Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe [2024 ed.] 3031530071, 9783031530074

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Agustín Udías

Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe

Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe

Agustín Udías

Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe

Agustín Udías Universidad Complutense de Madrid Madrid, Spain

ISBN 978-3-031-53007-4    ISBN 978-3-031-53008-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This book is published under the imprint Birkhäuser, www.birkhauser-science.com by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

In 1912, the English antiquarian bookseller Wilfrid Voynich discovered in the old library of the Jesuit college of Mondragone, near Rome, a strange document. A very rare manuscript that is considered by some historians to have been deposited there 250 years earlier by the German Jesuit, mathematician, writer, and cryptologist Athanasius Kircher (1601–1680). The document, known today as the “Voynich Manuscript,” was a volume with thick parchment covers that still preserved 230 pages of easily legible handwritten text in a strange language. According to a letter that accompanied it dated August 1666, Kircher would have received it from his former student Johannes Marcus Marci, rector of the University of Prague. Kircher did not manage to translate it, and to the present it has not been deciphered. Kircher, faced with complete failure, deposited the manuscript in a library of the Jesuits for scholars of later times to study. There it was, forgotten for almost 250 years, with no-one being able to read it. This anecdote is very significant in knowing about Athanasius Kircher, a figure recognized throughout Europe, thanks to his work and contacts in the world of science, and also the “hidden” and sometimes outlawed type of knowledge (alchemy, secrecy, magic, gnosis, etc.). Kircher was a man who lived obsessed with the harmonies between human knowledge of all kinds, ancient and modern knowledge, science and theology, recognized and occult. Professor of mathematics at the mythical Roman College of the Society of Jesus (today Gregorian University), he immersed his powerful mind in scientific problems. The excellent work of Professor Agustín Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism and the Universe, of which I have the honor of writing this preface, brings us closer to the multifaceted figure of the unclassifiable Kircher. Udías is a Jesuit, emeritus professor of Geophysics at the Complutense University of Madrid and member of the European Academy. He has published books on geophysics, seismology, and the history of physics. Regarding the subject of the present book, he has also published on the history of Jesuit scientists and on the relation between science and religion. From his experience as a Jesuit, scientist, and university professor, he is one of the most qualified to write about Athanasius Kircher and to offer his reflections on the exciting subject of the relationship between science and religion. v

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Kircher sought—like the great sages of antiquity—the answer to the great questions about the world, the humans, culture, rational and scientific knowledge, and above all about God. The Italian philosopher and writer Umberto Eco, has written of Kircher: he is the most contemporary of our predecessors, the most outdated of our contemporaries. One of the most mysterious aspects of Kircher is his relationship with the so-called “occultism.” Occult science or hermetic science is the first science that existed in the history of mankind. It refers to the knowledge of man, the knowledge of the universe, the knowledge of the laws that move us, a little to the answers about the “whats and whys.” Occultists such as Pythagoras, Raimundo Llull, Giordano Bruno, Nicolas Flamel, and others, and here we can count also our Athanasius Kircher, studied and worked for years reading, comparing, searching, experimenting, and finding laws trying to understand the universe. Occultism teaches us another view of things, but a view that pretends to be also reasoned, coherent, structured. It is absurd to pose a conflict between occultism, science, and religion, it makes no sense. All true religion is sustained in the occult. In addition, every religion is full of symbologies, myths, astrological, alchemical, mystical, and metaphysical elements. Christianity itself is full of them; without going any further, the colors used by the ecclesiastical hierarchy correspond to the three initiatory phases of alchemy: Nigredo, Albedo, and Rubedo (black, white, and red); or, for example, the simple fact of representing Jesus having been born between an ox and a mule, which places him precisely between two of the astrological symbols that are Taurus and Capricorn. Perhaps we could try an epistemological approach to Father Athanasius Kircher from the categories of Paul Karl Feyerabend (1924–1994), the centenary of whose birth is remembered in 2024. His famous expression: “Anything goes,” referring to the methodology of scientific research reminded me of Father Kircher’s integrative method. Feyerabend was a philosopher of science who, throughout his life, experienced a constant evolution in his thought (he was Poperian, anti-rationalist, empiricist and anti-empiricist, anti-­positivist and relativist), always with a high degree of anarchism and critical sense, that led him to postulate epistemological anarchism. He is one of the two authors of the incommensurability thesis. His favorite “mantra” was: “Anything goes.” Meaning that in the world of science there is no method and all paths (from hard science to poetry and esotericisms) lead to the knowledge of reality. The initial negative reviews that his book, Against the method, received caused him, as stated in his autobiographical book, Killing Time, a deep depression. In his following works, Science in an Open Society (1978), Science as an Art (1987), and Farewell to Reason (1987), he pointed out and developed his epistemology. These meant a clear endorsement of relativism, going so far as to affirm that in reality science undergoes changes, but does not progress. From the point of view of Feyerabend’s epistemology, the science, often occult and esoteric, of Athanasius Kircher is more understandable. This begs the question: Is occultism really so superstitious, so evil, so anachronistic, or so foolish? Is Kircher, “the last man who knew everything,” according to Paula Finder’s apt expression in, The Last Man Who Knew Everything (2004), or was he a trickster?

Preface

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The German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher wrote thousands of pages in Latin, published 33 thick books in several volumes, mastered some 30 languages from around the world, ancient and modern, and even invented a universal language, and corresponded in 24 languages with scholars from all continents. Thousands of letters, some very extensive. And many things still unpublished. Symbology, hermeticism, magic, alchemy… in short, occultism. The mystery of human knowledge forbidden to mortals and transmitted, as he thought, from remote antiquity as early as the Egyptians. Kircher wishes to find in hermetic inheritance the secret of universal knowledge. Therefore, his works are full of images with esoteric and hermetic meaning. An immense task that for some years people have been trying to unravel. But where did Kircher learn those things? What sources did he consult? Sometimes he seems to us as an extraterrestrial, a magician, a being outside our reality marked by Aristotelian rationality. In some ways, Kircher stands at a point of debate between seventeenth-century science, philosophy and post-Tridentine theology, as well as occult, and often persecuted and outlawed knowledge. The interest that researchers devote to the figure of Kircher can be measured according to the research work and doctoral theses about his figure. In the classic work of Father Lazlo Polgár, containing the bibliography on the history of the Society of Jesus, 80 works on the figure and work of Kircher are reviewed. It may be surprising that there are several doctoral theses that have been defended in recent years on Kircher. Thus, we may quote in passing the theses of Baldwin (defended in 1987 in Chicago) on the magnetic philosophy of Kircher, that of Cantoni (in 1994) on universal harmony, and that of Ziller (1995), also on the harmony of the world in the seventeenth century according to Kircher. From what sources did Kircher get all his knowledge? We hardly know. He spent much of his life at the Roman College, and it is not known exactly what books Roman libraries contained at that time. But he spent part of his formative days in Würzburg, where he was initiated, I think, in the occult and the Syriac and Egyptian sources. Scholar of all knowledge, inventor and collector, Athanasius Kircher is considered a scholar in various fields of human knowledge in which he published various treatises, for example, the study of Chinese language, universal writing (Novum hoc inventum quo omnia mundi idiomata ad unum reducuntur, 1660) or the art of how to think. He stood out for his pioneer study of the Coptic language and its application to the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, a field in which he did not achieve any valid results due to publishing a book full of allegedly worthless translations, although he was considered an expert. I think Kircher was fascinated by the investigation of the origin of cultures. This work was carried out by tracing the origin of languages. And above all, whether the origin of languages and cultures came from Egypt or rather from China, as we can see in China Munumentis Illustrata (1667). Kircher’s printed work consists of 33 titles on a wide range of subjects. Similarly, the manuscripts and their correspondence are very extensive. In 2001, on the occasion of the centenary, a catalogue of the Kircherian fund was published. It consists of 2587 documents in 20 languages, with letters coming from 336 cities in 42 countries.

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Among the many correspondents, Kircher maintained an extensive correspondence with the Spaniard Juan Caramuel. Following the guidelines of the Ratio Studiorum, he delved into the study of classical authors. Seneca, Strabo, Pliny, and Cicero are handled with ease. It can be said that they constitute the fundamental basis of his geocosmic thinking. But he must also have consulted other sources, other strange libraries. And one can evoke him in the library of The Name of the Rose by Umberto Eco, turning pages of books with forbidden knowledge. It seems that Kircher had a great interest in disseminating knowledge. This is why he wrote in Latin, which was at the time the normal and universal language of culture. His works have great expository clarity, he frequently resorts to anecdote, accompanies the text with precious lithographs and, written in Latin, spreads without difficulty throughout Europe. Kircher organized a museum at the Roman College, containing pieces of very different character, and which was visited by many people. On Kircher’s death, the Jesuits entrusted Father Filippo Bonanni (1638–1735) with its reorganization and illustration. In 1709, he published the work Musaeum Kircherianum (539 pages and 171 plates). With the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, the pieces of the Museum were dispersed. Although after the restoration of the Society there was an attempt to group them, the seizure by the Italian government in 1870 put an end to the Musaeum. The remains of it were integrated in 1913, part of them in the Paleoethnographic Museum of the Museum of Rome, and others in the funds of the National Museum of Castel Sant’Angelo. Many curious “inventions” are attributed to Kircher, among them, a system of projection through light beams (the magic lantern), which can be considered the predecessor of the cinematograph. Kircher intended to disseminate the knowledge available to him through his monumental work. His works are of great clarity, trying to bring together the scientific advances of his time in harmony with the data of Scripture, the Holy Fathers and the tradition of the Church, as well as myths, occult knowledge, alchemy, magic, hermeticism. Kircher desired a universal knowledge that included all knowledge within the framework of theological knowledge. Being written in Latin, the book spread quickly throughout Europe where it gained great popularity. Jungius and Leibniz cited the works of Kircher and von Guericke drew on many of his ideas from Kircher’s books. But we must give way to Professor Agustín Udías who will expose, with much more wisdom and authority, the intellectual path of Father Athanasius Kircher. Leandro Sequeiros SJ., Professor of Paleontology, President of ASINJA (Asociación Interdisciplinar José de Acosta) Granada, Spain

Leandro Sequeiros

Contents

1

Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1

2

Athanasius Kircher’s Life and Works����������������������������������������������������    5

3

The Geocosmos and the Interior of the Earth��������������������������������������   19

4

Magnetism and the Cosmic Magnetic Chain����������������������������������������   57

5

A Space Journey and the Vision of the Universe����������������������������������   85

6

Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  107

Appendix A: Books on Athanasius Kircher Published from 2000 to 2022��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  111 Appendix B: Table of Contents of Mundus subterraneus����������������������������  113 Appendix C: Table of Contents of Magnes sive de Arte Magnetica������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  127 Appendix D: Table of Contents of Iter exstaticum coelestem����������������������  139 Kircher’s Works Mentioned����������������������������������������������������������������������������  145 Bibliography ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  147 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  151

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Athanasius Kircher, a German Jesuit professor of mathematics at the Roman College (Rome) in the middle of the seventeenth century, is a fascinating figure that still attracts great interest today. A search in Google with his name raises nearly a million results, he is also the subject of a large number of books and articles. Kircher was interested in a great diversity of subjects about which he published a large number of books, so that he has been called “the last man who knew everything.” In addition to his books, Kircher organized a museum at the Roman College which presented an image of the world with its many aspects and was visited by many people. He also maintained a large correspondence with a great variety of persons, among them, popes, kings, noblemen, ecclesiastics, philosophers, and scholars. In particular, Kircher’s 33 books cover a great variety of subjects. Among those of science, some deal with the Earth, which he called the “geocosmos” and its interior, “the subterranean world,” which was for him an important subject, as well as the structure of the universe and the nature of stars and planets. Other books are dedicated to the study of magnetism which he considers as the force which pervades the entire universe and constitutes the ultimate cause of all types of phenomena and interactions, including those among men and that has its final origin in God. In other books he treats the different effects of light and sound and the nature of numbers. Among other important subjects of his books are the search in ancient texts, especially those from old Egypt, for the pristine and original wisdom which he thought would provide the key to all knowledge. He also presents in other books, the search for a universal language. He is still today a fascinating figure, and his life and works still attract today great interest. Especially in recent times interest in him has experienced an amazing increase. Thirty-two books (English 9, Italian 9, German 7, Spanish 3, Czech 2, French 1, Dutch 1) have been published between 2000 and 2022, about different aspects of Kircher’s life and works (see Appendix 1). In this work, I limit myself to the presentation of Kircher’s cosmological vision of the Earth and the Universe, in his three books about the interior of the Earth, magnetism as the force that pervades everything, and the structure of the universe with its © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1_1

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heavenly bodies, that for him still had their center in the Earth. In these three books, Kircher presents his vision of the world, mainly from the point of view of science, but also with many other considerations as those of philosophical and theological character. I will not enter into the general discussion of Kircher’s vast baroque learning, philosophical ideas present in his other books, into his correspondence, and his influence on contemporary authors, which have been widely studied. What I intend is something like a help to a modern reading of these three cosmological books, which offer an image of the world very different from what science presents today. Kircher’s ideas are compared with the traditional knowledge of his time, those already being presented by early contemporary proponents of modern science (that he does not always agree with) and what we know today. In these three books, Kircher presents a mixture of subjects, some based on observations and experiments, others taken from other authors, popular knowledge of his time, and finally other fruits of his inventiveness and imagination. Thus, Kircher can talk about the accelerated fall of heavy bodies to the Earth and the properties of magnetic declination, but also about the existence of giants, dragons, and mermaids, inhabitants on the Moon, and fire in the center of the Earth. This combination of subjects, even in our scientific age, still captures our interest. Although far from what we know today from geology, geophysics, astronomy, and astrophysics about the structure of the Earth and the nature of the universe, his presentations bring us to the views of a man caught in the seventeenth century between the traditional medieval ideas of the world, still popular in his time, the beginnings of modern science, the baroque popular colorful contributions, and also those coming from astrological alchemist and occult knowledge. We are accustomed today to keeping separate the scientific, philosophical, and theological considerations about the world, although the boundaries between them are not always kept clearly apart. In particular, even today, the boundaries between science and philosophy are blurry and fuzzy, and they are often transgressed by some authors without properly acknowledging it. In Kircher’s works, however, we find all these three approaches presented together in a single unified holistic vision in which he moves with ease from one to another. In addition, we find also a special interest in the marvelous, even the magical, occult, and esoteric, which for him deserve also his attention and consideration. For example, he accepts the existence of underground demons, dragons, and mermaids. The scientific approach appeared in Kircher’s references to his assertions being based on observations and experiments which brings him in part to the realm of modern science which was just beginning at that time. However, he was more unclear about the use of mathematics in natural problems. Philosophical considerations belong mostly to those of the scholastic Aristotelian natural philosophy, although he departs many times explicitly from them. At his time Aristotelian physics was already being abandoned by the proponents of modern science, and Kircher doubts the acceptance of one or the other, although, for example, he explicitly rejects atomism. Alchemy is also considered and discussed, and its relation with the beginning of chemistry and its separation from it established. Finally, considerations from Christian theology are also often presented of a world that has been created by God, and in which God has become incarnated in Jesus Christ, and through him is present in the world.

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We may still ask what interest we could have today in reading about the universe as it was seen by an author in the seventeenth century, besides merely historical curiosity. Kircher’s books, however, may help us, following the way he reflects about the image of the universe of his time, to learn a similar approach to our reflections about the Earth and the universe as we know today from modern science. This means looking at the universe today, not only through the eyes of science, but from many other points of view, as Kircher does, including not only philosophy and theology, but also the marvel and wonder that it arouses in us. Of Kircher’s three books we are dealing with here, we begin with the book about the interior of the Earth, or, as he calls it, the “geocosmos,” because for him the Earth was still considered to be the center of the universe. This was according to the traditional geocentric vision of ancient culture, systematized by Greek astronomy, and still kept during the Middle Ages, although Kircher was aware that already in his time a majority of astronomers accepted the Copernican system that had displaced the Earth from the center of the universe, and placed it as one of the planets orbiting around the Sun. The structure of the Earth’s interior that Kircher presents, although very different from what we know today, was an innovation that allowed him to explain phenomena on its surface, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and fountains. The second book is about magnetism that besides its observational characteristics, especially of terrestrial magnetism with the distribution of magnetic declination on the Earth’s surface, constitutes for Kircher a universal force with also spiritual nature that pervades the whole universe and has its final origin in God. The third book deals with the nature of the whole universe, from the center of the Earth to beyond the stars, presented by Kircher as a dream in which he travels through space guided by an angel. In this literary form, he can move with more freedom in his vision of the heavenly bodies. The three books complement each other to provide a picture of the whole universe, seen through Kircher’s eyes and encompassing many points of view, including the traditional Aristotelian physics, that of the beginning of modern science, and wider philosophical and theological considerations. Many other types of concerns are also present, for example, from alchemy and what he calls natural magic, that although different from what sciences tell us today, result still fascinating in many aspects. This overall view of the universe may also help us today, taking into account the nature of the universe that modern science provides, to integrate it in a wider vision with many other points of view. Because of the subject matter of these three books, I focus mainly on the scientific aspects of Kircher’s thought that have not been often treated. Special attention is given to their relation with the proposals of the beginning of modern science taking place at his time, and what science tells us today together with his philosophical and theological considerations. I am aware that this may leave out other aspects of his thought. To bring the reader nearer to Kircher’s formulations many references are made to the original Latin texts from these three books with my translation of them. In Appendices 2, 3, and 4, a translation is given of the complete tables of contents of the three books. In these very detailed tables of contents, one can find a great variety of topics present in these three books, many of which are not treated in my

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presentations. The tables of contents in this way are a good complement to the discussions presented. I encourage readers with sufficient knowledge of Latin to read, at least some parts of the original texts that can be easily found on the Internet. The texts and figs I use are taken from the exemplars of the books kept at the Biblioteca Histórica of the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain)1 with permission for their reproduction. I acknowledge the help provided in many aspects of the book by Elisa Buforn, Professor of Geophysics at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid and by Christopher Hannan who revised the English.

 Athanasii Kircheri ... Mundus subterraneus: SignaturaBH FG 766(1); Athanasii Kircheri ... Magnes siue De arte magnética: Signatura BH FG 767; R.P. Athanasii Kircheri e Societate Iesu Iter extaticum coeleste Signatura: BH FLL 21649; Athanasii Kircheri... Arithmologia: Signatura BH DER 16096; Athanasii Kircheri ...Oedipus Aegyptiacus: Signatura BH DER 12685. 1

Chapter 2

Athanasius Kircher’s Life and Works

Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) was born in the small town of Geisa, near Fulda (Germany), where his father, Johann Kircher, administered the affairs of the Prince-­ Abbot of Fulda, during the time of the Protestant reform.1 Kircher studied at the Jesuit college in Fulda and in 1618 joined the Society of Jesus, founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) in 1540, at the novitiate of Paderborn. Jesuits’ training after the 2 years of novitiate consisted in Kircher’s time (and still it does) of 2 or 3  years of humanities, 3  years of philosophy, and 4  years of theology, with between the last two a period of teaching at a Jesuit school, and finally a year of reflection and prayer called “third probation,” something like a second novitiate. Kircher’s times were difficult in Europe due to the 30 Years’ war between Catholics and Protestants in Germany. Because of this, Kircher had to leave Paderborn in 1622, and travel to Münster, and then to Cologne and Koblenz, where he finished his studies of philosophy. During these studies, Kircher began to get interested in ancient languages and mathematics two subjects that will become his lifelong passion. At that time mathematics included in addition to arithmetics, geometry, and algebra, other subjects such as astronomy, optics, mechanics, and experimental physics.

1  Literature about Kircher’s life and works is very abundant, for example, Conor Reilly, Athanasius Kircher S. J., Master of a Hundred Arts (1602–1680) (Rome: Edizioni del Mondo, 1974); Ignacio Gómez de Liaño, Athanasius Kircher, itinerario del éxtasis o las imagines de un saber universal (Madrid: Siruela, 2001); Paula Findlen (ed.), Athanasius Kircher, The Last Man who Knew Everything (London: Routledge, 2004); Joscelyn Godwin, Athanasius Kircher’s Theatre of the World. The life and Work of the Last Man to Search for Universal Knowledge. (Rochester (Vermont): Inner Traditions, 2009); John E. Fletcher, A Study of the Life and Works of Athanasius Kircher “Germanus Incredibilis” (Edited for publication by Elizabeth Fletcher) (Leiden: Brill, 2011); Leandro Sequeiros, Athanasius Kircher (1601–1680), sabio jesuita y ocultista (Córdoba: Bubok, 2013); Marilee Peters, The Man who Knew Everything: The Strange Life of Athanasius Kircher (Toronto: Annick Press, 2017).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1_2

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In mathematics and experimental physics, Kircher was mainly interested in practical applications, especially in the construction of elaborate optical and mechanical machines which will call people’s attention. In 1624, he traveled to Heiligenstadt, where he taught mathematics and Hebrew and Syriac languages at the Jesuit college. The curious mechanical machines Kircher had built so impressed the Archbishop Elector of Mainz, Anselm Casimir Wambold von Umstadt (1582–1647), on his visit to the college that he invited Kircher to his court at Aschaffenburg. There, in only 3 months, he carried out, among his many occupations, a land survey of the principality. In 1624, Kircher was sent by his superiors to Mainz to study theology in the Jesuit college, and after finishing these studies was ordained priest in 1628. After the third year of probation in Speier, he went on to teach mathematics and ancient languages at the Jesuit College in Würzburg. At this time, his interest in magnetism began, and he met Kaspar Schott (1608–1666), a young Jesuit student, who became his disciple, faithful companion, and friend. A year later, in 1631, Kircher and Schott had to escape from Würzburg to Avignon (France), on the occasion of the arrival of the army of the King of Sweden Gustav Adolf (1594–1632), who was helping the Protestant German princes. At Avignon, Kircher installed an astronomic observatory and an elaborate planetarium that showed the position of the Sun, Moon, and planets using a complex system of mirrors. The planetarium became a popular attraction in the city. Kircher described the planetary system in a book about mirrors, Primitiae gnomicae catoptricae (Gnomic and catoptric first-­ results, 1635), one of the first books he published. At this time, because of Kircher’s teaching of ancient languages, his interest was kindled in the interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphs. In 1632, Kircher met the wealthy French astronomer, collector, and patron of scholarship, Nicolaus Claude Fabri de Peiresc (1580–1637), who had been a student at the Jesuit colleges of Tournon and Avignon, and was also interested in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Peiresc had a good library with many Coptic and Arabic manuscripts, and he corresponded with many scientists. Through him, Kircher came into contact with Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) and Marin Mersenne (1588–1647), key figures together with René Descartes (1596–1650) in the development of modern science in France. Peiresc was impressed with the ingenuity and inventiveness of the young Jesuit professor and thought that Kircher could help him interpret Egyptian hieroglyphs. Kircher discovered the connection between the Coptic language and that of ancient Egypt and wrote the first Coptic grammar, Prodomus Coptus sive Aegyptiacus (Introduction to Coptic and Egyptian language, 1636). Kircher had a universal curiosity and great capacity for work and could pass with ease from one subject to another. He had a special interest in antiquity and exotic subjects and expected to find in ancient documents traces of a lost pristine wisdom (prisca sapientia) that would be at the origin of all sciences. He boasted to Peiresc that he had a rare Arabic manuscript with the key to the interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphs, and also a sunflower that marked the hours of the day, neither of which can be confirmed. Kircher had also a passion for designing curious mechanical and optical instruments and the ability to construct them. His desire to be sent to the mission of China was not heeded by his Jesuit superiors who thought that he was most needed in Europe. He was finally

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appointed professor of mathematics at the prestigious Roman College in Rome where he arrived in 1633, the year of Galileo Galilei’s (1564–1642) condemnation. In 1551, Jesuits founded a modest college in Rome which soon grew, and in 1556 Pope Paul IV (1476–1559) gave it university status with chairs of philosophy and theology. Twenty years later in 1576, this concession was confirmed by Pope Paul V (1552–1621). In 1584, with the generous support of Pope Gregory XIII (1502–1585), a magnificent building was inaugurated and the school began to be known as the Roman College (Collegio Romano); in modern time from 1873, it is named the Gregorian University, in memory of its early patron.2 Saint Ignatius himself gave great importance to this school which became the model to be followed by all Jesuit colleges. Kircher took up teaching duties in 1634, the following year of his arrival to Rome and spent the rest of his long life at the college occupied in writing his many books, working at his museum, and keeping a large correspondence. He occupied the chair of mathematics at the Roman College for only 8 years to about 1643 and after that year, he was freed from all teaching duties, so that he could dedicate himself completely to his research and his enormous work as a writer, but continued living at the College, where he died at the advanced age of 78  years. Kircher wrote an interesting autobiography where he relates with his commentaries the main events of his long life.3 In line with the new developments of modern science, Jesuit colleges, and universities, since their beginning in the middle of the sixteenth century, introduced as an important subject the teaching of mathematics. This was a novelty at that time when in universities and colleges, mathematics was considered just a particular secondary subject in the study of philosophy. Christopher Clavius (1537–1612), professor of mathematics at the Roman College from 1567 to 1595, initiated the interest for the teaching of mathematics in Jesuit colleges, and thus contributed to the beginning of Jesuit tradition in mathematics and the natural sciences. Clavius’ insistence on the importance of teaching mathematics was finally accepted in the Ratio Studiorum, the first teaching normative for all Jesuit schools published in 1599. In the Ratio it was established that all major colleges, that is, those in which there was teaching of philosophy, must have professors of mathematics. Consequently, mathematics and related sciences became a required subject in all major Jesuit colleges and universities.4 Clavius’ first successor at the Roman College was Christoph Grienberger (1564–1636) who was mainly interested in astronomy and is credited  Ricardo García Villoslada, Storia del Collegio Romano, dal suo inizio alla soppressione della Compagnia de Gesù (1773). (Rome: Universitàt Gregoriana (Analecta Gregoriana vol. LXVI), 1954). 3  “Vita Athanasii Kircheri Soc. Jesu.” An English translation with commentaries can be found in Fletcher, Study of the Life, 459–551. Giunia Totaro, L’autobiographie d’Athanasius Kircher (Caen: Leia, Université de Caen, 2009); Flavia De Luca, Vita del Reverendo Padre Athanasius Kircher: Autobiografia (Rome: La Lepre Edizioni, 2010). 4  Luce Girard, ed., Les jésuites à la Renaissance. Système éducatif el production du savoir (Paris: Presse Universitaires de France, 1995); Antonella Romano, La contra-réforme mathématique. Constitution du savoir (Paris: École Française de Rome, 1999); Agustín Udías, Jesuit contribution to Science. A history (Heidelberg: Springer, 2015). 2

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with being among the first to use the equatorial mounting of telescopes which allows better observation of the heavenly objects, and with the initiation of new catalogs of stars based on telescopic observations. Clavius and Grienberger initiated the interest in both mathematics and astronomy in Jesuit colleges, where some of the earliest observatories were afterward installed. Among the early professors of mathematics at the Roman College, Orazio Grassi (1583–1654) whose publication about the comet of 1618 led to a bitter controversy with Galileo, Niccolo Zucchi (1586–1670), an accomplished maker of telescopes who made observations of the surface of Mars and Jupiter, and Gabriele Beati (1607–1673), author of a popular textbook of astronomy, deserve mention. At that time, two important Jesuit astronomers, whose works are quoted by Kircher, are Christoph Scheiner (1575–1650), professor at the University of Ingolstadt and author of Rosa Ursina sive de Sole (Rosa Ursina or about the Sun, 1630) who maintained also a controversy with Galileo about the priority of his observations of sunspots, and Giovani Baptista Riccioli (1598–1671), professor at Parma and Bologna, author of Almagestum Novum (The new Almagest, 1651), a popular textbook of astronomy. At Rome, among other sources for his books, Kircher had access to the information that arrived from Jesuits in different parts of the world, especially from missionaries in Asia and America. In 1637, he accompanied the German Prince, Friedrich of Hesse (1585–1638), who was visiting Rome, on a journey to Sicily and Malta. During this journey, as we will see later, Kircher saw the eruptions of the volcanoes of Etna and Stromboli and experienced an earthquake in Calabria. In Naples he found that the Vesuvius was also active; he climbed the volcano and had himself lowered into the crater to observe the phenomenon close up. These experiences, as we will see later, aroused his curiosity and interest in the terrestrial phenomena that he will study in his monumental work about the interior of the Earth, Mundus Subterraneus (Subterranean world, 1664–1665) which is one of the main subjects of this work (Chap. 3). After his return to Rome, he never left the city again, except for a journey to Tuscany in 1659, and short journeys in the Roman countryside. At Rome, in 1652, Kircher enjoyed during 2 years the company of Schott, who proofread and edited some of his books. In 1655, Schott returned to Germany and was a professor of mathematics at the Jesuit College at Würzburg. His most famous works are the four-volume book, Magia universalis naturae et artis (Universal magic of nature and art, 1657–1659) and the 1000-page book, Technica Curiositas (Technical Curiosity, 1664).5

 Hans-Joachim Vollrath, Wunderbar berechenbar: die Welt des Würzburger Mathematiker Kaspar Schott, 1608–1666 (Würzburg: Echter, 2007). 5

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Portrait of Athanasius Kircher by Cornelius Bloemart (Mundus Subterraneus, M.S.)

Kircher’s activity spread over a great variety of subjects to which he dedicated his universal curiosity.6 An important one among them was the search in ancient texts, especially those from Egypt, for a pristine and original ancient wisdom (prisca sapientia), which would provide the key to all knowledge.7 In this pristine wisdom, he expected to find also a pristine theology (prisca theologia), which would form the basis for all religions. In this work, Kircher was influenced by the Hermetic currents of Italian humanists such as Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) and Domenico Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494). In this current, there were many syncretistic elements, especially in the writings known as the Corpus Hermeticum, attributed to a supposed Egyptian sage contemporary of Moses, Hermes Trimegistus (Hermes the three times

 John Fletcher, “Athanasius Kircher: a man under pressure” and “Kircher’s works,” in John Fletcher (ed.). Athanasius Kircher und seiner Beziehungen zum gelehrten Europa seiner Zeit (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1988); 1–15 and 179–195. 7  Joscelyn Godwin, Athanasius Kircher’s Theatre of the World. 59–76. Tina Asmussen, Scientia Kircheriana. Die Fabrikation von Wissens bei Athanasius Kircher (Affalterbach: Didymos-­ Verlag, 2016). 6

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great), but which were, in reality, the work of several authors of Neoplatonic and gnostic tendencies from the first to the third century. Kircher, who believed Hermes was an ancient Egyptian sage, claimed that traces of the origin of all knowledge were to be found in Egyptian culture. He thought that in the newly discovered cultures of Asia and America, one could also find traces of this pristine wisdom and that a parallelism between the West and East existed. Knowledge about these cultures was being transmitted at that time by Jesuit missionaries in Asia and America and Kircher had access to their letters. Another subject of great interest for Kircher was magnetism that he considered as the force which pervades the entire universe and constitutes the ultimate cause of all interactions of phenomena with cosmic and spiritual properties, as presented in his book, Magnes sive de arte magnetica (The magnet or the magnetic art, 1641), the second subject in our presentation (Chap. 4). In his studies, Kircher used a combination of the scholastic version of Aristotelian natural philosophy with mathematical applications and a continuous recourse to experiments and observations as demonstrative arguments, following in this way the lines of the new experimental sciences which were just beginning. His constant use of observations and experiments, which he called “the new method of philosophy” often took him away from the traditional Aristotelian doctrine taught at European universities from the Middle Ages. Kircher’s insistence on the novelty of his method, with his recourse to observations and experiments, and his search for a natural explanation of phenomena place him to some extent within the currents of the “new science,” being developed by authors such as Galileo, Johann Kepler’s (1571–1630), Francis Bacon (1561–1621), and Descartes, although other characteristics of his work take him outside its limits. Kircher’s universal curiosity often led him to accept uncritically unbelievable things and events, such as the existence of dragons, giants, and mermaids, and his liking for the occult and esoteric. In this sense, he appears to belong more to the realm of the Baroque than to that of modern sciences. Moreover, for him there was always an ultimate religious aim in his investigations of the works of nature, that is, their function as a means to reveal the mysteries of the creation as a path to the Creator, so that theology is never absent from his considerations. Kircher’s works are, thus, at the crosspoint of science, philosophy, and theology, as well as with contributions from the occult, esoteric, and hermetic ideas.

The Museum and Correspondence In 1651, Kircher was assigned to organize the collections of objects of different types which belonged to the Roman College. He established a museum in some rooms of the college which was soon known as the Museum Kircherianum.8 The collection

 Angela Mayer-Deutsch, Das Museum Kircherianum. Kontemplative Momente, historische Rekonstruktion (Zürich: Bildrhetorik, 2010). 8

The Museum and Correspondence

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contained archeological objects of Roman and Etruscan origin, given to the college in great part by the Italian aristocrat Alfonso Donnino and included also archeological pieces from ancient Egypt, such as small obelisks and mummies, and curiosities brought by Jesuit missionaries from all parts of the world. Another section was formed of minerals, rocks, fossils, and strange stuffed animals and skeletons. The museum also contained an art gallery with paintings and statues. Kircher added a collection of 19 mechanical and optical machines and instruments built by himself for his experiments and described in some of his books which formed the most remarkable part of the museum. Among them, there was an automatic organ that imitated the songs of birds, a magic lantern (Laterna Magica) to project images on a wall, and other instruments used for hydraulics, optical, and acoustic experiments. Among the instruments were statues, with spiral tubes in their interior that seemed to talk. One of these acoustic tubes connected the museum with the porter’s lodge of the college and was used to announce the visitors. These curious machines were designed to attract the attention of visitors, similar to what is found today in some modern science museums. The museum presented an image of universal science, as understood by Kircher. Emphasis was placed on the marvelous, and the museum was conceived as a “room of wonders,” and a “theater of the world.” The museum also tried to present something like a model on a small scale of the cosmos with all its different aspects. Soon Kircher’s museum became something no visitor to Rome could miss. Kircher himself dedicated a lot of time and effort to showing the museum to the most distinguished visitors, and for many of them, amazed by the machines and his explanations, the time spent with Kircher at the museum was the memory they most cherished of their visit to the eternal city. Among his visitors was Christina, Queen of Sweden (1626–1689), to whom Kircher presented a small obelisk with praises of her in hieroglyphic form. For Kircher showing other people his museum was also a work he liked to do, as mentioned in some of his books. The first publication about Kircher’s museum is that of his disciple Georgius de Sepibus, Museum celeberrimum (The most famous museum, 1678).9 After Kircher’s death, in 1698, the College entrusted Filippo Bonanni (1638–1735) with the reorganization of the museum. In 1709, he published the work Musaeum Kircherianum, with a description of its contents and a large number of illustrations.10 With the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, the pieces of the Museum were dispersed. Although after the restoration of the Society of Jesus in 1814, there was an attempt to group them, the seizure of the college by the Italian government in 1870 ended with the Museum. A number of remaining pieces of the Museum were integrated in 1913, in some state museums in Rome.  Georgius de Sepibus, Musaeum celeberrimum (Amsterdam: Janssonio Waesberg, 1678). About the museum see John Fletcher, “Athanasius Kircher: a man under pressure” and “Kircher’s works” in John Fletcher (ed.). Athanasius Kircher und seiner Beziehungen, 1–15 and 179–195. 10  Filippo Bonnani, Musaeum Kircherianum, sive Musaeum a P.  Athanasio Kirchero in Colleio Romano Societaties Jesu iam pridem incoeptum nuper restitutum, auctum descriptum et iconibus illustratum (Rome: Georgius Plachi, 1709). 9

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Kircher’s museum in the Roman College (de Sepibus, 1678)

An important aspect of Kircher’s work is his enormous correspondence lasting during his whole life, 2685 of his letters are preserved.11 Among some 760 addressees of his letters can be found four popes, two emperors, the kings of France and Spain, the Queen of Sweden, cardinals, bishops, members of the European nobility, scholars, and fellow Jesuits. Among the scientists, one finds the Spanish mathematician Juan Caramuel (1606–1680), naturalists such as Ovidio Montalbani  John Fletcher, “Athanasius Kircher and his correspondence,” in J. Fletcher (ed.) A. K. Beziehungen, 139–178 and John Fletcher, Study of life and work of A.K, Part II, “Kircher’s correspondence,” 193–458. Information can be found in the websites: “The Correspondence of Athanasius Kircher” in Early Modern Letters Online (EMLO), http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/ and Nick Wilding and Michael John Gorman (eds.), Athanasius Kircher Correspondence Project. The world of a seventeenth century jesuit, http://archimede.imss.fi.it/kircher/ (accessed March 2023).

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The Books

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(1602–1672), astronomers such as Dominico Cassini (1625–1712), Johannes Havelke (Hevelius) (1611–1687), and Christian Huygens (1629–1695), and other important scientists and philosophers as Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1717), Pierre Gassendi and Marin Mersenne. His correspondence played a similar role in the Germanic countries as that of Mersenne in France. A special section in the correspondence is devoted to the more than 200 Jesuits spread through Europe, Asia, and America, from whom Kircher received the information he later included in his books.

The Books Kircher stands out above all as a prolific writer with 33 books and some manuscripts of works that were not published.12 His books, all written in a rather elaborate baroque Latin, covered a great variety of subjects, such as religion, music, philology, logic, Egyptian hieroglyphs and culture, Chinese culture, Roman antiquities, the medical problems of plague, Noah’s ark and the tower of Babel. Books on science cover, in particular, geology, geography, astronomy, magnetism, sundials, optics, acoustics, arithmetic, and mathematical tables. Given this great variety of subjects, it is difficult to classify Kircher as a writer. He is best considered as a universal scholar and polymath and justly deserves the attributed name of “the last man who knew everything.”13 In 1661, Kircher came into contact with the Dutch publisher Johann Jansson van Waesberghe (Janssonius), who given the success of Kircher’s books saw in his writings a rich mine and asked him continuously for new publications. This forced Kircher into a continuous activity to satisfy his eager publishers. From 1669, Jansson became the main publisher of Kircher’s works with 15 of his books, some running into several editions. Jansson also acquired the rights for central Europe of the books, already published in Rome. Jansson’s editions of Kircher books were of large format (folio) with elaborate frontispieces and title pages, and beautiful engravings by the best artists. The books are still today true bibliophiles’ jewels. In addition to the three books that are the main subject of this study, a short notice will be given here about some other of Kircher’s books. Outstanding and interesting among them are the six books dedicated to philological subjects, four volumes of them dedicated to Egyptian hieroglyphs. Kircher suspected that the present Coptic language had traces of the antique Egyptian language and that it held the key for the interpretation of hieroglyphs. He thought, though incorrectly, that he could interpret them as simple symbols. Kircher dedicated four books to this subject: Prodomus Coptus sive Aegyptiacus (Introduction to the Coptic or Egyptian language, 1636), Lingua aegyptiaca restituta (Egyptian language

 A list of Kircher’s books and manuscripts can be found in Fletcher, A Study of the Life and Works, 565–568. 13  Findlen (ed.), Athanasius Kircher. The Last Man Who Knew Everything. 12

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recovered, 1643), Obeliscus Pamphilius (The Panphilian obelisk, 1650), and Oedipus Aegyptiacus (The Egyptian Oedipus, 1652–1654). Kircher also contributed to spreading in Europe knowledge about China and its culture, using the information sent by Jesuit missionaries. His work China illustrata (Illustrated China, 1667) was very popular and was translated into French and Dutch. In this book, he presented for the first time in Europe many curiosities about this hitherto great unknown country.

The Constantinople obelisk (Oedipus Aegyptiacus, vol. III)

Kircher deals with the nature of light and sound, which he considers to be related, in two different treatises, both with a predominantly practical approach to the construction of curious instruments. Light is the subject matter of Ars magna lucis et umbrae (The great art of light and shadow, 1646 and 1671). The book begins, following Euclid’s text, with 17 definitions and eight axioms. Its approach is basically Aristotelian, far from the modern treatises on light, such as the one which Huygens will publish in 1690. For example, Kircher’s treatment of reflection and refraction

The Books

15

does not add anything new. He gives much space to explain the construction of different types of sundials and the related astronomical problems. The most original part is found in Book X entitled, Magia lucis et umbrae (Magic of light and shadow). In the preface to this part, Kircher clarifies that he uses the term “magic” to refer to astonishing effects produced by purely natural means. He presents many types of projections of optical images using the reflection and refraction of light. Among them, he describes the construction of the “camera obscura” and the “magic lantern.” Although the invention of the latter, used for projecting images employing the light of a lamp and a lens, is often attributed to him, it was already in use from about 1550. Kircher was, however, the first to describe with detail its construction in the 1671 edition. The book deals also with the phenomena produced by reflection from different types of mirrors, plane, spherical and cylindrical, and the refraction of light through water and glass. Kircher examines the possibility of burning ships with solar rays concentrated by mirrors, as was attributed to Archimedes (287–212 B.C.) in the siege of Syracuse by the Roman navy and concludes that it was not possible. In the part devoted to sundials, Kircher shows his true obsession with this subject presenting a large variety of types. He includes a sundial that shows the time in different parts of the world and another built from a sunflower. He mentions also a moon-dial, to show the time during the night, but we do not know if he ever made one. Kircher discussed sound in two books Phonurgia nova (New sound-making, 1673) about sound in general and Musurgia universalis (Universal music-making, 1650) about music. The first is about the nature of sound and begins with 19 definitions, 10 axioms, and four postulates, in the form of the beginning of Euclid’s book on geometry. He recognizes that sound is similar to light, but still following Aristotelian ideas he defines it as a “quality” (qualitas passibilis) which affects the ear. He was far from the mechanistic theory of modern science that considers sound and light as waves. Kircher puts the question as to whether sound can be transmitted through a vacuum. This led him to consider the existence of the vacuum which, faithful to Aristotelian doctrine, he denied. He experimented with the echo and the transmission of sound through large acoustic tubes at great distances producing marvelous effects. Referring to prodigies connected with sounds, he mentions those of bells which toll by themselves, the fall of the walls of Jericho, and surprisingly the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, accepting their veracity. In Mussurgia universalis, Kircher expounds all aspects of music, its different kinds, and instruments. He includes many types of music scores and engravings of instruments; thus, the book forms an interesting treatise on the theory and practice of music in his time. In the part of the book that he calls the “magic of consonant and dissonant harmony” (magia consoni et disoni), Kircher mentions the influence of music on human sicknesses and moods. In Book X, he deals with the harmony of the universe as a work of God, whom he calls “the eternal first musician” (Archimusicus ille aeternus). He finally compares the structure of the world with that of an organ (mundani organi fabrica).

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Numbers and heavenly bodies (Arithmologia, 1665)

Using this analogy, he compares the ten registers of an organ with the “symphony” of the world which begins with the minerals, plants, animals, and men, up to reach the choirs of angels and the divine music. This vision of a universal harmony or symphony extends from the non-living, the living, the human body, the heavenly bodies, human society, and the choirs of angels to end with the music of the Trinitarian mystery of God (De musica Dei triniti). For Kircher, the mystery of the Trinity is present in the whole harmony of the universe, where we can find many Trinitarian parallels (for example: vegetal-animal-rational; intelligence-memory-­ will; father-mother-child, etc.). However, he rejects the celestial harmony proposed by Kepler, based on the values of the periods of the rotation of the planets around the Sun. Kircher published a book about numbers, but not on the common arithmetics that we would expect by a professor of mathematics but what he calls Arithmologia sive de abditis numerorum mysteriis (Arithmology or about the hidden mysteries of numbers, 1665). What he was interested in was not in arithmetics

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but in the occult mysteries of numbers. He begins with the origin of numbers of the Roman and Arabic types and deals with the assigning of certain numbers with the heavenly bodies (Sun, Moon, and planets) and what he calls their numerical seals. In these seals, he presents many kinds of combinations of numbers in different ways associating them with the heavenly bodies. A part is dedicated to the magic use of numbers by the gnostics and another to magic numerical amulets, its use in the Sephiroth of the Kabbalah, and finally the mystical meaning of numbers. More technical works are Pantometrum Kircherianum (Kircher’s pantometer, 1660), a description of his pantometer, an instrument for measuring angles for the determination of distances and elevations and Organum mathematicum (Mathematical instrument, 1668) edited by Schott which presents the construction and use of sets of tables for practical calculations of arithmetics, geometry, fortification, chronology, horolography, astronomy, astrology, stenography, and music. In 1656, Kircher turned his attention to the plague that beginning in Naples raged in Rome and based on his microscopic observations assigned the transmission of the sickness to fine invisible worms through the air, that can be considered as a possible foresight of bacteria. He published this in Scutrinium pestis (Investigation of the plague, 1658) and re-edited in 1659 and 1671. As the culmination of his work, Kircher tried with his Ars magna sciendi (The great art of knowing, 1669) to present a universal science, following on the ideas of the medieval philosopher from Majorca, Raimundo Llull (1272–1318). Finally, two curious books are those dedicated to Noah’s Ark (Arca Noë, 1675) and the Tower of Babylone (Turris Babel, 1679). Between 1665 and 1700 some ten reviews and references of Kircher’s publications appeared in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Kircher’s books are still today a source of great interest. To finish this brief introduction to Kircher’s life and works, we must admit that he still fascinates many of us, and the verses dedicated to him by Wolfgang Goethe are still relevant: So, before you know it, Father Kircher is back again. However, I won’t be ashamed of the word: we are always fumbling after problems.14

For us also today, Father Kircher is still there as a fascinating figure, and we find his explanations of the natural phenomena of interest, even though they are far from what modern science tells us today. Entering into Kircher’s world through his writings, we feel like those who visited his museum in the Roman College and listen to his explanations. We are not surprised to find there all kinds of things, including dragons and giants, among many other fantastic beings. We can then, finally, accompany him in his journey from the center of the Earth to the limits of the universe and let him explain things to us in his way in the three books we will present here, way different from what we are accustomed to today, influenced by modern science.  “So ist den, eh man sich versah, Der Pater Kircher wieder da. Will mich jedoch des Worts nicht schämen: Wir tasten ewig an Problemen.” Quoted in Godwin, A. Kircher’s theatre, 134. 14

Chapter 3

The Geocosmos and the Interior of the Earth

The presentation of the three books containing Kircher’s cosmological vision of the world begins with his book on the Earth, which he still considered, according to the old traditional astronomy, as the center of the universe. Kircher’s experiences on his journey to Sicily in 1637—which included the eruptions of Etna and Stromboli, earthquakes, and finally the activity of the Vesuvius, into which crater he descended—led Kircher to become interested in the mysteries of the Earth or the “geocosmos,” as he calls it, uniting the word for the Earth (geo) with that for the universe (cosmos), indicating its special place in the universe. The result of all of these experiences is the publication in 1664 and 1665 of Mundus subterraneus (The subterranean world), which is one of his greatest successes with a second edition in 1678.1 The book, written in Latin like all his works, is of large format and divided into two volumes containing many very fine engravings. Below the title an elaborate paragraph follows that insists on the importance of the Earth and the amplitude of the contents of the book: “The Divine Work of the Underground World, the admirable Distribution of the Workshop of Nature of all forms (pantamorfon) of the kingdom of Proteus (in the Greek mythology, a god who could change his shape at will)—where all the Majesty of Nature, the great richness of the variety of things are exposed and shown, the occult effects of investigations of the causes, known by Arts and Nature joint to the necessary for life by the use of several works of experiments applied in new ways and forms.” Mundus subterraneus has received a lot of attention even in recent times, from many points of view, and received different types of commentaries and interpretations.2 Many of the ideas presented in this  Athanasius Kircher, Mundus subterraneus in XII libros digestus.2 vols. (Amsterdam: Joannem Janssonium Waesberghe, 1664–1665). (Second edition, 1678). 2  See, for example, Eduardo Sierra, “El geocosmos de Kircher. Una cosmovisión científica del siglo XVII.” Geocrítica, No. 33–34 (1981); Leandro Sequeiros, El Geocosmos de Athanasius Kircher (Granada: Facultad de Teología de Granada, 2001). Nicoletto Morello, “Nel corpo della Terra: Il geocosmos di Athansius Kircher” in Eugenio Lo Sardo (ed.), Athanasius Kircher; il 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1_3

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book influenced the early development of geological sciences which were beginning at that time.3 Among the first to use the term geology (geologia) was the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) in 1603 referring to the study of the “stuff of the underground.” Geology was firmly established by Charles Lyell’s (1797–1875) Principles of Geology in 1830. The first volume of Mundus subterraneus begins with a dedication to Pope Alexander VII, where Kircher expresses his desire that his book may serve as an introduction to allow the Pope “to introduce his intrepid foot in the subterranean sanctuaries and for us hidden worlds.” He finishes the dedication by insisting on the difficulty of the subject: “Accept this rather darkness and shadows of the Subterranean World, so that the wise light of your piety and wisdom cast light into my darkness.” The second volume is dedicated to Emperor Leopold I. The novelty and difficulty of the subject are expressed by Kircher, with little modesty, in the preface with the words: “I dare to open a path hitherto not tried, I believe, by anybody, one that no human mind has attempted in the occult and unknown kingdom of the subterranean World, in the intimate Geocosmic Monarchy … but I do this not of my own will, but persuaded by the impulse of the Divine Numen” (non tam mea voluptate susceptum, quod nescio quo Divini Numinis impulsu persuasum).4 Mundus subterraneus is divided into twelve books. Books 1–7 in the first volume are about general subjects, considering the Earth as the center of the universe, the structure of its interior, and the origin of the elements which form it. The second volume, Books 8–12, contains many curious facts about what is found in the Earth’s interior, such as bones (fossils), animals, men and demons, the art of metals, a long disquisition about alchemy, and finally the problem of what Kircher calls the principle of the “panspermia” (from the Greek meaning “all seeds”) which will appear in several places and different contexts, and its use by Kircher will be explained later (see Appendix 2).

museo del mondo (Rome: De Luca, 2001) 179–196. Mark A. Waddell, “The world, as it might be: Iconography and probabilism in the Mundus Subterraneus of Athanasius Kircher,” Centaurus 48 (2006) 3–22; William C.  Parcell, “Signs and symbols in Kircher’s Mundus Subterraneus” Geological Society of America Memoir 203 (2009) 51–62. 3  Frank D. Adams, The birth and development of the geological sciences. (New York: Dover, 1954), 433–439. 4  Mundus subterraneus, Preface, pp. 1–2.

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Title page of Mundus Subterraneus (M.S.)

Many other subjects appear in the different books of Mundus subterraneus, some of a practical character, such as the work of mining, the art of metals, elements of chemistry, preparation of medicines, composition of glasses and gunpowder, and pyrotechnic art. There are also other sections, such as one with descriptions of insects and plants. A long section is dedicated to alchemy (Book 11). There, Kircher denies the possibility of producing gold from other metals claimed by alchemists and the existence of the so-called “philosopher’s stone” or “elixir of life” which could be used for this purpose. In some topics, Kircher shows at times little critical judgment, accepting the existence of marvelous

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animals like dragons, strange fossils, stones with human and animal figures, and underground men and demons, though he did not accept others, for example, the existence of giants in antiquity. We could ask if he was naive regarding these questions or if he was just following the common beliefs of his time and was influenced by his liking for the strange and marvelous. Although today being more critically minded with the influence of science we are not totally devoided of similar liking. Mundus subterraneus can be considered as a great encyclopedia about the Earth, full of lights and shadows, some interesting insights, and a lot of fantasy also, where Kircher attempts to find a natural explanation for all the phenomena he presents. Magic is also present but it is “natural magic” (magia naturalis), as he calls it, that can be achieved by purely natural means. There is a continuous recourse to observations and experiments, although it is difficult to believe that many of the experiments described were ever carried out. There is also the presentation of new marvelous information, often uncritically accepted, as provided in some cases by Jesuit missionaries from exotic lands. No wonder the book was a best-seller in the European society of that time, which was experiencing the new results of the beginning of modern science and the first contacts with the recently discovered lands of Africa, Asia, and America, and was eager for all kinds of novelties. Today, four centuries later, we are also impressed by other types of novelties that science and technology keep providing us, especially, those that may come from the unknown outer-space.

Short Index of the 12 Books An English translation of the complete table of contents is given in Appendix B. Preface, Chapters I, II, III I. Center of nature. Movement of heavy bodies. II. On the work of the terrestrial globe. III. Hydrography. Ocean tides and currents. IV. Pyrologus-about fire. V. Origin of lakes, fountains, and rivers. VI. The Earth, its products, and the first fruits of the Subterranean world. VII. Nature, properties, and uses of minerals or fossils. VIII. The stony substance of the Earth. Subterranean animals, men, and demons. IX. Poisonous and deadly fruits of the subterranean world. X. The subject of metallurgy. XI. Alchemy. XII. The panspermia of things. Origin of minerals, plants, and animals.

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Preface: Earthquakes and Volcanoes The book Mundus subterraneus begins with a long preface (Praefatio in Mundum Subterraneum) divided into three chapters. In Chap. I, with the title, “On the occasion of this work and the author’s journeys,” Kircher explains that he considers his book as an “instrument” (organum) to know the subterranean world (similar to the use of this word in Bacon’s Novum organum, as an introduction of modern science). An instrument, as he calls it, that is “harmonic in number, weight, and measurement, so disposed and adapted by the provident Trinitarian creator” to disclose the “internal hideouts and hidden operations of the Earth… the hidden and unknown kingdom of the subterranean World,” and “the intimate insides of the Geocosmic Monarchy.” Then he affirms that he is helped by some kind of divine inspiration: “I dare to begin this work, not by my own will, but driven by, I do not know what Divine inspiration, so that I can present the Instrument of the interior Geocosmos.” Theologican considerations are present from the beginning. Kircher acknowledges that: “he has read many writings of natural history on the hidden miracles of the subterranean nature,” but it has helped him, especially, the experiences he lived in his journey to Sicily and Calabria, with the sights of the Etna and Stromboli volcanoes, the earthquakes of Calabria, and his descent into the crater of the Vesuvius volcano. Before entering the contents of the book, we begin with Kircher’s narrative of these two experiences. In Chap. II of the Preface, Kircher narrates his personal experiences of the manifestation of one of the forces acting on the Earth, namely, earthquakes. His experience is that of the Calabrian earthquakes of 27–28 March 1638, which produced great damage in several towns and villages, and, especially, the total destruction of the town of Santa Eufemia. The first three earthquakes are estimated to have been of magnitudes 6.5–7 and have caused around 30,000 casualties. Kircher and his companions had landed in Calabria in their return sea journey from Malta to Sicily, and they arrived at the town of Tropea at the Jesuit college, when suddenly they felt the first earthquake. There was “a very vehement subterranean sound and roar, like that of a car at high velocity and a horrible motion of the earth …the earth jumped with such a vehement motion that I could not stay on my feet, and I was suddenly fallen on earth on my face, … desperate of life I commended my soul to God.” Then, he adds: “with an enormous fear and pain for the clattering of the falling roof tiles and the hard cracks of the cracking walls, I could not find out how to escape or where to go, so to save myself from the ruin menacing from all parts.” Then, the largest earthquake happened that destroyed the town of Santa Eufemia. As he describes it: “It happened at that time, something worth of eternal and immortal memory, that is, the destruction of the town called Sant’Eufemia. …I was fallen to earth and lifeless by a terrible shaking of the earth, looking around, once calmed the Nature paroxysm, we saw a huge fog that surrounded the until then renown town … and dissipated little by little the fog, we look for the town, but we did not find it, amazing to say, in its place a very fetid lake had been formed.” This shows how his knowledge about earthquakes, produced by the forces from the interior of the Earth, was enlivened by his personal experience of the Calabrian earthquakes.

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The Vesuvius volcano (M.S.)

In Chap. III of the Preface, Kircher opens with the story of his second experience, that of volcanoes, saying: “After the critical situations experienced on land and sea, and to have explored the unbelievable power of Nature (the Calabrian earthquakes) active in the subterranean galleries, I conceived an immense desire to know the hidden powerful conflicts of Nature in the Vesuvius as in the Stromboli and Aetna.” Thus, he began the way to explore the crater of the Vesuvius. “As I arrive at the crater, horrifying to say, I saw it all illuminated by fire, with burning sulfurous and bituminous exhalations. I believed to be looking to the house of hell, where nothing was lacking, such as demons and horrendous ghosts. Inexplicable horrendous roars and groans, mixed clouds of fire arose from different places of the interior and sides of the mount.” Kircher proceeded to make some measurements, obtaining for the circle of the crater, “three hundred thousand footsteps” (approximately 230 km) and the depth “eight hundred footsteps” (616 m). The values are not very exact as the present values for the dimensions of the crater are 610 m in diameter (3.8 km circle) and 305 m in depth. Kircher saw the bottom of the crater as the origin of volcanic activity. He describes it: “In the bottom of the crater, which was by its nature like the focus of the burning kitchen of the volcano, the everlasting fountain of smoke and flames was found, surging from the hidden fountain of sulfur, bitumen and the rest of species of minerals.” Kircher points out that the last eruption

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of the volcano was in 1631 and that it was still active when he was writing. The largest eruption took place between December 16th and 17th of 1631, destroyed many villages, and produced about 5000 deaths. In a second preface (Praefatio Secunda), Kircher recognizes the help received in the writing of the book, beginning with the memory of emperors Ferdinand III and Leopold I, followed by a long list of persons, including many Jesuit companions from Germany, France, Portugal, and especially missionaries from India, as well as many other persons, experts in many fields. He finishes the preface by expressing that the ultimate end of his writing is, naturally, God’s glory which is admirable in his works (Gloria Dei, qui est mirabilis in operibus suis). Kircher’s religious attitude in the book is, thus, made clear from the beginning.

The Earth Center of the Universe The first volume contains Books I to IX. These books deal with the position of the Earth as the center of the universe, its composition, the water elements: oceans, seas, rivers, and fountains, the interior of the Earth with its subterranean fires and vents, and the terrestrial elements. In Book I, Kircher begins with the consideration of the position of the Earth at the center of the universe with the title Centrographicus and Centrosophia (graphic-center and wisdom-center). This was the traditional doctrine from antiquity, formalized by Greek astronomers, beginning with Eudoxus of Cnido (390–337  B.C.), finally systematized by the work of Claudio Ptolomeo (100–170), and proposed in the physical cosmology of Aristotle (380–322 B.C.). This was the accepted doctrine during the Middle Ages, until it was questioned by Nicolaus Copernicus’ (1473–1543) De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the revolutions of the heavenly orbs) published in 1543 that puts the center at the Sun. In Kircher’s view, the central position of the Earth in the universe was very important so the title of Sect. I, De mirifica Centri Natura et maximo Dei Opificio (About the admirable Nature of the Center and God’s greatest Work). To defend his position, physical and theological considerations are treated together. For him, the Earth is the center of all material things (universa Corporei Mundi fabrica), established as a foundation of the natural world by God Himself (Omnipotentia Dei virtute fundatum). We see that the theological consideration of God’s creation of the world was important from the beginning. The center itself was a point at the center of the Earth (Centrum Mundi tametsi sit punctum). Regarding the center, being the Earth spherical and of homogeneous material, its geometrical center (centrum magnitudinis) is also the center of gravity (centrum gravitatis) toward which all heavy bodies are attracted, and tend to go. The determination of the center of gravity of different types of figures was a common problem for authors of his time, so Kircher presents, as problems, the determination of the center of gravity of different figures. In the following chapters, many examples are given of the motion of bodies on the surface and in the interior of the Earth with respect to its center.

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Kircher does not mention here the Copernican system, already accepted in his time by a majority of astronomers, which had already put the center in the Sun around which all the planets including the Earth rotate. He explains the fall of heavy bodies, following Aristotelian doctrine, as going to their proper place which is at the center of the universe. Aristotelian physics was still the common doctrine taught from the Middle Ages at European universities, and followed by the philosophy professors at Jesuit colleges. Professors of mathematics, however, had more freedom regarding it. From the middle of the sixteenth century, the Aristotelian doctrine begun to be questioned and a new science was proposed, which was based on observations and mathematical analysis. Among the first proponents of the new science, one may mention Niccolò Tartaglia (1505–1557), Galileo Galilei, and Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) in Italy, Gassendi, Descartes, and Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) in France, Bacon, William Gilbert (1538–1612) and Robert Boyle (1627–1691) in England, and Huygens in Holland. During Kircher’s long active years, some important works presenting the new methods of modern science were published, namely, Bacon’s Novum organum (The new instrument, 1620), Descartes’ Discours de la méthode (The discourse of the method, 1637), Galileo’s Discorsi e dimostrazioni mathematice intorno a due nuove scienze (Discourse and mathematical demonstrations about to new sciences, 1638), Torricelli’s Opera geometrica (Geometrical works, 1644), Gilbert’s De mundo nostro sublunari philosophia nova (About the new philosophy of our sublunar world, 1651), and Boyle’s Considerations touching the usefulness of experimental philosophy (1661). In these books, it was made clear that the Aristotelian analysis must be abandoned and replaced by a new science based on observations and experiments and expressed in mathematical formulations. As we will see, Kircher makes references to the work of some of the proposers of the new science but without accepting completely their views. He was caught between the traditional geocentrical worldview and the Aristotelian natural philosophy, and the new ideas of modern science of an infinite universe in which the Earth is just a planet like the others around the Sun. Kircher kept mainly the traditional Aristotelian doctrine but not literally, with some corrections and changes and an appeal to observations and experiments, as we will see. An important factor that influenced Kircher’s proposals in his books was the censorship present in the Jesuit order.5 It was established that all books written by Jesuits must pass approval by a censor before publication. Regarding problems of natural philosophy, the observance of the Aristotelian orthodoxy was very strictly required and deviations were not easily allowed in Jesuits’ books. The question of the location and motion of the Earth was particularly delicate, because in 1616, of the ecclesiastical condemnation by the Holy Office of the proposal of the motion of the Earth (both rotation and translation around the Sun) and the inclusion in the Index of Forbidden Books of Copernicus’ book and further in 1633 of Galileo’s trail and condemnation. The approval of the publication of Kircher’s three cosmological

 Harald Siebert, “Kircher and his Critics. Censorial Practice and Pragmatic Disregard in the Society of Jesus” in P. Findlen (ed.), Athanasius Kircher (2004) 79–104. 5

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books required, therefore, that the motion of the Earth was not proposed as a fact. However, what was his personal position on this matter is difficult to say. Peiresc in a letter to Gassendi wrote that “the good Father Athanasius has admitted to us that he is pressed and obliged to write following Aristotle’s common supposition and that the same Father Scheiner follows them by force and obedience.”6 However, we cannot take this as definitive, given the importance Kircher gives to the central position of the Earth (geocosmos) in the universe. In Sect. II, called Physico-Mathematica, De motu gravium ad Centrum Universi (Physics and mathematics, about the motion of heavy bodies toward the center of the universe), Kircher considers a physical and mathematical approach to the motion of heavy bodies toward the center of the universe (Earth) trying to quantify the motion, giving times and distances traveled. This way, he overcomes the purely qualitative description of Aristotelian natural philosophers. Moreover, Kircher accepts that according to the thought of modern philosophers (modernorum Philosophorum dogmata), the natural motion of falling bodies is accelerated, so he considers the problem of this type of motion (De accelerato motu naturali). As he puts it, “Their motion accelerates more and more continuously.” He compares falling bodies with the downward motion of bodies on an inclined plane (De motu gravium supra plana inclinata). In this respect, Kircher quotes Galileo’s and Marsenne’s works adding, however, that he does not agree with them regarding the rate of acceleration. Regarding the parabolic trajectory of projectiles, Kircher quotes the opinions of modern authors, like Galileo, Mersenne, Gassendi, Torricelli, and Francesco Bonaventura Cavallieri (1598–1647), against the Aristotelian doctrine, and tries to refute them, using experiments, for example, the measurement of the rate of velocity of falling bodies. Regarding the application of geometrical analysis to moving bodies, Kircher comments: “It is then certain that, as we have seen above, geometrical principles, although they can be easily applied to physical things, however, being so compared, the laws of mathematical rigor in demonstrations cannot be kept at all.” We can see that he did not understand completely the mathematical abstraction of the laws proposed by Galileo for the motion of falling bodies and the parabolic path of projectiles. As an application, Kircher presents the problem of calculating the time that takes a body to fall from the Moon, the Sun, or the stars to the center of the Earth. Again, he is still using geocentric cosmology with the Earth at the center of the universe. Regarding the falling body from the Sun, situated in the geocentric system in the fourth orbit, he begins by saying: “First we suppose that, according to the common tradition of astronomers, the Sun is at a distance of the center of the Earth of 1142 (Earth’s) semi-diameters” (similar to the value given by Ptolomeo 1260, in fact the distance is 23,481 Earth’s radii). He then concludes that it takes about 12 h, but it is not clear how he has calculated it. Putting the value of the Earth’s radius 6370 km, for his estimation of 1142 Earth’s radii this will correspond to a velocity of about 600,000 km/hr. Kircher could not be aware of what this velocity would mean.

 John E. Fletcher, “Athanasius Kircher: A man under pressure” in J. Fletcher (ed.) A. K. Beziungen, 4.

6

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The ecclesiastical censure after the condemnation of Galileo prevented Kircher, as we have commented, from accepting the Copernican system and he opts for the system of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), a Danish astronomer, published in 1589–1607, where the Earth is at the center of the world, the Sun goes around the Earth and all the planets rotate around the Sun. This was the compromise solution accepted by some other Jesuit astronomers, for example, Riccioli in his astronomy textbook, whom Kircher quotes several times and with whom kept correspondence. It is not clear up to what point Kircher was convinced of this view. This will be dealt with in more detail in our Chap. 5. The last topic of Book I is the motion of pendulums. In its discussion, considering the constant period of their motion, he points out that this could be the foundation for a new type of clock (novum horologii genus). This idea had been already proposed by Galileo, but it was only carried out in practice by Huygens in 1673 in his work Horologium oscillatorium (The oscillatory clock). As an example of mathematical calculations, a table is given of the times taken for the spaces traveled by falling bodies. Other topics are also considered such as the determination of geographical longitudes, a difficult problem at that time, that will be considered again in detail when dealing with magnetic declination in Chap. 4. Today we know that the Earth is not the center of the universe but a planet, around a star (our Sun) of a galaxy, one of the about 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe. However, we can still look at the Earth, like Kircher, as our “geocosmos” in which we live, and find to be full of wonderful things.

The Interior of the Earth The most original part of Mundus subterraneus is that dealing with the structure of the Earth, especially its interior (Books II-IV). The full title of Book II is Technicus Geocosmus sive de admirando Globi Terreni opificio (Technical Geocosmos or on wondering at the work of the terrestrial globe) where Kircher explains the term “Geocosmos,” which he uses for the terrestrial globe or world (Globus terrenus quem Geocosmum sive Mumdum Terrestrem appellamus). Book II is divided into 20 chapters and deals with general topics about the Earth. The first question he proposes is a theological one, about the aim or purpose of the world (De fine et scopi geocosmi) including also that of all systems of globes (Mundus itaque cum omnibus globorum sistematis), that is, the heavenly bodies, and, naturally, the answer is that the first purpose is God Himself. Regarding the Earth, this is in particular destined by Divine Providence to be man’s habitat, so in it, everything is for man’s well-­ being, from its interior to its surface, including plants and animals. That includes also the heavenly bodies, stars, and planets, with their influence on men, which are also created for man’s welfare. We can see here a certain acceptance of the astrological influence of the heavenly bodies on men’s welfare. In conclusion, the world is created for man, and finally man and the world are created for Christ, God’s Incarnated Word (propter hominem et hominem Christum, Verbum Patris). Christ is thus put at the center of the world, which in its turn is centered at the Earth’s globe

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(Terrenus Globus). Thus, Kircher expresses Christ’s centrality in creation and men’s relation with him. Kircher, as a Jesuit, was presenting here a reflection of what St. Ignatius proposes in the “Principle and Foundation” in the Spiritual Exercises that “it is for the human person that the other things on the face of the Earth are created.”7 The Spiritual Exercises are the center of Jesuit spirituality so its tenets come up in Kircher’s theological reflections.

The interior of the Earth and the Pyrophylacia (M.S.)

Before dealing with the Earth itself, Kircher begins with the nature and influence on the Earth of the innumerable heavenly bodies, that is, stars and planets (Mundum innumeris astralibus corporibus refertum). The following chapters deal with the Sun, its structure, forces, properties, and influences on the Earth (De Sole et admirando eius opificio, viribus, propietatibus quibus in Mundum terrenum influit). He mentions the sunspots, which can be seen with a telescope, and quotes Scheiner’s work on the subject Rosa Ursina sive de Sole.8 Kircher calls attention to the effects by the Sun on the Earth’s atmosphere. In a chapter on the Moon that follows he mentions that its constitution is similar to that of the Earth, dense and opaque body, made up of solid and liquid material (densum et opacum ex solido et liquido

 Ignatius of Loyola, The Spiritual Exercise of Saint Ignatius (A translation and commentary by George E. Ganss (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1992). 8  Christoph Scheiner, Rosa Ursina sive de Sole (Bracciani: Andreas Phaeum, 1630). 7

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constitutum) and that it is illuminated by the Sun. As it has been observed by him and his students by telescopes at the Roman College, the surface of the Moon has mountains, oceans, and lakes similar to those of the Earth. For more questions on astronomy, he refers to his already mentioned astronomical work (Itinerario nostro Exstatico), that we will see in detail in Chap. 5. Book II.  Chap. VII deals with the structure and size of the Earth (De extima Telluris structura, eiusque magnitudine). After a long discussion about the difficulties in measuring the size of the Earth and the different values given by different authors, finally, however, he does not give the value of the Earth’s radius and refers to Riccioli’s Almagestum Novum (1651).9 Riccioli gives for the radius of the Earth 4139 Italian miles (7665 km, actual value for equatorial radius is 6378 km). Three chapters (VIII–X) are dedicated to the mountains that are considered to be necessary for maintaining stable the body of the Earth (Montes Terreno globo ita necessarii fuerunt, ut sine iis globus terrenus consistere non posset). Mountains are considered to be like the bones in the human body. In an Earth full of caves, seas, lakes, rivers, and fountains, they are necessary to provide a stable consistency to its structure. For this purpose, Kircher recognizes that one would expect two systems of mountains in north–south and east–west directions, but the real situation is more complex, and difficult to explain, so their “arcane constitution” (De arcana Montium constitutione). Kircher uses often the word “arcane” to designate obscure, secret, and mysterious subjects. However, the general distribution of the two main systems of mountains may still be found occult under the seas. Thus, the distribution of mountains is not casual but for Kircher corresponds to a very “sagacious” design (sagacissimo consilio constitutos in Orbis Terrarum). The distribution of mountains is related to that of rivers and rivers to the underground water conduits that Kircher calls hydrophylacia and which appear here for the first time. The hydrophylacia are connected with all water bodies, seas, lakes, rivers, and fountains in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America making a unified worldwide water system. Chap. XI begins with the treatment of volcanoes (De Ignivomis seu Volcanis montibus) that opens the way to the presentation of the pyrophylacia or conducts of fire in the Earth interior, similar to those of water or hydrophylacia. Volcanoes are said to be found in the whole of Earth but especially in South America, as informed by Jesuit missionaries and the already published works of Jesuit naturalists such as, among the first, José de Acosta (1540–1600) with his book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (Natural and moral history of the Indies, 1590) which Kircher quotes. In Chap. XII, Kircher deals with the changes in mountains which can decrease and increase in size, giving as an example the disappearance of Atlantis, a large island or continent in the center of the Atlantic Ocean, between the Iberian Peninsula and America, which was believed to have disappeared in antiquity, as narrated in Plato’s (427–347 B.C.) dialogs Timeo and Critias. Kircher believed in Atlantis disappearance, although this is now clearly shown to be impossible due to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean  Giovanni Battista Riccioli, Almagestum Novum (Bologna: Haeredes Victorii Benatii,1651); Alfredo Dinis, A Jesuit Against Galileo? The Strange Case of Giovanni Battista Riccioli Cosmology (Braga: Axioma, 2017). 9

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according to modern plate tectonics. A chapter is dedicated to the magnetic field of the Earth (De magnetica Telluris constitutione sive de ossatura telluris). Kircher dedicated three books to magnetism, especially, Magnes sive de Arte Magnetica, which is the subject of Chap. 4. The following chapter deals with the many inhomogeneities of the body of the Earth. (Geocosmus sive corpus terrenum minime homogeneae sed heterogeneae natura est). Finally, he dedicates a chapter to the analogy between the structure of the Earth’s interior and the members of the human body (De interiore Geocosmi constitutione, officinis et analogia ad humani corporis membra). This was a common consideration at that time by the current of thought known as “organicism” which compared the “microcosmos” (human body) with the “macrocosmos” (Earth), both considered as living bodies. Similarly, to the different organs inside the human body, the same can be found in the structures inside the Earth or Geocosmos. This comparison that can be traced back to Plato’s dialog Timeo, which establishes a complete analogy between the macrocosmos (Earth) and the microcosmos (human body). This analogy allows Kircher to speak also of the “very fecund womb of the geocosmos,” where minerals, plants, and animals are generated. After mentioning again the conducts of water (hydrophylacia) and fire (pyrophylacia), Kirchers adds now a third system of underground conducts of air or aerophylacia with the function of the motion of air in the Earth’s interior as by the lungs in the human body. Thus, the three systems of conducts inside the Earth are presented which serve to distribute water, fire, and air and are the causes of many phenomena at its surface such as fountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

The Oceans and Seas In Book II, Kircher has already dealt with water bodies on the Earth, especially the oceans (De quis sive oceano Geocosmum ambiente), where he treats with some detail the subterranean conduits of water or hydrophylacia. He proposes the existence of a large subterranean reservoir of water in the center of South America where all the rivers of the region, including the Amazon, have their origin. The water of all oceans, lakes, and rivers is said to communicate among them through the already mentioned subterranean conduits or hydrophylacia. He deals with the topic of communication of the water of oceans with interior seas such as the Caspian and Black Seas, and the relation between the height of mountains, the depth of seas, the inequalities of the topography of the bottom of the sea, and the measurements Kircher himself made in 1630 of the length of the Strait of Messina. In Book III, Kircher treats with more detail the nature of oceans and seas (Hidrographicus sive de oceani natura), their motion, currents, and tides. About the tides (Intumescentiam et Detumescentiam maris), he says that they constitute one of the greatest arcanes or secrets of the subterranean world (unum ex maximis Mundi Subterranei arcanis) and affirms that they depend on the Moon. The tides are treated further in Sect. II (Aestum maris sive fluxus et refluxum). On the origins of the tides, Kircher mentions those who, following the Copernican system, assign the tides to

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the motions of the Earth (Galileo) or to a magnetic attraction by the Sun and Moon (Kepler), but without giving their names. He considers that following the best philosophers (melioris notae Philosophi), the tides are, mainly, assigned to the influence of the Moon (Lunam proxime principaliter aestus marini causam esse), and also, remotely, to the Sun.

The Hydrophilacia and the center fire and Pyrophylacia (M.S.)

Kircher talks about the influence of the Moon as a sympathy and antipathy (sympathia atque antipathia) affecting everything on the Earth, which extends also to plants and animals. Finally, he concludes that the cause of tides is a certain influence by the body of the Moon on the salty water of the sea, but of what this influence consists he does not explain. Kircher mentions that the relative position of the Moon and Sun (Novilunii et Plenilunii) results in the magnitude of the tides, with the Sun influencing the “cold and humid temperament of the Moon,” whatever this may mean. The following chapters deal with the 6-h intervals of tides, not followed in all parts, and the irregular character of the motion of the sea at different places. In particular, he mentions the irregular motion of the tides in London, the northern coast of France, and in Africa in Senegal, he also addresses the problem of the tides in the Mediterranean Sea, and in the Pacific Ocean (Mare Australe). The origin of ocean tides was not adequately explained until Isaac Newton (1642–1736) proposed the gravitational theory, the tides being produced by the attraction of the Moon and Sun on the oceans, and their relative position with respect to the Earth.

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Location and size of the Atlantis (north down) (M.S.)

Kircher talks also about currents in the oceans, proposing a general current from east to west (De motu generali Maris, qui est ex Oriente in Occidente), a complementary subterranean one from the north to the south pole, and the motion of other sea currents. The circulation of water in oceans and rivers is represented in several interesting geographic maps. As was already known, Kircher recognizes that the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans communicate through the Magellan Strait. He proposes also that in Norway water at the Baltic Sea on its northern part (Gulf of Bothnia) communicates through two subterranean channels with the Atlantic at the west and north, as well as the water in the Caspian and Black Seas which communicates between them through a subterranean channel. This way, all water on the oceans, lakes, and rivers on the surface of the Earth is connected through subterranean channels, and finally also with the complete underground system of hydrophylacia forming a unified worldwide water system. The circulation of water in oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers is represented in several interesting geographic maps. Kircher considers that the three types of conduits in the Earth’s interior (hydrophylacia, pyrophylacia, and aerophylacia) are analogous to the veins in the human body. The comparison continues with the claim that the mountain chains on the Earth are similar also to the bones in man. Book III ends with a section with three chapters where he deals with some practical problems in the navigation art (Ars Nautica), such as those about the increment of the level of tides with lunar time with a table of values, the sea circulation in the Arctic region, and the content of salt in the water of the oceans. A large table is given with the increment of the sea level in tides with respect to the position of the Moon.

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The Subterranean Fire, Water, and Air In Book IV, Kircher treats with more detail the subterranean channels of fire (pyrophylacia), water (hydrophylacia), and air (aerophylacia), and their relationship with the origin of volcanoes, rivers and fountains, and winds (Ignis Subterraneis, Ventorum, Fluminum, Fontiumque origine). In the preface, Kircher affirms that the Divine Wisdom has established the subterranean fires, and waters, as an underground Sun (source of heat) and Moon (source of water) inside the Earth (summo Divina sapientiae consilio factum est, ut ignis una cum aqua in eo constituerentur, quae essent veluti Sol quidam subterraneus et Luna subterranea). He begins with the true nature of subterranean fire and where it has its place. First, he distinguishes three types of fire: burning coal, flame, and light. An important subject is the subterranean fires which are found distributed through the whole interior of the Earth (De Igne subterraneo per omnia diffuso), and in this way communicate warmth to its whole body. This is formed by a “Central Fire” (Ignis Centralis) at the center of the Earth which distributes its heat through the whole Earth by means of the pyrophylacia. Here Kircher departs from the strict Aristotelian doctrine that considers the four elements that form the material universe located under the Lunar orbit, earth, water, air, and fire, in this order, beginning at the Earth’s center. Accordingly, the element earth not fire should be at the center of the universe. Above the lunar orbit is the celestial world of a different heavenly substance that Kircher does not accept as we will see in Chap. 5. In Kircher’s time, the Aristotelian doctrine of the four elements had been already abandoned by most of the proponents of modern science, such as Galileo, Gasendi, and Descartes and substituted by the atomist theory, originated by the Greek authors Leucipo de Mileto and Democrito (460–370) in the fifth century B.C., and popularized in Rome by Lucrecio’s (98–55  B.C.) work De rerum natura. Atomism was seen with suspicion by scholastic natural philosophers because of the atheistic ideas of its proponents, and especially of Lucrecio. In Catholic ecclesiastic circles, atomism was also not accepted because of the consideration of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist in terms of the Aristotelian principles of substance and accidents. Thus, it was not proposed by Jesuits and Kircher himself was against it, as we will see below. Later, among the first Jesuits proposing atomism stands out Roger Boscovich (1711–1787), a Professor of Mathematics at the Roman College like Kircher, in his work Theoria philosophiae naturalis (Theory of natural philosophy, 1758) where he also introduces Newtonian astronomy and physics. A fire at the Earth’s center has been a common medieval popular religious idea of hell being located there, as it is presented in Dante Alighieri’s (1265–1321) Divina Comedia. The picture was completed with the heavens of the blessed being located beyond the sphere of the fixed stars so that everything had its proper place in the medieval Christian geocentric universe. Kircher, however, considered a purely natural picture of the interior of the Earth with fire at its center. The idea of a hot interior of the Earth came back with Pierre Simon de Laplace’s (1749–1827) theory of the origin of the solar system by the incandescent rotating nebula with the Earth beginning as a

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molten body that has since been cooled down. Today we know that the temperature at the core of the Earth is about 5000 °C degrees due to radioactive processes, with the outer core formed mainly of molten iron and the inner core solid. Kircher was not so far out, then, when he proposed fire at the center of the Earth. The structure of the Earth’s interior has been finally determined in the beginning of the twentieth century by the analysis of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, among other by Emil J.  Wiechert (1861–1928) and Richard D.  Oldham (1858–1936), resulting in three regions of increasing density namely, crust, mantle, and core; the crust and mantle formed by silicates and oxides of aluminum, magnesium, and iron, and the core made of iron divided into a liquid outer core and a solid inner core. In conclusion, Kircher proposes for the first time the structure for the interior of the Earth with a central core of fire and the existence of three systems of conduits or channels, through which fire (pyrophylacia), water (hydrophylacia), and air (aerophylacia) flow. They are connected with features, and phenomena observable at the surface, like volcanoes, fountains, and earthquakes. The fire conduits or pyrophylacia are first related to the volcanoes and connect them with the permanent fire in the center of the Earth. Their interaction with the aerophylacia constitutes the cause of earthquakes. This was in accord with the accepted Aristotelian nature of earthquakes, caused by air or wind trapped inside the Earth, which shake it trying to escape. Kircher adds the interaction between the fire of the pyrophylacia which heats the air in the aerophylacia, further impulsing it to escape producing a more intense shaking in earthquakes. This proposal was still accepted by some authors, especially after the destructive Lisbon earthquake of 1755. In the late seventeenth and beginning eighteenth centuries the explosive nature of earthquakes was introduced by Martin Lister (1638–1712) and Nicolas Lémery (1645–1715) and presented by Newton in his Opticks. It was in the nineteenth century that finally earthquakes are recognized as produced by fractures in the Earth’s lithosphere (rigid part of the crust) by geodynamic processes, beginning by Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Eduard Suess (1831–1914), and Rudolf Hoernes (1850–1912). For Kircher, the hydrophylacia connect the water of the oceans and seas with masses of water in reservoirs in the Earth’s interior, and on the surface with the water of seas, lakes, and rivers. In this way, all the water on the Earth is connected by underground channels into one single system. In this system, two main water vortices are located at the Earth’s poles, with water going in through the North Pole and out through the South Pole. The pyrophylacia get in contact with the hydrophylacia, producing hot springs, and they are also an important element in the generation of metals in the Earth’s interior. Of these underground channels, José Zaragoza (1627–1679), a Jesuit Professor of Mathematics at the Colegio Imperial in Madrid already said with a critical mind: “I do not reprove them because they are possible, but I do not approve them either, because it is not enough the possibility to affirm its existence.”10

 José Zaragoza, Esphera en Comun, Celeste y Terraquea (Madrid: Juan Martín del Barrio,1675), 254. 10

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In consequence, for Kircher, the interior of the Earth or “subterranean world” is full of cavities, conduits, and channels of all kinds (De antris, hiatibus et imnumeris Terrae meatibus), mainly those already mentioned with the flow of water, fire, and air (hydrophylacia, pyrophylacia, aerophylacia). He considers these three types of conduits in the Earth’s interior as analogous to the veins in the human and animal bodies. The comparison continues with the claim that the mountain chains on the Earth are similar to the bones of men and animals. This comparison, as already mentioned, was according to organicism ideas, common at that time, which establishes a complete analogy between the geocosmos (Earth) and the microcosmos (human body). Kircher dedicates a chapter to the Phlegrean Fields (Campos Flegreos), a large volcanic caldera located under the western outskirts of the city of Naples and the Gulf of Pozzuoli, which he visited in 1638. He describes them as “a place full of horror and fear” (locus omnino horrore et formidine plenus). Then, a treatment of volcanoes follows, with a particular mention of Aetna and Vesuvius and others in Germany, France, and Spain. Other volcanoes are also mentioned, present in more remote places in Europe like Iceland and Greenland. Then he mentions volcanoes in Asia (Japan, Indonesia, and the Philippines), in Africa (Congo and Guinea), in South America (Peru and Ecuador), and in North America (Mexico and Nicaragua). A description follows of a volcanic eruption in Santorini Island in 1650 by the Jesuit Francisco Riccardi and a detailed description of the Aetna and its crater, based on Kircher’s visit in 1638, with a list of its 17 eruptions from antiquity to 1650. In Sect. II, Kircher treats winds in general, their causes, forces, and types (De aeris et ventororum causis, natura viribus et varietate) on the surface and the interior of the Earth (tum in extera Geocosmi superficie, tum in internis Subterraneis cavernosis regionibus). In a short preface, he insists in how our knowledge of the causes of the winds must help us to recognize the Divine Power (Divina Potentia), and His goodness toward men (Divina bonitas homines sensu et intellectu intruxit). Here again he makes clear that everything has been created by God so that man can know Him better through the wonders of the world and recognize His wisdom and goodness. Kircher begins about winds in general, of which he gives seven types: perennial, periodic, anniversary, extemporaneous, sudden, prodigious, and artificial (perennes, periodici, aniversarii, extemporanei, repentini, prodigiosi, artificiali). Among their causes, Kircher mentions the Sun and the Moon, subterranean exhalations, and motions of the oceans. He defines vents as a violent and extrinsic motion of the air (violentus et extrinsecus aeris motus). In particular, Kircher treats the vents in the oceans, as observed by navigators, and gives their general causes, nature, and properties. Finally, about the subject which Kircher calls “artificial winds” (De Artificialium Ventorum … productione), he presents a number of interesting experiments that can be made using the motion of the air.

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Finally, Kircher presents the treatment of “subterranean vents” (aerophylacia). Their origin arises from different causes and together with the hydrophylacia and pyrophylacia they give origin to subterranean rains, winds, and earthquakes. The most important subterranean winds are the result of the burning of nitrous exhalations (spiritus salnitrosi vi ignis rarefactis) which gives origin to subterranean thunders (tronitus subterraneus). This leads, as already mentioned, to the origin of earthquakes of which the main cause is the subterranean fires active in the underground caverns which ignite the subterranean winds or aerophylacia in them, shaking the earth with their motion. Kircher mentions here his experience in 1638 of the Calabrian earthquakes (inauditi terremoti) with the disappearance of the town of Santa Euphemia, described in the preface, as already mentioned. Kircher concludes that all “meteorological” phenomena (in the Aristotelian sense, that includes everything which happens under the Lunar orbit and inside the Earth) have finally their origin in the three systems of pyrophylacia, hydrophylacia, and aerophylacia in the interior of the Earth.

Fountains, Rivers, and Lakes Book V deals with the nature, properties, and underground origin of lakes, rivers, and fountains (De Lacuum, Fluminum, Fontium, Natura et propietate eorumque ex subterraneis origine). Kircher insists on the underground origin and communication between all types of surface water, that is, oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. In particular, he deals with the multiple origins of fountains, lakes, and marses (De Fontium, Lacuum Paludumque origine) and gives special attention to the origin of rivers and fountains (De principali generalique tum Fontium tum Fluminum causa). All water systems on the surface of the Earth have finally their origin in the subterranean waters or hydrophylacia, and experiments are proposed to illustrate this origin. In Sect. II, he deals with thermal waters (de Thermis, seu aquis medicatis) and their medicinal properties. These properties depend on the mixed minerals contained in the waters. Kircher mentions 12 of these minerals and their respective types of water, eight of them in detail. Section III is dedicated to thermal fountains (De Thermis) heated up by the interaction of the pyrophylacia and the hydrophylacia, with a description of those found in different parts of the world. Beginning in Europe, Kircher mentions first those in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Greece, and then in the islands of Sicily, England, Scotland, and Ireland with a total of 346. Then, he deals with those in Asia, Africa, and America, mainly from the information provided by Jesuit missionaries.

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Underground channels of water connecting seas and rivers (M.S.)

A section is dedicated to the wonders of certain fountains (De Miraculis Aquarum) and their use for the care of sicknesses. Then, Kircher deals with the water weight (Aquarum gravitas et levitas), where we see that, as already mentioned, weight and lightness are still considered as two different qualities, according to Aristotelian physics. Special attention is given to their temperature (calore Thermarum), explained by the interaction of the hydrophylacia with the pyrophylacia. All the medicinal properties, as well as their color, taste, smell, and poisonous nature, are explained by their underground origin. Several properties of waters are explained in terms of their relationship with metals and the changes which happen due to them in lakes, rivers, and fountains. Kircher accepts, with little critical view, that some fountains have waters with a taste like wine and others have lethal poisonous waters for animals and men. Finally, mention is made of references by other authors about some other wondrous properties of lakes, rivers, and fountains.

The Terrestrial Element Book VI deals with the so-called “earth element” (De elemento quam Terram dicimus), following Aristotelian physics the last of the four natural elements, namely, fire, air, water, and earth. Kircher begins by explaining what he understands by

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“earth,” and its different types and varieties. In particular, about “salts,” and their types giving 25 of them, for example, about nitrates (Nitro, Salenitro), and its use to make powder; about alumina (aluminum oxide) (Aluminis), and how to produce it and its medicinal uses, about sulfates, like cupric sulfate (Vitriolo), different types, properties, and uses. Naturally, we are still here far from the treatment that chemistry, which was just beginning, will propose. Book VII speaks about minerals or substances found on the Earth’s surface, their nature, properties, and uses (De mineralium seu fossilium quae propie terreum elementum sapient, natura, propietate et usu). By fossilis Kircher does not mean what we call fossils but anything that can be found by digging on the earth. In the preface, Kircher insists that, as in the previous pages, he will only base his affirmations on observations and experiments (observationes et experimenta). The first thing Kircher insists on is the great variety of things we can find in the “womb of the terrestrial globe” (De magna varietate rerum, quae in terreni globi utero continentur). He begins with what he calls in general “salts” (sales) which he divides into natural and artificial. and then in its three main types: sal, nitrum, and alumina. The first is the common salt (sodium chloride) with variety of uses, second what he calls nitrum (potassium nitrate), and its classes from which composition of powder of different kinds is made, and third alumina (aluminum oxide) which is specially treated for its medicinal uses. Special attention is, then, given to other products such as sand (arena, sabulo), gravel (glarea), and ashes (cineres) and their different types, qualities, and uses. Then, Kircher follows with clays (argillae), stones (lapides), and metals (metallici) and their mixtures, and he talks about what is commonly called “earths” or “soils” (quas Terras vulgo vocant) and their different types and uses. A short treatment is, then, given to the use of soils in agriculture and in the composition of material for paints, pottery, and earthenware. Their use in medicine is also briefly treated. Experiments are proposed for the use of different types of earthenware. This part can be considered as a kind of descriptive chemistry of different substances, without yet proposing the difference between simple and compound substances. Chemistry was just beginning at that time to supplant alchemy as shown by Boyle’s work, Sceptical Chymist (1661), considered to be the “father of modern chemistry.” Boyle knew Kircher’s work, and both contributed in very different ways to the separation of chemistry from alchemy.11

Nature of the Geocosmos Kircher dedicates the second volume of the Mundus Subterraneus which contains books VIII to XII, to the emperor Leopold I (Sacratissimo et Invictissimo Leopoldo I, Romanorum Imperatori, Iusto, Pio, Felici), with a very elaborate and baroque dedication. In a short introduction (Proemium ad Lectorem Idea Operis), Kircher

 Connor Reilly, Athanasius Kircher, S.J.: A contemporary of the “Sceptical Chymist” Jour. Chem. Educ. 32 (1955), 253–258. 11

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expresses that he has presented in the first seven books of the first volume, what constitutes the “admirable nature of the world center, on the incomprehensible structure and activity of the geocosmos, the concealed nature of the oceans and the water element, the nature and properties of the Meteors, of the interior and exterior of the surface of the Earth, and also about the origin of the subterranean fires and vents, the nature, properties, variety, and origin of water, the terrestrial globe and the true and genuine earth element.” In this part about what man can find in the subterranean world Kircher’s quotes often Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer, 1494–1555) author of De Natura Fossilium (On the nature of underground stuff, 1546), a founder of geology. Kircher summarizes the contents of the second volume as: “In this second volume, we will proceed to the consideration of the particular fruits of the earth, which the very fecund Geocosmic womb gives birth in most plentiful times.”

Fossils, Subterranean Animals, Men, and Demons In Book VIII, Kircher treats the “Stony substance of the Earth, fossils of bones, and horns, and about subterranean animals, men, and demons” (Lapidosa Telluris substantia; De Ossibus, Cornubusque fossilibus, item de Subterraneis animalibus, Hominibus, Daemonibus), that is on the things that can be found inside the earth. He begins with what he means by “stones” (De Lapidibus in communi) that he takes the word in a very general meaning, distinguishing between stones, rocks, and gems (Lapides, Saxa, Gemma). In an extended form, Kircher presents a division of stones under a variety of alternatives: for example: small and large; rare and frequent, hard and soft, opaque and diaphanous; with color, etc. What he calls the “stony energy” (virtute lapidifica), which is not very clear what he means, can be found to be diffused in the whole body of the Geocosmos. Kircher proposes that the hardness of the stones and the different colors, especially for gems and crystals, are due to the influence of subterranean heat. Different colors can be obtained by a combination of substances present in the stones. Special attention is given to the transparent character of gems or crystals, and the different geometrical figures of crystals. He deals also with what we may call fossils, that is, in his words “figures and images inscribed by nature in stones and gems and their origin.” Kircher includes those that are clearly artificial beginning with figures of heavenly bodies and of persons and religious images, in particular of the Virgin Mary and Christ. Some examples are shown that are obviously not of natural origin. Only those shown of fishes could be considered as something like true fossils. For the origin of religious images in stones, Kircher calls upon the direct action of Divine Providence, which cannot be argued against. Kircher deals, then, with the direct problem of what can be considered true fossils: “The transformation of juices, salts, herbs, plants, trees, animals and men into stones or about the “petrifying faculty” (de facultate petrifica).” He accepts the existence in the interior of the Earth of a faculty to transform living things into stones and rocks and tries to explain by which processes this is done.

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He calls the main cause for this process some type of “stonyfying juice” (sucus ille lapidificus) made of some kind of salts, nitrates, aluminum, or vitriol (sulfuric acid) (salis, vel nitri, vel aluminis aut vitrioli), which is present together with water in the underground cavities of the Earth. He considers also the presence of stones in human and animal bodies and finding bones and horns underground. Among these findings, Kircher accepts also those of bones from giant men measuring from 20 to 180 palms (4–36 m) and mentions even one of 600 palms (120  m) that has been found in Sicily. It is surprising Kircher’s acceptance of such findings, and the existence itself of giants, including those of such implausible size. Was he being naïve or he was carried away by his liking for the marvelous and extraordinary? It is difficult to believe that he accepted the existence of such things. A considerable extent is given to the problem of findings of individual large horns (monoceratus) and proposes their relation with the fabulous unicorn, not being clear if he accepts its existence, and the real rhinoceros, and of some kind of big fish with a large horn.

Giants whose bones have been found (M.S.)

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It follows, then, other underground findings, such as substances like asbestos, amber, and bituminous gums (De asbestos, succino, caeterisque bituminosis gummium fluoribus) and their properties. Kircher give special attention to the amber and its properties, especially its electric attraction property (De attractive Electri virtute) and the fossils of animals found in some kinds of ambers. A large table of 70 stones and gems is given in alphabetic order, with their properties, followed by another table with the names of 77 stones with their equivalents in Greek. It follows a presentation about the 12 stones of the Jewish High Priest as given in the Leviticus book of the Bible and those present in the foundations of the heavenly city of Jerusalem as mentioned in the book of Revelation. Section IV deals with subterranean animals (De animalibus subterraneis), that is, those who live always underground, like worms, or only for some time like bears hibernating during the winter. In this context, Kircher gives special attention to “dragons” which are supposed to live part of their life underground (De Draconibus Subterraneis) and begins noting the controversy about whether they really exist, or are only fabulous figments, and comes down for accepting their real existence. Dragons are still today an interesting subject, although we know that they do not exist nor have existed. Kircher separates them into two main types with and without wings which may have two or four legs, resulting in four types. Their size is given like that of a large horse. He gives a long list of testimonies from antiquity to his time of the existence of winged dragons and special mention is given to the finding of their corpses. Kircher reproduces a very vivid long story of the fight and killing of a dragon on the Greek island of Rhodes by the knight Deodato Gozonio, dated in the year 1349.

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Two different types of dragons

A special type of dragon, with wings and two legs, is that found in Switzerland (Draco Helveticus), the place where there are more dragons (nullam huiusmodi draconum maiorem copiam quam in Helvetia), according to the testimony of the Swiss Jesuit astronomer Johann Baptist Cysat (1587–1657). Cysat was a professor of mathematics at the University of Ingolstadt who carried out telescopic observations of a comet in 1619, showing its orbit around the Sun. His opinion about the abundance of dragons in his homeland cannot be confirmed. Dragons come out in Kircher’s correspondence with the Bolognese botanist and astrologist Ovidio Montolbano (1601–1671). Regarding the origin of dragons (De genesi Draconum), Kircher concedes this is a difficult question and proposes that they are produced from a metamorphosis of the seeds present in corpses of other animals, especially serpents, brought to caves, for example, by eagles and vultures, and developing there into dragons. For this reason, a large number of these birds are found in places

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where dragons are common. This, he says is similar to the generation of basilisks, mythical reptiles, but he does not elaborate any further. About “subterranean men” (De Hominibus Subterraneis), Kircher begins with places where inhabitants dwell in caves, for example, on the island of Malta and near the Caspian Sea. He reproduces a story by a medieval Englishman, Guilielmus Neubrissensis, about some men living in underground caves who never see the light of the Sun. In some cases, they live in caves with only some light coming from openings and their skins may become a shade of green because of excessive humidity. A stranger subject is about “subterranean demons” (De Demonibus Subterraneis). Concerning their existence, Kircher states that, supported by Christian faith, nobody can doubt it and remain a Christian (de eo sine fidei jactura dubitare nemo possit). The argument is, then, taken only from theology. These subterranean demons take sometimes the form of pigmies or dwarfs (eos sub humana pygmaei forma). Dwarves are also found in many places and, especially, working in the interior of underground mines, as presented in the folklore and many fairy tales in northern countries. Here, Kircher is carried away by his liking for the occult and marvelous regarding the existence of subterranean men, demons, and dragons with little critical sense. Did he believe it personally or he was just presenting the common popular belief of his time? The question, however, may not be very relevant because without the resort to the fantastic, Kircher would lose some of his appeal.

Poisons in the Subterranean World Book IX deals with poisons, their nature, origin, and marvelous properties (De venenis eorunque natura. Origine et admirandis propietatibus). Kircher begins with a definition of poison as: “a not-natural element which introduced in the human body by its evilness, corrupts and destroys its whole nature” (Res non naturalis, quae quomodocunque tandem corpori humano admoveatur, naturam illius malignitate sua, tota substantia dissimilitudine corrumpit et destruit). By “not-natural,” he means here something that is completely repugnant to the human body. All poisons have their origin in some terrestrial minerals and they can be found also in plants and animals. Of poisons, there are many different types (De venenorum differentiis) and Kircher gives a long list, among them of minerals, such as arsenic, cinnabar, and mercury, of plants, such as Napellus, Cicuta, and Aconitum, and of different animals, especially, serpents and insects. The poisonous character of vipers and scorpions is treated in more detail. A large table is given of all classes of venoms and their division. A difference is made between foods, medicines, and poisons, according to their sympathy and antipathy with the human body. However, Kircher maintains that all poisons, no matter how powerful they may be, once “corrected” can be used as medicines (nullum esse venenum adeo potens et purus, quod correctum prius, in ussum medicinalem assumere non possit). He gives several examples of poisons from animals and plants which are used also as medicines. This relation between

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poisons and medicines is interesting and for Kircher it depends on the form and quantity they are given. Usually, medicine uses poisons in very small quantities. Concerning foods, Kircher says that they are those substances that are favorable to the “living spirits” and are the opposite of poisons. The relation of foods, medicines, and poisons to the human body is based on the laws of “sympathy and antipathy” (Sympathiae et Antipathiae leges). By these laws, the origin and causes of the positive and negative influences in the human body of foods and poisons from plants and animals are explained (facultas prodigiosas prorsus Sympathia et Antipathia leges fundat). Thus, sympathy and antipathy with the human body constitute the reason behind the positive or negative effects of foods and poisons. The following section is dedicated to the sensitive nature of vegetal poisons, how they can be originated from plants, and how they affect the human bodies. The same is dealt with in poisons from animal origin, especially, those from vipers and asps, as well as rabid dogs. Related to poisons is the origin of sicknesses which are finally related to the three active material elements: “sulfur-mercury-salt” (oeconomia morbos, sulfur, mercurius, sal acquirunt). Sulfur-mercury-salt are the base of all elements in the alchemical tradition, already used by Arabian alchemists such as Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan, 721–815) in the end of the eighth century. Sulfur and mercury correspond also to the male–female dichotomy of alchemy and salt is an element of substance.12 Kircher considers that these three elements are related to the external influences of the four basic natural elements of Aristotelian physics: heat, air, water, and earth. Sulfur is related to heat and mercury to water (humidity). He follows with a description of the sicknesses that are produced due to their influence, and their use also as medicines. A chapter is dedicated to the treatment of sicknesses directly due to poisons (De cura venenatorum infirmitatum). After a discussion, Kircher gives four rules for the cure of poisons originating from minerals, plants, and animals. Three long tables are given of the poisons from minerals (8), plants (19), and animals (20), with their properties, symptoms, remedies, and antidotes (Praecipuorum venenorum quibus triplex Natura Regnum, Mineralium, Vegetabilium et Animalium). A special section is dedicated to what are considered “imperfect metals” (De imperfectis metallicis corporibus), especially sulfur, its nature, and properties. Sulfur constitutes, together with salt and mercury, the three principles of nature (tria illa principia naturalia), which united with the four Aristotelian elements (earth, water, air, and fire) form the composition of all things (Ex Sulphure, Mercurio, Sale, mediantibus quatuor elementis, omnia componuntur). First Kircher deals with sulfur from which many of the rest of the minerals take their origin, for example, arsenic, pyrites, and antimony. Then he deals with mercury, its nature, marvelous properties and virtues, and finally with salts. It is difficult to understand today the meaning of this treatment in terms of pre-scientific ideas. The development of chemistry, already beginning at that time, will show their inadequacy. In the discussion about the origin of metals, Kicher suggests the influence of the pervading

 Catherine Beyer, “Alchemical Sulfur, Mercury and Salt in Western Occultism” Learn Religions (www.learnreligions.com/alchemical-sulfur-mecury-nd-salt-96036; acceded March 2023). 12

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“magnetic forces” on the “primeval seeds” (panspermia) which he will consider in book XII, and we will see also later in our Chap. 5 in the consideration of the wonders of the geocosmos. A special chapter is dedicated to bituminous bodies (mixture of hydrocarbons) and another to corals, which are considered to be like the trees of the sea.

Metals and Mines Metals are important elements that are found in the interior of the Earth for their qualities and practical uses. Kircher in Book X treats different aspects of metals, their nature, properties, and principles, as well as the work in the mines for their extraction, and their different applications. He uses Agricola’s De re metallica (1556) regarding the nature and use of metals. The object of study is what Kircher calls the “perfect mixed purely metallic” (Mixtum perfectum pure metallicum), like gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead, which for him are generated by nature in the “wombs of the Earth” by the exhalations and vapors of the three universal components, namely, “sulfur-salt-mercury.” Here, we have again these three elements of the alchemists as the origin of metals. A metal is defined as a “fossil” body, meaning one found buried inside the Earth, hard, melting by fire, and ductile (corpus fossile, durum, igne liquabile et ductile). Their qualities make metals different from stones and gems. Kircher questions whether the heavenly bodies contribute to the genesis of metals. Thus, he expresses their relationship with them, as accepted by alchemists from antiquity, namely, Sun–gold, Moon–silver, Jupiter–copper, Mars–iron, Venus–tin, Mercury–mercury, Saturn–lead. The heavenly bodies are considered to be a “universal principle” (principium universale) which extend their influence to the whole sublunary space, even to the subterranean world, through the also basic universal components of alchemy, “sulfur-mercury-salt” to produce the genesis of all material substances especially, metals. Thus, Kicher considers acting on terrestrial substances both the three universal components or principles of alchemy (sulfur-­mercury-salt) and the influence of the heavenly bodies (planets, Sun and Moon). Terrestrial matter itself is also considered to be “spirituous, subtle, active, and volatile” (spituosam, subtilem, activam, volatilem), due to its components of “humid vapors” attenuated by the “heat” produced by the basic “sulfur-mercury-­salt” universal components acting in them. There is here a strange search for a source of unity of the variety of substances with different qualities found inside the Earth. Kircher has also taken for granted in Book VIII, the existence of the “cosmic magnetic force,” that he treats more fully in his book about magnetism (Magnes sive de Arte magnetica), that we will see in next chapter. Here, Kircher simply

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considers magnetic force as the force which, in general, makes similar things to repel each other, and different ones to attract each other, and which is present in minerals, plants, and animals. For him, this cosmic magnetic force is precisely what gives form and figure to all things through a mysterious entity he calls the “architectonic spirit” (spiritus architectonicus). It may surprise that in this discussion about the constitution of material bodies, Kircher never accepted atomism, which, as already mentioned, was being proposed in his time by authors like Galileo, Gassendi, and Descartes and will become the basis of chemistry. However, he mentioned that the vapors and exhalations, which fill the geocosmos are formed by “faint, subtle and insensible elements which are the cause of all changes and mutations in the terrestrial world.” Kircher insists in these ideas trying to explain how the “unctuous humor” (humor ille unctuosus) from which metals are composed, Nature elaborates from the old alchemy principle of “sulfur-mercury-salt.” At the end, Kircher claims, although it is difficult to accept, that he is not using metaphysical concepts but keeps himself on what is concerned on physical experience (hic non ea quae Metaphysicus conceptus, sed quae Physicam experientiam concernunt). Today these ideas may seem strange to us, and to be mere speculations without any empirical basis, but we should consider them as an attempt by Kircher, although mistaken and in a wrong direction, in his search for a natural unifying, and dynamic explanation of all material interactions. For example, his not accepting of atomism prevented him from a correct answer to the problem of chemical changes of substances. Chemistry was just beginning, and a complete atomic theory applied to chemistry has to wait to the publication in 1808 by John Dalton (1766–1804) of A new System of Chemical Philosophy. Section II is dedicated to the mining of metals and other minerals, and the sicknesses of the miners, and their remedies (De Metallorum, caeterorumque Mineralium fodinis, Fossorumque morbis et remedies). In this section, Kircher often quotes Agricola’s De re metallica (1556). He first calls the attention that “metallurgists” (Metallurgi, men in charge of metalwork, including mining) must first care about the divine cult (Divinum cultum omnibus caeteris praeferat). Theological considerations are never absent in Kircher’s work but here it is difficult to see why metallurgists should be specially concerned with divine cult. Kircher then considers that metallurgists should be experts in many fields, namely, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, geometry and arithmetic, and mechanics, but at least he does not mention also theology. Working underground in mines exposes man to many illnesses (diversos morbos nasci necesse est) which may affect the lungs, eyes, stomach, and nerves. In some cases, the minerals themselves, like arsenic, are poisonous. Some remedies are indicated as one called Balsamus Urticae, as well as the type of food that may help those working in mines. Also in mines, malign vapors are common which may lead to fires, so ventilation is necessary and machines for this purpose are presented.

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Machine to extract water in mines (M.S.)

An important subject in mining is the location of seams of minerals and metals, and how to find them or what Kircher calls Metallognomia, the “occult metallic signs” (De signis metallicis latentis). Six signs are, then, given of the presence of mineral seams, and 17 ways that may help to find them. A section is dedicated to the excavation of mines and the refining work of metals. For Kircher the best experts are found in the Hungarian mines (metallurgos Hungaricarum fodinarum). Some examples are given of Hungarian mining works with the types of minerals and the methods used. A problem in mines is the presence of water and the difficulties for its extraction, so a special mention is made of the machines used to extract water (Machina Hydraulica). It follows, then, the methods used to extract, wash, cook, and separate minerals, and the machines used for these processes. In particular, there is a chapter on the treatment used in gold mines, with special attention to the nature and properties of gold. The same is presented for silver, its nature and properties, adding its use in medicine. A

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chapter is dedicated to the “sympathies” and “antipathies” of metals, but it is not clear what is meant by them. For example, the sympathy between gold, silver, and lead is presented and the antipathy between copper and lead. Another subject is slag and its treatment. Special mention is given to the rich gold and silver mines in Peru, and the works and treatments used in them. There is a discussion of the special treatments used in Hungarian silver mines. A chapter treats the copper mines, the transformation of copper into orichalcum (an alloy of several metals mainly, copper), and the different applications of lead, and another chapter on the nature and properties of iron, and the processes to make a special kind of steel (chalbys).

Chemical Transformations: Alchemy Book XI has the title “Chymiotechnicus,” that is, about what we will consider today the subjects of chemistry and chemical works (Universalis Chymici Mundi apparatus). In this part, Kircher will study also the work of alchemists (Alchymisti), and their ability to transform metals, which he distinguishes from that of Chymici, which can be considered precursors of today’s chemists. He begins with an explanation of the name “alchemy” (Alchymia), its definition, and divisions (De nomine, definitione et divisione Alchymiae).13 He traces back the name alchemy to the Egyptian root Chami, the name of the first king of Egypt, so that the first alchemists can be found in ancient Egypt. The name, in fact, comes from the Arabic al-kīmiyā (from the Greek khēmeia, art of transmuting metals) through medieval Latin. The first alchemists were already involved in the search for the “philosophical stone” (Lapis Philosophicus) that it was supposed could be used to transform other metals into gold. Kircher goes back even further and traces the origin of metallurgical work and alchemy to the first generations of men after the universal flood. He distinguishes “metallurgical alchemy” (Alchymia Metallurgica) from “transforming alchemy” (Alchymia transmutatoria). He calls the latter also Chrysopaeiam (from Chrysos, the Greek word for gold). The first deals with any works with metals for human uses, a part of chemistry, and the second with the possibility of transforming other metals into gold, that is the most important work of alchemists. This transformation is produced with the use of a substance that the alchemists call “Elixir.” For Kircher, philosophers in general argue about the possibility of alchemy, which he considers as one of the four “arcane questions,” about which there is no agreement whether they are even possible at all. The other three are “the quadrature of the circle, the perpetual motion, and the eternal lamp.” He thus already distinguishes between alchemy (Alchymia) and what he calls Chymia (chemistry), and between alchemists (Alchymisti) and chemists (Chymici), but at times with some confusion between them.14  Eric J. Holmyard, Alchemy (New York, Dover, 2012); Anna María Partini, Athanasius Kircher e l’achimia: Testi scelti e commentati, (Rome: Edizioni Mediterranee, 2004). 14  See the discussion of this subject about Kircher and Boyle, in Conor “Athanasius Kircher” (1955), 255–258. 13

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Kircher begins with a consideration of the antiquity of alchemy, and the search for the philosophical stone. Although alchemists claimed to trace their work even to the first man, Adam himself, Kircher thinks that there is no evidence of such great antiquity. He mentions the names of some of the followers of the so-called Hermetica Philosophia, related to alchemy, beginning with Hermes himself in Egypt (the supposed author of the original texts), with a long list of persons in antiquity that he identifies as alchemists, as well as Arabic authors. Among those of the Latin tradition Kircher mentions, Arnaldo de Vilanova (1240–1311), Raimundo Llull, and especially Paracelsus (Theophratus Bombast von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who is said to be followed by many in the “new Hermetic philosophy.” Another subject related to alchemy is formed by the chemical operations he calls Pyrotechnia (De Pyrotechnia sive ad Chimicas operationes), including in them many types of chemical works, such as the preparation of medicines, the composition of glasses and gunpowder, and pyrotechnic art. These operations are also called Chymiotechnia, and Kircher describes the instruments and processes used in them, such as furnaces, vessels, dilution, heating, and other chemical operations (De Furnis, vasis, calorum gradibus, ceterisque operationibus Chymicis). Similar to the operations produced by the alchemists and chemists in their work places are also, according to Kircher, those taking place in the interior of the Earth, the “fecund womb of the geocosmos” (foecundo Geocosmi utero). For example, in the subterranean pyrophylacia are produced the transformations of the “Mercury-Sulfur matrix” that give origin to the diverse types of metals (Naturae in metallis producendis processum). Kircher considers what he calls the Mercury-Sulfur matrix as the originating primitive substance from which all metals are derived in the interior of the Earth. It follows a description of the different types of instruments used by chemists, and an extended table given of chemical operations (Chymio-Technica) followed by their explanations. A special long section divided into nine chapters is dedicated to the “stone of philosophers” (De Lapide philosophorum) also called “Elixir” or “philosophical tincture” (Tinctura philosophica). This is defined by alchemists as a “great mystery of art and universal medicine” (magnum in Arte mysterium et universalis Medicina). Its effect is to keep the human body in good health and vigor and cure all sicknesses, and also transform other “imperfect” metals into “pure” gold and silver. Of its nature, it is said to be a “very pure fixed and very simple metallic substance” (purissima, fixa et simplicissima substantia metallica). It follows a long consideration about the sulfur-mercury composition of all metals which can explain the process of transforming other metals into gold and how the form of gold (forma auri) could be obtained from other metals which do not have it,

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questioning if this can really be done. Then, Kircher refutes Paracelsus’ proposal, based on the action of mercury and a similar one called Azothos, for this purpose. Finally, he states the basic question of whether a metal can be truly changed into another (Utrum vera et realis transmutatio unius metalli in aliud detur). Kircher distinguishes the theoretical and the practical question, and following the English medieval philosopher Roger Bacon (1214–1294), he admits that in particular cases the possibility of a “transmutation” of a metal into another one, for example, of silver into gold, can be possibly made. Quoting Paralcesus, Kircher also admits that the transmutation, although difficult, is not against nature or God’s order (contra natura non est, neque contra Dei ordinationem). However, he affirms that imperfect metals cannot be changed into perfect ones (silver and gold), except by the use of the “philosophical stone.” The other metals can be changed into one another, although with difficulty. Many alchemists, such as among them the mentioned Llull and Paracelsus, have claimed it be possible to produce the Philosophical Stone and use it to obtain “artificial gold,” different, it seems, from the natural one, but Kircher doubts about it. Finally, he considers the possibility of the influence of the demon in the processes of some alchymists (Quod demon utplurimum se Alchymiae cultoribus inmisceat). The final section is about a so-called, Alchymia Sophistica, in which many false and illicit things are made to produce “false silver and gold,” for example using mercury, vitriol, and other metals, quoting again the work of the already mentioned alchemists. Fourteen assertions are presented by “false or pseudo alchemists” and their refutation. Several experiments of different kinds are proposed for this process, making clear that no true gold is produced. Kircher mentions the experiments made in the Roman College in which he participated. Finally, the legal problem is considered, whether it is licit to sell “chemical gold” (Aurum Chymicum) as true one. First, Kircher distinguishes what can be considered true gold, including not only the natural one, but also that produced by a true transmutation by alchemists, if this were possible. This type, then, could be sold lawfully as the “natural one,” but no other types of the so-called “chemical gold.” Finally, he considers that alchemy is a licit art when it would produce “true, genuine and natural gold,” but affirms that, in fact, alchemists cannot really produce “true and real gold” (verum et reale aurum). Thus, as a conclusion, Kircher states that all operations of alchemists pretending to produce true gold are false, and nobody can really produce gold in such a way. Finally, a list follows of the claims and opinions of false and true alchemists, and a long list in alphabetic order is given with the terms used by alchemists.

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Title page of Mundus Subterraneus Volume II (M.S.)

“Panspermia,” the Origin of Plants and Animals Book XII has a general title: Simia Naturae or “similar to nature” where Kircher shows that many natural things and processes can also be obtained and produced by art or artificially (artis ingeniisque industria). It begins with the consideration of the natural processes which give the origin of things or what he calls: De Panspermia Rerum (“All seeds of things”; Panspermia, Greek for “all seeds”) or also “The primeval seeds,” from which everything has taken origin.15 The term panspermia was already used by Anaxagoras (500–428  B.C.) in the fifth century B.C., the Latin poet-philosopher Lucretius and later by Paracelsus and Giordano Bruno  Ingrid D.  Rowland, “Athanasius Kircher, Giordano Bruno and the Panspermia of the infinite universe.” In P. Findlen (ed.) A. K. The last man, 191–205. 15

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(1548–1600). In modern times, Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), among others, used it to explain the origin of life in Earth from seeds coming from out-space. Kircher’s use of the concept of panspermia could be considered as a masked introduction of a kind of atomism, in spite of his explicit rejection.16 From the very beginning, the argument is theological, “God, the very Wise Creator in his divine ineffable wisdom has created the world in this form” (Sapientissimus Conditor, divina sua et ineffabili sapientia ita providit). Quoting Saint Basil (330–379) in his work Hexaemeron, Kircher proposes that in the beginning, God had first created a “chaotic mass” in which everything was present in the form of “seeds,” and from which all beings were later formed according to their different entities. He tries to find the nature of these seeds from which all things are formed (semen universalem rerum) and finally proposes “a certain spirituous vapor of a sulfurous-saline-mercurial nature” (vaporem quondam spirituosum Sulphorum-­ salino-­mercurialem). As we have already seen, Kircher has proposed the sulfur-­ mercury-­salt alchemy principle for the constitution of all material things when talking about the origin of metals. This supposes a different approach from what Aristotelian physics proposes of the composition of substances from the principles of “matter and form” in the hylomorphic theory. Kircher explains that he is not referring to the elements of sulfur, salt, and mercury themselves, but their “forces” (vires). These forces constitute for him the “universal primeval seeds” with all the potentialities of matter, forming a primitive “chaotic feminine mass” from which everything, that is, minerals, plants, and animals are brought out in the geocosmos. Kircher insists that he has arrived at the knowledge of this triple principle (sulfur-­ mercury-­salt) and its forces by physical experiments and not from metaphysical speculations, although he does not explain which physical experiments these are. Kircher sees in this threefold principle (una res triplice virtute) a sign impressed in the world by the Divine Trinity of Christian theology. We see here again a theological consideration applied to the threefold principle proposed for constitution of matter as part of a universal presence of the number three in nature. In the discussion about the origin of metals (Book IX), Kircher has already suggested also the influence of the pervading magnetic forces on the primeval seeds (panspermia), that we will see also in next chapter. He mentions also that the vapors and exhalations which fill the geocosmos are formed by some faint, subtle, and insensible elements which are the cause of all changes and mutations in the terrestrial world. These ideas must be seen as an attempt, although in great part mistaken, by Kircher, to search for a natural unifying, and dynamic explanation of all terrestrial phenomena away from Aristotelian physics but not accepting the atomic composition of matter already proposed by the authors of modern science. Kircher explains how this can be done, beginning with metals, glasses, and gems, and then passing to plants and animals, by a process that is attributed finally to God’s creative power, thus, bringing the ultimate explanation from theology. For example, in the generation of animals, the “efficacy of the wondrous plastic force”

16

 Rowland, “Athanasius Kircher,” 201.

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(mirificae plasticae virtutis efficacia) is the one acting in the process. Kircher defends the spontaneous origin of living things (De spontaneo viventium ortu) and the different classes of them (De variis sponte nascentium clasibus). This was a common opinion at the time. He applies this, especially, to certain types of simple plants and insects, for example, fungi, mushrooms, and worms. Kircher dedicates a whole section to the description of different kinds of insects. For example, he treats earthworms and other types of what he calls also insects and their origin. Some of them are said to be generated from the excrements of animals and men. A presentation follows of the different kinds of insects (De insectis), first those terrestrial and aquatic, then with wings (butterflies) and with enclosed wings (beetles), or without wings (spiders), and many other kinds. A table is given of the different classes of insects, divided according to their external aspects, such as the number of legs, wings, etc. A question is proposed about why there are so many kinds of insects and a discussion of their use in medicine. Another section is dedicated to what is called “botanical philosophy” (Philosophia Botanica) which deals with the admirable effects of the subterranean world in the genesis of plants, and the wonderful force and efficacy of seeds in plants and their large variety of different kinds. In this part, Kircher often quotes Theophratus (371–287, B.C.), a disciple of Aristotle, widely regarded as the father of botany. In Kircher’s time botanical gardens were beginning to be established in many European cities. Two large analytical tables are presented of the different types of plants, the first with some 30 types (De diferentiis plantarum). The origin of plants is also traced to the universal sulfur-mercury-salt matrix composition. Many practical experiments with plants are, then, presented. A chapter is dedicated to the medicinal use of plants (Iatrikon), with three long tables of the types and ways of the medical use of plants and fruits: Medicinal powers of plants (Medicinalium virtutum herbis), medicinal fruits (Fructus medicinalis), and plants in their three principles (Plantarum in sua tria principia). In the last table, for example, the proportion of these three elements is given for 36 plants, their forces, and the dates of the year they should be collected. A list is given of medicinal terms and some curious experiments with plants are proposed. A special section deals with the process of distillation (De arte stalactica sive distillatoria). Kircher defines distillation as the separation in form of vapor, through the application of heat, of the humid part of things, and its posterior condensation. He gives six types of distillation, the types of instruments used, and the rules to be followed in its process. He affirms that the works of distillation are similar to that which takes place in the interior of the Earth (Artem Distillatoriam esse imitatricem Naturae in subterranea officina). This is one further example of the similarity Kircher proposes between the processes in works by men and those of nature taking place in the Earth’s interior. Examples are, then, given of the different types of furnaces and other instruments used in distillations. For Kircher, the types of distillation can be explained in terms of the Aristotelian composition of material substances from the four elements, fire, air, water, and earth. In this context, he declares himself explicitly to be against atomism, and faithful to Aristotelian physics, at least in part. He declares that

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from the atoms of Democrito (Democriticorum corpusculis) one cannot establish a true physical science. Even more, he ensures that atomism is against experience, and that atoms are nothing else than “idle inventions proper of a dawdler man” (otiosa hominem maleferiaturum figmenta). He even says that atoms are against experience, because they cannot be seen in solutions by a “microscope” (microscopium), a rather naïve argument. However, as already mentioned, his proposal in terms of the seeds of the panspermia can be interpreted as a disguised type of atomism. This position put him away from the path of the beginning of modern science that had already accepted atomism for the composition of matter and was used by the incipient chemistry. His proposal of the alchemists’ universal composition of material things from the sulfur-­mercury-­salt matrix, however, led nowhere.

Chemical Work After having treated animals and plants, the last section is dedicated to the works on inanimate bodies. Since in books X and XI, Kircher has already treated the work of chemists, here he deals with what he calls “arcane chemical works” (De Arcanis Chymicis) related to that already explained about the work of alchemists. Thus, Kircher begins dealing with gold, supposed to be related with the Sun, with a discussion of the “drinkable or potable gold” (De auro potabile), a supposed universal medicine that could cure all sicknesses. Quoting Paracelsus, Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576), and other alchemists, Kircher presents the different proposed processes for its production and its uses. Kircher considers that being sicknesses so many and different there cannot be a universal medicine as “drinkable gold” was supposed to be. Then follows the treatment of silver and its relation with the Moon (De Argento sive Lunae terrestri) and about other metals, such as iron, tin, copper, and lead (De Ferri, Stanni, Cupri, Plumbi magisteriis). A treatment follows on the different processes with the mixture of different metals with the consideration of their proportions, weights, and densities, and other properties (Ars Metallostatica). Kircher recognizes the importance of weights in the analysis of the nature of things, so that there is nothing that cannot be explained in terms of weights (Nihil in rerum natura esse, quod pondere explorari non possit). A special part is dedicated to glasses, crystals, and gems (De Arte Vitraria), their nature, and their artificial production and the falsification of gems (De Gemmarum Adulteriis). The last part treats processes related to the use of gunpowder (Ars pyrabolica quam Pyrotechniam vocant). Kircher relates the effects of gunpowder, and their relation with the work in nature of volcanoes and earthquakes. He attributes the invention of powder to the German monk Bartholdus Swartz in the fourteenth century. He gives information about how to prepare gunpowder, and its many uses, for example, different types of fireworks, some kind of rockets (Rochetas), and light globes (Globis lucentibus) in German Lichtkugel. The last part deals with “arcane works of mechanical arts” (De Artium Mechanicarum arcanis) by the so-called “Spagyrici” (a type of alchemists)

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working with metals, especially gold, and mercury. We see here again the use of the adjective “arcane” applied to the work of alchemists. Kircher finally concludes his work (Conclusio Operis) in which he has tried to present, “the admirable order, disposition, aim and whole nature of the interior work of the Geocosmos” (admirabilem interioris Fabricae Geocosmiae ordinem, dispositionem, finem totius Naturae). He praises God the Father, the Lord Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and the Guardian Angel without whose help he could not have carried out this work since all human wisdom alone is foolishness (omnia humana sapientia, stultitia est). At the end, a final theological consideration could not be absent. Thus, we end Kircher’s vision of the Earth, or for him the geocosmos at the center of the universe. But we know today that the Earth is only a small planet in the third orbit around the Sun, a star situated in an inconspicuous place of our galaxy, the Milky Way, one of the trillion of galaxies in the observable universe. We know today the structure of its interior and the evolution of life on it up to the appearance of modern man. However, we can, like Kircher, be amazed by the marvelous things we find in the Earth, and consider it also like him, as created by God and in which God has been incarnated in Jesus Christ.

Chapter 4

Magnetism and the Cosmic Magnetic Chain

Early Work on Magnetism and the Earth’s Magnetic Field The properties of natural magnets (lodestones) and the existence and characteristics of the Earth’s magnetic field were known from early times, especially, by its application to navigation using the compass.1 The word magnet comes from Magnesia a region of Greece where magnetic minerals (mainly magnetite, an oxide of iron) are found. In the West, the use of the compass was known from about the twelfth century and maybe some centuries earlier in China. The first Western written document about terrestrial magnetism is by Alexander Neckam (1157–1217), dated about in 1190. Magnetic declination (the angle between the direction of the compass and the geographic north) and its variation from place to place was observed by Spanish and Portuguese navigators from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and it is described, for example, by Martín Cortés (1510–1582) in his 1551 work, Breve compendio de la Sphera y de la arte de navegar (Short compendium about the Sphere and the navigation art), where he clearly distinguishes between the geographic and magnetic poles, and the variations of the declination. In 1581, Robert Norman (flourished 1560–1585) published his discovery of the magnetic inclination or dip (the angle of the magnetic needle and the horizontal). In 1600, Gilbert published his book De magnete (About the magnet), considered to be the first modern treatise on magnetism. He affirms, for the first time, that the Earth itself is a large magnet, thus explaining the properties of the orientation of compasses pointing to the Earth’s north pole. In 1635, Henry Gellibrand (1597–1636) first discovered that magnetic declination changes with time, which is a consequence of what today is known as the “secular variation” of the geomagnetic field. Today, we know that  Brian Baigre, Electricity and Magnetism. A Historical Perspective. (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2007); Vincent Courtillot and Jean Louis le Mouël, “The study of Earth’s magnetism (1269–1950). A foundation by Peregrinus and subsequent development of geomagnetism and paleomagnetism.” Reviews of Geophysics 45, RG3008/2007/1-31. 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1_4

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electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental physical forces, the other three being gravitation, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces. Kircher was not wrong when he gave magnetism so much importance, considering it a universal cosmic force. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Jesuits also contributed to the study of magnetism.2 The first was Leornado Garzoni (1543–1592), a professor at the college of Venice, who about 1580 wrote the work, Trattati della calamita (Treatise about the lodestone), which was not published, but preserved in manuscript form.3 In this work, Garzoni exposed the double polarity of magnets, their attraction of iron, and the orientation of magnetic needles pointing toward the Earth’s poles (north–south). Garzoni’s manuscript was used by the Italian natural philosophers Giovanni Battista della Porta (1535–1615) and Paolo Sarpi (1552–1623) in their work about magnetism. Through their work, Garzoni’s ideas are thought to have also influenced Gilbert. Nicolò Cabeo (1580–1650), a Jesuit professor at Parma and Genoa, used Garzoni’s manuscript to write up his Philosophia magnetica (Magnetic philosophy, 1629), an early work on magnetism. Cabeo presented all that was known in his time about magnetism and added his own observations and experiments. He explained for the first time the relation between magnetic and electric attraction and repulsion. He did not accept Gilbert’s ideas about the origin of the Earth’s magnetic field because Gilbert related it with the rotation of the Earth, which Cabeo did not accept, and erroneously maintained that magnetic declination was constant.

Kircher and Magnetism Kircher’s early interest in magnetism can be traced back to his teaching at Heiligenstadt and the publication in 1631 of his first book on the subject, Ars Magnesia (Magnetic art).4 From then on, magnetism became one of his preferred subjects. Ten years later in 1641, he published his definitive work on the subject, Magnes sive de arte magnetica (The magnet or about the magnetic art), re-edited in 1643 and 1654.5 Magnetism reappears in 1664  in parts of Mundus Subterraneus

 Pierre de Vregille, “Les jésuites et l’étude du magnétisme terrestre,” Études, 104 (1905), 495–511. Agustín Udías, “Jesuits, Role in Geomagnetism.” In D.  Gubbins and E.  Herrero-Berrera (eds.) Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007), 460–462, and Udías, Jesuit contribution, 49. 3  Leonardi Garzoni, Trattati della calamitta a cura di Monica Ugaglia (Milan: Franco Angeli, 2005), Introduzione 7–83. 4  Athanasius Kircher, Ars Magnesia (Würzburg: Eliae Micaelis Zinck, 1631). 5  Athanasius Kircher, Magnes sive de arte magnetica, Opus Tripartitum. (Rome: H. Scheus,1641; Cologne: J. Kalcoven,1643; Rome: B. Deversin and Z. Masotti,1654). 2

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(Subterranean world), as we have seen, and in 1667 in Magneticum naturae regnum (The magnetic kingdom of nature).6

Title page of Magnes sive de Arte Magnetica (MsAM)

 Athanasius Kircher, Magneticum naturae regnum (Amsterdam: Jansson van Waesberghe, 1667)

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Kircher’s Magnes is dedicated to the emperor Fedinand III (1608–1657) and divided into three books. The first: “The magnetic art. On the nature and faculties of magnets” (Artis magneticae. De Natura et facultatibus Magnetis) deals with the properties of magnets, the Earth’s magnetism, and the use of the compass. The second: “The Applied Magnet” (Magnes Applicatus) treats different applications of magnetism, its relation to the heavenly bodies, and the distribution and origin of magnetic declination and inclination. The third: “The World or Magnetic chain” (Mundus sive catena Magnetica) explores the cosmic influence of magnetism, and its unifying force which pervades the whole universe, linking it finally with God’s presence in the world, and with the Christian mystery of the Trinity.7 In the preface, Kircher has insisted on the universality of the magnetic phenomenon, which for him is present in all kinds of attractions and repulsions, sympathies, and antipathies which occur in nature. For him its study includes all arts and sciences (artium et scientiarum omnium), in particular, geometry, geography, mechanics, navigation, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, and theology. He was aware that others had studied what he calls “magnetic philosophy” but he prefers to call it “magnetic art,” that is, he wants to join theory and practice, and to base his conclusions on observations and experiments. Kircher maintains that his study of magnetism is one of strict experimental philosophy so that in his explanations he does not allow any supernatural or satanic elements, and he explains everything only from a natural point of view (sola vi naturae). He makes it clear that he is moving away from Aristotelian natural philosophy according to the starting modern science, although theological considerations are also present. Among his references, above all, Kircher mentions Gilbert’s work De magnete, recognicing him as “the first who has written on the nature of magnetism,” although he does not always agree with him, and the Jesuits, Garzoni, and Cabeo. In particular, it should be pointed out that Kircher does not accept that the Earth itself is a great magnet, and its magnetism is related to its rotation, as proposed by Gilbert, and defends the view that terrestrial magnetism is produced, as we will see, by veins of magnetic material on the Earth’s surface oriented toward the north and south poles. Since Kircher does not accept the Earth’s rotation, for him the north and south poles refer not to the poles of the Earth, but to the celestial poles of the rotation of the heavenly sphere of the fixed stars around the Polar star. According to him, it is precisely the influence of the celestial poles that has oriented the Earth’s magnetism in their direction. Kircher also rejects Kepler’s idea that the revolution of the planets around the Sun was due to a magnetic force emitted by the Sun. According to Kircher, Kepler was a good mathematician but he failed as a physicist. As we have seen in Mundus subterraneus, Kircher maintained always the stable position of the Earth at the center of the universe following the traditional geocentric doctrine.

 William Hine, “Athanasius Kircher and magnetism.” In J. Fletcher (ed.) A. K. Beziehungen, 79–97.

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Nature and Properties of Magnets Kircher begins his work (Book I) with the general subject of the nature of magnets and their properties (De natura et facultatibus magnetis), recognizing the difficulties of the study of magnetism (De natura mirabilis Magnetis eiusque difficilis scrutinio). To emphasize the difficulty of the subject, he calls magnetism “the labyrinth and impenetrable abyss of the philosophers” (philosophorum laberyrintthus and abyssus impenetrabilis). The origin of magnets is put in the influence of the “magnetic matrix” on the fibers of stones of many types, found in many places in the world. This may be interpreted as materials containing the iron mineral magnetite. Kircher points out that magnets were known by antique Hebrews, Egyptians, Chaldean, and Persians and was related to their religious practices. Kircher considers metals and especially iron to be related to what he calls the “magnetic substance” (magnetica substantia) and the “magnetic force” (magnetica vi). Among all metals iron is said to be the most magnetic because being “cold and dry,” especially, the so-called chalybs, perfect and pure iron or steel. Natural magnets (lodestones) have the property of attracting iron and giving it magnetic properties. He mentions the existence of magnetic veins in the Earth and rejects that the Earth itself is a great magnet as proposed by Gilbert. A chapter treats the origin of the magnetic compass used in navigation (De inventione Pyxidis nauticae). A long discussion deals with its possible use in antique Greece and Rome, and during the Middle Ages and it is mentioned its early use in China. Kircher quotes Albert the Great (1206–1280) who refers to a pseudo-Aristotelian text that mentions the property of a magnetic needle to point to the north and refers to Gerbert de Aurillac (Pope Silvester II, 945–1003) among the first to mention it. Kircher brings up the subject of the angle of magnetic declination (angle between the direction of the compass and the geographical north) that he will treat extensively in Book II, and magnetic inclination or dip first discovered by Norman. Kircher refers to the famous navigators Sebastian Cabot (1484–1557) and Gonzalo Oviedo (1478–1557) for the use of compass in navigation, and their use of the meridian of the Azores Islands as the origin of geographical longitudes. In the second part of Book I, with the general title, “Theorems: About all and each magnetic effects and properties” (Theorematike: De omnibus et singulis Magnetis effectibus et propietatibus), Kircher presents a very detailed explanation of the properties and actions of magnets and makes many references to Gilbert’s and Cabeo’s works. He gives first a list of 20 definitions, such as those for magnetic force, magnetic quality, magnetic equator, magnetic meridians and parallels, and declinations. Then follows a long discussion of many subjects regarding many problems of magnetism divided first into nineteen short axioms or pronouncements (Axiomata seu Pronunciata). The part about the effects of magnetism (De effectibus magnetis) is divided into 33 theorems (Theorema), of them 24 are called propositions (theorems 1 to 24), and nine are called “magnetic paradoxes” (De Paradoxis Magneticis) (theorems 25 to 33). Kircher begins with a first proposition about the Earth’s magnetic field (De Magnetismo Telluris). There he proposes that the Earth

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is oriented in the direction of the celestial world poles. In this, Kircher opposes Gilbert who had already proposed the Earth itself as a large magnet with the poles in the orientation of its rotation axis (Tellus non est magnus magnes). Kircher’s non-­ acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric system prevented him from his acceptance of Gilbert’s ideas. The following propositions and theorems deal with many different aspects of the properties of magnets. They are expanded with addenda called “conclusions” (consectaria) and the proposal of experiments, explained with many details. Some examples of the subjects treated in the theorems related to the properties of magnets are: “The attractive force of magnets on iron” (III), “Iron excited by a magnet attracts and repels other irons” (VI). “Magnetic action is spread spherically” (VIII and IX). “Magnets imitate the nature of the Earth” (X). “On sicknesses of magnets (De morbis Magnetis) and their cure” (XIV). “Magnetism propagates in a straight line” (XVI). “Magnetic action diminishes with distance” (IXX). “In homogenous magnets, their action depends on their size” (XXII). From the theorems included in the so-called nine paradoxes, some examples are: “In magnetic dissimilar appears similars and in similars dissimilar” (XXV). “A “versorium” (a rotating needle) affected by a magnet acquires only one magnetic aspect by an act” (XXX). “Stronger effects are produced by a larger magnet at a shorter distance” (XXXIII). Finally, Kircher presents, in what he calls “Analyses of the propositions and paradoxes,” further explanations divided into 12 parts of the treated subjects about the properties of magnets. Book II is dedicated to “Applied magnetism” and begins with three preliminary or preparatory presentations (Progymnasmata). The first on “Magnetic statics” (De Statica Magnetica) treats magnetic motion in air and water, and the polar distribution of the magnetic force around magnets. The second on “Magnetic central action” (Centrobarica Magnetica) is dedicated to the central distribution of the magnetic force by magnets of different figures, such as cubes, cylinders, cones, pyramids, etc. Then follow seven problems, among them, the third treats the making of a type of magnetic compass, a rotating magnetic needle proposed also by Gilbert (Versorius Magneticus) and the fourth is dedicated to the relations between the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field observed by the compass and the astronomical positions of the Sun by the astrolabe. Part II is titled “Magnetic Geometry” (Geometria Magnetica). It begins with magnetic instruments, such as the “magnetic pantograph” and a new one he calls “Pantometro Ichnographico-magnetico.” Kircher explains the procedures to make a “magnetic astrolabe” and a “magnetic calendar.” Then he describes the relations between the magnetic compass and the sundials (Horologiographia magnetica) and how to make a universal magnetic clock (horoscopium magneticum) which is not clear how it could work.

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Magnetic compass (MsAM)

Part III is titled “Magnetic Astronomy” (Astronomia Magnetica) and considers problems about the relationship of astronomy and terrestrial magnetism beginning with the construction of a “magnetic astrolabe or planisphere” (Magnetic Astrolabium, sive Planispherium construere) and its use to find the positions of the

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Sun, the Sun and stars’ rise, setting, and their declination and altitude and other astronomical problems. Kircher presents the relation, not always easy to understand, of terrestrial magnetism and the days of the year (calendar), and time of the day (clock). For example, he presents how to make what he calls a “perpetual magnetic calendar” (Kalendarium Magneticum perpetuum construere) and how to find the dates of the feasts of the Christian calendar, especially the date of Easter. A so-­ called “magnetic clock” (Horologiographia Magnetica) is presented that can act as a sundial to give the hours of the day. Among other devices, it is proposed the construction of what is called a “universal magnetic clock” (Horoscopium Magneticum Universale) to find the time at any place in the world and a kind of magnetic sundial (Horologia Magnetica Sciaterica). It is very questionable the possibility of the construction of such instruments as the magnetic calendar and the magnetic clock and they can only be considered as just objects of Kircher’s imagination and of his giving extraordinary powers to magnetism. Part IV has the general title: “Natural magnetic magic” (Magia Naturalis Magnetica), meaning by “natural magic” unusual work done by just natural causes (ex solis naturalibus causis). It contains, under “Magnetic mechanics” (Mechanicam Magneticam), eight problems dealing with some particular aspects related to magnetism, such as if one can produce perpetual motion by magnetic forces given in five different ways and other marvels, some of them having been related in antiquity. A discussion is given, for example, on the legendary, “Sphere of Archimedes” (Sphaera Magnetica Archimedaea) attributed to the Greek mathematician Archimedes that is said to have reproduced the motion of heavenly bodies of the geocentric system by mechanical means, and Kircher questions if it can be made by magnetic means. Kircher proposes also other problems in the field of astronomy, such as representing the motion of the Sun, Moon, and fixed Stars in a glass sphere (Motuum Solis et Lunae, stellarumque fixarum in sphaera vitrea representare) and the motion of the epicycles and eccentrics of a planet by magnetic means (Motus epicycli et eccentrici Planetae alicuius Magnetico motu exhibere). Further practical problems are presented that can be achieved by magnetic means, for example, “Magnetic anaclastic contemplation of heavens” (Uranoscopium Anaclasticum Magneticum) about the representation of the motion of heavenly bodies through the refraction of light and magnetic means; “Magnetic hydromantics” (Hydromantia Magnetica) about “divination by water” achieved also by magnetic means, and “Magnetic steganography” (Steganographia Magnetica), methods to be used for secret communication between people utilizing magnets. As in the previous cases, it is not only very questionable but impossible that the things Kircher proposes can be achieved by magnetic means.

Magnetic Declination In Part V, under the title of “Magnetic geography” (Geographia Magnetica), Kircher studies terrestrial magnetism, recognizing its dipole nature and spherical distribution with the orientation of the magnetic North and South poles (poli Borealis radii diffuse … vero radii poli Australi). He presents the orientation of

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the magnetic force at each point of the Earth and the use of the instruments to measure it on the horizontal and vertical plane (Pyxis Nautica and Versorium Magneticum). In the vertical plane, the magnetic force forms the angle of inclination or dip, horizontal at the Equator and vertical at the Poles, measured from the horizontal by a dip circle. The magnetic inclination is studied in detail with tables of its values around the Earth which are compared with those given by Gilbert and Cabeo. Kircher treats magnetic declination in section II, “About magnetic variation or declination from the meridian line” (De Variatione, seu Declinatione magnetis a linea Meridiana), divided into six chapters. He uses also for magnetic declination the word Chalyboclisin (derived from the Greek words Chalybes, a region famous for its iron work and klino, to incline), a word already in use, for example, by Simon Stevin (1548–1620) in his Hypomnemata Mathematica (1608). This is a very important part of Kircher’s work on magnetism from the point of view of the observations of the Earth’s magnetic field, and their practical uses, in particular in navigation, and its possible use to determine geographical longitudes.8 He begins by saying that it is widely accepted that the compass does not point exactly to the geographical north (defined by the Polar star), but somewhat to one side or another (magnetica in polos dirigi […] non praecise in polos colliment sed nonnihil ab iis alterutram partem deflectant) and adds that the origin of this deviation remains uncertain. He assigns the first observations of magnetic declination to the famous seafarers Cabot and Fernandez de Oviedo. Kircher mentions that there are so many different opinions and uncertainties in the observations of magnetic declination that it remains a very intricate problem (intricatissimoque magneticae variationis negotio). He affirms that it is necessary to reformulate geography from the point of view of terrestrial magnetism, mainly using the observations of magnetic declination, but it is not clear what he means by this reformulation. Kircher first rejects the opinions of Pedro de Medina (1493–1567), (Spanish Royal Cosmographer, author of Arte de navegar (Navigation art, 1545)), who assigned declination to errors of sailors’ measurements, and of Pedro Nunes (1502–1578) (Portuguese mathematician and author of several navigational works, for example, Petri Nonii Salaciencis de arte atque ratione navigandi libri duo (Pedro Nunes of Salacia, two books on the art and reason of navigation, 1573) who assigns it to errors in transmissions of data. As a generally accepted fact, Kircher states that at the Azores Islands (at Corvo and Flores Islands) declination is null. At that time, Corvo Island (coordinates 39°40′N, 31°06′W) was taken as the origin of longitudes, so Kircher gives longitudes of places with respect to this origin (they must be subtracted 31 degrees to convert to present longitudes referred to Greenwich zero meridian).

 Agustín Udías, “Athanasius Kircher and Terrestrial Magnetismus: The Magnetic Map.” Journal of Jesuit Studies, 7 (2020), 166–184. 8

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Magnetic universal planisphaerium (MsAM)

From Azores Islands moving eastwards, declinations have values to the east of the geographical north, and moving westwards to the west. Thus, he quotes values of declination in Plymouth (England) 13°20′E and in Brazil 12°W. He states that in the values given for declination at different places, there are many uncertainties, and rejects Ioannes Baptista Porta’s (1535–1615), author of the popular book, Magiae naturali sive de miraculis rerum naturalium, (Natural magic or on the miracles of natural things, 1558), opinion that declination was everywhere constant with a value of nine degrees to the east (this was the value observed at that time in Italy). Kircher also says that observations do not support Cardano, who thought that declination was so many degrees as the world pole (Polus mundi) is apart from the Polar Star (about one degree). Kircher quotes Adriaan Metius (1571–1635), and Simon Stevin (1548–1620), two Dutch mathematicians, giving their values of declination at several places.

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The accurate determination of geographical longitude in long sea journeys was, at that time, an important problem.9 Unlike latitude, which can be easily determined by the observation of the position of heavenly bodies (for example, the height of the Polar Star or the Sun at noon), there are no such simple methods for longitudes. The importance of the problem for navigation motivated that Spain, Holland, France, and England established special awards for a reliable method to find longitudes at sea. A common search at that time was the possible use of the observations of magnetic declination for this purpose, as mentioned by Kircher. However, by 1667 the Royal Society of London, under its secretary Henry Oldenburg (1619–1677), which had been considering this problem, finally gave it up and decided on the use of accurate determination of time. The problem was not solved until 1773 with the development of the first accurate marine chronometers by John Harrison (1693–1776). Kircher proposes whether geographical longitudes can be determined from magnetic observations (Utrum longitude terrestris magnetis ope investigari possit). To solve the problem, he studies the relationship between the variations of the magnetic declination with geographical location, and their possible use to determine longitudes. For this purpose, he collected as many observations of magnetic declination as possible, and their geographical distribution. Connected with this question, he proposes that Jesuits, taking advantage of their journeys around the world in their missionary work, should establish what he called a “Geographical counsel” (Consilium geographicum), to process the magnetic observations carried out by them but no such a counsel was ever established. However, he describes instruments and methods for the accurate measurement of the magnetic declination and of the inclination or dip and discusses the problem of their relationship with geographic latitude and longitude. He concludes that there is not a regular positive or negative change of declination with respect to longitude at different places (nullum esse magneticae declinationis regulare incrementum aut decrementum). Then, Kircher finally seems to conclude that it is not possible to use the observation of magnetic declination to determine directly geographical longitudes at sea because its variations do not follow any law, and are erratic, decreasing and increasing with longitude and latitude. In chapter VI, Kircher treats the problem of the variation of magnetic declination with time, what is today called the “secular variation of the terrestrial magnetic field” (Utrum Magnetis declination certo loco perennis sit aut cum tempore mutetur) quoting Gellibrand’s work the first to show its variation (7°) near London between 1580 and 1634. He discusses the problems of the origin of this variation which will be treated below.

 William J. H Andrews ed., The quest for longitude, Proceedings of the Longitude Symposium. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1996); Rebekah F. Higgitt, and Richard Dunn, Finding Longitude: How Ships, Clocks and Stars helped solve the Longitude Problem. (Glasgow: Collins, 2014). 9

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Magnetic inclination (MsAM)

Observations of Magnetic Declination The collection of observations of magnetic declination occupies in Kircher’s book, Pars V, Section II, Chapters II to IV, and Tables I to III, giving the values of declination in degrees and minutes of arc and are not reproduced here. Kircher begins recognizing that at his time practically the whole world was already widely traveled by Portuguese, Spanish, English, and Dutch navigators and seafarers, who often made

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observations of magnetic declination. There were then already available a great number of such observations, among them those made by Jesuits, especially those of missionaries by their long sea journeys. Chapter II treats observations at oceans, chapter III at the Mediterranean Sea, and chapter IV at Europe, and other places on land and sea. In Chapters II and III there are two short lists with 10 and 15 values of declination, describing the places where they were made. The first list of observations will be explained below, among those made by Jesuits. The second list gives values of declination in the Mediterranean Sea from Italy to Egypt, made in 1638 by John Gray (Ioannes Grauius) an Englishman, “a man of distinguished judgment and experience” (vir iudicio et experientia conspicuous). For example, the list gives for Capo di Corso, Corsica, the value of declination 7°30′W and at Alexandria, Egypt, 5°45′W. Table I has the title: “General magnetic declination at the oceans, from observations of Portuguese, English, and Dutch navigators, and others, taken from the works of mathematicians of the Society of Jesus (figure in page 70).” The table gives 197 observations together with values of the latitude and a description of the places, giving sometimes the distance in leagues from some known place (for example: at a point 20 leagues from the Canary Islands) (the value of the league varies from different countries, a common one is three nautical miles, 3.452  miles or 5.556  km). East and west direction of declination are given by the Greek words anatlismos and dusismos, corresponding to the more often used Latin words of ortum and occasum (Sun rise and set). No identification of the authors of the observations is given, but they are supposed to be taken from values given in Jesuits’ works. In the first part, observations by Portuguese navigators at places from Lisbon to the coasts of Central America and Brazil and around the coasts of Africa to India (Goa) and China (Macao) are presented and in the second part observations from English and Dutch navigators made at higher latitudes in the Atlantic Ocean. Table II presents the values of the observations mostly taken from Jean le Tellier (flr. 1620–1650) (given as Ioannes Telierus), a French navigator and cartographer from Dieppe.10 The title given to the table as observed by Tellier in his journey to the West Indies corresponds to the title of Tellier’s book: Voyage fait aux Indes Orientales …reduit par lui en tables pour enseigner a trouver par la variation de l’aymant la longitude (Journey to the East Indies… reduced in tables to show how to find the longitude using the variation of the magnet, 1631). The table gives the values of longitude (with origin at the Azores Islands), latitude and magnetic declination, for places from Europe, through the African coast around Cape of Good Hope to India and the South China Sea, and from Europe to America. Values of magnetic declinations are separated giving first values to the east and afterward values to the west, with a total of 215 observations. This is the only table where values of longitudes are given. Kircher does not mention this table in the text, so we do not know how he valued the exactitude of these observations.  Sarah Toulouse, “Marine Cartography and Navigation in Renaissance France,” in David Woodward (ed.) The History of Cartography, Vol. 3. Cartography in the European Renaissance. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), 1550–1568. 10

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List of values of magnetic declination and latitudes at oceans (MsAM)

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Table III contains 81 values of magnetic declination at different places (giving the name of the observer, place, latitude, and declination) made by 67 different mathematicians, some at Kircher’s request, of them 42 Jesuits. Among the non-­ Jesuits, we find the well-known Gassendi and Mersenne from France, and Cavallieri from Italy. An observation at London is taken from Gilbert, but no reference is given from where it was taken. Kircher considers that all the observations included are worth credit, as made by very good mathematicians (a plerique eximiis Mathematicis sint factae). The three tables give together a total of 493 values of magnetic declination. A great number of the observations of the magnetic declination presented by Kircher were made by Jesuits and merit special attention. They show the Jesuits’ early interest in experimental science and Kircher’s relationship with them. The list with 10 observations in chapter II contains those made by the Jesuit Martino Martini (1614–1661), a missionary to China who had been Kircher’s student in Rome. They were made in a journey from Lisbon to China, but due to bad weather only reached Cabo Verde Islands and returned to Lisbon. In table III, we find 43 observations of magnetic declination made by Jesuits, mostly in Europe but also in India, China, and America. The locations of the Jesuit observations in Europe are plotted in attached the figure. Most observations come from Germany, France, and Italy, where Kircher had more personal contacts. From outside Europe, there are only two observations in India (Goa and Narsinga) and two in China (Macao and Canton). Among the observers, some well-known Jesuit mathematicians are included, such as Jacques Gradami (1588–1672) (Turon), Riccioli (Bologna), Cabeo (Ferrara), Giuseppe Biancani (1566–1624) (Parma), Grégoire de Saint-Vincent (1584–1667) (Gants), Scheiner (Silesia), Antonio Rubino (1578–1643) (Narsinga, India), and Ivan Vreman (1583–1620) (Goa, Canton, Macao). Kircher himself contributed with measurements at Fulda, Heidelberg, and Trier. Kircher’s account of Jesuits’ contribution to the study of terrestrial magnetism and the observation of magnetic declination is not reduced to the names and data given in Table III. We saw already the early work on magnetism by Garzoni and Cabeo. Long journeys in their missionary work to India, China, and America were an opportunity for

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Locations of observations of magnetic declination made by Jesuits in Europe (Udías, 2020)

Jesuits to make precise observations of the magnetic declination in those remote places. Kircher mentions a letter about the subject in 1609 by the Italian Jesuit Giulio Alieni (1582–1649) from China to Clavius. Alieni tells in a letter to Clavius of his measurements of the magnetic declination during his journey to China, obtaining values to the east along the west coast of Africa from the Equator to the Cape of Good Hope, null at the Cape of Agulhas (South Africa) and afterward values of declination to the west from there to Goa, where the value was 16°W. Clavius’ successor Grienberger in 1616 received a letter by Vreman about his journey from Lisbon to Goa and then to Macao. In these two cities, he observed declination 16°W and 1°30′W, respectively. In 1638, Kircher himself received letters from Martini, with values of magnetic declination made along his journey, this time completed, from Lisbon to Goa and Macao.

The Magnetic Map Kircher’s mention of what he calls a “magnetic map” (Mappa Magnetica) is found in Book II, Part VI, “Magnetic Navigation” (Nautica Magnetica), problem 6, dedicated to methods to find the longitude of a place at sea using the magnetic declination. He questions whether and how longitude can be determined (Utrum et quomodo longitude terrestris investigari possit). He refers to the work by the Italian Jesuit Christoforo Borri (Burrus) (1583–1632) on the determination of longitudes using

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magnetic declination.11 Borri, a controversial figure for his cosmological ideas defending Tycho Brahe’s system, began as a professor of mathematics in Milan in 1609 and went in 1615 to Goa and Macao, and in 1617 to Cochinchina (Vietnam) to return to Coimbra (Portugal) in 1624. Borri’s method consisted of annotating values of magnetic declination at different meridians on a geographical map, and uniting the points with equal declination values by lines which he called tractus chalybocliticos. From these lines Borri claimed he could determine with all certainty (infallibiliter), by the observation of the declination in the map, the position (geographical coordinates?) of a determined place, and the distance to other place of different declination. No such map by Borri has been found, so we do not know if he ever did it. Borri’s original work describing his method has not been preserved either. We only have Kircher’s discussion of Borri’s work. Borri also contributed to Table III with measurements of declination at Coimbra and Madrid. Kircher calls this type of map with the values of declination a “magnetic map.” He writes that he could draw one such a map using the values of declination obtained by worldwide observations, “made by eminent geographers, navigators, and mathematicians,” and given in his tables. This map, he says, could be used if anyone would like to follow this method (Borri’s method?) to find longitudes from the values of declination. Then Kircher describes how one could make such a map using the values of the magnetic declination from his tables, plotting them in a geographic map, and joining by lines those of equal value of declination (et ex Tabulis nostris Magneticis singulis locis addantur declinationes propiae).

 A.  Mercati, “Notizie sul gesuita C.  Borri,” Acta Pontificia Academia Scientiarum 15 (1951) 25–46; Michel-Pierre Lerner, “L’entrée de Tycho Brahe chez les jésuites ou le chant du cygne de Clavius” in Girard, ed., Les jésuites à la Renaissance. 145–185, note 36. 11

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Map of magnetic declination drown from the values given by Kircher (red (positive) to the east and blue (negative) to the west) (Osete et al., 2017)

Kircher adds that he would gladly (libenter) present such a map here, if the cost and other occupations would allow him to do it (Si et sumptus et prepropera impressio, negotiaque varia id permisissent). Regretably, he did not do it because it would have been the first magnetic map published. The first world magnetic map was published by Edmond Halley (1656–1742) in 1701. Halley’s map represents the values of magnetic declination at the Atlantic Ocean using values he had collected himself during two journeys, together with values by other navigators.12 He seems to have ignored Kircher’s work and did not use the values of declination from his tables. Kircher failed to draw a magnetic map with the 518 values of magnetic declination given in the three tables and two shortlists. However, these values provide a good base for drawing such a map. The attached figure shows the resulting map with the points where the observations were made and the resulting interpolated values of declination (red (positive) to the east and blue (negative) to the west).13 Since magnetic declination varies with time, this map can be assigned to the year 1638, taking that year as representing when most of the observations were made. The map shows the zero value of declination passing through the Azores Islands and values to the east in Europe and south of the Atlantic Ocean, and values to the west near the coasts of America and at the Indian Ocean. This declination map agrees with the expected values given by the

 Lori L.  Murray, The Construction of Edmond Halley’s 1701 Map of Magnetic Declination. University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) Electronic Thesis and Dissertation. Repository 654 (2012). 13  María L. Osete, Francisco J. Pavon and Agustín Udías, “A new declination chart for 1600–1640 based on Athanasius Kircher’s compilation.” IAPSO-IAGA Assembly; CapeTown S.A, 2017. 12

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GUFM1 model for the “epoch” of 1638 (a period centered on that year).14 The map in the figure, although representing Kircher’s values, is not, naturally, the map he could have drawn, because the map of the figure has been made using the modern methodology of interpolation and representation. Kircher would just have drawn on a map the lines passing through points of equal values of declination.

Causes of Magnetic Declination Kircher discusses the problem of the causes of magnetic declination in Section II, Chapter V (Disquisitio Causarum Declinationis Magneticae). He begins disproving briefly some opinions, namely, those by Ficino who assigned it to the influence of the Ursa Minor constellation, by Bessardo Galio to the poles of the Zodiac, by Livio Sanuto (1520–1576) to some kind of magnetic meridians, by Francesco Maurolico (1494–1575) to an unknown magnetic region, by Giulo Cesare Scaligero (1494–1558) to the influence of the sky and mountains, and by Norman to the conditions at the respective places where observations were made. Kircher dedicates more attention to three other causes: weakness of the magnetic attraction on the needle of the compass, influence by the socalled “magnetic mountains” and by the attraction by a certain celestial point.

Cause of declination according to Kircher (MsAM)

 The GUFM1 model is based on the compilation using 3090 declination data for the time period between 1600 and 1640. Andrew A. Jackson, Art R. T. Jonker and Mathew Walker, “Four centuries of geomagnetic secular variation from historical records.” Philosophical Transactions Royal Society, A.  Mathematics, Physics and Engineering Sciences vol. 358 (2000). DOI: 10.1098/ rsta2000.0569. 14

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Kircher dedicates a detailed discussion of Gilbert’s ideas, calling him: “truly distinguished in magnetic philosophy heresy” (Insignis sane in Philosophia Magnetica haeresis). Calling Gilbert’s ideas about magnetism a heresy indicates the extent to which Kircher didn’t accept them. First, as already mentioned, he denies Gilbert’s conclusion that the Earth itself is a large magnet (Magnus magnes sive terrestris globus) to which Gilbert had arrived from the experiments of using a small sphere of magnetite to compare its magnetic behavior with that of the Earth. Then Kircher also refutes that the variations of declination are due to the influence of local variations in topography (large mountains and deep oceans), pointing to the values given in his tables which do not follow this distribution. After this, he proceeds to present his opinion on the “true” cause of magnetic declination (quae tandem vera sit variationis causa). For Gilbert, who accepted the Copernican system, there was a certain relationship between the magnetic poles and the axis of the rotation of the Earth, so that both nearly coincide. Kircher still held up to the geocentric cosmology and did not accept the rotation of the Earth, so the magnetic poles in the Earth were produced by the cosmic influence in the direction of the axis of the world, that is, the axis of the celestial sphere of the fixed stars with center at the Polar star (Terram universam Magneticam vim obtinere, totamque polaliter compactam, coagmentataque per ordinem ad polos confirmari). He proposes the existence on the surface of the Earth, and under the oceans of elongated bodies of magnetic materials which he calls “magnetic fibers” (fibrae Magneticae) converging to the poles (see the figure), which he claimed were the true cause of the Earth’s main magnetic field. The irregularities in these fibers, which apart a little from the general direction toward the north and south poles, explain the small deviations from the meridian of the magnetic declination (non enim omnes totius Telluris partes, ita praecise et Mathematice in polos dirigi, quin ab eis aliquantulum deflectam). Kircher proposes also the causes of the time variations of the magnetic declination (Causae variationis variationis Magneticae). After explaining the various opinions proposed, Kircher gives his explanation in terms of time changes in the magnetic fibers, he has proposed to explain magnetic declination, due to the internal processes in the Earth, such as vulcanism. What neither Kircher nor Gilbert, and their contemporaries could think, was that declination depends from the origin of the magnetic field of the Earth which is in fact caused by the auto-induced magneto-­hydro-­dynamic processes of the iron material of the Earth’s outer core which are influenced by the Earth’s rotation, first proposed in 1919 by Joseph Larmor (1857–1942) and after, among others, by Walter M.  Elssasser (1904–1991), and Edward C.  Bullard (1907–1980).15

 Ronald T Merrill, Michael W McElhinny and Phillip L. McFadden, The magnetic field of the Earth: paleomagnetism, the core, and the deep mantle. (London: Academic Press, 1996). 15

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Magnetism as a Cosmic and Spiritual Force In Book III, entitled, “Magnetic world or magnetic chain” (Mundus magneticus seu catena magnetica), Kircher considers magnetism as a very general type of force that acts as the link that affects all natural things (Qua rerum omnium naturalium Magneticus in hoc Univeso nexus disquiritur), and not only as a physical force but as a cosmic one, both of material and spiritual nature, that pervades everything and that finally has its origin in God. He is, then, applying here the word “magnetism” in a rather wide metaphorical sense to things and processes that we know have no relation with the physical magnetic force. He begins with the general question about the knowledge of what he calls the “hidden operations of nature” (De occultis naturae operationibus) and he gives a theological answer that is God the first principle and cause of all natural things and, therefore, they are the way He has made them. Thus, Kircher proposes that all elementary and hidden qualities, all the motions of sympathy and antipathy present in nature, including in animals and men, are really manifestations of what he calls the “cosmic and spiritual force of magnetism.” This supposes a wide extrapolation of the meaning of the force of magnetism beyond the physical order into the spiritual one. For these considerations, he based himself in part on the idea of the “Sefirot,” which according to the Jewish Kabbalah are the ten emanations or attributes of the divinity, which as celestial influxes govern everything in creation. Kircher identifies these influences with magnetism and sees them as links or concatenations, which through the cosmic force of magnetism unite everything as the design of God’s creation, “the wisest architect of everything” (sapientisimum eorum omnium Architectum). In this universal concatenation, Kircher includes the “magnetism” of the planets, the meteors, the Sun, and the Moon and their influence on the sea, plants, and animals, and finally on men and their relation with God. It is difficult for those who consider magnetism just as a physical force to understand Kircher’s considerations. Kircher in his extrapolation of the meaning of magnetism begins with what he calls the magnetism of the heavens (Ouranomagnetismus), that is, not only of the Earth, but of planets and stars (De Terrae Planetarum, astrorumque magnetismo). He concludes that in all the heavenly bodies, a magnetic force is present (vere Magnetica vis insit) that affects all of them. As already mentioned, Kircher rejects here again Gilbert’s and Kepler’s ideas of the relation between the Earth’s magnetism and its rotation. Kircher’s non-acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric system prevented him from his acceptance of Gilbert’s and Kepler’s ideas.

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Magnetic machine to produce perpetual motion (MsAM)

In the second part, Kircher considers the magnetism of the elements where he presents magnetic forces diffused in all things (De Magnetismo sive Magnetica facultate Elementorum), and its special relationship with metals, especially, iron, gold, silver, and mercury. Special treatment is given to the relationship of magnetism with the so-called meteors, that is, winds, rain, thunder, and lightning (De Magnetismo Elementorum in productione Meteororum). Kircher states that a certain magnetic force is internally present in all elements, and it is the origin of all the active processes which take place in the world (De Magnetica vi totae terrae et singulis eius heterogenis partibus indita). He mentions the relationship of magnetism with electricity and considers electric attraction a type of magnetic effect (De Magnetismo electri, seu electricis attractionibus earumque causis). At that time electricity (static electricity) and magnetism were considered as two different phenomena without any connection between them. It is interesting that Kircher already saw some relationship between them, although, naturally, not as we know it today. The unification of electricity and magnetism came first in the nineteenth century with the works by Hans Christian

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Oersted (1777–1851) and Michael Faraday (1791–1897) and its formalization in 1865 by the equations of James C. Maxwell (1831–1879). A long Part IV is dedicated to the magnetism of the Sun and the Moon and its influence on the sea mainly on its tides (De Magnetismo Solis et Lunae in maria, sive Elementum aqueum). This influence is not, as Kepler proposed, due to the magnetic attraction by the Moon, but to a certain specific lunar force (vim quondam radiosam Lunae propiam). A discussion follows on the nature of tides and their dependence on the positions of the Moon and Sun and a description of an instrument called “Halorrhaeometron” to measure them. Naturally, sea tides have nothing to do with magnetism. Tides were first correctly explained by Newton, as already mentioned. In Part V, Kircher extends the presence of magnetic forces in plants (Phytomagnetismus sive de Magnetica facultate Plantarum). He proposes that plants have a certain motion influenced by the magnetic poles (analogia motus magnetis ad plantarum motus).

Magnetic properties of plants (MsAM)

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This supposes an extension of the attribution of magnetic forces to those acting in plants, in particular, with respect to their orientation and geographical location. Among plants the heliotrope with its property of following the Sun’s orientation is said to have a special magnetic faculty. Kircher even claims that the properties of the fruits are influenced by the “phytomagnetism” proper of the trees. Plants are in consequence oriented by the Earth’s magnetism (De motu seu inclinatione Magnetica Plantarum). He uses this magnetic property of plants to explain the use of the divining or dowsing rod (virgula divinatoria) to find buried metals, especially gold. As a problem, he proposes to make a kind of sundial using a heliotrope (Horologium ope Heliotropiorum construere). Difficult to believe. In Part VI, Kircher treats the subject of the magnetism of animals which is for him the foundation of all the sympathies and antipathies present in them (Zoomagnetismus, id est de Magnetica facultate, sive magnetismo Animalium). Some animals are especially considered to be magnetic as the weasel, and magnetism is supposed to be the cause of many strange and curious phenomena in animals, which Kircher often uncritically accepts. In particular, he mentions the magnetic properties of the “fish torpedo” (torpedo piscis) and accepts the existence of mermaids in the seas of India and the Philippines, although it is not clear what relation they have with magnetism. An important subject is the use of magnetism in medicine dealt with in Part VII (Iatromagnetismos, id est de Magnetismo rerum Medicinalium). Kircher begins with the use of magnets in medicine. A long discussion is given to the magnetic ointment called “Armario” (De Magnete Microcosmico … seu unguento Armario) which is supposed to cure all wounds. Kircher finally denies its effectiveness that cannot be either attributed to angelic or satanic influence. Finally, he deals with the relationship of magnetism with poisons and antidotes (De Magnetismo venenorum; Magnetismus Antidotorum) and with what he calls Elixir Vitae (Elixir of life), a universal medicine according to alchemists, and he gives 12 rules of the magnetic applications to medicine. Animal magnetism was later used in medicine for therapeutic treatments, for example, by the German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815). Kircher dedicates a chapter to what he calls the “magnetism of imagination” (Fantasiomagnetismos, id est de Magnetismo Imaginationis). He recognizes the force of the imagination that is present according to him with greater force in women, and especially in pregnant women than in men, and can be found also in animals. Interesting that Kircher finds imagination especially present in pregnant women. Its relation with magnetism, however, is not made clear. Kircher seems to apply to magnetic forces all kinds of effects he finds in nature. In this

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form, imagination must be also an effect of some kind of magnetic forces. He adds in the following chapter the relationship of magnetism with music (Musicomagnetismos sive de Potenti Musicae Magnetismo). He had dedicated a whole book to music (Musurgia universalis). The nature and practice of music are presented here as well as its relationship with mathematics. A long exposition is given of different uses of music showing its magnetic force, in particular, for example, to cure those that have been bitten by tarantula spiders. Finally, Kircher ended his book by identifying finally magnetism with love which is for him the force and the origin of all the natural motions (Erotomagnetismus sive De magnetismo amoris). Thus, magnetism is identified with the marvelous force and energy of love (energia Amoris), that for Kircher is the source and origin of all processes and movements of attraction, natural and spiritual in nature, which keeps everything in their proper order. In the Epilog, Kircher calls God, “the magnet of the whole nature” (Deus Optimus Maximus Totius Naturae Magnes). Kircher takes a further approach of considering magnetism not only as a cosmic force of material nature but also of spiritual nature, that pervades everything and that finally has its origin in God, as the center of all magnetic forces, physical and spiritual, calling him the living and eternal magnet (Deo Magnete vivo et aeterno). Kircher, then, proposes that all elementary and hidden qualities, all the motions of sympathy and antipathy present in nature and in men are manifestations of the cosmic and spiritual force of magnetism. Magnetism is, thus, taken to represent, in a very general form, the source of all forms of active motions of any kind physical and spiritual. In this way, Kircher overcomes the dualism matter-spirit, presenting in a generalized magnetism, the forces of both kinds. Kircher goes here even further and links this unifying motion with the Christian mystery of the Trinity, in which everything is attracted in God the Father, through the Eternal Truth (the Son) by the unifying force of the Holy Spirit, constituting what he calls the “uni-triune magnetic principle” (Unitrino principio magnetico). Christ, the divine Word or Wisdom, that he calls “Christ the magnet” (Christus magnes) attracts everything through the Holy Spirit to God the Father. In this sense, Kircher quotes Christ’s words in St. John’s Gospel: “when I am lifted up from the earth, I shall draw all to myself” (John 12, 32). In this form, he finally concludes that all creation is attracted by the force of love in Christ toward God the Father, the “center and magnet” of everything. To finish, Kircher adds that only in God, the center and magnet of everything, we can find the peace of our soul.

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The magnetic world or magnetic chain (MsAM)

In some way, a similar approach can be found in our times in the works of the French Jesuit scientist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955), a paleontologist and geologist, author of the book The Human Phenomenon where science, philosophy, and theology are joined together. As Kircher finds in magnetism an image of the spiritual forces with origin in God, Teilhard does it in matter itself, so that he can say: “Matter, I bless you, sap of our souls, hand of God, flesh of Christ … I greet you, Matter, divine Millieu, charged with creative potency, ocean agitated by the Spirit, clay kneaded and animated by the incarnated Word.”16 Teilhard’s use of the term “cosmic Christ” can be compared with Kircher’s “Christ the magnet.” It is difficult for us, with our modern mentality, to judge this last part of Kircher’s book, although it occupies almost half of the total text (400 pages). But even today we speak of such a thing as “personal magnetism,” using magnetism in a

16  Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, “La puissance spirituelle de la Matière,” Écrits du temps de la guerre, Œuvres 12, (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1965) 466–479.

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metaphorical sense. For Kircher, however, these considerations of the biological and spiritual nature of magnetism are to be considered not as a metaphor but in a real sense, expressing its continuity in the spiritual realm with the physical properties of magnets and the behavior of compasses on the Earth. We may also see them as an expression, in metaphorical language, of all attractive and repulsive actions of physical and spiritual nature that may be finally considered to have their origin in the action of God according to the trinitarian doctrine of Christian theology and the incarnation of the Word of God in Christ Jesus.

Chapter 5

A Space Journey and the Vision of the Universe

Introduction Kircher’s complete vision of the whole universe is mainly contained in his work, Iter exstaticum coeleste (Ecstatic heavenly journey). The first edition was published in 1656 with the title: Itinerarium exstaticum, (Ecstatic journey) and contains only the part dedicated to astronomy.1 The book is dedicated to Queen Christina of Sweden who arrived in Rome in 1655, got in contact with Kircher, and visited his Museum at the Roman College. In 1657, Kircher published a second edition, adding a part about the terrestrial world with the title, Iter exstaticum II, qui et Mundi Subterranei Prodomus dicitur2 (Ecstatic heavenly journey II, with an introduction about the Subterranean World). A further edition, edited by his disciple Kaspar Schott, Iter extaticum coeleste (Celestial ecstatic journey), was published in 1660 and 1671  in which introductions by Schott to the different parts of the book are added, in addition to the introductions by Kircher himself.3 This is the edition of the book presented here. In Schott’s edition of Iter extaticum coeleste, after the title, a short summary of the work is given: Where a new true hypothesis is presented about the works of the world, that is, of the Celestial Expansions and the nature of the stars, so much of the wandering bodies (planets) as of the fixed (stars), about the forces, properties, and their composition and structure, from the interior of the Earth globe to the last confines of the World, explored through the information obtained in a fictitious rapture, by the interlocutors: Cosmiel and Theodidactus.

The book is dedicated by Schott to Joachim Prince-Abbot of Fulda.

 Athanasius Kircher, Itenerarium exstaticum (Rome: V. Mascardi, 1656).  Athanasius Kircher, Iter exstaticum II qui et Mundi Subterranei Prodomus dicitur (Rome: V. Mascardi, 1657). 3  Athanasius Kircher, edited by Kaspar Schott, Iter exstaticum coeleste (Wüzburg: Johannes Andreas and Wolfang Endter, 1660, 1671). 1 2

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1_5

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An extended preface by Schott presents the contents of the two previous editions of Kircher’s work, including the part about the Earth. The text comprises not only the astronomical part but the whole universe from the interior of the Earth, considered to be at its center, to the limits of the heavens (integram Mundi fabricam ab infimo Terrae Globo ad suprema ejus confinis).

Cover illustration of Schott’s edition of Kircher’s Iter Exstaticum coeleste with Brahe’s system (IEC)

Schott’s edition adds introductions (called preambles, praelusiones) to every part of the work which are printed in italics to separate them from Kircher’s own text. The second preface is by Kircher himself (Praefatio auctoris) in which he dedicates the book to those interested in the “heavenly philosophy” (Coelestis Philosophia). There Kircher asserts that in his book, he will try to show the ideas about “the new theater of the heavenly spectacles” (novum Coelestium spectaculorum theatrum) beginning from the Earth’s interior (Mundus subterraneus), the planets (including the Sun and Moon), to the fixed stars, following the order of the geocentric system. The text is presented as if it were a dream, in which there is a dialog between two

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fictitious persons presented as interlocutors, namely, Theodidactus (taught by God), representing Kircher himself and Cosmiel, a spiritual agent or cosmic angel, who takes him on the space journey from the Earth to the stars, explaining the nature of the heavenly bodies and answering his questions. However, Kircher assures that the book is not about “mysteries,” “revelations,” or “angelic epiphanies,” but about what can be known by rational demonstrations and observations, that is, what we would call from a scientific point of view.

Preambles by Schott and Kircher Preamble by Schott The book begins with two long preambles (praelusiones) by Schott and Kircher. Schott calls it a “Catholic Scholiastic Preamble or astronomical introduction for novices” (Praelusio Catholica Scholiasta sive Isagoge Astronomica pro Tyronibus), where in nine chapters, the general subjects of astronomical knowledge are presented, such as the order of the world parts, nature of stars, planets, comets, and other heavenly bodies, heaven’s composition, and the various world systems. The form of the world is given to be spherical (rotundam) and the physical sidereal heavens are separated from the empyrean or place of the blessed and the subject of theology. The center of the world is put at the center of the Earth, according to the traditional Aristotelian geocentric cosmology and physics that Kircher also follows, if only in part. Mainly both Kircher and Schott reject the separation of the heavenly region (above the Moon orbit) from that of the Earth being of a different heavenly substance and formed by concentric solid spheres for each heavenly body, beginning with the Moon and following with Venus, Mercury, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and finally the fixed stars. This system was held during the Middle Ages until the publication of Copernicus’ work in 1543.

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Title page of Iter Exstaticum Coeleste, (IEC)

Following the geocentric cosmology, the “poles of the world “(Poli Mundi) are the ends of the world axis in the orientation of the Polar Star, that is, a prolongation unto the heavens of what is now considered as the Earth’s rotation axis, defining the North–South direction. Considering the Earth to be fixed and static, the fixed stars are those which rotate from East to West around the world axis, and the seven planets (including the Sun and the Moon) move in different ways around the Earth. However, from modern observations, beginning with those by Galileo, Schott accepts four satellites of Jupiter and two of Saturn, so that not everything rotates around the Earth. Schott also accepts that the comets are beyond the Moon and that

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the heavens are fluid and corruptible of the same substance as the Earth, against the traditional Aristotelian cosmology which considered them to be made of a different celestial nature (quintaessence, fith substance or ether) unchangeable and solid. Finally, Schott presents six astronomical systems, three geocentric, Ptolemaic (Sun in the fourth orbit), Platonic (Sun in second orbit), and Egyptian (Sun in the second orbit with Venus and Mercury around it), two with the Earth in the center but with the planets rotating around the Sun which rotates around the Earth, the first proposed in 1583 by Tycho Brahe and the second modified by the Jesuit astronomer Riccioli with Jupiter and Saturn orbiting the Earth. Then, he gives a presentation of the Copernican heliocentric system which he says is followed by “most non-­ Catholics and some Catholic astronomers.” Interesting this recognition of the widely acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric system by the astronomers of his time. In all of the systems, the stars are on a sphere around the Earth or the Sun or occupying a certain volume of space at different distances beyond the orbit of Saturn. Against the Copernican system, Schott points out that it was the subject of the Catholic Church Ecclesiastic condemnations of 1616 and 1633 in the context of the Galileo affair. As to Kircher’s own personal position about the Copernican system, as already mentioned, it is not clear if he rejected it only to follow the ecclesiastic censure, or if he was convinced of it not being the right one. In Kircher’s thought, however, the central position of the Earth (geocosmos) in the universe was important as already seen.

The six world systems (IEC)

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Preamble by Kircher The second preamble or prelude is by Kircher himself (Praelusio paraenetica auctoris Kircheri) where, after affirming that nothing will be against the doctrine of the Church, he proposes four questions that may appear to be contrary to traditional ideas and that he will prove to be correct. The first is that the medium, where the heavenly bodies are located, is not solid but fluid and ethereous (liquidum et aethereum); second, the heavenly bodies as all natural things are subject to change and corruption (alterationibus et corruptionibus); third, all heavenly bodies are composed of a mixture of the four terrestrial elements (earth, water, air, fire), not of a special heavenly substance (the crystalline heavenly substance or “ether” proposed in the Aristotelian cosmology); fourth, all world and heavenly bodies are related among each other and influence each other.

Diagram of the geocentric world (IEC)

Here, Kircher follows the works of the two Jesuit astronomers Riccioli’s, Almagestum Novum, and Scheiner’s Rosa Ursina that are often quoted. A long discussion follows with arguments in favor of the four questions, some based on the Sacred Scriptures. The preamble ends by saying that the text will be presented as a dialog between the two speakers Cosmiel and Theodidactus. As already mentioned, Theodidactus represents Kircher himself and puts the questions, and Cosmiel gives the answers.

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Two scholia follow. The first is about the location of the proper center of each heavenly body (De centro singulis astris propio). The answer is that such a center is the Earth, against what is said to have been proposed by Copernicus, and followed by “many very important philosophers and mathematicians” (plurimi gravissimi philosophi ac mathematici), such as, among them, Galileo and Kepler. Again, we see a recognition of the acceptance of the Copernican system by most contemporary astronomers. Finally, the Earth is at the world center not by its nature but by God’s ordination (Dei ordinatione). In consequence, the Earth is different from the rest of heavenly bodies because it has “a fixed place in the universe” (Terra locum fixum in Universo). The second scholium is about if heavenly bodies are moved by “intelligences” (An astra moveantur ab Intelligentiis?), that is, by “spiritual agents” or angels. Accepting that there are other opinions, such as, that the heavenly bodies are moved by their own “forms” or by themselves (a propia forma seu ab intrinseco), Kircher follows the traditional idea that they are moved by intelligences or angels, which he adds it is according to the Sacred Scriptures. Here only a theological argument is presented to still hold a position already abandoned by most astronomers although not explained until Newton’s proposal of the gravitational force. It is surprising that Kircher still held this position.

Dialog I J ourneys to Moon, Venus, Mercury, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Firmament In Dialog I, Kircher begins with an introduction about the origin and motive of the work (De causa et origine huius Opusculi). He affirms that he has dedicated great efforts to the study of astronomy aided in the observations by the use of the telescope (tubi astronomici subsidio), his relationships with other astronomers, and the study of their works. This is important since he is not often considered an observational astronomer. The first dialog contains eight parts or preambles about the Moon, Venus, Mercury, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the firmament with the fixed stars. Theodidactus, representing Kircher, begins his space journey carried by Cosmiel who will take him from the Earth to the different heavenly bodies beginning with the Moon to the stars and beyond to the last boundaries of the universe. Kircher follows the order of the presentation according to the traditional geocentrical system, although he is following Riccioli’s system. The Moon The first journey to the Moon begins with a long first chapter by Schott which treats some of its characteristics, such as phases, spots (topography), atmosphere, nature, and structure. A long list is given of modern astronomers who have observed the Moon, including Galileo, Michael van Langren (Langenus) (1598–1675), Hevelius,

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Francesco Fontana (1585–1656), and especially the Jesuits Scheiner, Riccioli, and Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1613–1663). On the Moon’s topography, Schott makes special reference to the detailed map of the Moon’s surface by Grimaldi and Riccioli published in Riccioli’s Almagestum Novum. The existence of an atmosphere in the Moon is accepted, citing, among others, Kepler, Galileo, Christian Longomontano (1562–1647), and Bruno. The Moon is considered to be a “dense and opaque body of spherical shape that reflects the light of the Sun,” as evidenced by the eclipses, and its nature is probably similar to that of the Earth with mountains, seas, lakes, and rivers. It is made clear that the Moon’s nature is similar to that of the Earth and not of a different heavenly substance as proposed in the traditional Aristotelian doctrine. Kircher’s text begins with the first dialogue between Theodidactus and Cosmiel, as they begin their space journey. Theodidactus expresses his desire to know about the nature of “the harmony of the heavenly globes” which he compares with a piece of marvelous music. A similar idea about the harmony of the celestial bodies had been proposed by Kepler in his Harmonices Mundi (1619). Cosmiel answers that he has been sent, as “a minister of God the Highest and Genius of the World,” (Minister Dei altissimi et Mundi Genius), to show him, in so far as it is allowed for men, the nature of the heavens, and Theodidactus recognizes himself to be unworthy of this favor. Thus begins Theodidactus’s first space journey to the Moon carried by Cosmiel. Affected by the cold and difficulties in breathing during the space journey, Cosmiel helps Theodidactus with some “celestial liquor” that allows him to breathe.

Map of the Moon’s surface (IEC)

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Scholium V presents the face of the Earth seen from space (De facie Terrae ex alto regions aere loco visa). Theodidactus looking back from space distinguishes on the Earth’s surface the European continent, the Mediterranean Sea, and the surrounding Ocean, as well as the American continent, with the sea parts appearing darker than those of land and the bright spots of the ice-covered poles. This is a premonition of the pictures of the Earth from space we are accustomed to see today. A following scholium (Scholium VI) by Schott questions if anywhere on the surface of the Earth can be found the Earthly Paradise of the book of Genesis (De Paradiso terrestri num adhuc extet) giving a negative answer. This is a strange question to raise here showing the mixture of scientific and theological considerations. After the journey finished, standing on the surface of the Moon, Theodicatus and Cosmiel see large oceans, seas, and lakes surrounded by high mountains (Inmensis Oceani, marium, laccumque et montibus altisimis circumdatae), that is, a topography like that on Earth. However, no plants or trees, or animals are found like on the Earth (nullum hoc loco vegetabile simile terrestris nec animalia ulla). To Theodidactus’ question about this absence, Cosmiel gives a theological answer that plants and animals are created by God for men who inhabit only the Earth. A natural reason is also given for this absence in the thinness of the air (subtilitas aeris), so that animals cannot breathe. Kircher adds that in case that there were men on the moon they would be of a very different nature from that of those on Earth (omnino differentis naturae a terrestris Mundi hominibus). Schott in his Scholium VII presents also a long commentary about this subject with opinions about the Moon’s inhabitants (An sint homines, animalia, plantae in Luna aut in aliis planetis et astris) that some accept, mentioning as among the old the Pythagoreans, Xenophon (431–354  B.C.) and Plutarch (46–119), and among the modern Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464) and Kepler. Then other questions follow, such as the motion of the Moon around the Earth, that there is no fire above the Moon air but only in some concave spaces inside the Moon; about the phases of the Earth seen from the Moon; about the existence of days and nights in the Moon, and the center of the orbit of the Moon. Finally, the Moon is considered again to be made of the four terrestrial elements: earth, water, air, and fire of Aristotelian physics like the Earth, the other planets, and the Sun and not of a special heavenly substance. Venus The second journey is from the Moon to Venus. Schott’s introduction affirms that already some in ancient times, and almost all in modern times put Venus orbiting around the Sun, not the Earth, and he mentions among others Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Galileo, Kepler, and the Jesuits Riccioli and Scheiner. As in other parts, many references are made to Riccioli’s book, Almagestum Novum that follows Brahe’s system. Kircher’s story of the journey of Cosmiel and Theodidactus to Venus reports that while still from a far distance, it appears as “bright and humid” as if it were made of very resplendent crystal (splendidissima crystallo compositus) but not like the Earth. There are mountains and seas, but seas of a special type of water. However, Kircher points out that man could baptize a person with this kind

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of water, not really a very practical question to consider. Theodidactus sees a group of young men with flowers and musical instruments, but Cosmiel correct him that they are really angels not men (Hi quos vides speciosos juvenes non homines, sed angeli sunt). Theodidactus looking back to the Earth so far away, he sees it just like a large star illuminated by the Sun.

Phases of Venus going around the Sun and seen from the Earth (IEC)

Mercury The following stop of the journey is at Mercury which, as in the case of Venus, is also thought to move around the Sun, not around the Earth, and to rotate rapidly about its axis every 6 h (in fact very slowly every 59 days). On its surface, as in Venus, there are seas and mountains. Above all, Kircher considers Mercury’s influence over the Earth on plants, animals, and men (virtutis Mercurialis in terram). This influence on men has a physical and a moral aspect regarding their actions. This leads to a long discussion on the general problem of the influence of heavenly bodies on human conduct, rejecting the common doctrine of astrologists that makes it to be absolute. Kircher maintains that God has made man free so that he can

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follow or not this influence. He mentions the inteligences or angels which move Mercury and their marvelous appearances and the fact that in Mercury there is no night as the part opposite to the Sun is illuminated by the light coming from Venus. Finally, in a scholium, Kircher presents the appearances of the Sun and near planets seen from Mercury. The Sun Special treatment is given by Schott to the Sun in a preamble (Praelusio in Solem). He calls the Sun: the “eye of the World, grace, and beauty of heavens, the pleasure of days, the origin of life, heart of nature, father of gold and gems, moderator of time, prince of stars, king of heavenly bodies, source of light, a miracle of the heavens, most beautiful image of God, three times great and best.” This invocation shows the importance that is given to the Sun in rather baroque terms. Schott’s commentary begins with the nature of the Sun, that is, fire, the fourth of the Aristotelian terrestrial elements and not a heavenly substance. As in other parts, he begins with the testimony of Greek philosophers, such as Anaxagoras, Democrito, and Plato. Of recent authors, he quotes first the Jesuits, Scheiner, Borri, and Biancani, and then Copernicus and Kepler among others. Especially, he quotes Scheiner’s book on the Sun, Rosa Ursina sive de Sole (1630) which was the subject of a controversy with Galileo about the priority in the discovery of sunspots.

Surface of the Sun with sunspots and fulgurations (IEC)

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As for the other heavenly bodies Schott refutes the traditional Aristotelian opinion that the Sun is made of a special incorruptible heavenly substance (ether) and affirms it is made up of fire, “very true and real fire” (verissimus et realissimus ignis), and refutes seven arguments against the fiery nature of the Sun. From this fire comes the very intense light of the Sun (lux intensissima). A presentation follows on the sunspots and fulgurations (De maculis et faculis Solis) where he follows mainly Scheiner’s work on the subject. Schott mentions that our knowledge of these features of the Sun has been improved by the use of telescopes (armatos telescopio oculos). Then a list of 15 authors who have written on the subject from Galileo to Riccioli is given. The number of sunspots between 33 and 50 (sunspots vary with time between 45 and 130) is given. The Sun’s rotation about its axis is presented, quoting mainly Kepler. Schott’s presentation finishes with a discussion about the structure and nature of the Sun and sunspots. After considering several opinions, among them that they are shadows of bodies around the Sun, Schott decides sunspots are like soot surging from the oven of the Sun itself (fuligines aut vapores ex furnace solaris globi ebullientes), and this is also Kircher’s opinion. This is explained later in more detail. Fulgurations (faculas) are formed by “fire globes” (globos igneos) surging from the Sun itself. Kircher’s text follows the journey of Cosmiel and Theodidactus from Mercury to the Sun. He dedicates a long treatment of 50 pages to the Sun, divided into eight scholia. It begins with the composition of the Sun which is made up of both liquid and solid fire (ex solido et liquido igneo), not to be compared with anything in Earth, a discrepancy from Schott. Then sunspots and fulgurations are discussed and the motion of what Kircher calls “Sun’s comets.” Kircher maintains that all heavenly bodies can produce comets, that is bodies rotating around them, and thus there are terrestrial and solar comets, and comets produced by the other planets. Terrestrial comets are considered to be in the atmosphere as Aristotle thought of all comets. Finally, Kircher discusses the vortices of heavenly bodies, the eccentric orbit of the Sun around the Earth, and the speed of its diurnal motion. Since he did not accept the rotation of the Earth, he maintains a threefold motion of the Sun: first the daily rotation around the Earth, the annual, and monthly motion. This part is preceded by a long introduction by Schott also defending this traditional position. Finally, Kircher considers the splendid nature of the Sun like a “golden crystal” (crystallum aureum), forming the atrium of the “empyrean heavens” inhabited by the Seraphic angels. A theological touch could not be missed. Mars The next stop on the journey is Mars. Schott’s introduction deals first with the figure of Mars as deduced from astronomical observations, its influence upon the sublunary world, and its nature and structure. In Kircher’s narrative, once Cosmiel and Theodidactus arrive at Mars, Theodidactus asks Cosmiel to explain the mysteries of this planet (huius globi mysteria). Cosmiel explains that its surface is full of active volcanos producing continuous fire, and its material is made of sulfur and arsenic

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(earthly materials). Like all the other heavenly bodies, Mars is also made of the four earthly elements. Thus, there is a further refutation of the Aristotelian special heavenly nature of the heavenly bodies. The large spots observed on Mars from the Earth are like large vortices. Mars’ influence on Earth is to excite in man the choleric humor (cholericum in inferioribus movere humorem). This malign influence is permitted by Divine Providence as there are poisonous plants and animals on Earth. An added touch of theology here also. Mars’ light is said to come principally from the Sun but also from its volcanic sources which provide its reddish color. Six scholia follow that treat several subjects, namely, the phases of Mars as illuminated by the Sun and seen from the Earth; how Mars’s own light sources from volcanic craters and oceans contribute to its reddish brightness; the origin of Mars’s red color (rubro colore tictum) which is produced by the sulfur seas and their evaporations. The distances from Mars to Earth, Moon, Venus, Mercury, Sun, Jupiter, Saturn, and fixed Stars are taken from Riccioli’s work and given in Earth’s radii (they are not very accurate). Jupiter The next stop of the journey is at Jupiter. Schott’s preamble treats the subjects of Jupiter’s zones or sickles (De zonis seu falciis), its rotation or hurling off around its center; its atmosphere and asperity, and the four stars around Jupiter which are called satellites or companions (satellites seu comites) and their location, motion, etc. Besides Riccioli, he quotes often Anton M. Schyrieus of Rheita (1604–1660), given as Rheita, a non-Copernican astronomer of Czech origin author of a work about the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. Schott puts the question if there are more than four satellites as given for the first time by Galileo, and gives, among other opinions, that of Riccioli who gives six. Schott maintains that four satellites are the largest ones but there are another four, so eight in total, forming what is called the inner regular group, and several others called irregular ones. At present, it is known that Jupiter has 53 named satellites and another 26 awaiting official names. Kircher’s story of the journey to Jupiter begins with the presentation of its nature and the presence of its four satellites. From its surface, Cosmiel and Theodidactus contemplate the Sun. After a short introduction, eight scholia follow where the following subjects are treated: the presence of Jupiter’s four satellites (the Galilean ones) and their distance from the Sun; Jupiter’s wondrous fabric and influence upon the sublunary world; the presence of oceans and mountains in its surface; the nature and structure of its “zones” or “bands” that circle its body; its rotation and orbit around the Earth (following Riccioli); the distance of the four satellites from its center (from Rheita); the phases of Jupiter as seen from the Earth, and finally the “intelligence” or angel that is responsible for its motion.

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Models for the rings of Saturn (IEC)

Saturn Schott’s preamble begins with Saturn’s modern observations and of its structure and the “rings” (De structura Saturni et Comitum eius), not yet recognized as such, and called its “companions.” Saturn’s rings have been discovered through observations with the aid of the telescope, beginning with those of Galileo. Saturn’s rings were interpreted at that time in different ways, mainly as two bodies near its surface with various proposals, such as by Riccioli of two smaller round bodies on both sides; by Zucchi of two non-round bodies, by Grimaldi of two separated spherical sectors, and by Fontana of two sectors united with the main body. The rings were for the first time correctly interpreted by Huygens in 1655 and were not known to Schott or Kircher. Other phenomena of Saturn and its companions’ bodies (the rings) are given according to various opinions about them by different authors. Kircher’s discussion about the journey to Saturn (Chapter VIII) is divided into nine scholia where different aspects of the planet are presented; first, its nature made of lead and antimony, and the evil effects or influences on Earth, such as storms and earthquakes, and sicknesses in men. A long treatment is given to Saturn’s

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“companions” (Saturni comites), the term used for its rings, which were not yet recognized as such, and why they make so different figures concerning the planet. He questions if Saturn’s companions (rings), as observed, have also proper light or are only illuminated by the Sun. Then Kircher treats Saturn’s size and its distance from Earth, the Sun, and other planets, taken from Rheita, its motion and that of its companions (rings), and finally some other aspects and elements of Saturn. From Saturn, Theodidactus and Cosmiel can see, further out, the Earth and all the other planets including the Sun and the Moon. As a curiosity, Theodidactus sees the angels moving Saturn dressed as the philosophers of antiquity. The Firmament In Chapter IX, the last stage of the heavenly journey to the fixed stars is presented. The stars are considered to be the greatest work of God’s infinite wisdom (summum Dei Optimi Maximi infinitae sapientiae opificium). The preamble by Schott considers first the number of fixed stars, many of them recently detected by the telescope and not seen before. According to Riccioli it is not incredible that they may be more than two million. So, Schott finishes by saying that the number is known only by God. Regarding the distance of the stars from the Earth, he begins by saying that it is probable that the distance beyond Saturn to the stars is not the same for all of them, as it was already the common opinion of many astronomers. This is against the traditional idea that all stars are distributed on the surface of a sphere at the same distance from the Earth. As Schott did not accept the Earth’s rotation, he was still considering the traditional doctrine of the diurnal rotation of the fixed stars around the Earth with a center at the Pole Star. Some estimates are given of the distance to the stars by geocentric astronomers, ranging in Earth’s radii from 13,000 by Tycho Brahe to 20 million by Reitha, and by Copernican astronomers of an immense one. In 1576, the English astronomer Thomas Digges (1545–1595), who defended the Copernican system, had already proposed that the stars are distributed at different distances over an infinite space beyond Saturn’s orbit. Today we know that the universe extends to a distance of 13,800 million light-years (a light year equals 9.5 × 1012 km) with an innumerable number of stars grouped into galaxies, one of them our galaxy the Milky Way with a diameter of 90,000 light-years of which the Sun is one of its billion stars. The closest star is Proxima Centauri at 4.2 light-years distance and the closest galaxy Andromeda at 2.5 million light-years. Neither Kircher nor Schott could have been aware of the enormous dimensions today known of the universe. Kircher’s considerations about the journey of Theodidactus and Cosmiel to the fixed stars are presented in six scholia. In them, several astronomical subjects are dealt with, for example; if all fixed stars are at the same distance from the Earth, a traditional idea that he does not accept (stellae fixae non distant aequaliter omnes a terra), how the stars have their proper light and are not illuminated by the Sun, about the astronomers’ different observations of the fixed stars and their daily motion around the Earth, according to the traditional ideas, and the production of

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their light. After Cosmiel’s explanations about the firmament, Theodidactus expresses that, after he has finished the journey through the whole heavenly region, he does not desire to see anything more. He finishes with a religious consideration that if God has created such marvelous fabric of the heavenly bodies, how much more marvelous will be what God has prepared in the heavens for those who love Him.

Dialog II God’s Providence in the Work of the World The second dialog has the general title: “God’s providence in the brightly manifesting work of the World” (De providentia Dei in Mundi opificio eluscente). The text continues as the dialog with Theodidactus putting the questions and Cosmiel giving the answers. A large number of different subjects, mainly of a theological character, are treated in 12 chapters. The first chapter, with title “The Production of the World,” begins with the first verses of the Book of Genesis (Gen 1, 1–5) about God’s creation of the world with the Earth being first created without form and void. Kircher preferentially refers to God, the Creator, with the words Deus Optimus Maximus (God the Best and the Greatest). In a long Scholium I, several subjects are treated, following the account of Genesis. It begins with the creation of the Firmament and the separation of the waters above and below it, following the creation of the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets (Gen 1, 6–9, 14–16). Kircher proposes that God created everything from an elementary “chaotic celestial matter” (chaotica massa coeleste). From this primitive matter, the different things of the world were formed beginning with the four elements (fire, air, water, and earth), thus equating it to the materia prima (prime matter) of the scholastic philosophers. Kircher turns again to the problem of the meaning of the separation of the waters in the text of Genesis and the problem of the terrestrial and heavenly matter having the same nature that we have already seen in several places. The following Chapters II to V deal with the problems of the size of the World; the order of the heavenly bodies; the admirable disposition of the World; the center of all things in the Earth, the distances of the heavenly bodies between themselves, and compared to their distance to the Earth, that show the admirable divine providence; and the motion of incomprehensible velocities of heavenly bodies, moving around the Earth. Thus, Kircher maintains the traditional geocentrism cosmology with all heavenly bodies turning around the Earth. Chapter VI is dedicated to the harmony of the World of sensible things, where he makes the analogy with rational, political, intellectual, and archetypical characters of the World and how things influence each other. In this chapter, Kircher finds a presence of the Trinitarian nature of God also to be present in the structure of the world with the often appearance in nature of the number three and its multiples, for example, the nine heavenly regions or the nine orders of terrestrial elements (Earth, water, air,

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fire, stones, metals, plants, animals, men). In Chapter VII, Kircher returns to the problem of the waters above the heavens; what they are, “really and truly, and their usefulness,” so accepting their existence. Chapters VIII deals with the “Empyrean Heavens,” that is, the inhabitant place of the saints and angels, with questions, such as if it is spherical or square, how large it is, and if it is made of matter and form (the Aristotelian physical components). Kircher recognizes that we cannot comprehend or imagine the great excellence and dignity of what it is the “house of God,” “throne of the Highest,” and “tabernacle of God with men.” He mentions, in particular, the presence in the Empyrean Heavens of the most perfect music. Finally, the two travelers, Theodidactus and Cosmiel, arrive at the last stop of their journey, at what Kircher calls the “imaginary space,” and “the last end of the world” (ultimum mundi terminum). Theodidactus still questions what is beyond the Empyrean Heaven, “Is there nothing? Is there some logical being? Is there some kind of empty space extended to infinity?” (Estne nihil? Estne ens aliquod rationis? Estne vacuum quoddam in infinitum extensum?). Even now these can be considered interesting questions, concerning if there is a limit to the universe, what is beyond this limit, and what do we mean by nothing different from void. To Theodidactus’s question of what is this “nothing,” Cosmiel’s answer is the simple one, that “nothing, is nothing else as nothing” (Nihil, nihil aliud esse quam nihil), adding that this should not be considered a “nonsensical” (nugaris) answer. There is, then, according to Kircher no “imaginary space” outside the world but only the presence itself of God. The last three chapters (X–XII) have an explicit theological character. In the first, Kircher deals with the instauration and consummation of this sensible world. As created by God, the world will be preserved in eternity, not in its present form, but in a new creation, the “new Heavens and new Earth” of the book of Revelation. The purpose of God’s creation of the world can only be for the good of man to be finally achieved in his union with God. Kircher brings the relation of the world with the Christian mystery of the Incarnation of God in Jesus Christ. Christ, as God and man, is united with the whole world, and he is the end of all creation (Christus enim, uti Deus et homo, universae creaturae finis est). Finally, Kircher brings the consideration of the faith in Christ by which God wants men to be saved and the community of the believers in Christ that is the Church. Before the coming of Christ, faith in him was implicit in the Hebrew people as shown in the Scriptures. He concludes that without faith in Christ, explicit or implicit, nobody can be saved (neminem sine fide in Christum vel implicita vel explicita servari potuisse). The last chapter puts the question: “Why is it that as God created so many things for men, so few men, however, obtain eternal salvation, and about God’s hidden judgment.” A modern reader will be surprised to find these theological questions in a supposed text of astronomy, but for Kircher there is a continuity between science, philosophy, and theology, in his approach to the knowledge of the universe. His Christian faith leads him to find the presence of God incarnated in Christ in the world he discovers in his scientific analysis.

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We find here also a similarity with Teilhard de Chardin’s vision of the world that includes besides physics or phenomenology, philosophy and Christian mysticism. His world is the one known today by science as an evolutionary one, not the static geocentric world of Kircher. However, for Teilhard, as for Kircher, the scientific vision of a now evolutionary world leads him to find the presence of Christ, as the “Cosmic-Christ,” present in the world and constituting the final end of the whole evolutionary process including that of humanity. God incarnated in the world in Christ converts the cosmogenesis of the evolutionary process into a “Christogenesis” where, finally, everything will converge into what Teilhard calls the “Christ-Omega.”4 In an epilog, the dialog between Cosmiel and Theodidactus continues with the consideration of how this marvelous journey and the contemplation of God’s work in the universe must lead to the recognition of His honor and glory (Itinerarium Exstaticum ad Omnipotentis Dei honorem et gloriam). In the conclusion (Conclusio operis), Kircher presents the space journey and the dialog between Cosmiel and Theodidactus as a form to present his overall vision of the universe including all its different aspects. A list of 38 works is finally added, which have been used, among them, those by the pioneers of modern science: Galileo, Hevelius, Gassendi, Descartes, Marsenne, and Torricelli. Another part called “apologetics” lists answers to the censures of some propositions excerpted from Kircher’s text. It contains six propositions of theological and philosophical character and Kircher’s and Schott’s responses to them. A further approval (Apologeticon) with six propositions is added by Melchior Cornaeus (1598–1665), a German Jesuit professor of philosophy and theology in Toulouse.

Ecstatic Journey II A second part is added to the last edition being considered here of the Iter exstaticum coeleste, which deals with the structure of the terrestrial globe. Kircher explains, in the preface to the reader, the aim of this new part, and the cause and origin of this added small work as a complement to the heavenly journey. It consists of three dialogs, the first about the world of water (oceans), of Theodidactus with a new personage, Hydriel, the name indicating an angel related to water and the other two with Cosmiel about the terrestrial world, including plants and animals, and the subterranean world. This part is based on Kircher’s work Mundus Subterraneus which has been already presented in Chapter Three. Many things are repeated here that we have already seen, but presented in a different form. The Preface to the reader presents the aim of the project of the new part what Kircher calls “the cause and order of this small work.” Subjects specially mentioned are the constitution of native terrestrial parts, the nature of some particular places, the qualities of thermal fountains,  François Euvé, Pour une spiritualité du Cosmos. Découvrir Teilhard de Chardin (Paris: Salvator, 2015); Agustín Udías, Christogenesis: The Development of Teilhard’s Cosmic Christology. Teilhard Studies 59 (New York: American Teilhard Association, 2009). 4

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the properties of winds, nature of minerals, metals, and of plants and animals, and finally the richness of the hidden subterranean world.

Dialog I The Water Element and the Universal Principle of Things The first dialog, about the “need and usefulness of the Water element in the nature of things,” begins with the presentation of the cosmic angel Hydriel, as the one in charge of the water element (Ego vocor Hydriel, et magni illius elementi, quam Aquam vocant, personam gero). Hydriel shows Theodidactus a high mountain from which a large fountain and river take its origin and he tells him that the water comes through hidden underground conducts from the ocean. Thus, all water on the Earth forms a unified system with oceans, lakes, rivers, and fountains communicating between them by hidden underground and surface channels and conduits. In the interior of the Earth the conduits are what Kircher calls the hydrophylacia, as we already saw in Chapter Three about the Mundus Subterraneus. These channels are continuously refilled so that water never fails to run through them, being driven by the tides of the oceans which are produced by the influence of the Moon. The main conduit of the hydrophylacia goes from the Artic to the Antarctic pole closing the surface currents of the oceans which run from south to north. The effect of the subterranean channels of winds and fires (aerophylacia and pyrophylacia) is added to this system of water. This flow of water through the subterranean channels and conduits is the cause of the waters to be full of all kinds of salts and minerals which produce their different colors and flavors, and their medicinal properties. The connection of the hydrophylacia with the pyrophylacia determines the thermal properties of fountains with the influence of fire on water. This can be especially seen in volcanic regions such as Aetna and Vesuvius. Then the description of the influence of the meteors on waters and the Sun and Moon follows. Finally, it is shown that water has an important relationship with plants and animals.

Dialog II The Admirable Arcane of the Geocosmos or Terrestrial World In the second dialog, the interlocutor is again the “very kind and reminder” Cosmiel (suavissimi Cosmielis mei memor) and begins with a general presentation of the external face of the Earth which he calls the “Geocosmos” (terrestrem mundum quem Geocosmum appello) as we saw already in Chapter Three (Mundus Subterraneus). First of all, Cosmiel gives several solutions to various doubts about

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the constitution of the Geocosmos. The first is the purpose of the creation of the world which is for the Earth, the Earth for man, and man for God (mundum propter terram, terram propter hominem, hominem vero propter Deum). Theodidactus argues that if everything in the Geocomos is for the good of man, how is it that there are so many dangerous things, such as wild animals and natural disasters. Cosmiel answers that we do not understand the hidden purposes of creation and divine Providence. Following the text of Genesis, Cosmiel explains how God created a “chaotic mass” (chaotica massa) from which He extracted and separated everything. Kircher uses here the Aristotelian term “entelechy” (Entelechia), the vital principle which acts on the development of the seed of the world into the innumerable forms of individual things. Cosmiel explains to Theodidactus how this entelechy is like the light or form of the primal chaotic mass of the world by which the seeds of all things are separated and distinguished to form individual things of all kinds. The entelechy is said also to act through the influence of the heavenly bodies on the geocosmos. Kircher uses this complicated process to explain how God’s creation of the world proceeds from an undifferentiated primitive primal matter to the different individual material elements, plants, and animals. Another subject proposed is that the Geocosmos, also called here Megacosmos, which appears to be solid, is full of a variety of “Microcosmos” in the many underground channels and caves, also called “gazophylacia,” of which the Earth is full. Among other purposes, these cavities serve to put in contact the water from the oceans to that of lakes and rivers, as was already explained by Hydriel. A special Microcosmos is the human body (Microcosmus, id est, humani corporis fabrica), and comparing the Geocosmos with the human body, the water behaves in the Earth like the blood, bringing life to its different parts by the added influence of the Sun and Moon. The comparison between the two is extended to many other aspects so that almost nothing is found in one that is not found in the other (nihil pene sit neque in Megacosmo neque in Microcosmo). Then follows how plants and animals arise and live by the occult virtue of the Panspermia (all seeds) of which nature is full of. Kircher proposes that at the beginning of creation, a “virtue” or “force” was communicated to all living things by a force from the “forces of the panspermia” (panspermatica virtute), as we saw already in Chapter Three. In the beginning, this force gave origin to plants and animals of all kinds, as Kircher interprets what is written in the creation story of the book of Genesis. In consequence, it is explained how the primordial universal seeds of the world (panspermia) contribute to the composition of “mixed things,” that is, things of composite nature. First, following the order of creation in the book of Genesis, Kircher deals with the birth, nature, and “forces” (vires) of plants. Then he deals with the birth and forces of all “sensitive nature” (sensitiva natura), that is, of animals. Kircher divides animals into five categories: quadrupeds, birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects. Of each category, its nature, life, movement, qualities, industry, forces, and operations are described. All are produced from the primal seeds (panspermia) originally present on the Earth. Special sections are dedicated to the origin of birds, fishes, and insects (Avium genesis, Aquatilium genesis, … genesis Insectorum). Birds of which there are more

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types and are “more beautiful than quadrupeds” are said to be as diverse as plants. All birds are also said to have been created in some way from a mixture of the primal seeds dispersed in the air, and the nature of their eggs is explained. The variety of colors and types of feathers are explained as being due to the different compositions of the mixture of the basic elements of sulfur, mercury, and salts from which everything is formed as we saw in Chapter Three. The species of fishes are said to be almost infinite (infinita fere sint piscium genera) and their origin is from the universal seeds that are participated and dispersed in the water element. Sizes vary from large whales to small fishes and shellfishes. Kircher divides insects into three types, with wings (volatilia), those dragging, including worms and serpents (reptilia), and with many feet (multipedia). Insects are produced from plants, animals, and the putrefaction of terrestrial matter. They concentrate on themselves the rotten and poisonous elements present in the air, water, and earth, so that they will not affect plants and animals. As with everything else in the geocosmos, they all serve also for some hidden purpose.

Dialog III Ecstatic Journey to the Subterranean World The last dialog between Cosmiel and Theodidactus deals with the subterranean world and begins with the exploration of the extrinsic and intrinsic constitution of the seas and the animals present in them. For this journey inside the seas and the underground hydrophylacia, Cosmiel has made “by his hands” a small ship (navicula) of transparent crystal (ex purissima crystallo mei manu constructa), something like what we could call a small submarine, which allows them to travel through the water. Another of Kircher’s premonitions. So, they discover that there are in the interior of the seas all kinds of animals, including “horrendous marine monsters,” and different kinds of plants. With their submarine, Cosmiel and Theodidactus enter through the mouth of a whale in its interior which Kircher describes. Leaving the interior of the whale, they continue their journey with the exploration of the bottom of the seas and the communications of the seas with the oceans where different types of fishes are found especially whales, killer whales, and dolphins. More interest has Cosmiel’s and Theodidactus’ encounter with half-human half-fish mermaids and tritons (Tritones enim et sirenes). Kircher accepts mermaids’ existence and describes them in the traditional form with beautiful faces and lively eyes (faciem quidem pulchram oculorum vivacitate). He claims that rests of them have been found by fishers in India and the Philippines. Cosmiel and Theodidactus also find a more extraordinary monster or “marine dragon” (draco marinus) that sometimes is said to have attacked ships. Kircher presents the consideration of the exploration of the arcane subterranean world, especially its fire reservoirs (Ignea subterranei Mundi). The Earth’s body or

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geocosmos is thoroughly penetrated by the already mentioned three systems of channels, namely, aerophylacia, hydrophylacia, and pyrophylacia as we saw already in Chapter Three, which distribute in its interior air, water, and fire, and which are like the veins which distribute the blood in the animals and human bodies or microcosmos. Finally, the dialog considers, in particular, the third subterranean system of conducts, that of fire or pyrophylacia. As Cosmiel remarks, this is something that has never been seen by human eyes (nunquam ab humano oculo visa). To protect Theodidactus from the fiery nature of the pyrophylacia, Cosmiel pours out on his head a marvelous liquor of incredible virtue against the flames. They begin with the pyrophylacia which connect on the Earth’s surface with the volcanoes in South America, especially those of the Chilean Andes, and are the causes of the production of minerals and metals. In this process, as explained by Cosmiel, the pyrophylacia by nature hot and dry get in contact with the hydrophylacia which provide the cold and humid element to produce different metals and minerals. In this process, enter the active influence of the heavenly bodies, that is, planets, Moon and Sun, on the basic sulfur-mercury-salt composition of the Earth to produce all kinds of metals, including silver and gold, as we saw in the part about metals in Mundus subterraneus in Chapter Three. Cosmiel and Theodidactus proceed to the deepest parts of the pyrophylacia where they find more abundant veins or streaks of metals and where they experience tremendous lightning and thunders. Finally, in the subterranean caves, Theodidactus finds some strange evil creatures. Cosmiel calls them “Cacodemons” (Cacodaemones), damned creatures who tempt men, especially those working in mines, to do evil acts. In a religious ascetic epilog (Epilogus Asceticus) Kircher considers about the various means to attain eternal happiness from the point of view of Christian theology. This theological consideration has to be seen in the context of Kircher’s unified approach to the world which includes also religious considerations. Cosmiel begins explaining that the world has been created for man, since angels being of spiritual nature have no use for material things. After the fall of man (the story of Adam and Eve in the book of Genesis), the Divine Wisdom, the Word and Son of God the Father (Dei Sapientia, Verbum et filius Patris), became man, that is, Jesus Christ, to reconcile men with God and recall them to life. Thus, everything in the geocosmos, all celestial bodies, and all the works of men from Adam to the present are directed to attain man’s beatific vision of the divine Trinity promised by Christ, the Eternal Truth. All things in the world are finally the effect of the Divine Love and are directed to man’s achievement of the “form of God” (Theomorphosis) or union with Him, and together with all the choirs of the angels. Theodidactus finishes saying that all that is contained in this journey must be considered to be finally to God’s glory and the salvation of men. As a final addition, it follows a “synopsis,” or summary of the contents of the presentation of the subterranean world, divided into ten parts with the subtitle: “About the interior and the exterior of the terrestrial globe which we call Geocosmos, its constitution and structure.” The titles of the ten parts are given each by a single word, namely, Centrographic (Centrographicus), Cosmic (Cosmicus), Geotactic, (Geotacticus), Meteorologic (Meteorologicus), Metaloscopic (Metalloscopus), Phyto-zoographic (Phyto-Zoographus), Chemical (Chemicus), Magic (Magicus), Medicinal (Iatricus), Mechanic (Mechanicus).

Chapter 6

Conclusion

Kircher’s three books, which have been presented and commented on, concern his cosmological geocentric vision of the world, from the interior of the Earth to the limits of the firmament, including also the nature of material, living beings and men from the point of view of science, philosophy, and theology. In the middle of the seventeenth century, Kircher finds himself positioned between the conservation of the principles of the traditional Aristotelian scholastic natural philosophy prevalent in Middle Age Europe and the acceptance of the new proposals of the beginnings of modern science. He accepts some and rejects some of both as we have seen. The first book, Mundus subterraneus, presents not only the underground world but an overall picture of what he calls the “mysteries of the Geocosmos,” using the term Geocosmos for the Earth as the center of the universe. He addresses a great variety of subjects of the three realms of nature, inanimate matter, plants, and animals, as well as what man can achieve by his work imitating those processes present in nature. Kircher’s presentation of the composition of the interior of the Earth with a central fire and the three systems of conduits of water fire and air to explain fountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes will inspire future geologists. The water system on the Earth is understood as a unity with a connection between all oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and fountains. The living world of plants and animals is also considered as part of the geocosmos. Kircher rejects the claims of alchemists of transforming metals into gold and opens the doors to the beginning of chemistry as a natural science. The atomistic composition of matter, however, is explicitly rejected, although with the proposal of the panspermia something similar is suggested. The book can be thought about as a great encyclopedia full of lights and shadows, some interesting insights, and also a lot of fantasy, where Kircher attempts to find a natural explanation for the phenomena he presents claiming to be based always on observations and experiments. In some areas, Kircher shows at times little critical judgment, accepting the existence of marvelous animals like dragons, strange fossils, stones with human and animal figures, underground men, and demons. He is in many aspects free from the strict Aristotelian natural philosophy, for example, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1_6

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presenting material things made up of the universal sulfur-mercury-salt matrix of alchemy. In his treatment of inanimate matter, plants, and animals, there is a continuous proposal of problems and experiments, although it is difficult to believe that many of them were ever carried out and even if they can be carried out at all. In many instances, information from other authors, some of them provided by Jesuit missionaries from exotic lands, is uncritically accepted. No wonder this book was a best-seller in the society of his time eager for all kinds of novelties. Kircher dedicated, Magnes, sive de arte magnetica, two other books and parts of others to the phenomenon of magnetism, which he considers in a very inclusive way, not only from the physical point of view, with the treatment of the properties of magnets and terrestrial magnetism but considering it also as a kind of cosmic and spiritual force. Terrestrial magnetism and the problem of magnetic declination are important parts of his work, where he limited himself to the experimental aspects. Kircher collected a large number of worldwide observations of magnetic declination and proposed representing them in a “magnetic map” which regretfully he failed to present. He discusses the possibility that such a map could help in the determination of geographical longitudes at sea. Kircher’s acceptance of the traditional geocentric cosmology prevented him to accept Gilbert’s main proposal that the Earth itself is a large magnet, the basic tenet of the modern science of terrestrial magnetism, that led him to a wrong explanation for the origin of magnetic declination. Finally, he goes beyond the physical problems and considers magnetism as a cosmic and spiritual force that permeates everything including plants and animals and finally identifies it with love and recognizes its origin in the Trinitarian mystery of Christian faith. The third book, Iter exstaticum coeleste, can be considered as a kind of summary of Kircher’s vision of the universe. It contains also large introductions by Schott which complete the scientific aspects of the different topics. Kircher’s text is in the form of a dream he had of a space journey from the Earth to beyond the stars, visiting the Moon, Sun, and planets. The journey is continued in the Earth through the water elements of oceans, and in its interior through the air, water, and fire channels. This literary form allows Kircher a more attractive presentation and more freedom in the subjects treated. Although he recognizes the already widely acceptance of the Copernican system, he presents the universe according to Tycho Brahe’s geo-heliocentric system with still the center at the Earth but with the planets rotating around the Sun. This allows Kircher to retain the Earth or the Geocomos, at the center of the universe, so that many aspects of Aristotelian physics are preserved. However, some other aspects are rejected such as the nature of the heavenly bodies made of a special celestial substance. He insists that all bodies in the universe are made of the same terrestrial substances found in the Earth. In Kircher’s and Schott’s introductions to the different parts of the book, the positions of other authors are presented, especially, those of the initiators of modern science, such as Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Gilbert, that in general he does not always accept. In addition to the scientific vision of the universe, Kircher treats in the dialogs a variety of philosophical and theological questions.

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For a modern reader, as already mentioned in the introduction, it is interesting to follow the lights and shadows of Kircher’s vision of the Earth and the universe presented in these three books. Besides the strict historical interest for an author of the seventeenth century, his views resonate today as an open view of the universe in which the marvelous also has a place. Although he failed to accept the Copernican system and the atomistic composition of matter, already proposed in his time by the initiators of modern science, he abandoned many traditional Aristotelian principles and dares to propose conducts of air, water, and fire in the interior of the Earth and the existence of lakes and mountains on the surface of the Moon and planets. He extends magnetism as a cosmic and spiritual force that today we can only accept as an allegoric consideration. We must forgive Kircher his acceptance of the existence of marvelous things such as dragons, mermaids, and giants that he describes in so great detail, and finally we can join him in his space journey through the heavenly bodies and the interior Earth, discovering all types of marvelous things. His many philosophical and theological considerations are also of interest today. As a Christian thinker, he views the world as created by God and in which He has been incarnated in Christ. Science, philosophy, and theology in this way are joined in his vision of the universe.

 ppendix A: Books on Athanasius Kircher A Published from 2000 to 2022

Ingrid D.  Rowland, The Ecstatic Journey: Athanasius Kircher in Baroque Rome (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000). Eugenio Lo Sardo, Athanasius Kircher; il museo del mondo (Rome: De Luca, 2001). Leandro Sequeiros, El Geocosmos de Athanasius Kircher: un encuentro con la filosofía y con la teología desde las ciencias de la naturaleza en el siglo XVII (Granada: Facultad de Teología de Granada, 2001). Ignacio Gómez de Liaño, Athanasius Kircher: Itinerario del éxtasis o las imágenes de un saber universal (Madrid: Siruela, 2001). Anton Haakman, De onderaardse wereld van Athanasius Kircher (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 2001). Daniel Stolzenberg (ed.) The Great Art of Knowing: The Baroque Encyclopedia of Athanasius Kircher (Stanford: Stanford University Libraries, 2001). Wilhem Ritz, Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) und seine Vaterstadt Geisa, Rhön (Geisa: Rhönklub-Zweigverein Geisa, 2002). Catherina Marrone, I geroglifi fantastici di Athanasius Kircher (Rome: Stampa Alternativa e Graffiti, 2002). Davide Arecco, Il sogno di Minerva: La scienza fantastica di Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) (Padua: CLEUP Editrice, 2002). Horst Beinlich, Christoph Daxelmüller, Hans-Joachim Vollrath and Klaus Wittstaddt (eds.), Magie des Wissens. Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680). Universalgelehrter, sammler, Visionär (Dettelbach: J. H. Röll, 2002). Horst Beinlich, Hans-Joachim Vollrath and Klaus Wittstaddt (eds.), Spurensuche: Wege zu Athanasius Kircher (Dettelbach: J. H. Röll, 2002). Paula Findlen (ed.), Athanasius Kircher: The Last Man Who Knew Everything (New York and London: Routledge, 2004). Anna María Partini, Athanasius Kircher e l’achimia: Testi scelti e commentati (Rome: Edizioni Mediterranee, 2004).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1

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Harald Siebert, Die grosse kosmologische Kontroverse. Rekonstruktionsversuche anhand des Itinerarium exstaticum von Athanasius Kircher SJ (1602–1680). (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2006). Federico Vercellone e Alessandro Bertinetto, Athanasius Kircher e l’idea di scienza (Milan: Mimesis Edizioni, 2007). Cybèle Valera, Ad sidera per Athanasius Kircher (Rome: Gangemi, 2008). Joscelyn Godwin, Athanasius Kircher’s Theatre of the World. The Life and Work of the Last Man to Search for Universal Knowledge. (Rochester (Vermont): Inner Traditions, 2009). Giunia Totaro, L’autobiographie d’Athanasius Kircher (Caen: Leia, Université de Caen, 2009). Flavia De Luca, Vita del Reverendo Padre Athanasius Kircher: Autobiografia (Rome: La Lepre Edizioni, 2010). Angela Mayer-Deutsch, Das Museum Kircherianum. Kontemplative Momente, historische Rekonstruktion (Zürich: Bildrhetorik, 2010). John E. Fletcher, A Study of the Life and Works of Athanasius Kircher “Germanus Incredibilis” (Edited for publication by Elizabeth Fletcher) (Leiden: Brill, 2011). John Glassie, A Man of Misconceptions: The Life of an Eccentric in an Age of Change (New York: Riverhead Books, 2012). Harry B. Evans, Exploring the Kingdom of Saturn: Kircher’s Latium and its Legacy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012). Leandro Sequeiros, Athanasius Kircher (1601–1680), sabio jesuita y ocultista. (Córdoba: Bubok, 2013). Daniel Stolzenberg, Egyptian Oedipus: Athanasius Kircher and the Secrets of Antiquity (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013). Iva Lelkova, Sny o mnohosti světu: Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), John Wilkins (1614–1672) a jejich obraz vesmíru (Cerveny Kostelec: Pavel Mervart, 2015). Tina Asmussen, Scientia Kircheriana: Die Fabrikation von Wissen bei Athanasius Kircher (Affalterbach: Didymos-Verlag, 2016). Giuliano Mori, I geroglifi e la croce: Athanasius Kircher tra Eggito e Roma (Pisa: Edizioni della Normale, 2016). Marilee Peters, The Man who Knew Everything: The Strange Life of Athanasius Kircher (Toronto: Annick Press, 2017). Iva Lelkova, Athanasius Kircher, Philipp Jakob Sachs von Löwenheim a přírodni filosofie v českých zemích 17. Století (Cerveny Kostelec: Pavel Mervart, 2018). Camilla Fiore, Athanasius Kircher. Natura e antico nella Roma del seicento (Rome: De Luca Editori d’Arte, 2020). Renate Lachmann, Rhetorik und Wissenspoetik Studien zu Texten on Athanasius Kircher bis Miljenko Jergovic (Bielefeld: Trascript Lettre, 2022).

 ppendix B: Table of Contents of Mundus A subterraneus

MUNDUS SUBTERRANEUS in XIII Libros digestus Preface 1. Occasion of the work and journeys of the author. 2. The horrible earthquake of Calabria in 1638, which during 14 days put the Author in great danger and taught in this occasion great hidden secrets of Nature. 3. Exploration made by the Author of the Vesuvius mount and other islands. Book I (Sections and chapters) Section I: On the marvelous nature of the Center and the greatest work of God. I. Explanations of definitions. II. On the line of direction. III. Paradoxes of the Earth center. Section II: Movement of heavy bodies to the center of the universe. I. Definition of local motion of bodies and impetus. II. Acceleration of natural and violent motion of heavy bodies and its time proportion with respect to the space. III. Motion of bodies on an inclined plane. IV. Motion of a pendulum. V. Parabolic motion of a projectile and its admirable effects. Section III: Consequences that can be deduced from cosmocentric art. I. How the velocity of a heavy body to the center can be determined. Section IV. Applied centrosophia (practical wisdom) I, II. Motion of pendulums. III. Use and advantages. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1

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IV. Use of pendulums in questions regarding geometry. Book II On the admirable work of the terrestrial globe.

I. Aim and purpose of the geocosmos. II. The idea of the terrestrial globe existent in the Divine Mind. III. Nature and composition of the World globes or the stars and how they can influence the inferior worlds. IV. The Sun and its admirable works, forces and properties which influence the terrestrial world. V. Nature and effects of the body of the Moon. VI. Proportion of the globe of the Earth to the Sun and the Moon. VII. Estimation of the structure of the Earth and its dimensions. VIII. The mountains of the Geocosmos and their necessity. IX. The arcane constitution of the mountains. X. Mountains in particular, their arcane structure for human uses. XI. Fire producing mountains or volcanoes. XII. Whether mountains with time decrease and then increase in size and their admirable terrestrial transformation. XIII. Waters or oceans of the Geocosmos and seas which communicate through hidden conducts. XIV. Height of mountains and depth of oceans. The height of Caucasus mountains according to Aristotle. XV. Differences of the World and seas and their admirable history. XVI. Dimensions of the strait of Sicily made by the author in 1638. XVII. The magnetic constitution of the Earth or the skeleton of the Earth. XVIII. The Geocosmos or terrestrial body is not homogeneous but of heterogenous nature. The terrestrial body constat of an admirable variety of things and what are the proper and true terrestrial elements. XIX. Internal constitution of the Geocosmos and its analogy with the members of a human body. XX. Caves and tunnels. The innumerable conducts of the Earth. Book III Hydrography Section 1: Nature of the water element or seas. Continuous motion of seas shaken in all times and their admirable effects produced in the subterranean world. I. Diversity of motions that shake continuously the seas. II. General motion of the sea which is from east to west. III. Motion called currents. IV. General motion of the sea and its effects around the orb of the Earth. Section 2: I. Second general motion of the sea, compound of two contrary motions, ebb and flow of the seas (tides), called increase and decrease of the sea.

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II. Which force or quality of the Moon moves the sea? III. Why the influence of full Moon and new Moon on the sea is the greatest? IV. Why the periodicity of tides in different parts of the Earth is not always six hours and which is the origin of so irregular motion of the sea? V. Why in London in the Tamesis River the maximum of the tide happens at Noon? Astro-Zephyrea (southern) part quadrants. Contrary at Boreal (northern) signs and Euro-Borea place happens the maximum of the tide three hours before the London meridian. VI. Why at the Garone River outlet in France water increases for seven hours and decreases for only three? The contrary happens in Senegal African River where the water of the sea increases in three hours and decreases in eight. VII–VIII. Why the South Sea (South part of Pacific Ocean) near Panama, the tides are so unusual and incredible?. On the contrary in the North Sea (Mari Boreali, Northern part of the Pacific Ocean), near the port “Nombre de Dios” (Panama) and the rest of the coasts of the American continent the tides are normal. IX–X. Admirable tides in Norway largest and most famous in the whole Earth. Section 3: Art plemmyrica (practice of sea tides). I. Use and practice of tides in nautical practice. II. Oceans’ perycyclosis or circulation. III. Ocean salinity its origin and necessity and other accidents of the oceans. IV. Whether salinity is the same in all disperse oceans. Book IV Pyrologus- or about fire Section 1: Nature of subterranean fire, its place and operations. I. Essence and necessity of the subterranean fire. Whether it is a true element. II. When it is a true fire element and where is its true place? III. Subterranean fire diffused through everywhere and why it is permanent in some places and not in others. IV. The Campi Flegrei (Phlegrean Fields, Naples, Italy) in the Agro Puteolano. V. Volcanic mountains in extreme surfaces of the Earth. It is sufficiently demonstrated that the Earth is full of fire. VI. The perennial duration of fire and the small promotion. VII. Description of the Etna (volcano in Sicily, Italy) where it is demonstrated to the eyes as a prototype of subterranean fires with few reasons. VIII. Description of the crater of the Etna. Section 2. Causes, nature, forces, and variety of airs and winds present and dominant in the surface of the Geocosmos and the subterranean cavernal regions I. Causes, division, and definition of multiple winds. II. Winds in general and how and by what cause are produced. III. Periodical or anniversary winds which Greeks call Etesias and their causes.

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IV. Anniversary winds in the ocean observed by Spanish, Dutch, Portuguese, and English sailors. V. Explanation of the causes of diverse winds. VI. Transversal winds and their cause. VII. Origin of undulation and diverse grades of increase and decrease of the impetus of the winds and how can be known by the sound produced. VIII. Nature and properties of winds. IX.  Artificial winds and their production for the recreation and emolument of man. X. There are no meteors produced at the external surface and the aereal region which do not have origin from the subterranean world. XI. It is demonstrated that all meteorological impressions produced above the surface have their origin in the subterranean fire. Book V Origin of lakes, fountains, and rivers. Section 1. Origin, diverse nature, virtues, and properties of lakes, fountains, and rivers: I. Multiple causes of the origin of fountains. II. The principal cause of fountains and rivers. III. The rest of the modes and conditions. IV. Origin of lakes on plains. Section 2. Variety of qualities and differences of waters. I. Simple fountain water, its goodness, and badness. II. Aquilegius or the signs to know the presence of water underground. III.  Mixtures of water or compounds with medicines in general and their causes. The mixture of different ways and reasons of water with minerals. IV. Mixtures of medicinal waters. V. Hydrometric description of water their heaviness and lightness. VI. Warming of thermal waters its cause and how they can be mixed with different mineral dyes. Section 3. Thermal and medicinal waters, their miraculous virtues and properties, and demonstration of their subterranean origin. I. Main thermal and medicinal waters that are found in the Geocosmos. II. Medicinal powers of thermal waters against so many different sicknesses. Section 4. Miracles and wonders which are found in some fountains, their nature, and their properties. I.  Color, taste, and smell of sulfurous exhalations found in some thermal fountains. II. Heaviness and lightness in some waters and their miracles.

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III. Charonenses, lethifer (lethal), and scrobis (bending) waters and other types of waters and their powerful and occult forces. IV. Ebb and reflow, and changes in the water of some fountains. Announced fountains cost. V. Metamorphotica (producing changes) force of some fountains, rivers, and lakes which changes the species of submerged stones and metals. VI. Other miracles of waters. VII. Changes in metamorphosis and terrestrial parts of various lakes, rivers, and fountains. Book VI The fourth element we call earth, and the first-fruits of the subterranean world produced there. Section 1. The admirable variety of earth types, whether earth is a true and proper element, and what must be understood by it. I. The element earth. II. Great variety of things contained in the womb of the terrestrial globe. III. Unbelievable variety of things which by virtues of salts and help of other elements are produced in the vast womb of the Megacosmos (world). First the salts and their different types. Section 2: I. Nitro (potassium or sodium nitrate) and its species, Salinitro, Afronitro, Halinitro. II. Salinitro, the third species of salt. III. Generation, nature and virtues of Salinitro. IV. Different ways of making fire with the nitrous powder and its use in the Pyrobolic (pyrotechnic) art. Section 3. Alumine (oxide of aluminum), third species of salt: I. Name, definition, and varieties of Alumine. II. Nature, quality, and preparation of the Alumine. III. Medical forces and other uses of the Alumine. Section 4. Vitriol (sulfuric acid) and its marvelous properties. I. Definition, division, and origin of Vitriol. II. Whether iron can be truly and really converted into copper using Spirit of Vitriol. III. Variety, virtues, properties, and uses of Vitriol. IV. Production of Vitriol.

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Appendix: Quadruple genre of salts. Book VII Nature, properties, and uses of minerals or fossils, which properly look like terrestrial elements, and the perennial revolutions and periciclosis of the Geocosmos which are produced by their motion. Section 1: Terrestrial parts and sandy bodies which are found in the womb of the Geocosmos. I. Sand, gravel, grit, and ash. II. Quality and uses of sand. III. Admirable nature of Periciclosis (action by cycles). Section 2: Hylocinesi (manipulation) of the terrestrial globe, that is, the great and perpetual separation of terrestrial matter, sand, gravel, and grit made by motion or the resolution of the mixture of clay, stone, and metals. I. Causes of the change of the Geocosmos. II. What is properly the Earth where the various terrestrial substances which are ordinarily called earth are generated? III. What is the origin of so great difference of earths? IV. Use of various earths. V. Requirements of land cultivation. VI. Terrestrial bodies used by sculptors and painters. Summary of sentences Catalog of books by P. Athanasius Kircher S. J. to this edition SECOND VOLUME Book VIII The stony substance of the Earth: Bones and horns, fossils also of subterranean animals, men, and demons. Section 1: Stones in general: I. Multiple differences between stones. II. Stony substance observed in the Geocosmos and the origin of mountains. III. The stony virtue diffused through the whole body of the Geocosmos. IV. Origin of stones and rocks and how the passing of time contributes to so great hardness. V. The color of stones and gems and for what reason nature produces so great difference in colors. VI. The colors that are called apparent. VII. Cause and origin of the transparency of stones and gems. Origin first of crystalline gems and after of the Adamantum (fictional indestructible metal). VIII. Various figures, forms, and images that nature forms in stones and gems. IX. Admirable works of painters of figures and images of nature delineated in stones and gems and their origin and causes.

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Section 2: Transformation of juices, salts, herbs, plants, trees, animals, and men transformed into rocks or about the stony faculty. I. Origin of the stony juice. II. Observations of various things converted into stones. III. How stones tend to be born in different members of animals. IV. Genesis of subterranean bones and horns. V. Fossil horns with great affinity to subterranean bones and especially treatment on the Cornu Monocerotis (horn of the unicorn). VI. Fossil woods and carbons. Section 3: Asbesto, Succino, and other powders of bituminous gums and also their fossils which have admirable virtues: I. Asbestos or amianthus (material which does not burn). II. Making of asbestos canvas to prepare fabrics and charts. III. Electro (amber) o Succino vulgarly called Ambra. IV. How small animals of different types found their tomb in amber. V. Attractive virtue of amber. VI. Medicinal forces of amber or Succino. VII. The 12 stones on the dress of the High Priest and the foundation of the Heavenly City in the Book of Revelation. Section 4: Subterranean animals. I. Some animals which live always inside and cannot live outside the Earth and for this reason develop added organs. II. Subterranean dragons. III. Subterranean men. IV. Subterranean demons. Book IX Poisonous and deadly fruits of the subterranean world. Section 1: Nature, origin, and the admirable properties of poisons. I. Definition of poisons. II. Some terrestrial minerals from which all poisons of subterranean origin are said to be derived. III. Accidental origin of poisons in vegetables and animals so much of living as of the corpses of the dead. IV. Differences in poisons. V.  Difference between foods, medicines, and poisons. Agreement and disagreement among other things, regarding a different division of sympathy and antipathy. Friendship of things, according to the primary or elementary qualities, acting by the specific virtues of things. VI. The agreement and disagreement of poisons and their origin and causes.

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Section 2: Sensitive and vegetable nature of poisons: I. How poison is born in human bodies. II. In how many ways poisons can be born in us. III.  How poisons from animals infect and kill men or about the causes of poisons. IV. Where (in their bodies) vipers and other aspids of known species maintain the first class of poisons, where they put (in others) their lethal substance, and causes evils with their poison inside the human body. V. How poisons do not harm some animals and how poisons by bites of rabid dogs and of tarantulas do not come out but at certain times. VI. Origin of diseases. VII. Healing of diseases from poisons. Section 3: Imperfect metallic bodies which are present as the principal cause of the origin of metals. Further explanation about poisons of minerals and their medical force: I. Admirable nature and property of sulfur. II. Rest of minerals which have their origin in sulfur. III. Origin, nature, and properties of antimony or Stibius. IV. Quicksilver or mercury, its nature, and admirable properties. V. Bituminous bodies. VI. Marine fruits, corals, and pearls. Book X Section 1: Requirements of the metallic art and conditions of mines: I. The aim of metallurgy. Material and formal causes of metals. II. Whether the heavens and the stars take part in the production of metals (metalogénesis). How the heavenly bodies can take part in the production of metals. III. How the unctuous humor from which metals are composed is produced by nature and how sulfur, mercury, and salt are present. IV.  How everything is produced by the terrestrial and humid efficiency of heat. Which is what makes metals liquids by fire, but not stones and plants, and other things, and how nature proceeds to dissolve and consume things. Section 2: Mines of metals, and other minerals. Sicknesses and remedies of the mines: I. What is required for the perfect information of the art of metals or the most important condition of mines. II. Sicknesses of mines. III. Healing of sicknesses of metals. IV. Remedies that heal the malign airs in metallic mines.

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V. Way to extract the filthy waters which are a great impediment in mines. VI. The multiple conducts in the veins and fibers of minerals. VII. Metalognomia, or the signs of a latent metal, and with which art we can know the streaks of minerals. Section 3: Nature of metallic mines, properties, and various accidents. Various answers to authors. Rapport: Mines in Hungary and the admirable things that happen there. I. Schemmiziana answer to ninety points proposed by the author. II. Answers to the questions proposed by Johannis Schapelmann, Sua Sacra Cesaria, and Regia Magestas (S.S.C.M.), prefect of the copper minerals in Herrengrunt, Hungary. III.  George Schutz, S.S.C.M. of the Schemicense prefect of chamber gives reason about dealings about minerals. IV. P. Andrea Schaffer about different minerals found in the mines of Hungary. V. Last report about the minerals of Tirol written by the noble and very illustrious D. Joanne Gervick, Counselor of the Serene Archduke. VI. Metallurgical machines. Section 4: Particular conditions of the mines, and the various processes of metallic offices, digging, washing, boiling, and separating ones from others. I. Purging of metals. II. Other methods given by Agricola for the preparation of metals. III. Gold mines and their conditions. IV. Silver mines, their nature and properties. V. Mixture of metals. VI. Sympathy and antipathy. VII. Slag and secretions of metals. VIII. Admirable fecundity of the gold and silver mines found in Peru, New Kingdom, and New Spain in America, from the reports of Fathers of the Society of Jesus. IX. Copper mines. X. Iron mines. Nature and properties of iron. XI. Salt mines and the preparation of salts. Book XI Preface Section 1: Origin of the alchemy: I. Name, definition, and division of alchemy. II. Alchemy so-called Chrysopaiam (producing gold). III. Antiquity of alchemy. IV. Pyrotechnics, the glasses, and instruments that are needed for chemical operations.

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V. Furnaces, glasses, grades of colors, and the rest of chemical operations. VI. Rules, methods, and paradigms by which chemical operations are shown and verified by using experiments and various examples. Section 2: The Philosopher’s Stone: I.  What is the Philosopher’s Stone and the Philosopher’s Elixir and Dye. Whether by its work one can produce true and natural gold. II. Whether there exists the true and real change of a metal into another. III. Mode and method to manufacture the Philosopher’s Stone and Dye. IV.  Examination of the perfect magisterium of the Great Art of Lullo (Raimundo Llull), Azotho, and the rest. V.  It is shown why the alchemist processes of the Great Art cannot be produced. VI. It is shown that all intents of Chrysopaias (transformation into gold) are not possible, according to the main followers of the alchemists Arnoldo and Villanovano. VII. Objections against the given processes are refuted by the same authors. VIII. Pseudochymicum, (pseudochemistry) deceits, and delusions and modes by which alchemists can make true gold as it was presumed in another time, and even today they do not cease proclaiming. IX. That the demon is often mixed among the practitioners of alchemy. Section 3: “Sophistic alchemy,” that is, the alchemy which claims that joining gold and silver with copper, lead, and tin can produce a large increment of gold: I. Several “sophistic” operations which are false and unlawful. II. Lawful and unlawful production of gold by chemists, called by apposition or by part to part, that is, gold joined with any other metal that multiplies it. III. Artificial Chrysopeia (making of gold) of the chemists. Section 4: I. Lawful or legal. Whether chemical gold, produced by any method can be lawfully sold as the true one. II. Legal-canonical decisions about chemical gold, false and true one. III. Brief presentation of some opinions by old alchemists about the philosophers’ stone and what some old philosophers and their modern followers understand by it. Book XII Section 1: The panspermia (all seeds) of things: I. Origin, nature, and properties of seeds. II. The form in which nature proceeds in the genesis of metals. III. Seeds of plants or vegetal nature. IV. Seed is nothing else as salt impressed in elemental nature which essentially becomes complex by the three near principles of nature.

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V.  How the universal seed concurs with the generation of animals and the marvelous plastic virtue present in the semen of animals. VI. Spontaneous birth of living things or without the added semen which is said to be born from the rotten. VII. Several types of spontaneous births. VIII. It is shown how plants and animals are born in spontaneous generation by a conjunctive subject. IX. How zoophyte (plantlike animals), as well as all kinds of insects, are born from the bodies of more perfect animals. X. Spontaneous birth of insects from other more perfect animals of different species. Section 2: Natural and artificial production of the animals (insects) which Greeks call entoma and Latins insecta. I. Various births of insects and their differences. II. Origin of insects called farifica. III. Origin of Quadripennium (four wings) insects. IV. Origin of analytros insects, called Bipennia (two wings). V. Origin of the insects which have wings enclosed in shells. VI. Insects that have no wings but many feet. VII. The type of worms which are born in animals and especially in men. VIII. Recapitulation of experimental propositions. IX. Why nature wanted to produce so many different types of insects? Section 3: According to nature kingdom, it is searched: What are the Botanic Philosophy and the admirable effects which the subterranean world produces in the generation of vegetal and plants, and the admirable things that can be deduced from them I. Wonderful force and efficacy of the seeds in plants. II. The three principles of nature from which so great variety of plants are born, the fermentation of all things. III. Differences of plants. What is needed to know the forces of plants and how to explore them from the diversity of these forces. IV. Emphyteutica (grant of a property) or insititia (cultivated) art. Section 4: Stalactica art or about the distillation. Preface: The art of distillation imitates nature which works by distillation in all the subterranean offices or ergasterion (workshop). I. Definition and multiple differences of distillation. II. Species of mixed elements and their use and emolument in the nature of things prepared according to the rule of art. III. Primary and manifest qualities, occult or specific of plants and their singular parts, that is, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds, stems, oils, gums, and their virtues and properties in medicinal use, taken from the best documents of old and recent physicians; reduced in synoptic tables.

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IV. Presentation of prodigious faculties of plants born from their subterranean origin. V. Various accidents of plants are presented through questions. Section 5: Ergasteria or occult seat of various arts, by which, according to subterranean Archei principles, admirable operations are formed. Part I: Chymiurgica (Chemical) art I. Chemical arcanes II.  Chemical-iatric disquisitions where the possible truth of the drinkable gold is investigated. III. Whether gold or Magisteria, a preparation of gold made by physicians, as presumed by alchemists, obtains use, force and efficacy, so that can and must be called a universal medicine. IV. Silver or terrestrial Moon. V. Preparations of iron, tin, copper, and lead. VI. Metallic trees and their artificial production. VII. Anacephaleoticos cannons which artists use in chemical operations and by which true and false operations can be separated, according to authors and the right sentence of chemists. Part II: Metaloestática art or the art which by careful science man can truly find the mixture of metals and minerals together with the consideration of the humidity and dryness that exist in each mixed element mineral or vegetal and animal. I. The mixtures with gold. II. Considerations about several things. Part III: Vitraria art (art of glasses) treats not only the admirable works of glasses, but also of crystals, pearls, and precious stones, which pretend to be living exemplars of nature. I. Nature of glasses. II. Artificial making of gems and precious stones. III. How gems can be made from smalto (enamel) or encausto. IV. Gems counterfeiting or making of false stones and gems, verified in part by my experiments and part by the authority of very expert writers and friends. Part IV: Pyrabolica art (fireworks), also called pyrotechnics. Preface: The invention of powder (pulvis Pyrius). I. Making of powder. II. Preparation of common incendiary wicks. III. Lathneo-chymica practice of some very reliable antidotes against burns made by powder, sulfur, branding iron, molten lead, and other similar things. IV. Practice the making of all types of rockets (rachetas) which are called in Italian raggi and in German rakettas, according to Siemienovius and other pyrotechnic experts who work with powder. V. Recreational water balloons or fire globes swimming on the water.

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VI. Other practices of fire composition for holidays. VII. Shining balloons use as recreational fires called in German Lichtkugel. VIII. Creating various spectacular exhibitions of pyrotechnic art. Last part: Some arcane mechanical arts are made as examples of subterranean nature. I. Art of manufacture of gold and other devices in the treatment of metals. II. Arcane miscellanies. Conclusion of the work.

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Synopsis of the Work on Magnetism in Three Parts Book I: The Magnetic Art. The Nature and Faculties of Magnets Prolog First Part. Magnets in General 1. The origin and difficult scrutiny of magnets. 2. The generation of magnets. 3. Iron and its generation. 4. Whether different species of magnets are found. 5. Whether magnets were known by the antic Egyptian, Chaldean, and Greeks. 6. The origin of the nautical compass (Pyxidis Nautica). Second Part “Theorematike.” All and each magnetic faculties. Definitions, Axioms, Postulates, Propositions, Theorems. Prop. 1. Earth’s Magnetism. Theor. 1. The terrestrial globe by its proper nature is oriented to the world poles. Prop.2. Inclination of the magnetic poles. Theor. 2. Magnets have two opposite poles which are oriented to the poles of the terrestrial globe. Prop. 3. Attractive force of magnets. Theor. 3. Magnets attract other magnets by their related body. Prop. 4. Communicative force of a magnet. Theor. 4. Magnets communicate their force to iron. Prop. 5. Structure of magnets. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1

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Theor. 5. Magnets surrounded by iron increase their power. Prop. 6. Attractive and repulsive force of magnets. Theor. 6. Magnets sometimes attract and others reject iron. Prop. 7. Penetrating force of magnets. Theor. 7. The force of magnets which is penetrative of anything. Prop. 8. Spherical action of magnets. Theor. 8. Activity of magnets spreads spherically. Prop. 9. Direction of magnetic rays. Theor. 9. All force of magnets propagates in circles from a pole point and are directed from it for a certain reason. Prop. 10. Similarity of magnets and the Earth. Theor. 10. Magnets imitate the nature of the Earth. Prop. 11. Magnetic variation (declination). Theor. 11. Declination angles vary in different ways in different parts of the world. Prop. 12. Magnetic inclination (dip). Theor. 12. Magnetic angle of inclination according to latitude in some places goes up in some places down. Prop. 13. Motion of circular magnets. Theor. 13. Magnets according to their position regarding their motion are affected by circular motion. Prop. 14. Conservation and consistency of magnets. Theor. 14. Sicknesses of magnets and their cure. Prop. 15. Iron filings and magnetic force. Theor. 15. Iron filings show attractive magnetic force but in different ways. Prop. 16. Lines of force of magnetism. Theor. 16. Magnetic force propagates along straight lines. Prop. 17. Spherical distribution of magnetism. Theor. 17. Magnetism spreads in a spherical way. Prop. 18. Motion of magnetism. Theor. 18. Magnetism with time fills a whole sphere. Prop. 19. Motion of magnetism: uniform and disform.

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Theor. 19. Magnetic action diminishes slowly over a long distance. Prop. 20. Proportional propagation of magnetism. Theor. 20. Over the same space magnetic force decays differently. Prop. 21. Speed of figure and quantity of magnets. Theor. 21. Speed and efficacy of magnetic motion depends on the size, figure, medium, and distance of magnets. Prop. 22. Proportion of forces in homogeneous bodies. Theor. 22. In homogeneous magnets, the relation of a magnet to other is like that of their forces. Prop. 23. Proportion of forces in heterogeneous magnets. Theor. 23. In heterogeneous magnets, it cannot be said that the force between them depends on their sizes. Prop. 24. Magnetic end in direction. Theor. 24. The different separation of the parts from the whole. PARADOXES Theor. 25. Paradox. 1. In magnetics, similar ones make the most by opposites and the contrary. Theor. 26. Paradox. 2. Two opposite magnets so constituted can produce enemy points to become friendly. Theor. 27. Paradox. 3. The weak overcomes the strong and the small the large. Theor. 28. Paradox. 4. It can be that a turning magnet affected by a very effective force does not show any vestige of magnetic direction or verticality. Theor. 29. Paradox 5. There is a process in magnets by which a compass rubbed during some time in one direction so that turns to the South, acquires a force to point to the North. Theor. 30. Paradox. 6. A magnetic compass rubbed acquires only in fact one face. Theor. 31. Paradox. 7. A magnet attracts heated iron as well as cold one. Theor. 32. Paradox. 8. Iron by its extremity attracts and repels. Theor. 33. Paradox 9. The larger a magnet and at the shorter distance acts stronger. Analyses of some propositions Magnetic Art—Second Book—Applied Magnet Where it is treated about the various uses of this stone PART I (“Progymnasmasmatika”) PREPARATORY ESSAY (Progymnasma) I (Teor. Theorem; Prag. Pragmateia-transaction; Prop. Proposition; Prob. problem) Magnetic Statics Theor. 1. The release of heavy and light bodies in water. Prag. 1. Exploration of magnetic motions in air (aerosapkas).

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Prag. 2. Exploration of magnetic motion in water (hydrosapka). Prag. 3. A discussion on the same topics (kanzobarusapkas). Prag. 4, 5, 6. The release of a globe in the center of water. Prop. 6, Prob. 2. A scale appreciates the force of a magnet. Prop. 7. Prob. 3. Explore statistically how much the boreal magnetic pole attracts as the austral. Prop. 8. Prob. 4. Explore how much more an iron armed magnet attracts than an unarmed one. Prop. 9. Prob. 5. Explore the goodness of iron with the attractive force of a magnet. PREPARATORY STUDY (Progymnasma) II Magnetic central action (Centrobaryca Magnetica) Prob. 1. Given a spherical magnetic body of homogeneous parts, find the center of its force. Prob. 2. Find the center of the force of a magnetic cube, prism, parallelepipe, cylinder, and of other ordinary ordained bodies. Prob. 3. Find the same in a conic or pyramidal magnet. Prob. 4. Find the same in a parabolic magnet. Prob. 5. Find it in a half-spherical magnet. Prob. 6. Find it in a heterogeneous magnet. Prob. 7. Find how much inauthentic material is in any given magnet. PREPARATORY STUDY (Progymnasma) III The confection and animation of various magnetics Prag. 1. Confection of a compass (versorius). Prag. 2. Animation of a compass. Prag. 3. Construction of a compass chart. Prag. 4. Declination of a compass. PREPARATORY STUDY (Progymnasma) IV Method showing the calculation of tables for performing magnetic astrolabes by sines and logarithms Section I. Prerequisites Prerequisites for Sun altitudes tables without Almucantars Lemma 1. Find the altitude of the meridian Sun for any time. 2. Assign the distance of data of any hour from the meridian. 3. Find the established altitude of the Sun in a circle of the astronomical sixth hour. 4. Inquire about the sine of the altitude of the Sun found in the primary vertical. 5. Find the declination of the Sun at any time. 6. Calculate the amplitude of the rise and setting of any celestial sign. Prob 1. Investigate in astronomical hours the rising of the Sun over the equator. 2. Calculate, given any boreal parallel, the Sun altitude at any hour, at which the distance is less than a quadrant.

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3. Calculate the altitude of the Sun from the meridian at more than 90 degrees distance. 4. The same in Australis (southern) signs. 5. Use this for hours of rise and set. 6. And calculate for equal hours. Section II The azimuthal calculus Lemma. Calculate the hectemoriorum arc complements in astronomical hours. Prob. 1. Calculate the azimuth of the Sun constituted in opposition, for every astronomical hour. Prob. 2. Calculate the azimuths of unequal hours. Preparatory Study (Progymnasma) V The methods of calculation of tables used for Analemmata and Astrolabes (Analemmata: a graduatedscale shaped like a figureeight that indicates the dailydeclination of the Sun; Astrolabe: instrument to make astronomical measurements). Prob. 1. Examine tables of Sun altitude by means of Analemmata. Prob. 2. Find the Sun’s azimuth for any given hour. Prob. 3. Find the same using the Astrolabe. SECOND BOOK MAGNETIC ART SECOND PART: MAGNETIC GEOMETRY (Geometria Magnetica) Chapter I Where a multiplex use of magnets is presented for problems. First about a magnetic instrument, and its making and use, for measuring altitude, latitude, and depth. Chapter II Magnetic pantograph Use and usefulness of another magnetic instrument and its perspective, and of outlining all types of things; finally, about a wonderful magnetic instrument and its making, to determine the way, place, and distance without great difficulty. Chapter III Instrument “Pantometer” Explanation about the new instrument “Pantometro Ichnographico-magnetico” and its wonderful use in 12 problems in all Geometry and Astronomy. PART III Magnetic astronomy Several Magnetic hypotheses Chapter I Magnetic Sphere Prob. 1. Making a Planisphery or magnetic Astrolabe. Presentation of ten propositions to explain its use. Prob. 2. Making of a Magnetic Calendar, declared by two propositions.

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Chapter II Magnetic-Sciotheric (sundial) Uranograph (chart of the skies) Where the doctrine of the whole first mobile is presented by the magnetic compass in the shadow of the Sun. Prob. 1. Make a magnetic Zodiac (zodiac: band of celestial sphere where Sun and planets are found). Prob. 2. Register the azimuth or the vertical using a magnetic Zodiac. Prob. 3. Register the horizon for data at any latitude. Prob. 4–5–6. Use of astronomical hours of sun rise and make an unequal magnetic clock. Prob. 7. Register the 12 heavenly houses (zodiac) using a magnetic clock. Prob. 8. Delineate magnetically the azimuth and almucantar (a circle on the celestial sphere parallel to the horizon) or the altitude circles and the horizon. Prob. 9. Describe magnetically the lines of the ascending and descending signs. Chapter III Magnetic Horologiography (clock science) That all types of magnetic non-sundial (non-sciatheric) horology and other astronomical items so are made, and they show any sympathetic motion. Prob. 1. Show the “paraschevasticon” relation of motors and mobiles. Prob. 2. Make a magnetic clock that shows magnetically the Babylonian, Italian, and Planetary hours, and at night. Prob. 3. Make a magnetic “Chronoscopium” (time show) that shows the order of planets. Prob. 4. Make an astrolabe or magnetic “planispherium” (celestian or star map) that shows the doctrine of the whole first mobile. Prob. 5. Make a universal magnetic clock (horoscopium) for the whole world. PART IV NATURAL MAGNETIC MAGIC Chapter I Magnetic Mechanics Prelude 1. Whether perpetual motion can be produced by magnetic force. Prelude 2. Archimedes’ Sphere, what was it, and how it can be made. Prob. 1. To locate a Globe (representing the Earth) in the center of a glass sphere so, that by a certain proportion, with a sympathetic motion follows the rotation of the Sun in 24 hours. Prob. 2. Build this globe with a different size proportion. Prob. 3. Represent the motion of the Sun, Moon, and fixed Stars on a glass sphere. Prob. 4. Show the motion of the epicycles and eccentrics of the Planets by some kind of magnetic model. Prob. 5. Make the motion of all until now so presented Magnetic machines in such a way that they will not have any motion by their ends or by themselves, but that they will follow the perpetual motion of the Archimedean Magnetic Sphere.

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Prob. 6. Find by what reason Serapide’s chariot, Arsinoes’ statue, and Bellerofonte’s horse can be sustained in the air by magnetic forces. Prob. 7. Show by a magnetic artifact Archita’s dove flying in the air. Prob. 8. Magnetic representations of the story of Iona of Pisce, which is the subject to different magnetic games. Magnetic anaclastic clock or show by what means, such as by refraction, a Magnetic Statue, by a marvelous reason, shows under water the motion of heavens. Magnetic catoptrics (science of reflected light and images with mirrors), by which with certain disposition of mirrors, reflected and multiplied images display, show by magnetic motion, different and pleasant things. 10. Represent the statue of Daedalus. 11. Show a magnetic beehive. 12. Make a Magnetic Anemoscopy, that is, a machine that shows the winds by sympathetic motion. To which magnetic games are added. Chapter II Magnetic Hydromantia (divination by water) Prob. 1. Make a hydromantic coffer with wheels and ropes. Prob. 2. Build a machine that by means of a Statue answers questions made about any subject. Prob. 3. Represent the same by a different device. Prob. 4. Magnetic Onomatomantia (guess of names), by which the Magnetic Statue manifests any name, verb, or letter, that somebody has in his mind, selected from those written on the border of a glass. Chapter III Magnetic Steganology (Steganology-Steganography: the art of invisible communication to keep secret information included inside other information). Prob. 1. Manifest with the force of a Magnet a concept hidden in the mind. 2. Make a magnetic instrument which by signs can establish communication from one man to another at many leagues of distance and further out. 3. Other methods by which one can manifest his concepts to other, by means of magnets. PART V MAGNETIC GEOGRAPHY Prel. The need to change Geography. Sect. 1. Magnetic inclination. Prop. 1. Whether the latitude of a region can be found using a magnet. Prop. 2. Theory: two propositions on whether magnets inclination, according to the place latitude go down or up. Prop. 3. Prob. 1. Find the true degree of magnetic inclination under the horizon. Prop. 4. Prob. 2. Make a table of inclinations by sines and logarithms.

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Prop. 5. Prob. 3. Make a table of magnetic inclinations (inclinatorium Magneticum) indicating the heights of the poles on the whole Earth’s orb. SECTION II Magnetic declination (variatione Magnetica) Chap. 1. Various observations of the declination of magnets from the meridian line and whether one can find by it the longitude of a region. Chap. 2. Observations in the oceans. Chap. 3. Observations made in the Mediterranean Sea. Chap. 4. Observations made in the whole of Europe. Table 1. General observation in all seas. Table 2. Observations made by Ioannis Telierus. Table 3. Terrestrial declinations. Chap. 5. Discussion about the cause of these declinations. Quest. 1. Whether declination is due to errors in the angles measured or to other causes. Quest. 2. Whether it is caused by inconvenient friction in the magnet. Quest. 3. Whether it is caused by terrestrial mountains and the assignation of the true cause. Chap. 6. On the time variations of magnetic declination. Quest. Whether the magnetic declination is fixed with time at a place. If not, discussion about the true cause of the time variations of the declination. PART VI NAUTICAL MAGNETICS Chapter 1 The nautical compass (pyxis) in general Prob. 1. Composition of the nautical compass (pyxis). Table of winds. 2. Making of other nautical compasses (pyxides). 3. Find the magnetic declination in the sea. 4. Finding of the meridian line by one observation, and the corresponding Kalyboklisios (in Greek screen inclination). 5. Find the same by a new instrument. 6. Whether and how can the terrestrial longitude be determined. 7. Find the kalyboklisios distances in the sea. Description of a new mecometron instrument. Make another mecometron (in Greek) instrument, for finding the difference in hours between two places of different longitude. Chapter II The different directions of the nautical compass (pyxis) Prob. 8. Find the distance between two places under the same rhombus lines. Table made indicating the miles in the sea for some rhombus. Use of the table using the laws of computing tables.

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THIRD BOOK MAGNETIC ART WORLD OR MAGNETIC CHAIN FOREWORD 1. The hidden operations of nature and their causes. 2. The agreement and dissent of things in particular. PART I Ouranomagnetismos (in Greek magnetism of heavens) The Magnetism of the Earth, planets, and heavenly bodies Chapter 1. The consensus of Heavens and Earth. Quest. 1. Whether Earth, Sun, and rest of the heavenly bodies are Magnetic. Section 1. Refutation of Gilbert’s sentence about the Earth’s motion. 1. The Earth is not a large magnet 2. The Earth’s motion cannot be proved in any way from the circular motion of a magnet. Section 2. Refutation of Kepler’s arguments. “Apodeixis” (exhibition) of magnetic bodies from proportionalities. Quest. 2. Whether the known hypothesis of motion can be made by magnetic art. Theor. 1. The Sun has the same longitude regarding the ecliptic considering the Earth’s motion as its station. Theor. 2. The Moon has the same longitude on the ecliptic, if the Earth is fixed or moves. Prob. 1. Show the Earth’s hypothesis using a magnetic artifice. PART II “Shtygyomagnetismos” (Greek) Magnetic faculty of the elements Chap. 1. The elements in general and their magnetism. Chap. 2. The magnetic force of the elements is shown. Thermoscopys and their use Quest. 1. Whether the attraction and repulsion of the elements is truly magnetic. Applied “Shtygyomagnetismos.” Exp. 1. Make a machine that by a repulsive force spreads water. Exp. 2. Make a machine that by an attractive force spreads water. Exp. 3. Make a hydraulic machine showing all kinds of games by an attractive and repulsive force. Exp.4. Make a machine that converts a liquid, thrown up by a repulsive force, into air or fire. Exp. 5. Construct an elementary world by such an art that their elements reduced, and confused into chaos, will repeat jointly its own sphere.

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Chap. 3. “Meteoromagnetismos” or Magnetism of elements in the production of Meteors. Exp. Production of natural rain. Exp. 1. Artificial rain. Exp. 2. Production of natural and artificial winds. Exp. 3. Production of artificial lightning and thunders. Chap. 4. The magnetism of mixed bodies and their resolution into their elements. PART III “Geomagnetismos” or the magnetic force included in the whole Earth and in each of its heterogeneous parts Chap. 1. The cyclical attraction of things. Chap. 2. “Oryktomagnetismos” or the magnetic faculty of fossils. Chap. 3. “Elektromagnetismos” or Electric attractions. Chap. 4. “Metallomagnetismos” or Magnetism of “Hydrargyrus” (mercury) and the rest of metals. Quest. Whether magnetic force exists in gold and silver which attracts mercury. Exp. 1. The freezing of mercury. Exp. 2. The metallic trees. Exp. 3. The marvelous nature of aluminum. Quest. 2. The stone of phosphorous or luminary and its magnetism. PART IV “Ydromagnetismos”or the Sun and Moon magnetism in the seas. Chap. 1. Admirable force of luminaries in the inferior things. Chap. 2. The flux and ebb (tides) of the seas and of their other motions. Quest. Whether the Moon moves the sea (in the tides) magnetically. Making and use of the “Hallorrhaeometri” instrument to measure the tides and currents. Chap. 3. The motion of the Mediterranean Sea. Chap. 4. Tides at the Strait of Sicily. PART V “Fitomagnetismos,”or the Magnetic force of plants. Chap. 1. Vegetative motion of plants. Exper. 1. The Plant fibers parallel to magnetic lines. Exper. 2. Their propagation. Applied “Fitomagnetismos” or the marvelous magnetic grafting Can. 1. Tree grafting carry out according to rules. Can. 2. Introducing artificial medical forces in trees. Various followings Chap. 1. Radiant motion of plants. Chap. 2. Magnetic motion or inclination of plants.

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Exper. The “Panspermia” of the Earth. Quest. Whether animals and plants support food magnetically. The magnetism of divining gold streaks or “Anthomagnetismos.” The heliotrope plants and their Magnetism Prob. Make a sympathetic “Botanic Horoscopy.” Chap. 5. The Selenotropius and their magnetism. PART VI “Zoomagnetismos” or the magnetism of animals Examples of some sympathies and antipathies. Chap. 1. Various magnetic animals. PART VII “Iatromagnetismos,” that is, Magnetism of medical things Chap. 1. The use of magnets and irons in medicine. Chap. 2. The microcosmic magnet or hoplocrismate. Quest. The use of iron and magnetic filings in magnetic plasters. Chap. 3. Attractive medicines. Chap. 4. The magnetism of poisons and antidotes. The caves of serpents and their portents. The magnetism of the Elixir of Life. Chap. 5. The use of the magnetism of the powers to their objects, and of the singular members to their nutrients. Chap. 6. Applied Iatromagnetismos, or application of medical magnetism. Chap. 7. Phantasiomagnetismos or the attractive force of the imaginative power. PART VIII “Musicomagnetismos” or the Magnetism of music Chap. 1. The force and power of music in mortal spirits and its causes. Chap. 2. The “Tarastism” or admirable magnetism of the tarantula and its effects on men. Quest. 1. Whether the “Tarantism” depends on the life of the tarantula Quest. 2. Why the “tarantizontos” can only be cured by music? Quest. 3. Why are we only pleased by certain colors? Quest. 4. Why are they assumed by so diverse customs? PART IX “Erotomagnetismos” or the Magnetism of Love Chap. 1. The admirable force and energy of love. Chap. 2. The Fascination. Quest. Whether the blood of a killed person flows in the presence of the killer by some fascination or by some kind of Magnetism. PART X MAGNETIC WORLD GREAT EPILOG, that is, God the central magnet of all things THE END

 ppendix D: Table of Contents of Iter exstaticum A coelestem

ECSTATIC HEAVENLY JOURNEY INDEX OF TITLES OF THE ENTIRE WORK ECSTATIC JOURNEY I Preface of the scholiast (commentator) to the benevolent reader (by Schott). Author’s (Kircher) preface to the studious reader of heavenly philosophy. Catholic prelude of the scholiast, or Astronomic introduction for Novices (beginners), where the constitution of the World, disposition, order, nature, properties of worldly bodies, and the various World Systems are briefly explained. I. Order of the World parts, their figure, center, diameter, axes, and poles. II. Stars of the sidereal heavens their number and differences. III. Comets and new stars. IV. Motion of the stars and the variety of their movements. V. Nature of sidereal heavens regarding their fluidity and solidity. VI. Number and motion of heavens. VII. Heaven’s composition and corruptibility. VIII. Nature and some properties of heavenly bodies and their motion from east to west and contrariwise. IX. The various World Systems. Exhortative Prelude by the Author Kircher, where it is shown that this small work does not have anything strange or that does not agree with the Sacred Scripture, the authority of the Holy Doctors of the Church, and the observations of irrefutable experiments. Scholium I. Proper center of each heavenly body. Scholium II. Whether Intelligences (angels) move heavenly bodies.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1

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DIALOG I Heavenly expansions and nature and properties of stars Chap. I. Motive and origin of this small work. PREAMBLE ABOUT THE MOON I. The different phases of the Moon, and its new and antique spots (maculae). II. What are the new and antique spots of the Moon. III. The Moon’s atmosphere and especially its power over the sublunary humidity. IV. Nature and structure of the Moon. Chap. II. The journey to the Moon. It contains sixteen scholia, which treat: annular Sun’s eclipses seen from an elevated point above the Earth; Moon’s total eclipses seen from the Earth; the part of the Earth seen by the eye directed on it from various distances; the face of the Earth seen from a place of a high region of the air; the terrestrial paradise if still present; whether there are men, animals, and plants on the Moon or on other planets and heavenly bodies; if there is fire above the air and in the concave space under the Moon; about the phases of the Earth seen from the Moon; the existence of days and nights in the Moon; the center of the Moon and other planets. PREAMBLE ABOUT VENUS I. Antique phenomena of Venus. II. New phenomena of Venus, its place in the liquid interplanetary heavens, and its motion. III. Various observations of Astronomers about Venus. IV. Other observations and phenomena of Venus. V. Structure and nature of the globe of Venus. Chap. III. The journey from the Moon to Venus. It contains six scholia, which treats the rotation of Venus around its axis, and its center and size; the seven Intelligences (angels) that are believed to preside on the seven planets. PREAMBLE ABOUT MERCURY I. Place, motion, and figure of Mercury. II. Structure and nature of Mercury. Chap. IV. The journey from the globe of Venus to that of Mercury. Contains two scholia. PREAMBLE ABOUT THE SUN I. Whether the Sun is made of fire and is formally warm. II. Refutation of the arguments against the fire nature of the Sun. III. The Sun’s spots and torches (prominences). IV. The Sun’s rotation about its center and axis. V. The Sun’s structure and nature; the substance of Sun’s spots and torches. Chapter V. Journey from Mercury’s globe to the Sun and about the admirable structure of the Sun. It contains eight scolia in which they treat the size of the Sun in comparison with the Earth; the vortices of heavenly globes; the diurnal speed of the Sun’s motion.

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PREAMBLE ABOUT MARS I. Mars’ figure from observations. II. Mars’ influences and effects on the sublunary region. III. Structure and nature of Mars globe. Chapter VI Journey to Mars globe and its admirable structure. Contains five scholia which treat the distances from Mars to the Earth, Moon, Venus, Mercury, Sun, Jupiter, Saturn, and fixed stars. PREAMBLE ABOUT JUPITER I. Jupiter’s zones or sickles (bands). II. Jupiter’s rotation or hurling off around its center. III. Jupiter’s atmosphere and asperity. IV. The four stars around Jupiter which are called satellites or companions and their place, motion, etc. V. Are there more Jupiter satellites than four? VI. Jupiter’s structure and nature. Chapter VII. The journey to Jupiter globe, and its marvelous work in the nature of things. It contains eight Scholia, in which they treat Jupiter’s influence in the inferior things; distances of the four Jupiter’s satellites to Jupiter and among them, and about their motion. PREAMBLE ABOUT SATURN I. Saturn’s observations and of its companions (the rings) by the telescope. II. Other phenomena of Saturn and its companions (rings) and various opinions about them by different Authors. III. The structure of Saturn and its companions (rings). Chapter VIII. The journey to the globe of Saturn. There are ten scholia in which they treat about the nature and effects of Saturn, why Saturn’s companions (rings) make so different figures with it; Saturn’s size and distance from Earth; motion of Saturn and its companions (rings); the phenomenon of the “handles” (rings); distance from Saturn to other planets, and the Earth in Earth radii and miles. PREAMBLE ABOUT THE FIRMAMENT I. The number of fixed stars and the stars recently detected by the telescope. II. Distance from fixed stars to Earth. III. The diurnal velocity of the fixed stars. Chap. IX. The journey to the Firmament or region of the fixed stars. There are six scholia where it is asked whether all fixed stars are at the same distance from the Earth and whether our Sun illuminate the fixed stars. DIALOG II God’s providence in the brightly manifesting work of the World Chap. I. Production of the World. Chap. II. Size of the World. Chap. III. The order of the globes; the admirable disposition of the World; the center of things.

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Chap. IV. Distances of the worldly bodies between themselves and compared to the Earth show the admirable Divine Providence. Chap. V. The motion of incomprehensible velocity of heavenly bodies, flying around the Earth. Chap. VI. The harmony of the World of sensible things and the analogy with the rational, political, intellectual, and archetypical character of the World; how things influence each other. Chap. VII. The waters above the heavens; what they are, really and truly, and their usefulness. Chap. VIII. The Empyreal heavens. Chap. IX. The imaginary space. Chap. X. The instauration and consummation of this sensible World. Chap. XI. The purpose of God’s creation of the world; the incarnation of Christ; the Church, and the faith by which God wants men to be saved. Chap. XII. The small number of men to be saved. Many of the chapters interfere with some scholia EPILOG CONCLUSION OF THE WORK Authorities, who confirm the hypotheses of the World given in this Work. Apologetics, against censures of some Propositions, excerpted from the Kircher’s Ecstatic Journey Apologetics by R. P. Mechior Cornai ECSTATIC JOURNEY II Subterranean World and structure of the Geocosmos Structure of the terrestrial globe divided into three dialogs Preface to the reader about the aim of the project of the Ecstatic Journey, and the cause and origin of this small Work. DIALOG I The Water element and the universal principle of things Interlocutors Hydriel and Theodidactus Chap. I. The need and usefulness of the Water element in the nature of things. DIALOG II The admirable arcane of the Geocosmos or Terrestrial World Chap. I. The external face of the Geocosmos. Chap. II. Solution to various doubts about the external constitution of the Geocosmos. Chap. III.  How plants and animals live by the occult seeds from the interiors of Nature and what is their origin. Chap. IV. How the universal seeds of the World contribute to the composition of mixed things. First about the birth, nature, and forces of plants. Chap. V. The birth and forces of sensitive Nature.

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DIALOG III Ecstatic Journey to the Subterranean World Chap. I.  Exploration of the extrinsic, and intrinsic constitution of the sea and description of the multitude and variety of animals. Chap. II.  Exploration of the sea bottom, and communication of the Seas with the Ocean. Chap. III. Exploration of the arcane subterranean world. Chap. IV. Introduction to the fire reservoirs of the Subterranean World. Chap. V. Ascetic epilog about the various means to attain the eternal happiness. Summary of the Subterranean World, or of those things about which in detail treats the work, The Subterranean World by R. P. Athanasius Kircher.

Kircher’s Works Mentioned

Chronological Order Ars magnesia, (Würzburg: Elias Michaelis Zink, 1631). Primitiae gnomonicae catoptrice hoc est horologiographiae nove specularis (Avignon: J. Pilot, 1635). Prodomus Coptus sive Aegyptiacus (Rome: Sacra Congregatio Propaganda Fidei, 1636). Magnes sive de arte magnetica, Opus Tripartitum. (Rome: Hermann Scheus,1641; Cologne: Jodocus Kalcoven,1643; Rome: Blasius Deversin and Zanobi Masotti,1654). Magnes sive de arte magnetica, Opus Tripartitum. (Rome: Ludovici Grignani, 1641). Lingua aegyptiaca restituta (Rome: Hermann Scheus, 1643). Ars magna lucis et umbrae. (Rome: Hermann Scheus, 1646; Amsterdam: Jansson van Waesberghe, 1671). Obeliscus Pamphilius (Rome: Lodovico Grignani, 1650). Musurgia universalis sive ars magna consoni et disoni in X libri digesta. (Rome: Haeredum Francisci Corbelleti, 1650). Oedipus aegyptiacus, 3. Vols. (Rome: Vitalis Mascardi, 1652–1654). Itinerarium exstaticum. (Rome: Vitalis Mascardi, 1656). Iter exstaticum II qui et Mundi Subterranei Prodomus dicitur (Rome: Vitalis Mascardi, 1657). Scutrinium pestis (Rome: Vitalis Mascardi, 1658). Iter exstaticum coeleste. Edited by Kaspar Schott (Würzburg: Johannes Andreas and Wolfang Endter, 1660, 1671). Pantometrum Kircherianum (Würzburg: Haeredum Joannis Godefridis Schönwetteri, 1660). Mundus subterraneus in XII libros digestus. 2 vols. (Amsterdam: Joannem Janssonium Waesberghe, 1664, 2nd edition 1678). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1

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Kircher’s Works Mentioned

Arithmologia sive de abditis numerorum mysteriis (Rome: Varesi, 1665). Magneticum Naturae regnum. (Rome: Ignatius de Lazaris, 1667; Amsterdam: Joannem Janssonium van Waesberghe, 1667). China illustrata (Amsterdam: Joannem Janssonium Waesberghe, 1667). Phonurgia nova sive conjugium mechanico-physicum artis et naturae paranymphia phonoscophia consignatum. (Kempten: Rudolphus Dreher, 1673). Arca Noë, (Amsterdam: Joannem Janssonium Waesberghe, 1675). Turris Babel, (Amsterdam: Joannem Janssonium Waesberghe, 1679).

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Index

A Acosta, José de, 30 Adam, 50, 106 Agricola, Georgius (Georg Bauer), 40, 46 Albert the Great, 61 Alexander VII, Pope, 20 Alieni, Giulio, 72 Anaxagoras, 52, 95 Archimedes, 15, 64 Aristotle, 25, 27, 54, 96 Arrhenius, Svante, 53 Aurillac, Gerbert de (Pope Silvester II), 61 B Bacon, Francis, 10, 23, 26 Bacon, Roger, 51 Basil, Saint, 53 Beati, Gabriele, 8 Biancani, Giuseppe, 71, 95 Bonanni, Filippo, 11 Borri, Christoforo, 72, 95 Boyle, Robert, 26, 39, 49 Brahe, Tycho, 28, 73, 89, 93, 99, 108 Bruno, Giordano, 52, 92 Bullard, Edward C., 76 Boscovich, Roger, 34 C Cabeo, Nicoló, 58, 60, 61, 65, 71 Cabot, Sebastian, 61, 65 Caramuel, Juan, 12 Cardano, Gerolamo, 55, 66

Cassini, Dominico, 13 Cavallieri, Francesco Bonaventura, 27, 71 Christ (Jesus Christ), 2, 28, 34, 40, 81–83, 101, 106 Christina of Sweden, 11, 85 Clavius, Christopher, 7, 8, 72 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 25, 26, 87, 91, 93, 95, 108 Cornaeus, Melchior, 102 Cortés, Martin, 57 Cosmiel, 85, 87, 90–93, 96, 97, 99–106 Cusa, Nicholas of, 93 Cysat, Johann Baptist, 43 D Dalton, John, 47 Dante Alighieri, 34 Democrito, 34, 55, 95 Descartes, René, 6, 10, 26, 34, 47, 102 Digges, Thomas, 99 Donnino, Alfonso, 11 E Elssasser, Walter M., 76 Eudoxus of Cnido, 25 Eve, 106 F Fabri de Peiresc, Nicolaus Claude, 6, 27 Faraday, Michel, 79 Ferdinand III, Emperor, 25

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Udías, Athanasius Kircher, the Mysteries of the Geocosmos, Magnetism, and the Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53008-1

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152 Ficino, Marsilio, 9, 75 Fontana, Francesco, 92, 98 Friedrich of Hesse, 8 G Galileo Galilei, 7, 8, 10, 26–28, 32, 34, 47, 88, 89, 91, 93, 95–98, 102, 108 Galio, Bessardo, 75 Garzoni, Leonardo, 58, 60, 71 Gassendi, Pierre, 6, 13, 26, 27, 47, 71, 102 Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), 45 Gellibrand, Henry, 57, 67 Gerbert de Aurillac, (Pope Silvester II), 61 Gilbert, William, 26, 57, 58, 60–62, 65, 71, 76, 77, 108 God, 1, 2, 15, 16, 23, 25, 28, 36, 51, 53, 56, 60, 77, 81–83, 87, 91–95, 99–104, 106 Goethe, Wolfgang, 17 Gozonio, Deodato, 42 Gradami, Jacques, 71 Grassi, Orazio, 8 Gray, John, 69 Gregory XIII, Pope, 7 Grienberger, Christoph, 7, 72 Grimaldi, Francesco Maria, 92, 98 Gustav Adolf, 6 H Halley, Edmond, 74 Harrison, John, 67 Havelke, Johannes (Hevelius), 13, 91, 102 Hoernes, Rudolf, 35 Humboldt, Alexander von, 35 Huygens, Christian, 13, 14, 26, 28, 98 Hydriel, 102–104 I Ignatius of Loyola, Saint, 5, 7, 29 J Jansson van Waesberghe, 13 Joachim Prince-Abbot of Fulda, 85 K Kepler, Johann, 10, 16, 32, 60, 77, 79, 91–93, 95, 96, 108 Kircher, Athanasius, 1–17, 19–56, 58–64, 68–83, 85–106

Index Kircher, Johann, 5 L Langren, Michael van, 91 Laplace, Pierre Simon de, 34 Larmor, Joseph, 76 Leibniz, Gottfried, 13 Lémery, Nicolas, 35 Leopold I, Emperor, 20, 25, 39 Lister, Martin, 35 Llull, Raimundo, 17, 50, 51 Longomontano, Christian, 92 Lucrecio, 34 Lyell, Charles, 20 M Martini, Martino, 71, 72 Mary, Virgin, 40, 56 Maurolico, Francesco, 75 Maxwell, James C., 79 Medina, Pedro de, 65 Mersenne, Marin, 6, 13, 27, 71 Mesmer, Franz Anton, 80 Metius, Adriaan, 66 Mileto, Leucipo de, 34 Montalbani, Ovidio, 12 Moses, 9 N Neckam, Alexander, 57 Neubrissensis, Guilielmus, 44 Newton, Isaac, 32, 35, 79 Noah, 13, 17 Norman, Robert, 57, 61, 75 Nunes, Pedro, 65 O Oersted, Hans Christian, 78–79 Oldenburg, Henry, 67 Oviedo, Gonzalo, 61, 65 P Paracelsus, 50–52, 55 Pascal, Blaise, 26 Paul IV, Pope, 7 Paul V, Pope, 7 Peiresc, see Fabri de Peiresc, Nicolaus Claude Pico della Mirandola, Domenico, 9

Index Plato, 30, 31, 95 Plutarch, 93 Porta, Giovanni Battista della, 66 Ptolomeo, Claudio, 25, 27 R Rheita, Anton M. Schyrieus of, 97, 99 Riccardi, Francisco, 36 Riccioli, Giovanni Battista, 8, 28, 30, 71, 89–93, 96–99 Rubino, Antonio, 71 S Saint-Vincent, Grégoire de, 71 Sanuto, Livio, 75 Sarpi, Paolo, 58 Scaligero, Giulo Cesare, 75 Scheiner, Christoph, 8, 27, 29, 71, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96 Schott, Kaspar, 6, 8, 17, 85, 87–91, 108 Sepibus, Georgius de, 11 Silvester, Pope, see Gerbert de Aurillac, (Pope Silvester II) Stevin, Simon, 65, 66 Suess, Eduard, 35

153 Swartz, Bartholdus, 55 T Tartaglia, Niccolò, 26 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 82, 102 Tellier, Jean le, 69 Theodidactus, 85, 87, 90–93, 96, 97, 99–106 Torricelli, Evangelista, 26, 27, 102 V Vilanova, Arnaldo de, 50 Vreman, Ivan, 71, 72 W Wambold von Umstadt, Anselm Casimir, 6 X Xenophon, 93 Z Zaragoza, José, 35 Zucchi, Niccolo, 8, 98