی‬/‫[ آنان‬vey/ānān]: In formal, written Persian (never in spoken, colloquial), the pronoun ‫[ وی‬vey] is also used for ‘he/she’ and ‫[ آنان‬ānān] for ‘they’ – both of them for people only. ‫ شماها‬and ‫ ماها‬: When singling out a certain part of you from among a more general you, in colloquial Persian one can add the plural ‫ ها‬ending to ‫ شما‬and say ‫[ شماها‬shomā-hā, close to the slang youse or y’all in English: ‘you guys’]. In the same way, ‫[ ماها‬mā-hā] would be used for a certain part of ‫ما‬.

4.2 Possessive adjectives and pronouns The equivalent of English possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.) in Persian can either be the personal pronouns mentioned above (preceded by ezāfe; see 4.2.1) or a set of possessive suffixes (see 4.2.2).

Possessive adjectives and pronouns

4.2.1 Personal pronoun used as possessive adjective As it was mentioned in Unit 2 (2.3.B.b), ezāfe can be used between two nouns to show possession, as in ‫( دستِ دختر‬dast-e dokhtar, ‘hand of girl’ = ‘girl’s hand’). Now that we have learned the personal pronouns (see Table 4.1), we can add that in these cases the second noun (the possessor, i.e., dokhtar in the above example) can simply be a personal pronoun: instead of ‫ دستِ دختر‬we can say ‫دستِ من‬ (dast-e man, ‘hand of me’ = ‘my hand’) or ‫( دستِ شما‬dast-e shomā, ‘hand of you [pl.]’ = ‘your hand’), and so on. (See 2.3.A also for how to write and pronounce ezāfe and where to use a glide.)

4.2.2 Possessive suffixes These are in fact suffixes with different functions; we call them here possessive suffixes for ease when used in this function. Table 4.2 Possessive suffixes

1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person

Singular

Plural

‫[ ـَ م‬-am, my]

‫[ ِـ مان‬-emān, our] ‫[ ـِ تان‬-etān, your]

‫[ ـَ ت‬-at, your/thy]

‫[ ـَ ش‬-ash, his/her/its]

‫[ ـِ شان‬-eshān, their]

These suffixes are usually attached to the noun (i.e., to what is possessed) and joined both in pronunciation and in writing. Example for ‫[ کتاب‬ketāb, book]:

‫[ کتابم‬ketābam (ke.tā.bam), my book] ‫[ کتابت‬ketābat (ke.tā.bat), your/thy book] ‫[ کتابش‬ketābash (ke.tā.bash), his/her/its book] ‫[ کتابمان‬ketābemān (ke.tā.be.mān), our book] ‫[ کتابتان‬ketābetān (ke.tā.be.tān), your book] ‫[ کتابشان‬ketābeshān (ke.tā.be.shān), their book]

39

4 Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

Notes about spelling and pronunciation: •

If the noun ends in silent hé (‫ه‬, i.e., final -a /-e), which never joins in writing, the singular suffixes would need the letter alef to be added to represent the vowel a at the beginning of the new syllable; the plural suffixes do not need this, though, as the initial e of the suffixes is pronounced more softly and cannot be heard quite clearly. Example for ‫[ خانه‬khāne, house]:

‫[ خانه ام‬khāne’am (khā.ne.am), my book] ‫[ خانه ات‬khāne’at (khā.ne.at), your/thy book] ‫[ خانه اش‬khāne’ash (khā.ne.ash), his/her/its book] ‫[ خانه مان‬khāne(e)mān (khā.ne.[e.]mān), our book] ‫[ خانه تان‬khāne(e)tān (khā.ne.[e.]tān), your book] ‫[ خانه شان‬khāne(e)shān (khā.ne.[e.]shān), their book] •

Nouns ending in the vowels ā and u would require the glide y [‫ ]ی‬to be added. Examples:

‫[ پا‬pā, foot]: ‫[ پایم‬pāyam (pā.yam), my foot], ‫[ پایمان‬pāyemān (pā.ye.mān), our foot/feet] ‫[ مو‬mu, hair]: ‫[ مویم‬muyam (mu.yam), my hair], ‫[ مویمان‬muyemān (mu.ye.mān), our hair] •

• •

If the noun ends in -i [‫]ی‬, normally the ‫ ی‬itself would be sufficient for the double function of vowel+ glide [= -iy-] and another letter would not need to be written as glide, but in recent times there has been a tendency not to join them at all, in which case (as it was the case for silent hé) an alef would be added to the singular suffixes. Example: ‫ بينيم‬or, more commonly, ‫[ بينی ام‬both pronounced biniyam (bi.ni.yam), my nose], ‫ بينيمان‬or, more commonly, ‫بينی مان‬ [both pronounced biniyemān (bi.ni.ye.mān), our nose(s)]. Diphthongs would normally not require a glide. Since these rules have still not been standardized in a way acceptable to all publishers and journals, you might come across different spelling styles in different books and magazines. On the whole one can say that in the case of less common words, foreign words or words that are too long, there is a tendency to write the possessive suffixes separately.

4.2.3 Two possessive types: important similarities and differences 40

•

The two types mentioned above (4.2.1 and 4.2.2) are not only the same in meaning (‫ت من‬ ِ ‫[ دس‬dast-e man] and ‫[ دستم‬dastam] both meaning ‘my hand’) but also in that in both types the possessive part (or genitive marker)

comes last. This is true even in cases where instead of just one noun we have a cluster of words consisting of the noun and one or more modifiers (e.g., adjectives): the genitive marker would always come after the last word in such a cluster, be it a noun or adjective. Examples:

ِ ‫مال‬ [maˉ l-e] as possessive pronoun

My hand: ‫[ دستِ من‬dast-e man] or ‫[ دستم‬dastam]. My mother’s hand: ‫من‬ [dast-e mādaram].

ِ‫[ دستِ مادر‬dast-e mādar-e man] or ‫دستِ مادرم‬

My small hand: ‫کوچکِ من‬ [dast-e kuchekam].

ِ‫[ دست‬dast-e kuchek-e man] or ‫دستِ کوچکم‬

My mother’s small hand: ‫[ دستِ کوچکِ مادرِ من‬dast-e kuchek-e mādar-e man] or ‫[ دستِ کوچکِ مادرم‬dast-e kuchek-e mādaram].

My good mother’s small hand: ‫[ دستِ کوچکِ مادرِ خوبِ من‬dast-e kuchek-e mādar-e khub-e man] or ‫[ دستِ کوچکِ مادرِ خوبم‬dast-e kuchek-e mādar-e khubam]. •

•

Note that in English, instead of “my good mother’s small hand” (with my coming first, whereas in Persian it comes last), you can also say “the small hand of my good mother” with my placed in the middle. Persian has one form only, in which, in spite of the double genitive, my is the dominant, end possessor: I am talking about a hand, which belongs to a mother, who belongs to me. The two types are usually interchangeable, except in the following cases: a) You have to use the separate (non-suffixed) pronouns if you need emphasis, and we know that emphasis is not always optional. The emphasis you put on my when you say, for instance, “This is my book, not yours!” can only be conveyed by using the ‫ کتابِ من‬version in Persian, not ‫ کتابم‬:

suffixed possessive pronouns are never pronounced with stress in Persian and have no emphasis. See also 4.3 below for another case where you have to use the separate pronoun. b) On the contrary, you have to use the suffixed pronouns if the person for whom you are using the genitive (i.e., the possessor) is at the same time the subject of the verb. (This will be discussed later in more detail; see 4.6.)

4.3 ِ‫[مال‬maˉl-e] as possessive pronoun

‫[ مال‬māl] means ‘property’ and, when followed by ezāfe, it means ‘property of’ or ‘belonging to.’ It can be used in two ways: 1. If followed by personal pronouns (and not the possessive suffixes), it is the same as the possessive pronouns in English (mine, yours, etc.). Note that mine is always ‫[ مالِ من‬māl-e man], never ‫[ مالم‬mālam], never using the suffixes, and this is true of the other persons also:

41

4

Table 4.3 Possessive pronouns

Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person

Singular

Plural

‫[ مالِ من‬māl-e man, mine] ِ [māl-e to, yours/thine] ‫مال تو‬

ِ [māl-e mā, ours] ‫مال ما‬ ِ [māl-e shomā, yours] ‫مال شما‬

‫[ مالِ او‬māl-e u, his/hers] ِ [māl-e ān, its] ‫مال آن‬

ِ [māl-e ānhā, thirs] ‫مال آنها‬

2. If followed by a noun, then this noun can in turn be connected (through another ezāfe) to the either set of pronouns, whether separate or suffixed (man, to, etc., or -am, -at, etc.), and it would function as the genitive ’s in English (or ‘that of’, ‘property of’). If mine is always ‫[ مالِ من‬māl-e man] and never ‫[ مالم‬mālam], my father’s (where there is a noun) can be either ِ‫مال‬ ‫[ پدرِ من‬māl-e pedar-e man] or ‫[ مالِ پدرم‬māl-e pedaram]. As shown in the above examples, if ِ‫ مال‬is followed by a noun rather than a pronoun, it would be like the genitive ’s in English: ‫[ مالِ پرویز‬māl-e parviz, ‘that of Parviz’ or “Parviz’s”], ‫[ مالِ خانه‬māl-e khāne, ‘that of the house’ or “the house’s”]. Notes: 1.

ِ‫ مال‬as pronoun often has a singular antecedent, and there is no ِ‫ مالهای‬in polural

form. (You can repeat the plural antecedent as noun, though.) ِ‫ مال‬is usually used for non-humans (which can be considered as ‘property’ and can ‘belong’ to someone). In a sentence like “He is my father, not yours,” it would not be quite appropriate in Persian to use ‫ مال تو‬instead of ‘yours’ and in this case it is better to repeat the noun instead of using a pronoun. 3. ِ‫ مال‬is used in colloquial Persian in a variety of senses. ‫[ مالِ ایران‬māl-e irān] is not just Iran’s but can also be coming from or made in Iran. ‫مالِ چشم‬ [māl-e cheshm] is not just the eye’s but also pertaining to or used for the eye. 4. The English usage of possessive pronouns after of (‘a friend of mine,’ ‘a phantasy of hers,’ etc.) has no equivalent in Persian. Instead of ‘a friend of mine’ simply say ‘one of my friends’ (‫)یکی از دوستانِ من‬.

2.

4.4 Verbs in Persian: some general remarks

42

Position: There is a lot of flexibility in Persian regarding the order of the words in a sentence. In standard, formal Persian, verbs are usually placed at the end of a sentence or clause.

More regular than most languages: Verbs are less irregular in Persian than in many other languages, even compared to English. Past tense in Persian is regular, as well as any other tense, mood and construction that needs the past stem, and this includes: simple past, past progressive, past participle, all perfect tenses and constructions (present or past perfect and their progressive forms, perfect [or past] subjunctive) – even the future tense, which requires the past stem. No irregularity in any of these, even in notoriously irregular verbs like to be and to have. Irregular Verbs: While it is good to know that irregular verbs are being increasingly replaced in Persian by regular and compound verbs – most of the simple, irregular verbs being used now predominantly in formal, literary Persian only – there are still irregular verbs for which you have to learn the present stem additionally. The present stem is needed only for present tense, imperative and [present] subjunctive. Negative and Interrogative: No auxiliary verb or inversion required. For the negative, the prefix ‫[ نـ‬usually pronounced na-, but pronounced ne- when preceding the prefix mi-] is simply placed before the verb, written joined. There is the universal word ‫[ آیا‬āyā] that can be used for all questions (usually, but not necessarily, at the beginning of the sentence), whether a question word is present or not, but this āyā can also be dropped, in which case only the intonation will show that the sentence is a question (especially in absence of a question word). Conjugation: You need to learn a simple set of conjugational suffixes (or per­ sonal endings) in order to conjugate verbs in Persian. With these suffixes attached to the verb, you practically wouldn’t need the subject to be mentioned in the form of a pronoun, except where there is need for emphasis. That is why very often such pronouns are dropped in Persian, especially if the pronoun has already been mentioned before in the previous sentence and no change of subject is involved. Since there is little difference between these conjugational suffixes and the verb to be in its suffixed form, we will start with the verb to be. Subject-Verb Agreement in Singular/Plural: If the subject is inanimate, Persian tends to use a singular verb even for plural subjects, although a plural verb is not wrong either. A plural verb (for inanimates) is even preferred when the subject is seen as individuals rather than a mass of things, or when the subject needs emphasis or is personified in some way. (For a sentence like “The leaves are falling,” Persian would prefer a singular verb, although plural is not wrong or uncommon; but in a sentence like “The leaves are dancing,” the verb has to be plural.)

Present tense of the verb ‫بودن‬ َ [budan, ‘to be’]; affirmative and negative

4.5 Present tense of the verb ‫[ بودَن‬budan, ‘to be’]; affirmative and negative As in almost all other Indo-European languages, the verbs to be and to have are the most irregular ones and need special attention. In the case of the verb ‫[ بودن‬budan, ‘to be’], which functions as a copula or equating verb, the present stem is ‫[ باش‬bāsh]. We will certainly need this stem in future (for imperative and subjunctive), but not here.

43

4 Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

‫ بودن‬has two different present forms: a shorter, suffixed form, and a longer version, which is basically the same as the shorter one + ‫[ هَست‬hast], but can be used as an independent verb also. In negative, both types use the same form and you wouldn’t need to learn two different negative forms. Table 4.4 The verb ‫[ بودن‬budan, to be] The Verb to be

Used as suffix

Used independently

Negative of both types

1st Person Singular:

‫ـَ م‬

‫هستم‬

‫نيستم‬

‫ـی‬

‫هستی‬

‫نيستی‬

‫است‬/‫ـَ ست‬

‫هست‬

‫نيست‬

‫ـ یم‬

‫هستيم‬

‫نيستيم‬

‫ـ ید‬

‫هستيد‬

‫نيستيد‬

‫ـَ ند‬

‫هستند‬

‫نيستند‬

[I] am 2nd Person Singular: [you] are/[thou] art 3rd Person Singular: [he/she/it] is 1st Person Plural: [we] are 2nd Person Plural: [you] are 3rd Person Plural: [they] are

[-am] [-i]

[ast/-ast] [-im] [-id] [-and]

[hastam] [hasti]

[hast] [hastim] [hastid] [hastand]

[nistam] [nisti]

[nist]

[nistim] [nistid] [nistand]

4.5.1 Notes about writing the suffixed version The shorter or suffixed version is usually written joined if the preceding word ends in a consonant – with the exception of 3rd person singular (and, occasionally, plural): The special case of 3rd person

44

1. The 3rd person singular ‫ است‬is usually written separately, although, as a remnant of the past style, you might sometimes see it written joined (especially to shorter adjectives), in which case the initial alef is dropped in writing. Thus, we usually write ‫[ این خوب است‬in khub ast, ‘This is good’], but sometimes you might see this written joined as: ‫[ این خوبست‬same pronunciation and meaning]. 2. If the previous word is a shorter word ending in vowels -ā, -u or -i, you are more likely to see ast written joined, in which case ast is usually shortened in pronunciation as -st: ‫[ این کتابِ شماست‬in ketāb-e shomā-st, ‘This is

your book’], ‫[ این کتابِ اوست‬in ketāb-e u-st, ‘This is his/her book’], ‫عاليست‬ [āli-st, ‘[It] is excellent’]. 3. In recent times, there is a growing tendency to write the plural -and also separately (by adding an alef), especially with nouns or when it makes reading easier: ‫ آنها بزرگند‬or ‫[ آنها بزرگاند‬ānhā bozorg-and, ‘They’re big.’], but usually ‫( آنها در ایراناند‬and not ‫[ )ایرانند‬ānhā dar irān-and, ‘They’re in Iran.’]

Present tense of the verb ‫[ بو َدن‬budan, ‘to be’]; affirmative and negative

Writing the suffixed version of to be after words ending in vowels If the preceding word ends in a vowel, a glide would normally be needed, and this is how it would look like: Table 4.5 The glides needed when the word ends in a vowel

‫من‬ ‫تو‬

‫او‬ ‫ما‬

‫شما‬ ‫آنها‬

-a/-e/-i

-o

-ā/-u

‫ا‬

‫ا‬

‫یـ‬

‫ا‬

‫ یـ‬/ ‫ ئـ‬/ ‫ا‬

‫ یـ‬/ ‫ئـ‬

‫ا‬

‫ا‬ ‫ا‬

‫ یـ‬/ ‫ئـ‬

‫ یـ‬/ ‫ ئـ‬/ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬

‫ یـ‬/ ‫ئـ‬

‫ یـ‬/ ‫ئـ‬

‫یـ‬

For 3rd person singular [‫ – ]او‬with ‫ است‬usually written separately – see note 4.5.1 (“The special case of 3rd person”). Words ending in -a and -e (i.e., ending in silent ‘‫ )’ه‬are always written separately, and then an alef is added as glide in writing. The same is true of words ending in -i, although in the case of -i occasionally you might see it written joined with the glide ‫ یـ‬/ ‫ ئـ‬added. (In careless writing the glide is sometimes dropped altogether.) Examples with consonants:

‫[ من کوچکم‬man kuchekam, ‘I’m small.’] ‫[ تو بزرگی‬to bzorgi, ‘You’re big.’] ‫[ او زن است‬u zan ast, ‘She’s a woman.’] ‫[ ما در اتاقيم‬mā dar otāghim, ‘We are in the room.’]

45

4 Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

‫[ شما در کالسيد‬shomā dar kelāsid, ‘You are in the classroom.’] ‫ آنها نزدیکند‬or ‫[ آنها نزدیکاند‬ānhā nazdik-and, ‘They’re near.’] Examples with vowels: With -a/-e (always written separately + alef): ‫[ من خانهام‬man khāne-am, ‘I’m home.’]; ‫[ تو بچهای‬to bachche-i, ‘You are a child.’]

With -ā/-u: ‫[ من اینجایم‬man injā-y-am, ‘I’m here.’]; ‫[ آنها اینجایند‬ānhā injā-yand, ‘They are here.’]; but when the suffix starts with i-: ‫ ما اینجائيم‬or ‫ما‬ ‫[ اینجایيم‬mā injā-’im, ‘We are here.’]; ‫ تو اینجائی‬or ‫[ تو اینجایی‬to injā-’i, ‘You (singular) are here.’]; ‫ شما اینجائيد‬or ‫[ شما اینجایيد‬shomā injā-’id, ‘You (plural) are here.’]. Same with -u: ‫[ من دانشجویم‬man dāneshju-y-am, ‘I’m a (college) student.’], etc. With -o: ‫توام‬

‫[ من پد ِر‬man pedar-e to-am, ‘I’m your father.’]; ‫تو نزدیکِ رادیوئی‬ (or ‫[ )رادیویی‬to nazdik-e rādio-’i, ‘You (singular) are near the radio.’] With -i: ‫[ من دوّمیام‬man dovvomi-am, ‘I’m the second one.’]; ‫[ تو تهرانیای‬to tehrāni-’i, ‘You (singular) are from Tehran.’]

4.5.2 Where to use each to be version? The shorter, suffixed version is by far the more common version. Although they are often interchangeable (specially in colloquial Persian), it is recommended that you use the longer version only when: 1. you need to emphasize (as in “I am your friend, but [I cannot agree with that],” “. . . ‫ ول ی‬،‫)” دوست تو هستم‬ 2. you need an independent verb with no predicate (as in short answers: “Yes, I am,” “‫ هستم‬،‫)”بله‬

3. it is about the ‘existence’ of something, like ‘there is/there are’ (only for 3rd person). Compare these examples:

‫‘( تاریخ مشکل است‬History is difficult.’) ‫ ولی اینجا یک مشکل هست‬،‫‘( شما پدر من هستيد‬You are my father, but there is a problem here.’) If you use ‫ است‬in this example, it would be like saying

‘a problem is here,’ which wouldn’t make much sense.

46

In spoken Persian, sometimes the longer (“‫ )”هست‬version is preferred when it helps ease the pronunciation and avoid cacophony, as it is the case with words ending in -i. For instance, to say “You are Iranian,” the version ‫[ تو ایرانی هستی‬to irāni hasti] is preferred to ‫[ تو ایرانیای‬to irāni’i], although the shorter version is also used.

Examples:

‫‘( نام خواهرت زیباست‬Your sister’s name is beautiful.’) ‫‘( این درخت مالِ پرندههاست‬This tree belongs to the birds.’) ‫‘( آن هشت دانشجوها در کالس نيستند‬Those 8 students are not in the classroom.’) ‫‘( این آخرین روز است‬This is the last day.’) ‫‘( شما مالِ این شهر نيستيد؟‬Aren’t you from this city?’) ‫‘( آیا خانهتان نزدیک است؟‬Is your house near?’) ‫‘( سه دانشجوی آلمانی در این کالس هستند‬There are three German students in

Matching conjugational and genitive pronouns

this class.’)

‫‘( این غذا مال آنجا نيست‬This food is not from there/does not belong there.’) ‫ مال شما آنجاست‬،‫‘( کتاب من اینجاست‬My book is here, yours is there.’) ‫ صندلی بچۀ شما نيست‬،‫‘( این سر من است‬This is my head, it’s not your baby’s chair.’)

‫‘( جای این قلمها اینجا نيست‬The place of/for these pens is not here.’ [= ‘They do not belong here or should not be here.’])

‫‘( ما دانشجویان این دانشگاهيم‬We are the students of this university.’) ‫ مائيم‬،‫‘( دانشجویان این دانشگاه‬The students of this university are us.’ Or ‘[It’s]

we [who] are the students of this university.’) ‫ ولی ما هستيم‬، ‫‘( شما دانشجویان این دانشگاه نيستيد‬You are not the students of this university, but we are.’) Note that this sentence needs the version “‫ ”ما هستيم‬, whereas in the previous sentence both versions (‫ ما هستيم‬and ‫ )مائيم‬were possible.

4.6 Matching conjugational and genitive pronouns We have just learned our first verb, but it is never too early to learn this important point: 1. You must be consistent in using pronouns. If you are using the plural ‫ – شما‬be it out of respect for a single person or to address a group of people – then all the other pronouns referring to that person, whether conjugational endings or possessive pronouns, must be plural. Similarly, if you are using ‫ تو‬, all related pronouns must be singular: ‫[ تو در اتاق مادرت هستی‬to dar otāgh-e mādarat hasti], but ‫[ شما در اتاق مادرتان هستيد‬shomā dar otāgh-e mādaretān hastid, both meaning the same in English: ‘You are in your mother’s room’).

47

4 Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

2. As mentioned earlier (4.2.3), of the two possessive forms, only the suffixed pronoun can be used if the same person is the subject of the verb. In the above example (to dar otāgh-e mādarat hasti), we cannot use mādar-e to instead of mādarat; compare:

‫[ مينا در اتاقش است‬minā dar otāghash ast, ‘Mina is in her room.’] – this would

normally mean in her own room, although it can also be another person’s (same ambiguity as in English; we can even say his instead of her);

‫[ مينا در اتاقِ او است‬minā dar otāgh-e u ast, ‘Mina is in her/his room.’] – this time it is certainly someone else’s room!

4.7 Simple present tense of the verb ‫[ داشتن‬daˉshtan, ‘to have’]; affirmative and negative The present stem of the verb ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’] is ‫[ دار‬dār], and Table 4.6 shows how by adding the conjugational suffixes to this stem the present tense of this verb is conjugated: Table 4.6 The verb ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, to have]; present stem: ‫[ دار‬dār]. The verb to have

Conjugational suffix

Affirmative

Negative

1st Person Singular:

‫ـَ م‬

‫دارم‬

‫ندارم‬

[I] have 2nd Person Singular: [you] have/[thou] hast 3rd Person Singular: [he/she/it] has 1st Person Plural:

[dāram]

[nadāram]

‫ـی‬

‫داری‬

‫نداری‬

‫ـَ د‬

‫دارد‬

[-i]

[-ad]

‫ـ یم‬

[dāri] [dārad]

‫داریم‬

[nadāri]

‫ندارد‬

[nadārad]

‫نداریم‬

[we] have

[-im]

[dārim]

[nadārim]

2nd Person Plural:

‫ـ ید‬

‫دارید‬

‫ندارید‬

[you] have

[-id]

[dārid]

[nadārid]

3rd Person Plural:

‫ـَ ند‬

‫دارند‬

‫ندارند‬

[they] have

48

[-am]

[-and]

[dārand]

[nadārand]

As you see in Table 4.6, the conjugational suffixes here are exactly the same as the suffixed form of the verb to be in the previous table, with only one difference: in 3rd person singular, the suffix used here is ‫[ـَ د‬-ad].

Important: 1. The conjugational suffixes you learn here are real suffixes and, therefore, always written joined: no need to worry anymore about when and how to join them. 2. These suffixes are used for practically all other verbs in Persian. You only learn these 6 suffixes and (if needed, for irregular verbs) the present stem, and you can conjugate all the verbs. 3. Conjugational suffixes are always unstressed, the only exceptions being the future tense (to be learned in Unit 11) and verbs at the end of subordinate clauses (where a pending, rising tone is required).

‫[ بله‬bale, ‘yes’], ‫نه‬ [na, ‘no’] and cheraˉ

Examples:

‫‘( این درخت برگ ندارد‬This tree doesn’t have leaves.’) ‫‘( آن هفده دانشجو کتاب دارند‬Those 17 students have books.’) ‫‘( آیا چشم نداری؟‬Don’t you [sg.] have eyes?’) ‫‘( خانۀ ما شش اتاق بزرگ دارد‬Our house has six large rooms.’) ‫‘( این مردِ ایرانی سه زن دارد‬This Iranian man has three wives.’) ‫‘( آن دخترِ عرب پدر ندارد‬That Arab girl has no father.’) ‫‘( دوستم یک پا ندارد‬My friend doesn’t have one foot/leg.’) ‫‘( آیا قلم دارید؟‬Do you [pl.] have a pen?’) ‫‘( در اتاقم رادیو ندارم‬I don’t have a radio in my room.’) ‫‘( ما یک درسِ مشکل داریم‬We have a difficult lesson.’) 4.8 ‫[ بله‬bale, ‘yes’], ‫[ نه‬na, ‘no’] and cheraˉ Persian is a language with many layers for different degrees of formalities. This is how it looks like when it comes to yes and no (note the change of stress also): Table 4.7 ‘Yes’ and ‘no’ in Persian Yes

No

‫[ آری‬āri] ́

‫[ نه‬na]

respectful col.; also wrt.

‫[ بله‬bále]

‫[ نخير‬nakhéyr]

form./wrt. only

‫[ بلی‬báli]

poet. col./casual

‫[ آره‬āré]

‫[ نه‬na]

‫[ خير‬kheyr]

49

4 Pronouns Present tense: to be and to have

If you want, however, to give an affirmative answer to a negative question, you should use ‫[ چرا‬chérā, similar to the French si or German doch]:

‫‘( شما ایرانی نيستيد؟‬Aren’t you from Iran?’) ‫ نيستم‬،‫‘( نه‬No, I’m not.’) ‫ هستم‬،‫‘( چرا‬Yes, I am.’) ‫‘( پدرت خانه است؟‬Is your father home?’) ‫ هست‬،‫‘( بله‬Yes, he is.’) ‫ نيست‬،‫‘( نه‬No, he isn’t.’) Exercises Exercise 4.1 Fill out the blanks by using either the appropriate pronoun or the correct form of the verbs to be and to have (affirmative), then translate.

‫پدرِ شما در اتاق‬ .‫ مادرِ این دختر نيست‬.......... .‫ چهار دست ندارید‬.......... .‫ ایرانی نيستيم‬.......... .......... ‫صورتِ مادرِ شما زیبا‬ ‫ ؟‬.......... ‫آیا شما شاعر‬ .‫ نيست‬.......... ِ‫ مال‬،‫– این خانۀ برادرتان است؟ – نه‬ .......... ‫آن کتابها مالِ شما‬ ‫ ؟‬.......... ‫این خانم آیا پدر‬ .......... ،‫– کتاب ندارید؟ – چرا‬ ..........

.1

.2 .3

.۴ .۵ .۶ .7 .8 .9

.10

Exercise 4.2 Translate the following into Persian, using the possessive suffixes.

50

1. her small brother; 2. their second big house; 3. my good physician; 4. his Iranian father; 5. your [sg.] small city; 6. my books; 7. their small children; 8. your [pl.] Iranian wife; 9. its first big tree; 10. our thirteenth good day.

Exercise 4.3

Exercises

Translate the following into English.

ِ .۵ ‫مال آنها؛‬ ِ .۴ ‫مال خانم؛‬ ِ .3 ‫مال بچه؛‬ ِ .2 ‫مال شاعر؛‬ ِ .1 ‫مال خواهرانش؛‬ .‫ مالِ زبان فارسی‬. 10 ‫ مالِ آلمان؛‬.9 ‫ مالِ بينی؛‬.8 ‫ مالِ دانشجویانمان؛‬.7 ‫ مالِ شب؛‬.۶

Exercise 4.4 Translate the following into Persian. 1. This is your book. 2. Those four good students do not belong to [= are not from] his class. 3. They are from that small lady’s class. 4. Aren’t you [sg.] an Iranian woman? (Here use the number ‘one’ instead of ‘an’.) 5. The pens are not mine. 6. Those large cities are not in Germany. 7. The children and their father are here. 8. Are you [pl.] in the city of Shirāz? 9. No, we are not in Shirāz, we are here in Tehran. 10. Yes, she and her Mom and Dad are here.

Exercise 4.5 Translate the following into English. .‫شما دانشجوئيد‬. 1

.‫من معلم هستم‬. 2

.)‫ایرانی کوچکند (= کوچکاند‬

‫بچههایِ خان ِم‬. 3 .)‫مدادها و دفترها مالِ برادرِ اوست (= او است‬. ۴ .‫چشمهایِ بچۀ ایرانی سياه هستند‬. ۵ .‫ما آلمانی هستيم‬. ۶ .‫تو یک ستاره نيستی‬. 7 .‫خواهرانش دانشجو هستند‬. 8 .‫قلم مالِ معلمِ ما است‬. 9 .‫اسبها مالِ دهِ نزدیکِ شهر هستند‬. 10 Exercise 4.6 Change all the verbs to negative, then translate the sentences into English. Example: ‫( ندارم → من برادر دارم‬I don’t have a brother.)

51

‫‪. 1‬دانشجویان درس زبان فارسی دارند‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬این درخت کوچک صدها برگ دارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬امشب آسمان ستاره دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪Pronouns‬‬ ‫‪Present‬‬ ‫‪tense: to be‬‬ ‫‪and to have‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬ما در سومين اتاق یک پنجرۀ بزرگ داریم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬شما در کشورتان هزاران شاعر دارید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬آن دکتر آلمانی سی و پنج بيمار ایرانی دارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬یک کالس زبان عربی دارم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬آیا پدر و مادر داری؟‬ ‫‪. 10‬در اتاقتان صندلی دارید؟‬ ‫‪.‬مردان ایرانی ابروان و چشمان بزرگ دارند‪.‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬ ‫در هفت آسمان یک ستاره ندارد‪.‬‬

‫‪He doesn’t have a single star in seven skies.‬‬ ‫)‪(Used for a person who always has bad luck or is destitute.‬‬ ‫مُرغ یک پا دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪The chicken has [only] one leg.‬‬ ‫)‪(Used for an obstinate person who wouldn’t change his word or decision.‬‬ ‫من خر نيستم‪.‬‬

‫‪I’m not a donkey/I’m not stupid.‬‬ ‫)‪(= I won’t fall for that; you cannot deceive me.‬‬

‫‪52‬‬

UNIT FIVE Simple present tense: other verbs Present progressive with daˉshtan

۵ ‫فصل‬

:‫زمان حال ساده‬ ‫فعلهای دیگر‬ ‫زمان حال استمراری با‬ “ ‫” د ا شتن‬

New words in this unit

‫ساده‬ ‫فعل‬ ‫استمراری‬ ‫با‬ ‫به‬ ِ‫برای‬ ِ‫به نام‬ ‫دیگر‬ ‫هر‬ ‫هر روز‬ ‫امروز‬ ‫فردا‬ ‫سال‬ ‫حاال‬ ‫اآلن‬ ً ‫معموال‬ ‫آمدن‬ ‫رفتن‬ (‫گفتن )به‬

sā.de

simple

fe’l

verb (gr.)

es.tem.rā.ri

progressive, continuous (gr.)

bā

with (prep.)

be

to; also ‘in’ for languages (prep.)

ba.rā.ye

for (prep.)

be nām-e

called, bearing the name

di.gar

other

har

every

har ruz

everyday

em.ruz

today

far.dā

tomorrow

sāl

year

hā.lā

now

al.’ān

now

ma’.mu.lan

usually

ā.ma.dan

to come (pres. stem: ‫[ آ‬ā])

raf.tan gof.tan (be)

to go (pres.stem: ‫[ رُو‬row → rav]) to say (to) (pres.stem: ‫[ گو‬gu])

53

5 Simple present tense: other verbs Present progressive with daˉshtan

54

‫نوشتن‬ ‫دانستن‬

ne.vesh.tan dā.nes.tan

to know (something, not someone) (pres.stem: ‫دان‬ [dān])

‫رسيدن‬ ‫خریدن‬ ‫خرید‬ ‫راهرو‬ ‫قدیمی‬ ‫بازار‬ ‫مدرسه‬ ‫تکليف‬ ‫کتابخانه‬ ‫وقت‬ ‫فرش‬ ‫بسيار‬ ‫خيلی‬ ‫چند‬

re.si.dan

to reach, arrive (pres.stem: ‫[ رس‬res])

‫دیر‬ ‫هتل‬ ‫هواپيما‬ ‫فرودگاه‬ ‫شاد‬ ‫افغانی‬ ‫آمریکائی‬ ‫اصفهان‬ ‫شيراز‬ ‫پروین‬ ‫آهسته‬ ‫شتر‬ ‫صدا‬

kha.ri.dan kha.rid

to write (pres.stem: ‫[ نویس‬ne.vis])

to buy (pres.stem: ‫[ خر‬khar]) shopping

rāh.row

corridor

gha.di.mi

old (for inanimates)

bā.zār

market, bazaar

mad.re.se

school (below a college) (pl. ‫ مدارس‬, ma.dā.res)

tak.lif ket.āb-khā.ne

homework, assignment (pl. ‫تکاليف‬, ta.kā.lif) library

vaght

time

farsh

carpet

bes.yār

very; a lot (of)

khey.li

very; a lot (of)

chand

some (for countables), several [note: the noun remains singular]

dir

late

ho.tel

hotel

ha.vā-pey.mā

airplane

fo.rud.gāh

airport

shād

happy, glad

af.ghā.ni

Afghan; Afghani

ām.ri.kā.’i

American (also ‫امریکائی‬, em.ri.kā.’i)

es.fa.hān

Isfahan (city in Iran)

shi.rāz

Shiraz (city in Iran)

par.vin

Parvin; girls’ name

ā.hes.te

slow/slowly; quiet/quietly

sho.tor

camel

se.dā

sound; voice

5.1 Present stem – general remarks

Present tense in Persian

All infinitives in Persian end in -an (or, more specifically, in either -dan or -tan). Stem of past is regular and is always achieved by dropping this final -an. The present stem, however, should be learned separately. Most of the verbs follow a more or less ‘regular’ and easily recognizable pattern for their present stem also. For instance, with very few exceptions, all the infinitives ending in -idan – and there are dozens of them – are regular and the present stem is what remains after you drop -idan: the present stem of ‫[ رسيدن‬residan, ‘to arrive/ to reach’] would thus be ‫رس‬ [res]. You need, though, to learn more verbs to be able to recognize these patterns.

5.2 Present tense in Persian Having learned in the previous unit how to conjugate the verb ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan] in present tense, we already know the conjugational suffixes needed in present tense for all other verbs (Table 4.6). All other verbs, however – and there is no exception here – would need the stressed prefix -‫[ می‬mi-] as well, which has this one form only and does not change with person. Thus, to say ‘I know’ in Persian, you need the prefix mi-, then the present stem of the verb ‘to know’ [= dān], and finally the conjugational ending for ‘I’ (1st person singular), which, as you already know, is -am. The result would be ‫[ میدانم‬midānam], and for other persons you simply change the conjugational ending: ‘We know’ would thus be ‫[ میدانيم‬midānim], and so on. No need to emphasize again that the suffixes, as we learned for ‫ داشتن‬, are always written joined. Negative: For the negative, we change the prefix -‫[ می‬mi-] to its negative form ‫[ نمی‬nemi-], and this is the only case where the negative prefix na- is pronounced ne-. The negative prefix always has the main stress in all tenses. Note: This mi- (or, in negative, nemi-) prefix is now usually written separately, although it used to be written joined in the past and some might still write it that way (i.e., ‫ ميدانم‬instead of ‫)میدانم‬. Table 5.1 Present tense of the verb ‫[ دانستن‬dānestan, to know]; present stem: ‫[ دان‬dān] The Verb to know

Conjugational suffix

Affirmative

Negative

1st person sg.:

‫ـَ م‬

‫میدانم‬

‫نمیدانم‬

[I] know

[-am]

[midānam]

[nemidānam]

2nd person sg.:

‫ـی‬

‫میدانی‬

‫نمیدانی‬

[you] know/[thou] knowst

[-i]

[midāni]

[nemidāni]

55

5 Simple present tense: other verbs Present progressive with daˉshtan

Table 5.1 (cont’d) 3rd person sg.:

‫ـَ د‬

‫میداند‬

‫نمیداند‬

‫نمیدانيم‬

[he/she/it] knows

[-ad]

[midānad]

1st person pl.:

‫ـ یم‬

‫میدانيم‬

[nemidānad]

[we] know

[-im]

[midānim]

[nemidānim]

2nd person pl.:

‫ـ ید‬

‫میدانيد‬

‫نمیدانيد‬

[you] know

[-id]

[midānid]

[nemidānid]

3rd person pl.:

‫ـَ ند‬

‫میدانند‬

‫نمیدانند‬

[they] know

[-and]

[midānand]

[nemidānand]

5.3 Glide and pronunciation If the present stem of a verb ends in the vowels -ā or -u, the glide ‫[ یـ‬y] should be added between the stem and the conjugational suffix. For three of the conjugational suffixes, which either consist of or start with the sound i- – namely, 1st person plural, 2nd person singular and 2nd person plural – the glide is more commonly written as hamze (‫ )ئـ‬before that i-, but writing ‘double ye’ is also possible and almost as common (see 4.5.1 above for comparison). In the case of the verb ‫[ رفتن‬raftan, ‘to go’] – present stem ‫[ رو‬row] – and a few other verbs with present stems ending in -ow, this -ow changes its pronunciation in conjugation to -av. ‫‘[ میروم‬I go’] will therefore be pronounced mi-rav-am, not mi-row-am. (The -ow pronunciation will be needed for imperative [singular] only – see Unit 8 – and for making compound words, like ‫راهرو‬ [rāhrow, ‘corridor’].) You might occasionally see other vowel changes also. Table 5.2 Present tense – more examples of conjugation

Infinitive

Regular

Irregular

Stem ending Stem ending Stem ending in -ā (glide in -u (glide in -ow needed) needed) (→ -av)

‫رسیدن‬

‫نوشتن‬

‫آمدن‬

‫گفتن‬

goftan,

raftan,

to reach/ arrive

to write

to come

to say

to go

‫رس‬

‫نویس‬

‫آ‬

‫گو‬

‫رو‬

residan,

Present Stem

56

res

neveshtan,

nevis

āmadan,

ā

gu

‫رفتن‬

row (→ rav)

Table 5.2 (cont’d) 1st person sg.

‫میرسم‬

Usage

‫مینویسم‬

‫میآیم‬

mi-ā-yam

mi-gu-yam

mi-nevis-i

‫ میآئی‬or ‫میآیی‬

‫ میگوئی‬or ‫میروی‬ ‫میگویی‬

‫مینویسد‬

‫میآید‬

‫میگوید‬

‫ میآئيم‬or ‫میآیيم‬

‫ میگوئيم‬or ‫میرویم‬ ‫میگویيم‬ mi-rav-im

mi-nevis-id

‫ میآئيد‬or ‫میآیيد‬

‫ میگوئيد‬or ‫میروید‬ ‫میگویيد‬ mi-rav-id

‫مینویسند‬

‫میآیند‬

‫میگویند‬

(I)

mi-res-am

mi-nevis-am

2nd person sg.

‫میرسی‬

‫مینویسی‬

(you/thou) 3rd person sg.

mi-res-i

‫میرسد‬

(he/she/it)

mi-res-ad

mi-nevis-ad

1st person pl.

‫میرسيم‬

‫مینویسيم‬

(we) 2nd person pl. (you) 3rd person pl. (they)

mi-res-im

mi-nevis-im

‫میرسيد‬

‫مینویسيد‬

mi-res-id

‫میرسند‬

mi-ā-’i

mi-ā-yad

mi-ā-’im

mi-ā-’id

mi-res-and mi-nevis-and mi-ā-yand

‫میگویم‬

mi-gu-’i

mi-gu-yad

‫میروم‬

mi-rav-am mi-rav-i

‫میرود‬

mi-rav-ad

mi-gu-’im

mi-gu-’id

mi-gu-yand

‫میروند‬

mi-rav-and

Negative: For the negative of all the verbs in Table 5.2, simply change -‫[ می‬mi-] to -‫[ نمی‬nemi-]. Spelling and pronunciation note: As you can see in Table 5.2, after the vowels -ā and -u, one ‫ ی‬alone functions as the consonant y only and never as the vowel i: ‫ میگوید‬is always mi-gu-yad and never mi-gu-’id; the latter would need a glide before -i (written as a hamze or another ‫ )ی‬to make that pronunciation possible: ‫ میگوئيد‬or ‫میگویيد‬. Therefore, try to avoid the equation ‫ = ی‬i; it can also be the consonant y.

5.4 Usage

‫ زمان حال‬or present tense in Persian is equal to the simple present tense in English, but can also be used as present progressive or even instead of the future tense. The context or the accompanying adverb of time will help you determine which tense to use in English when translating. Examples:

‫[ پروین به مدرسه نمیرود‬parvin be madrese nemi-ravad, ‘Parvin does not go to school.’]

57

5 Simple present tense: other verbs Present progressive with daˉshtan

‫[ شما هر روز چند بارغذا میخرید‬shomā har-ruz ghazā mi-kharid, ‘You buy food several times every day.’]

‫[ یک دختر به نام مينا یک نامه مینویسد‬yek dokhtar be nām-e minā yek nāme mi-nevisad, ‘A girl called Mina is writing a letter.’]

‫[ امروز نمیآیم‬emruz nemi-āyam, ‘I’m not coming today.’] ‫[ فردا چند نفر با من میآیند‬fardā chand nafar bā man mi-āyand, ‘Several people are coming with me tomorrow.’]

‫[ امروز به شهر هفتم میرسيم‬emruz be shahr-e haftom mi-resim, ‘Today we’ll reach the seventh city.’]

‫[ آنها فردا میرسند‬ānhā fardā miresand, ‘They will arrive tomorrow.’] ‫[ فردا به پدرش میگوئيم‬fardā be pedarash mi-gu’im, ‘Tomorrow we’ll tell his/ her father.’]

This tense is the only equivalent in Persian of the English simple present tense, whereas there is a future tense also in Persian, to be covered later in Unit 11, and there is an alternative present progressive construction as well (see 5.5).

5.5 Present progressive formed with ‫داشتن‬ A new development in the language (predominantly in colloquial Persian) and not fully developed as a tense, this construction is used to focus on the action expressed by the verb, to stress and make it clear that something is happening right now. Two limitations in usage: 1. It has no negative form: always affirmative. 2. It is used to focus on an action and, therefore, cannot be used for verbs that are either equating in their function or are more about the state rather than the action. (In English, for instance, you can say I am realizing now, but not I am knowing; you can say the sun is appearing, but not is seeming.) Understandably, the verbs to be and to have do not have a progressive form with dāshtan.

58

Formation: The main verb is conjugated in present tense in the normal way at the end of the sentence; the verb ‫ داشتن‬is also conjugated for the same person (same conjugational suffixes, but no mi- prefix) and usually placed after the subject, or at the beginning of the sentence if the subject is not mentioned, or after the adverb of time. Although there is some flexibility about its position, whenever possible it should be placed closer to the beginning of the

sentence and not immediately before the main verb. Here ‫ داشتن‬is an auxiliary verb with no independent meaning of its own, and it is only the context that can help you decide whether it means ‘to have’ or is simply part of the progressive aspect.

Present progressive formed with ‫داشتن‬

Examples:

‫هر سال چهار فصل دارد‬ seasons.’]

[har sāl chahār fasl dārad, ‘Each year has four

‫[ دارد به خانه میرود‬dārad be khāne miravad, ‘He’s going home.’ Here you know that ‘He has he goes home’ wouldn’t make sense.]

‫[ وقت دارم ولی به آنجا نمیروم‬vaght dāram vali be ānjā nemi-ravam, ‘I have time but I don’t go/I’m not going there.’]

‫[ آیا دارید میروید؟‬āyā dārid mi-ravid?, ‘Are you going/leaving?’] Table 5.3 ‫[ رفتن‬raftan, ‘to go’] in simple present tense and in present progressive with ‫داشتن‬ Present/Present progressive tense

Present progressive tense

Affirmative

Negative

Affirmative

Negative

‫میروم‬

‫نمیروم‬

‫دارم میروم‬

[No negative!]

mi-ravam

nemi-ravam

dāram mi-ravam

I go / I am going

I don’t go / I am not going

I am going

‫میروی‬

mi-ravi

‫نمیروی‬

nemi-ravi

‫داری میروی‬

you [singular] go /

you [singular] don’t go /

you [singular] are going

you are going

you are not going

‫میرود‬

‫نمیرود‬

[No negative!]

dāri mi-ravi

‫دارد میرود‬

mi-ravad

nemi-ravad

dārad mi-ravad

he goes / he is going

he doesn’t go / he is not going

he is going

‫میرویم‬

mi-ravim

‫نمیرویم‬

nemi-ravim

‫داریم میرویم‬

we go / we are going

we don’t go / we are not going

we are going

[No negative!]

[No negative!]

dārim mi-ravim

59

5 Simple present tense: other verbs Present progressive with daˉshtan

Table 5.3 (cont’d) Present/Present progressive tense

Present progressive tense

Affirmative

Negative

Affirmative

Negative

‫میروید‬

‫نمیروید‬

[No negative!]

nemi-ravid

‫دارید میروید‬

dārid mi-ravid

you [plural] go / you are going

you [plural] don’t go / you are not going

you [plural] are going

‫میروند‬

‫نمیروند‬

nemi-ravand

‫دارند میروند‬

dārand mi-ravand

they go / they are going

they don’t go / they are not going

they are going

mi-ravid

mi-ravand

[No negative!]

More examples:

‫( اآلن دارم یک نامه مینویسم‬Now I’m writing a letter.) ‫ داریم میرسيم‬،‫( شهر نزدیک است‬The city is near; we are arriving.) ‫ دیر نمیرسی‬،‫( مدرسه نزدیک است‬The school is near; you won’t be late.) ‫( حاال نمیگویم ولی فردا میگویم‬I won’t say [it] now, but I’ll say tomorrow.) ‫( هر روز دو بار به خانۀ ما میآید‬He comes to our house twice a day.) ‫( معموالً در ده غذا میخرند‬They usually buy food in the village.) ‫ دارد غذا میخرد‬،‫( پدرم آنجاست‬My father is there, he’s buying food.) ‫( آیا خواهرت نمیداند؟‬Doesn’t your sister know?) ‫( به کالس نمیروم؛ مادرم دارد از ایران میآید‬I’m not going to class; my Mom is coming from Iran.)

‫ داریم به کالس میرویم‬،‫( وقت نداریم‬We don’t have time, we’re going to class.) Exercises Exercise 5.1 Write the correct form of the verb. )‫ (رسيدن‬.......... ‫من و مادرم‬. 1

60

)‫ (رفتن‬.......... ‫پدر و خواهرتان‬. 2

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪. 3‬شما ‪( ..........‬گفتن)‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬شما و من ‪( ..........‬دانستن)‬ ‫‪. ۶‬تو ‪( ..........‬نوشتن)‬ ‫‪. 7‬تو و من ‪( ..........‬خریدن)‬ ‫‪. 8‬تو و پدرت ‪( ..........‬رفتن)‬ ‫‪. 9‬شما و آن شاعر ‪( ..........‬آمدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬ایرانیها ‪( ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬شما و دکتر ‪( ..........‬داشتن)‬

‫‪Exercise 5.2‬‬ ‫‪Write the correct form of the verb, then translate.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬فردا معلم ایرانی به کشورش ‪( ..........‬رفتن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬نوزده دانشجوی آمریکائی به شهر شيراز ‪( ..........‬آمدن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 3‬آیا او امروز دیر ‪( ..........‬آمدن) ؟‬ ‫‪. ۴‬ما کتاب آلمانی داریم ولی آلمانی ‪( ..........‬دانستن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬هر سال برادرهایمان با زنان آمریکائیشان به اصفهان ‪( ..........‬آمدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬امشب یک هواپيمای دیگر به فرودگاه شيراز ‪( ..........‬رسيدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬من به تو ‪( ..........‬گفتن) ولی به او نمیگویم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬شما یک کتاب ‪( ..........‬داشتن)‪ ،‬اینها مال ما ‪(. ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬هر روز آنها به من نامه ‪( ..........‬نوشتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬من با اولين هواپيما به ایران ‪(. ..........‬رفتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 5.3‬‬ ‫‪ to form the pres‬داشتن ‪In which of the following sentences can you add the verb‬‬‫‪.‬داشتن ‪ent progressive? Rewrite those sentences with the appropriate form of‬‬

‫‪ (My parents/my father and mother come/are coming‬پدر و مادرم به خانه میآیند‬

‫‪ 1.‬‬

‫‪ (The airplane arrives/is arriving at Tehran‬هواپيما به فرودگاه تهران میرسد‬

‫‪ 2.‬‬

‫)‪ (The students are in the classroom.‬دانشجویان در کالس هستند‬

‫‪ 3.‬‬

‫)‪home.‬‬

‫‪61‬‬

‫)‪Airport.‬‬

‫‪ (We write/are writing some letters‬ما در کتابخانۀ دانشگاه چند نامه مینویسيم‬ ‫)‪in the library of the university.‬‬ ‫‪ (I don’t go/am not going to the univer‬امروز به دانشگاه نمیروم‪ ،‬بيمار هستم‬‫)‪sity today; I’m sick.‬‬ ‫‪ (I go/am going to our house from the‬من از کتابخانۀ دانشگاه به خانهمان میروم‬ ‫)‪library of the university.‬‬ ‫)‪ (You go/are going to the bazaar for shopping.‬شما برای خرید به بازار میروید‬ ‫)‪ (We don’t know German.‬ما زبان آلمانی نمیدانيم‬ ‫‪ (They buy/are buying carpets in Teh‬آنها در بازار بزرگ تهران فرش میخرند‬‫)‪ran’s grand bazaar.‬‬ ‫‪ (Tomorrow I have some assignments‬فردا چند تکليف برای درس فارسی دارم‬ ‫)‪for the Persian course/lesson.‬‬

‫‪ 4.‬‬

‫‪5‬‬

‫‪ 5.‬‬

‫‪Simple‬‬ ‫‪present tense:‬‬ ‫‪other verbs‬‬

‫‪ 6.‬‬ ‫‪ 7.‬‬ ‫‪ 8.‬‬ ‫‪ 9.‬‬

‫‪Present‬‬ ‫‪progressive‬‬ ‫‪with daˉshtan‬‬

‫‪10.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5.4‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following sentences into English.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬پروین امروز به دانشگاه نمیرود‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 2‬تو هر روز به مدرسه میروی‪.‬‬

‫‪. 3‬فردا با خواهرم به کالس زبان فارسی میروم‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬آنها زبان فارسی خوب نمیدانند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬دختر آن خانم ایرانی‪ ،‬انگليسی خوب میداند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬هر شب پدر و مادرم ساعت هفت به خانه میرسند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬او یک نامه به زبان انگليسی به خواهرش مینویسد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬بچهها برای آن پرندۀ سياه غذا میخرند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬من قلم ندارم و با مداد مینویسم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬من بيمارم و فردا به کالس نمیآیم‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5.5‬‬ ‫‪Change the verbs in the following sentences from affirmative to negative.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬این یکی از شهرهای قدیمی ایران است‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬امروز خيلی وقت داریم و به کتابخانه میرویم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬خواهرانتان خيلی زیبا هستند‪.‬‬

‫‪. ۴‬آیا دارید برای خرید به بازار میروید؟‬ ‫‪. ۵‬هواپيما دارد اآلن به فرودگاه میرسد‪.‬‬

‫‪62‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪۶‬‬

‫‪.‬هر کشور چند شاعر عالی دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪. 7‬تو برای پدر بيمارت غذا میخری‪.‬‬

‫ال خوب مینویسند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬قلمهای زیبا معمو ً‬ ‫‪. 9‬بچه های افغانی خيلی شاد هستند‪.‬‬

‫‪. 10‬هر اتاق دو پنجرۀ بزرگ دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5.6‬‬ ‫‪Choose the correct form of the verb.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬تو برای برادر من یک قلم (میخرم‪/‬میخرد‪/‬میخری)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬تو و برادر من امروز به ایران (میرود‪/‬میروید‪/‬میروم)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬تو و من فردا به دانشگاه (میآیم‪/‬میآئيم‪/‬میآئی)‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬من و خواهرت هر روز نامه (مینویسی‪/‬مینویسند‪/‬مینویسيم)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬دکتر ایرانی ما خيلی خوب (میداند‪/‬میدانيم‪/‬میدانند)‪.‬‬ ‫ال وقت (ندارد‪/‬ندارند‪/‬میدارد)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬دکترها معمو ً‬ ‫‪. 8‬بچّۀ خواهرم دو چشم بزرگ (دارند‪/‬دارم‪/‬دارد)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬دختر من فردا در تهران (نيست‪/‬هستم‪/‬نيستيم)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬ما فردا به شما (میگوئيد‪/‬میگوئيم‪/‬میگویم)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬شما و آن پسر معموالً خيلی دیر (میرسيد‪/‬میرسد‪/‬میرسی)‪.‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫یک دست صدا ندارد‪.‬‬

‫‪One hand alone has no sound.‬‬ ‫)‪(Used to emphasize the importance of cooperation.‬‬

‫شتر آهسته میرود شب و روز‪.‬‬

‫‪The camel goes slowly, day and night.‬‬ ‫)‪(= It is with endurance that you reach your goal, not with haste.‬‬ ‫]‪[Proverb; originally a line by Saadi, poet of the 13th Century.‬‬ ‫‪63‬‬

UNIT SIX Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

۶ ‫فصل‬

)1( ‫معرفه و نکره‬ ‫یاء نِسبت‬

New words in this unit

64

‫معرفه‬ ‫نکره‬ ‫یاء نسبت‬ ‫خواندن‬

ma’.re.fe

definite (gr.)

na.ka.re

indefinite (gr.)

yā.’e nes.bat

attributive “‫ ”ی‬or stressed -i suffix

‫گذشتن‬ ‫زود‬ ‫مفيد‬ ‫ارزان‬ ‫گرم‬ ‫سرد‬ ‫قرمز‬ ‫سفيد‬ ‫مشهور‬ ‫دراز‬ ‫جوان‬ ‫جوانی‬ ‫زرنگ‬ ‫زرنگی‬ ‫ابر‬ ‫ابری‬ ‫باران‬

go.zash.tan

khān.dan

zud

to read; to study (tr.); to sing; to call (pres. stem: ‫ خوان‬, khān) to pass (intr.) (pres. stem: ‫ گذر‬, go.zar) early; fast

mo.fid

useful

ar.zān

cheap

garm

warm

sard

cold

gher.mez

red

se.fid

white

mash.hur

famous

de.rāz

long

ja.vān

young

ja.vā.ni

youth

ze.rang

clever

ze.ran.gi

cleverness

abr

cloud

ab.ri

cloudy

bā.rān

rain

‫بارانی‬ ‫آفتاب‬ ‫آفتابی‬ ‫روشن‬ ‫آب‬ ‫آبی‬ ‫زندان‬ ‫زندانی‬ ‫هند‬ ‫هندی‬ ‫پاکستان‬ ‫پاکستانی‬ ‫شهری‬ ‫زشتی‬ ‫زیبائی‬ ‫شادی‬ ‫برادری‬ ‫آسمانی‬ ‫تاریخی‬ ‫غذائی‬ ‫گوشی‬ ‫بچّگی‬ ‫گل‬ ‫فيلم‬ ‫نِی‬ ‫پارک‬ ‫باغ‬ ‫صبح‬ ‫تابستان‬ ‫کودک‬ ‫کودکستان‬

bā.rā.ni

rainy (adj.); raincoat (n.)

āf.tāb

sunshine

āf.tā.bi

sunny

row.shan

bright (also ‘on’ as light or fire or a device)

āb

water

ā.bi

blue

zen.dān

prison

zen.dā.ni

prisoner

hend

India (also ‫ هندوستان‬, hen.dus.tān)

hen.di

New words in this unit

Indian

pā.kes.tān

Pakistan

pā.kes.tā.ni

Pakistani

shah.ri

urban

zesh.ti

ugliness

zi.bā.’i

beauty

shā.di

happiness, gladness

ba.rā.da.ri

brotherhood; brotherliness

ā.se.mā.ni

from sky; heavenly; holy

tā.ri.khi

historical

gha.zā.’i

(of) food; nutritional, dietary

gu.shi

receiver (of a phone)

bach.che.gi

childhood; childishness

gol

flower

film

film

ney

reed; traditional Iranian flute

pārk

park

bāgh

garden

sobh

morning

tā.bes.tān

summer

ku.dak

child (form.)

ku.da.kes.tān

kindergarten

65

6 Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

‫رستوران‬ ‫استاد‬ ‫مسلمان‬ ‫خيابان‬ ‫داستان‬ ِ‫روی‬ ‫ميز‬ ‫شيکاگو‬ ‫شاید‬ ‫زندگی‬ ‫زنبيل‬ ‫که‬

res.to.rān

restaurant

os.tād

professor; master of a craft

mo.sal.mān

Muslim, Moslem

khi.yā.bān

street

dās.tān

story

ru-ye

on (prep.)

miz

table

shi.kā.go

Chicago

shā.yad ́

maybe, perhaps (stress on first syllable)

zen.de.gi

life (= the period from birth to death)

zan.bil

basket

ke

that, which

6.1 Noun in its absolute form As we have already seen in some of the examples used in previous units, when a noun is in its absolute form in Persian (i.e., not accompanied by any determiners), it can be either definite or indefinite, and it is the context that usually helps one decide how to translate it. As indefinite, it can be the noun in its generic sense (for professions, etc.), or in a general sense (equal to indefinite plural in English). ‫[ کتاب مفيد است‬ketāb mofid ast] could mean ‘A book is useful’ or, more generally, ‘Books are useful.’ However, if you are talking about a particular book which has already been mentioned, the same sentence could mean: ‘The book is useful.’ (Note that a mere change of the tense can often have the effect of making a generic or general meaning impossible or very unlikely: it would normally be understood as definite.) Examples: a. As a subject:

‫[ کتاب خوب نيست‬ketāb khub nist], the word-for-word translation being “book-good-isn’t.” Is this a book or the book? Since we normally assume that books are good, this should be understood as definite: ‘The book is not good.’ However, this could be part of a longer statement, the rest of which is only understood and not mentioned, like: ‘A book is

66

not good [for this purpose].’ Should that be the case, then it can also be translated as ‘Books are not good.’

Noun in its absolute form

‫[ کتاب قرمز است‬ketāb ghermez ast]: ‘The book is red.’ (Not all books are red, so this cannot be a general statement.)

‫[ قلم مینویسد‬ghalam minevisad]: ‘A pen writes’ or ‘Pens write.’ But also: ‘The pen writes.’

‫[ قلم نمینویسد‬ghalam neminevisad]: ‘The pen does not write.’ (This cannot be a general statement.)

‫[ قلم روی ميز است‬ghalam ru-ye miz ast]: ‘The pen is on the table.’ (Pens are not always on tables, and this cannot be a general statement.)

‫[ قلم زیباست‬ghalam zibā-st]: ‘The pen is beautiful.’ (Pens are not known for their beauty, although some pens can be beautiful also – therefore, this too cannot be a general statement.)

‫[ قلم ارزان است‬ghalam arzān ast]: ‘The pen is cheap.’ – but if you are comparing a normal pen with a computer (as two different means of writing), or if you are very rich, then ‘Pens are cheap.’

‫[ پسر میآید‬pesar mi-āyad]: ‘The boy is coming.’ (This is not ‫ پسر‬in a general or generic sense; we are not using a more common attribute here like ‘boys are naughty.’)

b. As part of the predicate:

‫[ پروین معلم است‬parvin mo’allem ast]: ‘Parvin is a teacher.’ ‫[ من دکترم‬man doktoram]: ‘I am a doctor.’ ‫[ من کتاب دارم‬man ketāb dāram]: ‘I have a book,’ or ‘I have books.’ (You

may ask: Why not ‘I have the book’? Because a definite direct object requires a marker; this will be explained in the next unit.)

‫[ او نامه میخواند‬u nāme mi-khānad]: ‘He is reading a letter,’ or ‘He is read-

ing letters.’ (You may ask again: Why not ‘I have the book’? Because a definite direct object requires a marker; this will be explained in the next unit.)

‫[ به خانۀ معلم میروم‬be khāne-ye mo’allem mi-ravam]: ‘I am going to the teacher’s house/to the house of the teacher.’

‫[ او به مدرسه میرود‬u be madrese mi-ravad]: ‘He/she goes to school’ [= is a student] or ‘He/she goes to the school.’

‫[ مينا دختر است‬minā dokhtar ast]: ‘Mina is a girl.’

67

6 Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

6.1.1 Plural nouns A general or generic sense is much less likely to be expressed by plural nouns, and nouns in the plural usually tend to be considered definite, unless an indefinite determiner is also added (see 6.2); in many cases it is necessary to use plural to convey definiteness. Compare:

‫[ گل زیباست‬gol zibā-st]: ‘A flower is beautiful,’ ‘flowers are beautiful,’ but also ‘the flower is beautiful.’

‫[ گلها زیباست‬golhā zibā-st] (or ‫[ گلها زیبایند‬golhā zibāyand]): ‘The flowers are beautiful.’

‫[ مينا دختر است‬minā dokhtar ast]: ‘Mina is a girl.’ ‫[ مينا و پروین دخترند‬minā va parvin dokhtarand]: ‘Mina and Parvin are girls.’ (Note that ‫ دختر‬is still singular.) ‫[ مينا و پروین دخترهایند‬minā va parvin dokhtarhāyand]: ‘Mina and Parvin are the girls.’

It is, however, possible, to use plural nouns for general indefinite statements:

‫دخترها دستهای کوچک دارند‬ have small hands.’

[dokhtarhā dasthā-ye kuchek dārand]: ‘Girls

6.1.2 Nouns modified by adjectives Where no indefinite determiner is present, nouns modified by adjectives also tend to be understood as definite. Compare:

‫[ کتاب خوب است‬ketāb khub ast]: ‘A book is good,’ ‘books are good,’ or ‘the book is good.’

‫[ کتاب آبی خوب است‬ketāb-e ābi khub ast]: ‘The blue book is good.’ 6.2 Indefinite determiners: unstressed ‘-i’ and/or ‫ [ یک‬yek] When definite/indefinite determiners or markers are present, the boundary between them is no more blurred. The indefinite marker is either the suffix -i, or the numeral yek, or a combination of both:

68

A. Before the noun: Before the noun, you can use the word ‫[ یک‬yek, ‘one’] for singular, or a quantitative adjective like ‫[ چند‬chand, ‘some’ or ‘several’] for plural.  ‫ چند‬is like numbers and the noun immediately following it is always in singular form.

Examples: (In the the following examples, ‫ یک‬can be translated as either the indefinite article a/an or the number one.)

Indefinite determiners: unstressed ‘­ i’ and/or ‫یک‬ [yek]

‫[ یک کتاب‬yek ketāb, ‘a book’]. ‫[ یک کتابِ خوب‬yek ketāb-e khub, ‘a good book’]. ‫[ یک کتابِ خوبِ مفيد‬yek ketāb-e khub-e mofid, ‘a good, useful book’], or: ‫[ یک کتابِ خوب و مفيد‬yek ketāb-e khub-o (= khub va) mofid, ‘a good and useful book’]. (See 2.2. for connecting adjectives.)

‫[ چند کتاب‬chand ketāb, ‘some books’]. ‫[ چند کتابِ خوب‬chand ketāb-e khub, ‘some good books’]. ‫ب مفيد‬ ِ ‫[ چند کتابِ خو‬chand ketāb-e khub-e mofid, ‘some good, useful books’], or:

‫[ چند کتابِ خوب و مفيد‬chand ketāb-e khub-o (= khub va) mofid, ‘some good and useful books’].

B. After the noun: The unstressed suffix ‫[ ی‬-i] can be added to the noun or to the adjective modifying the noun. The noun can be singular or plural. (The rules governing its writing are no different from those of the -i used as the verb to be [2sg.], mentioned earlier.) Examples for indefinite ‫ ی‬added to • words ending in consonants: always joined, as in ‫[ زنی‬zani, ‘a woman’], ‫[ دستی‬dasti, ‘a hand’].

‫[ کتابی‬ketābi, ‘a book’],

• words ending in -a: ‫[ نهای‬na’i, ‘a no’ – this is the only word in contemporary Persian ending in this vowel!].

• words ending in -e: ‫[ خانهای‬khāne’i, ‘a house’].

• words ending in -o: ‫( رادیوئی‬or ‫[ )رادیویی‬rādio’i, ‘a radio’]. • words ending in -ā: ‫( پائی‬or ‫[ )پایی‬pā’i, ‘a foot’]. • words ending in -u: student’].

‫دانشجوئی‬

(or

‫)دانشجویی‬

[dāneshju’i, ‘a (college)

• words ending in -i: ‫( ایرانیای‬or ‫[ )ایرانئی‬irāni’i, ‘an Iranian’]. • words ending in -ow: ‫[ راهروی‬rāhrowi, ‘a hallway’].

• words ending in -ey: ‫( نیای‬or ‫ نيی‬/‫[ )نئی‬neyi, ‘a reed’ or ‘a (reed) flute’]. If the noun is followed by an adjective, in colloquial Persian the -i suffix is always added to the adjective – to the last adjective if there are more than

69

6 Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

one – and never to the noun; but in formal, written Persian, this suffix is more often added to the noun, although the other version is also acceptable. When the -i is added to the noun – in which case it comes between the noun and its adjective – the ezāfe that connects the noun to the adjective is dropped. Examples: Colloquial and less formal: ‫[ روز گرمی‬ruz-e garmi, ‘a warm day’]; ‫[ روزهای گرمی‬ruzhā-ye garmi, ‘(some) warm days’]. Formal, never in spoken Persian: ‫[ روزی گرم‬ruzi garm, ‘a warm day’]; ‫[ روزهائی گرم‬ruzhā’i garm, ‘(some) warm days’]. When there are two or more adjectives, in the colloquial version, the adjectives can be connected either by ezāfe or va, and the suffix -i is added to the last adjective. In the formal version, however, the adjectives can only be connected with va. Examples: Colloquial: ‫[ روز گرم زیبائی‬ruz-e garm-e zibā’i, ‘a warm, beautiful day’] or ‫[ روز گرم و زیبائی‬ruz-e garm-o (= garm va) zibā’i], ‘a warm and beautiful day’]. Formal: ‫[ روزی گرم و زیبا‬ruzi garm-o (= garm va) zibā, ‘a warm and beautiful day’]. C. Both combined: This “yek + -i” combination is common in spoken Persian, but it is usually avoided in written Persian. Since it is a feature of colloquial Persian, the -i is always added to the adjective if one is present, and to the last adjective when there are several adjectives. It is mostly used for singular nouns, although you might even hear sometimes yek + a plural noun; also the plural form “‫ ی‬+ ‫ ”چند‬is occasionally used (especially for time-related expressions), or even “‫ ی‬+ ‫”یک چند‬. Examples:

‫[ یک زنی‬yek zani, ‘a woman’], ‫[ یک زنهائی‬yek zanhā’i, ‘some women’], ‫([ )یک( چند روزی‬yek) chand ruzi, ‘some /a few days’] ‫[ یک زن جوانی‬yek zan-e javāni, ‘a young woman’], ‫یک زنهای جوانی‬ [yek zanhā-ye javāni, ‘some young women’].

70

Table 6.1 All forms of indefinite with ‫[ یک‬yek], with ‫[ ی‬-i], or with both

a boy a good boy

‫[ یک‬yek]

‫[ ی‬-i]

‫[ یک‬yek] and ‫[ ی‬-i]

‫یک پسر‬

[yek pesar]

‫پسری‬

[pesari]

‫یک پسری‬

‫یکپسرِ خوب‬

a) colloquial:

‫یکپسرِ خوبی‬

[yek pesar-e khub]

‫پسرِ خوبی‬

[pesar-e khubi]

Indefinite determiners: unstressed ‘­ i’ and/or ‫یک‬ [ yek]

[yek pesari] [yek pesar-e khubi]

b) formal:

‫پسری خوب‬

[pesari khub]

ِ ِ ‫پسر کو‬ ‫چک زرنگی یک پسر‬ a small, ‫کوچکزرنگ‬ clever [yek pesar-e kuchek-e [pesar-e kuchek-e boy zerang] zerangi] a small ‫پسر کوچک وزرنگ‬ ِ ‫ یک‬a) colloquial: and ‫پسرِ کوچک و زرنگی‬ clever [pesar-e kuchek-o [yek pesar-e kuchek-o boy (= kuchek va) (= kuchek va) zerang] zerangi]

ِ ‫پسر کو‬ ِ ‫یک‬ ‫چک زرنگی‬ [yek pesar-e kuchek-e zerangi]

ِ ‫یک‬ ‫پسر کوچک و زرنگی‬

[yek pesar-e kuchek-o (= kuchek va) zerangi]

b) formal:

‫پسری کوچک و زرنگ‬ [pesari kuchek-o (= kuchek va) zerang]

Important notes: 1. Don’t use indefinite -i for general statements. For general statements in English you can say, for instance, ‘pens write’ or ‘a pen writes.’ In Persian you would say ‫ قلم مینویسد‬or, occasionally, ‫ یک قلم مینویسد‬, but never ‫قلمی مینویسد‬ (or ‫)یک قلمی مینویسد‬, which would mean ‘a certain pen is writing.’ 2. Don’t use indefinite -i when you have noun+adjective preceded by numbers (or by chand): ‫‘( چهار اتاق بزرگ‬four large rooms’) or ‫‘( چند کتاب خوب‬several good books’). 3. As mentioned in section 6.2.B, the indefinite -i can never have the ezāfe attached to it: it is never -i-ye when it is the unstressed indefinite -i. 71

6 Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

4. Make sure that you do not confuse the indefinite -i with the glide -ye used for ezāfe after nouns that end in certain vowels: after vowels, one ‫ ی‬alone can never be pronounced as -i and it is usually the glide -ye for ezāfe. ‫گلهای سفيد‬ is always golhā-ye sefid [‘(the) white flowers’]; indefinite -i would require hamze+ye or double ye: ‫[ گلهائی )گلهایی ( سفيد‬golhā-‘i sefid, ‘some white flowers’]. (See also the “Spelling and Pronunciation Note” under 5.3.) 5. In pronunciation as well as in writing, this suffix is exactly like the -i suffix you have already learned: the present tense of to be, 2nd person singular. Thus, ‫[ زنی‬zani] can be both ‘A woman’ and ‘You are [a] woman’! The context, of course, and syntax will always help you understand the meaning correctly. 6. The combined form (yek + -i) is colloquial to such an extent that one would expect to see the examples written in the spoken way (Tehrāni accent): “‫یک‬ ‫[ ”زن جوانی‬yek zan-e javāni] looks a little strange on the page and you expect to hear it as ye zan-e javuni. (Learning some features of the spoken – Tehrāni – remains for later.) The definite marker will be introduced and explained in Unit 7. See in Table 6.2 how some English indefinite statements are translated into Persian: Table 6.2 Indefinite Statements: English vs. Persian That is a woman.

She is a teacher.

She is a good teacher.

She has a beautiful voice.

A tree has leaves.

Trees are beautiful.

72

‫آن )یک( زن است‬ (but not: ‫)آن زنی است‬ ‫او معلم است‬ (but not: ‫)او معلمی است‬ ‫او معلم خوبی است‬

(also possible but formal: ‫)او معلمی خوب است‬

‫او صدای زیبائی دارد‬

(also possible but formal: ‫)او صدائی زیبا دارد‬

‫درخت برگ دارد‬ (and not: ‫)درختی برگها دارد‬ ‫درخت زیباست‬ or: ‫درختها زیبا هستند‬

Table 6.2 (cont’d)

Stressed ‘-i’ suffix

The sky has stars.

‫آسمان ستاره دارد‬ (and not: ‫)آسمان ستارهها دارد‬

They write letters.

‫آنها نامه مینویسند‬

Letters are good.

‫نامه خوب است‬ or: ‫نامهها خوبند‬

6.3 Stressed ‘-i’ suffix Although we will not introduce at this stage the different suffixes (and prefixes) used in Persian to make new words, it seems appropriate here after our discussion of unstressed -i (used as indefinite determiner) to talk briefly about the stressed -i also. Stressed -i is the most common and the most productive suffix in Persian language; it is even used in some English borrowings from South Asia like khāki (khāk being the Persian word for ‘soil’ or ‘dust’ + -i), or the -i ending in words like Hindi, Pakistani, and so on. This suffix, usually referred to as ‫[ یاء نسبت‬yā-’e nesbat, ‘attributive ‫]’ی‬, is predominantly used to make • • •

adjectives from nouns (compare with English rain/rainy or cloud/cloudy), nouns from adjectives (compare with English jealous/jealousy or brown/ brownie), or associated nouns from other nouns (compare with English goat/goatee).

Please note that sometimes a noun can be used as adjective without this suffix being added, and sometimes it can’t: you can say ‘a history professor’ [= ‘professor of history’], but you have to say ‘a historical document.’ Not much different in Persian, though it is not always exactly the same. Examples: 1. Adjective → Noun:

‫[ زشت‬zesht, ‘ugly’], ‫[ زشتی‬zeshtí, ‘ugliness’]; ‫[ جوان‬javān, ‘young’], ‫[ جوانی‬javāní, ‘youth’]; ‫[ خوب‬khub, ‘good’], ‫[ خوبی‬khubí, ‘goodness’].

73

6 Definite and indefinite (1) Attributive -i suffix

2. Noun → Adjective:

‫[ باران‬bārān, ‘rain’], ‫[ بارانی‬bārāní, ‘rainy’]; ‫[ ابر‬abr, ‘cloud’], ‫[ ابری‬abrí, ‘cloudy’]; ‫[ شهر‬shahr, ‘city’], ‫[ شهری‬shahrí, ‘urban’]. 3. Noun → Noun:

‫[ برادر‬barādar, ‘brother’], ‫[ برادری‬barādarí, ‘brotherhood’]; ‫[ زندان‬zendān, ‘prison’], ‫[ زندانی‬zendāní, ‘prisoner’]; ‫[ گوش‬gush, ‘ear’], ‫[ گوشی‬gushí, ‘[a phone] receiver’]. Two major differences between stressed and unstressed -i’s: 1. Unlike the unstressed one, we can use ezāfe with stressed -i when it needs to be connected to the next word. No need to write a second ‫ ی‬as glide in such cases, because one ‫ ی‬alone can have a double function and be pronounced as -i-ye (see 2.3.A):

‫[ زشتی خانهها‬zeshti-ye khāne-hā, ‘the ugliness of the houses’]; ِ ِ‫[ یک روز‬yek ruz-e abri-ye sard, ‘a cold cloudy day’]. ‫ابری سرد‬ 2. When adding it to words ending in -e (= silent hé), in most of the Persian words the original latent g ending will reappear (similar to the plural -ān suffix; see 2.1.1/B/No. 4):

‫بچه‬ ّ

[bach-che, ‘child’], ‫بچگی‬ ّ [bach-che-gí, ‘childhood’] (compare with unstressed, indefinite -i added to the same word: ‫بچهای‬ ّ [bach-che-’i, ‘a child’]).

Exercises Exercise 6.1 Add different forms of indefinite markers to the following singular and plural nouns. Example: singular: ‫یک گلی → گل‬/‫یک گل‬/‫;گلی‬    plural: ‫یک گلهائی → گلها‬/‫گلهائی‬ 74

‫فرش‬.9 ‫ برگها‬.8 ‫ خانه‬.7 ‫ شبها‬.۶ ‫ کودکستان‬.۵ ‫ پسر‬.۴ ‫ تابستان‬.3 ‫ مدرسه‬.2 ‫ هتلها‬.1 .‫ پرندهها‬.10

Exercise 6.2

Exercises

In the following phrases, delete ‫ یک‬and use indefinite ‫ ی‬instead; use the formal version for numbers 1–5 and the less formal/colloquial version for numbers 6–10. Example:  ‫→ یک پسرِ بد‬

‫پسری بد‬

(form.); → ‫بدی‬

‫( پس ِر‬col.)

‫ یک کالس خوب‬.۴ ‫ یک دانشگاه مشهور‬.3 ‫ یک شب سرد‬.2 ‫ یک صبح بارانی‬.1 ‫ یک پرندۀ‬.8 ‫ یک روز بارانی زیبا‬.7 ‫ یک روز آفتابی‬.۶ ‫ یک کتابهای ارزانی‬.۵ .‫ یک آسمان روشن‬.10 ‫ یک غذای ایرانی گرم‬.9 ‫کوچک قرمز‬ Exercise 6.3 How would you translate the following phrases if the -i at the end of the phrase is stressed? Example: ‫شيرازی‬

‫‘ → مر ِد‬The Shirāzi man’ or ‘The man from Shirāz.’

ِ ِ ِ ‫دختر‬ ‫ یک‬.۴ ‫مشکل غذائی‬ ‫ یک‬.3 ‫شهر دانشگاهی‬ ‫ یک‬.2 ‫ یک مدرسۀ تابستانی‬.1 ‫ یک‬.8 ‫ یک کتاب آسمانی‬.7 ‫ یک داستان تاریخی‬.۶ ‫ یک بچۀ کودکستانی‬.۵ ‫تهرانی‬ .‫ آسمان ابری‬.10 ‫ کالس زیبائی‬.9 ‫روز شادی‬ Exercise 6.4 Decide whether – and where – you would need ezāfe in the following phrases, then write the transcription of each phrase and translate it. Example: ‫ → زرنگی بچه‬zerangi-ye bachche, the child’s cleverness.

‫ پاکستانی‬.۵ ‫ داستانی هندی‬.۴ ‫ فيلم هندیای‬.3 ‫ آن هندی جوان‬.2 ‫ پاکستانیای‬.1 ‫ شهری تاریخی‬.9 ‫ دختر زرنگی‬.8 ‫ ده زیبائی‬.7 ‫ زیبائی دهی ایرانی‬.۶ ‫مسلمان‬ .‫ بارانی آن خانم‬.10 Exercise 6.5 Translate the following sentences.

‫آیا آن پسر زرنگ امروز دیر به مدرسه میرود؟‬. 1 .‫هر روز صبحِ زود آن زندانی جوان در زندان کتاب میخواند‬. 2

75

‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬هر تابستان پرندهها به پارک دانشگاه ما میآیند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬یک بچۀ کوچک دارد با مادرش به کودکستان میرود‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آیا فردا با استادت به رستورانی ایرانی در شهر شيکاگو میروی؟‬ ‫‪.‬پدرم وقت ندارد‪ ،‬دارد نامه مینویسد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬این کتابخانه برای بچهها خيلی کتاب دارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آیا یک رستوران ایرانی در این شهر پاکستان نيست؟‬ ‫‪.‬در باغ خانۀ استاد آمریکائیام گلهای قرمز زیبائی هستند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آن کودک چند گل سفيد در دست دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Definite and‬‬ ‫)‪indefinite (1‬‬ ‫‪Attributive -i‬‬ ‫‪suffix‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫زندگی شاید‬ ‫یک خيابان دراز است که هر روز زنی با زنبيلی از آن میگذرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪Life is perhaps/a long street through which a woman‬‬ ‫‪holding a basket passes every day.‬‬ ‫;‪(From a poem by Forugh Farrokhzād, 1934–1967‬‬ ‫)‪tr. by Karim Emami.‬‬

‫‪76‬‬

UNIT SEVEN Transitive and intransitive; Direct and indirect objects; Definite and indefinite (2): raˉ ;

Compound verbs

7 ‫فصل‬

‫الزم و متعدی‬ ‫مفعول مستقيم و‬ ‫غير مستقيم‬ :)2( ‫معرفه و نکره‬ “‫”را‬ ‫فعلهای مرکب‬

New words in this unit ‫نشانه‬ ‫الزم‬ ‫متعدی‬ ‫مفعول‬ ‫مستقيم‬ ‫غيرمستقيم‬ ‫مرکب‬ ‫را‬ ‫دربارۀ‬ ‫خطر‬ ‫دیدن‬ ‫خوردن‬

ne.shā.ne

sign

lā.zem

intransitive (gr.)

mo.te.’ad.di

transitive (gr.)

maf.’ul

object (gr.)

mos.ta.ghim

direct

ghey.r-e mos.ta.ghim

indirect

mo.rak.kab

compound (gr.)

rā

‘definite direct object’ marker

dar.bā.re-ye

about (prep.)

kha.tar

danger

di.dan

to see (pres. stem: ‫[ بين‬bin])

‫دادن‬ ‫زدن‬ ‫حرف‬ )‫حرف زدن (با‬

dā.dan

khor.dan

za.dan harf harf za.dan (bā)

to eat (also ‘to drink’ in col.) (pres. stem: ‫[ خور‬khor])

to give (pres. stem: ‫[ ده‬deh → dah]*) to hit, strike (pres. stem: ‫[ زن‬zan])

talk; words (= what someone says) to talk (to/with) [‫]ز ن → زدن‬

77

7 Transitive and intransitive Direct and indirect objects Definite and indefinite (2): raˉ ...

‫کردن‬ ‫نگاه‬ ‫نگاه کردن‬ ‫نگاه کردن به‬ ‫فکر‬ ‫فکر کردن‬ ‫روشن کردن‬ ‫شدن‬ ‫تميز‬ ‫تميز شدن‬ ‫تميز کردن‬ ‫خوشحال‬ ‫خوشحال شدن‬ ‫خوشحال کردن‬ ‫گشتن‬ ‫برگشتن‬ ‫نگه داشتن‬

78

kar.dan ne.gāh ne.gāh kar.dan ne.gāh kar.dan be

to do (pres. stem: ‫[ کن‬kon]) look

to watch [‫]کن → کردن‬ to look at

fekr

thought

fekr kar.dan

to think [‫]کن → کردن‬

row.shan kar.dan sho.dan

to turn on [‫]کن → کردن‬

to become (pres. stem: ‫[ شو‬show → shav]*)

ta.miz

clean

ta.miz sho.dan

to become clean [‫]شو → شدن‬

ta.miz kar.dan khosh.hāl khosh.hāl sho.dan khosh.hāl kar.dan gash.tan bar-gash.tan

to clean [‫]کن → کردن‬ happy, glad

to become happy [‫]شو → شدن‬ to make happy [‫]کن → کردن‬

to turn, stroll (pres. stem: ‫[ گرد‬gard]) to return [‫]گرد → گشتن‬

ne.gah dāsh.tan

to keep [‫( ]دار → داشتن‬+ mi- in progressive tenses)

‫دوست داشتن‬

dust dāsh.tan

to like [‫( ]دار → داشتن‬no mi- in progressive tenses)

‫برداشتن‬

bar-dāsh.tan

to pick up [‫( ]بردار → برداشتن‬+ mi- in progressive tenses)

‫آب شدن‬ ‫سيب‬ ‫امتحان‬ ‫سخت‬ ‫سفر‬ ‫یخ‬ ‫بهار‬ ‫کفش‬ ‫عکس‬

āb sho.dan

to melt, turn to water [‫]شو → شدن‬

sib em.te.hān sakht

apple

exam, test (pl. ‫امتحانات‬, em.te.hā.nāt) hard

sa.far

travel

yakh

ice

ba.hār

spring

kafsh

shoe

aks

picture; photo

‫سبز‬ ‫چای‬ ‫حمّام‬ ‫بعد‬

sabz

green

chāy

tea (also ‫ چائی‬or ‫ چایی‬, chā’i)

ba’d

then; after; afterwards, later (adv.); next (adj.) (as in ‘next week’)

‫مریم‬ ‫سالم‬

mar.yam

Maryam (= Miriam, Mary)

sa.lām

hello, hi

ham.mām

Direct and indirect objects

bath

* When two pronunciations are given for the stem, the first one – the official one – is what you will need for imperative [sg.], the second one is what you need for present tense conjugation.

7.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs (‫)فعلهای متعدی و الزم‬ A transitive verb always needs at least one object, although sometimes there can be two. When transitive, the verb always shows that the subject does something to the object. Not every word before the verb in Persian (or after the verb in English) is the object, but it is the object if it answers to the question what? or whom? Examples: • • • •

‫[ یک سيب میخورم‬yek sib mi-khoram]: ‘I eat an apple.’I eat what? An apple. So ‫ سيب‬is the object. ‫[ یک دختر میبينم‬yek dokhtar mi-binam]: ‘I see a girl.’ I see what? (or whom?) A girl. So ‫ دختر‬is the object. But: ‫[ خانه میروم‬khāne mi-ravam]: ‘I go home.’ Here you can’t ask: I go what? So the verb has no object. With some equating verbs, it can sometimes be confusing, like: ‫یخ آب‬ ‫[ میشود‬yakh āb mi-shavad, ‘Ice becomes water’]. Here you can still ask: ‘Becomes what?’ But here ice does not do anything to water, this is merely an equation – and the verb ‫ شدن‬is intransitive.

A verb that neither has nor needs an object is intransitive, like ravand, ‘they are going’].

‫میروند‬

[mi-

7.2 Direct and indirect objects An indirect object in Persian is always preceded by a preposition, while a direct object never needs and never has a preposition – so they are more easily recognizable in Persian than in English. (In English you can give someone something or give something to someone; in Persian it is always the second version and the indirect object is always preceded by a preposition.)

79

7 Transitive and intransitive Direct and indirect objects Definite and indefinite (2): raˉ ...

All the verbs that are transitive in English, their equivalents are also transitive in Persian, but they might occasionally differ in whether they take a direct or an idirect object. When both direct and indirect objects are present, the direct one is often mentioned first.

7.3 The DDO-marker “‫[ ”را‬raˉ] The postposition ‫[ را‬rā], the marker used for a definite direct object (DDO) in Persian, needs special attention. Please note that you always have to use ‫ را‬if all of the following three conditions, for which the abbreviation DDO stands, are met: 1. There is an object in the sentence (i.e., no ‫ را‬with intransitive verbs). 2. This object is a direct object (i.e., no ‫ را‬if the object is preceded by a preposition). 3. This direct object is definite (i.e., it is a proper noun, a pronoun [excluding the objective suffixes], a noun modified by demonstrative or superlative adjectives, a noun which is part of a possessive construction, and the like). Some notes about ‫ را‬: 1. It should always be written separately. (In formal, written Persian sometimes ‫[ مرا‬marā] is used instead of ‫من را‬. )

2. Good Persian requires that it be placed immediately after the direct object; however, if the object has some other modifiers too (adjectives, possessive suffixes, etc.), ‫ را‬is placed at the end of that cluster of words. Compare the following sentences and try to find out why some of them need ‫را‬ and some others don’t.

80

‫( امروز به آن خانه میروم‬Today I’m going to that house.) ‫( حاال آن خانه را میبينم‬Now I see that house.) ‫( آیا بينی من را میبينی؟‬Do you see my nose?) ‫( آن کتاب روی ميز است‬That book is on the table.) ‫( این کتاب را نمیخرم‬I don’t/won’t buy this book.) ‫( قلمی به دختری میدهم‬I give/I’m giving a pen to a girl.) ‫( قلمی به آن دختر میدهم‬I give/I’m giving a pen to that girl.) ‫( قلم را به آن دختر میدهم‬I give/I’m giving the pen to that girl.) ‫( آن قلم را به دختری میدهم‬I give/I’m giving that pen to a girl.) ‫( کفش در این اتاق نمیبينم‬I don’t see [any] shoes in this room.)

‫( کفشها را در این اتاق نمیبينم‬I don’t see the shoes in this room.) ‫( کفش یک دختر جوان را در این اتاق نمیبينم‬I don’t see a young girl’s shoes

Compound verbs in the present tense

in this room.)

‫( کفشهای سياهم را در این اتاق نمیبينم‬I don’t see my black shoes in this room.) ‫( مدادهای سبز و قرمز برادر کوچکم را به او میدهم‬I’ll give/I’m giving my little brother’s green and red pencils to him.)

‫( بچه دارد انگشت مادرش را میخورد‬The baby is eating his mother’s finger.) 7.3.1 Definite and indefinite determiners used together Sometimes there are cases that are halfway between definite and indefi­ nite; in such cases using the ‫ را‬is often optional, depending on the degree to which the speaker wants to come close to definite. In most of these cases, a descriptive relative clause, whether stated or understood, is involved. If I say ‫[ مردی را میبينم‬mardi rā mibinam, ‘I see some man’] – using both indefinite ‫ی‬ and definite ‫ – را‬then you would normally expect me to continue and give some more information about him, which can be in the form of a relative clause.

7.3.2 Numbers and ra¯ We learned in 6.1.2 that nouns modified by adjectives are often understood as definite; this does not apply to numbers, however, unless they are combined by demonstrative or possessive adjectives. Compare:

‫( پنج گل میبينم‬I see five flowers.) ‫( پنج گل زیبا میبينم‬I see five beautiful flowers.) ‫( پنج گل زیبا را میبينم‬I see the five beautiful flowers.) ‫( آن پنج گل را میبينم‬I see those five flowers.) ‫( سه مداد شما را میبينم‬I see your three pencils.) (Using rā in the last two examples is obligatory.)

7.4 Compound verbs in the present tense Nouns, adjectives and adverbs, as well as some prepositions used as prefixes, can be combined with simple verbs to make compound verbs, sometimes called phrasal verbs or multi-word verbs. Note: What we mean by compound verb here is not a combination of several verbs (i.e., a main verb + one or more auxiliaries), but rather just one verb combined with or

81

7 Transitive and intransitive Direct and indirect objects Definite and indefinite (2): raˉ ...

prefixed by some other word which is not a verb. Therefore, when conjugating a compound verb in present tense, the mi- (or, in the negative, nemi-) prefix should be added to the verbal part of the compound, i.e., to the verb – which means that the prefix mi-/nemi- always comes in the middle, between the verbal and nonverbal parts of the compound. Table 7.1 A compound verb in present and present progressive tenses: ‫[ برگشتن‬bar-gashtan, ‘to return’], present stem ‫[ برگرد‬bar-gard] Present/Present progressive tense Affirmative

Negative

Affirmative

Negative

‫برمیگردم‬

‫برنمیگردم‬

‫دارم برمیگردم‬

[No negative!]

I return / I am returning

I don’t return / I am not returning

I am returning

‫برمیگردی‬

‫برنمیگردی‬

‫داری برمیگردی‬

you [singular] return / you are returning

you don’t return / you are not returning

you are returning

‫برمیگردد‬

‫برنمیگردد‬

‫دارد برمیگردد‬

he returns / he is returning

he doesn’t return / he is not returning

he is returning

‫برمیگردیم‬

‫برنمیگردیم‬

‫داریم برمیگردیم‬

we return / we are returning

we don’t return / we are not returning

we are returning

‫برمیگردید‬

‫برنمیگردید‬

‫دارید برمیگردید‬

you [plural] return / you are returning

you don’t return / you are not returning

you are returning

‫برمیگردند‬

‫برنمیگردند‬

‫دارند برمیگردند‬

they return / they are returning

they don’t return / they are not returning

they are returning

bar-mi-gardam

bar-mi-gardi

bar-mi-gardad

bar-mi-gardim

bar-mi-gardid

bar-mi-gardand

82

Present progressive tense

bar-nemi-gardam

bar-nemi-gardi

bar-nemi-gardad

bar-nemi-gardim

bar-nemi-gardid

bar-nemi-gardand

dāram bar-mi-gardam

[No negative!]

dāri bar-mi-gardi

[No negative!]

dārad bar-mi-gardad

[No negative!]

dārim bar-mi-gardim

[No negative!]

dārid bar-mi-gardid

dārand bar-mi-gardand

[No negative!]

7.4.1 Compound verbs with ‫[ داشتن‬da¯ shtan]

Exercises

In the same way that we do not use the prefix mi- for ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’] as a simple verb, we do not usually use mi- for compounds with ‫ داشتن‬if in that compound ‫ داشتن‬retains the base meaning (‘to have’) in some way; otherwise, it will be treated like normal compound verbs and mi- will be used before the verbal part. Examples of compounds without mi-:

‫[ دوست داشتن‬dust dāshtan, ‘to like’]: ‫[ من چای دوست دارم‬man chāy dust dāram, ‘I like tea’].

(Note: In poetical language only, this compound also can take mi- in conjugation.)

‫[ خطر داشتن‬khatar dāshtan, ‘to be dangerous,’lit. ‘to have danger’]: ‫این خطر ندارد‬ [in khatar nadārad, ‘It’s not dangerous’ or ‘There’s no danger in this’].

Examples of compounds with mi-:

‫[ برداشتن‬bar-dāshtan, ‘to pick up’]: ‫[ او جلد چهارم کتاب را برمیدارد‬u jeld-e chahārom-e ketāb rā bar mi-dārad, ‘He picks up/is picking up the 4th volume of the book’].

‫[ نگه داشتن‬negah dāshtan, ‘to keep’]: ‫[ آیا این دفعه سيبت را نگه نمیداری؟‬āyā in daf’e sibat rā negah nemi-dāri?, ‘Don’t you/Aren’t you going to keep your apple this time?’].

Exercises Exercise 7.1 Read the following brief message and a) find out where and after what word in this text you have to add ‫( را‬without which the sentence[s] would be wrong), b) translate the whole text into English.

‫ بعد به حمام‬.‫ اآلن دارم به خانه برمیگردم‬،‫ امروز به کتابخانه نمیآیم‬،‫سالم مریم‬ ‫ امشب آن فيلم ایرانی‬.‫ بعد تکاليفم مینویسم‬.‫میروم و یک غذای کوچکی میخورم‬ .‫ فردا با تو در بارۀ آن در کالس حرف میزنم‬.‫نگاه میکنم‬ Exercise 7.2 Change the following sentences to negative, then translate.

83

‫‪7‬‬

‫‪. 1‬آیا پسرتان دارد رادیو را روشن میکند؟‬ ‫‪. 2‬او اآلن دارد کفشهای سياهش را تميز میکند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬ما از تکليفهای معلممان خيلی خوشحال میشویم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬آیا به امتحان سخت فردا فکر میکنيد؟‬ ‫‪. ۵‬ما امتحانهای سخت را خيلی دوست داریم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬با پدرم دربارۀ سفرش به ایران حرف میزنم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬کتاب را بر میدارد و به آن نگاه میکند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬هر روز صبح به آنجا میروم و شب برمیگردم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬آنها اآلن دارند یک فيلم شاد نگاه میکنند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬شما این فيلم را با من نگاه میکنيد؟‬

‫‪Transitive and‬‬ ‫‪intransitive‬‬ ‫‪Direct and‬‬ ‫‪indirect‬‬ ‫‪objects‬‬ ‫‪Definite and‬‬ ‫‪indefinite (2):‬‬ ‫ˉ‪ra‬‬ ‫‪...‬‬

‫‪Exercise 7.3‬‬ ‫‪These are some of the sentences you read before (see the examples under 7.3‬‬ ‫‪ shows that they are‬را ‪above); here the direct objects have been underlined, and‬‬ ‫?‪definite too. How do we know in each sentence that the direct object is definite‬‬ ‫‪Explain.‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬

‫‪.‬حاال آن خانه را میبينم‬ ‫‪.‬این کتاب را نمیخرم‬ ‫‪.‬قلم را به آن دختر میدهم‬ ‫‪.‬آن قلم را به دختری میدهم‬ ‫‪.‬کفشها را در این اتاق نمیبينم‬ ‫‪.‬کفش یک دختر جوان را در این اتاق نمیبينم‬ ‫کفشهای سياهم را در این اتاق نمیبينم‬ ‫مدادهای سبز و قرمز برادر کوچکم را به او میدهم‬ ‫‪Exercise 7.4‬‬ ‫‪Translate into English.‬‬

‫‪. 1‬کتابی دربارۀ شهرهای قدیمی ایران میخوانم‪.‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫“شهرهای قدیمی ایران” را میخوانم‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬کتا ِ‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ب “شهرهای قدیمی ایران” میخوانم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬دربارۀ کتا ِ‬

‫‪84‬‬

۴ .‫در این عکس دختر افغانی کوچکی را میبينم‬. ۵ .‫هر روز یک سيب قرمز میخورم‬. ۶ .‫فردا سيب روی ميز را میخورم‬. 7 .‫پرندهای روی درخت میبينم‬. 8 .‫پرندۀ روی درخت را میبينم‬. 9 .‫دارد نامهای برای استادش مینویسد‬. 10 .‫دارم فيلمی مشهور را نگاه میکنم‬.

Exercises

Exercise 7.5 Change the sentences in the previous exercise (7.4) to negative.

Exercise 7.6 Translate into Persian.  1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8.  9. 10.

Iranians don’t like green tea. I am taking/picking up the black pen. I’ll keep my friend’s book for her. She doesn’t like rainy days. This tree has no danger for children. I see two houses. I don’t see your house. Is your friend buying a house? No, he’s not buying that house. We like our school.

IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS .‫با یک گل بهار نمیشود‬

A single flower doesn’t make it spring. (Lit., ‘It doesn’t become spring with [just] one flower.) .‫جوانی بر نمیگردد‬

The [time of] youth doesn’t come back.

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UNIT EIGHT Comparison of adjectives Adjectives as nouns Question words Telling the time Some distributives/ quantifiers ‘Double negative’

8 ‫فصل‬

‫مقایسۀ صفات‬ ‫صفت بهعنوانِ اسم‬ ‫کلماتِ پرسشی‬ ) ‫(اداتِ استفهام‬ ‫گفتنِ ساعت‬ ‫صفات و ضمائر کمّی‬ ‫نفی مضاعف‬

New words in this unit

86

‫مقایسه‬ ‫صفتِ تفضيلی‬ ‫از‬ ‫صفتِ عالی‬ ‫کلمه‬ ‫پرسش‬ ‫پرسشی‬ ‫کمّی‬ ‫نفی‬ ‫مضاعف‬ ِ‫بهعنوان‬ ‫تا‬ ‫ماه‬ ‫هفته‬

mo.ghā.ye.se

comparison

se.fa.t-e taf.zi.li

comparative adjective

az

than; from; of

se.fa.t-e ā.li

superlative adjective

ka.la.me

word (pl. ‫کلمات‬, ka.la.māt)

por.sesh

question

por.se.shi

interrogative

kam.mi

quantitative

nafy

negation (y in transcription is a consonant!)

mo.zā.’af

double

be on.vā.n-e

as

tā

until

māh

month; moon

haf.te

week

‫دقيقه‬ ‫ثانيه‬ ‫ربع‬ ‫نيم‬ ‫نيمه‬ ‫دیشب‬ ‫دیروز‬ ‫پریروز‬ ‫پس فردا‬ ‫بعد از‬ ‫ظهر‬ ‫بعد از ظهر‬ ‫هنگام‬ ‫زمان‬ ‫موقع‬ ‫هميشه‬ ‫هيچ‬ ‫هيچوقت‬ ‫هرگز‬ ‫هيچگونه‬ ‫همه‬ ‫هرچه‬ ‫کس‬ ‫چيز‬ ‫زیاد‬ ‫بيش‬ ‫بيشتر‬ ِ‫بيشتر‬ ‫بيش از‬ ‫کم‬ ‫کمی‬

da.ghi.ghe

minute

sā.ni.ye

second

rob’

a quarter

nim

half (use for hours)

ni.me

half

di.shab

last night

di.ruz

yesterday

pa.ri.ruz

the day before yesterday

pas far.dā

the day after tomorrow

ba’d az

after [prep.]

zohr

noon

ba’d az zohr

afternoon

hen.gām/han-

time

za.mān

time

mow.ghe’

time

ha.mi.she

always

hich

none; nothing; at all

hich-vaght

never

har.gez

never (form.)

hich-gu.ne

‘in no way’ or ‘no . . . whatsoever’

ha.me

all

har-che

whatever; however much

kas

person

chiz

thing

zi.yād

much, a lot

bish

more (lit./wrt.)

bish.tar

more

bish.ta.r-e

most of

bish az

more than (form.)

kam

little; few

ká.mi

a little; a few

New words in this unit

87

‫کمتر‬ ‫بهتر‬ ‫آوردن‬ ‫بردن‬ ‫خواستن‬ ‫درس خواندن‬ ‫امتحان دادن‬

88

kam.tar

less; fewer; less often

beh.tar

better

ā.var.dan

to bring (pres. stem: ‫[ آور‬ā.var])

bor.dan khās.tan dars khān.dan em.te.hān dā.dan

to take [away], to carry (pres. stem: ‫بَر‬, bar) to want (pres. stem: ‫خواه‬, khāh)

to study (intr.) [‫→ خواندن‬ to take a test [‫→ دادن‬

‫]دِه‬

‫]خوان‬

(‫گوش کردن )به‬

gush kar.dan (be)

to listen (to) [‫ – ]کن → کردن‬can take direct or indirect object

‫زندگی کردن‬

zen.de.gi kar.dan

to live [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫نویسنده‬ ‫فروشنده‬ ‫احمق‬ ‫مریض‬ ‫خارجی‬ ‫توریست‬ ‫گرامر‬ ‫حياط‬ ‫زمستان‬ ‫هوا‬ ‫لباس‬ ‫چلو‬ ‫کباب‬ ‫چلوکباب‬ ‫آش‬ ‫ماست‬ ‫بقّال‬ ‫نوشيدنی‬ ‫دوست داشتنی‬ ‫دیدنی‬ ‫خوشمزه‬

ne.vi.san.de

writer

fo.ru.shan.de

seller; cashier

ah.magh

stupid (adj.); stupid person (n.)

ma.riz

sick (adj.); sick person, patient (n.)

khā.re.ji

foreign (adj.); foreigner (n.)

tu.rist

tourist

ge.rā.mer

grammar

ha.yāt

yard

ze.mes.tān

winter

ha.vā

weather; air

le.bās

clothes (in general); dress

che.low

cooked rice

ka.bāb

kabab or kebab, a grilled meat dish

che.low-ka.bāb

a Persian dish

āsh

varieties of Persian thick soup

māst

yoghurt

bagh.ghāl

grocer

nu.shi.da.ni

drink

dust-dāsh.ta.ni

adorable, lovely

di.da.ni

worth seeing; spectacular

khosh-ma.ze

delicious, tasty

‫زرد‬ ‫تلخ‬ ‫شيرین‬ ‫ترش‬ ‫داغ‬ ‫گران‬ ‫آسان‬ ‫راحت‬ ‫خسته‬ ‫پير‬ ّ‫مهم‬ ‫بلند‬ ‫پری‬

zard

yellow

talkh

bitter

shi.rin

sweet

torsh

sour

dāgh

hot (ant.: cold)

ge.rān

expensive

ā.sān

easy

rā.hat

comfortable; easy

khas.te

tired

pir

old (for animates)

mo.hemm

important

bo.land

high, tall; loud

pa.ri

Pari (girls’ name)

Comparison of adjectives

For a list of question words, see 8.3. For days of the week, see 8.4.1. For a list of distributives, quantifiers, and some more negative words, see 8.6.

8.1 Comparison of adjectives Persian uses the suffixes -tar and -tarin to form respectively comparative and superlative adjectives (or adverbs). These suffixes are usually written joined (see 8.1.3 for exceptions).

8.1.1 Comparative For the comparative, add the suffix ‫[ تر‬-tar] to the adjective and use the preposition ‫[ از‬az, here meaning ‘than’] before the second part of comparison (if it is mentioned). The comparative adjective can be placed either before or after az+its object. Examples:

‫[ این اتاق روشن است‬in otāgh rowshan ast, ‘This room is bright’]. ‫[ این اتاق خيلی روشنتر است‬in otāgh kheyli rowshan-tar ast, ‘This room is much brighter’].

‫[ این اتاق از آن اتاق روشنتر است‬in otāgh az ān otāgh rowshan-tar ast, ‘This room is brighter than that room’], or:

89

‫[ این اتاق روشنتر از آن اتاق است‬in otāgh rowshan-tar az ān otāgh ast, ‘This room is brighter than that room’].

More examples with definite/indefinite markers, possessive suffixes, and/or ezāfe:

‫( آیا به شهرِ بزرگتری میروید؟‬Are you going to a larger city?) ‫( آیا یک ده هميشه از یک شهر کوچکتر است؟‬Is a village always smaller than a city?)

‫( برادرِ جوانترِ پروین امروز مریض است‬Parvin’s younger brother is sick today.) ‫( بچههایِ کوچکترِشان به مدرسه میروند‬Their smaller/younger children go/are going to school.)

‫( آیا لباسِ گرمتری نمیخواهيد؟‬Don’t you want warmer clothes?) ‫( هوایِ سردتر از این را دوست ندارم‬I don’t like weather colder than this.) ‫( آن خانههایِ بلندتر را میبينيد؟‬Do you see those taller houses/buildings?) Note: to modify a comparative adjective/adverb, use ‫ روشنتر‬in the above examples):

‫خيلی‬, not ‫( زیاد‬see ‫خيلی‬

‫( با این چشمم خيلی بهتر میبينم‬I see much better with this eye [of mine].) 8.1.2 Superlative For the superlative, add the suffix ‫[ ترین‬-tarin] to the adjective. Whereas the comparative was treated like a normal adjective – following the noun and using the connector ezāfe – the superlative precedes the noun and needs no ezāfe. (Adjectives preceding the nouns never need ezāfe. By the way, it’s good to remember the -omin type of ordinal numbers here [3.3 (A)], which was also placed before the noun.) Examples:

‫( این آسانترین درس است‬This is the easiest lesson.) ‫( گرانترین خانه مال اوست‬The most expensive house belongs to him.) ‫( کوچکترین پسرم در ایران است‬My youngest son is in Iran.) ‫( دارید با مهمترین شاعرِ این شهر حرف میزنيد‬You are talking to the important poet of this city.)

Another variant of the superlative 90

comparative + ‫ = از همه‬superlative

most

Another variant of the superlative is a comparative that uses ‫( از همه‬az hame, ‘than all [others]’) as the second part of comparison. ‫ از همه‬can be placed before or after the comparative. Example:

Comparison of adjectives

‫( این باغ از همه زیباترست‬or ‫)این باغ زیباتر از همه است‬

(both meaning ‘This garden is more beautiful than all [others]’) = ‫‘( این زیباترین باغ است‬This is the most beautiful garden’)

Note: This variant (with az hame) is the only superlative form possible for adverbs:

‫( او بهتر از همه مینویسد‬He/she writes better than anyone else.) 8.1.3 ‘Better/best’ and ‘more/most’; ‘most of’; joining -tar and -tarin suffixes The words ‫[ خوب‬khub, ‘good’] and ‫[ زیاد‬ziyād, ‘much’ or ‘a lot’] have their regular comparative and superlative forms, but also an irregular version which is more common: Table 8.1 ‘Better/best’ and ‘more/most’ Simple

Comparative

Superlative

good

better

best

‫ خوب‬khub

‫ بهتر‬behtar or ‫ خوبتر‬khubtar

‫ بهترین‬behtarin or ‫ خوبترین‬khubtarin

‫ بيشتر‬bishtar or: ‫ زیادتر‬ziyādtar

‫ بيشترین‬bishtarin or: ‫ زیادترین‬ziyādtarin

much

‫ زیاد‬ziyād

more

most

‘Most of’ is usually ِ‫[ بيشتر‬bishtar-e], ِ‫[ بيشترین‬bishtarin-e] is also common:

although in formal/written Persian

‫( بيشترِ روزها در خانه است و به دانشگاه نمیرود‬Most of the days he is at home and does not go to the university.)

In ‫ بهترین‬/‫ بهتر‬and ‫ بيشترین‬/‫ بيشتر‬, the suffixes are always written joined. As for other adjectives, despite a growing tendency to write -tar and -tarin separately, these are

91

still joined most of the times. They have to be written separately, though, after the adjectives ending in silent hé, and also those that already end in the letter ‫[ ت‬t]:

‫[ خسته‬khaste, ‘tired’], ‫ خسته تر‬, ‫خستهترین‬ ‫[ سخت‬sakht, ‘hard’], ‫ سخت تر‬, ‫سخت ترین‬ Wherever it helps clarity and ease in reading, the suffixes are written separately, as it is the case with longer compound adjectives:

‫[ خوشقلب‬khosh-ghalb, ‘kind-hearted’], ‫ خوشقلبتر‬, ‫خوشقلبترین‬ ‫[ دوست داشتنی‬dust-dāshtani, ‘adorable’], ‫ دوست داشتنیتر‬, ‫دوست داشتنیترین‬ On the whole, it is preferred to write the suffixes separately if the adjective ends in ‫ ی‬:

‫[ قدیمی‬ghadimi, ‘old’], ‫ قدیمیتر‬, ‫قدیمیترین‬ 8.2 Adjectives as plural nouns Adjectives can sometimes function as nouns, as subject or object of verbs:

‫( آبی بهتر از زرد است‬Blue is better than yellow.) ‫( من آبی را خيلی دوست دارم‬I like [the color] blue a lot.) ‫( زندگی تلخ و شيرین دارد‬Life has bitter and sweet [sides].) By adding plural suffixes, however, any adjective will become a plural noun. All that we learned about the plural -hā and -ān suffixes and their differences would apply here also. Examples:

‫( زشتها و زیباها‬or, more formal – and for animates only – : ‫)زشتان و زیبایان‬: ‘the ugly and the beautiful’

‫‘( بزرگها را میبينم ولی کوچکها را نمیبينم‬I see the bigger ones, but not the smaller ones.’)

92

‫‘( احمقها را به اتاقم نمیبرم‬I don’t/won’t take the stupid ones to my room.’) ‫‘( برای زرنگترها این درس آسان است‬For the smarter ones, this lesson is easy.’) ‫‘( خوشمزهترینها را برای شما میآورم‬I [’ll] bring you the most delicious ones.)

8.3 Question words

Question words

You know that you can always use ‫[ آیا‬āyā, see 4.4] at the beginning of ‘yes/no’ questions, or drop it (in which case the intonation will be enough to show that it is a question). Āyā may still be used with question words, too, although it is not needed and is usually left out. The following are the most common question words in Persian. Which? = ‫[ کدام؟‬ko.dām].

What? = ‫[ چه؟‬che] (usually form.) or ‫[ چی؟‬chi] (often col.). Who? = ‫[ کی؟‬ki], or ‫[ چه کسی؟‬che kasi, lit. ‘what person’].

When? = ‫[ کِی؟‬key], or ‫[ چه وقت؟‬che vaght, lit. ‘what time’], also ‫چه وقتی؟‬ [che vaghti], or any combination of ‫ چه‬with words meaning ‘time’ (‫موقع‬ [mowghe’], ‫[ زمان‬zamān], ‫[ هنگام‬hangām]). Where? = ‫[ کجا؟‬ko.jā] (sometimes preceded by the preposition ‫[ در‬dar, ‘in’] or other prepositions.) Why? = ‫[ چرا؟‬che.rā] (stress on first syllable), or ‘what for’].

‫[ برای چه؟‬barāye che, lit.

Whose? = ‫[ مالِ کی؟‬mā.l-e ki] if ‘whose’ is used as a pronoun; if it is an interrogative adjective followed by a noun, simply replace ِ‫ مال‬by that noun – and do not forget the connecting ezāfe! Example: ‫[ باغِ کی؟‬bāgh-e ki?, Whose garden?] How? = ‫[ چطور؟‬che-towr, lit. ‘in what way’], or (more formal) [che-gune].

‫چگونه؟‬

How much? = ‫[ چقدر؟‬che-ghadr, lit. ‘what amount’].

How many? = ‫[ چند )تا(؟‬chand (tā)], or again ‫ چقدر؟‬as in ‘how much’.

How many times? = ‫[ چند بار؟‬chand bār] (or, almost as common: ‫چند دفعه؟‬ [chand daf’e], or ‫[ چند مرتبه؟‬chand mar.te.be]). How long? = ‫[ چند وقت؟‬chand vaght]

Persian additionally has a question word for ordinal numbers (similar to wie­ vielte? in German), which does not have an English equivalent. If you use ‘how many’ for asking about the number 10, how would you ask about the ordinal number 10th? There is no ‘How manieth?’ in English, but Persian simply changes ‫ چند‬to its ordinal form by adding the ordinal suffixes: ‫[ چندم‬chandom] and ‫[ چندمين‬chandomin].

93

Some usage notes: 1. Questions do not require any auxiliary verb or inversion in Persian, whether a question word is used or not, and the word order remains the same. 2. Regarding ‫ چند‬and ‫ چند تا‬: Generally using ‫ تا‬makes it more colloquial; when ‫ چند‬is a pronoun you have to use ‫ تا‬after it, but don’t use it when count words and measure words are present (as for telling the time). See 3.4. 3. Nouns following ‫‘( چه‬what’) are indefinite and would usually need the indefinite marker, but nouns following ‫‘( کدام‬which’) are definite and if they are the direct object also, they would always need ‘‫ ;’را‬compare:

‫‘( ]آیا[ چه کتابی میخوانی؟‬What book are you reading?’); ‫‘( ]آیا[ کدام کتاب را میخوانی؟‬Which book are you reading?’) 4. There is a lot of freedom in word order in Persian, and this is true of the position of the question words also. Question words do not have to be at the beginning of the sentence as in English. The best position for any question word is where you would expect the word that answers it to be. Consider the following sentence and where each question word is placed in the questions that follow:

‫فردا مينا کتابِ دوستش را به مدرسه میبرد‬

Tomorrow Mina is taking her friend’s book to school Question about tomorrow (When. . .?):

‫کِی مينا کتابِ دوستش را به مدرسه میبرد؟‬

Question about Mina (Who. . .?):

‫فردا چه کسی کتابِ دوستش را به مدرسه میبرد؟‬

Question about [her friend’s] book (What. . .?):

‫فردا مينا چی به مدرسه میبرد؟‬

Question about her friend (Whose. . .?):

‫فردا مينا کتابِ چه کسی را به مدرسه میبرد؟‬

Question about her friend’s [book] (Which book. . .?):

‫فردا مينا کدام کتاب را به مدرسه میبرد؟‬

Question about school (Where. . .?):

‫فردا مينا کتابِ دوستش را به کجا میبرد؟‬

Question about what she will be doing (What is she doing. . .?): 94

‫فردا مينا چه میکند؟‬

Question about what she will be doing with the book (What is she doing with. . .?):

Telling the time

‫فردا مينا کتابِ دوستش را چه میکند؟‬

5. To ask a question about what someone is doing, we can use ‫( چه‬what) + ‫کردن‬ (to do) as in the last two examples, or we can use ‫( چکار‬che-kār), also written ‫ چهکار‬+ ‫ کردن‬:

‫ شما امروز چه میکنيد؟‬or ‫شما امروز چکار میکنيد؟‬ (Both meaning: ‘What are you doing today?’)

6. There are two very common contractions of ‫‘( چی‬what’) and ‫‘( کی‬who’) + ‫( است‬to be, 3rd sg.): ‫[ چيست‬chist] and ‫[ کيست‬kist], usually placed at the end of the sentence (because of the verb). (Later we will learn their colloquial versions, ‫[ چيه‬chi-ye] and ‫[ کيه‬ki-ye].) Thus, ‫‘( در اتاق کيست؟‬Who is in the room?’) is even more common than ‫ کی در اتاق است؟‬.

8.4 Telling the time The word ‫[ ساعت‬sā’at] in Persian means a watch (or clock), an hour, or the expression o’clock used when telling the time. As hour, ‫ ساعت‬follows numbers; as o’clock, ‫ ساعت‬precedes numbers and needs the connector ezāfe. Examples:

‫[ یک ساعت‬yek sā’at, ‘one hour’], ‫[ پنج ساعت‬panj sā’at, ‘five hours’] ‫[ ساعتِ یک‬sā’at-e yek, ‘one o’clock’], ‫[ ساعتِ پنج‬sā’at-e panj, ‘five o’clock’]

In both cases, the word ‫[ چند‬chand] replaces the numbers to make questions:

‫[ چند ساعت؟‬chand sā’at?, ‘How many hours?’] ‫[ ساعتِ چند؟‬sā’at-e chand?, ‘At what time?’ – lit. ‘What o’clock?’]

Two important words for telling the time are ‫[ رُبع‬rob’, ‘a quarter’] and ‫[ نيم‬nim, ‘half’]. Two others are ‫[ دقيقه‬daghighe, ‘minute’] and ‫[ ثانيه‬sāniye, ‘second’]. The times of day are ‫[ صبح‬sobh, ‘morning’ or ‘a.m.’], ‫[ ظهر‬zohr, ‘noon’], ‫[ بعدازظهر‬ba’d-az-zohr, ‘afternoon’ or ‘p.m.’], ‫[ شب‬shab, ‘night’], ‫[ نيمشب‬nim­ shab] or ‫[ نيمه شب‬nime-shab, ‘midnight’]. When it is past the half-hour, in Persian it is more common to say how much remains to (‫[ به‬be]) the next hour (and ِ‫ ساعت‬is often dropped), although that is not the only option. As an example, for the time between 6:00 and 7:00, the following expressions are used:

95

8

Table 8.2 The time from 6 to 7 o’clock

Comparison of adjectives

‫ساعتِ شش‬

Adjectives as nouns

six o’clock

‫)ساعتِ( شش و پنج دقيقه پنج دقيقه به هفت‬

Question words Telling the time ...

five to seven, or 6:55

five past six, or 6:05

‫یک ربع به هفت‬

‫)ساعتِ( شش و ربع‬

a quarter to 7, or 6:45

a quarter past 6, or 6:15

‫)ساعتِ( شش و بيست و هفت دقيقه بيست و هفت دقيقه به هفت‬

twenty-seven minutes to 7, or 6:33

twenty-seven minutes past 7, or 6:27

‫)ساعتِ( شش و نيم‬ 6:30

More examples:

‫‘( امروز چند ساعت درس میخوانی؟‬How many hours are you going to study today?’)

‫‘( امروز تا ساعتِ چند درس میخوانی؟‬Till what time are you going to study today?’)

‫‘( او هميشه ساعت پنج و چهارده دقيقه و سی ثانيه میرسد‬He always arrives at 5:14:30.’)

8.4.1 Times of day; days of the week For different times of ‘today’, Persian repeats the word ‫[ امروز‬emruz, ‘today’] instead of using ‘this’. The name of the day (e.g., yesterday, today, tomorrow, Monday, etc.) usually comes before the time of the day (morning, noon, etc.) without any ezāfe, but can also follow it (less common) and would then need an ezāfe: Table 8.3 The times of day

morning

‫ صبح‬sobh 96

yesterday

today

tomorrow

‫ دیروز‬diruz

‫ امروز‬emruz

‫ فردا‬fardā

‫دیروز صبح‬

‫امروز صبح‬

‫فردا صبح‬

‫صبحِ دیروز‬

‫صبحِ امروز‬

‫صبحِ فردا‬

diruz sobh or:

sobh-e diruz

emruz sobh or: sobh-e emruz

fardā sobh or: sobh-e fardā

Table 8.3 (cont’d)

noon

‫ ظهر‬zohr

yesterday

today

tomorrow

‫ دیروز‬diruz

‫ امروز‬emruz

‫ فردا‬fardā

‫دیروز ظهر‬

‫امروز ظهر‬

‫فردا ظهر‬

‫ظهرِ دیروز‬

zohr-e emruz

‫ظهرِ امروز‬

‫ظهرِ فردا‬

diruz zohr or:

zohr-e diruz afternoon

‫بعد از ظهر‬

ba’d az zohr

night ‫ شب‬shab

Telling the time

‫دیروز بعد از ظهر‬

emruz zohr or:

‫امروز بعد از ظهر‬

fardā zohr or:

zohr-e fardā

‫فردا بعد از ظهر‬

diruz ba’d az zohr or:

emruz ba’d az zohr or:

fardā ba’d az zohr or:

ba’d az zohr-e diruz

‫بعد ازظهرِ دیروز‬

ba’d az zohr-e emruz

‫بعد ازظهرِ امروز‬

‫بعد ازظهرِ فردا‬

‫ دیشب‬dishab

‫ امشب‬emshab

‫ فردا شب‬fardā shab

ba’d az zohr-e fardā

The same would apply to the days of the week (like Monday) or to the days before yesterday or after tomorrow: ‫[ پریروز‬pariruz, ‘the day before yesterday], ‫[ پس فردا‬pas-fardā, the day after tomorrow]. The days of the week in Persian start with Saturday, and Friday is a holiday. Five of them start with numbers 1 to 5. Here are their names:

‫[ شنبه‬shan.be, ‘Saturday’] ‫[ یکشنبه‬yek.shan.be, ‘Sunday’] ‫[ دوشنبه‬do.shan.be, ‘Monday’] ‫[ سه شنبه‬se.shan.be, ‘Tuesday’] ‫[ چهارشنبه‬cha.hār.shan.be, ‘Wednesday’] ‫[ پنجشنبه‬panj.shan.be, ‘Thursday’] ‫[ جمعه‬jom.’e, ‘Friday’] Though written as ‫ شنبه‬with the letter ‫[ ن‬n], the more common pronunciation is shambe instead of shanbe. The use of numbers at the beginning of most of the days allows you to use ‫چند‬ (‘how many?’; pronounced unstressed) to ask about them:

‫‘ = امروز چند شنبه است؟‬What day of the week is today?’ (Main stress on -bé.) Compare with: ‫( هر ماه چند شنبه دارد؟‬with main stress this time on ‫‘ = )چند‬How many Saturdays are there in a month?’

97

8.5 Age You can mention – or ask about – a person’s age in different ways. 1. X years (or chand sāl in questions) + possessive suffixes + verb to be (always 3rd person singular, because the grammatical subject in this construction is always sāl, ‘year’, while the possessive suffix shows whose age we are talking or asking about):

‫[ مينا بيست سالش است‬minā bist sālash ast, ‘Mina is 20 years old.’] ‫[ چند سالت است؟‬chand sālat ast?, ‘How old are you?’] ‫[ فکر میکنی )من( چند سالم است؟‬fekr mikoni (man) chand sālam ast?, ‘How old do you think I am?’]

2. X years (or chand sāl in questions) + verb to have:

‫[ من سی سال دارم‬man si sāl dāram, ‘I am 30’ – lit., ‘I have 30 years.’] ‫[ شما چند سال دارید؟‬shomā chand sāl dārid?, ‘How old are you?’] 3. X ‫[ ساله‬sāle] (or chand sāle in questions) + verb to be:

‫[ پری هفده ساله است‬pari hefdah-sāle ast, ‘Pari is 17’ – lit., ‘Pari is a 17-year old.’]

‫[ شما چند ساله اید؟‬shomā chand sāle id?, ‘How old are you?’] The last option (with ‫ )ساله‬can be used like an adjective:

‫[ یک پسر دو ساله‬yek pesar-e do sāle, ‘a two-year-old boy.’] By adding a stressed ‫ ی‬to ‫( ساله‬which would require the glide ‫ گ‬also) we can mention the age:

‫[ او در هفده سالگی به تهران میرود‬u dar hefdah sālegi be tehrān mi-ravad, ‘He goes/will go to Tehran at the age of 17.’].

8.6. Some distributives and quantifiers; ‘double negative’ 98

‫[ هر‬har, ‘every’ or ‘each’ as adj.; never pr.].

1. Used with singular nouns (with or without indefinite -i); the verb is also singular:

‫‘( آیا هر کسی در آسمان یک ستاره دارد؟‬Does every person have a star in the sky?’)

‫ اتاقی دو پنجره دارد‬/‫‘( هر اتاق‬Each room has 2 windows.’) ‫‘( این را در هر خانهای میبينيد‬You see this in every house.’)

Some distributives and quantifiers; ‘double negative’

2. Used with expressions of time to make frequency adverbs (no -i):

‫‘( هر روز‬everyday’), ‫‘( هر سال‬every year), ‫‘( هر بار‬each time’), etc. 3. Used with numbers:

‫‘( هر دو‬both’), ‫‘( هر سه‬all three [of them]’), etc. 4. Used for compounds like: ‫ هرکسی‬/‫‘( هرکس‬anyone’ or ‘everyone’), ‫هرچيزی‬ (‘anything’ or ‘everything’) . . . (‫[ هر یک )از‬har yek (az)] or (‫[ هر کدام )از‬har kodām (az)]: ‘each/either one (of)’ – the verb is often plural, especially when there is no ‫ از‬and a plural subject has been mentioned. Compare:

‫ هستند‬/‫‘( هرکدام در یک اتاق است‬Each/Either one is in a [separate] room.’) ‫‘( این پسرها هرکدام هشت سال دارند‬These boys are each 8 years old.’) ‫ دارد‬/‫‘( هرکدام از این پسرها هشت سال دارند‬Each one of these boys is 8 years old.’)

‫[ همه‬hame, ‘all’], ‫[ همۀ‬hame-ye, ‘all of’]:

‫‘( بچهها همه در حياط هستند‬The kids are all in the yard.’) ‫‘( همۀ بچهها در حياط هستند‬All of the kids are in the yard.’)

Some compounds with singular nouns (no ezāfe or glide needed): ‫همه کس‬ (‘everyone’, ‘all the people’), ‫‘( همه جا‬everywhere’), ‫‘( همه چيز‬everything’). If used with ezāfe, these will no more be compounds, and you will need a plural noun: ‫‘( همۀ چيزها‬all of the things’), and so on. ‫[ هيچ‬hich, ‘no, none, nothing, not any, at all. . .’]. This negative word, which is either used alone or used to make several other negative compounds, requires a negative verb – so do some other negative words in Persian. In interrogative sentences, the verb can be either affirmative or negative. Examples:

‫‘( من هيچ پرندهای نمیبينم‬I don’t see any bird[s]/I see no birds.’) ‫‘( تو هيچ نمیدانی‬You know nothing/You don’t know anything.’)

99

‫‘( هيچ میدانی او کجاست؟‬Do you know at all [= have any idea] where he is?’) ‫‘( هيچ نمیدانی او کجاست؟‬Don’t you know at all where he is?’) ‫[ )از( هيچيک‬hich-yek (az)] or ‫[ )از( هيچ کدام‬hich-kodām (az)]: ‘none (of)’ – these are the negative versions of the above-mentioned ‫ )از( هر یک‬or ‫ – )از( هر کدام‬of course, with a negative verb, and a plural verb permissible even for singular: ‫ نيستند‬/‫‘( هيچکدام ارزان نيست‬None of them/Neither one is cheap.’) ‫‘( این قلمها هيچکدام مال شما نيستند‬These pens are none yours.’) ‫ نيست‬/‫‘( هيچکدام از این قلمها مال شما نيستند‬None of these pens is yours.’) Some other compounds with always when interrogative):

‫هيچ‬, all requiring a negative verb (though not

‫[ هيچکس‬hich-kas, ‘no one, nobody’] ‫[ هيچ چيز‬hich-chiz, ‘nothing’] ‫[ هيچوقت‬hich-vaght, ‘never’] (or, more hargez)

formal:

‫هيچگاه‬

hich-gāh,

‫هرگز‬

‫[ هيچکجا‬hich-kojā] or ‫[ هيچجا‬hich-jā, ‘nowhere’] ‫[ هيچگونه‬hich-gu.ne, ‘in no way’ or ‘no . . . whatsoever’] ‫[ به هيچ وجه‬be hich vajh, ‘by no means’, ‘not at all’] – also: ً‫[ اصال‬aslan] Exercises Exercise 8.1 Write the comparative form of the following adjectives. Example:  ‫→ بزرگ‬

‫بزرگتر‬

‫ خوشحال‬.9 ‫ خسته‬.8 ‫ سياه‬.7 ‫ قدیمی‬. ۶ ‫ زرنگ‬. ۵ ‫ دیدنی‬. ۴ ‫ خوب‬.3 ‫ زشت‬.2 ‫ زیبا‬.1 .‫ جوان‬.10 Exercise 8.2

100

Change the following simple adjectives to the comparative form and connect them to the nouns while adding indefinite -i marker (both formal and colloquial versions), then translate.

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫)‪ (a more beautiful flower‬گلی زیباتر‪/‬گلِ زیباتری‬

‫→ گل ‪ +‬زیبا ‪Example:‬‬

‫‪ . 1‬دانشجو ‪ +‬زرنگ ‪ . 2‬بچّه ‪ +‬کوچک ‪ . 3‬خانه ‪ +‬قدیمی ‪ . ۴‬درختان ‪ +‬زیبا ‪ +‬سبز‬ ‫‪ .۵‬استادان ‪ +‬جوان ‪ .۶‬شهرها ‪ +‬دیدنی ‪ .7‬مادران ‪ +‬شاد ‪ .8‬آسمان ‪ +‬آبی ‪ +‬روشن‬ ‫‪ .9‬قلم ‪ +‬خوب ‪ +‬ارزان ‪ .10‬اتاق ‪ +‬بزرگ ‪ +‬راحت‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 8.3‬‬ ‫‪Change to the superlative, then translate.‬‬ ‫)‪ (the most comfortable chair‬راحتترین صندلی → صندلی راحت ‪Example:‬‬

‫ای خوشمزه ‪ . 3‬تکاليفِ زیاد ‪ . ۴‬تابستان گرم ‪ . ۵‬فيلمِ خوب‬ ‫رس سخت ‪ .2‬غذ ِ‬ ‫‪ .1‬د ِ‬ ‫‪ .۶‬کتابخانۀ مهم ‪ .7‬ماستِ ترش ‪ .8‬شهرِ قدیمی ‪ .9‬امتحانِ آسان ‪ .10‬نویسندۀ مشهور‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 8.4‬‬ ‫‪Choose the correct form, then translate.‬‬ ‫پروین از همۀ دخترها )زیباتر‪ /‬زیباترین( است ‪Example:‬‬ ‫)‪ (Parvin is the most beautiful of the girls.‬زیباتر →   ‬ ‫‪. 1‬این یکی از (گرمتر‪ /‬گرمترین) روزهای فصل تابستان است‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬آیا اتاقی (ارزانتر‪ /‬ارزانترین) از این در هتل ندارید؟‬ ‫‪( .3‬راحتتر‪ /‬راحتترین) صندلی را نمیبينم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬این رستوران از همۀ رستورانهای ایرانی (گرانتر‪ /‬گرانترین) است‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬توریستهای خارجی شهر اصفهان را (بيشتر‪ /‬بيشترین) میبينند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬چه کسی (زیباتر‪ /‬زیباترین) قلمش را به من میدهد؟‬ ‫‪. 7‬چرا در باغ یک سيب (قرمزتر‪ /‬قرمزترین) نمیبينيم؟‬ ‫‪. 8‬چلوکباب (خوشمزهتر‪ /‬خوشمزهترین) غذای ایرانی نيست‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬دانشجویان درس فارسی این استاد را (بيشتر‪ /‬بيشترین) از همه دوست دارند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬آیا او به آنها (کمتر‪ /‬کمترین) تکليف میدهد؟‬ ‫‪Exercise 8.5‬‬

‫‪101‬‬

‫‪Ask questions about the underlined words (re-write the sentences) and translate‬‬ ‫‪them.‬‬

‫)?‪ (When does he/she come‬او کِی میآید؟‬

‫→ او فردا میآید ‪Example:‬‬

‫‪. 1‬هر زندگیای خوبيها و بدیهائی دارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬زرنگترها از ساعت یک ربع به هشت در کالس هستند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬دوشنبهها پروین کوچکترین خواهرش را به کودکستان میبرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬برای امتحان دو ساعت وقت میدهند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬در روز ششم به یک پارک زیبا میرویم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬برادرم درس تاریخ ایران را دوست ندارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬من همۀ کتابهای شما را میخوانم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬این پرند ٔه سياه هميشه روی آن درخت است‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬شما با آن دختر درس میخوانيد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬پدر بيمارشان شصت و سه سال دارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 8.6‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following sentences.‬‬

‫‪.1‬جوانترها خيلی کم در خانه با پيرها حرف میزنند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 2‬من بيست و شش سالهام و پنج سال از برادرم بزرگترم؛ تو چند سال داری؟‬ ‫‪. 3‬این نویسنده دربارۀ هر چيزی مینویسد و ما نمیدانيم کتابش دربارۀ چيست‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬آیا آلمانی میدانيد؟ نه‪ ،‬اصالً‪ .‬هيچکدام از ما آلمانی حرف نمیزنيم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬هرگز در زمستان نوشيدنی با یخ نمیخورم‪ .‬چای داغ شيرین بهترین چيز است‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬آیا فردا بعد از ظهر کجا و تا ساعتِ چند درس میخوانی؟‬ ‫‪. 7‬این هفته چه کسی به گلها آب میدهد؟‬ ‫‪ .8‬به حرف فروشندهها گوش نمیکنم؛ هيچ بقالی نمیگوید “ماست من ترش است”‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .9‬در این دانشگاه هيچگونه کالسی برای تاریخ ایران نيست‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬هيچيک از برادرهایش نمیداند او چگونه در یک شهر گران زندگی میکند‪.‬‬ ‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫هيچ بقّالی نمیگویدماستِ من تُرش است‬ ‫‪No grocer would say his yoghurt is sour.‬‬

‫هرچه زودتر‪ ،‬بهتر‬

‫‪The sooner, the better.‬‬

‫‪102‬‬

UNIT NINE Imperative

9 ‫فصل‬ ‫ا مر‬

New words in this unit ‫امر‬ ‫گذاشتن‬

amr

imperative (gr.)

go.zāsh.tan

‫ماندن‬

mān.dan

to put; to leave behind; to let (pres. stem: ‫[ گذار‬go.zār])

‫افتادن‬ ‫ایستادن‬

of.tā.dan

‫نشستن‬ ‫بيدار‬ ‫بيدار شدن‬ ‫بيدار کردن‬ ‫مواظب‬ ‫مواظب بودن‬ ‫ بودن‬. . . ِ‫مواظب‬

ne.shas.tan

‫صبر‬ ‫صبر داشتن‬ )ِ‫ِصبر کردن (برای‬ ‫ورزش‬ ‫ورزش کردن‬ ‫غصّه‬

sabr

is.tā.dan

bi.dār bi.dār sho.dan bi.dār kar.dan

to stay, to remain (pres. stem: ‫مان‬ [mān]) to fall (pres. stem: ‫[ افت‬oft])

to stand; to stop/pause (pres. stem: ‫[ ایست‬ist]) to sit (pres. stem: ‫[ نشين‬neshin]) awake

to wake up (intr.) [‫]شو → شدن‬ to wake up (tr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

mo.vā.zeb

watchful, alert

mo.vā.zeb bu.dan

to be careful (intr.) [‫]باش → بودن‬

mo.vā.ze.b-e . . . bu.dan

sabr dāsh.tan sabr kar.dan (barāye)

to watch over, to look after; keep an eye on [‫]باش → بودن‬ patience

to have patience [‫]دار → داشتن‬ to wait (for) [‫]کن → کردن‬

var.zesh

sport, exercise

var.zesh kar.dan

to exercise [sports] (intr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

ghos.se

grief

103

9 Imperative

ِ )‫(برای‬ ‫غصّه خوردن‬

ghos.se khor.dan (ba. rā.ye)

‫غذا خوردن‬ ‫غم‬ ‫غم خوردن‬ ‫ داشتن‬. . . ِ‫غم‬

gha.zā khor.dan

‫دیکته‬ ‫فایده‬ ‫سبد‬ ‫تخمِ مُرغ‬ ‫پول‬ ‫تومان‬

dik.te

‫دالر‬ ‫مالی‬ ‫جالب‬ ‫ناراحت‬ ‫تاریک‬ ‫زیادی‬ ً‫لطفا‬

gham gham khor.dan gha.m-e . . . dāsh.tan

to grieve, to be sad (about) [‫]خور → خوردن‬

to eat (intr.) [‫]خور → خوردن‬ grief

to grieve, to be sad [‫]خور → خوردن‬ to be sad about, to worry about [‫]دار → داشتن‬ dictation, spelling

fā.ye.de

use, benefit

sa.bad

basket

tokh.m-e morgh

egg

pul

money

tu.mān

tuman or toman, a currency unit (= 10 rials)

do.lār

dollar

mā.li

financial

jā.leb

interesting

nā.rā.hat

uncomfortable; upset; sad

tā.rik

dark

zi.yā.dí

too much

lot.fan

please (used with imperative)

9 The imperative The imperative is used for commands and requests addressed to (and conjugated for) the 2nd person. Even when addressing a single person, plural is often used to be more polite; singular is for closer relations.

9.1 Formation

104

Imperative in Persian is the present stem + the prefix be- (‫)بـ‬. Let us start by comparing the present tense and imperative in a verb like ‫[ دیدن‬didan, ‘to see’]. We remember that the present stem of this verb is ‫بين‬ [bin].

Table 9.1 Present tense and imperative

‫[ دیدن‬didan, ‘to see’], present stem ‫[ بين‬bin] Present Tense (2nd person)

Singular

Plural

‫میبينی‬

‫میبينيد‬

!‫ببين‬

!‫ببينيد‬

[mi-bin-i, ‘you see’] Imperative

Formation

[be-bin, ‘See!’]

[mi-bin-id, ‘you see’] [be-bin-id, ‘See!’]

We see two major differences here: 1. The imperative uses the prefix ِ‫[ بـ‬be-] instead of the prefix ‫[ می‬mi-]. 2. For the singular, the imperative does not need any conjugational suffix: no -i needed. Important: The ِ‫[ بـ‬be-] prefix used for verbs is always written joined, while the preposition ‫[ به‬be, ‘to’] is usually written separately (ending in the ‘silent ‫[ ه‬hé]’ that stands for the vowel e). Notes about pronunciation: 1. In the case of verbs like ‫ رفتن‬whose present stem ends in -ow, the -ow does not change in the singular imperative, but it does change to -av- in the plural imperative, as it does change for all persons in present tense (see 5.3). Similarly, in a few verbs like ‫ دادن‬there will be a vowel change from the singular to plural imperative (and present tense). 2. In a few cases the vowel in be- is influenced by the first vowel in the present stem and changes to that, especially in singular. Also, sometimes the first vowel in stem is dropped in the case of some very common verbs to make the word shorter (see ‫[ گذاشتن‬gozāshtan] in Table 9.2 for some examples of verbs with or without such changes).

The Glide ‫[ ـیـ‬-y-] Whereas the present tense prefix mi- never required a glide, the imperative prefix be- would require the glide ‫[ ـیـ‬-y-] if the present stem begins with the vowels ā, a and o, and the be- will then be pronounced as bi-, the ‫ ی‬assuming the double function of -iy-. In writing, in stems starting with ‫[ آ‬ā] the diacritical sign (called madd) will no longer be written on top of alef; if they start with a- or o-, both represented by alef, good Persian requires that the alef be dropped altogether. ‫[ ایستادن‬istādan, ‘to stop/stand’] the only verb starting with the vowel i-, needs no glide.

105

9 Imperative

Table 9.2 Present tense and imperative: more examples infinitive

present stem present tense (2nd person only)

imperative

‫خوردن‬

‫خور‬

‫[ میخوری‬mi-khori] ‫[ میخورید‬mi-khorid]

!‫[ بخور‬bekhor]

‘You eat’ (sg. & pl.)

‘Eat!’ (sg. & pl.)

‫[ میبری‬mi-bari] ‫[ میبرید‬mi-barid]

!‫[ ببر‬bebar]

‫[ میگوئی‬mi-gu’i] ‫[ میگوئيد‬mi-gu’id]

!‫[ بگو‬begu]

‫[ میروی‬mi-ravi] ‫[ میروید‬mi-ravid]

!‫[ برو‬borow]

‘You go’ (sg. & pl.)

‘Go!’ (sg. & pl.)

‫[ میدهی‬mi-dahi] ‫[ میدهيد‬mi-dahid]

!‫[ بده‬bedeh]

[khordan, ‘to eat’]

[khor]

‫بردن‬

‫بر‬

[bordan, ‘to take (away)’]

[bar]

‫گفتن‬

‫گو‬

[goftan, ‘to say’]

‫رفتن‬

‘You take’ (sg. & pl.)

[gu]

‘You say’ (sg. & pl.)

‫رو‬

[raftan, ‘to go’]

[row /→ rav]

‫دادن‬

‫ده‬

[dādan, ‘to give’]

‫گذاشتن‬

[gozāshtan, ‘to put’]

[deh /→ dah]

‫گذار‬

[gozār]

!‫[ بخورید‬bekhorid]

!‫[ ببرید‬bebarid]

‘Take!’ (sg. & pl.) !‫[ بگوئيد‬begu’id] ‘Say!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ بروید‬beravid]

!‫[ بدهيد‬bedahid]

‘You give’ (sg. & pl.)

‘Give!’ (sg. & pl.)

‫[ میگذاری‬mi-gozāri] ‫[ میگذارید‬mi-gozārid]

!‫[ بگذار‬begozār or bogzār]

‘You put’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ بگذارید‬begozārid or bogzārid] ‘Put!’ (sg. & pl.)

‫آمدن‬

[āmadan, ‘to come’]

[ā]

‫افتادن‬

‫افت‬

[oftādan, ‘to fall’]

‫ایستادن‬ 106

‫آ‬

[istādan, ‘to stop/stand up’]

‫[ میآئی‬mi-ā’i] ‫[ میآئيد‬mi-ā’id]

!‫[ بيا‬biyā]

‫[ میافتی‬mi-ofti] ‫[ میافتيد‬mi-oftid]

!‫[ بيفت‬biyoft]

‫[ میایستی‬mi-isti] ‫[ میایستيد‬mi-istid]

!‫[ بایست‬be’ist]

‘You come’ (sg. & pl.)

[oft]

‘You fall’ (sg. & pl.)

‫ایست‬ [ist]

‘You stop’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ بيائيد‬biyā’id]

‘Come!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ بيفتيد‬biyoftid]

‘Fall!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ بایستيد‬be’istid]

‘Stop!’ (sg. & pl.)

Examples: !‫( لطفاَ کمی بيشتر بمانيد‬Please stay a little longer/more!)

Imperative of compound verbs

‫( این صندليهای سفيد را به آن اتاق ببر‬Take these white chairs to that room.) ‫( بچّهرا )در( خانۀمادرتبگذاروبيا‬Leave the child at your mother’s home and come.) 9.2 Imperative of compound verbs In compound verbs the be- prefix is added to the verb part – which means that it always comes between the two parts of the compound verb:

‫[ حرف زدن‬harf zadan, ‘to talk’ – present stem ‫زن‬, zan]: !‫[ حرف بزن‬harf bezan, ‘Talk!’] (sg.) !‫[ حرف بزنيد‬harf bezanid, ‘Talk!’] (pl.) Dropping the be- prefix in most of compounds The majority of verbs in contemporary Pertsian are compounds verbs, and the absolute majority of these compound verbs are formed by using either ‫[ کردن‬kardan, ‘to do’] or ‫[ شدن‬shodan, ‘to become’] – and in compounds with these two verbs, the be- prefix is usually dropped. Also, in all of the compound verbs whose first part is a prefix (like a preposition, not a noun or adjective), the be- prefix is dropped. And, as one can see, not much is really left. That is why it was said earlier that the singular imperative is often nothing but the present stem. Table 9.3 Imperative with no be- prefix infinitive

‫برگشتن‬

present stem

imperative singular

plural

[bargashtan, ‘to return’]

[bargard]

‫برگرد‬

!‫برگرد‬ [bargard, ‘Return!’]

!‫برگردید‬ [bargardid, ‘Return!’]

‫تميز کردن‬

‫تميز کن‬

!‫تميز کن‬ [tamiz kon, ‘Clean!’]

!‫تميز کنيد‬ [tamiz konid, ‘Clean!’]

‫بيدار شدن‬

‫بيدار شو‬

[tamiz kardan, ‘to clean’] [bidār shodan, ‘to wake up’]

[tamiz kon]

!‫بيدار شو‬ [bidār show /→ [bidār show, ‘Wake up!’] shav]

!‫بيدار شوید‬ [bidār shavid, ‘Wake up!’]

107

9 Imperative

9.3 Imperative of to be and to have There is nothing very special about to be, except that it has an irregular present stem (‫باش‬, bāsh) and does not need the prefix be-: Singular: !‫[ زود باش‬zud bāsh, ‘Be quick!’ or ‘hurry up!’] Plural:  !‫[ مواظب باشيد‬movāzeb bāshid, ‘Be careful!’] To have (‫)داشتن‬, however, is more irregular in this case: 1. Its present stem (‫ دار‬, dār) can be used for many of the compound verbs with ‫( داشتن‬the same compounds that use the mi- prefix in present tense; see 7.4.1); the prefix be- is usually dropped. 2. In its simple form, however, or in some compounds retaining in some way the base meaning (‘to have’), the imperative will be ‫[ داشته باش‬dāshte bāsh] and ‫[ داشته باشيد‬dāshte bāshid] for singular and plural respectively. (This is a perfect construction that will be discussed later in more detail.) Examples: The less irregular ‘to have’: !‫( کتاب را بردار‬ketāb rā bardār, ‘Take/pick up the book!’) (sg.) !‫من نگه دارید‬ me!’) (pl.)

‫این را برای‬

(in rā barāye man negah-dārid, ‘Keep this for

The more irregular ‘to have’: !‫دوست داشته باش‬ mother!’) (sg.)

‫( مادرت را‬mādarat rā dust dāshte bāsh, ‘Like/love your

!‫( کمی صبر داشته باشيد‬kami sabr dāshte bāshid, ‘Have a little patience!’) (pl.)

9.4 Negative imperative •

• 108

Replace be- by na-: In the negative, the imperative verb (or the verb part in compounds) is invariably preceded by the negative na-, which is invariably pronounced na- (even before the -y- glide), and always written joined. And don’t forget to drop be-: you cannot use be- and na- together. In the case of the verb ‫ داشتن‬, its negatives forms would be either ‫ ندارید‬/ ‫ ندار‬or you change ‫ داشته‬to ‫ نداشته‬in its more irregular version (see 9.3).

Examples:

Exercises

!‫[ بمان‬bemān], !‫[ بمانيد‬bemānid]: ‘Stay!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ نمان‬namān], !‫[ نمانيد‬namānid]: ‘Don’t stay!’ (sg. & pl.) !‫[ بيا‬biyā], !‫[ بيائيد‬biyā’id]: ‘Come!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ نيا‬nayā], !‫[ نيائيد‬nayā’id]: ‘Don’t come!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫[ برگرد‬bar-gard], !‫[ برگردید‬bar-gardid]: ‘Return!’ (sg. & pl.) – here no befor affirmative.

!‫[ برنگرد‬bar-nagard], !‫[ برنگردید‬bar-nagardid]: ‘Don’t return!’ (sg. & pl.) !‫[ گوش کن‬gush kon], !‫کنيد‬ also no be-.

‫[ گوش‬gush konid]: ‘Listen!’ (sg. & pl.) – here

!‫[ گوش نکن‬gush nakon], !‫نکنيد‬ (sg. & pl.) !‫[ حرف بزن‬harf bezan], !‫بزنيد‬ compound with be-.

‫گوش‬

[gush nakonid]: ‘Don’t listen!’

‫[ حرف‬harf bezanid]: ‘Talk!’ (sg. & pl.) – a

!‫[ حرف نزن‬harf nazan], !‫[ حرف نزنيد‬harf nazanid]: ‘Don’t talk!’ (sg. & pl.)

!‫ میخرم‬: ‫ خرم ؛ بگو‬: ‫[ نگو‬nagu kharam, begu mi-kharam]: ‘Don’t say I’m a donkey/I’m stupid; say I purchase.’

Caution: Some verb stems begin with the letters ‫ ب‬or ‫ – ن‬don’t confuse these letters with the prefixes be- or na-! If necessary, you should add those prefixes, regardless of what letter the stem starts with. See, for instance, these examples with the verbs ‫ بردن‬and ‫ نشستن‬: !‫[ ببر‬bebar, ‘Take!’], !‫[ نبر‬nabar, ‘Don’t take!’]

!‫[ بنشين‬beneshin or benshin, ‘Sit!’], !‫[ ننشين‬naneshin or nanshin, ‘Don’t sit!’]

Exercises Exercise 9.1 Write the imperative form of the following verbs (singular and plural, affirmative and negative). The present stems have been given. Example: ‫→ رفتن‬

‫ نروید‬/ ‫ بروید‬،‫ نرو‬/ ‫برو‬

‫ رسيدن‬. ۶ ( ‫ گفتن )گو‬. ۵ ( ‫ دانستن )دان‬. ۴ ( ‫ خوردن )خور‬.3 (‫ دادن )ده‬. 2 (‫ آمدن )آ‬.1 (‫ نشستن )نشين‬.10 (‫ گذاشتن )گذار‬.9 (‫ نوشتن )نویس‬.8 (‫ دیدن )بين‬.7 (‫)رس‬

109

‫‪Exercise 9.2‬‬ ‫‪Write the imperative form in each sentence, and based on clues given decide‬‬ ‫‪whether to use singular or plural; then translate the sentence.‬‬

‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪Imperative‬‬

‫کتابتان را به استاد ‪( . . .‬دادن( ‪Example:‬‬

‫‪ (Give your book to the professor.) Your‬کتابتان را به استاد بدهيد! →  ‬ ‫‪clue here: the plural your.‬‬

‫‪] .1‬دانشجو به استاد‪ً ]:‬‬ ‫لطفا ‪( ..........‬نشستن) ‪ ،‬خسته میشوید‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬هرگز زیادی غذا ‪( ..........‬نَـ ‪ +‬خوردن)‪ ،‬مریض میشوید‪.‬‬ ‫کتاب را روی ميزت ‪( ..........‬گذاشتن)!‬

‫‪. 3‬لطفًا‬ ‫‪] .۴‬استاد به دانشجویان‪ ]:‬لطفاً فردا دیر به کالس ‪( ..........‬نَـ ‪ +‬آمدن)!‬ ‫‪] .۵‬یک آقا به پسرش‪ ]:‬امروز یک نامه به مادرت ‪( ..........‬نوشتن)!‬ ‫‪. ۶‬تو کی هستی؟ یک دفعهۀ دیگر اسمت را ‪( ..........‬گفتن)!‬ ‫‪] .7‬من به دو برادر کوچکم‪ ]:‬از این آش ‪( ..........‬خوردن)‪ ،‬خيلی خوشمزه است‪.‬‬ ‫‪] .8‬پروین به خواهر کوچکش‪ ]:‬این فيلم را ‪( ..........‬دیدن)‪ ،‬خيلی جالب است!‬ ‫ال فایده ندارد‪.‬‬ ‫‪] .9‬من به دوستم‪ ]:‬زیاد غصه ‪( ..........‬خوردن)‪ ،‬اص ً‬ ‫‪. 10‬فردا کالس نداری‪ ،‬امشب پيش ما ‪( ..........‬ماندن)!‬ ‫‪. 11‬هيچوقت به بچههای کوچکتان پول زیاد ‪( ..........‬نَـ ‪ +‬دادن)!‬ ‫‪. 12‬دیر ‪( ..........‬نَـ ‪ +‬رسيدن)‪ ،‬محمّد برای شما صبر نمیکند‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 9.3‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following sentences into English.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬ناراحت نباش! این مشکالت میگذرد‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬مواظب باش! این مرتبه چای خيلی داغ است‪.‬‬

‫‪. 3‬جلد دوّم کتاب را داشته باش! من این هفته آن را نمیخواهم‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫م پول نداشته باش! همه در زندگی مشکل مالی دارند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬غ ِ‬ ‫‪. ۶‬خيلی آهسته نروید‪ ،‬دارد دیر میشود‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬کمی اینجا بایستيد‪ ،‬من زود برمیگردم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬دستتان را به من بدهيد‪ ،‬اینجا تاریک است‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬این پانصد هزار تومان را داشته باش! خيلی نيست‪ ،‬میشود صد دالر آمریکائی‪.‬‬

‫‪110‬‬

.‫هر روز بيست دقيقه ورزش کن‬. 9

Exercises

.‫بيشتر از یک ساعت با او حرف نزن‬. 10

Exercise 9.4 Translate the following sentences into Persian. Use plural if the sentence starts with ‘please’.  1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8.  9. 10.

Please don’t say that to my father. Don’t eat those sour apples. Wake up tomorrow morning at 6:30. Please don’t listen to that stupid man. Clean your room twice a week. Please wait a little, I’m coming! Don’t return earlier than the day after tomorrow. Keep those flowers in your brightest room. Please don’t put more than ten kids in one class. Like your sister more than your friend.

Exercise 9.5 Choose the correct form of the imperative verb, then translate. Example: (‫ بمان‬/‫ نبمانی‬/‫)بمانی‬

‫بمان → اینجا‬

(Stay here.)

!)‫ برنگرد‬/‫ نبرگرد‬/‫برای غذا به خانه (نرگرد‬. 1

!)‫ نگوش کن‬/‫ گوش نه کن‬/‫به هر حرفی (گوش نکن‬. 2 !)‫ بنده‬/‫ نده‬/‫امروز امتحان (نبده‬. 3

۴ !)‫ نداشته باش‬/‫ داشته نباش‬/‫هيچ غمی (ندار‬. ۵ !)‫ نشو‬/‫ نشوند‬/‫ناراحت (نيستيد‬. ۶ !)‫ نویسيد‬/‫ بنویسيد‬/‫یک دیکته (بویسيد‬. 7 !)‫ نبردارید‬/‫ برداشته باشيد‬/‫آن گل را (بردارید‬. 8 !)‫ صبر نبکنيد‬/‫ نصبر کنيد‬/‫بيشتر از یک ربع برای من (صبر نکنيد‬. 9 .‫ باش)! بهترین اتاق را داری‬/‫ بناش‬/‫خوشحال (بباش‬. 10 !)‫ نيآیيد‬/‫ نآئی‬/‫فردا با تکاليفتان (بيائيد‬.

111

9 Imperative

IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS

‫ هميشه برو‬،‫آهسته برو‬

Go slowly, go constantly. (Used to warn against haste.)

‫همۀ تخمِ مُرغها را در یک سبد نگذار‬

Don’t put all the eggs in one basket.

‫حرفت را به من بگو‬/‫دستت را به من بده‬/‫نامت را به من بگو‬ Tell me your name/Give me your hand/Speak to me (From a poem by Ahmad Shāmlu, 1925–2000.)

112

UNIT TEN Infinitive – its uses Past and present stems

10 ‫فصل‬

‫مصد ر‬ ‫کاربردهای آن‬ ‫ریشههای گذشته و‬ ‫حا ل‬

New words in this unit

‫مَصدَر‬ ‫کاربُرد‬ ‫ریشه‬ ‫گذشته‬ ‫خندیدن‬ )‫سفرکردن (به‬ (‫ترسيدن )از‬ ‫کمک‬ (‫کمک کردن )به‬

mas.dar

infinitive (gr.)

kār.bord

usage, function (gr.)

ri.she

root; stem (gr.)

go.zash.te

past (adj.; n.) (gr.)

khan.di.dan

to laugh (pres. stem: ‫[ خند‬khand])

sa.far kar.dan (be) tar.si.dan (az) ko.mak ko.mak kar.dan (be)

‫پيدا کردن‬ ‫پيدا شدن‬ ‫گرفتن‬

pey.dā kar.dan

(‫یاد گرفتن)از‬

yād ge.ref.tan (az)

(‫یاد دادن )به‬

‫سؤال‬ (‫سؤال کردن )از‬ ‫پرسش‬ (‫پرسيدن )از‬

pey.dā sho.dan ge.ref.tan

yād dā.dan (be) so.’āl so.’āl kar.dan (az)

to travel (to) [‫]کن → کردن‬

to be afraid (of) (pres. stem: ‫[ ترس‬tars]) help

to help [‫( ]کن → کردن‬sometimes with direct object and no ‫)به‬ to find [‫]کن → کردن‬

to be found [‫]شو → شدن‬

to take [as opposite of ‘give’] (pres. stem:

‫[ گير‬gir])

to learn (sth. from s.o.) [‫]گير → گرفتن‬

to teach (sth. to s.o.) [‫]ده → دادن‬ question (pl. ‫سؤاالت‬, so’ālāt)

to ask (a question from) [‫]کن → کردن‬

por.sesh

question (form.)

por.si.dan (az)

to ask a question (from)

113

10 Infinitive – its uses Past and present stems

‫جواب‬ (‫جواب دادن )به‬ ‫پاسخ‬ (‫پاسخ دادن )به‬ ‫ترجمه‬ ‫ترجمه کردن‬ ‫غمگين‬ ‫غمگين کردن‬ ‫غمگين شدن‬ ‫راه‬ ‫دنيا‬ ‫دور‬ ِ‫ُدور‬ ‫عيب‬ ‫تاجيکستان‬ ‫کيف‬ ‫کيفِ پول‬ ‫اشتباه‬ ‫مسئله‬ ‫کوتاه‬ ‫یا‬

ja.vāb

answer

ja.vāb dā.dan (be)

to answer; to give an answer (to) [‫]ده → دادن‬

pā.sokh pā.sokh dā.dan (be) tar.jo.me tar.jo.me kar.dan gham.gin gham.gin kar.dan gham.gin sho.dan rāh

answer [form.]

to answer; to give an answer (to) [form.] [‫]ده → دادن‬ translation

to translate [‫]کن → کردن‬ sad (used for animates)

to make sad [‫]کن → کردن‬

to become sad [‫]شو → شدن‬ way, road; method

don.yā

world

dur

far, faraway; remote, distant

dow.r-e

around

eyb

fault (pl. ‫عيوب‬, o.yub)

tā.ji.kes.tān

Tajikistan

kif

bag

ki.f-e pul

purse or wallet

esh.te.bāh

mistake (n.); wrong (adj.)

mas.’a.le

problem (pl. ‫مسائل‬, ma.sā.’el)

ku.tāh yā

short

or (conj.)

10.1 Infinitives in Persian: some general remarks We already know a lot about infinitives in Persian (see 5.1). A summary of the basic features: 1. All infinitives in Persian end either in -dan (like ‫ خوردن‬khordan, ‘to eat’) or in -tan (like ‫ گفتن‬goftan, ‘to say’) – which means that they all end in -an. 114

2. All of those ending in -tan (with only a few exceptions) are irregular; in contrast, all of those ending in -dan (again, with just a few exceptions) are regular. 3. When we say irregular, it is about the present stem. Everything about past or using the past stem is regular, and – as already mentioned under 4.4 – this includes all the perfect tenses and constructions, even the future tense. 4. English has more irregular [simple] verbs than all the Persian simple verbs put together, whether regular or irregular. This demonstrates the great shift in contemporary Persian from simple verbs to compound verbs, especially in colloquial Persian.

Past and present stems

10.2 Past and present stems past stem: If you know a Persian infinitive, you already know the past stem too: you only need to drop -an from the end of the infinitive – no exception. Even in ‫[ بودن‬budan, ‘to be’] and ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’], the past stems are respectively ‫[ بود‬bud] and ‫[ داشت‬dāsht]. The past stem is also known as short infinitive. present stem: In regular verbs, you can normally have the present stem after dropping -dan from the end of the infinitive; for instance, all the verbs ending in -āndan – and there are dozens of them – are regular (see ‫ ماندن‬in Table 10.1). In another large group of regular verbs – those that end in -idan – with only a few exceptions, you have the present stem after you drop -idan (and not just -dan; see ‫ رسيدن‬in Table 10.1). In regular verbs, we are moving, in fact, from the present stem to the past stem and from that to the infinitive (as shown in Table 10.1, from left to right): Table 10.1 Some examples of regular verbs Present stem

Past stem

Inf initive

‫ خور‬khor

‫ خورد‬khord

‫ خوردن‬khordan, ‘to eat’

‫ رس‬res

‫ رسيد‬resid

‫ رسيدن‬residan, ‘to reach/arrive’

‫ مان‬mān

‫ خند‬khand

‫ ماند‬mānd

‫ ماندن‬māndan, ‘to stay’

‫ خندید‬khandid ‫ خندیدن‬khandidan, ‘to laugh’

In irregular verbs, the close relation between the infinitive and the past stem (the right two columns) is still there, but there are fewer similarities between the left two columns (the two stems): 115

10 Infinitive – its uses Past and present stems

Table 10.2 Some examples of irregular verbs Present stem

Past stem

Inf initive

‫ بر‬bar

‫ برد‬bord

‫ بردن‬bordan, ‘to take [away]’

‫ دار‬dār

‫ داشت‬dāsht

‫ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’

‫ گو‬gu

‫ ده‬deh [→ dah]

‫ گفت‬goft ‫ داد‬dād

‫ گفتن‬goftan, ‘to say’

‫ دادن‬dādan, ‘to give’

If you are learning Persian verbs by memorizing the infinitive first, these are a few things you should additionally be paying attention to: 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the present stem (if irregular)? Is it transitive or intransitive? If transitive, does it take a direct or an indirect object – or both? What preposition does it need (if it does need one)?

Always try to learn the verbs in sentences and through several examples for all different meanings and usages.

10.3 Negative infinitive Simply add the prefix na- to the infinitive (written joined) to make it negative. Examples:

‫[ داشتن و نداشتن‬dāshtan va nadāshtan, ‘To Have and Have Not’] ‫[ بودن یا نبودن؟‬budan yā nabudan, ‘To be or not to be?’] 10.4 Uses of the infinitive The uses of the infinitive and gerund sometimes overlap in English; not so in Persian. What is more important: the Persian infinitive is more like the English gerund, in that it is used and treated as a noun – it is used after prepositions as their object, or it is used as subject or object of verbs:

116

subject: ‫[ رفتن به آنجا خيلی آسان است‬raftan be ānjā kheyli āsān ast, ‘Going there is very easy.’] object of preposition: ‫[ من از رفتن به آنجا میترسم‬man az raftan be ānjā mitarsam, ‘I am afraid of going there.’] direct object of verb: ‫[ من نوشتن را دوست دارم‬man neveshtan rā dust dāram, ‘I like writing.’]

10.5 Subject or object/complement of infinitive Since the Persian infinitive is used and treated as a noun (even more than the English gerund), it usually needs to be connected to its subject or object/complement ِ ‫( خرید‬with ezāfe functhrough an ezāfe, all of which follow the infinitive: ‫ن خانه‬ tioning as ‘of’) comes closer to ‘the purchase of the house’ than to ‘buying the house.’ Mentioning both the subject and the object of the infinitive (something like ‘my seeing him . . .’) is not common in Persian and only one is usually mentioned.1

Subject or object/ complement of infinitive

More examples:

ِ ‫رفت‬ ‫ن مينا من را غمگين میکند‬

[raftan-e minā man rā ghamgin mikonad, ‘Mina’s leaving (lit., ‘the going/departure of Mina’) makes me sad.’] – ‫مينا‬ is the subject of ‫رفتن‬.

‫[ خوردنِ سيب خيلی خوب است‬khordan-e sib kheyli khub ast, ‘Eating apples is very good.’] – ‫ سيب‬is the object of ‫خوردن‬. ‫( برایِ دیدنِ پدرش به آن شهرِ دور میرود‬barāye didan-e pedarash be ān shahr-e dur mi-ravad, ‘He goes to that faraway city to see [= ‘for seeing’] his father.’)

‫( نپرسيدن از استاد اشتباه است‬naporsidan az ostād eshtebāh ast, ‘Not asking the professor is wrong/is a mistake.’)

If what you have after the ezāfe is a pronoun, you can use the suffixed possessive pronouns also (and then no ezāfe): ‫( آمدنِ شما‬āmadan-e shomā) and ‫آمدنتان‬ (āmadan-etān) are both the same and they mean ‘your coming’. Even when the complement of the verb has a preposition, the ezāfe is sometimes used, although it is often dropped (as we did in some examples of the previous section): In those examples, “going there” can be read with ezāfe [as raftan-e be ānjā] or without [raftan be ānjā]. (With this particular verb, sometimes the preposition ‫ به‬is dropped, but then the ezāfe has to be kept: raftan-e ānjā.) What is normally placed before the infinitive: 1. Prepositions (as the previous example with ‫ برایِ دیدنِ پدرش‬shows) or the non-verbal part of the infinitive, if it is merely (or functions as) a prefix:

‫( برگشتن از سفر‬bar-gashtan az safar, to return from the trip) 2. Adjectives and adverbs are always placed before the infinitive and never after it, whether they can be considered as the non-verbal part of a compound infinitive or not:

‫( دیر رسيدن بهتر از هرگز نرسيدن است‬dir residan behtar az hargez na-residan ast, Better to arrive late than never.)

117

10 Infinitive – its uses Past and present stems

‫( خوشحال کردنِ بچهها کار سختی نبود‬khosh-hāl kardan-e bach.che-hā kār-e sakhti na-bud, Making the children happy was not difficult/a difficult task.)

3. The complement of linking verbs like ‫( بودن‬budan, to be) and ‫( شدن‬shodan, to get/become), when they are used in this function, is placed before the infinitive:

‫ شدن کارِ آسانی نيست‬/ ‫( معلم بودن‬mo’allem budan/shodan kār-e āsāni nist, To be/to become a teacher is not easy.)

Here note, for instance, that ‫( معلّم بودن‬mo’al.lem budan) means ‘to be a ِ ‫( بود‬budan-e teacher’ – budan being a linking verb here – whereas ‫ن معلّم‬ mo’al.lem) would mean ‘the presence of the teacher.’ 4. In compounds with ‫( کردن‬kardan), the non-verbal part is much less likely to be post-positioned, even if it is a noun, and with some more common compounds it never happens:

‫( گوش کردنِ به رادیو مفيدترین کار نيست‬gush kardan be rādiyo behtarin kār nist, Listening to the radio is not the best thing to do.)

On the whole, when nouns can be used either before or after the infinitive (the latter case requiring ezāfe), the pre-positioned option gives them more the appearance of the non-verbal part of a compound infinitive, while when post-positioned they look more like an infinitive + its complement, in which case the complement can even be plural or be modified by some adjective, etc. Compare:

‫( غذا خوردن‬ghazā khordan, to eat/eating) vs. ‫غذای خوشمزه‬/‫غذاها‬/‫خوردنِ غذا‬

(khordan-e ghazā/ghazā-hā/ghazā-ye khosh-maze, to eat/eating the food/ foods/delicious food)

‫( نامه نوشتن‬nāme neveshtan, letter-writing) vs. ‫نامهها‬/‫( نوشتنِ نامه‬neveshtan-e nāme/nāme-hā, writing the letter/letters)

Exercises Exercise 10.1 Write the infinitive forms of the following verbs. Example: 118

‫رفتن → میرویم‬

‫ بيدار نمیشود‬.۶ ‫ ورزش میکنم‬.۵ ‫ مینشينند‬.۴ ‫ ببر‬.3 ‫ بخورید‬.2 ‫ مینویسی‬.1 ‫ نخند‬.12 ‫ حرف میزند‬.11 ‫ خطر ندارد‬.10 ‫ امتحان میدهی‬.9 ‫ بيفت‬.8 ‫ برگردید‬.7

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪ .13‬میدانم ‪ .۱۴‬هست ‪ .1۵‬نيستند ‪ .۱۶‬بخرید ‪ .17‬نمیخواهيم ‪ .18‬بگذر ‪ .19‬ببينيد‬ ‫‪ .20‬میگویند‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 10.2‬‬ ‫‪In each of the following sentences, change the verb to infinitive to be used as‬‬ ‫‪subject and re-write the sentence similar to the example. (Adjectives and adverbs‬‬ ‫)‪will have the same form.‬‬ ‫‪Example:‬‬

‫)‪ (I[’ll] find the airport easily.‬فرودگاه را آسان پيدا میکنم‬ ‫‪ (Finding the airport is easy [for‬پيدا کردنِ فرودگاه )برای من ( آسان است →‬ ‫)‪me].‬‬

‫ال خيلی آهسته حرف نمیزنند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬بچهها معمو ً‬ ‫‪. 2‬شما خيلی جالب نامه مینویسيد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬استادم را خيلی کوتاه میبينم‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬راه بازار را سخت پيدا میکنيد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬آنها خيلی دیر جواب میدهند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬این بچّهها خيلی تميز غذا میخورند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬این پرنده زیبا میخواند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬پسرتان عالی درس میخواند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬با او زشت حرف نمیزنی‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬داستان را آسان ترجمه میکنی‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 10.3‬‬ ‫‪Translate both versions of the sentences in the previous exercise into English.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 10.4‬‬ ‫‪Write the correct form of the verbs (present tense) and then translate the sen‬‬‫‪tences into English.‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪119‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫من در یک روز ‪( ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬سفر او به تاجيکستان و برگشت ِ‬ ‫ن‬ ‫‪.‬از دیدن این باغ زیبا همه خيلی شاد ‪( ..........‬شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬گوش کردن به رادیو برای یادگرفتن این زبانها خيلی مفيد ‪( ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬

‫‪10‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬آیا نرفتن به ایران خيلی شما را غمگين ‪( ..........‬کردن)؟‬ ‫‪. ۶‬چرا از سفر کردن دخترتان به دور دنيا ‪( ..........‬ترسيدن)؟‬ ‫‪. 7‬تميز نکردن ميز بزرگترین اشتباه من و برادرم ‪( ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬هيچکس دربارۀ آمدن پدرم به من چيزی ‪( ..........‬گفتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬من و زنم هميشه دربارۀ رفتن یا نرفتن به آمریکا حرف ‪( ..........‬زدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬درس خواندن در دانشگاههای آمریکا هميشه گران ‪( ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬من برای پيدا کردن کيف پولش به او کمک ‪( ..........‬کردن)‪.‬‬

‫– ‪Infinitive‬‬ ‫‪its uses‬‬ ‫‪Past and‬‬ ‫‪present stems‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫ندانستن عیب نیست‪ ،‬نپرسیدن عیب است‬

‫‪Not knowing is not a fault, (but) not asking is.‬‬ ‫بودن یا نبودن‪ ،‬پرسش این است‪) .‬هملت(‬

‫)‪To be, or not to be, that is the question. (Hamlet‬‬

‫‪Note‬‬ ‫‪1 To say “my seeing him . . . ” in Persian, one would have to resort to forms like “his‬‬ ‫ن او بوسيلۀ من( ”‪beeng seen by me‬‬ ‫‪), using passive infinitive and adding‬دیده شد ِ‬ ‫‪), a form which is still not very common (see Unit 20 and‬بوسيلۀ( ’‪something like ‘by‬‬ ‫‪the note about avoiding the passive).‬‬

‫‪120‬‬

UNIT ELEVEN Future tense

11 ‫فصل‬

‫زمان آینده‬

New words in this unit ‫آینده‬ ‫فهمیدن‬

ā.yan.de

future (gr.); coming, approaching, next

fah.mi.dan

to understand; to realize (pres. stem: ‫فهم‬ [fahm])

‫شنیدن‬

she.ni.dan

to hear (pres. stem: ‫[ شنو‬she.now → she. nav])

(‫ از‬/‫رد شدن )در‬

rad sho.dan (dar/az)

‫باز‬ ‫باز کردن‬

bāz

to fail (in [a test]), to be rejected; also to pass (locational, as on the street) [‫شدن‬ → ‫]شو‬

bāz kar.dan

‫باز شدن‬

bāz sho.dan

‫جشن‬ ‫جشن گرفتن‬ ‫آزادی‬ ‫جهنّم‬ ‫آشپز‬ ‫آشپزی‬ ‫آشپزی کردن‬ ‫پختن‬ ‫شام‬ ‫خواب‬

jashn jashn ge.ref.tan ā.zā.di

open

to open; to unfasten, to untie (tr.) [‫کردن‬ ‫]کن‬

→

to open (intr.), to be opened or untied [‫]شو→ شدن‬ celebration

to celebrate [‫→ گرفتن‬ freedom

ja.han.nam

hell

āsh.paz

cook

āsh.pa.zi

cooking

āsh.pa.zi kar.dan

to cook (intr.) ‫→ کردن‬

pokh.tan shām khāb

‫]گیر‬

‫]کن‬

to cook (tr./intr.) (pres. stem: ‫[ پز‬paz]) supper; dinner

sleep (n.); asleep (adj.)

121

11 Future tense

‫نو‬ ‫سالِ نو‬ ‫کار‬ ‫کار کردن‬ ‫کارخانه‬ ‫کارِ خانه‬ (‫درس دادن )به‬ ‫تدریس کردن‬ ‫کبوتر‬ ‫دوباره‬ ‫مدّت‬ ِ‫به مدّت‬ ‫خانواده‬ ‫تِرم‬ ‫دندان‬ ‫پزشک‬ ‫دندانپزشک‬ ‫مهمان‬ ‫ایستگاه‬ ‫قطار‬ ‫مصر‬ ‫احمد‬

now

new

sā.l-e now

new year

kār

work, job

kār kar.dan

to work (intr.)

kār-khā.ne

factory (pl. ‫)کارخانهها‬

kā.r-e khā.ne

household chores (pl. ‫خانه‬

ِ‫)کارهای‬

dars dā.dan (be)

to teach (sth. to s.o.)

tad.ris kar.dan

to teach (a subject) (form.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

ka.bu.tar

dove; pigeon

do.bā.re

again

mod.dat

duration; period

be mod.da.t-e

for (the duration of)

khā.ne.vā.de

family

term

term, semester

dan.dān

tooth

pe.zeshk

doctor

dan.dān-pe.zeshk

dentist

meh.mān

guest

ist.gāh

station

gha.tār

train

mesr

Egypt

ah.mad

Ahmad (boys’ name)

11.1 Formation Formation of this tense is simple and regular for all the verbs. This is all that you need: 1. Start with ‫( خواه‬khāh, present stem of ‫[ خواستن‬khāstan]), 2. add conjugational endings (stressed), and finally 3. past stem of the main verb – which, as we already know, is always regular. 122

How would you say ‘I will write’? It is enough to know that the infinitive is neveshtan (‫)نوشتن‬: you say khāham nevesht (‫)خواهم نوشت‬.

In other words, the future tense needs the verb ‫( خواستن‬originally meaning ‘to want’) as auxiliary verb, and this verb is conjugated in the present tense for all persons, but without the prefix mi-. Then the main verb comes immediately after this auxiliary verb in the form of a past stem (also called short infinitive). Stress: The main stress is on the conjugational ending of the auxiliary ‫ – خواستن‬which is very unusual: the conjugational endings are otherwise usually unstressed. (See 11.3 for stress in the negative.)

Negative

11.2 Future tense of compound verbs In compound verbs, the auxiliary ‫ خواستن‬always comes between the two parts, and the main stress shifts to the (last) syllable before the auxiliary:

‫[ بر خواهم گشت‬bar khāham gasht, ‘I shall return.’ – stress on bar]. ‫[ نگاه خواهند کرد‬negāh khāhand kard, ‘They will look.’ – stress on -gāh]. ‫[ زمان بهتری برای سفر پیدا خواهی کرد‬zamān-e behtari barāye safar peydā khāhi kard, ‘You will find a better time for the trip.’ – stress on -dā].

11.3 Negative For the negative, add the prefix na- to the auxiliary ‫ خواستن‬and not to the main verb (again something very unusual!). In the negative, na- will take the main stress, as it always does in all tenses:

‫[ نخواهد شنید‬nakhāhad shenid, ‘He will not hear.’] ‫[ گوش نخواهید کرد‬gush nakhāhid kard, ‘You will not listen.’] ‫[ در آن تاریخ من در تهران نخواهم بود‬dar ān tārikh man dar tehrān nakhāham bud, ‘On that date I will not be in Tehran.’]

Table 11.1 Future tense of two verbs

1st person sg.

simple verb: ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’]

‫[ برداشتن‬bar-dāshtan, ‘to pick up’]

‫خواهم داشت‬

‫بر خواهم داشت‬

Negative:

Negative:

khāham dāsht

‫نخواهم داشت‬

nakhāham dāsht

compound verb:

bar khāham dāsht

‫بر نخواهم داشت‬

bar nakhāham dāsht

123

11

Table 11.1 (cont’d)

Future tense

2nd person sg.

simple verb: ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’]

‫[ برداشتن‬bar-dāshtan, ‘to pick up’]

‫خواهی داشت‬

‫بر خواهی داشت‬

Negative:

Negative:

khāhi dāsht

‫نخواهی داشت‬

nakhāhi dāsht 3rd person sg.

‫خواهد داشت‬

‫بر خواهد داشت‬

Negative:

Negative:

‫نخواهد داشت‬

‫بر نخواهد داشت‬

‫خواهیم داشت‬

‫بر خواهیم داشت‬

Negative:

Negative:

‫نخواهیم داشت‬

nakhāhim dāsht

‫خواهید داشت‬

bar nakhāhad dāsht

bar khāhim dāsht

‫بر نخواهیم داشت‬

bar nakhāhim dāsht

‫بر خواهید داشت‬

khāhid dāsht

bar khāhid dāsht

Negative:

Negative:

‫نخواهید داشت‬

‫بر نخواهید داشت‬

nakhāhid dāsht

3rd person pl.

‫بر نخواهی داشت‬

bar nakhāhi dāsht bar khāhad dāsht

khāhim dāsht

2nd person pl.

bar khāhi dāsht

khāhad dāsht

nakhāhad dāsht 1st person pl.

compound verb:

‫خواهند داشت‬

bar nakhāhid dāsht

‫بر خواهند داشت‬

khāhand dāsht

bar khāhand dāsht

Negative:

Negative:

‫نخواهند داشت‬

‫بر نخواهند داشت‬

nakhāhand dāsht

bar nakhāhand dāsht

11.4. Usage

124

In colloquial Persian, usually the present tense is also used for the future. Although educated people use this tense quite often even in conversation, the future tense is more for written and formal Persian. But even in written and formal Persian the present tense can always replace the future without changing the meaning.

The future has no perfect or progressive forms in Persian and, if necessary, uses the present progressive and present perfect instead.

Exercises

Mixed examples of present tense and future

‫( او فردا برخواهد گشت‬or ‫( )او فردا برمیگردد‬He will return tomorrow.) ‫( او فردا ساعتِ هشت دارد از سفرش برمیگردد‬Tomorrow at 8 he will be returning from his trip.)

‫( برای چند ثانیه یک قلم میخواهم‬I want a pen for a few seconds.) ‫( فردا این قلم را خواهم خواست‬I’ll want this pen tomorrow.) ‫( فردا ساعت چهار و نیم ما را نخواهید دید‬You’ll not see us tomorrow at 4:30.) ‫( هفتۀ آینده با هواپیما به تهران خواهند رفت‬Next week they’ll go to Tehran by plane.)

‫( این بچه همه چیز را میفهمد‬This child understands everything.) ‫( پدرت همه چیز را خواهد فهمید‬Your father will realize everything.) ‫( آیا معلمهای بد به جهنّم خواهند رفت؟‬Will bad teachers go to hell?) ‫( روزی ما در این کشور آزادی خواهیم داشت‬One day we will have freedom in this country.)

Exercises Exercise 11.1 Write the future tense of the following verbs for the person given. Example: (‫→ گفتن )ما‬

‫خواهیم گفت‬

)‫ خریدن )آنها‬.۶ )‫ نوشتن )شما‬.۵ )‫ دانستن )ما‬.۴ )‫ دیدن )او‬.3 )‫ آمدن )تو‬.2 )‫ رفتن )من‬.1 )‫ پختن )شما‬.11 )‫ خواندن )ما‬.10 )‫ گذشتن )او‬.9 )‫ رسیدن )تو‬.8 )‫ داشتن )من‬.7 .)‫ نشستن )آنها‬.12 Exercise 11.2 Change the verbs in the following sentences to the negative, then translate the sentences. Example:

‫( نخواهم گفت → من به او خواهم گفت‬I won’t tell him/her.)

125

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪11‬‬

‫‪.‬من پس فردا تو را در کارخانه خواهم دید‪.‬‬

‫‪Future tense‬‬

‫‪.‬ماه آینده مادرشان از سفرش برخواهد گشت‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬ساعت چهار بعد از ظهر با دوستم درس خواهم خواند‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬این آشپز امروز خیلی خوب آشپزی خواهد کرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬شما حرف بزنید‪ ،‬او خواهد فهمید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬برای آن کار خیلی زیاد وقت خواهیم داشت‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬پدرم بیشتر از دو هفته با ما خواهد بود‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬دو بار در یک روز جشن خواهیم گرفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬این دانشگاه چیزهای زیادی به شما خواهد داد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬امشب با خانوادهتان شام خواهید خورد‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 11.3‬‬ ‫‪Change the tense of the verbs in the following sentences to the future.‬‬ ‫مادرم امروز خواهد گفت → مادرم امروز میگوید ‪Example:‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪.‬احمد پنجرهها را باز میکند ولی خانه را تمیز نمیکند‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬مینا کتابش را پیدا میکند و برای درسش کار میکند‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬پروین زبان انگلیسی را به مدت چهار سال در دانشگاه یاد میگیرد‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬هیچکدام از آن جوانها صبح زود از خواب بیدار نمیشوند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬پدرم هرگز در کارهای خانه به مادرم کمک نمیکند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬چرا همۀ دانشجویان در یک روز امتحان نمیدهند؟‬ ‫‪. 8‬هیچکس در امتحان دیکته رد نمیشود و غصه نمیخورد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬معلم به مدت یک ساعت با بچهها در حیاط مدرسه ورزش میکند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬من از دیدن خانوادۀ زنم خیلی خوشحال میشوم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 11‬به کشورم برمیگردم و کار بهتری پیدا میکنم‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .12‬همیشه پاکت نامه را برمیدارد و باز میکند و نامه را میخواند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬هر دوی این استادان در دانشگاه تهران تدریس میکنند‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 11.4‬‬ ‫‪Translate the sentences from the previous exercise (Ex. 11.3) into English.‬‬

‫‪126‬‬

‫‪Exercise 11.5‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪Complete the sentences by using a) present tense, and b) future.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬

‫‪۴1‬‬ ‫‪۵1‬‬

‫‪) ..........‬حرف زدن)‪.‬‬

‫فردا من با دندانپزشک مشهوری‬ ‫‪.‬سال آینده او برای یاد گرفتن زبان عربی به مصر ‪) ..........‬سفر کردن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬دانشجویان سال نو را در دانشگاه ‪) ..........‬جشن گرفتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬من فردا ساعت هشت صبح ‪) ..........‬بیدار شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬احمد فردا یک ربع دیرتر به کالس ‪) ..........‬آمدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آیا هفتۀ آینده هیچکس استاد را ‪) ..........‬دیدن)؟‬ ‫‪.‬آنها هرگز از غذا خوردن در یک رستوران خیلی گران ‪) ..........‬خوشحال شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آیا تو هیچوقت برای خانوادهات ‪) ..........‬غصه خوردن)؟‬ ‫‪.‬ترم آینده یک استاد مهمان از ایران در دانشگاه ما ‪) ..........‬تدریس کردن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬یک استاد هیچوقت به همۀ پرسشهای من ‪) ..........‬پاسخ دادن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬من به خانهام ‪) ..........‬برگشتن) و کیفم را ‪) ..........‬برداشتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬تو بعد از دیدن شهرهای اصفهان و شیراز به تهران ‪) ..........‬رسیدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬بهترین دوست من سه هفته در خانۀ ما ‪) ..........‬ماندن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬فردا هیچکس با من به ایستگاه قطار ‪) ..........‬آمدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬شما خیلی آسان راه را ‪) ..........‬پیدا کردن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 11.6‬‬

‫‪Translate the sentences from the previous exercise (Ex. 11.5) into English.‬‬ ‫)‪(Versions a and b are the same in usage, but please translate the version b [future].‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫روزی ما دوباره کبوترهایمان را پیدا خواهیم کرد‬ ‫و مهربانی دست زیبائی را خواهد گرفت‬ ‫‪One day we shall find again our doves‬‬

‫‪And kindness will take the hand of beauty.‬‬ ‫)‪(From a poem by Ahmad Shāmlu, 1925–2000.‬‬

‫‪127‬‬

UNIT TWELVE Simple past tense Past progressive tense

12 ‫فصل‬

‫زمان گذشتۀ ساده‬ ( ‫)یا ماضیِ مطلق‬ ‫زمان گذشتۀ استمراری‬ ( ‫)یا ماضیِ استمراری‬

New words in this unit

128

‫ماضی مطلق‬ ‫قبل‬ ‫قبل از‬ ً‫قبال‬ ‫پیش‬ ‫پیش از‬ ‫بعد‬

mā.zi-ye mot.lagh

simple past tense (lit., ‘absolute past’) (gr.)

ghabl

past, last (as in ‘last week’) (adj.)

ghabl az

before (prep.)

ghab.lan

previously (adv.)

pish

past, last (as in ‘last week’) (adj.)

pish az

before (prep.)

ba’d

next (adj.) (as in ‘next week’); afterwards, later, then (conj.)

‫بعد از‬ ً‫بعدا‬ ‫پس از‬ ‫اینقدر‬ ‫تعطیل‬ ‫تعطیالت‬ ‫تابستانی‬ ‫هیزم‬ ‫تر‬ ‫فضول‬ ‫شغل‬

ba’d az

after (prep.)

ba’.dan

afterwards, later, then (adv.)

pas az

after [prep.]

in-ghadr

so, so much

ta’.til

closed (a store or office); a holiday

ta’.ti.lāt

holidays; vacations

tā.bes.tā.ní

summer’s; of summer; summerly

hi.zom

firewood

tar

wet

fo.zul

meddler; nosy person

shoghl

occupation; job

‫دولت‬ ‫دولتی‬ ‫انداختن‬ (‫عکس گرفتن )از‬ ‫به دنیا آمدن‬

dow.lat

government

dow.la.ti

of government or state; governmental

an.dākh.tan

to throw (pres. stem: ‫[ انداز‬an.dāz])

aks ge.ref.tan (az) be don.yā ā.ma.dan

to be born (lit. ‘to come to the world’) [‫]آ → آمدن‬

be sho.mār ā.ma.dan

‫آشپزخانه‬ ‫نخود‬ ‫خیّاط‬ ‫خیّاطی‬ ‫خیّاطی کردن‬ ‫دخترانه‬ ‫پسرانه‬ ‫کرد‬ ‫کردی‬ ‫زبانِ مادری‬ ‫ادبیّات‬ ‫رشته‬

āsh.paz-khā.ne

kitchen

no.khod

chickpea

khay.yāt

tailor

khay.yā.ti

sewing; tailor; the tailor’s

khay.yā.ti kar.dan

to sew [‫]کن → کردن‬

dokh.ta.rā.ne

in this unit

to take photos (from) [‫]گیر → گرفتن‬

‫به شمار آمدن‬ ‫راه رفتن‬

rāh raf.tan

New words

to be counted or considered [‫]آ → آمدن‬ to walk/stroll (in some place, not to) [‫]رو → رفتن‬

girls’, of girls

pe.sa.rā.ne

boys’, of boys

kord

Kurd

kor.di

Kurdish

za.bā.n-e mā.da.ri

mother tongue

a.da.biy.yāt

literature

resh.te

field (of knowledge or study); major (in education); line, thread

‫خدا‬ ‫خدا حافظ‬

kho.dā

god

kho.dā hā.fez

good-bye; adieu (lit., ‘may God protect you’)

‫عزیز‬ ‫هنوز‬ ‫هم‬ ‫باز هم‬ ‫تنها‬ ‫بدبختانه‬ ‫شهناز‬ ‫لورا‬

a.ziz

dear

ha.nuz

still [adv.]; yet (in neg.)

ham

too; also

bāz ham

again; still

tan.hā

only; alone

bad.bakh.tā.ne

unfortunately, unluckily

shah.nāz

Shahnaz (girls’ name)

lo.rā

Laura

129

12 Simple past tense Past progressive tense

12.1 Simple past tense: formation The simple past tense is the past stem + conjugational suffixes. We already know what the past stem is: it is what is left from the infinitive after you drop -an – it is always regular. And we know the conjugational suffixes also from the present tense – the only difference is that 3rd person singular does not need any conjugational ending in the past tense. This means that the past stem and the 3rd person singular of the simple past tense are the same. First, all the pronouns and suffixes we have learned so far at a glance: Table 12.1 Pronouns and suffixes – a review Independent personal pronouns

Possessive (pronominal enclitics)

Present (to be)

Present (other verbs)

‫من‬

‫ م‬‫ـ‬

‫ م‬‫ـ‬

‫ م‬‫ـ‬

man

‫تو‬ to

‫آن‬/‫او‬

– am

‫ ت‬‫ـ‬

– at

‫ ش‬‫ـ‬

– am

‫ـی‬

–i

– am

-

‫ـی‬

[none!]

–i

‫ـی‬ –i

‫است‬

‫ـ د‬

-

‫ـ یم‬

– ash

ast

‫ما‬

‫ـِ مان‬

‫ـ یم‬

‫ـ یم‬

– emān

– im

‫شما‬

‫ِـ تان‬

‫ـ ید‬

‫ـ ید‬ ‫ـ ند‬

shomā

– etān

– id

‫ایشان‬/‫آنها‬

‫ِـ شان‬

‫ـ ند‬

– and

[none!]

– ad

mā

– eshān

Pas t

‫ـ م‬

– am

ān/u

ishān/ānhā

Imperative

– im

– im

‫ـ ید‬

– id

– id

– and

‫ـ ید‬ – id

‫ـَ ند‬

– and

And here a comparison of present and past, the verb ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’]: Table 12.2 The verb ‫[ داشتن‬dāshtan, ‘to have’], present and past

130

1sg.

Present stem: ‫ دار‬, dār

Past stem: ‫ داشت‬, dāsht

‫ دارم‬, dāram

‫ داشتم‬, dāshtam

2sg.

Present stem: ‫ دار‬, dār

Past stem: ‫ داشت‬, dāsht

‫ داری‬, dāri

‫ داشتی‬, dāshti

‫ داریم‬, dārim

‫ داشتیم‬, dāshtim

‫ دارد‬, dārad

3sg. 1pl.

‫ دارید‬, dārid

2pl.

‫ دارند‬, dārand

3pl.

Simple past tense: formation

‫ داشت‬, dāsht

‫ داشتید‬, dāshtid

‫ داشتند‬, dāshtand

12.1.1 Negative – and the glide For the negative, simply add the negative prefix na-. If the past stem starts with the vowels ā, a and o, use the glide -y- (‫)ی‬. The rules for writing the glide are similar to what we learned about the imperative (9.1 and 9.4): 1. If the initial vowel is ā, drop the madd sign: ‫[ آمد‬āmad, ‘He/she came’], ‫نیامد‬ [nayāmad, ‘He/she didn’t come’]. 2. In the case of a and o, good Persian requires that the alef be dropped altogether:

‫انداخت‬

[andākht, ‘He/she threw’], ‫[ نینداخت‬nayandākht, ‘He/she didn’t throw’]. ‫[ افتاد‬oftād, ‘He/she fell’], ‫[ نیفتاد‬nayoftād, ‘He/she didn’t fall’].

12.1.2 Compound verbs There is nothing that you need to learn additionally here. And as you might expect, for the negative the prefix na- should be added to the verb part:

‫[ حرف زدیم‬harf zadim, ‘We talked’], ‫[ حرف نزدیم‬harf nazadim, ‘We didn’t talk’]. 12.1.3 Usage The simple past tense is used in Persian to express what was done and completed in the past at a certain time. Unlike the English past tense, however, it is usually not used with frequency adverbs or with a function similar to used to (for which the past progressive will be needed); focus is on completion and not on continuation. Examples:

‫[ من سالِ قبل در ایران بودم‬man sāl-e ghabl dar irān budam, “Last year I was in Iran.’]

131

12

‫[ بعد از کالس کجا رفتی؟‬ba’d az kelās kojā rafti?, “Where did you go after class?’]

Simple past tense Past progressive tense

‫[ بعد از خریدن این فرش چه کردید؟‬ba’d az kharidan-e in farsh che kardid?, “What did you do after purchasing this carpet?’]

‫[ دیروز مینا را با یک خارجی در خیابان دیدیم‬diruz minā rā bā yek khāreji

dar khiyābān didam, “Yesterday we saw Mina with a foreigner on the Street.’]

‫[ چه موقعی آن صدا را شنیدی؟‬che mowghe’i ān sedā rā shenidi?, “When did you hear that noise?’]

‫[ چرا اینقدر زود برگشتید؟‬cherā inghadr zud bargashtid?, “Why did you return so early?’]

‫[ آن سه نفر تا روز آخر با من حرف نزدند‬ān se nafar tā ruz-e ākhar bā man harf nazadand, “Those three [people] did not talk to me until the last day.’]

‫[ بچهها دو ساعت در حیاط بازی کردند‬bachche-hā do sā’at dar hayāt bāzi kardand, “The children played in the yard for 2 hours.’]

For the simple past tense in if-clauses and time-clauses (used instead of the present tense) see Units 16 and 18 respectively.

12.2 Past progressive tense – formation Add the prefix mi- to the verb: ‫میرفتم → رفتم‬. Change mi- to nemi- in the negative: ‫نمیرفتم → میرفتم‬.

Exception: The verbs ‫ بودن‬and ‫ داشتن‬do not use the prefix mi- (except in irrealis constructions, to be learned later) – which means that the same form is used as simple past tense:

‫( من هرروز آنجا میرفتم‬with ‫ می‬: ‘I went there everyday’), but ‫( من هرروز آنجا بودم‬without ‫ می‬: ‘I was there everyday’). 12.2.1 Usage The past progressive (or continuous) tense is used for things that were happening in the past • 132

at a certain time:

‫‘( دیشب ساعت یازده نامه مینوشتم‬I was writing a letter last night

at 11’);

•

for a certain period of time:

‫‘( در زمستان گذشته فارسی یاد میگرفتم‬I was learning Persian during last

winter’); or •

Past progres­ sive tense – formation

habitually (= used to):

‫‘( هر سال تابستان به شیراز میرفتیم‬Every summer we went/we used to go

to Shirāz’).

(Its use in irrealis constructions will be discussed in Unit 16.) How do the Persian and English simple past and past progressive compare? Their resemblance: I saw him yesterday = ‫( دیروز او را دیدم‬both simple past) This morning I was reading your book = ‫میخواندم‬ (both past progressive)

‫امروز صبح کتاب شما را‬

Their difference: I saw him everyday (simple past) vs. ‫( هرروز او را میدیدم‬past progressive) Also: For a certain group of verbs, that we can call ‘verbs of state,’ Persian uses a perfect tense where English would normally use a progressive tense; we will see some examples when we learn the perfect tenses in the next unit. Caution: Since the past progressive and the simple present both use the prefix mi-, with certain verbs this can cause confusion that only the context can disentangle: Some examples: •

•

With the group of regular verbs whose infinitive ends in -idan, like ‫[ رسیدن‬residan, ‘to reach /arrive’ – present stem res, past stem resid] or ‫[ خندیدن‬khandidan, ‘to laugh’ – present stem khand, past stem khandid], the 2nd person plural in the present tense is exactly the same as 3rd person singular in the past progressive, both in writing and in pronunciation. Thus, a question like ‫چرا‬ ‫[ میخندید؟‬cherā mi-khandid?] can mean both “Why are you laughing?/Why do you laugh?” (present) and “Why was he/she laughing?” (past progressive). Conjugate this verb for all persons in these two tenses (starting with mi-khandam for the present tense and mi-khandidam for the past progressive) to see how this happens. With another group of regular verbs, with infinitive ending in -āndan, like ‫[ ماندن‬māndan, ‘to stay’ – present stem mān, past stem mānd], 3rd person singular would be exactly the same in writing in the present and past progressive, though not in pronunciation. Since, however, the diacritical marks (for the ‘short’ vowels a, e and o) are usually not written, this can be a problem – and again the context should help you decide how to read and to understand

133

12 Simple past tense Past progressive tense

•

the verb: should it be pronounced -ānd at the end (past) or -ānad (present)? ‫ میماند‬can mean “he stays” when pronounced mi-mānad, but “he was staying” when pronounced mi-mānd. Again, conjugate this verb in these two tenses to see how this happens. Some of the irregular verbs can also cause this latter confusion in reading, like ‫[ بردن‬bordan, ‘to take (away)’ – present stem bar, past stem bord]: ‫میبرد‬ can be mi-barad (‘he is taking’) or mi-bord (‘he was taking’).

12.2.2 Past progressive with da¯ shtan (‫)داشتن‬

Similar to present progressive (see 5.5), the verb ‫ داشتن‬can be used with past progressive also, with almost the same functions and limitations: 1. It is used predominantly in colloquial Persian. 2. It makes it clear that the verb is about an action in progress and not what used to be done. 3. It is used for verbs that denote an action, not a state. 4. It has no negative form and is always affirmative. 5. Here ‫ داشتن‬is an auxiliary verb with no independent meaning of its own; don’t translate it as to have. Formation: The main verb does not change at all: it is in the past progressive and is placed at the end of the sentence. Additionally, the past tense of ‫ داشتن‬is conjugated for the same person (without mi-) and placed at the beginning of the sentence (after the subject, if there is one, or after time adverbs). Example:

‫داشتم دربار ٔه مشکالت مالیام فکر میکردم‬

[dāshtam darbāreye moshkelāt-e māliam fekr mi-kardam, ‘I was thinking about my financial problems.’]

Without dāshtam, the above sentence could still have the same meaning (with less focus on the time of the action), but it could also mean “I used to think about my financial problems.” Mixed examples of simple past and past progressive:

‫[ نامهات را خواندم‬nāme-at rā khāndam]: ‘I read your letter.’ Here the action of ‘reading’ was completed and finished.

‫نامهات را میخواندم‬

[nāme-at rā mi-khāndam]: ‘I was reading your letter’ (maybe I finished reading it, maybe not), or: ‘I used to read your letter.’

‫[ داشتم نامهات را میخواندم‬dāshtam nāme-at rā mi-khāndam] ‘I was reading your letter’ (at a certain time in the past: I was in the process of reading).

134

‫[ دیروز پول نداشتیم‬diruz pul nadāshtim, ‘Yesterday we had no money.’]

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪ [diruz‬دیروز داشت با برادرم حرف میزد‬

‫‪dāsht bā barādaram harf mi-zad,‬‬ ‫]’‪‘Yesterday he/she was talking to my brother.‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 12.1‬‬ ‫‪Change the tense of verbs in the following sentences to the simple past.‬‬

‫نوشت‬ ‫‪.1‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬ ‫‪.۴‬‬ ‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.۶‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬ ‫‪.10‬‬ ‫‪.11‬‬ ‫‪.12‬‬ ‫‪.13‬‬ ‫‪.1۴‬‬ ‫‪.1۵‬‬

‫→ او نامۀ جالبی مینویسد ‪Example:‬‬

‫من قبل از غذا آب میخورم‪.‬‬

‫چرا کمی زودتر برنمیگردی؟‬ ‫ما هرشب در خانه آشپزی میکنیم‪.‬‬ ‫بچهها مواظب نیستند و میافتند‪.‬‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫آنها پول ندارند و جشن نمیگیرند‪.‬‬ ‫آن احمق به هیچ سؤالی پاسخ نمیدهد‪.‬‬ ‫چرا ما از یک پرندۀ کوچک میترسیم؟‬ ‫چرا حرف نمیزنید و تنها میخندید؟‬ ‫در باران راه میرود و تمیز میشود‪.‬‬ ‫مرد پیر آهسته از خیابان میگذرد‪.‬‬ ‫بچۀ کوچک نیست و آن را نمیاندازد‪.‬‬ ‫او یک ّ‬ ‫من سیب را برای تو نگه میدارم‪.‬‬ ‫آیا کتاب از روی میز نمیافتد؟‬ ‫تا جمعه در این ده میمانید‪.‬‬ ‫او در آشپزخانه غذای خوشمزهای با نخود میپزد‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 12.2‬‬

‫‪Change the tense of verbs in the previous exercise to the past progressive (write‬‬ ‫‪the whole sentence), then translate.‬‬ ‫→ او نامۀ جالبی مینویسد ‪Example:‬‬

‫‪135‬‬

‫)‪ (He/she was writing an interesting letter.‬او نامۀ جالبی مینوشت‬

‫‪Exercise 12.3‬‬ ‫‪Use the appropriate form of the verbs in the following letter (any tense or mood).‬‬

‫لورای عزیز‪ ،‬سالم‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫من با خواهر بزرگترم به یک مدرسۀ دخترانه ‪). .......... .‬رفتن(‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫شهر ما کوچک ‪). .......... .‬بودن(‪،‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪Simple past‬‬ ‫‪tense‬‬ ‫‪Past progres‬‬‫‪sive tense‬‬

‫من در یکی از شهرهای کوچک ایران به دنیا ‪). .......... .‬آمدن(‪.‬‬ ‫پدرم شغل دولتی ‪). .......... .‬داشتن(‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪12‬‬

‫و مادرم ‪). .......... .‬خیّاطی کردن(‪.‬‬

‫برادرم به مدرسۀ پسرانه ‪). .......... .‬رفتن(‪.‬‬

‫اما یکی از شهرهای خیلی قدیمی ایران ‪). .......... .‬به شمار آمدن(‪.‬‬

‫در تعطیالت تابستانی من با خانوادهام به تهران ‪). .......... .‬رفتن(‪.‬‬

‫ما در آنجا دو ماه ‪). .......... .‬ماندن(‬

‫‪ .10‬و بعد از آن به شهرمان ‪). .......... .‬برگشتن(‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬من و برادر و خواهرم شهر کوچکمان را بیشتر از تهران ‪). .......... .‬دوست داشتن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .12‬من حاال در ایران ‪). .......... .‬نـ ‪ +‬زندگی کردن(‬

‫‪ .13‬و در یک دانشگاه آمریکائی در رشتۀ ادبیات فارسی ‪). .......... .‬درس خواندن(‪.‬‬

‫‪ .1۴‬بدبختانه این دانشگاه رشتۀ زبان و ادبیات کُردی ‪). .......... .‬نـ ‪ +‬داشتن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .1۵‬زبان مادری من کردی ‪). .......... .‬بودن(‪،‬‬

‫‪ .1۶‬فارسی را در مدرسۀ دولتی شهرمان ‪). .......... .‬یاد گرفتن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .17‬من فارسی را خیلی خوب ‪). .......... .‬دانستن(‬

‫‪ .18‬اما برای من هم هنوز زبان دوم ‪). .......... .‬بودن(‪.‬‬

‫‪ .19‬تو هم داری فارسی را خوب ‪). .......... .‬یاد گرفتن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .20‬باز هم برای من به فارسی ‪). .......... .‬نوشتن(‪.‬‬

‫خداحافظ‬ ‫شهناز‬ ‫‪Exercise 12.4‬‬ ‫‪Translate the above letter into English.‬‬ ‫‪136‬‬

‫‪Exercise 12.5‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪While changing the tense to the simple past, combine the two sentences as shown‬‬ ‫‪ and infinitive.‬برایِ ‪in the example by using‬‬ ‫‪Example:‬‬

‫)‪ (He goes to the kitchen and eats.‬به آشپزخانه میرود و غذا میخورد‬ ‫‪ (He went to the kitchen to eat [‘for‬برایِ خوردنِ غذا به آشپزخانه رفت →‬ ‫)‪eating’].‬‬

‫‪.1‬‬

‫به حیاط میرود و از گلها عکس میگیرد‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫به خانۀ ما میآید و یک فیلم نگاه میکند‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫ورزش میکنی و بیمار نمیشوی‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫خیلی صبر میکنم و این عکس را میگیرم‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫زبان فارسی یاد میگیریم و به ایران میرویم‪.‬‬

‫خیلی کار میکنند و خانه را تمیز میکنند‪.‬‬

‫راه درازی میرود و به آنجا میرسد‪.‬‬

‫کتاب را برمیداری و آن را میخوانی‪.‬‬

‫به پنجره نزدیک میشوند و خیابان را میبینند‪.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬یک پرنده میخرم و بچهها را خوشحال میکنم‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 12.6‬‬ ‫‪Translate your answers to the previous exercise.‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫فضول را بردند به جهنّم‪ ،‬گفت هیزمش تر است‬

‫‪They took the meddler to hell, he said the firewood is not dry.‬‬

‫نخودِ هر آش بودن‬

‫‪To be the chickpea in every soup (= ‘to have a finger in every pie’).‬‬

‫‪137‬‬

UNIT THIRTEEN Past participle Perfect tenses

13 ‫فصل‬

‫اسمِ مفعول‬ ‫زمانهای کامل‬

New words in this unit

138

‫اسمِ مفعول‬ ‫ماضیِ نقلی‬

es.m-e maf.’ul

past participle (gr.)

mā.zi-ye nagh.li

present perfect tense (‘narrative past’) (gr.)

‫ماضیِ بعید‬

mā.zi-ye ba.’id

past perfect tense (lit., ‘remote past’) (gr.)

‫کامل‬ ‫تا به حال‬ ‫خوابیدن‬

kā.mel

perfect (adj.) (gr.)

tā be hāl

until now, so far (= ‫)تا حاال‬

‫پوشیدن‬

pu.shi.dan

‫مردن‬ ‫مرده‬ ‫صحبت کردن‬ ‫فارغ التّحصیل‬

mor.dan

‫فارغالتّحصیل شدن‬

fā.re.ghot.tah.sil sho.dan

‫فقط‬ ‫خبر‬ ‫والدین‬ ‫افغانستان‬ ‫ازبکستان‬

fa.ghat

only

kha.bar

news (countable in Persian)

vā.le.deyn

parents

af.ghā.nes.tān

Afghanistan

oz.ba.kes.tān

Uzbekistan

khā.bi.dan

mor.de soh.bat kar.dan fā.re.gh-ot-tah.sil

to sleep; to go to bed (pres. stem: ‫[ خواب‬khāb]) to wear (pres. stem: ‫پوش‬ [push])

to die (pres. stem: ‫[ میر‬mir]) dead

to speak [‫]کن → کردن‬

a graduate student [lit., ‘free from studies’] to graduate (from a college) [‫]شو → شدن‬

‫سعدی‬ ‫حافظ‬

sa’.di

Saadi (poet, ca. 1195–1226)

hā.fez

Hafez or Hafiz (poet, ca. 1326–1389)

‫فروغ فرخزاد‬

fo.rugh far.rokh.zād

Forugh Farrokhzād (poet, 1934–1967)

‫شعر‬ ‫قهوه‬ ‫قهوهای‬ ‫آذر‬ ‫بابک‬

she’r

poem; poetry (pl. ‫اشعار‬, ash.’ār)

ghah.ve

Past participle

coffee

ghah.ve.‘i

brown

ā.zar

Āzar (girls’ name)

bā.bak

Bābak (boys’ name)

13.1 Past participle The past participle is past stem + the final -e sound (written, naturally, with silent hé) – for all the verbs, without exception. You might have learned already some past participles without knowing it – like ‫ گذشته‬: Infinitive: ‫[ گذشتن‬gozashtan, ‘to pass’]

Past stem (= what remains from infinitive after you drop the final -an): ‫گذشت‬ [gozasht] Past participle (after you add the -e suffix): ‫[ گذشته‬gozashte, ‘passed’ or ‘past’]

As ‫ گذشته‬shows, a past participle – in Persian called ‫ اسمِ مفعول‬as well as ‫‘( صفتِ مفعولی‬participial adjective’) – can be used as an adjective or a noun.

Similar to nouns and adjectives, it has its stress on the last syllable. When used as a noun, it can take a plural suffix if needed, following the same rules we learned for nouns (2.1.1). It can also take the na- prefix, with a meaning similar to the English un- prefix. Some examples:

‫[ هفتۀ گذشته‬hafte-ye gozashte, ‘last week’] ‫[ در گذشته‬dar gozashte, ‘in the past’] ‫[ گذشتهها‬gozashte-hā, ‘past times’] ‫مردهها‬/‫[ مردگان‬morde-hā/mordegān, ‘the deceased’] ‫[ یک کتابِ نخوانده‬yek ketāb-e nakhānde, ‘an unread book’] The most important function of past participles, however, is their role in the formation of perfect tenses and constructions.

139

13 Past participle Perfect tenses

13.2 Some general remarks about perfect tenses and constructions • • •

As in English, perfect tenses and constructions are often about something that happens before a point of time (whether in the past, present or future). As in English, you will need an auxiliary verb – which is, unlike English, the verb to be in Persian (always its shorter version if present) and not to have! In the negative, the prefix na- is attached to the past participle (= the main verb), unless you have mi-, which will then change to nemi-. Never change the auxiliary verb (to be) to the negative.

13.3 Present perfect tense: ‫ زمانِ حالِ کامل‬or ‫ماضی نقلی‬ Formation: For the present perfect tense, you need the past participle of the verb followed by the the shorter (or suffixed) version of the present tense of the verb to be. Since the past participle ends in silent ‫[ ه‬hé], the verb to be – even this suffixed version – has to be written separately, usually by adding an alef to represent the glottal stop. In spoken Persian, ‫ است‬is always dropped in this tense in 3rd person singular and only the past participle remains. This can sometimes happen in more formal, written Persian also. For the negative, add na- to the past participle. Table 13.1 Present perfect tense of the verb ‫[ نوشتن‬neveshtan, to write]; past participle: ‫[ نوشته‬neveshte] Affirmative

Negative

‫نوشتهام‬

[neveshte’am, ‘I have written’]

‫نوشتهای‬

[neveshte’i, ‘You (sg.) have written’]

[‫نوشته ]است‬

[neveshte (ast), ‘He/she has written’]

‫نوشتهایم‬

[neveshte’im, ‘We have written’]

140

‫ننوشتهام‬

[naneveshte’am, ‘I have not written’]

‫ننوشتهای‬

[naneveshte’i, ‘You (sg.) have not written’]

[‫ننوشته ]است‬

[naneveshte (ast), ‘He/she has not written’]

‫ننوشتهایم‬

[naneveshte’im, ‘We have not written’]

‫نوشتهاید‬

[neveshte’id, ‘You (pl.) have written’]

‫نوشتهاند‬

[neveshte’and, ‘They have written’]

‫ننوشتهاید‬

[naneveshte’id, ‘You (pl.) have not written’]

Present perfect tense: ِ ِ ‫حال کامل‬ ‫زمان‬ or ‫ماضی نقلی‬

‫ننوشتهاند‬

[naneveshte’and, ‘They have not written’]

Caution – Two things that you should never forget: 1. Always the shorter (suffixed) to be: You can never say ‫ نوشته هستم‬instead of ‫نوشتهام‬. 2. Always add na- to the past participle in the negative: Never say ‫نوشته نیستم‬ instead of ‫ ننوشتهام‬. Usage: The Persian present perfect tense has a variety of functions, not all of which correspond with those of the same tense in English; the following are the most important among them: a) It is used for past actions or states whose influence and/or results are still felt and are relevant. Examples:

‫ = من این کتاب را خواندهام‬I have read this book. (‫ = مینا دیروز آمده )است‬Mina has come yesterday (i.e., she is probably still here).

‫ = حافظ در شیراز به دنیا آمده است‬Hāfez [poet of 14th century] has been born (= was born) in Shirāz (a historical fact which is still pertinent).

In the above examples, the simple past tense would only emphasize the pastness of the actions and they would become irrelevant to the present time. b) Careful: verbs of state! With a group of verbs that can be called verbs of state (because they show in what state the subject is), the present perfect tense is used where you normally expect the present progressive to be used. Four important verbs of this group are ‫‘( نشستن‬to sit), ‫‘( ایستادن‬to stand’), ‫خوابیدن‬ (‘to sleep’) and ‫‘( پوشیدن‬to wear’). In these cases, the past participle is functioning as an adjective, and the main verb can be said to be the verb to be in its present tense – it only resembles the present perfect tense in its structure. If the past participle is not used in an adjectival sense, then the verb would be about an act rather than a state and would be the normal 141

13 Past participle Perfect tenses

present perfect similar to other verbs. Also by using some adverb of time (to show when this started), we come closer again to the normal present perfect while keeping something of the state. Compare the following:

‫ = بابک نشست‬Bābak sat down. ‫ = بابک مینشیند‬Bābak sits down. (Maybe everyday? Or maybe this is the act of sitting down: right now he is changing his position from standing to sitting.)

‫ = بابک نشسته است‬Bābak is sitting. (This is about his state: he is in a seated position now.)

‫ = بابک از یک ساعت قبل اینجا نشسته است‬Bābak has been sitting here since an hour ago (= he has been in this seated position . . .).

‫ = آذر لباس آبی میپوشد‬Āzar is putting on a blue dress (= an act), or: Āzar wears a blue dress (apparently always); but:

‫ = آذر لباس آبی پوشیده است‬Āzar is wearing a blue dress (= a state); or: ‫ = آذر از ساعت هشت این لباس آبی را پوشیده است‬Āzar has been

wearing this blue dress since 8 o’clock (= she has been in this state . . .).

c) Since a future perfect tense is not common in Persian, the present perfect can be used instead of it whenever needed, usually with prepositions like ‫ تا‬or ‫قبل‬ ‫( از‬later in the book we will meet the same prepositions as conjunctions also, but that’s not for here):

‫ = فردا قبل از رسیدن بابک من این نامه را نوشتهام‬I [will] have written this letter tomorrow before Bābak’s arrival.

d) This tense was traditionally known in Persian grammar as narrative past (‫ )ماضیِ نقلی‬because of its usage when narrating some past event with some distance as something one just heard; but this usage of the present perfect will be explained later when discussing indirect speech. Examples:

‫‘( من تا به حال ایران و آسمان آبیش را ندیدهام‬Until now I have not seen Iran and its blue sky.’)

‫‘( آیا این کتاب را خواندهاید؟‬Have you read this book?’) ‫‘( از دو سال قبل از او خبری نداشتهایم‬We have had no news/have not heard from him since two years ago.’)

142

‫‘( امروز پنجرهها را تمیز کردهاند‬They’ve cleaned the windows today.’)

‫آیا هرگز برای دولت کار نکردهای؟‬ government?’)

(‘Haven’t you ever worked for the

‫‘( او همیشه چای بیشتر از قهوه دوست داشته است‬He/she has always liked

Present perfect tense: ِ ِ ‫حال کامل‬ ‫زمان‬ or ‫ماضی نقلی‬

tea more than coffee.’)

13.4 Present perfect progressive tense:

‫ل کاملِ استمراری‬ ِ ‫زمانِ حا‬

This is simply formed by adding the prefix mi- (or nemi- in the negative) to the past participle in the present perfect tense (13.3). It usually emphasizes the continuation of the action from sometime in the past until the present; normally a period of time is mentioned or a frequency adverb is used. When used in this tense, the ‘verbs of state’ mentioned above are treated in the same way as other verbs. ‫ بودن‬and ‫ داشتن‬are usually not used in this tense. Examples:

‫‘( تا قبل از آمدن شما کتاب میخواندهایم‬We have been reading books [until] before your coming/ before you came.’)

‫‘( او همیشه بیشتر از برادرش غذا میخورده است‬He has always eaten/been eating more than his brother.’)

‫‘( آنها معموالً در این اتاق میخوابیدهاند‬They have usually been sleeping in this room.’) 13.5 Past perfect tense: ‫ زمانِ گذشتۀ کامل‬or ‫ماضی بعید‬ The past perfect tense is like the present perfect tense; it only uses the past tense of the verb to be as auxiliary instead of its present tense. It is used for actions that happened before other past actions or before a point of time in the past. For ‘verbs of state’ (see 13.3/b) it serves as the past progressive – or it is the simple past tense of to be + past participle used as adjective. Understandably, the verb ‫ – بودن‬used as auxiliary here – has no past perfect itself (i.e., there is normally no ‫ بوده بودم‬, etc.) and the simple past tense is used instead. Examples:

‫‘( من قبل از شما آن کتاب را خوانده بودم‬I had read that book before you.’) ‫‘( آذر هرگز به آنجا نرفته بود‬Āzar had never gone there.’)

143

‫‪13.6 Past perfect progressive tense:‬‬

‫زمانِ گذشتۀ کاملِ استمراری‬

‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪Past participle‬‬ ‫‪Perfect tenses‬‬

‫‪This is theoretically possible (by adding mi- to the past perfect), but hardly ever‬‬ ‫‪used in Persian: usually the past progressive or past perfect is used instead.‬‬ ‫‪See Table 15.3 (Unit 15) for an overview of all tenses.‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 13.1‬‬ ‫?‪What tense/person are the following verbs and what are their past participles‬‬ ‫آمده )‪ → (simple past, 3sg., neg.‬نیامد ‪, or‬گفته )‪ → (imp. sg.‬بگو ‪Examples:‬‬

‫‪ . 1‬نبین ‪ . 2‬میزنید ‪ . 3‬خوردم ‪ . ۴‬میمیرند ‪ . ۵‬بخوابید ‪ . ۶‬بینداز ‪ . 7‬میترسی‬ ‫‪ .8‬مینویسیم ‪ .9‬بپزید ‪ .10‬بیا‬ ‫‪Exercise 13.2‬‬ ‫‪Change the tense in the following sentences from simple past to present perfect.‬‬ ‫خوردهام → غذایم را خوردم ‪Examples:‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪.‬هرگز به تاجیکستان سفر نکرد‪.‬‬

‫مهمانها بچه مریض شد‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬بعد از آمدنِ‬ ‫‪. 3‬هیچیک از دانشجویان کالس آن کتاب را نخواندند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬از رسیدن نامۀ خواهرم و خبر آزادیاش خوشحال شدم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬لورا در مصر زبان عربی را یاد گرفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬شعر حافظ را خیلی خوب فهمیدید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬امروز باز هم غذای ایرانی پختم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬هیچیک از دانشجویان در امتحان رد نشدند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬در دانشگاه اصفهان ادبیات فارسی تدریس کرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬استادمان دربارۀ جشن سال نو در ایران‪ ،‬تاجیکستان‪ ،‬افغانستان و ازبکستان صحبت کرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪144‬‬

‫‪Exercise 13.3‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪Translate the sentences of the previous exercise (in present perfect).‬‬

‫‪Exercise 13.4‬‬ ‫‪Use the present perfect in the following sentences, then translate the sentence.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫امروز استادمان کفشهای قهوهای ‪) ..........‬پوشیدن(‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫من هرگز همۀ روز در کتابخانه ‪) ..........‬نـ ‪ +‬نشستن(‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫امروز خانم معلم یک لباس قرمز ‪) ..........‬پوشیدن(‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫چهل پرندۀ قرمز زیبا روی درخت ‪) ..........‬نشستن(‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫او دیشب فقط چهار ساعت ‪) ..........‬خوابیدن(‪.‬‬ ‫او خیلی با من ‪) ..........‬صحبت کردن(‪.‬‬

‫دختر کوچک ما در اتاقش ‪) ..........‬خوابیدن(‪.‬‬

‫ما از ساعت هشت صبح در ایستگاه قطار ‪) ..........‬ایستادن(‪.‬‬ ‫قطار از ساعت هشت و ربع در ایستگاه ‪) ..........‬ایستادن(‪.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬هوا خیلی سردتر ‪) ..........‬شدن(‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 13.5‬‬ ‫‪Use the past perfect in the following sentences.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬

‫حافظ بعد از سعدی ‪) ..........‬به دنیا آمدن(‪.‬‬

‫من آن روز لباس سبزم را ‪) ..........‬پوشیدن(‪.‬‬

‫پدرش قبل از مریض شدن مادرش ‪) ..........‬مردن(‪.‬‬

‫‪ .۴‬قبل از آمدنم به آمریکا‪ ،‬من زبان انگلیسی ‪) ..........‬یاد گرفتن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.۶‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪145‬‬

‫‪.10‬‬

‫والدینم هرگز به آمریکا ‪) ..........‬نـ ‪ +‬سفر کردن(‪.‬‬

‫او قبل از خریدن یک خانۀ نو در تهران با خانوادهاش خیلی‬ ‫‪) ..........‬صحبت کردن(‪.‬‬ ‫من هرگز اسم این گل را ‪) ..........‬نـ ‪ +‬شنیدن(‪.‬‬ ‫آیا آنها برای دیدنِ شما ‪) ..........‬آمدن( یا کار دیگری داشتند؟‬ ‫تو خیلی خسته بودی و با لباس و کفش ‪) ..........‬خوابیدن(‪.‬‬ ‫ما این نامه را تا دیروز ‪) ..........‬نـ ‪ +‬خواندن(‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 13.6‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following sentences into English.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫آن خانم با بچهاش از یک ساعت قبل برای دیدن دکتر اینجا نشسته است‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫من تا به حال به افغانستان سفر نکردهام‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫تا سال آینده او از دانشگاه فارغ التحصیل شده است‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫هیچوقت دوشنبهها برای خرید به بازار نرفتهایم‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪Past participle‬‬ ‫‪Perfect tenses‬‬

‫از یک سال قبل تا حاال هیچیک از دوستان ایرانیام را ندیدهام‪.‬‬

‫معموال تا ساعت دو بعد از ظهر غذایم را خوردهام‪.‬‬ ‫امروز دفترها و مدادها را روی میز نگذاشتهاند‪.‬‬

‫شهناز روزهای جمعه همیشه بیشتر میخوابیده است‪.‬‬

‫فروغ همیشه شاعری مهم به شمار میآمده است‪.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬مادرم از سه ساعت پیش آشپزی میکرده است‪.‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫بهاری دیگر آمده است‪ ،‬آری‬ ‫امّا برای آن زمستانها که گذشت‪ ،‬نامی نیست‬ ‫نامی نیست‬ ‫‪Yes, a new spring has come‬‬

‫‪but for those winters that passed, there’s no name – no name.‬‬ ‫)‪(From a poem by Ahmad Shāmlu, 1925–2000‬‬

‫‪146‬‬

UNIT FOURTEEN

Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

1۴ ‫فصل‬

‫ا لتز ا می‬ ‫) التز امی ساده یا‬ )‫التزامی حال‬

New words in this unit

‫التزامی‬ ‫سحر‬ ‫سحرخیز‬ ‫کامروا‬ ‫آرزو‬ ‫آرزو کردن‬ ‫آرزو داشتن‬ ‫امید‬ ‫امیدوار‬ ‫امیدوار بودن‬

el.te.zā.mi

subjunctive (gr.)

sa.har

dawn

sa.har-khiz

early riser (from sleep)

kām-ra.vā

happy (in life)

ā.re.zu

wish

ā.re.zu kar.dan

to wish [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫به یاد آوردن‬

be yād ā.var.dan

‫پیشنهاد‬ ‫پیشنهاد کردن‬

pish.na.hād

‫شک‬ (‫ در‬/‫شک کردن )به‬ (‫ در‬/‫شک داشتن )به‬

shak

doubt

shak kar.dan (be/dar)

to doubt [‫]کن → کردن‬

ā.re.zu dāsh.tan

to have (the) wish [‫]دار → داشتن‬

o.mid

hope

o.mid.vār

hopeful

o.mid.vār bu.dan

to hope [lit., ‘to be hopeful’] [‫]باش → بودن‬

pish.na.hād kar.dan

shak dāsh.tan (be/dar)

to remember, to bring (back) to mind [‫]آور → آوردن‬ suggestion

to suggest, to propose [‫]کن → کردن‬

to have doubts (in/about) [‫]دار → داشتن‬

147

14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

148

‫مطمئن‬ ‫اطمینان‬ (‫اطمینان کردن )به‬ (‫اطمینان داشتن )به‬ ‫احتمال‬ ‫احتمال داشتن‬ ‫ممکن‬ ‫امکان‬ ‫امکان داشتن‬ ‫تصوّر‬ ‫تصوّر کردن‬ ‫تشویق‬ ‫تشویق کردن‬ ‫استخدام‬ ‫استخدام کردن‬ ‫استخدام شدن‬

mot.ma.’en

sure, certain

et.mi.nān

certainty; trust

et.mi.nān kar.dan (be)

to trust (usually s.o.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫استراحت‬ ‫استراحت کردن‬ ‫سعی‬

es.te.rā.hat

rest

es.te.rā.hat kar.dan sa’y

to rest (intr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

effort (y in transcription is a consonant!)

‫سعی کردن‬ ‫بازی‬ ‫بازی کردن‬ ‫درست‬ ‫درست کردن‬

sa’y kar.dan

to try [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫تمام‬ ‫تمام کردن‬ ‫تمام شدن‬ ‫فراموش کردن‬

et.mi.nān dāsh.tan (be)

to have trust (in) [‫]دار → داشتن‬

eh.te.māl

likelihood

eh.te.māl dāsh.tan

to be likely [‫]دار → داشتن‬

mom.ken

possible; likely

em.kān

possibility

em.kān dāsh.tan

to be possible or likely [‫]دار → داشتن‬

ta.sav.vor

assumption; imagination

ta.sav.vor kar.dan

to assume or imagine [‫]کن → کردن‬

tash.vigh tash.vigh kar.dan

encouragement

to encourage [‫]کن → کردن‬

es.tekh.dām

hiring

es.tekh.dām kar.dan

to employ, to hire [‫]کن → کردن‬

es.tekh.dām sho.dan

to be employed or hired [‫]شو → شدن‬

bā.zi

play; game

bā.zi kar.dan

to play [‫]کن → کردن‬

do.rost

right, correct; fixed

do.rost kar.dan

to correct; to fix; to do or make (as doing hair, cooking food) [‫]کن → کردن‬

ta.mām

whole, complete; full; finished

ta.mām kar.dan

to finish (tr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

ta.mām sho.dan fa.rā.mush kar.dan

to get finished [‫]شو → شدن‬ to forget [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫حدس‬ ‫حدس زدن‬ ‫تصمیم‬ ‫تصمیم گرفتن‬ ‫نظر‬ ‫به نظر رسیدن‬ ‫رأی‬

hads

guess

hads za.dan

to guess [‫]زن → زدن‬

tas.mim

decision

tas.mim ge.ref.tan

to decide [‫]گیر → گرفتن‬

na.zar

view, opinion

be na.zar re.si.dan

to seem, to appear [‫]رس → رسیدن‬

ra’y

vote; verdict; opinion (y in transcription is a consonant!)

‫رأی دادن‬ ‫باور کردن‬ ‫ کردن‬/‫تلفن زدن‬

ra’y dā.dan

‫در آوردن‬

dar-ā.var.dan

‫شستن‬ ‫تماشا کردن‬ ‫توانستن‬

shos.tan

ta.vā.nes.tan

can, to be able to (pres. stem: ‫توان‬ [ta.vān])

‫باید‬

bā.yad

must; should (modal verb; same form for all persons)

‫شاید‬

shā.yad

maybe, perhaps; may (modal verb; same form for all persons) [stress on shā-]

‫کاشکی‬/‫کاش‬ (‫وقتی)که‬

kāsh/kāsh.ki

‘if only’ or ‘I wish’

vagh.ti (ke)

‫همینکه‬ ‫برایِ اینکه‬ ‫قبل از آنکه‬ ‫چون‬ ‫زیرا‬ ‫قصد‬ ‫منظور‬

ha.min-ke

when (conj.); also written joined (‫)وقتیکه‬

bā.var kar.dan te.le.fon za.dan/ kar.dan

ta.mā.shā kar.dan

New words in this unit

to vote [‫]ده → دادن‬

to believe [‫]کن → کردن‬

to telephone, to call [‫ زن → زدن‬/ ‫]کن → کردن‬

to take out (or off, as clothes) [‫]آور → آوردن‬

to wash (pres.stem: ‫[ شو‬shu]) to watch [‫]کن → کردن‬

as soon as

ba.rā.ye in-ke

because, for (conj.)

ghabl az ān-ke

before (conj.)

chon

because (conj.)

zi.rā

because (conj.; form.)

ghasd

intention

man.zur

purpose; aim

149

14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

‫نیّت‬ ‫چمدان‬ ‫تلویزیون‬ ‫همکالسی‬ ً‫حتما‬ ً‫واقعا‬ ‫سریع‬ ‫عینک‬ ‫کور‬

niy.yat

desire; objective

cha.me.dān

suitcase

te.le.vi.zi.yon

television

ham-ke.lā.si

classmate

hat.man

certainly

vā.ghe.an

really

sa.ri’

fast

ey.nak

eyeglasses

kur

blind

14.1 Formation In this book the simple (or present) subjunctive will be referred to as the subjunctive. And the subjunctive is basically: the prefix be- + present stem + conjugational suffixes. It can be said that it combines the features of the present tense and the imperative: the stressed ِ‫[ بـ‬be-] prefix of the imperative replaces the ‫[ می‬mi-] prefix of the present tense for all persons. In the negative, the ِ‫[ بـ‬be-] prefix is replaced by the stressed negative َ‫[ نـ‬na-] prefix. Table 14.1 The verb ‫[ ماندن‬māndan, to stay] – from present tense and imperative to subjunctive Present tense

‫زمان حال‬

‫[ میمانم‬mi-mānam] I stay ‫[ نمیمانم‬nemi-mānam] I don’t stay

‫امر‬

‫[ میمانی‬mi-māni]

!‫[ بمان‬be-mān] Stay! [sg.]

‫[ نمیمانی‬nemi-māni]

!‫[ نمان‬na-mān] Don’t stay! [sg.]

you [sg.] stay

You don’t stay

150

Imperative

Subjunctive

‫التزامی‬

‫[ بمانم‬be-mānam] ‫[ نمانم‬na-mānam] ‫[ بمانی‬be-māni] ‫[ نمانی‬na-māni]

Present tense

‫زمان حال‬

Imperative

‫امر‬

Subjunctive

‫التزامی‬

‫[ میماند‬mi-mānad] he stays ‫[ نمیماند‬nemi-mānad]

‫[ بماند‬be-mānad] ‫[ نماند‬na-mānad]

‫[ میمانیم‬mi-mānim] we stay ‫[ نمیمانیم‬nemi-mānim]

‫[ بمانیم‬be-mānim] ‫[ نمانیم‬na-mānim]

he doesn’t stay

we don’t stay

‫[ میمانید‬mi-mānid] you [pl.] stay

!‫[ بمانید‬be-mānid] Stay! [pl.]

‫[ نمیمانید‬nemi-mānid] you don’t stay

!‫[ نمانید‬na-mānid] Don’t stay! [pl.]

‫[ میمانند‬mi-mānand] they stay ‫[ نمیمانند‬nemi-mānand]

they don’t stay

Formation

‫[ بمانید‬be-mānid] ‫[ نمانید‬na-mānid] ‫[ بمانند‬be-mānand] ‫[ نمانند‬na-mānand]

Note the similarity in form! As Table 14.1 shows, for at least one person (2nd person plural) the imperative and subjunctive use exactly the same form. The context will help you decide which function the verb has: !‫ = امروز اینجا بمانید‬Stay here today!

‫ = چرا اینجا بمانید؟‬Why [should you] stay here?

(Compare with present tense: ‫ = چرا اینجا میمانید؟‬Why do you stay/are you staying here?)

14.1.1 Glide As in the imperative, the be- prefix (or na- for the negative) would require the glide ‫[ ی‬-y-] if the present stem starts with the vowels ā-, a- or o- (all of them represented in writing by the letter alef). The only verb starting with the initial i- sound (‫[ ایستادن‬istādan], ‘to stand’) does not need a glide. The pronunciation of be- would change in these cases to bi-. In the case of the short vowels a- and o-, ‘good Persian’ requires that the initial letter alef be dropped in writing when the glide is added. 151

14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

Table 14.2 Some verbs with present stems starting with a vowel Verb

‫انداختن‬

andākhtan to throw

‫افتادن‬

oftādan to fall

Present Stem

‫انداز‬

Present Tense

‫میاندازم‬

andāz

mi-andāzam

‫نمیاندازم‬

āmadan to come

istādan to stand/stop

‫نیندازم‬

na-yandāzam

‫میافتم‬

‫بیفتم‬

‫نمیافتم‬

‫نیفتم‬

‫میآیم‬

‫بیایم‬

‫نمیآیم‬

‫نیایم‬

‫ایست‬

‫میایستم‬

‫بایستم‬

No Glide Needed! →

nemi-istam

‫افت‬

oft

mi-oftam

bi-yoftam

‫آ‬

ā

mi-āyam

ist

na-yoftam bi-yāyam

nemi-āyam

‫ایستادن‬

‫بیندازم‬

bi-yandāzam

ne mi-andāzam

nemi-oftam

‫آمدن‬

Subjunctive

mi-istam

na-yāyam be-istam

‫نمیایستم‬

‫نایستم‬

na-istam

14.1.2 Compound verbs The affirmative be- and negative na- prefixes are always added to the verbal part of compound verbs. See the example in Table 14.3. Table 14.3 Compound verb – comparison of present tense and subjunctive:

152

Present Tense

Subjunctive

affirmative

‫راه میروم‬

‫راه بروم‬

negative

‫راه نمیروم‬

‫راه نروم‬

rāh mi-ravam I walk / I’m walking rāh nemi-ravam I don’t walk / I’m not walking

rāh be-ravam

rāh na-ravam

14.1.3 Omission of ‘be-’ prefix in [most of the] compound verbs

Formation

Similar to the imperative, the subjunctive be- prefix is also dropped in two major groups of compound verbs: a) when the first part (‘non-verbal’ part) of a compound verb is the preposition/ prefix ‫[ بَر‬bar-] as in ‫[ برگشتن‬bar-gashtan, ‘to return’]; occasionally, and only as one option not as a general rule, with other prepositions like ‫[ دَر‬dar-] as in ‫[ درآوردن‬dar-āvardan, ‘to take out’ (like clothes)]; b) when one of the verbs ‫[ کردن‬kardan] or ‫[ شدن‬shodan] – the two verbs used to form the great majority of all compound verbs in Persian – constitutes the verbal part of the compound. (This applies to ‫ شدن‬used for the passive also. Compare: ‫‘[ آن را نباید بخورید‬You shouldn’t eat it’], but ‫آن نباید خورده شود‬ [‘That should not be eaten’].) Note: Dropping be- in the above cases is more common in formal/written Persian than in colloquial/Tehrani Persian. Table 14.4 Compound verbs: omission of be- prefix Present Tense

‫بر میگردم‬

Subjunctive

‫بر گردم‬

bar-mi-gardam I return/I’m returning

bar-gardam

‫بر نمیگردم‬

bar-na-gardam

bar-nemi-gardam I don’t return/I’m not returning

‫کار میکنم‬

‫بر نگردم‬

‫کار کنم‬

kār mi-konam I work/I’m working

kār konam

‫کار نمیکنم‬

kār na-konam

kār nemi-konam I don’t work/I’m not working

‫خوشحال میشوم‬

‫کار نکنم‬

‫خوشحال شوم‬

khosh-hāl mi-shavam I [will] become happy/ I’d be happy

khosh-hāl shavam

‫خوشحال نمیشوم‬

khosh-hāl na-shavam

khosh-hāl nemi-shavam I don’t become happy/ I won’t be happy

‫خوشحال نشوم‬

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14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

14.1.4 The verbs to be and to have It should not come as a surprise that the verbs ‫[ بودن‬to be] and ‫[ داشتن‬to have] have their special forms, and that these special forms are again similar to what we learned about their imperative forms: 1. 2.

‫ بودن‬uses ‫ باش‬as stem and needs no ِ‫ بـ‬prefix; ‫ داشتن‬in its ‘more irregular form’ (see 9.3) uses again the ‘perfect’ form: past participle + the subjunctive of ‫بودن‬. In the negative, َ‫ نـ‬is added to the main verb (= past participle). The ‘less irregular’ group of compounds with ‫داشتن‬ simply conjugate the stem of the present [‫ ]دار‬and, similar to most of the other compounds, do not use the prefix ِ‫بـ‬.

Table 14.5 Subjunctive of to be and to have – affirmative and negative – conjugated for all persons

‫نگه داشتن‬

‫دوست داشتن‬

‫داشتن‬

‫بودن‬

‫نگه دارم‬ ‫نگه ندارم‬

‫دوست داشته باشم‬ ‫دوست نداشته باشم‬

‫داشته باشم‬ ‫نداشته باشم‬

‫باشم‬ ‫نباشم‬

‫نگه دارد‬ ‫نگه ندارد‬

‫دوست داشته باشد‬ ‫دوست نداشته باشد‬

‫داشته باشد‬ ‫نداشته باشد‬

‫باشد‬ ‫نباشد‬

(less irregular compound)

‫نگه داری‬ ‫نگه نداری‬ ‫نگه داریم‬ ‫نگه نداریم‬ ‫نگه دارید‬ ‫نگه ندارید‬ ‫نگه دارند‬ ‫نگه ندارند‬

‫دوست داشته باشی‬ ‫دوست نداشته باشی‬ ‫دوست داشته باشیم‬ ‫دوست نداشته باشیم‬ ‫دوست داشته باشید‬ ‫دوست نداشته باشید‬ ‫دوست داشته باشند‬ ‫دوست نداشته باشند‬

‫داشته باشی‬ ‫نداشته باشی‬ ‫داشته باشیم‬ ‫نداشته باشیم‬

‫داشته باشید‬ ‫نداشته باشید‬ ‫داشته باشند‬ ‫نداشته باشند‬

‫باشی‬ ‫نباشی‬ ‫باشیم‬ ‫نباشیم‬ ‫باشید‬ ‫نباشید‬ ‫باشند‬ ‫نباشند‬

14.2 Use

154

The subjunctive is much more common in Persian than one expects. The reason is that, when compared with English, in Persian it combines the functions of the subjunctive and the infinitive (when the latter is used as a dependent or ‘second’ verb in English). You will learn here some of the most common verbs,

conjunctions and structures that would require the subjunctive, but the list should be completed as you learn more verbs and idioms.

Use

14.2.1 Used independently When used independently, some unstated modal verb (like must, should, might, let’s . . .) is understood. Examples: !‫( برویم خرید‬Let’s go shopping!)

!‫( به مادرش چیزی نگوید‬He shouldn’t tell his mother anything!)

‫( چند بار بگویم؟‬How many times should I say?) ‫( چرا شاد نباشم؟‬Why shouldn’t I be happy?)

When used for the second person singular, it is stronger than the imperative and can imply some warning also. (Second person plural, as we have already seen under 14.1, has the same form as the imperative.) Compare: • •

Imperative: !‫( آن نامه را بنویس‬Write that letter!) Subjunctive: !‫( آن نامه را بنویسی‬Don’t forget to write [or make sure that you write] that letter!)

14.2.2 Used after certain conjunctions that denote possibility or uncertainty This includes present and future conditionals (‫ اگر‬, agar, ‘if’) and wishes (‫ کاش‬, kāsh, ‘I wish’) as well as some other conjunctions in either time clauses or other kinds of complement clauses that express some objective, suggestion or possibility. i. In conditionals, it is only the ‘if clause’ that might use the subjunctive. For a detailed discussion of conditionals and wishes, please see Unit 16. Two examples here:

‫ او را میبینم‬،‫( اگر امروز بیاید‬If he comes today, I’ll see him.) !‫( کاش امروز بیاید‬I wish he came today!) ii. For a more detailed discussion of time clauses, please see Unit 18. As a major group, all conjunctions meaning “before” would require the subjunctive (usually for past too). A few examples of time clauses and complement clauses here:

. ‫ به من تلفن زد‬، ‫دیروز قبل از آنکه بیاید‬ he came.)

(He called me yesterday before

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14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

. ‫ تلفن خواهد زد‬، ‫فردا قبل از آنکه بیاید‬ comes.)

(He will call tomorrow before he

. ‫ پولش را میدهیم‬، ‫( همینکه بیاید‬We will give him his money as soon as he comes.)

. ‫( صبر کردم تا همه بروند‬I waited for everyone to go.) . ‫( چیزی بدهید که بخورم‬Give me something to eat.) . ‫ به شما میدهم‬،‫( هرچه بخواهید‬I’ll give you whatever you want.) . ‫( کتابی بخر که حتماً بخوانی‬Buy a book that you are certain to read.) 14.2.3 Used as a dependent second verb The first verb in this case is either a modal verb or one expressing a wish, command, possibility, purpose (‘in order to’), and the like. Or it is used simply when the action described by the second verb happens (or is/was supposed to happen) after that of the first verb, thus leaving room for some uncertainty (because it may also not happen; it is talk about the future and what is going to happen next). A comparison with English will show again that the Persian subjunctive in this case functions very much like the English infinitive used as the second verb. Let’s compare remember to do something with remember doing something in English. When you remember to do something, you first remember and then do something. But when you remember doing something, you first did something and then you remember it. It is exactly the same in Persian:

‫‘[ به یاد آوردم که نامه را بنویسم‬I remembered to write the letter.’] ‫‘[ نوشتن نامه را به یاد آوردم‬I remembered writing the letter.’] For expressing purpose (‘in order to’), it is possible to simply use the subjunctive without any conjunction (again like infinitive in English):

‫‘[ رفتم مینا را ببینم‬I went to see Mina.’] Or conjunctions can be used, the most common of which are ‫ که‬,‫ تا‬and ‫برای اینکه‬, or a variety of other compound conjunctions (‫ به این منظور که‬or ,‫به منظورِ آن که‬ ‫ به این قصد که‬or ‫به این نیّت که‬/‫ با‬,‫ با این هدف که‬,‫به قصدِ آن که‬, etc.). Examples:

156

‫‘[ رفتم که مینا را ببینم‬I went to see Mina.’] ‫[ سحرخیز باش تا کامرَوا باشی‬Proverb: ‘Be an early riser in order to be happy in life.’]

‫‘[ کمی نشستیم برای اینکه استراحت کنیم‬We sat for a little while in order to

Use

rest.’]

Note: ‫ برای اینکه‬is sometimes used in the sense of “for the reason that” (or ‘because,’ like ‫ چون‬and ‫)زیرا‬, and in that case it would not require the subjunctive:

‫ برای اینکه هوا سرد بود‬،‫‘[ نرفتم‬I did not go, because it was cold.’] Examples with modals and other verbs:

‫‘[ به نظر من باید بیشتر صبر کنید‬In my opinion you have to wait more.’] ‫‘[ نمیتوانی پنج دقیقه زودتر بیائی؟‬Can’t you come five minutes earlier?’] ‫‘[ میخواهید بدانید؟‬Do you want to know?’] ‫‘[ چرا تصمیم گرفت خیّاط بشود؟‬Why did he/she decide to become a tailor?’] ‫‘[ به ما گفتند کمی دیرتر برویم‬They told us to go a little later.’] ‫‘[ حاال باید گوشت بهتر بشنود‬Now your ear must hear better.’] ‫‘[ سعی کنید آن را باز کنید‬Try to open it.’] ‫‘[ چطور توانستی آن گل را در این فصل پیدا کنی؟‬How could you find that flower in this season?’]

See the different options for the negative and the change in meaning:

‫‘[ به من گفت بروم‬He told me to go.’] ‫‘[ به من نگفت بروم‬He didn’t tell me to go.’] ‫‘[ به من گفت نروم‬He told me not to go.’] ‫‘[ به من نگفت نروم‬He didn’t tell me not to go.’] ‫‘[ میتوانم ببینم‬I can see.’] ‫‘[ نمیتوانم ببینم‬I cannot see.’] ‫‘[ میتوانم نبینم‬I can not see’ = I also have the option of not seeing.] ‫‘[ نمیتوانم نبینم‬I cannot not see’ = I cannot help seeing; I have to see.] 14.2.4 Uncertainty as decisive factor With some verbs and expressions, affirmative and negative forms differ in using or not using the subjunctive because a change from certainty to uncertainty (and vice versa) is involved. Compare the following:

157

14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

i. No need for the subjunctive when there is no doubt: .‫‘[ اطمینان دارم که او اینجا نیست‬I’m certain (that) he’s not here.’] .‫‘[ شک ندارم که او اینجا است‬I have no doubt that he’s here.’]

ii. The subjunctive needed because of doubt and uncertainty: .‫‘[ اطمینان ندارم که او اینجا باشد‬I’m not sure if he’s here.’]

.‫‘[ شک دارم که او اینجا باشد‬I doubt if he’s here.’]

Some verbs like ‫‘[ فکر کردن‬to think’], ‫‘[ تصور کردن‬to imagine’] and ‫به نظر‬ ‫‘[ رسیدن‬to seem’] often need the subjunctive when negative (not with the negative imperative, though!), but the subjunctive can be used with their affirmative also to decrease likelihood: .‫‘[ فکر نمیکنم که بیاید‬I don’t think that he comes.’]

.‫‘[ فکر میکنم که بیاید‬I think that he probably comes.’]

.‫‘[ فکر میکنم که میآید‬I think he’s coming.’]

!‫‘[ فکر نکن که او حتماً میآید‬Don’t be so sure that he comes!’ or ‘Don’t think that he certainly comes!’] – With the negative imperative it is no more some uncertainty about what is going to happen: it is about what someone is thinking now.

‫‘[ حدس زدن‬to guess’] is rarely used in the negative, and in the affirmative it is similar to the previous group, with the subjunctive making it less likely and referring more to what will happen in future: .‫‘[ حدس میزنم که نامۀ شما را بخواند‬I guess he will read your letter.’]

.‫‘[ حدس میزنم که نامۀ شما را میخواند‬I guess/think that he reads/is reading your letter.’]

.‫‘[ حدس میزدم که بیاید‬I guessed that he would come.’] Some other verbs, however, always need the subjunctive: ‫ ممکن بودن‬or ‫امکان‬ ‫‘[ داشتن‬to be possible’], ‫‘[ احتمال داشتن‬to be likely’], and all the verbs that have to do with hope (‫)امیدوار بودن‬, with wish (‫)آرزو داشتن‬, or with trying, deciding, suggesting, encouraging and the like: .‫ امیدوار نیستم که صدایت را بشناسد‬/‫‘[ امیدوارم‬I hope/do not hope that he recognizes your voice.’] 158

.‫ سعی نکرد که بنویسد‬/‫‘[ سعی کرد‬He tried/did not try to write.’]

.‫‘[ پیشنهاد کردم او را استخدام کنند‬I suggested that they hire him.’]

Exercises

.‫‘[ آن توریست را تشویق کنید که برگردد‬Encourage that tourist to return.’]

.‫ ممکن نیست که بداند‬/‫‘[ ممکن است‬It is possible/not possible that he knows.’] .‫دخترانه داشته باشد‬ clothing.’]

‫شاید این مغازه لباس‬

[‘This store may have girls’

Note that with ‫‘( شاید‬perhaps, maybe’; originally a modal) the use of the subjunctive is optional, depending on the degree of uncertainty. Compare: .‫‘[ شاید بیاید‬He may come.’] (We are speculating. No certainty.)

.‫‘[ شاید میآید‬Maybe he’s coming.’] (There has been some hint or indication to this effect; we are imagining him coming, as some fact; he may be on his way right now.)

Exercises Exercise 14.1 Change the following verbs to the subjunctive (for the same person). Example: ‫ببیند → میبیند‬ (He/she does not hear.) (I eat/I’m eating.) (They read/they’re reading.) (I pick up/I’m picking up.) (They are.) (You have.) (We don’t buy/aren’t buying.) (It opens/It’s opening.) (You write/are writing.) (I’m not.)

‫نمیشنود‬ ‫میخورم‬ ‫میخوانند‬ ‫برمیدارم‬ ‫هستند‬ ‫داری‬ ‫نمیخریم‬ ‫باز میشود‬ ‫مینویسید‬ ‫نیستم‬

.1 .2

.3

.۴

.۵ .۶ .7 .8

.9

.10

Exercise 14.2 Change the verb in each of the following sentences to the subjunctive by adding the word(s) given in brackets.

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14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

Example: I see him/her tomorrow. (It is possible) →It is possible that I see him/her tomorrow.  1. (‫ )شاید‬.‫نمیگردند‬ not. . .)

‫فردا بر‬

(‫ )ممکن است‬.‫فردا او را میبینم‬

‫← ممکن است فردا او را ببینم‬

They’re not returning tomorrow. (→ They might

 2. (‫ )تصمیم گرفتم‬.‫ دیروز یک کتاب عالی خریدم‬I bought an excellent book yesterday. (→ decided to buy)  3. (‫ )ممکن است‬.‫ همه چیز را نمیدانیم‬We do not know everything. (→ might)  4. (‫ )باید‬.‫ آن صندلی را میآورند‬They bring that chair. (→ must)

 5. (‫ )میتواند‬.‫ خیلی خوب مینویسد‬He/she writes very well. (→ can write)

 6. (‫ )قبل از اینکه‬.‫ ما غذا خورده بودیم‬،‫ وقتیکه آنها آمدند‬When they came, we had eaten. (→ Before. . .)  7. ([‫ )شک دارم ]که‬.‫دارند‬ I doubt that. . .)

‫ خانۀ خیلی بزرگی‬They have a very big house. (→

 8. ([‫ )اطمینان نداریم ]که‬.‫ معلم دفترتان را خواهد آورد‬The teacher will bring your notebook. (→ We are not sure that. . .)  9. ([‫ )احتمال دارد ]که‬.‫ بچه از روی میز میافتد‬The child falls from the table. (→ It is possible that. . .) 10. ([‫ )فکر نمیکنم ]که‬.‫ با خوردن این تخم مرغها ما همه مریض میشویم‬By eating these eggs we will all get sick. (→ I don’t think that. . .)

Exercise 14.3 Use the correct form of the verb – where necessary or possible, the subjunctive. Example:

.(‫ )بودن‬. .......... ‫ ولی من خیلی مطمئن‬،(‫)نوشتن‬. .......... ‫ممکن است او‬ → .‫ ولی من خیلی مطمئن نیستم‬،‫ممکن است او بنویسد‬

It is possible that he/she writes, but I’m not very sure. .(‫ )شدن‬.......... ‫ همه خوشحال‬،(‫ )آمدن‬.......... ‫اگر شما فردا‬

160

If you come tomorrow, everybody will be happy.

.1

.(‫ )رفتن‬.......... ‫ )خواستن( فردا برای خریدن آن اسب‬.......... ‫فکر میکنم او‬

.2

.(‫ )ماندن‬.......... ‫ )سعی کردن( که او کمی بیشتر‬.......... ‫ما باید‬

.3

.(‫ )دادن‬.......... ‫ دانستن( که میخواهیم به او رأی‬+ ‫ )نـ‬.......... ‫شاید او‬

.۴

.(‫ )داشتن‬.......... ‫ )دیدن( که یک چمدان بزرگ زشت‬.......... ‫اآلن من مردی را‬

.۵

.(‫ )شنیدن‬.. .......... ‫ پدرش از کس دیگری‬،(‫ )گفتن‬.......... ‫قبل از آنکه تو به او‬

.۶

.(‫ )درست کردن‬.......... ‫)رفتن( تا کباب‬. .......... ‫دیروز ما همه به باغ‬

.7

I think he/she wants to go tomorrow to buy that horse.

We should try that he/she stays a little longer.

Exercises

Maybe he/she doesn’t know that we intend to vote for him/her.

Now I see a man who has an ugly big suitcase.

Before you told him, his/her father had heard [about it] from someone else.

Yesterday we all went to the garden to make kabāb.

‫ زودتر به خانههایشان‬،( ‫)تمام کردن‬

..........

‫ هرچه سریعتر کار را‬.8 .(‫ )برگشتن‬..........

The faster they finish the work, the sooner they will return to their houses.

‫ )داشتن( که دخترتان درسهایش را‬.......... ‫ آیا شما اطمینان‬.9 ‫ )خواندن(؟‬.......... ‫خوب‬

Are you sure that your daughter is studying [her lessons] well?

.(‫ )تمام کردن‬.......... ‫ )توانستن( آن کار را تا هفتۀ بعد‬.......... ‫ شما باید‬.10

You must be able to finish that job until next week.

Exercise 14.4 In the following text, find all the verbs that have the subjunctive form and write them in a column, then write in front of each of them the word(s) that have made the use of the subjunctive (for that particular verb) necessary.

‫ او همیشه بعد‬.‫امروز با دخترم به مدرسهاش خواهم رفت تا با معلمش صحبت کنم‬ ‫ میگوید هیچ‬،‫از مدرسه در خانه بازی میکند و اگر دربارۀ تکلیفهایش از او بپرسم‬ ً .‫تکلیفی ندارد‬ ‫قبال من نمیتوانستم این حرفش را باور کنم چون همیشه میدیدم‬

161

14 Subjunctive (Present or simple subjunctive)

‫ ولی دیروز در خیابان یکی از‬.‫که بچههای دیگر در خانه تکلیفهای زیادی دارند‬ ‫بچههائی را که همکالسی دخترم بود دیدم و او هم به من گفت که معلمشان هیچ‬ ً ‫ من نمیفهمم که این چطور ممکن است و اگر وا‬.‫تکلیفی به آنها نمیدهد‬ ‫قعا‬ ‫ چطور باید درسهایشان را یاد بگیرند؟‬،‫تکلیفی برای خانه ندارند‬ (Today I will go with my daughter to her school to talk to her teacher. After school, she usually plays at home and if I ask her about her homework, she says that she has no homework. I could not believe her words in the past, because I always saw that other children had a lot of homework at home. But yesterday I saw one of the children who was my daughter’s classmate on the street, and she also told me that their teacher did not give them any homework. I do not understand how this is possible and if they really have no homework for home, how are they to learn their lessons?)

Exercise 14.5 Translate into Persian.  1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8.  9. 10.

I can see much better with these new glasses. I had always wanted to be a teacher. How can you not see that big house? When did you decide to sell all your books? Don’t let her watch TV all the time. Don’t forget to wash your hands before eating. They had gone there to see their old mother. You [pl.] should certainly try to find her a more comfortable job. Didn’t I tell you that you shouldn’t hire them? We have asked her to stay with us until the rain stops.

IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS

‫ چشمش را هم کور کرد‬،‫رفت ابرویش را درست کند‬

She went to groom her eyebrow, she blinded her eye also. (Used for a person who wants to fix something, but makes it worse.)

‫سحرخیز باش تا کامرَوا باشی‬

[Proverb: ‘Be an early riser in order to be happy in life.’] 162

UNIT FIFTEEN

Perfect (or past) subjunctive

۵۱ ‫فصل‬

‫التزامی کامل‬ ( ‫)یا ماضی التزامی‬

New words in this unit

(‫فروختن )به‬

fo.rukh.tan (be)

to sell [sth. to s.o.] (pres. stem: ‫فروش‬ [ fo.rush])

‫خرج کردن‬ ‫تصمیم داشتن‬

kharj kar.dan

to spend (money) [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫از بَر‬ ‫ داشتن‬/‫از بَر بودن‬

az bar

‫ شدن‬/‫از بَر کردن‬ (‫ از‬/‫قبول شدن )در‬

az bar kar.dan/sho.dan

‫لذت‬ (‫لذت بردن )از‬

lez.zat [form.: lazzat]

‫سخن‬ (‫سخن گفتن )با‬ ‫ویزا گرفتن‬ ِ‫تمام‬ ‫قرص‬ ‫ظرف‬ ‫ماشین‬ ‫تحصیل‬

tas.mim dāsh.tan

az bar bu.dan/dāsh.tan

gha.bul sho.dan

lez.zat bor.dan (az) so.khan so.khan gof.tan (bā) vi.zā ge.ref.tan

to intend; to have the intention (to. . .) [‫]دار → داشتن‬

‫[ از بَر‬az bar] by heart; by memory to know by heart [‫داشتن ; باش → بودن‬ → ‫]دار‬ to memorize [‫]شو → شدن ; کن → کردن‬ to be accepted (in); to pass (a test) [‫]شو → شدن‬ enjoyment, pleasure

to enjoy [‘get pleasure from’ [‫]بر → بردن‬ speech, talk (form.)

to speak (to) (form.) [‫]گو → گفتن‬ to to get a visa [‫]گیر → گرفتن‬

ta.mā.m-e

all of

ghors

pill

zarf

dish (pl. ‫ ظروف‬zo.ruf )

mā.shin tah.sil

car

education ( pl. always ‫تحصیالت‬, tah. si.lāt)

163

15 Perfect (or past) subjunctive

‫رشتۀ تحصیلی‬ ‫پزشکی‬ ‫هنر‬ ‫نهفته‬ ‫قیمت‬ ‫دَما‬ ‫دَرجه‬ ‫سانتیگراد‬ ‫مشهد‬ ‫نیویورک‬ ‫هاروارد‬ ‫فرانسه‬

resh.te-ye tah.si.li

major (in education)

pe.zesh.ki

medicine

ho.nar

art; craft; skill

na.hof.te

hidden (lit.)

ghi.mat/ghey.mat

price

da.mā

temperature (form.)

da.re.je

degree, grade; rank; thermometer

sān.ti.ge.rād

centigrade

mash.had

Mashhad (city in Iran)

ni.yo.york

New York

hār.vārd

Harvard

fa.rān.se

France; French language

15.1 Perfect (or past) subjunctive – formation You will need the past participle of the main verb + the [simple or present] subjunctive of the verb to be. For the negative, add na- to the main verb (= to the past participle). As in perfect tenses, stress is on the final -e of the past participle, except in the negative, where na- will take the stress. Table 15.1 Conjugating and comparing the two subjunctives Infinitive

Present Stem

Subjunctive

Past Participle

Perfect (or past) Subjunctive

‫خوردن‬

‫خور‬

‫بخورم‬

‫خورده‬

‫خورده باشم‬

‫آوردن‬

‫آور‬

‫بیاورد‬

‫نشستن‬ ‫گفتن‬

‫برگشتن‬

164

‫کار کردن‬

‫نشین‬ ‫گو‬

‫برگرد‬

‫کار کن‬

1st sg.

‫بنشینی‬

‫نشسته‬

‫نشسته باشی‬

2nd sg.

‫بگوئیم‬

‫گفته‬

‫گفته باشیم‬

1st pl.

‫کار کرده باشند‬

3rd pl.

‫برگردید‬ ‫کار کنند‬

‫آورده‬

‫برگشته‬

‫کار کرده‬

‫آورده باشد‬

3rd sg.

‫برگشته باشید‬

2nd pl.

As it was the case with the (simple or present) subjunctive, here also the perfect subjunctive is not affected by the tense of the verb that it complements (see Table 15.2.).

The verb ‫داشتن‬, and a less common variant of subjunctive

15.2 Usage The perfect subjunctive is often used to show uncertainty, for things that may or may not have happened (in the past, or by a certain point of time in the future). As the first example in Table 15.2 shows, it can sometimes be translated into English as the present perfect. Table 15.2 The two subjunctives: a comparison of usage Subjunctive

Perfect (Past) Subjunctive

‫فکر نمی کنم بیاید‬

‫فکر نمیکنم آمده باشد‬

I don’t think he comes.

I don’t think he has come.

‫فکر نمیکردم بیاید‬

‫فکر نمیکردم آمده باشد‬

I didn’t think he would come.

I didn’t think he had come.

‫میتواند بیاید‬

‫میتواند آمده باشد‬

He can come.

He can have come.

‫میتوانست بیاید‬

‫میتوانست آمده باشد‬

He could come.

He could have come.

‫شاید بیاید‬

‫شاید آمده باشد‬

He may come.

He may have come.

‫شاید نیاید‬

‫شاید نیامده باشد‬

Maybe he won’t come.

Maybe he hasn’t come.

‫باید بیاید‬

‫باید آمده باشد‬

He must come.

He must have come.

15.3 The verb ‫ داشتن‬, and a less common variant of subjunctive In Unit 14 we learned about ‫( داشتن‬14.1.4) and its two different subjunctive forms, for the less irregular and more irregular versions.

165

15 Perfect (or past) subjunctive

1. In its less irregular version – used in some compounds like ‫ برداشتن‬or ‫نگه‬ ‫ – داشتن‬it follows the same rules as other verbs: past participle + [present] subjunctive of to be:

‫شاید آن را پریروز برداشته باشد‬ yesterday);

(He may have taken it the day before

‫( فکر نمیکنم آن را نگه داشته باشند‬I don’t think they have kept it). 2. In its more irregular version – closer to its original meaning (‘to have’) – it uses the perfect subjunctive of to be after the past participle:

‫باید مادرش را خیلی دوست داشته بوده باشد‬ mother a lot).

(She must have liked her

Persian tries to avoid using this latter construction and prefers to substitute it by other forms. The last example, for instance, would sound much better when said in this way:

‫( حتماً مادرش را خیلی دوست داشته است‬Certainly she has liked her mother a lot).

Using the perfect subjunctive of to be after the past participle may rarely happen with other verbs also (as a second variant of the perfect subjunctive), but this happens only in very formal, pedantic style, and it is on the verge of being totally abandoned. More examples with dāshtan and other verbs:

‫آن کار باید خطر زیادی داشته بوده باشد‬ danger.)

(That task must have had a lot of

‫( ممکن است او آن را تا دو سال قبل به کسی نداده بوده باشد‬Maybe he had not given it to anyone until two years ago.)

‫( احتمال دارد آن را از بر داشته بوده باشد‬She may have known it by heart.) ‫( ممکن نیست آن شعر بلند را از بر کرده باشید‬You cannot have memorized that long poem.)

‫( شک دارم که هر هفته تکالیفش را نوشته باشد‬I doubt that he has written his assignments every week.)

‫( امیدوارم قرصهایتان را خورده باشید‬I hope you have taken your pills.) ‫( امیدوارم هنوز برنگشته باشد‬I hope he hasn’t returned yet.) ‫( سعی کن قبل از برگشتن مادرت ظرفها را شسته باشی‬Try to wash/Make sure 166

that you have washed the dishes before your mother returns [lit. ‘before the return of your mother’].)

15.4 All Persian tenses at a glance

Exercises

With the perfect subjunctive covered, it is time to see all of the tenses together in one table. (Only the second and less common variant of the perfect subjunctive has been left out here.) Table 15.3 All Persian tenses and subjunctive The Verb ‫( رفتن‬1st sg., affirmative and negative) present stem: ‫ – رو‬past stem: ‫ – رفت‬past participle: ‫رفته‬ Present

Past

Future

Subjunctive

Simple

‫میروم‬ ‫نمیروم‬

‫رفتم‬ ‫نرفتم‬

‫خواهم رفت‬ ‫نخواهم رفت‬

‫بروم‬ ‫نروم‬

Progressive

‫]دارم[ میروم‬ ‫نمیروم‬

‫]داشتم[ میرفتم‬ ‫نمیرفتم‬

Perfect

‫رفتهام‬ ‫نرفتهام‬

‫رفته بودم‬ ‫نرفته بودم‬

Perfect Progressive

‫میرفتهام‬ ‫نمیرفتهام‬

(not common)

‫رفته باشم‬ ‫نرفته باشم‬

Exercises Exercise 15.1 Change the underlined simple [present] subjunctives to perfect [past] subjunctives, then translate each sentence. Example: ‫( گفته باشد → شاید به آنها بگوید‬He may have told them.) .‫آنجا نباید هوا خیلی سرد باشد‬. 1

.‫شاید به کشورهای عربی نرود‬. 2

.‫ممکن است حرف شما را بشنود‬. 3

۴ .‫شاید از تهران با ماشین به مشهد برگردیم‬. ۵ .‫شک دارم که تمام غذایش را بخورد‬. ۶ ‫چرا ممکن نیست او را ببینی؟‬. 7

.‫فکر نمیکنم در سفرم اینقدر زیاد پول خرج کنم‬.

167

‫‪15‬‬

‫‪. 8‬باید غذای خیلی خوبی برای مهمانها بپزید‪.‬‬

‫)‪Perfect (or past‬‬ ‫‪subjunctive‬‬

‫‪. 9‬سعی کن این نامه را تا فردا بنویسی‪.‬‬

‫‪. 10‬باید از روزهای آفتابی لذت ببرد‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 15.2‬‬ ‫‪Use the simple [ present] subjunctive in the following sentences, and mention in‬‬ ‫‪brackets the word that makes it necessary to use the subjunctive in each‬‬ ‫‪sentence.‬‬

‫)شاید( بیاید‬

‫→ شاید او ‪) ..........‬آمدن( ‪Example:‬‬

‫‪. 1‬شاید فردا هوا سرد ‪) ..........‬شدن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬شما باید بیشتر ‪) ..........‬استراحت کردن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 3‬شاید بتوانیم با قطار یا هواپیما به نیویورک ‪) ..........‬رفتن)‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬کاش پیشنهاد نکرده باشند ماشینش را ‪) ..........‬آوردن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬هر کسی باید برای قبول شدن در رشتۀ پزشکی خیلی ‪) ..........‬درس خواندن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬شاید بعد از تمام شدن درس دوباره به شهرش ‪) ..........‬برگشتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬بچههای کوچک نباید هر فیلمی را ‪) ..........‬تماشا کردن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬کاش بتوانید بیشتر با ما ‪) ..........‬بودن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬باید مواظب باشم در ماه آینده کمتر پول ‪) ..........‬خرج کردن(‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬کاش بتوانم زودتر مادرم را ‪) ..........‬دیدن)‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 15.3‬‬ ‫‪Two of the sentences in the previous exercise had two subjunctive verbs each.‬‬ ‫?‪Which sentences were they and what was the reason for using two subjunctives‬‬

‫‪Exercise 15.4‬‬ ‫‪Use the appropriate form of present tense or the simple subjunctive.‬‬ ‫‪Example:‬‬ ‫میخواهند به اینجا ‪) ..........‬آمدن( و یک خانه ‪) ...............‬خریدن(‬ ‫بیایند‪/‬بخرند →‬

‫‪168‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪. 1‬تصمیم گرفتم با دوستم در یک خانۀ بزرگتر ‪) ..........‬زندگی کردن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬احتمال دارد ماه بعد خانوادهاش از ایران به دیدن او ‪) ..........‬آمدن)‬ ‫‪. 3‬امروز من مریض ‪) ..........‬بودن) و باید ‪) ..........‬استراحت کردن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. ۴‬امروز بیشتر دانشجویان آمریکائی ‪) ..........‬آرزو داشتن) به دانشگاه‬ ‫هاروارد ‪) ..........‬رفتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬ما هیچوقت ‪) ..........‬توانستن) بیشتر از دو شب در آن هتل ‪) ..........‬ماندن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬هیچیک از بچهها ‪) ..........‬دوست داشتن) تعطیالت مدرسه ‪) ..........‬تمام شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬او دارد ‪) ..........‬سعی کردن) تحصیالتش را ‪) ..........‬تمام کردن) و در‬ ‫دانشگاه ‪) ..........‬استخدام شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬رادیو ‪) ..........‬گفتن) فردا دمای هوا به ‪ ۵2‬درجۀ سانتیگراد ‪) ..........‬رسیدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬هیچکدام از ما ‪) ..........‬مطمئن بودن) در امتحان ‪) ..........‬قبول شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬پدر و مادرم هیچ ‪) ..........‬امیدوار بودن) که ‪) ..........‬توانستن) به آمریکا ‪) ..........‬آمدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 15.5‬‬ ‫‪In the following sentences, a) change the first verb to negative and translate the‬‬ ‫‪sentence, and b) change the second verb to negative (the first one remains affir‬‬‫‪mative) and translate the sentence.‬‬ ‫‪Example:‬‬

‫او گفت بروم‬ ‫)‪ (He/she didn’t tell me to go.‬نگفت → گفت‬ ‫)‪ (He/she told me not to go.‬نروم → بروم‬ ‫‪. 1‬میتوانم با شما به رستوران بیایم‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬آیا شک دارید حرفش درست باشد؟‬ ‫‪. 3‬باید حتماً چلوکباب ایرانی بخورید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬ممکن است این خانه را به قیمت ارزانتری بخرند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬دکترم پیشنهاد کرد این قرصهای قرمز تلخ را بخورم‪.‬‬

‫‪169‬‬

‫)‪a‬‬ ‫)‪b‬‬

‫‪Exercise 15.6‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following sentences into English.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬کاش بتوانم کمتر کار کنم و بیشتر سفر کنم‪.‬‬

‫‪15‬‬ ‫)‪Perfect (or past‬‬ ‫‪subjunctive‬‬

‫زندگی نترسی‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬باید همیشه امیدوار باشی و هرگز از مشکالتِ‬ ‫‪. 3‬حدس زد این نامه از دانشگاه باشد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬شاید سال آینده برای تعطیالت به فرانسه بروم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬کاش بتوانید اینقدر زیاد پول خرج نکنید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬حدس میزنیم استادمان خوب بتواند کباب ایرانی درست کند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬ممکن است فردا هیچگونه کالسی نباشد چون هوا خیلی سرد خواهد شد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬مطمئن نیست بتواند در دانشگاه هاروارد پزشکی بخواند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬به نظر نمیرسد که بخواهد کتابهای قدیمیاش را به من بفروشد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬همیشه سعی کنید کمتر غصه بخورید و بیشتر از زندگی لذت ببرید‪.‬‬ ‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫تا مرد سخن نگفته باشد‬

‫عیب و هنرش نهفته باشد‬ ‫)سعدی(‬

‫‪So long as a man/a person has not spoken, his faults and strengths are‬‬ ‫‪hidden.‬‬ ‫)‪(by Saadi, 13th century.‬‬ ‫)‪ [archaic usage].‬است = باشد ‪(In the second line,‬‬

‫‪170‬‬

UNIT SIXTEEN

Conditionals and wishes

1۶ ‫فصل‬

‫وجه شرطی ؛ بیاِن آرزو‬

New words in this unit ‫وجه‬ ‫شرطی‬ ‫اگر‬ ‫پس‬ ‫بیان‬ ‫تخفیف‬ ‫طالق‬ ‫تولد‬ ‫روز تولد‬ ‫جشنِ تولد‬

vajh

mode (gr.)

shar.ti

conditional (gr.)

á.gar

if (in conditional) (stress on á)

pas

then (in conditional)

ba.yān

statement, expression

takh.fif

discount

ta.lāgh

divorce

ta.val.lod

birth

ru.z-e ta.val.lod

birthday

jash.n-e ta.val.lod

birthday party (lit., ‘celebration of birth[day]’)

‫چراغ‬ ‫شِناختن‬

che.rāgh

light, lamp

she.nākh.tan

to know (a person), to recognize, to be familiar with (present stem: ‫[ شناس‬she. nās])

‫سرود‬ ‫سُرودن‬

so.rud

song; hymn

so.ru.dan

to compose a poem (pres. stem: ‫[ سُرا‬so. rā])

‫غزل‬ ‫دیوان‬

gha.zal

ghazal; a genre in poetry

di.vān

a collection of poems by one poet (often the complete poems)

‫بستن‬

bas.tan

to close; to tie; to attach (pres. stem: ‫ند‬ [band])

َ‫ب‬ 171

16 Conditionals and wishes

‫بُردن‬

bor.dan

‫دزد‬ ‫دزدیدن‬ ‫دروغ‬ ‫دروغ گفتن‬ ‫احتیاج‬ ‫احتیاج داشتن‬ (‫)به‬ (. . . ِ‫)دنبال‬ ‫گشتن‬ ‫شنا‬ ‫شنا کردن‬ ‫رانندگی‬ ‫رانندگی کردن‬ ‫زمین‬ ‫زمین خوردن‬

dozd

‫الغر‬ ‫الغر شدن‬ ‫نابود شدن‬

172

doz.di.dan do.rugh do.rugh gof.tan eh.ti.yāj

to win (a prize or match); to take (pres. stem: ‫[ بَر‬bar]) thief

to steal (pres. stem: ‫[ دُزد‬dozd]) lie

to tell a lie; to lie [‫]گو → گفتن‬ need

eh.ti.yāj dāsh.tan (be)

to need (sth.) [‫]دار → داشتن‬

don.bā.l-e . . . gash.tan

to search (for. . .) [‫]گرد → گشتن‬

she.nā

swimming

she.nā kar.dan

to swim [‫]کن → کردن‬

rā.nan.de.gi rā.nan.de.gi kar.dan za.min za.min khor.dan

lā.ghar lā.ghar sho.dan nā.bud sho.dan

‫مجبور بودن‬ ِ‫یک ساعت‬ ‫دیگر‬ ‫دفعۀ دیگر‬ ‫با همدیگر‬ ‫با یکدیگر‬ ‫کافی‬ ‫غمانگیز‬

maj.bur bu.dan

‫سالم‬ ‫ناسالم‬

yek sā.’a.t-e di.gar

driving

to drive [‫]کن → کردن‬

earth; ground; field (in sports)

to fall down; to fall on the ground [‫( ]خور → خوردن‬usually for people; otherwise needs ‫)به‬ thin, slim

to lose weight [‫]شو → شدن‬

to be annihilated or destroyed; to become extinct or nonexistent [‫]شو → شدن‬ to be forced to [‫]باش → بودن‬

within or after an hour [lit. ‘in another hour’]

daf.’e-ye di.gar

next time [lit. ‘other time’]

bā ham-di.gar

with each other, with one another

bā yek-di.gar

with each other, with one another

kā.fi

enough (adj.)

gham-an.giz

sad (used for inanimates); causing sadness

sā.lem

healthy; healthful

nā-sā.lem

unhealthful; harmful

‫اسالم‬ ‫اسالمی‬ ‫انقالب‬ ‫جنگ‬ ‫گرسنگی‬ ‫فقر‬ ‫انسان‬ ‫حیوان‬ ‫صادق هدایت‬ ‫رُمان‬ ‫سینما‬ ‫شکالت‬ ‫کثیف‬ ‫بخش‬ ‫لهجه‬ ‫همسایه‬ ‫سیاست‬ ‫سیاستمدار‬ ‫میلیون‬ ‫دریا‬ ‫دریاچه‬ ِ‫بدون‬ ‫آه‬

es.lām

Islam

es.lā.mi

Islamic

en.ghe.lāb

revolution

jang

war

go.res.ne.gi

hunger

faghr

poverty

en.sān

human being; one (pr.)

hey.vān

animal (pl. ‫حیوانات‬, hey.vā.nāt)

sā.degh he.dā.yat

Sadegh Hedayat (writer, 1903–1951)

ro.mān

novel

si.ne.mā/si.na.mā

cinema

sho.ko.lāt

chocolate

ka.sif

dirty

bakhsh

section; part

lah.je

accent, dialect

ham.sā.ye

neighbour

si.yā.sat

politics

si.yā.sat-ma.dār

politician

mil.yon

million

dar.yā

sea

dar.yā.che

lake

be.du.ne

without

āh

O!; oh (interj.); sigh

Conditionals are “if-then” statements

16 Conditionals are “if-then” statements The word ‫[ اگر‬agar] in Persian means ‘if’ (in its conditional sense only, not the ‘if’ used for indirect questions) and is usually placed at the beginning of the if-clause (the ‘condition’ or ‘protasis’), which is usually the first clause in Persian, followed by the main clause (the ‘consequence’ or ‘apodosis’). In colloquial Persian, sometimes ‫ اگر‬is dropped and only the intonation (i.e., raising the pitch of voice at the end of the first clause) shows that it is a dependent clause with a ‘condition’ (if ) implied. There are two major categories of conditionals: indicative and counterfactual.

173

16 Conditionals and wishes

16.1 Indicative conditional Indicative conditionals involve different degrees of doubt and uncertainty; they are about things that may or may not be true, may or may not happen. What tenses to use for indicative conditional? Many combinations are possible, some more common than others. It is much easier to say what combinations are not common or acceptable: 1. No subjunctives – whether simple (present) or perfect (past) – in the main clause! (There can, however, be other triggers for their use, not the conditional.) 2. No past progressive or past perfect in the main clause! (Their use in the main clause is imaginable, though, when you are asking why something happened; for their use in counterfactual statements see 16.2). The most common tenses used in indicative conditional are: 1. If-clause: subjunctive (or simple past, specially when you have imperative in the main clause or some action, not a state) 2. Main clause: simple present or future or imperative By using these tenses, you are staying close to what a ‘condition’ really is; by using other tenses, you are often referring to or questioning some fact. Table 16.1 shows you in more detail most of the tense combinations that are postsible for this type of conditional. (In each row, any of the forms in one column can be combined with any of those in the other column.) Read each row from right to left. Table 16.1 Possible tense combinations for indicative conditional (Main clause)

(If-clause)

(present) ‫من او را میبینم‬ (future) ‫من او را خواهم دید‬ (imper.) ‫حتماً با او حرف بزن‬ (subj.) ‫چرا با او به سینما نرویم؟‬

(subj.) ‫بیاید‬ ‫ فردا‬/‫اگر مینا امروز‬ (past subj.) ‫( آمده باشد‬present/future) (past) ‫آمد‬ (past perf.) ‫آمده بود‬

all of the above + (pres.perf.) ‫چرا به من تلفن نزده است؟‬ (past) ‫چرا دیروز به من نگفتی؟‬ (past perf.) ‫چرا خواهرش ننوشته بود؟‬

174

(present) ‫میآید‬

(pres.perf.) ‫( حتماً کتابش را هم آورده است‬pres.perf.) ‫ دیروز آمده است‬/‫اگر مینا امروز‬ (present) ‫چرا اآلن اینجا نیست؟‬ (past subj.) ‫( آمده باشد‬in the past, which can be earlier today) (past) ‫چرا مادرش چیزی نگفت؟‬ (past perf.) ‫چرا خواهرش ننوشته بود؟‬ (future) ‫حتماً فردا برخواهد گشت‬

Translation of some of the sentences from Table 16.1 will show that the ‘if-clause’ is sometimes not much different from a time clause and ‫‘[ اگر‬if’] can be translated as when or after.

Indicative conditional

‫ من او را میبینم‬،‫( اگر مینا فردا بیاید‬If Mina comes tomorrow, I’ll see her.) !‫ حتماً با او حرف بزن‬،‫( اگر مینا فردا آمد‬Should Mina come tomorrow, certainly talk to her!)

‫ چرا با او به سینما نرویم؟‬،‫( اگر مینا فردا میآید‬If Mina [really] comes tomorrow, why shouldn’t we go with her to the cinema?)

‫ حتماً کتابش را هم آورده است‬،‫( اگر مینا فردا آمده باشد‬If Mina comes/has come tomorrow, she has/will have certainly brought her book also.)

‫ چرا مادرش چیزی نگفت؟‬، ‫( اگر مینا امروز آمده است‬If Mina has come today, why didn’t her mother say anything?)

‫ حتماً آن را پیدا خواهی کرد‬،‫( اگر در کتابخانه دنبال آن کتاب بگردی‬If you look for that book in the library, you’ll certainly find it.)

‫ در این کتابخانه آن را پیدا نخواهی کرد‬، ‫( اگر دنبال آن کتاب می گردی‬If you’re looking for that book, you won’t find it in this library.)

‫ هیچکس آن را نمیخرد‬،‫( اگر هیزم تر باشد‬If the firewood is wet, nobody will buy it.)

A couple of examples with if-clause following the main clause, which is much less common:

‫( آیا عیبی دارد اگر با این پیراهن سیاه بیایم؟‬Is it bad if I come with this black shirt?)

‫( چقدر پول به من میدهی اگر تمام لباسهایت را بشویم؟‬How much money will you give me if I wash all of your clothes?)

Reminder: The verb ‫ داشتن‬in its ‘more irregular’ form would use again the perfect subjunctive instead of the simple subjunctive (see 14.1.4):

‫ نامه را تمام میکنم‬،‫( اگر وقت داشته باشم‬If I have time, I’ll finish the letter. In the following example, however, you are challenging what someone has said to you as some fact, so you are using the simple present tense:

‫ چرا آنها را میخوری؟‬، ‫( اگر این قرصها فایدهای ندارند‬If these pills have no benefit, why are you taking them?

175

16 Conditionals and wishes

16.2 Counterfactual conditional The counterfactual conditional is not about doubt or uncertainty; it only tells us what would have been the case if a certain assumption had been true (although we know that it is not true). It is about things that we cannot, or can no longer, change – therefore, it is often, though not always, about the past. What tenses to use for counterfactual conditional? There are not as many options here: only the past progressive or past perfect, each of which can be used in either of the clauses – which means that there are four possible combinations. The past progressive, however, can be said to be the more common of the two tenses, especially in the main clause, and it is always safe to use it in both clauses. (Using the past perfect in the main clause is only to stress that the action happened before.) Important: In this and similar irrealis or counterfactual constructions, the verbs ‫ بودن‬and ‫ داشتن‬also can have – and often do have – the past progressive prefix mi-. Examples:

‫ میتوانستم با شما بیایم‬،[ ‫نمیبود‬/] ‫( اگر فردا روز تولد مادرم نبود‬If tomorrow

hadn’t been my Mom’s birthday, I would have been able to come with you.) What happens if you use ‫ نباشد‬here instead of ‫ ? نبود‬1. It means that you are not sure about your mother’s date of birth; 2. it will change the type of conditional to indicative, which will then necessitate using ‫ میتوانم‬in the main clause instead of ‫ میتوانستم‬.

‫ حتماً آن فرش را میخریدم‬،‫( اگر بیشتر تخفیف میداد‬If he had given more discount, I would certainly have bought that carpet.)

‫ حتماً آن خانه را تا به حال خریده بودم‬، ‫( اگر بیشتر پول ]می[داشتم‬If I had had more money, I would certainly have bought that house until now.)

‫ هرگز با او به آن سفر نمیرفتم‬، ‫( اگر آن نویسنده را بهتر شناخته بودم‬If I had known that author better, I would never have gone with him on that trip.)

‫ به او میگفتم‬، ‫( اگر قیمتش را از من پرسیده بود‬If he had asked me [about] the price, I would have told him.)

‫ تا حاال ده بار طالق گرفته بودم‬،‫( اگر جای تو ]می[بودم‬If I had been you [lit., ‘in your place’], I would have taken divorce long ago [lit., ‘ten times’].)

Examples with ‫ اگر‬dropped (see 16):

‫ چکار میکردی؟‬، ‫( من نبودم‬What would/could you have done had I not been 176

there?) Note that this could also mean: ‘What were you doing when I was not there?’ ‫ میتوانستید مینا را هم ببینید‬،‫( زودتر آمده بودید‬Had you come earlier, you could have seen Mina also.)

16.3 Wishes

Wishes

Similar to conditionals, wishes too have real and unreal, or indicative and counterfactual, forms. Indicative wishes can be expressed 1. by using the words ‫[ کاش‬kāsh, sometimes preceded by ‫( ای‬ey, ‘O!’) and written as ‫ ای کاش‬or ‫ ]ایکاش‬or ‫[ کاشکی‬kāsh-ki], both meaning ‘I wish,’ or 2. by using the word ‫[ آرزو‬ārezu] and the different compound verbs made with it (usually ‫ آرزو کردن‬or ‫)آرزو داشتن‬. Indicative wishes are about the future, about what is (or was) to happen next, and they always need one of the two subjunctive forms: 1. simple subjunctive, if they are about the future (or a future in the past); but 2. perfect subjunctive, if they are about the past (or a past in the future: the completion and fulfillment of a wish before a point of time in the future). The tense of the compound verbs with ‫ آرزو‬plays no role here. Indicative wishes are not much different from hopes; one can often use the verb‫( امیدوار بودن‬omidvār budan, ‘to hope’ – lit., ‘to be hopeful’) to say the same thing. Counterfactual wishes are always expressed by using the words ‫ کاش‬or ‫; کاشکی‬ other variants with ‫ آرزو‬are not possible here. They are unreal or irrealis; they are regrets about past (things we know we cannot change) or wishes that we know can never be fulfilled. Similar to counterfactual conditionals, these unreal wishes also are expressed by using either the past progressive or past perfect. And the verbs ‫ بودن‬and ‫ داشتن‬can here also have the past progressive prefix mi-. Table 16.2 Wishes and regrets

indicative

future/future in the past

past

‫کاش او را ببینم‬

‫کاش او آمده باشد‬

‫کاش با مادرش بیاید‬

‫کاش با مادرش آمده باشد‬

‫آرزو میکنم بیاید‬

‫آرزو میکنم او آمده باشد‬

I wish to see her. I wish she came/I hope she comes with her mother. I wish she came/I hope she comes.

‫آرزو داشتم بیاید‬

I wished/hoped she would come

I hope she has come. I hope she has come with her mother. I hope she has come.

‫آرزو داشتم او آمده باشد‬ I hoped she had come.

177

16 Conditionals and wishes

Table 16.2 (cont’d) counterfactual

‫کاش فردا میآمد‬

(I wish he could have come tomorrow.)

‫کاش فردا آمده بود‬

(I wish he had come tomorrow. [= I know that he wouldn’t and that he has other plans.])

‫کاش دیروز میآمد‬ ‫کاش دیروز آمده بود‬

(Both meaning: I wish he had come yesterday.)

More examples:

‫میداشتم‬/‫( کاش یک خانۀ بزرگتر داشتم‬I wish I had had a bigger house.) ‫میبودی‬/‫( کاش تو مادرم بودی‬I wish you had been my Mom.) ‫ نمیبود‬/‫( کاش این اتاق اینقدر تاریک نبود‬I wish this room hadn’t been so dark.) ‫( کاش این را به همه نگفته باشد‬I hope he hasn’t told everyone about this.) ‫( آرزو دارم که بچههایم واقعاً خوشبخت شوند‬I have the wish that my children become/I hope they become really happy.)

‫( آرزو میکنم در آنجا زندگی بهتری داشته باشی‬I hope you have/I wish you a better life there.)

‫( کاش آن فروشنده فردا برگشته باشد‬I hope that seller/’cashier has returned/will have returned by tomorrow.)

‫( کاش کمی آهستهتر رانندگی کرده بود‬I wish he had driven more slowly.) ‫( کاش بتوانم انسان مفیدی باشم‬I wish I could be a useful person.) ‫ کاش بتوانم تمامِ دیوان اشعار حافظ را از بر کنم‬،‫از بر کردنِ یک غزل هنری نیست‬ (Memorizing one poem is no big deal; I wish I could memorize the whole divan of [the poems of ] Hāfez.)

Exercises Exercise 16.1 Write the appropriate form of the verb in the following indicative conditional sentences. 178

Example: (‫ )شدن‬.......... ‫ من خوشحال‬،‫خواهم شد → اگر بیائی‬/‫میشوم‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪. 1‬اگر این تابستان کار نکنم‪ ،‬با زنم به سفر ‪) ..........‬رفتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 2‬اگر هر روز ورزش کنید‪ ،‬حتما الغر ‪) ..........‬شدن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 3‬اگر نیم ساعت دیگر ‪) ..........‬صبر کردن)‪ ،‬دکتر را خواهید دید‪.‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬اگر ما وقت کافی ‪) ..........‬داشتن)‪ ،‬حتما زبان فارسی را یاد میگیریم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬اگر کمی بیشتر فکر کند‪ ،‬مشکالت زندگی ما را بهتر ‪) ..........‬فهمیدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬اگر برای او جشن تولد بگیرند‪ ،‬حتما خیلی ‪) ..........‬خوشحال شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬اگر امروز هوا سرد ‪) ..........‬بودن)‪ ،‬در خانه خواهم ماند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬اگر هر شب در رستوران غذا نخوری‪ ،‬پول کمتری ‪) ..........‬خرج کردن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬اگر به فکر تو نباشم‪ ،‬برای تو نامه ‪) ..........‬نوشتن)‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬اگر دفعۀ دیگر به رستوران ایرانی ‪) ..........‬رفتن)‪ ،‬چلوکباب نخواهم خورد‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 16.2‬‬ ‫‪Write the appropriate form of the verb in the following counterfactual condi‬‬‫‪tional sentences.‬‬ ‫میشدم‪)/‬شده بودم( → اگر میآمدی‪ ،‬من خوشحال ‪) ..........‬شدن( ‪Example:‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬اگر میخواست برای شام به خانهام بیاید‪ ،‬حتما از قبل به من ‪) ..........‬تلفن کردن)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬اگر یک میلیون دالر میبُردی‪ ،‬با آن چه ‪) ..........‬کردن)؟‬ ‫‪. 3‬اگر به من گفته بودید به ماشین احتیاج دارید‪ ،‬من ماشینم را به شما ‪) ..........‬دادن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬اگر امروز هوا کمی گرمتر میشد‪ ،‬من در دریاچه ‪) ..........‬شنا کردن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬اگر زودتر از خواب بیدار شده بودند‪ ،‬حتما به قطارشان ‪) ..........‬رسیدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬اگر بیشتر گشته بودیم‪) .......... ،‬توانستن) یک هتل ارزانتر پیدا کنیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬اگر آن چیزها را از استادشان ‪) ..........‬پرسیدن)‪) .......... ،‬توانستن) بهتر امتحان بدهند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬اگر حافظ پنجاه سال پیش ‪) ..........‬به دنیا آمدن)‪ ،‬هرگز این غزلها را ‪) ..........‬سرودن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬اگر بچه ها لباس گرمتری ‪) ..........‬پوشیدن)‪) .......... ،‬مریض شدن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬اگر من دوشنبهها کالس ‪) ..........‬نـَ ‪ +‬داشتن)‪) .......... ،‬دوست داشتن) خانه بمانم‪.‬‬

‫‪179‬‬

‫‪Exercise 16.3‬‬ ‫‪Choose the correct form of the verb, then translate.‬‬ ‫اگر میآمدی‪ ،‬تو را )دیدم‪ /‬میدیدم‪ /‬ببینم(‬

‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪Conditionals‬‬ ‫‪and wishes‬‬

‫‪Example:‬‬

‫)‪ (If you had come, I would have seen you.‬میدیدم →‬ ‫‪. 1‬اگر تا ساعت ‪ 10‬صبح فردا زنگ نزدم‪ ،‬به اینجا )نیامدم‪ /‬نیایم‪ /‬میآیم)‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬اگر فردا این چمدان را برای من به ایستگاه بیاوری ‪ ،‬خیلی خوشحال‬ ‫)بشوم‪ /‬میشوم‪ /‬شده بودم)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬اگر یک شاعر بودم‪) ،‬دوست نمیدارم ‪ /‬دوست نداشتم ‪ /‬دوست داشته نبودم)‬ ‫شعرهای غمانگیز بسرایم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۴‬اگر جمعه مهمان )بیاید‪ /‬آید‪ /‬دارد آید)‪ ،‬باید همۀ خانه را تمیز کنیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬اگر به آن دانشگاه )برود‪ /‬رفته نباشد‪ /‬نرفته بود)‪ ،‬االن داشت در یک مدرسۀ آشپزی‬ ‫درس )خواند‪ /‬خوانده بود‪ /‬میخواند)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬اگر یک میلیون دالر پول )داشتم ‪ /‬دارم ‪ /‬داشته باشم )‪ ،‬اآلن در اینجا برای تو کار‬ ‫نمیکردم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬اگر استادت خیلی خوب غذای ایرانی میپزد ‪ ،‬چرا برای دانشجویانش‬ ‫)نیاورد‪ /‬نیاورده باشد‪ /‬نمیآورد)؟‬ ‫‪. 8‬اگر دیشب چراغ حیاط را روشن کرده بودم ‪ ،‬به زمین )نخورم ‪ /‬نخورده بودم‪/‬‬ ‫نمیخورم)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬اگر به بخش فارسی کتابخانه )بروید‪ /‬رفته باشید‪ /‬میرفتید)‪ ،‬کتابهای زیادی به زبان‬ ‫فارسی میدیدید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬اگر سه سال در اصفهان زندگی نمیکرد ‪ ،‬فارسی را با لهجۀ اصفهانی‬ ‫)حرف نزد‪ /‬حرف نمیزد‪ /‬حرف نزند)‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 16.4‬‬

‫’‪Write the correct form of the verb for the following ‘counterfactual wish‬‬ ‫‪statements.‬‬ ‫میآمدی → کاش تو فردا ‪) ..........‬آمدن(‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪Example:‬‬

‫‪.‬کاش بیشتر ورزش ‪) ..........‬کردن) و حاال سالم بودم‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬کاشکی ‪) ..........‬نـَ ‪ +‬مجبور بودن) در تعطیالت تابستان کار کنیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬کاش این امتحان اینقدر سخت ‪) ..........‬نـَ ‪ +‬بودن)!‬

‫‪180‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬کاش ترجمۀ بهتری از اشعار فروغ فرخزاد به انگلیسی ‪) ..........‬پیدا شدن)!‬ ‫‪. ۶‬کاش سیاستمداران اینقدر ‪) ..........‬دروغ گفتن)!‬ ‫‪. 7‬کاش آن نویسندۀ مشهور رمانش را کوتاهتر ‪) ..........‬نوشتن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 8‬کاش من هم ‪) ..........‬توانستن) غزلهای حافظ را به فارسی بخوانم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۹‬کاش استاد از ما )نـَ ‪ +‬خواستن) این کلمه ها را از بر کنیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۱۰‬کاش تو این دکتر خوب را خیلی زودتر )شناختن)‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۱۱‬کاش این همسایهها اینقدر فضول ‪) ..........‬نـَ ‪ +‬بودن)!‬ ‫‪ .۱۲‬کاش این دانشگاه شما را استخدام )کردن(‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬کاشکی من اینقدر شکالت و چیزهای شیرین ‪) ..........‬نـَ ‪ +‬دوست داشتن)!‬

‫‪Exercise 16.5‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following sentences into English.‬‬ ‫‪. 1‬نویسندۀ رمان آرزو میکرد روزی خانۀ سالهای کودکیاش را ببیند‪.‬‬

‫‪. 2‬کاش انسانها میتوانستند بدون گرسنگی و فقر و جنگ با همدیگر زندگی کنند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 3‬اگر شب در هتل میماندیم‪ ،‬مجبور نمیشدی در این باران رانندگی کنی‪.‬‬

‫‪. ۴‬اگر زبان عربی را یاد گرفته باشید‪ ،‬میدانید که بسیاری از کلمات فارسی از عربی‬ ‫میآیند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۵‬اگر انسان مواظب طبیعت نباشد‪ ،‬حیوانات بیشتر و بیشتری نابود میشوند‪.‬‬ ‫‪. ۶‬اگر میخواهی سینمای ایران را بشناسی‪ ،‬فیلمهای ایرانی قبل از انقالب اسالمی را‬ ‫هم ببین‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 7‬کاش زبان عربی و زبان فرانسه هم میدانستم!‬ ‫‪. 8‬اگر در اتاق را بسته بود‪ ،‬دزد نمیتوانست کیف پولش را بدزدد‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 9‬اگر به شهر تهران سفر کرده باشید ‪ ،‬باید بدانید هوای آنجا چقدر کثیف و ناسالم‬ ‫است‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 10‬اگر نویسندگان مهم ایران را میشناسید‪ ،‬باید صادق هدایت را هم بشناسید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 11‬اگر هوای تمیز و سالم میخواهید‪ ،‬بهتر است در شهرهای بزرگ زندگی نکنید‪.‬‬ ‫‪. 12‬اگر چند ماه پیش کیف پول این خانم را ندزدیده بودند‪ ،‬هیچوقت اینقدر مواظب‬ ‫کیفش نبود‪.‬‬ ‫‪181‬‬

16 Conditionals and wishes

IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS

‫ من میگویم سیاه است‬،‫اگر بگوید ماست سفید است‬ If he says yoghurt is white, I’ll say it is black. (Proverb; used to show total distrust.) . . . ‫آه اگر آزادی سرودی میخواند‬

O, if only freedom would sing a song. . . [From a poem by Ahmad Shāmlu, 1925–2000.]

182

UNIT SEVENTEEN

17 ‫فصل‬

‫از حرف اضافه‬ ‫تا حرف ربط‬

From prepositions to conjunctions

New words in this unit ‫حرف‬

harf

‫حرفِ اضافه‬ ‫حرفِ ربط‬ ‫مرگ‬ ‫کشتن‬ ‫کشیدن‬

har.f-e e.zā.fe

‫نفس‬ ‫نفس کشیدن‬ ‫کشو‬ (‫خبر داشتن )از‬ ‫عِشق‬ ‫عاشِق‬ ‫ بودن‬. . . ِ‫عاشِق‬ ‫معشوق‬ ‫معشوقه‬ ‫شوهر‬ ‫آدمی‬

na.fas

‫رقص‬ ‫رقصیدن‬ ‫توجّه‬

letter of alphabet (gr.; in this sense pl. also ‫ حروف‬ho.ruf) preposition (gr.)

har.f-e rabt

conjunction (gr.)

marg

death

kosh.tan

to kill (pres. stem: ‫[ کش‬kosh])

ke.shi.dan

na.fas ke.shi.dan ke.show

to draw; to pull; to drag (pres. stem:

‫[ کش‬kesh]) breath

to breathe [‫]کش → کشیدن‬ drawer

[‫]دار → داشتن‬

kha.bar dāsh.tan (az)

to know (about)

eshgh

love

ā.shegh

lover (pl. ‫عشّاق‬, osh.shāgh)

ā.she.gh-e . . . bu.dan ma’.shugh

to love (s.o. or sth.) [‫]باش → بودن‬ beloved (masc.)

ma’.shu.ghe

mistress; beloved (fem.)

show.har

husband

ā.da.mi

man (impersonal), human being (poet.)

raghs

dance

ragh.si.dan

to dance (pres. stem: ‫[ رقص‬raghs])

ta.vaj.joh

attention

183

17 From prepositions to conjunctions

(‫توجه کردن )به‬

ta.vaj.joh kar.dan (be)

‫کاله‬ ‫دفتر تلفن‬ ‫رودخانه‬ ‫بیمارستان‬ ‫پلیس‬ ‫بلبل‬ ‫نمره‬ ‫مهربان‬ ‫مهربانی‬ ‫مهمانی‬ ‫قوم‬

ko.lāh

hat

daf.ta.r-e te.le.fon

(a private) phone book

rud.khā.ne

river

bi.mā.res.tān

hospital

po.lis

police

bol.bol

nightingale

nom.re

grade (at school); number

meh.ra.bān

kind (adj.)

meh.ra.bā.ni

kindness

meh.mā.ni

party

ghowm

folk; ethnic group; relative (pl. ‫اقوام‬, agh.vām)

‫ساکن‬

sā.ken

‫کارد‬ ‫حلوا‬

kārd

knife

hal.vā

halva; kind of sweet Persian confection

‫سیر‬ ‫عصبانی‬ ‫عصبانیّت‬ ‫هدیه‬ ‫گربه‬ ‫سختی‬ ‫ به سختی‬/‫بسختی‬ (‫بیخبر )از‬

sir

full, no more hungry

a.sa.bā.ni

angry

a.sa.bā.niy.yat

anger

hed.ye

gift, present

gor.be

cat

sakh.ti

difficulty; hardship; hardness

be-sakh.ti

with difficulty; hard (adv.)

bi-kha.bar

unaware; ignorant; not knowing or not having heard (of/about)

‫ با آنکه‬/‫با اینکه‬ ‫بعضی‬

bā in-ke/ bā ān-ke

even though

ba’.zi

some (for countables), certain [number of] (use with plural nouns)

mā.dar-bo.zorg

grandmother

‫مادربزرگ‬ 184

to notice; to pay attention (to)

[‫]کن→کردن‬

For a list of prepositions, see 17.1.

resident (n.); settled (adj.); not moving

17.1 Prepositions

Prepositions

Persian has only a few ‘primary’ prepositions; the rest are ‘derived’ prepositions (mostly nouns/adverbs + ezāfe) or prepositional phrases. The prepositions can have different meanings and usages, each time being the equivalent of a different preposition in English. The following are some of the most important of them with their most common meanings, some already familiar to you from previous units. ‫[ از‬az]: from; since; out of/because of; about/concerning; also of (after numbers and quantitative pronouns) and than (with the comparative). Examples:

‫( از خانه به دانشگاه رفت‬He went from home to the university.) ‫ از خانه رفت‬8 ‫( ساعت‬He left home at 8.) (‘to go from a place’ = ‘to leave’) ‫( از بچگی عاشقِ رقص بود‬She loved dance since childhood.) ‫( فقط یکی از پسرها آمد‬Only one of the boys came.) ‫( خیلی از آنها را میشناسم‬I know many of them.) ‫( با کالهی از گل میرقصید‬She danced with a hat [made] of flowers.) ‫( از عصبانیت نمیتوانست حرف بزند‬He couldn’t speak from/because of anger.) ‫( برای من از ایران بگوئید‬Tell me about Iran.) ‫( از آن بیخبر بودم‬I didn’t know about that.) ‫( از مادرت چیزی نشنیدهای؟‬Haven’t you heard from/about your mother?) ‫( از کجا میدانی؟‬How [lit., ‘from where’] do you know?) ‫( از این بیشتر ندارم‬I don’t have more than this.). ‫( از همه پیرتر است‬He is the oldest/older than all [others]) ‫[ به‬be]: to (for destinations, or for indirect objects of many verbs, usually written separately); with (+ abstract nouns = adv.; in this usage sometimes written joined). Note: It is ‘to a location,’ not ‘to a person’ (which needs ِ‫ پیش‬instead of ‫)به‬. Examples:

‫( بابک به مدرسه نمیرود‬Bābak doesn’t go to school.) ‫( به سختی نفس میکشید‬She breathed with difficulty.) ‫بسرعت( برگشت‬/) ‫( به سرعت‬He returned quickly [= with speed].)

185

17 From prepositions to conjunctions

‫[ با‬bā]: with; together with; by means of; on (for means of transportation); to (for verbs like talk, speak). Examples:

‫( با دوستم به آنجا خواهم رفت‬I’ll go there with my friend.) ‫( چرا با مداد قهوهایات نمینویسی؟‬Why don’t you write pencil?)

with your brown

‫( سفر با قطار سریع را دوست دارم‬I like traveling on fast/express trains.) ‫( معلم با والدین بچه صحبت کرد‬The teacher talked with/to the child’s

parents.)

‫[ در‬dar]: in; inside; within. (With some compound verbs, it can have the opposite meaning: ‘out/outside’). Synonyms: ِ‫[ توی‬tu-ye, col.]; ِ‫[ داخل‬dākhel-e, form.]; ِ‫[ درون‬darun-e, lit.]. ِ‫[ ظرف‬zar.f-e, ‘within’ – temp.]

Examples:

‫( او در اتاقش نیست‬She is not in her room.) ‫( کتاب را در کیفش گذاشت‬He put the book in/inside his bag.) ‫ ثانیه غذایش را خورد‬30 ‫( در‬He ate his food in 30 seconds.)

‫[ تا‬tā]: until; up to; as far as. Examples: ‫( تا ظهر آنجا ماندیم‬We stayed there until noon.) ‫( تا شیراز رفتیم‬We went as far as Shirāz.) (Remember that ‫ تا‬can be a conjunction too; see 14.2.3.) ِ‫[ پیش‬pi.sh-e]: to or with a person (similar to the French chez); in the presence

of or before (locational); next to. Examples: ‫( پیش مینا رفتم‬I went to Mina[’s].)

186

‫( پیش مینا هستم‬I am with Mina/at Mina’s.) ‫( کتابت پیش من است‬Your book is with me/at my place.) ‫[ پیش از‬pish az] or ‫[ قبل از‬ghabl az]: before (temporal). Example: ‫ یک نوشیدنی سرد خوردم‬،‫( پیش از خواب‬I drank a cold drink before sleep.) ‫[ بعد از‬ba’d az] or ‫[ پس از‬pas az, form.]: after (temporal). Example: ‫( بعد از ظهر پیش خواهرم رفتم‬In the afternoon, I went to my sister[’s].)

Prepositions

ِ‫[ زیر‬zi.r-e]: under. Example: ‫( گربه زیرِ میز است‬The cat is under the table.) ِ‫[ روی‬ru-ye]: on; over; above. Synonyms:

ِ ‫[ باال‬bā.lā-ye, over] ‫ی‬ ‫[ بر‬bar, upon – lit.] Example:

‫( پرنده روی کاله آن خانم نشست‬The bird sat on that lady’s hat.) ‫( رفتن باالی این درخت سخت است‬Climbing this tree is hard.) ِ‫[ نزدیک‬naz.di.k-e] or close to. Example:

‫[ نزدیک به‬naz.dik be]: near (or nearly with quantities);

‫ک رودخانه است‬ ِ ‫( خانهاش نزدی‬His house is near the river.) ‫( نزدیک به یک ماه در بیمارستان بود‬For nearly a month hospital.)

he was in the

ِ‫[ پشت‬posh.t-e]: behind; at the back of. (‫‘ = پُشت‬back’). Example:

‫ت خانهشان یک باغ بود‬ ِ ‫( پش‬There was a garden behind their house.) ِ‫[ جلو‬je.lo.w-e]: opposite; in front of; before; ahead of. Synonyms (for ‘in front of’):

ِ‫[ مقابل‬mo.ghā.be.l-e] ِ‫[ روبروی‬ru-be-ru-ye] ِ‫[ در برابر‬dar ba.rā.ba.r-e] See also ِ‫ پیش‬mentioned above. Examples:

‫( جلوِ من یک مرد کور نشسته بود‬A blind man was sitting opposite [or before,

in front of] me.)

‫( همیشه صورت او را جلو چشمم میبینم‬I always see her face before my eyes.) ‫( او جلوِ من راه میرفت‬He was walking ahead of/before me.) ‫[ دربارۀ‬dar.bā.re-ye]: about; concerning. Synonyms: ‫[ راجع به‬rā.je’ be]

‫[ در مور ِد‬dar mow.re.d-e]

187

17 From prepositions to conjunctions

Example:

‫( دربارۀ سفرش به یک کشور خارجی حرف زد‬She talked about her travel to a foreign country.)

‫( در مور ِد زندگیِ گذشتهاش چه میدانید؟‬What do you know about his past life?)

ِ‫[ برای‬ba.rā.ye]: for. Examples:

‫( یک هدیه برای مادرش خرید‬She bought a gift for her mother.) ‫( برای چه؟‬What for?/Why?)

Sometimes some of the above prepositions are combined, although only one might seem to be enough: for instance, ِ‫ روی‬can be preceded by the prepositions ‫ بَر‬, ‫ به‬or ‫ دَر‬, while it doesn’t actually need them. Prepositions are always followed by their objects – a noun or a pronoun, which can be at the same time the indirect object of a verb. Most of the times they are similar to the prepositions used in English, but sometimes they are not.

17.1.1 What happens to verbs after prepositions? After prepositions we can have nouns, not verbs and clauses – but we know that verbs also have their own ‘noun form’: this ‘noun form’ is infinitive in Persian (see 10.4). However, if you have to use a full verb or a ‘noun clause’ after a preposition, there is usually a simple solution for that. In English, you can say ‘in spite of his laughter’ (noun) or ‘in spite of his laughing’ (gerund = noun), but you cannot say ‘in spite of he laughed’ (a full verb) – you can, however, say, ‘in spite of the fact that he laughed. . .’: adding ‘the fact that’ does the trick here. In all such cases, Persian would add ‫[ اینکه‬or ‫ اینکه‬, in-ke, in more formal Persian ‫آنکه‬/‫آنکه‬, ān-ke]. Here the demonstrative pronoun ‫( این‬or ‫ )آن‬would assume the role of the object (‘the fact’) followed by ‫‘( که‬that’, introducing the noun clause that follows). In the following examples, you will see how we move from a noun like ‫[ مرگ‬marg, ‘death’] to the ‘noun form’ of the verb, i.e., infinitive in Persian: ‫[ مردن‬mordan, ‘dying’] – and finally to a full verb like (‫مرده )است‬ (‘has died’):

‫( از مرگِ پدرش خبری نداشتم‬I knew nothing/had not heard about his father’s death.)

‫( از مردنِ پدرش خبری نداشتم‬I knew nothing/had not heard about his father’s dying.)

188

‫( از اینکه پدرش مرده خبری نداشتم‬I did not know/had not heard that his father had died.)

‫( به مهربانیِ او اطمینان داشتم‬I was sure of his kindness.) ‫( به مهربان بودنِ او اطمینان داشتم‬I was sure of his being kind.) ‫( به اینکه او مهربان است اطمینان داشتم‬I was sure that he was kind.) (Compare with: ‫)اطمینان داشتم که او مهربان است‬ ‫( در قبول شدنش در امتحان شک داشتم‬I had doubts about his passing the test.) ‫( در اینکه در امتحان قبول شود شک داشتم‬I doubted that he would pass the test.) (Or: ‫شک داشتم در اینکه در امتحان قبول شود‬/‫)شک داشتم که‬ ‫( دربارۀ حرفهای دیگران خیلی فکر کردم‬I thought a lot about the words of

Changing prepositions to conjunctions

others.)

‫( دربارۀ اینکه دیگران چه خواهند گفت خیلی فکر کردم‬I thought a lot about what others would say.)

17.2 Changing prepositions to conjunctions As some of the examples in 17.1.1 made it clear, by adding ‫ اینکه‬or ‫ آنکه‬most of the prepositions can change to conjunctions – occasionally, of course, with some change of the meaning. Some examples: ِ‫( برای‬for) → ‫ برای آنکه‬/‫( برای اینکه‬for the purpose that/so that) – sometimes reduced to just ‫ که‬, and in colloquial Persian sometimes even ‫ که‬is dropped:

‫برای دید ِن مادرش به تهران رفت‬ seeing her mother.)

(She went to Tehran for [the purpose of]

‫ برای اینکه مادرش را ببیند به تهران رفت‬or ‫به تهران رفت برای اینکه مادرش را‬ ‫( ببیند‬She went to Tehran to see her mother.) A still shorter version of this

would be:

‫به تهران رفت )که( مادرش را ببیند‬ ‫ برای اینکه‬can also mean ‘because’ (but only at the beginning of the second clause, and no subjunctive; see 14.2.3). Example: ‫ برای اینکه کسی من را دعوت نکرده بود‬،‫( آنجا نرفتم‬I didn’t go there, because no one had invited me.)

‫( با‬with) → ‫ با آنکه‬/‫( با اینکه‬even though): ‫ نزدیکِ یک ساعت شنا کرد‬،‫( با اینکه آب کمی سرد بود‬Although the water was a little cold, he swam for nearly an hours.)

189

17 From prepositions to conjunctions

‫تا‬, similar to until in English, is an exceptional case: it can be both a preposition and a conjunction. When used as a conjunction, adding ‫ اینکه‬or ‫ آنکه‬would be optional: ‫( بیدار ماندیم تا )اینکه( مادرمان برگشت‬We stayed awake our mother returned.) ‫( بیدار ماندیم تا )اینکه( آن فیلم را ببینیم‬We stayed awake in order to watch that movie.)

The prepositions ‫( بعد از‬after) and ‫( قبل از‬before) can change into conjunctions in the same way. If you don’t add ‫آنکه‬/‫ اینکه‬, they will be prepositions and you wouldn’t be able to have a full verb after them. Compare:

‫ غذا خوردم‬، ‫( بعد از نوشتنِ نامه‬After writing [lit., ‘the writing of’] the letter, I ate.)

‫ غذا خوردم‬،‫( بعد از اینکه نامه را نوشتم‬After I wrote the letter, I ate.) Exercises Exercise 17.1 Based on the translations given, choose one of the following prepositions (in one case conjunction) to fill in the blanks.

ِ‫ پیش‬،ِ‫ برای‬،‫ با‬،‫ به‬،‫ در‬،‫ تا‬،‫ دربارۀ‬،‫از‬

‫ مینا رفتم‬............... ‫( من‬I went to Mina.) → ِ‫پیش‬ ‫ ساعت ده و نیم است‬............... ‫ ساعت نه‬............... ‫( کالس صبحِ من‬My morn-

Example: 1. 2. 3.

190

ing class is from 9 to 10:30 a.m.)

‫ این دانشجویان امتحان ندادند‬............... these students did not take the exam.)

‫تر ِم پیش بعضی‬

(Last term some of

‫ رادیو شنیدم امروز هوا بارانی میشود‬............... (I heard from the radio [that] it

will be rainy today.)

4.

‫ معشوق نمیگوید‬............... ‫گفته است هیچ عاشقی هرگز سخن سختی‬ (Hāfez has said that no lover ever says harsh words to the beloved.)

‫حافظ‬

5.

‫ مردان میرقصند‬............... ‫ زنان‬،‫ رقصهای اقوام ساکن ایران‬............... ‫ بعضی‬............... (In some of the dances of the folks living in Iran women dance with men.)

6.

‫ گل و بلبل است‬............... ‫( شعر فارسی همیشه‬Persian poetry is always about roses [‘flowers’] and nightingales.)

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪ (Our grand-‬مادربزرگمان همیشه ‪ ...............‬مهربانی ‪ ...............‬ما سخن میگفت‬

‫)‪mother always talked to us with kindness.‬‬

‫‪ 7.‬‬

‫‪ (In this poem the‬شاعر ‪ ...............‬این شعر دارد ‪ ...............‬معشوقش میرقصد‬ ‫)‪poet is dancing with his beloved.‬‬

‫‪ 8.‬‬

‫پروین میخواست ‪ ...............‬پرویز ‪ ...............‬شام ‪ ...............‬من بیاید‬ ‫)‪(Last night Parvin wanted to come to me for dinner with Parviz.‬‬

‫‪ 9.‬‬

‫‪ .....................‬ساعت نه شب صبر کردم و شام نخوردم ‪ ...............‬شوهرم آمد‬ ‫)‪(I waited till nine p.m. and did not have/eat dinner until my husband came.‬‬

‫‪10.‬‬

‫دیشب‬

‫‪Exercise 17.2‬‬ ‫‪Find the prepositions in the following text and write them in the order that they‬‬ ‫‪appear, then translate the text.‬‬ ‫مینا رفتم ‪Example:‬‬

‫با‪ ،‬پیشِ → من با اوپی ِ‬ ‫ش‬ ‫درباره یک عاشق پیر و معشو ٔقه جوان‬ ‫اگر به داستان این فیلم توجه کنید ‪ ،‬میبینید که‬ ‫ٔ‬ ‫اوست ‪ .‬در اول فیلم ‪ ،‬قبل از هر حرف و صحبتی ‪ ،‬مرد پیر برای زن جوان یک سیب‬ ‫دقیقه آخر فیلم ‪ ،‬میبینیم که‬ ‫میآورد و آن را با یک کارد روی میز میگذارد ‪ .‬در چند‬ ‫ٔ‬ ‫کسی آن مرد را با یک کارد کشته است‪ .‬پلیس ظرفِ کمتر از نیم ساعت پس از مرگ‬ ‫همسایهیه او او صحبت میکند‪ .‬پلیس یک کارد توی‬ ‫این مرد به خانۀ او آمده و دارد با‬ ‫ٔ‬ ‫کشو میز پیدا میکند و نزدیک آن میز هم در یک چمدان قهوهای یک دفتر تلفن کوچک‬ ‫میبیند و آن را بر میدارد‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 17.3‬‬

‫‪) to preposi-‬اینکه‬

‫‪Change in the following sentences the noun clauses (that use‬‬ ‫‪tional phrases (that use infinitives).‬‬

‫ِ‬ ‫آمدن شما شک داشتم → در اینکه بیائید شک داشتم ‪Example:‬‬ ‫در‬

‫‪191‬‬

‫‪ .1‬از اینکه پسرت عاشق است همۀ شهر خبر دارند‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬از اینکه پدرم الغر میشود مادرم ناراحت نیست‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .3‬آیا به اینکه او برمیگردد اطمینان دارید؟‬ ‫‪ .۴‬به اینکه تعطیالت تمام شده است زیاد فکر نکن!‬ ‫‪ .۵‬به اینکه او تنها میرقصید هیچکس توجه نکرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .۶‬از اینکه بد رانندگی میکنم خانوادهام میترسند‪.‬‬

‫‪17‬‬

‫‪ .7‬از اینکه زبان عربی سخت است نمیترسم‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .8‬از اینکه طبیعت نابود میشود بیشتر انسانها خبر ندارند‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .9‬در مورد اینکه به آمریکا خواهد رفت خیلی حرف نمیزند‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .10‬به اینکه خانوادهاش ناراحت هستند توجه نمیکرد‪.‬‬

‫‪From‬‬ ‫‪prepositions to‬‬ ‫‪conjunctions‬‬

‫‪Exercise 17.4‬‬ ‫‪Translate your answers to the previous exercise into English.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 17.5‬‬ ‫)’‪ = ‘for‬برایِ ‪Change in the following sentences the prepositional phrases (with‬‬ ‫‪ = ‘in order that/in order to’), then translate.‬برایِ اینکه ‪to noun clauses (with‬‬ ‫برای قبول شدن در امتحان خیلی درس خواندم ‪Example:‬‬ ‫برای اینکه در امتحان قبول بشوم‪ ،‬خیلی درس خواندم →‬ ‫)‪  (I studied a lot in order to pass the test.‬‬

‫‪ .1‬در روزهای آفتابی تابستان برای خرید به بازار میرویم‪.‬‬

‫‪ .2‬برای پیدا کردن کیف پولش پیش پلیس رفت‪.‬‬

‫‪ .3‬برای گرفتن آن کتاب به کتابخانه میروم‪.‬‬

‫‪ .۴‬برای زندگی کردن در آمریکا باید زیاد پول داشته باشید‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .۵‬برای عاشق شدن باید همیشه جوان بمانید‪.‬‬

‫‪ .۶‬برای رفتن به مهمانی‪ ،‬کفشهای بهتری پوشیدند‪.‬‬

‫‪ .7‬برای خوشحال کردن پدرم ماشینش را تمیز کردم‪.‬‬

‫‪ .8‬برای فهمیدن آن فیلم باید دو بار یا بیشتر آن را تماشا کنی‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .9‬برای نشنیدن حرفهای برادرم رادیو را روشن کردم‪.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬بچه برای بیدار کردن مادرش موهای دراز او را کشید‪.‬‬ ‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬

‫با گفتنِ حلوا‪ ،‬دهن شیرین نمیشود‬

‫‪Just by saying ‘halva’ the mouth doesn’t become sweet.‬‬ ‫]‪[Proverb; used to warn against false hopes.‬‬

‫از خوردنِ آدمی‪ ،‬زمین سیر نشد‬

‫‪The earth hasn’t eaten yet its fill of men.‬‬ ‫]‪[Omar Khayyam, 1048–1131.‬‬

‫‪192‬‬

UNIT EIGHTEEN

18 ‫فصل‬

‫زمان فعل در‬ :‫جملههای مرکّب‬ ‫جملههای زمانی‬

Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

New words in this unit ‫جمله‬

jom.le

sentence (gr.) (pl. ‫ جمالت‬, jo.me.lāt or jo.ma.lāt)

‫مرکّب‬ ِ‫در حال‬ ‫در حالیکه‬ ‫به محضِ اینکه‬ ‫بیرون‬ ‫بیرون از‬/ِ‫بیرون‬ (‫بیرون رفتن )از‬

mo.rak.kab

complex (gr.); compound, multipart; ink

dar hā.l-e

during (prep.); while

dar hā.li-ke

while (conj.), as; whereas

Be mahz-e in-ke

as soon as

bi.run

outside (adv.)

bi.ru.n-e/bi.run az

outside (prep.)

bi.run raf.tan (az)

to go out; to leave (a place) [‫]رو → رفتن‬

‫باران آمدن‬

‫برف‬ ‫برف آمدن‬

‫چکّه کردن‬

‫گریه کردن‬

‫ازدواج‬ (‫ازدواج کردن )با‬ ‫پرواز‬ ‫پرواز کردن‬ ‫دعا‬

bā.rān ā.ma.dan barf barf ā.ma.dan chek.ke kar.dan ger.ye kar.dan ez.de.vāj ez.de.vāj kar.dan (bā) par.vāz par.vāz kar.dan do.’ā

to rain [‫]آ → آمدن‬ snow

to snow [‫]آ → آمدن‬

to drop (as in leakage) [‫]کن → کردن‬

to cry, to weep [‫]کن → کردن‬ marriage

to marry ([with] s.o.) [‫]کن → کردن‬ flight

to fly [‫]کن → کردن‬ prayer

193

18 Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

‫دعا کردن‬

do.’ā kar.dan

‫متوجّه شدن‬

mo.te.vaj.jeh sho.dan

‫دویدن‬

da.vi.dan

to pray [‫]کن → کردن‬

to notice; to realize [‫]شو → شدن‬

to run (pres.stem: ‫[ دُو‬dow → dav])

‫حقوق‬

ho.ghugh

‫قرض‬ ‫سقف‬ ‫بام‬ ‫در‬ ‫ناگهان‬ ‫تلفنی‬ ‫استخر‬ ‫اروپا‬ ‫مأمور پلیس‬ ‫پدر بزرگ‬ ‫افسرده‬ ‫خاموش‬ ‫خاموش کردن‬

gharz

‫حاضر‬ ‫زنده‬ ‫گرسنه‬ ‫ پاییز‬/‫پائیز‬

hā.zer

ready

zen.de

alive

go.res.ne

hungry

pā.’iz

autumn

saghf

salary; rights (pl. of ‘right’)

ّ‫[ حق‬haghgh],

debt (pl. ‫ قروض‬gho.ruz ceiling

bām

roof

dar

door

nā.ga.hān

suddenly

te.le.fo.ni

per phone

es.takhr

pool

o.ru.pā

Europe

ma’.mu.r-e po.lis

policeman

pe.dar-bo.zorg

grandfather

af.sor.de

depressed

khā.mush

extinguished; off (≠ ‘on’); silent

khā.mush kar.dan

to turn off; to extinguish; to silence [‫]کن → کردن‬

18 Adverb clauses with time expressions Adverb clauses with time expressions, also called time clauses, are usually the first clause in Persian in a complex sentence, followed by the main clause. The temporal relation between the two clauses can be of four kinds: 1. The action or state described in the time clause happens first (when = after): 194

‫ مینا رفت‬،‫وقتیکه من آمدم‬ 2 

   1

(When I came, Mina left.) 1 

   2

2. The action or state described in the main clause happens first (when = before):

Adverb clauses with time expressions

‫ مینا رفته بود‬،‫وقتیکه من آمدم‬  1 

    2

(When I came, Mina had left.)  2 

     1

3. They both happen at the same time, one (the time clause) interrupting the other:

‫ مینا داشت میرفت‬،‫وقتیکه من آمدم‬  ---1---

        1

(When I came, Mina was leaving.)  1          ---1--or (here when = while):

‫ من آمدم‬،‫وقتیکه مینا داشت میرفت‬ 1

---1---

(When Mina was leaving, I came.) ---1---

1

4. They both happen at the same time, parallel to each other (when = either while or whenever):

‫ مینا غذا میخورد‬،‫وقتیکه من نامه مینوشتم‬ ---1---

---1---

(When I was writing a letter, Mina was eating.) ---1---

---1---

or you can switch the clauses again (while keeping ‫ وقتیکه‬at the beginning of the sentence). What these examples further show is that ‫ وقتیکه‬is the most common conjunction used in time clauses, or ‫[ موقعی که‬mowghe’i ke], a synonym which is almost as common. 195

18 Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

18.1 Which tenses to use with ‫? وقتیکه‬ Table 18.1 If it is about the past, use In the main clause

In the time clause

Example

simple past

simple past

‫ او رفت‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬

past perfect

When I came, he had gone.

‫ او داشت میرفت‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬ When I came, he was going.

past progressive past

past progressive

‫ او رفت‬،‫وقتیکه میآمدم‬ When I was coming, he went. ‫ او رفته بود‬،‫وقتیکه میآمدم‬ When I was coming, he had gone.

past perfect

‫ او میرفت‬،‫وقتیکه میآمدم‬ When I was coming, he was going./ Whenever I came, he went.

past progressive

past progressive

When I came, he went.

‫ او رفته بود‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬

past perfect

‫ او میرفت‬،‫وقتیکه آمده بودم‬

When I had come, he was going.

Table 18.2 If it is about the future, use In the main clause

In the time clause

Example

Future

simple past (used for present/ future; compare with conditionals in 16.1)

‫ خواهد رفت‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬ When I come, he’ll go.

simple present

When I come, he goes.

present perfect

‫ رفته است‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬

imperative

‫ کتاب را بده‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬

Future

196

‫ میرود‬،‫وقتیکه آمدم‬

By the time I come, he’s gone. When I come, give [me] the book.

subjunctive

‫ خواهد رفت‬،‫وقتیکه بیایم‬ When I come, he’ll go.

simple present

‫ میرود‬،‫وقتیکه بیایم‬

present progressive

‫ دارد میرود‬،‫وقتیکه بیایم‬

present perfect

‫ رفته است‬،‫وقتیکه بیایم‬

When I come, he goes. When I come, he’s going. By the time I come, he’s gone.

Table 18.2 (cont’d) In the main clause

In the time clause

Example

Future

perfect subjunctive

‫ خواهد رفت‬،‫وقتیکه آمده باشم‬ After I come, he’ll go.

simple present

‫ میرود‬،‫وقتیکه آمده باشم‬ After I come, he goes.

present progressive

‫ دارد میرود‬،‫وقتیکه آمده باشم‬ When I come, he’s going.

present perfect

‫ رفته است‬،‫وقتیکه آمده باشم‬ By the time I come, he’s gone.

simple present

simple present

Which tenses to use with ‫? وقتیکه‬

‫ میرود‬،‫وقتیکه میآیم‬

When[ever] I come, he goes.

present progressive

‫ دارد میرود‬،‫وقتیکه میآیم‬

present perfect

‫ رفته است‬،‫وقتیکه میآیم‬

imperative

‫ کتاب را بده‬،‫وقتیکه میآیم‬ When I come, give [me] the book.

Future

When I’m coming, he’s going. When I’m coming, he’s gone.

present perfect

‫ خواهد رفت‬،‫وقتیکه آمدهام‬ After I come, he’ll go.

simple present

‫ میرود‬،‫وقتیکه آمدهام‬ After I come, he goes.

present progressive

‫ دارد میرود‬،‫وقتیکه آمدهام‬ When I come, he’s going.

present perfect

‫ رفته است‬،‫وقتیکه آمدهام‬ By the time I have come, he’s gone.

imperative

‫ کتاب را بده‬،‫وقتیکه آمدهام‬ Once I have come, give [me] the book.

In Table 18.2, some combinations are more common than others, and the translations are sometimes only rough approximations.

18.1.1 Dropping ‫ وقتی‬or ‫ – که‬or both!

a) Instead of ‫( وقتیکه‬or ‫ )وقتی که‬you can always use ‫ وقتی‬and drop ‫ که‬:

‫ برف زیادی روی بام نباشد‬،‫( دعا کنید وقتی صبح شد‬Pray [to God] that when the morning comes, there won’t be a lot of snow on the roof.) Please note that if you use ‫[ موقعی که‬mowghe’i ke], which was mentioned earlier as a very common synonym, dropping the ke will not be possible.

197

18 Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

b) Interestingly, you can also drop version has its own rules:

‫( وقتی‬or ‫ )موقعی‬and just keep ‫ که‬, but this

1. If the time clause is the first clause (as it normally is), you can drop ‫ وقتی‬and then place ‫ که‬in the middle of that clause, for instance after the subject or a time adverb (but not in the middle of two or more words that belong together). If we have a rather long time clause like this: ‫ بابک را در خیابان دید‬،‫‘( وقتیکه مینا دیروز صبح از خانۀ مادرش برمیگشت‬As Mina was returning yesterday morning from her mother’s home, she saw Bābak on the street.’), then ‫ وقتی‬can be dropped and ‫ که‬can be placed in one of the following positions:

‫ بابک را در خیابان دید‬،‫مینا که دیروز صبح از خانۀ مادرش برمیگشت‬ ‫ بابک را در خیابان دید‬،‫مینا دیروز صبح که از خانۀ مادرش برمیگشت‬ ‫ بابک را در خیابان دید‬،‫مینا دیروز صبح از خانۀ مادرش که برمیگشت‬ 2. It is also possible to place this ‫ که‬at the beginning of the second clause (the tense after this ‫ که‬usually limited to the simple present and simple past). Our sentence would then look like this (note that no comma is needed this time):

‫مینا دیروز صبح از خانۀ مادرش برمیگشت که بابک را در خیابان دید‬ However, this version would always require two actions, one in progress while the other one, usually the one mentioned in the 2nd clause, intercepts it. c) We know that ‫( وقتیکه‬when) is sometimes very close to ‫( اگر‬if) and like ‫اگر‬, sometimes ‫ وقتیکه‬is also dropped in colloquial Persian, a change in intonation (i.e., raising the pitch of voice at the end of the first clause) taking its place – although with certain tenses it is sometimes not very clear whether ‫ اگر‬has been dropped there or ‫( وقتیکه‬see the translations for ‫ چکار‬،‫من نبودم‬ ‫ میکردی؟‬in section 16.2). Other examples:

‫ هر سال پائیز به اروپا میرفتیم‬، ‫( پدرم زنده بود‬When my father still lived, we used to go to Europe every autumn.) This could also mean: ‘Had my father been alive, we would have gone to Europe every summer.’ By adding a ‫که‬ after ‫ پدرم‬we can avoid such a confusion: . . .‫پدرم که زنده بود‬

By the way, without the proper intonation showing the incompleteness and dependence of the first clause, these would simply be two unrelated sentences: ‘My father was alive, we used to go to Europe every summer.’ Two more examples: 198

‫ آب از سقف چکّه میکند‬، ‫( باران میآید‬When it rains, water drips from the ceiling.)

‫ اوّل قرضهایت را بده‬، ‫( حقوقت را گرفتی‬Once you get/receive your salary, first give/pay your debts.)

As soon as : ‫همینکه‬

18.2 Before and after

‫ بعد از آنکه‬or ‫‘( پَس از آنکه‬after’, the latter more formal) can be used with the same tenses as ‫ وقتیکه‬in the above examples, provided that the action in the main clause happens after that of the time clause. ‫ قبل از آنکه‬or ‫‘( پیش از آنکه‬before’) is always followed by the subjunctive in the time clause, which can be the simple or perfect subjunctive – usually interchangeable, the perfect one putting more emphasis on the completion of the action and its pastness. The main clause, however, can have a variety of tenses. The following examples include some of possible tense combinations. Unlike ‫ وقتیکه‬, in these and many other conjunctions you can’t drop ‫ که‬. It is also good to remember that colloquial Persian would always prefer using ‫ اینکه‬to ‫ آنکه‬in these cases. ‫ برف آمد‬،‫( دیروز بعد از آنکه به مدرسه رفتم‬It snowed yesterday after I went to school.)

‫ برف آمد‬،‫( دیروز قبل از آنکه به مدرسه بروم‬It snowed yesterday before I went to school.)

‫ غذا میخوریم‬،‫( فردا بعد از آنکه مینا بیاید‬We’ll eat tomorrow after Mina comes.) ‫ غذا میخوریم‬، ‫( فردا قبل از آنکه مینا بیاید‬We’ll eat tomorrow before Mina comes.)

‫ پرویز ناگهان در استخر افتاد‬، ‫( بعد از آنکه مهمانها آمدند‬After the guests came, Parviz suddenly fell in the pool.)

‫ میخواست آشپز شود‬،‫( قبل از آنکه در این رشته تحصیل کند‬Before studying in this field, he wanted to become a cook.)

18.3 As soon as: ‫همینکه‬

‫[ همینکه‬hamin-ke, ‘as soon as’] can also be used with different tense combinations; the following are the most common ones: Simple past + simple past:

‫ یک مأمور پلیس پُشتِ در دیدم‬،‫( همینکه در را باز کردم‬As soon as I opened the door, I saw a policeman behind the door.)

Past progressive + past progressive: ‫ گریه میکرد‬، ‫عکس پسرش را میدید‬ son’s picture, she would cry.)

‫( همینکه‬As soon as she would see her

199

18 Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

Present/subjunctive + present:

‫ مینشیند جلوِ تلویزیون‬،‫( همینکه به خانه میآید‬As soon as he comes home, he sits in front of the TV.)

‫ با او حرف میزنم‬،‫( همینکه بیاید‬As soon as she comes, I’ll talk to her.) Subjunctive + future:

‫ همه چیز را به یاد خواهید آورد‬، ‫( همینکه او را ببینید‬As soon as you see him, you’ll remember everything.)

Past/subjunctive + imperative:

‫ این کتاب را به او بده‬، ‫بیاید‬/‫( همینکه آمد‬As soon as she comes, give her this book.)

Note: ‫( تا‬tā) can also be used in this sense (see 18.5 for its other meanings), as well as ‫( به محضِ اینکه‬be mahz-e in-ke), which implies more immediacy. Examples:

‫ برگهای این درخت زرد و قرمز میشوند‬، ‫( تا پائیز میرسد‬As soon as autumn arrives, the leaves of this tree turn yellow and red.)

‫ او را شناخت‬،‫( به محض اینکه شوهرم را دید‬As soon as she saw my husband, she recognized him.)

18.4 Whenever: ‫هر وقت که‬

‫[ هر وقت که‬har vaght ke, ‘whenever’] is sometimes treated loosely as a synonym of ‫ وقتیکه‬or ‫ همینکه‬, especially when both clauses use the same tense. When used more strictly in the sense of every time that, then its more appropriate synonym woud be ‫[ هر بار که‬har bār ke]. With ‫ هر وقت که‬and ‫ هر بار که‬it is possible to drop ‫ که‬. Some examples:

‫ واقعاً افسرده میشوم‬، ‫( هر وقت )که ( هوا ابری میشود‬Whenever it becomes cloudy, I become really depressed.)

‫ پیرتر شده است‬، ‫( هر بار )که ( او را میبینم‬Every time I see him, he’s become older.)

‫ این کتاب را به او بده‬،‫( هر وقت )که( آمد‬Should she come/Any time she should come, give her this book.)

200

18.5 A few more conjunctions for time

Exercises

‫ = از وقتیکه‬since: ‫( از وقتیکه ازدواج کرده )است( بدبختانه او را کمتر میبینم‬Unfortunately I see her less often since she is/has married.)

‫( از وقتیکه این شغل را دارد همیشه در سفر است‬Since he has this job, he is always on travel.)

‫تا وقتیکه‬/‫ = تا‬a) so long as; b) by the time that: ‫ ازدواج نکرده بود‬،‫( تا وقتیکه اینجا بود‬So long as she was here, she was/had not married.)

‫ او رفته است‬،‫( تا شما برسید‬By the time you come, he is gone.)

‫ = در حالیکه‬a) while, as (usually progressive); b) whereas (not temporal in this sense, and usually introducing the second clause): ‫ از سفر کوتاه و جالبش به ایران گفت‬، ‫در حالیکه میخندید‬

(While [he was] laughing, he said/talked about his short and interesting journey to Iran.)

‫ با او دربارۀ مهمانی حرف میزدم‬،‫( در حالیکه شوهرم رانندگی میکرد‬While my husband was driving, I was talking to him about the party.)

‫ در حالیکه برادرش را خوب میشناختم‬، ‫( او را هیچوقت ندیده بودم‬I had never seen him/her, whereas I knew his/her brother well.)

Exercises Exercise 18.1 Write the appropriate form of the verb (based on the translation). Example:

‫ آن زن در ماشینش مرده بود‬،(‫ )رسیدن‬............... ‫قبل از آنکه پلیس‬ (Before the police came, that woman had died in her car.) → ‫برسد‬ 1.

‫ هنوز خانه نداشتند‬،(‫ )ازدواج کردن‬............... ‫( وقتیکه پرویز و پروین‬When Parviz

2.

‫ غذا حاضر بود‬،( ‫ )آمدن‬............... ‫مهمانها‬ the food was ready.)

and Parvin got married, they still had no house.)

‫( قبل از آنکه‬Before the guests came, 201

18 Tense in complex sentences: time clauses

 3. ‫ برای او یک هدیۀ کوچک‬،(‫ )رفتن‬............... ‫آنها پیش از اینکه به جشن تولد مریم‬ ‫( زیبا خریدند‬Before they went to Maryam’s birthday party, they bought her a small beautiful gift.)  4. ‫ دخترم از مدرسه به خانه برگشت‬،( ‫ )حرف زدن‬............... ‫وقتیکه با مادرم تلفنی‬ (While I was talking to my mother on the phone, my daughter returned home from school.)  5. ‫ از خانه بیرون رفت‬،(‫ )باران آمدن‬............... ‫( در حالیکه‬While it was raining, he/ she left home.)  6. ‫ بهار رسید‬،(‫ )برف آمدن‬............... the spring arrived.)

‫( در حالیکه هنوز‬While it was still snowing,

 7. ‫کشور‬

‫ فکر میکرد ایران یک‬،( ‫ )دیدن‬............... ‫پیش از آنکه آن فیلم ایرانی را‬ ‫( عربی است‬Before watching that Iranian movie, he/she used to think that Iran

was an Arab country.)

 8. ‫ من فقط پانزده سال داشتم‬،( ‫ )مردن‬............... ‫بزرگم‬ grandmother died, I was only fifteen years old.)

‫وقتیکه مادر‬

(When my

 9. ‫ پدر بزرگم هنوز زنده بود‬،(‫ )بودن‬............... ‫( وقتیکه من بچۀ کوچکی‬When I was a small child, my grandfather was still alive.) 10. !‫ با تلفن حرف نزنید‬،(‫ )رانندگی کردن‬............... ‫( هیچوقت در حالیکه‬Never talk on the phone while you are driving!)

Exercise 18.2 Complete the following sentences by writing the appropriate conjunction (based on the translation). Example:

‫ آن زن در ماشینش مرده بود‬،‫ پلیس برسد‬............... (By the time the police arrived, that woman had died in her car.) → ‫( تا‬or ‫)تا وقتیکه‬

202

1.

‫ از آب خیلی میترسیدم‬،‫ برای اولین بار به استخر شنا رفتم‬.............. (When I went to

2.

‫ نمیتوانستید برای امتحان درس بخوانید‬،‫ مریض بودید‬............. (So long as you were sick, you could not study for the exam.)

3.

‫ زمین خوردم‬،‫ به آسمان ابری نگاه میکردم و میدویدم‬............. (As I was looking at the cloudy sky and running, I fell down.)

4.

‫ مینا خانهشان را فروخت‬، ‫ پدر و مادر مینا به اروپا رفتند‬............. (As soon as Mina’s parent’s went to Europe, she sold their house.)

the swimming pool for the first time, I was very afraid of water.)

 5. ‫ مادرم به عنوان معلم در مدرسه کار میکرد‬،‫ خواهرم به دنیا بیاید‬.............. (Before my sister was born, my mother was working as teacher at a school.)

Exercises

 6. ‫ بسیاری از پرندگان به جاهای گرم پرواز کردند‬، ‫ زمستان شد‬.............. (When it became winter, many of the birds flew to warm places.)  7. ‫ )روزِ( تولدم را با پدرم جشن گرفتم‬،‫مادرم در بیمارستان بود‬. .............. (While my mother was in the hospital, I celebrated my birthday with my father.)  8. ‫ نمیتوانستم خوب کار کنم‬،‫گرسنه بودم‬. ............. (When I was hungry, I could not work well.)  9. ‫ تو تلویزیون را روشن میکردی؟‬، ‫ من کتاب میخواندم‬............... ‫( چرا‬Why did you turn the TV on whenever I was reading?) 10. ‫ )برایِ ( نیم ساعت کتاب میخواندم‬،‫ بخوابم‬............... every night for half an hour before I slept.)

‫هر شب‬

(I read books

Exercise 18.3 Change the tense of all of the sentences in the previous exercise (18.2) to present; use the subjunctive and future whenever possible. Example:

‫ غذا خوردیم‬،‫بعد از آنکه او آمد‬ → ‫ غذا خواهیم خورد‬، ‫( بعد از آنکه او بیاید‬Here ‫ میخوریم‬. . . . ‫ میآید‬is also possible.)

Exercise 18.4 a) In which of the sentences in the previous exercise (18.3) you had to use the present subjunctive in the time clause? b) In which ones were you able to use the present subjunctive in the main clause?

Exercise 18.5 In the following sentences (all starting with ‫)وقتیکه‬, drop ‫ وقتی‬and re-write the sentences by using only ‫که‬. Example:

‫ خواهرم آمد‬،‫وقتیکه نامه مینوشتم‬ → ‫ خواهرم آمد‬،‫ نامه که مینوشتم‬or ‫( نامه مینوشتم که خواهرم آمد‬We remem-

ber, however, that this second version would require two actions, one in 203

‫‪progress while the other one [usually mentioned in the 2nd clause] inter‬‬‫)‪cepts it.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫وقتیکه برف میآید‪ ،‬همه جا سفید میشود‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫وقتیکه مادرم برگشت‪ ،‬هنوز برف میآمد‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫وقتیکه غذا میخوردیم‪ ،‬چراغها خاموش شدند‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫وقتیکه اسمش را گفت‪ ،‬همه چیز را به یاد آوردم‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪Tense in‬‬ ‫‪complex‬‬ ‫‪sentences:‬‬ ‫‪time clauses‬‬

‫وقتیکه چراغ خاموش است‪ ،‬بچّه میترسد‪.‬‬

‫وقتیکه غذا را بیاورند‪ ،‬همه به آن اتاق خواهیم رفت‪.‬‬ ‫وقتیکه او آمد‪ ،‬برای رفتن به سینما خیلی دیر بود‪.‬‬ ‫وقتیکه آن نامه را خواندیم‪ ،‬همه خندیدیم‪.‬‬ ‫وقتیکه در باز شد‪ ،‬ما همه میخندیدیم‪.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬وقتیکه در را باز کردیم‪ ،‬گربه از اتاق بیرون رفت‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 18.6‬‬ ‫‪Translate into English the sentences from the previous exercise (18.5).‬‬ ‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬ ‫با دعای گربه سیاه باران نمیآید‪.‬‬

‫‪No rain will come with the prayers of the black cat.‬‬ ‫)‪(= God will not be moved by the prayers of someone like you.‬‬

‫هرکه بامش بیش‪ ،‬برفش بیشتر‪.‬‬

‫‪The one who has a larger roof gets a larger share of the snow.‬‬

‫‪204‬‬

UNIT NINETEEN Relative clauses

19 ‫فصل‬

‫جملههای موصولی‬

New words in this unit ‫جملۀ موصولی‬

jom.le-ye mow.su.li

relative clause (gr.)

khas.te ko.nan.de

tiring; boring

koh.ne

worn-out, used, old (inanimates)

tesh.ne

thirsty

khoshk

dry

tang

tight

gha.shang

pretty, beautiful

sag

dog

gusht

meat

ma.hal.le

neighborhood

‫شکستن‬

she.kas.tan

to break [tr. and intr.; pres. stem: ‫شکن‬, she.kan]

‫قوری‬

ghu.ri

teapot

saf.he

page

da.hān

mouth (in col. usually ‫ دهن‬, da.han)

pif

Eew! (interjection) – usually for bad smell

bu

smell, scent

‫بو دادن‬

bu dā.dan

‫بو کردن‬

to stink (intr.) [‫]ده → دادن‬

bu kar.dan

‫گم کردن‬

to smell [‫]کن → کردن‬

gom kar.dan

‫گم شدن‬

to lose (sth.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

gom sho.dan

to be lost [‫]شو → شدن‬

‫خسته کننده‬

‫کهنه‬

‫تشنه‬

‫خشک‬ ‫تنگ‬

‫قشنگ‬ ‫سگ‬

‫گوشت‬ ‫محله‬

‫صفحه‬ ‫دهان‬

!‫پیف‬

‫بو‬

205

19 Relative clauses

(‫نشان دادن )به‬

‫سرخ‬

‫ل سرخ‬ ِ‫گ‬ ‫باغچه‬ ‫گلدان‬ ِ‫میان‬

‫های و هو‬

‫قم‬

‫ارومیّه‬ ‫شمال‬ ‫غرب‬

‫شمالِ غربی‬ ‫شرق‬

‫جنوب‬ ‫قطب‬ ‫کویر‬ ّ‫حق‬

‫دین‬

‫بهشت‬ ‫پیرو‬ ‫گره‬

‫دیگر‬

‫مولوی‬

ne.shān dā.dan (be)

to show (sth. to s.o.) [‫]ده → دادن‬

sorkh

red

go.l-e sorkh

red rose

bāgh.che

small garden

gol.dān

vase

mi.yā.n-e

in the middle of, inside

hā.y-o-hu

fuss; hubbub; ranting; ado

ghom

Qom or Ghom (city in Iran)

o.ru.miy.ye

Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran

sho.māl

North

gharb

West

sho.mā.l-e ghar.bi

Northwest; northwestern

shargh

East

jo.nub

South

ghotb

pole

ka.vir

desert

haghgh

right (n.) (pl. ‫ حقوق‬, ho.ghugh)

din

religion (pl. ‫ ادیان‬, ad.yān)

be.hesht

paradise

pey.row

follower

ge.reh

knot, tie (n.)

di.gar

any longer (in negative sentences)

mow.la.vi

Rumi (poet, 1207–1273)

19 ‫[ که‬ke] 206

The omnipotent Persian ‫[ که‬ke] is the single, unavoidable and irreplaceable actor for all sorts of relative clauses, standing for all wh- words (+ that) which introduce a relative clause in English.

19.1 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses The relative clause is usually placed immediately after the word (or cluster of words) that it is supposed to modify – i.e., in the middle of the main clause. Sometimes this might lead to two verbs – each belonging to one of the clauses – coming together at the end of the sentence, making an awkeard sentence. To avoid this, especially if the relative clause is rather long and what remains after it from the main clause just a short verb, sometimes the whole relative clause is placed after the main clause. A non-restrictive relative clause gives some inessential or superfluous information which can be left out without harming the meaning of the main clause. (This is the kind of clause usually separated in English from the rest of the sentence by two commas, but punctuation marks are not standardized in Persian and are not always used.) Example:

Restrictive and non­ restrictive relative clauses

‫ خیلی سخت است‬،‫ که پانصد صفحه دارد‬،‫( این کتاب‬This book, which has 500 pages, is very difficult.)

‫ پسر خیلی خوبی است‬،‫ که همسایۀ ماست‬،‫( بابک‬Bābak, who is our neighbor, is a very nice boy.)

A restrictive relative clause – one that provides some essential information and cannot easily be left out without changing the meaning of the main clause – usually needs an unstressed -i suffix to be added to the word (or to the end of the cluster of words) being modified by the relative clause. Compare the following with the non-restrictive examples mentioned above:

‫‘( کتابی که پانصد صفحه دارد خیلی سخت است‬The book that has 500 pages is very difficult.’ – not those other books!)

‫‘( بابکی که همسایۀ ماست پسر خیلی خوبی است‬The Bābak who is our neighbor is a very nice boy.’ – not the other Bābak whom you also know!)

Example of -i added to a cluster of words (also called an ‘ezāfe string’) like ‫ دختر زیبا و جوان‬:

‫( دخترِ زیبا و جوانی که میبینید خواهرِ دوستم است‬The beautiful young girl that you see is my friend’s sister.)

Compare these two examples of restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses: Non-restrictive:

‫ رفتیم‬،‫ که کمی کوچکتر بود‬،‫( به اتاق دیگر‬We went to the other room, which was a little smaller.)

207

19 Relative clauses

Restrictive:

‫( به اتاق دیگری رفتیم که کمی کوچکتر بود‬We went to another room which was a little smaller.)

Other examples:

‫( شاعری که “بهشتِ گمشده ” را نوشته بود در بهشت گم شد‬The poet who had written Paradise Lost was lost in paradise.)

‫( آیا کسی را میشناسید که “داستان دو شهر” را خوانده باشد؟‬Do you know someone who has read A Tale of Two Cities?)

‫ آیا آن چیز مالِ من است؟‬،‫( اگر چیزی )را( پیدا کنم که مالِ کسِ دیگری نیست‬If

I find something that does not belong to anyone else, does it belong to me?)

‫( نمیخواست به صورت مردی که مرده بود نگاه کند‬She didn’t want to look at the face of the man who had died.)

‫( آیا بچهای که در یک سبد روی آب است انسان مهمی خواهد شد؟‬Will the child that is in a basket on the water become an important person?)

‫( آیا دستی که شش انگشت دارد بهتر کار میکند؟‬Does a hand/the hand that has six fingers work better?)

19.2 When not to use -i in restrictive relative clauses When possessive pronouns (whether independent or suffixed) are attached to the words that are to be modified by the relative clause, the clause is often non-restrictive; but even if it is used as a restrictive clause, the -i suffix is not used. Examples: Non-restrictive: ‫ در مشهد است‬،‫ که سی ساله است‬،‫برادرم‬ (My brother, who is 30 years old, is in Mashhad.) – he is apparently the only brother I have. Restrictive: ‫آن برادرم که سی ساله است در مشهد است‬ (That brother of mine who is 30 years old is in Mashhad.) – I have other brothers also. This would pertain to the other possessive version – ‫ – برادرِ من‬also. Another case where -i is dropped – especially in spoken Persian and in less formal written Persian – is when the modified word, or the antecedent, ends already in -i. This is still more common when demonstrative adjectives are used. Examples: 208

‫( آن لباس آبی )= آبیای( که خریدم کمی تنگ است‬That blue dress that I bought is a little tight.)

But (without demonstrative adjective): ‫قوریای که روی میز بود شکست‬

(The teapot that was on the table broke.) Here we are much less likely to drop -i, especially in the written version.

When and how to use ‫را‬

19.3 When and how to use ‫را‬ You already know the rule about ‫ را‬or the DDO-marker (see 7.3): there has to be a definite direct object. The noun (or pronoun) modified by the relative clause can be the subject or object of either the main verb (in the main clause) or the subordinate verb (in the relative clause), or of both; moreover, it can be definite or indefinite. You will need a ‫( را‬usually placed between -i and ke) if the modified noun is the definite direct object of the main verb (and not the subordinate verb). Compare the following complex sentences with relative clauses and see where and why you need ‫ را‬for the word ‫( قلم‬pen):

‫( قلمی که خیلی گران بود مال او بود‬The pen that was very expensive was his.) (‫ قلم‬is the subject of both verbs; no ‫ را‬.) ‫( قلمی که شما دیدید مال او بود‬The pen that you saw was his.) (‫ قلم‬is the direct object of the subordinate verb, but the subject of the main verb; no ‫ را‬.) ‫( از فیلمی که دیدیم لذت بردیم‬We enjoyed the film that we watched.) (‫ فیلم‬is the direct object of the subordinate verb, but the indirect object of the main verb; still no ‫ را‬.)

‫( قلمی که بهتر از این باشد ندیدم‬I didn’t see a pen [that is] better than this.) (‫قلم‬

is the subject of the subordinate verb and the indefinite direct object of the main verb; still no ‫ را‬.)

‫( قلمی را که خوب مینویسد ندیدم‬I didn’t see the pen that writes well.) (‫ قلم‬is the subject of the subordinate verb and the definite direct object of the main verb; now you need ‫ را‬.)

‫( قلمی را که خریده بودم اینجا نمیبینم‬I don’t see here the pen that I had bought.) (‫ قلم‬is the object of both verbs and, more importantly, the definite direct object of the main verb; you need ‫ را‬.) Note: In less careful, ‘bad’ Persian, sometimes this where it is actually not needed.

‫ را‬is

used wrongly – i.e.,

19.3.1 The role of the subjunctive You may have noticed in the examples in 19.3 the role of the subjunctive in some of the relative clauses and how it would affect the meaning; whereas other tenses

209

19 Relative clauses

are about some reality or fact, the subjunctive is about some possibility. Compare these two sentences also and their translations:

‫( خانهای که نزدیک فرودگاه باشد خوب نیست‬A house [which is] near an airport is not good.)

‫( خانهای که نزدیک فرودگاه است خوب نیست‬The house [which is] near the airport is not good.)

19.4 What to do with prepositions and antecedents in possessive case In these cases, Persian repeats a pronoun (referring to the antecedent) in the relative clause – what would be regarded as redundancy in English. ”The girl whose father . . .“ would become in Persian ”the girl that her father. . . . “ Similarly, ”the book about which we talked . . .“ would become ”the book that we talked about it . . . .“ Or ”the house where [= in which] we lived . . .“ would become ”the house that we lived in it . . . .“ Examples:

‫( بقالی که همیشه ماستش تُرش بود از این محله رفت‬The grocer whose yoghurt was always sour went from this neighborhood.)

‫( دختری که پدرش را کشتند گریه میکرد‬The girl whose father they killed [= was killed] was crying.)

‫( کتابی را که دربارۀ آن حرف میزدیم به فارسی ترجمه کن‬Translate into Persian the book about which we were talking.)

‫( خانهای را که در آن زندگی میکردیم فروختند‬They sold the house in which we used to live.)

‫گربه شما شکست غذا میخوردم‬ ٔ ‫( من همیشه در ظرفی که‬I always used to eat in the dish that your cat broke)

‫( سگی که دیروز از آن ترسیدید اآلن جلوِ خانۀ شماست‬The dog of which you were afraid/the dog that scared you yesterday is right now in front of your house.)

Exercises Exercise 19.1 210

Use the sentence in parentheses as a restrictive relative clause and embed it into the other one, then translate. Example:

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫خانه بزرگتر بود‪) .‬خانه گرانتر بود‪(.‬‬

‫خانهای که گرانتر بود‪ ،‬بزرگتر بود‪→ .‬‬ ‫)‪(The house that was larger was more expensive.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫این خانم خیلی جوان نیست‪) .‬او میرقصد‪(.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫آن فروشنده دیگر اینجا کار نمیکند‪) .‬او مهربان بود‪(.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫آن زن جایزه را برد‪) .‬او همۀ جوابها را میدانست‪(.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫کیف سبز مال من است‪) .‬کیف سبز در اتاق شماست‪(.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫آن کفش برای من تنگ بود‪) .‬آن کفش قشنگتر بود‪(.‬‬

‫گلهای سرخ بوی خوبی دارند‪) .‬گلهای سرخ در حیاط هستند‪(.‬‬

‫پول خیلی کم بود‪) .‬شما به من پول دادید‪(.‬‬

‫شاید این بچه گرسنه است‪) .‬او گریه میکند‪(.‬‬

‫گلها خیلی تشنه بودند‪) .‬گلها در گلدان بودند‪(.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬خانه باغچۀ زیبائی دارد‪) .‬خانه روبروی خانۀ شماست‪(.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 19.2‬‬ ‫‪Use the sentence in parentheses as a non-restrictive relative clause and embed it‬‬ ‫‪into the other one, then translate. Example:‬‬ ‫این خانه در محلۀ خوبی است‪) .‬این خانه پنج اتاق دارد‪(.‬‬ ‫این خانه‪ ،‬که پنج اتاق دارد‪ ،‬در محلۀ خوبی است‪→ .‬‬

‫)‪(This house, which has four rooms, is in a good neighborhood.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫پری هشت سال دارد‪) .‬او بزرگترین دختر من است‪(.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫مادرم خیلی مریض است‪) .‬مادرم اآلن در تهران است‪(.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬ ‫‪.۴‬‬

‫دوّمین فیلم خیلی جالب بود‪) .‬آن فیلم دربارۀ انقالب ایران بود‪(.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫شهر قم نزدیک کویر است‪) .‬این شهر در جنوب تهران است‪(.‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬ ‫‪211‬‬

‫فرش کهنهمان در اتاق بچههاست‪) .‬آن فرش باید تمیز شود‪(.‬‬

‫دریاچۀ ارومیّه دارد خشک میشود‪) .‬این دریاچه در شمال غربی ایران است‪(.‬‬

‫این دریاچه در شرق شیکاگو است‪) .‬این دریاچه خیلی بزرگ است‪(.‬‬

‫قطب شمال شرق و غرب ندارد‪) .‬قطب شمال جای خیلی سردی است‪(.‬‬

‫این کتاب گم شد‪) .‬این کتاب عکسهائی از ایران داشت‪(.‬‬

‫‪ .10‬در این دین زنها هیچ حقّی ندارند‪) .‬این دین پیروان زیادی دارد‪(.‬‬

19 Relative clauses

Exercise 19.3 In some of the following sentences the DDO-marker ‫ را‬is NOT needed and has wrongly been inserted before ‫ که‬. Which are these sentences? Correct them by deleting ‫را‬. Example:

‫‘[ خانهای را که خریدیم شش اتاق دارد‬The house we purchased has 6 rooms.’] (Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ ) → Answer: NO; here ‫ خانه‬is not the DDO of the main verb (‫ ;)دارد‬see section 19.3. Corrected sentence: ‫خانهای‬ ‫که خریدیم شش اتاق دارد‬  1. ‫( داستانی را که خواندم خسته کننده بود‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )  2. ‫( قطاری را که از جنوب میآید خیلی دیر میرسد‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )

 3. ‫( عکسی را که نشان داد تا حاال ندیده بودم‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )  4. ‫( اوّلین کتابی را که خریدم هنوز دارم‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )  5. ‫فراموش نمیکنم‬ YES □ NO □ )

‫( خوشمزهترین غذائی را که خوردم هرگز‬Here ‫ را‬is needed:

 6. ‫( برادرم را که در تهران است شما نمیشناسید‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )  7. ‫( نامهای را که مینوشتم تمام شد‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )

 8. ‫( کتاب “پائیز در زندان” را که شعرهای زیبائی دارد خیلی دوست دارم‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ )  9. ‫( سگی را که گم شده بود پیدا شد‬Here ‫ را‬is needed: YES □ NO □ ) 10. ‫دندان باز میکنی؟‬ YES □ NO □ )

‫ با‬، ‫( چرا گرهی را که با دست باز میشود‬Here ‫ را‬is needed:

Exercise 19.4 Translate the sentences from the previous exercise (after corrections) into English.

Exercise 19.5 What you do here is the opposite of what you did in exercises 19.1 and 19.2: Change the relative clause into an independent sentence and write the two sentences separately. Sometimes small changes might enable you to have better independent sentences. Example: 212

‫( → فیلمی که دیدم خوب نبود‬.‫ )آن فیلم خوب نبود‬.‫یک فیلم دیدم‬

 1. ‫ال ندیده بودم‬ ً ‫( پسر جوانی را که با او حرف میزدی قب‬I hadn’t seen before the young boy with whom you were talking.)

Exercises

 2. ‫( آن دختری که موهایش قرمز است خیلی زرنگ است‬That girl whose hair is red is very smart.)  3. ‫( پنجمین شهری که در آن ماندیم مشهد بود‬The fifth city where we stayed was Mashhad.)  4. ‫( دوّمین کتابی که دربارۀ آن صحبت کردیم “مردِ پیر و دریا” بود‬The second book we talked about was The Old Man and the Sea.)  5. ‫( گربهای که روی صندلی خوابیده بود خیلی پیر بود‬The cat that was sleeping on the chair was very old.)  6. ‫( صندلیای که گربه روی آن خوابیده بود راحت بود‬The chair on which the cat was sleeping was comfortable.)  7. ‫( اتاقی که بچهها در آن بازی میکردند کوچک نبود‬The room in which the children were playing was not small.)  8. ‫برگهایش قرمز شده بود خیلی زیبا بود‬ turned red was very beautiful.)  9. ‫ دختر خوبی است‬، ‫شنا میکردی‬ were swimming, is a nice girl.)

‫( درختی که‬The tree whose leaves had

‫ که تو با او‬، ‫( پروین‬Parvin, with whom you

10. ‫نبودهام میتوانم به فارسی حرف بزنم‬ been to Iran can talk in Persian.)

‫( من که هرگز در ایران‬I who have never

IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS

‫ های و هو دارد‬،‫ گُلِ سُرخ‬،‫میانِ باغ‬ !‫ چه بو دارد‬،‫که بو کنید دهانِ مرا‬ (‫)مولوی‬

In the garden, the red rose is making a lot of fuss, [saying] ‘Smell my mouth, [see] what scent it has!’ (Rumi, 13th century) ”!‫ “پیف! بو میدهد‬:‫ گفت‬،‫گربه دستش به گوشت نمیرسید‬ The cat could not reach the meat, it said: ‘Eew! It stinks!’

‫ با دندان باز نکن‬،‫گرهی را که با دست باز میشود‬

Don’t untie with [your] teeth a knot that can be untied with [your] hand.

213

UNIT TWENTY Passive

20 ‫فصل‬ ‫مجهو ل‬

New words in this unit ‫مجهول‬

‫جایزه‬

‫حکایت‬

passive (gr.); unknown

jā.ye.ze

award (pl. ‫ جوایز‬, ja.vā.yez)

he.kā.yat

story; tale (pl. ‫ حکایات‬, he.kā.yāt)

ma.ghā.ze

shop, store

yakh.chāl

refrigerator, fridge

do-gho.lu

twin

‫به دنیا آوردن‬

be don.yā ā.var. dan

to bear, to give birth to [‫]آور → آوردن‬

‫دَعوَت کردن‬

da’.vat kar.dan

to invite [‫]کن → کردن‬

‫مغازه‬

‫یخچال‬ ‫دو قلو‬

‫دَعوَت شدن‬

‫فریب دادن‬

‫فریب خوردن‬

da’.vat sho.dan fa.rib dā.dan

to be invited [‫]شو → شدن‬

to deceive [‫]دِه → دادن‬

fa.rib khor.dan

to be deceived [‫]خور → خوردن‬

jang

war

shat.ranj

chess

‫شکست‬

she.kast

‫شکست خوردن‬

defeat (n.) [short infinitive or past stem of the verb ‫ شکستن‬, she.kas.tan]

she.kast khor.dan (az)

to be defeated (by); to lose [‫]خور → خوردن‬

‫شکست دادن‬

she.kast dā.dan

to defeat [‫]ده → دادن‬

‫جنگ‬

‫شطرنج‬

(‫)از‬

‫تغییر‬

214

maj.hul

‫تغییر دادن‬

tagh.yir tagh.yir dā.dan

change (pl. ‫ تغییرات‬, tagh.yi.rāt)

to change (tr.) [‫]ده → دادن‬

‫تغییر کردن‬

tagh.yir kar.dan

to change (intr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

āsh.ti

reconciliation

(‫آشتی دادن )با‬

āsh.ti dā.dan (bā)

(‫آشتی کردن )با‬

[to cause] to reconcile (to or with) (tr.) [‫]ده → دادن‬

āsh.ti kar.dan (bā)

‫آشتی‬

‫عادت‬

to reconcile (to or with) (intr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

ā.dat

(‫عادت دادن )به‬

habit (pl. ‫ عادات‬, ā.dāt)

ā.dat dā.dan (be)

(‫عادت کردن )به‬

to make accustomed to, to cause to get used to (tr.) [‫]ده → دادن‬

ā.dat kar.dan (be)

‫کتک‬

to get accustomed to, to get used to (intr.) [‫]کن → کردن‬

ko.tak

beating, thrashing

‫کتک خوردن‬

ko.tak khor.dan

‫کتک زدن‬

to be beaten or thrashed (intr.) [‫]خور → خوردن‬

ko.tak za.dan

‫دور افتادن‬

to beat or thrash (tr.) [‫]زن → زدن‬

dur of.tā.dan

‫دور انداختن‬

to be thrown away, to be discarded (intr.) [‫]افت → افتادن‬

dur an.dākh.tan

‫)از( یاد بُردن‬

to throw away, to discard (tr.) [‫]انداز → انداختن‬

az yād bor.dan

‫)از( یاد رفتن‬

az yād raf.tan

to forget [‫] َبر → ُبردن‬

to be forgotten [‫]رو → رفتن‬

‫به پایان آمدن‬

be pā.yān ā.ma. dan

to end (intr.) [‫]آ → آمدن‬

‫ریاضی‬

ri.yā.zi

mathematics; mathematical

shā.gerd

pupil

dā.nesh.mand

scientist

et.te.lā.’āt

information (pl. of ‫اطّالع‬, et.te.lā’)

i.meyl

E-mail

en.ge.les.tān

England

en.ge.li.si

English

lā.zem

necessary

bā.ghi

remaining

‫شاگرد‬

‫دانشمند‬

‫اطالعات‬ ‫ایمیل‬

‫انگلستان‬ ‫انگلیسی‬ ‫الزم‬

‫باقی‬

New words in this unit

215

20 Passive

‫همچنان‬ ‫بارها‬

‫فرستادن‬ ‫پذیرفتن‬

‫به وسیلۀ‬

ِ‫توسّط‬

ِ‫از طریق‬

ِ‫از طرف‬ ِ‫از سوی‬

ِ‫از جانب‬

ham.che.nān

still (lit.)

bār-hā

many times

fe.res.tā.dan

to send (pres. stem: ‫ فرست‬, fe.rest)

pa.zi.rof.tan

to accept (pres. stem: ‫ پذیر‬, pa.zir)

be va.si.le-ye

by [means of]

ta.vas.so.t-e

by [means of], through [the mediation of]

az ta.ri.gh-e

by [way of]

az ta.ra.f-e

by, through, from

az su-ye

by, through, from

az jā.ne.b-e

by, through, from

20 Formation of the passive in Persian

The passive in Persian is similar to English, with only one difference: the auxiliary verb you need for the passive is ‫[ شدن‬shodan, ‘to get/become’] (and not ‫ بودن‬, which is used as auxiliary in perfect constructions). Thus, instead of he was killed Persian says he got killed. Only transitive verbs that have objects can have a passive voice. To change an active verb to passive you need to 1. replace the subject by the object; 2. use the past participle of the main verb + the same tense from the verb ‫ شدن‬. Important: In the negative, add na- to the auxiliary (i.e., ‫ شدن‬, following the rules for different tenses) and not to the past participle (which is the main verb). Take a sentence like: ‫( )آنها ( جایزه را فردا نخواهند داد‬They will not give the award tomorrow.) These are the changes that you should make: 1. Delete the subject (‫ )آنها‬if it has been mentioned. 2. Make ‫( جایزه‬the object) your new subject (= drop ‫ را‬, which is no longer needed). 3. The main verb here is ‫ دادن‬, its past participle ‫ داده‬. 4. The tense is future; so you need the same tense from ‫ شدن‬. 5. But you don’t forget that your new subject is now singular! 6. The new sentence in the passive voice: 216

‫جایزه فردا داده نخواهد شد‬

‫ما را دیده باشی‬ ‫ما را ندیده باشی‬ ‫ما دیده شده باشیم‬ ‫ما دیده نشده باشیم‬

‫ما را ببینی‬ ‫ما را نبینی‬ ‫ما دیده شَویم‬ ‫ما دیده ن َشَویم‬

‫‪Subjunctive‬‬

‫ما را خواهی دید‬ ‫ما را نخواهی دید‬ ‫ما دیده خواهیم شد‬ ‫ما دیده نخواهیم شد‬

‫‪Future‬‬

‫)‪(not common‬‬

‫ما را دیده بودی‬ ‫ما را ندیده بودی‬ ‫ما دیده شده بودیم‬ ‫ما دیده نشده بودیم‬

‫ما را ]داشتی[ میدیدی‬ ‫ما را نمیدیدی‬ ‫ما ]داشتیم[ دیده میشدیم‬ ‫ما دیده نمیشدیم‬

‫ما را میدیدهای‬ ‫ما را نمیدیدهای‬ ‫ما دیده میشده ایم‬ ‫ما دیده نمیشده ایم‬

‫ما را دیدهای‬ ‫ما را ندیدهای‬ ‫ما دیده شده ایم‬ ‫ما دیده نشده ایم‬

‫]داری[ ما را میبینی‬ ‫ما را نمیبینی‬ ‫ما ]داریم[ دیده میشویم‬ ‫ما دیده نمیشویم‬

‫‪Perfect‬‬ ‫‪Progressive‬‬

‫‪Perfect‬‬

‫ما را میبینی‬ ‫ما را نمیبینی‬ ‫ما دیده میشویم‬ ‫ما دیده نمیشویم‬

‫‪Simple‬‬

‫‪Progressive‬‬

‫ما را دیدی‬ ‫ما را ندیدی‬ ‫ما دیده شدیم‬ ‫ما دیده نشدیم‬

‫‪Past‬‬

‫‪Present‬‬

‫‪Table 20.1 Active and passive in different tenses and the subjunctive‬‬ ‫)‪(Changing from ‘you see us’ to ‘we are seen,’ etc.‬‬

20 Passive

More examples of active → passive:

‫ماشین دوستم فروخته شده است → دوستم ماشینش را فروخته است‬ ‫تمام پنجرهها بسته شده بودند → تمام پنجرهها را بسته بودیم‬ ‫هزار بار از او پرسیده شد → هزار بار از او پرسیدم‬ ‫چند کتاب آورده میشود؟ → چند کتاب میآورید؟‬ ‫گوشت چطور پخته میشود؟ → آشپزها چطور گوشت را میپزند؟‬ ‫من و تو کشته خواهیم شد → من و تو را خواهند کشت‬ ‫آن باید امروز نوشته شود → باید آن را امروز بنویسی‬ 20.1 Alternatives to the passive Persian hates the passive and uses ingenious methods to avoid it: 1. Well, maybe not so ingenious this one – it is similar to English: if you say ”They have cleaned the windows today,“ it is already like saying ”The windows have been cleaned today.“ Persian uses 3rd person plural – without mentioning the subject – as a very common method of avoiding the passive.  The sentence ‫‘( جایزه را نخواهند داد‬they will not give the award’) does already sound like the passive in Persian, much better (and more common) than the real passive (‫)جایزه داده نخواهد شد‬. 2. There are some verbs that are both transitive and intransitive, and Persian would use them intransitively instead of changing them to the passive. ‫[ شکستن‬shekastan, ‘to break’] in Persian and ‘to break’ in English are good examples. However, in English you can both say ‘the window broke’ (intransitive) and ‘the window was broken’ (passive), whereas in Persian the passive version (‫ )پنجره شکسته شد‬would sound awkward and you always say ‫‘( پنجره شکست‬the window broke’). 3. Most of the compound verbs with ‫ کردن‬are transitive; to change these to the passive you simply replace ‫ کردن‬by ‫ شدن‬and they become the intransitive version of the same verb.  Once you know that ‫[ دعوت کردن‬da’vat kardan, ‘to invite’] is transitive, you can be sure that there is an intransitive version with ‫ شدن‬also which not only can, but has to be used when the passive is needed: Active: ‫( او را دعوت کردم‬I invited him.)

Passive: ‫( او دعوت شد‬He was invited.)

– Could we also say: ‫ – ? او دعوت کرده شد‬NO! NEVER!

218

4. Similarly, there are other transitive compound verbs in which the verb part can be switched with another verb to make the meaning intransitive, and you

usually learn such verbs in pairs, like ‫[ فریب دادن‬farib] and ‫ – فریب خوردن‬to deceive and to be deceived: Active: ‫( ما پرویز را فریب دادیم‬We deceived/cheated/tricked Parviz.)

Passive of infinitives and past participles

Passive: ‫( پرویز فریب خورد‬Parviz was deceived/cheated/tricked.) (For more examples of such pairs of verbs, see this unit’s word list.)

Now you certainly want to know: What if we want to say: he was deceived by this or that person? Good question. See 20.2 below.

20.2 How to mention the agent That is what Persian hates most. Why use passive at all if you want to mention the agent? Passive sentences that mention the agent sound very awkward in Persian; they usually have the unpleasant odor of ‘translations’ by inexperienced translators. Examples of this are more likely to be found in administrative language or in scientifics texts. But if, for whatever reason, you have to mention the agent, there are some compound prepositions that can be used, all meaning ‘by means of’/ ‘by using’ ِ ‫توس‬ or ‘by way of’/ ‘via’/ ‘through’: ‫[ به وسیلۀ‬be vasile-ye], ‫ط‬ ّ [tavassot-e], ِ ِ ِ ‫[ از ط‬az tarigh-e], ‫[ از طرف‬az taraf-e], ‫سوی‬ ِ ‫ریق‬ ‫[ از‬az su-ye], ‫جانب‬ ‫[ از‬az jāneb-e] . . . Examples:

‫پاسخ این مسئلۀ ریاضی به وسیلۀ یک دانشمند جوان انگلیسی داده شد‬

answer to this math problem was given by a young English scientist.)

(The

‫( پیشنهادش از سویِ همه پذیرفته شد‬His suggestion was accepted by all.) ‫( اطالعات الزم از طریقِ پدرشان برای آنها فرستاده شد‬The necessary information was sent to them by/via their father.)

20.3 Passive of infinitives and past participles This also follows the same rule: the past participle of the main verb + the same form from the verb shodan. Examples:

‫( گرفته شدن → گرفتن‬neg.: ‫)گرفته نشدن‬ ‫( گرفته شده → گرفته‬neg.: ‫)گرفته نشده‬

219

‫‪ (Put the uneaten food [= leftovers] in‬غذاهای خورده نشده را در یخچال بگذار‬ ‫)‪the fridge.‬‬

‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪Passive‬‬

‫‪ (A few months passed since her hus‬از کشته شدن شوهرش چند ماه میگذشت‬‫)‪band’s being killed.‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 20.1‬‬

‫‪.1‬‬

‫‪Change the following sentences to the passive. Example:‬‬ ‫مینا دیده شد → من مینا را دیدم‬

‫دیروز غذایتان را نخورده بودید‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫تو در آنجا زیباترین شعرهایت را خواهی سرود‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫تنها سه فصل از آن کتاب را خواندهایم‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪.10‬‬

‫این لباس را نباید با آب داغ بشوئید‪.‬‬

‫چرا همۀ سیبها را نیاوردند؟‬ ‫چیزهائی را که نباید بشنویم‪ ،‬شنیدیم‪.‬‬ ‫چیزی که او گفت‪ ،‬اشتباه نبود‪ ،‬دروغ بود‪.‬‬ ‫اگر این لباس را بپوشی‪ ،‬تو را خواهند شناخت‪.‬‬ ‫من یک روز این گلدان زیبا را از تو میدزدم‪.‬‬ ‫همیشه غذایشان را از آنجا میخریدند‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 20.2‬‬

‫‪Change the following passive sentences to active, using the word(s) given in‬‬ ‫‪parentheses as subject. Example:‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬ ‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.۶‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪.10‬‬

‫→ مینا دیده شده است )من(‬

‫من مینا را دیدهام‬ ‫دانشجوها به کتابخانه برده میشوند‪) .‬استاد(‬ ‫لباسهای تمیز در اتاقتان گذاشته خواهند شد‪) .‬من(‬ ‫چند عکس خوب از تو گرفته شد‪) .‬خواهرم(‬ ‫چرا پیشنهاد من پذیرفته نشد؟ )تو(‬ ‫امیدوارم او دیگر دیده نشود‪) .‬ما(‬ ‫گلها از روی میز برداشته شده بودند‪) .‬شما(‬ ‫همۀ کالههایم از این مغازه خریده میشوند‪) .‬من(‬ ‫این نامه کِی نوشته شده است؟ )تو(‬ ‫اگر آن کتاب خوانده شود‪ ،‬این فیلم فهمیده خواهد شد‪) .‬ما(‬ ‫کفشهای بهتری فروخته میشود‪) .‬آن مغازه(‬

‫‪220‬‬

‫‪Exercise 20.3‬‬

‫‪Exercises‬‬

‫‪Use intransitive verbs (passive equivalents) in the following sentences and delete‬‬ ‫‪the subject (if mentioned). Example:‬‬ ‫میز تمیز شد → میز را تمیز کردم‬

‫‪.1‬‬

‫وقتی داستان را خواند‪ ،‬همه او را تشویق کردند‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫آن روز را هرگز از یاد نخواهم بُرد‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫باید پسرم را عادت بدهم که شبها زودتر بخوابد‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫کتابهائی را که الزم نیستند‪ ،‬دور میاندازیم‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬

‫باید جای این میز را در اتاقم تغییر بدهم‪.‬‬

‫ال در مدرسه شاگردان را کتک میزدند‪.‬‬ ‫معلمها قب ً‬ ‫آن مرد را فریب دادند و تمام پولش را دزدیدند‪.‬‬

‫‪ .8‬آیا این دوقلوها را در پائیز به دنیا آوردی؟‬ ‫‪ .9‬بچهها را آشتی دادیم و حاال دوستهای خوبی هستند‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .10‬در آن جنگ انگلستان آلمان را شکست داد‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 20.4‬‬ ‫‪Choose the correct form of the verb to complete the following sentences, then‬‬ ‫‪translate the sentence. (Some of them need an active/transitive verb and some a‬‬ ‫‪ can help you‬را ‪passive/intransitive verb. Sometimes presence or absence of‬‬ ‫‪make the right choice.) Example:‬‬ ‫استاد را در خانۀ پسرش )‪ .1‬دیده شد‪ .2 /‬دیده شدم‪ .3 /‬دیدم(‬

‫)‪→ correct answer is (3) (I saw the professor at his son’s house.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬ ‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.۶‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬

‫‪221‬‬

‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪.10‬‬

‫‪ .1) . . .‬دیده شد‪ .2 /‬دیده بود‪ .3 /‬دیدند(‪.‬‬

‫آن خانم در خیابان‬ ‫باید چیزهائی را در فصل هفتم کتابم تغییر ‪ .1) . . .‬کنم‪ .2 /‬بکنم‪ .3 /‬بدهم(‪.‬‬ ‫با ورزشهای خوب‪ ،‬شما خیلی سریع الغر ‪ .1) . . .‬میکند‪ .2 /‬میکنید‪ .3 /‬میشوید(‪.‬‬ ‫در بازیِ شطرنج از دوستم شکست ‪ .1) . . .‬دادم‪ .2 /‬شدم‪ .3 /‬خوردم(‪.‬‬ ‫بچه افتاد و سرش ‪ .1) . . .‬شکست‪ .2 /‬شکسته شد‪ .3 /‬شکسته بود(‪.‬‬ ‫برای گرفتن کتابش به خانهام ‪ .1) . . .‬آورد‪ .2 /‬آمد‪ .3 /‬آمده شد(‪.‬‬ ‫اتاق من خیلی تمیز ‪ .1) . . .‬کرد‪ .2 /‬کرده شد‪ .3 /‬شد( چون مادرم کمک کرد‪.‬‬ ‫آن عکس باید به پرویز ‪ .1) . . .‬داد‪ .2 /‬بشود‪ .3 /‬داده شود(‪.‬‬ ‫آن روز در استخر بزرگی شنا ‪ .1) . . .‬کردیم‪ .2 /‬شدیم‪ .3 /‬کرده شدیم(‪.‬‬ ‫باید به من کمک ‪ .1) . . .‬شوید‪ .2 /‬کرده شوید‪ .3 /‬کنید( که اینها را ببرم‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 20.5‬‬ ‫‪Make active and passive sentences with the subjects and verbs given based on‬‬ ‫‪this model:‬‬

‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪Passive‬‬

‫آن سیب )خوردن(‬

‫آیا آن سیب میخورد؟ – نه‪ ،‬آن سیب خورده میشود‪→ .‬‬

‫)“‪(”Does that apple eat?“ – ”No, that apple is eaten.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫خانۀ من )دیدن(‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫آن لباسها )پوشیدن(‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫دروغ )باور کردن(‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫گلدان )گذاشتن(‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫آن نامه )نوشتن(‬

‫این داستان )خواندن(‬ ‫عکسش )گرفتن(‬

‫این هدیه )دادن(‬ ‫شعرم )سرودن(‬

‫‪ .10‬در )بستن(‬

‫‪Exercise 20.6‬‬ ‫‪Translate the following into English.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫آن کتابها فقط به استاد نشان داده شدند‪.‬‬

‫‪.2‬‬

‫به خواهرم بیشتر از من پول داده شده است‪.‬‬

‫‪.۴‬‬

‫همه غذایشان را خورده بودند و من و شوهرم فراموش شده بودیم‪.‬‬

‫‪.۶‬‬

‫چیزی که به آن توجه نشده بود تمیز کردن راهروها بود‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬‬

‫‪.۵‬‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬

‫‪.10‬‬

‫ناگهان صدای خیلی بلندی شنیده شد‪.‬‬

‫دربارۀ این مشکل بارها فکر شده بود‪.‬‬

‫آن مهمان‪ ،‬همه را ناراحت کرد‪.‬‬

‫پیدا نشدن کیفِ‬ ‫مردی که اسب را دزدیده بود به زندان برده شد‪.‬‬ ‫دروغی که گفته شده است خیلی مهم نیست‪.‬‬ ‫به تمام چیزهائی که پرسیده شد درست جواب دادم‪.‬‬

‫‪IDIOMS – PROVERBS – APHORISMS – POEMS‬‬ ‫به پایان آمد این دفتر‪ ،‬حکایت همچنان باقی ‪. . .‬‬

‫‪This book came to an end, but not our story. . . .‬‬ ‫]‪[From a poem by Saadi (13th Century).‬‬

‫‪222‬‬

KEY TO EXERCISES

Unit 1 Exercise 1.1 1. ‫ هنرپیشه‬2. ‫ مشترکات‬3. ‫ پشتیبانی‬4. ‫ مژگانهایش‬5. ‫ مذبوحانه‬6. ‫سپاسگزارم‬ 7. ‫ ضوابط‬8. ‫ واقعگرایی‬9. ‫ چراغسازی‬10. ‫ ثناگویان‬11. ‫ متشبث‬12. ‫تنازع‬ 13. ‫ جنجالی‬14. ‫ استدالل‬15. ‫ صورتگر‬16. ‫ نظرباز‬17. ‫ مصوبه‬18. ‫حاضرجواب‬ 19. ‫ قورباغه‬20. ‫مستخلص‬

Exercise 1.2

‫ َمرد‬2. ‫ َزن‬3. ‫ ُدختَر‬4. ‫ پ َِسر‬5. ‫ پ َِدر‬6. ‫مادر‬ َ 7. ‫رادر‬ َ َ ‫ ب‬8. ‫ َشهر‬9. ‫ خان ِه‬10. ‫ا ُتاق‬ ِ ‫ َه‬16. ‫ پَ َرستو‬17. ‫تُولیدات‬ 11. ‫ م ِسواک‬12. ‫ سوراخ‬13. ‫رمند‬ َ َ‫ ُهن‬14. ‫ م ِهمانی‬15. ‫میشه‬ 18. ‫ ُموازی‬19. ‫ پالتُو‬20. ‫ُگربِه‬

1.

Exercise 1.3 1. Surat. 2. Cheshm. 3. Dahān. 4. Gush. 5. Bini. 6. Zabān. 7. Angosht. 8. Ghāshogh. 9. Changāl. 10. Āsemān. 11. Tabas. 12. Maghāze. 13. Montafi. 14. She’r. 15. Erfāni. 16. Mesdāgh. 17. Ravādid. 18. Mokhālef. 19. Gereftār. 20. Estesnā’.

Exercise 1.4 1. Khashk/kheshk/khoshk/khashak/khashek/khashok/kheshak/kheshek/kheshok/ khoshak/khoshek/khoshok. 2. Tar/ter/tor. 3. Ghātar/ghāter/ghātor. 4. Asb/esb/osb/ asab/aseb/asob/esab/eseb/esob/osab/oseb/osob. 5. Khub/khavb/khevb/khowb/ khavab/khaveb/khavob/khevab/kheveb/khevob/khovab/khoveb/khovob. 6. Kalm/ kelm/kolm/kalam/kalem/kalom/kelam/kelem/kelom/kolam/kolem/kolom. 7. Ahamd/ahemd/ahomd/ahmad/ahmed/ahmod/ahamad/ahamed/ahamod/ahemad/ ahemed/ahemod/ahomad/ahomed/ahomod/ehamd/ehemd/ehomd/ehmad/ehmed/ ehmod/ehamad/ehamed/ehamod/ehemad/ehemed/ehemod/ehomad/ehomed/ ehomod/ohamd/ohemd/ohomd/ohmad/ohmed/ohmod/ohamad/ohamed/ohamod/ ohemad/ohemed/ohemod/ohomad/ohomed/ohomod. 8. Āble/āblah/ābleh/ābloh/

223

‫‪ābale/ābalah/ābaleh/ābaloh/ābele/ābelah/ābeleh/ābeloh/ābole/ābolah/āboleh/‬‬ ‫‪āboloh. 9. Dānā. 10. Ghāzi/ghāzey.‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪Unit 2‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 2.1‬‬ ‫زبانها ‪ 8.‬صورتها ‪ 7.‬آهوها ‪ 6.‬پرنده‌ها ‪ 5.‬دهها ‪ 4.‬شهرها ‪ 3.‬دانشجوها ‪ 2.‬کتابها ‪1.‬‬ ‫‪ .‬دستها ‪ 15.‬بچه‌ها ‪ 14.‬خانه‌ها ‪ 13.‬روزها ‪ 12.‬خانمها ‪ 11.‬شاعره‌ها ‪ 10.‬شاعرها ‪9.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 2.2‬‬ ‫زبانها ‪ 3.‬زنها‪/‬زنان ‪ [foreign word; not possible with -ān] 2.‬دکترها ‪1.‬‬ ‫خانمها ‪ 8.‬آقاها‪/‬آقایان ‪ 7.‬شبها ‪ 6.‬ایرانیها‪/‬ایرانیان ‪ 5.‬شعرا‪/‬شاعرها‪/‬شاعران ‪4.‬‬ ‫نامه‌ها ‪ 13.‬انگشتها‪/‬انگشتان ‪ 12.‬گوشها ‪ 11.‬ستاره‌ها‪/‬ستارگان ‪ 10.‬بچه‌ها ‪9.‬‬ ‫‪.‬پرنده‌ها‪/‬پرندگان ‪‌15.‬صندلیها ‪14.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 2.3‬‬ ‫‪The wrong ones are 1, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 2.4‬‬

‫ستاره ِ‬ ‫قلم دختر ‪ (good mother) 2.‬مادرِ خوب ‪1.‬‬ ‫های کوچک ‪ِ (the girl’s pen) 3.‬‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫)‪ (beautiful chairs‬صندلیهای زیبا ‪ (great poets) 5.‬شاعران بزرگ ‪(small stars) 4.‬‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫)‪ (Iranian village‬ده ِ ایرانی ‪ِ (bad night) 8.‬‬ ‫دستهای زشت ‪6.‬‬ ‫شب بد ‪(ugly hands) 7.‬‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫دانشجوی تاریخ ‪9.‬‬ ‫گوش اسب ‪(student of history/history student) 10.‬‬ ‫‪(horse’s‬‬ ‫‪ (the boy’s brother) 12.‬برادرِ پسر ‪ِ (brother’s son/nephew) or‬‬ ‫پسر برادر ‪ear) 11.‬‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫نزدیک ‪ (nearby house) or‬خانۀ نزدیک ‪ (the face of the gazelle) 13.‬صورت آهو‬ ‫کتاب زبان ‪ِ (language of the book) or‬‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫زبان کتاب ‪ (near the house) 14.‬خانه‬ ‫‪(lan‬‬‫‪ (history of the country).‬تاریخِ کشور ‪guage book) 15.‬‬ ‫‪Unit 3‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 3.1‬‬ ‫چهار ‪ 11.‬صفر ‪ 10.‬سه ‪ 9.‬پنج ‪ 8.‬هجده ‪ 7.‬یازده ‪ 6.‬ده ‪ 5.‬یک ‪ 4.‬سیزده ‪ 3.‬دو ‪ 2.‬صد ‪1.‬‬ ‫بیست ‪ 19.‬هفت ‪ 18.‬ششصد ‪ 17.‬شش ‪ 16.‬دو ‪ 15.‬دویست ‪ 14.‬پانصد ‪ 13.‬هزار ‪12.‬‬ ‫‪.‬چهل ‪20.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3.2‬‬ ‫چهارصد و پنج ‪ [= 1001] 4.‬هزار و یک ‪ [= 33] 3.‬سی وسه ‪ [= 21] 2.‬بیست و یک ‪1.‬‬ ‫]‪ [= 44‬چهل و چهار ‪ [= 799] 7.‬هفتصد و نود و نه ‪ [= 101] 6.‬صد و یک ‪[= 405] 5.‬‬

‫‪224‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫]‪ [= 910‬نهصد و ده ‪ [= 66] 10.‬شصت و شش ‪ [= 55] 9.‬پنجا ه و پنج ‪8.‬‬ ‫سیصد و نود و شش ‪ [= 49] 13.‬چهل و نه ‪ [= 888] 12.‬هشتصد و هشتاد و هشت ‪11.‬‬ ‫ ]‪ [= 163‬صد و شصت و سه ‪ [= 229] 15.‬د و یست و بیست و نه ‪[= 396] 14.‬‬ ‫ ]‪ [= 809‬هشتصد و نه ‪ [= 61] 18.‬شصت و یک ‪ [= 601] 17.‬ششصد و یک ‪16.‬‬ ‫]‪ [= 912‬نهصد و دوازده ‪ [= 513] 20.‬پانصد و سیزده ‪19.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3.3‬‬

‫صندلی ‪ 3.‬سی‌و‌سه‌پرنده ‪ 2.‬چهارصد‌و‌هشتاد‌و‌دو‌ ِ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫کتاب‌خوب‬ ‫‌این‌دوازده‌‬ ‫یک‌بینی‌بزرگ ‪ 7.‬آن‌شصت‌روز ‪ 6.‬دو‌ستارۀ‌کوچک ‪ 5.‬یازده‌شب ‪ 4.‬زشت‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫دانشجوی‌بد ‪8.‬‬ ‫‪ .‬پنجاه‌و‌پنج‌کیلو ‪ 10.‬نوزده‌ساعت ‪ 9.‬شانزده‌‬

‫‪1.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 3.4‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪1۴‬‬ ‫‪1۵‬‬ ‫‪1۶‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬

‫‌‪.‬هجده‪/‬هجدهم‪/‬هجدهمین‬ ‫سیام‪/‬سی‌امین‬ ‫‌‪.‬سی‪‌ /‬‬ ‫‌‪.‬دو‪/‬دوم‪/‬دومین‬ ‫‌‪.‬صد‪/‬صدم‪/‬صدمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬نود‌و‌نه‪/‬نود‌و‌نهم‪/‬نود‌و‌نهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬هزار‪/‬هزارم‪/‬هزارمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬دویست‌و‌پنجاه‪/‬دویست‌و‌پنجاهم‪/‬دویست‌و‌پنجاهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬چهل‪/‬چهلم‪/‬چهلمین‬ ‫‪‌.‬هشت‪/‬هشتم‪/‬هشتمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬شانزده‪/‬شانزدهم‪/‬شانزدهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬چهارده‪/‬چهاردهم‪/‬چهاردهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬نهصد‪/‬نهصدم‪/‬نهصدمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬هفتاد‌و‌هفت‪/‬هفتاد‌و‌هفتم‪/‬هفتاد‌و‌هفتمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬بیست‌و‌پنج‪/‬بیست‌و‌پنجم‪/‬بیست‌و‌پنجمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬شصت‪/‬شصتم‪/‬شصتمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬سیصد‪/‬سیصدم‪/‬سیصدمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬ده‪/‬دهم‪/‬دهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬سیزده‪/‬سیزدهم‪/‬سیزدهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬هفده‪/‬هفدهم‪/‬هفدهمین‬ ‫‌‪.‬نوزده‪/‬نوزدهم‪/‬نوزدهمین‬ ‫‪Exercise 3.5‬‬

‫‪225‬‬

‫‪1. Those two big eyes. 2. The 30th day. 3. The 30th day. 4. The 3rd night. 5. The‬‬ ‫‪2nd pen. 6. Three-fifths of the book. 7. Four-sixths. 8. Seven-tenths of the‬‬

Key to exercises

house. 9. This first student. 10. The 60th pencil. 11. The 12th bad day. 12. The last city. 13. The 5th good poet. 14. The 4th Iranian man. 15. The 3rd one. 16. This last one. 17. The 9th horse. 18. The 9th one. 19. The 26th pencil. 20. The 26th one.

Exercise 3.6 Tā wrongly used in numbers 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 and 15.

Unit 4 Exercise 4.1 1. ‫( است‬Your father is in the room.) 2. ‫( او‬She is not this girl’s mother.) 3. ‫شما‬ (You don’t have four hands.) 4. ‫( ما‬We are not Iranians.) 5. ‫( است‬Your mother’s face is beautiful.) 6. ‫[ هستید‬or -id = ‫( ]شاعرید‬Are you a poet?) 7. ‫ –( او‬Is this your brother’s house? – No, it’s not his.) 8. ‫[ هستند‬or -and + y = ‫ شمایند‬, or even singular: ‫ شماست‬/‫( ]شما است‬Those books are yours.) 9. ‫( دارد‬Does this lady have a father?) 10. ‫( دارم‬Don’t you have a book? – Yes, I do [have].)

Exercise 4.2 ‌‫‌ شهر‬.۵ ‌‫ایرانیاش؛‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ پدر‬.۴ ‌‫‌ دکتر‌ خوبم؛‬.3‌‫‌ دومین‌ خانۀ‌ بزرگشان؛‬.2‌‫‌ برادر‌ کوچکش؛‬.1‌ ‌‫‌ اولین‌ درخت‬.9 ‌‫ایرانیتان؛‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ زن‬.8 ‌‫بچههای‌ کوچکشان؛‬ ‌ ‌.7 ‌‫‌ کتابهایم؛‬.۶ ‌‫کوچکت؛‬ ‌ .‫‌سیزدهمین‌روز‌خوبمان‬.10‌‫بزرگش؛‬

Exercise 4.3 1. the poet’s; 2. the child’s; 3. the lady’s; 4. theirs; 5. his sisters’; 6. the night’s/for the night; 7. our students’; 8. nose’s/for the nose; 9. Germany’s/from Germany/ German; 10. of the Persian language.

Exercise 4.4 ‌.‫‌آن‌چهار‌دانشجوی‌خوب‌مال‌کالس‌او‌نیستند‬.2‌.)‫‌این‌کتاب‌شماست‌(=‌شما‌است‬.1 ‫‌ آیا‌ تو‌ یک‌ زن‌ ایرانی‌ نیستی؟‬.۴ ‌.‫‌ آنها‌ مال‌ کالس‌ آن‌ خانم‌ کوچک‌ هستند‬.3‌ ‌‫‌ بچه‌ ها‌ و‌ پدرشان‬.7‌.‫‌ آن‌ شهرهای‌ بزرگ‌ در‌ آلمان‌ نیستند‬.۶ ‌.‫‌ قلمها‌ مال‌ من‌ نیستند‬.۵ ‌ ‌‫‌ ما‌ در‌ شیراز‬،‫‌ نه‬.9‌‫‌ شیراز‌ هستید؟‬/‫‌ آیا‌ شما‌ در‌ شهر‌ شیرازید‬.8‌.‫‌ اینجا‌ هستند‬/‫اینجایند‬ ‌‫‌ اینجا‬/‫‌ او‌ و‌ پدر‌ و‌ مادرش‌ اینجایند‬،‫‌ بله‬.10‌.‫‌ در‌ تهران‬،‫‌ اینجا‌ هستیم‬/‫‌ ما‌ اینجائیم‬،‫نیستیم‬ .‫هستند‬

Exercise 4.5 226

1. You [pl.] are a student/ are students. 2. I am a teacher. 3. The Iranian lady’s children are small. 4. The pencils and notebooks are his brother’s. 5. The Iranian

child’s eyes are black. 6. We are German. 7. You are not a star. 8. His sisters are students. 9. The pen is our teacher’s. 10. The horses are from/belong to the village near the city.

Key to exercises

Exercise 4.6 1. ‫( ندارند‬The students do not have Persian lesson.) 2. ‫( ندارد‬This small tree does not have hundreds of leaves.) 3. ‫( ندارد‬Tonight the sky has no stars.) 4. ‫ندارند‬ (Iranian men do not have big eyes and eyebrows.) 5. ‫( نداریم‬We do not have a big window in the 3rd room.) 6. ‫( ندارید‬You [pl.] do not have thousands of poets in your country.) 7. ‫( ندارد‬That German physician does not have 35 Iranian patients.) 8. ‫( ندارم‬I do not have an Arabic language class.) 9. ‫( نداری‬Don’t you [sg.] have parents?) 10. ‫( ندارید‬Don’t you [pl.] have chairs/a chair in your room?

Unit 5 Exercise 5.1

‫ می‌رسیم‬2. ‫ می‌روند‬3. ‫می‌گوئید‬ 8. ‫ می‌روید‬9. ‫ می‌آئید‬10. ‫هستند‬

1.

4.

‫دارید‬

5.

‫می‌دانیم‬

6.

‫می‌نویسی‬

7.

‫می‌خریم‬

Exercise 5.2 1. ‫( میرود‬The Iranian teacher goes to his country tomorrow.) 2. ‫( میآیند‬Nineteen American students are coming to the city of Shiraz.) 3. ‫( میآید‬Will he be coming late today?) 4. ‫( نمیدانیم‬We have German books, but we do not know German.) 5. ‫( میآیند‬Every year our brothers come to Isfahan with their American wives.) 6. ‫( میرسد‬Tonight another airplane arrives at Shiraz Airport.) 7. ‫( میگویم‬I’ll tell you but I won’t tell her.) 8. ‫ است‬/‫ هستند‬,‫( دارید‬You have a book, these are ours.) 9. ‫( مینویسند‬Everyday they write letters to me.) 10. ‫( میروم‬I will go to Iran with/by the first plane.)

Exercise 5.3  1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8.  9. 10.

‫پدر و مادرم دارند به خانه میآیند‬ ‫هواپیما دارد به فرودگاه تهران میرسد‬

(Not possible.)

‫ما داریم در کتابخانۀ دانشگاه چند نامه مینویسیم‬

(Not possible.)

‫من دارم از کتابخانۀ دانشگاه به خانهمان میروم‬ ‫شما دارید برای خرید به بازار میروید‬

(Not possible.)

‫آنها دارند در بازار بزرگ تهران فرش میخرند‬

(Not possible.)

227

‫‪Exercise 5.4‬‬ ‫‪1. Parvin is not going to the university today. 2. Everyday you go to school.‬‬ ‫‪3. Tomorrow I will go with my sister to Persian class. 4. I am sick and I will not‬‬ ‫‪come to class tomorrow. 5. They do not know Persian [language] well. 6. The‬‬ ‫‪daughter of that Iranian lady knows English well. 7. Every evening my father and‬‬ ‫‪mother arrive home at seven. 8. He/she is writing a letter to his/her sister in‬‬ ‫‪English. 9. The kids are buying food for that black bird. 10. I do not have a pen‬‬ ‫‪and I’m writing with a pencil.‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5.5‬‬

‫نیست → است‬ ‫نمی‌‌رویم → می‌رویم ;‌نداریم → داریم‬ ‫‌نیستن → هستند‬ ‫)! دارید ‪ (delete‬نمیروید → میروید‬ ‫)! دارد ‪ (delete‬نمیرسد → میرسد‬ ‫‌ندارد‌→ دارد‬ ‫‌نمیخری → میخری‬ ‫‌نمینویسند → مینویسند‬ ‫نیستند → هستند‬ ‫ندارد → دارد‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪6.‬‬ ‫‪7.‬‬ ‫‪8.‬‬ ‫‪9.‬‬ ‫‪10.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 5.6‬‬ ‫میداند‌‪‌.7‬ندارند‌‪‌.8‬دارد‌‬ ‫مینویسیم‌‪‌ ‌.۶‬‬ ‫میرسید‌‪‌ ‌.۵‬‬ ‫میآئیم‌‪‌ ‌.۴‬‬ ‫میروید‌‪‌ ‌.3‬‬ ‫میخری‌‪‌ ‌.2‬‬ ‫‪‌ ‌.1‬‬ ‫میگوئیم‬ ‫‪‌.9‬نیست‌‪‌ ‌.10‬‬

‫‪Unit 6‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 6.1‬‬

‫‪ .1‬هتلهائی‪/‬یک هتلهائی ‪ .2‬مدرسهای‪/‬یک مدرسه‪/‬یک مدرسهای ‪ .3‬تابستانی‪/‬یک‬ ‫تابستان‪/‬یک تابستانی ‪ .۴‬پسری‪/‬یک پسر‪/‬یک پسری ‪ .۵‬کودکستانی‪/‬یک کودکستان‪/‬‬ ‫یک کودکستانی ‪ .۶‬شبهائی‪/‬یک شبهائی ‪ .7‬خانهای‪/‬یک خانه‪/‬یک خانهای ‪ .8‬برگهائی‪/‬‬ ‫یک برگهائی ‪‌.9‬فرشی‪/‬یک فرش‪/‬یک فرشی ‪ .10‬پرندههائی‪/‬یک پرندههائی‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 6.2‬‬ ‫‪‌.1‬صبحی‌بارانی‌‪‌.2‬شبی‌سرد‌‪‌.3‬دانشگاهی‌مشهور‌‪ .۴‬کالسی‌خوب‌‪‌.۵‬کتابهائی‌ارزان‌‬ ‫آفتابیای‌‪‌.7‬روز‌بارانی‌زیبائی‌‪‌.8‬پرندۀ‌کوچک‌قرمزی‌‪‌.9‬غذای‌ایرانی‌گرمی‌‪‌.10‬‬ ‫‌‬ ‫‪‌.۶‬روز‌‬ ‫آسمان‌روشنی‬

‫‪228‬‬

Exercise 6.3 1. A summer school. 2. A university city. 3. A food [= nutritional/ dietary] problem. 4. A Tehrani girl /a girl from Tehran. 5. A kindergarten kid. 6. A historical story. 7. A holy [= ‘heavenly’] book. 8. A day of happiness. 9. Beauty class. 10. Cloudy sky.

Key to exercises

Exercise 6.4 1. pākestāni’i, a Pakistani. 2. ān hendi-ye javān, that young Indian. 3. film-e hen­ di’i, an Indian film. 4. dāstāni hendi, an Indian story. 5. This one can be read in two ways, with or without ezāfe: pākestāni-ye mosalmān (a Muslim Pakistani) or pākestāni mosalmān (a Muslim Pakistan). 6. zibā’i-ye dehi irāni, the beauty of an Iranian village. 7. deh-e zibā’i, a beautiful village. 8. dokhtar-e zerangi, a clever girl. 9. shahri tārikhi, a historical city. 10. bārāni-ye ān khānom, that lady’s raincoat.

Exercise 6.5 1. Is that clever boy going late to school today? 2. Everyday early in the morning that young prisoner reads books in the prison. 3. Every summer the birds come to the park of our university. 4. A small child is going to kindergarten with her/his mother. 5. Will you go tomorrow to an Iranian restaurant in the city of Chicago with your professor? 6. My father doesn’t have time, he is writing a letter. 7. This library has a lot of books for children. 8. Isn’t there an Iranian restaurant in this city of Pakistan? 9. There are several beautiful red flowers in the garden of my American professor’s house. 10. That child has several white flowers in its hand.

Unit 7 Exercise 7.1 a) ‫ را‬needs to be added after the words ‫ تکالیفم‬and ‫( ایرانی‬both of them DDOs). b) Translation: Hi Maryam, I’m not coming to the library today; right now I’m going back home. Then I’ll take a shower (lit., ‘go to bath’) and eat some small meal. Then I’ll write my homework. I’ll watch that Iranian film tonight. Tomorrow I’ll talk to you about it in class.

Exercise 7.2 1. ‫( آیا پسرتان رادیو را روشن نمیکند؟‬Doesn’t your son turn/Isn’t your son turning the radio on?) 2. ‫( او اآلن کفشهای سیاهش را تمیز نمیکند‬He/she is not cleaning his/her black shoes right now.)

229

Key to exercises

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( ما از تکلیفهای معلممان خیلی خوشحال نمیشویم‬We don’t become very happy/ are not thrilled with the assignments of our teacher.) ‫( آیا به امتحان سخت فردا فکر نمیکنید؟‬Don’t you think/Aren’t you thinking about tomorrow’s difficult exam?) ‫( ما امتحانهای سخت را خیلی دوست نداریم‬We don’t especially like difficult exams.) ‫( با پدرم دربارۀ سفرش به ایران حرف نمیزنم‬I won’t/don’t talk/I’m not talking to my father about his trip to Iran.) ‫( کتاب را بر نمیدارد و به آن نگاه نمیکند‬He/she doesn’t take/is not taking the book and doesn’t look/is not looking at it.) ‫( هر روز صبح به آنجا نمیروم و شب برنمیگردم‬I don’t go there everyday in the morning and don’t come back at night.) ‫( آنها اآلن یک فیلم شاد نگاه نمیکنند‬They are not watching a happy movie now.) ‫( شما این فیلم را با من نگاه نمیکنید؟‬Won’t/Don’t you watch/Aren’t you watching this movie with me?)

Exercise 7.3 1. Demonstrative adjective. 2. Demonstrative adjective. 3. It is not likely to be ‘pens’ in general (though not impossible) and there are no indefinite markers. 4. Demonstrative adjective. 5. It is plural – so it can’t be ‘shoes’ in general – and there are no indefinite markers. 6. Possessive structure. 7. Plural + possessive pronoun. 8. Plural + possessive structure.

Exercise 7.4 1. I am reading a book about Iran’s old cities. 2. I am reading the book Old Cities of Iran. 3. I am reading about the book Old Cities of Iran. 4. I am watching a famous movie. 5. In this picture I see a small Afghan girl. 6. Everyday I eat a red apple. 7. Tomorrow I’ll eat the apple on the table. 8. I see a bird on the tree. 9. I see the bird on the tree. 10. He/she is writing a letter to his/her professor.

Exercise 7.5 Changes that occur to the verbs: 1. ‫ نمیخوانم‬2. ‫ نمیخوانم‬3. ‫ نمیخوانم‬4. ‫نمیکنم‬ (delete ‫ )دارم‬5. ‫ نمیبینم‬6. ‫ نمیخورم‬7. ‫ نمیخورم‬8. ‫ نمیبینم‬9. ‫نمیبینم‬ 10. ‫( نمینویسد‬delete ‫)دارد‬.

Exercise 7.6

230

.‫میدارم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ من‌ (دارم)‌ قلم‌ سیاه‌ را‌ بر‬.2 ‌.‫ایرانیان‌ چای‌ سبز‌ دوست‌ ندارند‬/‫‌ ایرانیها‬.1‌ ‌‫‌این‬.۵‌.‫‌او‌روزهای‌بارانی‌(را)‌دوست‌ندارد‬.۴‌.‫میدارم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌کتاب‌دوستم‌را‌برای‌او‌نگه‬.3‌ ‌.‫نمیبینم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ خانۀ‌ شما‌ را‬.7 ‌.‫میبینم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ من‌ دو‌ خانه‬.۶ ‌.‫چهها‌ ندارد‬ ‌ ‫رخت‌ خطری‌ برای‌ ب‬ ‌ ‫د‬ .‫نمیخرد‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ او‌ آن‌ خانه‌ را‬،‫‌ نه‬.9 ‌‫میخرد؟‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ آیا‌ دوست‌ شما‌ دارد‌ (یک)‌ خانه‬.8‌ .‫مدرسهمان‌را‌دوست‌داریم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ما‬.10‌

‫‪Unit 8‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪Exercise 8.1‬‬

‫قدیمیتر‌ ‪‌. 7‬سیاهتر‬ ‫‌‬ ‫دیدنیتر ‌‪‌ .۵‬زرنگتر ‌‪‌. ۶‬‬ ‫‌‬ ‫زشتتر‌ ‪‌. 3‬بهتر‪/‬خوبتر ‌‪‌ .۴‬‬ ‫‌‬ ‫‌‪‌. 1‬زیباتر‌ ‪‌. 2‬‬ ‫‪‌.8‬خسته‌تر‌‪‌.9‬خوشحالتر‌‪‌.10‬جوانتر‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 8.2‬‬

‫‪ (a cleverer student).‬دانشجوئی زرنگتر‪ /‬دانشجوی زرنگتری‬ ‫‪ (a smaller child).‬بچّهای کوچکتر‪ /‬بچّۀ کوچکتری‬ ‫‪ (an older house).‬خانهای قدیمیتر‪ /‬خانۀ قدیمیتری‬ ‫درختانی زیباتر و سبزتر ‪ /‬درختانِ سبزترِ زیباتری‪ /‬درختانِ سبزتر و زیباتری‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬

‫‪(more beautiful green trees).‬‬ ‫‪ (younger professors).‬استادانی جوانتر‪ /‬استادانِ جوانتری ‪5.‬‬ ‫‪ (cities more worth seeing).‬شهرهائی دیدنیتر‪ /‬شهرهای دیدنیتری ‪6.‬‬ ‫‪ (happier mothers).‬مادرانی شادتر‪ /‬مادران شادتری ‪7.‬‬

‫آسمانی آبیتر و روشنتر ‪ /‬آسمانِ آبیترِ روشنتری‪/‬آسمانِ آبیتر و روشنتری‬

‫‪8.‬‬

‫‪(a more beautiful and brighter sky).‬‬ ‫ر ارزانتری‪ /‬قلمِ بهتر و ارزانتری ‪9.‬‬ ‫‪ (a better and cheaper‬قلمی بهتر و ارزانتر‪ /‬قلمِ بهت ِ‬

‫اتاقی بزرگتر و‬

‫‪ also possible.‬بهتر ‪ instead of‬خوبتر ‪pen) – Here‬‬ ‫راحتتر ‪ /‬اتاقِ بزرگترِ راحتتری‪ /‬اتاقِ بزرگتر و راحتتری ‪10.‬‬ ‫‪(a bigger and more comfortable room).‬‬

‫‪Exercise 8.3‬‬

‫‪ (the most difficult lesson).‬سختترین درس‬ ‫‪ (the most delicious food).‬خوشمزهترین غذا‬ ‫]‪ (the most [= the most numerous or the longest‬بیشترین )زیادترین ) تکالیف‬ ‫‪assignments).‬‬

‫‪ (the warmest summer).‬گرمترین تابستان‬ ‫‪ (the best film).‬بهترین )خوبترین) فیلم‬ ‫‪ (the most important library).‬مهمترین کتابخانه‬ ‫‪ (the sourest yoghurt).‬ترشترین ماست‬ ‫‪ (the oldest city).‬قدیمیترین شهر‬ ‫‪ (the easiest exam).‬آسانترین امتحان‬ ‫‪ (the most famous writer).‬مشهورترین نویسنده‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪6.‬‬ ‫‪7.‬‬ ‫‪8.‬‬ ‫‪9.‬‬ ‫‪10.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 8.4‬‬ ‫‪231‬‬

‫)‪ (This is one of the warmest days of the summer season.‬گرمترین‬ ‫)?‪ (Don’t you have any room cheaper than this in the hotel‬ارزانتر‬ ‫)‪ (I don’t see the most comfortable chair.‬راحتترین‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬

Key to exercises

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( گرانتر‬This restaurant is the most expensive Iranian restaurant.) ‫( بیشتر‬Foreign tourists see the city of Isfahan more [often].) ‫( زیباترین‬Who gives/will give me his/her most beautiful pen?) ‫( قرمزتر‬Why don’t we see a more red apple in the garden?) ‫( خوشمزهترین‬Chelow-kabāb is not the most delicious Persian food.) ‫( بیشتر‬Students of Persian like this professor most.) ‫( کمتر‬Does he give them fewer assignments?)

Exercise 8.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( هر زندگیای چه دارد؟‬What does every life have?) ‫ از کِی در کالس هستند؟‬/‫( زرنگترها از ساعتِ چند‬From what time are the more

clever ones in class?)

‫( دوشنبهها پروین کدام خواهرش را به کودکستان میبرد؟‬Which of her sisters does Parvin take to kindergarten on Mondays?) ‫( برای امتحان چند ساعت وقت میدهند؟‬How much time [‘how many hours’] do they give for the exam?) ‫( در روز چندم به یک پارک زیبا میرویم؟‬On which day do we go to a beautiful park?) ‫( برادرم درس تاریخ کجا را دوست ندارد؟‬My brother doesn’t like the study of the history of where?) ‫( من همۀ کتابهای کی را میخوانم؟‬All of whose books do I read?) ‫( این پرندۀ‌سیاه همیشه کجا است؟‬Where is this black bird all the time?) ‫( شما با آن دختر چه میکنید؟‬What are you doing with that girl?) ‫( پدر بیمارشان چند سال دارد؟‬How old is their sick father?)

Exercise 8.6 1. Younger people talk very little to older ones at home. 2. I am twenty-six years old and I’m five years older than my brother; how old are you? 3. This writer writes about everything and we don’t know what his book is about. 4. Do you know German? No, not at all. None of us speaks German. 5. I never drink a drink with ice in winter. A hot sweet tea is the best thing. 6. Where and till what time are you going to study tomorrow afternoon? 7. Who is going to water the flowers this week? 8. I don’t listen to what sellers say; no grocer would say, “My yoghurt is sour.” [proverb] 9. There’s no course [‘class’] whatsoever in this university for Iran’s history. 10. None of his brothers knows how he lives in an expensive city.

Unit 9 232

Exercise 9.1

‫نیائید‬/‫‌بیائید‬،‫نیا‬/‫بیا‬.‌ ‫ندهید‬/‫‌بدهید‬،‫نده‬/‫بده‬.‌

1 2

‫نخورید‬/‫‌بخورید‬،‫نخور‬/‫‌بخور‬. 3 ‫ندانید‬/‫‌بدانید‬،‫ندان‬/‫‌بدان‬. ۴ ‫نگوئید‬/‫‌بگوئید‬،‫نگو‬/‫‌بگو‬. ۵ ‫نرسید‬/‫‌برسید‬،‫نرس‬/‫‌برس‬. ۶ ‫نبینید‬/‫‌ببینید‬،‫نبین‬/‫‌ببین‬. 7 ‫ننویسید‬/‫‌بنویسید‬،‫ننویس‬/‫‌بنویس‬. 8 ‫نگذارید‬/‫‌بگذارید‬،‫نگذار‬/‫‌بگذار‬. 9 ‫ننشینید‬/‫ بنشینید‬،‫ننشین‬/‫‌بنشین‬. 10

Key to exercises

Exercise 9.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

‫[ – بنشینید‬student to professor:] Please sit down, you’ll get tired. ‫ – نخورید‬Never eat too much; you’ll get sick. ‫ – بگذار‬Please put the book on your table! ‫[ – نیائید‬professor to students:] Please don’t come to the class late tomorrow. ‫[ – بنویس‬a man to his son:] Write your mother a letter today! ‫ – بگو‬Who are you? Say your name one more time! ‫[ – بخورید‬me to my two younger brothers:] Eat from this āsh (soup), it is

very delicious. ‫[ – ببین‬Parvin to her younger sister:] Watch this movie, it is very interesting. ‫[ – نخور‬me to my friend:] Don’t grieve so much, it is no use at all. ‫ – بمان‬You don’t have a class tomorrow; stay with us tonight. ‫ – ندهید‬Never give a lot of money to your small children. ‫ – نرسید‬Don’t be late, Mohammad won’t wait for you

Exercise 9.3 1. Don’t be sad, these problems will pass/will be over. 2. Be careful! This time the tea is very hot. 3. Have/Keep the second volume of book; I don’t want it this week. 4. Have this five hundred thousand Tomans! It is not much; it is equal to 100 American Dollars. 5. Don’t worry about money; all people have financial problems in life. 6. Don’t go very slowly; it is getting late. 7. Wait [‘stand/stop’] here a little, I’ll come back soon. 8. Give me your hand, it’s dark here. 9. Do exercises for 20 minutes each day. 10. Don’t talk to him/her more than an hour.

Exercise 9.4 !‫لطفاً آن را به پدرم نگوئید‬ !‫آن سیبهای ترش را نخور‬

!‫فردا صبح ساعت شش و نیم بیدار شو‬

.‌1 .‌2 .‌۳

!‫اتاقت را دوبار در هفته تمیز کن‬

.‌۵

!‫لطفاً به )حرفهایِ) آن مرد احمق گوش نکنید‬

!‫ دارم میآیم‬،‫لطفاً کمی صبر کنید‬ !‫زودتر از پسفردا برنگرد‬

!‫آن گلها را در روشنترین اتاقت نگه دار‬

.‌۴ .‌۶ .‌7 .‌8

233

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪ ‌.9‬لطفاً بیشتر از ده بچّه )را) در یک کالس نگذارید!‬ ‫‪ ‌.10‬خواهرت را بیشتر از دوستت دوست داشته باش!‬

‫‪Exercise 9.5‬‬

‫)‪ (Don’t return home for food/dinner.‬برنگرد‬ ‫)‪ (Don’t listen to every talk.‬گوش نکن‬ ‫)‪ (Don’t take the test today.‬نده‬ ‫)‪ (Come tomorrow with your homework.‬بیائید‬ ‫)‪ (Don’t worry/Don’t be sad.‬نداشته باش‬ ‫)‪ (Don’t get upset.‬نشو‬ ‫)‪ (Write a dictation.‬بنویسید‬ ‫)‪ (Take/Pick up that flower.‬بردارید‬ ‫)‪ (Don’t wait for me more than 15 minutes.‬صبر نکنید‬ ‫)‪ (Be happy! You have the best room.‬باش‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪6.‬‬ ‫‪7.‬‬ ‫‪8.‬‬ ‫‪9.‬‬ ‫‪10.‬‬

‫‪Unit 10‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 10.1‬‬

‫‌‪ ‌.1‬نوشتن‌ ‪ ‌.2‬خوردن‌ ‪ ‌.3‬بردن‌ ‪ ‌.۴‬نشستن‌ ‪ ‌.۵‬ورزش‌ کردن‌ ‪ ‌.۶‬بیدار‌ شدن‌ ‪ ‌.7‬برگشتن‬ ‫‌‪ ‌.8‬افتادن‌ ‪ ‌.9‬امتحان‌ دادن‌ ‪ ‌.10‬خطر‌ داشتن‌ ‪ ‌.11‬حرف‌ زدن‌ ‪ ‌.12‬خندیدن‌ ‪ ‌.13‬دانستن‬ ‫‪‌.1۴‬بودن‌‪‌.1۵‬بودن‌‪‌.1۶‬خریدن‌‪‌.17‬خواستن‌‪‌.18‬گذشتن‌‪‌.19‬دیدن‌‪‌.20‬گفتن‪.‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 10.2‬‬ ‫ال‌خیلی‌آهسته‌نیست‪.‬‬ ‫‪‌. 1‬حرف‌زدنِ‌بچه‌ها‌معمو ً‬ ‫‪‌. 2‬نامه‌نوشتنِ‌شما‌خیلی‌جالب‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪‌. 3‬دیدنِ‌استادم‌خیلی‌کوتاه‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪‌. ۴‬ترجمه‌کردنِ‌داستان‌(برای‌تو)‌آسان‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪‌. ۵‬پیدا‌کردنِ‌راه‌بازار‌(برای‌شما)‌سخت‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪‌. ۶‬جواب‌دادنِ‌آنها‌خیلی‌دیر‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪‌. 7‬غذا‌خوردنِ‌این‌بچّه‌ها‌خیلی‌تمیز‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‌ 8‬خواندن‌این‌پرنده‌زیبا‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‌ 9‬درس‌خواندن‌پسرتان‌عالی‌است‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‌ 10‬حرف زدن تو با او زشت نیست‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 10.3‬‬ ‫‪1. Children don’t usually speak very quietly. // Children’s talking is not usually‬‬ ‫‪very quiet.‬‬

‫‪234‬‬

2. You write letters in a very interesting way. // Your letter writing is very interesting. 3. I’ll see/ I’m seeing my professor very briefly. // My meeting [with] my professor will be/ is very brief. 4. You [will] translate the story with ease. // Translating the story will be/ is easy for you. 5. It will be/ is difficult for you to find the way to the bazaar. // Finding the way to the bazaar will be/ is difficult for you. 6. They [will] answer very late. // Their answering will be/is very late. 7. These children eat very clean. // These children’s eating is very clean. 8. This bird sings beautifully. // This bird’s singing is beautiful. 9. Your son studies excellently. // Your son’s studying is excellent. 10. You are not talking to him/her in an ugly/inappropriate way. // Your talking to him/her is not ugly/inappropriate.

Key to exercises

Exercise 10.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫ است‬or ‫ هستند‬His travel to Tajikistan and my return are on one/on the same day. ‫ میشوند‬Everybody is very happy to see/ from seeing this beautiful garden. ‫ است‬Listening to the radio is very helpful for learning these languages. ‫ میکنم‬I’ll assist him/her in finding his wallet/ her purse. ‫ میکند‬Does not going to Iran make you [feel] very sad? ‫ میترسید‬Why are you afraid of your daughter[’s] traveling around the world? ‫ است‬Not cleaning the table is the biggest mistake of my brother and me. ‫ نمیگوید‬No one tells me anything about my father’s coming. ‫ میزنیم‬My wife and I always talk about going or not going to America. ‫ است‬Studying at American universities is always expensive.

Unit 11 Exercise 11.1

‫‌ خواهید‌ نوشت‬.۵ ‫‌ خواهیم‌ دانست‬.۴ ‌‫‌ خواهد‌ دید‬.3‌‫‌ خواهی‌ آمد‬.2‌‫‌ خواهم‌ رفت‬.1‌ ‌‫‌ خواهیم‬.10 ‌‫‌ خواهد‌ گذشت‬.9 ‌‫‌ خواهی‌ رسید‬.8 ‌‫‌ خواهم‌ داشت‬.7 ‌‫‌ خواهند‌ خرید‬.۶ .‫‌خواهند‌نشست‬.12‌‫‌خواهید‌پخت‬.11‌‫خواند‬ Exercise 11.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

‫( نخواهم دید‬I won’t see you the day after tomorrow in the factory.) ‫( برنخواهد گشت‬Next month their mother won’t return from her trip.) ‫( درس نخواهم خواند‬I won’t study with my friend at 4 p.m.) ‫( نخواهید خورد‬This evening you won’t dine with your family.) ‫( آشپزی نخواهد کرد‬This cook won’t cook very well today.) ‫ نخواهد فهمید‬/‫( حرف نزنید‬Don’t talk, he/she won’t understand.)

235

Key to exercises

7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( نخواهیم داشت‬We won’t have much time for that job.) ‫( نخواهد بود‬My father won’t be with us more than two weeks.) ‫( جشن نخواهیم گرفت‬We won’t celebrate twice on a [single] day.) ‫( نخواهد داد‬This university will not give you a lot of things.)

Exercise 11.3 ‌‫‌یاد‌خواهد‬.3‌‫‌کار‌خواهد‌کرد‬/‫‌پیدا‌خواهد‌کرد‬.2‌‫‌تمیز‌نخواهد‌کرد‬/‫‌باز‌خواهد‌کرد‬.1 ‌‫‌ امتحان‬.7‌‫‌ کمک‌ نخواهد‌ کرد‬.۶ ‌‫‌ بیدار‌ نخواهند‌ شد‬.۵ ‌‫‌ تدریس‌ خواهند‌ کرد‬.۴ ‫گرفت‬ ‫‌ ورزش‌ خواهد‌ کرد‬.9 ‌‫‌ غصه‌ نخواهد‌ خورد‬/‫‌ رد‌ نخواهد‌ شد‬.8 ‌‫نخواهند‌ داد‬ ‌ ‌‫‌باز‬/‫‌برخواهد‌داشت‬.12‌‫‌پیدا‌خواهم‌کرد‬/‫‌بر‌خواهم‌گشت‬.11‌‫‌خوشحال‌خواهم‌شد‬.10 .‫‌خواهد‌خواند‬/‫خواهد‌کرد‬

Exercise 11.4 1. Ahmad will open the windows but won’t clean the house. 2. Mina will find her book and will work for her lesson. 3. Parvin will learn English language for four years at the university. 4. Both of these professors will teach at the University of Tehran. 5. None of those young guys will wake up early in the morning. 6. My father will never help my mother with household chores. 7. Why won’t all the students take the exam on the same day? 8. Nobody will fail the spelling test and become sad. 9. The teacher will exercise with the children for one hour in the school yard. 10. I will become very happy (from) seeing my wife’s family. 11. I will return to my country and find a better job. 12. He/she will always take the envelope (of letter) and open it and read the letter.

Exercise 11.5

236

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

a) ‫ ; حرف میزنم‬b) ‫حرف خواهم زد‬ a) ‫ ; سفر میکند‬b) ‫سفر خواهد کرد‬ a) ‫ ; جشن میگیرند‬b) ‫جشن خواهند گرفت‬ a) ‫ ; بیدار میشوم‬b) ‫بیدار خواهم شد‬ a) ‫ ; میآید‬b) ‫خواهد آمد‬ a) ‫ ; نمیبیند‬b) ‫نخواهد دید‬ a) ‫ ; خوشحال نمیشوند‬b) ‫خوشحال نخواهند شد‬ a) ‫ ; غصه نمیخوری‬b) ‫غصه نخواهی خورد‬ a) ‫ ; تدریس میکند‬b) ‫تدریس خواهد کرد‬ a) ‫ ; پاسخ نمیدهد‬b) ‫پاسخ نخواهد داد‬ a) ‫ برمیدارم‬/‫ ; برمیگردم‬b) ‫ برخواهم داشت‬/‫برخواهم گشت‬ a) ‫ ; میرسی‬b) ‫خواهی رسید‬ a) ‫ ; میماند‬b) ‫خواهد ماند‬ a) ‫ ; نمیآید‬b) ‫نخواهد آمد‬ a) ‫ ; پیدا میکنید‬b) ‫پیدا خواهید کرد‬

Exercise 11.6 1. Tomorrow I’ll talk to a famous dentist. 2. Next year he/she will travel to Egypt to learn [‘for learning’] Arabic language. 3. The students will celebrate the new year at the university. 4. Tomorrow I’ll wake up at 8 a.m. 5. Tomorrow Ahmad will come to class fifteen minutes later. 6. Won’t anyone see the professor next week? 7. They will never be happy about eating at a very expensive restaurant. 8. Won’t you ever feel sad over your family? 9. Next term a guest professor from Iran will teach at our university. 10. A professor will never answer all of my questions. 11. I will return to my home and take my bag. 12. You will reach / arrive at Tehran after seeing/visiting the cities of Isfahan and Shiraz. 13. My best friend will stay at our home for three weeks. 14. Tomorrow no one will come with me to the train station. 15. You will find the way very easily.

Key to exercises

Unit 12 Exercise 12.1 ‌‫‌جشن‬/ ‫‌نداشتند‬. ۵‌ ‫‌افتادند‬/ ‫‌مواظب ‌نبودند‬. ۴‌ ‫‌آشپزی ‌کردیم‬.3‌‫‌برنگشتی‬.2‌‫‌خوردم‬.1 ‌‫‌گذشت‬.10‌‫‌تمیز‌شد‬/‫‌راه‌رفت‬.9‌‫‌خندیدید‬/‫‌نزدید‬.8‌‫‌ترسیدیم‬.7‌‫‌پاسخ‌نداد‬.۶‌‫نگرفتند‬ .‫‌پخت‬.1۵‌‫‌ماندید‬.1۴‌‫‌نیفتاد‬.13‌‫‌نگه‌داشتم‬.12‌‫‌نینداخت‬/‫‌نبود‬.11

Exercise 12.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( من قبل از غذا آب میخوردم‬I was drinking/ used to drink before eating.) ‫( چرا کمی زودتر برنمیگشتی؟‬Why weren’t you returning/didn’t you use to

return a bit earlier?)

‫( ما هرشب در خانه آشپزی میکردیم‬We were cooking/used to cook at home

every night.)

‫( بچّهها مواظب نبودند و میافتادند‬The children were not careful and were

falling/used to fall down.)

‫( آنها پول نداشتند و جشن نمیگرفتند‬They didn’t have money and were not

celebrating/didn’t use to celebrate.) ‫( آن احمق به هیچ سؤالی پاسخ نمیداد‬That stupid [person] was not answering/ did not use to answer any question[s].) ‫( چرا ما از یک پرندۀ کوچک میترسیدیم؟‬Why were we afraid of/did we use to get scared by a small bird?) ‫( چرا حرف نمیزدید و تنها میخندیدید؟‬Why were you not talking and were just laughing?/Why did you not use to talk and used to laugh only?) ‫( در باران راه میرفت و تمیز میشد‬He/she/it was walking in the rain and was getting cleaned/used to walk in the rain and get cleaned.) ‫( مرد پیر آهسته از خیابان میگذشت‬The old man was passing/used to pass on the street slowly.) [It can also mean ‘crossing the street.’] 237

Key to exercises

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

‫( او یک بچّۀ کوچک نبود و آن را نمیانداخت‬He was not a small kid and would

not drop it.)

‫( من سیب را برای تو نگه میداشتم‬I was keeping/used to keep the apple for you.) ‫( آیا کتاب از روی میز نمیافتاد؟‬Wasn’t the book falling/didn’t it use to fall from the table?)

‫( تا جمعه در این ده میماندید‬You were staying/used to stay in this village

until Friday.)

‫( او در آشپزخانه غذای خوشمزهای با نخود میپخت‬He/she was cooking/used to cook some delicious food with chickpea in the kitchen.)

Exercise 12.3

‫میآید‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ به‌ شمار‬.7‌‫‌ بود‬.۶ ‌‫میرفت‬ ‌ ‌.۵ ‌‫میرفتم‬ ‌ ‌.۴ ‌‫میکرد‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ خیّاطی‬.3‌‫‌ داشت‬.2‌‫‌ آمدم‬.1‌ ‫نمیکنم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ زندگی‬.12 ‌‫‌ دوست‌ داشتیم‬.11 ‌‫برمیگشتیم‬ ‌ ‌.10 ‌‫میماندیم‬ ‌ ‌.9 ‌‫میرفتم‬ ‌ ‌.8‌ ‫‌ است‬.18 ‌‫‌ می‌دانم‬.17 ‌‫‌ یاد‌ گرفتم‬.1۶ ‌‫‌ بود‬.1۵ ‌‫‌ ندارد‬.1۴ ‌‫‌ درس‌ می‌خوانم‬.13‌ .‫‌بنویس‬.20‌‫‌یاد‌می‌گیری‬.19 Exercise 12.4 Salām dear Laura, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 238

I was born in a small city in Iran [‘in one of Iran’s small cities’]. My father had a government job, and my mother was a tailor. I went with my older sister to a girls’ school. My brother went to a boys’ school. Our city was small, but it is considered one of the oldest cities in Iran. During the summer vacations I used to go with my family to Tehran. We used to stay there for two months and then we would return to our city. My brother and sister and I liked our small city more than Tehran. Now I am not living in Iran and I am studying Persian literature at an American University. Unfortunately this university does not offer (‘have’) Kurdish language and literature. My mother tongue is Kurdish; I learned Persian at the public [‘government’ or ‘state-run’] school of our city. I know Persian very well, but it is still a second language for me too. You too are learning Persian well. Write me again/Continue to write to me in Persian. All the best [‘adieu’], Shahnaz

Exercise 12.5 .‫برای عکس گرفتن از گلها به حیاط رفت‬. .‫برای نگاه کردنِ یک فیلم به خانۀ ما آمد‬. .‫برای رفتن به ایران زبان فارسی یاد گرفتیم‬. .‫ ورزش کردی‬،‫برای بیمار نشدن‬. .‫برای تمیز کردن خانه خیلی کار کردند‬. .‫برای گرفتنِ این عکس خیلی صبر کردم‬. .‫برای رسیدن به آنجا راه درازی رفت‬. .‫ آن را برداشتی‬،‫برای خواندن کتاب‬. .‫ به پنجره نزدیک شدند‬،‫برای دیدن خیابان‬. .‫برای خوشحال کردن بچهها یک پرنده خریدم‬.

1 2 3 ۴ ۵ ۶ 7 8 9 10

Key to exercises

Exercise 12.6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

He/she went to the yard to take pictures from the flowers. He/she came to our home to watch a movie. We learned Persian to go to Iran. You did exercises in order not to get sick. They worked a lot to clean the house. I waited very long to take this picture. He/she walked a long way to reach there. You picked up the book in order to read it. They approached the window in order to see the street. I bought a bird to make the children happy.

Unit 13 Exercise 13.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

)imp. sg., neg.) ‫دیده‬ )pres., 2nd pl.) ‫زده‬ )simple past, 1st sg.) ‫خورده‬ )pres., 3rd pl.) ‫مرده‬ )imp. pl.) ‫خوابیده‬ )imp. sg.) ‫انداخته‬ )pres., 2nd sg.) ‫ترسیده‬ )pres., 1st pl.) ‫نوشته‬ )imp. pl.) ‫پخته‬

10. )imp. sg.) ‫آمده‬

Exercise 13.2 ‌‫‌یاد‌گرفته‬.۵‌‫شدهام‬ ‌ ‌‫‌خوشحال‬.۴‌‫نخواندهاند‬ ‌ ‌.3‌‫‌مریض‌شده‌است‬.2‌‫‌سفر‌نکرده‌است‬.1 ‌‫‌ صحبت‌ کرده‬.10 ‌‫‌ تدریس‌ کرده‌ است‬.9 ‌‫نشدهاند‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ رد‬.8 ‌‫پختهام‬ ‌ ‌.7 ‌‫فهمیدهاید‬ ‌ ‌.۶ ‌‫است‬ .‫است‬

239

Key to exercises

Exercise 13.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

He/she has never traveled to Tajikistan. After the arrival [‘coming’] of guests the child has become sick. None of the students of the class has read the book. [pl. in Persian!] Receiving my sister’s letter has made me happy [‘I have become happy from receiving. . .’]. Laura has learned the Arabic language in Egypt. You have understood the poem/poetry of Hafez very well. Today I have cooked Iranian food again. None of the students has failed in the exam. He/she has taught Persian literature at the University of Isfahan. Our professor has talked about the New Year celebration in Iran, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.

Exercise 13.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( پوشیده است‬Today our professor is wearing brown shoes.) ‫( ننشستهام‬I have never been sitting in the library the whole day.) ‫( خوابیده است‬Last night he/she has slept for only four hours.) ‫( پوشیده است‬Today our [Ms] teacher is wearing a red dress.) ‫( صحبت کرده است‬He/she has talked to me a lot.) ‫( نشستهاند‬Forty beautiful red birds are sitting on the tree.) ‫( خوابیده است‬Our little girl is sleeping in her room.) ‫( ایستادهایم‬We have been standing in the train station since 8 a.m.) ‫( ایستاده است‬The train has been waiting/has stopped in the station 8:15.)

since

‫( شده است‬The weather has become much colder.)

Exercise 13.5

‌‫‌ سفر‌ نکرده‬.۵ ‌‫‌ یاد‌ گرفته‌ بودم‬.۴ ‌‫‌ مرده‌ بود‬.3‌‫‌ پوشیده‌ بودم‬.2‌‫‌ به‌ دنیا‌ آمده‌ بود‬.1 ‫‌ خوابیده‌ بودی‬.9 ‌‫‌ آمده‌ بودند‬.8 ‌‫‌ نشنیده‌ بودم‬.7 ‌.‫‌ صحبت‌ کرده‌ بود‬.۶ ‌‫بودند‬ ‌ ‫‌نخوانده‌بودیم‬.10‌ Exercise 13.6

240

1. That lady has been sitting here with her child for an hour to see the doctor. 2. I have never been to Afghanistan [until now]. 3. I have seen none of my Iranian friends since one year ago [till now]. 4. He/she will have graduated from the university next year. 5. I have normally eaten my meal till 2 p.m. 6. We have never gone to the bazaar for shopping on Mondays. 7. Today they have not placed the notebooks and the pencils on the table. 8. Shahnaz has always been sleeping longer on Fridays. 9. Forough has always been considered [as] an important poet. 10. My mother has been cooking since three hours ago.

‫‪Unit 14‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪Exercise 14.1‬‬

‫‪ .1‬نشنود ‪ .2‬بخورم ‪ .۳‬بخوانند ‪ .۴‬بردارم ‪ .۵‬باشند ‪ .۶‬داشته باشی ‪ .7‬نخریم ‪ .8‬باز شود‬ ‫‪ 9.‬بنویسید ‪ .10‬نباشم‬ ‫‪Exercise 14.2‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬شاید فردا بر نگردند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬دیروز تصمیم گرفتم یک کتاب عالی بخرم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬ممکن است همه چیز را ندانیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬باید آن صندلی را بیاورند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬میتواند خیلی خوب بنویسد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬قبل از اینکه آنها بیایند‪ ،‬ما غذا خورده بودیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬شک دارم ]که] خانۀ خیلی بزرگی داشته باشند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬اطمینان نداریم ]که] معلم دفترتان را بیاورد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬احتمال دارد ]که] بچه از روی میز بیفتد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬فکر نمیکنم ]که] با خوردن این تخم مرغها ما همه مریض شویم‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 14.3‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬بیائید – میشویم‬ ‫‪.‬بخواهد‪ /‬میخواهد – برود‬ ‫‪.‬سعی کنیم – بماند‬ ‫‪.‬نداند‪ /‬نمیداند – بدهیم‬ ‫‪.‬میبینم – دارد‬ ‫‪.‬بگوئی – شنید‪ /‬شنیده بود‬ ‫‪.‬رفتیم‪ /‬رفته بودیم – درست کنیم‬ ‫‪.‬تمام کنند – برمیگردند‬ ‫‪.‬دارید – میخواند‬ ‫‪.‬بتوانید – تمام کنید‬ ‫‪Exercise 14.4‬‬ ‫‪Used here because of‬‬

‫‪Subjunctive verb‬‬

‫تا‬

‫صحبت کنم‬

‫نمیتوانستم‬

‫باور کنم‬

‫اگر‬

‫‪241‬‬

‫باید‬

‫بپرسم‬

‫بگیرند‬

‫‪Exercise 14.5‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬

‫‪.‬با این عینک نو میتوانم خیلی بهتر ببینم‪.‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪.‬همیشه خواسته بودم‪ /‬همیشه میخواستم ]که] ]یک] معلم باشم‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬چطور میتوانی آن خانۀ بزرگ را نبینی؟‬ ‫‪.‬کی تصمیم گرفتی همۀ کتابهایت را بفروشی؟‬ ‫‪.‬نگذار تمام مدت تلویزیون تماشا کند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬فراموش نکنی که قبل از غذا خوردن دستهایت را بشوئی‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬به آنجا رفته بودند که مادر پیرشان را ببینند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬باید حتماً سعی کنید که برای او شغل راحتتری پیدا کنید‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬به تو نگفتم که نباید آنها را استخدام کنی؟‪/‬به شما نگفتم که نباید آنها را استخدام‬ ‫کنید؟‬ ‫‪. 10‬از او خواستهایم که پیش ما بماند تا باران قطع شود‪ /.‬از او خواستهایم که تا قطع‬ ‫شدن باران پیش ما بماند‪.‬‬ ‫‪Unit 15‬‬ ‫‪Exercise 15.1‬‬

‫)‪ (The weather must not have been very cold there.‬بوده باشد‬ ‫‪ (He/she may not have gone/Maybe he/she has not gone to Arab‬نرفته باشد‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬

‫)‪ (He/she may have heard your words.‬شنیده باشد‬ ‫‪ (I cannot have/I don’t think I have spent so much on my‬خرج کرده باشم‬

‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬

‫)‪ (We may have returned by car from Tehran to Mashhad.‬برگشته باشیم‬ ‫)‪ (I doubt that he/she has eaten all of his/her food.‬خورده باشد‬ ‫‪ (Why isn’t it possible for you to have seen him?/Why can’t you‬دیده باشی‬

‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪6.‬‬ ‫‪7.‬‬

‫)‪ (You must have cooked some very delicious food for the guests.‬پخته باشید‬ ‫)‪ (Make sure you have written this letter by tomorrow.‬نوشته باشی‬ ‫)‪ (He/she must have enjoyed sunny days.‬برده باشد‬

‫‪8.‬‬ ‫‪9.‬‬ ‫‪10.‬‬

‫)‪countries.‬‬ ‫)‪trip.‬‬

‫)?‪have seen him‬‬

‫‪Exercise 15.2‬‬ ‫‪(‌.1‬شاید)‌ شود‌‪(‌.2‬باید)‌ استراحت‌ کنید‌‪(‌.3‬بتوانیم)‌ برویم‌ ‪(‌.۴‬بتوانم)‌ ببینم‌ ‪(‌.۵‬پیشنهاد‌‬ ‫نکرده‌ باشند)‌ بیاورد‌ ‪( ‌.۶‬باید)‌ درس‌ بخواند‌ ‪( ‌.7‬شاید)‌ برگردد‌ ‪( ‌.8‬نباید)‌ تماشا‌ کنند‬ ‫‌‬ ‫‌‪(‌.9‬بتوانید)‌باشید‌‪(‌.10‬مواظب‌باشم)‌خرج‌کنم‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 15.3‬‬ ‫→ مواظب باشم → باید( ‪) and sentence # 10‬برویم → بتوانیم → شاید( ‪Sentence # 3‬‬ ‫‪).‬خرج کنم‬

‫‪242‬‬

Exercise 15.4 ‌/‫نمیتوانیم‬ ‌ ‌.۵ ‌‫‌ بروند‬/‫‌ آرزو‌ دارند‬.۴ ‌‫‌ استراحت‌ کنم‬/‫‌ هستم‬.3 ‌‫‌ بیایند‬.2 ‌‫‌ زندگی‌ کنم‬.1 ‌/‫میگوید‬ ‌ ‌.8‌‫‌استخدام‌شود‬/‫‌تمام‌کند‬/‫میکند‬ ‌ ‌‫‌سعی‬.7‌‫‌تمام‌شود‬/‫‌دوست‌ندارند‬.۶‌‫بمانیم‬ .‫‌بیایند‬/‫‌بتوانند‬/‫‌امیدوار‌نیستند‬.10‌‫‌قبول‌شویم‬/‫‌مطمئن‌نیستیم‬.9‌‫میرسد‬ ‌

Key to exercises

Exercise 15.5 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

a)  ‫(‌نمیتوانم→ میتوانم‬I cannot come with you to the restaurant.) b)  ‫( ‌نیایم‌ → ‌ بیایم‬I can also not come with you to the restaurant [= I have this option also].) a) ‫( ندارید → دارید‬Don’t you have doubts that his words could be true?) b) ‫( نباشد → باشد‬Do you have doubts that his words could be untrue?) a) ‫( نباید → باید‬You mustn’t necessarily eat Iranian chelow-kabāb.) b) ‫( نخورید → بخورید‬You must definitely not eat Iranian chelow-kabāb.) a) ‫( ‌نیست → است‬It’s not possible that they buy this house at a cheaper price.) b) ‫( نخرند → بخرند‬It’s possible that they won’t buy this house at a cheaper price.) a) ‫( نکرد → کرد‬My doctor did not suggest that I take these red bitter pills.) b) ‫( نخورم → بخورم‬My doctor suggested that I not take these red bitter pills.)

Exercise 15.6 1. I wish/hope to be able to work less and travel more! 2. You should always be hopeful and never be afraid of the problems in [‘of’] life. 3. He guessed this letter was from the university. 4. I might go to France next year for vacations. 5. I wish you were able to not spend so much money. 6. We guess our professor can make Iranian kabāb well. 7. It is possible that there is no class at all [/ whatsoever] tomorrow because the weather will become very cold. 8. He/she is not sure if he/ she could study medicine at Harvard University. 9. It doesn’t look like he wants to sell his old books to me. 10. Try to always be less sad and enjoy life more.

Unit 16 Exercise 16.1

‫‌ داشته‌ باشیم‬.۵ ‌‫‌ بروم‬.۴ ‌‫‌ صبر‌ کنید‬.3‌‫خواهید‌ شد‬/‫میشوید‬ ‌ ‌.2‌‫خواهم‌ رفت‬/‫میروم‬ ‌ ‌.1‌ ‌‫‌ خرج‬.9‌‫‌ باشد‬.8‌‫خوشحال‌ خواهد‌ شد‬/‫میشود‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ خوشحال‬.7‌‫خواهد‌ فهمید‬/‫میفهمد‬ ‌ ‌.۶ .‫نخواهم‌نوشت‬/‫نمینویسم‬ ‌ ‌.10‌‫خرج‌خواهی‌کرد‬/‫میکنی‬ ‌ Exercise 16.2 (Those in brackets are possible but less common options.) ‫ )شنا‬/‫ شنا میکردم‬.۴ ‫ میدادم‬/‫ داده بودم‬.3 ‫ میکردی‬.2 ‫ تلفن کرده بود‬/‫ تلفن میکرد‬.1 /‫ میپرسیدند‬.7‌)‫ )توانسته بودیم‬/‫ میتوانستیم‬.۶ ‫ رسیده بودند‬/‫ میرسیدند‬.۵ )‫کرده بودم‬

243

Key to exercises

// (‫)به دنیا میآمد‬/‫ به دنیا آمده بود‬.8 )‫ )توانسته بودند‬/‫ میتوانستند‬// ‫پرسیده بودند‬ ‫ )مریض‬/‫ مریض نمیشدند‬// ‫ پوشیده بودند‬/ ‫ میپوشیدند‬. 9 )‫ )نسروده بود‬/‫نمیسرود‬ .‫ دوست میداشتم‬/‫ دوست داشتم‬// ‫ نداشته بودم‬/‫ نمیداشتم‬/‫ نداشتم‬.10 )‫نشده بودند‬

Exercise 16.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( میآیم‬If I don’t call until 10 a.m. tomorrow, I’ll come here.) ‫( میشوم‬I’d be very happy if you brought this suitcase for me to the station

tomorrow.)

‫( دوست نداشتم‬If I had been a poet, I wouldn’t have liked to write sad poems.) ‫( بیاید‬If guests come on Friday, we’ll have to clean the whole house.) ‫ میخواند‬/ ‫( نرفته بود‬If he/she hadn’t gone to that university, now he/she would have been studying at a culinary school.) ‫( داشتم‬If I had had one million dollars, I wouldn’t have been working here for you now.) ‫( نمیآورد‬If your professor cooks Iranian food very well, why doesn’t he/ she bring [food] for his/ her students?) ‫( نخورده بودم‬If I had turned on the light in the yard last night, I wouldn’t have fallen down.) ‫( میرفتید‬If you had gone to the Persian section of the library, you would have seen many books in Persian language.) ‫( حرف نمیزد‬If he/ she hadn’t lived in Isfahan for 3 years, he/ she wouldn’t have spoken Persian with an Isfahani accent.)

Exercise 16.4 ‌‫‌ دوست‬.۴ ‌‫نمیبود‬ ‌ ‌/‫‌ نبود‬.3‌‫نمیبودیم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ مجبور‬/‫‌ مجبور‌ نبودیم‬.2‌‫‌ کرده‌ بودم‬/‫میکردم‬ ‌ ‌.1 ‌‫‌دروغ‌نگفته‬/‫نمیگفتند‬ ‌ ‌‫‌دروغ‬.۶‌‫‌پیدا‌شده‌بود‬/‫میشد‬ ‌ ‌‫‌پیدا‬.۵‌‫نمیداشتم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌دوست‬/‫نداشتم‬ ‌‫‌ نخواسته‬/‫نمیخواست‬ ‌ ‌.9 ‌‫‌ توانسته‌ بودم‬/‫میتوانستم‬ ‌ ‌.8‌‫‌ نوشته‌ بود‬/‫مینوشت‬ ‌ ‌.7‌‫بودند‬ .‫میکرد‬ ‌ ‌.12‌‫‌نبودند‬.11‌‫‌شناخته‌بودی‬/‫میشناختی‬ ‌ ‌.10‌‫بود‬

Exercise 16.5

244

1. The author of the novel wished to see one day the house of his childhood years. 2. I wish human beings could have lived with each other without hunger and poverty and war. 3. If we had stayed at the hotel for the night, you wouldn’t have been forced to drive in this rain. 4. If you have learned Arabic, you know that many of the Persian words come from Arabic. 5. If men do not care for/ protect nature, more and more animals will become extinct.

6. If you want to know the Iranian cinema, watch the pre-revolution Iranian movies also. 7. I wish I had known Arabic and French languages also. 8. If he/she had closed the door of the room, the thief/robber wouldn’t have been able to steal his wallet/her purse. 9. If you have traveled to the city of Tehran, you must know how polluted [‘dirty’] and unhealthy the air is there. 10. If you know Iran’s famous writers, you must know Sadegh Hedayat also. 11. If you want clean and healthy air, you had better not live in large cities. 12. If they hadn’t stolen this lady’s purse a few months ago, she would never have kept an eye on it like this.

Key to exercises

Unit 17 Exercise 17.1

ِ ‌–‌‫‌با‬.9‌‫‌در‌–‌با‬.8‌‫‌با‌–‌با‬.7‌‫‌دربارۀ‬.۶‌‫‌در‌–‌از‌–‌با‬.۵‌‫ در‌–‌به‬.۴‌‫‌از‬.3‌‫‌از‬.2‌‫‌از‌–‌تا‬.1 ‌/‫برای‬ ِ .‫‌تا‌–‌تا‬.10‌‫پیش‬ Exercise 17.2 The prepositions (from right to left): .‫ در‬،ِ‫ نزدیک‬،‫ توی‬،‫ با‬،‫ به‬،‫ پس از‬،‫ از‬،ِ‫ ظرف‬،‫ با‬،‫ در‬،‫ روی‬،‫ با‬،‫ برای‬،‫ قبل از‬،‫ در‬،‫ دربارۀ‬،‫به‬ Translation: If you pay attention to the story of this film, you’ll see that it is about an old lover and his young girlfriend [/beloved/ mistress]. In the beginning of the film, before any talk and conversation, the old man brings an apple for the young woman and places it on the table with a knife. In the last few minutes of the film, we see that someone has killed that man with a knife. Within less than half an hour after the man’s death, the police has arrived at his house and they are talking to his neighbor. They find a knife in the drawer of the table, and they also see a small phone book in a brown suitcase close to the table and they take it.

Exercise 17.3 .‫‌از‌عاشق‌بودن‌پسرت‌همۀ‌شهر‌خبر‌دارند‬. .‫‌مادرم‌ناراحت‌نیست‬،‫‌از‌الغر‌شدن‌پدرم‬. ‫‌آیا‌به‌برگشتن‌او‌اطمینان‌دارید؟‬. !‫‌به‌تمام‌شدن‌تعطیالت‌زیاد‌فکر‌نکن‬. .‫‌به‌تنها‌رقصیدن‌او‌هیچکس‌توجه‌نکرد‬. .‫میترسند‬ ‌ ‌‫خانوادهام‌خیلی‬ ‌ ‌‫‌از‌بد‌رانندگی‌کردنم‬. .‫نمیترسم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌از‌سخت‌بودن‌زبان‌عربی‬. .‫‌از‌نابود‌شدن‌طبیعت بیشترِ انسانها خبر ندارند‬.

1 2 3

۴ ۵ ۶ 7 8

245

.‫نمیزند‬ ‌ ‌‫‌در‌مورد‌رفتن‌به‌آمریکا‌خیلی‌حرف‬. 9 .‫نمیکرد‬ ‌ ‌‫خانوادهاش‌توجه‬ ‌ ‌‫به‌ناراحت‌بودن‬.‌ 10

Key to exercises

Exercise 17.4 1. Everybody in the city knows about your son’s being in love. 2. My mother is not unhappy about my father’s losing weight. 3. Are you sure of/about his/her returning? 4. Don’t think [so] much about the vacations’ coming to an end. 5. Nobody noticed/paid attention to his/her dancing alone. 6. My family is very much afraid of my driving badly. 7. I am not afraid of the Arabic language being difficult. 8. Most of the people/ Most men do not know about the nature’s destruction (‘being destroyed’). 9. He/she does not talk much about going to America/the U.S. 10. He/ she did not pay much attention to his family’s being unhappy/discontented.

Exercise 17.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫ در روزهای آفتابی تابستان به بازار میرویم‬،‫( برای اینکه خرید کنیم‬We go to the market on sunny summer days in order to shop.) ‫ پیش پلیس رفت‬،‫( برای اینکه کیف پولش را پیدا کند‬He/she went to the police in order to find his wallet/her purse.) ‫ به کتابخانه میروم‬، ‫( برای اینکه آن کتاب را بگیرم‬I go to the library to get/ borrow that book.) ‫ باید زیاد پول داشته باشید‬،‫( برای اینکه در آمریکا زندگی کنید‬In order to live in America/the USA, you must have a lot of money.) ‫ باید همیشه جوان بمانید‬،‫( برای اینکه عاشق شوید‬In order to fall in love, you must always stay young.) ‫ کفشهای بهتری پوشیدند‬،‫( برای اینکه به مهمانی بروند‬They put on better shoes in order to go to the party.) ‫ ماشینش را تمیز کردم‬، ‫( برای آنکه پدرم را خوشحال کنم‬In order to make my father happy, I cleaned his car.) ‫ باید دو بار یا بیشتر آن را تماشا کنی‬، ‫( برای آنکه آن فیلم را بفهمی‬In order to understand that film, you have to watch it two times or more.) ‫ رادیو را روشن کردم‬،‫( برای آنکه حرفهای برادرم را نشنوم‬In order not to hear my brother[’s words], I turned on the radio.) ‫ موهای دراز او را کشید‬،‫( بچه برای آنکه مادرش را بیدار کند‬In order to wake up his/her mother, the child pulled her long hair.)

Unit 18 Exercise 18.1

246

‫میآمد‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ برف‬.۶ ‌‫میآمد‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ باران‬.۵ ‌‫میزدم‬ ‌ ‌‫‌ حرف‬.۴ ‌‫‌ بروند‬.3 ‌‫‌ بیایند‬.2 ‌‫‌ ازدواج‌ کردند‬.1‌ ‫‌رانندگی‌می‌کنید‬.10‌‫‌بودم‬.9‌‫‌ُمرد‬.8‌‫‌ببیند‬.7

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪Exercise 18.2‬‬ ‫‌‪‌.1‬وقتیکه‌‪‌.2‬تا ‌وقتیکه‌‪‌.3‬در ‌حالیکه ‌‪‌. ۴‬همینکه ‌‪‌ .۵‬قبل ‌از ‌آنکه ‌‪‌. ۶‬وقتیکه‌‪‌.7‬در ‌حالیکه‌‬ ‫‪‌.8‬وقتیکه‌‪‌.9‬هر‌وقت‌که‌‪‌.10‬قبل‌از‌آنکه‬

‫‪Exercise 18.3‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬وقتیکه برای اولین بار به استخر شنا بروم‪ ،‬از آب خیلی خواهم ترسید‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬تا وقتیکه مریض باشید‪ ،‬نخواهید توانست برای امتحان درس بخوانید‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬در حالیکه به آسمان ابری نگاه میکنم و میدوم‪ ،‬زمین میخورم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬همینکه پدر و مادر مینا به اروپا بروند‪ ،‬مینا خانهشان را خواهد فروخت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬قبل از آنکه خواهرم به دنیا بیاید‪ ،‬مادرم به عنوان معلم در مدرسه کار خواهد کرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬وقتیکه زمستان بشود‪ ،‬بسیاری از پرندگان به جاهای گرم پرواز خواهند کرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬در حالیکه مادرم در بیمارستان است‪) ،‬روزِ) تولدم را با پدرم جشن خواهم گرفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬وقتیکه گرسنه باشم‪ ،‬نخواهم توانست خوب کار کنم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬چرا هر وقت که من کتاب میخوانم‪ ،‬تو تلویزیون را روشن میکنی؟‬ ‫‪.‬هر شب قبل از آنکه بخوابم‪) ،‬برایِ) نیم ساعت کتاب خواهم خواند‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 18.4‬‬ ‫‪a) 5 and 10. b) In none of them.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 18.5‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬برف که میآید‪ ،‬همه جا سفید میشود‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬مادرم که برگشت‪ ،‬هنوز برف میآمد‪ /.‬هنوز برف میآمد که مادرم برگشت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬چراغ که خاموش است‪ ،‬بچّه میترسد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬غذا که میخوردیم‪ ،‬چراغها خاموش شدند‪ /.‬غذا میخوردیم که چراغها خاموش‬ ‫شدند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬غذا را که بیاورند‪ ،‬همه به آن اتاق خواهیم رفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬اسمش را که گفت‪ ،‬همه چیز را به یاد آوردم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬او که آمد‪ ،‬برای رفتن به سینما خیلی دیر بود‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آن نامه را که خواندیم‪ ،‬همه خندیدیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬در که باز شد‪ ،‬ما همه میخندیدیم‪ /.‬ما همه میخندیدیم که در باز شد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬در را که باز کردیم‪ ،‬گربه از اتاق بیرون رفت‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 18.6‬‬

‫‪247‬‬

‫‪When it snows, everywhere becomes white.‬‬ ‫‪When my mother returned, it was still snowing.‬‬ ‫‪When the light is off, the child is scared.‬‬ ‫‪While we were eating, the lights went off.‬‬ ‫‪When they bring the food, we will all go to that room.‬‬ ‫‪When he said his name, I remembered everything.‬‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪6.‬‬

Key to exercises

7. 8. 9. 10.

When she came, it was too late for going to the cinema. When we read that letter, we all laughed. When the door opened, we were all laughing. When we opened the door, the cat left the room.

Unit 19 Exercise 19.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

‫( این خانمی که میرقصد خیلی جوان نیست‬This lady who’s dancing is not very young.)

‫( آن فروشندهای که مهربان بود دیگر اینجا کار نمیکند‬That seller who was kind

does not work here any more.)

‫( آن کفشی که قشنگتر بود برای من تنگ بود‬The shoes that were prettier were

[too] tight/small for me.)

‫( آن زنی که همۀ جوابها را میدانست جایزه را برد‬The woman who knew all the

answers won the prize.)

‫( گلهای سرخی که در حیاط هستند بوی خوبی دارند‬The red roses that are in

the yard smell good/have a good smell.)

‫( کیف سبزی که در اتاقِ شماست مالِ من است‬The green bag which is in your

room is mine.)

‫( پولی که شما به من دادید خیلی کم بود‬The money that you gave me was very

little.)

‫( شاید این بچهای که گریه میکند گرسنه است‬Maybe this child who’s crying

is hungry.)

‫( گلهائی که در گلدان بودند خیلی تشنه بودند‬The flowers that were in the vase

were very thirsty.)

‫( خانهای که روبروی خانۀ شماست باغچۀ زیبائی دارد‬The house which is in

front of your house has a beautiful garden.)

Exercise 19.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 248

6.

‫ هشت سال دارد‬، ‫ که بزرگترین دختر من است‬، ‫( پری‬Pari, who is my eldest daughter, is 8 years old.) ‫ در اتاق بچههاست‬، ‫ که باید تمیز شود‬، ‫( فرش کهنهمان‬Our old carpet, which must be cleaned, is in the children’s room.) ‫ خیلی مریض است‬،‫ که اآلن در تهران است‬،‫( مادرم‬My mother, who is now in Tehran, is very sick.) ‫ خیلی جالب بود‬، ‫ که دربارۀ انقالب ایران بود‬، ‫( دوّمین فیلم‬The second film, which was about the Iranian Revolution, was very interesting.) ‫ دارد خشک میشود‬،‫ که در شمال غربی ایران است‬،‫( دریاچۀ ارومیّه‬Lake Urmia, which is in northwestern Iran, is drying up.) ‫ نزدیک کویر است‬،‫ که در جنوب تهران است‬،‫( شهر قم‬The city of Qom, which lies to the south of Tehran, is close to desert.)

‫ در شرق شیکاگو است‬،‫ که خیلی بزرگ است‬،‫( این دریاچه‬This lake, which is very large, lies to the east of Chicago.) 8. ‫ شرق و غرب ندارد‬، ‫ که جای خیلی سردی است‬، ‫( قطب شمال‬North Pole, which is a very cold place, has no east and west.) 9. ‫ گم شد‬،‫ که عکسهائی از ایران داشت‬،‫( این کتاب‬This book, which had pictures of Iran, was lost.) 10. ‫ زنها هیچ حقّی ندارند‬،‫ که پیروان زیادی دارد‬،‫( در این دین‬In this religion, which has many followers, women have no right[s].) 7.

Key to exercises

Exercise 19.3 NOT needed in # 1, 2, 7, 9. Corrected sentences:

‫داستانی‌که‌خواندم‌خسته‌کننده‌بود‬.‌ ‫میرسد‬ ‌ ‌‫میآید‌خیلی‌دیر‬ ‌ ‌‫‌قطاری‌که‌از‌جنوب‬. ‫‌نامه‌ای‌که‌می‌نوشتم‌تمام‌شد‬. ‫‌سگی که گم شده بود پیدا شد‬.

1 2 7 9

Exercise 19.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

The story that I read was boring. The train that comes from the south arrives very late. Until now I hadn’t seen the picture that he/she showed. I still have the first book that I bought. I’ll never forget the most delicious food that I ate. You don’t know my brother who is in Tehran. The letter I was writing is finished. I like very much the book Autumn in Prison which has beautiful poems. The dog that had been lost was found. Why do you open/ unknot with [your] teeth a knot that you can open/ unknot with [your] hand?

Exercise 19.5 ).‫ )تو با آن پسر جوان حرف میزدی‬.‫آن پسر جوان را قبالً ندیده بودم‬. ).‫ )موهای آن دختر قرمز است‬.‫آن دختر خیلی زرنگ است‬. ).‫ )ما در مشهد ماندیم‬.‫پنجمین شهر مشهد بود‬. ).‫ )ما دربارۀ ”مردِ پیر و دریا“ صحبت کردیم‬.‫دوّمین کتاب ”مردِ پیر و دریا“ بود‬. ).‫ )گربه روی صندلی خوابیده بود‬.‫گربه خیلی پیر بود‬. ).‫ )گربه روی آن صندلی خوابیده بود‬.‫صندلی راحت بود‬. ).‫ )بچهها در آن اتاق بازی میکردند‬.‫آن اتاق کوچک نبود‬. ).‫ )برگهای آن درخت قرمز شده بود‬.‫آن درخت خیلی زیبا بود‬. ).‫ )تو با پروین شنا میکردی‬.‫پروین دختر خوبی است‬. ).‫ )من هرگز در ایران نبودهام‬.‫من میتوانم به فارسی حرف بزنم‬.

1 2 ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ 7 8 9 10

249

‫‪Unit 20‬‬

‫‪Key to‬‬ ‫‪exercises‬‬

‫‪Exercise 20.1‬‬ ‫‪.‬دیروز غذایتان خورده نشده بود‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬در آنجا زیباترین شعرهایت سروده خواهد شد‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬اگر این لباس پوشیده شَوَد‪ ،‬تو شناخته خواهی شد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬یک روز این گلدان زیبا از تو دزدیده میشود‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬همیشه غذایشان از آنجا خریده میشد‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬استاد دانشجوها را به کتابخانه میبرد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬من لباسهای تمیز را در اتاقتان خواهم گذاشت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬خواهرم چند عکس خوب از تو گرفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬چرا تو پیشنهاد من را نپذیرفتی؟‬ ‫‪.‬امیدوارم ما او را دیگر نبینیم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬شما گلها را از روی میز برداشته بودید‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬من همۀ کالههایم را از این مغازه میخرم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬تو این نامه را کِی نوشتهای؟‬ ‫‪.‬اگر ما آن کتاب را بخوانیم‪ ،‬این فیلم را خواهیم فهمید‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آن مغازه کفشهای بهتری میفروشد‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪۳‬‬ ‫‪۴‬‬ ‫‪۵‬‬ ‫‪۶‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫‪.‬وقتی داستان خوانده شد‪ ،‬او تشویق شد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آن روز هرگز از یاد )‪/‬از یادِ من) نخواهد رفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬باید جای این میز در اتاقم تغییر کند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬باید پسرم عادت کند که شبها زودتر بخوابد‪.‬‬ ‫ال در مدرسه کتک میخوردند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬شاگردان قب ً‬ ‫‪.‬کتابهائی که الزم نیستند‪ ،‬دور میافتند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آن مرد فریب خورد و تمام پولش دزدیده شد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬آیا این دوقلوها در پائیز به دنیا آمدند؟‬ ‫‪.‬بچهها آشتی کردند )‪ /‬آشتی داده شدند) و حاال دوستهای خوبی هستند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬در آن جنگ آلمان )از انگلستان) شکست خورد‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬این لباس نباید با آب داغ شُسته شَوَد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬تنها سه فصل از آن کتاب خوانده شده است‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬چرا همۀ سیبها آورده نشدند؟‬

‫‪.‬چیزهائی که نباید شنیده شَوَند‪ ،‬شنیده شدند‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬چیزی که گفته شد‪ ،‬اشتباه نبود‪ ،‬دروغ بود‪.‬‬

‫‪Exercise 20.2‬‬

‫‪Exercise 20.3‬‬

‫‪250‬‬

Exercise 20.4  1.  2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Key to exercises

(1) That lady was seen on the street. (3) I have to change certain things in the 7th chapter of my book. (3) With good exercises, you will lose weight very fast. (3) I lost to my friend in the game of chess. (1) The child fell and broke his head [lit., ‘his head broke’]. (2) He came to my house to take his book. (3) My room became very clean because my mother helped. (3) That picture must be given to Parviz. (1) That day we swam in a large pool. (3) You must help me carry these.

Exercise 20.5 .‫ خانۀ من دیده میشود‬،‫– آیا خانۀ من میبیند؟ – نه‬ .‫ آن لباسها پوشیده میشوند‬،‫– آیا آن لباسها میپوشند؟ – نه‬ .‫ آن نامه نوشته میشود‬،‫– آیا آن نامه مینویسد؟ – نه‬ .‫ دروغ باور میشود‬،‫– آیا دروغ باور میکند؟ – نه‬ .‫ این داستان خوانده میشود‬،‫– آیا این داستان میخواند؟ – نه‬ .‫ گلدان گذاشته میشود‬،‫– آیا گلدان میگذارد؟ – نه‬ .‫ عکسش گرفته میشود‬،‫– آیا عکسش میگیرد؟ – نه‬ .‫ این هدیه داده میشود‬،‫– آیا این هدیه میدهد؟ – نه‬ .‫ شعرم سروده میشود‬،‫– آیا شعرم میسراید؟ – نه‬ .‫ در بسته میشود‬،‫– آیا در میبندد؟ – نه‬

.1 .2 .۳ .۴ .۵ .۶ .7 .8 .9

.10

Exercise 20.6 1. Those books were shown only to the professor. 2. My sister has been given more money than I have been. 3. Suddenly a very loud noise was heard. 4. Everybody had eaten and my husband and I had been forgotten. 5. This problem had been thought over many times. 6. What no attention had been paid to was cleaning the hallways. 7. Everybody was upset by that guest’s bag not being found. (A more lit. translation: Not finding that guest’s bag made everyone angry.) 8. The man who had stolen the horse was taken to prison. 9. The lie that has been told is not very important. 10. I answered correctly everything that was asked.

251

PERSIAN-ENGLISH GLOSSARY

These are only the words used in this book in examples and exercises. Some proper nouns are also included, for the sake of spelling and pronunciation. Parts of speech and similar information (like transitive/ intransitive) are given only when found necessary. When two pronunciations are given for the present stem, the first one is the official one, needed for the [singular] imperative, and the second one is what you need for present tense conjugation. Plural forms have been given for common Arabic broken plurals only, those common in at least formal, written language; these plurals appear separately on the list, except for the Arabic plurals formed by simply adding a suffix like -āt. For compound verbs that use kardan or shodan as their respectively transitive and intransitive versions, usually the transitive version with kardan is the only one mentioned here, unless for some reason it was found necessary and helpful to mention both. (A few compounds with kardan are intransitive already and have no version with shodan.) For the abbreviations used, see the Introduction. The hyphens used before ezāfes ]-e] should be disregarded in syllabification, but those used to separate different parts of compound words serve at the same time as markers of syllabic divisions.

252

‫] آ‬ā] → ‫آمَدَن‬ ‫] آذر‬ā.zar] Azar (girls’ name) ‫] آب‬āb] water ‫] آراء‬ā.rā’] pl. of ‫رأی‬ ‫] آب شدن‬āb sho.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to melt, ‫] آرزو‬ā.re.zu] wish ‫] آرزو داشتن‬ā.re.zu dāsh.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to turn to water ‫] آبی‬ā.bi] blue have (the) wish (no mi- in pres. and pro‫] آخر‬ā.khar] last; finally; the end gressive tenses) ‫] آخرین‬ā.kha.rin] last ‫] آرزو کردن‬ā.re.zu kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کُن‬to ‫] آدمی‬ā.da.mi] man (impersonal), human wish ‫] آره‬ā.re] yes (col.) being (poet.)

‫] آری‬ā.ri] yes [stress on á-] )poet.) ‫] آزادی‬ā.zā.di] freedom ‫] آسان‬ā.sān] easy ‫] آسمان‬ā.se.mān] sky ‫] آسمانی‬ā.se.mā.ni] from sky; heavenly; holy

‫] آش‬āsh] varieties of Persian thick soup ‫] آشپز‬āsh.paz] cook ‫] آشپزخانه‬āsh.paz-khā.ne] kitchen ‫] آشپزی‬āsh.pa.zi] cooking ‫] آشپزی کردن‬āsh.pa.zi kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to cook (intr.)

‫] آشتی‬āsh.ti] reconciliation )‫] آشتی دادن )با‬āsh.ti dā.dan (bā)] [→ ‫ ]~ ده‬to reconcile (to or with) (tr.) )‫] آشتی کردن )با‬āsh.ti kar.dan (bā)] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to reconcile (to or with) (intr.) ‫] آفتاب‬āf.tāb] sunshine ‫] آفتابی‬āf.tā.bi] sunny ‫] آقا‬ā.ghā] Mr.; gentleman ‫] آلمان‬āl.mān] Germany ‫] آلمانی‬āl.mā.ni] German ‫] آمدن‬ā.ma.dan] [→ ‫آ‬, ā] to come ‫] آمریکا‬ām.ri.kā] America; the United Stated (also ‫امریکا‬, em.ri.kā) ‫] آمریکائی‬ām.ri.kā.’i] American (also ‫امریکائی‬, em.ri.kā.’i) ‫] آن‬ān] it; that (adj. and pr.) ‫] آنان‬ā.nān] they, those (pr.; form.; for people only)

‫] آنجا‬ān.jā] there ‫] آنها‬ān.hā] they/them; those (pr.) ‫] آور‬ā.var] → ‫آوردن‬ ‫] آوردن‬ā.var.dan] [→‫آور‬, ā.var] to bring ‫] آه‬āh] O!; oh (interj.); sigh

‫] آهسته‬ā.hes.te] slow/slowly; quiet/quietly ‫] آهو‬ā.hu] gazelle ‫] آینده‬ā.yan.de] future; coming, approach-

Persian–English glossary

ing, next

‫] ابر‬abr] cloud ‫] اَبرو‬ab.ru] eyebrow ‫] ابری‬ab.ri] cloudy ‫] اتاق‬o.tāgh] room ‫] اِحتمال‬eh.te.māl] likelihood, probability )pl. ‫ اِحتماالت‬, eh.te.mā.lāt) ‫] اِحتمال داشتن‬eh.te.māl dāsh.tan] [→ ‫دار‬ ~] to be likely (no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

‫] احتیاج‬eh.ti.yāj] need (pl. ‫ اِحتیاجات‬, eh. ti.yā.jāt)

)‫] احتیاج داشتن )به‬eh.ti.yāj dāsh.tan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to have need (of), to need

(no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

‫] احمد‬ah.mad] Ahmad (boys’ name) ‫] احمق‬ah.magh] stupid (adj.); stupid person (n.)

‫] ادبیّات‬a.da.biy.yāt] literature ‫] ادیان‬ad.yān] pl. of ‫دین‬ ‫] ارزان‬ar.zān] cheap ‫] اروپا‬o.ru.pā] Europe ‫] ارومیّه‬o.ru.miy.ye] Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran

‫] از‬az] than; from; of ‫] از بَر‬az bar] by heart; by memory ‫ داشتن‬/‫ ~] ~ بودن‬bu.dan/dāsh.tan] [→ ‫دار‬/‫ ]~ باش‬to know by heart ‫ شدن‬/‫ ~] ~ کردن‬kar.dan/sho.dan] [→ ‫شو‬/‫ ]~ کن‬to memorize ‫] ازبکستان‬oz.ba.kes.tān] Uzbekistan ِ‫] از جانب‬az jā.ne.b-e] by, through, from

253

Persian–English glossary

‫] ازدواج‬ez.de.vāj] marriage ‫] اطمینان‬et.mi.nān] certainty; trust )‫] ازدواج کردن )با‬ez.de.vāj kar.dan (bā)] )‫] اطمینان داشتن )به‬et.mi.nān dāsh. [→ ‫ ]~ کُن‬to marry (with; no direct tan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to have trust object)

ِ‫] از سوی‬az su-ye] by, through, from ِ‫] از طرف‬az ta.ra.f-e] by, through, from ِ‫]از طریق‬az ta.ri.gh-e] by [way of] ‫] اسامی‬a.sā.mi] pl. of ‫اِسم‬. ‫] اَسب‬asb] horse ‫] استاد‬os.tād] professor; master of a craft ‫] استخدام‬es.tekh.dām] hiring ‫] استخدام کردن‬es.tekh.dām kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کُن‬to employ, to hire ‫] استخر‬es.takhr] pool, pond ‫] استخرِ شنا‬es.takh.r-e she.nā] swimming pool

254

(in) (no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

)‫)به‬

‫] اطمینان کردن‬et.mi.nān kar.dan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to trust ‫] اعداد‬a’.dād] pl. of ‫عدد‬ ‫] اعراب‬a’.rāb] pl. of ‫عرب‬ ‫] افت‬oft] → ‫اُفتادن‬ ‫] افتادن‬of.tā.dan] [→ ‫اُفت‬, oft] to fall ‫] افسرده‬af.sor.de] depressed ‫] افعال‬af.’āl] pl. of ‫فعل‬ ‫] افغانستان‬af.ghā.nes.tān] Afghanistan ‫] افغانی‬af.ghā.ni] Afghan; Afghani ‫] افکار‬af.kār] pl. of ‫فکر‬ ‫] اقوام‬agh.vām] pl. of ‫قوم‬ ‫] اگر‬a.gar] if (in conditional; not for indi-

‫] استراحت‬es.te.rā.hat] rest ‫] استراحت کردن‬es.te.rā.hat kar.dan] rect questions) [→ ‫ ]~ کُن‬to rest (intr.) ‫] استمراری‬es.tem.rā.ri] progressive (gr.); ‫] اآلن‬al.’ān] now ‫] التزامی‬el.te.zā.mi] subjunctive (gr.) continuous ‫] اسالم‬es.lām] Islam ‫] الفبا‬a.lef.bā] alphabet ‫] اسالمی‬es.lā.mi] Islamic ‫] امتحان‬em.te.hān] exam, test (pl. ‫امتحانات‬, ‫] اِسم‬esm] ]pl. ‫اسامی‬, asāmi] name; em.te.hā.nāt) noun (gr.) ‫] امتحان دادن‬em.te.hān dā.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ دِه‬to ‫] اسمِ مفعول‬es.m-e maf.’ul] past take a test ‫] امر‬amr] imperative (gr.); order, command participle (gr.) ‫] اشتباه‬esh.te.bāh] mistake (n.); )pl. ‫ اوامر‬, a.vā.mer) wrong (adj.) ‫] امروز‬em.ruz] today ‫] اصفهان‬es.fa.hān] Isfahan (city in Iran) ‫] امریکا‬em.ri.kā] → ‫] آمریکا‬ām.ri.kā] ً‫] اصال‬as.lan] (not) at all ‫] امریکائی‬em.ri.kā.’i] → ‫] آمریکائی‬ām. ‫] اِضافِه‬e.zā.fe] addition; the connector ‘-e’ ri.kā.’i] ‫] امشب‬em.shab] tonight )gr.) ‫] اطّالعات‬et.te.lā.’āt] information (pl. of ‫] امکان‬em.kān] possibility (pl. ‫ امکانات‬, ‫اطّالع‬, et.te.lā’) em.kā.nāt)

‫] امکان داشتن‬em.kān dāsh.tan] [→ ‫] اینها ]~ دار‬in.hā] these )pr.) to be possible or likely (no mi- in pres. ‫] با‬bā] with (prep.) and progressive tenses) ‫] با آنکه‬bā ān-ke] even though (form./ wrt.) ‫] اموال‬am.vāl] pl. of ‫مال‬ ‫] با اینکه‬bā in-ke] even though ‫] بابک‬bā.bak] Babak (boyʼs name) ‫] امید‬o.mid] hope ‫] امیدوار‬o.mid.vār] hopeful ‫] بار‬bār] ‘time’ as counting word ‫] امیدوار بودن‬o.mid.vār bu.dan] [→ ‫]~ باش‬ ‫] بارها‬bār-hā] many times to hope (lit., ‘to be hopeful’) ‫] باران‬bā.rān] rain ‫] انداختن‬an.dākh.tan] [→ ‫انداز‬, an.dāz] to ‫] باران آمدن‬bā.rān ā.ma.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ آ‬to throw

Persian–English glossary

rain

‫] انداز‬an.dāz] → ‫انداختن‬ ‫] بارانی‬bā.rā.ni] rainy (adj.); raincoat (n.) ‫] باز‬bāz] open ‫] انسان‬en.sān] human being; one (pr.) ‫] انقالب‬en.ghe.lāb] [pl. ‫انقالبات‬, en.ghe. ‫] باز کردن‬bāz kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to open; lā.bāt] revolution

‫] انگشت‬an.gosht] finger ‫] انگلستان‬en.ge.les.tān] England ‫] انگلیسی‬en.ge.li.si] English ‫] او‬u] he/him or she/her ‫] اوامر‬a.vā.mer] pl. of ‫امر‬ ‫] اوّل‬av.val] first; at first; firstly; beginning ‫] اوّلین‬av.va.lin] first ‫] ایران‬i.rān] Iran ‫] ایرانی‬i.rā.ni] Iranian (n.; adj.) ‫] ایست‬ist] → ‫ایستادن‬ ‫] ایستادن‬is.tā.dan] [→ ‫ایست‬, ist] to stand; to stop/pause

to unfasten or untie (tr.)

‫] بازار‬bā.zār] market, bazaar ‫] بازپسین‬bāz.pa.sin] last (lit./poet.) ‫] باز هم‬bāz ham] again; still ‫] بازی‬bā.zi] play; game ‫] بازی کردن‬bā.zi kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to play

‫] باش‬bāsh] → ‫بودن‬ ‫] باغ‬bāgh] garden (usually large) ‫] باغچه‬bāgh.che] small garden ‫] باقی‬bā.ghi] remaining ِ‫] باالی‬bā.lā-ye] over, above, on ‫] بام‬bām] roof ‫] باور کردن‬bā.var kar.dan] [→ ‫کن‬

‫] ایستگاه‬ist.gāh] station ~] to ‫] ایشان‬i.shān] they (for people only; more believe polite than ‫ ;)آنها‬them; also used for sg. ‫] با همدیگر‬bā ham-di.gar] with each other, in polite language

with one another

‫] ایمیل‬i.meyl] email ‫] باید‬bā.yad] must; should (modal verb; same form for all persons) ‫] این‬in] this (adj. and pr.) ‫] اینان‬i.nān] these )pr.; form.; for people only) ‫] با یکدیگر‬bā yek-di.gar] with each other, ‫] اینجا‬in.jā] here with one another (form./ wrt.) ‫] اینقدر‬in-ghadr] so, so much ‫] بچّگی‬bach.che.gi] childhood; childishness

255

Persian–English glossary

‫بَچّه‬

]bach.che] child; baby (pl. usually

with -hā)

afterwards, later, then (conj.)

‫] بخش‬bakhsh] section; part ‫] بَد‬bad] bad ‫] بدبختانه‬bad.bakh.tā.ne]

unfortunately,

unluckily

ِ‫] بدون‬be.du.n-e] without ‫] بَر‬bar] → ‫بُردن‬ ‫] بَر‬bar] on, over, above (lit.) (see also ‫)ازبر‬ ‫] بَرادر‬ba.rā.dar] brother ‫] برادری‬ba.rā.da.ri] brotherhood; brotherliness

ِ‫] برای‬ba.rā-ye] for (prep.) ‫] برایِ اینکه‬ba.rā.ye in-ke]

because, for

)conj.)

‫] بردار‬bar.dār] → ‫برداشتن‬ ‫] برداشتن‬bar-dāsh.tan] [→ ‫بردار‬, bar.dār] to pick up (+ mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

‫] بُردن‬bor.dan] [→ ‫ بَر‬, bar] to take (away), to carry; to win (a prize or match)

‫] برف‬barf] snow ‫] برف آمدن‬barf ā.ma.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ آ‬to snow ‫] برگ‬barg] leaf ‫] برگرد‬bar-gard] → ‫برگشتن‬ ‫] برگشتن‬bar-gash.tan] [→ ‫برگرد‬, bargard] to return

‫] بُزُرگ‬bo.zorg] big; great; large ‫] بستن‬bas.tan] [→ ‫ بند‬, band] to close, to shut; to tie, to fasten; to attach

‫ به سختی‬/ ‫بسختی‬

]be-sakh.ti] with diffi-

culty; hard (adv.)

256

‫] بعد‬ba’d] next (adj., as in ‘next week’);

‫] بسیار‬bes.yār] very; a lot ‫] بسیاری از‬bes.yā.ri az] a lot of

ً‫] بعدا‬ba’.dan] afterwards, later, then (adv.) ‫] بعد از‬ba’d az] after )prep.) ‫] بعد از ظهر‬ba’d az zohr] afternoon ‫] بعضی‬ba’.zi] some (for countables); certain [number of]

‫] بقّال‬bagh.ghāl] grocer ‫] بلبل‬bol.bol] nightingale ‫] بلند‬bo.land] high, tall; loud ‫] بله‬ba.le] yes [stress on bá-] ‫] بلی‬ba.li] yes [stress on bá-] )wrt.) ‫] بَند‬band] → ‫بستن‬ ‫] بو‬bu] smell, scent ‫] بو دادن‬bu dā.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ ده‬to stink (intr.) ‫] بودن‬bu.dan] [→ ‫باش‬, bāsh] to be ‫] بو کردن‬bu kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to smell ‫] به‬be] to; also ‘in’ for languages (prep.) ‫] بهار‬ba.hār] (season of) spring ‫] بهشت‬be.hesht] paradise ِ‫] به مدّت‬be mod.da.t-e] see ‫مدّت‬ ‫] به وسیلۀ‬be va.si.le-ye] see ‫وسیله‬ ‫] به هیچ وجه‬be hich-vajh] see ‫وجه‬ ‫] بهتر‬beh.tar] better ِ‫] بهعنوان‬be on.vā.n-e] see ‫عنوان‬ ‫] بهمحضِ اینکه‬be mahz-e in-ke] as soon as ‫] بیان‬ba.yān] statement, expression ‫] بیان کردن‬ba.yān kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to state, to express

)‫] بیخبر )از‬bi-kha.bar] unaware; ignorant; not knowing or not having heard (of/ about)

‫] بیدار‬bi.dār] awake ‫] بیدار شدن‬bi.dār sho.dan] wake up (intr.)

[→

‫شو‬

~] to

‫بیدار کردن‬

]bi.dār kar.dan] [→

wake up (tr.)

‫کن‬

~] to

‫] بیرون‬bi.run] outside (adv.) ‫بیرون از‬/ِ‫] بیرون‬bi.ru.n-e/bi.run az] outside )prep.)

‫] پدربزرگ‬pe.dar-bo.zorg] grandfather ‫] پدر و مادر‬pe.da.r-o mā.dar] parents ‫] پذیر‬pa.zir] → ‫پذیرفتن‬ ‫] پذیرفتن‬pa.zi.rof.tan] [→ ‫ پذیر‬, pa.zir] to

Persian–English glossary

accept

)‫)از‬

‫] بیرون رفتن‬bi.run raf.tan (az)] to go ‫] پرس‬pors] → ‫پرسیدن‬ ‫] پرسش‬por.sesh] question (form.) out; to leave (a place) ‫] بیست‬bist] twenty ‫] پرسشی‬por.se.shi] interrogative ‫] بیش از‬bish az] more than (form.) )‫] پرسیدن )از‬por.si.dan (az)] [→ ‫ پُرس‬, ‫] بیش‬bish] more (lit./wrt.) pors] to ask a question (from) ‫] بیشتر‬bish.tar] more ‫] پَرَندِه‬pa.ran.de] bird ِ‫] بیشتر‬bish.ta.r-e] most of ‫] پرواز‬par.vāz] flight ‫] بیمار‬bi.mār] sick (adj.); sick person, ‫] پرواز کردن‬par.vāz kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ patient (n.)

to fly

‫] بیمارستان‬bi.mā.res.tān] hospital ‫] بین‬bin] → ‫دیدن‬ ‫] بینی‬bi.ni] nose ‫] پا‬pā] foot ‫] پائیز‬pā.’iz] autumn; also written ‫پاییز‬ ‫] پارک‬pārk] park ‫] پاسخ‬pā.sokh] answer (form.) )‫] پاسخ دادن )به‬pā.sokh dā.dan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ دِه‬to answer; to give an answer (to) ( form).

‫] پاکستان‬pā.kes.tān] Pakistan ‫] پاکستانی‬pā.kes.tā.ni] Pakistani ‫] پانزده‬pānz.dah] fifteen ‫] پانصد‬pān.sad] five hundred ‫] پایان‬pā.yān] end ‫[ )به) پایان آمدن‬be pā.yān ā.ma.dan] [→ ‫آ‬ ~] to end (intr.)

‫] پاییز‬pā.’iz] → ‫ پائیز‬: autumn ‫] پُختن‬pokh.tan] [→ ‫ پَز‬, paz] )tr./intr.)

‫] پِدَر‬pe.dar] father

to cook

‫] پرویز‬par.viz] Parviz (boys’ name) ‫] پروین‬par.vin] Parvin (girls’ name) ‫] پری‬pa.ri] Pari (girls’ name) ‫] پریروز‬pa.ri.ruz] the day before yesterday ‫] پَز‬paz]→ ‫پُختن‬ ‫] پزشک‬pe.zeshk] doctor ‫] پزشکی‬pe.zesh.ki] medicine ‫] پس‬pas] then (in conditional sentences); therefore

‫] پس از‬pas az] after )prep.) ‫] پس فردا‬pas-far.dā] the day after tomorrow

‫] پسر‬pe.sar] boy; son ‫] پسرانه‬pe.sa.rā.ne] boys’, of boys ِ‫] پشت‬posht-e] behind (prep.); at the back of

‫] پلیس‬po.lis] police ‫] پنج‬panj] five ‫] پنجاه‬pan.jāh] fifty ‫] پنجشنبه‬panj-sham.be] Thursday ‫[ پنجره‬pan.ja.re/-.je.-] window

257

Persian–English glossary

‫] پوش‬push] → ‫پوشیدن‬ ‫] پوشیدن‬pu.shi.dan] [→ ‫ پوش‬,

push] to

wear

‫] تاریک‬tā.rik] dark ‫] تحصیل‬tah.sil] education (pl. always ‫تحصیالت‬, tah.si.lāt) ‫] تخفیف‬takh.fif] discount ‫] تخمِ مُرغ‬tokh.m-e morgh] egg ‫] تدریس کردن‬tad.ris kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to

‫] پول‬pul] money ‫] پیدا کردن‬pey.dā kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to find ‫] پیر‬pir] old (for animates only) ‫] پیرو‬pey.row] follower teach (a subject) (form.) ‫] پیش‬pish] past, last (as in ‘last week’) ‫] تر‬tar] wet (adj.); also: comparative suffix )adj.) ‫] ترجمه‬tar.jo.me] translation ِ‫] پیش‬pi.sh-e] to or with a person (similar to ‫] ترجمه کردن‬tar.jo.me kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ chez in French)

to translate

‫] پیش از‬pish az] before (prep.) )‫] ترسیدن )از‬tar.si.dan (az)] [→ ‫ترس‬, tars] ‫] پیش از آنکه‬pish az ān-ke] before (conj.) to be afraid (of) ‫] پیشنهاد‬pish.na.hād] suggestion ‫] ترش‬torsh] sour ‫] پیشنهاد کردن‬pish.na.hād kar.dan] [→ ‫] تِرم کن‬term] term, semester ‫] تشنه‬tesh.ne] thirsty ~] to suggest, to propose !‫] پیف‬pif] Eew! (interjection; used for bad ‫] تشویق‬tash.vigh] encouragement ‫] تشویق کردن‬tash.vigh kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ smell) ‫] تا‬tā] until to encourage; to applaud ‫] تا‬tā] ‘item’ as counting word (preferably ‫] تصمیم‬tas.mim] decision ‫] تصمیم داشتن‬tas.mim dāsh.tan] [→ ‫]~ دار‬ for non-humans) to intend; to have the intention (to. . .) ‫] تا به حال‬tā be hāl] until now, so far ‫] تا حاال‬tā hā.lā] until now, so far (no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses) ‫] تا وقتیکه‬tā vagh.ti.ke] 1) so long as; 2) ‫] تصمیم گرفتن‬tas.mim ge.ref.tan] [→ ‫گیر‬ by the time that

‫] تابستان‬tā.bes.tān] summer ‫] تابستانی‬tā.bes.tā.ní] summer’s;

~] to decide

of sum-

mer; summerly

‫] تاجیک‬tā.jik] Tajiki (of people) ‫] تاجیکی‬tā.ji.ki] Tajiki (of people language)

258

‫] تصوّر‬ta.sav.vor] assumption; imagination )pl. ‫ تصوّرات‬, ta.sav.vo.rāt) ‫] تصوّر کردن‬ta.sav.vor kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to assume or imagine

or

‫] تعطیل‬ta’.til] closed (a store or office); a holiday

‫] تاجیکستان‬tā.ji.kes.tān] Tajikistan ‫] تعطیالت‬ta’.ti.lāt] holidays; vacations (pl. ‫] تاریخ‬tā.rikh] history; date (pl. ‫ تواریخ‬, ta. of ‫)تعطیل‬ ‫] تغییر‬tagh.yir] change (pl. ‫ تغییرات‬, tagh. vā.rikh) ‫] تاریخی‬tā.ri.khi] historical yi.rāt)

‫تغییر دادن‬

]tagh.yir dā.dan] [→

change (tr.)

‫ده‬

~]to

‫] تغییر کردن‬tagh.yir kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to change (intr.)

‫] تکالیف‬ta.kā.lif] pl. of ‫تکلیف‬ ‫] تکلیف‬tak.lif] homework, assignment (pl. ‫تکالیف‬, ta.kā.lif) ‫] تلخ‬talkh] bitter ‫] تلفن‬te.le.fon] telephone ‫ کردن‬/ ‫] تلفن زدن‬te.le.fon za.dan/ kar.dan] [→ ‫کن ~ زن‬/ ~] to telephone, to call ‫] تلفنی‬te.le.fo.ni] per phone ‫] تلویزیون‬te.le.vi.zi.yon] television ‫] تماشا کردن‬ta.mā.shā kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to watch

‫تمام‬

]ta.mām] whole, complete; full;

finished

‫] توریست‬tu.rist] tourist ِ‫] توسّط‬ta.vas.sot-e] by (means of), through

Persian–English glossary

(the mediation of)

‫] تولد‬ta.val.lod] birth ‫] تومان‬tu.mān] Tuman

or Toman, a cur-

rency unit (= 10 Iranian Rials)

ِ‫] توی‬tu-ye] in; inside (col.) ‫] ثانیه‬sā.ni.ye] second (1/60th of a minute) ‫] جا‬jā] place ‫] جالب‬jā.leb] interesting ‫] جایزه‬jā.ye.ze] award (pl. ‫ جوایز‬, javāyez) ‫] جشن‬jashn] celebration ‫] جشنِ تولد‬jash.n-e ta.val.lod] birthday party (lit., ‘celebration of birth[day]’)

‫] جشن گرفتن‬jashn ge.ref.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ گیر‬to celebrate

‫جِلد‬

]jeld] volume (counting word for

ِ‫] تمام‬ta.mā.m-e] all of books) ‫] تمام شدن‬ta.mām sho.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to ‫] جلو‬je.low] front; ahead ِ‫] جلو‬je.lo.w-e] in front of get finished ‫] تمام کردن‬ta.mām kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to ‫] جَمع‬jam’] plural (gr.) ‫] جمعه‬jom.’e] Friday finish (tr.) ‫] تمیز‬ta.miz] clean ‫] جمله‬jom.le] sentence (gr.) (pl. ‫ جمالت‬, ‫] تمیز کردن‬ta.miz kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to jo.me.lāt/ jo.ma.lāt) ‫] جملۀ موصولی‬jom.le-ye mow.su.li] relaclean ‫] تنگ‬tang] tight tive clause (gr.) ‫] تنها‬tan.hā] only; alone ‫] جنگ‬jang] war ‫] تو‬to] you (sg.) ‫] جنوب‬jo.nub] South ‫] تواریخ‬ta.vā.rikh] pl. of ‫تاریخ‬ ‫] جواب‬ja.vāb] answer ‫] توان‬ta.vān] → ‫توانستن‬ )‫] جواب دادن )به‬ja.vāb dā.dan (be)] [→ ‫]~ دِه‬ ‫] توانستن‬ta.vā.nes.tan] [→ ‫توان‬, ta.vān] to answer; to give an answer (to) ‫] جوان‬ja.vān] young can, to be able to ‫] توجّه‬ta.vaj.joh] attention ‫] جوانی‬ja.vā.ni] youth )‫] توجه کردن )به‬ta.vaj.joh kar.dan (be)] ‫] جوایز‬ja.vā.yez] pl. of ‫] جایزه‬jāyeze] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to notice; to pay attention (to) ‫] جهنّم‬ja.han.nam] hell

259

Persian–English glossary

‫] چای‬chāy] tea (also ‫ چائی‬or ‫ چایی‬, chā’i) ‫] چهارشنبه‬cha.hār-sham.be] Wednesday ‫] چرا‬che.rā] yes (use only to contradict ‫] چهارصد‬cha.hār.sad] four hundred negative statements/ questions; stress ‫] چهل‬che.hel] forty ‫] چی؟‬chi] what? (col.) on ché-) ‫] چرا؟‬ché.rā] why? (stress on ché-) ‫] چیز‬chiz] thing ‫] چراغ‬che.rāgh] light, lamp ‫] حاضر‬hā.zer] ready ‫] چِشم‬cheshm] eye ‫] حافظ‬hā.fez] Hafez or Hafiz (poet, ca. ‫] چطور؟‬che-towr] how? 1326–1389) ‫] چقدر؟‬che-ghadr] how much? (stress on ‫] حال‬hāl] state (of being); presently; presché-) ent (see ‫ زمانِ حال‬also) ‫( چکار؟‬or (‫] چهکار‬che-kār] used to ask ‫] حاال‬hā.lā] now what someone is doing )see ‫)کار کردن‬ ً‫] حتما‬hat.man] certainly ‫] چکّه‬chek.ke] drop (n.) ‫] حدس‬hads] guess ‫] چکّه کردن‬chek.ke kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to ‫] حدس زدن‬hads za.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ زن‬to fall in drops, to trickle, to leak

guess

‫] چگونه؟‬che-gu.ne] how? (form./wrt.) ‫] چلو‬che.low] cooked rice ‫] چلوکباب‬che.low-ka.bāb] a Persian dish:

‫] حَرف‬harf] letter of alphabet (gr.; in this sense pl. ‫ حُروف‬horuf) ‫] حَرف‬harf] talk; words (= what someone

‫] چمدان‬cha.me.dān] suitcase ‫] چند‬chand] 1) some, several;

‫حرفِ اضافه‬

rice and kabab

2) how

]har.f-e e.zā.fe] preposition

)gr.)

‫] چند بار‬chand bār] 1) several times; 2)

‫] حرفِ ربط‬har.f-e rabt] conjunction (gr.) )‫] حرف زدن )با‬harf za.dan (bā)] [→ ‫]~ زن‬

‫] چند ساله‬chand sā.le] how old? ‫] چند وقت‬chand vaght] 1) for

‫] حُروف‬ho.ruf] pl. of ‫حَرف‬ ّ‫] حق‬haghgh] right (n.) (pl. ‫ حقوق‬,

many?

how many times?

some

time; 2) for how long?

‫چندم؟‬

]chan.dom] (question about

ordinal numbers)

260

says)

‫] چون‬chon] because (conj.) ‫] چه؟‬che] what? ‫] چهکار؟‬che-kār] see ‫چکار‬ ‫] چه وقت؟‬che vaght] what time? when? ‫] چهار‬cha.hār] four ‫] چهارده‬cha.hār.dah] fourteen

to talk (to/with)

ho.

ghugh)

‫] حقوق‬ho.ghugh] salary; rights (pl. of ّ‫)حق‬ ‫] حکایات‬he.kā.yāt] pl. of ‫حکایت‬ ‫] حکایت‬he.kā.yat] story; tale (pl. ‫ حکایات‬, hekāyāt)

‫] حلوا‬hal.vā] halva; kind of sweet Persian confection

‫] حمّام‬ham.mām] bath ‫] حیاط‬ha.yāt] yard

‫] حیوان‬hey.vān] animal (pl. ‫حیوانات‬, heyvānāt)

‫] خارجی‬khā.re.ji] foreign (adj.); foreigner (n.)

‫خاموش‬

]khā.mush] extinguished; off (≠

‘on’); silent

‫] خاموش کردن‬khā.mush kar.dan] [→ ‫کن‬ ~] to turn off; to extinguish; to silence

‫خانُم‬

]khā.nom] Mrs. or Miss, lady (pl.

always with -hā)

‫] خواب‬khāb] sleep (n.) ‫] خواب‬khāb] → ‫خوابیدن‬ ‫] خوابیدن‬khā.bi.dan] [→ ‫ خواب‬, khāb] to

Persian–English glossary

sleep; to go to bed

‫] خواستن‬khās.tan] [→ ‫خواه‬, khāh] to want ‫] خواندن‬khān.dan] [→ ‫ خوان‬, khān] to read; to study (tr.); to sing; to call

‫] خواه‬khāh] → ‫خواستن‬ ‫] خواهَر‬khā.har] sister ‫] خوب‬khub] good ‫] خور‬khor] → ‫خوردن‬ ‫] خوردن‬khor.dan] [→ ‫ خور‬, khor] to eat

‫] خانواده‬khā.ne.vā.de] family ‫] خانه‬khā.ne] house ‫] خبر‬kha.bar] news (countable in Persian) (also ‘to drink’ in colloquial Persian) )‫] خبر داشتن )از‬kha.bar dāsh.tan (az)] [→ ‫] خوشحال‬khosh.hāl] happy, glad ‫ ]~ دار‬to know (about) (no mi- in pres. ‫] خوشحال شدن‬khosh.hāl sho.dan] [→ ‫شو‬ and progressive tenses)

~] to become happy

‫] خدا‬kho.dā] god ‫] خوشحال کردن‬khosh.hāl kar.dan] [→ ‫کن‬ ‫] خدا حافظ‬kho.dā hā.fez] good-bye; adieu ~] to make happy ‫] خوشمزه‬khosh-ma.ze] delicious, tasty (lit., ‘may God protect you’) ‫] خر‬khar] → ‫خریدن‬ ‫] خیابان‬khi.yā.bān] street ‫] خر‬khar] donkey; a stupid person; stupid ‫] خیّاط‬khay.yāt] tailor ‫] خرج کردن‬kharj kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to ‫] خیّاطی‬khay.yā.ti] sewing; the tailor’s ‫] خیّاطی کردن‬khay.yā.ti kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ spend (money) ‫] خرید‬kha.rid] shopping to sew ‫] خرید کردن‬kha.rid kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to ‫] خیر‬kheyr] no (polite/form.) ‫] خیلی‬khey.li] (stress on khéy-) very; a lot shop; to do shopping ‫] خریدن‬kha.ri.dan] [→ ‫ خر‬, khar] to buy (of, ‫)از‬ ‫] خسته‬khas.te] tired ِ‫] داخل‬dā.khe.l-e] in; inside (form.) ‫] خسته کننده‬khas.te-ko.nan.de] tiring; ‫] دار‬dār] → ‫داشتن‬ ‫] دادن‬dā.dan] [→ ‫ دِه‬, deh → ‫ دَه‬, dah] to boring ‫] خشک‬khoshk] dry give ‫] خطر‬kha.tar] danger ‫] داستان‬dās.tān] story ‫] خند‬khand] → ‫خندیدن‬ ‫] داشتن‬dāsh.tan] [→ ‫دار‬, dār] to have (no ‫] خندیدن‬khan.di.dan] [→ ‫ خند‬, khand] to mi- in pres. and progressive tenses) ‫] داغ‬dāgh] hot (≠ cold) laugh

261

Persian–English glossary

‫] دان‬dān] → ‫دانستن‬ ‫] دروغ‬do.rugh] lie ‫] دانستن‬dā.nes.tan] [→ ‫ دان‬, dān] to know ‫] دروغ گفتن‬do.rugh gof.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ گو‬to (something, not someone: see ‫)شناختن‬ tell a lie; to lie ‫] دانِشجو‬dā.nesh.ju] a college/university ِ‫] درون‬da.ru.n-e] in; inside (poet.) student ‫] دریا‬dar.yā] sea ‫] دانشگاه‬dā.nesh.gāh] university ‫] دریاچه‬dar.yā.che] lake ‫] دانشمند‬dā.nesh.mand] scientist ‫] دزد‬dozd] thief ‫] دانه‬dā.ne] ‘item’ as counting word for ‫] دزد‬dozd] → ‫دزدیدن‬ ‫] دزدیدن‬doz.di.dan] [→ ‫ دزد‬, dozd] to steal inanimates ‫] دُختَر‬dokh.tar] girl; daughter ‫] دَست‬dast] hand ‫] دخترانه‬dokh.ta.rā.ne] girls’, of girls ‫] دُعا‬do.’ā] prayer ‫] در‬dar] in (prep.) ‫] دُعا کردن‬do.’ā kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to pray ‫] در‬dar] door (n.) ‫] دَعوَت‬da’.vat] invitation ‫] دراز‬de.rāz] long )‫] دَعوَت کردن )از‬da’.vat kar.dan] [→ ‫کن‬ ~] to invite (s.o.) ‫] در آوردن‬dar-ā.var.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ آور‬to take out (as clothes) ‫] دفاتر‬da.fā.ter] pl. of ‫دفتر‬ ِ‫] در برابر‬dar ba.rā.ba.r-e] in front of; ‫] دَفتَر‬daf.tar] notebook (pl. ‫ دفاتر‬, da. against

fā.ter)

ِ‫] در حال‬dar hā.l-e] during (prep.); while ‫] دفترِ تلفن‬daf.ta.r-e te.le.fon] (a private) phone book ‫] در حالیکه‬dar hā.li-ke] while (conj.), as; whereas ‫] دفعه‬daf.’e] ‘time’ as counting word (pl. ِ‫] در مورد‬dar mow.re.d-e] about; concerning ‫ دفعات‬, da.fa.’āt) ‫] دربارۀ‬dar.bā.re-ye] about (prep.) ‫] دقایق‬da.ghā.yegh] pl. of ‫دقیقه‬ ‫] دَرجه‬da.re.je/ da.ra.je] degree, grade; ‫] دقیقه‬da.ghi.ghe] minute (pl. ‫ دقایق‬, da. rank; thermometer

262

ghā.yegh)

‫] دِرَخت‬de.rakht] tree ‫] دُکتُر‬dok.tor] doctor ‫] درس‬dars] lesson ‫] دالر‬do.lār] Dollar ‫] درس خواندن‬dars khān.dan] [→ ‫] َدما ]~ خوان‬da.mā] temperature (form.) to study (intr.) ‫] دندان‬dan.dān] tooth )‫] درس دادن )به‬dars dā.dan (be)] [→ ‫] دندانپزشک ]~ دِه‬dan.dān-pe.zeshk] dentist to teach (sth. to s.o.) ‫] دنیا‬don.yā] world ‫] درست‬do.rost] right, correct; fixed ‫[ )به) دنیا آمدن‬be don.yā ā.ma.dan] [→ ‫]~ آ‬ to be born (lit., ‘to come to the world’) ‫] درست کردن‬do.rost kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to correct; to fix; to do or make (as doing ‫[ )به ) دنیا آوردن‬be don.yā ā.var.dan] [→ hair, cooking food) ‫ ]~ آور‬to bear, to give birth to

‫] دو‬do] two ‫] دُو‬dow/dav] → ‫دویدن‬ ‫] دوازده‬da.vāz.dah] twelve ‫] دوباره‬do-bā.re] again ِ‫] دُور‬dow.r-e] around ‫] دور‬dur] far, faraway; remote, distant ‫] دور افتادن‬dur of.tā.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ افت‬to be thrown away, to be discarded (intr.)

‫] دور انداختن‬dur an.dākh.tan] [→ ‫]~ انداز‬ to throw away, to discard (tr.)

‫] دیر‬dir] late ‫] دیروز‬di.ruz] yesterday ‫] دیشب‬di.shab] last night ‫] دیکته‬dik.te] dictation, spelling ‫] دیگر‬di.gar] other (adj.); any longer (adv.,

Persian–English glossary

in negative sentences)

‫] دفعۀ دیگر‬daf.’e-ye di.gar] next time [lit. ‘other time’]

‫یک ساعتِ دیگر‬

]yek sā.’a.t-e di.gar]

within or after (an hour) [lit., ‘in

another hour’] ‫] دوست‬dust] friend ‫] دوست داشتن‬dust dāsh.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to ‫] دین‬din] religion (pl. ‫ ادیان‬, ad.yān) like (no mi- in pres. and progressive ‫] دیوان‬di.vān] a collection of poems by one tenses)

‫دوست داشتنی‬

poet (often the complete poems)

]dust-dāsh.ta.ni] adorable,

lovely

‫] دوشنبه‬do-sham.be] Monday ‫] دو قلو‬do-gho.lu] twin ‫] دول‬do.val] pl. of ‫دولت‬ ‫] دولت‬dow.lat] government doval)

‫دولتی‬

(pl.

‫ دول‬,

]dow.la.ti] of government or state;

governmental

‫] دوّم‬dov.vom] second (2nd) ‫] دوّمین‬dov.vo.min] second (2nd) ‫] دویدن‬da.vi.dan] [→ ‫ دُو‬, dow → ‫دَو‬, dav] to run

‫] دویست‬de.vist] two hundred ‫] دَه‬dah] ten ‫] ِده‬deh] village ‫] ِده‬deh]/‫] دَه‬dah] → ‫دادن‬ ‫] دَهان‬da.hān] mouth (form./wrt.) ‫] دَهَن‬da.han] mouth ‫] دیدن‬di.dan] [→ ‫ بین‬, bin] to see ‫] دیدنی‬di.da.ni] worth seeing; spectacular

‫] را‬rā] ‘definite direct object’ marker ‫] راجع به‬rā.je’ be] about; concerning ‫] راحت‬rā.hat] comfortable; easy ‫] رادیو‬rā.di.yo] radio ‫] رانندگی‬rā.nan.de.gi] driving ‫] رانندگی کردن‬rā.nan.de.gi kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to drive ‫] راه‬rāh] way, road; method ‫] راه رفتن‬rāh raf.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ رو‬to walk/ stroll (at or in some place, not to)

‫] راهرو‬rāh.row] corridor ‫] رأی‬ra’y] vote; verdict; opinion (pl. ‫ آراء‬, ārā’)

‫] رأی دادن‬ra’y dā.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ دِه‬to vote ‫] ربع‬rob’] a quarter )‫ از‬/‫] رد شدن )در‬rad sho.dan (dar/az)] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to fail (in [a test]), to be rejected; also to pass (locational, as on the street)

‫] رس‬res] → ‫رسیدن‬ ‫] رستوران‬res.to.rān] restaurant

263

Persian–English glossary

‫] رسیدن‬re.si.dan] [→ ‫ رس‬, res] to reach,

‫] زمانِ حال‬za.mā.n-e hāl] present

‫] رشته‬reshte] field (of knowledge or study);

‫] زمستان‬ze.mes.tān] winter ‫] زمین‬za.min] earth; ground; field (in

arrive

major (in education); line, thread

‫] رشتۀ تحصیلی‬resh.te-ye tah.si.li] major (in education)

‫] رفتن‬raf.tan] [→ ‫ رو‬, row → rav] to go ‫] رقص‬raghs] dance ‫] رقصیدن‬ragh.si.dan] [→ ‫ رقص‬, raghs] to dance

‫] رُمان‬ro.mān] novel ‫] رو‬row/rav] → ‫رفتن‬ ِ‫] روبروی‬ru-be-ru-ye] in front of; facing ‫] رودخانه‬rud.khā.ne] river ‫] روز‬ruz] day ‫] روز تولد‬ru.z-e ta.val.lod] birthday ‫] روشن‬row.shan] bright (also ‘on’ as light or fire or a device)

‫] روشن کردن‬row.shan kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to turn on; to fire up

ِ‫] روی‬ru-ye] on (prep.) ‫] ریاضی‬ri.yā.zi] mathematical (adj.); mathematics (n.) (pl. ‫ ریاضیّات‬, ri. yā.ziy.yāt);

‫] ریشه‬ri.she] root; stem (gr.) ‫] زَبان‬za.bān] tongue; language ‫] زبانِ مادری‬za.bā.n-e mā.da.ri] mother tongue

264

‫] زدن‬za.dan] [→ ‫ زن‬, zan] to hit, strike ‫] زرد‬zard] yellow ‫] زرنگ‬ze.rang] clever ‫] زرنگی‬ze.ran.gi] cleverness ‫] زشت‬zesht] ugly ‫] زشتی‬zesh.ti] ugliness ‫] زمان‬za.mān] tense (gr.); time

tense (gr.)

sports)

‫([ )به) زمین خوردن‬be) za.min khor.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ خور‬to fall down; to fall on the ground (only when used for people ‫به‬ can be dropped)

‫] زَن‬zan] woman; wife ‫] زَن‬zan] → ‫زدن‬ ‫] زنبیل‬zan.bil] basket ‫] زندان‬zen.dān] prison ‫] زندانی‬zen.dā.ni] prisoner ‫] زندگی‬zen.de.gi] life (= the period from birth to death)

‫] زندگی کردن‬zen.de.gi kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to live

‫] زنده‬zen.de] alive ‫] زود‬zud] early; fast ‫] زیاد‬zi.yād] much, a lot ‫] زیادی‬zi.yā.dí] too much ‫] زیبا‬zi.bā] beautiful ‫] زیبائی‬zi.bā.’i] beauty ‫] زیرا‬zi.rā] because (conj.; form.) ‫] ساده‬sā.de] simple ‫] ساعات‬sā.’āt] pl. of ‫ساعت‬ ‫] ساعت‬sā.’at] hour; watch; clock (pl. ‫ ساعات‬, sā.’āt) ‫] ساکن‬sā.ken] resident (n.; pl. ‫ سکنه‬, sa. ka.ne); settled (adj.); not moving

‫] سال‬sāl] year ‫] سالم‬sā.lem] healthy; healthful ‫] سانتیگراد‬sān.ti.ge.rād] centigrade ‫] سبد‬sa.bad] basket

‫] سبز‬sabz] green ‫] سِتارِه‬se.tā.re] star ‫] سحر‬sa.har] dawn ‫] سحرخیز‬sa.har-khiz] early riser (from sleep)

‫] سخت‬sakht] hard ‫] سختی‬sakh.ti] difficulty; hardship; hardness

‫] سخن‬so.khan] speech, talk (form.) )‫] سخن گفتن )با‬so.khan gof.tan (bā)] [→ ‫ ]~ گو‬to speak (to) (form.) ‫] سَر‬sar] head ‫] سُرا‬so.rā] → ‫سُرودن‬ ‫] سرخ‬sorkh] red ‫] سرد‬sard] cold ‫] سُرود‬so.rud] song; hymn ‫] سُرودن‬so.ru.dan] [→ ‫ سُرا‬, so.rā] to compose a poem

‫] سریع‬sa.ri’] fast ‫] سعدی‬sa’.di] Saadi (poet, 13th century) ‫] سعی‬sa’y; y here is a consonant] effort )pl. ‫ مساعی‬, masā’i) ‫] سعی کردن‬sa’y kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to try ‫] سفر‬sa.far] travel )‫] سفر کردن )به‬sa.far kar.dan (be)] [→ ‫کن‬ ~] to travel (to)

‫] سفید‬se.fid] white ‫] سقف‬saghf] ceiling ‫] سکنه‬sa.ka.ne] pl. of ‫ساکن‬ ‫] سگ‬sag] dog ‫] سالم‬sa.lām] hello, hi ‫] سؤال‬so.’āl] question (pl. ‫سؤاالت‬, so. ’ā.lāt)

)‫] سؤال کردن )از‬so.’āl kar.dan (az)] [→

‫ ]~ کن‬to ask (a question from)

‫] سوّم‬sev.vom] third (3rd) ‫] سوّمین‬sev.vo.min] third (3rd) ‫] سه‬se] three ‫] سهشنبه‬se-sham.be] Tuesday ‫] سی‬si] thirty ‫] سیاست‬si.yā.sat] politics ‫] سیاستمدار‬si.yā.sat-ma.dār] politician ‫] سیاه‬si.yāh] black ‫] سیب‬sib] apple ‫] سیر‬sir] full, no more hungry ‫] سیزده‬siz.dah] thirteen ‫] سیصد‬si.sad] three hundred ‫[ سینما‬si.ne.mā/si.na.mā] cinema ‫] شاد‬shād] happy, glad ‫] شادی‬shā.di] happiness, gladness ‫] شاعِر‬shā.’er] poet (pl. ‫شعرا‬, sho.’a.rā) ‫] شاعِرِه‬shā.’e.re] poetess ‫] شاگرد‬shā.gerd] pupil ‫] شام‬shām] supper; dinner ‫] شانزده‬shānz.dah] sixteen ‫] شاید‬shā.yad] maybe, perhaps; may

Persian–English glossary

(modal verb; same form for all persons) (stress on shā-}

‫] شَب‬shab] night ‫] شتر‬sho.tor] camel ‫] شدن‬sho.dan] [→ ‫ شو‬, show/shav] to become

‫] شرطی‬shar.ti] conditional (gr.) ‫] شرق‬shargh] East ‫] شستن‬shos.tan] [→ ‫ شو‬, shu] to wash ‫] شش‬shesh] six ‫] ششصد‬shesh.sad] six hundred ‫] شصت‬shast] sixty ‫] شطرنج‬shat.ranj] chess ‫] شعر‬she’r] poem; poetry (pl. ‫اشعار‬, ash’ār)

265

Persian–English glossary

‫] شعرا‬sho.’a.rā] pl. of ‫شاعِر‬ ‫] شغل‬shoghl] occupation; job (pl. ‫ مشاغل‬, ma.shā.ghel)

‫] شک‬shak] doubt )‫ در‬/‫] شک داشتن )به‬shak dāsh.tan (be/ dar)] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to have doubts (in/

about) (no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

‫ در‬/‫[ )شک کردن )به‬shak kar.dan (be/dar)] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to doubt ‫] شکست‬she.kast] defeat (n.) [short infinitive or past stem of the verb

‫ شکستن‬, she.kas.tan] )‫] شکست خوردن )از‬she.kast khor.dan (az)] [→ ‫ ]~ خور‬to be defeated (by); to lose

‫] شکست دادن‬she.kast dā.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ ده‬to defeat

‫] شکستن‬she.kas.tan] [→ ‫ شکن‬, she.kan] to break (tr. and intr.)

‫] شکالت‬sho.ko.lāt] chocolate ‫] شکن‬she.kan] → ‫شکستن‬ ‫] شما‬sho.mā] you (pl.) ‫شماره‬/‫] شمار‬sho.mār/sho.mā.re] number ‫[ )به) شمار آمدن‬be sho.mār ā.ma.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ آ‬to be counted or considered ‫] شمال‬sho.māl] North ِ ‫شمال غربی‬ ]sho.mā.l-e ghar.bi] Northwest; northwestern

‫] شنا‬she.nā] swimming ‫] شِناختن‬she.nākh.tan] [→ ‫ شناس‬,

shenās] to know (a person), to be familiar with; to recognize

266

‫] شناس‬she.nās] → ‫شِناختن‬ ‫] شنا کردن‬she.nā kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to swim

‫] شنبه‬shan.be/sham.be] Saturday ‫[ شنو‬she.now/she.nav] → ‫شنیدن‬ ‫[ شنیدن‬she.ni.dan] [‫ شنو‬, she.now → she. nav] to hear

‫] شو‬show/shav] → ‫شدن‬ ‫] شو‬shu] → ‫شستن‬ ‫] شوهر‬show.har] husband ‫] شَهر‬shahr] city ‫] شهری‬shah.ri] urban ‫] شهناز‬shah.nāz] Shahnaz (girls’ name) ‫] شیراز‬shi.rāz] Shiraz (city in Iran) ‫] شیرین‬shi.rin] sweet ‫] شیکاگو‬shi.kā.go] Chicago ‫] صادق هدایت‬sā.degh he.dā.yat] Sadegh Hedayat (writer, 1903–1951)

‫] صبح‬sobh] morning ‫] صبر‬sabr] patience ‫] صبر داشتن‬sabr dāsh.tan]

[→

‫دار‬

~] to

have patience (no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

)ِ‫)برای‬

‫] صبر کردن‬sabr kar.dan (ba.rā.ye)] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to wait (for) ‫] صحبت کردن‬soh.bat kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to speak

‫] صد‬sad] hundred ‫] صدا‬se.dā] sound; voice ‫] صِفَت‬se.fat] adjective (gr.) (pl. ‫صفات‬, se.fāt) ‫] صفت اشاره‬se.fa.t-e e.shā.re] demonstrative adjective (gr.)

‫] صفتِ تفضیلی‬se.fa.t-e taf.zi.li] comparative adjective

‫صفت عالی‬ ِ ]se.fa.t-e ā.li] superlative adjective ‫] صفتِ مفعولی‬se.fa.t-e maf.’u.li] ‘participial adjective’ or past participle = ‫اسم‬ ‫مفعول‬

‫] صفحه‬saf.he] page (pl. ‫ صفحات‬, sa. fa.hāt)

‫] صفر‬sefr] zero ‫] صندلی‬san.da.li] chair ‫] صورَت‬su.rat] face ‫ ضمایر‬/‫] ضمائر‬za.mā.’er/za.mā.yer] pl. of ‫ضمیر‬ ‫] ضمیر‬za.mir] pronoun (gr.) (pl. ‫ ضمائر‬, za.mā.’er)

‫] ضمیر اشاره‬za.mi.r-e e.shā.re] demonstrative pronoun (gr.)

‫] طالق‬ta.lāgh] divorce ‫] ظرف‬zarf] dish (pl. ‫ ظروف‬, zoruf) ِ‫] ظرف‬zar.f-e] within (temp.) ‫] ظروف‬zo.ruf] pl. of ‫ظرف‬ ‫] ظهر‬zohr] noon ‫] عادات‬ā.dāt] pl. of ‫عادت‬ ‫] عادت‬ā.dat] habit (pl. ‫ عادات‬, ā.dāt) )‫] عادت دادن )به‬ā.dat dā.dan (be)] [→ ‫]~ ده‬ to make accustomed to, to cause to get used to (tr.) )‫] عادت کردن )به‬ā.dat kar.dan (be)] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to get accustomed to, to get used to

)intr.)

‫] عاشِق‬ā.shegh] lover (pl. ‫عشّاق‬, osh. shāgh)

‫ بودن‬. . . ِ‫] عاشِق‬ā.she.gh-e bu.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ باش‬to love ‫] عالی‬ā.li] excellent ‫] عدد‬a.dad] number (pl. ‫ اعداد‬, a’.dād) (gr.) ‫] عرب‬a.rab] Arab (pl. ‫ اعراب‬, a’.rāb) ‫] عربی‬a.ra.bi] Arabic (language) ‫] عزیز‬a.ziz] dear ‫] عشّاق‬osh.shāgh] pl. of ‫عاشق‬ ‫] عِشق‬eshgh] love

‫] عصبانی‬a.sa.bā.ni] angry ‫] عصبانیّت‬a.sa.bā.niy.yat] anger ‫] عکس‬aks] picture; photo )‫] عکس گرفتن )از‬aks ge.ref.tan (az)] [→ ‫ ]~ گیر‬to take photos (from) ‫] عنوان‬on.vān] title ِ‫] بهعنوان‬be on.vā.n-e] as (used as a

Persian–English glossary

preposition)

‫] عیب‬eyb] fault, deficiency (pl. ‫] عیوب‬o. yub] or ‫] معایب‬ma.’ā.yeb]) ‫] عینک‬ey.nak] eyeglasses ‫] عیوب‬o.yub] pl. of ‫عیب‬ ‫] غذا‬gha.zā] food ‫]غذا خوردن‬gha.zā khor.dan] [→ ‫]~ خور‬ to eat (intr.)

‫] غذائی‬gha.zā.’i] (of) food; nutritional, dietary

‫] غرب‬gharb] West ‫] غزل‬gha.zal] ghazal; a genre in poetry )pl. ‫ غزلیّات‬, gha.za.liy.yāt) ‫] غصّه‬ghos.se] grief )ِ‫] غصّه خوردن )برای‬ghos.se khor.dan (ba. rā.ye)] [→ ‫ ]~ خور‬to grieve, to be sad (about)

‫] غم‬gham] grief, sadness ‫] غمانگیز‬gham-an.giz] sad (used for inanimates); causing sadness

‫] غم خوردن‬gham khor.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ خور‬to grieve, to be sad

‫ داشتن‬. . . ِ‫] غم‬gha.m-e . . . dāsh.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to be sad about, to worry about

(no mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

‫] غمگین‬gham.gin] sad (used for animates) ‫] غمگین شدن‬gham.gin sho.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to become sad

267

Persian–English glossary

‫] غمگین کردن‬gham.gin kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to make sad ‫] غیرِ مستقیم‬ghey.r-e mos.ta.ghim] indirect ‫] فارسی‬fār.si] Persian (language) ‫] فارغ التّحصیل‬fā.re.gh-ot-tah.sil] a graduate student [lit., ‘free from studies’]

‫] فارغالتّحصیل شدن‬fā.re.ghot.tah.sil sho. dan] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to graduate (from a college)

‫] فایده‬fā.ye.de] use, benefit (pl. ‫] فوائد‬fa. vā.’ed] or ‫] فواید‬fa.vā.yed]) ‫] فراموش کردن‬fa.rā.mush kar.dan] [→ ‫کن‬ ~] to forget

‫] فرانسه‬fa.rān.se] France; French language ‫] فردا‬far.dā] tomorrow ‫] فرست‬fe.rest] → ‫فرستادن‬ ‫] فرستادن‬fe.res.tā.dan] [→ ‫ فرست‬, fe.rest] to send

‫] فرش‬farsh] carpet )‫] فروختن )به‬fo.rukh.tan (be)] [→ ‫ فروش‬, fo.rush] to sell (sth. to s.o.)

‫] فرودگاه‬fo.rud.gāh] airport ‫] فروش‬fo.rush] → ‫فروختن‬ ‫] فروشنده‬fo.ru.shan.de] seller; cashier ‫] فروغ فرخزاد‬fo.rugh far.rokh.zād] Forugh Farrokhzād (poet, 1934–1967)

‫] فریب خوردن‬fa.rib khor.dan] [→ ‫]~ خور‬ to be deceived

‫] فریب دادن‬fa.rib dā.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ دِه‬to deceive

268

‫] فَصل‬fasl] chapter, unit; season (pl. ‫ فصول‬, fo.sul) ‫] فصول‬fo.sul] pl. of ‫فصل‬ ‫] فضول‬fo.zul] meddler; nosy person

‫] فعل‬fe’l] verb (gr.) (pl. ‫ افعال‬, af.’āl] ‫] فقر‬faghr] poverty ‫] فقط‬fa.ghat] only ‫] فکر‬fekr] thought (pl. ‫ افکار‬, afkār) ‫] فکر کردن‬fekr kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to think ‫ فواید‬/‫] فوائد‬fa.vā.’ed/fa.vā.yed] pl. of ‫فایده‬ ‫] فهم‬fahm] → ‫فهمیدن‬ ‫] فهمیدن‬fah.mi.dan] [→ ‫ فهم‬, fahm] to understand; to realize

‫] فیلم‬film] film ‫] قبل‬ghabl] past, last (as in ‘last week’) )adj.)

‫] قبل از‬ghabl az] before (prep.) ‫] قبل از آنکه‬ghabl az ān-ke] before (conj.) ‫] قبل از‬ghabl az] before (prep.) ً ‫] قب‬ghab.lan] previously (adv.) ‫ال‬ )‫ از‬/‫] قبول شدن )در‬gha.bul sho.dan (dar/ az)] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to be accepted (in); to pass (a test)

‫] قدیمی‬gha.di.mi] old (for inanimates) ‫] قرص‬ghors] pill ‫] قرض‬gharz] debt ‫] قرمز‬gher.mez] red ‫] قرن‬gharn] century ‫] قشنگ‬gha.shang] pretty, beautiful ‫] قصد‬ghasd] intention ‫] قطار‬gha.tār] train ‫] قطب‬ghotb] pole ‫] قَلَم‬gha.lam] pen ‫] قم‬ghom] Qom or Ghom (city in Iran) ‫] قوری‬ghu.ri] teapot ‫] قوم‬ghowm] folk; ethnic group; relative )pl. ‫اقوام‬, agh.vām) ‫] قهوه‬ghah.ve] coffee

‫] قهوهای‬ghah.ve.’i] brown ‫[ قیمت‬ghi.mat/ghey.mat] price ‫] کار‬kār] work, job ‫] کاربُرد‬kār.bord] usage, function (gr.) ‫] کارِ خانه‬kā.r-e khā.ne] household chores )pl. ‫)کارهایِ خانه‬ ‫] کارخانه‬kār-khā.ne] factory (pl. ‫)کارخانهها‬ ‫] کارد‬kārd] knife ‫] کار کردن‬kār kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to work )intr.); ‘to do’ in questions with ‫چه‬ )see ‫)چکار‬ ‫کاشکی‬/‫] کاش‬kāsh/kāsh.ki] ‘if only’ or ‘I wish’

‫] کافی‬kā.fi] enough (adj.) ‫] کامروا‬kām-ra.vā] happy (in life) ‫] کامل‬kā.mel] perfect [gr./adj.] ‫] کباب‬ka.bāb] kabab or kebab, a grilled meat dish

‫] کبوتر‬ka.bu.tar] dove; pigeon ‫] کِتاب‬ke.tāb] book (pl. ‫ کتب‬, ko.tob – not used in col.)

‫] کتابخانه‬ke.tāb-khā.ne] library ‫] کتب‬ko.tob] pl. of ‫ – کِتاب‬not used in col. ‫] کتک‬ko.tak] beating, thrashing ‫] کتک خوردن‬ko.tak khor.dan] [→ ‫]~ خور‬ to be beaten or thrashed (intr.)

‫] کتک زدن‬ko.tak za.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ زن‬to beat or thrash (tr.)

‫] کثیف‬ka.sif] dirty ‫] کجا؟‬ko.jā] where? ‫] کدام؟‬ko.dām] which? ‫] کُرد‬kord] Kurd ‫] کردن‬kar.dan] [→ ‫ کن‬, kon] to do; to make

‫] کُردی‬kor.di] Kurdish

‫] کس‬kas] person ‫] کسره‬kas.re] the -e vowel (gr.); its

Persian–English glossary

symbol

‫] کِش‬kesh] → ‫کشیدن‬ ‫] کُش‬kosh] → ‫کشتن‬ ‫] کُشتن‬kosh.tan] [→ ‫ کُش‬, kosh] to kill ‫] کشو‬ke.show] drawer ‫] کِشوَر‬kesh.var] country ‫] کِشیدن‬ke.shi.dan] [→ ‫ کِش‬, kesh] to draw; to pull; to drag

‫] کفش‬kafsh] shoe ‫] کالس‬ke.lās] class; classroom ‫] کاله‬ko.lāh] hat ‫] کلمه‬ka.la.me] word (pl. ‫کلمات‬, ka. la.māt)

‫] کم‬kam] little; few ‫] کمتر‬kam.tar] less; fewer; less often ‫] کمک‬ko.mak] help )‫] کمک کردن )به‬ko.mak kar.dan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to help (sometimes with direct object and no ‫)به‬ ‫] کمی‬ká.mi] a little; a few ‫] کمّی‬kam.mi] quantitative ‫] کن‬kon] → ‫کردن‬ ‫] کوتاه‬ku.tāh] short ‫] کوچِک‬ku.chek] small ‫] کودک‬ku.dak] child (form.) ‫] کودکستان‬ku.da.kes.tān] kindergarten ‫] کور‬kur] blind ‫] کوه‬kuh] mountain ‫] کویر‬ka.vir] desert ‫] که‬ke] that, which (used in noun clauses) ‫] که؟‬ke] who? (form./wrt.) (see ‫ کی‬, ki) ‫] کهنه‬koh.ne] worn-out, used, old (inanimates)

269

Persian–English glossary

‫] کِی؟‬key] when? ‫] کی؟‬ki] who? (col.) ‫] کیف‬kif] bag ‫] کیفِ پول‬ki.f-e pul] purse or wallet ‫] کیلو‬ki.lu] kilo ‫] گذار‬go.zār] → ‫گذاشتن‬ ‫] گذاشتن‬go.zāsh.tan] [→ ‫ گذار‬, go.zār] to put; to leave behind; to let

‫] گذر‬go.zar] → ‫گذشتن‬ ‫] گذشتن‬go.zash.tan] [→ ‫ گذر‬, go.zar] to pass (intr.)

‫[ گذشته‬go.zash.te] past (adj.; n.; gr.) ‫] گرامر‬ge.rā.mer] grammar ‫] گران‬ge.rān] expensive ‫] گربه‬gor.be] cat ‫] گرد‬gard] → ‫گشتن‬ ‫] گرسنگی‬go.res.ne.gi] hunger ‫] گرسنه‬go.res.ne] hungry ‫] گرفتن‬ge.ref.tan] [→ ‫ گیر‬, gir] to take (≠ ‘give’)

‫] گرم‬garm] warm ‫] گره‬ge.reh] knot, tie (n.) ‫] گریه کردن‬ger.ye kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to cry, to weep

‫] گشتن‬gash.tan] [→ ‫ گرد‬, gard] to turn; to stroll

270

‫) گشتن‬. . . ِ‫([ )دنبال‬don.bā.l-e . . .) gash. tan] [→ ‫ ]~ گرد‬to search (for. . .) )‫] گفتن )به‬gof.tan (be)] [→ ‫ گو‬, gu] to say (to) ‫] گل‬gol] flower ‫] گلدان‬gol.dān] vase ‫] گلِ سرخ‬go.l-e sorkh] red rose ‫] گم شدن‬gom sho.dan] [→‫ ]~ شو‬to be lost ‫] گم کردن‬gom kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to lose (sth.)

‫] گو‬gu] → ‫گفتن‬ ‫] گوش‬gush] ear ‫] گوشت‬gusht] meat )‫] گوش کردن )به‬gush kar.dan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to listen to (used with direct or indirect object)

‫] گوشی‬gu.shi] receiver (of a phone) ‫] گیر‬gir] → ‫گرفتن‬ ‫] الزم‬lā.zem] necessary; intransitive (gr.) ‫] الغر‬lā.ghar] thin, slim ‫] الغر شدن‬lā.ghar sho.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to lose weight

‫] لباس‬le.bās] clothes (in general); dress ‫] لذّت‬lez.zat/laz.zat] enjoyment, pleasure )pl. ‫ لذّات‬, laz.zāt) )‫] لذت بُردن )از‬lez.zat bor.dan (az)] [→ ‫ بَر‬, ~] to enjoy [‘get pleasure from’] ً‫] لطفا‬lot.fan] please (adv., used with imperative)

‫] لهجه‬lah.je] accent, dialect ‫] ما‬mā] we/us ‫] مادَر‬mā.dar] mother ‫] مادربزرگ‬mā.dar-bo.zorg] grandmother ‫] ماست‬māst] yoghurt ‫] ماشین‬mā.shin] car ‫] ماضی‬mā.zi] past (gr.) ‫] ماضیِ بعید‬mā.zi-ye ba.’id] past perfect tense (lit., ‘remote past’) (gr.)

‫] ماضی مطلق‬mā.zi-ye mot.lagh] simple past tense (lit., ‘absolute past’) (gr.)

‫] ماضیِ نقلی‬mā.zi-ye nagh.li] present

perfect tense (‘narrative past’) (gr.)

‫] مال‬māl] property, wealth (pl. ‫ اموال‬, am.vāl)

ِ‫] مال‬mā.l-e] property of, belonging to

‫] مالِ کی؟‬mā.l-e ki] whose? ‫] مالی‬mā.li] financial ‫] مأمورِ پلیس‬ma’.mu.r-e po.lis] policeman ‫] مان‬mān] → ‫ماندن‬ ‫] ماندن‬mān.dan] [→ ‫ مان‬, mān] to stay, to remain

‫] ماه‬māh] month; moon ‫] متر‬metr] meter ‫] متعدی‬mo.te.’ad.di] transitive (gr.) ‫] متوجّه شدن‬mo.te.vaj.jeh sho.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ شو‬to notice ‫] مجبور بودن‬maj.bur bu.dan] [→ ‫]~ باش‬ to be forced to

‫] مجهول‬maj.hul] passive (gr.); unknown ‫] محله‬ma.hal.le] neighborhood (pl. ‫ محالت‬, ma.hal.lāt) ‫] محمّدِ مصدّق‬mo.ham.mad mo.sad.degh] Mohammad Mosaddegh (PM of Iran, 1951–53)

‫] مِداد‬me.dād] pencil ‫] مدارس‬ma.dā.res] pl. of ‫مدرسه‬ ‫] مدّت‬mod.dat] duration; period ِ‫] به مدّت‬be mod.da.t-e] for (temp.), for the duration of

‫] مدرسه‬mad.re.se] school (below a college) (pl. ‫ مدارس‬, ma.dā.res) ‫] مرتبه‬mar.te.be/mar.ta.be] ‘time’ as counting word

‫] مَرد‬mard] man ‫] مردن‬mor.dan] [→ ‫ میر‬, mir] to die ‫] مرده‬mor.de] dead ‫] مرغ‬morgh] hen; chicken (as food); bird ‫] مرغابی‬mor.ghā.bi] duck ‫] مرکّب‬mo.rak.kab] complex (gr.); compound, multipart; ink

‫] مرگ‬marg] death ‫] مریض‬ma.riz] sick (adj.); sick person,

Persian–English glossary

patient (n.)

‫] مریم‬mar.yam] Maryam (= Miriam, Mary) ‫] مسائل‬ma.sā.’el] pl. of ‫مسئله‬ ‫] مساعی‬ma.sā.’i] pl. of ‫سعی‬ ‫] مسئله‬mas.’a.le] problem (pl. ‫ مسائل‬, ma. sā.’el)

‫] مستقیم‬mos.ta.ghim] direct, straight ‫] مسلمان‬mo.sal.mān] Muslim, Moslem ‫] مشاغل‬ma.shā.ghel] pl. of ‫شغل‬ ‫] مشکل‬mosh.kel] difficult (adj.); problem )n., pl. ‫ مشکالت‬, mosh.ke.lāt) ‫] مشهد‬mash.had] Mashhad (city in Iran) ‫] مشهور‬mash.hur] famous ‫] مَصدَر‬mas.dar] infinitive (gr.) ‫] مصر‬mesr] Egypt ‫] مضارع‬mo.zā.re’] present tense (gr.) ‫] مضاعف‬mo.zā.’af] double ‫] مطمئن‬mot.ma.’en] sure, certain ‫] معایب‬ma.’ā.yeb] pl. of ‫عیب‬ ‫] معرفه‬ma’.re.fe] definite (gr.) ‫] معشوق‬ma’.shugh] beloved (masc.) ‫] معشوقه‬ma’.shu.ghe] mistress; beloved )fem.)

‫] معلّم‬mo.’al.lem] teacher ‫] معموًال‬ma’.mu.lan] usually ‫] مغازه‬ma.ghā.ze] shop, store ‫] مُفرَد‬mof.rad] singular (gr.) ‫] مفعول‬maf.’ul] object (gr.) ‫] مفید‬mo.fid] useful ِ‫] مقابل‬mo.ghā.be.l-e] in front of; opposite ‫] مقایسه‬mo.ghā.ye.se] comparison ‫] ممکن‬mom.ken] possible; likely ‫] من‬man] I/me (pr., 1sg.)

271

Persian–English glossary

‫] منظور‬man.zur] purpose; aim ‫] مواظب‬mo.vā.zeb] watchful, alert ‫] مواظب بودن‬mo.vā.zeb bu.dan] [→ ‫باش‬ ~] to be careful (intr.)

‫ بودن‬. . . ِ‫] مواظب‬mo.vā.ze.b-e . . . bu.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ باش‬to watch over, to look after; keep an eye on

‫] مواقع‬ma.vā.ghe’] pl. of ‫موقع‬ ‫] موقع‬mow.ghe’] time (pl. ‫ مواقع‬, ma. vā.ghe’)

‫] موقعی که‬mow.ghe.’i ke] when (conj.); also written joined: ‫موقعیکه‬ ‫] مولوی‬mow.la.vi] Rumi (poet, 1207–1273) ‫] مهربان‬meh.ra.bān] kind (adj.) ‫] مهربانی‬meh.ra.bā.ni] kindness ّ‫] مهم‬mo.hemm] important ‫] مهمان‬meh.mān] guest ‫] مهمانی‬meh.mā.ni] party ِ‫] میان‬mi.yā.n-e] in the middle of; inside ‫] میر‬mir] → ‫مردن‬ ‫] میز‬miz] table ‫] میلیون‬mil.yon] million ‫] مینا‬mi.nā] Mina (girls’ name) ‫] نابود کردن‬nā.bud kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to annihilate, to destroy; to cause to become extinct or nonexistent

sit

‫] نشین‬ne.shin] → ‫نشستن‬ ‫] نظر‬na.zar] view, opinion (pl. ‫ نظرات‬, na. za.rāt)

‫] (به) نظر رسیدن‬be na.zar re.si.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ رس‬to seem, to appear ‫] نفر‬na.far] person (only as counting word) (pl. ‫نفرات‬, na.fa.rāt) ‫] نفس‬na.fas] breath ‫] نفس کشیدن‬na.fas ke.shi.dan] [→ ‫کش‬ ~] to breathe

‫] نفی‬nafy; y here is a consonant] negation ‫] نکره‬na.ka.re] indefinite (gr.) ‫] نگاه‬ne.gāh] look; gaze ‫] نگاه کردن‬ne.gāh kar.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ کن‬to watch

‫] ناراحت‬nā.rā.hat] uncomfortable; upset;

‫] نگاه کردن به‬ne.gāh kar.dan be] [→ ‫کن‬

‫] ناسالم‬nā-sā.lem] unhealthful; harmful ‫] ناگهان‬nā.ga.hān] suddenly ‫] نام‬nām] name (more formal than ‫ اسم‬,

‫] نگه داشتن‬ne.gah dāsh.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ دار‬to

sad

esm)

ِ‫] به نام‬be nām-e] called, bearing the name

272

‫] نخست‬no.khost] first (1st) ‫] نخستین‬no.khos.tin] first (1st) ‫] نخود‬no.khod] chickpea ‫[ نخیر‬na.kheyr] no (polite) ‫] نَزدیک‬naz.dik] near (adj.) ِ‫] نَزدیک‬naz.di.k-e] near (prep.) )‫] نشان دادن )به‬ne.shān dā.dan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ ده‬to show (sth. to s.o.) ‫] نشانه‬ne.shā.ne] sign ‫] نشستن‬ne.shas.tan] [→ ‫ نشین‬, ne.shin] to

‫] نامه‬nā.me] letter

~] to look at

keep (+ mi- in pres. and progressive tenses)

‫] نمره‬nom.re] grade (at school); number ‫] نو‬now] new ‫] نود‬na.vad] ninety ‫] نوزده‬nuz.dah] nineteen

‫] نوشتن‬ne.vesh.tan] [→ ‫ نویس‬, nevis] to write

‫] نوشیدنی‬nu.shi.da.ni] drink ‫] نویس‬ne.vis] → ‫نوشتن‬ ‫] نویسنده‬ne.vi.san.de] writer ‫] نه‬na] no ‫] نه‬noh] nine (9) ‫] نهصد‬noh.sad] nine hundred ‫] نهفته‬na.hof.te] hidden (lit.) ‫] نِی‬ney] reed; traditional Iranian flute ‫] نیّت‬niy.yat] desire; objective ‫] نیم‬nim] half (used especially for half-hours)

‫] نیمه‬ni.me] half ‫] نیویورک‬ni.yo.york] New York ‫] َو‬va] and ‫] واپسین‬vā.pa.sin] last (adj.; lit.) ً‫] واقعا‬vā.ghe.an] really ‫] والدین‬vā.le.deyn] parents ‫] وجه‬vajh] mode (gr.); manner, shape ‫] به هیچ وجه‬be hich-vajh] no way; not at all

‫] ورزش‬var.zesh] sport, exercise ‫] ورزش کردن‬var.zesh kar.dan] [→ ‫]~ کن‬ to exercise [sports] (intr.)

‫] وسیله‬va.si.le] means, instrument ‫] به وسیلۀ‬be va.si.le-ye] by, by means of ‫] وقت‬vaght] time )‫] وقتی )که‬vagh.ti (ke)] when (conj.); also written joined: ‫وقتیکه‬ See also entries for ‫ هر وقت‬and ‫هیچوقت‬ ‫] ولی‬va.li] but (conj.) ‫] وی‬vey] he or she (form./wrt.) ‫] ویزا گرفتن‬vi.zā ge.ref.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ گیر‬to to get a visa

‫] هاروارد‬hār.vārd] Harvard ‫] های و هو‬hā.y-o-hu] fuss; hubbub;

Persian–English glossary

ranting; ado

‫] هتل‬ho.tel] hotel ‫] هجده‬hej.dah] eighteen ‫] هدیه‬hed.ye] gift, present ‫] هر‬har] every ‫] هرچه‬har-che] whatever; however much ‫] هر دو‬har do] both ِ‫] هر دوی‬har do.ye] both of ‫] هر روز‬har ruz] everyday ‫] هرگز‬har.gez] never (form.) ‫] هر وقت‬har vaght] whenever ‫] هزار‬he.zār] thousand ‫] هشت‬hasht] eight (8) ‫] هشتاد‬hash.tād] eighty ‫] هشتصد‬hasht.sad] eight hundred ‫] هفت‬haft] seven (7) ‫] هفتاد‬haf.tād] seventy ‫] هفتصد‬haft.sad] seven hundred ‫] هفته‬haf.te] week ‫] هفده‬hef.dah] seventeen ‫] هم‬ham] too; also ‫] همچنان‬ham.che.nān] still (lit.) ‫] همسایه‬ham.sā.ye] neighbour ‫] همکالسی‬ham-ke.lā.si] classmate ‫] همه‬ha.me] all; everybody ‫] همه جا‬ha.me jā] everywhere ‫] همه چیز‬ha.me chiz] everything ‫] همه کس‬ha.me kas] everyone ‫] همیشه‬ha.mi.she] always ‫] همینکه‬ha.min-ke] as soon as ‫] هند‬hend] India (also ‫ هندوستان‬, hendustān)

‫] هندوستان‬hendustān] → ‫هند‬

273

Persian–English glossary

‫] هندی‬hen.di] Indian ‫] هنر‬ho.nar] art; craft; skill ‫[ هنگام‬hen.gām/han.gām] time (lit.) ‫] هنگامی که‬hen.gā.mi/han.gā.mi ke] )lit.) when (conj.); also written joined: ‫هنگامیکه‬ ‫] هنوز‬ha.nuz] still [adv.]; yet (in neg.) ‫] هوا‬ha.vā] weather; air ‫] هواپیما‬ha.vā-pey.mā] airplane ‫] هیچ‬hich] none; nothing; at all ‫] هیچ چیز‬hich-chiz] nothing ‫] هیچجا‬hich-jā] nowhere ‫] هیچکجا‬hich-ko.jā] nowhere )‫] هیچکدام )از‬hich-ko.dām (az)] none (of)/ neither (of)

‫] هیزم‬hi.zom] firewood ‫] یا‬yā] or (conj.) ‫] یاء نسبت‬yā.’e nes.bat] attributive “‫ ”ی‬or stressed -i suffix

‫] یاد‬yād] memory ‫[ )از) یاد بُردن‬az yād bor.dan] [→ ‫ ]~ بَر‬to forget

‫[ )از) یاد رفتن‬az yād raf.tan] [→ ‫ ]~ رو‬to be forgotten

‫[ )به) یاد آوردن‬be yād ā.var.dan] [→ ‫]~ آور‬ to remember, to bring (back) to mind

)‫] یاد دادن )به‬yād dā.dan (be)] [→ ‫ ]~ ده‬to teach (sth. to s.o.)

)‫] یاد گرفتن )از‬yād ge.ref.tan (az)] [→ ‫گیر‬

‫] هیچکس‬hich-kas] no one, nobody ~] to learn (sth. from s.o.) ‫] هیچگاه‬hich-gāh] never (form./lit.) ‫] یازده‬yāz.dah] eleven ‫] هیچگونه‬hich-gu.ne] not of any sort/at all ‫] یخ‬yakh] ice )form./lit.) ‫] یخچال‬yakh.chāl] refrigerator, fridge ‫] هیچوقت‬hich-vaght] never ‫] یک‬yek] one (1) )‫] هیچیک )از‬hich-yek (az)] none (of)/nei- ‫] یکی از‬ye.ki az] one of ‫] یکشنبه‬yek-sham.be] Sunday 9. ther (of)

274

INDEX

adjectives 22 –3; as nouns 92 age 98 alphabet 1 –14; shapes 1 –2; vowels and diphthongs 2 –4; consonants 4 –9; all letters 5 –7; the four letters with different functions [alef, vāv, hé, yé] 11 –3 attributive -i suffix 73 –4 be- prefix: for imperative 104 –09; for subjunctive 150 –54 cherā (‫)چرا‬: as question word 93; affirmattive answer to negative question 49 –50 comparative 89 –90, 91 comparison of adjectives 89 –92 compound verbs 81 –3; with dāshtan (‘to have’) 83 (also treated separately with each tense) conditionals 173 –76 conjunctions 188 –90; and subjunctive 155 –56; in time clauses 194 –201; see also va connector ezāfe (see ezāfe) consonants 4 –9 count words (or measure words) 32 –33 DDO [= definite direct object] → rā definite 66 –68; DDO-marker 80 –81, 209; definite and indefinite determiners used together 81 demonstrative adjectives 33 –34 demonstrative pronouns, 33 –34 diphthongs 3; and possessive suffixes 40; and indefinite suffix 69 direct and indirect objects 79 –80 distributives 98 –100 double negative 99 –100

ezāfe: connecting nouns and adjectives 23 –4, 90; with ordinal numbers 30 –1; possessive 39 –42 future (see tenses and moods) glide: for pl. -ān 21; for ezāfe 23; for the suffixed to be 45 –6; for present tense 56 –7; for past tense (neg.) 131; for imperative 105 –07; for subjunctive 151 –52 glottal stop 10 –1 hamze 10 –1; and [silent] hé 11 hé (‫ )ه‬as final vowel (see silent hé) -i (‫)ی‬-suffix: used as conjugational suffix 44, 45 –7, 48, 55 –7, 130 –31 (see Table on p. 130); used as indefinite determiner 68 –72; in relative clauses, 207 –09; attributive suffix (stressed) 73 –4; difference in stress 73 –4 imperative (see tenses and moods) indefinite and indefinite determiners 66 –73; definite and indefinite deternminers used together 81 infinitive 114 –18 interrogative 43; affirmative and negative answers to questions 50 intransitive 79 ke (‫) که‬: ‫ اینکه‬and ‫ آنکه‬used to make conjunctions 189 –90; in time clauses (‫وقتیکه‬, etc.) 194 –201; in relative clauses 206 –10 negative 43; double negative 99 –100; of compound verbs 82 (see also the verbs

275

INDEX

to be and to have and each of the tenses) no and yes 49 –50 nouns 19 –20; plural of 20 –22; in its absolute form 66 –8 (see also definite/ indefinite) numbers 27 –31; cardinal 27 –30; ordinal 30 –31; with nouns 29 –30; fractions 30 –31; as pronouns 32 –3 passive 216 –20 past and present stems (see tenses and moods) past participle 139 past perfect tense (see tenses and moods) past progressive tense (see tenses and moods) perfect tenses (see tenses and moods) personal pronouns 38; as possessive adjective 39 plural with -ān 20 –2 plural with -hā 20 –2 possessive adjectives 39 –41; possessive suffixes 39 –41; comparison of the two possessive types 40 –1, 47 –8; in relative clauses 210 possessive pronouns (... ِ‫ )مال‬41–2 prepositions 185 –88; in relative clauses 210 present perfect and present perfect progressive (see tenses and moods) present progressive (see tenses and moods) present tense (see tenses and moods; see also to be and to have) pronouns 38; see also possessive pronouns and numbers (as pronouns) quantifiers 98 –100 question words 93 –5 rā (‫)را‬, the DDO-marker [DDO = definite direct object] 80 –81, in relative clauses 209 relative clauses 206 –10

276

silent hé 3, 8, 11, 12; as Arabic feminine ending 20; and plural suffixes 20 –1; and ezāfe 23; and possessive suffixes 40; and the verb to be (copula) 45 simple past tense (see tenses and moods) simple present tense (see tenses and moods)

sokun (or jazm) 14 subject-verb agreement 43 subjunctive (see tenses and moods) superlative 90 –1 tā (‫)تا‬: as count word 32; as preposition 186; as conjunction 201 tanvin 13 tashdid 13 tenses and moods: conditionals 173 –76 future tense 122 –25 imperative 104 –09 past (simple) 130 –32 past perfect 143 past progressive 132 –34 past progressive with dāshtan 134 –35 present 55 –58; of to be 43 –7; of to have 48 –9; of compound verbs 81 –3 present and past stems 55, 104 –05, 115 –16 present perfect 140 –43 present perfect progressive 143 present progressive with dāshtan 58 –60 subjunctive (simple or prersent) 150 –59; in relative clauses 209 –10 subjunctive (perfect or past) 164 –66 table of all tenses 167, with passive included 217 tenses in time clauses 194 –97, 199 –201 wishes 177 –78 time and age: telling the time 95 –7; times of day 96 –7; days of week 97; age 98 time clauses 194 –201 to be (‫)بودن‬: present tense 43 –7; differtences of the two present tense versions 46 –7; imperative form 108; subjunctive form 154 to have (‫)داشتن‬: present tense 48 –9; used as auxiliary for progressive 58 –60; in compound verbs 83; imperative form 108; subjunctive form 154, 165 –66 transitive and intransitive 79 va (‫( )و‬conj.) 29 verbs in Persian 42 –3; person and number agreement in verbs 43, 47 –8; see also the entry for tenses and moods vowels 2 –4 wishes 177 –78 ‘yes’ and ‘no’ 49 –50