Baseball on the Border: A Tale of Two Laredos 9781400884520

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BASEBALL ON THE BORDER

BASEBALL ON THE BORDER

A TALE OF TWO LAREDOS

Alan M. Klein

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

P R INC E T 0 N, NEW

JE RSE Y

Copyright© 1997 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Chichester, West Sussex All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Klein, Alan M., 1946Baseball on the border : a tale of two Laredos I Alan M. Klein. p. em. Includes bibliographic references and index. ISBN 0-691-01198-2 (alk. paper) 1. Baseball-Social aspects-Texas-Laredo-Case studies. 2. Baseball-Social aspects-Mexico-Nuevo Laredo-Case studies. 3. Nationalism and sports-Texas-Laredo-Case studies. 4. Nationalism and sports-Mexico-Nuevo Laredo-Case studies. 5. Cities and towns-Mexican-American Border Region-Social conditions-Case studies. I. Title. GV867.64.K54 1997 796.357'09764'462-dc21 96-46301 CIP

This book has been composed in Janson Princeton University Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources Printed in the United States of America by Princeton Academic Press 10

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FOR MILTON MY COMPASS, AND MARY MY LIGHT, WITH LOVE AND GRATITUDE AND __________________________________________________________

IN MEMORY OF ISMAEL MONTALVO (1913-1996), A BRIGHT STAR IN LAREDO'S BASEBALL FIRMAMENT

Contents __________________

Preface

IX

3

Introduction

PART ONE: ORIGINS

15

One A Brief History of the Two Laredos

17

Two Early Baseball on the Border

32

Three Nationalizing the Game

66

PART TWO: BECOMING TECOS

115

Four The Players and the Team

117

Five Culture and Masculinity on the Tecos

151

Photographs

following p. 169

PART THREE: THE RIVER JOINS AND THE RIVER DIVIDES

171

Six 1993: The Best ofTimes

173

Seven 1994: The Worst of Times

204

Acknowledgments

239

Appendix A: Bibliographic Essay: Border and Nationalisms

243

Appendix B: Methods and Perspective

260

Notes

267

Index

289

Preface __________________________________ Teco Time: A Night at La Junta

DAN FrROVA bolts out of the front door carrying the top of his Tecos uniform and hat in one hand, his duffel bag in the other. If he doesn't hurry he'll get caught in the Laredo bridge traffic heading into Mexico. Jumping into the family 1988 Ford pickup, he catches himself just as he is about to fling the clean white Teco baseball uniform onto a melted mass of Revlon lipstick that his wife Esther has inadvertently left on the seat. The 104 degree heat liquefies most things in less time than it takes to go through the drive-through window at Taco Bell. "God damn it!" shouts Firova, slowing down only long enough to delicately shove the caked lipstick puddle to the floor. That's all Dan's south Texas taciturnity will allow on the matter. The brevity is needed so he can better figure out which street to go down the wrong way, pick up his batting coach, Ricardo Cuevas, and shave a precious minute or two off of his ride to Parque La Junta just across the border. Four U.S. ballplayers, as well as one Mexican national married to a local Laredoan, all of whom play for the Tecos (short for the Tecolotes de los dos Laredos, the Owls of the Two Laredos), also head for the bridge hoping for a fast crossing. A simple "no" or a "No traigo nada" [I'm not bringing anything in] suffices to get you through customs going into Nuevo Laredo, but the volume of cars and trucks on the bridge can take forever. Batting practice is called for 5 P.M., and that's when the rest of the team will show up, not before. Nobody gets to the park early in order to flow easily into the 8 P.M. contest. No one shows up early to get their game face on, either. The ballpark, Parque La Junta, is a decrepit old concrete affair more in need of a wrecker's ball than another makeover. Paint won't help the forty years that went into ignoring its needs. Despite the aversion that almost everyone feels toward the place, Firova and Cuevas want to get there punctually. The amount of heat the thirty-six-year-old manager has been taking from the Nuevo Laredo press only makes him more obsessive about time and efficiency, but you wouldn't know it to look at his tanned and rested bearing. His impassive demeanor and clean good looks never betray his tumultuous rookie season as manager. A forty-minute stint of pitching batting practice in the northern Mexican desert environment, however, will have him looking drenched and spent. Cuevas, on the other hand, never seems to break a sweat, even after spending an hour hitting

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grounders to the infield and barking instructions in the late afternoon heat. Cuevas, a third-generation Mexican ballplayer, is a study in economy of movement, and a well-chosen word or signal from his soft ex-infielder's hands suffices to get his meaning across. The Tecos appear at the park like the intermittent glowing of fireflies, in groups of twos and threes. Though straggling in as they do, everyone somehow is ready for the scheduled batting practice at 5 P.M. Each knot of hitters has its time in the batting cage, where they are cycled through a string of required hitting exercises (e.g., bunting, hitting behind the runner, swinging away). The scene could be enacted in any ballpark: the batter in the cage moves through his repertoire while another three stand around taking shadow swings in anticipation of their turns or potshots at the fellow in the cage. Just now twenty-three-year-old Eduardo Salgado, the Teco mime who doubles as a speedy reserve outfielder, is exaggerating his teammates' batting moves: butt out, elbows splayed, front foot pointing toward the pitcher, clownish smirk on his face. The group of high-status veterans moves to take their turn at the cage. Andres Mora, a home run legend with almost twenty years of baseball behind him, is joined by two more sluggers, Alejandro Ortiz and Marco Antonio Romero. Mora delights in hitting high arching balls that clear the fence by fifty feet, while Ortiz's line shots clear the fence by only four feet but never seem to come down. Mora pauses to watch his, puffing a bit from repetition of swings. Ortiz whistles as his projectiles sear the top of the wall. Mora, Ortiz, and Romero pride themselves on being latter-day Mexican versions of the legendary Cincinnati slugger Ted Kluszewski, who had to cut off his shirt sleeves to accommodate his massive arms. This mustachioed burly trio lives for power, rarely attempting to leg out a wall-banging hit for a double. There is the big bang, and everything else. "Chinga [fuck], [I] thought it was gone," growls Mora, missing a home run by a half a foot. The beef in the batting cage is counterpoised by the long-legged grace of the pitchers running easy laps along the outfield fence. Teco mainstays Ernesto Barraza (a Mexican Bill Lee), Enrique Couoh (so pensive and delicate that he looks more like a young professor than a devastatingly good forkballer), and Juan Jesus Alvarez (a Yaqui Indian who looks as if he were called by central casting at Paramount Pictures) try to run three miles a night. It matters little if the temperature is 103; they walk easily back toward the dugout for a casual drink of water. Before the last Teco batter has successfully lined a ball into the left field gap, tonight's opponents, the Sultanes of Monterrey, arrive at the park. Because of their comparatively lengthy careers, Mexican League players are remarkably familiar with each other. Warm greetings and hugs between members of these teams abound. The "Como estas" [How are you]

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xi

and "Oye Indio [Hey Indian], where's that carburetor I asked you to get for my Chevy?" [in Spanish] is mixed with an occasional English "Hey dude! They told me you were down here. When was it? Spring training '92?" Imports, mostly refugees from the ranks of American AAA teams, form together tightly like elderly emigres pulling their afghans snugly around them in a foreign world. They search eagerly for warmth in a strange, new place. For them, coming to play in the Mexican League is a betrayal full of incredulity mixed with pain. And no one typifies this more than a young blond Teco Import, pitcher Willie Waite. From a distance there is nothing to suggest his socially dyslexic character. His WASPish good looks and intelligent brow seem to point to the opposite. Yet in almost any interaction there is some misfiring of neurons that seems to botch even the most innocent conversation. Only three days earlier, after being relieved in the eighth, he entered the dugout to be attended to by the Tecos trainer, a wonderfully jovial older man with a disarming smile. As the trainer went about ministering an ice pack to Waite's arm, the pitcher peered down at the little man busily working on him and sneered, "Shit man, I thought you were supposed to be the best." Not understanding the slight, the trainer smilingly tried to communicate to Waite-flashing his hand three times-that he should wear the ice wrap for fifteen minutes. Waite didn't understand, and the trainer gently patted Waite on the back, laughing at the communication breakdown. The Anglo pitcher turned, scowled, and gritted a "Fuck you." At this, Cuevas turned to me and said, "And, he pitched good tonight. Can you imagine [if he'd been bad]?" Ortiz would brook none of this. He understood enough English to know that Waite had acted disrespectfully to this older man, and he bellowed in Spanish, "Gringo prick, you have something to say?" Waite was already off to the bullpen and acted as if he hadn't heard a thing. Tonight, however, Waite is uncharacteristically warm and friendly because he has discovered that a television crew from across the river in Laredo is on tap to do a segment on him and the touching binational camaraderie of the Tecos. Thankfully, no one outside of the team seems to sense the antagonism between Mexicans and this group of Americans. A young Anglo television producer is on hand to put the piece together. He knows nothing about baseball or the Tecos, wanting only to get the minimum coverage and interview material. Constantly patting down the long wisps of his balding pate, the television producer spies Waite and directs the cameraman to him. He asks Waite how he likes it here, and the pitcher confides off the record to his compatriots, "Dude, it's a nightmare." Sensing a story, the producer quickly asks him to elaborate. The Anglo pitcher first looks around, responding, "Jesus, you wanna get me killed?"-this in front of fellow pitchers Barraza, Moreno, and Couoh, who all speak English. The three Mexicans impassively look at Waite and the Anglo film

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PREFACE

crew, making eye contact with each other only fleetingly. Couoh disdainfully turns and begins to help fellow pitcher Alvarez to stretch out his lower back. Expectations of gringos are not very high, and Mexican Leaguers have little time to engage their ignorance or even to try to educate them. Despite these very real schisms when the Tecos take the field, they are as one. The pageantry and ritual of the game aid the impression that binational harmony is at work. Wearing the same uniforms and playing a sport that fosters mutual dependency for success, as well as raising the flags and playing the anthems of both nations, help too. Moments when a gringo teammate does something positive are (with the exception of Waite) met with public congratulations. To the naive eye the Tecos appear so cohesive. It's about an hour before game time and the Tecos are all back in the dugout replacing the fluids they lost out on the field with buckets of water. They file through the tunnel to the clubhouse, sounding like a herd of deer wearing taps as their cleats echo across the concrete floor. A large cooler filled with soft drinks and ice sits in the center of the clubhouse. There is nothing unusual about the place. Full-length lockers line three walls. Most everything is painted in a Caribbean blue that has long since let the grey of concrete through. No moldings, carpets, or wood to soften the glare from the industrial lights above. The smell of urinals is never far. This is the minor leagues, and everyone has played in at least one such stadium. There are much better places in the Mexican League than the Tecos' park, whose owners have been fighting with state and local officials for a new facility. The Tecos have been together so long, however, that it no longer occurs to them to comment on the subject. Surroundings and heat pale by comparison to the anticipation of taking over first place tonight. Game time. A trio of young military cadets marches out to center field carrying both a Mexican and an American flag as the loudspeaker plays first one and then the other national anthem. Because of its length the Mexican anthem has to be cut short, and everyone is eager to get the game started, especially the four thousand "Teco Maniacs" that paid to get in. They're cranking their sonejos (wooden noisemakers) and yodeling, Mexican style. In the dugout the players either hold hat over heart American style, or salute hands over heart Mexican style, but many distractedly go through the motions, and some, like outfielder Luis Fernando Diaz, practice English phrases, such as "This is very nice. That was very nice." Pitcher Rene Rodriguez is making kissing sounds in the ear of Eduardo Salgado, who absentmindedly flicks him away. The Tecos take the field and third baseman Ortiz is shouting for everyone to talk it up. He can't be heard above the din the players are making, however. The Yaqui Indian, Juan Jesus Alvarez, is pitching, and his back woes seem apparent as he struggles with his control early on. The Sultanes

PREFACE

xiii

quickly strike for two runs, and the Tecos return to the dugout slightly disgusted. Romero, as always, places his glove gently but compulsively on the white chalk line around the perimeter of the dugout, then seeks something to pound. There is a corner of the dugout I call the "time out" zone that shifts location from one game to the next. You go there to vent: to swear, kick, throw something; and just then one hears two or three "fuuuck"s and a kick of the wall. It passes, though, as first Gerardo Sanchez homers, and then doubles by Luis Fernando Diaz and Pedro Mere and a single by Marco Antonio Cruz bring in three runs. Alvarez gives up only one more run in his gritty, pain-filled six-plus innings of work, while the Tecos rack up another two runs for a 5-3 lead. The magician Enrique Couoh enters to close out the seventh with two strikeouts on pitches that just slide into the red earth around home plate. "Tenedor" is what they call a forkball, but "tender" is how the batters seem to swing at it, as if it actually hurts to make contact. In the eighth Couoh runs into trouble, momentarily struggling with control. A Sultanes single, followed by a double, brings Monterrey to within one run, 5-4. The Tecos bring in the "refuerzos" (reinforcements), which is what, among other things, imports are called. Six-foot six-inch Jay Baller, an ex-Chicago Cub pitcher, comes in to stifle the rally and promptly-in five pitches-pops up the first batter and strikes out the second. The fans and Tecos get a surge of energy and shout their approval as they move back to the dugout. Bobby Moore, import outfielder, mumbles, "I can't see shit out there," while Romero, who is scheduled up second in the inning, asks Mora, "What did he start you off with last time?" Baseball conversations, often in stark contrast to the lengthy indolence of the game itself, are usually short blasts like this. Someone in the far corner is talking to no one in particular, "Chinga su madre [fuck his mother], he threw me change, change, then fastball!" Although they are in need of insurance runs, the Tecos in the eighth inning manage only two weak groundouts and a fly out deep to center, taking a nervous one-run lead to the ninth inning. Baller strikes out the first man. The next batter hits the first pitch over the right field wall ... foul (although he argued that it was fair). Baller tries hard to keep the next pitch outside so that it can't be pulled, but the pitch drifts over the heart of the plate, and leaves the park in a hurry ... fair. It's a new ball game! The score is tied 5-5. The big righthander, however, retains his composure, striking out the last two batters. He walks quickly back to the dugout where, predictably, he vents in the time-out zone. As always, the others look over, under, around, through, but never at, their distraught compadre. Blowing a lead like this late in the season is dispiriting. No matter what spin you attempt to put on it, it is a failure. Locals, however, view it as a wake-up call, a familiar challenge. "Stay, and see what we will do," they reminded me on one occasion. They become even more jubilant and rau-

xiv

PREFACE

cous when the opponent jumps out to a lead, or as in this case, pulls into a tie. The team is riding a six-game winning streak, and for those in attendance, confidence, rather than trepidation, seems to well up. Diaz obliges in the bottom of the ninth by promptly singling the first pitch up the middle. Third baseman Alejandro Ortiz comes to the plate, pushing his cut-off sleeves up and clanging the bat handle off his cup. With a threat to steal on first base, manager Firova gives Ortiz a "show" bunt sign, to give the impression of intent to move the runner along. Ortiz obliges, and the infield charges in. Strike one. Assuming bunt on the second pitch, the Sultanes pitcher falls for the ruse and tries to throw a fastball for an unambiguous strike (so that they might be able to throw the lead runner out at second base). Firova, however, has taken off the bunt sign, giving Ortiz the green light to swing away. Baseball drama is cross-cultural in this regard. There is a sense of anticipation all over the stadium that this is the instant-the pitch, the hit that will deliver them. The fans begin to press against the first rows of the park, while the Tecos themselves all come to stand in front of the dugout. Ortiz cocks his bat, then reacts with an explosive swing that sends the ball somewhere deep into Nuevo Laredo. Ortiz is so much in a "zone" that from the moment he is in the on-deck circle everything is hyper-remote: "I couldn't even hear the fans. Nothing but me and the pitch." He comes to at the instant of contact and uncharacteristically-for him-punches the night air. The Tecos rush out with a shout that is like a bursting dam, swarming home plate to welcome the game winner. Let off the hook, pitcher Baller breathes a sigh of relief. The others, however, are euphoric, playing as if they simultaneously expected and are surprised by this ending. "Somehow, someway God is watching over us. We get the runs and the pitching when we need them. Look how many times we've gone to the playoffs," comments Couoh. Each night seems to produce the needed hero, and most nights it is someone different; and the antagonism between players is momentarily swept away as all join in triumph and cold cans of Tecate in that big cooler with the ice in it. This was, indeed, "Teco time." After everyone has had their share of beer in the clubhouse and left, Firova and Cuevas want one more before returning to Laredo. No hurry now at midnight. It has cooled down to 92 degrees and one could breathe a little. Tomorrow night's game is in Laredo, Texas, the Tecos' other home field. It is this novel arrangement of having a binational team with two home parks and a mixed staff and players that has made the Tecos a mild pop-culture curiosity, focusing increasing national and international attention on this stretch of the border.

BASEBALL ON THE BORDER

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Introduction ________________

ODDLY ENOUGH, in first driving down Interstate 35 toward Laredo, Texas, and the U.S.-Mexican border, I felt as I did upon first approaching Niagara Falls many years before. Back then, the river road I followed propelled me forward until, without warning, the explosion of mist and thundering water rushed up to overwhelm me. You can't prepare for something that grand and terrifying. And similarly, as I approached the outskirts of Laredo, Texas, I felt that the highway was that river, nearing what would be, I felt, an enormous rift in the earth. At the bottom of the chasm would churn the Rio Grande River, and across it two large and very different nations would eye each other. Large, green, suspended signs over the pinstraight interstate, which had grown to six lanes, underscored this impression. Imagine my surprise at encountering the border: a foot-dragging river barely 200 yards across, cut between two very hot and tired-looking towns. Since it was only a stop-over, I really didn't feel the need to think of the border in any informed way. Unfortunately, travelers have been treating the area that way for two centuries. So just as New York has become the "Big Apple" and Seattle the "Emerald City," Laredo, from the mile-long backup of trucks that daily snake along the river waiting to clear customs, is the "Stop Over Capital." In spite of this, Laredo, like the tree near my house that persevered and grew right through the unsightly chainlink fence that sought to confine it, the city actually prospered. The ubiquitous fast-food chains, cheap motels, and businesses selling "Mexico insurance" line the highway as so many pit-stops for travelers. Even the better hotels, distinguished from Motel 6 by their elegance and an identity fashioned out of traditional border stucco and beautiful tile, have their share of truckers, bikers, and an assortment of late-twentieth-century road warriors. My friend and colleague, MiltonJamail of the University of Texas, was to meet me at the hotel. He had arranged an introduction for me with the general manager of Leones de Merida (Merida Lions), a Mexican League baseball team from the far southern reaches of the country. The Leones were on the northern border to play the Tecos. J amail, a Texan and expert in Latin American baseball (and border relations), had convinced me to come here, joining me because this was the closest the Merida team would get to me. In this short four-day visit I hoped to make contact with some of the gatekeepers of the Leones by meeting with their manager and any members of the front office that might have accompanied them to Laredo.

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INTRODUCTION

My previous fieldwork on baseball in the Dominican Republic whetted my appetite for merging social science and the study of sport. 1 What I wanted now was a new site that would be culturally intriguing and physically beautiful, with a substantial history of baseball linked to social and cultural factors. Mexico in general and Merida in particular seemed to fill the bill. A wonderful study of Yucatecan baseball at the turn of the century by historian Gil Joseph convinced me that baseball in the Yucatan had political significance, and I thought I might carry some of his ideas forward. 2 The close proximity of the Yucatan peninsula to baseball-rich countries such as Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico was also a draw. So, too, was the lure of Mayan communities on the peninsula and exquisite archaeological sites such as Chichen ltza. Merida, according to colleagues and friends who had visited the city, was a beautiful colonial treasure. The Tecos, Jamail assured me, were an unusual team in their own right. They represented both Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, and Laredo, Texas. They had two home parks, in two countries! We would attend our Saturday game in the United States and jump across the river to Mexico the following night. By the time we got to Laredo's West Martin Field, I had already begun to ask questions of this dusty urban crossing. It paled by comparison with Merida in every respect but one: the link between baseball and society (in this case, nationalism) was, I felt, riveting. How does the team mediate their different followings, nations, cultures? Without fully realizing it at the time, I was getting caught up with the border. We arrived at West Martin Field just before game time. Stopping at the concession stand for a Coke, I asked the young man working the booth why there weren't any pennants or other souvenirs. This young Mexican American responded by wrinkling his nose slightly, and derisively jerking his thumb behind him (toward the border). "Ever since they took it over [the concessions business], we don't have that stuff anymore." "They" were the "Mexicans on the other side," and the condescension in this young Chicano's demeanor struck me as odd. I had expected more of an identity with his "kinsmen" across the way. The game was very much a well-played minor league affair, which of course is what Mexican League baseball is. The league has the distinction of being the only foreign league with AAA status in the United States. Nothing unique or anthropologically noteworthy occurred. Baseball-wise, however, we spied an Import (U.S. player) who looked vaguely familiar to us. Checking the scorecard, we found he was who we suspected him to be: Mickey Pina, a minor leaguer in the Boston Red Sox organization who, many had thought, was a "can't miss" prospect. He was voted the Most Valuable Player in the Carolina League in 1988, became a major contributor when promoted to the Red Sox AAA affiliate in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1989, and had a great spring training with the parent club in 1990.

INTRODUCTION

5

He didn't make the Red Sox that year and somehow degenerated back in Pawtucket. That led to a trade and injuries, and the flushing sound could be heard. Whatever the reasons for his demise, Pina was in Laredo playing for the Merida team now and munching on a ham sandwich. He had been picked up at the tail-end of the season and, like most Imports, was expected to deliver. It was clear that he was pressing, again perhaps, and trying too hard to make up too much ground in a hurry. Because he spoke only English, Pina's private hell was made worse by not knowing what those around him were saying, thinking, feeling. When we approached him for an interview between games in the double-header, he latched onto us with the gratitude of a shipwrecked survivor. At that time, in the summer of 1992, Mickey Pina looked hot, tired, and lost. As we spoke with him he wanted very much to conjure up better times, or at least to conjure up home. In subsequent years I would see other, even more accomplished players, such as ex-Red Sox pitcher Oil Can Boyd, Cy Young winner Fernando Valenzuela, and his one-time Dodger teammate Pedro Guerrero, players who had made their mark in the majors but who had disappeared from sight. They may have vanished, but they were not gone. From a mainstream American perspective these men were playing in baseball's Bermuda Triangle, a parallel universe to the one we know located just beyond our view. From a Mexican perspective this league had been home to some of the game's giants: Cuban legend Martin Dihigo, Negro Leaguers Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson, and Cool Papa Bell, and established major leaguers of the 1940s such as Sal Maglie and Vern Stephens, who had temporarily jumped ship. Mexican baseball tradition resonates in places that have ranged from state-of-the-art stadiums to quirky parks with trains running through the outfield, with teams that have played the sport for over a century. And while this book views the border as porous, in at least one sense the border has been impermeable: the border has been able to prevent Americans from ever realizing the rich tapestry of baseball that has been woven in the country to the south. The Border Patrol could not have done a better job. Mexican League baseball has never really been thought of as anything but an elephant's graveyard, where ballplayers who can't quit on their own (with dignity) go to die. Jamail maintains that Mexican (and all Latin American) baseball is not so much invisible as it is inaudible. For Mickey Pina and others who are toiling to get out, it probably seems like both. The following day I was introduced to Larry Dovalina, a city official whose family had deep roots in the area and was responsible for the handling of the Tecos' games on the U.S. side. We mentioned the young employee's comments to him, noting how odd they were in the light of the binational arrangement enjoyed between the cities. "Not at all [odd]," responded Dovalina. "We say, 'The river joins, and the river divides.' Peo-

6

INTRODUCTION

ple here spend as much time at each other's throats as they do at each other's weddings." The view of outsiders who think of relations between the two sides as either one of accord or tension is simply wrong. I had just been given my first, and most important, lesson on border relations and nationalism. Each of us, as social scientists, fashions both paradigms and perspectives that we feel are so natural and yielding of truths that they actually help to psychologically center us as individuals. We approach everything with our tool kit at the ready and wield our analytical implements with ease and comfort. These models and methods become our ways of seeing life. For me, sport, and particularly the study of baseball, has become a lens through which I can view social life even more clearly than more conventional institutions. This book looks at a century of baseball played on the TexasMexican border, specifically in the two cities of Laredo, Texas, and Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas. Through the sport, I was able to look at the history of the region and the relations between people on either side of the international boundary. The Tecos are a Mexican League team, until 1985 officially the representative of Nuevo Laredo, with deep roots in the history of baseball in this area. In 1985 the team formally took on the mantle of the two Laredos, becoming the first and only binational sports franchise. In becoming an official representative and emblem of two cooperating national constituencies, the Tecos, I would find, were encoded with information that might help me understand larger international relations and identities. The Tecos' baseball team played dramatically during the two seasons (1993 and 1994) that I followed them. As a group they struggled impressively to succeed one year and fail the next; coming within a few wins of the national crown in 1993, then failing in the following year to even get into the post-season. Outside of the white lines, however, there was acrimony. This was not an alienated team like the 1991 Boston Red Sox, a team so alienated that it was often said of them that they were twenty-six players taking twenty-six separate cabs home following a game. Rather, the Tecos were split by resentment and distrust born of a jealous nationalism. The presence of such an Anglo-irritant only reinforced the sense of Mexicanness of the mexicanos, which in turn fueled the Anglos' sense of isolation and their national identity. But such antagonisms are only one layer of borderland identity and international relations.

The Three Faces of Laredo's Nationalism Underscoring the nationalism fostered through baseball, A.]. Spalding, the sport's first pitching ace and profit maker, declared that the function of the sport was "to follow the Flag." 3 On the Texas-Mexican border, and particularly along the stretch that includes the two Laredos, both national-

INTRODUCTION

7

ism and baseball are tempered by the perception that the borderlands constitute something more unique. The result is that nationalism is more variegated, at once conventionally enacted yet completely novel. One of the border's foremost historians, Oscar Martinez, used the poetry of Gloria Anzaldua to get at the quasi-distinct sense of the region in his social examination of the border: 4 To live in the borderlands means the mill with the razor white teeth wants to shred off your olive-red skin, crush out the kernel, your heart pound you pinch you roll you out smelling like white bread but dead; To survive in the borderlands you must live sin fronteras [without borders], be a crossroads. 5

Most border inhabitants and border scholars understand the way national identity along the U.S.-Mexican border is fragmented and layered. For these individuals the idea that the border is not fixed and impenetrable is nothing new. Neither is the view that border relations between Americans, Mexican Americans, and Mexicans on the border is an ambivalent one: bonding at points, divisive at other points. But for the other 220,000,000 or so nonborder-dwelling Americans, the idea that the international boundary is complex, porous, and consists of a cultural corridor some three hundred miles wide on both sides of the boundary is somewhat novel. Understanding how the concept of nationalism operates on the border is what drives this book. Nationalism is a concept that crosses disciplinary borders as easily, and often as informally, as do the young drug peddlers daily floating across the river from Nuevo Laredo on inner tubes, trailing duffel bags full of marijuana for sale in Laredo's neighborhoods. As a result, the concept defies easy classification, taking on the protective coloration of the interdisciplinary environment. Still there have been several studies of nationalism that reconfigure some of the traditional perceptions of nationalism into new, more layered interpretations. Nineteen eighty-three was a somewhat journeyman year in major league baseball. No team or individual performance stuck out. LaMarr Hoyt and John Denny won Cy Young awards with good but mortal years. Cal Ripken, Jr., was voted the Most Valuable Player in the American League with solid, unpretentious numbers: a .318 batting average, 27 home runs, and 102 runs batted in, with 19 errors in the field. His Baltimore team went on to beat Philadelphia in the World Series, four games to one. For the Tecolotes of Nuevo Laredo, 1983 was a rare off year. It was one of only three seasons since returning to the border in 197 6 that the team failed to get into the playoffs, and one of the few times that slugger Andres Mora failed to hit twenty or more home runs in a season. Fans of the "border birds," as they are sometimes called, were disappointed.

8

INTRODUCTION

But 1983 was a "monster" year for scholars writing on the subject of nationalism. In that year three books, all destined to make their marks, were published. Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger edited a collection of historical studies exploring Hobsbawm's intriguing concept of "invented tradition." 6 Within his contribution to the volume, Hobsbawm loosely linked the study of sport to attempts on the part of social historians to chronicle the rise of nationalism in Europe. He argued that certain institutions, rituals, and spectacles of recent origin, such as sport, have ancient trappings and wind up linking something new to something quite a bit older. No concrete study of sport was offered, however, leaving it to others to use the concept in one way or another. 7Baseball on the Border attempts to deepen our understanding of sport as an invented tradition. Benedict Anderson's acclaimed Imagined Communities is an anthropological and historical study of the emergence of national cultural forms that aid in the establishment of a national consciousness through looking at large-scale cultural forms. 8 Since actual face-to-face familiarity is impossible among members of the nation-state, more circuitous cultural routes (such as the cultural implications of publishing books and newspapers) for achieving a general sense of belonging to a community are created. Finally, Ernest Gellner's Nations and Nationalism also appeared that year. 9 He too informed the study of nationalism with an anthropological sensibility. Gellner's book provided a thorough-going assessment of the social and ideological roles behind the emergence of nationalism out of agrarian societies. So, while Baltimore and Ripken impressed but underwhelmed us, and while the Tecos disappointed, "nationalism" had a career year. Baseball and nationalism meet in the study of popular culture, and there is little doubt that the two play off each other. They are not equal partners, though. Spalding's nationalist pronouncement about the role of baseball has gone unchallenged, and reading any of the smattering of writers on international baseball continues to show the disproportionate weight of nationalism. 10 People may die because of baseball, but not for it. Nationalism, on the other hand, is a consequence of political programs and sociocultural forms that have garnered more than its share of canon fodder, 11 and is considerably more critical to the functioning of the modern nation-state than any game. What then is the role of sport in the study of nationalism? What can sport tell us about nationalism that other institutions can't or don't? As defined by Ernest Gellner, nationalism strives "to make culture and polity congruent, to endow a culture with its own political roof." 12 Used in a broad sense, we can join Gellner's definition with those of others so that nationalism is seen as made up of political positions and cultural properties such as rituals, sentiments, and perceived history, in addition to broadbased social institutions such as education and media. All of these are de-

INTRODUCTION

9

signed to foster a sense of political sovereignty and identity within some political entity, typically the nation-state. On the U.S.-Mexican border the ideal conditions discussed in works like Gellner's are not met, with the result that nationalism is fractured in such a way as to enable people on both sides of the border to claim a variety of structural relations and identities. I have targeted three of these faces of nationalism, which I refer to as autonationalism, binationalism, and transnationalism. All three are based on the particular kinds of structural and behavioral relations that characterize the border. If living on the border demands a constant and structured exchange and interaction of one sort or another, there is bound to be a set of identities that reflects this.1l I simply isolated three (there may be more) forms of nationalism, two of which may not be present further in the interior of either country, and hence are somewhat unique to the border. Autonationalism consists of what most scholars have viewed as nationalism: namely, political and social relations that foster an identity with the nation-state. To avoid confusion with conventional use of nationalism, and to emphasize its "quality of self reference," 14 I use autonationalism. Autonationalism fosters collective identification both through the inclusion of those living within fixed borders and the exclusion of neighboring entities and others. Nations divide social/national reality into idyllic "we" and demonic "they." 15 At best, these international relations allow for interludes of alliance and assistance, reserving most of their energy for quickly recasting the "other" as an enemy. 16 Promoting national identity through the state's apparatus, its sociocultural institutions, is a twofold proposition: either directly inducing a sense of pride in one's nation through its accomplishments (e.g., a gold medal at the Olympics, viewing a national treasure), or fomenting and channeling anger at an enemy and thereby promoting internal cohesion. Mexican nationalism, which has proceeded in fits and starts for over a century and a half, used both mechanisms of autonationalism. Certainly the presidency of Porfirio Dfaz is linked with the largest advance in nationalismY The economic modernization Dfaz orchestrated between 1876 and 1910, while further impoverishing the majority, also managed to push the cause of economic development. The volume of manufactured goods doubled during his thirty-four years in office. 18 Albeit with foreign capital, Dfaz built the railroad system, which in turn spurred on the growth of mining, textiles, and oil industries, while encouraging the growth of industrial centers such as Monterrey. The Porfiriato (as the Dfaz presidency was known), the revolution, and the period after it all furthered the development of Mexican nationalism through a growing sense of regional integration, a national art movement (e.g., Diego Rivera), and a new-found pride in the Indian culture from which the country sprang. These sources of positive national pride came

10

INTRODUCTION

from the nationalist movement that Diaz worked tirelessly to initiate. Pride in things Mexican was the ideological word of the day. If positive and direct forms of autonationalism were emerging, they worked in tandem with the anti-imperialism and resentment toward Americans that was never far away. When American troops invaded the port of Veracruz in 1914, the Mexican outrage was so intense and far-flung that it almost served to make the political factions (Huerta and the Constitutionalists) at each other's throat align against the yanquis. 19 Likewise, when in 1962 President Lopez Mateos nationalized the U.S. and Canadian electric companies and boldly declared with electric lights that La electricidad es nuestra (the electricity is ours!), there was an edge to the declaration that could only be tapped by referring to the U.S. role in fueling Mexican nationalism. A much more direct and a more contemporary form of anti-imperial autonationalism is found in the cultural interplay that is part of tourism along the border. Arreola and Curtis's examination of tourism in Mexican border cities sheds new light on the roles and functions of U.S-Mexican relations. 20 Exploring the sights and meeting the people of Mexico are not objectives for the American border tourists who, parenthetically, make up the brunt of tourists to Mexico. 21 The authors isolated two primary poles around which tourism on the border revolves: escaping the drudgery of their lives, and validating their social and cultural self-worth. The purchase of artifacts or speciality items such as liquor and leather goods, or the entertainment that American tourists pay for, translates into fleeting cultural voyeurism that enables them to feel as if they have experienced stereotypic "old Mexico." In this tourist pattern, the visitor along Nuevo Laredo's Avenida Guerrero or infamous bordello district ("Boy's Town") can safely (i.e., without being encumbered by Mexican reality) engage a contrivance as a genuine cultural experience. The second function of tourism in border cities works off the invidious comparisons tourists and those in developing nations typically make. 22 Here, autonationalism makes real cultural use of imagined communities. The Mexican, for his/her part, earns a living from their presence and reinfort.:es his/her disdain for U.S. tourists by exploiting their cultural ignorance. As one border scholar pointed out, "Anglos often comment on the worthlessness of border crafts and curios, but it's only Gringos, not the Mexicans, who buy the crap sold in tourist areas." 23 Anglos living on the U.S. side of the border also get to make invidious comparisons since life on the U.S. side is so much better. Mexicans visit U.S. cities for work and to consume goods that they cannot get, or get as cheaply, in Mexico. The vast majority of Mexicans who visit U.S. border cities are Nortefios or recent emigres to the northern Mexican states. Their experiences in U.S. cities only reinforce their per-

INTRODUCTION

11

ception as being less fortunate, and indirectly fuel the mindset of "haves and have nots" replete with resentment, arrogance, and inferiority. 24 Less well known is the presence of small numbers of affluent Mexicans who visit the U.S. side of the border to buy whatever they fancy. These Mexican tourists do not share the mindset of their compatriots as wanting and underdeveloped. In border tourism, each side learns disdain, and through it they validate their national selves. It is not out of a sense of international altruism that binationalism is forged, but rather out of enlightened self-interest. Sharing common resources, hence destinies, makes for a particularly compelling set of reasons for the establishment of binational traditions and practices along the border. For communities along the Rio Grande pollution of the river has become increasingly problematicai.2 5 Where once the two nations mostly negotiated access to water for arid communities, 26 they now regularly discuss health hazards stemming from the large-scale dumping of toxins by the maquiladoras (foreign, typically U.S.-owned factories operating on the Mexican side of the border) along the river. Reports of the alarming rise in cancer rates among border dwellers, particularly on the Mexican side, 27 has begun to focus attention on lack of adequate environmental policies that can safeguard the health of the region's residents. Nevertheless, despite a common interest, geographer Lawrence Herzog points out that one of the problems hampering progress in these areas is that the Mexican prioritizing of problems is quite different from the American view. 28 Environmental safeguards are distinctly secondary to employment and increased manufacturing for Mexican authorities. In the stretch of river passing through the two Laredos these problems also exist. The summer of 1994 recorded the first confirmed death from contact with bacteria in the Rio Grande in the vicinity of Laredo. 29 Further confirming what locals already know, a Washington D.C.-based environmental research group, American Rivers, has concluded that the Rio Grande is among the ten most threatened rivers in the world. While the maquiladoras of Nuevo Laredo are among the major culprits in dumping of toxins locally, it is the combined efforts of los dos Laredos that resulted in a binationally financed water treatment plant completed in 1994. 30 Of longer-range impact and equally promising is the sociocultural way in which the two cities are going about trying to meet the problem. "Project del Rio" is a binational educational program that pulls together high school students from both sides of the river in an effort to teach them how to test for pollution, inform them of the severity of the rivers problems, and work with them on how to develop environmental solutions. The program exists in cities all along the border, and in time could begin to compete with the more widespread perception of pursuing economic growth at all costs. This particular example illustrates the ways in which the bina-

12

INTRODUCTION

tiona! relations are forged to face issues of common interest. For the two Laredos binationalism is just as much a precondition as it is a consequence of these problems. Long before there was ever a water hazard along the Rio Grande, the inhabitants of the two Laredos were exhibiting forms of binational identities (see below). The border is a shared space in which sovereign nations are forced to confront each other's existences and find ways of relating to each other, not simply in the conduction of commerce, but in solving problems. In the Laredo area this binationalism is mutated, an outgrowth of an earlier tradition of unity that became fractured and was forced to face itself as binationalism. The Laredos' binational relations are social and cultural as well. During the impending destruction of Nuevo Laredo in the bloody fighting of 1916, for instance, it was a team of doctors and nurses from Laredo who came to the aid of wounded Mexican fighters, just as now the local heads of the Laredo fire departments are sharing their training in hazardous waste cleanup with their Nuevo Laredo counterparts. Culturally, there are anumber of events that fuse the two cities. Some of these events-the Washington's Birthday Celebration discussed in Chapter 1, for instance-involve sharing in the celebrations of one city by their cross-river neighbor. With nonstop movement (legal or illegal) of goods and people along the border comes the potential for the development of a transnationalism, a cultural identity forged out of each country's autonationalism and binational links. In time, the approach-avoidance so characteristic of autonationalism and binationalism is parlayed in a distinct set of traditions that identifies the two as more identified with each other than they are with their national points of origin. Operating out of the clash of traditions, this new identity is intensified or ameliorated by other factors, most notably by the distance from centers of each country. In the case of the two Laredos this fused identity preceded the border, and dates to a time when Laredoans were Mexican citizens who happened to live on one side or another of the Rio Grande (see Chapter 1). Their sense of common identity was further fueled by their distance from either Mexican or U.S. centers of power. Viewed from the centers of each nation these developments can, at times, take on the appearance of a fugitive construct, as in the 1840 attempt at nationalist cessation by an amalgam of people on both sides of the river in the short-lived Republic of the Rio Grande. Most U.S.-Mexican border scholars, regardless of their disciplines, have long ago promoted the notion of the border as a quasi-independent identity. While some hedge a bit on the extent of this transcendent identity, feeling more on solid ground with the notion of binationalism, most agree that the border has a unique set of qualities not found in the interior of either nation. Likewise most scholars are acutely aware of the differences that rest principally on economics. But even though there are qualitative

INTRODUCTION

13

differences in the urban couplings found along the border and the extent of economic development found on each side, the continued interaction between the two carries forth the border tradition that began centuries ago. All three forms of nationalism exist as structural relations, behavior, and sentiment (identity), and all of them have analogs in the realm of baseball on the border. While present within the context of baseball and the border, these three nationalistic forms are not present in equal proportions, however. One has to see them as more or less present at different times and in differing ways. With this caution in mind, I would argue that in some respects an examination of the sport and subculture of baseball in this region illustrates these nationalisms as well or better than other kinds of studies. In this context sport is a reflection of international relations and politics, and more. Told from the perspective of the people on the border, the examination of baseball becomes a story of families who celebrate and cry together, who seethe and scream at one another, but who are bound together by a common past and future. In looking at baseball we can glimpse the way in which local social relations can obscure and at times are obscured by larger national considerations. As poorly outlined as they are, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and other binational enterprises such as Europe's European Union (EU) might benefit from small-scale studies such as this by keying in on how local relations work in relation to the larger picture. An equally important motive in writing this book has to do with presenting back to the people of the two Laredos a piece of their own history, one which I came to realize they had never before seen compiled. The book is divided into three parts, describing the origins of the region and the sport of baseball, the team itself, and finally the issues and crises Laredoans in both cities faced over a period of two years. The region and its history is presented in Chapter 1. Through two and a half centuries the Laredo borderlands struggled with a range of natural and manmade problems, in the course of which they fashioned the three forms of nationalism discussed in this book. Several very important local cultural institutions are also examined as forms of popular culture that also reflect nationalism. The sport of baseball arrived with the railroads and modernization, and Chapter 2 examines the first decades of the sport of baseball up to the 1930s. This was an era of semi-professional sport marked by a high degree oflocal control. Questions of origins of baseball in the region (including Mexico) are answered through archival material. Once the game was established in this region, a tradition of baseball excellence emerged that produced some of the finest semi-pro teams in either country, culminating in the La Junta teams of the mid-to-late 1930s. As the decade of the 1940s dawned, the Mexican League had become professionally established and was headed by its most famous commis-

14

INTRODUCTION

sioner, the flamboyant Jorge Pasquel. Chapter 3 chronicles how Pasquel and his brothers grew to control the league, own its most powerful teams, and dominate Mexican baseball for over a decade. Pasquel's nationalism was quite antagonistic to U.S. baseball interests and their patronizing attitudes directed at Latin America. In response, Pasquel embarked on an ambitious-some would say instigated-project of recruiting major league players for his league, thereby ushering in what has become known as the "baseball wars." The chapter then goes on to more briefly chronicle the last half-century of baseball for the Tecos. Chapters 4--7 feature the ethnographic study of the team. Likening the Tecos to a modern city with a historic center and suburban ring, Chapter 4 is my structural description of the team. Relations between different parts of the team are made to resemble different interactions between parts of contemporary cities. In an effort to develop a sense of familiarity with key individuals that appear over and other again in the ethnographic material, eleven mini-biographies are presented. In Chapter 5 I link the institution of machismo with dimensions of nationalism. Using ethnographic observations and interviews, I look at the way Mexican players reflect and depart from traditional Mexican forms of machismo, as well as how they differ from gringos. These contrasts wip.d up indirectly fueling nationalist resentment. Chapter 6 is the heart of the Teco ethnography, a look at the 1993 season. As with all the chapters, issues of nationalism emerge, but this micro-examination takes the reader through what anthropologists refer to as the "annual round" of activities that give us a sense of yearly cycle that encompasses life and also structures behavior. The final chapter chronicles the demise of the binational experiment in 1994. The crisis that led to the rupture is discussed in terms of the trinational model. Again, ethnography lies at the heart of this chapter. In the course of the events up to and after this breakup, other components of the local baseball scene are also examined as they respond to the Teco predicament. The appendixes include a brief explication of the methods employed in this study, as well as a somewhat longer bibliographic essay that discusses pertinent definitions of nationalism and how they have been employed by border scholars seeking to look at the complexities of border identity.

Part One ________________________________ ORIGINS

lJne _____________________________ A Brief History of the Two Laredos

WHILE THE Tecos are being presented as the crown jewel of border events along this stretch of the river, they are only one part of a much larger array of binational events that bring both sides of the border together. They include sports ventures such as the "Border Olympics" (begun in 193 3), which preceded the Tecos. Most recently the Juegos de la Amistad (Peace Games) were started in hopes of bringing even closer ties between the two cities, with a one-day event featuring competition in baseball, basketball, soccer, and softball. 1 Binational cultural events are also part of the arts. The Orquestra de Camara de los dos Laredos (the Chamber Orchestra of the two Laredos) was begun in 1994 and features musicians from both cities. The Tecos are certainly not the oldest such phenomenon either. Nor are they the most widely attended, but because of the length of the baseball season, stretching some six to seven months, the Tecos occupy the longest period of time in the consciousness of the people of the Laredos. Because of this, the team has more potential to weave itself into the daily life of the communities. There is an impressive sense of social reciprocity to all these binational celebrations. When one city holds an event it is assumed that celebrants will be drawn from the other side. Thus, when Nuevo Laredo celebrated its 146th anniversary in 1994, a festival that included a wide range of arts and music from not only northern Mexico but other Mexican States as well, the media in Laredo featured it prominently, and thousands from the Laredo area attended. The same is true of the "Borderfest," a Laredo area (south Texas) cultural event that takes place over the July fourth weekend, in which Nuevo Laredoans flock to taste and take part in the cultural events. With Laredo being approximately 93 percent Hispanic, even purely national Mexican holidays such as Cinco de Mayo (May 5) and Independence Day (September 16) are celebrated in Laredo. Since 1983 the city of Laredo has intensified these binational efforts by having representatives from Nuevo Laredo come into local schools and take part in educating young Laredoans about the importance of the holidays.

Washington's Birthday Celebration No border tradition in Laredo, however, is quite as binational, culturally curious, or as contested as is Washington's birthday. Begun in 1898, as an

18

CHAPTER I

attempt to inject an Anglo element into Laredo's Mexican-dominated culture, the Washington's Birthday Celebration (WBC) has become the granddaddy of binational events on this stretch of the border. It has grown into a ten-day-long event that includes parades, festivals, and lavish balls in which Laredo's most distinguished families concoct versions of eighteenthcentury New England colonial attire. Parades featuring many of these costumes, which have been exaggerated somewhat, are also part of the festivities. Here we see a mixture of Anglo and Mexican elements, whether it be in the elaborate brocade so much a reflection of Mexican dress or the lapsing into Spanish on the part of the periwigged Washingtons. 2 The irony, as Hinojosa points out, 3 is that the original motive on the part of the Anglos was to counter the mexicano emphasis on las fiestas patrias with a celebration of one of the biggest American icons. In the course of its development, this event has gone from reenacting the Boston Tea Party, to a Pocahontas dress competition, back again to the formation of the Fiesta Mexicana (begun in 1925). Whatever the original Anglo intent, the WBC has been partially coopted by Laredo's Mexican Americans, who have always maintained a degree of cultural control in the Laredo region and, in true binational spirit, not only attend these celebrations, but take on key roles in them. The fiesta mexicana culturally corrected the overwhelmingly Anglo content of this event, making it more an event beholden to two cultures. In the first Fiesta, workmen converted the city's central plaza into a replica of a Mexican village, offsetting the culturally irrelevant Boston Tea Party motif. 4 Looked at over time, this festival is certainly amenable to Limon's metaphor of mexicanos "dancing with the devil," the view held of Texans. 5 The dance may be with the devil, indicating the cultural tensions between the races, but it is nevertheless-or more importantly-a dance. From the first, officials of Nuevo Laredo were part of the festivities, but more importantly, so were thousands of ordinary Mexican citizens, and not simply from Nuevo Laredo. It was reported that there was even a trainload of visitors from Saltillo, Mexico, at the first celebration. 6 The most direct and important political moment occurs in the "abrazos" (embraces) ritual in which leaders of both cities (and sometimes, as in 1995, the governors of Texas and Tamaulipas) meet at the midway point of the international bridge to exchange embraces and the promise of continued cooperation and goodwill between countries. Is this level of mutual interest and involvement equally true of other metropolitan border couples? Not according to local civic leaders such as the head of Laredo's Civic Center, Larry Dovalina, who, as I mentioned earlier, first presented me with the river as a joining and dividing image. Looking at the history of the Laredos shows us that the Tecos, as an enterprise linking people on both sides of the river, are nothing at all unusual, nor are the tensions that somehow or other seem to exist alongside these linkages.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE TWO LAREDOS

19

Social History of the Laredos Little known and unsettled by eighteenth century Spanish colonists, Nuevo Santander was a vast stretch of territory along the lower Rio Grande in what was part of the northern reaches of Spain's Mexican colony. Apaches and Comanches, both of whom considered this area home and often raided along this stretch, considerably cooled colonization ardors. Despite the potential for attack, the Spanish felt forced to settle the area in response to inroads made by the French, who had already colonized the areas of east Texas and parts of the Mississippi River valley. Suddenly, the Spanish wanted a presence to anchor the area, and so called on Colonel Jose de Escandon to start a string of settlements and missions along the Rio Grande in Nuevo Santander. Escandon responded by commissioning the founding of Dolores, Revilla, and eighteen other locations, and granted to don Tomas Sanchez the opportunity to found Laredo in 17 55. 7 The fordability of the river made it ideal in Sanchez' eyes. Indeed, ease of crossing was the factor in most of the settlements on the river. Settlers in this region lived "hard by water,'' 8 making the river a social magnet and the wellspring for economic life. With its steep banks, the river did not allow settlers to divert its water into an irrigation system; consequently farming of the bottom lands was not effective. Ranching, on the other hand, was. Vaquero culture and the Anglo imitation of it, later termed "cowboy" culture, was to evolve as people raised sheep and cattle on the arid grasslands along the river. On May 15, 17 55, Sanchez and three families arrived at their destination (named for the Spanish town of Laredo on the Bay of Biscayne) on the north shore of the Rio Grande. Two years later, the hamlet had grown to eleven families and some eighty-five people, mostly immigrants from downriver at Revilla. The new immigrants were, at first, welcomed as they set up households on the southern bank of the river. The easily forded location made movement back and forth easy for the community's ranching population: "The Rio Grande in those years was not only the commercial artery, but the link of the townspeople with each other. There they drew their water, the women washed clothes and chatted, and lovers met after dark." 9 The prickly exteriors of the men and women of la frontera that fostered regional identity, brooking neither Mexican or American interference, also fostered bitter factionalism. 10 At the outset, the major source of rancor in the newly formed community involved the refusal of the most recent arrivals to move across the river to the main settlement. 11 Don Tomas saw this as a threat to his political authority. When, in 1767, Sanchez distributed porciones (land titles) among the heads of households in the steadily growing community, forty-four out of ninety were awarded to families on the south

20

CHAPTER 1

side of the river. 12 Try as he might, however, Sanchez could not successfully get all of the south-bank inhabitants to move across the river until, later in the nineteenth century, Indian raids forced the issue. 13 While serious, these factional disputes did not completely disrupt the life of early Laredo, which continued attracting settlers. Within ten years of its founding Laredo became incorporated as a villa (town) "of 60 huts which straddled the Rio Grande." 14 The growth of the villa of Laredo, in spite of Indian depredations and internal squabbling, speaks volumes for the way in which conflict and cooperation seemed to mutually reinforce each other. Through the nineteenth century three factors combined to forge the unique character of this region: the vaquero/ranching culture, the remoteness of the Rio Grande from centers of American and Mexican power, and the chronic depredations from hostile Indian groups. These conditions made for a social/cultural life that promoted a local sense of autonomy, and a perception elsewhere that these people were significantly different. This area of New Spain was notorious for its deserts, rugged mountain chains, and lack of river systems. Agriculture, certainly along the Rio Grande, was a frustrating undertaking, but the climate and terrain was well suited to ranching. The settlers of the Laredo area found that their sheep herds proliferated quickly, while attempts to raise corn were so pathetic that they resorted to importing it from the neighboring state of Coahuila. 15 The culture that grew up around raising sheep, horses, and cattle was as hard-bitten as the environment in which it grew up: "Frontier Laredo was not the classical romantic Spanish colonial society of gallant dons and gracious donas, but a rough and, at times, bloody ranching society," writes Laredo historian Stanley Green. 16 The conditions of ranching life were difficult enough to prompt some families to abandon the free and open land that lured them to the Laredo area in the first place. 17 There is an old Navajo Indian saying: "It is only when you've lost some toenails to frostbite that your sheep belong to you.'n 8 This willingness to endure hardships was just as characteristic of the vaquero tradition that evolved in TexasTamaulipas as of their Native American neighbors to the west. Transnationalism. In his classic work The Great Plains, Walter Prescott Webb first put forward the argument that cowboy culture's origins could be traced to the "cattle culture" in the Texas-Tamaulipas area. 19 The success of this tradition led to its diffusion throughout the west. His view of "ranchero" culture involved the fusion of Mexican vaquero techniques for raising herds with American innovations (e.g., barbed wire, revolvers, and new view on land ownership). Folklorist-anthropologist America Paredes,20 looking at vaquero tradition in the borderlands area, was more intrigued by the cultural implications and trajectory of this northern Mexican institution: "Mexicans lent the image of the vaquero to their neighbors

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE TWO LAREDOS

21

to the north, and the image returned to Mexico wearing a six-shooter and a Stetson hat." 21 Both authors convey the sense of the cultural evolution of the cowboy as conceived in the earlier horseback-riding vaquero of the Texas-Tamaulipas region. The distance of Nuevo Santander from Mexico City posed administrative problems for the central government, as did all of the northern provinces.22 Combined with a desert environment and sealed off by rugged mountains, the northern provinces of Mexico were culturally and bureaucratically isolated from the central valley of Mexico. Until the railroad system was brought into Mexico in the late nineteenth century, California, New Mexico, and Texas (also Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, Coahuila) were hard to govern. In the earliest days this was of little consequence since only Native American tribes and a trickle of explorers were to be found there. But from the late eighteenth century on, when there was a concerted effort to colonize the area, problems arose between the northern area and the central government. The distance of the Laredo region from Anglo centers of power, while of more recent vintage, also fostered the independence. When the Republic of Texas declared its political autonomy in 1835, Anglo-dominated Austin became the dominant sphere of influence on Laredo, yet could do little for the new republic's most southern community. The alcalde (mayor) of the village of Laredo beseeched first the Mexican government, then the Texans, for relief from the chronic raiding by Comanches but received little support. Yet when Santa Anna drove to Goliad he expected to be quartered and serviced at Laredo. So it was too with the Texas troops that later entered Laredo. The feeling of abandonment by both Mexicans and Americans along the border was palpable by the late 1830s. 23

Indian Presence. In the histories of the region, attention is invariably focused on Spanish colonization, the development of the border, and the intersection of Anglo, Mexican, and Mexican American groups. With rare exception, Native Americans are treated as a preface or an afterthought to the drama of Mexico, Texas, and the United States. 24 Overlooked are the consequences of colonization and the expansion accompanying nationbuilding, which took their toll first on these Native American groups. Resistance to the Spanish was forthcoming almost immediately. Their missionizing efforts were a combination of condescension, callousness, and brutality. 25 Physical abuse in the form of attacks against native populations, or corporeal punishment such as flogging and mutilation for those populations already presumed to have become civilized, were mixed in with policies that advocated dependency on alcohol and playing groups off against one another. 26 Significant armed resistance against these colonial efforts was documented in 1616 by the Tepehuan in Durango; in 1640 by the

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Tarahumara in Chihuahua; and the Pueblos of New Mexico in 1860. The response on the part of New Spain was to institute presidios (armed forts) throughout the vast expanses of the territories it hoped to effectively colonize. This worked little better than to divert attacks by Indian groups from one area to another. The missionary and colonial efforts essentially stagnated from the eighteenth century on as Spain's inability to control so vast a domain in the Western hemisphere became ever more apparent. One result was the hiving off of Mexico, which successfully claimed its independence in 1821; another was the gradual encroachment from the east of France and American trappers, traders, and would be settler-colonists. Facing "seemingly endless civil strife,"27 Mexico was also unable to establish a successful Indian policy. The result was, if anything, an increased scope of Indian attack against all representatives of Mexico. For the norteiio, this meant chronic threat to life and limb as bands ofYaquis, Lipan Apaches, Kiowas, and predominantly Comanche roamed far and wide across the border raiding and frequently capturing and killing their targets. With the establishment of the Republic of Texas in 1836 and twelve years later the U.S.-Mexican border, the creation of an international boundary along the Rio Grande only intensified Indian attacks. The impact of all this geopolitical shifting was to further disrupt the economic systems of a range of Native American groups living close to the border. A domino effect was created because in order to establish the border, Texas intensified its essentially genocidal policy toward Indians. 28 By the late eighteenth century the Comanche had become the most powerful Indian group in Texas. As the nineteenth century progressed, however, they found themselves pushed further and further west and south by increased pressure from Anglo settlements. The Texans' policy toward Indian groups differed little if at all from that of Mexican Americans; that is, it was intolerant of them culturally yet determined to dispossess them of their lands. 29 Ironically, relations between native groups and Anglos began peaceably. Even in their early dealings with Austin and Houston, founder and first president of the Republic, respectively, there were attempts to act in a conciliatory way with natives, particularly the Comanche. 30 When, in 183 8, Mira beau Lamar succeeded Houston as president of the Republic of Texas, Indian policy took an aggressive turn. 31 Lamar's tenure as president coincided with increased Comanche attacks on San Antonio, which led to both the establishment of military posts throughout the southern Texas region along with a series of aggressive campaigns against the Comanche. The wholesale killing of hundreds of innocents on both sides worked to foster a vicious cycle throughout the nineteenth century. Because of the mistrust engendered by Lamar's tenure as president, Sam Houston's efforts to develop peaceful relations with Indian groups failed after he regained the presidency in 1841.

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The aboriginal inhabitants of the area around Laredo were not marauding Lipans or Comanches, but rather peaceful bands of gatherers and hunters called "Carrizos," also known as Coahuiltecans. 32 These people posed no problem for the early settlers of the region, often being missionized or otherwise assimilated. 33 Laredo historian Stanley Green notes that Lipan and Comanche raids on Laredo began roughly about the time the hamlet was established, 34 which makes the peaceful comportment of local indigenous groups pretty much a moot point. These raids were a direct outgrowth of the displacement of these groups from areas further north. Certainly that was the reason that a garrison was first placed on the hamlet's outskirts in 177 5. 35 By at least 1786, "it became viceregal policy to pay tribute to the Apaches in order to keep them peaceful." 36 So vulnerable was the area between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers that Indian raids were the number one reason for periodic declines in population. "Hostile Indians" caused the withdrawal of Mexican settlers from the Bruni, Texas, area in 1813, 37 and the abandonment of settlers around Dolores (across the river) in 1815. 38 Even earlier, in 1790, raiding Indian groups (identification not known) occupied Laredo's central plaza where they held a mitote, a dance ceremony, leaving only after they cleaned out the garrison's powder and rattled the nerves of every settler in the hamlet. 39 Four of Sanchez's sons were captured by Comanches in 1825 (later released), 40 and in what was the single worst period for the town (1835-36), twenty-six people were killed by Indians, 41 contributing both directly and indirectly to the population decline that occurred in 1835. Even with the establishment in Laredo of Fort Mcintosh in 1849, Indian raids fluctuated seasonally and yearly, never completely ceasing until1879. 42 Common Identity and Division on the Border. The overall effect of Indian raids, the lack of protection received from other quarters, and the "despoliation" at the hands of troops from the central governments predisposed these border dwellers to seek to control their own destiny. This effort was most dramatically illustrated in the establishment and brief existence of the Republic of the Rio Grande (1840). With the creation of Mexico in 1821 a debate emerged between political factions that wanted to see control concentrated in the central government (Centralists) and those who wanted states' rights (Federalists). Because they felt alienated from both the United States and Mexico, the northern states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and Texas were advocates of the Federalist's position. When in the 1830s Santa Anna assumed the presidency and moved the government further away from a Federalist position, most people in the north objected strenuously. Political debate gave way to force, and Santa Anna directly interceded to put an end to the revolt brewing in the Tamau-

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lipas area in 1836. Thus, the Alamo fell and a month later Santa Anna was defeated and the Republic of Texas born. The northern Mexican states continued to express their autonomy even afterward. While Texas and Mexico argued over the area between the Nueces and Rio Grande Rivers, the northern Mexican states and southern Texas continued to push the Federalist cause. In 1838 Antonio Canales issued a call and wound up receiving support from both sides of the Rio Grande. Antonio Zapata (above) became the de facto military leader for what was emerging as a secessionary movement. The Mexican government sent forces to suppress this latest uprising in 1839. All that year the tide swung back and forth across the river. On the north bank of the River at Dolores on January 1, 1840, a call to found the "Republic of the Rio Grande" was issued by Canales. It was to include southern Texas (below the Nueces) and the states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and Coahuila, with Laredo serving as its capital. The chickens were clearly coming home to roost. Having been ignored or ungratefully used for decades, the people of the north and in particular of Laredo were joining the Federalists because, as the Alcalde wrote in 1839, "at present the administration does not merit our confidence." 43 A truly transcultural phenomenon, Texans and Mexicans on both sides of the river were joining the cause. Laredo, and other Texas towns, sent numbers of rancheros in service to the newly formed army. 44 In July 1840, Texas Colonel Samuel Jordan codirected a force of fifty Texans and one hundred Mexicans that seized Laredo from the Centralists who had taken it a few months earlier. 45 The Republic of the Rio Grande lasted a mere 285 days before it was crushed by Mexican troops, but it clearly demonstrated the political and cultural autonomy of the region that straddles the border. The political division promulgated by Washington, D.C., and Mexico City had less effect on the border cities of Laredo and Nuevo Laredo than was hoped. Faced with outsiders, these border dwellers generally came together. The ability of this northern region to act in its collective interests and through its own identity did not, however, rule out the potential for factional splits. If the Republic of the Rio Grande reflected the ability of people on both sides of the river to rally around transcultural political issues, then the events that followed flushed out the divisive qualities (autonationalism) always just beneath the surface. Stephen F. Austin was awarded the contract by Mexican authorities to recruit 1,200 Anglo families on a 300,000 acre tract of land in Texas in 1821, thereby protecting Mexican interests against possible French intrusion. He had ensured the Mexican government of his political allegiance and of efforts to see to it that the new emigrants would learn Spanish and become followers of the Roman Catholic Church, conditions that were only nominally met. Yet the ranks of these immigrants swelled so that

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within a decade Anglos outnumbered Mexicans m the Texas regwn (tejanos) six to one. 46 Even in the bicultural push to establish the Republic of Texas against Mexican authority, a regional cast bonding Texas's Mexicans and Anglos was at points very thin. 47 Nowhere is this as dramatically and sadly presented as it is in the case of]uan Seguin. Being a Federalist, Seguin took up the cause of the Republic of Texas against Santa Anna and his Mexican Centralists. Seguin, mistakenly it turns out, "believed it possible to be both a proud mexicano and a loyal tejano." 48 The cooperation between mexicanos (native Mexicans) and Anglos in Texas lasted only so long as unity against Mexico was needed, and soon after, the racial and cultural divisions rose to the surface with Anglos dispossessing mexicanos of their lands and political rights. 49 Anglo distrust of mexicanos was economic at root. Mexicano control of land, especially around San Antonio, was the prize to be taken. Culture and race were attributes that became politically loaded. Able to "demonize" the Mexican population on the basis both of racial or cultural affinities with Mexico aided the Texan cause by inflating their sense of common cause. The defeat of the Texans at the Alamo and Goliad in 1836 and the martyrdom that resulted perfectly served this end. Mexicans too seized on race and culture as a tool of nationalism. Seguin was chastised for aiding the gringos in the Texas Republic War, and it was only when he repudiated his connection to them, fighting against them in the Mexican War of 1846 that he was reintegrated as a Mexican. 50 Historians on both sides of the river grant that the war with Mexico in 1846 was engineered to satiate U.S. thirst for territory. 51 The speedy victory of the United States initiated discussion as to just how much land Mexico would cede, but with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1847), what had been an ambiguous border zone between Texas and Mexico for a decade was finally determined to be the Rio Grande. With this treaty, a river that once flowed through a singular Laredo, now served as a division into two Laredos. Despite a generally neutral political position during the Mexican War, Laredoans had for cultural and racial reasons emotionally sided with the Mexicans. 52 The occupation of Laredo by noted expansionist and racist Mira beau Lamar in 184 7 brought the consequences of the war home for people along the river. Lamar is credited with dividing Laredo in two. On September 15, 1847, some five and a half months before the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Lamar ordered the town of Nuevo Laredo into existence and appointed Andres Martinez its alcalde. 53 It was up to Laredo's border dwellers to choose which nation they would become part of, and a significant number opted for the Mexican fatherland. 54 Most stayed on, not simply because of their loyalty to the United States or Texas, but rather

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because of their landholdings. Some, like one branch of the Laredo Dovalinas, initially chose to relocate to the Mexican side of the river, only to return in a few years. 55 Historians of Nuevo Laredo have concluded that the claim of many Laredoans crossing the river is more a product of the "romantic imagination" than historic fact. 56 Some, like the first appointed alcalde of Nuevo Laredo, Andres Martinez, actually did cross over, but Mexican historians emphasize that the south bank was already in existence, not a function of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. 57 Laredo, had, as a function of the war, become the "American" version of the Mexican town it had previously been, staring at its twin across an international boundary. What had been one (one town, one people) now became two exhibiting a muted antagonism. The resentment of Nuevo Laredoans can be found in the ideology and myth surrounding the establishment of their town. Celebrating the town's centennial in 1948, Nuevo Laredo fashioned a new official shield depicting an event that, more than any other, dramatically evokes Mexican sentiment about the war with the United States. Those leaving the Texas side of the river to remain Mexican so deeply felt their decision "that they disinterred their dead, moved their remains across the river, and reinterred them in Nuevo Laredo so they would not lie in a foreign country." 58 The official shield of the city depicts this legendary event. While most historians 59 would assign the rise of nationalism in Mexico to the era of Presidents Juarez and Diaz in the final quarter of the nineteenth century, the humiliation suffered at the hands of Texas and the United States did much to promote a sense of common identity at the hands of rapacious gringos from the north. The civic monument dedicated to the founders also recalls this event and bears the following inscription: "A city as patriotic and Mexican in its very essence as Nuevo Laredo knows that a city is not only a present and a future, but also a past; in order to settle in this site they brought the revered remains of their ancestors, making them part of Mexican history." 60 The extent of the repudiation of the "lost Laredo" is clearly referred to in this act, and that it should become an official part of the city's identity speaks volumes about the antagonistic essence of autonationalism in the two Laredos. The unequal economies of border communities grew sharply as a result of the formation of the border. Martinez points out that by the mid-1850s, the American cities had the benefit of low tariffs, free internal trade, and a rapidly expanding capitalist sector that would usher in the railroads. 61 The Mexican communities seemed cursed by underdevelopment, "oppressive taxes imposed on the country's internal trade," 62 plus the additional tariffs on goods brought in from the other side now generated by the border. To alleviate the crushing burden, the Mexican government and Tamaulipas officials, in 1849 and 1858, respectively, first lowered and then exempted

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border communities from tariffs forming a free trade zone. Mexican border communities blossomed as repatriating countrymen infused their local economies with capital and life. 63 Mexican historian Salinas Dominguez finds the year 1855 to be one of Nuevo Laredo's most important. 64 The economic boom in Nuevo Laredo came at the expense of their U.S. neighbors across the river, and the latter began to lobby for an end to the "free zone." After almost a half century of pushing their cause, U.S. merchants in 1909 managed to dismantle the free zone. During the years of the Mexican Revolution in the first three decades of the twentieth century, the Laredo area periodically found itself playing a role in the course of events. From roughly 1890 on, Laredo served as a repository for anti-Diaz elements. 65 So outraged was Diaz about his enemies being allowed to work against him in the safety of the U.S. border that on one occasion, in 1891, he had a prominent foe (Dr. Ignacio Martinez) gunned down in the streets ofLaredo. 66 The exiles continued to publish diatribes against Diaz, however, eventually backing Diaz rival Francisco Madero, who successfully revolted in 1910. It appeared to Diaz that the provocateurs were able to function freely because they had U.S. backing, which may or may not have been true. This in turn fueled another round of antagonism between Americans and Mexicans. Laredo Judge John Valls offers yet another illustration of this principle. As district attorney, Valls attempted to arrest the president of Mexico, Plutarco Elias Calles. 67 In a series of events reminiscent of the high level political culpability over assassinations in Mexico in 1994, the Mexican leadership seventy-two years earlier was also implicated in the 1922 assassination of a Carrancista, Lucio Blanco, living in San Antonio; he had been talked into meeting with Mexican officials in Laredo. Blanco and his friend, another Carrancista, were fished out of the Rio Grande handcuffed. While suspecting a political assassination, nothing conclusive was uncovered and the case lingered through the decade. Finally, in October 1929, based on information Valls gathered, he was able to link Elias Calles (then home secretary) to the murder. It just so happened that Elias Calles was returning from a visit to Washington, a train trip that would take him through Laredo. The State Department tried to warn the independent-minded Valls not to impede Elias Calles's journey, but he was outraged that the Mexican president would commit such an act in his jurisdiction. Consequently he was bent on taking the Mexican president off the train at the Webb County stop with a warrant for his arrest on the charge of conspiracy to commit murder. 68 The U.S. government placed a military contingent on board the train and ordered it straight through to Nuevo Laredo. The Mexicans, meanwhile, retaliated by denying their citizens permission to cross into Laredo. This had an immediate impact on the merchants of Laredo, who have always been heavily dependent on Mexican trade.

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Further, the Mexican Consulate was closed and formal statements to the effect that Valls was an enemy of Mexico were made. Relations were normalized once Elias Calles gave way to the presidency of Cirdenas in the 1930s. 69 Once again we see that los dos Laredos operate in a sphere that is distinct from international relations. As stated, the border as a geopolitical fact of life necessitates formal agreements between residents of Laredo and Nuevo Laredo where once they had no need to do so: "When the Rio Grande became a border, friends and relatives who had been near neighbors-within shouting distance across a few hundred feet of water-now were legally in different countries." 70 The river was converted into what officials hoped would be a state-controlled barrier permeable only with a license. Day-to-day border issues and problems have always remained the responsibility of the local government, calling into play networks and relationships between officials and citizens of the border cities. The necessity of working together was a function of the river at that time, and it is more so now. The need to lend a hand in time of crisis was understood by both cities. Hence, when Nuevo Laredo was the scene of bloody fighting in the Mexican Revolution, assistance in the form of medical aid was sent from its neighbor. During periods of flooding or other disasters residents of the two cities would work together to get through the crisis. Most recently, this has been seen in the rise of the maquiladora/ 1 and the serious pollution that has resulted in the training (by U.S. federal agencies) of environmental specialists from both cities to reduce pollution and handle toxic cleanups. 72 Crime, which moves easily between the two cities, necessitates the close cooperation of each city's police agencies.7 3 Similarly, in areas that can benefit both communities, such as tourism, there have been binational efforts. Los Caminos del Rio is a binational group of civic-minded citizens and leaders seeking to restore the historic sites all along both sides of the river in the hopes of attracting visitors. There is a second dimension to the binationalism of the border cities that is purely informal. In a real sense, the impenetrable border envisioned that would regulate the movement of goods and people on the border was faulty from the start (see Appendix B). Paredes, cited above, points to this: If they (locals on both sides of the river) wanted to visit each other, the law required that they travel many miles up or down stream, to the nearest official crossing place, instead of swimming or boating directly across as they used to do before. It goes without saying that they paid little attention to the requirements of the law. When they went visiting, they crossed at the most convenient spot on the river; and, as is ancient custom when one goes visiting loved ones, they took gifts with them: farm products from Mexico to Texas, textiles and other manufactured goods from Texas to Mexico. Legally, of course, this was smuggling, differing from contraband for profit in volume only. 74

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29

Social relations, it can be seen, continued despite formal governmental attempts to legislate all such movements. People in the two Laredos have continued to work and carry on business in each other's cities, and socialize in either place legally and illegally. An odd example, but one nevertheless illustrative of this, comes from Gonzales's gleaning of newspapers from Nuevo Laredo. 75 He makes mention of an American, Richard Bechetel Davis, who marries a woman, Elisa Mendez, from Nuevo Laredo in 1951. The wedding made the news on September 5 because at their wedding reception presided over by the bride's father, a certain Epifanio Salazar became outraged at the two and a half pesos charged by Mr. Mendez who, in turn, shot and killed the unhappy wedding guest. Intermarriage continues as it has since before the demarcation, and at all levels: from working poor, to Tecos like Alejandro Ortiz and his Laredo wife, to well-to-do businessmen like Moi Goldberg and his Nuevo Laredo socialite wife Laura. In a real sense, despite their differing levels of economic development and belonging to different and sometimes antagonistic nations, the two Laredos have paid the border very little heed. People in both cities work out their relations as they need to, using national regulations judiciously, relying heavily on local traditions worked out between them over two centuries. The Tecos, too, are a part of this legacy.

Integrating the Border into the Nation-State With the arrival of the railroads in 1881, the two Laredos became structurally integrated into the socioeconomic mainstream of both countries. The Texas-Mexican "Tex Mex" Railroad was the first to arrive in Laredo via Corpus Christi in September of that year, but by 1883 the International and Great Northern was in town as well. On the Nuevo Laredo side, the Mexican government was working feverishly to build a railroad from Mexico City to its northern border. Historians Meyer and Sherman maintain that the Mexican National Railroad Company (chartered under Colorado law and eventually bought by British and French interests) built a line from the Mexican capital to Nuevo Laredo-Laredo in 1888.76 The upshot of much of the march of political-economic expansion to the border from Mexico City was to promote a sense of nationalism, albeit in fits and starts. This most certainly began with Porfirio Dfaz's presidency, which encompasses the last quarter of the nineteenth century/ 7 and continues to the present day. The economic programs Dfaz orchestrated between 1878 and 1910, while further impoverishing the majority, managed nevertheless to push development. The volume of manufactured goods doubled during his thirty-four-year tenure.7 8 He built the railroad system, which spurred on the growth of mining, textiles, and oil, while encouraging the growth of northern industrial centers like Monterrey.

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While the price paid for this expansion (e.g., the dispossessing of most of Mexico's small farmers, and wholesale encouragement of foreign colonialism) ultimately led to his demise, Dfaz's presidency most certainly fostered Mexican nationalism. Once started, the process of building nationalist sentiment continued through the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917 and on to the present, primarily through a growing sense of regional integration, a national culture fostered in art (e.g., Jose Clemente Orozco and Diego Rivera and the lndianist themes of their work), as well as through heroes such as Emiliano Zapata. Mexican nationalism is regularly constructed in combining an internally devised sense of nationhood and a willingness to stand up to norteamericanos. Being a northern representative of the Mexican nation, Nuevo Laredo prospered through the Dfaz presidency, through the free zone, through the establishment of the railroad, and Monterrey, the emergence of a powerful regional center only 140 miles to the south. Nothing more concretely established the emergence of the two Laredos' modern period than the railroad. An article in the Laredo Times ofJanuary 1, 1883, however, indicates the presence of all three railroads in the twin cities area, including the Mexican National Railroad. The Mexican National Railroad may not have been formally completed until 1888, there being "gaps" just south of the two Laredos, but it was present in the area. The railroad built a huge machine shop tagged as "the largest west of the Mississippi," 79 indicating a physical presence in the area long before it was ready for service. Hence, as far as influencing the area, the railroad's presence was felt in advance of its formal completion and without much concern for international boundaries. In the two Laredos the arrival of these railroads ushered in a building boom during the decade of the 1880s. In Laredo the new courthouse, opera house, marketplace, and a new infrastructure (including streets and sewers) accompanied the population explosion that saw the city swell from 3,500 to 11,319 by 1890. 80 Nuevo Laredo's majestic new hotels in the town center and other public works were all constructed through this period. 81 The railroad facilitated the entrance of mainstream American cultural traits, but even before it formally arrived in Laredo, the railroad was, through supervisors and work crews, spreading the game of baseball in its wake. Traversing the far west proved to be financially risky for many of the railroad lines. 82 Unlike their eastern counterparts that followed population growth, western railroads often preceded population in the hopes that people and towns would make them viable. South Texas got the railroads late enough to avoid the financial pitfalls attendant to many of these endeavors. The railroad line coming from San Antonio (1883) and Corpus Christi (1881) to Laredo was needed and quickly proved worthy of the effort. In a separate endeavor, Mexico's Dfaz government, backed by

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French and British investors, completed a line from Mexico City to Nuevo Laredo by 1888. The goals in both cases, to bring the frontier into a more functional relationship to the state, were partially accomplished. 83 Both Laredo and Nuevo Laredo experienced population and building booms. 84 Part of this development included a newfound sense of connectedness with popular culture from both mainstream Mexico and the United States. Historian William Beezley has documented the spread of American and British forms of sport and leisure into Mexican life (primarily in Mexico City). 85 Baseball was a major component of this diffusion.

Two Early Baseball on the Border

BEcAUSE it is a game rather than an important economic or political institution, hence less subject to chronicling, baseball's origins and the route it took through various countries are often mere speculation. For instance, it has long been accepted that baseball was introduced into Cuba in the 1860s through the presence of U.S. Marines. In recent important corrective studies, however, Wagner 1 and Perez2 have shown that it was Cuban students studying in the United States who first brought the sport to their homeland. The absence of recorded material on sports subjects means that in chronicling its earliest days, one may chance upon a windfall of data rather than systematically tap available sources. Certainly this is the case with Mexico. Writing in the most recent edition of the Enciclopedia del Beisbol Mexicano,3 Tomas Morales begins his history of Mexican baseball by underscoring this point: "It is impossible to assure with scientific certainty where the first game of baseball was played in Mexico. Various cities claim the honor and in spite of the efforts to discover the exact place, none of the historians agree." 4 For Morales, four places might have been first: Guaymas in Sonora; Cadereyta Jimenez in Nuevo Leon; Merida, Yucatan; and Nuevo Laredo in Tamaulipas. As bibliographic sources of any sort are not provided, the Morales account must be read more as a popular guide than a serious inquiry. Still, it is among the few accounts of the origins of the sport in Mexico. Morales's earliest date comes from Guaymas where, sometime in 1877, U.S. Marines disembarked from the USS Montana and, among other things, played a game of baseball among themselves. 5 In short order, Morales asserts, a local team was formed, though no date is provided. An exact date is provided, on the other hand, in CadereytaJimenez where, on 4 July 1889, Colonel Treadwell Robertson initiated a game between his employees and those of the locals working the Monterrey-Tampico railroad. Also mentioned as a distant possibility is Merida, Yucatan, which, because of its proximity to Cuba, got the game quite early. There, according to Gil Joseph,6 Cubans visiting Yucatecan beaches introduced the game to local families in 1890. Much of this portrait of early baseball is circumstantial. In most cases we are not certain when these games were played, whether Mexicans played (or even watched) these early games, or how long it took to for the sport to root in Mexico.

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More precise is historian William Beezley's seminal article entitled, "The Rise of Baseball in Mexico and the First Valenzuela," which documents the sport's institutionalization in the Republic's Capital. 7 Beezley's "hook" is a game that took place in 1903, in which a player for the Mexico City team singlehandedly won a game and was carried off the field by his teammates. Information on the hero is limited to his last name, Valenzuela, and so, writing in the era ofFernando Valenzuela, major league star of the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1980s, Beezley brackets his article between the "first Valenzuela" and the one we are more familiar with today. Beezley notes the presence of American baseball exhibitions as early as 1882. Such contests were played before Anglo crowds, although some Mexican elite attended. There followed a period of about six years in which efforts to get the sport going were haphazard and unsuccessful. The sport finally began to take root in 1887, and following another attempt to generate interest, a three-team circuit (including one all-Mexican club) was formed. By 1888 baseball was established in Mexico City. 8

The Origins of Baseball in the Two Laredos The imprecision of the dates suggested for the origins of baseball in Mexico does not prevent Morales from assigning 1877 as the appearance of baseball in Nuevo Laredo. 9 Despite the absence of sources, there can be little doubt that he took that date from the Nuevo Laredo sports journalist and self-styled baseball historian Fiacro Dfaz Corpuz. Dfaz wrote two histories of baseball in Mexico, one devoted purely to Nuevo Laredo, 10 the other a more general history of the game. 11 Historical work of this kind is quite unusual in Mexico where serious work on sports topics is rarely carried out. For his discussion of the origins of the sport in Nuevo Laredo, Dfaz relied on first-person narratives taken in the early 1950s of several surviving players and fans of the earliest periods. In this way Dfaz was able to get eyewitness accounts of the last decades of the nineteenth century. In particular, it was the narratives of a ninety-year-old retired plumber, don Cipriano Pedraza, and seventy-four-year old don Procopio Herrera on which Dfaz relied most heavily. Don Cipriano was born in 1865 in Matamoros and came to Nuevo Laredo in 1880 to work on the railroad line coming north from Mexico City. He claimed a date of 1893 for the first game in the region: In 1893 an assistant supervisor of the station, a North American very fond of baseball named Johnny Tayson, formed a team made up of Mr. Tayson, Felix Mass, Pedro Garcia, Cecilio Herrera Quintana, and others whose names I can't remember. I played second base. It was already known that Manuel Bocanegra, Lucas and CatarinoJmirez, Eulalio Solis, "El Chamuco" [local players] had gone

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to play baseball in the Capital [Mexico City]. I am certain that baseball entered precisely through Nuevo Laredo when the railroad arrived from the Capital. As always we railroad men went and we loved to practice this sport. And for their part, the North American supervisors always tried to raise teams from the lower ranks [of Mexican employees]. In the year 1893, the team we ended up with played locally against other nines, but at the same time concentrated our games against San Antonio, Corpus Christi, Cotulla, Brownsville. 12

Don Cipriano's account claims Tayson introduced the game in 1893, putting it at odds with Morales's 1877 date. All accounts, however, agree that the game was spread through the railroads, which would have brought it to the Laredo area in approximately 1881 (the Texas-Mexican Railroad was extended to Nuevo Laredo in 1882). This, too, furthers doubt on the 1877 date Morales used. No direct accounts of baseball being played in either Laredo as early as 1881 exist, but for baseball to have been so well formed locally by the Tayson date of 1893, it would had to have been played for some time before. This is suggested in don Cipriano's account, when he asserts that local standout Manuel Bocanegra had already left the area to play in Mexico City (probably by 1888). A second oral history of the period collected by Corpus also points to this conclusion as well. Procopio Herrera, Sr., was seventy-four years of age at the time of his 1953 interview. A retired city employee in Nuevo Laredo, he was father to Procopio Herrera, Jr., the "Pride of the Laredo," who played for the Nuevo Laredo Tecolotes in the 1940s and 1950s. The elder Herrera's earliest memories of baseball go back to the watershed year of 1890, but also suggest an earlier date of origin: My brother Natividad Herrera Quintana played baseball in the year 1890, and by his account to me the King of Sports [baseball] was practiced in this city [Nuevo Laredo] before that date. In the above-mentioned year, 1890, my brother formed part of a baseball team on which Pedro Palacios, Antonio Valdez, los 'cuates' Hernandez[,] who formed a magnificent battery[,] played. One was a pitcher and the other catcher. He [Natividad] related to me also that at that time they [people] already talked about the names of Lucas y Catarino Juarez, Eulalio Solis, and Manuel Bocanegra. [These men] already walked [played] in distant parts of the Republic principally Veracruz and in Mexico [City] in which they did very well; but it was in Nuevo Laredo and Laredo, Texas[,] in which these teams were formed and learned to play baseball. The diamond for playing baseball was situated precisely where the border customs building now stands, and this place was the scene of the magnificent heroics and feats of the first Nuevo Laredo baseball players. 13

Living cheek-by-jowl with Laredo might also have accounted for an earlier introduction to the game in Nuevo Laredo. If the game really did

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arrive via the railroad, then it must have entered the borderlands area (in Laredo) not long after 1881 with the arrival of the Tex Mex Railroad and in 1883 with the International and Great Northern. Montejano describes the "Americanization," the cultural impact of the railroads in southern Texas, and though no one seems to have conducted a detailed study of the cultural impact of the railroad on the Laredo area, there is little doubt that the almost threefold population increase experienced in the area between 1880 and 1890 was significantly made up of Americans of one stripe or another. 14 Cultural traits did not, of course, stop at the border waiting for customs officials to allow entry. If baseball was practiced in the Laredo area in the early 1880s, it is reasonable to assume that it was played in Nuevo Laredo as well.

Laredo's View of the Game in the Two Laredos While Dfaz focused on Nuevo Laredo, the game entered Mexico through Laredo. The fluid nature of transnational border relations was as evident with baseball as it was with any other area. This is important for establishing both when the game arrived and how it developed. If we extend our search for baseball origins to Laredo we see that the earliest game reported by the Laredo Times was on September 23, 1884. No doubt there were earlier games, because the paper, while giving it a full description, made no mention that the game being played was unusual or the first. Reporting on sports of any sort was spotty in newspapers of the time, as were the games themselves, and coverage of sporting events were given less attention than they later received. Surprisingly, the first game reported was described at some length. The following is excerpted from the lengthy article: During the early part of last week the Laredo Base Ball club received a challenge from the Sunsets of San Antonio, to play a match game in the latter city on September 21. Accompanying the challenge was an offer of a certain portion of the gate money, the proposition was agreed to, and a readiness expressed to play the game was stipulated by the Sunsets .... Below is given a recapitulation of the score, as owing to unavoidable circumstances it is impossible to publish a detailed tabular statement, and in comparing the results the reader must not forget the disadvantages which the Laredo club experienced in keeping their appointment-as exceedingly tiresome and enervating railroad trip, and not the least, a captain with a broken finger. 15

With an opening like that, it comes as no surprise that Laredo lost, by a score of 13 to 6. From the article, however, the Anglo makeup of the team, or at least those mentioned by name (Elstner, Sturgeon, Smith, Flynn, Maxwell, and Connon), is quite apparent. The following day the Laredo paper announced a meeting to form the "Laredo Base Ball Association."

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These men may have come from the ranks of railroad employees or from the nearby military installation, Fort Mcintosh, but there were no mexicanos among them. 16 Three years later, in 1887, "Laredo's crack nine" was still made up of Anglos Flynn and Connon, as well as Wilson and Porter. Fourth of July festivities seemed to spawn a whole range of institutions, including an annual event involving baseball between Laredo and Corpus Christi on the Texas coast. This baseball competition involved hundreds of Laredoans who annually chartered a train for the holiday on the coast where the games were played. For these events Laredoans began to prepare early. By 1888 these reports begin to list mexicanos in small numbers playing alongside Anglos. In early June of 1888, for instance, the Laredo papers announced a planning meeting to organize the ball team. 17 By June 10 a team previously called "the Kids" was preparing for the new 1888 season by changing their names to the Laredo Reds and recruiting local talent. At least two of their numbers were mexicanos, not yet available to play: "Messrs. R. Sanchez and Johnny Orfila, the club's battery[,] are still away at school, one in San Antonio and the other at Austin, but they will return this month, and then the boys will be ready for business." 18 In the following July 4 weekend, the lineup included a third mexicano, "S. Benavides."19 Laredo won that tournament, which included teams from San Antonio as well as Corpus Christi. The Corpus Christi Caller, however, expressed disapproval of the Laredo team trashing its hotel room. The Laredo Times defended the action by claiming that their players were being gouged by local merchants. 20 The following year the paper was reporting games between "the Kids" and Fort Mcintosh with lineups composed solely of Anglos. That there were a number of clubs operating in Laredo was mentioned in the paper, 21 and we know that local mexicanos could be found among their ranks. Their names were not mentioned as frequently, which forces the question of whether or not Mexican Americans in Laredo were playing the game as frequently as Anglos or whether the earliest editors of the Laredo newspapers were simply not predisposed to covering mexicano events in the same way as Anglo events. Anglo culture at the time was certainly being showcased in national rites such as the July 4 events, which, by 1889, had come to include the annual baseball game replete with marching band, grandstand, and awning. 22 Similar reportage was found for July 4 in 1892 and 1893. In the light of such a nationalistic spectacle it is hard to imagine that mexicano culture and social relations, predicated on sharing of cultural space, would take place. The local military installation, Fort Mcintosh, had regularly fielded teams that had been covered by the local press almost since the inception of the newspaper. Rivalry between the town and the base was generally friendly, although close ties with the Mexican American majority were

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generally kept to a minimum. When in 1914 a three team military league from the nearby base was formed, it was claimed in the local press that every effort was being put forth to field a group of "locals" to compete against the base. Mexicano players were rarely mentioned in these contests, however, though it may be assumed that through the first decade of the twentieth century they were deeply embedded in the baseball scene and often recruited to play against the military teams. Playing against one of these "base teams" in the 1930s (long after the period of mexicano exclusion), Fernando Dovalina recalls an occasion on which he was hired to play for Hebbronville, Texas, against Fort Mcintosh. Mter accepting the offer, don Fernando was approached by the local base to see if he'd play for them; but feeling uncomfortable with them he begged off. Needing a ride to Hebbronville, however, don Fernando asked to accompany the team without telling the base team that he was to pitch against them. It was arranged that he be picked up by the personnel carrier used to carry the team on the day of the game. No one seemed unduly suspicious to see him in uniform. When they arrived at Hebbronville, don Fernando popped out of the back of the transport and proceeded to go over to the opponent's side. He pitched effectively that day, beating the boys from Fort Mcintosh. Following the last pitch he jumped back into the transport, hoping that no one would be too angry. As the team approached the vehicle, he heard someone say, "What do you wauna do with this guy?" He just smiled, letting the soldier grumble a bit, and acted as if nothing much had happened. He got the ride home. This strikingly Anglo bent in cultural events began to even out after the turn of the century. We have already indicated that the Washington's Birthday Celebration was culturally reclaimed by Laredo's Mexican Americans in the first quarter of the twentieth century. Something similar seemed to have occurred in the coverage of baseball by the Laredo paper. The city managed to place a team, the Laredo Bermudas, in the Southwest Texas League, a short-lived professional league operating for a few years between 1910 and 1913. Many of the players were professionals hired from other towns and brought in on a seasonal basis, including two Cubans: a first baseman named Hernandez, and a pitcher named Ramos (first names not mentioned). 23 A much more significant set of events had already been transpiring from the actual turn of the century. Four Laredo ballplayers-two mexicanos and two Anglos-transformed the level of play from haphazard to acclaimed. These men were Manuel Bocanegra, Tomas Valenzuela, Charlie Pierce, and Chester Burbank. Bocanegra and Valenzuela first appear in local print in 1903 in a vaunted July 4 contest. 24 This seems to mark a watershed of sorts in reporting mexicano play. While baseball games remained irregularly reported, mexicanos were increasingly being mentioned alongside

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Anglos. By 1915, the Laredo press even makes mention for the first time of a "Mexican team of this city" playing a contest against the local military installation. 25 Reporting on a September 28, 1918, game between Laredo and Kelly Field, the paper listed the lineup, which was predominantly mexicano. This same lineup or a facsimile thereof was reported in action a week later as well. In both games we see Bocanegra and Tomas Valenzuela present. In the 1920s the strong Milmo teams regularly featured Latinos playing alongside Anglos, a situation that had long taken place but was only then mentioned in the press. Mexican Americans had been involved with the sport since its appearance in the Laredos. They had played alongside Anglos in the late 1880s, and with Pierce and Burbank since at least the turn of the century, becoming more frequently mentioned as time went on. It would be tempting to think of this as an issue of ethnicity or race, but in the Laredo area class comes to count for more. Montejano 26 and Lim6n 27 have both discussed the powerful role of class relations in south Texas, and in the Laredos in particular. Wtth this in mind, it might also be argued that finding Sanchez and Orfila playing alongside Anglos in 1888 counts for less than finding Bocanegra and Valenzuela playing alongside their Anglo teammates twenty years later. While all were Mexican American, the first two, by virtue of attending school in Austin and San Antonio 28 were probably of that sector of Mexican American society that represented the old elite, while the latter were from the working class. Beezley's29 trajectory of sport, diffusing down from the elite to other classes, seems applicable here and helps us account for the time it seems to have taken for working class mexicanos to locally assert themselves in baseball. Nowadays, every Friday at the small deli area of a local H.E.B. supermarket, the baseball old-timers gather in ever dwindling numbers to sip coffee and recount games played fifty, sixty, and seventy years ago. In my last encounter with them I revealed that the early Laredo Times newspaper reported few mexicano or Mexican players. Lazaro Dovalina looked at me incredulously and concluded, "How can that be? We're over 90 percent mexicano here." He's right, of course, but viewed from a class perspective the gradually increased reportage of mexicanos may reflect the trickling of the game down to the general public.

The Transnational and Autonational Nature of the Sport With its free movement of goods and services and the sharing of resources between the cities, the nature of baseball and other institutions along the border continued to deny the political boundary that was designed to separate them. That these "sister cities" are joined at the hip, particularly against outsiders, is manifest in the forms of baseball competition. While

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they often engage in contests against each other, all distinctions disappear when faced with external competitors. This was certainly the case in the recruitment of players across the border. Don Procopio's narrative claimed that even in the late nineteenth century, the two Laredos routinely combined the best talent when playing outsiders. The presence of Anglos such as Chester Burbank and Charlie Pierce on the teams mentioned by don Procopio suggests that not only was the relationship transnational but multiracial as well. While Dfaz's history documents a transnational quality to baseball, he simultaneously sought to write a history of the game for his city, Nuevo Laredo, and in doing so he at times expressed his anti-American nationalism. Thus, in concluding one section of his book, on the origins of the sport in Nuevo Laredo, he felt the need to affix the "historic refusal" of the founders of Nuevo Laredo (Chapter 1). At this point, Dfaz perceives of the two cities as separate, temporarily denying the sport and historic link between them: "And what is settled in our small arena [Nuevo Laredo]? We hope to serve those who want to affirm the exact place where baseball entered our Republic: Nuevo Laredo, the city first founded as a loss, in the annexation of Texas to the United States in 1848, and which vigorously prided itself in those early inhabitants who didn't want to leave their ancestors to rest in Laredo and brought them to the city they founded." 30 The tone of Dfaz's account contains the same ambivalence that is found in all sectors of the border relationship: at times joined, at times divided. The players in the two Laredos would, throughout the history of the game, form teams along national lines and play heated contests against each other. Don Procopio Herrera mentions one such typical alignment in his narrative: In the year 1900 the Nuevo Laredo Club was formed, made up of my brother Natividad, don Cecelia and don Zenobia Archiga, the Lazaro brothers .... This Nuevo Laredo baseball club confronted the other team from Laredo, Texas[,] performing with don Manuel Bocanegra, don Tomas Valenzuela, ... and others most of whom were born in Laredo, Texas. The series was hard fought. Sometimes the Texans won and other times we did, but sport supremacy in these contests was never clear. 31

When facing teams from outside the Laredo area, however, the political distinctions between the two cities seemed to spontaneously melt as they joined forces. If the dates given by Dfaz can be believed, this was the case as early as 1893 when Tayson was trying to form teams: "In order for Mister Tayson's team to get more power and do well against the teams of these cities a good team formed, reinforced with players of the quality of Manuel Bocanegra, one of the best pitchers that existed in both Laredos. "32 This was also the case in 1900, as well with the Nuevo Laredo Baseball Club, when "on many occasions teams from San Diego, Alice, Cotulla, Corpus Christi, San Antonio and Robstown, Texas[,] came here to

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play.... On these occasions we reinforced our teams with Bocanegra, Valenzuela, the Juarezes, Chester Burbank, and Charlie Pierce [Laredoans a11]." 33 The city of Nuevo Laredo fielded a wide variety of teams, but by the turn of the century it was the governmental teams, such as the Customs Agency that put up the best teams. In 1909 Nuevo Laredo fielded a team called "White Cross" that played locally and against Laredo. 34 At the same time, however, when a series of games against Tampico, Mexico, had been slated, Nuevo Laredo put together a team made up of the best local players. In what was early on a strategy for recruitment when playing important teams from elsewhere in Texas or Mexico, the border cities fused their talent. When the competition was international, as in this case, teams often played for a prize: two huge barrels of beer, one made in the United States, the other in Mexico. At times, in a fashion reminiscent of collegiate Crew competitions, they played for uniforms as well: Generally they made wagers of a barrel of North American beer named "Budweiser," against one of "Kloster," made and sold by the famous "Cuauhtemoc" brewery of Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. At the end of the encounter both ·of the teams tasted that liquid, one to celebrate the victory and the other to ease the pain of defeat .... But the nicest thing was the bet they made to hand over their uniforms, which is to say that the team that lost was dispossessed of their uniforms and delivered them to the team that won. This was a ceremony at the end of the game in which the local public hotly applauded whenever we won and lamented when we lost. Many times the teams that visited us were without uniforms. 35

During the worst fighting in the Mexican Revolution (1910-17), baseball was suspended in Nuevo Laredo. Laredo, then, picked up the slack, hosting games with players from both sides throughout the struggle. When the sport returned across the river in 1917, it did so in Nuevo Laredo's first park built by don Francisco Barrero Argilleles, a devoted sportsman. 36 He put together a team that played against other outfits from Monterrey to San Antonio, and included talent from wherever he could find it. At least one of his players, a star pitcher by the name of] ose "The German" Rivier, was said to have come to Nuevo Laredo to evade military service in World War !. 37 During the First World War, Laredo's military installation was home to a number of soldiers who had professional baseball experience, and local players on both sides of the border were able to play with and against some of these men. It was also during this time (1918) that the Almendares, the famous Cuban team, visited and played on the border as part of their Mexican American tour. Those who saw that game recall it as a sobering lesson for the highly touted local team: "I must confess it was a sound thrashing," noted one spectator. 38

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The Legend of Manuel Bocanegra What is impressive at so early a time in the sport's local development is the stature of Laredoans Manuel Bocanegra and Tomas Valenzuela on both sides of the border. These men are touted as having dominated the baseball scene from at least 1890 to as late as 1924, some thirty-four years. The stories of their range and prowess have become legendary. More importantly, these two, along with others such as Lucas Juarez, Charlie Pierce, and Chester Burbank, were gifted players that Diaz claimed formed the core of baseball teams from the border that helped institutionalize baseball throughout Mexico. When Beezley writes of the development of the sport in the capital in 1887-88, 39 he writes of the formation of a Mexican team that played against American squads. According to the oral histories taken by Diaz, at least three players from the LaredoNuevo Laredo area could have been among the players forming those first all-Mexican teams. 40 What then is the truth? Could these two Laredoans have been responsible for helping the game become established in Mexico's capital? While both Bocanegra and Valenzuela were lionized, little is known of them outside of the stories of their baseball feats; and here most of it pertains to Bocanegra. Those who knew the latter recalled both his love of the game and his upbeat and amiable character off the fieldY While Bocanegra is remembered for his pitching prowess, he also had a lifetime batting average over .300 and could play any position. Detailing a bit of their history further underscores the transnational character of baseball on the border. Bocanegra is reputed to have held a particularly strong attachment to the Laredo area. In a career studded with opportunities to play for teams in cities that would offer him much more than he could have ever received in Laredo, he rarely accepted the offers, preferring instead to remain a streetcar conductor! Perhaps it was because of his unassuming manner and loyalty to the border that he was nicknamed "Honest John" by the men who played against him at the local military installation. It was typical of the earliest days of baseball in this region that the caliber of teams varied widely. Bocanegra and other talented players might find themselves playing against local military men one week, and traveling semi-pro teams from Corpus Christi or San Antonio the next. The haphazard range of visiting teams would come to include the famous Cuban team Almendares (1918) or even a contingent of the Chicago White Sox (1906). When border pride was at stake, Bocanegra and Valenzuela were always the battery (later they would play first base and second base, respectively). It wouldn't matter who they played for, since when one pitched the other caught. One old timer recalled a contest in 1900 between Corpus

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Christi and Laredo: The Kids [Corpus Christi] had Clarence Morris, a sensational young lefty, on the hill. Valenzuela was Bocanegra's catcher and Joe Mireur was [catching] for the Kids. There were 5,000 fans in the seats to see this game in Corpus Christi. The game turned out to be one of the best ever seen in this port. For 17 weighty innings an emotional challenge was offered the fans. With the score tied 1-1 since the ninth inning, no one could score. Meanwhile, Morris had to be relieved at the end of the 12th inning. Bocanegra continued pitching the ball as freshly as when he began the game, and Valenzuela caught everything that was thrown. Finally, when they arrived at the 17th inning, the sun had almost completely set, and night commenced. The game was called for night, and Bocanegra vigorously protested saying that his arm felt fine. The next day Valenzuela warmed up his arm to pitch ... and Bocanegra was the catcher. The Kids won 2-1. On the third day, however, Bocanegra returned to the mound. Not so Morris, who was too fatigued to oppose him. Bocanegra managed to win for his team by a score of 1-0.42

Pitching twenty-six innings of one-run ball in two outings over three days was the stuff of the iron-man Bocanegra legend. Combined with Valenzuela's superb pitching performance (one run in a complete game), the two Laredoans were understandably respected by teams everywhere. Despite his travels, the provincialism of Bocanegra was often evident. The following anecdote concerns Bocanegra playing in Houston for the first time (date unknown) and his astonishment at encountering a fellow mexicano who could not speak the language. It also illustrates the cultural prominence of mexicanos in the Laredo area: We arrived in Houston, Texas, for one of a number of games in which my brother in-law Tomas Valenzuela and I formed the battery. If he pitched, I caught, or when he received, I pitched. I [became] separated from the team. I didn't know the people of Houston, being my first time visiting, and I did not know the way to the hotel in which we were staying. At that moment it seemed very odd for I did not see any familiar faces. And when I saw someone who looked Mexican I asked him, when I was close to him, if he knew of the hotel and the directions to it. The answer of this man who resembles an authentic resident of central Mexico was the following: "I don't speak Spanish." I was left frightened [shaken] to see this dark-skinned man with pear-shaped eyes that couldn't speak the language of Cervantes, but I didn't put up with it and asked someone else who spoke Spanish about directions back to the hotel. The following day I was assigned to pitch and won the game in a pitchers' duel with my opponent and his American teammates by a 1-0 score in fourteen innings. The thousands of Mexican fans who were present at the Houston ballpark

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rushed the field at the end of the game and raised me up on their shoulders, they were so jubilant and happy. And to my surprise while carrying me around the field on their shoulders I noticed that one of those that hoisted me up on their shoulders was none less than the "Mexican" of the previous day that could not speak Spanish! It's something I'll never forget, that when the Mexican in question saw me on his shoulder, instead of giving me the courage to take revenge on him, I felt proud to have him as a donkey taking me to the hotel whose address he had ignored by saying he didn't speak Spanish .... and during the entire march from the park to the hotel he did nothing but shout, "Viva mi paisano Manuel Bocanegra. [Long live my countryman Manuel Bocanegra]."43

Bocanegra's lengthy career was studded with impressive invitations and letters of thanks for having played on both sides of the border. In appreciation for having lent his talents to a team from Mexico City in 1904, Mexican president Porfirio Dfaz wrote Bocanegra a personal note. And equally in recognition of the role Bocanegra played in helping to establish the game in southern Texas, the vice president of the highly regarded San Antonio Missions baseball team gave him a lifetime pass to all Mission games.

The Historiography of Bocanegra Hall of Farner Satchel Paige was legendary for having a career spanning five decades, a mind-boggling feat of stamina and endurance that few ever achieve. Yet it is exactly that sort of longevity that Dfaz claims for Bocanegra in his book. Dfaz includes Bocanegra among the first ballplayers to visit Mexico City, as the capital began to take to the sport in 1887. Along with Valenzuela and Juarez, Bocanegra's purpose was to exhibit and teach the sport as played by the best Mexicans of the time. 44 Bocanegra's career takes on Bunyanesque stature in the pages of Dfaz's history of the sport in Nuevo Laredo. Most importantly, Bocanegra is also central to Dfaz's efforts to claim that the game entered via Nuevo Laredo. I accepted the dates provided by Dfaz's first person accounts until, in reading his second book, I became aware of the change in the dates of events. Using the same quotes from Pedraza and Herrera, Dfaz, in his second book, set the dates back ten years. Compare the two entries for Pedraza and the two for Herrera, two that are typical of the discrepancies throughout: Pedraza 1955: "Already by this date, the year 1890, baseball was played in this city of Nuevo Laredo and Laredo." 45 Pedraza 1979: "Already by this date, the year 1880, baseball was played in this city of Nuevo Laredo and Laredo." 46

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Herrera 1955: "My brother Natividad Herrera Quintana played baseball in the year 1890."47 Herrera 1979: "My brother Natividad Herrera Quintana played baseball in the year 1880."48

It appears that Diaz was eager to make the case for Nuevo Laredo being the original source of Mexican baseball. Clearly the discrepancies between the two books raised a problem of credibility and would require corroboration of these dates. I waded through those same years of the Laredo Times to see if they mentioned any of the early events or even the individuals most often named as playing with Bocanegra: Valenzuela, Burbank, Pierce. As Laredo stars, these men would have to appear in lineups as they periodically appeared in the newspaper. Even if in the earliest years the Laredo Times tended not to mention mexicanos as often as it should have, this was not so strictly the case by the turn of the century. And, assuming the paper systematically avoided mentioning mexicanos, the presence of Anglos Burbank and Pierce would be documented. There is no mention of Bocanegra or Valenzuela or Burbank (Pierce is first mentioned in 1909 in a Nuevo Laredo paper) until1900 when they are listed as part of the lineup that was to travel to Corpus Christi for the annual July 4 event. 49 While it might be wrong to think that this was the first year in which these men established themselves in the local baseball scene, it is likewise not very likely that these men had been playing in complete obscurity for over twenty years. Diaz has at least three accounts that place them considerably earlier (Pedraza, Herrera, and Favella). What do we make of these accounts? How do we account for the time gap of over a decade between Diaz's assertion and the first mention in the local papers? While Diaz was, it appears, overly ambitious in his interpretation of the data, and maybe given to juggling the dates somewhat, once the arguments for the earliest dates of baseball in Nuevo Laredo are discounted, his account of baseball history in Nuevo Laredo nevertheless remains valuable for its presentation of first person narratives that hold up fairly well. Perhaps the most important piece of his book is the picture of the 1903-1904 el Club Mexico team that graces the beginning of the Diaz volume on baseball in Nuevo Laredo. In the picture we see Bocanegra, Valenzuela, and LucasJmirez situated in time. It also forces us to recognize that these men may have played for a time without any newspaper coverage, because for these men of Laredo to have been recruited to Mexico City, they would have had to have considerable reputation and skill, both of which take time to develop. This picture is important for a variety of reasons, one of which is that it explains more clearly the handwritten note of thanks Bocanegra received from Mexican president Diaz in 1904 for helping the capital out. Yet the argument must also fit into the confines of their actual lives.

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I attempted to get the dates of Bocanegra's birth (as well as those of Valenzuela, Pierce, and Burbank) to determine if the actual dates would allow a match with Dfaz's account. Manuel Bocanegra, it turns out, was born in 1880 and died in 1942, both in Laredo. Given these dates he would have had to have played for Johnny Tayson's 1893 team of railroad employees at the tender age of thirteen, and even younger when, according to some of Dfaz's informants, he was asked to come to Mexico City to help establish the game. Bocanegra and Valenzuela are almost always listed together, but their careers are also bracketed by Pierce and Burbank. Checking on the birth dates of Valenzuela, Pierce, and Burbank shows that, like Bocanegra, Dfaz's dates for their earliest play is not feasible given their recorded birthdates. Tomas Valenzuela was born in 1887, and Pierce in 1876 (I was unable to find Burbank's birth or death record). Chronologically, Pierce could have played for Tayson's team, but Valenzuela would have been a six-year-old. It seems pretty clear that the tantalizingly early dates of Dfaz for the play of Bocanegra and friends are incorrect, so the argument that baseball began in the Laredos might not be as strong as Dfaz suggests. The earliest confirmable date for Bocanegra, Valenzuela, and Juarez is 1899, when they played for the brewery Cuauhtemoc de Monterrey against a team in Mexico City. It would be safe to argue that by the late 1890s these men were playing regularly. If we posit a date of 1896 for Bocanegra, that would make him sixteen. For Valenzuela that date would be too early, and it seems more likely that he played for Club Mexico as a youthful star of fifteen. According to their chronicler, Bocanegra and Valenzuela preferred playing locally, and they were regularly mentioned in the press from about 1903 on. This decision was no doubt influenced by the Mexican Revolution, which disrupted all of Mexico's institutions, focusing baseball more in distant Laredo. Playing alongside Bocanegra in 1900 were Burbank, Pierce, and brother-in-law Valenzuela on a powerful Laredo team that regularly challenged their rivals across the river. While the two brothersin-laws often played against teams from Fort Mcintosh, on occasion they might play for the local military base as they did against teams from Nuevo Laredo in 1918. 50 Even if there was a bias on the part of Dfaz regarding the origins of the game, the narratives of Pedraza and Herrera and others nevertheless constitute an important document about the game's earliest years. If they are chronologically inaccurate, being off by a decade (taking the 195 5 account), they are otherwise internally consistent with each other and with other narratives as well as newspaper accounts. Inaccuracies such as these are common for people trying to recollect events that occurred a half century before. At worst, we can say that Bocanegra and his associates were

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playing later than previously thought. The arrival of baseball in the area, however, still seems to have taken place around the mid-1880s on the Laredo side, and there is no reason to think that it would have been prevented from crossing over at that point in time as well. It just didn't come via Manuel Bocanegra. The following is the chronology of play by Bocanegra and Valenzuela (and where applicable Pierce and Burbank) that can be confirmed by reliable sources: with Cuauhtemoc de Monterrey against the capital team (Bocanegra, Valenzuela, and Juarez). 1900: with Laredo against Nuevo Laredo, and the Corpus Christi Kids (Bocanegra and Valenzuela). 1903-1905: with Club Mexico (Bocanegra, Valenzuela, Juarez); with a Laredo team going to Corpus Christi for July 4. 1911: with Laredo (Pierce). 1912: with Laredo (Bocanegra, Valenzuela, Burbank, Juarez). 1917: with Fort Mcintosh (Bocanegra and Valenzuela). 1918: with Laredo (Bocanegra, Burbank). 1922: with Milmos (Valenzuela, Pierce, Burbank). 1924: with Laredo (Bocanegra, Burbank). 1899:

The Decade of the 1920s Between 1920 and 1930, baseball remained local with small amateur and semi-pro teams playing irregularly. Fans in Laredo were forever admonished by the press "to go out to the Legion Park Sunday and support the local club as the boys are playing for the love of the game and receive no compensation for their services." 51 Sporadic contests between Nuevo Laredo and Laredo dotted this period, and locals could count on at least one series a year between los dos Laredos. By the late 1920s teams from Monterrey and San Antonio would regularly play against nines from either of the two Laredos, as when in 1929 Monterrey's Vidriera team, "one of the strongest in northern Mexico ... will be encountered by The Central Power and Light Co." of Laredo. 52 The wider attention brought to the sport and region by the likes of Bocanegra and Valenzuela, among others, however, was gone by the mid-1920s. Professional baseball in Texas was then being played by the Texas League, but this found no representation on the border where leagues and teams would form, fail, disband, and reform. It wasn't until the 1930s that a new talent base was established that could rival the level of play found in these pioneers of baseball in the two Laredos.

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While Nuevo Laredo was caught up with purely local baseball, the game was becoming more organized in Mexico. Beginning in 1925, and lasting for a decade, the Mexican League was slowly taking its modern (1938) form. Most chroniclers describe this early period as an "antecedent" to the modern Mexican League. 53 Alejandro Aguilar Reyes, also known as "Frey Nano," founded the league, intending to field teams from throughout the Republic. "He shared his ideas with his friend don Ernesto Carmona V. who loved baseball and sponsored teams and competitions, but also managed, played, and owned Franco Ingles Park." 54 Between the two, the league was formed and began play in June 1925 with five teams: Agrario, Dicho, Guanajuato, Nacional de Bixler, and 74 Regimiento de la ciudad de Puebla. Erratic play, schedules, and teams characterized this period of Mexican baseball. In the inaugural season, the entire franchise of the 74 Regimiento de la ciudad de Puebla had to be moved to San Lu FE/ s Potosi. 55 Whole slates of games that had been scheduled were abandoned and only occasionally replaced; games were played on Sundays only, and when not changing locations, teams changed their names. The league was mostly focused on Mexico City, where it was best organized, and where it fielded as many as four teams. Despite the unorganized nature of this period, many characteristics that presaged the modern era were introduced. The first All-Star team was formed in 1929, and the first championship series was held in 193 3. Delta Park, Mexico's premier facility for years to come, opened in 1930. And throughout this period the presence of foreign players, primarily Cubans, became a regular feature of Mexican baseball, a feature that would continue to the present.

The LaJunta Era: 1930-1935 Laredo dominated the baseball scene through Bocanegra and Valenzuela et al. until almost 1920, but thereafter Nuevo Laredo took over the mantle of border baseball preeminence. In particular, the establishment of the La Junta team focused baseball attention on the Mexican side of the river. Much of the perception of which side predominated was, in reality, undercut by the transnationalism that regularly took place. The collaborativelocal baseball theme deepens throughout the La Junta Era. As early as 1900, the role of political officials in aiding the development of baseball had been noted in the high visibility of customs officials and generals. In 1932, General Luis Horcasitas, president of the La Junta Federal de Mejoras Materiales in Nuevo Laredo, along with General Leopolda Dorantes and Pablo Peiia, both stockholders in the venture, commissioned Erasmo Flores to form a team named after the enterprise, known

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by most as simply "La Junta." At first, the La Junta team, like its predecessors, seemed to use the best talent in Nuevo Laredo, supplementing itself with Laredoans when needed. But in 1934, after a highly successful season the previous year, the plans don Erasmo began to envision grew more grandiose.

The 1934 Season Border baseball begins in earnest each February when plans are drawn up for a season that often begins three or four weeks later. The year 1934 opened with the announcement in the Laredo Times that a new league would be forming that would include the city. Harry Wanderling, a baseball entrepreneur/promoter and outsider to the Laredos, declared that he intended to open a baseball academy in Nuevo Laredo in which he hoped to train as many as two hundred young ballplayers for a league he was beginning. 56 "I'm opening the school to cater principally to ball players of Spanish descent .... I have been told for the past several years that baseball is coming along fast in this section and decided to come here and open a training school and organize a league later." 57 It was Wanderling's goal to fashion a league that was binational, made up of players from Laredo, Corpus Christi, Nuevo Laredo, Mission, Monterrey, Tampico, and Torreon. February gave way to March and nothing yet materialized on this proposed league-indeed nothing ever would-but the intentions remain noteworthy from a binational perspective and foreshadow later such attempts. Meanwhile in Laredo, plans were being put forth to field a competitive team for the coming year. The team would ride on the arms of a core of excellent young pitchers: lsmael "Oso" Montalvo, Fernando "Big" Dovalina, and his brother "Lefty." La Junta, for its part, had already raised its standing as a powerful semi-pro team the previous year, and the traditional inter-city rivalry was more intense than ever: "Reports were flocking fast back and forth across the Rio Grande as to which city had the best team." 58 They would find out by opening the 1934 season with a three-game series (two more such series would follow through the summer) between the two clubs: "Scheduling of the series at the start of the season will probably make rivalry between the two cities even stronger than it was last year. During 1933, a game between Laredo and La Junta brought out as much ballyhoo as any political campaign that has ever been staged here." 59 Laredo swept a doubleheader on that first Sunday of the season 9-4 and 4-2 with Fernando Dovalina and Ismael Montalvo each going the distance. The two also chipped in at the plate with Dovalina going 1 for 2 (a triple) and Montalvo 2 for 4. Comparisons of these pitchers to Bocanegra and Valenzuela were quickly made as the La Junta team returned to Nuevo

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Laredo somewhat shocked that their highly touted season had begun so poorly. Laredo, on the other hand, went on to ring up fourteen straight victories. These were not throwaway contests, either. Following the opener, a very strong Sabinas Baseball Club from San Antonio came in for a hard-fought doubleheader, Laredo winning both games by one run. It was becoming clear that team pitching was superb, but the club was also capable of hitting. Honneyman, Kelo, and Duran were all hitting above .300. Despite having a strong club and an impressive record early on, the Laredo team ran into managerial problems, changing their administration midway through the season. Although the team had been regularly shifting people from one week to the next, the new management promised substantial changes in personnel. The early season chemistry could not be recovered, however, and Laredo continued to slide downward in both performance and popularity. La Junta, on the other hand, had performed as well as expected. Following the opening-day losses to Laredo, La Junta augmented their club with the important addition of Cuban pitching ace Ramon Bragafia, his countryman Santos Amaro, as well as Laredo's star pitcher Ismael "Oso [bear]" Montalvo. Laredo's first baseman, Duran, had also come over. The second meeting between the two clearly demonstrated the trajectories that they were taking. Montalvo shut out his former teammates 4-0 in the first game of the series, and Palma and Bragafia beat Laredo in the Sunday doubleheader 4-2 and 8-5. What was telling during the 1934 season was the steady shift of interest on the part of the press and fans of Laredo away from their own club and to the La Junta team. This was further underscored by the fact that the La Junta team began to play its games against non-Laredo competition in Laredo as well as in their home stadium, foreshadowing the binationalism of the Tecos of the future. There was no proprietary sense on the part of either the fans or media in all of this. Laredoans identified easily with La Junta. The Laredo press heralded the upcoming series of La Junta against Sabinas (in Laredo) as "one of the classics of the season." 60 Having grown disinterested in their own team, Laredo fans were neither apathetic nor resentful toward their "rivals" across the river. Quite the contrary. Officials of the La Junta club were making arrangements for the capacity crowds of the season at the Laredo park and additional chairs were being added to the reserve seat section. 61 The Sabinas series would showcase some of the talent that La Junta had assembled for their 19 3 5 season. Amaro homered; "It was one of the hardest hit balls of the season here," said the Laredo Times on August 4. 62 Even with a sub-par pitching performance by Montalvo, the La Junta team had so much power that they could pull out an 11-9 win. The next day the La Junta team played a doubleheader in front of 2,000 Laredoans, the largest crowd in the city's history; they swept the Sabinas Brewery of San Antonio

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8-0 and 7-5, behind Bragafia's pitching in the opener (the only time that year the San Antonio team was shut out) and continued steady hitting in the second game. Tellingly, the Laredo Times prominently featured the La Junta-Sabinas series, while only briefly mentioning on the same page that Laredo was playing across the river in Rosita. Indeed, from roughly mid-August on, as far as the Laredo press was concerned La Junta was the local team. Announcing an upcoming game in Nuevo Laredo, the Laredo Times announced, "Local baseball fans have a good three game series scheduled for the week-end when La Junta meets the Austin Black Senators starting Saturday and continuing with two games Sunday. The games will be played at the brand new 'Nuevo Laredo' ball park on kilometer 3 on the Pan-American highway." 63 And La Junta continued to schedule games on both sides of the border through the season. When, at the end of September, La Junta played an all-star team from the highly respected Texas League, it did so in both Laredos, cementing its status as the team of the two Laredos. This was repeated when La Junta played the famous House of David team the following month. Yet, while it appeared that Laredo's team had all but disappeared from the baseball scene, when it came time for the final three-game series between the two cities, Laredo fielded a very strong club and the rivalry was suddenly rekindled. In true transnational fashion, Montalvo had hopped back to Laredo to pitch against his sometime teammates, while Duran and the others stayed with La Junta. The constant shuffling of players from one side to another, the playing of La Junta in Laredo's park as well as in their own, the easy adoption of La Junta by the Laredo media, and the readiness of fans to attend games on either side of the river gave true meaning to the term transnationalism. There was no purely Nuevo Laredoan or Laredoan team or fans or media. There was only los dos Laredos. This relatively unknown team from Nuevo Laredo had, in the course of one season, shown that it was capable of competing against good professional and the best semi-pro teams around. Morris Kaplan, business manager of the Texas League's San Antonio Missions, noted in the Laredo Times that "the La Junta Baseball Club could win today in the Texas baseball league, they are a fast aggregation; they hustle all of the time and are no set-up for any ball team." 64

The 193 5 La Junta Barnstorming Tour The idea of "barnstorming," setting up a tour comprised of paid playing dates in a string of cities and towns, was very popular in the United States during the 1930s. The Harlem Globetrotters basketball team is the last

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real barnstorming sports team. Sixty years ago, however, such enterprises were common. In baseball the most famous of these was the House of David team. Founded by Benjamin Purnell as the Israelite House of David Colony in Benton Harbor, Michigan, in 1903, this colony preached collective Christianity and egalitarianism. They also preached sexual abstinence, sobriety, and growing their beards. The collective underpinnings of the colony enabled it to become economically successful in selling its large stores of fruit crops. 65 Branching out into the restaurant business, the colony ran a string of eateries. By 1910 the colony was attracting visitors who wanted to observe this odd collection of Christian believers. Purnell built an amusement park to make money off the many visitors from Kalamazoo and Chicago. 66 It was in that year that the team was established as part of the entertainment complex fashioned by the colony. By 1920 the House of David team realized how profitable barnstorming might be when it played in New York: "In just one of the matched affairs that mark every large institution's baseball season, the House of David nine met such a rousing welcome from the ticket-buying customers the club stayed two monthsincidentally clearing the staggering sum of $23,000! The idea of maintaining a traveling club was not born-it was shoved at the IHD [Israelite House of David]. "67 According to Doc Tally, who managed the club in 193 5 and had played with it for twenty years, they also developed the "Pepper Game," a highly entertaining pregame ritual in which a ball is quickly tossed among players without giving the impression of it being held and without the ball touching the ground. 68 So successful was this operation that it spawned many imitators (nine by the House of David's account) and much litigation. Of course, to be so sought after required more than just an entertaining gimmick; it also required skill. The House of David team was considered by most observers to be the best semi-pro team in the country, rivaled only by the best of theN egro League teams. In 1934 the House of David assembled a record of 142 wins and 50 losses, while covering over 2 5,000 miles in Mexico, the United States, and Canada. The following year they won 13 9 games against 32 losses. 69 Being on the border, the two Laredos were often asked for playing dates by other teams from the United States or Mexico. The House of David played there often. The following excerpted proposal to the Laredo Chamber of Commerce from the famous Cuauhtemoc Brewery in Monterrey, Mexico, was typical of such inquiries: February 14, 1935 I wish to notify you that we have the best organized baseball team in this locality, called the "Carta Blanca" club. Therefore I wish to play with any team there is

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or with any formed in Laredo during the 22nd, 23rd, or 24th of February during the Washington Birthday Celebration .... Yours truly Jesus Ma. Garza 70

Oftentimes these requests were made on behalf of American teams preparing itineraries for tours into Mexico. Playing dates in the two Laredos were ideal stopovers into and out of Mexico. Mexican teams touring deep into the United States, on the other hand, never occurred. The 1935 La Junta tour changed all of that. La Junta was an assemblage of the greatest ballplayers in the history of border baseball, a team that took to the road for three months through the heartland of the United States as far north as North Dakota. They toured through ten states, playing eighty-three games against some of the finest semi-pro teams in the country and ringing up an impressive record of 62 wins, 18 losses, and 3 ties. La Junta's manager Erasmo Flores may have conceived of the idea of touring after watching so many teams come through the twin border towns, but he could never have undertaken the planning and execution of it. As barnstormers, these border people were provincials, rarely traveling much beyond the Monterrey-San Antonio borderlands area. Flores, however, got the House of David's business manager to assemble the trip. 71 Fernando Dovalina, the strong-armed righthander who was a standout on that La Junta team, concurred: "The idea [for the tour] came from the House of David team and the manager who scheduled the games for them. He talked to Erasmo Flores, the manager for La Junta, and told him it was a good idea to do a tour in the United States.'m A core of forty-three games were scheduled in advance, 73 with the remainder to unfold as the tour progressed. Indeed, the preliminary road trip included games through June 25, but more games were added so that the team did not return until early July.

The Social Makeup of Semi-Pro Teams La Junta had shown the previous year that it could play with anybody. They had Mexican standout Agustfn Bejerano in the outfield, and they already had two Cubans stars, Santos Amaro and Ramon Bragafia. In 193 5 they added Chile Gomez at shortstop (Gomez would sign with the Philadelphia Phillies before the end of the season,) Barrada and Chaves at first and second base, and Arjona and Cabal. From Laredo they hired on pitcheroutfielder Ismael Montalvo, pitcher Fernando Dovalina, and Pelon Rodriguez. All told, manager Flores had the strongest team ever assembled

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on the border. By the mid-1930s baseball in Mexico was beginning to go international, as it had in the Dominican Republic/ 4 Cuba, and Venezuela.75 On the Laredo-Nuevo Laredo border it had always been so. The transnational quality of the relations between the cities assumed that they would use each other's resources. Hiring Montalvo, Dovalina, Rodriguez, and later Kelo Garda from Laredo teams, was done without any thought. In one respect La Junta's 1935 season was a first. Exceptional foreign players traveling from team to team had become commonplace in Mexico, as had the competition between the country's better teams, but long-term trips by Mexican teams abroad were unheard of. The oral histories of two Laredo stars-Fernando Dovalina and Ismael Montalvo-provide a certain amount of insight into the nature of baseball in the area. Through them we can piece together the social history of this momentous trip. Fernando Dovalina was born in 1913 in Laredo. By the time he was about sixteen he was already one of the local stars, being asked to play by Laredo and Nuevo Laredo teams. Semi-pro baseball was, for him, a gameto-game proposition, and playing for many teams within a single season was the norm: When you played semi-pro you didn't have a contract. If a guy asks you, "How much are you making over there?" You might say, "Ten dollars." He would say, "Okay, I'll give you 15." And you would go with him. I used to pitch for La Junta back in the 1930s, and they laid me off. They said they couldn't afford to pay me anymore. The next Sunday, a team from Laredo went over there and I pitched for Laredo after I had been pitching for La Junta all year. That's the way it was. 76

Even today ballplayers in this region are recruited while quite young. Long careers in baseball were and are fairly common in Mexico by comparison with the United States, and contracts were for short periods ranging from a single game (or even part of it) to a season. Owners of teams were generally military men and other top governmental officials. Ismael Montalvo, born in 1913 in San Benito, Texas (in the Rio Grande Valley), narrates his first years as an itinerant in semi-pro Mexican ball: I started playin' [semi-pro] in 1930. I was eighteen when I dropped out of school. A Yankee scout came over. In those days it was hard to get into professional ball, even in Class D: many ballplayers, hungry ballplayers. Then, when I was eighteen, I went to play ball in this town close to Monterrey: Linares. They had a team owned by a general. In those days only generals had baseball teams. All the players had to put on soldier's uniforms [join the army]. I told him I'm not gonna put on no uniform. There were two of us, both pitchers. In those days they paid a hundred dollars a month and expenses in gold .... The general called me to play around Christmas, just for a series. We played a team from Mexico City and

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beat them 4--0. It was an important series and that game was Saturday. I said, "If we play Sunday, I'm not gonna play both games. I'm gonna leave." I wanted to go home and see my mother. I didn't tell anybody I was leaving. I just went to the train station. Got my ticket. Two soldiers came over out of nowhere and said, "The general wants to talk to you." The general was in a big ol' Lincoln, sittin' in the back. He asked me, "\Vhere you goin', Montalvo?" I told him. He shook his head slowly. "You're not goin' anywhere. Give me your ticket." He gave it to the soldiers and said, "Go get his money back." I got into the car and he took me to Boy's Town [the area of town with bars and prostitutes] over there. I was going there to help him for only one week. You know when I got outta there? 'Bout two months later. You couldn't mess with those guys. In 1931, I went with the Aztecas in Mexico City. It was the number one semipro team in Mexico then .... We used to draw 10,000 people in those days. There were Mexicans, Cubans. We had a helluva good club. Then in 1932 I went to San Antonio to play with the Mexican Nationals, a very good semi-pro team. In 193 3 I moved to Laredo. 77

Many semi-pro players had to juggle lives at home and work with baseball, and that was a major reason why most stayed close to home. Fernando Dovalina had these sorts of responsibilities, so when the offer to join La Junta on a tour of the United States came, he had to deliberate. "They offered me the chance to play for La Junta, but I was working for a wholesale grocery store. I was the foreman of the warehouse. The president of the company, he liked baseball, and he said, 'Go ahead, Dovalina. When you come back you'll have your job back.' So I went, otherwise I wouldn't have gone. We were supposed to be back in two months, but we were gone longer so I had to write him for an extension." 78 It wasn't even a one-time act of juggling work and play, as don Fernando pointed out. For many of these better ballplayers the daily grind of a job, often a hard job, competed for their energy and time. Lazaro Dovalina, younger brother of Fernando and himself a player with the 1949 Laredo Apaches, astutely points this out in discussing his brother's accomplishments: You know, this guy [pointing to his older brother Fernando] worked hard ever since he was fifteen years old. And you know, at that time they worked from sunup to sundown. He didn't have time to practice. By the time he got home from work, changed, and went to the ball park it was dark. And this guy would grab a mitt and say, "Let me throw some." He could throw hard all right, but when he came back from that [1935 La Junta] tour he said, "Put the glove on." And he threw harder than I ever saw him throw because those two months on tour, that's all he did! Over here, he'd be working all week long. It's like "Lalo" Hernandez. He was a carpenter. Can you imagine? He's with a hammer all week long and then he'd go out and pitch on Sunday. 79

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In any event, once the opportunity came virtually all of the players manager Flores asked to play eagerly agreed, and the first tour of a Mexican team into the United States commenced in May 1935.

Life on the Tour Some teams, like the House of David, toured in large, well appointed cars, but the vast majority of barnstorming teams, La Junta included, went the bus route. Recalled Montalvo: We had an old bus, one of those "Pee Wee's," we used to call them. It was a good bus, though, and we had a good driver too. We had to play in St. Joseph, Missouri, I remember, a whole week because he had to take the motor off and overhaul it. He did too. Good driver. The longest trip we had was about 250 miles. Mter a night game we got on the bus, get a big ol' seat there, and take off. We had a lot of fun. We picked on each other, but we got along pretty good. Oh, sometimes we had fights, but we really respected each other. 80

Pay was negligible, but still considered better than most border dwellers made (about $100 a month). Playing ball conferred its own rewards on players. Being the best team was nice, but so was traveling and the ever present opportunity of finding women. The parks and sometimes the after-game spots were natural places where ballplayers would socialize with women, as Dovalina noted: I never asked for much pay while on the tour (saved it for the end). Others did and sent it home. They didn't want to give us a Iotta money in our packs because then we might play poker. We couldn't even go look for women cuz we didn't have much money. We'd drink a beer or two and that was it. We went to a whorehouse, Cabal and myself, and we had a dollar each [laughs]. The lady looked at us and shook her head no, not enough money, so I said, "Let's flip for it." Lots of girls at the ballpark, though. They went to see us, talk to us. They'd ask each other, "Which one do you like the best?" There was one girl in Chicago, and she would play catch with us. I have pictures of her. She was the wife of the clerk at the hotel we stayed at. Very beautiful. When we played in Chicago there were a Iotta people who knew about us, a Iotta people from Laredo. 81

No matter how well they meshed, long tours invariably tested the tempers of players. A team like La Junta that had players of different nationalities and races, not to mention the more obvious personality differences, contained the potential for strife. There were the long hours on the bus, followed by long hours of finding accommodations or running from one game to another, or simply fatigue, but the interviews reveal that team solidarity remained high. In part, this must have been because even though

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there were racial differences among them (e.g., Hispanic, black), the team as a whole was foreign while traveling in the U.S. heartland. For nonwhites to travel in the United States in the 1930s was often difficult. Dovalina and Montalvo both mention incidents of this nature: We'd come into town and we'd pull up to a hotel and find out if they'd take the Black players like Bragafia and Amaro. If they said no, we'd go and look for another place. Sometimes we had to take them to the Black section, to people's houses. When we went to eat, sometimes we ate together and sometimes they wouldn't take the Blacks. Sometimes, instead of being separated from them, and so they wouldn't feel bad, we'd all eat in the kitchen. 82

While racism such as this occurred often enough, the Cuban blacks were by no means obsequious about it. Montalvo relates one incident: We stopped in a hotel in Wichita Falls, Texas, and the manager of the hotel came out. We were getting off the bus after a long hot ride. We had Bragafia and Amaro, and the hotel manager says, "Those two niggers ain't gonna stay in my hotel." Bragafia turned to him and shouted, "Mister, this hotel ain't shit" and started goin' after him. Anyway, after we separated them, I don't know how, but he [hotel manager] kinda began to like Bragafia and they gave him a room on the fifth floor. They became good buddies because Bragafia was a good domino player. 83

Hispanic players also felt discrimination, especially in Texas towns, recalled Dovalina: It was hard for the blacks to play in Austin. When we were returning from the tour we played there, but they wouldn't let the blacks play and they beat us. When they came down here to play later, we played with Bragafia and Amaro. We beat them and they said we weren't the same team. 84 In German towns [like New Braunfels, or San Marcos, Texas] there was discrimination. The players had a tough time staying in hotels, and they would yell things at us on the field .... Up north in places like Chicago most of the time we went straight to the game. No hanging around hotel lobbies like they do now. At the ballparks sometimes the people or the police would come over to me asking about Mexico [laughs]. I didn't know very much. "How are the Catholics doing in Mexico? Are they still throwin' them out? How is the Church down in Mexico?" I didn't know what to say. 85

Montalvo also recalls discrimination: We were playing in Devil's Lake, North Dakota. And we play at night there, and I walked into a bar there. Have beer around 11 o'clock at night. They had a long bar there, one block [long] owned by the city. They open sections of the bar

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according to the time of the day. I walk in and think, "fuck it's long [bar]." And there was Amaro down at one end of the bar havin' a beer and I couldn't see him. And I walk into the place. And I say to the bartender, "How bout a beer." And he say, "No. We don't serve Injuns." He thought I was an Indian. The Cuban wasn't sayin' anything, then he come up to me and said, "God damn, son of a bitch. You an American and they don't serve you in the United States." Then the bartender heard me talkin' Spanish and came back and he said, "Oh, you're with the team," and he gave me a beer. Then he laughed and told everybody that he didn't want to serve me cuz he thought I was an Indian. 86

Racism worked to promote the team's cohesiveness, but the travails of the road would eat away at this, and at times the players would get testy. Perhaps this was more so because oftentimes in small towns the La Junta team did not feel comfortable enough to split up and go out. The nightly poker games might occasion a fight, or the game situations might act as triggering mechanisms: Sometimes we used to say things to each other, but we didn't have serious problems. We didn't have guys like Deion Sanders on our club. Everybody was serious about playing ball. You know, like everybody, we sometimes used to have fights among the ballplayers. We didn't fool around too much. We weren't makin' that kind of money, but sometimes fights would happen. Chile Gomez fought with Bragafia in Battle Creek, Michigan, one time. What the hell, we were fourteen guys and we never really saw eye-to-eye, there were some differences, but it was fun, a lotta fun. 87 One time we were playing in Battle Creek, Michigan. They beat us there and Bragafia was pitching. Cabal dropped a fly ball and when we went to take a shower after the game Bragafia told Cabal about it. He got real mad with Cabal and Chile Gomez somehow got in the way of those two, and Gomez wound up fighting with Cabal. They didn't have clothes on, no shoes, nothin'. And we were right next to the White club. Just a door divided the whole shower. And they came to watch the fight. We couldn't stop it because if we tried to hold Chile, Bragafia would hit him or Amaro might get mad. And then we would have a big fight, so we let em fight for about ten or fifteen minutes. That's a long fight! A bottle broke on the cement floor and they were stepping on it, but no one stopped them. 88

Barnstorming and Entertainment Having the House of David's manager help set up the tour for the La Junta club necessitated their entertainment of the crowds with more than just their baseball skills. The tour was being labeled as a "Good Wtll Tour" of

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the United States by Mexicans, so it was decided that the ballplayers should take on the Charro (Mexican cowboy) look. Pictures of them in sombreros and sarapes, smoking cigars or holding bats were used in promotional literature. In fact the team was periodically referred to as the Charras by local American newspapers. 89 While serious ball clubs did not normally do the entertaining before and during the games themselves, they were often accompanied by individuals who did. One amusing story told of don Fernando Dovalina illustrates the use of such entertainers and also points up how culturally removed the border was from Mexico City-based culture. Don Fernando's son Ramon, former editor of El Noticiario Nacional, published his account of the story that bears quoting at length. I append some of don Fernando's comments as well. In this story a young talented Dovalina, unaware of much of life and culture away from the border, is being recruited by the manager of a Mexican team: The manager needed a pitcher for his team in Nueva Rosita, Coahuila, Mexico. It seems that the team was playing a barnstorming Negro team from the United States and the Mexican team was in need of a good pitcher. The manager found my father's home and asked my grandmother for permission to borrow her son for the weekend to play baseball. The manager assured my grandmother that my father would be in good hands and would stay in the manager's home overnight .... My father packed a little bag with his change of clothing, his glove, and his spikes. He got in the back seat of the car since another ballplayer from Mexico was already in the front. The player was introduced to my father as Mario Reyes, an outfielder perhaps a year or two older.... at the ballpark the next afternoon. It was quickly evident that Reyes was the star of the team since the crowd was relatively large for such a small town, and it seemed that all the young women mingled around him as if he were a matinee star. My father took his warm ups but paused occasionally to see el tim de negros americanos [the American negro team] hit towering flyballs to the outfield and beyond the fence. They looked like too strong an opponent for the smaller built Mexican team .... The game started and the Mexicans took the field as the first visitor came to bat. My father threw two inside fast balls to brush him away from the plate. Then he threw a little curve just below the letters. The player swung and hit a shot to right field beyond where Reyes was playing. Reyes took off after it but before he took three steps, his baggy baseball pants began to fall off his waist. Two steps later his pants were down to his knees and Reyes was no longer running. Rather, he was taking that funny walk that is customary with long distance walkers. The fans broke out in laughter as Reyes proceeded to catch up with the ball. Neither my father nor the opposing team understood that Reyes was not a ballplayer; he had been added on as a special attraction to draw the

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crowd. He was in fact a comedian who was quickly becoming known throughout Mexico for his antics .... The ballplayer became better known later as Mario Reyes Moreno "Cantinflas."90 He [Cantinflas] came to bat too, and then the black guys from Austin said, "This is not a ballplayer." They didn't know who he was, but they knew he wasn't a ballplayer because he was checking his bat like this [imitating the clowning movements of Cantinflas]. I was thinking about the ballgame. These guys can beat me with one run and I was angry. 91

The 1935 La Junta team had its share of such entertainers as well. The Dovalina brothers recall a baseball clown who traveled with the team: I don't know if he was given to us by the House of David or what. He was from Austin, an Anglo. Happy Fitzhugh. Happy had no arms, just stumps. He would sit at home plate and open up his suitcase, pull out a dinner setting, a plate and all. He'd sit down to a meal. He'd shave himself. Great guy. We had a lotta fun with him. He'd stand up on a corner where the hotel was on the other side of the street and make signs at the hotel. People would stop and wonder what he was doing. In the mornings when we didn't have nothing to do sometimes we played pool and Happy played with us. He put the cue like this [strapped to his stump], held with the other one and break like this [a slap shot]. He could do everything except button his shirt. Well, he couldn't wash his armpits either. 92

The Tour Reyes Ortiz, secretary for the club, whose real job was at the post office, would get the wires every day with the bare-bones reports of the most recently completed game. He would call the Laredo Times with the news, but the reports were rarely very detailed. The quality of the teams played ranged widely. H. Witte, the advance agent for the team (affiliated with the House of David also), did not control the quality of the clubs, but as the team began to amass an enviable record, offers to play better teams came in on their own. La Junta's overall record was 62 wins, 18losses, and 3 ties. Some of those wins, such as those over Waco, Texas, seemed easy. In Waco, Dovalina and Bragafia shut out the locals on two hits, winning 9-0. This was also the case in Jamestown, North Dakota, on July 6 when Dovalina won 7-3, pitching shutout ball until the ninth inning, when he gave up three runs; but the game had long since been determined by the powerhitting of Santos Amaro, who had homered and doubled. Wherever they went, La Junta was depicted as an exciting and dangerous team. Some of this was typical of the publicity that leads up to the games in the hopes of luring more fans, but by their record it was clear that

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few teams could beat them. The press understood them as legitimate competitors: Pampa (Texas) Daily: "the peppery little Mexicans have had better luck with Panhandle teams than did the House of David." Wisconsin State Journal: "The La Junta boys got a sweet ball club. They hit that ball on the nose, no pop flies in the bag .... They had a beautiful crowd at the game. Over 2,000 saw the game .... They got stars galore. One is Gonzales, the shortstop. That baby can field and is a pretty nice hitter. And Gomez at second can rap that apple .... That centerfielder, Bejerano, is the fastest man ever to step into this ball park. On a perfect hit ball he ran over first base four feet before the ball ever got there." 93

Not only did this team have speed and defense, but Montalvo remembered the balanced hitting of La Junta as well. "We were playing in Belleville, Illinois, just across from St. Louis. About 10,000 people there in that small park. People all over the place. First inning Bragafia was off that day, they got 6 runs. We come right back and beat them 20 to 8. Home runs all over the place. People didn't believe it! Amaro, me, Rodriguez, bam, bam, bam." 94 Dovalina added, "One guy standing behind the fence was saying, 'Hey, those Mexicans can't do anything but eat beans.' But after we started hitting home runs and we had about three double steals and we were beating them badly, he started hollering, 'Hey get those Mexicans out of here before they steal the park."' 95 For the tour Amaro led the team in home runs with twelve and seemed to regularly generate extra base hits. La Junta batters were hitting for average as well, with six players batting over .300. Pitching was their strong suit, however. The pitching staff compiled the following records over the tour: Won

Lost

Tied

Montalvo

13

2

0

Cabal

13

3

1

Dovalina

12

3

0

Barradas

3

1

0

Salazar

10

4

2

Bragafia

11

5

0

Montalvo also led the team with three shutouts, and both he and Dovalina pitched a team-leading nine complete games. Dovalina was somewhat surprised at his success during the tour: I was having troubles with my curve. For me that [curve] was important. One year [1934] Montalvo and myself we won thirteen games straight .... That year

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I had a good curve ball and a good fast ball. I learned the curve from a book. I had faith that if somebody got on base I could strike out the next guy, that they wouldn't get three hits in succession. On the tour I went with my fastball because I saw Bragafia getting away with a fastball. So I started throwing like Bragafia. He was older than me and had played in Mexico before he came to Nuevo Laredo in '32. 96

As strong as this team was, there were some that seemed to dominate them. The Overton, Texas, Oilers had La Junta's number. On the initial run out of Texas, Overton won both ends of their doubleheader, 2-1 and 5-2. The Oilers were often used as a benchmark by which teams could declare their strength, as when the Laredo Times indicated that Nu Icy (an Austin team) would be a hard contest because they had beaten Overton twice that year. 97 No one seems to have remembered Overton, however. Bismark, North Dakota, was another story. While we have come to think of baseball's race barrier as substantial, unilaterally in place between the 1880s and 1946, there existed pockets of integration where black and white athletes played together. North Dakota was one such place. By most accounts, North Dakota has not been considered a source of baseball talent in the way that the south or far west has been. Yet during the decades of the 1920s and 1930s semi-pro teams such as Bismark and Jamestown were competing in the prestigious Denver Post Tournament, and doing so with integrated teams. 98 When, in 1932, rival Jamestown hired three Negro League standouts to play for its team, the manager of Bismark's semi-pro team (and mayor of the city) contacted Negro League promoter Abe Saperstein to sign the best pitcher that the league offered. Satchel Paige signed with the 193 3 Bismark team and won the state baseball championship. 99 Paige re-signed with Bismark in 193 5. That year a touring House of David team studded with ringers such as Grover Cleveland Alexander and Elmer Dean, as well as its regulars, appeared in Bismark. Paige pitched both ends of a doubleheader against them and won. According to Roper, Paige had thirty-one wins that season for Bismark, against only two losses. It was into this Bismark maelstrom that an unsuspecting La Junta team walked on July 4, 193 5. 100 Paige's signature was style. Everything he did was dramatic. He would often send the outfielders back to the bench and retire the side. Fans loved this sort of showmanship and Paige is rumored to have been paid $300 a game in the 1930s, a handsome sum during the Depression. Don Ismael Montalvo smiled when asked about the first time he saw Paige. He recalled that the long black Cadillac in which Paige traveled pulled up to the grandstand chauffeured not by a man, but a weary, sensuous-looking black woman. She pulled to a stop and stared ahead, fatigued from the twohundred-mile trek to Chicago, while the back door opened to discharge a

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tall, lanky young figure. Montalvo continued: It was ten minutes before the game when he came in that big ol' car of his. He got out of the car, play[ed] pepper 'bout ten minutes, then pitched. He threw fastballs, I think, over a hundred miles an hour. He didn't mess around with a curveball, nothin'. One, rwo, three, vamonos. He wanted to get out of there quick. He pitched against us three games, rwo in a row and we didn't score a run.101

Don Fernando Dovalina also recalls those games and the overpowering presence of Paige: We got to Bismark, North Dakota. When we got there the Cubans got sick. Amaro, Bragafia, they knew Paige was warming up. They knew him from Mexico, but our guys, we never heard of him. He played for anybody who'd pay him. Gee, I don't know, $200, $500 whatever. He had his car and he had his satchel and he'd go from one place to another. Some of the people in the crowd were telling us that this guy Satchel Paige was the best pitcher in the world. Bragafia and Amaro said to me, "You have no chance." The Cubans all knew him so they got sick. "Let somebody else pitch," said Bragafia. He beat us easy. The next day we played against them again, and found out that Satchel Paige was gonna pitch again. He could pitch every day. We all got sick this time. When he warmed up, he'd go over to first base and throw like anybody, like a first baseman. Then he'd warm up like a pitcher, and then we couldn't see it [his pitches]. Some guys would come back to the bench and say, "I was lucky, I got a foul off him." He'd keep the ball low all the time. Hitters knew he was comin' right there, they just couldn't hit it. They couldn't see it. 102

The pages of the Bismark Tribune report that Paige pitched against the "Mexican Charros" on July 4 in a rain-shortened game of five innings that ended in a scoreless tie. Paige gave up two singles and no runs, striking out nine. A week later the two teams met again. 103 Paige won, pitching a complete game and giving up one run and three singles and fanning thirteen. (Although Montalvo claimed that they never scored off Paige, it may just have felt like they never did.) A third game was reported in the Bismark Tribune, but the results were not published. Montalvo's recollection was that La Junta failed to score. Paige was so impressive and dominating a pitcher that any team to face him held the memory of it long afterward, and La Junta teammates, whose memories might blur on other aspects of the tour, were able to vividly recall events having to do with Paige decades after the games had been played. Encountering Paige was, in the larger picture of the 193 5 season, a high point. Simply facing a legend-a future Hall of Farner and major league player-was awesome enough for the border team, and the losses

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they suffered were buffered by the winning record that La Junta compiled in their northern swing. Major league lightning was to strike even more directly before the tour was done. Philadelphia Phillies scouts had come to hear of the "crack" Mexican team that was beating some of the best teams in the heartland. Mter watching La Junta for weeks, the scouts were most impressed by second baseman Chile Gomez. He was granted a tryout with the team and signed in early July. The payoff was immediate, and the Laredo paper eagerly reported the results of his first series: Gomez fielded flawlessly and collected five hits in eight at-bats. 104 Underscoring the transnational selfidentity of the Laredos was the fact that whenever players were lost to injury or, in this case, to another team, La Junta would look home to find replacements; new players were as often as not from Laredo as they were from Nuevo Laredo. Upon returning to Nuevo Laredo in early August, the owners of the team in conjunction with city officials from both Laredos arranged a border version of a "ticker-tape parade" for La Junta: Ball fans are going to greet the players on their arrival today at 2:00p.m. with the municipal band .... members of the Nuevo Laredo Chamber of Commerce and officials of the La Junta Federal de Mejoras Materiales will be among the reception committee which will be waiting to parade down Guerrero Avenue .... Music will be played throughout the down town section and everything will be done to show Nuevo Laredo's appreciation for the only team which has ever traveled the northern states in a successful tour. 105

On September 2 7, 193 5, the House of David arrived in the Laredos from a series of games played in Mexico. All three games were played under the lights at La Junta park, with the "bearded beauties" (as House of David players were often called) winning two of three seesaw contests. Gonzales reports that 6,300 fans watched one game. 106 The presence of this legendary team in the Laredos had become something of an eagerly anticipated annual event in the 1930s. The House of David had regularly made Mexico a part of their annual 40,000 mile treks, and stopping at Nuevo Laredo or Laredo was a natural jumping off point. The spectacular 193 5 season culminated in the appearance of the American League All-Star team, which toured in Mexico in October of that year. A three-game series was arranged between La Junta and the American League team. La Junta managed a 2-1 win in the rubber game of that series, but the local paper opined that the La Junta win was as much a result of the American League All-Stars' "inclination to clown and overconfidence" as to Cabal's excellent pitching performance. 107 The box scores suggest a series of closely fought contests with La Junta roughly

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matching the All-Stars in hits and overall play. "Whatever the outcome, the presence in Nuevo Laredo of this august body-"The biggest affair in the annals of baseball around here" 108-seemed to cap a heady season. In the winter of 1995, Fernando Dovalina and Ismael Montalvo, along with a few other old players, were still "pitching" every Friday and Saturday at Margarita's Restaurant. Among the games they pitch, those from the 193 5 season still get the lion's share of attention.

Conclusion Baseball in the Laredos was, from its inception through the 1930s, aregional affair, more appropriately termed "borderland ball." Local parties both north and south of the international line organized teams, scheduled contests, and recruited for the region. Don Ismael Montalvo was one of those Laredoans, who, because of his prowess, traveled far and wide, but in recalling his beginnings in the Rio Grande Valley, he characterized the game as regional: I was raised in the [Rio Grande] Valley, in San Benito. My older brother played, and two other brothers. We were twelve children. In those days there were a few teams in the Valley, 'bout four or five. I stayed home to help with the family and played for the highest bidder and they paid me fifteen dollars a game. Was a lotta money. I played for the .30/JOs. There was another team in Brownsville. Call them the Hatmakers. Semi-pro. They were very good ball clubs, but no competition except with each other. 109

Between the twin cities were shared players, scheduled contests, fans, and reportage. "When teams from other cities within the sphere that included San Antonio to the north and Monterrey to the south came to town, there was but a single identity. At other times the cities competedsometimes bitterly-with each other: "We used to play against each other, we were rivals. In those days there wasn't much to do. They used to charge twenty-five or thirty-five cents for the bleachers. So baseball was a big thing with fans. But even then we would switch sides, play for one side one week, the other the next." 11 For many players, this made it difficult to generate an absolute sense of identity, though it was not necessary to do so. As the 1930s progressed Laredo saw the emergence of more powerful clubs increasingly staffed with foreign (mostly Cuban) players who were relatively well paid. This shift in semi-pro baseball, of course, was a transition to the fully professional Mexican League that would emerge at the end of the decade. Historian Allen Guttmann's typology is appropriate here in that the differences between borderland baseball of the 1930s and the period that followed is vaguely reminiscent of Guttmann's distinctions

°

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65

between capitalist/industrial sport and the medieval period. 111 The semipro teams like La Junta were much more egalitarian, much less bureaucratic, rationalized, specialized, and record-oriented than were the teams that came in the wake of the Mexican League of the 1940s. As a professional league, the Mexican League centralized baseball operations, either severely reducing or curtailing altogether local control and autonomy. In the same way that the capital exerts its political and cultural power over the margins of a state, Mexico City would come to dominate the sport of baseball, first through Pasquel and later in the 1950s through Alejo Peralta.

Three ________________________ Nationalizing the Game 1

SPREADING ouT cold cash on a beautiful antique mahogany desk is a little like having comedienne Roseanne Barr sit down to dine with Katharine Hepburn; the simple juxtaposition of the two exaggerates the coarseness of the former. That was precisely what Jorge Pasquel did when, in 1946, Pasquel brought Tom Gorman into his plush Mexico City office. The manner in which Pasquel pulled out that huge wad of thousand-dollar bills from the desk drawer, spreading twenty of them out on the beautifully burnished desktop like so much raw meat, was a vulgar move, just as was his stuffing the bills into a brown paper bag and handing it to Gorman. Much of this was lost on a young gringo pitcher, however. He was newly married, nursing an injury, and broke: "We were on velvet. I thought I was. Twenty thousand was more money than I'd ever had before, and more than I was to have for a long time in the future. And there it was, right there before me on the desk, waiting for me to pick it up. Jorge put all that money into a paper sack, a little grocery bag, and handed it to me. So I had twenty grand and I hadn't thrown a ball." 2 When asked by Pasquel which method of payment he preferred, Gorman had opted for cash, a move that probably confirmed Pasquel's low view of employees in general. The quasi-feudal social world that continues to color so much of the Mexican elite's relations contains a generous dose of benevolent disdain for subordinates. Let the underling attempt to step outside of these social bounds and, for instance, demand better pay or changed conditions, and the benevolence turns into cold-blooded ruthlessness, as it did with the Mexican baseball players' Asociacion Nacional de Beisbolistas (ANABE) strike of 1981. But this could hardly have occurred to Gorman and his wife Margery, as they were being wined and dined by Pasquel that evening. These aspects of Pasquel's personality could be glimpsed in his surroundings. His office was decorated in early macho-posh. The walls were filled with trophies of the chase, both four-legged and two-legged. There were heads of animals and heads of state spread around. Pictures of Miguel Aleman, soon-to-be president of Mexico, in the company of Jorge Pasquel were in abundance as were other narcissistic extensions such as sports mementos. The pelt of a large grey mountain lion, for instance, replete with snarling teeth, lay spread on the highly polished blue-tile floor. Gorman

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recalls that Pasquel named it "Ted Williams." And, in strict Hemingway literary fashion, Pasquelliked to keep a loaded .45 caliber automatic pistol on his desk just for talking with visitors. Why would a Mexican multimillionaire, an astute businessman with a keen sense for value, pay out $20,000 to a "virtual rookie" with a "dubious future" 3 to play in La Liga Mexicana? Tom Gorman was, by 1946, washed up as a major leaguer after a career of only five innings (all back in 1939). He had spent four years in the U.S. Army during the Second World War, winding up his tour of duty with calcium deposits in his throwing arm, which made pitching painful and his future cloudy. Nevertheless, like almost all ballplayers who had had a taste of the "big time," Gorman showed up at the New York Giants' Winterhaven, Florida, spring training camp in February of 1946. Almost immediately traded to the Boston Braves and shipped over to Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, Gorman pitched seven shutout innings against his old team. Fortuitously, some ofPasquel's scouts were in attendance, reconnoitering for el ]eft, and recommended Gorman for the Mexican League. The push to get American players for the Mexican League was seen by American baseball interests as a naked act of aggression, unprovoked and without justification. It ushered in what has become known as the "baseball war" of 1946. The process by which this unfolded illustrates several features of the use and medium of sport in promoting nationalism. Just as the 1935 tour of the United States by La Junta was emblematic of the highest point achieved by border baseball, the subsequent period of professionalization of Mexican baseball was most dramatically illustrated in the 1946 season. This chapter examines a unique year in the annals of baseball, and the man who orchestrated the events of that year.

The Mexican Baseball League of 1940 The Mexican League began in earnest in 1940, and Nuevo Laredo's entry was, predictably, La Junta. Most Mexican chroniclers of the sport consider the Mexican League to have begun in 1925, 4 but such histories also distinguish between a period roughly between 1925-1938 and what follows. The latter marks the emergence of organized leagues throughout the republic, while the earlier period is more akin to the semi-pro baseball played by La Junta in the 1930s. When don Ismael Montalvo mentioned playing for the Aztecas of Mexico City in 1931, he characterized the organization of baseball as loose with no overarching structure tying teams together or orchestrating play or a season. The caliber of baseball was good and getting better, but cohesion and integration was absent. Teams started and folded in the same season, the schedules were erratic, and rosters chaotic.

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Certainly by the late 1930s Mexican teams had begun to attract Negro League stars. Playing for Tampico in 1939, Montalvo was on a team with James "Cool Papa" Bell. Foreign players, especially from Cuba, had been part of Mexican baseball since at least the early 1930s. Santos Amaro and Ramon Bragaiia were with La Junta by then, and the legendary Martin Dihigo was playing in the south, but the numbers of these foreigners and Negro Leaguers reached a critical threshold by the late 1930s. The entrance of the Pasquel brothers into Mexican baseball in 1940 accelerated this process and ushered in an era of organization that made effective use of the increasingly talented players in that country. While exciting to see talent from different countries, local players felt uneasy. Don Ismael explains, "When I went away [from Laredo] in 1939 [to Tampico] they had six foreigners, most of them Black. Pasquel took over in 1940 and he raised it to twelve. Sometimes you'd see only one Mexican player; all the others were foreign." 5 For the Mexican League, reinventing itself in a more modern context entailed a more structured format and schedule, as well as finding owners who were committed to regularly fielding established teams that would be profitable. More modern facilities, such as Mexico City's Delta Park (built in 1930) were needed. The outcome, however, remained checkered with some teams able to meet the new, more professional standards and others less so. Tampico's stadium, for instance, never completely shed its past: The railroad went right through centerfield in Tampico. There'd be around five thousand people there, [and the] game'd stop for about ten minutes because behind the grandstand was the railroad depot. When the train'd come in, they'd open gates in centerfield to let it in, stop a game because when the train was switching cars at the depot the cars would trail into the stadium. We'd wait.... I had a catcher over there, and he was also an engineer on a train too. And when the railroad would go through the ballpark full of people he would stop the train and talk with his friends on the train. The fans would scream, "Sale Ia madre!" [Get the mother out!], and he would holler back, "tu tambien!" [Same to you!] 6

Nuevo Laredo entered the league partly on the basis of having had one of the more successful teams of the 1930s, although the La Junta team that entered the league bore no resemblance to the team that defined 1930s baseball in the area. The stars of the mid-1930s-Amaro, Bragaiia, Cabal, Montalvo-were all playing elsewhere in the league that year. Despite using twenty foreigners, more than twice what most other teams were using that year, they still finished twenty-four and a half games behind Veracruz. Still, the 1940 Nuevo Laredo team had talent. Pitcher Edward "Pullman" Porter, a veteran of the Negro Leagues, was their top starter. His devastating fastball enabled him to set a Mexican League record that would stand for a dozen years. He struck out 232 batters that year and

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compiled a 21-14 record. There seemed to be an ineptitude on the field that cost most of the other pitchers games and hid their accomplishments. Tom "Lefty" Glover's record was 8-13, but would periodically show flashes of brilliance as when, on more than one occasion, he would strike out the side in the ninth inning with the bases loaded and a one run lead. These high points were relatively rare, however. After dropping out for three seasons (1941-4 3), La Junta became the Tecolotes when they returned to the Mexican League in 1944. They took their name because Nuevo Laredo was the first team to play night games. They reentered the league boasting the likes of Dihigo and Cabal and the border's own Montalvo, but all of these players were now past their prime. Dihigo batted only .249, while Cabal was 0-2 with a bloated 9.09 earned run average. Montalvo had his best year at the plate with a .317 batting average. On the mound he managed only a 1-1 record with a 3.38 ERA. The entire decade was not one that Nuevo Laredo could be particularly proud of. They twice left the league, in 1941-43 and 1947-48. When they fielded a team they did poorly, coming in second once, as well as fourth, sixth, and eighth (last) in other years. This was not a stellar franchise in the 1940s, but the events taking place within the league swept the Tecolotes into a current that involved international intrigue and drama. Just as 1935 marked the year that defined the decade for baseball in the Laredos, so 1946 branded the decade of the 1940s.

An Overview of 1946 It was in 1946 that major league baseball was attacked from both flanks by a combination of forces bent on undoing the grip that owners had over the fortunes of their players. In that year, Mexican baseball impresario Jorge Pasquel and his brothers launched an effort to bring the quality of the Mexican League up to that of something like major league baseball and began signing American (and other foreign) players (some right under the noses of the owners)-a move that directly stepped on the toes of American baseball owners and seemed to them a declaration of war. The entire season took on an aura of international conflict with accusations and charges flying between Pasquel and major league baseball commissioner A. B. "Happy" Chandler. Even the Mexican government and the U.S. State Department were forced to take positions on the matter. At the core of the conflict was the dual issue of a foreign competitor operating in an American market, and a test of baseball's reserve system. An equally unexpected assault came with the formation of the American Baseball Guild (ABG) by Robert Murphy, a Boston lawyer. This bold move sought to unionize the players at all levels of professional play. Coming as it did against baseball owners, the ABG was

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seen as particularly audacious and, in conjunction with foreign interference, besieged owners from two directions at once. Because all of America was waiting for their heroes to return, little attention was initially paid to Pasquel by major league baseball, and Murphy's union was, as of February 1946, not in existence. World War II had decimated the ranks of major league baseball, so the new season would mark the first time in years that teams would be able to return to full force. Other currents, however, were also about to surface. With the Brooklyn Dodgers' signing ofJackie Robinson, a half century of racial segregation in professional baseball was about to end. And, unbeknownst to anyone in baseball, labor challenges were looming on the horizon. But with the arrival of the drab days ofFebruary 1946, all of America was heady in anticipation of baseball. However timeless and pastoral it may appear to those who love the game, it is important to remember that the sport of baseball was and is a branch of the entertainment industry. The structural relations between labor and management that characterize most sectors of the economy were strangely absent from baseball in that era. The strong union movement that was flexing its negotiating muscle in other industries had been aborted in baseball, which remained locked in the feudal-like "reserve system." No less an august body than the Supreme Court aided the monopolistic grip that owners had at the time by ruling in 1922 that baseball was exempt from antitrust legislation.? Against this backdrop, and for very different reasons, the impending 1946 season was eagerly awaited by owners, players, and fans alike. Owners anticipated big gate receipts in the first post-war season. Players' ranks were realigning, reflecting the return of major leaguers to their teams and the demotion of the stop-gap minor leaguers used on major league rosters during the war. Fans were, as already indicated, eager to see a return to halcyon days. John Morrissey, ticket manager for the Washington Senators, beamed, "We're all set with the best ticket sales in history. It's far better than pre-war, and 100 percent better than 1945."8

Early Family History By the time Jorge Pasquel was born in 1907, his father had already begun establishing the family fortune. What started as a "little cigar factory" in the 1890s grew quickly into Mexico's largest factory, and spread laterally to include a railroad and customhouse brokerage. 9 As the eldest of eight children, Jorge declared himself head of the family to direct the family fortunes following the father's retirement. Jorge would later boast, "My family is in everything. We have banks, ranches, real estate, ships. We are agents for General Motors. We are customs brokers for the Mexican Government." 10

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Pasquel's panache and sense of entitlement was ever present. His aesthetics and actions, everything about him, bespoke of his position in Mexican society. This was capped by the 1940s male macho so characteristic in Ernest Hemingway and actor Errol Flynn. Pictures of Pasquel show him as a rakish man with a black Clark Gable mustache and slicked-back hair. Atypically however, in an era of cigarette-smoking men, Pasquel was a militant nonsmoker and nondrinker and worked out daily. He married Ernestina Calles in July 1932, a marriage born of political and economic expedience. Because Ernestina was the daughter of former Mexican president Plutarco Elfas Calles, Pasquel stood to benefit directly and indirectly from the union. Gerald Vaughn, who pulled together an excellent portrait of Pasquel, points out how rewarding Pasquel's ability to exploit his affinal ties to the Calles family was in establishing his customs house: "The Pasquel firm eventually handled more government shipping than any competitor and benefited greatly from trade with the U.S. The company reportedly was the largest liquor importer in Mexico." 11 Pasquel family holdings grew from an estimated $1 million at the time of his father's death to somewhere in the vicinity of $60 million by the time Jorge and his brothers ventured into the game of baseball. The Pasquels naturally enough hobnobbed with Mexico's elite, and his closest friends included several presidents of the country, a fact not lost on those who have followed his life and his effect on baseball in Mexico. As with many politically influential Mexicans, nationalism, particularly as an expression of resentment toward the United States, is a central element in the story of Jorge Pasquel. Growing up in Veracruz in 1914, a young Pasquel experienced the bombing and eventual occupation of his hometown by U.S. military forces. He recalled how he cowered in his basement, certain he and his family would be killed by these gringos. This invasion alone provided a generation of Mexicans with a wellspring of resentment toward the United States, which they could readily tap into. The imperialism of the United States was certainly not confined to Mexico. Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Cuba were all countries that experienced something similar during that period. My own research into the Dominican Republic, 12 and even more so the work of Bruce Calder, 13 examines the anger that such intrusions foster: anger not easily or perhaps never quelled. This was most certainly the case for the people of Mexico, and Veracruz in particular. Another youngster to witness this outrage was Pasquel's childhood friend, Miguel Aleman, who also grew up in Veracruz. Aleman would eventually embark on a career in politics that would end with his election as president of Mexico (1946-52). As governor of Veracruz in 1938, Aleman played a key role in the movement that sought to nationalize the U.S.-owned oil companies in Mexico. Through this action he quickly

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became a popular nationalist figure who could express, and therefore tap into, the resentment many felt toward American economic and political policy in Latin America. The Roosevelt administration was forced to begin lengthy deliberations with Mexico to seek fair compensation for their holdings, and through it all glimpsed the depth of Mexican resolve and nationalism. Aleman's role in all this was rewarded in his appointment as minister of the interior in President Avila Camacho's 1940 cabinet. It would be a scant six years before he would mount his own successful bid for presidency. Pasquel and Aleman would grow up to become business partners as well. 14 At Aleman's inauguration, Pasquel was found close at hand, which led Vaughn to conclude that Pasquellobbied actively on behalf of his close friend's bid for presidency.

The 1946 Mexican League While the facilities might have continued to be less than acceptable by U.S. standards, by 1946 the league would evolve. Teams in Torreon and San Lufs Potosf were added to Mexico City, Veracruz (also housed in Mexico City), Nuevo Laredo, Tampico, Puebla, and Monterrey. The upgraded caliber of play was most in evidence, however. To ensure parity among teams the league intended to place all Imports into the same hopper to be redistributed among the teams. For a time it appeared as if the flood of Imports would make it impossible for Mexicans to play. An amendment limiting the number of Imports per team to eight and thereby "sav[ing] the game for Mexicans" 15 was made on March 20, 1946. Thus the seventeen former major leaguers, along with the forty-five stars of Latino baseball (e.g., Cuba and Venezuela) were theoretically parcelled out evenly throughout the league. The season, going from mid-March for twenty-eight weeks, was split into two rounds with each team playing a weekly three-game slate. The top four teams would, at season's end, vie for the championship. At the helm of the league sat don Jorge, who decided on all matters of importance. It was he and his brothers who recruited and signed all talent, who waged the war with major league baseball, who were responsible for the image of the league at home and abroad, and who, at times, even managed his personal favorite team, the Veracruz Blues. Alfonso was primarily responsible for making initial contact with players in the United States, in the hopes of interesting them. Once signed, Bernardo would take over all legal and fiscal dealings, making sure to bring the players into Mexico. Upon arrival in Mexico City Jorge took over and saw that they were paid, assigned to a team, and generally handled throughout the season. 16 If the league made efforts to formalize its existence through structuring itself along Major League lines, it still lacked the wherewithal to moderate

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the behavior of fans, umpires, and players. The Mexican League has always been a bastion of fervor. Commenting on this, ex-Mexican Leaguers never fail to mention the capability of fans to alter a game: They could be very nasty. They'd holler at you and a latta personal things too. And, sometimes they'd jump on the field. There were soldiers there for that kind of thing. We were playing Torreon one time, and the umpire was so terrible that the manager told our pitcher, "Walk everybody so they can win the game and we can get the hell outta here." We were six or seven runs ahead at the time. He walked everybody and then after the game all the fans jumped on the field. The soldiers had to get in there quick. We had a hard time getting to the bus. The soldiers cocked their rifles and their officer said, "Anybody touch a player, shoot'em." Then we got back to the hotel and the police picked up the blacks and took them off to jail. They used some excuse that they had failed to play as well as expected. And to get these guys out of jail we had to get the governornice fellow, I think he was from Chihuahua, but he lived in Coahuila. Spoke good English too-but he had to come down to get these guys outta jail. 17

Despite these local adventures, the caliber of the league, according to most observers, rivaled the best AAA team in the United States.

Blacks and Cubans in the League While nationalist resentment may have played a significant role in Pasquel's "raiding" of major league baseball, there were other motives exerting at least as much force, and predating the fateful 1946 season. The Anglo major leaguers were not the first extranjeros (foreigners) to be hired by the Mexican League. Before Gorman and the others there were Satchel Paige and Ray Dandridge, and before them the Cubans such as Santos Amaro. "All those blacks and Cubans were major leaguers in my book. They made the Mexican League five times better than it is now. When they started usin' blacks in the United States, the Mexican League went down." 18 Jorge Pasquel was a devoted fan, a player in his youth, a spot-manager of the Veracruz team, and given completely to upgrading the level of play in his country. This is interpreted as a constructive form of nationalism, taking no part of its identity from the presence of outside influences or the expression of resentment. Importantly, upgrading Mexican baseball was a program effectively carried out long before he trampled on the toes of major league owners. Stars in the Negro Leagues and Latin Americans (e.g., Cubans, Venezuelans) had been playing in Mexico since the 1920s. 19 With the formal establishment of the Mexican League, however, the sport evolved and efforts to bring even more talented foreigners were increased.

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For barnstorming Negro Leaguers such as Satchel Paige playing in Mexico was a real opportunity to increase their often meager earnings: I guess it was because I only thought of old number one in those days that I jumped to Mexico before the season was over... So, when a guy down there put a few bucks in my pocket-a few more than Gus Greenlee'd give me-l walked down to Mexico ... I was running up and down that country. And everywhere I went in Mexico I ran into Negro League players. 20 I went to Mexico when Jorge Pasquel was giving all that money away. I jumped and went too. 21

Ray Dandridge was a standout Negro Leaguer who also starred in the Mexican League. His experiences over eight years in Mexico illustrates both the money that African-American players earned, as well as the culturally and racially more benevolent climate south of the border. Dandridge threatened Pasquel with quitting if he didn't get a raise in the heady days of spring 1946: Lanier [one of the Anglo major leaguers that Pasquel had signed], all those guys were coming down, making all that money, getting $5,000 bonuses. We were making nothing, we were making chicken feed, $350 a month. I told Pasquel, "I want more money." I went to his office. "Look, I'm getting my family up and going back home ifl don't get some more money." He said he couldn't give me more money, so we packed up our things and were down at the station ready to get on the train. All of a sudden, here comes the chauffeur-oh man, a lot of people. 22

Pasquel's agents whisked Dandridge away to his office where they quickly settled on his new $10,000 contract. Herein lies a critical difference between the United States and Latin America, a difference not lost on African-Americans of the time: earning power and social mobility were not restricted by race. In the Mexican League it was common for Negro Leaguers to live in fashionable neighborhoods in Mexico City, hobnob with men of distinction, and even have their children tutored. Willie Wells, a stand out for the Pittsburgh Crawfords, observed: "We are heroes here [in Mexico] ... while in the United States everything I did was regulated by color. Well, here in Mexico I am a man." 23 The Pasquel treatment was extended to athletes black and white, but the player who was probably closest to him was Ray Dandridge. He was enlisted to be Pasquel's agent to the Negro Leagues, entrusted with large sums of money, and given authority and responsibility to work on his own. 24 Of all those who played in the heyday of the Mexican League, Dandridge was treated with special consideration, as the following account shows. After playing winter ball in Cuba, Dandridge was flown back to Mexico City and met at the airport:

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His [Pasquel's] other brother met the plane, game me $100 pocket money, put me in a hotel. The next morning Pasquel's chauffeur came, and I went to his house. I said, "Look, if you want me to come back, you have to give me a bonus. What I want to do is buy me a house. I want some money in advance." I was talking about $10,000. A two-family house cost $7,500 back during that time. He said, "How you going to pay me back?" I said, "How you want to be paid?" He called his secretary up, said, "Make out a certified check for Ray for $10,000 and put him on the plane to Newark." He game me another $100 for my pocket. I never got to spend nothing of it, because they paid all the expenses in Mexico. So that was pretty good: I still had $2500 profit and $300 pocket money too. He took out money for two pay days and then told his secretary to forget it. I was Pasquel's number-one boy. 25

It seemed that there were no ends to which Pasquel would not go to get and keep the talented black players of the period. Quincy Trouppe and Theolic Smith were two Negro Leaguers who were contacted by Pasquel to play in Mexico during the 194 3 season. Because of the war, however, they had to declare their intentions to their local Los Angeles draft boards, who turned them down. They were needed in their Los Angeles defense plant. No sooner had they been denied and written to Pasquel informing him of the board's decision than the Mexican consulate contacted them at their homes. Trouppe recalled, "The representative from Mexico told me that they had loaned the United States 80,000 workers to fill the manpower shortage caused by the war and [that] all they wanted in return was two ballplayers by the name of Quincy Trouppe and Theolic Smith."26 There is little question that Pasquel treated black players well. Still, among other nonblack Latinos Pasquel might express racist thinking. Mter visiting Pasquel's posh Mexico City office, Ismael Montalvo described an incident revealing Pasquel's personal style as well as a hint of racism. Entering Pasquel's office, Montalvo encountered the Paul Bunyun of the Negro Leagues, Josh Gibson: One day I went to [Pasquel's] office. He had a big office in Mexico City, and I used to live in a colonia nearby.... They got those big ol' doors and I knock on the door. They open them from some kinda connection and these big dogs [Great Danes] were standing there, so I walk real slow to the office in the back. They had Josh Gibson there in the office. Next to the office was a vacant lot and from the window, I think it was forty or fifty yards to a big wall. Brick. He was shooting at a target with a .45 from the window. One of his pistoleros would load [it], hand the gun back to him. He'd shoot some more. He turned to me and said, "Montalvo, come on, ask this negro hijo de puta [black son of a whore], Josh

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Gibson, why he hasn't hit a home run lately." ... Gibson lmew Spanish and he says back, "Jorge, yo no soy un hijo de puta [I'm not a son of a whore]." Later Gibson said to me, "You think I'm gonna say anything to get him mad? Shit no!"z7

Personal comments like this aside, Pasquel regarded these black players as worthy of playing alongside others and treated them well; in addition, he had the political wherewithal to indirectly influence the American government on issues as described above. This is where his ties to Aleman (who in 1943 was minister of the interior) enabled Pasquel to wield such widespread influence. With an infusion of black talent that was not wanted in the United States, the Mexican League quickly became a highly competitive league and had by 1942 already shown a respectable profit.

Nationalism and Baseball It is difficult to say just when Pasquel decided to take on American baseball or exactly what his motives were. Most agree that it was fueled by his nationalism.28 But of what type? Nationalism as a constructive, collective sense of self, or nationalism as a collective demonizing of an enemy? Vaughn, for instance, precluded any anti-Americanism on Pasquel's part. 29 Rogosin, on the other hand, intimated that Pasquel's actions were informed by a willingness to challenge American hegemony. Tom Gorman, the pitcher introduced at the beginning of this chapter, leaned in the direction of Pasquel's anti-imperialist nationalism. Whether or not he really understood Pasquel's nationalism, Gorman imputed conscious resistance to him: "He was a genuine patriot, a Mexican chauvinist. The people he hurt were the major-league moguls, but his real target, I suspect, was the entire United States of America. Like many other people, the Mexicans love to see a little man defeat a big man." 30 I conclude that Pasquel's efforts were a blend of resentment directed against American baseball interests and the desire to promote a form of Mexican baseball that was admired internationally. Viewed from America, Pasquel's actions appeared as unjustified, naked aggression. The view from Mexico, however, saw Pasquel as someone who was reciprocating the Americans' arrogant imperialism. Of particular interest is the way in which Pasquel was able to manipulate the media to justify his position and garner support. This he did not only in Mexico but in the United States as well; and his success speaks to his capacity to function as a binational-bicultural actor. In his effort to develop Mexican baseball Pasquel a priori incurred the wrath of major league baseball commissioner Happy Chandler and many of the owners by signing American players. Events spiraled so that with

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each move to improve Mexican baseball, Pasquel further angered U.S. baseball interests, which in turn inflamed Pasquel and pushed him into an ever more antagonistic stance. In this way, one can view Pasquel's actions as reactive rather than proactive. One could also claim that Pasquel was merely operating within the norms established by successful businessmen anywhere. The aggressiveness that Pasquel displayed as commissioner of the league was in keeping with successful bourgeois practices: using wealth and political power to organize, centralize, and otherwise turn the enterprise into a monopoly (or as close to one as he could make it). While Pasquel was not elected president of the league until1946, he was the real power behind the league from the beginning. As early as the inaugural season, Pasquel was already majority owner of the Veracruz Blues (a team named after his hometown but located in Mexico City) and a second team in the capital, in addition to Delta Park, the premier facility in the country. Owning the state-of-the-art facility and the capital's teams, Pasquel was bent on stocking his holdings with the best players. A related but little known event that might have acted as a tripwire in Pasquel's decision to take on U.S. baseball was his determination to make the Mexican League the only serious league in Mexico. The Mexican National Baseball League, a rival of Pasquel's Mexican League, had been making a bid to become affiliated with the U.S. minor league system since 1944. 31 It appears that this rival was also being used by U.S. baseball interests as a beachhead in Mexico. The periodical Current Biography 1946 argued that U.S. baseball sought to recognize this rival league in response to Pasquel's raiding of U.S. players. 32 The January 26 edition of the Laredo Times makes brief, but telling, mention of these events: "Bob Ingram, Mexican league [i.e., the rival Mexican National Baseball League] commissioner, learned yesterday from NAPBL [National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, or the U.S. minor leagues] President W. G. Bramham that the Mexican loop would be admitted on a probation membership thus giving Mexico teams their first play under the rules of organized baseball."33 By late April 1946, the Mexican National Baseball League was essentially finished, however, and the only discussions from that point forward were if, how, and when Pasquel's Mexican League would enter in place of its rival. At least one observer noted that Pasquel "won the war between his 'league' and the other by the simple expedient of buying Delta Park, Mexico City's only place to play. The rival faction folded." 34 There is little doubt that Pasquel and other Mexican baseball promoters knew of the relations between the Mexican National Baseball League and U.S. interests, and that the willingness of the two to work against Pasquel and the Mexican League further inflamed the situation. This may have been a

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baseball intrigue, but it was also very reminiscent of international relations between the countries. Pasquel's actions have always been interpreted as naked aggression, "a raid on the major leagues." 35 But for the record, it should be shown that the United States fired the first salvo in this international baseball war. As large numbers of players left to serve the nation's armed forces, their ranks were partially filled by minor leaguers. 36 Just as often, the effort to replenish the talent pool led some major league owners (such as Clark Griffith of the Washington Senators) to places like Cuba and Mexico to sign players. 37 It was the U.S. baseball intervention into Latin America-the signing or "raiding" of players out of the Mexican League-that occurred first. When Latin American owners complained to Commissioner Chandler about these raids on their players, the Chandler barely slapped the hands of the offending owners. 38 Chandler's insult to Latin American owners was certainly a contributing factor in Pasquel's brazen response. The conflict with the major leagues, however, seemed to evolve by degrees rather than all at once. In keeping with the political and cultural hegemony of foreigners in the Third World, U.S. baseball was always judged to be the standard by which Latin baseball measured itself. Conversely, the United States always assumed its supremacy in the sport and took any interest in Third World talent as a special show of compassion for their nonwhite subordinates-until their own stock of players temporarily dwindled during the war, that is. Then major league teams roamed through Cuba and Mexico, picking up players as if they were stocking private wine cellars. For nationalists and beisbolistas this was as naked a form of imperialism as the Marine invasions; and it was this that built up the reservoir of anger and resentment that Pasquel could tap into at any time. It could be as diffuse as the resentment learned growing up-in school, for instance-that many Mexicans felt and continue to feel toward norteamericanos. Or, it could have been more specific, such as the bombing of his hometown that terrified Pasquel as a child. The rebuff he felt at the hands of Chandler could simply have been a button that pushed these feelings. Pasquel was also responding to a string of successes that reinforced him at every turn. His league was solvent and seemed to be making profits in direct relationship to the numbers of quality Imports he was bringing in. By 1945 the league claimed gross profits of $800,000 and a net profit of $400,000. Its payroll for the year was $300,000. 39 In 1944 Hall of Farner Rogers Hornsby was hired to play for and manage the Veracruz team. While this baseball legend had fallen on hard times, his presence in Mexico served a vital symbolic function, coming as it did on the heels of financial success and increased signings of top flight players. According to Current Biography 1946, 40 the Hornsby signing precipitated the first time many Anglo Americans ever heard of the Mexican League. That year also saw the league signing their first player directly off

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a major league roster: Chico Hernandez, a catcher for the Chicago Cubs. The fact that he was Latino probably smoothed over any ruffled feathers in the U.S. baseball establishment, on the assumption that Hernandez was predisposed to go to a Latin country. For eight months in 1944 Pasquel actually traveled in the United States. The entourage he brought with him must have looked like yet another Latin American high roller indulging his fancies, but Pasquel was earnestly studying the game's organization. This scouting mission would provide him with many of the ideas that he would use when he finally decided to take on U.S. major league baseball. While the events of 1946 have become known as the year Pasquel "invaded" or "raided" the United States, it was certainly not the first time that international politics and baseball were fused.

Ichiko School Takes on the United States The manner in which baseball was used to symbolize late nineteenth-century Meiji Japan's rising nationalism has been chronicled by Rhoden. 41 To my knowledge it was the first concrete instance of baseball and nationalism. A. G. Spalding, the sport's first powerful entrepreneur and one of its earliest superstars, had already understood the political value of baseball abroad. At the turn of the century Spalding argued that the manifest function of baseball was to culturally support America's sense of Manifest Destiny, that baseball was to "follow the flag." 42 Whether or not he was aware of the events going on half way around the world in Yokohama is not known, but the small drama of the diamond turned into a national incident in 1896. The First Higher School of Tokyo (Ichiko) was one of ten or so schools to develop reputable baseball programs in the 1890s. They quickly became the preeminent youth team in Japan, sustaining an almost unblemished string of victories against other schools that stretched through the mid-1890s. These young men were part of the Japanese elite class that would eventually form Japan's ruling strata. As the country began to emerge from an entrenched feudalism that lasted until late in the nineteenth century-a process hastened by U.S. imperialism of the period-the more forward-looking segments of Japanese society began taking on American cultural notions. One of these had to do with American notions of leisure and physical conditioning. British and American notions of Social Darwinism extended to include other civilizations maintaining a moral and physical readiness to demonstrate their superiority. 43 This was certainly the attitude of Americans in foreign countries. The Ichiko School too adopted this notion and intended it to be proof that American standards for modernity could be incorporated without violating the Japanese sense of cultural identity. Baseball, then, had become an innocent party to a larger cultural battle.

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~en intercollegiate competition was no longer challenging, the young men of Ichiko sought out the Americans living in their exclusive Yokohama enclave to play against. The Yokohama Athletic Club rejected this first invitation in 1891 and all subsequent invitations until1896. Initially, the Americans rejected the Japanese because it was felt that a nation of kite flyers and flower arrangers could never really offer a sufficiently virile challenge to Americans playing the American game. Eventually the Japanese request was condescendingly taken up. Playing on their home turf (the Yokohama Athletic Club team would have never considered attending a game on Japanese turf), the Americans treated the high school boys from Ichiko dismissively, even jeering at them during the warmups. Once underway, however, the game turned into a Japanese rout. Ichiko won handily 29-4, as the Americans and their supporters were stunned into silence. The fans and press of the Ichiko, who were made to stay at the Athletic Club's gates, greeted their team as they would a victorious army. Three return matches followed, with the next two equally one-sided. On both occasions the Americans conscripted ballplayers from the Navy ships docked in the harbor, but the boys of Ichiko still won convincingly. Finally, pulling in a complete team of experienced players from a freshly docked boat, the Americans eked out a 14-12 victory. The date of this rematch-July 4-was, not surprisingly, an emotionally charged one, and may have aided the American team; although they had been trounced three straight times, the Yokohama Athletic Club was taking the risk of being defeated on the most important American holiday of the year. Despite losing the fourth game, the boys of Ichiko had become genuine national heroes, inspiring an outpouring of public hosannas, including a song that became the school's fight song. It is one of the most succinct statements on nationalism and baseball that one is likely to run across:

The valorous sailors from the Detroit, Kentucky, and Yokohama \Vhose furious batting can intimidate a cyclone Threw off their helmets, their energies depleted Behold how pathetically they run away defeated. Courageously, we marched twenty miles south To fight the Americans in Yokohama Though they boast of the game as their national sport Behold the games they have left with no score. 44

Trujillo's Team In 193 7, the Dominican Republic dictator Rafael Trujillo was approaching the height of his powerY Trujillo was born a poor mulatto who overcame his humble roots, rising up through the ranks of the National Police (a

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military force fashioned by the United States during its occupation of the island between 1916 and 1923) to become the country's leader. He eventually controlled much of the country's wealth and ruthlessly dominated its politics and culture until he was assassinated in 1961. He was so selfobsessed and megalomaniacal that he renamed the capital city of Santo Domingo after himself. While he was not as fanatical about baseball as many other Dominicans,46 Trujillo was nevertheless a patron of the sport. Baseball was enjoying increased formal organization during the 193 Os. Three teams, representing Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo, and the cities of San Pedro de Macorfs and Santiago emerged as the premier teams of 193 7. Licey and Escogido were the capital's two teams. The former was the country's oldest organized team and its most widely followed, having played continuously since 1907. Escogido, on the other hand, was formed in 1921 and immediately established a rivalry with Licey. These two teams also came to represent political parties. Trujillo took to the Escogido team. Some claim that the team's name, which means "the chosen," originated when Trujillo's son could not make Licey's squad, prompting his father to conscript-to "choose"-players from other teams onto a new team just for him. This folklore is valuable but not accurate. Trujillo did not become the Dominican head of state until1930, nine years after Escogido was started. Everything about the 193 7 season was odd. The configuration of the teams was aberrant. Licey and Escogido merged their rosters in a historic move. The season was thirty-six games long and had only three teams, but each owner was determined to take home bragging rights. The frenzy for a championship had been building steadily through the mid-1930s as each team sought to sign the best foreign talent it could find. In the 1936 season, the owner of the San Pedro de Macorfs club spent lavishly to sign four of the best Cuban players of the period as well as local super heroes like Tetelo Vargas. That year's championship was won loudly and "in the face" of Ciudad Trujillo, prompting the increased interest of Trujillo in seeing that the title came back to the capital where he felt it belonged. What followed rivaled anything that Pasquel could conjure up. Trujillo's agents were sent into the United States and Cuba to sign the best Negro Leaguers and Cubans they could find. Naturally, interest centered on Satchel Paige, perhaps the best pitcher of his time. He was signed for a salary in excess of a thousand dollars a month, and along with him came other African-American stars of the period, such as Josh Gibson and Cool Papa Bell. There were few games, making the emotional buildup to them pressure-packed. There was political intrigue and incidents involving riotous fans that resulted in forfeits, but all accounts agree that the season was the most dramatic and powerful in the history of baseball on that island. Trujillo was facing an upcoming election, and he wanted attention drawn to himself_47 A baseball championship would help focus the popu-

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lace back on the capital city after the An tun family of San Pedro de Macorfs had turned the nation's gaze to the eastern part of the island by amassing talented teams. The money spent was astronomical by standards of the day, and the collective result of this outlay was that it exhausted the owners and league. "The 193 7 championship stopped baseball. All our money was gone. We were exhausted financially and in enthusiasm also." 48 The financial exhaustion did not extend to Trujillo, whose worth was estimated at a half billion dollars. For him, 193 7 was merely a plume in his political cap, further evidence that his destiny was to rule the island. There are, in both the Japanese and Dominican cases, precedence for Pasquel's use of baseball as a political tool, and with each, the direct or indirect use of American notions of the role of baseball in their culture. Since it is a part of the cultural inventory of a country, baseball is a membrane through which influences may pass, an instrument of popular culture that political institutions can utilize for their own ends.

Pasquel's Use of Baseball as Nationalism In a typical display of cultural arrogance, the major and minor leagues in the United States labeled themselves "organized baseball," implying that baseball outside of white America was disorganized, chaotic, and of poorer qualify. Major league condescension, little more than rank ethnocentrism, was easily detected by Pasquel in some of his facetious remarks about the sport north of the border. Responding to a report of major league baseball's willingness to grant amnesty to banned American players who had "jumped" to the Mexican League, Pasquel rhetorically asked, "What kind of organization do those senors have that is called organized baseball?"49 Commenting on the "outlaw" label applied to his league, Pasquel responded, "I resent being referred to as an 'outlaw' operator because we operate completely within Mexican laws." 50 The legal and cultural relativity is neatly expressed in the forgoing statement, but was lost on Commissioner Chandler's office. Once Pasquel began signing players in earnest, the season would increasingly take on the look of a battle between Pasquel and Chandler, a contest that necessitated monopolizing the press of both countries.

Playing the Press To gain his larger objectives, Pasquel needed a medium with which to attack major league baseball. The Mexican press would back him, of course, but its message would stop at the Rio Grande. The U.S. press, it was supposed, would automatically support the "national pastime" and its

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agents. The anti-Mexican sentiment of certain members of the press, as well as certain regions of the United States, was easily tapped once Pasquel began taking players away, as this United Press piece indicates: "Pancho Villa's raids over the border looked like pale stuff Thursday night compared to the antics of a peso-happy caballero who is promoting big-time baseball in Mexico and using bonafide Brooklyn Dodgers for bait." 51 Other members of the American press were also quick to paint Pasquel and his brothers as "raiders," using such culturally insensitive language as "Peso Pains" to describe the unwillingness of U.S. owners to pay their players more, or "Pancho Villa" to describe Pasquel's signing of players, attributing to them "a master spy system." Despite the anti-Mexican sentiment, Pasquel was able to gain reasonable access to the U.S. print media. Jorge Pasquel was, after all, no uncouth bandit. Whether on safari in Mrica or out and about in Mexico City, he always cut a stylishly rakish figure, an image much appreciated by the U.S. press. The references to Jorge in the press describe him as "dapper," "silkshirted," "a dapper diamond mogul," "a gold-plated president." With his social charm and panache, Pasquel effortlessly projected a cosmopolitan image, easily overcoming much of the American media resistance to him as a "raider." As we shall see below, major league baseball was not able to rely on the loyalty of the American press, and, Pasquel's image aside, there were other problems faced by those who controlled the "national game." A brief chronology of the season will illustrate the variables at work in this piece of international intrigue.

A Chronology of 1946 By February, press reports were regularly coming out detailing Pasquel's intention to or actual signings of professional U.S. players. In Nuevo Laredo, manager Arturo Garcia of the La Junta team was scouting players on the Mexican west coast as well as those in the U.S. Pacific Coast League. The Laredo Times reported on February 7 that former Red Sox players Bob Lemon and James Steiner "have been offered contracts with La Junta and are expected to come into the fold." 52 A United Press story from Havana on that same day first disclosed the massive infusion of money that the Pasquel brothers were ready to provide. 53 Jorge's brother Bernardo was scouting in Havana with other Mexican baseball owners and revealed that they "were ready to spend $20,000,000 to improve standards of the sport" in their homeland. He simultaneously boasted of having signed forty-five players from Cuba and Puerto Rico and eight from American professional leagues, yet declared his subordinance by claiming that "he had no intention of competing with American Major Leagues." 54 Sensing that his signings of U.S. ballplayers might anger the major league owners, Pasquel

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noted, "The big league owners in American shouldn't worry about me too much .... They have material among 125 million inhabitants in the whole United States. I'm just trying to get a fair share where I can." 55 Less than two weeks later Pasquel more clearly revealed his goals, as a United Press story from New York printed his "vow that he not only will keep it [the Mexican League] going but develop it to the point where American organized baseball will have to accept it as a member. His supreme goal is a Pan-American series between the Mexican League champion and the Pacific Coast League winner." 56 This promise marked an escalation of the tension. Clearly Pasquel was determined that his league, not the rival Mexican National Baseball League, would be the one recognized by U.S. baseball's minor league system, and the shortest path to this end came about through posing a direct threat to major league baseball. Quickly signing players such as Luis Olmo of the Brooklyn Dodgers and other holdouts gave him immediate credibility. Irked, but unruffled by Pasquel's move, major league owners predicted record ticket sales in the upcoming, first post-war season. 57 After Dodger owner Branch Rickey lost his hard-hitting outfielder, Luis Olmo, to the Mexican League, however, he began to urge Commissioner Chandler "to take strong action against major league players who jump from organized baseball to the Mexican League. "58 In so doing Rickey became the first voice to push for banishment of players who violated their American contracts. Other owners of teams hard-hit by such events included Clark Griffith of the Washington Senators and Horace Stoneham of the New York Giants. On February 28, Alejandro Carrasquel, a Venezuelan pitcher formerly of the Senators but now traded to the White Sox, became the ninth major leaguer to "jump" to the Mexican League. Pressure was beginning to mount on the commissioner to act. 59 At first, Chandler, who was new to the position, declared that there was no ruling about such matters: "One thing I can tell you for sure is that there is no rule of organized baseball which automatically suspends a man for competing against ineligible players. I've seen it written that such player is automatically suspended for five years or even for life, but I've read the rules and I can't find anything like that." 60 Against this neutral position Pasquel pressed his position with the U.S. media with a string of releases and interviews that showed him to be absolutely fearless in his attempts to gain U.S. players, even willing to use his personal fortune to bring in the best. On March 7 Pasquel elevated his war of words when he outlined to eager reporters a series of elaborate schemes for his rapidly evolving Mexican League. Hitherto, the players who entered his league were essentially Latino and/or journeymen, but on this day the papers reported that Cleveland Indians' pitcher Bob Feller, one of baseball's highest-paid stars, had been offered a three-year contract by Pasquel in the range of $300,000, more than twice his U.S. salary. Going

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after established players marked a definite escalation of hostilities, but it was Pasquel's attitude that must have angered the major league owners even more. The Laredo Times story quoted him as follows: '"That is nothing,' smiled the head of the so-called 'outlaw' league. Next season he said he hopes to get sluggers Hank Greenberg and Ted Williams of the Detroit Tigers and Boston Red Sox, respectively." 61 The U.S. baseball world was predictably aghast at these declarations. Feller, Williams, and Greenberg were baseball icons. The combative tones were not simply from the way the story was written but in Pasquel's responses as well. Answering the criticism of his league and its tactics, Pasquel said, "We are ready to fight with them in any way that may be necessary. If they want to come and scrap it out they'll have to put out $30,000,000."62 Furthering the millenarian nature of his league, he declared that a two million dollar, 52,000-seat "baseball city, excelling any baseball park in the United States" would soon be built with cushioned seats. Ironically, while later rejecting Pasquel's contract offer, Bob Feller added credibility to Pasquel's millenarian baseball movement by confirming the possibility of "America's pastime" truly becoming international. Feller, a veteran of Latin American baseball, was interviewed in the March 8 Laredo Times: "Regular international Baseball competition is only a couple of years away." Feller proclaimed that when it finally happened he would be playing for the United States. Denying any offer from Pasquel to him, Feller continued to ruminate on the prospects for Latin American baseball, " ... international competition is just around the corner. They're playing it in a great number of countries now and our armies have carried it around the world. It wouldn't surprise me if a city like Mexico City was in some major league some time." 63

The commissioner's office was not idle during these final weeks before the start of the season. Chandler traveled to Havana to establish an agreement with Cuban and Mexican baseball that would bring these countries into accord with major league plans. The Cubans were the only ones in place, however, and Chandler's accord with them, among other things, prevented Cubans from signing "ineligibles" to play in that country. Pushing the Cubans to this position was a hard-nosed effort by major league baseball to force Mexican compliance by restricting opportunities for ballplayers who used winter ball in Cuba as an economic supplement. He also brought Cuba into a closer relationship with U.S. baseball by initiating the entry of the Havana franchise into the International League (a U.S. minor league). While offering "outlaw" players an opportunity to return before the onset of the season, Chandler held the threat of a five-year banishment over their heads. Responding to the olive branch offered by the commissioner, Pasquel said that he might consider the proposal of a United States-Mexico-Cuba

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agreement; "If they want to make an agreement giving us treatment like the really big league we are, we're ready to enter into it. Otherwise we are ready to give them a terrific fight they never expected to have." 64 Brother Bernardo was busy issuing press statements that were even more uncompromising and inflammatory. Speaking from Havana he declared, "If the U.S. baseball officials want a war, they will have it. Mexico is out to destroy the United States monopoly on baseball." 65 Clearly the Pasquels had no intention of backing down. To the contrary, they seemed more bellicose the closer the 1946 season loomed. In Bernardo's line lies the core issue for what was emerging as major league baseball's toughest test: a challenge to it as an unregulated monopoly both within and outside of the United States. The attacks and counterattacks occurred on a regular basis with each side depicting the other as contemptible. The Mexicans saw U.S. baseball as monopolistic oppressors, while the major leagues saw the Mexicans as low grade. As the season opener neared Pasquel continued his encroachments. He announced his signing of unattached, professional umpires from the United States for his upcoming season. 66 The first round of this rapidly escalating battle ended on March 12 when Commissioner Chandler announced the five-year suspension of players who had signed with the Mexican League if they failed to return before the beginning of the Major League season, effective one month from that day.

The Season Begins and the Signing War Continues The sun shone brightly on March 21, 1946 for Opening Day in Mexico City. It did likewise in Puebla, Tampico, and Torreon, all of which hosted the first games of the season. In the capital, Mexican President Manuel Avila Camacho threw out the first ball in a sold-out stadium of 30,000 for a game between Veracruz and the Mexico City. Even as the season opened, Americans were still being actively recruited to play for the "Peso-curcuit," as the American press referred to the Mexican League. Contract disputes between players and owners contributed mightily to the recruitment efforts of the Pasquel brothers. Probably the biggest major leaguers to sign on were Mickey Owen, catcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers, and St. Louis Browns' shortstop Vern Stephens. On March 29 a small article appeared in the Laredo Times indicating that, in light of the refusal of the Dodgers to tender him a new contract, Owen might consider the generous five-year offer with a $12,500 signing bonus made by Pasquel. Vern Stephens traveled to Laredo the following day to meet with Alfonso Pasquel and discuss the terms of the offer. Stephens and Owen were both given three-year contracts that vastly exceeded any they would have received in the U.S. Vern Stephens, 1945

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home run leader in the American League, signed a particularly generous contract that called for him to be paid $25,000 a year for three years. Pasquel was able to take particular advantage of teams with parsimonious owners, most notably the Dodgers. An April 8 Laredo Times editorial chastised the Brooklyn owner: "Branch Rickey's penny-pinching tactics kicked back in the latter two cases [a reference to Olmo and Owen]. The trouble with the Mahatma of Montague Street is that he can't get himself out of St. Louis. Although now in the rich field that is Brooklyn, he quibbled with Owen and Olmo until they took wings in self-defense." 67 Early season drama revolved around Owen and Stephens. The press bristled with reports of these men, their dealings with the owners of the Dodgers and Browns, and the Pasquels. Overshadowed in all this were the signings of at least fifteen other major leaguers, among them Sal Maglie, Max Lanier, and George Zimmerman. What made the cases of Owen and Stephens newsworthy was their established major league credentials, and their willingness to act against baseball's reserve system in which players were tied to their clubs in perpetuity. Arriving in Mexico City with his signing bonus in hand, Stephens, however, lasted only one week before bolting back to the U.S. on April 6, amid threats from Pasquel that he would sue for $100,000. The U.S. press elaborated on Stephens's disillusionment with both Mexico and the Mexican League. Much of what he declared as intolerable rings of the entitlement of a spoiled athlete, but the press made sure to pick up Stephens's negative imagery: "It was like a concentration camp in Mexico," he was quoted as saying. "Everyone with six-shooters on the hip. Mr. Pasquel is the nicest guy in the world, but I want to play baseball. The low caliber play and the high altitudes in Mexico got me down. So did the no spika da English." In his interview with the New York Times, Stephens elaborated on his adjustment problems: Most players from the United States are bothered by the language. They don't know what's being said to them .... "After two days you start talking to yourself," said Stephens .... The ball parks themselves are a far cry from major league diamonds, and to this too the players object.... "There is no grass on the infields. The ground is hard and rocky.... " No park has a shower or dressing facilities for the players. They must do all this at the hotel and sometimes there is little or no water in the hotels .... The dugouts are small, dingy and with no semblance of air.... "When you do find a shower," Stephens growled, "you have to be careful. The tap marched 'C' doesn't mean 'cold,' it means 'hot."' The Mexican word for hot is "caliente."68

In the light of difficulties in language and culture experienced by Latino players coming to the United States, showering and playing field conditions seem to pale as reasons for leaving. Stephens obviously had never

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played much in the U.S. minor leagues or barnstormed around the country, where he might have complained of the same things. As we shall s