Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China [“Ahmanson-Murphy Fine Artists Imprint”, Reprint 2020 ed.] 9780520911611

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ART

AND

A R T I S T S

OF

T W E N T I E T H - C E N T U R Y

CHINA

A H M A N S O N F I N E

T H E

A H M A N S O N

A R T S

•

M U R P H Y I M P R I N T

F O U N D A T I O N

has endowed this imprint to honor the memory of F R A N K L I N

D.

M U R P H Y

who for half a century served arts and letters, beauty and learning, in equal measure by shaping with a brilliant devotion those institutions upon which they rely.

asidi

Artiste

ef

(o/ii/ia

U N I V E R S I T Y

OF

C A L I F O R N I A

PRESS

B E R K E L E Y

LOS

A N G E L E S

L O N D O N

U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a Press B e r k e l e y and Los A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a

U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a Press. Ltd. London, England

© i 9 9 6 by T h e R e g e n t s o f the U n i v e r s i t y ot California

L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n P a ta

Sullivan, M i c h a e l ,

1916-

A r t a n d artists o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y C h i n a / M i c h a e l Sullivan, p.

cm.

I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l references and i n d e x . I S D N 0 - 5 2 0 - 0 7 5 5 6 - 0 (alk. paper) 1. Art, C h i n e s e .

2. Arr, M o d e r n — 2 0 t h

century—China.

I. T i t l e .

N7345.S79

1996

70y'.5i'0y04-dc20

95-25673 CIP

P r i n t e d in S o u t h K o r e a 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

T h e p a p e r used in this p u b l i c a t i o n meets the m i n i m u m requirements of A m e r i c a n National Standard f o r I n f o r m a t i o n S c i e n c e s — P e r m a n e n c e o f Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI

Z39.48-1984.

T h e publisher gratefully acknowledges the contribution provided by THE

CHRISTENSEN

FUND

toward the publication of this book

FOR

K H O A N

as a/to ays

List o f Illustrations

x

Foreword and A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s

In January 1948 Wang Meng, the oil painter w h o had studied in Prague, showed his work in the

although it was by no means a Communist organ. T h e first issue contained an article by G u o M o r u o on the tra-

Cathay Hotel. In May of that year the Chinese Wood-

ditional drama and translations of a long piece on the

Engravers Association held a major exhibition of prints,

young Tolstoy by Ernest Simmons, a short story by Saki,

following on the publication in 1946 of the important

and a selection from V. I. Pudovkin's Film Acting. T h e

work Kangzhan

(Woodcuts of

cover bore a painting of a dancer done by Ye Qianyu

wartime China, 1937—1945). Chang Shuhong exhibited

during his Indian tour. Ding Cong's fine drawings of

in Nanjing and Shanghai his oil paintings and copies of

Luoluo tribesmen and Zhang Leping's Rejugees were

the Dunhuang frescoes, together with photographs taken

among the many illustrations that gave Shanghai read-

at the caves by journalist Luo Qimei.

ers a flavor of the far western regions. Other artists w h o

banian muke xuanzhi

T h e lack of a proper art gallery in Shanghai had long been a source of complaint. In 1947 a preparatory office

contributed to Qingming included Pang X u n q i n , Li Hua, Wang Qi, and Yu Feng.

was set up to plan for the establishment of the Shanghai

M u c h of Qingming was politically harmless. But the

Municipal Art Gallery, and in September of that year it

journal also published Liao Bingxiong's savage woodcuts

held two successive exhibitions of guohua paintings of

attacking the corruption of youth, Zhang Leping's p o w -

the last hundred years in the French School on Nanchang

erful cartoon of a profiteer strangling a destitute man,

Road. 6 But in the mounting economic chaos, the M u -

Zhang Wenyuan's serial pictures showing the police bru-

nicipal Art Gallery was an impossibility, and it remained

tally suppressing a demonstration against the Civil War,

a dream until 1 9 5 2 , when the Communist authorities

Zhang Guangyu's gorgeous yet subtly subversive Cartoon

expropriated the former head office building of one of

Journey to the West (discussed in chapter 1 1 ) , and Ding

the British banks.

Cong's Flower Street, Chengdu (fig. 10.2), his sardonic evo-

Hundreds of short-lived cultural journals appeared in

cation of nightlife in the red-light district.

F R O M

P E A C E

T O

L I B E R A T I O N

1 1 5

with his own synthetic vision of the future of Chinese painting; Yang Taiyang, Guan Shanyue, and Liu Kang (who later went to Singapore) for a while taught there. In June 1948, the Lingnan group held its last exhibition, in which all the surviving members took part: they included Gao Jianfu, Chen Shuren, Yang Shanshen, Guan Shanyue, and Z h a o Shao'ang, w h o was soon to move to H o n g Kong, there to carry on the Lingnan tradition in bird and flower painting for another forty years. Throughout the late 1940s, as the Civil War spread southward and inflation soared, conditions in G u o m i n dang-held areas became more and more intolerable. Refugees poured into Taiwan and H o n g Kong. A m o n g them were wealthy merchants, businessmen, and art collectors from Shanghai, members of the banned D e m o cratic League, and writers and scholars w h o were not yet prepared to throw in their lot with the Communists, such as M a o Dun and Z h e n g Zhenduo. They found H o n g Kong a cultural desert island, and for a few years they caused the desert to flower. T h e Colony had produced no artists of note, but now, with little help from local residents or the colonial government, art flourished once again, as it had briefly be10.3

fore 1942. In 1946 Fu Luofei, a Communist w h o had

Huang Yongyu, Self-Portrait (1948).

studied oil painting and sculpture in France and the United States and had spent the war years on Hainan, his birthplace, founded the Society for Art for the People (Renjian huahui) with the wood-engraver and oil painter Huang Xinbo. 9 Other wood-engravers w h o

HANGZHOU,

CANTON,

AND

HONG

KONG

T h e Hangzhou Academy reopened in unhappy mood. 7

joined included Zhang Yangxi, Liu Jianan, and Wang Qi. T h e Renjian Huahui was very active in awakening

T h e Ministry of Education refused to reappoint Lin

H o n g Kong's ignorant youth to conditions in China

Fengmian, w h o m they considered dangerously liberal.

and to the power of propaganda, but support for it was

For some time the school drifted without any leader-

by no means universal. T h e ideological conflict being

ship, until finally the oil painter Wang Rizhang accepted

fought out in China was reflected in the cultural life of

the post early in 1947. Wang had been in the central

H o n g Kong. Conservatives and Guomindang support-

government for years, and during the war he had headed

ers found the group's anti-American propaganda offen-

the art section of the anti-Japanese propaganda organi-

sive, calling it a "Black Art Society" (hei huahui) and its

zation formed under G u o Moruo. Earlier in his career

members "monsters and demons."

he had studied in Paris and joined Pang Xunqin in the

A galaxy of cartoonists also gathered in the Colony,

Société des D e u x Mondes in Shanghai. Safely back in

a m o n g them Liao B i n g x i o n g , D i n g C o n g ,

its ivory tower beside the lake, the Hangzhou Academy

Z h e n g y u , M i Gu, Fang Cheng, and C h e n Yutian, while

settled down at last, and was in a reasonably healthy state

the oil painters Yang Taiyang and Yang Qiuren also ex-

when the Communists took it over in May 1949.

hibited with the group. It was in H o n g K o n g that D i n g

Zhang

Canton's artistic life was renewed in 1946, when Ding

C o n g painted his second important satirical scroll, the

Yanyong returned from Shanghai to become president

Xianshi tu (described on page 1 2 3 ) , and that Z h a n g

of the provincial art academy (Guangdong shengli yishu

Guangyu exhibited his Xiyoumanji (page 122), which had

xuexiao). In the meantime, Gao Jianfu returned from

caused such a sensation when it was first shown in

Macao to reopen his Chunshui Academy, where he con-

Chengdu. T h e young Huang Yongyu (fig. 10.3), w h o

8

tinued to take private pupils as before. He also accepted

also exhibited with the Renjian Huahui and was em-

the city's invitation to head the poorly financed Canton

ployed as art editor of Dagongbao, the national newspa-

Municipal College of Art (Guangzhou shili meishu

per, held a one-artist show in a restaurant gallery in Jan-

zhuanke xuexiao) in the hope of firing more young artists

uary 1 9 5 1 , and, as a highly original portraitist, attracted

1 1 6

W A R

A N D

C I V I L

W A R

the patronage of leading members of the British c o m munity, including Sir John and Lady Keswick. There were also a number of refugee artists in H o n g K o n g at this time w h o were not politically committed— oil painters such as Li Tiefu and Yu Ben, and Gao Jianfu's followers in the Lingnan Pai, notably Guan Shanyue and Z h a o Shaoang, w h o established a permanent base for the Lingnan tradition after most of the other artists left the Colony in 1949. For the next few years, very little happened in the art world of Hong Kong. T h e remarkable development of the modern movement, described in chapter 19, did not get under way until the 1960s.

AN

ARTIST'S

LIFE

DURING

THE

CIVIL

W A R

T h e growing chaos caused by the Civil War, the rampant inflation that enriched hoarders and impoverished the honest, the difficulty of finding a j o b and somewhere to live, are poignantly depicted in such woodcuts of this period as Yang Keyang's showing a scholar selling his books (fig. 10.4). A series of letters that Pang Xunqin wrote to me well capture those dark years. Arriving in Shanghai from Chongqing in the summer of 1946, Pang writes,

10 4 Yang Keyang, The Professor Sells His Books (1947). Woodcut.

We imagined that w e w o u l d surely find here a more tranquil life. B u t within a f e w hours o f our arrival, our dreams were shattered. T h e country has b e c o m e uninhabitable. I have been here two months, and even though I k n o w many people, I cannot find even a small flat without paying three

Xunqin continued to work. He, Fu Lei, and Stephen

or four thousand A m e r i c a n dollars in key

Soong took a villa for the summer in the north Jiangxi

money. . . . T h e city is flooded with A m e r i c a n

mountain resort of Guling, with the writer C h e n D u x i u

goods, and Chinese factories are closing one after

occupying the top floor."' Pang's delicate guohua land-

a n o t h e r — f o r that w e have to thank our govern-

scapes (fig. 10.5), which capture the rich, shimmering

ment. N o w , with American arms, the G u o m i n dang think they can swallow up their enemy, like an idiot thinking he can grasp the m o o n in the

foliage of the forest in summertime, were technically a new departure, combining traditional technique with his

water. All my plans for the future have burst like

own brand of poetic realism. He called this his "green

soap bubbles. W h a t shall I do? I shall never

period." Back in Shanghai the exhibition, promoted by

abandon my art. All I want is to work for my art

Fu Lei, was a great success, but the cost so far exceeded

and for the people w h o live in such profound

his receipts that he was even poorer at the end of it than

sorrow. . . . That is w h y modern Chinese art will never take the same road as French or British art. I hope that w e can be more humane, and closer to the bruised and suffering heart of our people.

he had been before. He hoped to sell some land left to him by an uncle w h o had died in the war, but in those parlous times no one would buy it. Faced with crippling taxes, he offered it to the peasants. Hoping that the south would be better, Pang accepted

On March 25, 1947, there was an art festival in

an offer from Ding Yanyong and the violinist Ma Sicong

Shanghai, with two exhibitions, one organized by the

to teach painting in the art department of National Sun

Government—"plenty of pictures," Pang writes, "but

Yatsen University in Canton, but conditions there were

neither one thing nor another"—and the other by Pang

just as bad. "A family such as mine," he wrote on April

and his friends. His ten-year-old son Pang J u n fell

19, 1948, "has to spend every month, simply for food

gravely ill with pneumonia, spending three months in

and absolute necessities, fifty million dollars, with noth-

hospital, which further impoverished the family. Yet Pang

ing left for clothing or medicine." Yet the children con-

F R O M

P E A C E

T O

L I B E R A T I O N

1 1 7

1 0.5 Pang Xunqin, Guling Landscape ( 1947). Ink and color o n silk.

tinued to study art and music, and had just held a joint exhibition ot their painting. Pang even asked how much it would cost to buy a violin for his son in London. By May of that year, the Pang family was finding conditions hopeless and the climate unhealthy, so they returned to Shanghai. Many years later, Pang Tao told me that just w h e n things were at their worst, her father re-

1 1 8

W A R

A N D

C I V I L

W A R

ceived an almost unbelievable offer from a gallery in America: a five-year contract, with travel and living allowance and a sum in cash. H e went home, told his wife and children of this fabulous offer, and asked them, " D o you want to sell your father for that sum of money?" W i t h one voice the children shouted " N o ! " H e did not go.

// C A R T O O N

ORIGINS AND EARLY

AND

C A R I C A T U R E

DEVELOPMENTS

Caricature has a long history in China, but with some

Fight over a Prostrate China (fig. 1 1 . 2 ) . In another the gi-

rare exceptions the cartoon with a political or social mes-

ant fists of Chinese workers, students, and merchants

sage is a Western import, dating from the nineteenth

threaten three political figures—Cao Rulin, Lu C o n g -

century. 1 T h e O p i u m Wars and the Boxer Rebellion

xing, and Chang C o n g x i a n g — w h o had collaborated in

inspired thousands of crude caricatures of foreign impe-

the surrender to Japanese demands on north China.

rialists and baby-devouring missionaries—though when

Compared with the cartoons of the radical 1930s, this

we consider that European caricaturists had been ridi-

is a rather feeble work. At this time the best Western

culing the "Heathen Chinese" for two hundred years,

graphic and satirical art was still virtually unknown in

that was only fair.

China.

T h e late nineteenth-century political cartoons were

But that was soon to change. During the 1920s and

often overelaborate and ill-drawn. After 1900, though,

1930s, the thousands of magazines and books that poured

they began to improve, as the anti-Manchu revolution-

from the Shanghai presses gave a vast range of opportu-

ary movement spread, and with it patriotic outrage at the

nity to a new generation of graphic designers, and they

carving up of China by Japan and the Western powers.

learned fast—from the design of Japan, where several

Zhang Yuguang, trained in guohua techniques, was the

were trained; from Western modernist and art deco style;

first competent artist-cartoonist whose work showed

from Soviet experimental graphic design; and, increas-

some economy of line (see fig. 1 1 . 1 ) . Around 1 9 1 0 his

ingly, from the inexhaustible well of Chinese decorative

drawings began to appear in Minhu luiabao, Xinwenbao,

motifs. T h e designs by Tao Yuanqing for covers of Lu

and other Shanghai journals, and he remained a domi-

Xun's writings were no less striking than those of j o u r -

nant influence on the cartoon movement for many years.

nals such as Shanghai manhua (Shanghai sketch), Zhongguo

A m o n g those w h o turned their satire against Presi-

marthua (China sketch), Gongxian (Contribution), Xian-

dent Yuan Shikai and Japanese encroachments in Shandong were Ma Xingchi and Qian Binghe. Cantonese car-

dai xuesheng (Modern student), Chuangzao yuekan (Creation monthly), and countless others. 2

toonist He Jianshi was a champion of Sun Yatsen's

A m o n g the leading graphic designers, Tao Yuanqing

revolutionary movement. Shen Bochen, a young busi-

was noted for his use of motifs from Han art and for cap-

nessman from Tongxiang, turned to cartooning in Shang-

turing (as Lu X u n described it) both an international spirit

hai, one of his first works being a picture of the woman

and China's national character. Qian Juntao, w h o had

revolutionary martyr Qiu Jin, executed in 1908. A m o n g

studied Japanese design, experimented in modernist ty-

the many cartoons he contributed during the May

pography and layout. C h e n Zhifo, after studying for five

Fourth Movement to the satirical paper Shanghai Puck

years in Japan, acquired an encyclopedic knowledge of

(Shanghai puke, founded September 1 9 1 8 ) was Warlords

ancient Chinese motifs, on which he wrote a number

1 1 9

—

11.1 Zhang Yuguang, One Step Higher (1911). Foreigner and Chinese diplomat squeeze the common people. Ink on paper.

11.2 Shen Bochen, Warlords Fight over a Prostrate China (1918). From Shanghai Puck.

WBI&kH 5TMH5NT 11.3 Chen Zhifo, cover to Modern Student, vol. 1, no. 8 (June 1931).

of books, though his covers for Lu Xun's journal Wenxue

trolled national newspaper Dagongbao, for example, is said

(Literature) or for Modern Student (fig. 1 1 . 3 ) are strik-

to have been the first newspaper to carry cartoons in

ingly modern. He later retreated into academic flower

color, but it allowed no social or political protest. So long

painting in the traditional gongbi technique, for which

as the foreign settlements in Shanghai were not under

he is best known today.

Chinese or Japanese control, though, the cartoon move-

T h e years 1926 and 1 9 2 7 saw the cartoonists attack-

ment flourished there, and many societies for its pro-

ing Western imperialism, the dumping of British goods,

motion sprang up. Already in 193 1 a group of young

gunboat diplomacy, and an ironfisted Chiang Kaishek.

cartoonists that included Zhang Guangyu and his twin

It was at this time that they formed an organized move-

brother Z h a n g Z h e n g y u , with Lu Shaofei, Huang

ment, centered on the Cartoon Society (Manhua hui)

Wennong, Zhang Leping (fig. 1 1 . 4 ) , and Ye Qianyu, had

and the journal Shanghai manhua, launched in April 1928

founded a progressive anti-Japanese group, publishing

by Z h a n g Guangyu, Ye Qianyu, Lu Shaofei, and oth-

their caricatures and cartoons in such popular journals

ers. T h e journal's eight lithographed pages contained not

as Shanghai manhua, Duli manhua (Independent car-

only satire but news photos, pictures of movie stars,

toons), Shijie manhua (World cartoons), and many more.

nudes, and notes on current art and literature. T h e coming to maturity of the modern Chinese cartoon—using the word "cartoon" in a wide sense—went hand in hand with the Woodcut Movement (chapter 8), and suffered the same restraints. T h e government-con-

1 2 0

W A R

A N D

C I V I L

W A R

T h e six years before the outbreak of war have been called by a Chinese critic the "first golden age" of the m o d ern Chinese cartoon. Between 1 9 3 4 and 1 9 3 7 , no fewer than nineteen cartoon and satirical magazines were published in Shanghai alone.

It was their sense of outrage, combined with an

o

awareness of the risks they ran, that inspired the cartoonists to produce their finest w o r k in the 1940s. T h e dominant figure in the movement was Z h a n g Guangyu. 4 B o r n in 1900, he had painted theater sets in Z h a n g Yuguang's studio in Shanghai while in his teens. B y 1 9 2 0 he was making his living designing labels, posters, and calendars for a cigarette factory, and before he left Shanghai in 1 9 2 8 was already publishing his cartoons in Shanghai manhua and in Sanri huakan ("Illustrated every three days"). H e became a leader of the movement, w h i c h drew inspiration and stimulus f r o m Western masters of the genre such as David L o w of the London Evening Standard, whose w o r k was well k n o w n in Shanghai. W h e n the Mexican artist and cartoonist Miguel Covarrubias visited Shanghai in 1 9 3 0 , the two became friends, and in Zhang's w o r k the influence of Covarrubias is clear. H e and other artists in the movement were influenced also by seeing reproductions of the w o r k of other M e x i c a n revolutionary artists—Orozco, Siqueiros, Rivera. W h e n the International Settlements were taken over, Z h a n g G u a n g y u took refuge in H o n g K o n g , where he worked in film studios until the C o l o n y fell early in 1 9 4 2 . H e then spent three obscure years in the French concession of Zhanjiang (Guangzhouwan), west of Canton, until the Japanese Ichigo Offensive of 1944 drove him to Sichuan. It was in C h o n g q i n g that Z h a n g G u a n g y u

1 1 .4 Zhang Leping, The Lopsided Balance (1946) From Qingming.

produced his best-known w o r k , the serial

Xiyoumanji

(Cartoon j o u r n e y to the west). This satire on c o n t e m porary China is based on the famous Tang dynasty romance Xiyouji,

w h i c h tells of the j o u r n e y o f Monkey,

Pigsy, and the M o n k in search of the Buddhist scriptures. WARTIME ANTI-JAPANESE

PROPAGANDA

AND SOCIAL SATIRE

In Zhang's series of sixty paintings, the scriptures are Democracy. T h e travelers pass through the K i n g d o m of Money, symbol of China's economic collapse; the K i n g -

ZHANG GUANGYU AND DING CONG

D u r i n g the early

months of the United Front in 1 9 3 7 , cartoonists left Shanghai for Nanjing and Hankou, organizing more than ten propaganda teams under the direction of G u o M o r u o to stir the masses to resistance by exposing Japanese b r u tality. 3 T h e y had an easy target. B u t as the war dragged on and conditions on the h o m e front began to seem a greater menace than the Japanese, they turned their satire against the Guomindang and its supporters. In 1940, G u o

d o m ot Aiqin (fig. 1 1 . 5 ) — a i is Egyptian slave society, qin the tyranny of Q i n Shihuangdi—referring to forced conscription and the reign of recruiting agents and spies; and the City of Happy Dreams, where one lives in the American style, caring only for one's material needs. A t the end the travelers, in their search for the realm of Democracy, find instead fascism, in the person of Hitler, Mussolini, and Admiral T o j o . Xiyoumanji

is a sumptuous w o r k , rich in comic in-

M o r u o was removed as too radical and his cartoon

vention, highly decorative, drawing its style not only from

weekly Manhua xuantuan (Cartoon propaganda team)

early Chinese art but also f r o m that of M e x i c o and an-

closed down. B y now, open criticism of the authorities

cient Egypt. With its barely concealed satire on the " f o u r

was extremely dangerous, although some brave artists

families" that controlled China, to publish it w o u l d have

took the risk. To avoid the censor, cartoonists w o u l d

been out of the question, but Z h a n g G u a n g y u e x h i b -

sometimes adopt a device popular with the dramatists:

ited the series briefly in C h o n g q i n g late in 1 9 4 5 and at

select from Chinese history or legend a theme of cor-

the M o d e r n Art Exhibition in C h e n g d u the following

ruption, oppression, or heroic resistance that echoed the

spring.

current situation.

D i n g C o n g is another artist w h o stretched the mean-

CARTOON

AND

CARICATURE

1 2 1

11.6 Ding Cong, Xianxiang

• inmim.7

ÄMfc*

tu (1944). Ink and color o n paper.

• Sfi^ife® ' ^ t i r • — B ig ••j.^f-*® SJt&iJ "i70»A»ai>H •

tfj-^-TÄ.SHfifMi

53> • T V ? ® »

51W»

* •- H 11.5 Zhang Guangyu, Journey to the West (detail) (1945). Ink and color on paper

ing of the word "cartoon" to include ambitious satiri-

It opens with a student, forced to study volumes of use-

cal paintings that can be regarded as works of art in their

less old lore while his modern textbooks lie idle on the

own right. B o r n in Shanghai in 1 9 1 6 , he was the son of

floor. Beside him stands the professor, nursemaid to his

designer and cartoonist D i n g Song, one of Z h a n g

pregnant wife and children, -who want food, not books.

Yuguang's first pupils. B y the early 1930s, Ding C o n g —

Partially screening the war profiteer counting his gains,

or X i a o Ding ("Little Ding"), as he signs himself—was

two rascals close a secret deal by squeezing fingers hid-

studying in Liu Haisu's academy and already drawing car-

den in their sleeves. T h e blindfolded artist has painted a

toons, in company with Zhang Guangyu and Ye Qianyu.

dog when he intended a tiger, but five would-be buy-

When war came, all three moved to Hong Kong, where

ers, unable to tell the difference, have attached their red

Ding, like Zhang, worked for a film company. In 1942

tags to his scroll; the writer's every word, meanwhile, is

he went to Sichuan, spending the rest of the war chiefly

measured and scrutinized by the huge eye of the cen-

with art and theater friends in Chengdu; he also taught

sor. T h e rich man, member of many prestigious orga-

briefly in the Sichuan Provincial Academy of Art. In

nizations, refuses to buy a coat from a refugee, while the

1944 he travelled to the borderland of western Sichuan

painted woman on his arm holds her nose at the stink

and Xikang and visited the Daoist temples on Q i n g -

of the wounded soldier. Officials haggle over money

chengshan, where he met X u Beihong and his students.

pledged to feed the poor, while hoarded rice is eaten by

From these expeditions he brought back to Chengdu a

rats and cloth rots. Soldiers and refugees crowd the road,

striking series of sketches and drawings of the Luoluo

while the rich in their limousine drive past unheeding.

tribespeople. 3

Finally, the journalist, his pen poised to expose the rot,

It was in 1944 also that X i a o Ding painted what is probably his best-known work, the satirical handscroll Xianxiang tn (fig. 11.6)—literally, "looking at images." 6

1 2 2

W A R

A N D

C I V I L

W A R

can speak only through the official invitation stuffed in his mouth. X i a o Ding's scroll attacks no individuals in particular,

but the picture it presents of life under Chiang Kaishek

condemnation with a monumental solidity of f o r m — a

is devastating. In its sardonic exposure of the evils of so-

virtue for which he owes much to the Mexican revolu-

ciety it owes much to Lu X u n , but stylistically the in-

tionary artists. B y contrast, Te Wei (Sheng Song), active

fluence is chiefly that of the modern Mexicans. T h e debt

in Shanghai, H o n g Kong, and Guilin in the late 1930s

.to Rivera and Covarrubias is even stronger in the more

and early 1940s, was strongly influenced by David Low.

carefully modelled but no less powerful figures on the scroll X i a o Ding painted a year later, when the war with Japan was over: Xianshi tit, "picture of reality" (fig. 1 1 . 7 ) .

OTHER WARTIME CARTOONISTS

Civil war was about to break out, profiteers were flood-

the much-loved little boy San Mao, or " T h r e e Hairs,"

ing the market with American goods, and peasants were

was born in 1 9 1 0 into a poor teacher's family in

Z h a n g Leping, creator o f

pressed into the army, while weapons supplied by the

Haiyangxian, Zhejiang. As a young man he came un-

Americans to fight the Japanese were being turned against

der the influence of Zhang Guangyu and Ye Qianyu,

the real enemy—the Communists. At the end an armed

and with them contributed to the Shanghai cartoon

peasant is about to blow them all to smithereens.

magazines. T h e indomitable little San M a o first appeared

Xiao Ding's work, not limited to cartoons, ranges from

in a Shanghai newspaper, the Xiaozhenbao, in N o v e m -

satire to landscape sketching, from woodcuts to book il-

ber 1 9 3 5 . 7 W h e n war came, Zhang Lepingjoined G u o

lustrations. His stylistic and technical range is remark-

Moruo's Third Propaganda Team, producing anti-Japa-

able, and always appropriate to the theme and the

nese cartoons, posters, even wall paintings; he worked

medium he employs. His woodcut illustrations to Lu

in Nanjing, Wuhan, Changsha, and Guilin. His power-

X u n ' s Ah Q, published in Chongqing in 1944, have a

ful watercolor of 1942, showing laborers building an air-

crude dramatic power, while even his most bitterly satir-

field, shows that he was no mere caricaturist, while his

ical drawings, such as Plunder of 1945, combine fierce

mockery of the Japanese and of Chinese capitalist ex-

C A R T O O N

A N D

C A R I C A T U R E

1 2 3

ploiters of the poor was both savage and accomplished. W h e n Zhang Leping returned to Shanghai in 1946, the comic strip saga of San M a o was published in Dagongbao, appearing weekly throughout the country for 2 3 4 installments (fig. 1 1 . 8 ) . To many, San M a o was a real child, and when the little urchin for some reason did not appear, an eight-year-old reader wrote to the newspaper: " M r . Zhang, I haven't seen San M a o for three days and I miss him terribly. Where has he been? Has he starved or frozen to death, or has he gone to school?" 8 After Liberation, San M a o continued to appear—by this time, of course, a happy child, diligent student, and Young Pioneer, and a godsend to the moral propagandists of the M a o era. Several popular films based on the

1 1 .8 Zhang Leping, San Mao Rejects Arms for the Civil War (1948). Ink on paper.

series were produced. A m o n g the other leading cartoonists of the 1930s and

1 1.9

1940s was Liao Bingxiong, born in Canton in 1 9 1 5 . He

Hua Junwu, two satires on modern art (c. 1980). The legends read: {top)

studied in Shanghai, early becoming known as a satiri-

"Traditional art taught. Guaranteed to turn the new old. Come as a tiger, graduate as a living fossil." (bottom) "Keep on painting, my dear, and when

cal writer and member of the Shanghai cartoonists' cir-

you're good at it you can go on TV. Then they'll make films about you, and

cle. He too joined G u o Moruo's cartoon propaganda

when you win first prize in an international competition, you'll get your dad

team on the outbreak of war. Some of his most power-

abroad for a look round."

ful work was produced in the years before Liberation, when he attacked not only the usual targets but those w h o were corrupting China's youth. 9 A particularly savage cartoon (plate 29) shows mahjong gamblers staking not cash but the bound and naked bodies of men and women. Cai R u o h o n g , born in Jiangxi in 1 9 1 0 , was a founding member of the League of Left-Wing Artists. Before he went to Yan'an, around 1938, he made satirical and often derivative drawings and cartoons of Shanghai; his Avenue Jojfre of 1 9 3 7 , for example, might be a copy of one of G e o r g Grosz's cartoons of

Weimar-period

Berlin. 1 0 Cai R u o h o n g was later to become deeply involved in the cultural politics of the People's Republic, a relentless enemy of ideological waverers. Hua J u n w u was born in Suzhou in 1 9 1 5 , studied in Shanghai, became a bank clerk for two years, and went to Yan'an in 1 9 3 8 . 1 1 He later said that when he began his career in Shanghai he was influenced by the German cartoonist E. O. Plauen, whose strip cartoon Vater und Sohn was widely appreciated by Chinese cartoonists, and by "Sapajou" (the former czarist officer Georgi Sapojnikov), w h o worked for the North China Daily News from 1925 until he left China for Hawaii in 1949. Hua J u n w u said he even imitated the way Sapajou wrote his signature. H e is a witty cartoonist w h o expresses his politically orthodox sentiments with simplicity and economy (fig. 1 1 . 9 ) . O n e of the very few woman cartoonists of the time J>r %

a ¡ft

if

was the Cantonese Liang Baibo. An early student of oil painting at the Hangzhou Academy, she had been an active member of the Storm Society (see chapter 6).

5 9 1 2 4

? '

THE

ART

OF

FENG

ZIKAI

3.

Feng Zikai defies classification. 12 He was not purely a cartoonist or a painter but something in between, caring too passionately for the individual to ally himself to any movement. B o r n in 1898 in Shimenwan, north of Hangzhou, son of a scholar w h o became a juren too late to enjoy the fruits of office, by the time he was sixteen he was learning to be an art teacher in the Hangzhou First Normal College, struggling to draw Homer, Venus, and the Laocoon. Under the inspiring influence of Li Shutong, he studied Western art and music before spending ten critical months in 1 9 2 1 in Japan, where he discovered the Japanese manga (cartoon) tradition, from which the Chinese term manhua is derived. B y 1924, back in Shanghai, Feng Zikai was making such a reputation with his illustrations to single lines from well-known poems that Chinese readers were speaking of " Z i k a i manhua." At about this time he turned to depicting the world about him. He became a writer, teacher, and widely popular lecturer on art, fascinating his audience with his transparent honesty and a deep understanding of things that went with the strong B u d dhist leanings that he had developed under the influence of Li Shutong. He almost succeeded in becoming a vegetarian, but, as Christoph Harbsmeier noted in his sympathetic study of him, " h e had considerable problems with the Buddhist injunction to abstain from w i n e " — although he never drank too much. T h o u g h Feng has been called a social realist, the label does not fit; in fact, he was criticized by the Leftists in 1 9 3 0 for his "spineless attitude" on ideological questions. Rather, his simple brush drawings catch the essence of a place, a person, a moment in everyday life. His innocent eye invests with feeling even common obj e c t s — a teapot and teacups, for example, on a deserted terrace in the moonlight—while his men or (more often) young women and girls gazing out of windows convey a sense of loneliness and longing (as in fig. 1 1 . 1 0 ) . During the war and after, the social comment in his work became a little sharper, but he was more often moved to sympathy than to anger. Throughout his life, he made drawings of the children he loved. Indeed, he often seemed to see the world through their eyes. After Liberation, Feng Zikai seemed happy with the new order. In his paintings of the 1950s and early 1960s, more carefully drawn and colored, he depicts men and w o m e n peacefully calling on each other at new year, enjoying the spring, visiting a temple. His orderly, well-

11.10 Feng Zikai, Looking

at the Moon

(1940s) Ink and color on paper.

dressed children do their lessons under the trees and are altogether more serious. In these paintings houses and

the new order was made use of, but he was eventually

figures are drawn with the same economy and feeling

moved to protest the abuse of the dignity of the indi-

for character that we find in the work of the M i n g mas-

vidual, with dire results. His last years, during the C u l -

ter Shen Z h o u . Inevitably, his innocent enthusiasm for

tural Revolution, were tragic.

C A R T O O N

A N D

C A R I C A T U R E

1 2 5

PART

THREE

(919-1976}, (r/ ù/

The years during which Mao Zedong control over cultural life in China and women,

and hope,

then

tightened

and

as the reins were alternately

loosened, and finally of growing despair and culminating Artists

in the nightmare

frustration,

of the Cultural

were required to "serve the people."

struggle between tradition and revolution, Western art, continued,

total

were, for creative men

at first a period of commitment

of uncertainty

exerted

Revolution.

The

dialectical

Chinese

with Western modernism

and

replaced

by Soviet socialist realism. The theoretical debate was carried on over the artists' heads by Party ideologues, who enforced Mao's

directives to "make the past serve the and "make foreign

Within

present"

things serve

China."

strict ideological limits, many new answers to that

challenge were found.

I f f o r the professional

artist Party

control was often stifling, and at times severe punishment meted out to deviants, and peasants

the encouragement given to workers

to take up the brush would enormously

the human

was

broaden

base from which creative art could spring.

LIBERATION

R E S T R U C T U R I N G THE ART

WORLD

T h e greatest upheaval in modern Chinese history ended

policies that will protect them and make use of them to

with the restoration of order and the birth of hope. T h e

serve the People's Republic to the best of their ability."

m o o d of excitement and expectation of Liberation

As registered members of the provincial and local

shared by many, if not all, is well expressed in Huang

branches of the association, provided with regular salaries

Xinbo's oil painting of 1948, "They're

(fig.

and free accommodation for their families, artists n o w

1 2 . 1 ) . As the straw-sandalled R e d Army marched into

enjoyed a security such as they had never known before.

Coming!"

Beijing, carrying their food and bedding, people lining

It is hardly surprising that most of them at first welcomed

the streets stood silent, wondering at their discipline and

their new masters.

restraint. For most, apprehension gave way to an enor-

Although the constitution of the heavily subsidized

mous sense of relief that the years of strife and economic

Artists Association was not promulgated until 1 9 5 4 , its

chaos were over. T h e R e d tide swept outward from

aims were enforced from the start: to organize artists for

Beijing, until the whole of mainland China was engulfed.

national reconstruction; to produce art of a high ideo-

T h e price of order and stability was spelled out from the

logical level and artistic quality; to organize the study of

start. There were to be no hidden corners into which

art theory on the basis of Marxism-Leninism and the

the tide would not reach; no institutions, no individual

principles laid down by M a o in the Yanan Talks, using

that did not come under the control of the Party; no

the method of criticism and self-criticism; to organize

private education of any kind; no thought not controlled

art exhibitions, publish art journals, promote the study

by Party ideology.

of the Chinese cultural heritage, help young artists, and

With the Soviet model before them and ten years of

encourage the masses to take up art, partly by sending

planning and preparation in Yanan, the Communists

professional artists to decorate the walls in their villages;

moved quickly to put their cultural policies into effect.

and to stimulate international art exchanges with the

Artists from both Communist and Guomindang areas

U S S R , Eastern Europe, and "people's artists" in other

were summoned to the first National Congress of Lit-

countries. N o aspect of artistic activity was to be allowed

erature and Art Workers, convened in July 1949, to hear

to slip through the net of Party control.

the official policy towards the arts.1 This event was so

As titular chairman of the association, X u B e i h o n g

important that it was addressed not only by Lu Dingyi,

sent out an appeal to artists w h o had taken refuge from

the propaganda chief, but also by Z h u De, Z h o u Enlai,

the Civil War in H o n g K o n g to return home. Z h a n g

and M a o Z e d o n g himself. T h e Artists Association was

Guangyu, D i n g C o n g , Ye Qianyu, and many others an-

set up under the aegis of the Ministry of Culture to re-

swered the call. B y J u n e 1949 they were meeting with

cruit, organize, reeducate, and support artists, "mental

Party cultural officials in Beijing and learning what was

workers" toward w h o m the government "must adopt

expected of them. N o t all responded, however. T h e in-

1 2 9

12.1 Huang Xinbo, "They're Coming!"

(c. 1948). Oils.

vitation of Guan Shanyue, w h o had seen the light, to

Prague in April 1 9 4 9 — s i x months before the People's

his old teacher Gao Jianfu was not exactly cordial: his

Republic was founded—the large Chinese delegation in-

failure to return, Guan wrote, would make him "an en-

cluded a group of artists headed by X u Beihong. A n ex-

emy of the people." Gao Jianfu, not surprisingly, de-

hibition of Chinese applied art (decorative design ap-

cided to stay in Macao. 2 X u Beihong himself had been

plied to lacquer, textiles, etc.) visited M o s c o w and

an object of contention between the Communists and

Leningrad in 1950, followed in 1 9 5 4 by ceramics and in

the Guomindang. In October 1948 the government in

1 9 5 7 by guohua. D i n g C o n g was among the delegates

Nanjing, which had set up a special fund to help im-

sent to a youth conference in Hungary and then on to

portant people to come south, had sent X u two air tick-

Moscow. Through the 1950s, Chinese art exhibitions

ets, but he was watched over by his friend and former

regularly toured the Soviet bloc and Third World coun-

student, the oil painter Feng Fasi, who had been a m e m -

tries. A new and very different era was opening in China's

ber of the Communist underground in the academy. A n -

cultural relations.

other friend, the dramatist Tian Han, came secretly with messages from M a o Zedong and Z h o u Enlai wishing him well and urging him to stay in Beijing, and the effort

ART UNDER POLITICAL CONTROL

was successful. 3 Most of the staff and students of the B e i -

From the moment Beijing became the capital, art and

jing Academy had refused to leave as well.

art education felt the full weight of Party control. In 1946

T h e Party propaganda machine lost no time in ex-

Huabei United Revolutionary University, an outgrowth

ploiting China's artistic talents to create a favorable im-

of Yan'an University, had been founded at Zhangjiakou.

pression in the Communist world. At the First Interna-

Its cultural institute (wenyi xueyuan) was headed by Sha

tional Conference on World Peace, held in Belgrade and

Kefu, with the poet Ai Qing as vice president and Jiang

1 3 0

ART

IN

THE

ERA

OF

MAO

ZEDONG

Feng as head of the art section. W h e n Beijing was lib-

start by ideological struggle in the Central Academy cre-

erated they moved in and took over the academy, con-

ated an oppressive atmosphere that has persisted ever

firming X u Beihong as president, "assisted" by three

since. T h e pattern of reforms and campaigns, carrots and

radical professors—Feng Fasi, A i Zhongxin, and Z h o u

sticks, that characterized the Central Academy was fol-

Lingzhao—and a group of Communists from Yan'an that

lowed in other art schools across the country. It would

included H u Yichuan, Yan Han, and M o B u . In O c t o -

be tedious to attempt to describe it all, but a few c o m -

ber the Wenyi Xueyuan was fused with the academy, and

ments are in order.

in July 1 9 5 0 it acquired the name by which it is still

For some months before Hangzhou was "liberated,"

k n o w n today: the Central A c a d e m y of Fine Arts

the Hangzhou Academy had been run by an under-

(Zhongyang meishu xueyuan). X u Beihong remained the

ground progressive group, which set up a provisional

titular head, although control was in the hands of a

committee to take over as soon as the Guomindang had

Communist

departed. 6 They included Liu Kaiqu, N i Y i d e and his

group

of

five:

Hu

Yichuan,

Wang

Chaowen, Luo Gongliu, Jiang Feng, and Jiang Ding.

w i f e Lu Wei, Li Hua, and Wei Mengke. O n Liberation,

T h e Central Academy, under the all-seeing eye of the

Jiang Feng took control, aided by M o B u , w h o had been

Ministry of Culture, thus became the model for art

with the Communist N e w Fourth Army. They put up

schools across the country, the arena in which new poli-

Liu Kaiqu as president, with N i Y i d e and Jiang Feng as

cies were inaugurated and new teaching methods tested,

his deputies, and appointed Pang X u n q i n to head the

the center to which art teachers were summoned for con-

painting section. T h e real power in the academy, as in

ferences and "discussions"—that is, for receiving their

all institutions, was wielded by a succession of Party sec-

instructions—and for mobilization in support of each

retaries, beginning in 1 9 5 2 with Gao Shan. A similar pattern was followed in all the public art schools, so that

successive Party campaign or propaganda onslaught. After a year of relative tolerance, the authorities ceased to conciliate "bourgeois elements," and the honeymoon was over. T h e political reeducation campaign intensified, undoubtedly helped by the wave of patriotic anti-American fervor roused by the Korean War. 4 In September 1 9 5 1 , Z h o u Enlai lectured the academy on the evils of individualism; later that same year "austerity inspiration committees" initiated mass criticism of teachers, leading to humiliation and public confessions. In 1 9 5 2 the faculty was orchestrated to support the Three Antis and Five Antis campaigns. In 1 9 5 3 , when the gov-

within a few months, although the president and many of the staff were the same as before, control was c o m pletely in the hands of the Yan'an men. Private art schools were simply abolished. T h e staff and students of Wang Yachen's X i n h u a Academy were distributed between Nanjing and Hangzhou. In 1 9 5 2 those from Liu Haisu's and Yan Wenliang's academies and from Shandong University's art department were amalgamated at Tianxi, and in 1958 this combined school moved to Nanjing to become the Nanjing Academy of Art, over which Liu Haisu continued, nominally, to preside. 7

ernment needed support for the launching of the first Five Year Plan, there was a slight relaxation, lasting until late 1954. That autumn, the Party made a strenuous at-

ART AND ARTISTS

tack on wayward intellectuals, notably on Feng Xuefeng,

In his keynote address to the National Congress of Lit-

editor of the Literary Gazette.

REFORMED

erature and Art Workers in July 1949, Z h o u Yang was

Even more severe was the campaign of the following

specific about the kind of art that would be given high

year, directed personally by Mao, against Lu X u n ' s dis-

priority: works considered part of the folk tradition, for

ciple H u Feng, w h o had dared to challenge Mao's doc-

example, and cartoons. " T h e Liberated Area woodcuts,

trine of the total subservience of art to politics. 5 In July

N e w Year's pictures, picture story books, etc., are all rich

1955 the Ministry of Culture held an art education meet-

in Chinese style and flavor. We all know the woodcuts

ing at the Academy, attended by fifty professors from

of G u Yuan, Yan Han, Li C h u n [Li Qun], and the car-

twenty-two art schools, and the propaganda chief, Hu

toons of Hua J u n w u and Cai R u o h o n g " — a l l , of course,

Qiaomu, used the occasion to mobilize them for a con-

Party men. B u t that was not to say that no other kinds

certed attack on H u Feng. A m o n g those obliged to de-

of art would be tolerated: " W e highly respect and wish

nounce him in statements published in Meishu,

the

to learn from what is useful from the fine heritage of all

officialjournal of the Party's cultural affairs bureau, were

native and foreign traditional forms, especially from

Yu Fei'an, Liu Kiaqu, H u Yichuan, and N i Yide, while

Soviet socialist literature and art." 8 This emphasis on "tra-

Pang Xunqin, hitherto completely apolitical and now a

ditional" forms clearly excluded Western modernism.

naive and apparently enthusiastic convert, declared that

Cosmopolitan, Western-trained artists soon came under

Hu Feng's "eccentric thinking" deserved to be punished.

heavy pressure to reform. Wu Guanzhong, returning

T h e constant stresses and tensions generated from the

from Paris to teach at the Beijing Academy in 1 9 5 0 ,

LIBERATION

1 3 1

f o u n d his students eager to learn about the Post-Impres-

guohua through oils, watercolors, and sculpture, as well

sionists and more m o d e r n movements in the West, but

as woodcuts, cartoons, and nianhua.

he was soon told that discussion o f the subject was f o r -

visited the exhibition, noted h o w derivative the profes-

Derk Bodde, w h o

bidden. H e himself was severely criticized as a bourgeois

sional works were by comparison with the crude v i g o r of the paintings and drawings by peasants, soldiers, and

formalist. H a d W u G u a n z h o n g studied the Y a n a n Talks on A r t

laborers. H e singled out also Liu Kaiqu's sculpture group

and Literature he w o u l d have k n o w n what to expect, for

of a w o m a n and child in an air raid and a violently anti-

M a o had insisted that writers and artists must undergo

A m e r i c a n cartoon, and went on:

"a long and even painful process o f steeling." Just h o w this steeling was to be accomplished was spelled out in n o uncertain terms by the propaganda chief, H u Qiaomu: First, they should, in accordance with the instructions of Comrade Mao Zedong, engage themselves earnestly in ideological reform, study Marxism, and identify themselves with the workers, peasants and soldiers. . . . Second, Marxist ideology in regard to art and literature should be widely t a u g h t . . . so that everyone may realise that art and literature play an important part in the class struggle. . . . Writers and artists must maintain close contact with the labouring masses, finding sources for creative work in their life and struggles. . . . Third, the leadership of our art and literature should be reorganised. . . . We must enlarge and strengthen the leadership of creative production and criticism. . . . Fourth . . . every really necessary literary and art organisation should become a combat unit which will effectively help writers and artists to identify themselves with the working people. . . . Organisations which cannot do so should be dissolved and "writers and artists" w h o cannot actually carry out literary and art work should be dismissed by the organisations concerned. . . . Fifth, all literary and art publications . . . should be reorganised. . . . Sixth, we demand that writers and artists w h o are Party members should become models in the aforementioned activities, i.e. models in the study of Marxism, models in uniting with the workers, peasants and soldiers, models in the practice of criticism and self-criticism, and models in their literary and art work. We oppose any lack of discipline on the part of Party members w h o are literary or art workers. 9

Most interesting, however, were the less sophisticated works prepared by Communist propagandists for use among the peasants. There were colored lantern slides illustrating the powers of the Liberation Army or its cooperation with the people; lithographed wall newspapers in which the news of the day was presented in the f o r m of brightly coloured pictures arranged like American comic strips; colored N e w Year pictures . . . in which the traditional God of Wealth and the Eight Immortals are replaced by such up-to-date themes as peasants working together in the field or participating in a "bean election" (voting for village officials by casting beans into jars beneath the names and pictures of candidates); "scissor pictures" (designs cut with scissors from red paper—a traditional art of peasant women), likewise modernised to show Liberation Army soldiers or peasants at work. . . . T h e entire exhibition left two dominant impressions. O n e was the dynamic force that graphic art can give w h e n it is harnessed with conviction and skill to certain guiding ideas. T h e other was the extent to which the Communists, as no other group in Chinese history, have succeeded in conveying their message to China's rural millions. 10

This exhibition was to be a model f o r many more o f its kind in the years to come. Similar developments took place in Shanghai, w h e r e in 1 9 5 0 Party leaders set up the Shanghai Municipality N e w Chinese Painting Research Society (Shanghai shi x i n g u o h u a yanjiu hui) to promote realism in the traditional style, along the lines pioneered by X u B e i h o n g . At their first major exhibition in 1 9 5 1 , works ranged from the pure landscape o f the Lingnan artist Li X i o n g c a i to a propagandist scroll by Pan Y u n depicting the south-

U n d e r great moral and psychological pressure, Lin

ward march o f the Liberation armies, in w h i c h the

Fengmian and Pang X u n q i n both made statements re-

grouping o f the figures and even the style o w e s o m e -

pudiating the error o f their "formalist" ways, and many

thing to the D u n h u a n g frescoes.

lesser artists followed suit. Yet the Party realized that art

In M a y 1 9 5 0 , Z h o u Enlai, addressing the staff and stu-

could not be r e f o r m e d overnight, and that in the m e a n -

dents o f the B e i j i n g Academy, had urged them to get

time it was necessary, as Z h o u Y a n g had said, to w i n the

out o f their studios, take their art to the countryside, and

artists over to their side. Accordingly, the National C o n -

teach the peasants w h i l e learning f r o m them. T h e effect

gress was made the occasion for a huge exhibition that

o f this injunction is well illustrated by the following piece

filled seventeen rooms o f the Central Academy, ranging

written by a journalist on the staff o f China

across the w h o l e o f Chinese m o d e r n art, f r o m traditional

view. Entitled "Art Education in the N e w C h i n a , " I quote

1 32

A R T

IN

T H E

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

Weekly

Re-

it at length not only because it is a lively piece of w r i t ing, but because although the picture it gives of teaching in the Academy before Liberation is deliberately dist o r t e d — i n suggesting, for example, that the students had n o t drawn clothed models, or gone out to the c o u n t r y side to paint—it shows in graphic detail h o w the n e w policy was carried into effect, while well capturing the buoyant m o o d that perhaps the majority of teachers and students felt in the first years after Liberation. " M a o Z e d o n g has said that 'Life is the fountain of creation.' T h e National College of Fine Arts in H a n g z h o u n o w follows this theory in its teaching methods. " O n a typical m o r n i n g , April 16, the students were awakened by the ringing of bells. " T h e y rose, tied their quilts and clothing into b u n dles and after eating their bowl of rice, went to the playg r o u n d to wait for the trucks that were to take t h e m to t h e farms and factories. " W h i l e they waited, a group of students began to dance the Yangge to the accompaniment of some C h i nese instruments: Zhang, zhang, ji, ji, zhang. Zhang, zhang, ji, ji, zhang.

O t h e r s sang as follows: Why should we go to the farms? Why should we go to the factories? We educated people want to reform ourselves, We must live and work with the working class. Hey! We must live and work with the working class.

T h e students were accompanied by their professors, w h o included Lin Fengmian and Guan Liang, some of China's most famous painters. Professor Lin w o n fame in Paris years ago. His paintings are still highly valued by the French connoisseurs. But, now, he no longer paints for the rich. H e wants to reform himself with the other artists in China. H e sat this m o r n i n g on his baggage, talking w i t h his friend Professor Guan. . . . "To understand w h y they were going to the farms and factories it is necessary to look back on the past history of art education in the old liberated areas. " T h e first revolutionary art school in C h i n a was the Lu X u n Art Academy in Yan'an. Most of t h e famous artists in n o r t h China, such as G u Yuan, H u a J u n w u , M i Ke [Mi Gu], came f r o m that school. But as C o m rade Jiang Feng explained to me, the Lu X u n Academy also made mistakes. " ' T h e teachers and students in that school were e n thusiastic about revolution,' he said, 'but their associa-

tion w i t h the w o r k i n g class was n o t strong e n o u g h . Like the students in any other art school, the Lu X u n students studied art in classrooms and studios. T h e y did n o t really understand the people. T h e characters w h o m they created in their pictures were fictitious. Later, at Yan an's Cultural Meeting, C h a i r m a n M a o Z e d o n g pointed o u t these mistakes and asked t h e m to change. " ' F r o m that time on, the Lu X u n Academy began to u n d e r g o a great transformation. All the teachers and students w e n t to the farms, living and w o r k i n g w i t h the peasants. T h e y described the lives of t h e peasants. T h e y came to understand the true feelings of the peasants. This is the reason w h y the art in n o r t h China has been so vivid and t r u e to life. . . . ' "In the past, art education in the G u o m i n d a n g areas was deeply influenced by the Paris school. T h e students did n o t like to draw pictures of w h a t they actually saw. T h e y liked to distort the figures in their paintings. ' E x actitude is n o t t r u t h , ' said H e n r i Matisse. " T h e students blindly followed the doctrines of these French artists. T h e y k n e w n o t h i n g except h o w to paint willow trees, peachblossoms, and female nudes. T h e y were unable to master a large composition. "In order to cultivate the students' ability in 'creative painting,' the professors in the National College of Fine Arts use a n e w m e t h o d of teaching. T h e first-year and second-year students have to draw the portraits of t h e 'living m e n ' besides studies of Greek sculptures. Likewise, the third-year and fourth-year students have to draw 'models in clothes' in addition to studies of nudes. "In the past, the first-year and second-year students studied only Greek sculptures. T h e y were so familiar with these things that they could draw the figure of Venus or the torso of L a o c o o n f r o m memory. But if they were asked to paint a portrait, they could only draw a C h i nese w i t h a Greek nose. T h e same was the case w i t h the m o r e advanced students. M o s t of t h e m were unable to draw the drapery of a m a n in clothes because they had only studied nudes in their classrooms. "In the past, the poses of 'models' were adopted f r o m Greek sculptures. T h e y were usually reclining figures. T h e y expressed the Greek idea of the 'sleeping Venus.' N o w , the models have to stand up, w i t h tools in their hands. T h e y express the beauty of the w o r k i n g class. . . . "It was a hard task at first to r e f o r m some of the students w h o were worshippers of Matisse and other m o d ern French artists. T h e y refused to go to the farms and factories. T h e y wanted to study art in classrooms. T h e y imitated t h e lines of Matisse in their drawings and paintings. " B u t other forces were at work. At meetings of small discussion groups and in the classrooms the paintings of Matisse and other famous artists of the Paris school were

LIBERATION

1 3 3

critically analysed. The Dramatic Club presented a fouract play called 'Direction,' which was written by the students themselves. In that play, they told the audience how meaningless the paintings of the capitalist world were! Gradually, these 'Matisse-worshippers' changed. Now, they are as happy as the other students, because they no longer hesitate. They understand that realism is the only truth in art.

"In the past, some of the professors in the Guomindang areas were not interested in teaching. They came to school once or twice a month, letting the students themselves grope for methods of drawing and painting. Some of them were so lazy that they refused to paint pictures without 'inspiration.' Some did not paint a single picture for ten years, because 'inspiration' did not come.

"Under the new system the students have improved both in political understanding and technique. Last term, they held an exhibition after returning from the factories and farms. The spectators—most of them workers and farmers—looked at their paintings and exclaimed, 'They are too good! The persons in these pictures really look like us.'

"Since the liberation of mainland China, this has changed. Unlike the world of capitalism, the new society lets no one be lazy. The artists, too, study the works of such great thinkers as Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin, and Mao Zedong. They hold meetings from time to time. They attend the public lectures of famous men. This is the only way for an artist in a society of New Democracy to understand his time and surroundings thoroughly.

"All of these pictures are realistic. But this does not mean that they are 'photo-like.' Everyone shows his own character in his creative painting. Within the realm of realism, the development of personality will not be limited. " N o professor is able to teach if he does not go to the farms and factories with his students. The students like to ask such questions as these: " 'Sir, how does a rope go through the nose of an ox?' "'Sir, what does a windmill in west Zhejiang look like?' "Well, the professor has to blush if he does not know how to answer. So all of the professors go to the farms and factories. "At the end of term, the students put their drawings and paintings on the walls of the Art Gallery. Then the professors and students hold a meeting and discuss the pictures. They grade them according to the opinion of the majority.

1 3 4

A R T

IN

THE

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

"The professors at the National College of Fine Arts have a 'special studio' in which they can work. So they also have a chance to improve their technique. In addition to this, the college provides a 'special schedule' for its professors. Every artist is expected to finish one or two paintings each term. "The exhibition of the professors in April was most successful. Most of the pictures were oil paintings describing what the professors saw and found in the factories and farms."

This buoyant mood was to be sustained until 1957, when the wilting of the "Hundred Flowers," and the AntiRightist Campaign, in which artists were among the principal victims, introduced a new note of cynicism and disillusionment.

A? A R T

OIL

FOR

S O C I E T Y

PAINTING:

T H E D E C A D E OF S O V I E T

INFLUENCE

By the summer of 1950 the doors to the West had been shut by the Korean War, and they were to remain shut for more than twenty years. N o w China's political and cultural partners were the Soviet Union, her Eastern Bloc satellites, Cuba, and Albania. Selected art students were sent to study in the U S S R . Li Tianxiang and Qian Shaowu were at the Leningrad Academy from 1953 to 1955; Lin Gang was sent to Leningrad in 1954 and did not return until i960; Luo Gongliu went in 1955. Among many others who travelled in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe on art tours or as members of cultural delegations we may mention Xiao Feng, Dong Xiwen, Ai Zhongxin, Yang Taiyang, Liu Kaiqu, Yan Han, and Guan Liang. In April 1 9 5 1 an exhibition of Soviet propaganda and satirical art was mounted in the Central Academy. Books on Russian art began to replace those on the PostImpressionists in the libraries and bookshops—books not only on the work of Soviet artists but also on earlier antiacademic realists of the czarist period, notably the group known from its traveling exhibitions as the Wanderers, which had seceded from the Academy in 1863 } Among its leading members were Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin, Vassily Surikov (see fig. 13.1), and Valentin Serov. Wu Guanzhong later recalled his humiliation when his students at the Academy discovered that he had never heard of Repin, and his relief when he discovered an article on that artist in a magazine. Although art students continued to study Renaissance and nineteenth-century European art (particularly Courbet and Millet), the impact of the Russian realists

on the younger generation of Chinese oil painters at this time was considerable. Feng Fasi, a pupil of X u Beihong, had been painting realistic oils after World War II in Chongqing, where he had seen the exhibitions put on at the Sino-Soviet Cultural Centre; in 1949 he exhibited a large oil denouncing the Civil War. In the following year he was appointed professor in the Central Academy. His impressive work of 1957, The Heroic Death of Liu Hulan (fig. 13.2), shows the heroic defiance of a peasant girl of seventeen, tortured and executed by the troops of the warlord Yan Xishan because she refused to reveal the hideout of her fellow Communists, and demonstrates how much he had learned from the naturalism of the Russian realists, particularly Surikov. 2 Dong Xiwen's huge painting of Mao Zedong proclaiming the birth of the People's Republic from the Tiananmen (see plate 28), much admired by Mao himself, is a typical propaganda painting of the period. The original of 1950 showed the figures of Liu Shaoqi and general Gao Gang. When Mao destroyed these former allies, they were painted out. After Mao died they were painted in again, as in this version of about 1980. Tunnel Warfare (plate 30), painted in 1951 by Luo Gongliu, is an early example of dramatic realism; his Jingangshan Landscape of ten years later shows how much his technique had improved during his years in the Soviet Union. Among hundreds of competent works of this period we may also mention Wang Shikuo's The Bloody Shirt (fig. 13.3), an elaborate composition depicting peasants holding up the tattered garment of a tor-

1 3 5

13

2

F e n g Fasi, The Heroic

Death

of Liu Hulan

(detail) ( 1 9 5 7 ) . Oils.

13.3 W a n g S h i k u o , The Bloody

Shirt

(c. 1 9 5 9 ) . P r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g f o r a n oil p a i n t i n g .

tured and murdered friend before a cowering landlord.

loose and free, but he insisted, following the doctrines

Wang's unfinished oil painting of 1 9 7 2 was based on a

of the Soviet theorist Chistyakov, that every picture

series of sketches and cartoons begun in the 1950s. 3 In

should tell a story, or at least that the subject matter should

1 9 6 1 H o u Y i m i n painted M a o with the Anyuan min-

be immediately apparent to the viewer. However, the al-

ers, and in 1962 Liu Shaoqi leading the strikers out of

most photographic realism that is so evident in the work

the pits. B y contrast with the bad old days, the cheerful

of H o u Y i m i n and some other Chinese oil painters at

optimism of these early years of the People's Republic

this time owes less to Maksimov than to a close study of

is expressed in D o n g Xiwen's idyllic landscapes of T i -

the technique of earlier Russian artists such as Surikov

bet and the borderlands (as in fig. 13.4), full of sunlight

and Repin.

and blossoms, and in the smiling faces of his peasants and

T h e standards in realistic oil painting established by

herdsmen, which show the influence of Serov and Isaac

Jiang Feng at the Central Academy in the 1950s were

Levi tan.

taken up in all the art schools, notably in the Hangzhou

B y the time Konstantin Maksimov arrived at the Acad-

Academy, where the Romanian artist Babov taught for

emy from Moscow in February 1955, there can have been

several years beginning in i960. 3 It has persisted with

few w h o had not heard of Repin. Maksimov, a Stalin

little change into the 1990s—indeed, it is a politically

Prize winner whose works had been shown in Beijing

useful style in which "development" has little place. T h e

in the Soviet art exhibition of 1 9 5 1 , became a dominant

ambitious compositions by painters such as Wang Shikuo

influence. 4 In 1956 he painted a portrait of Wu Zuoren

and Wen Lipeng (Wen Yiduo's son) demonstrate great

(by now vice president of the Academy, under Jiang

technical competence and little or no individuality. As

Feng), and in 1 9 5 7 he met Qi Baishi shortly before the

late as 1 9 7 7 , C h e n Y i f e i and Wei Jingshan showed in

old master died. Maksimov's own style was comparatively

their dramatic painting of the capture of Nanjing in 1949

A R T

F O R

S O C I E T Y

1 3 7

13.5 C h e n Yifei a n d W e i Jinqshan, Overturnina

the Dvnastv

of Chiana

Kaishek

(1977V O i k .

(fig. 13.5) that the style still had its skillful exponents— and that there was still an official demand for this kind of painting. B y this time Chinese oil painters could well have seen, at least in reproduction, the works produced by Russian, German, Japanese, and American war artists, which are remarkably similar to theirs in style. The Soviet influence, however, was by no means allpervasive. Most of the older Paris- and Tokyo-trained artists continued to paint as they had before. Wu Zuoren, in spite of his close association with Maksimov, seldom painted "socialist realist" pictures, while Lii Sibai, Chang Shuhong, Yan Wenliang, and Ni Yide seem from published works to have been little affected. Liu Haisu remained an ebullient, unrepentant post-impressionist, revealing in his Huangshan landscapes of 1953—54 a n d his Shanghai snow scenes of 1957 his undying debt to van Gogh. Wu Guanzhong, condemned for his inability to paint smiling peasants, abandoned the figure altogether for landscapes. Pang Xunqin too painted landscapes, flowers, and still lifes in his own Ecole de Paris style, which did not betray his ideological shortcomings. Lin Fengmian virtually abandoned oils for gouache, which allowed this prolific artist to work extremely fast. Although he sometimes painted peasants in the fields, he was never able to give them the solid heroic glamour the Party required.

GUOHUA:

A CONTROLLED

13.6 Pan Tianshou, Unloading Rice (1950). Ink on paper.

REVIVAL

Revolutionary China, one might expect, would have had no use for traditional painting. It was an inheritance from feudal culture, identified with the old scholar class. Jiang Feng, supported by the wood-engraver Li Hua, declared that it was unscientific, useless, and had no future in depicting revolutionary society. When he became acting president of the Central Academy after the death of X u Beihong in 1953, he created a new department to promote a synthesis of Western color and Chinese ink, which he called caimohua, color and ink painting. The synthesis was not in itself revolutionary: Lin Fengmian had been doing it for twenty years. Coming from Jiang Feng, though, it was a threat to the integrity of the guohua, and the traditionalists were up in arms. But they had their supporters too. With the destruction of the bourgeois intelligentsia, guohua was cleansed of its elitist associations and no longer thought of (at least by some) as an elitist art; besides, it was uniquely Chinese, with a long tradition, and it remained in the eyes of many far superior to Western art. Armed with Mao's exhortation to "make the past serve the present," the Party set out to woo the leading traditionalists and began an attack on Jiang Feng that was to lead eventually to his downfall.

The guohua painters had to accommodate the new artistic order, of course. They were told to forget about landscapes, bamboo, and birds and flowers, and to paint figures instead. They bitterly resented being forced to draw the model from life. Huang Binhong was told that he must lecture on the history of figure painting, an art he had never practiced. Pan Tianshou, criticized for not conforming, made a few halfhearted attempts at genre subjects (fig. 13.6). The scholar Zheng Zhenduo, in an article on Dunhuang art, obligingly insisted that the ancient painters always made the human figure their main theme, and that landscape was not the criterion forjudging the quality of an artist. He even went so far as to say that when the Tang poet and landscape painter Wang Wei introduced the antirealist and intellectually elitist wenren (literatus) concept into painting he brought about its degeneration; that this led to the painting of birds, flowers, and fishes; and that consequently the main tradition came to an end. 6 One solution to the problem of how to make guohua relevant in a revolutionary society was to stress the symbolic meaning of traditional motifs. During the World Peace Movement of 1 9 5 1 , Qi Baishi and the academic flower painter Chen Zhifo painted peace doves.

A R T

F O R

S O C I E T Y

1 3 9

He Xiangning, Pu Xuezhai, Ye Gongchao, Hu Peiheng, Wang Xuetao, Wang Zhensheng, and Chen Nian, "Let a Hundred

Flowers Bloom!"

(1951).

Collaborative painting for Mao Zedong. Ink and color on paper.

Many guohua artists painted traditional themes symbolic

"likeness in spirit" (shensi) at the expense of "likeness in

of spring's awakening, such as red plum blossoms against

f o r m " (xingsi).8 But the reformists w o n the day. Z h o u

the snow, or of strength and endurance, such as great

Yang urged painters to modernize their style and to put

gnarled pine trees. R e d stood for the Communist vic-

figures in their landscapes—not idle scholars and fisher-

tory, or for the blood of martyrs. Even a " p u r e " land-

men, but modern men and women doing useful things. 9

scape became politically respectable if it purported to il-

For stylistic models, they were told to reject the abstract

lustrate a line from one of Mao's poems. 7 Collaborative

manner of the discredited literati of Yuan, Ming, and

pictures, not in themselves new, were created by as many

Qing and go back instead to the realism of Northern

as ten specialists in pines, landscape, birds and flowers,

Song and the craftsmanlike technique of the academic

to heap cumulative praise on the new regime—as in fig.

and Z h e School masters.

1 3 . 7 , a large composition on which He Xiangning, w h o

U p to this point, the guohua reform presented few

had by this time abandoned the Westernisms of her ear-

difficulties. Before Liberation, modern guohua artists

lier years, collaborated with Pu Xuezhai, Ye Gongchao,

such as X u Beihong had been free to select their subject

H u Peiheng, Wang Xuetao, Wang Zhensheng, and

matter, excluding anything demanding accurate rendi-

C h e n Nian. Other collaborative pictures were painted

tion—a truck, for example, or a power station. But now,

anonymously by " T h e Graduates of the Central Acad-

with the new subjects obligatory, artists were faced with

emy," "Beijing Chinese Painting Academy, Bird and

reconciling the irreconcilable: on the one hand the gen-

Flower Group," "Shanghai First Steel Plant Workers' Art

eralized language of conventional "type f o r m s " for the

Group," and so on.

elements of nature, as learned out of handbooks such as The Mustard-Seed Garden, and on the other the "scientific" rendering of individual figures and forms drawn During a

from life. In many of these new guohua works—see, for

lively debate on the merits of guohua carried on in 1954

example, figure 1 5 . 1 , Pu Quan's Building the Red Flag

THE PROBLEM OF REVISING TRADITIONAL PAINTING

in the art academies and in Meishu, some, led by Jiang

Canal—the landscape is conventionalized while peasants

Feng and Yan Han, still argued that it was "unscientific"

and workers, buses and dams, are drawn realistically. T h e y

and should be abandoned. Even Li Keran declared that

look, a critic complained, like paper cutouts stuck on a

the problem with guohua was that it was too much concerned with "self-expression" and that it overemphasized

1 4 0

ART

IN

THE

ERA

OF

MAO

ZEDONG

traditional landscape, and the effect is uncomfortable and unpleasing. 10

13.8 (above)

13.9 (right)

Figures f r o m model book (1979).

Drapery f r o m model book (1979).

Realism demanded that artists abandon their c o n v e n tional vocabulary o f texture strokes (cun) appropriate to different kinds o f rocks and terrain and paint instead directly f r o m nature; but this they did not find easy. In the 1920s, students assigned to draw a street scene had asked their teacher for photographs o f people that they could c o p y into their pictures, for the camera had already prod u c e d two-dimensional images for them. Forty years later, Q i a n Songyan was describing h o w he w e n t to Huangshan not to draw w h a t he actually saw before his eyes but to "check his am" against the rock faces o f the mountain. H a v i n g " c o r r e c t e d " them, he continued to paint as before. 1 1 T h u s the conventional language was not rejected but rather adjusted. A l t h o u g h trained to draw f r o m life, students often use m o d e l books, not only for typical idealized workers and soldiers, rapacious landlords and w i c k e d imperialists, but even for clothing and drapery folds (figs. 13.8 and 13.9). T h e lazy artist could slip back into the old habit o f learning forms out o f b o o k s rather than painting w h a t he or she saw. A l s o incompatible were the rendering o f solid f o r m in light and shade, as taught by the Soviet and w e s t e r n -

A R T

F O R

S O C I E T Y

1 4 1

ized realists, and the traditional Chinese rendering of

ister of culture, spoke at the opening, which coincided

f o r m through modulations of the line. T h e pro-Soviet

with the launching of the Hundred Flowers Movement

teachers stressed ti (form) while the traditionalists spoke

(discussed below). A n encomium on guohua published

of xian (line). Even apparently realistic modern guohua

in People's China in June noted that "certain people hold-

makes very little use of shading, and often there is no

ing leading positions in the world of art [meaning Jiang

single light source and so no cast shadows at all.

Feng and his group] had scant respect for our national

Finally, the two traditions use space in fundamentally

heritage and took a very supercilious and high-handed

different ways. Western art organizes f o r m within the

attitude in regard to traditional Chinese painting. T h e y

frame, governed by a constant viewpoint and single per-

described it as a product of feudal society. . . . T h e y held

spective. In guohua painting, space goes beyond its

forth on the fact that Chinese painting by its very na-

edges, while perspective is continuously changing (as in

ture cannot serve the interests of the working people and

Z h a n g Daqian's Ten Thousand Miles of the Yangzi, fig.

should therefore be replaced by Western methods of

1 . 1 9 ) . T h e new guohua, therefore, was based on a series

painting. This sectarian approach has seriously hampered

of compromises. Often the two kinds of perspective are

the development not of Chinese traditional painting

reconciled so skillfully that we are not aware of the in-

alone but of Chinese pictorial art as a w h o l e . " 1 5

consistency.

N o w all that would change. Before Liberation, M a o

But in making these compromises, how could the new

and Z h o u had planned to set up the Wenshi Guan (In-

guohua fulfill the requirement for realism? It couldn't,

stitute for culture and history) to secure the participa-

of course, but the reformed artists' answer was delight-

tion of old scholars and cultivated gentry in the new

fully simple: call it realistic anyway. " T h e greatest painters

regime. 1 6 T h e y were told to write their "memoirs" for

of the past," wrote Qian Songyan, "express a certain

private circulation, as a gentle way of persuading them

mood, a philosophical concept. Yet most classical C h i -

to reform their thinking. In 1 9 5 2 , the Ministry of C u l -

nese landscapes are highly realistic in that they are a-syn-

ture established the first institute in Beijing, and there-

thesis of nature and the artist's feelings and ideas." 1 2 C o n g

after every major city had its own Wenshi Guan to which

Baihua, writing in 1 9 6 1 , spoke of " w h o l e n e s s " — b y

elderly artists were elected. Some of the branches ac-

which he meant faithfulness to appearance—and "es-

quired large collections of paintings and calligraphy. D u r -

sentiality," the distilling from the individual f o r m of its

ing the Cultural Revolution the Wenshi Guan was al-

typical, timeless character. Too much wholeness, he says,

most completely suppressed, to emerge again, with

leads to naturalism (that is, to literalism), and too much

much diminished membership, after the Third Plenum

essentiality to abstract formalism. In painting a dragon,

of 1979.

"the expressive power of art lies in the fact that one scale or claw can symbolise the whole without in any way detracting from the richness of its content." H e quotes William Blake:

Supported by the Wenshi Guan and by local branches of the Artists Association, guohua artists produced a vast number of new traditional paintings during the 1950s and early 1960s. Many carried no ideological message at all, and birds, flowers, and bamboo were very popu-

To see a world in a grain of sand And heaven in a wild flower, Hold infinity in the palm of your hand And eternity in an hour

lar. Pan Tianshou produced some of his best landscapes at this time, not infrequently choosing to illustrate a line from a M a o poem in his o w n powerful, uninhibited way (fig. 1 3 . 1 0 ) . His talented pupil Lai Chusheng

flourished

in Shanghai. Li Keran also seemed full of confidence, This, C o n g says, is "the essence of the realist creative

and even Fu Baoshi managed on occasion—when he was

method of the classical Chinese artistic tradition." As ex-

not obliged to collaborate with Guan Shanyue—to re-

amples of this realism, he cites the paintings of G u Kaizhi,

capture some of the poetry of his pre-Liberation work.

Yan Liben, Bada Shanren, and Q i Baishi. 1 3 It is hardly

Gao Xishun, w h o was born in Hunan in 1895 and

surprising that so metaphysical a definition of pictorial

studied in Changsha with M a o Zedong, was another no-

realism was demolished by Maoist critics during the C u l -

table guohua painter of the time. 1 7 H e had settled in B e i -

tural Revolution.

jing in 1 9 1 9 to become a bird and flower painter in the

Through the late 1950s and early 1960s, the guohua

circle of Q i Baishi and C h e n Hengke, and on a visit to

movement, no longer the private preserve of the elite,

Japan in 1 9 2 7 he had studied the work of Ido Reizan,

grew and flourished under official patronage, particularly

Masamoto Naohiko, and Yokoyama Taikan. After Lib-

after the Ministry of Culture founded the Beijing Paint-

eration, he was briefly president of the Beijing Painting

ing Academy (Beijing huayuan), which opened on May

Academy. During the 1950s his paintings became real-

14, 1 9 5 7 . 1 4 Both Z h o u Enlai and Shen Yanping, the min-

istic, showing the influence of Giuseppe Castiglione, but

1 4 2

A R T

IN

T H E

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

Movement. It began with Z h o u Enlai's secret report of January 1956, upgrading the status of intellectuals, writers, and artists, whose talents were needed for China's reconstruction. 1 8 In May M a o uttered his famous dictum, " L e t a hundred flowers blossom! Let a hundred schools of thought contend!" What this meant was then spelled out by Lu Dingyi, chief of the propaganda department of the Central Party Committee: W i t h regard to w o r k s o f art and literature the Party has o n l y o n e point to m a k e , that is that they should "serve the w o r k e r s , peasants and soldiers," or, in terms o f today, serve the w o r k i n g p e o p l e as a w h o l e , intellectuals included. Socialist realism, in o u r v i e w , is the m o s t f r u i t f u l creative m e t h o d , but it is not the o n l y m e t h o d . . . . A s to subject-matter, the Party has n e v e r set limits to this . . . the c h o i c e o f subject-matter is e x t r e m e l y w i d e . C r e a t i v e w r i t i n g deals n o t o n l y w i t h things that really exist, o r that o n c e existed, but also w i t h things than n e v e r e x i s t e d — t h e gods in the heavens, animals and birds w h o talk, and so on. O n e can w r i t e about positive p e o p l e and the n e w society, and also about negative elements and the old. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is difficult to s h o w the n e w society to advantage if w e fail to describe the old, hard to s h o w the positive to advantage if w e leave out w h a t is negative. T a b o o s and c o m m a n d m e n t s about c h o i c e o f subjectmatter can o n l y h a m s t r i n g art. . . . T h e y can o n l y d o h a r m . [Emphasis a d d e d . ] 1 9

Lu Dingyi also exhorted artists: "Learn from abroad and not exclusively from the Soviet Union; don't neglect the great tradition of Chinese painting [as the socialist realists and some wood-engravers insisted they should], but carefully select, cherish and foster all that is good in it while criticizing its faults and shortcomings

13.10 Pan Tianshou, landscape illustrating a p o e m by M a o Z e d o n g (1959). Ink and

in a serious way." Z h o u Yang, vice-minister for cultural

color on paper.

affairs and another sudden convert to glasnost, also criticized the tendency of the Party to "belittle, reject or

in his last years he returned to the free, expressive xieyi

deal roughly with our national tradition." 2 0 G u o h u a

manner he had acquired in the 1920s.

painters had long been unhappy at the downgrading of

M o r e typical of the guohua revival were the ortho-

their art in the academies—an extreme example of

dox figure subjects of Liu Wenxi. Also in demand were

which was when Wang Jingfang had his scrolls torn up

landscapes peopled with workers, peasant, and soldiers,

in front of his face, an act of cruelty that is thought to

busy with construction projects, commerce, the Social-

have hastened his death soon after.

ist transformation of the Chinese countryside. In such

T h e painters demanded more exhibitions and more

works Song Wenzhi, Qian Songyan, Guan Shanyue, and

reproductions of their work, and the authorities re-

Wei Z i x i excelled, and their popularity was assured.

sponded positively. Another result of the new policy was a new openness to foreign art: British, Japanese, Greek,

THE H U N D R E D

Italian, Vietnamese, and Mexican exhibitions appeared

FLOWERS

A N D THE A N T I - R I G H T I S T

MOVEMENT

T h e point of highest hope for the development of guo-

in Beijing, while a small touring collection brought B e i jing viewers their first taste of Picasso, Matisse, Bonnard, Rouault, Marquet, Léger, and Utrillo, whose Moulin de

hua, and indeed of culture generally, was reached in the

la Galette delighted many viewers w h o found the Picasso

brief, intoxicating months of the Hundred Flowers

still lifes "difficult."

A R T

F O R

S O C I E T Y

1 4 3

B y the spring o f 1 9 5 7 , the direction o f the H u n d r e d

had o p p o s e d the study o f Soviet art, w h i c h he claimed

Flowers c a m p a i g n was c h a n g i n g to a rectification o f the

was n o t the w o r l d ' s best, w h i l e in the history o f w o r l d

Party itself. People w e r e invited to expose and criticize

art R e p i n was only o f the second or third rank . . . and

c o r r u p t , lazy, and bureaucratic cadres. F o r the intellec-

m a n y m o r e such allegations, not the least serious b e i n g

tuals, artists, and students, it was as if the M a y F o u r t h

that he was luring students into his camp. 2 2

era had c o m e again, and they attacked the establishment

In o n e night's "struggle session" at the C e n t r a l A c a d -

w i t h a will, thinking they w e r e d o i n g M a o ' s w o r k . P a n g

emy, f o r t y - f o u r artists and students w e r e branded " e n e -

X u n q i n was o n e o f m a n y artists w h o presented their

mies o f the p e o p l e . " T h e y included even devoted C o m -

complaints; h e was s o o n to pay dearly f o r it. M e a n t i m e ,

munists w h o had b e e n w i t h M a o in Y a n an—-Jiang Feng,

as M e r l e G o l d m a n has observed, the H u n d r e d Flowers

n o w labelled " T h e N u m b e r O n e R i g h t i s t in the A r t

had developed a m o m e n t u m o f its o w n far b e y o n d w h a t

W o r l d , " and his close allies Li H u a , Y a n H a n , and F e n g

the Party had intended.

Fasi. T h e ostensible reason f o r the persecution o f J i a n g

Hardliners in the Party b e c a m e alarmed. If a halt was

Feng, in w h i c h even Li K e r a n and J i a n g Z h a o h e j o i n e d

not called, C h i n a w o u l d g o the way o f H u n g a r y , w h o s e

(how willingly is not k n o w n ) , was that he had denigrated

revolt o f the previous year had b e e n crushed w i t h S o -

traditional painting; in fact it was the end result o f a l o n g

viet tanks. O n J u n e 8, the Party counterattacked. M a o

and bitter f e u d w i t h the unscrupulous C a i R u o h o n g , his

was f o r c e d to abandon the intellectuals and artists. In

rival f r o m Yan'an days. 2 3

every w o r k unit, a w h o l l y arbitrary five percent had to

T h o s e artists w h o w e r e not sent d o w n to the c o u n -

be designated as " b o u r g e o i s rightists." E v e n in units with

try (such as Li H u a , a " R i g h t i s t L e a n e r " rather than a

f e w intellectuals, and w h e r e n o o n e had spoken out, the

" R i g h t i s t " ) w e r e required to c o n t i n u e to teach and to

quota had to be fulfilled. Selected victims w e r e d e -

paint w h a t the authorities d e m a n d e d ; decorations f o r

n o u n c e d b y their friends and colleagues, f o r c e d to m a k e

public buildings and embassies, or paintings to be sent

endless self-criticisms. O n e o f the most ruthless o p p o -

abroad as gifts or o f f e r e d f o r sale to earn valuable f o r e i g n

nents o f the m o v e m e n t he had backed a m o n t h earlier

exchange. T h e y w e r e nonpersons, f o r b i d d e n to paint f o r

was Z h o u Y a n g himself. 2 1

themselves or to exhibit their w o r k . Estimates o f the

T o save themselves, f r i e n d turned on f r i e n d . T h e d e -

n u m b e r o f individuals f r o m all areas o f artistic and i n -

signer L e i G u i y u a n d e n o u n c e d his old colleagues, a m o n g

tellectual endeavor w h o w e r e labelled as Rightists range

t h e m P a n g X u n q i n , his particular crimes b e i n g that he

f r o m three to f o u r h u n d r e d thousand.

had resisted official attempts to turn his C e n t r a l A c a d -

In s o m e ways, the A n t i - R i g h t i s t persecution o r c h e s -

e m y o f Arts and Crafts into a center f o r the production

trated b y D e n g X i a o p i n g , Z h o u Y a n g , and the m o r a l

o f e x p o r t and tourist g o o d s such as ivory carving, a n d —

w a t c h d o g s o f the Party was m o r e unbearable even than

w o r s e still—that he had p r o p o s e d that it be g o v e r n e d by

the Cultural R e v o l u t i o n ten years later. T h e n , artists could

an i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n c i l elected by the academy itself.

take s o m e c o m f o r t f r o m k n o w i n g that they w e r e the i n -

W h e n Pang's w i f e , the painter Q i u T i , w h o was in h o s -

n o c e n t and o f t e n r a n d o m victims o f

pital, heard that he had b e e n branded a Rightist, she died

hooliganism. T h e Rightists o f 1 9 5 7 w e r e c o n d e m n e d ,

uncontrollable

o f a heart attack. A n d the sins o f the fathers w e r e vis-

on ethical grounds, by an inquisition that searched out

ited u p o n the children: their daughter Pang Tao was sent

their i n n e r m o s t thoughts and feelings, and f o u n d t h e m

f o r a year o f reeducation in the countryside. T h e y o u n g

wanting. Against such an attack there was no defense.

oil painter Z h u N a i z h e n g , branded a R i g h t i s t , was b a n ished to remote Q i n g h a i and not called back to the A c a d e m y until 1 9 8 0 , a span o f twenty-three years.

THE GREAT

LEAP

FORWARD

T h e casualties w e r e many. Artists w h o had studied in

A s if the A n t i - R i g h t i s t c a m p a i g n w e r e not e n o u g h to

the West, such as W u D a y u , W u G u a n z h o n g , and L i n

cripple creative art, it was immediately f o l l o w e d by the

F e n g m i a n , w e r e obvious targets. Meishu carried a l o n g

Great Leap Forward, the mass mobilization to create P e o -

list o f charges by W u J u n against Liu Haisu, a m o n g them

ple's C o m m u n e s and generate rural industry. 2 4 Artists by

that he had o p p o s e d a direction o f

the thousands w e r e sent into the countryside to share in

1 9 5 6 that the

H u a d o n g A r t A c a d e m y should m o v e f r o m T i a n x i to

the hard life o f the peasants, there to take part in their

X i an; that he hated the cadres, had said they understood

unwilling hosts' futile efforts to smelt iron or to tend their

n o t h i n g and only j o i n e d the Party to eat rice; that he

pigs. W h e n they w e r e allowed to paint, the artists w e r e

had used the airing o f v i e w s in the H u n d r e d Flowers to

e x p e c t e d to help rouse enthusiasm f o r the great upheaval

" l o o s e o f f g u n s " ; that h e had said the Party leadership

by painting propaganda pictures on the walls o f houses.

was lacking in culture, and that the painting p r o d u c e d

This was the real b e g i n n i n g o f the "peasant art m o v e -

since Liberation had n o style, no life, no feeling; that he

m e n t s " described in the n e x t chapter. S o m e artists w e r e

1 4 4

A R T

IN

THE

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

PLATES

P L A T E 1 {opposite) Miao Jiahui, Bouquet of Peonies (c. 1900-1905). Ink and color on silk. P L A T E 2 (left) Xiao Sun, Landscape in the style of Shitao. Ink and color on paper. P L A T E 3 (below) Wang Geyi, Pomegranate. Ink and color on alum paper.

PLATE Li T i e f u , Portrait

of the Painter

Feng

Oanghai

6

PLATE W e n Y i d u o , Feng Xiaoqing

Painted PLATE

Y a n W e n l i a n g , Street

7

(right)

( 1 9 2 7 ) . Pencil a n d w a s h PLATE

P a n g X u n q i n , Portrait

(above)

( 1 9 3 4 ) . Oils.

8

(opposite,

top)

in Pans ( 1 9 2 9 ) . Oils. 9

(opposite,

on Putoushan

bottom)

( 1 9 3 5 ) . Oils.

J

i » . 4 s » * 4 v > ; z 'f

y t v V v- i i

t r• •/.

i r';?

...

M i

4 ^

PLATE 10 (above) Chen Shuren, Shadows on a Snowy Lake (1931). Ink and color on paper PLATE 11 (right) ZhaoShou, Faces (1934). Oils. PLATE

12 (opposite, top)

Wang Yachen, Mountain Village (1935). Oils. PLATE 13 (opposite, bottom)

Zhou Bichu, Nude (c. 1932). Oils.

J -

sir';

PLATE Z h a n g Xian, Beauty Looking

PLATE Y a n g Taiyang, Landscape

along

1 4 (above)

at a Picture (1935). Oils. 1 5 (opposite, top)

the Yangzi River (c. 1981). Watercolor. PLATE

16

(opposite,

X u Beihong, Self-Portrait

bottom)

(1931). Oils.

PLATE

17

Liu H a i s u , Express PLATE

18

[opposite,

[opposite,

Liu H a i s u , Bahnese

bottom)

Girls ( 1 9 4 0 ) . Oils.

PLATE F e n g m l a n , Crucifixion

top)

Train ( 1 9 2 9 ) . Oils.

19

(above)

(late 1 9 8 0 s ) . G o u a c h e

PLATE

2 0 (opposite,

top)

Lin Fengmian, Landscape

(1980s?). Gouache.

PLATE

bottom)

2 1 (opposite,

Hu Yichuan, Bringing PLATE

22

Up the Guns (1932). Colored woodcut.

(above)

Li Xiongcai, The Forest (early 1950s). Ink and color on paper. P L A T E 2 3 (left) Pang Xunqin, The Letter (c 1945). Light ink and color on paper.

P L A T E 2 4 (opposite, top> Wu Zuoren, Market in Qinghai (1944), Oils. P L A T E 2 5 {opposite,

bottom)

Zhang Daqian, Dancers (1943). Copy of Tang dynasty wall painting at Dunhuang. Gouache on paper. P L A T E 2 6 (above) Chen Baoyi, Hong Kong Harbor (detail) (1938). Oils.

PLATE Y u Ben, Rural Scene in Hong PLATE D o n g X i w e n , Mao

Zedong

Declaring

the People's

27

(above)

Kong (c. 1938). Oils 28

Republic

(opposite, top)

from

Tiananmen

(revised version, c. 1980) PLATE Liao Bingxiong, Gambling

with Human

29

(opposite,

Oils.

bottom)

Beings (c. 1945). Ink o n paper.

PLATE

30

(above)

Luo Gongliu, Tunnel Warfare (1951). Oils. (opposite,

top)

Fu Baosh and G u a n Shanyue, Such is the Beauty of Our Mountains

PLATE

31

and

Streams (1959). Wall painting in the Great Hall of the People, Beijing. PLATE Bai Tianxue, Learning

to Sing Revolutionary

32

(opposite,

bottom)

Songs (c. 1950). G o u a c h e on paper.

I r\

>¿> >

r

*

ft il ^ /

P L A T E 3 3 (opposite, top) Hua Shuang (Jiaxing peasant painter), Fisherman (c. 1987). Gouache on paper. P L A T E 3 4 (opposite,

bottom)

New year picture (nianhua) by an anonymous Suzhou artist (1950s). Handcolored woodblock print. P L A T E 3 5 (above) Huang Xuanzhi, The Island in the Lake (1980). Shuiyin print. P L A T E 3 6 (left) Li Quanwu and Xu Yongmin, illustration to Lao She's Yue Ya'er (Crescent moon) (1983). Ink and color on paper.

PLATE C h e n Jin, Old Instrument

PLATE Liu Kuo-sung, Landscape

37

{right)

(1982). Chinese ink and color. 38

(opposite,

top)

(1966). Ink and color on paper. PLATE

3 9 (opposite,

bottom)

C h e n Tingshi, Day and Night #25 (1981) Block print on rice paper.

P L A T E 4 0 {opposite, top) Liao Xiuping, Future Life (1972). Embossed serigraph. PLATE

41 (opposite, bottom)

Chu Ge, Life Is a Ritual of Offering (1988). Ink arid color ori paper. P L A T E 4 2 (left) Yu Peng, Father and Son (1990). Ink and color on paper.

PLATE 4 3

(above)

Chen Laixing, No. 94 (1984). Oils. P L A T E 4 4 {right) Chen Qikuan, Vertigo (1967). Ink and color on paper. Chen Qikuan, Peaceful Coexistence

P L A T E 4 5 (opposite) (1988). Ink and color on paper.

PLATE Yu C h e n g y a o , Rocky Mountains

with Gurgling

46

(opposite)

Streams

(1984).

Ink and color on paper. PLATE

47

(above)

Ju Ming, Single Dip Whip (1985) Bronze. PLATE

48

(left)

Ju Ming, Fish (1984). Glazed pottery.

PLATE

5 0 [opposite,

bottom)

Irene C h o u , leaf from an album (1971). Ink and color on paper. PLATE

51

(above,

left)

K w o k Hon Sum, Enlightenment PLATE

52

(above,

(1989). Oils.

right)

Wucius W o n g , Purification

No. 2 (1979). Chinese ink and gouache on paper.

PLATE

53

(above)

Cheung Yee, Tortoise Shells for Divination (1968). Oils on paper. PLATE Cheong Soo-pieng, Kampong,

54

(right)

Evening (1959). Ink and color on paper. P L A T E 5 5 (opposite, left)

Cheong Soo-pien^, Portrait of K.S. (1959). Ink and color on paper. PLATE

56

(opposite, right)

Chhuah Thean Teng, Opening the Curtains (c. 1960s). Batik painting.

P L A T E 57

(above)

Pan Yuliang, Nude Study (1957). Ink and color on paper. P L A T E 5 8 (right) Zao Wou-ki, Wind (1954). Oils. PLATE

59 (opposite, top)

Zao Wou-ki, 27-1-86 PLATE

(1986). Oils.

60 (opposite,

bottom)

Chu Teh-Chun, Amplitude (1986). Acrylic on canvas.

PLATE

61

(opposite, top)

C. C . W a n g , Landscape

(1967). Ink and color on paper

PLATE

bottom

6 2 {opposite,

left)

Anonymous, The Gang of Four (c 1977). Ink and color on paper. Exhibited at C h i n a Art Gallery, Beijing, 1977, PLATE

6 3 (opposite,

bottom

Liao Bingxiong, Himself Liberated PLATE

after Nineteen

Years (1979). Ink and color on paper.

6 4 (/eft)

Huang Guanyu, July(c. PLATE

right)

65

1978). Oils.

(below)

Yuan Yunfu, Rivers and Mountains

of Sichuan

Airport. Photo by Joan Lebold C o h e n .

(detail) (1979). Acrylics on panels; Beijing International

PLATE

6 6 (opposite, top)

Yuan Yunsheng, Song of Life (detail) (1979). Acrylics on canvas on plaster; restaurant of Beijing International Airport- Photo by Joan Lebold Cohen. PLATE

67

(opposite,

Liu Blngjlang and Zhou Ling, Creativity Reaping Happiness

bottom)

(1980-82).

Acrylic on canvas on plaster, restaurant of the Beijing Hotel. Photo by Joan Lebold Cohen Feng Guodong, Self-Portrait

P L A T E 6 8 (top) (1979). Oils. Photo by Joan Lebold Cohen. 69

(above left)

Wang Hualqing, Papercut(c.

PLATE

1979). Oils.

PLATE

70

(above right)

Ge Pengren, Water (1986). Oils.

PLATE

71

(opposite,

top)

Pang Tao, composition inspired by archaic bronze motif. Oils. PLATE

7 2 {opposite,

W a n g Y i d o n g , Shandong PLATE

73

bottom) Peasant Girl (c. 1983). Oils.

(left)

Zhan Jlanjun, Portrait of Xiao Mi (c. 1980). Oils. PLATE

74

(below)

Luo Erchun, Old Town (c. 1984). Oils.

P L A T E 7 5 (opposite) Luo Zhongli, Father (1980). Oils. PLATE 7 6

(above)

Ai Xuan, Stranger (1984). Oils. PLATE 7 7

(left)

Zhao Xiuhuan, Mountain

Stream (1982). Ink, color, and gold on paper.

PLATE

78

(opposite, top)

W u Guanzhong, The Lakeside at Wuxi (1972). Oils. PLATE

79

(opposite,

bottom)

W u Guanzhong, Spring and Autumn (1986). Ink, color, and gouache on paper P L A T E 8 0 (above) Yang Yanping, Rocky Mountain

with Snow (1990). Ink and color on paper.

P L A T E 8 1 (opposite) Li Huasheng, Cock-Crow PLATE 82

at Dawn (1989). Ink and color on paper.

(above)

Du Hansen, Frame of Mind (1982). Oils.

PLATE Y a n g F e i y u n , Pengpeng PLATE W e i E r s h e n , Mongolian

Bride:

Praying

for Good PI.ATE

M a o Lizhi, Old House

with

84 Fortune

83

(opposite,

top)

( 1 9 8 8 ) . Oils

8 5 (opposite, New

(above)

( 1 9 8 5 ) - Oils

bottom)

Life ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Oils.

PLATE

86

(opposite,

top)

Z h a n g Ding, Cock (c. 1981). Tapestry. Made by the Beijing Institute of Research for Carpets PLATE

8 7 (opposite,

Zhu Wei, Upwards PLATE

88

bottom)

(detail) (c. 1986-87). Hemp, wool, and silk.

(above)

Yu Feng, The Spectre of the Middle Ages III: Lash Marks (1987). Ink and color on paper.

PLATE

89

At Weiwei, Untitled {1986). PLATE

90

(top) Oils (above)

Li Shuang, Collage (1985)- Chinese watercolor and ink on rice paper. PLATE

91

(opposite,

top)

X u Mangyao, My Dream (1988). Oils. PLATE

9 2 (opposite,

bottom)

C h e n Yiqing, Out of Qinghai (1989). Oils.

P L A T E 9 3 (top) Yu Youhan, Mao Zedong Age (1991). Oil on canvas P L A T E 9 4 (above) Wang Guangyi, Workers, Peasants, Soldiers, and Coca Cola (1992). Poster color on paper.

sent to take part in, and record, such giant construction

It should be remembered, however, that the vast ma-

projects as the M i n g Tombs Reservoir dam, aiming to

jority of artists were, as always in China, middle-of-the-

combine realistic techniques with an idealized vision of

roaders w h o had no politics, made no demands, and only

heroic achievement in the face of the nearly impossible.

wanted to go on painting. They did not ask for total free-

Party theorists, borrowing a phrase from the Soviet ide-

dom and would not have known what to do with it if

ologue A. S. Zhdanov, called this kind of art "revolu-

it had been granted to them. T h e y had learned how to

tionary romanticism."

avoid taking risks with their style and their subject mat-

T h e years 1960—62 were among the darkest in the his-

ter, and they were now kept busy with official commis-

tory of the People's Republic. T h e Great Leap had caused

sions. In 1 9 5 9 , the Great Hall of the People and nine

economic chaos and brought famine to the countryside.

other public buildings had been completed in Beijing,

In i960, the year of the worst drought in modern C h i -

all decorated with huge guohua paintings in the approved

nese history, Soviet aid abruptly terminated, all Soviet

conservative style. T h e most famous is the red sun ris-

experts were withdrawn, cultural exchanges with the So-

ing to bathe the benighted landscape with its w a r m ra-

viet Union and Eastern Bloc ceased, and China became

diance (plate 3 1 ) , painted in the Great Hall by Fu Baoshi

politically and culturally isolated. She saw herself as (apart

and Guan Shanyue to illustrate a line from Mao's poem

from Albania) the only truly Communist country left.

Snow: "Such is the beauty of our mountains and streams."

But like all nightmares, this one came to an end. T h e

In this vast painting, the artists manage to bring together,

Party acknowledged that the Great Leap had been a mistake. T h e chaos subsided, some degree of normalcy returned, and 1962—63 was a period of relative ease for

with somewhat laborious skill, the snow mountains, the deserts, the lush green of the south, the Great Wall, and the Yellow River.

most artists. A m o n g the seven million victims w h o were

In 1963—64 Z h o u Enlai secured commissions for a

rehabilitated were a number of artists, but many others

number of guohua painters w h o had been victims of the

were to bear the brand of "Rightist" until after the death

Great Leap Forward, including Li Keran and D o n g

of Mao. At the July 1960 Congress of Literature and

Shouping. T h e latter was a polished elderly scholar w h o

Art Workers, Z h o u Yang had declared, " O u r principle

had turned professional painter and served on the staff

is integration and uniformity in political orientation and

of the Rongbaozhai publishing house. A constant visi-

variety in artistic styles. . . . O u r artists in traditional

tor to Huangshan, his paintings of the mountain show

painting, employing traditional methods of expression,

little variation but have an air of easy sincerity that gives

depict truthfully and with natural ease the life of the new

them great appeal. At this time, traditionalists such as Pan

age and the natural scenery of our motherland, endow-

Tianshou, Z h u Qizhan, G u o Weiqu, and Shi Lu were

ing traditional painting with a new lease of life." N o w

producing some of their best work, but the "safest" and

these words, for a short time at least, came to have real

most popular artists were, as before, Wei Zixi, Song Wen-

meaning.

zhi, Guan Shanyue, Qian Songyan, and their like, w h o

T h e artists, so long as they did not subvert socialism, had a powerful protector in Z h o u Enlai, w h o in a re-

had become adept in combining revolutionary realism with revolutionary romanticism.

markable speech of June 19, 1 9 6 1 , encouraged them to

Pure landscape was now acceptable too, for, wrote

participate in open discussions, to "dare to think, speak,

D e n g Wen, " w h e n people admire the sublimity of

and act." 2 3 H e attacked the indiscriminate victimization

mountains, the breadth of the ocean, the enduring qual-

of individuals such as took place in the Anti-Rightist

ity of the pine, the loftiness of the stork, they are admiring

Movement. "Mental work cannot be uniform. . . . Too

qualities of man which coincide with these qualities in

high quotas and too strict demands sometimes hamper

nature" 2 6 —a view that exactly accords with that of the

the production of mental w o r k . " Besides, " T h e politi-

great masters of the past. O f bird and flower paintings,

cal criterion is not everything: there must also be artis-

the conservative guohua artist C u i Zifan now said that

tic criteria and the question of how to serve. T h e ser-

"through them the artist arouses in his audience a love of

vice performed by art and literature is done by means of

beauty, of life, and of the land of their birth." 27 One might

many artistic forms, and no restrictions can be imposed

think that such an attitude to traditional painting was p o -

on these. . . . Slogans are not art." Flesh was put on these

litically unassailable, but it was to be utterly condemned

words by a document drafted in 1 9 6 1 - 6 2 by the propa-

in the Cultural Revolution only a few years later.

ganda department of the Central Committee, which appeared as ten points (later reduced to eight) setting out more liberal conditions for art workers and more flexible demands upon them, although the artist's social and political responsibility is still insisted upon.

N o r was oil painting in decline. N i Yide, Chang Shuhong, and Yan Wenliang were still near the top of their powers. In the slight thaw of 1962, Meishu published a painting by Huang Yongyu, an article by N i Y i d e on Shitao, another on Rodin. In 1 9 6 3 , Lin Fengmian's

A R T

F O R

S O C I E T Y

1 4 5

13.11 Fu Baoshi, Abundance

major exhibition in Beijing was praised in Meishu by, of all people, the Yanan cartoonist Mi Gu, and by a Dr. Shen Fangxiao, who wrote, " H e sees forms that others do not see, perceives colors others do not perceive, discovers interests others do not discover." 28 Wu Zuoren's early nudes were reproduced, while the monthly Xinjianshe published the daring contention of Zhou Gucheng, a professor at Fudan University, that the spirit of each age, including the present, is reflected through different classes and individuals, and that this consciousness is the unified expression of various coexisting ideologies. The idea that there could be more than one truth was a dangerous heresy. Artists in this relatively relaxed period were able to forget politics and the demands of the Party from time to time, when a few friends could get together for a painting session, or, better still, escape from the stifling at-

1 4 6

ART

IN

THE

ERA

OF

MAO

Z E D O N G

on the Way (1961). Ink and color on paper.

mosphere of Beijing altogether, on tours planned and financed by the Artists Association. In 1 9 6 1 , for example, Wu Guanzhong and Dong Xiwen were painting in Tibet, Yu Feng for the first time travelled in the northwest, while Zhang Anzhi, Bai Xueshi, Song Wenzhi, and Chen Dayu were in Jiangsu painting landscapes which the Chinese press described as "a warm response to Socialist reality."29 Together, Zhang Anzhi and Song Wenzhi visited Mao's birthplace and other sacred sites. For four months in 1 9 6 1 - 6 2 Fu Baoshi and Guan Shanyue (Fu's "minder," perhaps?) travelled and painted in the northeast, although Fu Baoshi's effort to come to grips with electric power has a rather desperate air (fig. 1 3 . 1 1 ) . 3 0 Wu Zuoren was a constant traveler in the borderlands, more at home with the Tibetans, yaks, and pandas than with the cultural apparatchiks in the capital.

/4 ART

F R O M

P E A S A N T S

THE

A N D

P E O P L E : W O R K E R S

THE RURAL ART M O V E M E N T F o r some years after Liberation, the Chinese cultural

superabundance and prosperity into w h i c h the miracle

authorities deliberately cultivated the idea that C h i n a had

o f the Great Leap w o u l d transport them.

a vigorous tradition o f peasant art that could b e c o m e the

m u c h encouragement the cadres gave them to stress p o -

basis for a mass movement. In fact, such a tradition hardly

litical themes, though, the peasants always preferred tra-

However

existed. Although the M i a o and Yao minority people

ditional subjects—fat babies, symbols o f wealth, figures

o f Yunnan, G u a n g x i , and G u i z h o u had a rich tradition

f r o m legends and fairy tales.

o f arts and crafts (though not o f pictorial art), some o f

T h e first peasant paintings to attract w i d e public

w h i c h is recorded in the wartime paintings o f Pang

attention were p r o d u c e d in Pixian, in the e x t r e m e

X u n q i n , the peasant art o f the Han Chinese was chiefly

northern part of Jiangsu. 2 There, in the summer o f 1 9 5 8 ,

confined to conventional n e w year pictures, door gods,

fifteen thousand "peasant artists"—all but three self-

and papercuts. T h e peasant painting m o v e m e n t was a

taught—produced

deliberate creation of the cultural arm o f the C o m m u n i s t

murals on the whitewashed walls o f their houses and

Party.

barns, depicting gigantic fishes and ears o f corn, pigs as

1 8 3 , 0 0 0 paintings, drawings, and

D u r i n g World War II, peasants in the guerrilla areas

big as elephants, and pictures that bear an astonishing re-

had made crude imitations o f the woodcuts and anti-

semblance to scenes o f rural life in the D u n h u a n g caves

Japanese propaganda pictures produced in the L u X u n

and in fourth-century t o m b s — n o n e of w h i c h these peas-

A c a d e m y in Y a n a n . (It was these naive paintings that

ants could possibly have seen. T h e critic G e L u was frank

made such an impression on D e r k B o d d e at the exhibi-

about their limitations: "Technically, much o f this art may

tion described in chapter 12.) Peasant painting developed

leave m u c h to be desired [but] its mass appeal is u n -

into an organized movement during the Great Leap F o r -

doubted. . . . T h e y have an immediacy o f impact. . . .

ward o f 1 9 5 8 , w h e n once again art teachers and students

E x u b e r a n t in m o o d and emancipated in their way o f

were sent to the country (fig. 1 4 . 1 ) — t h i s time to m o -

thinking, the Pixian artists show remarkable originality

bilize the peasants for the great experiment o f the rural

and boldness." 3

communes, w h i c h would, as M a u r i c e Meisner put it, "eliminate the differences between t o w n and c o u n t r y side, between peasants and workers, between manual and mental labour."

1

M a o had declared that anyone could

be an artist; it was not a matter o f talent, but simply o f the will. To M a o , the peasants were the greatest source o f revolutionary power. Accordingly, they were e n couraged to depict, however crudely, the n e w w o r l d o f

HUXIAN Peasants in many other rural c o m m u n e s took up painting in a big way, helped by local art teachers. 4 In H u xian, southwest o f X i a n , f o r example, the C o u n t y Party C o m m i t t e e started an art class f o r peasants w o r k i n g o n an irrigation project, sending out teachers f r o m the

1 4 7

sioned—often too hungry—to think about painting, and the fading wall paintings of the coming millennium on the walls of their houses must have seemed to mock their poverty. 7 B u t here and there it survived or was revived, notably in Huxian, which was deliberately selected by Jiang Qing in 1 9 7 2 as her model art commune, to go with Daqing, the model oilfield, and Dazhai, the model agricultural production brigade. In 1966, Huxian peasant art had been singled out for praise in the national press, and in 1 9 7 0 Huxian, now called "Picture Land," earned the glory of an exhibition in the China Art Gallery, from which a selection was later sent abroad. B y 1 9 7 3 , the Huxian peasants had produced over forty thousand paintings and woodcuts.

1 4.1 Wu Tongchang conducting art class for peasants in Jinshan (1960s)

T h e Party gave the impression that the Huxian paintings were the spontaneous creation of untutored peas-

Shao Yu, Ye Qianyu, Wu Zuoren, and Jiang Zhaohe paint murals on a village wall in Hebei. Photo from China Reconstructs (November 1958).

ants. If this had once been the case, though, it was true no longer. T h e peasant painters were now being trained by many professional artists whose names have never been divulged, although it has emerged that the w o o d engraver and watercolorist G u Yuan was one of them. As a result, the Huxian paintings of the 1970s are technically far more accomplished than those of the Great Leap, but they are often dull and lack the spontaneity of the crude early efforts. Out of hundreds of would-be artists, Huxian inevitably produced a few w h o had genuine talent. They included Dong Zhengyi, whose famous Commune Fishpond is painted with astonishing skill; Liu Zhide, whose Old Party Secretary (fig. 1 4 . 3 ) — a study of a peasant cadre resting from work, lighting his pipe and reading Karl Marx's Anti-Diihring—was

a great favorite;

and Li Fenglan, a worker and mother of four w h o became a full-time painter, and something of a star. Her autobiography was published in 1 9 7 2 , and in the following year she was a member of a cultural delegation to Vietnam. C o u n t y Hall of Culture and the Shaanxi Academy of

T h e better Huxian paintings range from the very pro-

Art to teach them to paint peasant pictures. 5 Art students

fessional and relatively realistic work of the artists I have

from the Hangzhou Academy went to live with the

mentioned to the flatter, more colorful compositions of

country folk and offered to paint them some pictures.

artists like the commune accountant Bai Tianxue (plate

T h e farmers were delighted to see their lives portrayed,

32), which often look like hand-colored woodcuts and

were critical of inaccuracies, and soon decided that they

preserve more of the instinctive decorative quality of a

would like to have a go themselves. A group from the

true peasant art. In all of these pictures the color is bright,

Central Academy, in a village in Hebei to help the peo-

the tone cheerful and optimistic; much of their appeal

ple with their harvest, spent their spare time "turning

lies in the fact that they so obviously reflect the life the

the mud walls of the village into a virtual open-air art

peasants led, or dreamed of leading in the not too dis-

gallery." 6 A photograph published in 1 9 7 2 shows Shao

tant future.

Yu, Ye Qianyu, Wu Zuoren, and Jiang Zhaohe paint-

W h e n a selection of 179 Huxian paintings was shown

ing figures of happy peasants on the wall of a house while

in the China Art Gallery in October 1 9 7 3 , it attracted

the villagers admiringly look on (fig. 14.2).

over two million people—although it must be said that

T h e rural art movement collapsed in the chaos and

in those bleak years there was not much else for gallery-

demoralization that accompanied the failure of the Great

goers to look at, and attendance was highly organized

Leap Forward, when peasants were too bitterly disillu-

and often compulsory. Exhibitions toured the country

1 4 8

A R T

IN

T H E

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

and were sent all over the world. A special peasant art gallery was built at Huxian, to which artists and art students were obliged to make pilgrimage to learn how a truly mass art could be created by men and w o m e n to w h o m a few years earlier painting would have been unthinkable. B y the mid-1980s the cult of Huxian, like those of Daqing and Dazhai, had become a memory. Visitors to the art gallery.reported it deserted, the paintings gathering dust. In many areas, peasant painting, like new year painting, was being kept artificially alive in the art schools. That the peasant art movement was not c o m pletely dead, however, was demonstrated to me in 1988. After I had spent some time looking at work in the Z h e jiang Academy by students who seemed to be completely at sea, casting about and imitating modernist and postmodernist styles they barely understood, two senior representatives of the Zhejiang Provincial Popular Art Center (Zhejiang sheng qunzhong yishu guan) courteously insisted that I visit their institute, to which they took me in an official car. They showed me recent paintings by peasants in Chenshi County that were marked by a striking vigor, directness, and natural feeling for color and design, demonstrating that these men and women knew very well what they were about (plate 33). T h e political element in their work was barely discernible; they were painting the world they knew. M y host told

14.3

me that after the peasants have been painting for some

Liu Zhide, Old Party Secretary

(c. 1974). Gouache on paper.

time they want to learn more about technique, become self-conscious and dissatisfied with their work, and often stop painting altogether. " W h a t happens then?" I asked. " T h e r e are always plenty more coming along," he replied. T h e life of the peasant art movement has always de-

thoroughly traditional landscapes, bamboo, and birds and flowers, painted in imitation of the teachers' work—as well as fat babies, kittens with pink bows round their necks, and the worst influences from commercial art. T h e general level of these works was inevitably low, but it

pended on encouragement from cultural bodies and art

opened up new horizons for the city workers, and pro-

schools. T h e results have been very uneven, but taken

vided them with some relief from the appalling ugliness

as a whole, it has spread the idea of art into areas of C h i -

that surrounded them.

nese society where it had never penetrated before, and thus greatly broadened the base from which creativity could spring.

OTHER

POPULAR

ART

FORMS

Although the peasants were the spearhead of revolu-

If there is some doubt about the antiquity of Chinese

tion, the urban proletariat shared in China's cultural re-

peasant painting, there is none about nianhua, the pic-

forms. Every city established its Hall of Culture, while

tures and prints hung up on house doors at new year

many factories and work units had their o w n art clubs.

(plate 34). 8 Writing in 1 3 0 8 , the Yuan poet and con-

Teachers came from the academies to hold evening and

noisseur Z h o u M i had noted that " f r o m the tenth Lunar

weekend classes, and exhibitions of members' work were

month, the market was filled with new calendars of bro-

frequent. Painting clubs also became a feature of the

cade binding, all sizes of door gods, Z h o n g Kui [the

armed services.

' D e m o n Queller'], lions, tigers, charms and paper-cut

There was of course no tradition of urban workers'

blessings in gold and colored papers." Almost every

painting to be recreated on the model of Huxian peas-

province produced its own nianhua, the most famous

ant art, so the range of subjects was much wider than

being those from Suzhou, Yangliuqing in Hebei, and

would be found in the rural communes: not only pro-

Weifang in Shandong.

paganda, woodcuts, and paintings of factory life, but

T h e Communist Party deplored the "feudal," super-

A R T

F R O M

T H E

P E O P L E

1 4 9

Anonymous, Love Society Like Your Own Family. Papercut.

14.5 Hua Sanchuan, The White-Haired

Girl (detail) (1964). Serial picture.

stitious element in traditional nianhua and resolved to re-

jiang, and in the Tang and Song they were used for dec-

f o r m it. Already in November 1949, M a o had approved

oration in a great variety of ways. In the modern world

a directive to cultural and educational institutions to in-

the variety of subjects is endless, from tiny flowers, drag-

troduce new themes: the rebirth of China, the great vic-

ons, and tigers to huge portraits of M a o Zedong.

tory of the people's war of liberation, and the lives and

Yet another old art f o r m with a long history is the se-

struggles of the ordinary working people. 9 T h e provin-

rial picture, lianhuanhua.11

cial cultural departments began to collect and study tra-

century wall paintings at Dunhuang depicting succes-

ditional nianhua, which depicted good fortune and abun-

sive incidents in the life of the Buddha were an early f o r m

It could be said that the sixth-

dance; what was more natural than that they should

of lianhuanhua, while Chinese children have for centuries

celebrate socialist reconstruction and the coming rural

loved reading the serial or strip-picture books illustrat-

Utopia? T h e range of subjects and variety of techniques

ing The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Water Mar-

was enormous, from the flat, crude, decorative work of

gin, and other stirring tales. N e w lianhuanhua tell the epic

untutored peasants to the sophisticated "decorative real-

story of the Long March, the lives of heroes such as Lu

ism" of pictures obviously produced by artists and art

X u n , Wang Jingshan, the "Iron M a n " of Daqing w h o

teachers. Well-known professionals w h o produced nian-

mixed the concrete slurry by jumping into the tank, and

hua included Wang Shikuo, Zhang Feng, Huang Xinbo,

of course the incomparable Lei Feng, the "great ordi-

H u Yichuan and D o n g X i w e n .

nary soldier" whose Maoist ideals and selfless devotion

Since the death of Mao, the tradition has increasingly been sustained by the folk art departments of the art schools. Although the upbeat mood is preserved, the contentis often anything but rural; nianhua of the 1980s, for example, show school children attending science classes. One, called New Stocks Are in Every Day, shows

became a model for all. A m o n g those w h o have drawn these strip and serial pictures are many accomplished artists, including C h e n g Shifa, w h o has also produced fine illustrations for early novels. Popular as they are, the modern lianhuanhua

often reach a remarkably high

standard.

a shop interior with broadly smiling young people

During the Cultural Revolution, the lianhuanhua was

eagerly unpacking not the collected works of M a o

one form that was not abused. Indeed, some of the best

Z e d o n g — o n c e a favorite theme—but new television

serial pictures were produced during these years, a fine

sets.

example being Hua Sanchuan's illustrations to The White-

T h e papercut was another traditional craft which

Haired Girl (fig. 14.5), one of Jiang Qing's widely pro-

could easily be adapted to depict modern themes in a

moted revolutionary ballets. We shall see in chapter 1 7

stylized way (fig. 14.4). 1 0 It has a long history: a paper-

how the lianhuanhua developed after Mao, introducing

cut of the Six Dynasties period was unearthed in X i n -

new techniques and a far wider range of subject matter.

1 5 0

ART

IN

THE

ERA

OF

MAO

Z E D O N G

/ó T H E

C U L T U R A L

The breathing space for art that followed the chaos of the Great Leap Forward was not to last, and soon the storm clouds were gathering once more. In May 1963, when the Lei Feng campaign was at its height, a national conference was called to mobilize artists and writers for the fight against revisionism and harmful "bourgeois" elements. It was at this meeting that Jiang Qing began to play a key role.1 Further danger signs appeared when Yao Wenyuan, who would become one of the Gang of Four, attacked Zhou Gucheng's heretical view of the coexistence of various ideologies that I referred to in chapter 13. In Meishu Lin Fengmian's exhibition was heavily criticized and Yu Feng's praise of it condemned. The same journal publicly apologized for having published Mi Gu's article "I love Lin Fengmian's Paintings." In June 1964, Mao gave the writers and artists a warning. "In the past fifteen years," he declared, "the literary and art circles for the most part . . . had not carried out policies of the Party and had acted as high and mighty bureaucrats. . . . In recent years they have even slid to the verge of revisionism. If serious steps were not taken to remould them, they were bound at some future date to become groups like the Hungarian Petofi Club" 2 —a reference to the society that helped to bring about the 1956 revolt against Hungary's Communist government. He demanded reform in art circles, while Lin Biao was instructing artists and writers to extol Mao thought and the class struggle. In the meantime, Kang Sheng and Jiang Qing had launched the nationwide Socialist Education Movement, using the Central Academy as the testing ground for art.

R E V O L U T I O N

Through 1965 the anti-liberal campaign gathered force. Hu Feng, in spite of an abject confession, was denounced as a counterrevolutionary, while a series of articles in Meishu showed that the PLA cultural arm, under Lin Biao and Jiang Qing, was in full control of the arts. Issue after issue extolled the army. Landscapes were crowded off the pages by relentless propaganda and portraits of the Great Leader. By September, Mao was in Shanghai establishing a base for his assault on the Party. Although the new China Art Gallery opened in Beijing in October, it showed nothing but propaganda pictures and woodcuts. N o w artists were being told to spend a third or a half of their time among workers, peasants, or soldiers—not to gather material for their painting, but to remold themselves and take part in actual struggle. Before the end of the year there were already references in the press to a "great socialist cultural revolution." Artists were now being subjected to unbearable pressures. An early victim was Fu Baoshi, who died on September 29 of an internal hemorrhage brought on by excessive drinking. In May 1966, the first student Red Guards announced themselves in a secondary school attached to Qinghua University, and on June 1 big character posters were displayed at Beijing University, proclaiming the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. By July Mao was back in Beijing and the attacks on his enemies in the Party began. Zhou Yang, his loyal art theorist, was one of his first victims. The original Red Guard Manifesto vowed to "turn the old world upside down, smash it to pieces, pulver-

1 5 1

ize it, create chaos and make a tremendous mess, the bigger the better!" In June, all the art and archaeologyjournals ceased publication. In August, the R e d Guard changed place and street names and ransacked bookshops and private homes, destroying or carting off pictures and books, pianos and gramophone records. All Christian churches were closed. O n August 23, the writer Lao She was summoned to a "struggle session," at which he was severely beaten. H e went home and said goodbye to his beloved little granddaughter. T h e next morning his body was found in shallow water at the lakeside. M a o called on the students to denounce their professors and teachers w h o held bourgeois ideas. Liu Shaoqi's opposition was crushed, and on November 28 a mass rally of over twenty thousand literary and art workers in Beijing repudiated the "bourgeois line" and confirmed Jiang Qing as cultural advisor to the P L A . N o t until the summer of 1967 did the P L A attempt to control the chaos, and their efforts had little effect. Institutions of higher learning were split into rival factions which, when they were not actually fighting each other, waged an incessant loudspeaker war that deafened the neighborhood. B y the summer of 1968, although the strife in the universities continued to be intense, the violent stage of the Cultural Revolution was over. In the following year, revolutionary committees of workers, peasants, and soldiers were sufficiently in control for the persecution of intellectuals and artists to be put on a more systematic basis, and now those "bourgeois elements"

15.1 P u Q u a n , Building

the Red Flag

Canal

( 1 9 7 1 ) . Ink a n d c o l o r o n paper,

w h o had survived the chaos were dealt with. In 1970

lier work by H o u Y i m i n which had shown Mao's

nearly all the teachers in the Central Academy were sent

archrival Liu Shaoqi, w h o m M a o was soon to destroy,

down to two small villages in Cixian, near the Henan

as leader of the Anyuan miners, with M a o nowhere in

border, to integrate their lives with the peasants. T h e

sight. Liu Chunhua, of course, gave credit for the suc-

Hangzhou staff were sent up the Fuchun R i v e r to lodge

cess of his work to " M a o Zedong's thinking" and Jiang

with a production brigade near Tonglu. A similar pat-

Qing's "great care and warm support."

tern was followed in all the art schools. Artistic life had all but come to a standstill.

A faint glimmer of light appeared in April 1 9 7 1 with the visit of an American table tennis team to China, fol-

T h e new order, or rather disorder, allowed the artist

lowed in July by Henry Kissinger's secret talks with Z h o u

little freedom. Except briefly in 1 9 7 2 - 7 3 , traditional

Enlai and the announcement of Zhou's invitation to

landscapes, birds and flowers, and impressionist oil paint-

President N i x o n to visit China. Later that year, Li Keran

ings were alike forbidden. Art became completely politi-

was brought back from exile in the countryside to dec-

cized and M a o a deity, his image everywhere. Huge ex-

orate official buildings in preparation for Nixon's arrival

hibitions were held on such themes as " L o n g Live the

in February 1 9 7 2 . 4 This heralded, briefly, a more liberal

Victory of Chairman Mao's Revolutionary Line," which

policy, as the talents of conservative, established artists

ran in Beijing through October and November of 1 9 6 7 ,

were made use of, and through 1973 and early 1974 the

while the Shanghai public were treated to " L o n g Live

number of such artists returning to work greatly in-

M a o Zedong's T h o u g h t ! " and similar shows. T h e im-

creased. N e w works that were published included land-

maculate M a o became the central figure in innumerable

scapes by Li Keran, Qian Songyan, Bai Xueshi, Tao

paintings, the most famous being Chairman Mao Goes to

Yiqing, and others, and a " p u r e " flower painting by the

Anyuan by Liu Chunhua, which shows the resolute young

traditionalist Tang Yun. Even Pu Quan, the scion of the

Communist, long-gowned with umbrella in hand, strid-

old imperial family w h o had stayed on in Beijing after

ing over the hills on his way to take charge of the min-

Liberation, celebrated the building of the R e d Flag Canal

ers' strikes. 3 This was the Maoists' counterblast to an ear-

in a thoroughly academic landscape (fig. 1 5 . 1 ) .

1

5

2

A R T

IN

T H E

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

In 1 9 7 3 , a number of leading artists were recalled from

ideology needed to be remoulded: I must gradually es-

farm labor to make decorations for the new wing of the

tablish a proletarian world outlook. . . . In the course of

Beijing Hotel on the initiative of Z h o u Enlai, w h o saw

study I also realised that political content was the first

this as a way of rewarding them and alleviating their

thing to consider in any work of art." 7

suffering. Z h o u said that because these paintings were

I do not need to weary the reader with further quo-

for the eyes of foreigners and were therefore "outer" art,

tations from those w h o so willingly trod the correct path,

they need have none of the political content that was al-

and it would be uncharitable to condemn them now. As

most obligatory for "inner" art—that is, art for the C h i -

Tang Tsou has pointed out, many writers (and, one as-

nese. But before the end of 1974 Z h o u Enlai, seriously

sumes, artists) were at this time "torn by self-doubt and

ill with cancer, was no longer able to protect and sup-

the gnawing feeling that the regime's overall policies

port the artists, and Jiang Qing seized her opportunity.

might be correct," 8 and the penalties for resistance were

She collected paintings, chiefly from the hotels, and

extremely severe. Rather should we trace the dire effects

mounted in Beijing and Shanghai two exhibitions of

of the Cultural Revolution on those artists w h o at-

"Black Art," reminiscent of Hitler's exhibitions of " D e -

tempted to maintain their integrity. Perhaps no complete

generate A r t " in the 1930s.'' In these shows she held up

history of their sufferings will ever be written; many pre-

to vilification and mockery most of the leading painters

fer to forget, thinking only of the precious years of work

of the day, denouncing their works as "wild, strange,

still left to them. T h e information that follows is frag-

black and reckless." T h e hapless painters, w h o m the ail-

mentary, and can give no more than an impression of

ing Z h o u Enlai could no longer protect, were thus even

what they endured.

worse off"than they had been before. From this moment night descended, and no relief came until the death of M a o Z e d o n g and the arrest of Jiang Qing, two years later.

For the more fortunate, the new regimen meant spending weeks or months in the niupeng (cattle pen), a place or room to which they were taken every day to study the thoughts of M a o and "wash out their minds" through endlessly rewritten confessions. At best they

JIANG QING AND THE

ARTISTS

could make ajoke of the ignorance and stupidity of their warders behind their backs. Always, they suffered soul-

For the ten years of the Cultural Revolution, no devia-

destroying boredom and humiliation, and they were of-

tion was permitted from the line laid down by Jiang

ten subjected to gratuitous cruelty. W h e n X i a o Feng

Qing. At a forum held in February 1966, she had spelled

dared to criticize the R e d Guards, they beat him and

out her aim: "We, too, should create what is new and

forced him to crawl with a heavy stone on his head.

original: new, in the sense that it is socialist, and origi-

Zhang Ding's son recalled how his father, "with paint

nal in the sense that it is proletarian." 6 In October 1 9 7 3 ,

on his face, a dunce cap and paper clothes . . . was

a group of reliable staff members left behind to take care

dragged through the streets to be criticised at struggle

of the Central Academy had proposed to the State C o u n -

meetings. H e was compelled to kneel on a high bench,

cil Cultural Group to set up a " M a y Seventh Art U n i -

and, even after falling off several times, he was forced to

versity" on the lines of the May Seventh cadre schools.

climb on it again. . . . Hundreds of father's paintings were

T h e teachers, w h o included G u Yuan, were the politi-

completely destroyed. . . . Father was later banished to a

cally pure, those w h o had not been branded as R i g h t -

cowshed and forced to wear a black sign around his neck,

ists; the students were selected for their purity from

clean latrines, and weed the garden" 9 —which last must

the families of workers, peasants, and soldiers. T h e

have come as a blessed relief.

principal was directly responsible to Jiang Qing. For several years this rump institution set the tone for a unif o r m revolutionary style of art. Landscapes, unless they celebrated socialist reconstruction or reforestation or heroic achievements, were of no significance, and (as Li Xiongcai, one of Jiang Qing's victims, put it) were even regarded by the Gang of Four as dangerous "soft daggers." O f his own landscapes, Qian Songyan wrote in 1 9 7 2 how, when he studied Mao's Yan'an Talks, he discovered that for thirty years he had been serving the landlord class and the bourgeoisie, but that "now I should act on Chairman Mao's instructions and serve the workers, peasants and soldiers. . . . T h e problem was that my

Many artists were forced to become factory or farm laborers, forbidden to write or even speak to their husbands or wives, w h o might be toiling nearby.

Wu

Guanzhong, w h o shared these privations on a collective farm in southern Hebei with Z h a n g Ding and Yuan Yunfu, later remarked that, because he was able to do a little painting in secret during his last year of exile, he belonged to the D u n g Basket School of painting. For those sent to more remote areas, the conditions were extremely harsh. Huang Yongyu, Ya Ming, and Huang Z h o u spent the years from 1966 to 1972 working as peasants in the far north. Wu Zuoren and his wife, the flower painter X i a o Shufang, were separated and sent to the

T H E

C U L T U R A L

R E V O L U T I O N

1 5 3

ater world. In October 1968, Z h o u Enlai's adopted daughter Sun Weizhi, w h o had eclipsed her in the Lu X u n Academy in Yan'an, died in prison after being tortured. Huang Z h o u , whose popular donkey paintings she took as a satire on her group, was condemned to pull donkey-carts every day before dawn. Liu X u n , an outspoken opponent, broke stones for nine years. Huang Yongyu was imprisoned for his famous painting of a winking owl (a later batik version of which is reproduced as fig. 15.2), which Jiang Qing took—rightly, perhaps—as an ironic comment on her cultural activities. 11 Liu Haisu was denounced by a group of artists and actors around Jiang Qing because the R e d Guard had found among his collection of press clippings an old, uncomplimentary review of one of Jiang Qing's film performances. He Z i was branded for an illustration of Dai Yu, the heroine of The Dream of Red Mansions, burying withered flowers, which Jiang Qing took as an attack on the "flowers" of the Cultural Revolution, just as Li Kuchan's eight lotus flowers in black ink were held to be a condemnation of her eight model operas, now performed to the exclusion of all else. 1

For the historian of modern Chinese art, hardly less

5.2

H u a n g Y o n g y u , The Owl with

One Eye Shut

( 1 9 7 9 ) . Batik o n cotton cloth.

painful is the record of lost works of art. In the name of the " F o u r Cleanups," the R e d Guard entered the homes of artists (who were forbidden to lock their doors), de-

country, where he became a swineherd and was often

stroying or carrying off all they could lay their hands on.

beaten. Shi Lu, persecuted because in his celebrated

Sometimes they left nothing higher than an inch above

painting of M a o standing on a Shaanxi loess terrace he

floor level, such as a thin mattress or a blanket. H o w this

had showed him "separated from the masses and hoping

process looked to the activists is graphically, if crudely,

he would fall off"the cliff," was sent to a labor camp and

depicted in " C l e a n Out the Filth!" (fig. 15.3), an oil

suffered a mental and physical collapse, from which he

painting of 1974 by Shi Qiren (a transport worker in N o .

never fully recovered. Pan Tianshou, denounced by Yao

1 Printing and Dyeing Works) and C h e n G u o (a car-

Wenyuan as "personifying the secret agent," died in 1 9 7 1

penter in N o . 2 Alcohol Factory)—artists now consigned

as the result of his persecution. Persecution drove N i Yide

to oblivion. It shows a neighbor denouncing to an in-

to his death in 1970, G u o Weiqu to his in 1 9 7 1 . In 1 9 7 3 ,

vestigating team a young man whose degeneracy is sym-

Lii Sibai committed suicide. Lin Fengmian, Z h a o Dan,

bolized by the overturned wine bottle, the gramophone

and Liu Haisu were imprisoned. Lin was not released un-

record, the oil painting on the wall, and other evidence

til 1 9 7 2 , and then only, he believed, because three

of spiritual corruption.

months earlier Z a o Wou-ki on his trip to China had asked repeatedly and in vain to be allowed to see his old teacher. Li Keran was denounced for "wanting to restore capitalism"; he was sent to work in the fields, his f a m ily dispersed. M u c h the same happened to the sculptor Liu Kaiqu. T h e oil painter D o n g X i w e n , w h o had extolled Mao's achievements (in plate 28, for example, the famous painting of the declaration of the People's R e public), became a factory hand, forced in 1 9 7 2 to work barefoot. H e suffered a hemorrhage and died in the following year. 1 0 Jiang Q i n g revenged herself personally on many her cultural work, or w h o m she saw as rivals in the the-

A R T

retrieved from the garbage can into which the rampaging youths had thrown them. T h e rest were lost forever. Chang Shuhong saved some of his oils at Dunhuang (see chapter 9) by burying them in the sand. In 1967, Ya Ming's home in Nanjing was ransacked by R e d Guards, students, and robbers. They left only what they could not easily sell, taking over 1 5 0 paintings, some of which later turned up on the art market in H o n g Kong. Several years after the Cultural Revolution came to an end,

w h o m in her paranoia she thought were undermining

1 5 4

Pang X u n q i n , hearing the mob on the stairs, hastily thrust a roll of paintings under the bed; a few others he

IN

T H E

E R A

OF

M A O

Z E D O N G

Li Keran was likewise shocked to learn that a number of his stolen paintings were on sale in H o n g K o n g . 1 2 Wei Tianlin, professor of oil painting at the Beijing

15.3 Shi Qiren a n d C h e n G u o , Clean Out the Filth!

N o r m a l College of Arts and Crafts, was forced by R e d Guards to cover his flower pictures w i t h w h i t e paint. 1 3 Other artists preferred to destroy their own w o r k rather than let the R e d Guards get their hands on it. W u G u a n zhong destroyed all his nude paintings and drawings. Pang X u n q i n , or his students, destroyed his beautiful portrait of his w i f e Q i u Ti. O n e of Lin Fengmian's students re-

(c. 1974). Oils.

members watching h i m tear up hundreds of his paintings and stuff them down the toilet, where, because of the glue in the paper, they formed a solid mass. Hardly a single artist avoided destruction of some work, w h i l e in some cases the loss was almost total. W h e n the e x pressionist oil painter W u Dayu died in Shanghai in I g 8 8, of his life's work, only six oil paintings survived.

THE

C U L T U R A L

R E V O L U T I O N

1 5 5

PART

FOUR

After the Mao era, sculpture, printmaking, and other art forms

graphics,

began to emerge far beyond the narrow

confines dictated by Communist longer limited to the monumental

ideology. Sculpture,

no

and the official, at last

became an art form expressive of the sculptor's own creative vision, while printmaking

and book illustration

extended

their range of subject matter and techniques in response to the impact of modern

Western culture, now

flowing

relatively freely into

China.

At the same time, Chinese artists working in the more open atmosphere

beyond the borders of the People's

lic, neither sustained

by tradition nor confined by ideology,

were free to experiment and complexity

and to respond to the infinite

of international

modernism.

truly modern Chinese artists after midcentury Taiwan and Hong Kong. developments

Repub-

in mainland

range

Thus the first appeared in

They in turn were to stimulate

the

art that are discussed in Part Five.

S C U L P T U R E

PIONEERS

In traditional China, sculpture was never regarded as one of the fine arts, which were the monopoly of the educated class. The Chinese elite did not lack a feeling for plastic beauty, but that feeling was satisfied by contemplating archaic bronzes, ceramics, carved jade, and the fancy rocks in the scholar's garden and sitting on his desk. The reason for sculpture's low place in Chinese cultural life was a social one. Not since the fifth century—and not often before then—had it been acceptable for a Chinese gentleman to soil his hands with manual labor, except perhaps to tend his chrysanthemums or to carve seals. He might appreciate bamboo or ivory carving, but he would be unlikely to practice these crafts himself. The gulf between the unlettered artisan who performed manual work and the literatus was scarcely bridgeable. N o Chinese scholar ever wrote about sculpture, and no critical vocabulary was ever created to evaluate it. The crafts, moreover, were subordinate to the arts of the brush. The great stylistic change that came over imported Buddhist sculpture in the fifth and sixth centuries, making it more "Chinese" in feeling, was brought about by the influence of Chinese figure painting. The celebrated stone reliefs of horses that decorated the tombshrines of Tang Taizong are said to be based on paintings by the court artist Yan Liben. The sculpture which most eloquently expresses Chinese aesthetic ideals is modelled in clay or cast in bronze from clay models, which, unlike hewn stone, derive their beauty from the free movement of the modeller's hands. As the noted English critic Roger Fry recognized, the aesthetic basis of Chinese sculpture is more linear than plastic. Chinese

painting, poetry, and chamber music depend for their effect upon subtlety and refinement of expression. For the cultivated man, a mere hint is enough. Sculpture can have no place in these rarefied regions; it is too solid, too completely realized, leaving too litde to the imagination. So sculpture had no status among the fine arts in China at the beginning of the twentieth century. If art students took it up—and few did—that was generally because it was Western, and modern, and there was a new civic use for it. But until the mid-1920s there was no one to teach the subject, for no one had learned it, and before Liberation it was never a popular art form. As late as 1937, the Shanghai Academy had no full-time professor of sculpture, and only 0.6 percent of its students enrolled for sculpture.1 Early in the 1920s, the far-seeing Cai Yuanpei spotted the potential of Li Jinfa, born in 1900 in Guangdong and already showing promise as a writer and painter. Cai sent him to Paris, whence he returned in 1924 to take up a career as a professional sculptor and teacher; almost his first commission was a portrait bust of Cai Yuanpei. He was soon much in demand for statues in bronze of prominent men, among his best known being those in Nanjing and Canton of Sun Yatsen, Deng Zhongyuan, and the diplomat Wu Jianfang, all completed between 1932 and 1934. 2 Another isolated pioneer was Jiang X i n (Jiang Xiaojian), born in 1893. In the 1920s he was a close friend of Wang Jiyuan and X u Zhimo, and he was active in Beijing and Shanghai in the circle of the Tianma

1 5 9

H u a h u i . A painter as well as a sculptor, he designed c o v ers f o r several o f X u Z h i m o ' s w o r k s . 3 A f t e r t w o years studying sculpture in Paris, he returned to Shanghai b e fore 1 9 3 0 . Z h a n g C h o n g r e n , b o r n in S u z h o u in 1 9 0 7 , w e n t to B e l g i u m in the early 1 9 3 0 s , travelled w i d e l y in E u r o p e and earned a gold medal at the Brussels Salon before returning in 1 9 3 5 to Shanghai, w h e r e he remained through the w a r and after. His lively portrait in clay o f the painter W u H u f a n (fig. 1 6 . 2 ) , m a d e about 1 9 4 7 , shows s o m e t h i n g o f his quality. Hardly any o f the w o r k o f these pioneers, or others such as W a n g L i n y i , J i n X u e c h e n g , and W a n g Z h i j i a n g , survives. All these m e n w e r e c o m p e t e n t , conservative Salon sculptors. H u a T i a n y o u and L i a o X i n x u e w e r e s o m e thing more. H u a T i a n y o u , a native o f Huaiyin in Jiangsu, was b o r n in 1 9 0 2 into a f a m i l y o f carpenters. 4 H e b e c a m e a p r i m a r y school teacher, spending his holidays studying Western art at the X i n h u a A c a d e m y in S h a n g hai. In 1 9 3 0 , he sent X u B e i h o n g a photograph o f a small bust o f his three-year-old son that he had carved in w o o d . X u was impressed, even m o r e so w h e n H u a b r o u g h t the bust to s h o w h i m in N a n j i n g . X u sent the p h o t o g r a p h and an article he had w r i t t e n about H u a to J i a n g X i a o j i a n in Shanghai, w h o (according to H u a ) was impressed in turn, so m u c h so that h e flew to N a n j i n g to m e e t h i m and brought h i m back to Shanghai to w o r k on statues o f S u n Yatsen and C h i a n g K a i s h e k . H u a then spent t w o years restoring the partially ruined T a n g dynasty B u d 16.1

dhist sculpture that had b e e n rediscovered by s o m e J a p a -

Li J i n f a , Huang

Xiaochang

(c. 1 9 3 2 ) . B r o n z e . In S e c o n d N a t i o n a l A r t Exhibi-

tion, 1937

nese scholars in the Yanghuisi near X u z h o u , an e x p e r i ence that he later said gave h i m a valuable insight into

1 6.2 Z h a n g C h o n g r e n , Wu

Hufan

(c. 1 9 4 8 ) . C l a y .

the C h i n e s e sculptural tradition. In 1 9 3 2 , his portrait bust o f the H u n a n e s e p o e t and essayist C h e n Sanli, father o f the painter C h e n H e n g k e , was chosen by X u B e i h o n g and W a n g Y a c h e n over o n e by J i a n g X i a o j i a n ; this broke their friendship, but it greatly increased H u a T i a n y o u ' s reputation. W h e n X u B e i h o n g w e n t w i t h his exhibition to E u rope in 1 9 3 3 , he t o o k H u a T i a n y o u w i t h h i m . H u a was to spend f o u r t e e n years in Paris. H e studied first u n d e r B o u c h a r d and lived in great poverty on f o u r francs a day. R e c o g n i t i o n c a m e in 1 9 3 6 w h e n his bronze figure, Meditation, was purchased by the University o f L y o n and earned h i m a three-year scholarship f r o m the F r a n c o C h i n e s e Institute in that city. Thereafter, though often h u n g r y and w o r k i n g half the day in the studio o f D e spiau, R o d i n ' s f o r m e r assistant, H u a p r o d u c e d a n u m ber o f f i n e pieces, including a n u d e female torso, After the Bath, that w o n h i m a silver medal at the Salon in 1 9 4 1 . In the f o l l o w i n g year, by w o r k i n g f o r f o u r months w i t h a lacquer artist, he earned e n o u g h to subsist on w h i l e he m a d e his finest w o r k , the standing male n u d e in bronze, also called Meditation (fig. 1 6 . 3 ) , w h i c h brought h i m the

1 6 0

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

gold medal in the 1943 Salon and put him in the first rank of mainstream sculptors in France. W h e n one day a French sculptor friend said to Hua, " W h y do you come to us to learn? We should be learning from y o u , " he began to feel more aware of his C h i nese origins. H e must have thought often of what his o w n people were suffering during the war years, because the works he produced in Paris before returning home in 1947 include three that are Chinese not only in subject but in feeling also: a woman with her children fleeing from an air raid, a farmer with a hoe, and Mother and Child, all showing a rhythmic flow of the line that is C h i nese rather than Western. Liao Xinxue, the sculptor w h o forgot to attend his o w n wedding party (see above, page 4 1 ) , was born in 1 9 0 1 into a poor peasant family in Yunnan. 5 He started his career at eighteen as an assistant in a painting shop in Kunming. T h e next ten years are obscure, but 1933 finds him in Paris, studying at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, always, like Hua Tianyou, struggling with poverty, copying Rubens, Ingres, Delacroix, and Millet in the galleries—Millet's The Angelas was a special favorite of his. H e was a gifted oil painter in the impressionist manner and a watercolorist, while he managed to earn some money from his Chinese paintings, for which there was always a demand. B y the time he returned home in 1948 he had w o n a number of prizes, among his best works being his standing male athlete with a discus (fig. 16.4), which won a gold medal at the Salon, and an equally accomplished standing draped female figure of 1947. T h e best-known Chinese sculptor of his generation, although by no means the most creative, was Liu Kaiqu, w h o as a young man acquired some reputation as a painter, writer, and calligrapher. 6 He was born of illiterate peasant parents in 1904 in Xiaoxian, Anhui. B y the happiest chance, the art teacher at his primary school was Wang Ziyun, a sculptor and oil painter w h o later studied in Paris. Wang raised the money to send the boy to Beijing, where, in September 1920, he entered the

1 6.3

Academy, graduating four years later. Life became very

Hua Tianyou, Meditation

(1943). Bronze.

hard, but again rescue was at hand: the woman writer Ling Shuhua gave him the royalties from short stories she had published in the literary journal Xiandai pitiglun

more than made up for this by the dominant position he

and an introduction to the physicist-dramatist Ding

was now to occupy among sculptors in his own country.

Xilin, w h o took him to Shanghai. There he boldly told Cai Yuanpei that he wanted to go to France to study sculpture. B y the autumn of 1928, with a scholarship of eighty dollars a month, he was established at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, studying under Bouchard. A n ardent patriot, he was drawn home in 1 9 3 2 by the first Japanese invasion and the loss of the northern provinces, having spent too short a time in France to accumulate prizes at the Salon like Hua Tianyou and Liao Xinxue. But he

Soon after Liu Kaiqu returned to Shanghai in 1 9 3 2 he called on Lu X u n , w h o told him, " I n the past, one did bodhisattvas. N o w one should do portraits," and it was almost exclusively with portraits and monuments that the sculptors returning from France were able to find work. It was chiefly with nudes that they had achieved their reputations in Paris, but the idea of commissioning or exhibiting a nude statue was unthinkable. T h e hard realities of the art world of China in the 1930s and 1940s

SCULPTURE

1 6 1

16.4

16 5

Liao Xinxue, Athlete (1946). Bronze. Liu Kaiqu, Unknown

16 6

W a n g Linyi, President

imposed their own restraints and challenges, and c o m missions could not be turned down. In 1 9 3 2 - 3 3 , Li Jinfa made a ten-foot-high seated figure in bronze of the diplomat Wu Jianfang for the Guanyinshan in Canton, while in 193 5 he produced for a park in Hangzhou a m e m o rial to those w h o fell in the clash with Japan. These are both competent, conventional works. W h e n war came, the leading sculptors moved to Free China to make their own contribution to resistance— although it may be questioned whether the life-size equestrian statue in Chengdu of the Guomindang general Wang Mingchang, in precious bronze, that was commissioned from Liu Kaiqu in 1 9 3 9 did much for the war effort. 7 More inspiring was Liu Kaiqu's Unknown

Hew

(fig. 16.5) of 1 9 4 3 , a strong, realistically modelled figure of a soldier advancing with fixed bayonet that stood on a high plinth at the east gate of Chengdu. Wang Linyi, before he left Chongqing in 1946, executed a simple, dignified bronze of President Lin Sen, standing hat in hand and wearing a long cloak (fig. 16.6). W h e n peace came, the sculptors struggled on. Liao

1 6 2

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

Hero (1943). Bronze. Formerly in Chengdu.

Lin Sen (c. 1945). Bronze.

X i n x u e returned to relative obscurity in Kunming,

Wang Linyi made a large relief panel entitled Great Gath-

where he died in 1958, while Wang Ziyun remained in

ering of the Nationalities.9 Western modernism, and par-

Sichuan. Wang Linyi became the head of the sculpture

ticularly the style of which Hua Tianyou had become a

department at the Beijing Academy under X u Beihong.

master in Paris, was totally rejected in sculpture as in

Hua Tianyou joined him in 1947, straight from Paris,

painting, and Soviet influence became overpowering.

and held a one-man show at the Academy that created

H u g e sculptural figures and groups were modelled on

a sensation, particularly when a writer noted that Hua

the work of sculptors such as Vera Mukhina and Insif

was the only Chinese sculptor included in an encyclo-

Chaikov. B y 1 9 5 2 sculpture students were being sent to

pedia of world art that had recently been published in

M o s c o w and Leningrad, while sculptors were coming

Paris. Liu Kaiqu, meantime, returned to Shanghai with

to teach and exhibit from the U S S R , Czechoslovakia,

no j o b and no studio; he survived on commissions for

Poland, and Albania.

portrait heads of Cai Yuanpei, Lu X u n , Fan X u d o n g ,

On September 29, 1949, the day before M a o declared

and other notables. As the political and economic crisis

the establishment of the Peoples' Republic, it was de-

deepened, though, the commissions dried up. B y the time

cided to erect in Tiananmen Square a monument to C h i -

Shanghai was liberated in 1949, the situation for artists,

nese heroes from the time of the Opium War hero Lin

and for sculptors in particular, was desperate.

Z i x u to the Communist victory. T h e tall stela would bear

T h e reader will not have failed to notice that every

an inscription composed by M a o Z e d o n g and written

one of the sculptors I have discussed was, in terms of

by Z h o u Enlai, and a plan for a series of reliefs running

Western art, thoroughly conservative. Chinese sculptors

round the base was drawn up by the Party historian Fan

did not experiment; there was no influence from Euro-

Wenlan. To head the project, Liu Kaiqu was brought up

pean sculptors such as Rodin or Maillol, long accepted

to Beijing, where he put together a team from the C e n -

in Japan. T h e work of Archipenko or Lipschitz would

tral Academy under Wang Linyi and Hua Tianyou, aided

have been even less comprehensible. A n art world that

by a group of sculptors from the Historical Museum that

accepted Käthe Kollwitz and Covarrubias seemed un-

included Fu Tianqiu and Situ Jian, with the painter Feng

aware of Barlach. This suggests that there was as yet no

Fasi to advise on composition. These men worked for

conception in China of sculpture as an expressive art form,

seven years to create a series of four panels, six feet high

and if Chinese sculptors abroad had acquired such a sense,

and totalling 1 3 0 feet in length. Liu Kaiqu's panel show-

they had little chance to display it once they got home.

ing the R e d Army crossing the Yangzi and Fu Tianqiu's of the Wuchang Uprising are typical in their careful skill and crowded detail. But even Hua Tianyou's relief of

SCULPTURE

SINCE

LIBERATION

If the place of sculpture in modern China had been uncertain or even peripheral, "Liberation" brought it suddenly to center stage. N o t only were all social barriers

the May Fourth Movement (fig. 16.7) suffers from a stiffness and lack of individuality, inevitable given the ideological restraints to which the sculptors were subjected from the start.

to the profession gone, but reconstruction, the planning

Later, the painter Z h a n g Anzhi complained that Hua

of new towns, parks, and open spaces, and the need for

Tianyou had once had a personal style but now these

vast numbers of monuments and memorials created a

panels all looked pretty much the same. 10 Indeed, the crit-

huge demand, which at first the handful of competent

icism can be leveled at Chinese sculpture in general at

sculptors in the academies could scarcely meet. Jiang

this time. H o w much the Chinese sculptors resented the

Feng appointed Liu Kaiqu president of the Hangzhou

Soviet influence is hard to say now; many of them, and

Academy, but the main center for sculpture was the C e n -

particularly those w h o had studied in France, later said

tral Academy in Beijing, where Wang Linyi headed the

that they had disliked it. With the withdrawal of Soviet

department, aided by Hua Tianyou and Wang Neizhao.

aid in i960 the sculptors were happy to find other m o d -

It was they and their students, among them Liu Xiaoling,

els and influences, partly through a search for the roots

Liu Shiming, and Yu Jianyuan, w h o were to produce

of the native Chinese sculptural tradition. Thus, in the

or direct many of the sculptural projects of the 1950s

sculpture research department of the Beijing Academy

and early 1960s. 8 Their themes were chiefly reconstruction, land reform, world peace, the unity of the Chinese peoples, the Great Leader, and military and labor heroes. In 1 9 5 0 , after the National M o d e l Heroes meeting, X u Beihong invited four of these paragons of labor and the military to the Academy as models for inspirational portraits, while

(which by now boasted five senior sculptors and twentythree assistants) we find Wang Linyi being assigned to study Han sculpture, Hua Tianyou that of the Tang, Z e n g Zhushao that of the Song. Others travelled in search of vernacular styles: Fu Tianqiu, for instance, to Wutaishan and to Yunnan, Situ Jian to study Qiaozhou wood sculpture and the carving of the minorities. For popular ap-

SCULPTURE

1 6 3

1 6.7 Hua Tianyou, The May Fourth Movement

(1958). Panel for Heroes' Memorial, Tiananmen Square. Stone.

1 6.8

Guo Qixiang, Tibetan Woman

(1963) Granite.

peal, the Academy invited up from Canton a well-known modeller of the ceramic figures for which the Shekwan kilns had long been famous. Although the Soviet manner remained in vogue for monumental projects all over China, one of the last of these being the huge groups set up before the M a o M a u soleum in 1 9 7 7 , the early 1960s saw a far greater range of styles emerge. In Sichuan, a regional style of sculpture was beginning to develop, as it later did in painting. Although G u o Qixiang's subjects of this period were chiefly fashioned in the conventional Soviet heroic mold, when he carved a Tibetan woman in stone (fig. 16.8) he achieved a work which, like that of the later oil painters such as Luo Zhongli, is massive and monumental in form yet lively and natural in effect. In general, however, sculpture for public places was becoming more decorative, more romantic (even sentimental), and certainly more Chinese in feeling, while individual sculptors were now producing many smaller works for exhibition and for their own pleasure. O f the new names, Liu Huanzhang was perhaps the first postLiberation sculptor to achieve wide reputation and popularity." T h o u g h born in Inner Mongolia, he grew up near Beidahe on coastal Hebei. T h e boy's middle school teacher caught him carving in class and chose to send him off to be apprenticed to a seal-carver instead of scolding him. B y 1 9 5 4 he had graduated from the Central Academy in Beijing and had set up as a professional sculptor. From now on—except for the three Cultural R e v -

1 6 4

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

1 6.9 Ye Yushan and a team of sculptors f r o m the Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts, C h o n g q i n g , The Rent Collection Courtyard (detail) (1965), Clay, The figures are life-size, Dayi, Sichuan

olution years when he was in the countryside with Huang

recreate with vivid detail and some truth an operation

Yongyu and other artists—a steady stream of carvings

that had taken place every year in this courtyard. Peas-

of figures, animals, and birds, in clay, wood, and stone,

ants would bring their pitiful harvest to pay the rent, of-

issued from his studio. When in January 1 9 8 1 he was

ten leaving nothing for themselves; some of them had

given what was said to be the first one-sculptor show at

mortgaged their crop for sixty years in advance. They

the China Art Gallery it drew crowds, along with ap-

were cheated by the landlord, sold their children, or were

preciative articles by Wu Guanzhong, Huang Yongyu,

condemned to the landlord's own prison for debt, to die

and the young sculptor Situ Yaoguang. His style, which

of starvation. T h e original version of 1965 ended with

shows instinctive feeling for form and for the nature of

their revolt. T h e tableau, which closely parallels in spirit

the material he is working with, is straightforward,

and intent the revolutionary operas and ballets that Jiang

unaffected, and appealing.

Qing was promoting at this time, was widely discussed,

In the meantime, however, the masses still had to be

imitated, and revised under her direction to "raise it to

educated, or reminded, about the iniquities of the re-

a still higher ideological and artistic level." Thus in the

cent past. T h e most famous artistic enterprise of this kind

final version of 1968 it ends with figures holding aloft a

was The Rent Collection Courtyard (fig. 16.9), a tableau of

political placard and the writings of Chairman Mao, ad-

over one hundred life-size clay figures set up in the for-

ditions which quite destroy the emotional impact of the

mer mansion of Sichuan landlord and warlord Liu

original. In 1 9 7 3 - 7 6 , Ye Yushan and his team were as-

Wencai in Dayi. 1 2 Although like all such projects it was

signed to smarten it up and make duplicate sets for dis-

anonymous, "created collectively by eighteen amateur

tribution. When I visited the Sichuan Academy in 1980,

and professional sculptors of Sichuan," it was in fact car-

some of these unwanted replicas were locked away in a

ried out by a team at the Sichuan Academy, one of the

storeroom, gathering dust like the original in Dayi.

leaders of which was Ye Yushan, who had trained in

In Tibet the serfs were likewise exploited and oppressed

Chongqing and under Wang Linyi and Hua Tianyou at

by their landowners, but while the Chinese occupation

the Central Academy. He was later to be honored with

of 1 9 5 1 did indeed liberate Tibetan serfs from Tibetan

the commission for the Abraham Lincoln-like marble

masters, the Tibetans so hated their liberators that in 19 5 9

figure of M a o Z e d o n g in the mausoleum on Tianan-

they rose in revolt. T h e savage punitive response of the

men Square.

Chinese armies, the flight of the Dalai Lama and many

Although The Rent Collection Courtyard is often rid-

thousands of Tibetans to India, and the even greater de-

iculed as crude propaganda, the figures of this tableau

struction carried out during the Cultural Revolution

SCULPTURE

1 6 5

make bitterly ironical the message of The Wrath of the Serfs (fig. 1 6 . 1 0 ) , a vividly realistic tableau of 106 figures against a painted background. 1 3 It tells of the suffering of the serfs under their old masters, their revolt, and their longing for the arrival of the Communists. Created over a period of eighteen months in 1975—76 by a team of sculptors from Jiang Qing's May Seventh Academy of Arts and the Lu X u n Art College in Shenyang, this tableau is full of sharp detail and violent movement and is even more theatrical than The Rent Collection Courtyard.

AFTER

MAO

During the Peking Spring, sculpture flowered as did painting, and in a special way. There had always been individualists, eccentrics, and dissidents among Chinese painters, but never before had there been dissident or eccentric sculptors. W h e n at the first Stars exhibition in September 1979 (see chapter 2 1 ) Wang Keping hung his satirical carvings on the railing of the China Art Gallery, he was attacking not only the iniquities of the Gang of Four but the bureaucracy and censorship that had been part of Chinese life since Liberation. The Backbone of Society is a head without a brain, a mouth without lips, a nose but no nostrils: "That's the way," he explained later, " I visualised incompetent bureaucrats w h o were always

16.10 Nine sculptors from the Central May Seventh Academy of Arts and Lu Xun Art College, Shenyang, The Wrath of the Serfs (detail) (1975-76). Clay. The figures are life-size. Lhasa, Tibet.

screwing things up." 1 4 T h e mouth of his mask-like The Silent One (see fig. 1 6 . 1 1 ) is stuffed with a wooden stopper, one eye hatched as if covered with tape. Did

16.

Wang Keping know X i a o Ding's famous satirical scroll

W a n g Keping, Idol (1980). W o o d .

of 1944 (discussed in chapter 1 1 ) , in which the mouth of the journalist is stuffed with an official invitation, the eyes of the painter blindfolded? Nothing had changed. Wang's best-known piece in the second Stars exhibition was a massively carved head resembling M a o (fig. 1 6 . 1 1 ) , which in itself was daring. Even more so was the title: Idol. T h e point was driven home when for my benefit he turned an abject kneeling figure on an adjacent stand to face his idol. T h e Stars exhibitions were small, without precedent or sequel, and dissident sculpture hardly became a feature of the art scene of China in the 1980s. But the work of Wang Keping shook Chinese sculpture once and for all free of the conventions it had labored under since it had first become a recognized art f o r m in China. This new freedom stimulated young sculptors, liberated some of the established ones, and opened the way to a vast enlarging of the range of style and expression. Already in 1 9 8 1 Liu Huanzhang was freeing his style, carving heads, birds, and animals with expressive energy. He gave the raw strokes of chisel on w o o d almost the quality of brushstrokes, while his works in stone and bronze suggest the influence of Maillol and H e n r y

1 6 6

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

16.12

(left)

Yang Dongbai, Bear Drinking (1983). Marble. 16.13

(above)

Cheng Ya'nan, Evening Wind (1983). Wood. 16.14

(below)

Sun Shaoqun, Nine Women of the Taiping Rebellion (1984) Bronze.

Moore, whose art was widely featured in Chinese art

of a surgeon, only her eyes and nose emerging from the

journals in the 1980s. Although he is admired, Liu

stylized mask, showed great subtlety'and sophistication

Huanzhang has never courted fame; his models were of-

in the modelling. Collaborative projects were dominated

ten rejected, and he refused to take part in the ambitious

by the model by Liu Zhengde, Li Z h e n g w e n , and Sun

assigned group projects that were the sure path to favor.

Shaoqun of a group of free forms to be erected at the

T h e Sixth National Art Exhibition, in the summer of

Gezhuo D a m site in Hubei, of which the largest, a geo-

1984, showed how much sculpture had advanced in the

metric tower reminiscent of Archipenko, was to stand

five years since the Peking Spring. 1 3 A sure sign that pol-

twenty-two meters high. T h e effect is awkward, and it

itics were not wholly in command was the awarding of

is as well that nothing came of it. In quite different style,

the gold medal for sculpture to Yang Dongbai's beauti-

and far less pretentious, was Sun Shaoqun's other work,

fully conceived and fashioned Bear Drinking in white mar-

Nine Women of the Taiping Kingdom (fig. 1 6 . 1 4 ) , a m e m o -

ble (fig. 1 6 . 1 2 ) while Qian Shaowu's lifelike and sym-

rial group of five single and four paired figures modelled

pathetic head of Jiang Feng (who had died in 1982) only

in bronze with massive power and dignity, suggesting that

earned a silver. A bronze medal went to Evening

Sun had studied the work of some Western sculptors,

(fig. 1 6 . 1 3 ) ,

a

Wind

playful yet firmly modelled mother and

child in w o o d by Cheng Ya'nan. Fu Zhongwang's head

such as Barlach and Mestrovic. In the 1980s civic sculpture became less obviously p o -

SCULPTURE

1 6 7

litical in content. T h e urge for sheer bigness, sign of China's new confidence in herself, showed in an interest in colossal sculpture abroad. A writer in Meishu discussed the colossal Buddha figures at Yungang, L o n g men, and Leshan as possible precedents; described the Statue of Liberty; and illustrated Gutzon Borglum's huge presidential heads on Mount Rushmore, pointing out that nothing of that sort has yet been attempted in modern China. 1 6 T h e largest new Chinese work of its kind is the stone figure of the patriot Z h e n g Chengkong, towering from a rock off the island ot Gulangyu in Xiamen harbor, which was his base in his long struggle against the Manchus. Another colossus, standing on a rock in the water near Canton, is the graceful figure of a Pearl R i v e r fisher-girl holding a monstrous pearl above her head (fig. 1 6 . 1 5 ) . A m o n g the most successful of the civic pieces of the 1980s are the four figures, two male and two female, that decorate the approaches to the Yangzi Bridge at C h o n g qing. 1 7 Representing the four seasons, they were made in cast aluminum alloy by a team of sculptors at the Sichuan Academy under the direction of Ye Yushan, w h o was responsible for the most graceful and popular figure, Spring (fig. 1 6 . 1 6 ) . When the clay models were completed they were nude, but Authority insisted they be at least partly clothed. As we might expect of a fine art so new to China, Western influences are everywhere present, in spite of the search for the roots of Chinese style in Han, Tang, and Song. It is hard to imagine, for instance, that when Yang Dongbai carved his Bear Drinking he did not know the work of Henry Moore, as featured in Meishu. T h e influence of Rodin, particularly in the partial freeing of a figure or a head from the uncarved stone, is pervasive. Liu Huanzhang and his contemporaries must surely have been well aware of the work of Maillol. There are echoes of Marino Marini in Winter on the Grasslands (fig. 1 6 . 1 7 ) , a horseman with a lance by the young Hangzhou sculptor Zhang Keduan. Through the 1980s these borrowings increased, as younger sculptors became ever more eager to be part of the international modern movement. To take a positive view, they vastly extended the Chinese sculptor's range of expression. For the time being, at least, the question

16.15 Anonymous, Girl of Zhuhai (1980s). Stone.

of the creation of a contemporary Chinese style in sculpture (as opposed to Chinese subject matter) seemed to be in abeyance. But in the 1980s some sculptors, rejecting the West, were finding inspiration nearer h o m e — not, fortunately, in the Buddhist sculpture of Yungang and Longmen, but deeper in the native culture and in the art of the minorities.

1 6 8

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

16.16 Ye Yushan with Huang Caizhi and X i a n g Jinguo, Spring (1980). Cast aluminum alloy. One of four figures for Yangzi Bridge, C h o n g g i n g 16.17 Z h a n g Keduan, Winter on the Grasslands

(1985). Bronze.

/y M O D E R N

NEW VENTURES

IN

G R A P H I C S

PRINTMAKING

W h e n the Communists came out of the wilderness and

were thought depressing and old-fashioned, and few peo-

took over control of the arts, they set up print depart-

ple came to see them. T h e public had long wanted new

ments in the art schools. T h e first was opened in 1 9 5 5

themes, the printmakers new styles and techniques. B y

in the Central Academy under Li Hua, aided by his col-

the 1980s even some of the old masters felt liberated.

leagues from Yan'an days G u Yuan, Yan Han and Wang

Wang Qi's new landscape prints, for example, contained

Qi. Soviet prints were of course a major influence, and

no hint of propaganda, while Yan Han's compositions

between 1 9 5 1 and 1965 the radical Chilean graphic artist

had become almost abstract. G u Yuan had gone back to

José Venturelli lived in China (chiefly in Beijing), teach-

his old love—painting lyrical landscapes in watercolor.

ing and exhibiting. 1

Many young artists took up the challenge to create

Although the revolutionary styles and themes of the

something new, and regional schools of printmaking be-

1930s and 1940s continued to be useful and popular,

gan to develop. In Sichuan, Dai Jialin, Luo Nengjian,

techniques became more sophisticated. G u Yuan, Li

Liu Shitong, and X u Kuang created powerful images of

Qun, and many more began to use color; the range was

Tibetans and nomads that paralleled in black and white

limited at first, but confidence increased as more and

the oil paintings of Luo Zhongli, C h e n Danqing, and

more young graphic artists appeared. Color prints—some

Ai Xuan. O n e of the most gifted printmakers of this re-

collaborative, some anonymous, many by amateurs in fac-

gion is D o n g Kejun, born in Chongqing in 1 9 3 9 , w h o

tory art clubs—celebrated such projects as the building

labored as a construction worker for many years, even-

of the Chengdu-Kunming railway, the Daqing oil field,

tually managed to study art in Chongqing, joined the

and the steel and shipbuilding industry of Luda. 2 T h e

local Wuyue Woodcut Research Society (Wuyue muke

most popular of all modern Chinese prints, Wu Fan's

yanjiu hui), and settled in Guiyang. 3 He finds his sub-

charming Dandelion Girl of 1958 (fig. 1 7 . 1 ) , which w o n

jects among the rural life of the Miao people of Guizhou,

a gold medal at an international print exhibition, was un-

their customs and beliefs, sorcerers' masks and dances,

usually lyrical for its day, presaging the nonpolitical

bullfights and sacrifices. His early prints are in black and

prints that were to appear after the death of Mao.

white, but more recently he has worked in strong pri-

While workers always liked to look at pictures of the life they knew, by the late 1970s people had become sick of propaganda and of the constant reminders of the evils

mary colors that well convey the wild vitality of Miao culture (fig. 17.2). A kindred spirit working in black and white is the Sichuanese printmaker B u Weiqin.

of the old society. W h e n in 1983 Z h o u Ruijuan, w h o

In recent years, printmakers in Yunnan such as Li

had lived for fifty years in Japan, held an exhibition of

Zhongnian, Z h e n g X u , and Z e n g Xiaofeng have de-

her heartrending images of destitution and suffering, full

veloped a strong colorful style, many of their works be-

of pleading hands and haunted, large-eyed women and

ing inspired by the customs and culture of the Va peo-

children reminiscent of those of Edvard Munch, they

ple. Indeed, for print artists with a sense of pattern and

1 7 0

1 7.2 D o n g Kejun, Dialogue

(c. 1988). W o o d b l o c k print.

17.1 W u Fan, Dandelion

color, the arts of the southwestern minorities are a far

Girl ( 1958). Shuiyin print.

of tone and atmosphere, the aim being to create the effect

richer source than the somewhat meager repertory of

of a painting.'' With the fall of the Ming, the tradition

the Han Chinese peasantry.

in Nanjing declined and was not revived until the early

Another regional school developed under the pa-

1960s, when the Jiangsu branch of the Chinese Artists

tronage of the military in the northeastern provinces of

Association held training sessions in the technique. In

Liaoning and Heilongjiang during the period of recon-

1963 the Jiangsu C A A mounted the first exhibition of

struction, and after the Cultural Revolution, the move-

modern shuiyin prints in Beijing. Well-known Nanjing

ment developed a life of its own. Artists of this N o r t h -

masters of the slwiyin print today include Wu Junfa,

ern Wilderness (Beidahuang) School, including Hao

Huang Jinyu, Weng Chenghao, Lai Shaoqi (also a guo-

Baiyi, C h e n Yuping, Zhang Shanmin, Liu Bao, Song

hua painter), the woman artist Z h u Qinbao, and Ding

Yuanwen, Liang Dong, and Li Jianfu, were encouraged

Lisong. Suzhou, also a center of fine printing in the late

to attract settlers to their inhospitable world by depict-

Ming, has become known for romantically pretty prints

ing it as appealingly as possible, creating colorful c o m -

of the city's picturesque houses, gardens, and canals, par-

positions of ice-breaking, snow-covered trees, spring

alleling the paintings of such artists as the ever popular

flowers, and laughing children. 4

X u X i . Sichuan also produced its own school of print-

Many of the Beidahuang prints are produced by the uniquely Chinese shuiyin or taoyin (water-based printing) method, a technique perfected early in the seventeenth century in southern Anhui and Nanjing, where the famous Painting Manual of the Ten Bamboo

making. T h e lyrical landscape prints of Huang Xuanzhi (plate 35), working in the Artists Association in C h o n g qing, are typical of this genre of shuiyin printing. Wu Fan's Dandelion Girl was also produced in Chongqing.

Hall

T h e famous Rongbaozhai studio had been estab-

(Shizhuzhai huapu), a handbook of models for students,

lished in Beijing in 1894, originally to produce high-

was published between 1 6 2 2 and 1643. In this technique

quality writing paper decorated with designs reproduced

the blocks are hand-colored with watercolor and printed

from the work of leading modern painters, notably C h e n

on multilayer sprayed paper to produce subtle gradations

Hengke, and later Qi Baishi, Zhang Daqian, and others.

M O D E R N

G R A P H I C S

1 7 1

T h e studio had closed down during the 1940s but was reorganized after Liberation, chiefly to make reproductions of famous paintings, ancient and modern, that are almost indistinguishable from the originals. During the Cultural Revolution the Rongbaozhai studio turned out millions of reproductions of the best-known icon of all, Liu Chunhua's Chairman Mao Goes to Anyuan (discussed in chapter 15). T h e Rongbaozhai undoubtedly set a standard for shuiyin printing throughout the country, and young printmakers have been sent there from many art schools to perfect their technique. T h e Hangzhou Academy suffered severely from b e ing downgraded by Mao, and its printmaking department was somewhat unfocused and eclectic, but it does boast several accomplished artists. Notable is Zhao Zongzao. His early work, which included the inevitable illustrations to Lu X u n , was conventional. He stopped printmaking in 1963 and only began to work again, cautiously, in 1 9 7 2 . It was after a visit to Japan that he made, in 1 9 8 3 , his print of a famous group of rocks on Huangshan (fig. 17.3), in which he combines the subtlety of a wash painting with a feeling for the block itself—using 17.3 Z h a o Z o n g z a o , Huangshan

Rocks ( 1 9 8 2 ) . Shuiyin

the grain of the w o o d very appropriately to suggest the

print.

texture of the rocks. This must be one of the first truly modern prints produced in the People's Republic.

1 7.4 W a n g W e i x i n , Temple

of Heaven,

f r o m Ancient

Etching and embossing.

Capital—Beijing

(1981).

T h e range of techniques used today by Chinese printmakers is as wide as it is in the West, going far beyond water- and oil-based block printing. Wu Changjiang's powerful studies of Tibetans show a masterly use of fineline w o o d engraving. Wang Weixin (fig. 17.4) in his series "Ancient Capital—Beijing" combines copper-plate etching with embossing, while Liang D o n g combines embossing with the shuiyin technique. C h e n Qiang evokes in mezzotint the harsh life, and death, of the northern nomads. A m o n g lithographers, Li Hongren creates elaborate compositions in color (fig. 17.5), while Zhang Zhiyou, w h o opened China's first independent print workshop in 1984 in Zhuoxian, south of Beijing, aims in some of his lithographs at an almost photographic effect. C h e n Wenji produces very original pictures of household things such as chairs and kitchen stoves by collagraphy—that is, printing in intaglio or relief from a surface built up with various collage materials (fig. I7.6). 6

Screen printing was introduced into China in the 1980s, but its development has been hampered by the difficulty of obtaining the right inks and solvents; printmakers have been forced to fall back on oil color thinned with turpentine. In general the Chinese printmakers suffer, like the oil painters, from working with poor materials. In the early 1980s, for example, lithographers in Hangzhou worked on high-quality imported German

1 7 2

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

17,5 Li Hongren, The Sun Rising in the Eastern Sky (1984). Lithograph.

17.6 Chen Wenji, Stove and Chair (1983). Collagraph.

stones, while those in Chongqing had to make do with

and the full range of Western modernists. In the 1970s

inferior local ones.

Hokusai was already being exhibited and imitated in

T h e quality of the work in the Ninth National Print

China. T h e modern Japanese print has had considerable

Exhibition in 1986 showed not only that the range of

influence not only on the Beidahuang School of the

techniques had expanded enormously in less than a

northeast and on Beijing printmakers such as Shi J i h o n g

decade but that what had once been a generally m o n o -

(fig. 17.7) but also in Sichuan, where echoes of the very

chrome art at one extreme and a means of reproducing

different styles of Munakata and Saito Kiyoshi are evi-

paintings at the other, with nothing much in between,

dent in some of the work of members of the Wuyue

had been elevated from a craft to a fine art, and the range

Society. T h e modern Japanese influence can also be seen

of pictorial sources on which the Chinese printmakers

in the work of two woman printmakers—Zhang Shuang

could draw had become enormous. 7 From Western art,

in Canton and Li X i u from Guangxi.

they study not only Masereel, Grosz, and Kollwitz but

But it is the Chinese pictorial tradition that furnishes

Beardsley, Toulouse-Lautrec, Gibbings, Rockwell Kent,

the richest source, beginning with the bronzes of Shang

M O D E R N

G R A P H I C S

1 7 3

1 7.7 Shi Jihong, Storytelling

(1980). Shuiyin

print.

17.8 Anonymous, from Forward

Guard Post of the Southern

Sea (1963-64).

Serial picture series. Ink and color on paper.

1 7.9 Cheng Shifa, illustration to the Ming novel Rulin waishi (1957) Ink on paper.

children have loved to pore over the strip picture-books of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Outlaws of the Marshes, and other stirring tales. In Mao's China, popular themes were the Long March, model P L A units (as and Z h o u , continuing with rubbings from Han stone re-

in fig. 17.8), and the lives of such heroes as Lu X u n , Wang

liefs (in the work of Lang Kai, for example), the appar-

Jingshan (who mixed the concrete slurry by jumping into

ently inexhaustible Dunhuang material (Yan Han), the

the tank), and the immaculate Lei Feng. 8

great tradition of landscape and flower painting, old book

Between 1949 and 1966, 600 million picture books

illustrations, the decorative arts of the southwestern mi-

were sold. In recent years about 700 million have been

norities (Wang Jianguo), peasant art (Ma Gang, Z h o u

sold every year. To train artists for this insatiable market,

Z h i y u , Yang Xianrang), and new year pictures. With

the Central Academy somewhat belatedly opened a lian-

such technical and stylistic resources at their command,

huanhua and nianhua (new year picture) department in

there seems to be nothing, given the freedom to create,

1980. A Serial Picture Research Society was set up in

that the Chinese printmakers cannot accomplish.

1 9 8 3 , with many branches, and in 1983 the Chinese Comics Publishing House was established in Beijing. With so huge an output, naturally the number of artists

BOOK

ILLUSTRATION

AND SERIAL

PICTURES

and the range of styles has vastly increased, and the lian-

Chinese pictorial skills are shown at their best in book

huanhua is no longer regarded, as it once was, as a low

illustration and lianhucinhm (serial pictures). This is a very

f o r m of art. From the start, serial books, including many

ancient art in China: some Han reliefs tell stories in se-

for children, were illustrated by the best artists, a fine ex-

rial form, and the sixth-century wall paintings at D u n -

ample being Hua Sanchuan's brilliant illustrations for the

huang illustrating successive incidents in the life of the

original version of The White-Haired Girl, published by

Buddha are an early f o r m of lianhuanhua. For centuries

the Youth Press in 1964 (see fig. 14.5).

1 7 4

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

17.11 Dai D u n b a n g , illustration to t h e S o n g novel Shuihu

zhuan

(1980s). Ink a n d

color o n paper

17.10 H e Youzhi, illustration to Lu Xun's The White

Light

(1980s).

A few of the examples given below are individual book

Gao Yun, for example, illustrates a Qing story about the

illustrations, but many are serial pictures meant to be

Tang court in a monochrome gongbi style, while Wu

viewed either separately or sequentially. C h e n g Shifa's

Sheng and Yu Shui appropriately treat Bai Juyi's Song

brush-line illustrations to the M i n g novel The Scholars

of Unending Sorrow in the manner of the Tang masters

(fig. 17.9), published by the Foreign Languages Press in

of figure painting Z h o u Fang and Z h a n g Xuan. Gongbi

1 9 5 7 , set a standard which many of his successors have

techniques are also used effectively for modern themes,

hoped to meet. Huang Yongyu also excelled as an illus-

such as the moving series by Li Q u a n w u and X u Yong-

trator, notable being his delightful woodcuts of 1953 for

min for Crescent Moon (plate 36), Lao She's tragic story

the Fables of Feng Xuefeng, a revolutionary writer and

of a girl forced to follow her mother into prostitution.

propagandist w h o had used the style of Aesop for veiled

For his illustrations to the Song historical romance All

attacks on the Guomindang. 9

Men Are Brothers (fig. 1 7 . 1 1 ) , Dai Dunbang brilliantly

Many artists work in ink-line, which marries well with

adapts the realism of the well-known panoramic hand-

the printed text. Ye Qianyu and in particular Ding C o n g

scroll Qingming shanghe tu by the twelfth-century mas-

are masters of this style, while among other excellent

ter Zhang Zeduan. Qin Long, w h o had helped Huang

examples we may cite Z h a o Hongbian's 1964 illustra-

Yongyu with his landscape for the M a o Mausoleum,

tions to Monkey and sets by Huang Chuanchang, Shi

effectively illustrates The Thousand and One Nights in a

Shengchen, and Wang Huaiqi. A freer ink line is dis-

gongbi style partly influenced by a famous twelfth-cen-

played in Fang Zengxian's illustrations to Lu X u n ' s

tury Japanese scroll of The Tale of Genji.

Kongyiji, while many artists use traditional ink and wash

Some artists have adopted an even more decorative,

in a realistic modern way, among them Z h a o Qi and

artificial style: Q u Lingjun's designs, for example, give

Z h a n g Wanli. He Youzhi's pictures in this manner for

an effect of mosaic in treating a folktale. M o r e success-

Lu Xun's The White Light (fig. 1 7 . 1 0 ) , the story of a failed

ful are Han Shuli's richly composed illustrations to the

examination candidate, are particularly effective. A ver-

Tibetan legend Bangjin Flower. Huang Peizhong's pic-

satile artist w h o also works in a gongbi technique, he is

tures for the folktale The Gold-Edged Peony playfully and

the head of the "comics department" at the Central

very successfully borrow the style of village new year

Academy.

prints. 10

In illustrating ancient texts, poems, and stories, many

Western techniques are always used for Western

artists have turned to the style of the period in question.

themes. Oil painting would not seem to be the natural

M O D E R N

G R A P H I C S

1 7 5

17.12 Li S h a o w e n , illustration to Dante's Inferno

medium for serial pictures, but He Duoling uses it for the Chinese translation of Paul Gallico's The

( 1 9 8 4 ) . Ink a n d color o n paper.

many Western influences, including that of Klimt. This

Snow

artist stretches the serial picture well beyond conventional

Goose. Bai Jingzhou's pictures for Alphonse Daudet's The

limits in his best-known work, Ren dao zhongnian (The

Last Lesson are drawn in ink (they look like etchings). Li

middle years of life) (fig. 1 7 . 1 3 ) , the story of a patriotic

Shaowen's brilliant illustrations to Dante's Injerno are car-

young woman doctor returning from abroad to serve her

ried out in watercolor (fig. 1 7 . 1 2 ) . And Russian influ-

country. With skill and imagination, he assembles almost

ence continues to be important: Meishu yanjiu for April

photographically realistic pictures in a variety of ways,

1984 carried an article by Gao Mang on the art of O.

some suggesting a series of movie stills, or family snap-

Veleisky, with particular reference to his illustrations to

shots pinned on the wall.

Anna

Karenina.

In the early and mid-1980s, there seemed to be no

You Jingdong's fifty-three pictures of various shapes

end to the styles, forms, and techniques that the lian-

and sizes telling the story of Stendhal's Fanina Fairini show

huanhua artists used and experimented with. China's vast

1 7 6

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

17.13 Y o u J i n g d o n g , i l l u s t r a t i o n t o Ren

dao

zhongnian

( 1 9 8 1 ).

book-devouring public, as well the incredibly rich pic-

reported that the market had collapsed. Few people were

torial tradition, suggested that the possibilities for this

buying

form, as for the modern print, were limitless. Yet a vis-

had retired and were not being replaced. Television, it

itor to publishing houses and bookshops in the late 1980s

seems, had dealt this great tradition a mortal blow.

lianhuanhua

any more, while the best illustrators

M O D E R N

G R A P H I C S

1 7 7

ART

ART

IN

UNDER THE

OCCUPATION,

T A I W A N

JAPANESE

1895-1945

It would have been hard to imagine in the 1950s that Taipei would very soon become one of the key centers of the development of m o d e r n Chinese art. In the nineteenth century, w h e n Taiwan was a prefecture of Fujian province, Taiwan's cultural contacts were chiefly with Fujian and Guangdong, both outside the mainstream of Chinese painting. 1 Her arts were old-fashioned and very provincial. Just w h e n China was stirring to life at the end of the nineteenth century, Taiwan was conquered by Japan. 2 For the first ten years after the Japanese occupation of 1895 the island was dominated by the Japanese military presence, although local guohua painters continued to meet and exhibit and the governor-general was a patron of traditional painting. After 1905 art was taught in secondary schools, and the teachers' training colleges had Japanese instructors. By 1922, over two thousand Taiwanese were studying in Japan, although only a tiny handful—chiefly the sons of wealthy parents—were art students. O n e of the first was the sculptor Huang Tushui, w h o in 1919 distinguished himself at the official Teiten exhibition in Tokyo with a feeble clay figure of a country boy playing a flute. His later sculpture, particularly his buffaloes in the round and in relief that show the influence of Takamura Koun and his son K5tar5, were somewhat more accomplished. H e died of overwork in Tokyo without ever returning to Taiwan. Interest in Western art in Taiwan had first been sparked by the arrival in 1910 of Ishikawa Kin'ichiro (1871-1945). Long a m e m b e r of the Meiji Art Association, Ishikawa was a Christian w h o was fluent in E n glish and had acted as interpreter for the English watercolorist Alfred East on his visit to Japan in 1889. 3 H e

1 7 8

was appointed part-time lecturer in painting in the Taipei Normal College, a post he held—apart from a return to Japan from 1916 to 1923—until his final h o m e coming in 1932. H e also travelled in China and Europe. His watercolors, conventional and competent, showing his admiration for Turner, had a considerable influence on his many Taiwanese pupils, some of w h o m he sent to Japan for further study. They later named a society in his honor. T h e Taiwan gentry had always painted as a hobby, stimulated from time to time by painters (though hardly distinguished ones) arriving from the mainland. In Taipei, Kaohsiung, and Chiai, guohua societies flourished: the Sandalwood Society (Zhantan she), for example, and the N e w Sprouts Painting Society (Chunming huahui), and the Elegant Society (Ya she). But the Japanese influence was even stronger, and in Chiai particularly there were plenty of Chinese artists w h o had fallen under the spell of nihonga masters such as Takeuchi Seih5, Yokoyama Taikan, and Hishida Shunso. A m o n g the Taiwanese exponents of this technically demanding but impersonal style (for which, see chapter 5), we should mention Lin Yushan and C h e n Jin in Chiai and Guo Xuehu in Taipei. N o t surprisingly, nihonga ceased very suddenly to be fashionable in Taiwan in 1945. Forty years later, however, it had become respectable again, and long-neglected artists like C h e n Jin (who had spent the years 1925 to 1945 in Tokyo) were admired once more; her Old Instrument (plate 37) was painted in 1982. During the 1920s and 1930s Western-style painting, with a strong Japanese flavor, continued to develop in Taiwan. Oil painters in Tokyo came under the influence

of Okada Saburosuke, Yamashita Shintaro, Fujishima Takeji, Umehara Ryuzaburo, and Hishida Shunsd A n official annual Taiten exhibition, modelled on the Tokyo Teiten, was established in Taipei. In 1 9 3 4 the Taiyang Art Society (Taiyang meishu xiehui) was organized to give local artists more facilities for exhibitions than the official salon provided. Four years later a group of young modernists, dissatisfied with the society's conservatism, formed a breakaway movement called Cercle M O U V E . Although the name suggests direct contact with the Fauves and their successors in Paris, the secessionists were merely following current trends in Japan, with which they were anxious to establish their credentials. These would-be modernists were almost cut off from the West, even more so when in the late 1930s Japanese militarism turned Taiwan into a fortress, subject to relentless antiWestern propaganda and thought control. During World War II, in Taipei as in Tokyo, all art not dedicated to the war effort was discouraged and modernism forbidden.

18.1 Li Shijiao, Happy Farmers

( 1 9 4 6 ) . Oils.

T h e avant-garde, suppressed in Japan, had no chance at all in Taiwan. A typical Western-style artist of the prewar period was

18.2 Liu Qixiang, Woman in a Chinese Chair ( 1 9 7 4 ) . Oils.

Li Shijiao, born in 1908, w h o after studying under Ishikawa entered the Kawabata Academy of Painting in Tokyo in 1929 and then the Tokyo Academy in 193 i . 4 He exhibited regularly in the Teiten, sent paintings to the Taiwan Taiten, and finally returned to Taipei in 1944. There, after an initial period in disfavor, he became a prolific painter of colorful nude compositions and figure groups in a cheerful salon style (as in fig. 1 8 . 1 ) . Others more directly affected by modern European painting included Liao Jichun, w h o was much influenced by U m e hara Ryuzaburo. Although he never managed to get to Paris, late in life he did go to the United States, where he spent the years 1962 to 1 9 7 2 . H e felt then the pressure of abstraction, but later returned to realism. M o r e fortunate was Yang Sanlang, w h o spent seven years in the Kyoto Academy before going to France in 1 9 3 2 with Liu Qixiang. They were met in Marseilles by another Taiwanese, Yan Shuilong, and together they studied and copied paintings in Paris for several years. Yang and Yan returned to Taiwan, where the latter became a dominating influence on oil painting; but Liu Qixiang, w h o seemed most at home with modern French painting, went back to Tokyo in 193 5, married a Japanese woman, and only returned home in 1946. 3 Strongly influenced by Picasso and Derain, he was probably the most talented Taiwanese oil painter of his generation, as suggested by his Woman in a Chinese Chair of 1974 (fig. 18.2). After World War II this group of conservatives, modernists in their day, had a repressive influence on the younger generation of Western-style painters.

A R T

IN

T A I W A N

1 7 9

18.3 H u a n g Junbi, Returning

P O S T W A R

from the Woods

{1970s). Ink a n d color o n paper.

C O N S E R V A T I S M

For the Taiwanese, the joy of liberation from the Japanese in 1945 was not unmixed with apprehension, as the new provincial government imposed a dictatorship that the Taiwanese found all the more intolerable because it was Chinese. In 1947, their demands for reform denied, they rose in revolt. Among the thousands of Japaneseeducated Taiwanese killed in the savage punitive measures that followed was the pioneer oil painter Chen Chengbo. Taiwan's new masters were convinced that China's traditional values must be preserved at all costs against the Communist threat. To prevent unrest after the bloody uprising of 1947, martial law was imposed. It remained in force until 1988, paralyzing the free development of

1 8 0

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

cultural life.6 As the mainland government crumbled, local artists and professionals were pushed aside by the refugees from the mainland, who took the best jobs. To add to their confusion, Taiwanese artists were suddenly confronted not only with all the developments that had taken place in Chinese art since the Japanese had seized the island but also with contemporary international movements—and particularly the postwar N e w York School, which they began to encounter in 1950 when the U.S. Seventh Fleet arrived to protect Taiwan from Communism. We can see one effect of this sudden dislocation in the work of Li Shiqiao, who in the 1950s briefly experimented with abstraction before settling down again as a mildly fauvist figure painter.

T h e Guomindang brought almost the whole of the imperial art collection to Taiwan when they fled B e i jing, a symbol of their claim to legitimacy as the rulers of all China. A huge museum was eventually built in Taipei as a shrine of traditional culture. T h e Taiwan government saw itself as the custodian of the Chinese heritage. Through its network of security organizations it hunted out dissent in the arts as in ideology, promoting all that was conservative and traditional. Writing in an art journal in 1967, a Guomindang apologist declared, " W h a t we must recognize today is that the essence of an anti-communist war is that it is a cultural war. T h e r e fore we must first have a deep and penetrating conception of the spirit of Chinese culture." H e attempts to link Chinese aesthetics with the doctrines of Sun Yatsen: "Speaking frankly, if w e wish to establish China's burgeoning art, to depart from the philosophical and academic system of the Three Principles of the People which has grandly brought together both ancient and modern, both Chinese and foreign thought, would be to depart from a nationalism that represents the Chinese 'people's spirit,' which otherwise there would be no way of establishing." 7 In this sterile climate the guohua artists w h o had fled the mainland flourished, patronized by officials and the wealthy. Pu R u , cousin of the last Manchu emperor, and the Cantonese artist Huang Junbi (fig. 18.3) had enormously successful careers as teachers of traditional painting, while to Huang Junbi came the additional cachet of instructing Madame Chiang Kaishek herself. A m o n g the many established guohua painters, amateur and professional, w h o settled in Taiwan we may mention Fu Chuanfu, the connoisseur and politician Ye Gongchao (George Yeh), and the Fujianese individualist Shen Yaochu (fig. 18.4), w h o paints as Wu Changshuo might have painted had he lived into the era of expressionism. It is worth noting, however, that among the many guohua painters w h o came to Taiwan most were amateurs, and there were few of any exceptional talent. T h e masters had preferred to remain in China. T h e Nationalists were only able to lure Zhang Daqian to Taiwan at the end of his life by declaring him a "national treasure" and building a house for him near the Palace Museum. Had he been able to return to his beloved Sichuan, he would certainly have done so. M o r e than anything else, it was homesickness that inspired the greatest of his late works, Ten Thousand Miles of the Yangzi (see fig. 1 . 1 5 ) .

THE

FIFTH

M O O N

GROUP

B y the 1950s, young artists were feeling stifled by the atmosphere of preservation rather than creation in which

,8

they worked. 8 T h e first exhibition hinting

Shen Yaochu, Cat Regarding a Spider (1970s). Ink and color on paper.

at

new trends

4

A R T

IN

T A I W A N

1 8 1

soon emerged as the dominant personality. They held their first exhibition in the Taipei City Hall in the following May, and thereafter exhibited every May for the next fourteen years. 9 T h e founders of the Fifth M o o n Group believed that Chinese painting, frozen into conformity on the mainland and hidebound by conservatism in Taiwan, was at a standstill and that it was their mission to bring it to life, to create a new Chinese painting responsive to the challenge of Western modernism. T h e y were not restricted by medium or technique. They used oils, oils mixed with sand, collage, Chinese ink; they screwed up the paper or painted on both sides of it; they printed with fiberboard—any means was acceptable so long as it expressed the artists' feeling and vision. There is no doubt that it was abstract expressionism that helped these artists to discover in their own traditional art the essence of f o r m and the vital line, and to fuse these with a feeling for nature that is also intensely Chinese. A particularly beautiful example of this new synthesis is Liu Kuo-sung's semiabstract landscape of 1966 illustrated in plate 3 8. T h e importance of this Taipei movement (matched by similar developments by pioneer modernists in H o n g Kong) cannot be exaggerated, for it has become one of the cornerstones of contemporary Chinese art and since the Peking Spring has had an impact on art in the People's Republic, particularly after Liu Kuo-sung's exhibition in February 1983 in the China Art Gallery. Liu's breakthrough had come in 1 9 5 8 - 5 9 , w h e n he experimented with a number of Chinese and Western styles, feeling the influence of Cezanne, Klee, and Picasso. A t that time he was painting on plaster laid over canvas, scratching the surface, dripping ink like Pollock. It was the exhibition in 1962 of paintings from the Palace Museum, returned to Taiwan from their triumphant tour

18.5 Liu K u o - s u n g , Which

Is Earth?

No. 9 ( 1 9 6 9 ) . Ink, c o l l a g e , a n d c o l o r o n paper.

of the States, that gave him his first sustained encounter with ancient Chinese masterpieces and persuaded him to abandon oils for Chinese ink and brush. As his mas-

was mounted in 1 9 5 1 by three refugee artists w h o had

tery of the medium developed, he would screw up the

been associated with the Hangzhou Academy: Li Z h o n g -

coarse many-layered paper, or strip off the top layer to

sheng, w h o had exhibited with the Storm Society in

expose the rougher surface beneath and pull out the fibers

Shanghai in 1 9 3 2 and later visited Japan; C h u Teh-chun,

to leave lines and streaks. H e combined paint with col-

w h o in 1955 settled in Paris; and Zhao Chunxiang (Chao

lage and the calligraphic brushstroke with subtle effects

Chung-hsiang), w h o in 1 9 5 6 went to Spain and on to

of tone and atmosphere to create his own vision of the

N e w York, where he fell under the spell of Kline and

natural world.

Rauschenberg. Scarcely any record survives of this show,

W h e n it seemed that he had exhausted the abstract

but their work at this time seems to have been a med-

expressionist vein, suddenly he took it in a new direc-

ley of modern styles as they cast about for a way out of

tion with the " W h i c h Is Earth?" series (fig. 18.5), which

the artistic doldrums. Little more happened until 1956,

was to occupy him for the next five years. T h e Apollo

when a group of young artists, several of w h o m were

missions and the wondrous discovery of the Earth from

students of Liao Jichun in the Taipei Normal College,

space clearly inspired him; a less obvious inspiration was

came together to f o r m the Fifth M o o n Group (Wuyue

said to be the huge globular lanterns that hang from the

pai). A m o n g these ardent young spirits, Liu Kuo-sung

roofs of Chinese temples. These paintings were spec-

1 8 2

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

1 8.6 Liu Kuo-sung, One atop the Other

(1983). Ink on paper.

tacularly successful, generally saved from any taint of self-

modern art. (Feng had encountered Western m o d -

consciousness by Liu's brilliant handling of the style he

ernism in 1 9 5 4 w h e n he attended a national pistol

had created. With that vein worked out, he came back

championship in San Francisco.) T h e y painted chiefly

to earth, and his later paintings (such as fig. 18.6) are un-

in oils, or in oils mixed with sand. B u t when at the 1 9 6 1

deniably landscapes. His Landscape of the Four Seasons

Fifth M o o n exhibition they heard Liu Kuo-sung an-

(1983) is a work of great energy and changing moods,

nounce that henceforward he would abandon oils and

ranging from the lyrical opening through the almost too

paint with Chinese ink and brush, they joined his group,

tempestuous summer and autumn to the glacial silence

and exhibited with it for a number of years. Other early

and grandeur of winter. T h e scroll ends with such chill-

Fifth M o o n members included Han Xiangning and

ing finality that one is tempted to join the ends in a c o m -

Z h u a n g Z h e (fig. 18.7), whose Kline-like gestures with

plete circle, or to search in the snow for the red plum

Chinese ink were particularly powerful and expressive.

blossom that is the first herald of the coming spring. 1 0 In 1 9 5 7 two serving officers in the Marine Corps, H u Qizhong and Fong Chung-ray (Feng Zhongrui), had founded the Four Seas Artists Association to promote

Ch'en T'ing-shih (Chen Tingshi), w h o first exhibited with the Fifth M o o n painters in 1965, was born in 1 9 1 5 into a scholarly family in Fuzhou, became stone deaf as a result of a childhood accident, and learned traditional

A R T

IN

T A I W A N

1 8 3

painting from his father. 1 1 He spent the war years making propaganda paintings and woodcuts, then came to Taiwan in 1949 to take a j o b as a library assistant. Once there he was finally free to discover his own medium: he made impressions from irregular cutout pieces of building board made from compressed sugarcane and printed them on paper to create compositions, sometimes in color, more often in monochrome, as large as five feet by seven feet (plate 39). T h e effect is bold and m o n u mental, if not obviously Chinese. But Ch'en T'ing-shih's abstract compositions draw not only on Western abstraction but also on the Chinese tradition of rubbings from carved stelae and stone reliefs. In the eyes of the Taipei establishment, the Fifth M o o n Group was not only an outrageous assault on traditional Chinese art but actually subversive. Because Picasso was an abstract painter, and Picasso was a Communist, these Chinese abstractionists must be Communists too. T h e group was attacked in the press; Liu Kuo-sung was threatened with arrest when in i960 he tried to found a m o d ern art center; it was impossible for any of these artists to find posts as art teachers. What saved and sustained them until authority gave them grudging recognition was the support of foreign residents in Taipei and the attention their exhibitions attracted abroad. 18.7 Zhuang Zhe, Hiding Buddha

Liu Kuo-sung and his friends were not the only (1967).

Taipei rebels at the time. Also in 1956 another group of

18.8

modernists came together, calling themselves Ton Fan,

Qin Song, Yuan zhi (1967). Gouache.

or Dongfang Huazhan (Eastern painting exhibition). 1 2 Forbidden by the police to f o r m a society, they could exist only as an organization for holding exhibitions. They too were almost all mainlanders, including Li Yuanjia, X i a o Qin, Wu Hao, Ouyang Wenyuan, X i a Yang, and H u o Gang (Ho Kang). They were later joined by many more, also chiefly from Nanjing, including Z h u Weibai, Li Wenhan, w h o had been a pupil of Liu Haisu, and Qin Song, w h o exhibited conventional guohua landscapes in the first Free China Artists Exhibition in 1 9 5 2 but by the end of the decade had become an abstract painter, influenced by Klee but incorporating, as did so many others, formalized ideographs in his powerful compositions (fig. 18.8). From the start the Ton Fan group was international, holding its first exhibitions simultaneously in Taipei and Barcelona and showing in company with Spanish and West German painters. Later they exhibited often in West Germany, Spain, the United States, and Italy. Few of the Ton Fan artists claimed to be searching for the roots of a new Chinese painting; on the contrary, their aim was to be part of the world movement of modern art. In 1 9 6 1 Li Yuanjia and X i a o Qin, the latter by this time living in Spain (he later became an Italian citizen), broke away to found the " P u n t o " movement, in which the

1 8 4

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

sitions that their Chinese origin is not always apparent (plate 40). Although Liao settled permanently in the U n i t e d States in 1 9 7 0 , he has continued to stimulate printmakers in Taiwan through his visits to teach and e x hibit there. H e is also a sensitive and accomplished watercolorist.

THE MODERN

MOVEMENT

O n c e m o d e r n i s m was established in Taipei, the range o f movements and styles expanded rapidly through the 1970s. T h e r e were surrealists ( C h e n Jingrong), p h o t o realists ( X i e X i a o d e ) , and minimalists (Lai C h u n c h u n ) , while some artists, following the Native Soil Literature and A r t M o v e m e n t (Xiangtu w e n y i yundong), looked closer to h o m e for inspiration. Z h u a n g Z h e , for e x a m ple, fired by the antitraditional ideas of p o p art, f o r a time chose his subjects f r o m the popular arts o f the temples, domestic shrines, and street stalls. In this heavily censored culture, in w h i c h any criticism of the government was forbidden, p o p art became for a time a f o r m o f

1 8 . 9

Swallow Lin, Sister 0969).

Woodcut.

protest against the establishment and its values. Others f o u n d a n e w source o f subject matter a m o n g the m i nority tribes in the mountains. T h e second exhibition o f the Chinese Ink Painting

Chinese connections were even more tenuous. W h i l e

Association ( Z h o n g g u o shuimo huashui hui), held in

the Ton Fan group played an important role in bringing

1 9 7 0 , showed works still very m u c h in the spirit o f the

Taiwan onto the international scene, its roots in Chinese

Fifth M o o n Group, some o f w h o m were members.

art were not deep enough to sustain it in the complex

Eleven years later, the first exhibition of the Taipei A r t

swings o f fashion that beset Western modernism, and

C l u b (Taibei yishu lianyi hui) demonstrated that far

its influence was far less than that of the Fifth M o o n

more choices were n o w open to artists, ranging from L u o

Group.

Fang's o r t h o d o x guohua through Li Shiqiao's post-

A m o n g the pioneer modernists of the 1950s and 1960s

impressionism to the abstract expressionism o f C h e n

were several printmakers, members o f the Ton Fan

Z h e n g x i o n g . Sun M i d e ' s w o r k shows the influence o f

group, w h o quickly established an international reputa-

A n d r e w Wyeth, w h i l e Li Q i m a o , more surprisingly,

tion. Q i n S o n g w o n a prize at the 1 9 5 9 S a o Paulo B i -

seems to have studied the pretty herd-girls o f C h e n g

ennial with a powerful abstract print. 1 3 S w a l l o w Lin (Lin

S h i f a — o n e o f many signs that Taiwan artists were no

Yan), born in Z h e j i a n g in 1 9 4 6 , was already exhibiting

longer shielded f r o m any k n o w l e d g e o f what was hap-

her w o r k in Taipei at the age of twenty, and by 1 9 7 0 she

pening on the mainland.

was producing prints o f great charm, strength, and o r i g -

O n c e abstract expressionism was no longer the mark

inality, inspired partly by old w o o d b l o c k illustration and

o f the modernist, artists were free to express themselves

partly by Taiwanese aboriginal carvings (fig. 18.9). S h i o u - p i n g Liao (Liao X i u p i n g ) , b o r n in Taiwan in

as they chose. L u o Q i n g (Lo C h ' i n g , or L o C h ' i n g - c h e ) is typical o f the n e w spirit. 1 3 H e was b o r n in Q i n g d a o

1 9 3 6 , was almost the only maj or artist o f his generation

o f a Hunanese family in 1 9 4 8 , but they soon left f o r

w h o had not c o m e over f r o m the mainland as a child.

Taipei. B y the time he received his M . A . f r o m the U n i -

H e studied f o r three years in T o k y o and three in Paris

versity o f Washington in 1 9 7 4 , he had already made his

under S. W. Hayter in Atelier 1 7 before returning to Tai-

mark w i t h his volumes o f poetry, notably Chi xigua de

wan, w h e r e in 1 9 7 4 he published an encyclopedic m a n -

fangfa (Ways o f eating watermelon) and Zhuozeji

ual on the art of printmaking. 1 4 His technically brilliant

(How

to catch a thief), f o r w h i c h he w o n Taiwan's First

prints draw upon a vast range o f sources, o f w h i c h the

C r o w n for M o d e r n Poetry in 1 9 7 4 . As a painter of night

Chinese elements—yin-yang symbolism, ancient mirror

scenes, luxurious plants (especially palm trees, as in fig.

and coin designs, archaic characters, and so o n — a r e so

1 8 . 1 0 ) , and w i n d i n g roads seen f r o m above, his images

perfectly integrated with other elements in his c o m p o -

are w a r m in color, clear and strong, lively and playful,

ART

IN

TAIWAN

1 8 5

with a little of the flavor of the M i n g painter Shen Z h o u . At peace with himself, not troubled by the need to take up abstraction, he is very much at the center of intellectual life in Taipei. A companion spirit is Yuan D e xing, best known by his pen name, C h u Ge (or C h ' u Ko). A poet-painter on the staff of the National Palace Museum, his images are even bolder than Luo Qing's, his imagination more wide ranging, while in his "character painting" he reaches deep into the origins of writing. His Offering (plate 4 1 ) incorporates the graph for a bronze tripod (ding, in the lower left) with others suggesting sacrifice. Like Luo Qing, he is one of the Taiwanese artists w h o have given new meaning to the term wenrenhua and set a challenge to their less well-educated brethren on the mainland. T h e confidence with which artists developed new styles and techniques gave a wonderful freshness to the Taipei art scene in the 1980s. Typical is Yu Peng (plate 42), w h o brings together animals, birds, rocks, people, and pieces of furniture in a playful free association, held together by the viewer's eye as it darts from object to object. An artist whose creative energy and inventiveness often run ahead of his technical skill (or does he cunningly conceal it?), Yu Peng is equally happy carving in stone or making crude figures in glazed earthenware. 1 6

18.10 Luo Qing, The Fifth Gentleman

(1980s). Ink and color on paper.

B y contrast, anything but playful is the work of the young painters w h o have dared to introduce a new, dis-

18.11

Qiu Yacai, Number

12 (1980s). Oils.

turbing element into Taiwanese painting. T h e innocent men and w o m e n of Qiu Yacai (Ch'iu Ya-tsai), w h o has moved from a Modiglianesque elegance to a more expressionistic manner, have an air of loneliness and helplessness (fig. 1 8 . n ) , while Z h e n g Z a i d o n g ( C h e n g T s a i tung), and C h e n Laixing (Ch'en Lai-hsing; plate 43) create strained images of human suffering that recall E d vard M u n c h and Georg Grosz, expressing the pain, sadness, and alienation of artists living in an ever more prosperous and materialistic society. 17 N o t all Taiwanese artists are haunted by doubts about the human condition, however. Although C h e n Qikuan (Ch'en Ch'i-k'uan) has lived and worked in Taiwan for thirty years, his art is by no means a product of the Taipei avant-garde. H e was born in Beijing in 1 9 2 1 and began to study architecture in Chongqing during the war, completing his degree at the University of Illinois. H e worked under Walter Gropius at Harvard, taught briefly at M.I.T., and in 1954 began his association with I. M . Pei, which led to their collaboration on the design of Donghai University in Taichung, where he became dean of the department of architecture. Later he moved his practice to Taipei. 1 8 While still in Boston C h e n Qikuan was already developing his themes and styles as a painter, making free

1 8 6

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

ink sketches of his mischievous monkeys and painting

up painting. O n his visits to the Palace Museum his in-

tall, narrow landscapes in which he records, with the pre-

nocent eye found flaws even in the masterpieces of Fan

cision of an architect and the eye of an artist, the city

Kuan and Wang Yuanqi, whose mountains, he con-

steps, streets, canals, and bridges he remembered from

cluded, bore no resemblance to those he had seen and

his youth in Beijing and Chongqing. He was always ex-

loved on his travels all over China. He began by making

perimenting; one of his most famous and original paint-

tiny sketches of mountain outlines. He had no training,

ings is his Football of 1 9 5 3 , a scroll in which the move-

and did not even own a copy of The Mustard-Seed

ment of the ball down the field, as the invisible players

den. Practicing several hours a day, he gradually enlarged

dart about, dodge, and tackle, is expressed with two or

his pictures until he was completing large compositions,

three uninterrupted brushstrokes, reminiscent of the

his most ambitious being the long scroll Ten Thousand

" w i l d cursive script" that he admires but says he is un-

Miles of the Yangzi, completed in 1 9 7 3 .

Gar-

able to practice. Here he achieves a synthesis of move-

His method of painting is peculiar, for he uses a dense

ment, space, and time, developed with greater subtlety

network of short strokes having no calligraphic charac-

in some of his landscapes, notably in those panoramas

ter of their own to build up his rocks and mountains into

in which the mountains at top and bottom of a vertical

masses of great solidity that heave and thrust against each

scroll tilt up to the horizon (plate 44)—a vision that came

other, piling up into compositions of monumental power

to him when, flying with the United States Air Force as

(plate 46). I quote from an exhibition catalogue of 1987:

an interpreter, his pilot swung the plane through the mountains of the Burmese border with such abandon that at moments the world seemed to be upside down. C h e n Qikuan's paintings are miracles of exact observation, of which I wrote in 1 9 7 7 : "What does he see, from his nest high in the treetops? Birds, animals, insects, going about their business with no thought to man; eating, playing, huddling, protecting, scratching themselves

Inevitably there are a w k w a r d passages, even what an o r t h o d o x C h i n e s e landscape painter w o u l d consider elementary mistakes in technique or composition, and areas w h e r e w e are not sure just w h a t Yu's close-knit textures are meant to represent: are they rock surfaces, or trees, or grasses? B u t these ambiguities are unimportant compared with what he has accomplished. For as our eye moves over the surface o f his paintings, w e

and each other. H e really loves them. Every now and

are continually astonished and fascinated by the

then he leaves his nest and like a hawk soars up to wheel

richness and variety o f texture, the dramatic

though the sky, until the mountains tilt over his head and the rivers seem to flow upwards. Drifting in the upper air, he peers down, his hawk's sharp eye picking out villages, rooftops, boats, and if we look close enough, p e o -

chiaroscuro, the sheer strength of his compositions w h i c h are b o u n d together by a passion for pure f o r m that seems to be untutored, and quite instinctive. . . . Yu C h e n g y a o ' s sense o f colour is also his o w n . Sometimes he leaves his landscapes in

ple, creeping like parasites among the houses and rice

m o n o c h r o m e , sometimes he colours them,

fields. Ch'i-k'uan clearly prefers the monkeys." 1 9 His

sometimes he waits for months or years before

paintings are so clear and exact an expression of his vi-

overlaying them with transparent washes o f poster-

sion that they need no commentary. Seldom does he provide more than a signature, and perhaps a whimsical

colours rubbed so thoroughly into the surface that colour and ink take character f r o m each other. . . . H e uses colour like the Impressionists, to give his

title. His Peaceful Coexistence (plate 45), a landscape of rich,

landscapes a Spring-like effect o f g l o w i n g w a r m t h

unaffected serenity, is perhaps a little unusual in con-

and sunlight that is surprising, often beautiful, and

taining none of the mischievous visual tricks that so of-

quite without precedent in C h i n e s e painting. 2 1

ten entertain the viewer. In the mid-1960s, rumors were heard in Taipei of a

For years Yu Chengyao's talent remained hidden, and

retired general w h o on his own was developing a highly

when it emerged orthodox painters were quick to spot

original style of landscape painting. This was

Yu

his faults of brushwork and composition. But soon even

Chengyao, born in 1898 in the Yongchun district of

they came to see in him a Northern Song classical mas-

south-central Fujian. 20 He studied economics in Japan,

ter reborn. He is a far more original and powerful painter

where he joined the Cadet Academy, and by 1925 he

than many trained artists, and eventually he was accepted

was in Canton as instructor in tactics in the Whampoa

for the sheer force of his artistic personality.

Military Academy. After a long career as a fighting sol-

T h e acceptance of Yu Chengyao was a sign that lo-

dier with the Nationalist army, he retired in 1946 with

cal critical opinion was growing up and freeing itself of

the rank of major-general, engaged briefly in business,

old prejudices, as well as a mark of the new self-confi-

which he disliked, then settled in obscurity in Taipei to

dence that came with Taiwan's economic prosperity in

cultivate his passion for calligraphy and Nanguan music.

the 1980s. Another sign of the new maturity was the

In 1 9 5 4 , Yu Chengyao decided he would like to take

interest that critics and historians began to show in the

A R T

IN

T A I W A N

1 8 7

artists from the period of the Japanese occupation, w h o

Xiayu, born in 1 9 1 7 , w h o in 1 9 3 3 went to Tokyo and

had for decades been stigmatized as collaborators. N o w

studied and exhibited until returning to Taipei in 1942.

at last their works were studied without prejudice, pub-

After some hard years, he became well established as a

lished, and accepted as one of the sources of contem-

successful sculptor of portrait and salon-style figures. In i960, Yuyu Yang (Yang Yingfeng) was a conventional

porary Taiwanese art. Yet by the late 1980s, the art world of Taipei was not

sculptor as well, though he has since acquired a high pro-

altogether in a healthy state. In this intensely materialis-

file in Taiwan as a town planner and environmental de-

tic society, works of art were seen by the new class of

signer. 24 T h o u g h born in Taiwan he grew up in Beijing,

entrepreneurs as marks of status, commodities, safe in-

where he received art lessons in middle school from Japa-

vestments. These people, emulating the rich Japanese in-

nese teachers, and during the war he studied architec-

dustrialists, were prepared to pay ridiculously high prices

ture and sculpture in Japan. Back in Taiwan he took a

for indifferent works, sold at so much per hao (an area

j o b as art editor of a magazine, supplementing his in-

about the size of a postcard). Oil painters such as Li

come with teaching and lecturing, and soon he was ex-

Shiqiao and Liu Qixiang w h o had once been poverty

hibiting his sculpture not only in Taiwan but in Tokyo,

stricken suddenly found themselves millionaires, while

Seoul, Manila, and Chicago. H e spent the years 1961—64

galleries dealing in their works multiplied and compliers of guides to art investment prospered.

22

As for the

on an art scholarship in R o m e , returning to be appointed a research scholar in the Chinese Academy.

artists themselves, with few exceptions the search for a

Y u y u Yang's first major work was the striking iron

national identity through art seems to have been forgotten

Phoenix that stood before the Taiwan pavilion designed

in the crude scramble for wealth and fame. In no other

by I. M . Pei for Osaka E x p o 1 9 7 0 (fig. 1 8 . 1 2 ) . T h e va-

society in East Asia was art so debased.

riety of his projects is reminiscent of the wide-ranging

Meantime, as the old generation of Guomindang

oeuvre of Isamu Noguchi: the Chinese gate of the In-

officials died or were pensioned off, proud, confident,

ternational Park in Beirut (1972), Marble City for the

and independent young Taiwanese began to see Taiwan

Taroko Gorge and Dalian Airport on Taiwan, the Q. E.

as the progressive part of China and—insofar as they

II Gate in polished steel on a pavement in downtown

thought about the mainland at all—as a model for the

N e w York for the shipping magnate H. Y. Tung, the

People's Republic. X i a o Qin, a member of the Ton Fan

Phoenix Screen for the 1 9 7 4 Spokane Expo, a major en-

group living in Italy, visited Beijing in 1 9 8 1 to see his

vironmental project for Saudi Arabia (1976), and many

relative X i a o Shufang, the wife of Wu Zuoren; he noted

more. During these years he had moved away from rep-

how important it was that Taiwan artists should give a

resentation into pure formal abstraction, although his Lit-

lead to those on the mainland. 23 Partly as a result of his

tle Flying Phoenix of 1986 in the Taipei Fine Arts M u -

visit, no doubt, between March 1 9 8 1 and July 1 9 8 2

seum (fig. 1 8 . 1 3 ) still suggests the soaring movement of

Meishu featured the work of a number of overseas C h i -

the mythical bird.

nese artists, including Liu Kuo-sung, Li Shiqiao, Z a o

In 1 9 7 7 , Yuyu Yang encountered laser art in Kyoto

Wou-ki, Qin Song, and C h u Teh-chun. In August 1980,

for the first time. H e was, as he remembered, "transfixed"

the Taiwan art journal Hsiung-shih had already run a fea-

by the intensity and purity of its color. " I find in it," he

ture article on mainland art, in which the works of Li

wrote, "a noble quality which is elevating for modern

Keran, Huang Yongyu, Huang Z h o u , and others are dis-

life. It is rich in rhythm, inspiring in the viewer a sense

cussed with reasonable objectivity, though the writer

of the pulse of the cosmos. . . . Laser art is essentially ab-

gives many well-known instances of Communist Party

stract. This quality brings to mind the aesthetics of Z e n

tyranny and intolerance towards artists. At least it could

art. . . ." 2 5 In 1980, Yuyu Yang founded his Chinese

be said that Taiwan and the People's Republic were no

Laser Institute of Science and Arts. For several years the

longer ignoring each other's art, as they had for thirty

experiments and demonstrations carried out by his team

years. B y the early 1990s, the barriers had almost disap-

attracted a good deal of attention, but he continued to

peared, and traffic was flowing freely in both directions,

work in more orthodox materials, and some of his finest

with frequent exhibitions of Taiwanese artists in the

abstract sculptures are of highly polished stainless steel,

P . R . C . and exhibitions (less frequent, but still permit-

a material with which he has a special affinity.

ted) of the work of mainland artists in Taiwan.

J u Ming (Zhu Ming), born of a peasant family in 19 3 8, was apprenticed as a youth to Li Jinchuan, a famous

THE NEW

SCULPTURE

wood-carver in the local Taiwanese folk art tradition; J u carved folk heroes, flowers, and animals for him, devel-

Sculptors of any distinction were not to be found in Tai-

oping a deep feeling for the medium. 2 6 In 1968 he joined

wan before the 1970s. Typical of the earlier era is C h e n

the studio of Y u y u Yang, w h o taught him mastery of a

1 8 8

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

or torn out with his bare hands, and then often, but not always, cast in bronze, they are tense with life, the movement dramatically arrested; they seem rooted in Chinese culture yet utterly spontaneous. In these striking figures J u M i n g brings modern Chinese sculpture to life, much as the Fifth M o o n Group, at about the same time, were revitalizing Chinese painting. He continued to create this powerful series through the 1980s (plate 47). While the taiji series was attracting widespread admiration, J u M i n g was already exploring in new directions. As he said to an interviewer, " M y friends often . . . say I am unpredictable. T h e y come and see my new work and before any conclusion is reached I have gone on to something else. . . . I believe change comes naturally." 27 Perhaps the key to his art is the word "naturally." " I try to live naturally," he said. " Y o u must pay attention to the order of things. Treat life with an open heart. . . . W h e n the heart is pure, the mind becomes clear and you begin to see your o w n nature"—a surprisingly profound observation for so apparently restless and impatient an artist. Less heroic, more human and vulnerable, are the small wooden figures of his first Living World series, begun 18.12

about 1980. These men and women of city or beach are

Yuyu Yang, Phoenix (1970). Steel. C r e a t e d f o r t h e Taiwan pavilion o f Osaka

hacked out of the w o o d and colored so crudely that it

Expo.

seems J u Ming's hand could scarcely keep pace with his

18.13

some vulgar, herded together like crowds on C o n e y Is-

creative energy. Some of them are sad, some alienated, Y u y u Yang, Little Flying Phoenix ( 1 9 8 6 ) . Steel.

land or in a bus queue—these are J u Ming's response to his sojourn in N e w York in 1 9 8 0 - 8 1 . Just as full of life are his colored ceramic figures and fishes, in which the vital spirit (qt) flows, without the agency of any tool, direct from his fingertips into the clay to bring it to life (plate 48). Perhaps J u Ming's most outrageous defiance of technical orthodoxy appears in his second Living World series, in the mid-1980s (fig. 18.14). These figures are fashioned swiftly in styrofoam, folded and bound with thongs, then cast in bronze, and they simply burst with qi. B y the end of the decade they were no longer earthbound, for like a circus master he was making them do somersaults, ride bicycles, pole-vault, or descend to earth by gaily colored parachute. For all his inner seriousness, there is something in J u M i n g of the inventive wit of Picasso, of w h o m Gertrude Stein once said that he had constantly to empty himself of his overflowing creative energy. Many younger sculptors are less independent of cur-

wider range of materials and urged him, because of his

rent Western trends than is J u Ming. They explore with

frail physique, to take up taiji (t'ai chi, or "shadow b o x -

enthusiasm the space inhabited by the forms that define

ing"). W h e n in 1976 he held his first one-man show at

that space and invite us to move within it, creating con-

the National Historical Museum, his taiji figures created

structions in angle steel. At the 1985 Contemporary

a sensation. Hacked out of the wood with axe or chisel

Sculpture Exhibition in the Taipei Fine Arts Museum,

A R T

IN

T A I W A N

1 8 9

18.14 Ju Ming, styrofoam/bronze figures (1986).

the influence of David Smith was obvious in the large painted steel Steps of Wang Yuren, in Lai Jun's Happiness in cement and steel (fig. 1 8 . 1 5 ) , i n The Love of End in painted wood by Paul M e n (Chen Xianhui), in the striking geometric steel forms of Richard Lin (Lin Shouyu). 2 8 In creating a new kind of beauty, these sculptors inevitably sacrifice the sensuous appeal of the carved or cast single form enjoyed for its mass and the subtlety of its contours. Such qualities are present in the marble sculptures of Lai Chi-man (Li Zhiwen) and Liu Tsunghui (Liu Conghui), the w o o d constructions of Huang Huei-shyong (Huang Huixiong), and the bronze forms of D a w n Chen-ping (Dong Zhenping) and Tsay Shoei-

18.15

lin (Cai Shuilin). C h e n Fangming's stretching figure in

Lai ¡Jun, Happiness (c. 1985). 5teei and cement.

the 1985 exhibition, part muscle and part skeleton, is a bravura technical piece of a high order, while Terms of Endearment by Onion Shyu (Xu Yangcong)—two black chairs embedded in a table—is ambiguous, leaving the viewer wondering whether the message is of c o m m u nication or its opposite (fig. 1 8 . 1 6 ) . Little of this new sculpture is obviously Chinese in form. Only when w e read what these young sculptors say about their own work do we find that they are often seeking to invest a foreign style or f o r m with Chinese meaning.

18.16 Xu Yangcong (Onion Shyu). Terms of Endearment

1 9 0

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

ic. 1985). Painted wood.

(9 ART A N D

HONG

KONG: EARLY

IN

H O N G

S O U T H E A S T

K O N G A S I A

TRENDS

Before World War II, H o n g K o n g was an artistic back-

the H o n g K o n g Working Artists Guild in the Glouces-

water into which random, shallow eddies drifted from

ter Building, the Hotel Cecil on Icehouse Street, the

Europe and Canton. In 1 9 2 4 Wong Po Yeh (Huang

China Building, and the K o w l o o n Y W C A . But by 193 7

Bore) moved to H o n g K o n g and established a branch of

there were at least eight other art organizations in H o n g

the Guangdong Association for the Study of Chinese

Kong, including the Chinese Art Promotion Society, the

Painting (Guangdong hua yanjiuhui), which became a

K o w l o o n School of Fine Arts, and the Lai Ching Insti-

bridgehead for the spread of Lingnan School painting

tute, founded by Tokyo-trained Pau Shiu-yau

in the Colony. Wong settled down as an art teacher in

Shaoyou) in 1928. At the National Art Exhibition held

a middle school and became an influential figure through

in Nanjing, Shanghai, and Canton in 1 9 3 7 (see chapter

(Bao

his travels in China and his friendship with Z h a n g

6), nearly all the works sent from H o n g K o n g were

Daqian and Huang Binhong, which for the first time put

painted by Pau and his students.

H o n g K o n g artists in direct contact with the mainstream of Chinese painting. 1

Apart from the strongly Cantonese flavor of most of the traditional painting before World War II, Hong Kong

B y the 1930s, artistic activity in H o n g K o n g was be-

art had no real local character, for the people of the

ginning to heat up. 2 There had always been a handful of

C o l o n y had no sense of cultural identity. T h e arrival in

amateur artists among the cultivated Chinese and the

1 9 3 7 and 1938 of a number of refugee artists from cities

British residents. In 1 9 3 6 , no less than twelve exhibitions

occupied by the Japanese (described in chapter 9) briefly

were reported: six of Western-style painting, three of

brought new talent to H o n g Kong, but their thoughts

guohua, two mixed, and one devoted to Japanese paint-

and energies were directed towards the propaganda war

ing. T h e most important were those of the Canton C h i -

against Japan, and in any case they were all gone by Feb-

nese Fine Arts Club, composed of six students of Gao

ruary 1 9 4 2 . For over three and a half years, artistic life

Jianfu, and the H o n g K o n g Art Club, founded in 1 9 2 5 ,

in H o n g K o n g was at a standstill.

of which the most active members were now Mrs.

W h e n peace came in August 1 9 4 5 , the awakening at

MacFadyen, a painter of portraits in oils, and Luis Chan

first was slow. As the trickle of refugees from the Civil

(Chen Fushan), w h o had joined the club in 1 9 3 4 . Luis

War became a flood, however, Hong Kong art flourished.

Chan, born in Panama in 1905, was at this time a real-

O f the traditional artists active there in the first decade

ist watercolor painter and an admirer of the work of

after 1 9 4 5 , nearly all were Cantonese. Z h a o Shao'ang,

William Russell Flint. H e was later to change his style

well known for his brilliant technique and his long ca-

completely and become a central figure in the artistic

reer as a teacher, simply continued to develop the style

life of the Colony.

he had inherited from his master, Gao Jianfu, becom-

There were then no art galleries in H o n g Kong. Art

ing ever more skillful in his handling of ink and color.

shows were put up, under far from ideal conditions, in

Flowers, insects, and bamboo were his subjects. H e was

1 9 1

no landscape painter, and nowhere in his work do we find him responding to the remarkable environment in which he worked. Yang Shanshen, who had studied in Tokyo and in 1940 had painted with X u Beihong in Singapore, is a rather similar artist, though with a wider range of subjects that do not exclude nudes and erotic subject matter. He settled in Vancouver in 1988.

19.1 W o n g Po Yeh, Village by the Sea (1966-67). Ink and color on paper. 19.2 Jao Tsung-i, Pagoda among the Trees (1980s). Ink and color on paper.

Wong Po Yeh, although he came from the same background, developed very differently after returning to Hong Kong in 1948. By the mid-1950s he was already painting the mountains, islands, harbors, and fishing-boats that make Hong Kong so fascinating. Through the 1960s his style matured, full of easy spontaneity and a masterly handling of wet ink that reveals the depth of his training and is totally free from the stylistic and technical mannerisms of the Lingnan School. Nor was he ever diverted by the fashionable seductions of abstract expressionism. He died in 1968, when the balance of freshness and maturity in his painting was at its height (fig. 19.1). Other traditionalists working in Hong Kong whose painting goes beyond the bounds of the Lingnan School include Pang Si-ming (PengXiming), Koo Tsin-yau (Gu Qingyao), Zhang Bihan, and Jao Tsung-i (Rao Zongyi), a distinguished scholar and student of Chinese culture whose painting ranges from figures inspired by his study of the Dunhuang frescoes to free, playful, and spontaneous landscapes evocative of Shitao and Zhu Da (fig. 19.2). When Ding Yanyong setded in Hong Kong in 1949 he had a long career behind him as a modernist trained in Japan who had fallen in love with Matisse.3 After an initial period of retirement, he became an active teacher of traditional painting in N e w Asia College. His work shows an exhilarating interplay of East and West, the color and line of Matisse happily fusing with the vital brushwork of a Chinese individualist who, for a few years, was so under the spell of Zhu Da that he found it hard to break free. Although the critic Huang Mengtian rightly said of him that he was a dangerous example to follow (see chapter 7), he was a liberating influence on many young Hong Kong artists.

THE MODERN MOVEMENT Neither Lingnan School painting nor socialist realism could provide the stimulus that artists needed, so their eyes turned westwards. The K o rean War, as later the war with Vietnam, greatly increased the American presence in the city. The influence of abstract expressionism, born in N e w York in the 1950s, began to be felt in Hong Kong before the end of the 1960s. Far from cutting the artists' ties with the Chinese tradition, this import actually strengthened them, be-

1 9 2

OTHER

C U R R E N T S

cause it brought about both a complete break with the art of the recent past and a search into the calligraphic roots of Chinese pictorial art. Abstract expressionism also stimulated artists to experiment with the very language of Chinese painting itself, while at the same time it made them feel that they were becoming part of a worldwide movement in contemporary art. This awareness of possibilities opening up, combined with a new dynamism in the economic life of the Colony, brought about a remarkable flowering of H o n g K o n g art. B y the 1950s, new art schools and programs were coming into being—the art department of N e w Asia C o l lege (now part of the Chinese University), the arts and crafts section of the Colony's Education Department, and a special art course in Grantham Teachers' Training C o l lege, to name a few. Art students were becoming well aware of contemporary movements in the West. T h e first clear signs of a H o n g K o n g art movement appeared in the first exhibition of the Society of H o n g K o n g Artists in 1 9 5 7 , in which Chinese, British, and American artists exhibited together. T h e 1960s, which Wucius Wong has described as "a heroic period in H o n g K o n g art," 4 were ushered in by the Sixth H o n g Kong Arts Festival Exhibition and the first exhibition of the H o n g Kong International Salon of Paintings. T h e international element in these exhibitions was provided by C h e n T'ing-shih, Fong C h u n g ray, and Liu Kuo-sung from Taipei, C h e o n g Soo Pieng (Zhong Sibin) from Singapore, and paintings by Z a o

19.3 King Chia-lun, Mountain

Dwelling

( 1 9 8 6 ) . Ink and color on paper.

Wou-ki (by now settled in Paris) and Xavier Longobardi in H o n g K o n g private collections. The emphasis, in the

Kong mode of expression; but it did bear witness to H o n g

works of Pansy N g (Wu Puhui) and Lui Show K w a n

Kong's contribution to international modernism, and

(Lii Shoukun), for example, was abstract expressionist,

with the opening of the museum and art gallery in the

showing the strong influence of Pollock, Kline, the

city hall in 1962 it did much to educate the new gallery-

Tachistes, and Z a o Wou-ki, w h o had spent six months

going public in the mysteries of modern art. 5

in H o n g Kong in 19 5 8. A m o n g the British residents w h o made a significant contribution at this time to the growth of the modern art movement in Hong Kong were Douglas Bland ( 1 9 2 3 - 7 5 ) and Dorothy Kirkbride (b. 1924).

It was in the late 1960s that Lui Show K w a n began to take a leading place in the art world of H o n g Kong. 6 B o r n in Canton in 1 9 1 9 , a graduate in economics from Canton University in 1 9 4 3 , by 1948 he had settled in the Colony, where he worked for several years as inspector

T h e Modern Literature and Art Association, founded

for the Yaumati Ferry Company. In the meantime he

in 1958, staged a number of shows, exhibiting, among

was studying the history of Chinese painting, acquiring

others, Pansy N g , R a y m o n d K o n g (Jiang Congxin),

a repertory of styles and techniques, and contributing

King Chia-lun (Jin Jialun; see fig. 19.3), Lui Show Kwan,

articles and reviews to local newspapers. H e also stud-

and the sculptors Cheung Yee (Zhang Y i ) and Van Lau

ied Western art, imitating Turner, John Piper, and Gra-

(Wen Lou). Feeling the need for a body more sharply

ham Sutherland. In 1954 h e j o i n e d the H o n g K o n g Art

focussed on contemporary art, these artists and some of

Club, and soon he showed his power to organize and at-

their friends founded the Circle Group in 1964. For sev-

tract other artists by establishing the Chinese Art Club

eral years this group included most of the progressive

(with Li Yanshan and Z h a o Shao'ang) and then the Seven

painters and sculptors in Hong Kong. T h e range of forms

Artists Club, with Ding Yanyong, Li Xipeng, Li Yanshan,

and styles they displayed was almost as wide as that of

Wong Po Yeh, Yang Shanshen, and Z h a o Shao'ang —

contemporary Western art, so the Circle Group can

all guohua painters. In later years his devoted students

hardly be said to have helped to create a uniquely H o n g

formed various art societies under Lui's inspiration. In

H O N G

K O N G

A N D

S O U T H E A S T

A S I A

1 9

3

19.4 Lui Show Kwan, Hong Kong (1961). Ink on paper. 19.5 Lui Show Kwan, Semiabstract Landscape (1960s).

nical repertory. In the second—roughly through the 1960s—he painted the landscape of H o n g Kong in a style that became ever freer and more experimental (fig. 19.4). Finally, in the third, he made experiments with the calligraphic gesture, inspired both by the Chan ideal of the expression of sudden enlightenment and by the influence of Franz Kline. Unlike Kline's, Lui S h o w Kwan's works are seldom entirely divorced from nature, while his Chinese ink is always more transparent and luminous than Kline's solid opacity (fig. 19.5). Sometimes his touch was a little crude and harsh, and he could be careless, but he had an exhilarating and liberating effect on his many students and left a permanent mark on H o n g K o n g art. H e was also the first modern H o n g K o n g painter to attract notice abroad, holding a one-man show in the Atherton Gallery in M e n l o Park, California, as early as 1959. Luis Chan, by contrast, was far too original a character and painter ever to be an effective teacher. B y the 1960s, he had freed himself from orthodoxy and was creating his own surrealist world of dreamlike landscapes, strange open-mouthed men and women, fishes that fly. Echoes of Chagall, the Ukiyo-e, Brueghel, and Hieronymous Bosch seem almost accidental. 7 What makes his paintings remarkable is not just their content, or even their composition, but Luis Chan's extraordinary gift for color, which makes even the weirdest of his later paintings a j o y to the eye (fig. 19.6). H e is indeed one of a kind.

1966, already a successful painter and art teacher, Lui gave

Through the 1970s and 1980s the modern movements

up his j o b with the ferry company, and he devoted him-

flourished

self to art until his early death in 1 9 7 5 . In 1968 his de-

the conservative establishment that Taiwanese artists had

in H o n g Kong, unchecked by anything like

voted students in the extramural department of the C h i -

to contend with. Indeed, every f o r m of modernism was

nese University formed the In Tao (Yuan Dao) Art

supported, while some artists moved back and forth be-

Association; two years later another group of his students

tween East and West. Jackson Yu (You Shaozeng), for

organized the Painting in the Chinese Tradition exhibi-

example, once a traditional artist, became a powerful ab-

tion, and later the O n e Art Society ( Yihua hui)—all in-

stract expressionist, reverted to guohua, and later still fell

spired by his example. Lui's work divides into three periods. In the first he assiduously studied the old masters and built up his tech-

194

OTHER

CURRENTS

under the spell of the German expressionists Nolde, Beckmann, and Schmidt-Rotluff. 8 Such a wayward and impulsive artist defies classification.

19.6 Luis Chan, Butterfly and a Net (1977). Ink and color on paper.

19.7 Leung Kui-ting, Consolidation

(1980). Relief print.

T h e Hong Kong Arts Festival became an international

tional techniques, although King Chia-lun, w h o became

event. In 1976 the H o n g K o n g Arts Center was opened

a senior tutor there, remained deeply committed to the

and the city became host to the first Festival of Asian

development of a contemporary language of Chinese ink

Arts. Between 1 9 7 0 and 1979 the City Hall M u s e u m

painting.

and Art Gallery mounted five contemporary art bien-

In spite of Lui Shou K w a n , abstract expressionism was

nials, and H o n g Kong art was now seen in international

not the only path the young artists took. H o n C h i - f u n

exhibitions across the world. N e w groups appeared,

(Han Zhixun), briefly a pop artist, later became an ab-

among them the Visual Arts Society, founded by grad-

stract painter and printmaker. Leung Kui-ting (Liang J u -

uates in art and design from H o n g Kong University's ex-

ting) and K a n Tai-keung (Jin Daiqiang) played briefly

tramural studies department; they were more concerned

with minimalism before turning to a richer and more

with modernism than with coming to terms with tradi-

tonal and sophisticated f o r m of abstraction (fig. 19.7).

HONG

KONG

AND

S O U T H E A S T

ASIA

1 9 S

M o r e significantly, K w o n g Yeu-ting (Kuang Yaoding), Yeung Yick-chung (Yang Yichong), and N g Yiu-chung (Wu Yaozhong), discarding the traditional vocabulary of texture-strokes {am), built up their mountains with short, even, straight strokes, layer upon layer, as if they were bricks (plate 49). Their pictures lack calligraphic vitality, but they are solid and monumental. K w o n g Yeuting later moved on to create in oils powerful semiabstract landscapes based on elements in Chinese garden design'that he had studied during his years (1947—59) in the United States. As a printmaker, he has won many international awards. 9 At this time Tan Zhicheng (Lawrence C . S. Tam) was creating in ink wash somber landscapes of mountains, caves, and stalactites (fig. 19.8). H e was to play an important part in promoting modern art in H o n g Kong in his dual role as critic and curator in the City Hall M u seum and Art Gallery. Beatrice Ts'o (Zhang Jiahui) painted intricate tree-roots and plants which came to resemble human organs as well as the compositions of Pavel Tchelichew (fig. 19.9). For a while Irene C h o u (Zhou Liiyun) shared her predilection for writhing figures. B o r n in Shanghai in 1924, she was just embarking on a career as a journalist when she had to flee to Hong Kong. There she took up painting, studying for many years under Zhao Shaoang. In the late 1960s, partly under the influence of Lui Show Kwan, she broke free, drawing trees and tree-roots endlessly until, like Li Cheng, she had them in her heart. In the 1970s and 1980s she produced, in addition to finely crafted and infinitely complex studies of trees and roots, symbolic and even metaphysical c o m positions in which these or wavelike forms often provide the setting for spheres suggestive of astral bodies or atomic particles drifting in space (plate 50). To these haunting compositions she gives such titles as My Inner

19.10 Irene Chou, Infinity Landscape (1989). Hanart II.

World, The Story of Time and Space, Infinity Landscape (fig. 1 9 . 1 0 ) , and so on. N o t the least intriguing thing about Irene C h o u is the contrast between the profound, unearthly concepts of her paintings and the cheerful serenity of her comments on them, and on life in general. " L o o k i n g back over my past thirty years as a painter," she wrote, " I cannot help smiling. I want to thank G o d for making me a minor painter!" 1 0

T h e synthesis of East and West appears strongly in the work of Fang Chao-ling (Fang Zhaolin). B o r n in Wuxi in 1 9 1 4 , she studied in China and Britain and lived in the United States before settling in H o n g Kong, since w h e n she has travelled frequently in China and exhibited there with eclat. 11 As she has grown older the style of her painting and calligraphy has become ever more

Another H o n g Kong artist whose work shows a spir-

emphatic—sometimes excessively so. Her well-known

itual sensibility is K w o k H o n Sum (Guo Hanshen), a for-

paintings of the Vietnamese boat people are too cheer-

mer student of Liu Kuo-sung w h o has gone in a very

ful to suggest the tragedy of the theme. But in the best

different direction from his teacher. In some of his richly

of her landscapes, such as her Stonehenge series of 1 9 8 1

textured canvases K w o k H o n Sum calls up the iconol-

(fig. 1 9 . 1 1 ) — a subject well suited to her artistic tem-

ogy of Tibet, the "thousand Buddhas," the sacred texts

perament—she is a powerful and impressive painter.

of Buddhism and Daoism, to convey by symbolic sug-

Wucius Wong (Wang Wuxie) was born in Guang-

gestion metaphysical ideas that verge on the inexpress-

dong in 1 9 3 6 and came to H o n g K o n g as a boy of ten.

ible (plate 51). His finely crafted paintings are mandalas,

At fourteen he began to study classical painting with Lui

objects of contemplation.

S h o w Kwan. B y the time he was nineteen he was co-

HONG

KONG

AND

S O U T H E A S T

ASIA

1 9 7

19.11 Fang Chao-Iing, Stonehenge

No. 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) . Ink and color

on paper.

"ii,

¿TT

19.12 W u c i u s W o n g , Agitated

Waters

No. 7 ( 1 9 8 9 ) . Chinese

ink, gouache, and acrylic on paper. One of a series painted in response to the massacre in Beijing on June 4, 1989.

publisher of an avant-garde poetry magazine; by twenty-

Museum and Art Gallery, where he was in charge of

two he was one of the founders of the Modern Litera-

modern art and exhibitions until 1974. After teaching

ture and Art Association. In 1960, still only twenty-four,

for a while at the Polytechnic, he left permanently for

he was a chief organizer of the First H o n g Kong Inter-

the United States in 1984.

national Salon of Painters. He set off for America in that

As he developed as a painter, Wucius Wong had moved

year, returning in 1965 with bachelor's and master's de-

from Song-style landscapes to experiments in abstrac-

grees. O n his return to H o n g Kong he taught design,

tion. His encounter in the U.S. with the best modern

then joined Lawrence Tam on the staff of the City Hall

art greatly enlarged his vision and technical skill, while

1 9 8

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

h e b e c a m e an authority on design and design education. In H o n g K o n g he gradually f o u n d his w a y back to the C h i n e s e tradition, as L a w r e n c e T a m put it, as his w o r k b e c a m e closer to nature, his b r u s h w o r k (inspired by his study o f Fan K u a n and Juran) denser and m o r e closely w o r k e d , his ink tone and c o l o r richer and m o r e atmosp h e r i c . 1 2 His compositions b e c a m e e x t r e m e l y

subtle

and sophisticated as h e broke u p the s u r f a c e o f the p i c ture into flattened planes and facets, presenting a spatial a m b i g u i t y through a n e t w o r k o f lines originally inspired by the crackle o n C h i n e s e porcelain. (See fig 1 9 . 1 2 and plate 52.) " T h e s e landscapes," in the words o f o n e catalogue f o r e w o r d , " t r e a d the uncertain g r o u n d b e t w e e n the real and the unreal: seemingly natural; yet the eye is arrested b y the delicate trellis o f lines so d i s p o s e d — a n d here is the a r t — t h a t they do not violate nature, but seem

19

13

rather to cause the landscape to f o l d in o n itself, and so

Van Lau, Abstraction

to d r a w us after it, until w e are lost in its mysterious si-

album leaf.

(1971). Painted copperplate etching mounted on

l e n c e . " 1 3 Wucius W o n g is also a calligrapher and has c o l laborated w i t h Pat H u i S u e t - b i k ( X u X u e b i ) , p o e t and f o r m e r student o f philosophy, in creating elegant c o m positions in w h i c h the " t h r e e p e r f e c t i o n s " — p o e t r y , calligraphy, and p a i n t i n g — a r e brought subtly together.

SCULPTURE

E n l i g h t e n e d public patronage has b e e n

m o r e evident in sculpture than a n y w h e r e else in H o n g K o n g a r t . 1 3 T h e birth o f a strong m o v e m e n t is linked to

A t a c o n f e r e n c e on m o d e r n C h i n e s e art held in H o n g

the names o f t w o m e n , both trained in the fine arts d e -

K o n g in 1 9 8 4 , W u c i u s W o n g spoke o f the "hesitation,

partment o f T a i w a n N o r m a l University: C h e u n g Y e e

c o n f u s i o n , frustration and f a i l u r e " felt by H o n g K o n g

( Z h a n g Y i , b o r n in C a n t o n in 1 9 3 6 ) , w h o arrived in

artists, w h o " l a c k e d any sense o f national identity and

H o n g K o n g in 1 9 5 8 , and Van Lau ( W e n L o u , b o r n in

represented neither C h i n a n o r any aspect o f British a r t "

V i e t n a m in 1 9 3 3 ) , w h o c a m e t w o years later. B o t h held

and w h o , unlike their counterparts in Taiwan, " c o u l d not

their first solo exhibitions in the C i t y Hall M u s e u m and

b e b e n e f i t e d by b e i n g precursors o f a n e w direction in

A r t G a l l e r y in 1 9 6 4 .

C h i n e s e p a i n t i n g . " 1 4 Yet in m a n y respects the H o n g

O f the two, C h e u n g Y e e is the m o r e scholarly. His

K o n g artists were far better o f f than their colleagues across

deeper roots in C h i n e s e culture s h o w in the album leaf

the border. T h e y had a ready market, enlightened p u b -

illustrated here (plate 5 3) as w e l l as in his bronze reliefs,

lic and private patrons, and reasonable if not v e r y well

f o r w h i c h he finds his inspiration in the script o n an-

i n f o r m e d critics, w h i l e m a n y art galleries c a m e into b e -

cient oracle b o n e s and b r o n z e inscriptions, although re-

ing to p r o m o t e their w o r k s . N o t a b l e a m o n g these have

cently he has m a d e a n u m b e r o f striking crabs in b r o n z e

b e e n A l i c e K i n g ' s Alisan Gallery, Hanart I, r u n by the

f o r o u t d o o r display. Van Lau's w o r k , less " C h i n e s e , " o f -

painter H a r o l d W o n g , and Hanart T Z , w h e r e W o n g ' s

ten has a m o r e purely visual appeal. T h e album leaf

f o r m e r partner, J o h n s o n C h a n g ( C h a n g T s o n g - z u n g ) ,

h e r e — a c t u a l l y an etched and painted copperplate pasted

gives generous and enlightened support to a w i d e range

in the album (fig. 1 9 . 1 3 ) — a n d his m o n u m e n t a l w o r k s

o f artists in H o n g K o n g , Taiwan, Singapore, and the P e o -

in steel and brass such as Static Kite display a c o m b i n a -

ple's R e p u b l i c .

tion o f elegance, p o w e r , and fine craftsmanship that r e -

E v e n if s o m e H o n g K o n g artists suffered f r o m a lack

flects a m o r e international aspect o f m o d e r n i s m .

o f national identity, w o r k i n g in an atmosphere o f greater

S i n c e 1 9 8 2 C h e u n g Y e e has b e e n chairman and Van

f r e e d o m they d e v e l o p e d a creative energy quite as re-

L a u president o f the H o n g K o n g Sculptors Association.

markable as that o f Taiwanese artists.They played as well

T h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n the n e x t generation has b e e n c o n -

a crucial role as the chief transmitters o f C h i n e s e m o d -

siderable. H a B i k - c h u e n (Xia B i q u a n ) first m a d e his rep-

ernism to the People's R e p u b l i c , w h e r e their i n f l u e n c e

utation as a printmaker b e f o r e t u r n i n g to sculpture. C h u

was considerable. It m a y even be that their creativity was

H o n - s u n ( Z h u H a n x i n ) studied in H o n g K o n g and spent

g i v e n an especially sharp edge by the v e r y fact that they

f o u r years in Italy, m u c h o f the time at the marble q u a r -

w e r e not sustained by any sense o f national identity, and

ries at Carrara, b e f o r e returning to H o n g K o n g . His

that they consequently felt the challenge to create an i n -

w o r k , chiefly in w h i t e marble or granite, has great

dividual identity through their art.

beauty o f f o r m and texture (fig. 1 9 . 1 4 ) .

HONG

KONG

AND

SOUTHEAST

ASÍA

1 9 9

T h e s e and other y o u n g sculptors have carried out many commissions for public buildings, parks, and open spaces. T h e Sculpture Walk in K o w l o o n Park, a j o i n t project o f the H o n g K o n g R o y a l J o c k e y C l u b and the U r b a n C o u n c i l , was laid out in 1 9 8 9 to display the w o r k of young sculptors and pieces for sale by established w o r k ers in metal and stone. A n o t h e r event that gave enormous encouragement to artists and sculptors was the opening o f the H o n g K o n g Cultural C e n t e r by Prince Charles in N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 9 . A m o n g the works c o m missioned for this building were sculptures by Van Lau, C h e u n g Yee, and C h u H o n - s u n , a ceramic mural by Lau Wai-kee, and tapestries based on paintings by Luis C h a n and Gaylord C h a n (Chen Yusheng).

C H I N E S E A R T I S T S IN S I N G A P O R E A N D

MALAYSIA

E v e n m o r e than H o n g K o n g artists, Chinese artists in Southeast Asia felt cut o f f f r o m their cultural roots. To paint Malayan villages and palm trees in the Chinese manner, as did C h ' e n C h o n g S w e e (Chen Z o n g r u i ) , w h o had studied in Shanghai, might produce charming p i c -

19.14 Chu Hon-sun, Floating (1980s). Marble.

19.15 Aries Lee, t/ght (1984). Brass.

tures (fig. 1 9 . 1 6 ) ; but in this alien tropical world the C h i nese tradition, with its long-established vocabulary of pictorial conventions inspired by the Chinese landscape, was no guide, w h i l e for the oil painter to imitate G a u g u i n was too easy a solution. It says m u c h for the leading C h i nese artists in Singapore and Malaysia that they resisted those temptations and created a genuine local school. Organized art teaching in Singapore began as early as 1 9 2 3 , w h e n R i c h a r d Walker was put in charge o f the art program in the schools. B e f o r e he retired in 1 9 5 0 he had trained a number o f watercolorists, notably L i m C h e n g - h o e (Lin Qinghe), and the tradition o f conventional English-style watercolor painting has always remained strong in Singapore. A r t in Singapore began to develop w i t h X u B e i h o n g ' s arrival in 1 9 3 8 on his patriotic painting and fundraising tour o f Southeast Asia. His c o m i n g was a great stimulus to L i m Hak-tai (Lin

T h e C o n t e m p o r a r y O p e n - A i r Sculpture Exhibition,

X u e d a ) , a Western-style painter w h o had trained in X i a -

sponsored by the U r b a n C o u n c i l and the H o n g K o n g

men. In 1 9 3 8 L i m f o u n d e d the N a n y a n g A c a d e m y o f

M u s e u m of A r t in 1 9 8 4 , was an impressive illustration

Art, w h i c h today remains the only art school in the re-

o f the H o n g K o n g government's encouragement o f

gion.16

sculpture f o r public places, giving local sculptors far

A t that time, Singapore could boast one artist actu-

greater scope for creative experiment than they enjoyed

ally trained in Europe: Liu K a n g , b o r n near X i a m e n and

in Taiwan, to say nothing o f the People's Republic.

raised in Malaya, w h o had been taken by Liu Haisu in

A m o n g y o u n g e r m e n and w o m e n w h o exhibited there

1 9 2 9 to Paris. T h e r e he w o r k e d at La Grande Chaumière

w e might mention Lai C h i - m a n (Li Z h i w e n ) , w h o

and exhibited at the Salon, returning in 1 9 3 4 to teach

w o r k e d in granite; Aries Lee (Li Fuhua), trained in G e r -

in the Shanghai Academy. T h e war brought him back

many, w h o showed a p o w e r f u l piece in brass (fig. 1 9 . 1 5 ) ;

to Malaya, w h e r e he lived in great poverty and witnessed

and Tong K i m - s u m (Tang Jingsen), w h o makes massive

Japanese atrocities that he later recorded in a series o f

elemental shapes in granite.

drawings. H e lost almost all his life's w o r k but survived

2 0 0

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

19.17 C h e n Wenxl, Swans (1987). Ink and color on paper.

a warm lyrical appeal. His rare portraits in the Chinese medium are admirable for their elegance and sensitivity (plate 55). Late in life his figure compositions became more decorative and highly finished, while he also cre19.16 Ch'en C h o n g Swee, Landscape

ated abstract metal relief sculpture reminiscent of the with Palm Trees (c. 1955}. Ink and color on

paper.

work of C h e u n g Yee. C h ' e n Wen-hsi (Chen Wenxi), born in Guangdong in 1908, studied at the Xinhua Academy in Shanghai

to become an established oil painter of figure subjects in a solid, colorful, and somewhat emphatic style.

with such success that his work was represented in the collection of modern Chinese paintings that X u Beihong

Z h a n g Liying (Mme Georgette Liying Chen), w i d o w

took to Europe for exhibition in 1 9 3 4 . He arrived

of the revolutionary leader Eugene Chen, had studied

in Singapore in 1949 and taught for many years in the

in Paris and at the Art Students' League in N e w York

Nanyang Academy and the Singapore Chinese High

before her arrival in 1953 in Singapore, where she had

School. Although he painted vigorously in oils, he was

a long career as a competent portrait and landscape painter

the most " C h i n e s e " of this group of Singapore artists,

in oils. Cheong Soo Pieng (Zhong Sibin), w h o had

at his happiest painting, in free ink wash, attenuated

trained in X i a m e n and at the Xinhua Academy in

herons and the gibbons in his Singapore

Shanghai, arrived in Singapore in 1946. Until his death

(fig. 1 9 . 1 7 ) . A m o n g his most sensitively felt works are

in 1983 he was prominent both as a teacher in the

his drawings, which include both nudes and the beautiful

Nanyang Academy and as an independent artist. His early

studies of women that he made on a tour of Bali in 1 9 5 3 .

garden

work was undistinguished, but by the m i d - 1 9 5 0 s he was

Singapore and Malaysia became separate independent

beginning to evolve his unmistakable (though much im-

states in 1 9 5 7 . Thereafter, as they grew in prosperity, the

itated) style of figure and landscape painting (plate 54).

number of artists multiplied enormously, and by 1 9 7 0

In his paintings of Malayan houses and villages, as in his

Kuala Lumpur was a flourishing art center. A survey com-

decorative figure subjects, he achieved a highly effective

pleted by Dolores Wharton in 1 9 7 1 lists sixty-eight C h i -

stylization, rearranging elements into almost abstract

nese artists working in Malaysia, twenty-six Malays,

compositions that still retain a feeling for the subject and

three Tamils, and half a dozen others. 17 B y that time the

H O N G

K O N G

A N D

S O U T H E A S T

A S I A

2 0 1

right]. T h e n I suddenly asked myself: w h y can't I do t h e m b o t h at o n c e ? " W i t h i n t w o years h e had achieved his synthesis and was displaying his batik paintings at a o n e m a n s h o w presented by the Singapore A r t Society. F o u r years later he exhibited in L o n d o n and e x e c u t e d a large mural in oils f o r the Malaysian H i g h C o m m i s s i o n in C a n berra. A l t h o u g h neither his subjects, his technique, n o r his strong feeling f o r f o r m a l design are C h i n e s e , it is p e r haps his C h i n e s e feeling f o r line and r h y t h m , c o m b i n e d w i t h a typically C h i n e s e enterprise and endurance, that have made h i m a leading figure in the art w o r l d o f S o u t h east Asia. Since those p i o n e e r i n g days, the S i n g a p o r e art w o r l d 19.18

has

Lee J o o For, Scorched

Antiquity

(1964). Etching.

flourished

in a fairly m o d e s t way. F a c e d w i t h local

apathy or even hostility to experimental art, serious y o u n g painters in 1 9 6 4 f o u n d e d the M o d e r n A r t Society, d e d -

w o r k o f the C h i n e s e artists, both in Malaysia and in S i n -

icated to establishing a f o o t h o l d f o r international m o d -

gapore, had little that was identifiably C h i n e s e about it,

ernism in Singapore. A m o n g its leaders have b e e n W e e

as they responded w i t h increasing c o n f i d e n c e and s o -

Beng-chong (Huang Mingzong), Thang

phistication to the Malaysian scene. Lai F o o n g - m o i (Lai

(Tang J i n h a o ) , and H o H o - y i n g (He H e y i n g ) , all abstract

Kiang-how

F e n g m e i ) studied in L o n d o n and C h i a Y u C h i a n ( X i e

painters. T h o m a s Y e o ( Y a o H o n g z h a o ) and A n t h o n y

Yuqian) in Paris, b o t h returning to pamt local scenes in

P o o n ( F a n g Jinshun), both o f w h o m studied in E n g l a n d ,

oils. L e e J o o F o r spent seven years studying art in E n -

have also played a p r o m i n e n t part in the m o d e r n m o v e -

gland b e f o r e returning to Kuala L u m p u r to teach and to

ment. O n e o f the most eclectic and inventive o f the n o w

attempt as painter, poet, and p l a y w r i g h t to create there

m i d d l e - a g e d modernists is C h e n R u i x i a n , w r i t e r and

an "intellectual art c o l o n y " as a f o r u m f o r debate and

artist, admirer o f D. H . L a w r e n c e and M . C . Escher,

f o r the p r o m o t i o n o f his v i e w s . A l t h o u g h his claims f o r

w h o s e w o r k includes oils, g u o h u a , scraperboard g r a p h -

art, and f o r his o w n w o r k in particular, verge o n the p r e -

ics, and seal-carving in a w i d e range o f styles.

tentious, this ambitious, dynamic, and culturally o m -

To counteract the dangerous tendencies represented

nivorous artist and designer shows a genuine creative tal-

by these modernists, C h ' e n C h o n g S w e e in 1 9 7 0 f o u n d e d

(fig. 1 9 . 1 8 ) , he

the Singapore Watercolor Society; O n g K i m s e n g (Wang

p o w e r f u l l y c o m b i n e s echoes o f ancient C h i n e s e ritual

ent. In his etching Scorched Antiquity

J i n c h e n g ) and L i n g Y u n h u a n g ( L e n g J o o n - w o n g ) are

vessels w i t h decorative motifs that seem to be derived

a m o n g those w h o e x c e l in this m o r e conventional art.

f r o m the indigenous art o f Malaysia.

T h e M i n i s t r y o f C u l t u r e popularizes art through its " A r t

N e x t to C h e o n g S o o P i e n g , the b e s t - k n o w n C h i n e s e

f o r E v e r y o n e " p r o g r a m , the laudable aim being, as in the

artist in the r e g i o n was C h h u a h T h e a n T e n g (Cai T i a n -

People's R e p u b l i c , to build art at the grassroots level. L i t -

ding), or " T e n g , " as he signed himself.

18

B o r n in X i a m e n

in 1 9 1 4 , he c a m e to P e n a n g in 1 9 3 2 . For years he eked

tle e n c o u r a g e m e n t has b e e n given to m o r e

modern

trends, however.

out a miserable existence as a hawker, tapioca f a r m e r ,

S i n c e the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m o f A r t was established in

maker o f umbrellas and sarongs, textile designer, and a m -

A u g u s t 1 9 7 6 an eclectic m o d e r n i s m has b e g u n to d e -

ateur artist, until in 1 9 5 3 h e c o n c e i v e d the idea o f us-

velop, although the modernists are still largely d e p e n -

i n g the batik technique not just to dye textiles but to

dent on overseas patrons. To the extent that c o n t e m -

make pictures (plate 56). Describing this m o m e n t , he said,

p o r a r y S i n g a p o r e a n art has successfully entered the

" S u d d e n l y I t h o u g h t to myself, as an artist I can paint

mainstream o f the international m o d e r n m o v e m e n t it

like this [gesturing w i t h his left hand], as a batik crafts-

has c e a s e d — a n d this is the d i l e m m a o f m a n y o f these

m a n I can d o g o o d w o r k like that [gesturing w i t h his

artists—to have any particular Singaporean character.

202

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

20 E X P A T R I A T E W O R L D

WAR

II

A R T I S T S :

AND

A F T E R

PARIS W h e n h e was a student at the H a n g z h o u A c a d e m y d u r -

e x h i b i t e d in t w o Paris galleries a n d c a u g h t the a t t e n t i o n

i n g the war, Z a o W o u - k i o n c e asked his teacher, L i n

o f c o l l e c t o r s , a n d their prices soared.

F e n g m i a n , " W i l l w e ever b e able to get to Paris and m a k e

Pan Y u l i a n g h a d r e t u r n e d f r o m h e r earlier years in E u -

o u r l i v i n g as painters there?" L i n replied, " T h a t is o n l y

rope (see chapter 3) to teach in Shanghai and later in N a n -

a d r e a m . " A n d f o r m o s t C h i n e s e artists, g o i n g abroad

j i n g u n d e r the ultraconservative X u B e i h o n g . L i f e in

r e m a i n e d a dream. In the late 1940s, a f e w scholarships

C h i n a was n o t easy f o r this m o d e r n y o u n g w o m a n w i t h

w e r e to b e had; in 1 9 4 7 , f o r e x a m p l e , the B r i t i s h C o u n -

a q u e s t i o n a b l e past, h o w e v e r , a n d b y 1 9 3 5 she was b a c k

cil sent Z h a n g A n z h i , C h e n X i a o n a n , Z h a n g J i n g y i n g ,

in Paris a n d h e r studio in the r u e V e r c i n g é t o r i x , w h e r e

a n d Fei C h e n g w u , all t h e n w o r k i n g w i t h X u B e i h o n g

she was to live until h e r death. 3 S h e was a s c u l p t o r a n d

in N a n j i n g , to study in L o n d o n . Z h a n g A n z h i r e t u r n e d

a g i f t e d oil painter. A m o n g her best w o r k s in oils w e r e

to C h i n a after a year to r e s u m e his career, w h i l e C h e n

a s t r i k i n g self-portrait (fig. 20.2) and a Still Life o f 1 9 4 4 ,

X i a o n a n w e n t h o m e to o b l i v i o n . T h e o t h e r t w o , w h o

w h i c h c o m b i n e s the solidity o f a C é z a n n e w i t h a C h i -

had c o m e to study oil painting, m a r r i e d and settled in

nese linear expressiveness e n h a n c e d b y the m a n n e r in

L o n d o n to m a k e a l i v i n g as professional g u o h u a painters.

w h i c h she places h e r signature. B e s t k n o w n , h o w e v e r ,

Paris had always attracted the best artists, and a h a n d -

are h e r nudes p a i n t e d w i t h C h i n e s e b r u s h and i n k o n

f u l s u r v i v e d the o c c u p a t i o n . O n e was Z h a n g Y u , b o r n

paper, studies that express a t h o r o u g h l y W e s t e r n u n d e r -

i n S i c h u a n in 1900, w h o had c o m e to France in the early

standing o f the h u m a n b o d y b y m e a n s o f a sensitive, e x -

1920s and apart f r o m a short r e t u r n visit to C h i n a in the

pressive, a n d v e r y C h i n e s e line (plate 57). In h e r later

1930s m a d e his h o m e in Paris, w h e r e his h i g h l y i n d i -

years she was t e m p t e d i n t o creating m o r e elaborate a n d

v i d u a l f i g u r e subjects ( s h o w i n g the i n f l u e n c e o f Matisse

d e c o r a t i v e f i g u r e g r o u p s that e x u d e t o o s w e e t a c h a r m ,

animals

especially i n the faces, w h i c h h e r m a n y f r i e n d s and a d -

e a r n e d h i m s o m e success b e f o r e W o r l d W a r II (fig. 20.1).

mirers, o n w h o m she relied increasingly f o r s u p p o r t ,

A s his f r i e n d and f e l l o w painter X i D e j i n p u t it, " C h a n g

f o u n d s o m e w h a t d i s c o n c e r t i n g . S h e was a f r e q u e n t e x -

Y u almost b e c a m e f a m o u s in his early y e a r s . " 1 B e i n g c a -

hibitor and p r i z e w i n n e r at the Salons, the h o n o r o f w h i c h

sual and undisciplined, h e fell o n hard times after the war.

she was m o s t p r o u d b e i n g t h e G o l d M e d a l o f the C i t y

H o p i n g to r e c o u p his f o r t u n e s b y selling paintings and

o f Paris, a w a r d e d to h e r in 1 9 5 9 . Several years after h e r

p r o m o t i n g " p i n g - t e n n i s , " an i n d o o r g a m e h e had i n -

death in 1 9 8 3 , m o s t o f h e r unsold w o r k s w e r e taken b a c k

v e n t e d , h e paid a disastrous visit to N e w Y o r k , l i v i n g f o r

to H e f e i , her ancestral h o m e , w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f b u i l d -

a n d van D o n g e n ) ,

flowers,

birds, a n d l o n e l y

m o n t h s o n h o t dogs and selling

nothing.2

Returning to

i n g a gallery in h e r m e m o r y .

his Paris studio, h e gradually sank into poverty, and d i e d

A s the art w o r l d in Paris r e v i v e d after the war, a n u m -

alone in his studio in 1 9 6 5 — a f t e r w h i c h his canvases w e r e

b e r o f e x h i b i t i o n s o f m o d e r n C h i n e s e art w e r e g i v e n .

2 0 3

June 1946 saw a major presentation at the Musée C e r nuschi under the patronage of the great sinologue R e n é Grousset, w h o wrote a long historical introduction to the catalogue. 4 Most of the Chinese artists in Paris were represented, together with others w h o had once studied there: X u Beihong, Lin Fengmian, Pang Xunqin, Wu Zuoren and his wife X i a o Shufang, and others w h o had never set foot in Europe, among them Fu Baoshi, C h e n Zhifo, and Zhang Daqian. Vadime Elisséeff, formal cultural attaché in Chongqing, had also brought back with him seventeen paintings and drawings by a young artist unknown in Paris—Zao Wou-ki. In October 1946, Z h o u Ling's Association des Artistes Chinois en France held its own exhibition, which included works by the oil painters Li Fengbai and Fang Yong and the guohua artist Liao Xinxue, all of w h o m were soon to return to a China rapidly sinking into chaos. O n e of the first Chinese artists to reach France after the war was X i o n g Bingming. His father had taught mathematics at Beijing University, where the young painter came to know Qi Baishi, X u Beihong, and Chang Shuhong. 5 He came to Paris in 1947 on a government scholarship to study sculpture under Zadkine and others, and he became there a close friend of Wu Guanzhong.

Z a o W o u - k i , Young Woman ( 1 9 4 5 ) . Oils o n w o o d .

Once he had settled in Switzerland he painted m o u n tain landscapes in the Chinese manner, but he is chiefly known as a sculptor of birds and animals in bronze. In

one-man show in the Daxin department store. His

his solid yet attenuated forms we see the influence of Gia-

painting of the mid-1940s was quite unlike that of his

cometti, but he often works in open wire mesh or strips

teachers, with none of the bravura of Wu Dayu's ab-

of metal, which he handles as if they were strokes of the

stractions, none of Lin Fengmian's facility. Rather, he

Chinese brush, giving his birds a feeling of movement

seems in his landscapes, portraits, and still lifes to be mak-

and life.

ing his first hesitant, tentative steps toward the creation

Z a o Wou-ki (Zhao Wuji) arrived in Paris in 1948. T h e son of a rich banker, he was born in Beijing in 1 9 2 1

of a new pictorial language (fig. 20.3). T h e words of this language are few, but they are his own.

and grew up in the liberal and humane atmosphere of

Z a o Wou-ki set off for Europe with his wife, Lanlan,

the family home in Nantong, near Shanghai/' T h e in-

his little son, and the blessing and support of his parents.

fluence of his scholarly grandfather, coupled with the

Arriving in Paris on April 1 , 1948, they went straight

collection of art postcards brought back from Europe by

to the Louvre. T h e y found lodgings near Giacometti's

an uncle, helped to form his love of art. W h e n he was

house in Montparnasse, a district Z a o Wou-ki has never

fourteen, after passing an examination that required

left. He studied French, drew from the nude under

drawing from a cast of a Greek statue, he was admitted

Othon-Friesz at La Grande Chaumière, and soon had

to the Hangzhou Academy, where he studied Western

many friends, not only among leading Paris artists such

drawing and painting under Wu Dayu. He was in his

as Leger, Soulages, Giacometti, and Dubuffet, but also

third year, still only sixteen, when he joined the great

among Americans w h o came to Paris (some under the

exodus to the far western provinces (described in chap-

G.I. Bill)—Sam Francis, Hans Hartung, Nicolas de Staël,

ter 9). Graduating in Chongqing in 1 9 4 1 , he was taken

and others. His circle of friends grew rapidly, and un-

on by Lin Fengmian as a teacher.

like many of his compatriots he felt completely at home

Z a o Wou-ki showed remarkable initiative when, in 1 9 4 2 , he mounted in the Sino-Soviet Cultural Association an exhibition of the work of Lin Fengmian, Wu

in Paris from the start. B y 1949, he had w o n his first prize, for drawing. In 1950 he signed his first contract, with Pierre Loeb.

Dayu, Guan Liang, Ding Yanyong, and himself—the first

In his early Paris years the influences on this extremely

group exhibition ever held of these leaders of Chinese

receptive young artist came from all directions. " F r o m

modernism. Returning to Shanghai, he held his own

Picasso," he said, " I learned to draw—like Picasso. . . .

E X P A T R I A T E

A R T I S T S

2 0 5

I already admired Modigliani, Renoir and Matisse, but

exhibition was received with hostility by the Artists As-

it was Cézanne w h o helped me to find myself, to dis-

sociation, w h o made no attempt to interpret it to the

cover myself as a Chinese painter." A m o n g the artists

public, and Yu Feng was criticized for her defense (in

he never ceased to admire were Rembrandt, Courbet,

Meishujia, published in H o n g Kong) of the abstract pan-

Goya, Poussin. O f Corot's Woman with a Pearl he said,

els Z a o had painted for the Xiangshan Hotel, designed

"one feels that this painting must have brewed for mil-

by his friend I. M . Pei. He was glad to escape to his alma

lions of years." But the most beautiful painting in the

mater in Hangzhou, where he was rapturously received

Louvre was Cimabue's Madonna with Child and Angels:

by the students, although some of the older professors

" W h a t serenity!" he wrote. " T h e whole of the picture

stood outside the hall beforehand warning them not to

is on about the same plane, but the gold halos create a

applaud or write favorable comments. Nevertheless, he

strange perspective, a feeling of depth"—which made

was invited to return with his wife, Françoise Marquet,

him think of classical Chinese landscapes! 7

in the following year (as described in chapter 22). 9

In 1 9 5 1 , Z a o Wou-ki visited Geneva and found him-

Conscious though he is of his Chinese roots, Z a o

self for the first time face to face with the work of Paul

Wou-ki has no urge to return to China as it is today. H e

Klee, who, he knew, had for a time been steeped in C h i -

left China before his style was fully formed and was

nese poetry and thought. For hours he was absorbed in

thrown as a young man into the art world of Paris, where

Klee's paintings, in "those little signs traced on a ground

the challenge to find himself as a person and as an artist

of multiple spaces from which arose a world which daz-

was far more urgent than any conscious desire to bring

zled m e . " " H o w , " he asked, "could I have ignored this

East and West together. Because that reconciliation took

painter in w h o m the knowledge and love of Chinese

place intuitively, deep within his own psyche, he came,

painting is so evident?" For the next three years Klee was

once he had mastered the influences to which he re-

a dominant influence in Z a o Wou-ki's sensitive, dream-

sponded so readily, to create an art of impressive purity

like paintings and drawings. B y 1954, though, it was as

and consistency. A Parisian but not a member of the

if the "signs" he discovered through Klee were trans-

School of Paris (if indeed such a thing still exists), C h i -

forming themselves into the signs of the archaic C h i -

nese and yet not an exile from China, he denies, or rather

nese pictographs. It was a natural path back into the roots

resolves, any conflicts in his position in the very act of

of his own culture.

painting, and thus, in his creative imagination, brings East

Z a o Wou-ki's Wind of 1 9 5 4 (plate 58) marks the be-

and West together.

ginning of his transition to apparent abstraction—ap-

C h u Teh-chun (Zhu Dequn) had been a contempo-

parent, because these pictures are in fact landscapes. But

rary of Z a o Wou-ki in the Hangzhou Academy and had

they are landscapes, as the poet Henri Michaux noted,

also graduated in Chongqing in 1 9 4 1 . 1 0 He taught for

8

without hills or rivers, rocks or trees. Z a o Wou-ki, w h o

three years under X u Beihong at the National Central

prefers the word nature for these canvases, ceased at about

University before departing for Taiwan in 1949. In 1 9 5 5

this time to give them titles, merely noting the date of

he arrived in Paris, an accomplished salon-style portraitist

their completion. In his mature style, the calligraphic ges-

in oils and a painter of post-impressionist landscapes. His

ture, color and tone, form and the void, space and move-

response to the modernism he encountered was a series

ment, unite in a work of almost cosmic purity and en-

of canvases that display an almost violent repudiation of

ergy, one that both delights the senses and liberates the

figurative art. Powerful strokes of the brush in black seem

spirit (plate 59). If there are changes in the style and mood

to destroy representation in a manner reminiscent of

of the paintings—from the lyrical and serene, for in-

Kandinsky's breakthrough around 1 9 1 0 , when he would

stance, to the dark and tempestuous—these are an ex-

"cross o u t " in his compositions any form that might be

pression of some crisis in the personal life of this most

read as a rock, a mountain, or a tree. Having thus purged

sensitive and warm-hearted of artists. For a year after the

himself, C h u Teh-chun was free to create, in oils or

tragic death of his second wife, May, in May 1 9 7 2 , he

acrylics, an abstract style of luminous transparency,

abandoned color and painted only in monochrome ink,

which has established his position among leading abstract

a medium to which he has since returned from time to

expressionists in Paris (plate 60).

time.

T h e Tang critic Sikong Tu, in speaking of the qual-

In 1 9 7 2 and again in 1 9 7 5 , he went home to see his

ity of grandeur in poetry, wrote: "Leap beyond the e x -

family and toured China, and in 1982 he was the guest

ternal appearance [xiang wa{\ to reach the circle's cen-

of the Chinese Artists Association. In the following year,

ter." H e even speaks of xiang wai zhi xiang—"the

he was invited to exhibit simultaneously in the China

beyond the image." We may read C h u Teh-chun's ges-

Art Gallery and the Hangzhou Academy. T h e Beijing

tures with the brush as mountains, clouds, or waves, or

2 0 6

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

image

as the cosmic swirl o f Chaos at the birth o f the universe,

NORTH AMERICA

visionary forms forever appearing and dissolving before

W h i l e the U n i t e d States attracted hundreds o f Chinese

our eyes. Like the painting o f the C h a n masters, his v i -

scholars, scientists, doctors, and engineers after World

sions seem to occupy some mysterious realm between

War II, to very f e w artists was the N e w World a m a g -

f o r m and the formless, the temporal and the eternal. Ask

net. E v e n if they had been aware that the center o f m o d -

h i m what they mean, and he replies, like a true artist,

ern art was shifting across the Atlantic, the art o f Pol-

" I ' m no g o o d at analyzing my w o r k . W h a t I want to say

lock, R o t h k o , and K l i n e w o u l d still have been quite

comes out in m y painting." Such w o r k is indeed beyond

beyond their comprehension. T h e Chinese painters w h o

analysis. " L o o k i n g at a painting," he says, "is like listen-

made their mark in the States in the 1 9 5 0 s and 1960s

ing to music."

were few, isolated f r o m one another and generally f r o m

M a n y Western modernists have sooner or later rejected

A m e r i c a n modernism.

or moved on from abstract expressionism because to them

W h e n T s e n g Y u - h o ( Z e n g Y o u h e ) arrived in Hawaii

it was a style, a m o m e n t in the evolution o f c o n t e m p o -

in 1 9 4 9 at the age o f twenty-six, she came not as an artist

rary art. For C h u Teh-chun, and in a different way f o r

or art student but as the y o u n g bride o f the G e r m a n

Z a o W o u - k i , it w a s — t h o u g h they might not put it this

scholar Gustav E c k e . 1 2 E c k e had been teaching in C h i -

w a y — a d o o r opening on a vision o f reality that has deep

nese universities since 1 9 2 3 but was driven f r o m C h i n a

roots in Chinese metaphysics, leading towards the " i m -

by the Communists, and he accepted the post o f cura-

age beyond the i m a g e , " w h i c h can never be fixed or d e -

tor of Asian art in the H o n o l u l u A c a d e m y o f Art. T s e n g

fined but only hinted at, sought by each artist in his or

Y u - h o , w h i l e still in her teens, had been a student-

her o w n way. W h y should a Chinese abstract expres-

apprentice o f P u Q u a n , w h o was teaching painting and

sionist, once embarked on this journey, return to base

connoisseurship at Furen University. She had also stud-

and accept the limitations o f representational art (unless

ied painting and literature under Q i G o n g , a descendant

out o f social c o m m i t m e n t or for some more practical

o f the emperor Qianlong. Graduating in the art depart-

reason)? Taking the path o f abstract expressionism, w i t h

ment in 1 9 4 2 , she b e c a m e assistant to P u Q u a n and to

its links to Daoist metaphysics on one level and to cal-

Dr. Ecke, w h o m she married three years later. To her

ligraphy on another, seems natural f o r the m o d e r n C h i -

solid grounding in classical painting she added k n o w l -

nese painter.

edge of Chinese poetry and antiquities through her classes

Nevertheless, many y o u n g e r Chinese artists, w h e t h e r

w i t h the great scholars G u J i e g a n g and R o n g G e n g .

f r o m conviction, impatience, or a desire to catch hold

T s e n g Y u - h o ' s success as a painter came early, w i t h

o f the coattails o f Western modernism, have rejected

exhibitions not only in H o n o l u l u but also in San Fran-

abstraction. W h e n in 1 9 8 3 Les Amis du V i e A r r o n -

cisco, Z ü r i c h , R o m e , and Paris, and she could have made

dissement mounted an exhibition o f the w o r k o f C h i -

a g o o d living as a competent guohua artist, as did Z h a n g

nese artists in Paris, the abstract expressionist works o f

Shuqi in N e w Y o r k and Z h a n g J i n g y i n g in L o n d o n . B u t

Z a o W o u - k i and C h u Teh-chun were far outnumbered

she was not content w i t h that. Y o u n g enough to be re-

by works that reflected, in most cases rather feebly, not

ceptive to n e w influences, she attended the lectures o f

so m u c h the state o f Chinese art as that o f the Western

M a x Ernst in H o n o l u l u , and on her travels with her hus-

styles then current. 1 1 B y this time the scores o f artists

band in E u r o p e met a n u m b e r o f m o d e r n painters, i n -

w h o had arrived f r o m China, H o n g K o n g , Taiwan, and

cluding Georges Braque, A n d r é Masson (both o f w h o m

Singapore included many realists, a m o n g them D a i

confessed to her their love of Chinese painting), Soulages,

Haiying, w h o came to Paris in 1 9 7 0 , L e Karsiu (Li

Chagall, Härtung, M i r ò , and many more. B y 1 9 5 6 she

Jiazhao), w h o arrived in 1 9 7 6 , L e e K w o k - h o n

was responding in her o w n very original way to the

(Li

G u o h a n , 1 9 7 0 ) , and Peng Wants (Peng Wanchi, 1 9 6 5 ) .

Hawaiian landscape, as in the painting illustrated here,

A m o n g the photo-realists w e r e Lai K i t - c h e u n g

(Li

a brilliant adaptation o f the style o f the seventeenth-

J i e x i a n g , 1 9 7 6 ) , H u a n g M i n g c h a n g ( 1 9 7 7 ) , and C h a n

century master G o n g X i a n to the texture o f the m o u n -

K i n - c h u n g ( C h e n Jianzhong), w h o after his arrival in

tains o f the islands (fig. 20.4). She was also designing sets

1 9 6 9 acquired an international reputation for his hyper-

and costumes f o r the Juilliard S c h o o l opera productions.

realist paintings o f doors, w i n d o w s , and piles o f board-

In 1 9 5 8 she came under contract w i t h the D o w n t o w n

ing. Indeed, the works o f almost all the y o u n g e r artists

Gallery in N e w York.

in this exhibition had scarcely any identifiable C h i n e s e — or French—character at all. T h e y might as well have been created in Tokyo or N e w York, and the fact that the artists were Chinese is hardly significant.

This rich combination of influences and stimuli—Chinese classical culture and art, Western modernism, security and humanistic inspiration f r o m her highly cultivated h u s b a n d — p r o d u c e d the ideal conditions f o r her

E X P A T R I A T E

A R T I S T S

2 0 7

20.4 Tseng Yu-ho, Hawaiian Village (1955). Ink on paper.

talent to flower. S h e began to create her o w n f o r m a l lan-

chiefly u n d e r the w e l l - k n o w n and very conservative

guage, f o u n d e d o n her study o f the structure o f C h i -

Shanghai artist W u H u f a n . H e acquired a t h o r o u g h

nese landscape paintings but clothed in a texture o f her

k n o w l e d g e not only o f the palace collection but o f all

o w n m a k i n g : a c o m b i n a t i o n o f paper collage (a skill she

the important private collections in C h i n a , and by 1 9 3 5

had acquired w h e n learning to m o u n t her paintings in

he was r e c o g n i z e d as a leading e x p e r t on C h i n e s e paint-

C h i n a ) w i t h C h i n e s e ink and color, sometimes adding

ing, leading to an a p p o i n t m e n t in 1 9 3 5 to the executive

to t h e m tapa cloth, torn seaweed, or gold or metallic leaf,

c o m m i t t e e o f the great e x h i b i t i o n o f C h i n e s e art at

often m o u n t i n g her compositions on canvas or Masonite.

B u r l i n g t o n H o u s e in L o n d o n . H e spent the w a r years in

In a notable series o f paintings o f 1 9 5 8 and 1 9 5 9 she

Shanghai, supporting himself by dealing in property.

paid h o m a g e to Shitao, Z h u D a , W u Li, and other mas-

B y this time W a n g had acquired an e n c y c l o p e d i c

ters, evoking the essential character o f their styles in c o n -

k n o w l e d g e o f the styles and techniques o f the old mas-

t e m p o r a r y terms, thus k e e p i n g the tradition alive in the

ters. A s a painter, he was skillful, o r t h o d o x , c o n s e r v a -

only w a y p o s s i b l e — b y creatively interpreting it, in the

tive, and deservedly unregarded, and might have remained

spirit o f the M i n g painter and critic D o n g Q i c h a n g . In

so had he stayed o n in C h i n a . B u t in 1 9 4 7 , on the r e c -

her later w o r k — a p a r t f r o m a phase, happily b r i e f , w h e n

o m m e n d a t i o n o f the dealer A l i c e B o n e y , he was a p -

she fashioned three-dimensional H a n mirror designs and

pointed consultant to Alan Priest, curator o f C h i n e s e

other ancient motifs in p l a s t i c — T s e n g Y u - h o created

art at the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m . Thereafter, e x c e p t f o r

w o r k s , s o m e o f impressive size, that stop just short o f

a return to Shanghai in 1 9 4 8 and t w o years as c h a i r m a n

abstraction by reason o f the trees, rocks, and mountains,

o f the art department o f the C h i n e s e University o f H o n g

or suggestions o f them, that e m e r g e f r o m a pictorial sur-

K o n g in the early 1960s, he made his h o m e in N e w Y o r k ,

f a c e admirable f o r the subtle beauty o f its c o l o r and t e x -

w h e r e he supported himself by teaching C h i n e s e paint-

ture (fig. 20.5).

ing privately and dealing o n c e again in real estate. H e

B y contrast w i t h T s e n g Y u - h o ' s y o u t h f u l rise to

attended life drawing, oil painting, and other classes at

f a m e , C . C . W a n g (Wang Jiqian) was not taken seriously

the A r t Students' League, o n e product o f his studies b e -

as a painter until he was in his sixties.

13

B o r n in S u z h o u

in 1 9 0 7 , he b e c a m e a lawyer in Shanghai, sometimes supp o r t i n g himself by dealing in real estate. In his ample spare time he studied painting and

2 0 8

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

connoisseurship,

ing a still life in the m a n n e r o f B r a q u e that he painted in 1 9 5 6 . In 1 9 5 4 C h o Fulai (Frank C h o ) o p e n e d his M i C h o u G a l l e r y in the back o f C . C . Wang's house. (It was later

20.5 Tseng Yu-ho, Joyance of Limitation

(1990). Ink, acrylic, a l u m i n u m , and paper o n canvas.

to move to more roomy quarters at 8oi Madison Avenue.) Here, in the first gallery in New York to be devoted to modern Chinese art, the works of Zhang Daqian and Chen Qikuan were shown. Wang told his biographer, Jerome Silbergeld, that Zhang Daqian sold very few paintings at his show in 1957, and those at a very low price. "We began to discuss this," Wang remembered, "and Chang wondered what he should do next. He had no confidence in himself, and I didn't know what to do either." How many Chinese artists arriving in the West have escaped that moment of doubt? For C. C. Wang, a way forward in his art suddenly opened up. He thinks that the catalyst was "something he had seen in a magazine." Had he suddenly become aware of the breakthrough into semiabstraction that had been made by Liu Kuo-sung and the Fifth Moon Group in Taipei, by Lui Show Kwan in Hong Kong, and, several years earlier, by Zao Wou-ki in Paris—events that had at last made the expressive gestures of the New York School meaningful to Chinese artists? Like Liu Kuo-sung,

Wang began to crumple the paper before painting, sometimes applying color on both sides of it, and to use impressed textures, to exploit the "controlled accident." But while Zhang Daqian in his new paintings seemed to let himself go with joyful abandon, C. C. Wang is almost always firmly in control. He is anything but a natural expressionist, and his least successful paintings are those in which the effects are least carefully managed. He might say of himself, with Degas, " N o art was ever less spontaneous than mine." When C. C. Wang's talent finally flowered in the late 1960s, everything seemed to come together: his skill with the brush; his understanding of the great masters, so deeply ingrained that his references to Fan Kuan, Dong Yuan, Ni Zan, and Hongren seem quite uncontrived; the feeling for composition, formal structure, and color that he had acquired from Western as much as from Chinese art. His best paintings have an air of somewhat static perfection that is due, at least in part, to the subjection of the expressive brushstroke to the demands of the

E X P A T R I A T E

A R T I S T S

2 0 9

composition as a whole, which gives them something of

came fascinated by the strange shapes of rocks, driftwood,

the monumental calm of the Northern Song landscapes

and dead trees on the shore, of which she made many

that he so much admires (plate 61). H u n g Hsien (Hong Xian, known to her friends as

careful drawings. Their forms accorded well with the near-abstraction she had been practicing and are some-

Margaret Chang), born in Yangzhou in 1 9 3 3 , spent her

times recognizable, subtly transformed, in her later paint-

childhood in Chongqing and later left with her family

ings (fig. 20.6).

for Taipei, where she studied painting in the Normal C o l -

Abstract expressionism had been so vital and conge-

lege under the academic master Pu R u . 1 4 She settled in

nial a stimulus to arriving Chinese artists that for a time

Evanston, Illinois, in 1958 with her husband, architect

few could escape from it. Z h a o Chunxiang (Chung-

T. C . Chang, through w h o m she came into contact with

hsiang Chao), once a pupil of Lin Fengmian and Pan

the modern movements in American painting. Her

Tianshou in Hangzhou, had come to the U.S. in 1958

break away from academicism towards semiabstract ex-

by way of Taiwan and Spain, where he had worked for

pressionism was stimulated by her encounter with Liu

three years. In N e w York he met Franz Kline, and was

Kuo-sung, w h o visited the States in 1966. Sensing a kin-

under his spell until Kline's death in 1962. His own ab-

dred spirit, he invited her to exhibit with the Fifth M o o n

stract expressionist paintings, pulsating with calligraphic

Group in Taipei, which she did for several years in the

gestures, masses of ink, and bold blobs of color, gave him

1970s.

a secure place in the movement. 1 5

B y this time, H u n g Hsien's rather tempestuous land-

B y the 1980s, however, abstraction had given way to

scapes had gone through a process of refinement and pu-

realism of many kinds. In 1984 K o o M e i (Gu Mei), w h o

rification, emerging as a style that more truly expressed

had been a singer and actress in H o n g K o n g and stud-

her temperament. In her mature paintings shapes that

ied there under Z h a o Shao ang and Lui Show Kwan, set-

suggest rocks, water, or clouds meet, flowing together

tled in Vancouver. There she became known for her im-

or apart in a swirl of endless movement. Surfaces become

pressive winter landscapes of the Rockies, which are for

smooth; the effect is lively, lyrical, and soothing. Hung

the most part refreshingly free from the technical man-

Hsien might have gone on producing these fluent, har-

nerisms of the Lingnan School. 1 6

monious paintings indefinitely, but during a summer

Amateur artists and calligraphers in the scholarly tra-

spent on an island off the coast of Vancouver she be-

dition continued to paint for the sheer pleasure of it.

2 10

O T H E R

C U R R E N T S

20.7

20.8

W a n g Fangyu, Mo mu (Dancing ink) (c. 1980). Ink on paper.

Y. J. Cho, Mottled (1987). Oils on linen

A m o n g them are Wang Dawen, Fu Shen, Li Shan, Hu

ment. Lii Wujiu (Lucy Lu Wu-chiu), w h o came to the

Nianzu, Zhang Hong (Arnold Chang at Sotheby's),

U.S. in 1959 and settled in Oakland in 1970, remained

Huang Junshi (Kwan S. Wong at Christie's), and the

faithful to abstract expressionism. B y contrast, Z h u o You-

scholar-teacher Wang Fangyu, living in N e w Haven, who

rui ( Y . J . Cho), w h o came to N e w York in 1 9 7 7 ,

in 1 9 7 1 began to explore the relationship between cal-

changed her style completely. In her oils of the late 1980s,

ligraphy and forms in nature (fig. 20.7). Their work was

based on projected slides, she depicts N e w England barns,

brought together for the 1989 Beyond the Magic M o u n -

odd corners of Beijing, streets of N e w York, doors, w i n -

tains exhibition at N e w York's Hanart Gallery, founded

dows, steps, peeling walls, all the shabbiness of decaying

by Harold Wong to stimulate interest in contemporary

cities, with a realism that comes close to poetry (fig.

guohua at a time when so many Chinese artists were be-

20.8). 1 7 Situ Qiang (Szeto Keung) came to N e w York

coming, as G u Wenda put it, "prisoners of Western art."

in 1975 to become a master of trompe-l'oeil painting;

Chinese modernists arriving in the West in the late

his semiabstract compositions skillfully reproduce the tex-

1970s and 1980s were faced with a difficult choice: to

ture of wood, paper and fiberboard. 1 8 Yang Qian, w h o

continue to paint in the manner that had brought them

left Beijing for Florida in 1984, is another realist whose

recognition or even notoriety in Beijing, Taipei, or Hong

painting has become completely American. In the work

Kong, even though it might already be old-fashioned in

of none of this group is there any discernible Chinese

N e w York, or simply to follow the fashion of the m o -

quality.

E X P A T R I A T E

A R T I S T S

2 1 1

PART

FIVE

«. ( i/icr < l/cio: t Z/

o/ite/ss a i I eco ¿Ira

With the death of Mao Zedong,

a new era dawned

for Chinese art. So complete had been the Party's control over the minds and hearts of creative people that several years passed before their powers could stir to life again. Not until 1979

were all the artists once branded as

"Rightists"finally

rehabilitated, and that year saw an astonishing outburst of creativity that came to be known as the Peking During the 1980s,

Spring.

in spite of sharp attacks and periodic

persecutions carried out by an increasingly nervous Party apparatus, Chinese art became ever richer, more complex and adventurous, drawing inspiration from China's past, from the West, from Japan,

and from the artists' own experience.

old debates—past

versus present, Chinese versus

The

Western—

were not resolved, but they were now carried on at a new level of depth and sophistication, while the development of new forms and styles was stimulated by the work of Chinese modernists in Taiwan and Hong

Kong.

Yet the atmosphere of uncertainty, tension, and insecurity never cleared away. During the late 1980s

many younger

artists sought greater freedom abroad, notably in America, where they faced a different challenge—the

loss of

their identity as Chinese artists.

W I N T E R

NINETEEN

G I V E S

W A Y

TO

S P R I N G

SEVENTY-SIX

As if the turmoil and suffering o f the previous ten years

was over, but had the dawn really come? M a o and his

had not been e n o u g h , 1 9 7 6 began on a tragic note w i t h

successor H u a G u o f e n g were still revered. Tens o f t h o u -

the death, on January 8, o f Z h o u Enlai, last h o p e o f

sands of leftist cadres still controlled cultural life. T h e

the artists and writers. A l t h o u g h his illness had f o r some

G a n g , I was told by an artist friend, had not suddenly

time made h i m powerless to protect them, the o u t -

dropped out o f Heaven: they were the culmination o f a

p o u r i n g o f g r i e f for him, at least a m o n g the well edu-

historical process that had b e g u n with the wilting o f the

cated, was far greater than that f o r M a o later in the year.

H u n d r e d Flowers in 1 9 5 7 . Artists and writers were so

M o u r n i n g was forbidden by the Gang o f Four, but w h e n

beaten d o w n , so cautious, that f o r some months there

w o r d got about that his catafalque w o u l d be c o m i n g

was very little m o v e m e n t on the cultural front.

d o w n C h a n g a n R o a d , thousands lined the streets—a

T h e first task was to bury M a o . A national c o m p e t i -

m o m e n t that was to produce a striking painting once

tion had produced a n u m b e r o f rather ponderous d e -

J i a n g Q i n g had passed f r o m the scene.

signs for his mausoleum, all more or less inspired by the

This was a year also of portents and disasters. In M a r c h

Lincoln M e m o r i a l , w h i c h were h o m o g e n i z e d into a

a tremendous meteor shower—traditionally the sign o f

building w h i c h makes up in dignity f o r what it suffers

the fall of a dynasty—descended upon Jilin Province.

in poverty o f detail. T h e marble seated figure o f M a o —

In August an earthquake at the coal-mining city of Tang-

also inspired by the Lincoln M e m o r i a l — w a s executed

shan left nearly half a million dead. O n A p r i l 4, the day

by a team o f sculptors led by L i u Kaiqu, H u a T i a n y o u ,

f o r remembering the souls o f the dead, a huge crowd

and Wang Linyi. 2

gathered to place wreaths and recite poems at the H e -

T h e walls o f the hall in w h i c h the embalmed b o d y o f

roes' M e m o r i a l at T i a n a n m e n Square, to m o u r n Z h o u

M a o lies carry huge landscapes by leading g u o h u a

Enlai and protest the tyranny o f the G a n g . W h e n the

artists—Qian Songyan (fig. 2 1 . 1 ) , G u a n Shanyue, Li

police tore d o w n the banners and wreaths a passionate

X i o n g c a i , Wei Z i x i , Li Keran, and several collaborative

demonstration o f anger was brutally put d o w n . T h e

paintings. Clearly done by artists on their best behavior,

Tiananmen Incident, as it came to be k n o w n , was to pro-

these works are o f competent and imposing dullness.

duce some o f the most memorable painting, poetry, and literature to c o m e out of m o d e r n C h i n a . 1

W h e n it came to the huge tapestry to hang behind the figure o f M a o , I was told that none of the established

M a o Z e d o n g died on September 9. T h r e e weeks later

artists w o u l d dare undertake it; so, on the initiative o f

J i a n g Q i n g and the rest o f the G a n g were arrested. W h e n

H u a J u n w u , the commission went, almost by default,

news o f their fall spread across the county, ecstatic

to the painter and w o o d - e n g r a v e r H u a n g Y o n g y u , w h o ,

crowds poured into the streets; smiling strangers shook

his enemies pointed out, was not even a Party member,

hands; the w i n e shops were emptied, I was told in

and had achieved some notoriety with his subversive

C h e n g d u , "even o f their sweet w i n e . " T h e nightmare

painting o f the w i n k i n g o w l (see chapter 1 5 ) . In a f e w

2 1 5

2 1.1 Qian Songyan, Dawn in the Date Garden, Yan'an (1977). Ink and color on paper. 21.2

Huang Yongyu, tapestry in the Mao Zedong Mausoleum, Beijing (1977).

weeks, working with assistants under constant official su-

would carry the scars for the rest of their lives. Teach-

pervision, Huang Yongyu produced a cartoon in oils,

ers found themselves working beside colleagues and stu-

ninety feet long, for a panoramic landscape of China's

dents w h o had only recently denounced and persecuted

mountains and rivers. It was woven as a tapestry in record

them, and not all were in a forgiving mood: a corre-

time (fig. 21.2). Serene, vast, and tranquil, this work con-

spondent in Beijing wrote to me that a now famous and

tains no hint of propaganda, no glorification of the leader,

successful artist and his friends beat up a wood-engraver

suggesting that when the Chinese feel the need to e x -

w h o had informed against him. Most, though, felt that

press their noblest and most enduring sentiments they

the time left to them was too precious to waste on re-

turn, now as always, to the landscape. But Huang Yongyu

venge and recriminations. As Jiang Feng put it, "Let's

was to gain no credit for this achievement. T h e jealousy

not setde old scores again. . . . M y idea is to look for-

of the artistic establishment ensured that when the mau-

ward to the future." 3 " I f only," Pang Xunqin said to me

soleum decorations were eventually published in Meishu

in 1 9 7 9 , " I were ten years younger!" T h e urge to make

the names of Huang Yongyu and his assistants (one of

up for lost time—in some cases, for a lifetime's lost

w h o m was his pupil Qin Long, later to make his name

work—kept a number of these indomitable artists w o r k -

as a book illustrator) were never mentioned. His huge

ing well into their eighties and nineties. But for some,

oil cartoon was never shown, and at the time of writ-

the experience had been too traumatic. Shi Lu suffered

ing is believed to languish rolled up in the basement of

a breakdown f r o m w h i c h he never recovered. Lin

the Mausoleum.

Fengmian, granted leave in 1 9 7 7 to visit relatives in Hong Kong, never returned; he went into deep seclusion in the Colony, from which he only gradually emerged. In

T H E T H A W OF 1 9 7 7 - 7 9

N o t until the Eleventh Party Congress in August 1 9 7 7 was the Cultural Revolution officially declared to be at an end, and an era of "great unity" inaugurated. In March

the somber expressionist renderings of the Crucifixion that he created during these last years (plate 19), he seemed to find a universal symbol for the suffering that the C h i nese people, and he himself, had endured under Mao.

of that year the Central Academy was back on track, with

Although Meishu reproduced little but propaganda

Z h u Dan as president and a senior staff that included Liu

works through 1 9 7 7 , the artists did not wait to express

Kaiqu, G u Yuan, Luo Gongliu, A i Zhongxin, and Wu

their sense of release. Liu Haisu chose cinnabar red, the

Zuoren. In September the Ministry of Culture abolished

color of celebration, to paint three sturdy pine trees, sym-

the " M a y Seventh Art University" that had been set up

bolizing China's new leaders Hua Guofeng, Ye Qian-

by Jiang Qing in 1 9 7 3 . With the art schools opening

ying, and D e n g Xiaoping. Pictures of flowers and trees

their doors, the flood of applicants became a torrent. T h e

bursting into blossom became fashionable—although it

Canton Academy for its first class selected forty out of

should be said that, except during the worst years of the

four thousand young hopefuls; at Hangzhou, sixty-eight

Cultural Revolution, such subjects had not been for-

were chosen from sixteen thousand w h o applied.

bidden; Liu Haisu, for example, had continued to paint

T h e slow and seemingly haphazard process of rehabilitation of "Rightists" in the art world began with Party

his boisterous flowers and lotuses all through the 1970s. But n o w they could be exhibited and published.

ideologue Z h o u Yang, cleared in October 1 9 7 7 — a year

Every artist with a name poured out tributes to the

after the fall of the Gang. Others took longer. When Ye

m e m o r y of Z h o u Enlai and denunciations of "the

Qianyu's "misjudged case" was rectified in 1978, he was

white-boned d e m o n , " Jiang Qing, in the pages of

given a scholarship by way of compensation. In the same

Meishu.4 H e r notorious exhibitions of 1 9 7 4 were de-

year Zhang Ding was cleared and eventually became pres-

scribed as the work of her "black line dictatorship." She

ident of the Central Academy. Jiang Feng was rewarded

had "seen everything with black eyes," hated flower and

with the chairmanship of the Artists Association. His

landscape painting, and disapproved even of that most

vice-chairmen were Guan Shanyue, Hua J u n w u , Cai

correct of works, the landscape by Fu Baoshi and Guan

Ruohong, Li Shaoyan, Liu Kaiqu, and Wu Zuoren, every

Shanyue in the Great Hall of the People, of which she

one of w h o m had cooperated in bringing about his

is alleged to have said that after looking at it for half a

downfall twenty years before! All those branded in the Great Leap Forward were

day she still couldn't make it out, and demanded to know what was good about it. H e r hatred of the painting was

officially freed and their professional and social status re-

clearly motivated by jealousy: she had not commissioned

stored in December 1978, though some artists had to wait

it herself.

longer still—Liu Haisu was not cleared until March 1979,

For the most part, the huge National Art Exhibition

having borne the stigma for twenty-two years. B u t ab-

held in February 1 9 7 7 in Beijing was heavily orthodox,

solution was not enough to heal their wounds. Many

but the cartoonists had sprung to life, turning their satire

W I N T E R

G I V E S

W A Y

TO

S P R I N G

2 1 7

on the Gang, w h o m they depict strutting with swastika

ual inclination, thought and fantasy, f o r m and content."

banners and armbands (plate 62). In one cartoon, Hitler's

T h e rehabilitated Z h o u Yang, after declaring in his ad-

propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels proudly holds up his

dress that "there should be no forbidden zones in liter-

infant son and pupil—Yao Wenyuan. Several show Jiang

ature," then went on to edge away from the hard line of

Qing confiding to Roxanne Witke, her American bi-

the past. " W e must not regard Marxism-Leninism—Mao

ographer, her ambition to succeed M a o Z e d o n g as "em-

Z e d o n g Thought as a dogma immutable for all ages, but

press." Although these cartoons created something of a

as a guide to action. We are confronted by many new

sensation in Beijing, they are not mentioned or repro-

circumstances and new problems unknown to the writ-

duced in Meishu, the editors no doubt fearing that they

ers of the Marxist classics, M a o included. We cannot ex-

might set a dangerous precedent. Less subversive but

pect to find ready and complete answers to all the prob-

equally telling was Liao Bingxiong's cartoon of himself

lems in the writings of the revolutionary teachers. As to

(plate 63), so paralyzed by years of censorship that even

some of [Mao's] directives and statements on specific

when his shell is broken he cannot move.

questions, we should have the courage to revise and sup-

T h e cultural thaw continued through 1978, hand in

plement those which do not conform . . . with the ac-

hand with the Four Modernizations campaign. May saw

tual situation." W h e n he went on to say, " W e should

the first enlarged meeting of the Federation of Literary

integrate Marxist theory with the practice of the liter-

and Art Circles since the smashing of the Gang, and on

ary and art movement of China, with the long cultural

J u n e 1 5 , Seiji Ozawa performed in Beijing, the first for-

tradition of our country," he was opening the door to

eigner to conduct a Chinese orchestra since Liberation.

a dismemberment of the whole structure on which art

Meishu for March reproduced two engravings by Piranesi,

had stood for the previous thirty years. 6

while the April issue carried paintings by the realists

All through that year the floodgates of feeling and

Courbet and Bastien-Lepage, modern Japanese art, and

emotion had been swinging open across China. A hot

classical landscapes of the Song and Yuan dynasties. O c -

stream of stories and poems poured from the presses, ex-

tober saw an exhibition in the China Art Gallery of

posing not only the tyranny of the Gang of Four but

paintings by Fang Junbi, w h o had settled in the United

the evils in the system itself. M a n g Ke's brief and poi-

States in 1956.

gnant Frozen Land takes the death of Z h o u Enlai as the

Late in the year, the liberalizing process speeded up.

darkest hour:

T h e Writers U n i o n in Anhui allowed an author to attack the persecution of writers w h o told the truth and to appeal to the authorities to stop blaming everything on the Gang of Four. Elsewhere, students were attacking local leaders w h o "trampled on human rights and respect for intellectual growth." In November, the first posters had appeared on what was to become known as

The funeral cloud floats past, a white cloud, Rivers slowly drag the sun. The long, long surface of the water, dyed golden. How silent How vast How pitiful That stretch of withered flowers.7

Democracy Wall at Xidan, the market area in the west of Beijing, accusing M a o of having supported the Gang. Finally, in December 1978, the Third Plenum of the

B u t Huang Yongyu's sardonic poem about the ever pre-

Eleventh Central Committee of the Party put the official

sent informer strikes at the poison that ran through the

seal on a more liberal cultural policy. 5 In February 1979,

whole system:

Meishu announced the publication of Z h o u Enlai's secret Beijing speech of June 1 9 6 1 , in which he had urged a more flexible treatment of art and artists. As the clouds parted, people began to speak not only of a new H u n dred Flowers (a term that hardly carried happy m e m o ries) but, putting the past behind them, of the year 2000 and the coming millennium, when the Four M o d e r n izations would bring China freedom, stability, and prosperity. T h e Fourth National Congress of Literature and Art Workers, the first for nineteen years, was held in Beijing

If you feel good He is happy for you; If you are down He shares your grief. Once he has you in his sights An honest comrade is defenceless. When you're confused, he'll enlighten you; If you forget, he'll jog your memory. Gently, patiently he leads you Across the bridge of no return To the place of execution.8

from October 30 to November 16, 1979, beginning with a reminder that Lenin had said that "greater scope must

T h e release of pent-up feeling was everywhere ap-

undoubtedly be allowed for personal initiative, individ-

parent in art between 1 9 7 9 and 1 9 8 1 . In the National

2 18

AFTER

MAO

21.3 Lin Gang and Ge Pengren, Funera! of Zhou Enlai (1977). Oils.

Art Exhibition of October 1979, a whole gallery was devoted to the events of 1976, beginning with the death and funeral of Z h o u Enlai. A particularly striking work, without any precedent in Maoist China, was the large oil painting by Lin Gang and G e Pengren (fig. 2 1 . 3 ) , showing the catafalque approaching a group of m o u r n ers w h o express their grief with restrained intensity. (The model for the girl just to the left of Zhou's photograph was the painter Pang Tao, Lin's wife and the daughter of Pang Xunqin.) Many of the works in that exhibition depicted the seething crowds in Tiananmen Square, the sea of white wreaths, the young poets declaiming their verses. What we might call the "Mulan syndrome" (after the folk heroine w h o took her father's place and fought in the frontier wars) appears everywhere in the art of these years. Lovely girls lie dead or injured in these pictures, as in Luo Zhongli's Song of the Constant Soul, depicting Zhang Zhixin, a young martyr to Jiang Qing's torturers, carried in the arms of a companion, as it seems, up to heaven. 9 Many of these girls falling beneath the clubs of the not-too-clearly defined militia clutch white roses (symbols both of purity and of mourning) in their hands. Ai Xuan's Defending the Wreaths (fig. 2 1 . 4 ) shows a girl with outspread arms at the foot of the Heroes' M e m o rial, her attitude identical with that of the Spirit of the C o m m u n e on Vauthier's memorial wall to the executed Communards of 1 8 7 1 in the Pere-Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Ai X u a n told me he did not know Vauthier's work, which was published in Meishu at about that time,

21.4 Ai Xuan, Defending

the Wreaths (1978). Oils.

as was a lithograph of 1978, based on an old photograph, of the young Z h o u Enlai with his revolutionary c o m panions, standing before Vauthier's relief. 10 Ai X u a n later

W I N T E R

G I V E S

W A Y

TO

S P R I N G

2 1 9

thought his painting crude, which it certainly is when compared with his later work, but it was a vivid expression of the drama of that day. T h e apotheosis of Z h o u Enlai became one of those necessary myths by which a culture sustains itself. Was he really a champion of artistic liberty? B y no means. He was a dedicated Communist. Did he really protect the artists? He would not, or could not, prevent many of the atrocities of the Cultural Revolution—he was Mao's right-hand man, after all. But I was told that a quiet word from him led to the protection of an artist here, a temple or historic monument there. For Z h o u to have opposed the Cultural Revolution would have been to ensure his own destruction; all he could do without exposing himself was to mitigate the lot of some unfortunate artists and writers. What is significant for postM a o China is not what he achieved, but what he is believed to have stood for. His tragedy, and China's, was that M a o survived him. As the reverberations of the Tiananmen Incident faded, artists began to recall the terrible decade that ended in October 1976. O n e popular oil painting, The Orphan by Luo Zhongli, showed a child kneeling on her bed, a broken violin beside her, gazing sorrowfully at a photograph of her father, obviously a musician w h o had fallen victim to the G a n g . " If the events and emotions por21.5

trayed were not so real, this would be an example of

W a n g Tong, Youth (detail) (c. 1980). Oils.

kitsch at its worst. A haunting oil by Wang Tong (fig.

2 1.6

2 1 . 5 ) shows a little girl sitting alone amid the chaos of

G a o Yi, I Love the Oilfield

(c. 1980). Oils

her home. Her parents are in jail, her elder brothers and sisters on the rampage, while with the keys around her neck she is mistress of what is no home any more. T h e look of utter desolation on this child's face would move all but the most stony-hearted. M u c h later, Wang Tong, studying in Connecticut, to her astonishment saw this painting reproduced in a Western magazine; she wrote to me that the child was herself. T h e message of Gao Yi's I Love the Oilfield (fig. 2 1 . 6 ) is equivocal. Clearly, from the suggestion of sudden awareness of each other that passes between the man and woman, it is not the oilfield that this rather forlorn "sent d o w n " city girl will be falling in love with. N o r is the maiden in a diaphanous dress in Huang Guanyu's July (plate 64) likely to be reading The Thoughts of Mao. T h e most popular picture in 1980 was Wang Hai's Spring (fig. 2 1 . 7 ) , of which reproductions were sold by the thousand. It shows a girl standing at her cottage door combing her long hair (itself suggestive of freedom), while the swallows build their nest and her miserable cactus, having barely survived the long winter, puts out its first blossom. Mulan has taken off her armor, and stands dreaming of the future.

2 2 0

AFTER

MAO

were meeting to press for artistic freedom. G e r e m i e B a r m é wrote at the time o f a small courtyard near premier-turned-warlord D u a n Qirui's Beijing residence on D o n g s h i Shitiao that had b e c o m e the scene f o r the b u r geoning unofficial culture o f the city. Each Sunday afternoon anything from a dozen to forty young people would gather to talk, drink and sometimes dance. Everyone brought their own drink and victuals. It was one of the first independent cultural and political salons the city had seen for decades. . . . Apart from many members of the Stars, other people who were often in attendance were the editors and writers of Today, Bei Dao, Mang Ke, Chen Maiping. . . . Participants recall that during the gatherings the various groups tended to keep fairly much to themselves; people did not necessarily mix across the invisible lines drawn by background, affiliation and friendship. The members of the Stars and Today were often together, and the writers gave the first public readings of some of their works there. Bei Dao read Waves . . . and Ma Desheng (one of the leading Stars) performed "Maspeak" (Mayu), an incomprehensible one-man comedy routine for which Bo Yun [the painter Li Yongcun] acted as interpreter. 13

T h e progressive artists and writers did not by any means have it all their o w n way. T h e first ominous signs that the Party was hunting d o w n dissidents appeared in M a r c h 1 9 7 9 w i t h the arrest o f Wei Jingsheng, w h o had insisted that the F o u r Modernizations could not be achieved without a f i f t h — d e m o c r a c y . In October, Wei was sentenced to fifteen years' hard labor. B e f o r e the end o f M a r c h the B e i j i n g M u n i c i p a l Party C o m m i t t e e had 21 .7 Wang Hai, Spring (c. 1978). Oils.

ordered that public gatherings obey the police and had banned photographs, publications, and big-character posters that "opposed socialism." In J u l y a H e b e i j o u r nal called f o r the restoration o f the essentials o f Maoist

T H E B I R T H OF D I S S I D E N T A R T T h e "art o f the w o u n d e d , " as it came to be called, was

literary dogma. Yet the writers and artists did not lose

cathartic, but it did no.t end with dramatic pictures of

heart. T h o s e w h o were sufficiently naive may have been

the Cultural Revolution and the Tiananmen Incident. 1 2

somewhat reassured w h e n , in his address to the congress

T h e evils it exposed went to the very root o f m o d e r n

o f writers and artists, Z h o u Y a n g publicly apologized to

Chinese society, and dissidence, open or underground,

those he had unjustly persecuted, an adroit m o v e w h i c h

f r o m n o w on became a permanent feature o f Chinese

helped ensure his election as chairman o f the A l l - C h i n a

cultural life. In the spring o f 1 9 7 8 , a daring group o f

Federation o f Writers and Artists.

y o u n g abstract painters w h o called themselves the N a m e less (Wuming huahui) held a brief show in Beihai Park. Practically no one went to see it, and it was quickly f o r -

THE STARS

gotten. A n o t h e r dissident group that flowered briefly

trated by the authorities' refusal to give them exhibition

called itself the Grass Society (Caocao). A far more dar-

space, hung their paintings and sculptures o n the railing

O n September 28, 1 9 7 9 , the Stars, frus-

ing group, the Stars (Xingxing), were already planning

outside the C h i n a A r t Gallery. 1 4 N o n e o f them were reg-

their first exhibition.

istered artists, although several, including Yan Li and A i

T h r o u g h that n e v e r - t o - b e - f o r g o t t e n summer, the

Weiwei, son o f the poet A i Q i n g , had managed to get

bolder spirits a m o n g the y o u n g Beijing writers and artists

some training. O f the leaders, H u a n g R u i w o r k e d in a

W I N T E R

G I V E S

W A Y

TO

S P R I N G

2 2 1

leather goods factory; Wang Keping wrote scripts for Beijing Television; M a Desheng designed printed circuits in a research center. W h e n the police came to order their works taken down, Wang Keping and Huang R u i challenged their right to do so. A small crowd gathered. A n officer rashly suggested that the masses would have "some reaction," whereupon several bystanders called out, "We're the masses, and we think this exhibition is great!" W h e n the artists were eventually forced to remove their work, the staff of the China Art Gallery gave it shelter. O n October I, the courageous young Stars staged a march of protest to the offices of the Beijing Municipal 2 1.8 The first Stars exhibition, Beihai Park, Beijing (1979). W a n g Keping discusses his work with Liu X u n of the Beijing Artists Association. 2 1.9 W a n g Keping, The Silent One (1978). W o o d .

Party Committee, headed by M a Desheng under the banner " W e demand democracy and artistic freedom!" T h e y then moved on to Democracy Wall, where Ma addressed the crowd. To their delight and surprise, the Artists Association then arranged for them to hold an exhibition in four rather dark rooms of the Shufang Studio in B e i hai Park (fig. 21.8). Although the Beijing Daily refused to carry their announcement, during the days that the exhibition ran (November 23 to December 2) it was seen by forty thousand people. W h e n Huang Z h e n , minister of culture and himself an amateur painter, was asked in reference to the Stars if art must still serve the workers and peasants, as M a o had insisted, he reportedly said that there was nothing wrong with art for art's sake, and added " I think you can produce just about anything today." In the introduction to their show, the Stars wrote: " T h e shadows of the past and the brightness of the f u ture are entwined to create the reality of our life today. It is our responsibility to be steadfast in our determination to survive, to remember every lesson." 1 5 It was the spirit that moved the twenty-three exhibitors, even more than the content of the show itself, that stirred the imaginations of those w h o saw the exhibition. A m o n g the 1 7 0 paintings, graphics, and works of sculpture shown by the Stars, many were hardly avant-garde, although in the climate of the time anything less than orthodox was startling. There were a few nudes, abstractions, and semiabstractions by Huang R u i , Li Shuang, and others, and imitations of avant-garde Western art, which puzzled their viewers and represented not so much a new movement as an urge to do anything that was different f r o m the general run of accepted art. Far more telling was Wang Keping's powerful "absurd sculpture," as he called it, in wood, which fearlessly attacked censorship and the corrupt dictatorship of the Party. The Backbone of Society was a head with a nose but no nostrils, a mouth but no lips. The Silent One (fig. 2 1 . 9 ) was a mask of a man twisted and choking, with a cylinder stuffed in his mouth. The Art Judge, wearing his heart on his cheek, was a somewhat ungrateful satire on the very establish-

2 2 2

AFTER

MAO

ment that had sanctioned the show. A head swathed in chains was entitled Love. In August 1980, the Stars were given a room for their second official exhibition on the top floor of the China Art Gallery. So great were the crowds that they were soon allotted a second room. This time they had had more time to prepare, and the 1 3 0 paintings, graphics, and works of sculpture by thirty-one artists represented an altogether more substantial show. There were fewer nudes than in 1979, more abstract paintings, an almost surrealist collage by Q u Leilei. T h e note of oppression and of struggle for freedom was sounded in paintings and graphics by Li Shuang, Yan Li, and Ma Desheng (fig. 2 1 . 1 0 ) , while Huang Rui's figure compositions and semiabstract townscapes (fig. 2 1 . 1 1 ) suggest an artistic rather than a political revolt. There were several paintings of the ruins of the Yuanmingyuan, the rococo buildings destroyed by Europeans in 1 8 6 1 , which had acquired a new association as a symbol of a desolate past and hope for the future. This peaceful spot, long popular as a meeting place for students, intellectuals, and lovers, was the setting for a memorable poetry reading organized by Bei Dao, who, with Huang R u i , had founded Jintian

(To-

day), the literary journal which first appeared in Beijing as a wall poster on December 23, 1978. Many of the paintings in this and less provocative e x hibitions of the Peking Spring were full of hidden meanings, not simply to dodge the censor but because by obscurity the artists could express their sense that reality itself was dissolving, taking new shapes not yet fully understood—a counterpart in the visual arts to the trend of menglongshi (obscure or misty poetry). 1 6 But al-

2 1.10 Ma Desheng, Landscape 0980). Ink on paper.

2 1.11 Huang Rui, Listening to Music (1980). Oils.

though the images and the symbolism might be obscure, the message was plain. Bei Dao's poem Our Every Morning Sun, inscribed on a painting by Huang R u i in the second Stars exhibition, sounds a note of hope: . . . Fear and pain that tremble in the w r i n k l e s ' folds Hearts no l o n g e r hide b e h i n d curtains B o o k s o p e n w i n d o w s , and let birds fly o u t freely A n c i e n t trees n o l o n g e r snore, n o l o n g e r b i n d T h e children's n i m b l e legs w i t h w i t h e r e d vines Y o u n g w o m e n return f r o m bathing Trailing stars and a b r o a d m o o n b e a m All o f us have o u r o w n names O u r o w n voices, loves and l o n g i n g s T h e i c e b e r g in a n i g h t m a r e M e l t s in the early m o r n , w h i l e f r o m the l i n g e r i n g night W e lead out o u r shadows M a y the h e a v y m e m o r i e s u n d e r f o o t G r a d u a l l y f a d e as w e w a l k O n the h o r i z o n o f hands j o i n e d to hands E v e r y story has a n e w b e g i n n i n g S o let's b e g i n 1 7

W I N T E R

G I V E S

W A Y

TO

S P R I N G

2 2 3

B u t other poems strike a very different note. J i a n g H e ' s

the official line on art, he replied, " W h e n the artists dis-

Unfinished Poem, printed in the second Stars catalogue,

cover that no one wants to see their w o r k , they will ad-

seems to presage the terrible events o f J u n e 4, 1 9 8 9 :

mit their error, and change their w a y s . " 2 0 In fact the

I am dead. Bullets left in my body holes like empty sockets. I am dead, Not to leave behind whimpering or weeping to impress people, Not to let a lone flower bloom upon a tomb. National emotion is already too full, too rich. The grasslands are drenched with dewdrops. Rivers flow, every day, towards the big ocean, Like old, old wet emotions. Can we really say that we lack emotion and have not yet been moved enough? I am nailed to this prison wall. The hem of my clothes rises to the winds Like a flag about to be raised.18

tremendous success o f the event, together with the hardening o f the Party line that took place that autumn, e n sured that there w o u l d be no more Stars exhibitions. B y 1 9 8 1 , in any case, the group was dissolving. W i t h i n a f e w years Wang Keping and Li Shuang would be in Paris, M a D e s h e n g in Switzerland, H u a n g R u i in Tokyo, A i W e i w e i and Yan Li in N e w York, Q u Leilei in L o n d o n . B u t despite the severe setbacks to come, something irreversible had happened: art had f o u n d a n e w role in China, and f o r the first time since Liberation artists had acted spontaneously. T h e French poet Julien Blaine, w h o met many o f the Stars and writers f o r Today at the 1 9 7 9 exhibition, put it well w h e n he wrote, " I t is important to understand the wild energy that enabled them to create or recreate the history o f art in five years. C u t o f f

T h e organizers o f the second Stars exhibition kept a " G o l d e n B o o k " f o r visitors to express their views. N o t all were complimentary. " Y o u shouldn't be too abstract," w r o t e one. " Y o u should be more careful, and take the masses into consideration." Another, more contemptuously: " I f you want to understand this, go to a lunatic asylum." B u t even Meishu reported that seventy percent o f the comments were favorable. O n e note read: " W a n g K e p i n g , w e congratulate y o u o n your daring. C o m p a r e d w i t h you, the professional sculptors o f C h i n a are like walking corpses." A n o t h e r asked, " H a v e the Chinese people really gone dumb? N o , I have seen that the C h i nese people's spirit is still alive. This is the best exhibition since 1 9 4 9 . F o r many viewers, young people w h o k n e w nothing about art, it was not the quality o f the works to w h i c h they responded but the message o f f r e e d o m and defiance o f authority. Later, in C h e n g d u , an older, conservative painter remarked to me that what was important was not w h e t h e r the works were g o o d or bad but that the authorities had allowed the exhibition to take place at all. A n o t h e r conservative artist in N a n j i n g thought it was g o o d that these y o u n g artists expressed themselves, but f e w had had any training, and " w e older painters wish that they had more tradition behind t h e m . " W h e n I asked J i a n g Feng w h y the Artists Association had permitted an exhibition w h i c h so blatantly violated

2 2 4

AFTER

MAO

f r o m their ancestral roots by the Cultural R e v o l u t i o n , they looked to the West and in a f e w months reinvented everything: fauvism, cubism, impressionism, surrealism, Dada, expressionism, pop-art and hyper-realism. A n d through this reconstruction, w h i c h will doubtless be repeatedly criticised, banned and suppressed, they are on the w a y to finding an identity. T h i s identity is f o r the future, truly f o r the future, whatever may h a p p e n . " 2 1 T h e Stars and the dissident writers o f Today caught the attention o f the world, but they represented only a tiny minority, on the fringes or perhaps at the very narrow cutting edge o f contemporary Chinese culture, and their importance should not be exaggerated. Indeed, the attention they received f r o m foreign observers and critics w i t h a nose f o r trouble was unfortunate, as it inspired many lesser artists in the 1980s to do and make outrageous things simply in order to catch the attention o f foreigners. In the meantime the mainstream o f Chinese painting

flowed

on, less d e f i a n t — a n d m o r e a c c o m -

plished—artists blossoming in the w a r m e r climate after the chaos o f the Cultural R e v o l u t i o n . T h e r e were to be icy gusts to w a r n them o f winter, and the certainty remained that winter w o u l d one day c o m e again, but, as one painter remarked to m e in C h e n g d u in 1 9 8 0 , " W e live f r o m day to day. All w e can think o f is that w e feel freer now. W h a t t o m o r r o w will bring, no one can tell."

THE NEW

CONFLICTING SIGNALS FROM

1 9 8 0 s:

D I R E C T I O N S

AUTHORITY

From Liberation until 1979, there was to all intents and purposes one artistic mainstream in China, positive and inspirational in content and conventional in style. It embraced all art that was approved or tolerated, while freer forms of artistic expression were so rare as to be hardly significant. But from 1979 what Hua Junwu disparagingly called "undirected art" became a band in the spectrum that, though never very wide, shone with a special (if erratic) brilliance and could no longer be ignored. For the first time since Liberation, a handful of artists were acting publicly outside the established artistic order. It soon became clear that the Party was deeply divided about how to deal with this new phenomenon. The vacillations of official policy over the next ten years would make tedious reading were it not that they created the shifting climate in which artists were forced to work. At the Third National Meeting of the Artists Association in November 1979, Jiang Feng had insisted that art must have "collective leadership" and that the tradition of revolutionary art that serves the people must not be forgotten, and he deplored the lack of respect for paintings done by peasants and workers. But another speaker at that meeting said that artists' rights should be respected, even that they should have lawyers to guarantee their rights and freedoms. 1 The issue of Meishu that reported the meeting also carried an article by Wu Guanzhong urging that outdated restrictions on artists be abandoned and welcoming an exhibition by young artists that had to do with "the liberation of people's minds."

Subsequent numbers of Meishu kept up the liberal tone, and aesthetic issues were freely debated. In March 1980, Xiao Daqian upheld the nude. In the ancient Greek Olympics, he says, men and women ran naked. "They could do this because their culture was very advanced and the political system free and open." Wu Guanzhong pleads that the study of the nude is "scientific" and cunningly suggests that young Chinese painters who have never worked from nude models produce, by default, a kind of abstract art, "which people unreasonably object to." But, he says, "Don't exhibit everything in public places. People won't understand it and will think it low and cheap." Moreover, "Don't be conscious that you are painting a naked woman: that way harms art." Ye Qianyu, who may be regarded as a moderate orthodox artist, reminds his readers how in the 1950s paintings had been divided into three kinds: beneficial, harmful, and not harmful. Landscapes and birds and flowers were "not harmful," but one shouldn't paint too many of them. Abstract or expressionist works were of course harmful. Now, he says, all that must change: "Whether beneficial, harmful, or not harmful—what does it matter? In our time we should try some 'unlawful' things to know why they are called harmful." With the open expression of such opinions, it was clear that a momentous change was coming. Obviously worried about this, X u Yang in the same issue of Meishu warns that the painter must not just express what he or she feels but must be with, and feel with, the people. He sees danger ahead: "We are running towards the crossroads." 2

2 2 5

D e n g Xiaoping, in his speech to the January 1980

der heavy fire, being singled out by name in the press;

meeting of the Eleventh Central Committee, had justi-

Yu Feng was thrown into a panic early one morning

fied the purge of artists and intellectuals in the Great Leap

when she heard herself denounced on Beijing R a d i o for

Forward. He maintained that the right to speak out freely,

having published an article in H o n g K o n g in praise of

hold debates, and write wall newspapers guaranteed by

Z a o Wou-ki, w h o was holding an exhibition in Beijing.

Article 45 of the Constitution "had never functioned

B y M a y of 1 9 8 3 , artists and writers began to fear that

effectively" and recommended therefore that this article

the "struggle session" methods of the Cultural Revolu-

be struck out! 3 At a September meeting of the People's

tion were coming back again, and for several months the

Congress, thirty-two hundred out of thirty-four hun-

cutting edge of creative life was severely blunted. 8

dred delegates obediently voted to abolish it. February 1 9 8 1 saw further directives from D e n g

After lengthy debate in the Party, the Anti-Spiritual Pollution campaign was sharply curtailed in January

Xiaoping curbing dissent, and advice to writers to stop

1984—partly because it had been carried to such absurd

producing the "literature of the wounded." In June, the

lengths that it had become a joke. Some artists felt that

Sixth Plenum of the Eleventh Central C o m m i t t e e

the atmosphere remained less free than it had been be-

officially put an end to the liberal policy of the Third

fore the campaign started. And how long would the thaw

Plenum, and the Democracy Movement was crushed. 4

last? In the meantime, however, independent art acquired

In August, a long speech to propaganda officials, " w o r k -

a momentum of its own, and 1984 saw some remark-

ers in art theory," and the press by H u Qiaomu (now

able developments, among them the appearance of per-

president of the Academy of Social Sciences) spelled out

formance art, neo-Dada, and a one-man show of sur-

the limits of free expression, insisting that the " N e w

realist paintings. These activities went hand-in-hand

Hundred Flowers" should not be interpreted as includ-

with student demonstrations demanding more freedom.

ing embracing "bourgeois liberalisation." 5 In Septem-

Predictably, though, the pendulum continued to swing

ber, the editor in chief and deputy editor of the People's

back and forth. In December 1986, the government

Daily, w h o had supported the liberal policy, were dis-

launched a new anti-liberal campaign, and for a while

missed, and many w h o had demanded human rights were

all artistic exchanges with foreign countries were stopped.

arrested and given long prison sentences. In October, Bai

Nineteen eighty-seven began with huge student demon-

Hua, producer of the never-released film Unrequited Love,

strations. H u Yaobang, w h o would neither support the

the story of a patriotic painter w h o had returned from

students nor suppress them, was dismissed as Party Sec-

the United States at Liberation only to be horribly mis-

retary and forced by D e n g Xiaoping to write a confes-

treated in the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1 9 5 7 , was forced to confess his errors. 6

sion; but then again the reins were slackened. T h e arts flowered through 1987 and 1988, putting out some ex-

Through 1982 and much of 1983, the signals from

otic blossoms, notably the highly controversial exhibi-

the top continued to be contradictory. W h i l e H u

tion of the nude staged by the Central Academy in D e -

Qiaomu was taking a very hard line, Z h o u Yang in June

cember and the even more sensational exhibition of

1982 was reaffirming the role of the arts in strengthen-

avant-garde art mounted in Beijing in February 1989 (dis-

ing China's "spiritual culture," urging a moderate course,

cussed in chapter 25). Late in 1988, a strongly antilib-

and even going so far as to defend disco as a part of pop-

eral document on the arts was adopted by the Central

ular culture. Party Secretary H u Yaobang said that "in

Committee of the Party.9 Before it could be put fully

no way should we call a defective work of art counter-

into effect, though, the surging tide of student protest

revolutionary" (though he does not say what he means

and the call for artistic freedom and democracy swept

by "defective") and appealed to artists, w h o by now must

forward, reaching a tragic climax on the night of June

have been utterly at sea about what was permissible and

4, 1989, in the slaughter on the streets of Beijing.

what was not, to rid themselves of any "unjustified sense of insecurity." 7 It was H u Yaobang's essential humanity and (within Party ideological limits) reasonableness that

OFFICIAL

brought about his downfall five years later. His succes-

While independent art became an increasingly tolerated

sor, Z h a o Ziyang, was to be disgraced for the same failings in J u n e 1989. In the same month that H u Yaobang was extending

EXHIBITIONS

part of cultural life, the Artists Association continued to promote the orthodox mainstream through its exhibitions. T h e pages of Meishu, the official organ of the art

his protective arm over the artists, Deng Liqun, director

establishment, often reflected current political priorities.

of the propaganda department of the Central C o m m i t -

W h e n in February-March 1979 China rashly embarked

tee, launched a harsh attack upon "spiritual pollution."

on a short, sharp war with Vietnam, suffering twenty

During the next six months, writers and artists came un-

thousand killed, Meishu responded by carrying articles

2 2 6

AFTER

MAO

22.1 Zhou Sicong, Zhou Enlai among the People (1979). Ink and color on paper. Prizewinning picture at the Thirtieth Anniversary Exhibition of the People's Republic.

and paintings extolling military heroism, the army and

meticulously painted head of a worker, Father (discussed

the people, art and war.

below), which launched the new Sichuanese school of

In the autumn of that year the Artists Association

superrealism with great éclat. This exhibition was notable

staged a huge exhibition to mark the thirtieth anniver-

for its richness and variety of style and subject matter.

sary of the People's Republic. Over 2,400 artists sub-

In November 1 9 8 1 the China Art Gallery staged the

mitted work; 6 1 5 pieces were selected, by 470 artists, pro-

first exhibition of the newly refounded Chinese Paint-

fessional and amateur. Seven issues of Meishu featured

ing Research Society (Zhongguo guohua yanjiu hui).

the exhibition, concluding in May 1980 with repro-

Many old masters attended a meeting at which the ven-

ductions of the eighty-two prizewinning works, almost

erable Marshal Ye Jianying exhorted them to uphold tra-

all of which were orthodox oils, guohua, sculpture,

dition. T h e three hundred works shown included, for

woodcuts, and other graphics. First prize went to Z h o u

the first time, paintings from Taiwan and H o n g Kong.

Sicong's painting of Z h o u Enlai among the people (fig.

Meantime, the National Minorities Institute in Beijing

2 2 . 1 ) , second to a collaborative picture of two young

continued to foster, to "guide," and even to create the

characters in the popular serial Maple, in poses and style

art of the national minorities, sponsoring a huge exhi-

borrowed from N o r m a n R o c k w e l l . 1 0 A m o n g the prize-

bition in February 1982. Peasant art, also supported and

winners were several works inspired by the Tiananmen

guided by the art academies, was the focus of a show in

Incident—almost the last time that paintings on this un-

October of works by 306 artists, one hundred of w h o m

settling subject were given the stamp of Party approval.

were given prizes. Exhibitions such as these were largely

Officially, the period of catharsis was over.

ignored by serious young artists of the " N e w Wave,"

T h e purpose of official exhibitions was to accentuate

discussed below.

the positive. In December 1980, the second National

T h e Anti—Spiritual Pollution campaign launched by

Youth Exhibition featured 554 works, of which 1 5 3 w o n

D e n g Liqun in J u n e 1983 led to a major exhibition that

prizes, a popular choice being Ai Xuan's With High As-

autumn of historical and propaganda art, which must

piration, a study of a girl on crutches standing reading by

have been hastily organized, as it was not previously an-

the bookshelves in her college library. 11 T h e sensation

nounced in Meishu. Prizewinning pictures predictably ex-

of the show was undoubtedly Luo Zhongli's gigantic,

tolled patriotism, support for the army, science, health,

T H E

1 9 8 0 s :

N E W

D I R E C T I O N S

2 2 7

22.2 W a n g Yuqi, In the Fields (1984). Oils.

the one-child family, and even the protection o f antiq-

polar bear and its reflection carved in white marble (see

uities—a sure indication that that was something that

fig. 1 6 . 1 2 ) . Spring Snow by W u G u a n z h o n g was high o n

could n o longer be taken f o r granted as it had been in

the list o f silver medals, but Wang Yuqi's moving, M i l -

the early years after Liberation. 1 2

letesque In the Fields (fig. 22.2), showing workers b i c y -

Far more ambitious was the Sixth National A r t E x -

cling h o m e dirty and exhausted f r o m a day's w o r k in the

hibition o f O c t o b e r 1 9 8 4 , in celebration o f the thirty-

fields, only merited a bronze. Seven special awards were

fifth anniversary o f the founding o f the People's R e -

given to artists f r o m H o n g K o n g and Taiwan, including

public. 1 3 A large selection committee was headed by W u

Liu G u o s o n g and the sculptor Van Lau (Wen Lou).

Z u o r e n (though he was a mere figurehead) and H u a

A l t h o u g h this exhibition was a great advance on what

J u n w u . T h e range o f works exhibited was far wider than

had gone before, it left f e w artists happy. Indeed, the

in any previous exhibition, and although the subjects o f

w h o l e unwieldy apparatus o f official exhibitions, under

the prizewinning pictures were predictable, the standard

the all-seeing eye o f H u a J u n w u , did more to stifle art

was m u c h higher than before. O f the nineteen gold

than to encourage it. Selection committees were huge,

medals the first went to a heavy, impressive study of sol-

cliquish, and divided between the cultural apparatchiks,

diers by Y a n g Lizhou and Wang Y i n g c h u n , the second

w h o insisted on political and ideological criteria, and the

to an elaborate guohua composition inspired by the D u n -

professional artists, w h o were concerned w i t h aesthetic

huang banners, the fourth to an oil o f a small boy gaz-

standards. In the Sixth National Exhibition, for e x a m -

ing at a notice board covered with drawings o f space-

ple, a series o f dreadful equestrian portraits o f military

ships, in the manner o f N o r m a n R o c k w e l l . A series o f

men, painted as nianhua, earned its several perpetrators

illustrations to Lao She's Crescent Moon (see plate 36)

gold medals, w h i l e the artists a m o n g the j u r y had their

earned Li Q u a n w u and X u Y o n g m i n a well-deserved

say w i t h the medals for W u G u a n z h o n g and Wang Yuqi.

gold medal, while another, in the sculpture section, went to Y a n g Dongbai's ingenious and beautifully fashioned

2 2 8

AFTER

MAO

Serious artists might dislike these shows, but they could not afford to ignore them. Private galleries were f o r b i d -

den, so the official exhibitions gave them their only

composition. Zhang Ding has made a successful animated

chance of exposure. Having lost so much of their work

film, and his admiration for Walt Disney shows in the

in the Cultural Revolution, however, they were reluc-

lively movement and humor of his painting.

tant to send in their best. To be sure of acceptance they

A panorama of the mountains and rivers of Sichuan,

had to play it safe with works that were bland, positive,

painted in acrylics on panels and decorating a wall of one

and uncontroversial. Experiment was out of the ques-

of the restaurants (plate 65), is the work of Yuan Yunfu,

tion. I called on Cheng Shifa when he was trying to com-

w h o had studied in Hangzhou and later joined the staff

plete a large composition for the national exhibition of

of the Central Academy of Arts and Crafts. During the

1984. It showed an Overseas Chinese gentleman with

Cultural Revolution he spent three years in the coun-

his granddaughter, a local peasant, and his children, stand-

tryside with Wu Guanzhong, and in 1 9 7 3 he had been

ing side by side looking up at an ancient tree. It was en-

one of the artists recalled in Z h o u Enlai's ill-fated ini-

titled Ten Thousand Generations from One Root. C h e n g

tiative to decorate the Beijing Hotel. Now, in 1979, he

Shifa's heart clearly was not in it, and he was stuck. Years

was at last given a free hand. He brilliantly combined

later he told me that he had finally managed to finish it

traditional technique with realism in the details. T h e pan-

and it had ended up in a government building in Fuzhou.

els can be viewed as a whole as a satisfying, if very f o r -

T h e art academies put on regular shows of the work

mal, composition. W h e n in 1 9 8 1 he painted for the

of staff and students. In October 1985, for example, the

lobby of the Jianguo Hotel a very long panel depicting

Central Academy held the annual exhibitions of the oil

the time-honored Ten Thousand Miles of the Yangzi, he

painting and wall painting research departments; in N o -

treated it appropriately as handscroll, which should prop-

vember it was the turn of the guohua artists, and in D e -

erly be viewed a little at a time. 1 5

cember came the annual general exhibition. T h e acad-

T h e Dunhuang frescoes, with their attenuated maid-

emies also celebrated anniversaries, real or imaginary, with

ens and flying Apsarases (godlings), were also the inspi-

special exhibitions, but they were ceremonial occasions,

ration for The Tale of the White Snake, painted in oil on

of no artistic significance whatever.

canvas by Li Huaji and his wife, Quan Zhenghuan, both trained in Beijing. T h e composition is weak, and Li Huaji at least is capable of more accomplished work. O f the

PUBLIC WORKS: WALL

PAINTING

In China, as in other Communist countries, the state has

same quality is X i a o Huixiang's The Springtime of Science, executed in glazed tiles, in which figures representing

been the chief and often the only patron of the arts. To

the arts and sciences disport themselves playfully amid

be honored with a commission, especially for a large wall

orbs symbolic of atomic nuclei and the heavenly bodies.

painting in a public place, was a step toward the recog-

T h e most successful—not only because it was the most

nition, even fame, that artists so desperately desired, al-

controversial—of the airport decorations is Song of Life

though they had little or no freedom in style or subject

(plate 66) by Yuan Yunsheng, Yuan Yunfu's brother. It

matter. We have seen how Huang Yongyu took on the

depicts the water-splashing festival of the Dai people of

design for the tapestry in the M a o Mausoleum when

Xishuangbanna, an autonomous district of Yunnan that

none of the established artists would risk their reputa-

has long been a mecca for Chinese artists, drawn there

tions with it. Even in less sacred projects, the risk of fail-

by the tropical luxuriance of the landscape, the pic-

ure was great.

turesque villages, and the beautiful women. Yuan Y u n -

While the new Beijing International Airport was un-

sheng's composition is richly conceived, full of action

der construction in 1979, Zhang Ding, w h o had only

and incident, yet revealing a true sense of design. O f the

recently returned from the disciplinary rigors of a May

slender girls splashing each other in the purification cer-

Seventh Cadre School, was asked by the airport author-

emony, two are nude. This was the first time nudes had

ity to put together a team of artists to decorate the public

been permanently displayed in a public place (even if only

halls and restaurants. There was to be no propaganda,

for the eyes of foreigners), and it caused a furor. Party

just landscapes and scenes from mythology and daily life.

officials in Xishuangbanna alleged that the Dai people

Although none of the artists chosen had attempted any-

had objected to them, although they had not. T h e offend-

thing so ambitious before, on the whole the results were

ing section of the wall was curtained off, and in the S o -

successful. 14 Z h a n g D i n g himself took as his theme the

cialist Morality campaign of March 1 9 8 1 paneled over.

legend of the boy hero Nezha, w h o defeats the Dragon

Authorship of the mural is somewhat controversial as

King of the waters and saves China from flood. His panel,

well. During Yuan Yunsheng's long exile in the north-

painted on dry plaster, draws upon traditional figure

east, he had been taken care of by an old friend, the dec-

painting, while from the Dunhuang frescoes he borrows

orative artist D i n g Shaoguang. According to Ding, it was

both the archaic landscape style and the symmetrical

he w h o first brought Yuan to Yunnan, where he had

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2 2 9

been accumulating a mass of drawings and sketches of the Dai people, and when Yuan was given the airport commission he drew heavily on Ding's material: some details of his fresco seem to correspond to drawings that Ding published shortly before leaving for the States in 1980 (fig. 22.3). But Ding Shaoguang later claimed that Yuan had never given him any credit for his help, and was very bitter about it. 16 By 1983, Yuan Yunsheng was artist in residence at Tufts University, where he painted a huge mural based on the Nugua myth in a rather crude manner, inspired partly by Michelangelo and Blake, and by 1984 he was working on another for Radcliffe College. 17 Another ambitious project of this fruitful period was the mural painted in 1980—82 on the end wall of the main dining room of the Beijing Hotel by Liu Bingjiang and his wife, Zhou Ling, both on the staff of the National Minorities Institute. At the Central Academy Liu Bingjiang had been a student of Dong Xiwen, with whom he had visited Dunhuang. He later travelled extensively in the southwest, Tibet, and Xinjiang, collecting a vast number of drawings and sketches. The huge mural in the Beijing Hotel, Creativity Reaping Happiness (plate 67), presents in encyclopedic wealth of detail the whole world, it seems, of the Han Chinese and the national minorities, traditional and modern, rural and urban. The fresco is perhaps a little too overloaded to be completely successful as decoration, but it is a major achievement nonetheless.

22.3 Ding Shaoguang, Village Scene in Xishuangbanna

(1970s). Ink on paper.

These were by no means the only decorative projects carried out in the Peking Spring and after. Wei Jingshan decorated the Hall of Physical Education in Shanghai with appropriate figures. Yuan Yunfu designed a huge symbolic landscape in ceramic tiles for the Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing. The debt to Dunhuang is nowhere more obvious than in the two wall paintings on the theme of the fertile earth and how it enriches our lives, by Li Tanke, Li Jianqun, and others, in the Gansu Hall of the Great Hall of the People, but the artists nevertheless manage to give these panels a modern feeling, with great charm and elegance. Li Huaji and Quan Zhenghuan did a mural in 1981 for the Yuyuantan Park in Beijing, and in the following year Li created a series for the new Beijing Library on the highlights of Chinese culture. Together they also made a pretty mural for the Chinese Cultural Center in N e w York. Many local municipalities took their cue from Beijing, decorating public buildings with the aid of local talent. A successful example is the waiting hall of the bus station in Hefei, Anhui, which Bao Jia and his students adorned with a huge panorama of—inevitably— Huangshan (fig. 22.4), while on the opposite wall they put that most hackneyed theme, the Huangshan Guest-

22.4 Bao Jia, Panorama of Huangshan (c. 1982). Wall painting In bus station In Hefel. In the foreground, Pang Tao, Bao Jia, and Khoan Sullivan.

Greeting Pine. T h e treatment may be conventional, but

was that they vastly enlarged the Chinese artists' expressive

such decorations came as a very welcome change from

language and enabled them to say things that had been

the propaganda paintings that people had hitherto had

forbidden for thirty years, to be up-to-date, to catch the

to put up with.

attention of foreign visitors, and to feel themselves in some way a part of the stream of international modern

N E W

GROUPS

AND

MOVEMENTS,

art.

1 979-83

A m o n g the first signs of this new creative impetus in

Although the Chinese Artists Association would have

Beijing was the N e w Spring Art Exhibition (Xinchun

preferred to initiate all art exhibitions, by the end of the

huazhan), sponsored by the Artists Association and the

1970s the number of artists of all sorts w h o wanted ex-

Zhongshan Park authority in February 1 9 7 9 , in which

posure was causing the stream of art to overflow its official

over forty oil painters showed landscapes and still lifes.

banks. For some time Hua J u n w u was able to contain

T h e participants—young, old, and middle-aged—ranged

the flood by granting exhibitions to independent artists

from Liu Haisu (eighty-two years old), PangXunqin (sev-

w h o came together linked by a common aim, ideal, or

enty-two), and Wu Zuoren (seventy) to recent gradu-

background and petitioned the association to be allowed

ates, including C a o Dali and Feng Guodong. So suc-

a show. These groups and movements came and went

cessful was this event that by the summer the group had

with bewildering rapidity. There was of course the Scar

consolidated as the Beijing Oil Painting Research Asso-

Wave

( s h a n g h e n chad),

visual counterpart of the Scar Lit-

erature inspired by the Cultural Revolution. There were the Life Stream jiufeng),

( s h e n g h u o liu),

the Bitter Past Trend

the Cherish the M o m e n t Trend

the Romantic Craze

(fengqing

re),

(huaisifeng),

(ku-

and

while art-for-art's-sake

had its advocates also. To express their exhilaration, young artists seized upon any and every Western art style and movement they could discover in books and magazines, from Impressionism to Dada and Surrealism. It mattered not whether these styles were understood; what mattered

ciation (Beijing youhua yanjiu hui), or O P R A for short. 1 8 OPR^A's big October exhibition in Beihai Park subsequently went on tour to Canton, Wuhan, Changsha, Hefei, Hangzhou, and Shanghai. Although stylistically it was hardly avant-garde—there were no pure abstractions, and of course no direct protest art—the inclusion of a f e w nudes and expressionist and semisurrealist paintings, such as Feng Guodong's tortured self-portrait (plate 68), made the show controversial enough. Jiang Feng,

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2 3 1

the newly appointed chairman of the Artists Association and an ideological and artistic conservative, at first opposed the N e w Spring group, but he swung around to support them and wrote an encouraging foreword to their show. This exhibition was significant not for its content but for the fact that, after thirty years during which no "undirected" artistic activity had taken place, a group of artists, by no means dissidents, had staged an artistic event on their own initiative and won official approval for it. This was the signal the artists had been waiting for, although in fact the first stirrings had already been seen in Shanghai a few months earlier. Late in 1978, a cultural center had put on small show of work by former "black" artists, including Liu Haisu, Lin Fengmian, and Huang Yongyu—the first time their work had been seen in public for more than twelve years. Out of this little show grew a group of young graduates from Shanghai and Hangzhou calling themselves the Twelve, who mounted their own exhibition in the Shanghai Youth Palace early in 1979. 19 Out of the Twelve came the Grasses (Caocao), whose show, "Painting for the Eighties," was held in the Shanghai Luwan Cultural Palace in February 1980. The exhibition, dominated by the work of Qiu Deshu and Guo Runlin, included cubist and expressionist works, Pollock-like abstractions, symbolism, play with archaic calligraphy, and a nude, which was withdrawn to head off trouble from the authorities. The range of works showed no clear aim or direction, but the insatiable hunger to tear down walls and to explore new ways of painting was evident. N o official body in Shanghai was prepared to sponsor this highly controversial show, and when it closed the group dissolved. Meantime, far away in Quanzhou, the Southern Fujian Art Group flourished briefly at this time, more in touch through their Overseas Chinese contacts with art in Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines than with trends in Beijing and Shanghai. Other modern groups were formed in Xi'an and the northwest. In 1980 the Contemporaries (Tongdairen) persuaded the Artists Association to sponsor their first exhibition in Beijing. 20 Most of these young men and women had been classmates in the middle school of the Central Academy. Unable to study at the Academy in the mid1970s, they stayed together, studying Western art, particularly Matisse and Klimt, from books and old magazines. They included a number of artists who became well known in the 1980s: Zhang Hongnian, Wang Huaiqing (plate 69), Sun Weimin, Li Zhongliang, and Zhang Hongtu. They went their several ways in 1982. Another group founded in 1980 that also had a short life was the Monkey Year Society (Shen she), so named because 1980 was the year of the monkey. It was formed

2 3 2

AFTER MAO

in remote Kunming by artists whose work often featured the minority people of the southwest. 21 In the following year ten artists from the southwest, prominent among them Liu Ziming and Yao Zhonghua, earned national recognition by being granted a show at the China Art Gallery, although the Artists Association, presumably reluctant to acknowledge their independent origin, did not mention the name Shen She. Several of these Yunnanese painters, among them Jiang Tiefeng and Ding Shaoguang, followed Huang Yongyu in painting thickly on both sides of tough Korean paper (gaolizi), which gave their color added depth and brilliance. These "Modern Heavy Color Painters," as they called themselves, were inspired not only by contemporary Western art but also by the tradition of Chinese decorative art, by the Dunhuang wall paintings, and by the batik designs and rich embroideries and jewelry of the southwestern minorities.

SOME

LEADING

OIL

PAINTERS

In 1959, an oil-painting studio had been opened in the Central Academy under Wu Zuoren. 22 At first it bore his name, but it became known as the First Studio in the 1960s when the Second and Third studios opened. They were closed in the Cultural Revolution and not reopened until 1980, when Wu Zuoren had retired and the teaching at the First Studio was in the hands of Ai Zhongxin, Feng Fasi, and Wei Qimei, who, like Wu, stressed the more orthodox European and Soviet techniques. The Fourth Studio, which claims to be more responsive to modern trends, was not opened until 1986; its teachers include Ge Pengren (plate 70) and Lin Gang, who had collaborated on the Zhou Enlai funeral picture; Wen Yidou's son, Wen Lipeng; and Lin's wife, Pang Tao (plate 71), the most original, experimental, and unpredictable of this group. With few exceptions (Pang Tao was one), the products of these four studios could be said to represent the acceptable range of styles in the 1980s. Indeed, few of them broke new ground. Many socialist realists continued to work in a style unchanged— indeed, incapable of change—for there was always a demand for propaganda paintings. Others blossomed. Hu Yichuan began to develop a new freedom in his technique. Feng Fasi, once an impressionist and later a realist, became a (cautious) impressionist once again. Lin Gang tried combining new techniques with old ideas— heroic workers and memories of the Long March, for example—though he only achieved any real individuality in his guohua paintings. Wu Zuoren, seventy-two when his studio reopened in 1980, still painted the occasional picture in oils, as did the seventy-three-year-old Pang Xunqin, whose flower paintings recovered their old warmth and serenity.

A m o n g middle-aged painters, the Tianjin artist H o u Y i m i n , w h o had established himself as a painter of propaganda pictures, now lightened his touch and turned out attractive and very skillful portraits and figure studies, chiefly of the minority peoples. J i n Shangyi, born in Henan in 1 9 3 4 and a student of Maksimov, never ventured beyond a solid academicism. His nudes, figure subjects, and portraits, such as his characteristic study of his friend Huang Yongyu with pipe in hand (fig. 22.5), are both conventional and accomplished. M u c h of the oil painting of this first phase of the modern era has been described as experimental—but it was experimental only by comparison with what had gone before. Little of it was daring or avant-garde. 23 It was rather as if these artists, having been in uniform for thirty years, were putting on their first "civvies," trying on a number of styles and fashions in front of the mirror to see what suited them best. Some found what they wanted, and their styles became unaffected expressions of their personalities: the early work of Wang Yidong, for example, is admirably direct. In his Shandong Peasant

22.5

Girl of about 1983 (plate 72), we find no smiling labor

Jin Shangyi, Portrait of Huang

Yongyu

(1981). Oils.

heroine but a poor, plain country girl, painted with a feeling and tenderness worthy of Millet, that is lacking in his later and more technically accomplished paintings. Others seemed to cast about, to assume a style or series of styles less from conviction than from a desire to be in fashion, or to establish some kind of identity in a world that was becoming rapidly overcrowded.

j i n g in 1947. In the early 1980s he was painting skillful portraits; ambitious orthodox compositions such as Deep Feeling for the Land, which expresses no feeling at all; heavy Tibetans, then much in vogue; and pictures that strove to be deep and meaningful, such as his autobiographi-

O f the artists w h o exhibited with O P R A we should

cal Thinking of the Source of 1 9 8 1 . H e told me in 1984

mention C h e n Y i f e i and Zhan Jianjun, w h o was born

that he admired Chagall more than any other Western

in Liaoning in 1 9 3 1 , had been a pupil of Maksimov, and

artist, but that one could not exhibit that sort of picture

was now a professor at the Central Academy. H e trav-

in Beijing.

elled widely, notably in Xinjiang, and in 1982 he had

Li Zhongliang was another Beijing artist w h o was

even been sent by the Artists Association on a painting

painting heavy Tibetans in the early 1980s, but he also

tour, in company with Wu Guanzhong, to Mali. ( " W h y

painted nudes, and an alluring girl in caminickers—ac-

Mali?" I asked Wu Guanzhong. "Because it was cheap,"

ceptable, he told me, because she was a well-known

he replied.) Zhan Jianjun's work of the 1980s, heavy in

dancer. M o r e impressive were his small illustrations in

color and somewhat labored in technique, seems to be

oil to stories by Lu X u n (fig. 22.6), pictures so intense,

striving for something striking and substantial that has

so accomplished, so close to the spirit of Ah Q and The

no clear aesthetic purpose behind it. His portraits, by con-

New Year Sacrifice, that one is left wondering how an artist

trast, notably that of X i a o M i (plate 73), are admirably

w h o could paint with such honesty and lack of preten-

honest and direct. Huang Guanyu, born in 1949, was

sion could also be so slick and superficial.

another artist w h o tended to load his canvases with thick paint. M u c h of his work is decorative. His best-known and most popular painting, perhaps because it is so evocative of the warmth of the new era, is July, a richly painted study of a slim girl in a white dress reading against a background of flowers in the manner of Gustav Klimt, whose work had been featured in Meishu in May 1980.

Liu Bingjiang, born in Beijing in 1 9 3 7 , had studied under D o n g X i w e n at the Central Academy before b e ing sent to Sichuan in 1964 to do propaganda work for the central government. He met and married Z h o u Ling w h e n both were members of the art department of the Central Nationalities Institute. During the Cultural R e v olution, they were separated for many years. In 1979 Liu

T h e challenge for artists at this time to attempt every-

Bingjiang was a founding member of O P R A ; in their

thing, to be officially accepted and yet be different, can

first exhibition he showed a kneeling nude, inspired, it

be seen in the work of Z h a n g Hongnian, born in N a n -

has been suggested, by a calendar pinup from Southeast

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2 3 3

Asia. B y the early 1980s he too was working in several styles. Perhaps in his strongly painted Little Girl with her teddy bear we may find an echo of Kishida Ryusei's famous series of portraits of his daughter Reiko. Yuan Yunfu was one of the younger artists trained in Hangzhou in the European rather than Soviet style, although he made his home in Beijing. 24 In the 1970s, banished among the peasants of Hubei, he was painting village scenes full of sunlight with a sure sense of design and color. In the mid-1980s he even experimented with abstraction, cautiously naming a composition of flat rectangular patches of color Flags. He later became an important figure in the wall painting program and a p o w erful designer of tapestries. C a o Dali was born in Beijing but grew up mostly in Indonesia, returning to China in 195 5,2:> B y the time he graduated from the painting division of the Central Academy in 1 9 6 1 his early devotion to Gauguin had given way to the orthodoxy of his teacher Wu Zuoren. For years little was heard of him, but published works of the post-Mao era, such as his Bali Spirit (1979) and a Gauguinesque landscape of 1980, suggest that his heart was still in the South Seas. His symbolist, slightly Daliesque The Other Shore (fig. 22.7) of 1983 shows the head of a dark-haired girl appearing over the ocean, separated from the painter, it seems, by a frame suspended in midair beside her; was she the girl he left behind, perhaps? A n oil painting of lotus flowers in the N e w Spring show of 1979, however, already pays tribute to Chinese tradition. His work of the late 1980s is heavily symbolic, "futuristic," and fragmented, showing a confusion of influences ranging from Paul Klee to Francis Bacon. Echoes of post-impressionism appear also in the work of Luo Erchun, one of Yan Wenliang's last pupils in the Suzhou Academy. 26 For a time after he graduated in 1 9 5 1 he made little mark, although he was painting in the beautiful Xishuangbanna region of Guangxi, which o f ten has a liberating influence on Chinese artists. Perhaps

22.6 Li Zhongliang, The New Year Sacrifice

(c. 1982). Oils.

his declared admiration for Gauguin and van G o g h kept him out of the mainstream. B y the early 1980s, h o w ever, he was painting canvases of rural life that seem to sweep away the dust of decades of conventional C h i nese oil painting. T h e y are vibrant with color, with the figures often stylized or distorted in a very natural way (plate 74). Although Yan Wenliang gave him a firm basis in technique, he had found his style, and it was very much his own. While these younger artists were forging ahead, e x ploring new styles and techniques, the gulf between them and their elders rapidly grew wider. T h e really old oil painters knew modern Western art; many had studied it at first hand in Paris and Tokyo. Young artists utterly

234

AFTER

MAO

22

J

C a o Dali, The

THE S C H O O L OF

repudiated the art of the M a o years, reaching out hun-

Other

Shore

( 1 9 8 3 ) . Oils.

SICHUAN

T h e Sichuan Academy in Chongqing emerged from the

grily for anything Western and contemporary. Between

Cultural Revolution solidly orthodox and academic.

them were those in their thirties to fifties, whose model

Typical products were Liu Guoshu's For the Happiness of

had been Soviet art. They were becoming a lost gener-

the Border People, showing smiling P L A men building a

ation, increasingly isolated from new trends. In an effort

mountain road in a snowstorm, and Gao Xiaohua's Run-

to establish their credentials in a fast-moving artistic

ning for the Train, a scene of bustle in a crowded station

world, a group of these artists, calling themselves the Ban-

almost worthy of the popular Victorian artist W. P. Frith.

jiezi, the "halfway through," mounted a big exhibition

T h e post-Mao perestroika introduced a new and very

in the early winter of 1985. 2 7 A m o n g the oil painters

different note.

were Wen Guochang, w h o submitted a portrait of two

Some of the worst fighting of the Cultural R e v o l u -

children in the German expressionist manner; Zhan

tion took place in Sichuan, where thousands were killed.

Hongchang; and Wu Xiaochang, w h o showed a por-

In the winter of 1 9 6 7 - 6 8 , pitched battles were fought

trait of Z a o Wou-ki's wife, Françoise Marquet. There

in Chongqing between rival R e d Guard bands armed

were conventional guohua paintings by Shang Tao and

with rifles and bayonets, along with such improvised

more expressionist ones by Yang Lidan and Shi Hu, as

weapons as clubs, crowbars, and vials of sulphuric acid.

well as sculpture by C h e n g Ya'nan and Sun Jiaban.

At one time they even used artillery. C h e n g Conglin's

T h e i r exhibition had first been canceled in the

Snow on X Month X Day, ig68

(fig. 22.8) depicts an in-

Anti-Spiritual Pollution drive, after which, they wrote,

cident during the long conflict in Sichuan w h e n rival

they had kept "as silent as a cicada in cold weather" out

R e d Guard factions had inflicted terrible suffering on

of fear. W h e n they finally showed, they wryly noted in

each other; Soviet realism is here used to great dramatic

their manifesto: "People feel sorry for us. Those w h o

effect. Hardly less effective is Z h u Yiyong's Father and

came before us say we are chicks that haven't yet come

Son (fig. 22.9). In this large painting the penitent son

out of the shell. Those w h o come after us aren't satis-

kneels at the feet of the father (is the striking resemblance

fied either: they say we are just preserved eggs." 2 8 It is

to Boris Pasternak intentional, one wonders?) he has be-

even more true of the Banjiezi than it was of the Twelve

trayed during the Cultural Revolution, w h o is about to

and the Painting for the Eighties group that their eclec-

be taken to prison. A crowd of young people outside

ticism stemmed from eagerness to be accepted in the new

the courthouse, presumably the professor's former stu-

stream rather than from any real understanding of the

dents, look on, thoughtful, moved, ashamed.

styles they adopted. This brave show did little to help their cause.

At this time many artists were sent to remote country farms and villages. If life for the older ones was barely

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2 3 5

22.10

He Duoling, Spring Breezes Have Arrived

(1980). Oils.

tolerable, some tough and resilient young painters were

Between 1980 and 1982 Luo Zhongli produced an

able to use that experience as a source of inspiration—

impressive series of canvases, massive in conception,

none more effectively than Luo Zhongli. 2 9 B o r n in B i -

meticulous in recorded detail, deeply human. Years, for

shan in 1948, he entered the Sichuan Academy prepara-

example, depicts a white-haired old lady sunning her-

tory middle school in 1964. O n graduating in 1968, at

self in the doorway of her cottage. In Waterfrom the Eaves,

the height of the Cultural Revolution, this dedicated

a peasant girl washes her feet at the end of the day's work.

young revolutionary went deep into the remote Daba

Spring Silkworms, Weighing the Baby, Napping—in

mountain area on the Sichuan-Shaanxi border and lived

pictures a new kind of Chinese realism has emerged, o w -

there for ten years, sharing the hard life of the peasants.

ing far less to the American photo-realists than it does

In 1978 he came down to Chongqing, where, after grad-

to Luo Zhongli's own experience, and to his admiration

uating from the academy, he joined the staff as an in-

for Millet.

structor in oil painting.

these

Such was the reception of Father that L u o Zhongli

B y 1980, he was using the accumulated sketches from

was tempted to try to repeat its success three years later

his years in Dabashan to create an impressive series of

with Father II. Here another old peasant, eyes shut, blows

paintings of the peasants he had come to k n o w so inti-

his traditional suona horn—in celebration, critics claimed,

mately. T h e idea for his most famous picture, Father

of the n e w prosperity and hope for the future, although

(plate 75), a gigantic canvas filled with the sweating, tur-

the somber mood of the painting rather suggests a rus-

baned head of a peasant holding a bowl, is said to have

tic funeral. Impressive as the painting is, greater techni-

come from seeing in a Chinese art magazine a repro-

cal smoothness and a more calculated effect of light and

duction of a photo-realist painting by American artist

shade rob it of the visual impact of its famous prede-

C h u c k Close. Luo Zhongli himself described how he

cessor. B y this time, Luo Zhongli had achieved interna-

had come upon the peasant in 1 9 7 5 , watching the night-

tional fame. H e was invited as visiting artist by the B e l -

soil pit that manured his meager plot, and was spellbound

gian Academy in Antwerp, and in the following year held

by "his immobile figure—silent, staring, anesthetized." 30

a one-man show at Harvard University.

T h e painting w o n first prize in the 1980 National Youth

Realism of a more subjective kind, along with a fas-

Exhibition in Beijing and sent shock waves through the

cination with oil technique, drew a number of Chinese

art world; its uncompromising honesty and realism di-

artists at this time to the work of Andrew Wyeth, whose

rectly challenged the principles of Revolutionary R o -

meticulous rendering of the visible world seemed un-

manticism. It was on the insistence of Li Shaoyan, chair-

clouded by any ideology. H e Duoling, born in Chengdu

man of the Sichuan Artists Association, that Luo Zhongli

in 1948, frankly acknowledges his debt to Wyeth's

added the ballpoint pen behind the peasant's ear, to show

Christina's

that he was modern, educated, and prosperous.

2 2 . 1 0 ) , in which a young peasant girl sits pensive on the

World in Spring Breezes Have Arrived

T H E

1 9 8 0 s :

N E W

D I R E C T I O N S

(fig.

2 3 7

grass, every blade accurately rendered, accompanied by

ters of oil painting—all born in or before 1 9 0 3 — s u r -

her dog and resting buffalo.

vived, though their energies were almost exhausted.

Two of the more noted artists of the "Sichuan School"

Z h o u Bichu, a frail eighty-two when I called on him in

are not Sichuanese at all. C h e n Danqing, born in Shang-

1 9 8 5 , only dimly remembered his life in Paris, Xiamen,

hai in 1 9 5 3 , spent some time in rural Jiangxi before grad-

and H o n g K o n g before his return to China and to great

uating from the Central Academy, but in the 1970s he

travail in 1959. N o r m a l life had long since come to an

joined his artist wife, Huang Suning, in Tibet, and the

end for him, although in the early 1980s he painted a

years he spent there inspired a series of impressive paint-

few landscapes in his conservative impressionist style.

ings of Tibetan men and women, monumental in con-

Wu Dayu (fig. 2 2 . 1 1 ) had rejoined the Hangzhou

ception and richly realistic in technique, which put him,

Academy after the war, but Liberation drove him into

at this stage of his career at least, in the company of Luo

seclusion in Shanghai. He continued to paint, although

Zhongli and other Sichuan realists such as Z h o u Chunya

the almost total destruction of his life's work by the R e d

and Yuan Min. Ai X u a n was born in Zhejiang in 1947,

Guard would have been enough to kill the spirit of any

and he also graduated from the Central Academy in B e i -

artist. W h e n Liu Haisu came to Paris in 1980, he

jing. We have already noted Defending the Wreaths, his

brought news of Wu Dayu to his former student, C h u

contribution to commemorating the Tiananmen Inci-

Teh-chun, reporting that the old painter was still talk-

dent. His travel to Sichuan was a turning point in his ca-

ing of Cezanne; C h u sent him a big box of oil paints.

reer, for from Chengdu he set out on longjourneys onto

Recognition of a sort came in 1 9 8 1 , when Meishu re-

the Tibetan tableland, creating then and later a series of

produced one of his abstractions in color—upside down,

memorable canvases in which he found his style, cap-

to which Wu remarked that it didn't matter, it would

turing perfectly the m o o d of this sparse region and its

look right way up from the moon. Before he died in 1988

inhabitants (plate 76). C h e n Danqing's heroic Tibetans

he had painted six more abstract expressionist paintings.

toil, embrace, strip to wash themselves; so strong is their

It seems that these are all that survive of his life's work,

physical presence that w e can almost smell them, almost

apart from some "gestures with the brush" that he made

hear them laugh and chatter. Ai Xuan's Tibetans live in

when his hands were so crippled with arthritis that he

a desolate, cold, empty, world in which the only sound

could no longer control it.

that breaks the silence is the moan of the unceasing wind. H e achieved instant and deserved acclaim when his paintings were shown in N e w York—with the unhappy result that what began as the expression of intense personal experience declined after the mid-1980s into the expert repetition of a successful formula. But by the early 1990s he was painting close-up studies of young Tibetan women and children that have a haunting beauty not easily forgotten.

Both Z h o u Bichu and Wu Dayu had been elected to membership of the Shanghai Oil Painting and Sculpture Research Institute (Shanghai youhua diaosu yuan), which had been founded under another name in 1 9 6 5 . 3 1 This curious body consisted largely of orthodox realist oil painters and sculptors, a company into which Wu Dayu, at least, seems not to fit at all. It is hard to see the raison-d'etre of this institute, as its members do no teaching, and since state patronage declined there has been little demand for their work and little stimulus or c o m petition among them. Most remained isolated from the new trends of the 1980s, or made halfhearted attempts

THE S L O W A W A K E N I N G

OF

SHANGHAI

For several years after the death of Mao, Shanghai remained artistically sterile. T h e academies of music and drama had a vigorous life, as musicians gladly abandoned The Red Detachment and the Yellow River Concerto for Bach and Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, and in fact it was

to imitate them. A m o n g its better-known members were Wang Yongqiang, w h o painted heroic military pictures and later conventional oil portraits; Wei Jingshan; and C h e n Yifei, w h o was to find fame and fortune in N e w York with his photographic portraits and endlessly repeated views of the waterways of Suzhou.

in the theater design department of the Academy of

In 1983 Shanghai University established an art de-

Drama that several of the younger and more adventur-

partment, and it has since become the focus of main-

ous painters got their first training. But Mao's deliber-

stream art in the city. 32 A m o n g its competent if unad-

ate destruction of Shanghai's artistic world was harder

venturous members active in the mid-1980s we would

to repair. After the closing of the private art schools and

put Han Heping, H u Li, Yu Shaofu, and Tang Muli, a

the departure of leading artists, including Liu Haisu, to

skillful painter of luscious nudes w h o spent the years

Nanjing and Hangzhou, the rump Shanghai College of

1981—84 on a British Council scholarship at the Royal

Fine Arts (Shanghai meishu zhuanke xuexiao) under Mao

College of Art in London. He has since settled in M o n -

Luoyang did little to revive art. A handful of old mas-

treal.

2 3 8

AFTER

MAO

partment, sacred to the memory of X u Beihong, and the Academy of Art, dominated by the vigorous figure of Liu Haisu and the gentler presence of the venerable Yan Wenliang—resumed much where they had left off in the Cultural Revolution. T h e Hangzhou Academy in the early 1980s was still under heavy political control, so remote as to feel only faindy the fresh breeze of the Peking Spring. Soviet influence (in the work, for example, of the oil painter Quan Shanshi) was dominant, while the teaching faculty seemed to be generally ignorant of, or hostile to, modern Western art. Few had heard of Z a o Wou-ki or wanted to talk about him. T h e art library was wretched, and most of it in any case was inaccessible to students. T h e president, M o B u , was a wood-engraver from the Lu X u n Academy in Yan'an; among the other faculty, Z a n g Z o n g y a n g made decorative paintings of minority girls, while Wang Dewei was a facile oil painter w h o visited France and Italy in 1 9 8 3 . In May 1985 Z a o Wou-ki, now a successful abstract expressionist in Paris, was invited back to teach in his alma mater after an absence of thirty-seven years. H e found the school little touched by the changes that were going on in B e i j i n g . 3 3 Twenty-six teachers and students gathered for his course, some from as far afield as Xi'an, Chongqing, and Canton (fig. 2 2 . 1 2 ) . H e found Hangzhou still painting in the Soviet method. His hopes 22.11 W u Dayu, Beijing Opera (c.1980). Oils.

were raised when one

fifty-one-year-old

teacher from

the northeast asked him whether he was too old to become his student, but w h e n the teacher went on to say, " B u t we have learned painting differently from y o u —

W h y was Shanghai so slow to recover? A local artist

putting down then adding the colors one by one, more

told me that the city had never felt the shock and ex-

and more," he realized that it would be a hard task to

citement of the Peking Spring. Shanghai, as he put it,

get him to change his ways. Z a o Wou-ki almost gave

was much more "level." There was only a slow, sluggish

up. " I f you find more in what you have learned already,"

thaw; consequently, people were hardly aware of the

he replied, "then you have no business here, and nor have

change. Moreover—and this was a key factor—Shang-

I . " Another student, set by Z a o to draw from the model

hai's foreign community was almost nonexistent. In B e i -

for two days, challenged him: " Y o u are an abstract

jing, even when the cultural establishment was indiffer-

painter. W h y don't you make us do abstractions? Are

ent or positively hostile to new trends, young artists

you afraid you'll run into political trouble?" Z a o W o u -

worked under the eye of foreign visitors, diplomats, col-

ki was already discouraged, as he wrote in his autobiog-

lectors, and journalists eager to discover any new thing.

raphy, at the long road he'd have to tread just to explain

Their presence, patronage, and power to get recognition

to them that his presence there had nothing to do with

abroad for these artists were powerful encouragements

politics.

that were entirely lacking in Shanghai, where, as late as

Z a o Wou-ki's effort to instill a new approach to paint-

1989, the avant-garde painter Yuan Shun said to me,

ing left him drained and depressed. " I was the object,"

"Perhaps three hundred people like what we are doing,

he wrote, "rather of their veneration—for reasons that

another three hundred hate it. T h e rest couldn't care less."

are obscure and not necessarily connected with my painting—than of the attention one pays to someone one is

NANJING AND

HANGZHOU

Nanjing and Hangzhou were also slow to wake from their

trying to understand." B u t it must have been some reward for his efforts that before he left Hangzhou his students, on the initiative of Wu Xiaochang, founded a so-

slumbers, and for the same reasons. T h e two rival art

ciety dedicated to the new approach to painting with

schools in Nanjing—the Normal University Art D e -

which he had fired them. They wanted to name it after

T H E

1 9 8 0 s :

N E W

D I R E C T I O N S

2 3 9

22.12 Zao W o u - k i teaching in Hangzhou (1985).

him, and w h e n he would not consent, they called it the Twenty-eight Painting Society (after the number o f members). From the works they painted together, Z a o Wou-ki selected fifty-eight for exhibition in China and Paris. B u t nothing came of it, and the Twenty-eight went the way o f all the other ephemeral societies.

2 4 0

AFTER

MAO

2 ( C h ' e n W e n - h s i , 1 9 0 6 - 9 1 ; b. G u a n g d o n g ) G u o h u a and x i h u a painter. T r a i n e d in X i n h u a Acad., Shanghai. 1949 settled in Singapore. C h e n X i a n h u i P . Ü M (Paul M e n ; b. 1962, Taiwan) Sculptor. S t u d i e d in N T N U art d e p t . W o r k s in Taipei. C h e n X i a o n a n I ^ B ^ ] ^ (b. 1909; native o f Lixian, Jiangsu) Painter. Pupil o f X u B e i h o n g in N a n j i n g . 1 9 4 7 - 4 8 in

B I O G R A P H I C A L

I N D E X

2 9 9

London on British Council scholarship. Later taught in Canton Acad. Chen Xiayu K Ä M (b. 1917,Taiwan) Sculptor. 1933-42 studied and worked in Tokyo, later in Taipei. Chen Xinmao E ^ f r ® (b. Shanghai) Painter. 1976-87 studied in Shanghai and Nanjing. In 1980s member of Shanghai avant-garde movement. Chen Yanning ^ f i f ^ (b. 1945, Canton) Realist oil painter, specializing in portraits and figure subjects. 1965 grad. from Canton Acad. 1985 visited Australia. 1986 visited Britain and emigrated to U.S. Chen Yanqiao g i f t (1912-70; native of Canton) Woodengraver. 1930 active in woodcut movement in Shanghai with Ye Fu. D u r i n g W W I I , taught in Chongqing Yu Cai middle school. After 194?, worked for CAA. Chen Yifei (b. 1946, Zhenhai, Zhejiang) Oil painter. Studied in Shanghai Coll. of Art. 1965 founding member of Shanghai Oil Painting and Sculpture Institute. 1981 went to study in U.S. 1985 M.F.A., Hunter Coll., N e w York. Settled in U.S., where he became a highly successful painter of portraits, landscapes, and figure subjects. Chen Yiming ÜH,§ (b. 1951, Shanghai) Oil painter. Younger brother of Chen Yifei.Trained in Shanghai Drama Acad. 1981 moved to U.S. Chen Yingde tH (b. 1940, Taiwan) Painter and art critic. Studied art history in N T N U , then from 1969 continued Ph.D. study in art history in Paris. Later became professional artist and settled in Paris. Chen Yiqing pf Painter. His Out of Qinghai won a silver medal at the seventh National Exh., 1987. Chen Yuandu ß t i l c ' g (1903-67; b. Meix., Guangdong) Guohua painter working in Beijing. Member of Hushe Soc. After 1949 taught in CAAC. Chen Yujiang lUiispSüf Printmaker, active in Hangzhou in 1980s and 1990s. Chen Yuping E S S E 2 ? Printmaker. Beidahuang (Northern Wilderness) School. Active in north China in 1980s and 1990s. Chen Yusheng (Gaylord Chan; b. 1925, Hong Kong; native of Putian, Fujian) Electronic engineer and abstract artist. 1992 named artist of the year by the Hong Kong Artists Guild. Chen Z h e n g h o n g E ^ i & S (b. 1942, Jiayi,Taiwan) Oil painter. Studied in Taipei under Liaojichun and others. 1982 first solo exhib. Has won many awards. Chen Zhengxiong I S i l E i S (b. 1935,Taipei) Abstract Expressionist painter. Participated in many exhibs. in Taiwan and abroad. 1981 founding member of Taipei Art Club. Chen Zhifo M . 2 . B (Ch'en Chih-fu, 1896-1962; b. Ciqix., Zhejiang) Graphic designer and guohua painter, esp. of birds and flowers. 1918 studied in Japan. 1923 returned to Shanghai, taught in various art colleges and universities. Principal of Shanghai Nat. Arts Coll. Member of the Chinese and Arts committees of U N E S C O . After 1949 director of CAA. Chen Zhonggang ßjjif'f'fP! Wood-engraver, active in 1930s. Worked in Canton. Chen Zizhuang l ^ - f - f t i : (1913-76; b.Yongchuan, Sichuan) Guohua painter, influenced by Huang Binhong and Qi Baishi. Teacher in Chengdu Normal Univ. Chen Zongrui lisft^iiM (Ch'en C h o n g Swee; b. 1911, Guangdong) Guohua painter. Trained in Shanghai Acad. Since 1931 has lived and worked in Singapore.

3 0 0

B I O G R A P H I C A L

I N D E X

Cheng Chang. See Z h e n g Wuchang C h e n g Conglin (b. 1954, Wanx., Sichuan) Oil painter. 1977 entered Sichuan Acad., Chongqing. After grad. taught there and for two years at CAFA. 1991 in Germany. C h e n g j i IM2& (b. 1912, Wuxi) Watercolor painter. Trained in England; taught in Shanghai. 1947 settled in U.S. C h e n g Shifa (b. 1921, Songjiangx., Jiangsu; native of Shanghai) Guohua painter, illustrator, and calligrapher. 1938 entered guohua dept. of Shanghai Coll. of Art. After 1949 on staff of People's Art Publishing House; produced many picture-stories, new year pictures, and book illustrations. 1959 won second prize for book illustration at the Leipzig International Exhib. of Book Decoration. M e m b e r of CAA, vice-president of Xiling Print Assoc. Cheng Tsai-tung. See Z h e n g Zaidong Cheng Ya'nan Woman sculptor, active in 1980s and 1990s. Chen-ping, Dawn. See D o n g Zhenping C h e o n g Soo Pieng. See Z h o n g Sibin C h e u n g Yee. See Zhang Yi Chhuah Thean Teng. See Cai Tianding Chia Yu Chian. See Xie Yuqian Ch'iu Ya-ts'ai. See Qiu Yacai Cho, Y. J. See Z h u o Yourui Choi Chor-foo. See Cai Chufu Choo Keng-kwang. See Z h u Qingguang Chou, Irene. See Z h o u Liiyun C h o u Su-ch'in. See Zhou Xiqin Chow, C . T . See Zhou Zhentai C h o w Su-sing. See Zhou Xixin Chu Ge (Ch'u Ko). See Yuan Dexing Chu Hon-sun. See Zhu Hanxin Chu Teh-chun. See Z h u Dequn Chui Tze-hung. See Xu Zixiong Cui Zifan i M ^ I E (b. 1915, Laiyang, Shandong) Guohua painter. Studied with Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi. 1940 went to Yan'an. Also worked as urban administrator. 1956 teacher and vice president of CAFA. 1980 visited U.S. and Japan. Dai Dunbang g o i t f ? (b. 1938, Shanghai) Book illustrator and guohua painter, active in Shanghai. 1980 participated in the Grasses exhib. In 1980s teaching at Jiaotong Univ. Inst, of Technology. Noted for his illustrations to The Dream of Red Mansions and Oullau's of the Marshes. Dai Haiying (Tai Hoi-ying; b. 1946, Canton) Oil painter, educated in Canton and, from 1962, in H o n g Kong. 1970 settled in Paris. Dai Shihe i c ± f t l (b. 1948, Beijing) Oil painter. Grad. in 1981 from CAFA wall painting dept.Teaches wall painting in CAFA. Dawn Chen-ping. See Dong Zhenping De Qin (b. 1955, Inner Mongolia) Oil painter. 1979 grad. from Lu X u n Acad, of Fine Arts. Specializes in north China rural scenes. D e n g Lin (b. 1941, Shexian, Hebei) Painter. Daughter of Deng Xiaoping. 1962—67 studied in Chinese painting dept of CAFA. 1977 became professional painter. 1979 deputy director of bird and flower studio in Beijing Painting

Acad. A f t e r 1986 b e c a m e abstract painter and silk tapestry designer. D i Pingzi S c Z p i ( 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 4 9 ; native o f Liyang, Jiangsu) G u o h u a p a i n t e r and collector. Pupil o f W u C h a n g s h u o . Active in Shanghai g u o h u a circles. K n o w n for his l a n d scapes in b o t h academic a n d literati style. D i n g C o n g ^ T l ^ (Xiao D i n g ; b. 1916, Shanghai) C a r t o o n i s t a n d illustrator. Son of cartoonist D i n g S o n g . Before W W I I e d i t e d pictorial magazines, chiefly in Guilin a n d C h e n g d u . Travelled a n d d r e w in b o r d e r area. Active in H o n g K o n g a n d later west C h i n a d u r i n g W W I I . 1946 back to S h a n g hai, later H o n g Kong, w o r k e d for several periodicals. 1948 visited Taiwan. A f t e r 1 9 4 9 on staff o f China Pictorial, Beijing. N o t e d for his social satire and his illustrations to Lu X u n ' s fiction. D i n g Fang (b. 1956, Shanxi) O i l painter. 1986 M . A . in oil p a i n t i n g f r o m N a n j i n g Acad, of A r t . Professional artist and m e m b e r o f avant-garde m o v e m e n t . D i n g Lisong 1990s.

G r a p h i c artist, active in 1980s and

D i n g Shaoguang (b- 1939, Shanxi) Decorative artist. S t u d i e d decorative art u n d e r P a n g X u n q i n . 1 9 6 2 taught in art school in K u n m i n g . 1979—80 c o m p l e t e d h u g e d e c o r a tive wall panel for the G r e a t Hall of the People. 1980 w e n t to t h e U.S.; w o r k s in Los Angeles. D i n g S o n g T ' f f i (1891—?) C a r t o o n i s t . Father of D i n g C o n g . 1 9 1 2 s t u d i e d u n d e r Z h o u X i a n g in Shanghai. Later taught, e d i t e d j o u r n a l s , and d r e w c a r t o o n s in Shanghai. Still active after W W I I . Ding Xiongquan (Walasse T i n g ; b. 1929, Shanghai) S e l f - t a u g h t painter. 1 9 5 3 w e n t to Paris. 1963 settled in the U.S. Abstract painter in the 1960s; later developed an e x pressionistic figurative style. D i n g Y a n y o n g T f f i i l ( T i n g Yen-yung, 1 9 0 2 - 7 8 ; b. M o u rning, G u a n g d o n g ) G u o h u a painter. 1919 studied in Japan. 1925 r e t u r n e d to S h a n g h a i . T e a c h e r of Western p a i n t i n g at Shanghai Coll. o f Art, X i n h u a A r t Acad., a n d G u a n g d o n g Prov. A r t Acad, in C a n t o n . 1949 settled in H o n g Kong. A f t e r 1957 teacher and c h a i r m a n of fine arts dept. o f N e w Asia College. Chiefly k n o w n for his eccentric figure paintings. D i n g Yi T Z . (b. 1963) M e m b e r o f the p o s t - 1 9 8 9 avantgarde m o v e m e n t . D o n g Kejun (b. 1939, C h o n g q i n g ) Self-taught w o o d engraver f r o m a w o r k e r b a c k g r o u n d . Settled in Guiyang. C h a i r m a n o f G u i z h o u b r a n c h of C A A . N o t e d for his a n i mals a n d tribal figures. D o n g K i n g m a n . See Z e n g J i n g w e n D o n g S h o u p i n g H i d 2 ? (b. 1904, Shanxi) G u o h u a painter. 1926 grad. f r o m art coll. in Beijing. 1930 set u p as professional bird a n d flower p a i n t e r a n d connoisseur, later develo p e d as landscapist. 1 9 5 3 j o i n e d staff o f R o n g b a o z h a i , Beijing. D o n g X i w e n j r ^ f f j i C ( 1 9 1 4 - 7 3 ; native of Shaoxing, Z h e jiang) O i l painter. 1 9 3 3 studied in S u z h o u Acad. 1 9 3 4 - 3 7 studied in N A A H a n g z h o u . 1 9 4 3 - 4 6 assisted C h a n g S h u h o n g at D u n h u a n g . 1946 taught u n d e r X u B e i h o n g in N A A B e i j i n g . 1949 prof, at C A F A . 1 9 5 3 p a i n t e d h u g e canvas o f t h e declaration o f the f o u n d i n g o f the P . R . C . at Tiananmen. D o n g Z h e n g y i H I E S (b. H u x i a n , Shaanxi) Peasant painter, active in 1960s. D o n g Z h e n p i n g S E i S ^ F ( D a w n C h e n - p i n g ; b. 1948,Taipei) W o m a n sculptor. G r a d . f r o m N T N U ; M.F.A. f r o m U t a h State U n i v . W o r k s chiefly in stone.

Duan Haikang

Sculptor. 1988 grad. f r o m C A F A .

Ecke, Betty. See Z e n g Youhe Fan Z e n g ï f ê l t ' (b. 1938, N a n t o n g , Jiangsu) G u o h u a painter. Studied in C A F A u n d e r W u Z u o r e n , Li Keran, and others. 1986 dean of oriental art dept. o f N a n k a i U n i v . , T i a n j i n . N o t e d for his paintings o f historical figures. 1991 left C h i n a for E u r o p e . Fang C h a o - l i n g . See Fang Z h a o l i n Fang G a n m i n J î ^ f g ( 1 9 0 6 - 8 4 ; b. W e n l i n g x . , Z h e j i a n g ) O i l painter. S t u d i e d in Shanghai M e i z h u a n and (1926—29) u n d e r Laurens at the Ecole S u p é r i e u r e des B e a u x Arts, Paris. T a u g h t in X i n h u a Acad, and N A A H a n g z h o u . D u r i n g W W I I w o r k e d on propaganda paintings for Nationalist g o v e r n m e n t . 1948 had studio in Shanghai. 1959 r e t u r n e d to teach at N Z A F A . F a n g j i n s h u n ^ j m ® ( A n t h o n y P o o n ; b. 1945, Singapore) Painter. Trained in N a n y a n g Acad, in Singapore a n d B y a m S h a w School o f Art, L o n d o n . W o r k s in Singapore. F a n g j i z h o n g J î î f f î ^ i ( 1 9 2 3 - 8 7 ; b. Shaanxi) G u o h u a painter, well k n o w n for his goats. 1 9 4 6 - 4 7 studied u n d e r Z h a o W a n g y u n . After 1949 m e m b e r o f Friendship Assoc. o f Shaanxi Province. Fang J u n b i J g i (Fan T c h u n - p i , 1 8 9 8 - 1 9 8 6 ; native o f F u z h o u ) W o m a n oil and g u o h u a painter. 1 9 1 2 w e n t to Paris, a d m i t t e d to Ecole des B e a u x Arts. 1925 r e t u r n e d to C h i n a , taught in G u a n g d o n g Univ. 1 9 2 6 - 3 0 stayed in Paris, then back to C h i n a again. 1 9 4 9 - 5 6 lived in Paris, then in the U.S., w i t h f r e q u e n t visits to t h e Far East. Fang Lijun (b. 1963, H e b e i ) Painter. 1 9 6 3 grad. f r o m wall painting d e p t . o f C A F A . Professional painter, p a r t i c i pated in 1989 C h i n a / A v a n t - G a r d e e x h . Fang R e n d i n g A 5 Ê (1901—75; native of Z h o n g s h a n , G u a n g d o n g ) G u o h u a painter, m e m b e r o f Lingnan S c h o o l . 1923 studied in C h u n s h u i Acad, u n d e r G a o J i a n f u . 1 9 2 9 studied in Japan. 1935 back to C h i n a , w o r k e d in C a n t o n and H o n g Kong. B e c a m e v i c e - d i r e c t o r o f C a n t o n P a i n t i n g Acad. N o t e d for his figure painting. FangYong ( 1 9 0 0 - ? , Sichuan) O i l painter. 1 9 1 9 w e n t to Paris. Impressionist style, in the school of Pissarro. 1 9 4 8 r e t u r n e d to C h i n a , w h e r e he d i e d in obscurity. Fang Z e n g x i a n " J j i ^ ^ c (b. 1931, Lanxix., Z h e j i a n g ) painter, esp. o f n o r t h C h i n a rural life. Also p a i n t e r pictures. Grad. and later assoc. prof, a n d c h a i r m a n hua d e p t . in N Z A F A . Prof, and head o f Shanghai

Guohua o f serial of guoAcad.

Fang Z h a o l i n I S S U (Fang Chao-ling; b. 1 9 l 4 , W u x i ) W o m a n painter and calligrapher. 1930 studied u n d e r T a o Peifong. 1937 studied m o d e r n E u r o p e a n history in E n g l a n d . 1 9 4 9 settled in H o n g K o n g . 1953 studied u n d e r Z h a n g D a q i a n . Fay M i n g . See Fei M i n g j i e Fei C h e n g w u (b. 1914) Painter. Pupil o f X u B e i h o n g . Sent in 1947 to Britain o n British C o u n c i l s c h o l a r ship. T h e r e he gave u p xihua for g u o h u a , m a r r i e d the p a i n t e r Z h a n g j i n g y i n g , and settled in L o n d o n . Fei M i n g j i e f f ^ J j f ë ( M i n g Fay; b. 1943, Shanghai) P a i n t e r and sculptor. 1952 m o v e d w i t h his family to H o n g K o n g . 1965 studied design in C o l u m b u s , O h i o ; later s t u d i e d sculpture in Kansas C i t y and at the University o f C a l i f o r nia, Santa Barbara. Lives in N e w York, w h e r e he teaches at the William Paterson College. Fei X i n w o Ä f r S (b. 1903, Z h e j i a n g ; native o f W u x i ) C a l ligrapher and g u o h u a painter. 1934 e n t e r e d W h i t e G o o s e Preparatory Painting School to study W e s t e r n p a i n t i n g . 1958 started to practice calligraphy w i t h left h a n d . W r o t e inscribed boards for m a n y beauty spots a n d m e m o r i a l halls.

B I O G R A P H I C A L

I N D E X

3 0 1

Feng Chaoran (1882-1954; native of Changzhou, Jiangsu) Guohua painter and calligrapher. Active in Suzhou and Shanghai. Later moved to Taiwan. Feng Fasi ?,f S I S (b. 1914, Anhui) Oil painter. 1933 studied under Xu Beihong, Yan Wenliang, and Pan Yuliang in N C U Nanjing. 1938 studied in Lu Xun Art Acad. 1939 taught in Sichuan. 1946-49 worked in Chongqing, Beijing, andTianjin. 1950 head of painting dept. of CAFA and director of oil painting section. Strongly influenced by Soviet realism. 1957 painted The Heroic Death of Liu Hulan. Feng Gangbai i l i H W (1884-1984; b. Xinhui, Guangdong). Painter. 1904 went to find work in Mexico, then to U.S. to study painting. 1921 returned to China, taught in Canton Coll. of Fine Arts. 1945 went to H o n g Kong. After 1949 returned to China, lived in Canton.

ing Research Soc. 1906 went to Japan for further study. 1908 to Shanghai. 1912 published TheTrue Record. 1918 returned to Canton. 1923 founder of Chunshui Acad. 1930 went to India. 1936 prof, in N C U Nanjing. 1938 to Macao. 1945 returned to Canton. 1949 moved back to Macao, where he died. Gao Qifeng ¡8j nf (1889-1933; native of Canton) Guohua painter, key figure in Lingnan School. Younger brother of Gao Jianfu. 1907 studied in Japan. 1912 returned to Shanghai, editor of The True Record. 1918 back to Canton. 1925 set up his own studio. 1933 representative of Chinese government to Sino-German Art Exhib. in Berlin. Gao Xiaohua ¡Bj/jNljl Oil painter. Active in Sichuan in 1980s and 1990s.

Feng Mengbo (b. 1966, Beijing) Mixed media artist. 1991 grad. from printmaking dept. of CAFA. Became professional artist and member of the Beijing avant-garde.

Gao Xishun r B i ^ ? ? (b. 1895, Hunan) Guohua painter. Classmate of Mao Z e d o n g in Changsha. 1919 entered Beijing Higher Normal Coll. Art Inst., taught Chinese painting there after graduation. 1927 went to Japan. 1929 president of Jinghua Coll. of Fine Arts, Beijing. D u r i n g W W I I , retired in Hunan.

Feng Zhongrui (Fong Chung-ray; b. 1933, Henan) Abstract painter. 1949 moved to Taiwan. 1956 joined Liu Guosong in Fifth M o o n group.

Gao Yong |H ^ (1850-1921; native of Hangzhou) Guohua painter and calligrapher. 1909 one of the founders of Yuyuan Calligraphy and Painting Benevolent Assoc., Shanghai.

Feng Zikai i l i ' l i (1898-1975; b. Shimenwan, Zhejiang) Guohua painter, graphic artist, cartoonist, and essayist. 1915 studied art and music under Li Shutong. 1920 cofounder of Shanghai Private Arts Univ. with Liu Zhiping. 1921 went to Japan to study oil painting; returned in the same year, taught and drew cartoons. Later assist, prof, in Zhejiang Univ., prof, in NAA Chongqing. 1954 director of CAA. 1960 president of Shanghai Art Acad. 1962 vicechairman of Joint Federation of Literature and Arts World in Shanghai.

Ge Pengren l i H t l (b. 1941, Jilin) Oil painter. 1966 grad. from CAFA, 1980s M.F.A; teaches oil painting in Fourth Studio.

Feng G u o d o n g S H I S (b. 1948, Panyux., Guangdong) Oil painter.

Fong Chung-ray. See Feng Zhongrui Fu, Alixe. See Fu Qingli Fu Baoshi fllifiJE (1904-65; b. Nanchang, Jiangxi) Guohua painter. 1914 apprenticed to ceramic shop. 1921 grad. from Jiangxi College of Education, Nanchang; taught there. 1933-35 studied in Tokyo Acad, of Art. 1935-49 prof, in N C U Nanjing. 1949 head of Jiangsu Art Acad. 1957 sent on painting tour to Eastern Bloc countries. 1960 chairman of Jiangsu Branch of CAA. Author of several books on Chinese painting. Fu Luofei i f H ? p t (1896-1970s; b. Hainan) Oil painter. Studied painting and sculpture in Italy and Paris. 1926 became Communist Party member. 1946 cofounder of Renjian Huahui, H o n g Kong. After 1949 taught in Canton. Fu Qingli M U S S (Alixe Fu; b. 1961, Yunlin, Taiwan) Painter and lithographer. 1985 grad. from Chinese Culture Univ., Taipei. 1987 left for France, where he studied lithography in Hadad's studio. Settled in Paris. Fu Sida f $ J g i S t (d. 1960) Painter.Trained in guohua in Beijing. 1937 visited U.S., India, Malaya. During W W I I taught in Guilin. Jailed in 1950s and severly persecuted. FuTianqiu • f ^ ^ f A Sculptor. Worked in the Beijing Historical Museum after Liberation.

GengJianyi J f t j i U S (b. 1962, Zhengzhou, Hebei) Painter. 1985 grad. from oil painting dept. of NZAFA. M e m b e r of N e w Space group of mid-1980s.Teaches in fashion design dept. of Zhejiang Silk Inst. Gu Dexin H t l j i ^ (b. 1962, Beijing) Self-taught professional artist, active in the post-1989 avant-garde movement. Gu Linshi ® H ± (1865-1933; native of Sichuan) Guohua painter, Shanghai School. Pupil of Wu Changshuo. Specialized in landscapes. Gu Mei M M (Koo Mei; b. 1934, Canton; native of Suzhou) Painter, actress, and singer. 1950 moved to H o n g Kong. Began to study painting under Lii Shoukun. Later settled in North America, where she practices as a landscape painter in Vancouver. Gu Qingyao (Koo Tsin-yau; 1900?-78; b. Shanghai) Woman Guohua painter. Taught in Shanghai Meizhuan b e fore moving in 1950 to H o n g Kong, in 1977 to Canada. Gu Shengyue H i t i S Graphic artist andgottgbi figure painter. Prof, in NZAFA. Gu Wenda (b. 1955, Shanghai) Guohua painter and creator of installations. Trained in Shanghai in wood-carving, then in guohua at NZAFA under Lu Yanshao and others. After 1981 did some painting in oils. After taking part in several avant-garde exhibs in mid-1980s, he went to Toronto in 1987; since then he has lived and worked in N e w York. Gu Xiong H ® (b. 1953, Chongqing) Painter and performance and installation artist. 1985 M.A. from Sichuan Acad, of Fine Arc., Chongqing. 1990 moved to Canada. Lives and works in Vancouver.

Fu Zhongwang f f c f S I (b. 1956, Wuhan) Sculptor. 1982 grad. from Central Inst, of Technology. Became teacher in Hubei Acad, of Fine Arts. Makes semiabstract sculpture in wood based on elements in traditional Chinese timber architecture.

Gu Yuan (b. 1919, Zhongshan, Guangdong) Woodcut artist. 1938 went to Yan'an, studied wood-engraving at Lu Xun Art Acad. 1942 participated in Yan'an Art Forum. 194973 visited Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Vietnam, and Japan. 1979 vice president of CAFA. 1985 president of CAFA.

Gao Jianfu ¡!b®J3£ (1879-1951; native of Canton) Guohua painter, founder of Lingnan School. 1892 began to study painting under Ju Lian. 1903 studied sketching in Canton with a French teacher. 1906 organized the Chinese Paint-

Guan C e I f g t (b. 1957, Nanjing) Painter. 1981 grad. from Nanjing Normal Univ. Became teacher in Nanjing Xiaoqing Normal School. Abstract painter and member of avant-garde movement.

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Guan Liang I S M (1900-86; b. Panyux., Guangdong) Painter, esp. of Beijing Opera figures. 1918 studied oil painting in Tokyo under FujishimaTakeji. 1929 returned to China, taught in various art colleges in Shanghai, Canton, and W u chang, and after 1949 in Zhejiang. In the 1950s had many exhibs. in China. 1957 exhib. in West Germany. 1983 prof, in NZAFA, vice-chairman of Shanghai Artists Assoc. Guan Shanyue §Ül[I].£j (b. 1912, Canton) Guohua painter. 1940 started to study under Gao Jianfu. 1946 prof, and chairman of Chinese painting dept. of Canton Municipal Art Acad. 1949 moved to H o n g Kong. After Liberation, returned to China; prof, at various art colleges in Canton. 1983 vice-chairman of CAA. Active in Party cultural politics. Guan Wei fiji (b. 1957, Beijing) Painter. Son of opera singer and grandson of Manchu bannerman. Grad, from art dept. of Beijing Normal College. Active in post-1989 avant-garde movement. 1993 artist in residence at Tasmania School of Art, Australia. Guo Baichuan f P H f J H (1901-73; b.Taiwan) Painter. 1 9 2 6 37 studied oil painting in Tokyo. 1937 returned to Beijing, taught art with Qi Baishi and Xu Beihong in NAA Beijing. 1948 settled in Taiwan. Influenced by Umehara Ryüzaburö. Guo Chengyi Peasant artist, active in Nantong, Jiangsu, in 1980s and 1990s. Guo Dawei (b. 1919; native of Beijing) Guohua painter. Studied under Qi Baishi and in Nanjing. 1954 settled in U.S.; lives in N e w Jersey. Specializes in figure and genre subjects. Guo Hanshen f t f ü ^ (Kwok Hon Sum; b. 1947; native of Guangdong) Painter. Grad, fine arts dept. of N T N U . Works in H o n g Kong. Guo Huairen ¡pR'USC (b. 1943) Painter and printmaker. Studied in CAFA. Worked in N e w York and later in Beijing. Noted for realist/symbolist paintings of life in Beijing in 1920s. Guo Qixiang 1970s and 1980s.

(native of Sichuan) Sculptor, active in

Guo R e n $PfO (b. 1928, Beijing) Oil painter. Studied in NAA Beijing and NZAFA. 1960 grad. from Escuela Central de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid; 1961 founded "Neovisualismo." Later settled in Taipei, where he became professor in the fine arts dept. of N T N U . Abstract expressionist. Guo Runlin f | ? ü # (b. 1940, Shanghai) Painter. Since 1960, worked as a designer in the Triumphant Song Radio Factory. 1979 member of the Grasses. G u o Weiqu (1908-71; native ofWeifang, Shandong) Guohua painter of birds and flowers and calligrapher. Grad. from western painting dept. of Shanghai Coll. of Arts; did research on Chinese painting in Palace Museum, Beijing. After 1949 teacher in CAFA. After 1959 director of birds and flowers section, CAFA. G u o Xuehu ?|51J?8j (b. 1908, Taiwan) Guohua painter. Trained in Japan, later worked in Taiwan. Ha Bik-chuen. See Xia Biquan Han Likun (b. Suzhou) Wood-engraver and calligrapher. Worked in northeast and in Suzhou. 1980 grad. from NZAFA, 1992 chairman of graphic arts dept. there.Visited Japan and Germany. Won first prize in 1991 Nat. Art Exhib.

and seal-carver. Studied under Xie Zhiliu, Lu Yanshao, and others. 1987 acting director of the Shanghai Painting Acad. Han Xiangning ¡¡¡i|if|ip (b. 1939, Xiangtan, Hunan) Painter and printmaker. 1960 grad. from dept. of fine arts, N T N U . Member of Fifth Moon group. 1968 settled in the U.S. Abstract expressionist. Han Zhixun (Hon Chi-fun; b. 1922, H o n g Kong; native of Guangdong) Painter. Studied lithography and etching at Pratt Graphic Centre, N e w York. M e m b e r of Circle group, Hong Kong. Developed into abstract expressionist in 1960s. 1968-80 taught art in H o n g Kong Univ. and Chinese Univ. of Hong Kong. Hao Boyi j® { S S i Printmaker. Beidahuang School. Active in north China in 1980s and 1990s. He Daqiao (b. 1961, Harbin, Heilongjiang) Realist oil painter. 1983 grad. from PLA fine arts acad. Known for his paintings of military and historical subjects and, more recently, for his still lifes and nudes. He Datian J f ^ B (b. 1950, Changsha, Hunan) Oil painter. Prominent in Hunan art circles. Notable for his paintings of courtyard and house interiors. He Duoling { n f ^ ^ r (b. 1948, Chengdu) Oil painter. 1981 completed graduate study in Sichuan Acad, of Fine Art, later taught in Chengdu Painting Acad. 1985 visited U.S. Developed a realistic style, esp. of Tibetan subjects. He Haixia {ST^HI (b. 1908, Beijing) Conservative guohua painter. At sixteen apprenticed to guohua artist. 1927 entered NAA Beijing. 1934 became Zhang Daqian's student. 1945 went to work with Z h a n g Daqian in Chengdu. 1983 vice president of Shaanxi Studio of Painting, Xi'an. He Huaishuo fSJ'ISSS (t>. 1941, Canton) Guohua painter. Grad. from N T N U art dept. Landscape painter in the Lingnan tradition. He Jianshi iBT®!|± (1877-1915; native of Hainanx., Guangdong) Cartoonist. Editor-in-chief of Shishi huabao in Canton. He Kongde {tf^LlM (b. 1925; native of Sichuan) Oil painter w h o worked in the Chinese Military Museum. He Sen (b. 1968, Yunnan) Painter. Grad. from art education dept. of Sichuan Acad, of Fine Arts. Professional artist, active in post-1989 avant-garde movement. HeTianjian 5t3«5{i (1891-1977; b.Wuxi) Guohua painter. Self-taught. Editor of Painting Monthly. After 1949, vice president of Shanghai Painting Acad. Compiled several model books for students of landscape painting. He Weipu i B I $ l # t (1842-1922; native of Hunan) Qing official and amateur guohua painter, calligrapher, and seal-carver. He Xiangning faffS? (1878-1972; b. H o n g Kong; native of Nanhai, Guangdong) Woman guohua painter. Studied in Japan, where she joined the Tongmenghui. 1923 returned to China. Close to Sun Yatsen; became active in left-wing Guomindang politics and opponent of Chiang Kaishek. After 1949 prominent in cultural affairs of the P.R.C. Amateur painter, chiefly of figures. He Youzhi (b. 1923, Shanghai; native of Zhenhai, Zhejiang) Graphic artist, illustrator, and cartoonist. Active in Shanghai, noted for his serial illustrations, esp. to works by Lu Xun, and to stories of northern rural life. 1980s visited Germany. Prof, in CAFA.

Han Meilin ¡ j s j i l l f t 03- 1936; native of Jinan, Shandong) Woman designer and animal painter. Specialist in Inst, of Arts and Crafts of Shandong.

He Zhaoqu i B J H ® (Ho Chao-ch'u;b. 1931,Taiwan) Abstract painter. Grad. from Taipei Normal School. Winner of many distinctions in Taiwan and abroad, including Cannes and Tokyo. An abstract painter.

Han Tianheng ¡¡¡¡i55 ill (b. 1940, Suzhou) Guohua painter

He Zi {SJ-f Guohua painter, active in 1960s in Shanghai.

B I O G R A P H I C A L

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H o Kang. See Huo Gang Hon C h i - f u n . See Han Zhixun H o n g Hao iSrin (b. 1965, Beijing) Painter and printmaker. Grad. from printmaking dept. of CAFA. "Political pop" artist, active in post-1989 avant-garde movement. H o n g Ruilin (b. 1912,Taipei) Western-style painter. Studied under Ishikawa Kin'ichiro in Taipei and 1930-36 in Tokyo. R e t u r n e d to Taipei to join Taiyang Art Soc., then founded Cercle M O U V E . Later settled in the U.S. H o n g Shiqing ^ i S i B Professor and sculptor in NZAFA in 1980s. Spent several years carving in the rocks of Dalu Island. H o n g T o n g ^ t j l (1920^87; b. Tainan, Taiwan) Painter. Took up painting in 1970s, specializing in fantasy and mythical images. H o n g Xian (Hung Hsien, Margaret Chang; b. 1933, Yangzhou, Jiangsu) Painter. 1948 went to Taiwan, studied briefly under Pu R u in Taipei. 1958 moved to U.S., studied in Northwestern Univ., 111. 1978—84 taught and worked in H o n g Kong, then returned to U.S. 1984 settled in Houston. Professional painter. Semiabstract landscapist. Hou Jinlang {Hi® j!|5 (b. 1937, Jiayi,Taiwan) Painter. 1963 grad. from fine arts dept. of N T N U . 1967-89 studied and worked in Paris. R e t u r n e d to hold first solo exhib. in Taipei in 1989. Hou Yimin { H — J j j (b. 1930) Oil painter. Studied in M a k simov's studio in CAFA. Noted for history paintings in Soviet realist manner; later turned to freer landscape style. 1980s prof, in CAFA. Hu Gentian S j f l ; ^ (1892-1985; native of Canton) Guohua painter. Studied in Japan. Member of Chishe society. 1926 director of Canton Municipal Art Acad. Hu Kao (b. 1912, Yuyao, Zhejiang) Guohua painter of birds and flowers. Studied in Xinhua Acad., Shanghai. In early 1930s well known for his cartoons. 1937 went to Yan'an. After 1949, chief editor of China Pictorial From late 1950s to 1970s, artistic activities obscure. In early 1980s, resumed painting in Shanghai. Hu Peiheng t H M S f (1892-1962; native of Hebei) Guohua and oil painter. 1918, encouraged by Cai Yuanpei, studied in Painting Methods Research Soc. of Beijing Univ. 1927 founded first correspondence school of Chinese landscape painting. After 1949 teacher in Chinese Painting Studio and committee member of Research Soc. of Chinese Painting. Edited Hushe yuekan. Hu Qizhong + (b. 1927, Zhejiang) Painter. Self-taught. 1950 went to Taiwan. 1952-58 became professional portrait painter. 1957 founder of Four Seas Artists Assoc. 1961 member of the Fifth Moon group. 1970 went to the U.S. Hu Yichuan Jl| (1910-91; b. Fujian) Oil painter and woodcut artist. 1925 studied in Xiamen. 1929 entered NAA Hangzhou, member of Eighteen Art Soc. and League of Left-Wing Artists. Studied Chinese painting (under Pan Tianshou), Western painting, and woodcut. 1937 went to teach in Lu Xun Art Acad, in Yan'an. 1949 prof, in CAFA. Since 1958 president of Canton Art Acad. Hua J u n w u fJSSSiiS (b. 1915, Suzhou; native of Jiangsu) Cartoonist. Studied in Shanghai. 1938 went to Yan'an, worked for Liberation Daily. 1949 put in charge of art dept. of People's Daily. Since 1953, key figure in political control of CAA. Hua Sanchuan l j i . H J I | (b. 1930, Ningbo, Zhejiang) Graphic artist and illustrator, active from the 1950s. HuaTianyou EH3i (1902—86; native of Huaiyin, Jiangsu) Sculptor. Before 1930, studied art and art history in Xinhua Art Acad. 1933 studied sculpture under Bauchard

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and worked in Paris. 1947 returned to China, prof, in NAA Beijing. 1959 one of chief sculptors of Heroes' Memorial in Tiananmen. Huang Banruo. See Huang Bore Huang Binhong j t r S i f i l (1864-1955; native of Zhejiang) Guohua painter, connoisseur, and editor. Grew up in J i n hua, later Shexian. Studied painting at h o m e from private tutors. 1913 head of Acad, of Arts and Literature. 1926 organized Chinese Calligraphy, Painting, and Seal-Engraving Soc. 1927 founded the Bees Painting Society. 1928 prof, in Xinhua Art Acad. 1937 went to Beijing. 1948 prof, in NAA Hangzhou. 1954 vice-chairman of the Eastern China Artists Assoc. Leading figure of the revived Anhui School of landscape painting. Huang Bore j i c l g î j (Huang Banruo, Wong Po Yeh, 1 9 0 1 68; b. Canton) Guohua painter. Pupil of his uncle, painter Huang Shaomei. 1924-40 active chiefly in Canton and H o n g Kong. 1941 returned to Canton. 1968 settled in H o n g Kong. Specialized in landscapes. Huang Fabang i S f f î t f ê (b. 1938, Jiangling, Hubei) Guohua and oil painter.Trainted in NZAFA. Worked for some years in Hubei. 1984 joined staff of NZAFA, teaching guohua. Noted for 1985 oil portrait of his teacher, Pan Tianshou. Huang Guangnan j l i J f e U (b. 1944, Gaoxiong,Taiwan) G u o hua painter. M.A. from N T N U ; became assoc. prof, there. Director of Taipei Fine Arts Museum. Huang Guanyu j i i K Ï ^ (b. 1949, Nanhaix., Guangdong) Oil painter, active in Beijing in late 1960s and 1970s. Grad. from and teaching in CAAC. Huang Huanwu jtf ¿ J c î (1906—85; native of Xinhui, Guangdong) Guohua painter. Worked chiefly in Shanghai. N o t e d for his bird and flower paintings. Huang Huixiong JlriliiÎjÉ (Huang Huei-shyong; b. 1941) Sculptor, active in Taipei. Huang J i n s h e n g ^ ^ ^ (b. 1935, Jilin) Oil painter. 1956-61 studied under Wu Zuoren in CAFA. 1964-91 taught oil painting in Beijing Normal Coll. Huang Jinxiang (b. 1943, Wenzhou, Zhejiang) Oil painter. 1968 grad. from NZAFA, where he became a teacher of oil painting. 1983 commissioned to paint large mural for Shanghai Hotel. Many exhibs. in the U.S. H u a n g j i n y u j l i i S i f Printmaker. Active in N a n j i n g in 1980s and 1990s. H u a n g J u n b i î i f f î l t (1898-1991; b. Canton) Guohua painter. 1914 started to study painting under Li Yaoping. Organizer of Guihai Painting Cooperative, then the Soc. for Research in Chinese Painting. 1934 studied in Japan. 1941 head of Chinese painting dept., NAA. 1949 moved to Taiwan. Prof, and head of art dept. of N T N U . 1957, 1966, and 1969 visited the U.S. 1960 fellow of the Brazil Arts Inst. HuangJunshi TSf3§"Jf (Kwan S.Wong; b.Taishan, Guangdong) Calligrapher and guohua painter. B.A. H o n g Kong Univ., M.A. Kyoto Univ. 1972 settled in U.S.Vice president of Chinese painting at Christie's, N e w York. Huang Mingchang l i t f & l l (b. 1952, Hualian, Taiwan) Oil painter. Studied in Taiwan and Paris. 1984 returned to teach in Taipei. Huang Mingzong s ^ f y j y j ï (Wee Beng-chong; b. 1938, Singapore) Sculptor, guohua painter, and graphic artist. Studied in Nanyang Acad, in Singapore and sculpture dept. of Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Beaux Arts, Paris. 1964 founding member of Singapore M o d e r n Art Soc.

H u a n g Peizhong ^l3 (b. 1944, Rugao, Jiangsu) Printmaker and illustrator, active in Nanjing.

Jia Youfu W X ® 1 (b. 1942, Hebei) Guohua painter. Student of Li Keran in CAFA. Well known for his paintings of Taihang mountain.

H u a n g Qiuyuan ^ f ^ i S (1913—79; b. Nanchang, Jiangxi) Guohua landscape painter. Self-taught. Before 1949 worked in a bank. Later became active promoter of traditional painting.

Jiang Baolin j | J t # (b. 1942, Penglaix., Shandong) Guohua painter. 1962-67 studied under Lu Yanshao in NZAFA. 1981 grad. in guohua from CAFA. 1994 prof, in NZAFA.

Huang Rongcan JlciSi^t (native of Chongqing) Woodengraver, active in 1930s and 1940s. Studied in Nat. Acad, of Art, Kunming. D u r i n g W W I I , active in southwest China.

Jiang Changyi — (b. 1943, Xiangxiang, Hunan) Oil painter. 1966 grad. Nanjing Art Acad. Since 1988 president of the Shanghai Oil Painting and Sculpture Acad.

Huang R u i (b. 1952, Beijing) Oil painter. 1968-75 sent to countryside in Inner Mongolia. 1980-81 founding member of the Stars and leading activist. 1984 settled in Tokyo.

Jiang Danshu (1885-1962; native of Jiangsu) Calligrapher and guohua painter. Active in administration of art schools, chiefly in Shanghai and Hangzhou.

Huang Shanshou i i i [ l | i f (1855-1919; native of Jiangsu) Guohua painter. Active in Shanghai after 1900. HuangTushui H r ± 7 . R (1895-1930; native ofTaiwan) Sculptor. Trained and worked in Tokyo. Huang Wennong j l t ^ t l i l (?—1934) Cartoonist working in Shanghai in 1920s and early 1930s. Huang Xinbo ^ f f j f t (1916-80; native of Canton) Woodengraver. In his early years, worked under patronage of Lu X u n in Shanghai; member of League of Left-Wing Artists. 1937-41 active in anti-Japanese propaganda. 1946 went to H o n g Kong, member of Renjian Huahui. 1949 back to Canton. 1979 vice-chairman of CAA. H u a n g Xuanzhi (b. 1924, Jiangsu) Graphic artist. 1947 grad. from western painting dept. of Suzhou Acad., then teacher and art editor. After 1954 teacher of graphics, esp. shuiyin woodblock printing, in NZAFA. H u a n g Yan M S (b. 1921; native of Guangdong) Woodengraver. Worked in Yan'an and liberated areas during and after W W I I . After 1950 art editor of Guangming ribao. H u a n g Yongping U t r i c l e (b- 1934, Fujian) 1982 grad. from NZAFA. Leader of Xiamen Dada. Lives in France. Huang Yongyu (b. 1924, Fenghuang, Hunan) Painter and graphic artist. Worked in a porcelain factory when young. D u r i n g W W I I studied with Lin Fengmian in Chongqing. 1946 studied woodcut in Shanghai. 1948 went to H o n g Kong; art editor of Dagongbao, member of Renjian Huahui. 1953 returned to China, taught graphic art at CAFA. 1978 designed landscape tapestry for Mao Z e d o n g Memorial Hall. 1989 settled in H o n g Kong. Huang Yongyuan j|f;5 ] ^ (My thoughts and hopes). Meishu (1981.1): 8 - 9 .

Zhang Shaoxia S S i ^ f t and Li Xiaoshan ^ / J \ [ J j . Zhongguo xiandai huihua shi c)11 (History o f modern Chinese painting). Nanjing, 1986.

. Dongxun xizhao ji j f l i l ^ H i j c l B (Searching here and there). Chengdu, 1982. . " W o d e yishu s h e n g y a " ( M y career). Meishujia 30 (February 1983): 4 - 1 5 . . Fengzheng buduan xian unbroken strings). Chengdu, 1985. . Wu Cuanzhong huaji Guanzhong). Beijing, 1987.

artistic

(Kites with

c ^ f i i j l (Paintings o f W u

Wu Jiayou i l r i S g t WuYouru huabao ^ ^ f t l l S B f (The art o f Wu Youru). 3 vols. Shanghai, 1983. Wu Yongliu ^ ¿ K i S P . Youhua renti yishu dazhan zuopinji i l S S A f t I I f © : ^ J i f f h p ® (Works from the nude oils exhibition). Nanning, 1988. Xiejiaxiao Zhang Daqian de shijie 5 5 (The world o f Zhang Daqian).Taipei, 1968.

WESTERN-LANGUAGE

Zhejiang People's Art Publishing House. Pan Tianshou huihuace (Paintings o f Pan Tianshou). Hangzhou, 1979. . Zhejiang banhua wushinian i j J r Z E i E I B E - ! " ^ (Fifty years o f Zhejiang wood-engraving). Hangzhou, 1982. Zheng Chao lun ftSBElis 1990.

and Jin Shangyi U f l ^ i l t - Lin Fengmian (Writings on Lin Fengmian). Hangzhou,

Zhongguo meishu bao ^ I H l i l i l t S z (Fine arts in China). P u b lished fortnightly from June 1985 to July 1989. Zhu Boxiong ^ { ¡ 3 3 1 and Chen Ruilin Zhongguo xihua wushinian ^ S S S S E " ) " ^ (Fifty years o f Western art in China). Beijing, 1989. Zhu Pu

Lin Fengmian

Shanghai, 1988.

SOURCES

Alisan Fine Arts. Poetic Imagery: New Paintings by Yang Yanping. Hong Kong, 1 9 8 1 . . Chao Chung-hsiang. Hong Kong, 1 9 9 2 . Les Amis du V i e Arrondisement. Artistes chinois de Paris. Paris, 1983. Andrews, Julia F. " T h e Peasant's Pen: Some Thoughts on Realism in Modern Chinese Art." In the Arts (Ohio State U n i versity) (Autumn 1987): 6 - 9 .

B e i Dao. Notes from the City of the Sun: Poems by Bei Dao. Revised edition. Translated with an introduction by Bonnie S. McDougall. Ithaca, N.Y., 1984. Bennett, Adrian. The Introduction of Western Science and Technology into Nineteenth-Century China. Harvard East Asian M o n o graphs, no. 24. Cambridge, Mass., 1967. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. 5 vols. N e w York, 1967-76.

. "Traditional Painting in N e w China: Guohua and the Anti-Rightist Campaign." Journal of Asian Studies 49, no. 3 (August 1990): 5 5 5 - 8 6 .

Blaine, Julien. Wild Lilies, Poisonous Weeds: Dissident Voices in People's China. London, 1982.

. Painters and Politics in the People's Republic of China, 1949—1979. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1994.

Bobot, Marie-Thérèse. Fan Tchun-pi: Artiste chinoise contemporaine. Paris, 1984.

Barmé, Geremie. "Arrière-Pensée on an Avant-Garde: T h e Stars in Retrospect." In The Stars: 10 Years, ed. Chang Tsongzung. Hong Kong, 1989. Barmé, Geremie, and John Minford. Seeds of Fire: Chinese Voices of Conscience. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1989.

Bodde, Derk. Peking Diary. New York, 1 9 5 0 . Briessen, Fritz van. Shanghai Bilderzeitung 1884—1898. 1977.

Zurich,

Buck, Pearl. China in Black and White. N e w York, 1944.

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3 3 4

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Zhang Anzhi. " T h e Painter Ch'ien Sung-yen," Chinese Literature (1964.9): 103—11. Zhang Songren (Johnson Chang), ed. China/Avant-Garde (Zhongguo meishu yishuzhan). In English and Chinese. Beijing, 1989. Z h o u Enlai. " R e p o r t to the Congress of Literary and Art Workers" (July 1949). In Selected Works of Zhou Enlai. Vol. 1. Beijing, 1980. Z h u Guangqian (Chu Kwang-tsien). " T h e Problem of 'Formal Beauty' in Recent Discussions in China." Eastern Horizon 3, no. 5 (May 1964): 12—16. Zürcher, Bernard. Wang Keping. Paris, 1988.

I N D E X

A Yang. See Y a n g Jiachang abstract expressionism: considered h a r m ful, 2 2 5 ; in H o n g K o n g , 192—93, 1 9 4 ; in Paris, 206—7; i n Taiwan, 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 ; in the U n i t e d States, 209—10; and w o r k o f Z h a n g Daqian, 1 9 , 20—21; o f W u D a y u , 238 abstractionists, 2 7 9 Academia Sinica, 94, 1 0 6 A c a d é m i e du M i d i ( N a n g u o A r t A c a d emy), 34, 4 7 , 65, 69, fig. 4.4 A c a d é m i e Julian, 39, 40, 66, 69, 78 Academy of Social Sciences (Beijing), 2 3 0 A d v a n c i n g Chinese Youth A r t E x h i b i tion ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 , 263 Aesthetics B o o k s h o p (Shenmei shuguan), 53

A f t e r Hours Painting Research Society (Yeyu huafa yanjiu hui), 1 1 , 42 A h X i a n , 297 A i Mitsu, 60 A i Qing, 83, 1 0 2 , 1 3 0 , 2 2 1 A i Weiwei, 2 2 1 , 2 2 4 , 269, 2 9 7 , pi. 89 Ai Xuan, 170, 2 1 9 , 227, 238, 278, 2 9 5 m l , 297, fig. 2 1 . 4 , pi. 76 A i Z h o n g x i n , 97, 1 1 3 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 , 2 1 7 , 2 3 2 , 297 Ailing Park, Shanghai, 68 Ajânta wall paintings, 54, 81 Albania, 1 3 5 , 1 4 5 Alisan Gallery (Hong Kong), 199 A l l - C h i n a Art Association ( Z h o n g g u o quanguo meishu hui), 97 A l l - C h i n a Federation o f Writers and Artists, 2 2 1 A l l - C h i n a Woodcut Association, 85 All Men Are Brothers (Shuihu zhuan), 1 7 5 , fig. 1 7 . 1 1 A m e r i c a n art, exhibited in Beijing, 258 Amis du V i e Arrondissement, 207

Anarchism, 65 A n d r é , Carl, 2 5 9 A n h u i Painting A c a d e m y (Anhui g u o huayuan), 2 5 2 A n h u i School, 1 9 , 2 5 0 A n h u i University o f Science and T e c h nology, 2 7 2 A n n i g o n i , Pietro, 258 anti-Japanese propaganda, 9 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 1 , 123 Anti-Rightist Movement, 75, 134, 144, 1 4 5 , 2 2 6 ; rehabilitation, 2 1 7 Anti—Spiritual Pollution campaign, 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 , 264 Ants Painting Society, 2 5 5 A n y u a n miners, 1 3 7 , 1 5 2 , 1 7 2 Apollo (Yapole), 50, 6 5 , 76, 7 7 , 82 Apollo A r t Society, 39, 42, 49, 58 Apollo Shop, 94 Archipenko, A . , 1 6 3 , 1 6 7 art, " i n n e r " and "outer," 1 5 3 art, nature o f , 26, 2 8 1 art academies: during Cultural R e v o l u tion, 1 5 1 — 5 2 ; following Cultural R e v olution, 2 1 7 ; j o u r n e y to interior, 93—94, fig. 9 . 1 ; after Liberation, 1 3 1 , 132—34. See also B e i j i n g A c a d e m y o f Art; C a n t o n A c a d e m y ; Central A c a d emy; H a n g r h o u A c a d e m y ; L u X u n A c a d e m y o f Arts and Literature; M a y Seventh A c a d e m y o f Arts; N a n j i n g A c a d e m y ; Shanghai A c a d e m y o f A r t art and politics, 67, 82, 1 0 2 , 1 3 0 - 3 4 , 1 5 2 , 2 7 8 . See also Anti-Rightist M o v e m e n t ; Cultural Revolution; Great Leap Forward; Hundred Flowers M o v e m e n t ; M a o Z e d o n g , Yan'an Talks; propaganda art art collectors, 2 4 , 59. See also connoisseurship

art curriculum, 2 5 , 2 7 , 48, 1 3 3 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 0 art education, 2 7 - 2 8 , 29; C a i Yuanpei and, 32; after Liberation, 130—31, 132—34 art f o r the masses, 80, 1 0 2 . See also peasant art; W o o d c u t M o v e m e n t art galleries: in H o n g K o n g , 1 9 1 , 199; lack of, in Shanghai, 58, 60—62, 1 1 5 ; in Nanjing, 60; in N e w Y o r k , 208—9 art history, 25 A r t Institute (Detroit), 2 4 7 A r t Institute o f Chicago, 3 7 art market, 278—79 Art News, 258 A r t Research Institute (Meishu yanjiu yuan), 49 A r t Research Society for C h i n e s e Students in Japan, 3 7 A r t Society (Yishu she; Tokyo), 58 A r t Students' League ( N e w York), 3 7 , 2 0 1 , 208 art teachers: Japanese, 27—28; training of, 27—28, 4 5 , 46, 51 A r t Waves, 269 A r t W i n d Society, 59 Artists Association. See C h i n e s e Artists Association Asai C h ü , 59, 73 Asakura Fumio, 1 4 Association Amicale Sino-fran^aise, 44 Association des Artistes Chinois en France, 40, 205 Athena (Yadanna), 50, 6 5 , fig. 4.6 Atherton Gallery (Menlo Park, C a l i f o r nia), 1 9 4 auctions, 278 avant-garde, 1 7 9 , 262—63; in N O V A exhibit o f 1 9 3 5 , 5 9 - 6 0 . See also Avant-Garde Exhibition (1989) Avant-Garde Exhibition (1989), 2 2 6 , 2 7 4 - 7 6 , 279

3 3 5

Babov (Romanian artist), 1 3 7 Bacon, Francis, 234 Bada Shanren. See Z h u Da Bai Hua, 226 Bai Jingzhou, 1 7 6 , 269, 270, 298 Bai Juyi, Song of Unending Sorrow by, 175 Bai Tianxue, 148, 298, pi. 32 Bai Xueshi, 146, 1 5 2 , 298 Bai'e Huahui (White Goose Painting Society), 46, 248 Baishe Painting Society, 1 5 Baishe Pictorial, 15 Balthus, Count, 258 bamboo carving, 159 Bangjin Flower, 1 7 5 Banjiezi ("Halfway Through"), 235 B a o Jia, 230, 298, fig. 22.4 B a o Shaoyou (Pau Shiu-yau), 1 9 1 , 298 Barlach, Ernst, 1 6 3 , 167 Barme, Geremie, 2 2 1 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 34, 39, 2 1 8 batik, 202, 2 3 2 , 261 "Battle of the Two Slogans," 85 Baudelaire, Charles-Pierre, 65 Baxianqiao, Beijing, 30, 72 Beardsley, Aubrey, 8 1 , 173 Beckmann, Max, 194 Bei Dao, 2 2 1 , 223, 256, 275 Bei dou (Big Dipper), 83, 84 Beidahuang prints, 1 7 1 , 173 Beifang Yishu Tuanti (North China Art Group), 274 Beihai Park (Beijing), 222, 2 3 1 , 269 Beijing: outside the focus of artistic activity, 12; guohua painting after Mao, 2 4 2 - 4 7 ; under Japanese occupation, 1 0 7 - 8 ; in the mid-i920s, 42; suppression of radicals in, 43; after surrender of Japan, 113—14; traditionalists, 6—12, 23 Beijing Academy of Art (Beijing meishu xueyuan), 1 1 , 37, 42, 94, 1 6 1 ; directorship, 72, 73; under Japanese occupation, 1 0 7 , 108; after Liberation, 1 3 0 , 131—32; Lin Fengmian and, 43—44; sculpture research department, 163; teachers, 8, 9, 16, 1 3 1 . See also Central Academy Beijing Airport wall paintings, 229, 256, 269 Beijing Art College (Beijing yishu xuexiao), 42. See also Beijing Academy of Art Beijing Daily, 2 2 2 Beijing Hotel, 43, 1 5 3 , 229, 230, 243 Beijing International Art Gallery, 294n23 Beijing International Art Palace, 278 Beijing International Oil Painting Gallery, 278 Beijing Library, 230 Beijing Meishu Xueyuan. See Beijing Academy of Art Beijing Municipal Party Committee, 2 2 1 , 222 B e i j i n g / N e w York Avant-Garde Chinese Art exhibition (1986), 269 Beijing Normal College of Arts and Crafts, 1 5 5 Beijing Oil Painting Research Association (Beijing youhua yanjiu hui; O P R A ) , 2 3 1 , 233

3 3 6

INDEX

Beijing Painting Academy (Beijing huayuan), 1 4 2 , 2 4 1 , 242 Beijing University, 42, 32, 73, 1 5 1 , 205 Beijing University Society for the Study of Painting Methods (Beijing daxue huafa yanjiu hui), 36, 68 Beijing Yishu Dahui (Great Beijing Art Meeting), 44 Beiping Meishu Zhuanmen X u e x i a o (Beijing College of Art), 107 Beiyang Shifan Xuetang (Baoding), 27 Belgian Academy, 237 Bell, Clive, 65, 73 Benliu (Torrent), 80 Berlin, 32, 40, 71 Berlin Secession, 32 Bésein, André, 60 Beuys, Joseph, 274 Beyond the Magic Mountains exhibition, 2 1 1 big-character posters, 264 Binyon, Lawrence, 74 Bitter Past Trend (kujiu jeng), 23 1 Black Art, 1 5 3 , 243 Blaine, Julien, 224 Blake, William, 1 4 2 , 230 Bland, Douglas, 193 Bodde, Dirk, 1 3 2 , 1 4 7 bohemian artists, 278 Boney, Alice, 208 Bonnard, Pierre, 59, 143 book illustration, 1 7 4 - 7 7 , 248 Borglum, Gutzon, 168 Bosch, Hieronymus, 194 Botticelli, 256 Bouchard, 160, 1 6 1 Bouguereau, 40 "bourgeois liberalization," 226, 2 7 2 , 274, 277. See also Anti—Spiritual Pollution Campaign Boxer Indemnity Fund, 72 Boxer Rebellion, 1 1 9 Braque, Georges, 60, 207 Breton, André, 60, 63 Brueghel, Pieter, 194 Brooklyn Museum, 258 Brussels Salon, 160 B u Weiqin, 1 7 0 Buddhism, 54, 1 9 7 , 279 Buddhist paintings, 14, 24, 30 Buddhist sculpture, 159, 160, 168 Buddhist wall paintings, 20, 106. See also Dunhuang frescoes Burlington House exhibition (1935), 60, 6 1 , 208 Bushell, Chinese Art by, 25 Cai Chufu, 298 Cai Dizhi, 2 5 1 , 298 Cai Ruohong, 1 0 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 3 1 , 2 1 7 , 2g0n30, 298; Avenue Joffre by, 124 Cai Shuilin (Tsay Shoei-lin), 190, 298 Cai Tianding. See Chhuah Thean Teng Cai Weilian, 49, 298 Cai Yintang, 298 Cai Yuanpei: and Beijing University, 36, 68, 73; bust of, 159, 163; "diligent work and frugal study" program, 36, 42, 76; and Hangzhou Academy, 43, 49,

286n24; and Li Shutong, 29; as minister of education, 48, 58, 80; and N e w Culture Movement, 24, 3 2 - 3 3 , 42, 50; as patron of arts, 25, 58, 159, 1 6 1 ; and Shanghai Academy, 45, 46; and Strasbourg exhibition, 39-40; views on art, 32, 34, 49, 66; and Western modernism, 65; and X u Beihong, 68—69 Cai Yushui, 263, fig. 2 4 . 1 3 caimohua (color and ink painting), 1 3 9 calligraphy, 5, 192, 199; works of Yang Yanping, 245—47; Xiling Seal Engraving Society, 14, 15 Canton, 5 1 , 57, 1 1 6 , 2 5 1 ; oil painting in, 50—51; school of traditional painting, 16, 2 1 ; and Woodcut Movement, 84, 8 6 - 8 7 , 104 Canton Academy, 78, 104, 1 1 6 , 2 1 7 , 2 5 1 Canton Chinese Fine Arts Club, 1 9 1 Canton Christian College, 5 1 , 52. See also National Sun Yatsen University Canton Municipal College of Art (Guangzhou shili meishu zhuanke xuexiao), 5 1 , 1 1 6 Canton Provincial Art Academy. See Canton Academy C a o Bo, 83 C a o Dali, 2 3 1 , 234, 298, fig. 22.7 C a o Li, 298 C a o Liwei, 298 C a o Xueqin, 1 1 0 C a o Ya, 298 C a o Yu, 99 Caocao (Grass Society), 2 2 1 , 2 3 2 Caplow, Deborah, 86 Caravaggio, 258 caricature, 119. See also cartoonists; cartoons Carl, Katherine, 43 Carter, Dagney, 69 Cartoon Society (Manhua hui), 1 2 0 cartoonists: after Cultural Revolution, 217—18; in H o n g Kong, 1 1 6 , 1 2 2 ; after Liberation, 249; during 1940s, 121—23; propaganda teams, 9 1 , 1 2 1 ; during War of Resistance, 9 1 - 9 3 cartoons, 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 1 3 1 Castiglione, Giuseppe, 6, 142 Central Academy (Zhongyang meishu xueyuan; Beijing): during Anti-Rightist Movement, 144; center for sculpture, 163; during Cultural Revolution, 1 5 1 , 152; after Cultural Revolution, 105, 2 1 7 ; faculty, n o , 1 5 2 , 233; exhibitions, 1 3 5 , 226, 229, 255, 273; ideological struggle at, 1 3 1 ; lianlmanhua department, 174, 175; in the 1980s, 256; 1987 biennial, 258; in the 1950s, 1 3 7 ; print department, 170; renamed after Liberation, 1 3 1 ; site of National Congress exhibition, 1 3 2 ; students, 1 1 , 164, 230, 2 3 3 , 269; Teachers' Society, 273; and Tiananmen democracy demonstrations, 276—77, fig. 25.7, fig. 25.8. See also Beijing Academy of Art; Jiang Feng Central Academy middle school, 2 3 2 Central Academy of Arts and Crafts (Beijing), 106, 229, 261 Central Academy of Fine Arts. See C e n tral Academy

Central Cultural M o v e m e n t C o m m i t t e e ( G u o m i n d a n g ) , 115 C e n t r a l M u s e u m , 94 C e n t r a l N a t i o n a l i t i e s Institute, 233 C e n t r a l P u b l i c i t y B u r e a u , 91 C e r c l e M O U V E , 179 C é z a n n e , Paul, 38, 2 0 3 , 2 3 8 ; articles o n , 65; C h i n e s e views of, $9, 6 5 , 7 2 , 73; as i n f l u e n c e , 6 3 , 6 7 , 182, 2 0 6 C h a Shibiao, 8 Chagall, M a r c , 194, 2 0 7 , 233 C h a i X i a o g a n g , 298 C h a i k o v , Insif, 163 C h a n , G a y l o r d ( C h e n Yusheng), 2 0 0 , 3 0 0 C h a n Kin-chung (Chen Jianzhong), 207, 299 C h a n , Luis ( C h e n F u s h a n ) , 191, 194, 200, 299, fig. 19.6 C h a n g , A r n o l d ( Z h a n g H o n g ) , 2 1 1 , 322 C h a n g D a i C h i e n . See Z h a n g D a q i a n C h a n g , M a r g a r e t . See H u n g H s i e n C h a n g Pilwi. See J i a n g B i w e i C h a n g Qing, 298 C h a n g S h a n a , 106 C h a n g S h u h o n g , 36, 9 9 , 205, 2 9 8 ; d u r i n g C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , 106, 154; a n d D u n h u a n g , 106, 115, 241, fig. 9.25; oil paintings of, 40, 60, 115, 139, 145 C h a n g , T. C . , 2 1 0 C h a n g Tsong-zung (Johnson Chang), 199,279 C h a n g X i a o m i n g , 2 5 8 , fig. 24.5 C h a n g m i n g Art Training School (Changm i n g yishu z h u a n k e x u e x i a o ) , 25 C h a n g s h a , 93 Chao Chung-hsiang (Zhao Chunxiang), 182, 2 1 0 , 323 C h a o h u a she. See M o r n i n g F l o w e r Society C h a s e , W i l l i a m M . , 28 C h e n Baiyi, 2 4 1 , 298 C h e n B a n d i n g . See C h e n N i a n C h e n B a o c h e n , 7, 2 9 8 C h e n Baoyi, 31, 4 6 , 6 2 , 2 9 8 , fig. 2.6, fig. 4.3, pi. 26; e x h i b i t i o n s , 58, 60; m e n t i o n e d , 30, 34, 77; as teacher, 4 6 , 64; d u r i n g w a r w i t h J a p a n , i l l , 112 C h e n Baoyi P a i n t i n g R e s e a r c h Institute

C h e n Jialing, 2 9 9 C h e n Jianzhong (Chan Kin-chung), 207, 299 C h e n Jiarong, 299 C h e n J i n , 178, 2 9 9 , pi. 37 C h e n Jinfang, 299 C h e n Jinghui, 299 C h e n J i n g r o n g , 185, 2 9 9 C h e n J i n w e n ( C h i n K u m - w e n ) , 105 C h e n Kezhi, 299 C h e n Laixing, 186, 2 9 9 , pi. 43 C h e n Lifu, 106 C h e n M a i p i n g , 221 C h e n Naiqiu, 299

C h e n g Shifa, 23, 150, 185, 2 2 9 , 2 4 8 , 2 9 4 m l , 300; as g u o h u a p a i n t e r , 2 4 8 - 4 9 , fig. 2 3 . 1 3 ; illustrations t o The Scholars, 175, 2 4 8 , fig. 17.9 C h e n g Y a ' n a n , 167, 2 3 5 , 3 0 0 , fig. 16.13 C h e n g Z h e n g k o n g , 168 C h e n g d u , 99—101, 121, 162 C h e n g d u Painting Academy, 252 C h e n g d u Provincial University, 51 Chengdu ziyou huabao ( C h e n g d u i n d e p e n d e n t illustrated), 104 chengli guogu yundong ( P r o m o t e t h e

C h e n N i a n ( C h e n B a n d i n g ) , 9, 14—15, 19, 108, 140, 2 9 9 C h e n Ning'er, 299 C h e n Q i a n g , 172, 2 9 9 Chen Qikuan (Ch'en Ch'i-k'uan), 1 8 6 - 8 7 , 209, 2 9 9 , pi. 4 4 , pi. 45 C h e n Q i n g h u a , 65 C h e n Q i u c a o , 4 6 , i n , 248, 2 9 9 C h e n R e n , 299 C h e n Ruixian, 202 C h e n Sanli, 160 C h e n S h a o m e i , 8, 2 9 9 C h e n Shiwen, 299 C h e n S h i z e n g . See C h e n H e n g k e C h e n S h u r e n , 36, 52, 53, 54, 116, 2 9 9 , pi. 10

2 0 1 , 324, pi. 54, pi. 55 C h e r i s h t h e M o m e n t T r e n d (huaisifeng), 231 C h e u n g Yee ( Z h a n g Yi), 193, 199, 2 0 0 , 2 0 1 , 323, pi. 53 C h h u a h T h e a n T e n g (Cai T i a n d i n g ) , 2 0 2 , 2 6 1 , 2 9 8 , pi. 56 C h i a Yu C h i a n ( X i e Yuqian), 2 0 1 , 3 1 8 - 1 9 C h i a n g K a i s h e k , 12, 14, 4 4 , 83, 86, 9 4 , 123; p o r t r a y e d , 9 1 , 160 C h i a n g , M a d a m e , 181 C h i n K u m - w e n ( C h e n J i n w e n ) , 105 C h i n a A r t Gallery (Beijing): A v a n t - G a r d e E x h i b i t i o n , 274—76; exhibitions o f t h e 1970s, 218; H u x i a n paintings exhibit, 148; 1980s exhibits, 165, 182, 206, 227, 232, 258; p r o p a g a n d a pictures, 151; Stars e x h i b i t i o n , 166, 221—22, 223; X u B i n g ' s Tian shu e x h i b i t e d , 2 6 6 China Daily, 2 7 6 China Weekly Review, 132 C h i n e s e A c a d e m y (Taiwan), 188 Chinese Art Academy (Zhongguo

C h ' e n T'ing-shih (Chen Tingshi), 1 8 3 - 8 4 , 193, 2 9 9 , pi. 39 C h e n T i e g e n g , 84, 86, 101, 2 9 9 , fig. 8.4 C h e n Wanshan, 299 C h e n W e n j i , 172, 299, fig. 17.6 C h e n W e n x i , 2 0 1 , 2 9 9 , fig. 19.17 C h e n X i a n h u i (Paul M e n ) , 190, 2 9 9 C h e n X i a o n a n , 97, 2 0 3 , 299—300 C h e n X i a y u , 188, 3 0 0 C h e n X i n m a o , 300 C h e n Yanlin, 43 C h e n Yanning, 2 9 5 m l , 300 C h e n Yanqiao, 86, 3 0 0 C h e n Yifan, 67 C h e n Yifei, 137, 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 , 2 6 7 , 300, fig.

200, 2 0 2 , 300, fig. 19.16 C h e n D a n q i n g , 170, 2 3 8 , 271, 298 C h e n D a y u , 146, 298 C h e n D e h o n g , 298 C h e n Dewang, 299 C h e n D o n g t i n g , 251 C h e n D u x i u , 32—33, 44, 117 C h e n , E u g e n e , 201 C h e n F u s h a n . See C h a n , Luis C h e n , G e o r g e t t e ( Z h a n g Liying), 201, 323 C h e n G u o , Clean Out the Filth! by, 154, fig- 15-3

13-5 C h e n Yiming, 300 C h e n Yingde, 300 C h e n Y i q i n g , 2 7 8 , 3 0 0 , pi. 9 2 C h e n Y u a n d u , 107, 300 C h e n Yuanxiao, 7 9 C h e n Yujiang, 2 5 9 , 3 0 0 C h e n Y u p i n g , 171, 3 0 0 C h e n Y u s h e n g (Gaylord C h a n ) , 2 0 0 , 300 C h e n Yutian, 116 C h e n Z h e n g h o n g , 300 C h e n Z h e n g x i o n g , 185, 3 0 0 C h e n Z h i f o , 6 2 , 2 0 5 , 3 0 0 ; as g r a p h i c designer, 4 8 , 7 8 , 119—20, fig. 11.3; as g u o h u a p a i n t e r , 23, 9 7 , 139, 241 C h e n Z h o n g g a n g , 300 C h e n Z i z h u a n g , 2 5 2 , 2 7 8 , 300, fig. 2 3 . 1 9 C h e n Z o n g r u i . See C h ' e n C h o n g S w e e C h e n g C o n g l i n , 300; Snow on X Month

C h e n H e n g k e ( C h e n Shizeng), 8, 171, 2 9 9 , fig. 1.2; m e n t i o n e d , 7, 23, 2 5 3 ; a n d Q i Baishi, 8, 9, 142 C h e n H o n g s h o u , 22 C h e n , Jack ( C h e n Y i f a n ) , 6 7

X Day, ig68 by, 2 3 5 , 2 7 9 , fig. 2 2 . 8 C h e n g F a n g w u , 34 C h e n g Ji, 3 0 0 C h e n g Jin, 42 C h e n g M a n t o , 63

( C h e n Baoyi h u i h u a y a n j i u suo), 4 6 C h ' e n C h i n . See C h e n J i n C h e n C h e n g b o , 180, 2 9 8 C h ' e n C h ' i - k ' u a n . See C h e n Q i k u a n C h ' e n C h o n g Swee (Chen Zongrui),

N a t i o n a l H e r i t a g e M o v e m e n t ) , 24 C h e o n g S o o P i e n g ( Z h o n g Sibin), 193,

meishu xueyuan), 72 C h i n e s e A r t Association ( Z h o n g g u o m e i s h u h u i ) , 62 C h i n e s e A r t C l u b ( H o n g K o n g ) , 193 Chinese Art P r o m o t i o n Society ( H o n g K o n g ) , 191 C h i n e s e Artists Association ( Z h o n g h u a m e i s h u xiehui): created in 1949, 129; after C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , 217; e x h i b i tions, 226—29; F o u r t h Plenary M e e t i n g , 262; m e n t i o n e d , 9, 113, 231, 142, 171, 206, 222, 231; a n d Stars e x h i b i t i o n , 224; T h i r d N a t i o n a l M e e t i n g , 225; tours, 146 C h i n e s e characters: a n d G u W e n d a , 264—65; X u B i n g ' s Tian shu, 2 6 6 ; a n d Y a n g Y a n p i n g , 2 4 7 . See also calligraphy C h i n e s e C o m i c s P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 174 C h i n e s e C u l t u r a l C e n t e r ( N e w York), 2 3 0 Chinese Cultural P r o m o t i o n Society ( H o n g K o n g ) , 111 C h i n e s e I n d e p e n d e n t A r t Association ( Z h o n g h u a duli m e i s h u h u i ) , N O V A e x h i b i t i o n , 59—60 C h i n e s e I n d e p e n d e n t Artists A s s o c i a t i o n ( Z h o n g h u a duli m e i s h u x i e h u i ) , 37 Chinese Ink Painting Association ( Z h o n g g u o s h u i m o h u a s h u i h u i ) , 185 C h i n e s e Laser Institute o f S c i e n c e a n d Arts, 188 C h i n e s e o p e r a , 37 Chinese Painting Research Society ( Z h o n g g u o g u o h u a yanjiu hui), 2 2 7

INDEX

3 3 7

Chinese R e d Cross, 44, 73, 74 Chinese United Overseas Artiscs Association, 270 Chinese University (Hong Kong), 1 9 2 , 194 Chinese Wood-Engravers Research Association, 104 Chinese Wood-Engravers Society for War Effort, 1 0 3 - 4 Chinese Woodcut Engravers Association, 1 1 5 "Chineseness," 2 6 8 - 6 9 , 2 7 1 , 280 Chirico, Giorgio de, 60 Chishe ( R e d Society), 51 Chistyakov, 1 3 7 C h o Fulai (Frank Cho), 208—9 Cho, Y. J. See Z h u o Yourui Chongqing: art exhibitions, 9 7 - 9 9 , 104, 1 2 1 ; bombing of, 96, 97, fig. 9.8; as wartime capital, 5 1 , 9 1 , 98—99; Woodcut Movement in, 104 C h o u , Irene (Zhou Luyun), 1 9 7 , 324, fig. 1 9 . 1 0 , pi. 50 C h u Ge, 186, 3 2 1 , pi. 41 C h u Hon-sun (Zhu Hanxin), 199, 200, 325, fig. 1 9 . 1 4 C h u Teh-chun (Zhu Dequn), 76, 182, 188, 2 0 6 - 7 , 238, 325, pi. 60 Chuangzao she (Creation Society), 3 4 , 3 7 Chuangzao yuekan (Creation monthly), 1 1 9 Chunming Huahui ( N e w Sprouts Painting Society), 178 Chunshui Academy (Chunshui huayuan), 54, 57, 1 1 6 Chuntian meishu yanjiu she (Spring Field Art Research Society), 83 Chytil, Vojtech, 43 Cimabue, Madonna with Child and Angels by, 206 Circle Group (Hong Kong), 193 City Artists Group (Dushi huajia qun), 274 City Hall Museum and Art Gallery (Hong Kong), 1 9 5 , 197, 198, 199, 279 civic sculpture, 1 6 3 , 1 6 8 - 6 9 civil service examinations, 27 Civil War, 113—14, 1 1 6 , 1 9 1 ; depictions of, 1 1 5 , 13 5 ; Pang Xunqin's life during, 1 1 7 - 1 8 Claudot, André, 43, 49, 65, fig. 4.1 Close, Chuck, 237 Cohen, Ethan, 269 Cohn, William, 74 collaborative pictures, 140, 2 1 5 , 227, fig. 13-7 collaborative sculpture, 167 collages, 269 Collin, Raphael, 59 Colorado College, 37 commercial art, 29 Commercial Press, 36, 48 commercialism, 279, 292n22 C o m m o n People's Night School (Beijing University), 42 Communist Party, control of art world by, 67, 130—31. See also art and politics; Yan'an Concept 2 1 , 262 conceptual art, 281 C o n g Baihua, 1 4 2

3 3 8

INDEX

Congress of Literature and Art Workers, 72, 129, 2 1 8 connoisseurship, 1 5 , 1 7 , 19, 208 Constable, W. G., 36, 38, 72 consumerism, 279, pi. 94 Contemporaries (Dangdai), 255 Contemporaries (Tongdairen), 2 3 2 Contemporary Open-Air Sculpture Exhibition (Hong Kong), 200 Contemporary Sculpture Exhibition (Taipei Fine Arts Museum), 189 Copley, John Singleton, 258 C o r m o n , Fernand, 38, 39, 4 1 , 76 Corot, Jean-Baptise-Camille, 39 Courbet, Gustave, 1 3 5 , 206, 2 1 8 court painters, 6 courtesy paintings, 26 Couture, Thomas, 34, 40 Covarrubias, Miguel, 1 2 1 , 123 crafts, 159 Creation Society, 34, 37 Crescent M o o n Society, 34—35 Cristo, 263 Croce, Benedetto, 65 Croizier, Ralph, S3, 57 Cuba, 1 3 5 Cubism, 32, 36, 81 C u i Zifan, 1 4 5 , 242, 300, fig. 23.2 Cultural Revolution, 142, 1 5 1 - 5 2 , 2 9 0 ^ 0 ; big-character posters, 264; declared over, 2 1 7 ; depicted, 2 1 9 - 2 0 , 235; Jiang Qing and the artists, 75, 153—55; mentioned, 125, 229, 2 5 1 , 255; in pop art, 279; sculpture of, 165—66; in Sichuan, 235 cun (texture-strokes), 197 Dabashan, 237 dadaists, 274, 275 Dadi Huahui (Great Earth Art Society), 83 Dagnan-Bouveret, Pierre-Adolphe-Jean, 39, 69. See also X u Beihong Dagongbao, 1 1 6 , 120, 1 2 4 Dai Ailian, 106 Dai Dunbang, 1 7 5 , 300, fig. 1 7 . 1 1 Dai Haiying, 207, 300 Dai Jialin, 1 7 0 Dai minority, 229—30 Dai Shihe, 300 Dai You, 25 Dalai Lama, 165 Dali, Salvador, 60, 2 3 4 , 256 Dalian Airport, 188 Dalu Island, 260 Dangdai (Contemporaries), 255 Dante, Inferno, 176, fig. 1 7 . 1 2 Daoism, 197, 2 7 1 Daoji, 8, 9, 1 7 Darwent, C. E., 30 Daudet, Alphonse, The Last Lesson by, 1 7 6 David, Jacques-Louis, 36 Dawn Art Association (Zhenguang meishu hui), 3 1 , 5 8 Dawn Chen-ping (Dong Zhenping), 190, 301 Daxin (Dai Sin) Department Store, 61 D e Qin, 300 Delacroix, Eugène, 34, 69, 1 6 1 Democracy Movement, 226 Democracy Wall, 2 1 8 , 222

Democratic League, 96, 1 1 6 Deng Lin, 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 Deng Liqun, 226, 227 Deng Wen, 145 Deng Xiaoping, 144, 2 1 7 , 226, 252, 273 Deng Zhongyuan, 159 Derain, André, 63, 67, 78, 179 dessin (drawing), 69 Di Pingzi, 1 5 , 301 Dianshizhai huabao (Dianshi studio illustrated), 27, fig. 2.1 Diligent Work and Frugal Study Association (Qingong jianxuehui), 1 1 , 36, 42 Ding C o n g (Xiao Ding): art director for Qingming, 1 1 5 ; biography, 3 0 1 ; cartoons of, 1 1 2 , 1 2 1 - 2 2 ; in Chengdu during wartime, 99, 106, fig. 9.14, fig. 9 . 1 5 , fig. 10.2; drawings of Luoluo tribesmen, 1 1 5 , 122; in Hong Kong, 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 , 122; as illustrator, 175; after Liberation, 129, 130; Lu Xun, fig. 8.1; mentioned, 30, 245; range of, 1 2 3 ; satirical handscroll Xianxiang tu, 1 0 1 , 122—23, 166, fig. 1 1 . 6 ; Self-Portrait, fig. 9 . 1 3 ; at Shanghai Meizhuan in the 1930s, 46; woodcuts illustrating Lu Xun's Ah Q, 1 2 3 ; Xianshi tu by, 1 1 6 , 1 2 3 , fig. 1 1 . 7 Ding Fang, 279, 301 Ding Ling, 83, 102 Ding Lisong, 1 7 1 , 301 Ding Shaoguang, 2 2 9 - 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 2 9 4 n i 6 , 3 0 1 , fig. 22.3 Ding Song, 30, 1 2 2 , 301 Ding Xilin, 1 6 2 Ding Xiongquan, 301 Ding Yanyong, 77—78, 3 0 1 , fig. 7.8, fig. 7.9; in Canton, 5 1 , 1 1 6 ; in Chongqing, 98; exhibited, 58, 205; in Hong Kong, 78, 192, 193; in Shanghai, 46; and the Storm Society, 62; study in Japan, 37 Ding Y i , 301 Disney, Walt, 229 dissident art, 2 2 1 . See also Stars D o n g Kejun, 1 7 0 , 259, 260, 3 0 1 , fig. 1 7 . 2 D o n g Qichang, 1 7 , 74, 208 D o n g Qiyu, 258 D o n g Shouping, 1 4 5 , 2 4 1 , 250—51, 301 D o n g X i w e n , 106, 1 1 3 , 1 3 5 , 146, 1 5 0 , 3 0 1 ; during Cultural Revolution, 154; landscapes of early People's Republic, 1 3 7 , fig. 13.4; Mao Zedong Declaring the People's Republic from Tiananmen by, 1 3 5 , 1 5 4 , pi. 28; students of, 230, 233 D o n g Yuan, 209 D o n g Zhengyi, 3 0 1 ; Commune Fishpond by, 148 D o n g Zhenping (Dawn Chen-ping), 190, 301 Dongfang Art College (Chengdu), 250 Dongfang Huahui (Eastern Art Association), 3 1 Dongfang Huazhan (Eastern painting exhibition; Ton Fan), 184—85, 188 Dongfang Yishu Zhuanmen Xuexiao (Eastern Art Training College), 46 Dongfang zazhi (Eastern miscellany), 36, 65, 76 Donghai University (Taichung), 186 Doré, Gustave, 81

D o w n t o w n Gallery ( N e w York), 2 0 7 D o w s o n , Ernest, 34 D r y brush technique, 8 D u Jiansen, 2 5 6 , pl. 82 D u Yuesheng, 34, 44, 81 D u a n Haikang, 3 0 1 D u a n Qirui, 2 2 1 D u b u f f e t , J e a n , 205 D u f y , R a o u l , 244 Duiker, William J., 3 2 Duli manhua (Independent cartoons), 1 2 0 Dunhuang, 1 0 6 - 7 ; article by Z h e n g Z h e n duo on, 1 3 9 . See also C h a n g Shuhong; Dunhuang frescoes; Z h a n g Daqian D u n h u a n g frescoes: copies of, 20, 98, 1 1 5 , 2 4 1 , 2 8 8 n 2 4 ; influence of, 1 0 1 , 1 0 7 , 1 3 2 , 1 7 4 , 1 9 2 , 2 2 8 , 229, 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 2 4 1 ; and lianhuanhua, 1 5 0 , 1 7 4 ; mentioned, 48; and peasant art, 1 4 7 D u n h u a n g Research Institute, 20, 40, 106 Dürer, Albrecht, 36 Dushi Huajia Q u n (City Artists Group), 274 East, Alfred, 1 7 8 East China C o l l e g e o f A r t (Huadong yishu zhuanke xuexiao), 7 $ , 1 4 4 Eastern A r t Association ( D o n g f a n g huahui), 3 1 Eastern A r t Training C o l l e g e ( D o n g f a n g yishu zhuanmen xuexiao), 46 Eberhard, Wolfram, 1 0 7 eccentrics, 78, 251—54 Ecke, Gustav, 7, 1 0 7 , 207 E c o l e de Peinture de Shanghai. See Shanghai A c a d e m y o f A r t E c o l e des B e a u x Arts, 36, 38, 49, 76, 1 6 1 E c o l e Nationale Supérieure des B e a u x Arts, 69 E c o l e Supérieure des B e a u x Arts, 39, 40, 78, 1 1 4 ; D i j o n , 76 Eight Masters o f the Early Republic, 7 Eighteen Society, 82, 83, 1 0 4 , 2 4 2 Eighth R o u t e Army, 1 0 1 Elegant Society (Ya she), 1 7 8 Eleventh Central C o m m i t t e e , 226 Elisséeff, Vadime, 205 E p o c h A r t C l u b (Shidai meishu she), 46, 82 Erikson, Britta, 266 Ernst, M a x , 60, 207 Escher, M . C . , 2 0 2 Europe, Chinese painting in, 74, 2 6 7 Evening Standard (London), 1 2 1 Exiles, in the 1980s, 2 6 7 - 7 1 experimental painting, 2 7 2 Exposition des A r t Décoratifs (Paris, 1 9 2 $ ) , 48 Exposition Internationale ( 1 9 2 5 ) , 40 Fan Fan Fan Fan Fan

J i n g z h o n g , 264 Kuan, 6, 1 8 7 , 1 9 9 , 209 Wenlan, 1 6 3 Xudong, 163 Zeng, 301

Fang C h a o - l i n g (Fang Zhaolin), 1 9 7 , 3 0 1 , fig. 1 9 . 1 1 Fang C h e n g , 1 1 6 Fang Ganmin, 40, 3 0 1

Fang Jinshun (Anthony Poon), 2 0 2 , 3 0 1 Fang J i z h o n g , 2 5 0 , 3 0 1 Fang Junbi, 36, 40, 78—79, 2 1 8 , 3 0 1 , fig. 7.10 Fang Lijun, 2 7 9 , 3 0 1 , fig. 2 5 . 1 0 Fang Lizhi, 2 7 2 Fang R e n d i n g , 57, 3 0 1 , fig. 5.5 Fang X u e g u , 46 Fang Yong, 2 0 5 , 3 0 1 Fang Z e n g x i a n , 1 7 5 , 3 0 1 Fang Zhaolin (Fang Chao-ling), 1 9 7 , 3 0 1 , fig. 1 9 . 1 1 Farnham, J . M . W., 2 7 Faure, Elie, 65 Fauvism, 7 7 , 78, 1 7 9 ; B e i j i n g N e w Fauves, 2 5 5 . See also W u D a y u Favorsky, Vladimir 87 Federation o f B e i j i n g University Students, 2 7 7 Federation o f Literary and Art Circles, 2 1 8 , 273 Fei C h e n g w u , 97, 2 0 3 , 3 0 1 Fei M i n g j i e , 3 0 1 Fei Wei, 263 Fei X i n w o , 46, 3 0 1 F e n g Chaoran, 1 1 5 , 249, 3 0 2 F e n g Fasi, 302; and Central Academy, 1 1 3 , 1 3 1 , 1 4 4 , 2 3 2 ; Soviet influence on, 1 3 5 , fig. 1 3 . 2 ; and X u B e i h o n g , 7 2 , 97. 1 3 0 Feng Gangbai, 5 1 , 59, 1 1 2 , 3 0 2 Feng G u o d o n g , 2 3 1 , 2 7 4 , 3 0 1 , pi. 68 Feng M e n g b o , 302 Feng X i a o q i n g , 3 8 Feng X u e f e n g , 1 3 1 , 1 7 5 Feng Yaheng. See Shi Lu Feng Y u x i a n g , 6 Feng Z h o n g r u i (Fong C h u n g - r a y ) , 1 8 3 , 1 9 3 , 302 Feng Zikai, 26, 29, 46, 64, 7 7 , 1 2 5 , 2 4 7 , 3 0 2 , fig. 1 1 . 1 0 Fenghuang, H u n a n , 2 4 2 fengqing re ( R o m a n t i c Craze), 2 3 1 Fenollosa, Ernest, 52, 53 Festival o f Asian Arts (Hong K o n g , I976), 1 9 5 Fifth M o o n Group, 1 8 1 - 8 5 , 1 8 9 , 209, 2 1 0 figure painting, 1 3 9 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 5 fine line painting. See gongbihua First H o n g K o n g International Salon o f Painters, 198 First Oil Painting Exhibition, 2 9 4 n 2 3 First Studio, 2 3 2 Five Antis campaign, 1 3 1 Flaubert, Gustave, 65 Flint, William Russell, 1 9 1 flower painting: Japanese influence, 2 4 1 ; Shanghai School, 1 2 - 1 3 folk art, 1 0 2 , 1 3 1 , 1 5 0 , 2 6 1 . See also n e w year pictures; W o o d c u t M o v e m e n t F o n g C h u n g - r a y (Feng Z h o n g r u i ) , 1 8 3 , 1 9 3 , 302 foreign c o m m u n i t y in Beijing, 2 3 9 forgeries, 1 1 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 20 Forward Guard Post of the Southern Sea, fig. 1 7 . 8 Four Cleanups, 1 5 4 Four Modernizations, 2 1 8 , 2 2 1 , 2 4 1 , 2 6 2 " F o u r O l d s " movement, 94

Four Seas Artists Association, 1 8 3 Four Wangs, 6, 1 2 , 33 Fourth National Congress o f Literature and A r t Workers, 2 1 8 Fourth Studio, 2 3 2 France: exhibits o f Chinese artists, 2 6 7 ; study in, 3 8 - 3 9 , 4 0 - 4 1 , 4 7 , 2 0 5 . See also Paris Francesca, Piero della, 2 5 8 Francis, Sam, 205 Franco-Chinese Institute (Lyon), 78 Franke, Otto, 74 Free C h i n a Artists Exhibition ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 1 8 4 French Concession (Shanghai), 44 French School, 1 1 5 Freud, Sigmund, 2 5 5 Frith, W P., 2 3 5 Fry, R o g e r , 3 4 , 7 3 , 1 5 9 Fryer, J o h n , 2 7 , 2 8 4 n 2 Fu Baoshi, 2 1 - 2 3 , 57. 1 4 6 . 205, 302, fig. 1 . 1 7 , fig. 1 . 1 8 , fig. 1 3 . 1 1 , pi. 5; as influence, 2 3 , 29on3o; and Nanjing tradition, 250—51; and National Central University art department, 48, 97; during 1950s and 1960s, 1 4 2 , 146, 1 5 1 ; study in Japan, 25; Such Is the Beauty of Our Mountains and Streams by, 2 2 , 1 4 5 , 2 1 7 , p i 3 1 Fu C h u a n f u , 1 8 1 Fu J i e , fig. 2 . 1 Fu Lei, 94, 1 1 7 Fu L u o f e i , 1 1 6 , 3 0 2 Fu Qingli, 302 Fu Sida, 3 0 2 Fu Shen, 2 1 1 Fu Tianqiu, 1 6 3 , 302 Fu T s o n g , 94 Fu Z h o n g w a n g , 1 6 7 , 302 Fudan University, 1 4 6 Fujishima Takeji, 3 1 , 3 7 , 59, 7 3 , 7 7 , 1 7 9 ; students of, 6 3 , 248 Furen University, 6, 1 0 7 , 1 1 4 , 2 0 7 Futurism, 36, 81 Gallico, Paul, The Snow Goose by, 1 7 6 Gandhi, Mohandas, 7 1 G a n g o f Four, 1 5 1 , 1 6 6 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 8 , 2 2 0 , pi. 62 G a o brothers, 5 1 , 5 2 - 5 5 , 68, 7 1 . See also Gao Jianfu; Gao Qifeng G a o J i a n f u , 3 0 2 , fig. 5.2; airplane paintings, 5 5 , fig. 5.3; in C a n t o n , 5 2 , 53—54; and Chunshui Academy, 54, 57, 1 1 6 ; established Zhenxiang huabao, 3 1 ; exhibited, 57, 60—61, 1 1 6 ; in H o n g K o n g during war, 1 1 1 — 1 2 ; in Japan, 36, 52—53; after Liberation, 1 3 0 ; and the Lingnan School, 5 1 , 5 2 - 5 5 , 57, 2 5 1 ; at National Central University, 48; students of, 57, 1 9 1 Gao Mang, 176 G a o M i n , Red Candles by, 258 G a o M i n g l u , 2 7 4 , 278 G a o Q i f e n g , 36, 5 1 - 5 4 , 302; headed Eastern Art Association, 3 1 ; and nihonga style, 54—55; on synthesis o f Eastern and Western art, 53 G a o Shan, 1 3 1 G a o Shaohua, 2 3 5 G a o X i a o h u a , 302

INDEX

3 3 9

Gao Xishun, 1 4 2 - 4 3 , 242, 302 Gao Yan, 2931120 Gao Y i , I Love the Oilfield by, 220, fig. 2 1 . 6 Gao Yong, 302 Gao Yun, 1 7 5 garden design, 197 Gauguin, Paul, 38, 200, 234 G e Lu, 1 4 7 G e Pengren, 2 3 2 , 294023, 302, pi. 70; Funeral of Zhou Enlai by, 2 1 9 , fig. 21.3 Geng Jianyi, 2 5 5 , 274, 302, fig. 2 4 . 1 , fig- 25-4 Gerasimov, Alexandr, 1 3 5 German Expressionism, 36, 40 German influence, 6—7 Gérôme, Jean-Léon, 39 Gezhuo Dam, 167 ghost painters, 6, 8 Giacometti, Alberto, 205 Gibbings, Robert, 80, 87, 173 Girl of Zhuhai, fig. 1 6 . 1 5 Goddess of Democracy, 277, fig. 25.7, fig. 25.8 Goebbels, Joseph, 2 1 8 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 34 Gogh, Vincent van, 34, 67, 73, 1 3 9 , 234, 248 Gold-Edged Peony, 175 Goldman, Merle, 33, 143 Gong Xian, 8, 207 gongbihua (fine line painting), 9, 2 3 , 4 8 , 241 Gongwangfu, 6 Gongxian (Contribution), 1 1 9 Gorky, Maksim, 34 Goya, 72, 206; Maja Clothed and Maja Naked by, 273 Grand Central Gallery ( N e w York), 269 La Grande Chaumière, 39, 4 0 , 4 6 , 2 0 0 , 205 Grantham Teachers' Training College (Hong Kong), 193 Graphic, 27 graphic design: faculty, 1 1 3 ; during 1920s and 1930s, 119—20; in Shanghai, 47—48; Soviet influence, 1 1 9 Grass Society (Caocao), 2 2 1 , 2 3 2 Great Beijing Art Meeting (Beijing yishu dahui), 44 Great Earth Art Society (Dadi huahui), 83 Great Hall of the People, 2 2 , 1 4 5 , 2 1 7 , 230 Great Leap Forward, 144—45, 2 I 7 > 226; and peasant painting, 144, 1 4 7 , 148 Great Wall, 145 Green Gang, 34, 44, 81 Gris, Juan, 65 Gropius, Walter, 186 Grosz, Georg, 1 2 4 , 1 7 3 , 186 Grousset, René, 205 Gu Dexin, 274, 302, fig. 25.5 Gu Jiegang, 207 Gu Kaizhi, 1 4 2 Gu Linshi, 1 5 , 302 Gu Mei (Koo Mei), 2 1 0 , 302 Gu Qingyao (Koo Tsin-yau), 1 9 2 , 302 Gu Shengyue, 302 Gu Wenda, 2 1 1 , 2 6 1 , 275, 302; installations, 265, 2 7 0 - 7 1 , 279, fig. 2 4 . 1 4 , fig. 2 4 . 1 5 , fig. 24.23; use of Chinese characters by, 2 6 4 - 6 5 , fig. 2 4 . 1 4 , fig. 24.15 Gu X i o n g , 2 7 1 , 302, fig. 24.24

3 4 0

INDEX

G u Yuan, 302; after Cultural Revolution, 2 1 7 ; "Emulate Wu Manyu" by, 102, fig. 9.19; politically pure, 1 3 1 , 1 5 3 ; and printmaking, 170; trained peasant painters, 148; at Yanan, 102, 1 3 3 Guan Ce, 302 Guan Liang, 37, 5 1 , 7 7 - 7 8 , 1 3 5 , 303; exhibits, 58, 98, 205 Guan Shanyue, 303; at Canton Municipal College of Art, 5 1 , 1 1 6 ; exhibits, 96, 1 0 1 , 1 1 6 , 2 5 1 ; and Fu Baoshi, 1 4 2 , 29on3o; and Gao Jianfu, 130; in Hong Kong, 1 1 7 ; landscape in Mao M a u soleum by, 2 1 5 ; and Lingnan School, 57, fig. 5.4; after Mao, 2 1 7 , 2 5 1 , fig. 2 3 . 1 8 ; during 1950s and 1960s, 143, 145; Such Is the Beauty of Our Mountains and Streams by, 22, 1 4 5 , 2 1 7 , pi. 3 1 ; visited Dunhuang, 106, 288n24 Guan Wei, 303 Guangdong Association for the Study of Chinese Painting (Guangdong hua yanjiu hui), 1 9 1 Guangdong Shengli Yishu Xuexiao. See Canton Academy Guangxi People's Publishing House, 273 Guangxi Provincial Art Institute, 95—96 Guangzhou Biennial, 278 Guangzhou Shili Meishu Zhuanke Xuexiao (Canton Municipal College of Art), 5 1 , 1 1 6 Guilin, 7 1 , 95—96, 98 Gulangyu, 168 Guo Baichuan, 303 Guo Chengyi, 2 6 1 , 303, fig. 2 4 . 1 1 Guo Dawei, 303 Guo Hanshen (Kwok H o n Sum), 1 9 7 , 303, pl- 51 Guo Moruo: and Liu Haisu, 7 3 ; and N e w Culture Movement, 33, 34; and propaganda organization during war, 9 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 124; and Shanghai intelligentsia, 47, 1 1 5 ; and Union of Artists and Writers, 243 Guo Qixiang, 164, 303, fig. 16.8 Guo Ren, 303 Guo Runlin, 2 3 2 , 303 Guo Weiqu, 108, 1 4 5 , 1 5 4 , 303 G u o X u e h u , 1 7 8 , 303 guohua: in Advancing Chinese Youth Art Exhibition (1985), 2 6 3 - 6 4 ; contemporary style of, 244, 251—54; exhibitions, 25, 58, 74, 108, 2 9 o n i o ; limitations of, 2 5 - 2 6 ; during 1950s and early 1960s, 140, 142, 1 4 3 , 145; realism in, 140—42; revival, 23—25, 139—40; revolutionary themes in, 1 3 9 - 4 0 ; in Shanghai after Mao, 247—49. See also traditional painting Guoli Beijing Meishu Xuexiao (National Beijing College of Art), 42 Guoli Dunhuang Yanjiu Yuan. See National Dunhuang Art Research Institute Guoli Lianhe Dongnan Daxue (National United Southeastern University), 46, 111 Guoli Yishu Yundong She. See National Art Movement Society

Guoli Yishu Zhuanke Xuexiao (National Art Training College), 44 Guomindang; influence in art schools, 5 1 , 94; mentioned, 70; philosophy of art, 62; satirized, 1 0 1 , 1 2 1 ; suppression of dissent, 38, 62, 83; took imperial art collection to Taiwan, 1 8 1 Guomindang Industrial Art C o m m i s sion, 54 Ha Bik-chuen (Xia Biquan), 199, 3 1 8 Hai pai. See Shanghai School Haishang Tijingguan Art Club, 1 4 Haiwai Yishu Yundong She (Overseas Art Movement Society), 39, 49 Hall of Physical Education (Shanghai), 230 Hammer Gallery ( N e w York), 269 Han Heping, 238 Han Likun, 303 Han Meilin, 260, 303 Han Shuli, 1 7 5 Han Tianheng, 303 Han Xiangning, 1 8 3 , 303 Han Xin, 2 7 1 , 303 Han Zhixun (Hon Chi-fun), 195, 303 Hanart Gallery (Hong Kong), 199, 2 1 1 , 292n26 Hanart T Z Gallery (HongKong), 1 9 9 , 2 7 9 Hangzhou, 1 2 , 9 1 , 239 Hangzhou Academy: creation of, 4 9 - 5 0 , 286n24; evacuation to the interior, 9 3 - 9 4 ; after Liberation, 1 3 1 , 1 3 7 , 163; mentioned, 1 2 4 , 182, 205; in the 1980s, 206, 239; printmaking department, 1 7 2 ; and proletarian art movement, 82; students in countryside, 148; after surrender of Japan, 1 1 6 ; teachers, 1 5 , 1 7 , 42, 1 0 3 , 260. See also National College of Fine Arts (Hangzhou) Hangzhou First Normal College, 1 2 5 Hanson, Duane, 259 Hao Baiyi, 1 7 1 , 303 Harbsmeier, Cristoph, 1 2 5 Hardoon, Silas A., 68 Härtung, Hans, 205, 207 Harvard University, 237 Hashigawa Art Academy, 248 Hashimoto Gahö, 52 Hawaii, 207 Hayter, S. W „ 185 H e Daqiao, 303 HeDatian, 2 5 8 - 5 9 , 2 9 5 m 1, 303, fig. 24.6 H e Duoling, 176, 2 3 7 , 303, fig. 2 2 . 1 0 H e Haixia, 108, 303 H e Huaishuo, 303 H e Jianshi, 1 1 9 , 303 H e Kongde, 303 He Qifang, 102 He Sanfeng, 59, fig. 6.1 He Sen, 303 H e Tianjian, 1 1 1 , 1 1 5 , 3 0 3 H e Weipu, 303 H e Xiangning, 74, 1 1 2 , 140, 3 03, fig. 1 3 . 7 H e Youzhi, 1 7 5 , 303, fig. 1 7 . 1 0 H e Zhaoqu, 303 H e Z i , 1 5 4 , 303 Heavenly D o g Painting Society, 73 Heavenly Horse Painting Society (Tianma huahui), 45, 58, 73, 159—60

Heavenly W i n d Pavilion, 55 H e f e i bus station, 230 H e f n e r Gallery ( N e w York), 269, 2 9 5 m 1 H e r o e s ' M e m o r i a l (Beijing), 219 H i k u y a Geiji, 81 Hirayama Ikuo, The Introduction of Buddhism to Japan by, 241 Hiroshima, 263 Hishida Shunsö, 178, 179 Historical M u s e u m (Beijing), 163, 241 Hitler, Adolf, 121, 153 H o H o - y i n g (He Heying), 202 H o Kang ( H u o Gang), 184, 305 H o c h s c h u l e für den Bildende Künste (Charlottenburg), 69 Hokusai, 173 H o l b e i n , Hans, 258 H o m e r , 258 H o n C h i - f u n (Han Z h i x u n ) , 195, 303 H o n g H a o , 304 H o n g Kong: abstract expressionists, 194; art market, 154; during Civil War, 116—17, 122; cultural identity of, 191, 199; early art trends, 191—92; exhibitions, 191, 193, 194, 200, 227, 279; influence of, 259; m o d e r n m o v e m e n t in, 192—99; in the 1960s, 193—94; i n the 1970s and 1980s, 194-200; sculpture, 193, 199200; during war with Japan, 111—12 H o n g K o n g Art Club, 191, 193 H o n g K o n g Arts C e n t r e , 195, 279 H o n g K o n g Arts Festival, 193, 195 H o n g K o n g Cultural C e n t e r , 200 H o n g K o n g International Salon of Paintings, 193 H o n g K o n g M u s e u m of Art, 200 H o n g K o n g Royal Jockey Club, 200 H o n g K o n g Sculptors Association, 199 H o n g K o n g University, 111, 195 H o n g K o n g W o r k i n g Artists Guild, 191 H o n g Ruilin, 304 H o n g Shiqing, 260, 304 H o n g Tong, 304 H o n g X i a n ( H u n g Hsien), 210, 304, fig. 20.6 H o n g r e n , 8, 16, 17, 209, 250 H o n g y i , 30. See also Li S h u t o n g H o n o l u l u Academy of Art, 207 H o p p e r , Edward, 255 horse painters, 6, 70 horse reliefs, 159 H o t e l Cecil ( H o n g Kong), 191 H o u H a n r u , 274 H o u Jinlang, 304 hou wenrenhua (postliterati painting), 253 H o u Wenyi, 271 H o u Yimin, 137, 232, 304 Hsiung-shih, 188 H u Feng, 131, 151 H u Gentian, 51, 304 H u G o n g s h o u , 13 H u Kao, 91, 93, 304 H u Li, 238 H u N i a n z u , 211 H u Peiheng, 8, 108, 140, 304 H u Q i a o m u , 131, 132, 226 H u Qili, 273 H u Q i z h o n g , 183, 304 H u Shi, 24, 3 2 - 3 3 , 40, 42, 73

H u Society, 7 H u Yaobang, 226, 276 H u Yebin, 83 H u Yichuan, 304; after Liberation, 131; in the 1980s, 232; and 1931 Shanghai exhibition, 59; p r o d u c e d nianhua, 150; and W o o d c u t M o v e m e n t , 82, 83, 87, pi. 21; at Yan'an, 101, 102 H u Ziwei, 9 H u a G u o f e n g , 215, 217 H u a Jia, 278 H u a J u n w u , 304; and Artists Association, 215, 217, 262, 290n30; as cartoonist, 124, 131, fig. 11.9; and official exhibitions, 228, 231; and "undirected art," 225; at Yan'an, 101, 133 H u a Sanchuan, 150, 174, 304, fig. 14.5 H u a Shan, 102 H u a T i a n y o u , 160—61, 304, fig. 16.3; as art student in France, 40; at B e i j i n g Academy, 113, 163; and M a o M a u soleum, 215; M a y F o u r t h M o v e m e n t relief, 163, fig. 16.7; students of, 165 H u a b e i U n i t e d Revolutionary U n i v e r sity, 1 3 0 - 3 1 Huabei Xueyuan ( N o r t h China Academy), 42 H u a d o n g A r t Academy, 75, 144 huaisifeng (Cherish the M o m e n t Trend), 231 H u a n a n Wenyi X u e y u a n (South C h i n a Institute of Literature and Art), 28 H u a n g Binhong, 304; connoisseurship of, 17; early work, 17, fig. 1.11; as influence, 15, 19, 23; influence on Li Keran, 243, 244; during Japanese occupation, 107, 108, 114; late paintings of, 17—18, fig. 1.12, fig. 1.13; o n Lingnan painters, 58; mentioned, 20, 191; in the 1950s, 139; study in Japan, 25; use of ink, 17—19 H u a n g Bore. See W o n g Po Yeh H u a n g C h u a n c h a n g , 175 H u a n g Fabang, 304 H u a n g G u a n g n a n , 304 H u a n g G u a n y u , 233, 304; July by, 220, 233, pl- 64 H u a n g H u a n w u , 304 Huang Huei-shyong (Huang Huixiong), 190, 304 H u a n g Jinsheng, 304 H u a n g Jinxiang, 304 H u a n g Jinyu, 171, 304 H u a n g Junbi, 304; in C h e n g d u and C h o n g q i n g , 98, 99, 101, fig. 9.10; in Taiwan, 181, fig. 18.3 H u a n g Junshi (Kwan S. Wong), 211, 304 H u a n g Liaohua, 83 H u a n g M e n g t i a n , 78, 192 H u a n g Miaozi, 46, 84, 245, 264 H u a n g M i n g c h a n g , 207, 304 H u a n g Mingzong (Wee Beng-chong), 202, 304 H u a n g Peizhong, 175, 305 H u a n g Q i u y u a n , 305 H u a n g R o n g c a n , 305 H u a n g Rui, 2 2 1 - 2 2 , 224, 305; exhibited w i t h Stars, 222, 223, fig. 21.11 H u a n g Shanding, 86 H u a n g Shanshou, 305

Huang Huang Huang Huang Huang

Suning, 238 Tushui, 178, 305 W e n n o n g , 120, 305 Xiaochang, fig. 16.1 X i n b o , 86, 116, 129, 150, 305,

fig. 8.7, fig. 12.1 H u a n g X u a n z h i , 171, 305, pl. 35 H u a n g Yan, 87, 105, 305, fig. 8.9 H u a n g Yongcan, 104 H u a n g Yongping, 2 7 4 - 7 5 , 305 H u a n g Yongyu, 305, fig. 10.3; during Cultural Revolution, 153, 154, 251; discussed in Taiwan, 188; exhibited, 116, 232; Fenghuang landscapes of, 242, fig. 23.4; as illustrator, 175; as influence, 232; mentioned, 145, 165; in the 1970s, 242; The Owl with One Eye Shut by, 77, 154, 215, 2 9 1 m 1, fig. 15.2; p o e m after Cultural Revolution, 218; portrayed, 233, fig. 22.5; rocks and lotuses of, 242, 247; student of Lin Fengmian, 76, 77; tapestry for M a o Mausoleum, 175, 215—17, 229, fig. 21.2 H u a n g Yongyuan, 252, 305 H u a n g Z h e n , 222 H u a n g Z h i c h a o , 305 H u a n g Z h i x i n , 40 H u a n g Z h o n g f a n g (Harold Wong), 199, 211, 305 H u a n g Z h o u , 153, 154, 188, 251, 305 H u a n g s h a n , 17, 71, 75, 76, 141, 145; depicted, 139, 172, 250—51 H u i Suet-bik, Pat (Xu X u e b i ) , 199, 319 H u i x u e zazhi, 42 H u n a n , 243—44 H u n d r e d Days o f R e f o r m (1898), 7 H u n d r e d Flowers M o v e m e n t , 134, 142, 1 4 3 - 4 4 , 215 H u n g H s i e n ( H o n g Xian), 210, 304, fig. 20.6 Hungary, 143, 151 H u o Gang, 184, 305 H u o p u s i hui ( O p u s Society), 39 H u s h e ( H u Society), 7 Hushe yuekan, 8 H u x i a n , peasant painters of, 1 4 7 - 4 9 I-novel, 33 Ichigo Offensive, 95, 121 Ido Reizan, 142 Illustrated London News, 27 imperial family, 6—7 Imperial Fine Arts A c a d e m y (Tokyo), 37 Impressionism, 36, 73 In Tao (Yuan D a o ) Art Association, 193 India, 54, 106 Industrial E x h i b i t i o n (Nanjing), 32 Ingres, J e a n - A u g u s t e - D o m i n i q u e , 36, 161, 258 Institut Franco-chinois, 36 Institute of Pictorial Arts, 31 International C l u b (Shanghai), 61 International Exhibition of C h i n e s e A r t ( L o n d o n , 1935-36), 2 4 - 2 5 International Fine Arts Exhibition (Paris), 76 International Park (Beirut), 188 Ishii Takutei, 59, 73 Ishikawa Kin'ichiro, 178, 179

NDEX

3 4 1

Itagaki Takao, Trends in the History of Modern Art by, 82 Italy, 242 Itto Tetsu, 107 ivory carving, 159 Jacob, Max, 65 Jao T s u n g - i ( R a o Zongyi), 192, 3 1 2 , fig. 19.2 Japan: attack on Shanghai (1937), 55, 87, 9 1 ; exchange exhibitions with, 8; influence o n Chinese painting, 21—22, 25, 2 4 1 ; influence on printmakers, 173; influence on Taiwan painting, 178; occupation of Beijing, 107—8, 109—10; occupation of C a n t o n , 51, 57, 111—12, 191; occupation of Shanghai, 110—11; oil painters, 59; purchase o f Chinese oil paintings in, 278; study in, 37; surrender of, 1 1 3 ; and Western art, 2 7 , 30. See also nihonga style Japan Fine A r t Institute, 22, 53 Japanese Concession (Shanghai), 44 Japanese fiction, 33 Ji J u e m i , 68, 69 Jia Youfu, 250, 305 Jiang Baolin, 305 J i a n g B i w e i , 68, 69, 70—71, 2 8 7 m , 287n7 Jiang Changyi, 305 Jiang C o n g x i n (Kong, R a y m o n d ) , 193 Jiang D a n s h u , 27, 32, 49, 305 Jiang D i n g , 1 0 1 , 131 Jiang Feng ( Z h o u Xi), 324; attack on g u o h u a in 1950s, 139, 140, 142, 144; and C e n t r a l Academy in 1950s, 1 3 1 , 137; chaired Artists Association after Cultural Revolution, 2 1 7 , 224, 2 2 5 , 231—32; and H a n g z h o u Academy, 1 3 1 , 163; labeled Rightist, 144; at Lu X u n A c a d e m y in Yanan, 1 0 1 , 1 3 3 ; in the 1930s, 83, fig. 8.2; in the 1920s, 46; Q i a n Shaowu's head of, 167 Jiang H a n d i n g , 305 Jiang He, 2 2 4 J i a n g Huaisu, 45 Jiang M e n g l i n , 49 Jiang Qing: arrest of, 215; and Black Art, T 53> 243; in cartoons after Cultural Revolution, 218; controlled arts d u r i n g Cultural Revolution, 151—52, 153—54; d e n o u n c e d in Meishu, 217; and M a y Seventh Art University, 153, 2 1 7 ; m e n t i o n e d , 75, 165, 166, 2 1 9 ; selected H u x i a n as m o d e l art c o m m u n e , 148 Jiang T i e f e n g , 2 3 2 , 305 Jiang X i n (Jiang Xiaojian), 159—60, 305 Jiang Yun, 7, 8, 305 Jiang Zhaohe, 107, 1 0 8 - 1 0 , 305; after Liberation, 110, 144; paintings of the poor, 108, 109, 110, fig. 9.27, fig. 9.28; and peasant painting movement, 148, fig. 14.2; Refugees by, 108, 1 0 9 - 1 0 , fig. 9.29 Jiangnan Arsenal, 27, 2 8 4 n 2 Jiangsu Artists Association, 2 5 1 , 2 5 1 J i a n g u o H o t e l (Beijing), 229 Jiefang ribao (Liberation daily) , 1 0 2 Jilin Province, 215 Jin C h e n g (Jin G o n g b o ) , 7—8, 305, fig. 1.1 Jin Daiqiang (Kan Tai-keung), 195, 305

3 4 2

INDEX

Jin Gao, 269, 305 Jin Jialun (King Chia-lun), 193, 195, 305, fig. 19.3 Jin Nong, 9 Jin Shangyi, 2 3 3 , 258, 305, fig. 22.5; nudes of, 2 7 3 , fig. 25.3 J i n X u e c h e n g , 160, 305 J i n Ye, 107, 306 Jintian (Today), 2 2 1 , 2 2 4 J i u r e n H u a h u i (Society of N i n e Artists), 78, 1 1 4 Ju Lian, 52, 54, 306 Ju M i n g ( Z h u Ming), 1 8 8 - 8 9 , 2 9 2 n 2 6 , 325, fig. 1 8 . 1 4 , pi. 47, pi. 48 Juelan She. See S t o r m Society Juilliard School of Music ( N e w York), 207 Juran, 199 K a m p h , Arthur, 69 Kan T a i - k e u n g (Jin Daiqiang), 195, 305 Kandinsky, Wassily, 32, 67, 206 Kanehara Shöjo, 2 2 Kang Sheng, 102, 1 5 1 Kang Youwei, 28, 42, 68, 73 Kangzhan banian muke xuanzhi ( W o o d c u t s of wartime China, 1937—1945), 1 1 5 K a n ö Högai, 52 K a n ö School, 69 Kao, Mayching, 30, 67 Katayama N a m p u , 2 4 1 Kawabata Academy of Painting, 37, 77, 179 Kent, Rockwell, 86, 173 Keswick, Sir J o h n and Lady, 117 King, Alice, 199 K i n g C h i a - l u n (Jin Jialun), 193, 195, 305, fig. 19.3 Kirkbride, Dorothy, 193 Kishida R y ü s e i , 234 Kissinger, Henry, 1 5 2 Klee, Paul, 60, 1 8 2 , 184, 234; influence on Z a o W o u - k i , 206 Klimt, Gustav, 176, 232, 233 Kline, Franz, 1 8 2 , 183, 193, 194, 2 1 0 , 269 Kohara H i r o n o b u , 4 1 Kollwitz, Käthe, 32, 80, 85, 86, 87, 1 7 3 ; Sacrifice by, 83; self-portrait, 85, fig. 8.3 K o n g C h a n g a n , 262 Kong, R a y m o n d (Jiang C o n g x i n ) , 193 K o o M e i (Gu Mei), 2 1 0 , 302 K o o Tsin-yau (Gu Qingyao), 192, 302 Korean War, 131, 135, 192 Kosugi Misei, 2 2 K o w l o o n , 191, 200 K o w l o o n School of Fine Arts, 191 Kramskoy, Ivan, 135 Kravchenko, Alexei, 87 Kropotkin, Prince, 65 K u a n g Yaoding ( K w o n g Yeu-ting), 197, 306 kujiu feng (Bitter Past Trend), 231 K ü m m e l , O t t o , 74 K u n m i n g , 94 Kunstwollen, 82 Kuo, Jason, 264 Kuriyagawa H a k u s o n , 80 Kuroda Seiki, 29, 37, 59 K w o k H o n S u m ( G u o Hanshen), 197, 303, pi- 51

K w o n g Yeu-ting (Kuang Yaoding), 197, 306 Kyoto Academy, 1 7 9 Kyoto University, 7 Lai C h i - m a n (Li Z h i w e n ) , 190, 200, 308 Lai C h i n g Institute, 1 9 1 Lai C h u n c h u n (Lai Jun), 185, 190, 306, fig. 1 8 . 1 5 Lai C h u s h e n g , 142, 247, 306 Lai F o o n g - m o i (Lai Fengmei), 2 0 1 , 306 Lai J u n . See Lai C h u n c h u n Lai K i t - c h e u n g (Li Jiexiang), 207, 307 Lai Shaoqi, 171, 307 Lan Ying, 54 Lan Yinding, 306 landscape painting, 145, 1 5 3 , 2 1 7 ; Shanghai School, 1 2 - 1 3 , 15-16, 17, 22; Xi'an tradition, 250; of Yu Chengyao, 187. See also Li Keran; Liu Haisu; Pan Tianshou Lang Kai, 1 7 4 Lang Shaojun, 263, 278 Lao Bingxiong, pi. 63 Lao She, 1 5 2 ; Crescent Moon by, 1 7 5 , 228, pi. 36 laser art, 188 Lau Wai-kee, 200 Laurençin, Marie, 7 7 Lawrence, D. H . , 202 Le Karsiu (Li Jiazhao), 207, 3 0 6 - 7 Le Yuan Garden (Hangzhou), 49 League of L e f t - W i n g Artists, 84, 86, 1 2 4 League of L e f t - W i n g Writers, 82 Lee J o o For (Li R u h u o ) , 202, 307, fig. 19.18 Lee K w o k - h o n (Li G u o h a n ) , 207, 306 Lee Y. T i e n . See Li T i e f u Lee, Aries (Li Fuhua), 200, 306, fig. 1 9 . 1 5 Lee, Leo, 34 Léger, Fernand, 143, 205 Lei Feng, 150, 151, 1 7 4 Lei G u i y u a n , 49, 144, 260, 306 Leng J o o n - w o n g (Ling Yunhuang), 2 0 2 , 309 Lenin, V. I., 102 Leningrad, 7 1 ; Academy, 135 Leonardo, 258 L e u n g K u i - t i n g (Liang Jilting), 195, 308, fig. 19.7 Levedin, 13 5 Levitan, Isaac, 1 3 7 Li Bing, 99 Li B i n g h o n g , 306 Li C h a o , 306 Li Chaoshi, 36, 43, 58, 59, 65, 9 1 , 306 Li C h e n g , 197 Li C h u n d a n , 82, 83, 306 Li D e h u i , 288n24 Li D o n g p i n g , 37, 59, 306 Li Feng, 40 Li Fengbai, 31, 40, 49, 205, 306 Li Fenggong, 306 Li Fenglan, 148, 306 Li Fengniian, 82 Li Fuhua (Aries Lee), 200, 306, fig. 1 9 . 1 5 Li G e n g , 2 5 2 , 306 Li G u o h a n (Lee K w o k - h o n ) , 207, 306 Li H o n g r e n , 1 7 2 , 306, fig. 17.5 Li H u , 306

Li Hua (1907—94), 306; during AntiRightist Movement, 144; after Liberation, 1 3 1 , 1 3 9 , 170; opposed new trends after Cultural Revolution, 1 0 5 , 256; during war years, 96, 1 0 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 ; and Woodcut Movement, 84, 85, 1 0 4 - 5 , % 8.5 Li Hua (b. 1948), 306 Li Huaji, 229, 230, 306 Li Huasheng, 2 5 2 - 5 3 , 254, 306, fig. Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li

Li

Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li Li

Li Li Li Li

23.20, pi. 81 Huiang, 306 Jianfu, 1 7 1 Jianqun, 230 Jiazhao (Le Karsiu), 207, 306—7 Jiexiang (Lai Kit-cheung), 207, 307 Jinchuan, 188 Jinfa, 39, 49, 65, 159, 162, 307, fig. 16.1 Keran, 307; during Cultural Revolution, 1 5 2 , 154; early years, 82, 242—43; and Eighteen Society 82, 242; landscape in Mao Mausoleum, 2 1 5 ; landscapes of, 2 1 5 , 243—44, fig- 23.5; after Liberation, 243-44; mentioned, 9 1 , 145, 188, 252, 264; during 1950s, 140, 142, 144; students of, 250; support for students at Tiananmen, 276; teachers of, 19, 76; water buffaloes of, 244, fig. 23.6 Kuchan, 307; career of, u — 1 2 ; compared with Pan Tianshou, 1 5 ; during Cultural Revolution, 154; guohua of, 1 1 , fig. 1.5; after Mao, 242, fig. 23.3; mentioned, 9, 108, 252; and modern movement, 42, 59, 65 Liufang, 7 Meishu, 307 Peng, 277 Qichao, 1 1 4 Qimao, 1 8 5 , 307 Qingzhao, 1 1 0 Quanwu, 1 7 5 , 228, 307, pi. 36 Q u n , 87, 104, 1 3 1 , 170, 307 Ruhuo. See Lee J o o For Ruinan, 97, 1 1 3 , 307 Ruiqing, 19, 307 Shan, 1 3 , 2 1 1 , 279, 307 Shaowen, 307; illustrations to Dante's Inferno, 176, fig. 1 7 . 1 2 ; wall-masks, 260, fig. 24.9 Shaoyan, 2 1 7 , 237, 252, 307 Shijiao, 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 , 185, 188, 307, fig. 18.1 Shinan, 263, 307 Shuang, 224, 267, 269, 307, pi. 90;

and Stars exhibition, 222, 223 Li Shutong, 2 9 - 3 0 , 36, 46, 1 2 5 , 307, fig. 2.3, fig. 2.4; woodcut pioneer, 29, 80 Li Tanke, 230 Li Tianxiang, 1 3 5 , 307 Li Tiefu (Lee Y. Tien), 2 8 - 2 9 , 90, 1 1 2 , 1 1 7 , 307; portrait of Feng Gangbai, 5 1 , pi. 6 Li Weian, 307 Li Wenhan, 307 Li Xianting, 274, 279 Li Xiongcai, 57, 96, 1 3 2 , 1 5 3 , 2 1 5 , 307, pi. 22 Li Xipeng, 193 Li X i u , 1 7 3 Li Yanshan, 1 9 3 , 307

Li Y i h o n g , 307 Li Yishi, 36, 42, 48, 59, 308; Changhen ge series, 50, fig. 4.5 Li Yongcun, 308 Li Youxing, 99, 1 0 1 , 106, 308 Li Yuanheng, 308 Li Yuanjia, 184, 308 Li Yushi, 86 Li Zefan, 308 Li Zhengwen, 167 Li Zhigeng, 1 0 5 , 308, fig. 9.22 Li Zhiwen (Lai Chi-man), 190, 200, 308 Li Zhongliang, 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 308, fig. 22.6 Li Zhongnian, 170, 308 Li Zhongsheng, 182 Li Z o n g j i n , 308 Liang Baibo, 62, 9 1 , 1 2 4 , 308 Liang Dingming, 9 1 , 96, 308 Liang Dong, 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 , 308 Liang Juting (Leung Kui-ting), 1 9 5 , 308, fig. 19.7 Liang Kaiyun, 9 Liang Qichao, 24, 32, 42, 46, 73 Liang Quan, 308 Liang Shiqiu, 37 Liang Weizhou, 308 Liang Xihong, 59, 308 Liang Yongtai, 1 0 5 , 308 Liang Yuming, 93 Liang Zhongming, 93 Liangjiang Shifan Xuetang (Nanjing), 19, 27 lianhuanhua (serial pictures), 1 5 0 , 174— 77, 2 9 0 m 1 , 2 9 i n 8 , fig. 17.8; The White-Haired Girl, 1 5 0 , 1 7 4 , fig. 14.5 Liao Bingxiong, 5 1 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 4 , 308, pi. 29; cartoon of himself after C u l tural Revolution, 2 1 8 , pi. 63 Liao Jichun, 179, 1 8 2 , 308 Liao Jingwen, 72, 2 8 7 m Liao, Shiou-ping (Liao Xiuping), 1 8 5 , 259, 308, pi. 40 Liao Xinxue, 4 1 , 160, 1 6 1 , 162—63, 205, 308, fig. 16.4 Liao Zhongkai, 52 Liberation, 129—30 Lichtenstein, Roy, 270 Lida College of Art, 77 Life Stream (shenghuo liu), 2 3 1 Lim Cheng-hoe (Lin Qinghe), 200, 308 Lim Hak-tai (Lin Xueda), 5 1 , 200, 309 Lin Biao, 1 5 1 Lin Dongcheng, 261 Lin Fengmian, 308; during Anti-Rightist Movement, 144; The Crucifixion by, 2 1 7 , pi. 19; during Cultural Revolution, 154, 155; early years, 76—77; exhibitions of, 40, 59, 76, 77, 1 4 5 - 4 6 , 205, 232; and Hangzhou Academy, 43, 49, 76, 82, 94, 1 1 6 , 13 3, 205; headed Beijing Academy, 9, 43—44,76, 285n2; in Hong Kong after Cultural Revolution, 2 1 7 ; landscapes of, 77, pi. 20; after Liberation, 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 , 139; Mandarin Ducks, 77; marriages of, 76; mentioned, 29, 48, 58, 64, 65, 244; and the N e w Life Movement, 62; ocuvre of, 77; owls of, 77; students of, 76, 203, 2 1 0 ; study abroad, 38, 39, 4 1 , 76; Sorrow mourning dead of 1 9 3 2 by, 50,

77; synthesis of East and West, 77, 139; works on, 287ni8; and X u Beihong, 72, 285n2, 2 8 7 m Lin Gang, 1 3 5 , 2 3 2 , 308; Funeral of Zhou Enlai by, 2 1 9 , fig. 2 1 . 3 Lin Kegong, 308 Lin Qinghe (Lim Cheng-hoe), 200, 308 Lin Qinnan (Lin Shu), 7, 308 Lin, Richard (Lin Shouyu), 190, 308 Lin Sen, 1 6 2 , fig. 16.6 Lin Shu (Lin Qinnan), 7, 308 Lin, Swallow (Lin Yan), 1 8 5 , 309, fig. 18.9 Lin Wenqiang, 308 Lin Wenzheng, 39, 49, 50, 65, 76 Lin Xueda (Lim Hak-tai), 5 1 , 200, 309 Lin Yushan, 178, 309 Lin Z i x u , 163 Lincoln Memorial, 2 1 5 Ling Shuhua, 1 6 1 Ling Yunhuang (Leng Joon-wong), 202, 309 Linggu Si, 91 Lingnan School, 52—57; exhibitions, 58, 97, 1 1 6 ; in H o n g Kong, 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 9 1 , 192; after Liberation, 2 5 1 ; mentioned, 26, 28, 47, 76, 2 1 0 . See also Chen Shuren; Gao Jianfu; Gao Qifeng Lingnan University, 5 1 . See also Canton Christian College; National Sun Yatsen University Lipschitz, Jacques, 163 Literary Gazette, 131 Literary Research Society (Wenxue yanjiuhui), 34 literary societies, 33—35 "literature of the wounded," 226 lithographs, 2 1 , 1 7 2 - 7 3 , 2 8 4 ^ 7 Liu Bang, 70 Liu Bao, 1 7 1 Liu Bingjiang, 230, 2 3 3 - 3 4 , 3 ° 9 , pi- 67 Liu Binyan, 272 Liu Chunhua, 309; Chairman Mao Goes toAnyuanby, 152, 172 Liu Conghui (Liu Tsung-hui), 190, 309 Liu Dahong, 309 Liu Dan, 309 Liu Guohui, 309 Liu Guoshu, 235 Liu Guosong. See Liu Kuo-sung Liu Haisu, 309; attacked during AntiRightist Movement, 144; during Cultural Revolution, 154; early years, 2 1 , 4 2 , 7 2 - 7 3 ; in Europe in 193 3, 74; exhibitions, 73, 74, 2 3 1 , 232; guohua works, 74, fig. 7.6; and Hangzhou Academy, 286n24; Huangshan landscapes, 75, 76, fig. 7.7; influences on, 30, 34, 73, 139, pi. 17; in Japan, 37, 7 2 - 7 3 ; in Java under Japanese occupation, 74—75, i n , pi. 18; after Liberation, 75—76, 139; mentioned, 23, 25, 30, 4 1 , 48, 49, 53, 62, 109, 200, 238, 239; at Nanjing Academy of Art in 1950s, 1 3 1 ; nudes of, 45-46, 58, 274; and the Shanghai Academy of Art, 3 0 - 3 1 , 44-46, 7 4 - 7 5 , 1 1 5 ; students of, 38, 46, 68, 1 2 2 , 242; synthesis of East and West, 76; work after Cultural Revolution, 2 1 7 , 252; and X u Beihong, 72, 73, 2 8 7 m

INDEX

3 4 3

Liu H a n , 248 Liu H u a n z h a n g , 1 6 4 - 6 8 , 2 9 1 m l , 3 0 9 Liu Jian'an, 116, 3 0 9 Liu J i a n g , 309 Liu Jipiao, 4 0 , 4 9 , 309 Liu K a i q u , 4 0 , 4 9 , 135, 2 1 7 , 3 0 9 ; a n d H a n g z h o u A c a d e m y , 131, 163; a n d statue f o r M a o M a u s o l e u m , 2 1 5 ; w o r k o f , 99, 1 6 1 - 6 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 9 i n 7 , fig. 16.5 Liu K a n g , 116, 200—201, 3 0 9 Liu K u o - s u n g ( L i u G u o s o n g ) , 188, 193, 197, 2 2 8 , 2 5 9 , 309, pi. 38; a n d F i f t h M o o n G r o u p , 1 8 2 - 8 3 , 184, 2 0 9 , 210; landscapes of, 183, fig. 18.6; " W h i c h Is E a r t h ? " series, 182, fig. 18.5 Liu L u n , 105, 2 5 1 , 309 Liu M e n g b a o , 82 Liu M i n g , 3 0 9 Liu N i n g , 309 Liu P i n g z h i , 104, 3 0 9 Liu Q i n g , 2 9 2 m 5 Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu

Q i x i a n g , 179, 188, 309, fig. 18.2 Shaochun, 274 S h a o q i , 137, 152 S h i t o n g , 170 S i x u n , 64 Tianhua, 309 Tianwei, 309 T i e h u a , 104 T s u n g - h u i ( L i u C o n g h u i ) , 190, 3 0 9 W e i , 309 W e n c a i , 165 W e n x i , 143, 3 0 9 X i a n , 101, 3 0 9 X i a o d o n g , 309 X u n , 154, 310, fig. 21.8 Yong, 260, 310 Yuan, 9 6 , 3 10 Z h e n g d a n , 310 Z h e n g d e , 167 Z h i d e , 310; Old Party Secretary by,

1 4 8 , fig- 14-3 Liu Z i j i u , 3 1 0 Liu Z i m i n g , 2 3 2 , 3 10 L i u l i c h a n g , 80 Liusan G a r d e n , 14 L o C h ' i n g ( L u o Q i n g ) , 1 8 5 - 8 6 , 310, fig. 18.10 L o e b , Pierre, 205 L o e h r , M a x , 107 L o n g Liyou, 3 1 0 L o n g M a r c h , 101, 174 L o n g o b a r d i , X a v i e r , 193 L o u v r e , M u s e e d u (Paris), 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 Low, D a v i d , 121, 123 L u D i n g y i , 129, 143 L u H o n g j i , 9 4 , 3 10 Lu H u i , 310 Lu Peng, 278 L u Q i n z h o n g , 36 L u Shaofei, 120, 3 1 0 L u W e i , 131 L u W e i z h a o , 31 o L u X u n : o n art, 32, 6 5 , 82, 2 4 2 ; attended Apollo Society exhibition, 4 2 , 58; covers f o r w o r k s of, 4 8 , 119, 120; d e a t h of, 85—86; illustrations o f w o r k s by, 123, 172, 175, 2 3 3 , fig. 17.10, fig. 2 2 . 6 ; m o u r n i n g o f R o u Shi

3 4 4

INDEX

a n d m a r t y r s , 83—84, 85; p o r t r a i t s of, 86, 163, fig. 8.1; p r o t é g é s , 101, 131; The Selected Prints of Käthe Kollwitz by, 85; in S h a n g h a i in 1930s, 43, 4 6 , 59, 161; as t h e m e o f Hanhuanhua, 150, 174; and t h e W o o d c u t M o v e m e n t , 8 0 - 8 1 , 84—87; a n d X i a o D i n g , 123 L u X u n A c a d e m y (Shenyang), 2 5 5 , 278 L u X u n A c a d e m y o f Arts a n d L i t e r a t u r e (Yan'an), 94, 1 0 1 - 2 , 133, 147, 154, 2 3 9 , 250; W o o d c u t W o r k U n i t , 102 L u X u n A r t C o l l e g e (Shenyang), 166, fig. 16.10 L u Yanshao, 249, 251, 2 6 4 , 310, fig. 2 3 . 1 4 L u Yi. See Lu X u n A c a d e m y o f Arts a n d Literature L u Yifei, 3 1 0 L u Z h a n g , 310 L u Z h i x i a n g , 93 Lii Fengzi, 24, 74, 97, 310, fig. 1.20 LÜ S h o u k u n . Sec Lui S h o w K w a n L ü Sibai, 40, 6 0 , 3 10; d u r i n g C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , 154; at N a t i o n a l C e n t r a l University, 62, 97; in w a r t i m e , 48, 72; w o r k s after L i b e r a t i o n , 13 9 L ü W u j i u ( L u c y Lu W u - c h i u ) , 2 1 1 , 3 1 0 L ü X i a g u a n g , 31 o Lui S h o w K w a n (Lii S h o u k u n ) , 1 9 3 - 9 4 , 197, 2 0 9 , 2 1 0 , 310, fig. 19.4, fig. 19.5 Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 82, 83 lunzhan (battle o f t h e b o o k s ) , 33 L u o E r c h u n , 234, 2 9 5 m 1, 310, pi. 74 L u o Fang, 185, 3 1 0 L u o G o n g l i u , 9 4 , 102, 131, 135, 2 1 7 , 310, pi. 30 L u o Jialing, 68 L u o M i n g , 310 L u o N e n g j i a n , T70 L u o Q i m e i , 115 L u o Q i n g ( L o C h ' i n g ) , 1 8 5 - 8 6 , 310, fig. 18.10 L u o Q i n g z h e n , 86, 3 1 0 L u o Z h o n g l i , 164, 170, 237, 238, 310; Father by, 227, 237, pi. 75; The Orphan by, 220; Song of the Constant Soul by, 219 L u o l u o m i n o r i t y , 106, 115, 122 Lurçat, J e a n , 2 6 0 L y c e u m T h e a t r e (Shanghai), 44 Lyon, 40 M a D e s h e n g , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 4 , 2 6 7 , 310, fig. 24.19; a n d Stars e x h i b i t i o n , 223, fig. 2 1 . 1 0 M a G a n g , 174, 3 1 0 M a H u i x i a n , 310 M a S i c o n g , 9 5 , 117 M a Wanli, 9 6 , 310 M a W e i z h i , 96 M a X i n g c h i , 119, 311 M a Z h e n r o n g , 2 6 1 , 3 11 M a c F a y d e n , M r s . , 191 m a c r a m é , 2 6 0 , 261 M a i J i n y a o , 311 M a i La ( F r e n c h p a i n t i n g teacher), 52 Maillol, A., 163, 166, 168 M a j o r , F r e d e r i c k , 27 M a k s i m o v , K o n s t a n t i n , 137, 139, 2 3 2 ; p o r t r a i t o f W u Z u o r e n , 137 Malaysia, 2 0 0 - 2 0 2

Mali, 233 M a n c h u r i a , 83 M a n e t , E d o u a r d , 36, 6 7 M a n g Ke, 2 1 8 , 221 manga, 125 M a n h u a H u i ( C a r t o o n Society), 120 Manhua xuantuan ( C a r t o o n p r o p a g a n d a t e a m ) , 121 M a n s f i e l d , K a t h e r i n e , 34 M a o B e n h u a , 311 M a o D u n , 34, 95, 116 M a o Lizhi, 259, 2 9 4 n 2 3 , 311, pi. 85 M a o L u o y a n g , 238 M a o X u h u i , 3 11 M a o Z e d o n g : addressed N a t i o n a l C o n gress o f Literary and A r t Workers, 129; birthplace of, 146, 243—44; and c a m paigns of the 1950s, 131, 143, 144; and Cultural R e v o l u t i o n , 151, 152; death of, 215 ; declared People's Republic, 113, 135, pi. 28; as idol, 166, fig. 16.11; m e n t i o n e d , 44, 64, 101, 139, 163, 165; p o e m s of, 22, 140, 142, 145, fig. 13.10, pi. 31 ; portrayed, 137, 151, 152, 154, 271; and Q i Baishi, 9; visited L u X u n Academy, 102; and X u B e i h o n g , 71, 130; Yan'an Talks o n A r t and Literature, 102, 129, 132, 133, 153, 250, 278 M a o Z e d o n g M a u s o l e u m , 164, 165, 175, 2 1 5 ; tapestry b y H u a n g Y o n g y u , 2 1 5 - 1 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 6 0 , fig. 2 1 . 2 M a r i n i , M a r i n o , 168 M a r q u e t , Françoise, 143, 2 0 6 , 235 M a r u k i Iri, 263 M a r u y a m a O k y ö , 53 M a r u y a m a - S h i j ö S c h o o l , 53 M a r x , Karl, 84, 148 Marxists, a n d N e w C u l t u r e M o v e m e n t , 34 Masaccio, 258 M a s a m o t o N a o h i k o , 142 Masereel, Franz, 84, 87, 173 Masson, André, 207 Matisse, H e n r i : c o n d e m n e d a n d d e f e n d e d , 59, 73; criticized after L i b e r a t i o n , 133—34; a s i n f l u e n c e , 59, 60, 77, 7 8 , 192, 203; m e n t i o n e d , 7 2 , 74, 7 7 , 143, 2 0 6 , 2 3 2 , 248 M a t s u m u r a G o s h u n , 53 M a t s u z a k a y a D e p a r t m e n t Store, 22 M a u p a s s a n t , G u y de, 34 M a y F o u r t h M o v e m e n t , 36, 57; a n d B e i j i n g art w o r l d , 42; c a r t o o n s d u r i n g , 119; d e p i c t e d , 163, fig. 16.7 M a y S e v e n t h A c a d e m y o f Arts, 153, 166, fig. 16.10; abolished, 2 1 7 M e i L a n f a n g , 8, 9 M e i Q i n g , 8, 17, 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 M e i j i A r t Association, 178 M e i j i J a p a n , 2 7 , 30, 33 M e i j i N o r m a l S c h o o l ( X i a m e n ) , 51 Meishu: attacked avant-garde, 263; o n colossal sculpture, 168; after C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , 217, 218, 219, 225, 226—27; debate o n g u o h u a in, 140; denunciations o f H u F e n g in, 131; featured Klimt, 23 3 ; featured H e n r y M o o r e , 168; featured overseas C h i n e s e artists, 188; m a u s o l e u m decorations published in, 217; in t h e 1990s, 278;

during 1960s thaw, 145—46, 1 5 1 ; on Stars, 224; on Western modernism, 258 Meishu congshu, 16, 1 7 Meishujia, 206 Meishu yanjiu, 1 7 6 Meishu Yanjiu Yuan (Art Research Institute), 49 Meisner, Maurice, 147 Meiyu zazhi (Miyo magazine), 65 M e n , Paul (Chen Xianhui), 190, 299 MengLuding, 256, 273, 274, 3 1 1 , fig. 24.4 menglongshi (obscure poetry), 223 Mestrovic, Ivan, 167 Metropolitan Museum, 208 Mexican influence, 1 2 1 , 123 Mexican woodcuts, 86 M i C h o u Gallery, 208—9 M i Gu, 1 1 6 , 1 3 3 , 146, 1 5 1 , 3 1 1 Miao Huixin, 2 6 1 , 3 1 1 , fig. 2 4 . 1 2 Miao Jiahui, 6, 3 1 1 , pi. 1 Miao minority, 94—95, 104, 1 4 7 , 170, 260; batiks of, 261 Michaux, Henri, 206 Michelangelo, 7 3 , 8 1 , 230, 258 Military Affairs Commission, 91 Millet, Jean-François, 1 3 5 , 228, 2 3 3 , 237; The Angelus, 1 6 1 ; Gleaners, 82 M i n g dynasty Y i m i n painters, 25 M i n g Tombs Reservoir dam, 145 Mingzhi University (Shanghai), 68 Minhuhuabao, 1 1 9 minimalism, 1 8 5 , 195, 259 Ministry of Culture: abolished May Seventh Art University, 2 1 7 ; and exhibitions in the 1980s, 2 7 3 - 7 4 , 2 7 ( i> 2 7 7 ; founded Beijing Painting Academy, 142; set up Artists Association in 1949, 129. See also Central Academy Ministry of Culture (Singapore), "Art for Everyone" program, 202 Ministry of Education, 94 minority peoples: carving by, 163; depicted, 230, 232; sculpture of, 168; in Taiwan, 1 8 5 . See also Dai minority; Luoluo minority; Miao minority Mirô, Joan, 60, 207 Mitsutani Kunishirô, 59, 73 Miu Zhihui, 260 mixed media, 259, 2 6 1 , 265 M K Research Society, 84, 87 M o B u , 1 3 1 , 239, 3 1 1 M o Dayuan, 51 M o She (Silent Society), 60 model books, 1 4 1 , fig. 2.2, fig. 13.8, fig. 13-9 Modern Art Exhibition (Chengdu, 1946), 1 2 1 Modern Art Society (Chengdu), 99 Modern Art Society (Singapore), 202 " M o d e r n Heavy Color Painters," 2 3 2 Modern Literature and Art Association (Hong Kong), 1 9 3 , 198 Modern Woodcut Society (Xiandai muke hui; Canton), 84, 104 modernism: affect of war on, 1 1 2 ; deprecated after Liberation, 131—32; after 1989, 270, 279-80; and search for individual style, 7 3 - 7 4 ; in Shanghai, 37, 273 Modigliani, Amedeo, 77, 206

Monet, Claude, 67, 73 Mongolia, 105 Mongolian art, 269 Monkey. See Xiyouji Monkey Year Society (Shen she), 2 3 2 Moore, Henry, 1 6 6 - 6 7 , r 68 Morita Sai, 241 Morning Flower Society, 80—81, 83 Morris, William, 6 4 - 6 5 Mount Rushmore, 168 M u Han Ban, 103 M u He She, 103 M u Yan She, 103 Mukhina, Vera, 163 "Mulan syndrome," 2 1 9 Muling Muke Yanjiu She. See Wooden Bell Woodcut Research Society multimedia, 2 8 1 . See also mixed media Munakata Shikô, 173 Munch, Edvard, 170, 186, 259 Musée Cernuschi (Paris), 78, 205 Musée Guimet (Paris), 76 Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), 258 museums, 8, 24, 32, 5 1 . See also Palace Museum Mussolini, Benito, 1 2 1 Mustard-Seed Garden Painting Manual, 8, 140,187 Nakamura Teji, 241 Nameless, 2 2 1 , 269 Nanchang, 45 Nanguo Art Academy (Nanguo yishu xueyuan; Académie du Midi), 34, 47, 65, 69, fig. 4.4. Nanjing: after Mao, 2 5 0 - 5 1 ; in the 1980s, 239; in the 1920s and 1930s, 48; taken by the Japanese, 9 1 , 263 Nanjing Academy (Nanjing yishu xueyuan), 75, 1 3 1 , 239, 2 5 1 Nanjing Art Gallery and Concert Hall, 60 Nanjing High Normal School, 48 Nanjing Normal University, 239 Nanjing University, 44 Nanjing Yishu Xueyuan. See Nanjing Academy Nantong, 8 Nantong Arts and Crafts Institute, 261 Nanyang Academy of Art (Singapore), 200, 201 National Academy: Beijing, 7, 113—14; Chongqing, 78; wartime, 94, 97. See also Beijing Academy National Art Exhibition: of 1929, 5 8 - 5 9 , 108; of 1 9 3 7 , 1 5 , 1 9 1 ; of 1 9 7 7 , 2 1 7 ; of 1979, 2 1 9 National Art Movement Society (Guoli yishu yundong she), 49, 50, 65, 77 National Art Training College (Guoli yishu zhuanke xuexiao), 44 National Beijing College of Art (Guoli Beijing meishu xuexiao), 42 National Cartoonists Association, 91 National Central University (Chongqing), 7 1 , 72, 97 National Central University (Nanjing), 22, 48, 62, 69, 108, 206 National College of Fine Arts (Hangzhou), 1 3 3 - 3 4

National Congress of Literary and Art Workers (first), 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 National Dunhuang Art Research Institute (Guoli Dunhuang yanjiu yuan), 20, 40, 106 National Exhibition of guohua (Beijing, 1953), 2 9 0 n i 0 National Historical Museum (Taiwan), 189 National Minorities Institute, 2 2 7 , 2 3 0 , 2 5 2 National Model Heroes meeting, 163 National Museum of Art (Singapore), 202 National Oil Painting Exhibition (1987), 2 5 5 , 258 National Palace Museum. See Palace Museum National Salvation Dramatic Troupe, 105 National Sun Yatsen University, 8 1 , 1 1 7 National Taiwan Normal University, 7, 199 National United Southeastern University (Guoli lianhe dongnan daxue), 46, 1 1 1 National Youth Exhibition (1980), 227 National Youth Exhibition (1986), 265 Native Soil Literature and Art M o v e ment (Xiangtu wenyi yundong), 185 N e w Art Movement, 40, 82 N e w Asia College (Hong Kong), 192 N e w Chinese Painting, 1 1 , 5 2 - 5 3 , 54, 1 3 2 N e w Culture Movement, 32—33, 3 3 - 3 5 , 42, 68 N e w Life Movement, 62 N e w Space (Xin kongjian), 255 N e w Spring Art Exhibition, 2 3 1 , 232, 234 N e w Sprouts Painting Society (Chunming huahui), 178 N e w Wave (xin chao), 2 5 5 , 266, 267, 2 7 7 , 278 N e w Wild Group (Xinyexing pai), 274 new year pictures, 102, 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 - 5 0 , pi. 34; art school departments, 174; style of, 1 7 4 , 1 7 5 , 228 N e w York, 189, 269 N e w York School, 180 N g , Pansy (Wu Puhui), 1 9 3 , 3 1 8 N g Y i u - c h u n g (Wu Yaozhong), 197, 3 1 8 , pi. 49 Haifeng, 3 1 1 Huanzi, 86 Tian, 3 1 1 Yide, 3 1 1 , fig. 6.5; during Cultural Revolution, 154; during early 1960s, 145; early years, 34, 37, 63—64; exhibited, 60, 96; at Hangzhou Academy during Liberation, 1 3 1 ; praised Gao Jianfu, 57; and Storm Society, 62, 63—64; works after Liberation, 1 3 9 N i Zan, 209

Ni Ni Ni Ni

nianhua. See new year pictures N i e O u , 256, 3 1 1 , fig. 24.2 Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 2 5 5 , 264 Nihonga Bijutsu In (Japan Fine Art Institute), 22, 53 nihonga style: and Cantonese school, 2 1 ; influence on Chen Zhifo, 23; influence on Fu Baoshi, 22; influence on Wang Yuezhi, 42; influence on Zhang Daqian, 19; after Mao, 2 4 1 ; movement, 69; N e w Chinese Painting, 5 2 - 5 3 , 54; in Taiwan, 178

N D E X

3 4 5

N i n e W o m e n ' s Exhibition, 256 N i n g p o Guild, 60 N i n t h National Print Exhibition (1986), 173 N i u W e n , 3 11 niupeng (cattle pen), 153 N i x o n , R i c h a r d , 152 N o g u c h i , Isamu, 188 N o l d e , Emil, 194 n o r m a l schools, 29, 51; training of art teachers, 27—28, 45 N o r t h America, C h i n e s e artists in, 207-1i N o r t h C h i n a A c a d e m y (Huabei xueyuan), 42 N o r t h C h i n a Art G r o u p (Beifang yishu tuanti), 274 North China Daily News, 214 N o r t h e r n Expedition, 34, 91 N o r t h e r n S o n g landscape painting, 22 N o r t h e r n Wilderness School, 171 N o r t h w e s t Cultural W o r k i n g Group, 250 N O V A exhibition of 1935, 5 9 - 6 0 , 66 nudes: 1915 controversy, 2 8 5 n s ; in the 1920s, 45—46, 58; 1988 exhibit, 226, 273—74; i n Song of Life, 229, pi. 66; upheld in Meishu, 225 O c c u p i e d Areas, 107—8, 109, i i t official exhibitions, 226—29 official patronage, 2 9 4 n i 6 oil painting, 60, 66; in Beijing, 43; in C a n ton, 5 0 - 5 1 ; expense of, 66, 244; experimental, 233, 294n23; in Japan, 59; after Liberation, 145, 231, 2 3 2 - 3 5 , 238, 255, 258, 278; in Shanghai, 46, 238. See also C h a n g Shuhong; Liu Haisu; Western art O k a d a Saburosuke, 179 O k a k u r a Kakuzö, 52, 53, 69 O l d e n b u r g , Claes, 259 O l y m p i c Park (Seoul), 268 O n e Art Society (Yihua hui), 194 O n g K i m s e n g ( W a n g Jincheng), 202, 315 o p art, 259 O p i u m Wars, 119 O P R A (Oil Painting Research Association), 23 I, 233 O p u s Society, 39 O t h o n - F r i e s z , 205 O r o z c o , José, 121 Osaka Expo, 188 O u y a n g Wenyuan, 184, 311 O u y a n g Yüqian, 47 Overseas Art M o v e m e n t Society (Haiwai yishu y u n d o n g she), 39, 49 owls, 77, 154, 215, 2 9 1 m I, fig. 15.2 Ozawa, Seiji, 218 Paci, Maestro, 44 Painting in the C h i n e s e Tradition exhibition ( H o n g Kong), 194 Painting Manual of the Mustard-Seed Garden, 8, 140, 187 Painting Manual of the Ten Bamboo Hall, 171 Painting M e t h o d s Research Society (Beij i n g University), 68 Palace M u s e u m (Beijing), 17, 24, 94, 98, 186, 187 Palace M u s e u m (Taiwan), 17, 181, 182

3 4 6

INDEX

Palais du R h i n (Strasbourg), 39 Pan Dehai, 311 Pan Gongkai, 16 Pan G u a n g d a n , 38 Pan Jiezi, 107, 241, 311, fig. 23.1 Pan R e n , 103, 104, 311 Pan Sitong, 46, 3 11 Pan Tianshou, 311; compared with Li Kuchan, 15, 16; d u r i n g Cultural R e v o lution, 154; History of Chinese Painting by, 25; d u r i n g 1950s, 139, fig. 13.6; d u r i n g 1960s, 145; influences on, 15; landscapes of, 15—16, 142, fig. 1.9, fig. 1.10, fig. 13.10; m e n t i o n e d , 20, 247, 249; students of, 210; studied w i t h Li Shutong, 29—30; teaching positions, 47, 49; on Western art, 25, 67 Pan Ye, 311 Pan Ying, 311 Pan Yuliang, 38, 203, 311; exhibited, 59, 60; m e n t i o n e d , 78; m o v e d to Paris, 203; and National Central University art d e p a r t m e n t , 48, 62; nudes, 59, 203, pi. 57; self-portrait, 203, fig. 20.2 Pan Yun, 132, 311 Pan Z h a n h u a , 38 Panama Exposition (1912), 53 Pang J u n , 117, 311 Pang S i - m i n g (Peng Ximing), 192 Pang Tao, 48, 118, 144, 219, 259, 311, fig. 22.4, pi. 71; and Fourth Studio, 232; in N i n e W o m e n ' s Exhibition, 256; portrait of, 64, fig 6.6 Pang X u n q i n , 311; during campaigns of 1950s, 144; during the Civil War, 117—18, fig. 10.5; during Cultural R e v olution, 154, 155; after Cultural R e v o lution, 217; exhibited, 60, 101, 205, 231; at Hangzhou Academy after Liberation, 131; mentioned, 30, 86, 106, 115, 132; a m o n g the Miao, 9 4 - 9 5 , 147, fig. 9.5; in the 1980s, 232; in Paris, 41, 116, pi. 8; portrait of Q i u Ti, 63, 155, fig. 6.4; in Shanghai in the 1930s, 47, fig. 6.3; and Storm Society, 62—64; d u r ing war years, 99, 101, fig. 9.16, pi. 23; works after Liberation, 139 papercuts, 150, fig. 14.4 Paris, 71, 2 0 3 - 6 , 207, 259. See also France Parsons, Bruce, 270 Pater, Walter, 34 patriotism, 55 Pau Shiu-yau (Bao Shaoyou), 191, 298 Paulsen, Friedrich, 32 peasant art, 144, 147, 174, 225, fig. 14.1, . fig. 14.2; in the 1980s, 149, 227, 261, pi. 33; in Huxian, 147—49; l n Pixian, 147 peasants: depicted, 104, 132, 247, 258, 2 7 9 . 139; at Yan'an, 102 Peck, G r a h a m , 96 Pei, I. M „ 186, 188, 206 Peking Spring, 166, 223, 255, 272. See also Stars Peng Liyuan, 258 Peng Peiquan, 312 Peng Wants (Peng Wanchi), 207, 312 Peng X i a o c h e n g , 278 Peng X i m i n g (Pang Si-ming), 192

P e n g Z h e n , 3 12 People's Liberation Army. See PLA p e r f o r m a n c e art, 226, 262, 281 Petöfi Club, 151 Pére-Lachaise Cemetery, 219 photo-realism, 185, 207, 237 Picasso: Cai Yuanpei and, 32, 65; Guernica by, 110; as influence, 60, 63, 72, 77, 78, 143, 179, 182, 189, 205, 260; m e n t i o n e d , 184; m e t Liu Haisu, 74; 1983 exhibition of, 259 P i e r q u i n - T i a n , Odile, 267 Piper, J o h n , 193 Pixian peasant artists, 147 PLA (People's Liberation Army): anniversary exhibit, 255—56; artists, 258; d u r i n g Cultural Revolution, 151, 152; depicted, 132, 174, 235 Plauen, E. O., 124 Plekhanov, Georgy, 82 poetry, 5; of M a o Z e d o n g , 22, 140, 142, 145, fig. 13.10, pi. 31; of the Peking Spring, 218, 223—24 political c o m m i t m e n t , 256 "Political P o p , " 279 Pollock, Jackson, 182, 193, 269 P o o n , A n t h o n y (Fang Jinshun), 202, 301 p o p art, 185, 195, 279 Popular Graphics W o r k s h o p (Taller de Gráfica Popular; Mexico), 86 portraits, 9, 12, 258 Post-Impressionism, 67, 73 Poussin, Nicolas, 206 Prague A c a d e m y o f Art, 43 Priest, Alan, 208 printmakers, 170—74, 265; H o n g Kong, I95i J 97> 199; influences o n , 173—74; in Taiwan, 18 5 professionalism, 5, 258 Proletarian Art M o v e m e n t (Pulou yishu y u n d o n g ) , 82 P r o m o t e the National Heritage M o v e m e n t (Chengli guogu y u n d o n g ) , 24 propaganda, anti-Japanese, 91, 116, 121, 123 propaganda art: m e n t i o n e d , 132, 144, 151, 231, 251; m o c k e r y of, 279; in the 1980s, 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 232; d u r i n g 1930s and 1940s, 9 1 - 9 3 , 94, 102-3; in Taiwan, 93; and the W o o d c u t M o v e m e n t , 80—81 Provincial Art A c a d e m y (Guilin), 96 Provincial Arts Institute (Guilin), 95—96 P r u d ' h o n , Pierre-Paul, 69 Pu G u o c h a n g , 259, 312 Pu H u a , 13, 312 Pu Jin (Pu Xuezhai), 6, 7, 107, 140, 312 Pu Q u a n (Pu Songquan), 6, 107, 108, 207, 312; Building the Red Flag Canal by, 140, 152, fig. 15.i Pu R u (Pu Xinyu), 6 - 7 , 181, 210, 283n4, 312 Pu X u e z h a i . See Pu Jin Pu Yi, 6, 7, 24 P u d o v k i n , V. I., Film Acting by, 115 P u l o u Yishu Y u n d o n g (Proletarian Art M o v e m e n t ) , 82 " P u n t o " m o v e m e n t , 184—85

Q i Baishi ( Q i H u a n g ) , 8—II, 312, fig. 1.3, fig. 1.4, fig. 9 . 2 6 ; at B e i j i n g Academy, 8, 4 3 , 107; a n d C h e n H e n g k e , 8; circle of, 142; c o m p a r e d to W u C h a n g s h u o , 9, 13; c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h W a n g Yun, 8—9; f o r g e r i e s of, 11; as i n f l u e n c e , n , 15, 2 4 3 ; i n f l u e n c e s o n , 9; d u r i n g J a p a n e s e O c c u p a t i o n , 108, 114; m e n t i o n e d , 12, 97, 137, 142, 171, 2 0 5 , 253; in t h e 1950s, 139; o u t p u t of, 11; as p o r t r a i t painter, 9; students of, 11, 2 4 2 Q i G o n g , 207, 312 Q i Liang, 9 Q i a n B i n g h e , 119, 3 1 2 Q i a n J u n t a o , 48, 119, 312 Q i a n S h a o w u , 135, 167, 312 Q i a n S h o u t i e , 14, 25, 312 Q i a n S o n g y a n , 312; d u r i n g C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , 152, 153; o n g u o h u a a n d realism, 141, 142; landscape in M a o M a u s o l e u m , 2 1 5 , fig. 21.1; N a n j i n g painter, 23, 2 5 1 ; d u r i n g 1950s, 143; d u r i n g 1960s, 145; in o c c u p i e d S h a n g h a i , 111 Q i a n X u a n , 247 Q i a o z h o u w o o d sculpture, 163 Q i n L o n g , 175, 217, 312 Q i n S h i h u a n g d i , 54, 121, 2 6 0 Q i n S o n g , 185, 188, 312, fig. 18.8 Q i n X u a n f u , 66, 312 Q i n Z h o n g w e n , 114, 312 Q i n g individualists, 8. See also D a o j i ; M e i Q i n g ; Shitao; Z h u D a Q i n g c h e n g s h a n , 97, 9 9 , 122, fig. 9 . 1 2 , fig- 9-15 Q i n g h a i , 106 Q i n g h u a University, 37, 151 Qingming (Spring), 115 Q i n g o n g J i a n x u e h u i . See D i l i g e n t W o r k Frugal S t u d y Association Q i t i n g N o r m a l S c h o o l , 51 Q i u C h a n g w e i , 95 Q i u D e s h u , 2 3 2 , 2 7 2 , 312, fig. 2 5 . 2 Q i u J i n , 119 Q i u T i , 6 2 , 6 4 , 9 9 , 144, 312; p o r t r a i t of, 63, 155, fig. 6.4 Q i u Yacai, 186, 312, fig. 18.11 Q i u Zhijie, 312 Q u Leilei, 2 2 3 , 224, 312 Q u L i n g j u n , 175 Q u Yuan, n o Q u a n Shanshi, 239, 312 Q u a n Z h e n g h u a n , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 312 R a d c l i f f e C o l l e g e , m u r a l b y Yuan Y u n s h e n g in, 2 3 0 R a o Z o n g y i (Jao T s u n g - i ) , 192, 312, fig. 19.2 R a p h a e l , 28, 73, 258 R a u s c h e n b e r g , R o b e r t , 182, 263 Read, Herbert, 65, 274 realism, 32, 137—39, 2 0 7 i a n d C h i n e s e artists in N o r t h A m e r i c a , 2 1 0 , 211; i n t r o d u c e d i n t o g u o h u a , 140—42; p r o m o t e d after L i b e r a t i o n , 57, 132, 134; in t h e West, 2 5 8 . See also S i c h u a n School; X u B e i h o n g R e c t i f i c a t i o n c a m p a i g n s , 102

R e d A r m y , 163 R e d Guard Manifesto, 151-52 R e d G u a r d s , 106, 1 5 1 - 5 2 , 1 5 4 - 5 5 , 2 3 5 R e d - Y e l l o w - B l u e P a i n t i n g Society, 2 5 5 R e m b r a n d t , 51, 69, 2 0 6 R e n B o n i a n ( R e n Yi), 12, 14, 4 8 , 313, fig. 1.6 R e n J i a n , 3 12 R e n R u i y a o , 51, 313 R e n X i o n g ( R e n W e i c h a n g ) , 12, 68 R e n i , G u i d o , 28 R e n j i a n H u a h u i (Society f o r A r t f o r t h e P e o p l e ) , 116 R e n o i r , P i e r r e - A u g u s t e , 72, 2 0 6 R e p i n , Ilya, 135, 137 Revolutionary Romanticism, 237 R i e g l , Alois, 82 R i g h t i s t s , rehabilitation of, 2 1 7 R i v e r a , D i e g o , 86, 121, 123 R o c k w e l l , N o r m a n , 2 2 7 , 2 2 8 , 258 R o d i n , A u g u s t e , 145, 163, 168, 2 5 0 R o m a n t i c C r a z e (fengqing re), 231 R o m a n t i c i s m , 34, 2 3 7 R o n g Ge, 83, 313, fig. 8.3 R o n g Geng, 207 R o n g b a o z h a i studio, 145, 171—72 Rossetti, D a n t e - G a b r i e l , 34 R o t h e n s t e i n , Sir W i l l i a m , 39 R o u Shi, 80, 83, 85, 313 R o u a u l t , G e o r g e s , 143 Royal C o l l e g e o f A r t ( L o n d o n ) , 238 r u b b i n g s , 184, 266—67 R u b e n s , P e t e r Paul, 161 Rutin waishi ( T h e scholars), 175, 2 4 8 , fig. 17.9 R u s k i n , Modem Painters by, 64 Russell, B e r t r a n d , 34 Saito Kiyoshi, 173 Salon des I n d e p e n d e n t s ( C h o n g q i n g ) , 98 San Francisco W o r l d ' s Fair, 30 S a n d a l w o o d S o c i e t y ( Z h a n t a n she), 178 Sanri huakan ("Illustrated every t h r e e days"), 121 " S a p a j o u , " 124 S a p o j n i k o v , G e o r g i , 124 S a r g e n t , J o h n , 28, 258 Sartre, J e a n - P a u l , 255 Sao P a u l o B i e n n i a l , 185 Scar Literature, 23 1 Scar Wave, 231 S c h m i d t - R o t l u f f , Karl, 194 scholar-official painters, 7—8 S c h o o l o f Linguistics a n d W e s t e r n S t u d ies, 27 S c h o o l o f Paris, 2 0 6 screen p r i n t i n g , 172, 2 5 9 sculpture: at B e i j i n g Academy, 113; B u d d h i s t , 159, 160, 168; civic, 163, 168—69; collaborative projects, 165, 166, 167; colossal, 168; dissident, 166; o f t h e early t w e n t i e t h century, 159—62; G o d d e s s o f D e m o c r a c y , 277, fig. 25.7, fig. 25.8; H o n g K o n g , 193, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 ; in t h e M a o M a u s o l e u m , 2 1 5 ; by m i n o r i t i e s , 168; native C h i n e s e t r a d i tions, 1 6 3 - 6 4 ; of t h e 1980s, 166—67, 228, 2 5 9 - 6 0 ; o f t h e 1950s a n d 1960s, 163; soft, 2 6 0 , 2 6 1 , 265; Soviet i n f l u -

e n c e •in, 163—64; statues, 159, 160; T a i w a n , 178, 188—90; d u r i n g t h e war, 162; W e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e o n , 168. S c u l p t u r e Walk ( K o w l o o n Park), 2 0 0 Second National Art Exhibition ( N a n j i n g , 1937), 60, 91 Second National Congress of Literature and Art Workers, 72 Second National Exhibition (Beijing, 1981), 2 9 i n 8 S e e t o Ki (Situ Q i ) , 55, 313 Serial P i c t u r e R e s e a r c h Society, 174 serial pictures. See lianhuanhua Serov, Valentin, 135, 137 Seven Artists C l u b , 193 Seventh National Art Exhibition (Beij i n g , 1989), 2 7 7 - 7 8 Sha K e f u , 130 Sha M e n g h a i , 313 S h a a n x i A c a d e m y o f A r t , 148 Shaanxi School, 250 Shalun (Siren), 84 S h a n d o n g University, 75 S h a n g Tao, 2 3 5 S h a n g W e n b i n , 3 13 S h a n g Yang, 2 7 9 , 313 S h a n g h a i : as c e n t e r f o r g r a p h i c d e s i g n , 47—48; e x h i b i t i o n s , 58, 6 0 - 6 1 , 115, 117; f o r e i g n concessions, 44, 1 1 0 — n ; g u o h u a p a i n t i n g after M a o , 247—49; J a p a n e s e attack o n , 4 6 , 4 9 , 55, 59, 6 6 , 87, 91; in t h e 1980s, 2 3 8 - 3 9 , 2 7 2 - 7 3 , 2 7 6 ; in t h e 1920s, 14, 44; rise of, 12; after s u r r e n d e r o f J a p a n , 114—15; W e s t e r n art e d u c a t i o n in, 30—31 S h a n g h a i A c a d e m y o f A r t (Shanghai M e i z h u a n ) : graduates, 2 6 7 ; j o i n e d National United Southeastern University, 4 6 , i n ; after L i b e r a t i o n , 75; Liu H a i s u a n d , 3 0 - 3 1 , 4 4 - 4 5 , 72, 7 4 , 75; m e n t i o n e d , 6 4 , 38, 6 8 , 78, 82; in t h e 1930s, 46; reestablished after s u r r e n d e r o f J a p a n , 115; s c u l p t u r e in c u r r i c u l u m of, 159; students, 2 4 2 , fig. 4.2; t e a c h ers, 2 0 0 ; a n d X i n h u a A c a d e m y , 46 S h a n g h a i A c a d e m y o f D r a m a , 238, 2 7 2 S h a n g h a i art societies, 25 Shanghai Art Society (Shanghai meishu hui), 1 1 4 - 1 5 S h a n g h a i Artists Association (Shanghai m e i s h u zuojia h u i ) , 115 Shanghai Chinese Painting Academy (Shanghai z h o n g g u o h u a y u a n ) , 2 4 7 , 248 S h a n g h a i C i t y Artists S o c i e t y (Shanghai shi h u a r e n x i e h u i ) , 114 Shanghai C o l l e g e of Art (Shanghai yida), 82 S h a n g h a i C o l l e g e o f F i n e Arts ( S h a n g h a i m e i s h u z h u a n k e x u e x i a o ) , 44—45, 2 3 8 . See also S h a n g h a i A c a d e m y o f A r t S h a n g h a i Industrial Arts Society, 114 Shanghai manhua ( S h a n g h a i sketch), 119, 120, 121 S h a n g h a i M e i z h u a n . See S h a n g h a i A c a d emy of Art S h a n g h a i M u n i c i p a l A r t Gallery, 115 Shanghai Municipality N e w Chinese P a i n t i n g R e s e a r c h S o c i e t y (Shanghai shi x i n g u o h u a y a n j i u h u i ) , 132

INDEX

3 4 7

Shanghai Oil Painting and Sculpture Institute (Shanghai youhua diaosu yuan), 2 3 8 Shanghai Oil Painting Institute (Shanghai youhua yuan), 30 Shanghai People's Publishing House, 230ml Shanghai Private Arts University, 46 Shanghai Puck, 119 Shanghai School: brushwork, 74; figure painting, 22; flower painting, 17; landscape painting, 12—13, 15—16, 17, 22; use of color, 8, 14; use o f ink, 17—19 Shanghai Sino-Western Drawing and Painting School (Shanghai zhongxi tuhua xuexiao), 30 Shanghai Tushu Meishu Yuan. See Shanghai Academy o f Arts Shanghai University, 238 Shanghai University o f Arts (Shanghai yishu daxue), 34 Shanghai Yida. See Shanghai College o f Art Shanghai Youth Artists Association, 272 Shanghai Youth Palace, 232 Shanghai Zhongguo Huayuan. See Shanghai Chinese Painting Academy shanghen chao (Scar Wave), 231 Shao Dajun, 278 Shao Fei, 256, 313, fig. 24.3 Shao Jingkun, 3 13 Shao Yu, 148, 313, fig. 14.2 Sheeler, Charles, 255 Shekwan kilns, 164 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 34 Shen Bochen, 119, 313, fig. 11.2 Shen Fangxiao, 146 Shen Fuwen, 82, 2 8 8 n 2 4 , 313 Shen Qin, 313 Shen Qiqian, 96 Shen She (Monkey Year Society), 232 Shen Xiaotong, 3 13 Shen Yanping, 142 Shen Yaochu, 181, 313, fig. 18.4 Shen Yiqian, 105, 313, fig. 9.23 Shen Zhou, 125, 186 Sheng Song (Te Wei), 123, 3 1 4 shenghuo liu (Life Stream), 23 1 Shenmei Shuguan (Aesthetics Bookshop), 53, 68 Shenzhen Dong Hui Industrial Share Co., 278 Shenzhou Guoguang She, 16 Shi Chenghu, 263 Shi Chong, 313 Shi Hu, 235 Shi Hui, 261, 313 Shi Jihong, 1 7 3 . 174. 313, fig. 17-7 Shi Lu, 313, fig. 2 3 . 1 5 , fig. 2 3 . 1 6 ; during Cultural Revolution, 153, 250, 251; after Cultural Revolution, 2 1 7 ; after Liberation, 145, 250; and xin wenrenhua, 254; in Yanan, 101 Shi Qiren, Clean Out the Filth! by, 154, fig- 15-3 Shi Shengchen, 175 Shidai Meishu She (Epoch Art Club), 46, 82 Shijie manhua (World cartoons), 120

3 4 8

INDEX

Shimomura Kanzan, 19, 23 Shina nanga taisei, 9 4 Shiomi Kyö, 27 Shitao: collected in Japan, 25; forgeries of, 15, 17; idol o f Fu Baoshi, 22; as influence, 8, 11, 12, 15, 25, 74, 192, 208, 244, 248, 249, 250; mentioned, 6, I4S Shizhuzhai huapu (Painting manual o f the Ten Bamboo Hall), 171 Shu Chuanxi, 313 Shu Tianxi, 313 Shufang Studio, 222 Shuihu zhuan (All men are brothers), 175, fig. 17.11 shuiyin printing, 171—72 Shyu, Onion (Xu Yangcong), 190, 319, fig. 18.16 Si Zijie, 3 13 Siccawei, 30, 45 Sichuan Academy of Poetry, Calligraphy, and Painting, 252 Sichuan Artists Association, 237 Sichuan eccentrics, 252 Sichuan printmakers, 170, 171, 173 Sichuan Provincial Academy o f Art, 99, 122 Sichuan School, 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 - 3 8 , 2 6 9 Sikong Tu, 2 0 6 Silbergeld, Jerome, 2 0 9 Silent Society (Mo she), 60 Simmons, Ernest, 115 Simon, Lucien, 38 Sincere Department Store (Shanghai), 108 Singapore, 200—202 Singapore Art Society, 202 Singapore Chinese High School, 201 Singapore Watercolor Society, 202 Sino-European style, 6 Sino-Soviet Cultural Association (Chongqing), 98, 104, 135, 205 Siqueiros, David, 121 Situ Jian, 163, 313 Situ Qi (Seeto Ki), 55, 313 Situ Qiang (Szeto Keung), 211, 313 Situ Qiao, 313; Jesus Christ by, 85—86; Lu Xun in His Open Coffin by, 86, fig. 8.6; portrait o f his wife, 58; Zhongshan Park exhibition, 85 Situ Yaoguang, 165 Six Principles o f X i e He, 73 Sixth National Art Exhibition (1984), 167, 228 Slade School of Art (London), 38, 114 Slevogt, Max, 32 Smith, David, 190 Socialist Education Movement, 151 Socialist Morality campaign (1981), 2 2 9 socialist realism, 143, 232. See also realism socialist subjects, 143 Société des Deux Mondes, 47, 116 Society for Art for the People (Renjian huahui), 116 Society for Research in Chinese Painting (Zhongguo huaxue yanjiu hui), 8 Society o f Hong Kong Artists, 193 Society o f Nine Artists (Jiuren huahui), 78, 114

soft sculpture, 260, 261, 265 Soft Sculpture Research Society, 261 Song Haidong, 3 13 Song Huimin, 313 Song Wenzhi, 19, 23, 143, 145, 146, 251,313 Song Yinke, 96, 313 Song Yonghong, 279, 313 Song Yuanwen, 1 7 1 , 3 1 3 Song Zongwei, 107, 145 Soong, Stephen, 117 Soulages, Pierre, 205, 2 0 7 South China Institute o f Literature and Art (Huanan wenyi xueyuan), 28 Southeast Asia, 73, 74 Southern Artists Salon, 255 Southern Fujian Art Group, 232 Southwestern Academy (Chongqing), 51 Soviet art: exhibitions of, 82; graphic, 81, 84, 86, 87; influence of, 131, I 3 5 - 3 9 , 142, 235, 239; prints, 170; propaganda art, 135; realism in, 135, 2 9 0 m ; sculpture, 163—64 Soviet Union: cultural exchanges with, 104, 145; debate on art and politics, 82 "spiritual pollution." See Anti—Spiritual Pollution campaign Spokane E x p o (1974), 188 Spring Awakening Art Academy. See Chunshui Academy Spring Field Art Research Society (Chuntian meishu yanjiu she), 83 Staël, Nicolas de, 205 Stars (Xingxing), 166, 2 2 1 - 2 4 , 256, 2 5 9 , 2 6 7 , 269, fig. 21.8 Statue o f Liberty, 168 Stein, Gertrude, 77, 189 Stendhal, Fanina Fanini by, 176 Storm Society, 37, 47, 6 2 - 6 4 , 78, 80, 82, 182; exhibitions, 59, 64; Manifesto, 62; members, 124 Strasbourg exhibition o f 1924, 3 9 - 4 0 student demonstrations, 226, 272 Su Dongpo, 252 Su Hui, 102, 313, fig. 9 . 1 7 , fig. 9.18 Su Wu, 12 Sui Jianguo, 3 1 4 Sullivan, Khoan, fig. 22.4, pi. 54 Sun Chuanfang, 44, 45—46 Sun Company Building (Shanghai), 60 Sun Duoci, 70, 3 1 4 Sun Fuxi, 49, 60, 102—3, 3 M Sun Gang, 314 Sun Jiaban, 235 Sun Liang, 261, 3 1 4 Sun Mide, 185, 3 1 4 Sun Shaoqun, 167, 314, fig. 16.14 Sun Shida, 43 Sun Weimin, 232, 3 1 4 Sun Weizhi, 154 Sun Xiangyang, 3 1 4 Sun Xiumin, 3 1 4 Sun Xueming, 25 Sun Yatsen: "Aviation to Save the C o u n try," 55; and Chen Shuren, 52; and Gao Qifeng, 5 3 - 5 4 ; mentioned, 28, 44, 94, 119; statues of, 159, 160; Three Principles o f the People, 181

Sun Yatsen University, 51 Sun Zongwei, 97, 3 14 Surikov, Vassily, 1 3 5 , 1 3 7 , fig. 1 3 . 1 surrealism, 65, 226; in Hong Kong, 194; and 1 9 3 5 N O V A exhibition, 59—60, 66; in Taiwan, 185 Surrealist Manifesto (Breton), 60, 63 Sutherland, Graham, 193 Suzhou, 1 2 , 19, 48; as center of printmaking, 1 7 1 ; depicted by Wu Guanzhong, 245 Suzhou Academy, 48, 75, h i , 234 Suzhou Art Training Institute (Suzhou yishu xuexiao), 48 symbolist works, 86 synthesis, of Eastern and Western art, 40, 53, 57. 72, 76, 79. 197 Szeto Keung (Situ Qiang), 2 1 1 , 3 1 3 Tachistes, 193 Tagore, Rabindranath, 34, 54, 7 1 Taihang Mountains, 250 Taimeng Huahui. See Société des Deux Mondes Taipei Art Club (Taibei yishu lianyi hui), 185 Taipei Fine Arts Museum, 189 Taipei Normal College, 178, 182, 2 1 0 Taiping rebellion, 1 2 Taipingyang bao (Pacific monthly), 29 Taiwan: architecture, 186; art and materialism in, 188; art under the Japanese occupation, 1 7 8 - 7 9 , 188, 2 9 i n 2 ; exhibitions, 179, 182, 184, 1 8 5 , 189; as influence on mainland art, 188, 259; laser art, 188; modernism, 179, 1 8 1 - 8 5 , 1 8 5 - 8 8 ; 1980s art scene, 186; Nationalists' move to, 39, 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 ; postwar conservatism, 180—81; sculptors in, 188—90; uprising of 1947, 180; Western-style painting in 178—79; wood carving, 188—89; works exhibited in China, 227 Taiwan Normal University, 7, 199 Taiwan pavilion (Osaka Expo), 188, fig. 18.12 Taiyang Art Society (Taiyang meishu xuehui), 1 7 9 Takami Jüichi, 107 Takamura Köun, 178 Takamura, Kötarö, 178 Takeuchi Seihö, 22, 5 2 - 5 3 , 54, 178 Tale of Genji, 1 7 5 Taller de Grafica Popular, 86 Tarn, Lawrence C. S. (Tan Zhicheng), 54, 197, 198, 199, 3 H . 19-8 Tanaka Raisho, 54 Tang Di, 23, i l l , 3 1 4 Tang Haiwen, 3 1 4 Tang Jingsen (Tong Kim-sum), 200, 3 1 4 Tang Jinhao (Thang Kiang-how), 202 Tang Muli, 238, 3 1 4 Tang Song, Dialogue by, fig. 25.6 Tang Taizong, 1 5 9 Tang Tsou, 153 Tang Yihe, 40, 9 1 , 1 3 4 , fig. 9.2 Tang Y i n , 54 Tang Yun, i l l , 1 5 2 , 248, 3 1 4 Tangshan earthquake, 2 1 5

Tanguy, Yves, 60 Tanizaki Jun'ichirö, 47 Tao Lengyue, 67, 3 1 4 Tao Yiqing, 1 5 2 , 242, 3 1 4 Tao Yuanming, 244 Tao Yuanqing, 48, 49, 1 1 9 , 3 1 4 tapestry, in Mao Mausoleum, 215—17, 229, 260, fig. 2 1 . 2 Tchelichew, Pavel, 197 Te Wei (ShengSong), 1 2 3 , 3 1 4 Teigoku Geijutsu In (Imperial Fine Arts Academy), 37 Teiten exhibitions (Taipei), 1 7 9 Teiten exhibitions (Tokyo), 178, 1 7 9 Teng Baiye, 3 1 4 Teng G u , 65, 94 Teng Paiye, 96 Teng Shixin, 3 1 4 Terauchi Manjirö, 59 textiles, 260. See also batik Thang Kiang-how (Tang Jinhao), 202 Third National Exhibition (Chongqing), 9 7 - 9 8 , 104 Third Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee, 2 1 8 Third Sun Yatsen University, 49 Three Antis campaign, 1 3 1 "three perfections," 5, 199 Tian Han: founded Académie du Midi, 34, 47, 69, fig. 4.4; in Guilin, 95; after Liberation, 1 3 0 ; mentioned, 3 1 ; plays of, 99 Tian Heng, 70 Tian Liming, 254 Tian Shixin, 259, 3 1 4 , fig. 24.7 Tiananmen Incident (1989), 2 1 5 , 220, 238, 2 7 1 , 272, 2 7 6 - 7 7 ; depicted, 2 1 9 , 227 Tiananmen Square: proclamation of People's Republic from, 1 3 5 , pi. 28; reliefs at, 163. See also Mao Z e d o n g Mausoleum Tianfeng Lou (Heavenly Wind Pavilion), 55 Tianma Huahui (Heavenly Horse Painting Society), 45, 58, 7 3 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 Tianmushan, 7 1 Tianxi, 1 3 1 Tibet, 1 3 7 , 146, 1 6 5 - 6 6 , 197; The Wrath of the Serfs, 166, fig. 1 6 . 1 0 Tibetans, 170, 1 7 2 , 2 3 3 , 238, 248, 258, 279 Titian, 73 Today (Jintian), 2 2 1 , 224 Töjö, Admiral, 1 2 1 Tokyo Academy, 3 1 , 37, 1 7 9 Tokyo School of Fine Arts (Tokyo bijutsu gakkö), 22, 29, 42, 53, 77 Tolstoy, Lev, 34, 1 1 5 ; Anna Karenina by, 176; What Is Art? by, 65 Ton Fan, 1 8 4 - 8 5 , 188 Tong Kim-sum (Tang Jingsen), 200, 3 14 Tongdairen (Contemporaries), 2 3 2 Tongji University, 91 Tongmenghui, 28, 52 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 173 Tour, Georges de la, 258 traditional painting: Anhui School, 19; attacked in N e w Culture Movement,

33—34; in Beijing, 6—12, 23; Cantonese school, 2 1 ; reform advocated, 28, 29; revival of, 6; schools of, 16; Shanghai school, 12—16; themes in, 5—6. See also guohua Treaty of Versailles, 36 Tsay Shoei-lin (Cai Shuilin), 190, 298 Tseng Y u - h o (Zeng Youhe), 6, 7, 1 0 7 , 207—8, 322, fig. 20.5; Hawaiian landscapes, 207, fig. 20.4 Ts'o, Beatrice (Zhang Jiahui), 1 9 7 , 322, fig. 19.9 Tufts University, 230, 269 tuhua, 27 Tung, H. Y „ 188 Tuo Musi, 3 1 4 Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich, 34 Turner, J. W. M . , 72, 178, 193 Tushanwan Arts and Crafts Center, 30 Twelve, the, 2 3 2 Twenty-eight Painting Society, 240 Twenty-one Demands, 57 Uchiyama Kakechi, 85 Uchiyama Kanzò, 47, 59, 8 1 , 85 Uchiyama Shoten, 47 Uemura Shôen, 19 Uhde, Wilhelm, 32 Ukiyo-e, 194 Umehara Ryuzaburò, 59, 1 0 7 - 8 , 1 7 9 Umezawa Waken, 22 "undirected art," 225, 2 3 2 Union of Artists and Writers, 243 United Front (1937), 86, 9 1 , 1 2 1 United States: Chinese art in, 269; C h i nese artists in, 2 0 7 - 1 1 ; study in, 37 Université Aurore, 30, 60, 68 University of Lyon, 36 University of Shanghai, 272 Unnamed Woodcut Society, 84 urban proletariat art, 149 Utrillo, Maurice, 1 4 3 , 244 Va culture, 1 7 0 van Gulik, Robert, 1 7 Van Lau (Wen Lou), 1 9 3 , 199, 200, 228, 3 1 7 , fig- 19-13 Varbanov, Maryn, 2 6 0 - 6 1 , 265, fig. 24.10 Varbanov Institute of Art Tapestry, 260 Vauthier, 2 1 9 Vautieur, Alice, 76 Velazquez, Diego, 69, 72 Veleisky, O., 176 Venturelli, José, 1 7 0 Vietnam border war, 226, 256 Visual Arts Society (Hong Kong), 195 Vlaminck, Maurice de, 32, 60, 63, 67 Wada Eisaku, 59 Walker, Richard, 200 wall hangings, 260—61 wall painting, 229—31, 234. See also D u n huang frescoes Wanderers, 1 3 5 Wang Bomin, 274 Wang, C. C. (Wang Jiqian), 208, 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 3 1 5 , pi. 61 Wang Changshuo, 14

INDEX

3 4 9

Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang

Chaowen, 1 3 1 , 3 1 4 Chuan, 279, 314—15 Daizhi, 39 Daoyuan, 3 1 5 Datong, 3 1 5 Dawen, 2 1 1 , 3 1 5 Dewei, 239, 259, 3 1 5 Fangyu, 2 1 1 , 3 1 5 , fig. 20.7 Geyi, 14, 1 5 , 25, 3 1 5 , pi. 3 Guangyi, 278, 279, 3 1 5 , pi. 94 Hai, 220, 3 1 5 , fig. 2 1 . 7 Hao, 3 15 Henei, 31 5 Hongjian, 3 15 Huaiqi, 1 7 5 Huaiqing, 2 3 2 , 3 1 5 , pi. 69 Hui, 6, 7, 8, 13 Jianguo, 1 7 4 Jianmin, 3 15 Jianwei, 3 15 Jida, 269 Jincheng (Ong Kimseng), 202,

315 Wang Jingfang, 1 4 3 , 3 1 5 Wang Jingguo, 272, 2 7 3 , 3 1 5 Wang Jingrong, 3 15 Wang Jingshan, 1 5 0 , 1 7 4 Wang Jingsong, 3 15 Wang Jingwei, 36, 52, 78, 1 1 1 — 1 2 Wang Jiqian. See Wang, C. C . Wang Jiyuan, 4 1 , 59, 60, 62, 82, 93, 159, 3 1 5 , % 6.2 Wang Junchu, 1 0 1 , 3 1 5 Wang Keping, 3 1 5 ; The Backbone of Society by, 166, 222; on Chinese artists in the West, 2 6 8 - 6 9 , 2 7 1 ; exhibited, 222, 267, 270; Idol by, 166, fig. 1 6 . 1 1 ; in Paris, 224, 267, 268, fig. 24.20, fig. 2 4 . 2 1 ; on political commitment, 256; sculpture of Peking Spring, 166; The Silent One by, 166, 222, fig. 2 1 . 9 ; and Stars, 2 2 2 - 2 3 , 224, 293n20, fig. 2 1 . 8 Wang Li, 2 5 1 , 3 1 5 Wang Linyi, 40, 1 1 3 , 160, 1 6 3 , 165, 3 1 5 , fig. 16.6; and M a o Mausoleum, 2 1 5 W a n g M e n g , 43, 1 1 5 , 249, 3 1 5 Wang Mengbai. See Wang Yun Wang Mingchang, 162 Wang Neizhao, 163 Wang Peng, 3 1 $ Wang Ping, 260, 3 1 5 , fig. 24.8 Wang Qi, 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 3 1 5 ; landscape prints of the 1980s, 170; and Woodcut Movement in Chongqing, 104 Wang Qingsheng, 2 4 1 Wang Rizhang, 1 1 6 , 3 1 6 Wang Rong, 107, 3 1 6 Wang Ruowang, 272 Wang Senran, 2 5 3 , 3 1 6 Wang Shijie, 97 Wang Shikuo, 1 3 7 , 1 5 0 , 3 1 6 ; The Bloody Shirt by, 1 3 5 - 3 7 , fig- 13-3 Wang Shiwei, 1 0 2 Wang Shizhi, 107 Wang Shuhui, 3 1 6 Wang Tong, 220, 3 1 6 , fig. 2 1 . 5 Wang Wei, 1 3 9 , 3 1 6 Wang Weibao, 2 5 1 , 3 1 6 Wang Weixin, 1 7 2 , 3 1 6 , fig. 1 7 . 4

3 50

INDEX

Wang Wenming, 3 1 6 Wang Wuxie. See Wong, Wucius Wang Xiaoming, 258 Wang Xuetao, 23, 108, 140, 242, 3 1 6 Wang Yachen, 3 1, 47, 59, 1 1 5 , 1 3 1 , 160, 3 16, pi. 1 2 Wang Yidong, 2 3 3 , 258, 2 9 5 m 1 , 3 1 6 , pi. 72 Wang Yingchun, 228, 3 1 6 Wang Yiting (Wang Zhen), 14, 25, 46, 3 1 6 , fig. 1.8 Wang Yongqiang, 238, 3 1 6 Wang Youshen, 3 16 Wang Yuanqi, 7, T87 Wang Yuezhi, 42, 49, 3 1 6 Wang Yun (Wang Mengbai), 8 - 9 , 23, 42, 108, 3 1 6 Wang Yuping, 3 16 Wang Yuqi, 228, 3 1 6 , fig. 22.2 Wang Yuren, 190, 3 1 6 Wang Zhen (Wang Yiting), 14, 25, 46, 3 1 6 , fig. 1.8 Wang Zhenghua, 3 16 Wang Zhensheng, 140 Wang Zhijiang, 160, 3 1 6 Wang Ziwei, 3 r 6 Wang Z i w u , 3 16 Wang Ziyuan, 288n24 Wang Ziyun, 40, 42, 49, 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 3 1 6 Wangshiyuan, 19 Wanman Bigua Yishu Yanjiu Suo. See Varbanov Institute of Art Tapestry War of Resistance, 9 1 - 9 4 , 1 1 2 Warhol, Andy, 270, 279 Watari Hironosuke, 27 watercolor silkscreen printing, 259 Wee Beng-chong (Huang Mingzong), 202, 304 Wei Chuanyi, 3 1 6 Wei Ershen, 3 1 7 ; Mongolian Bride by, 258, 278, pi. 84 Wei Guangqing, 274, 3 1 7 Wei Jia, 3 1 7 Wei Jian, 269 Wei Jingshan, 230, 238, 3 1 7 ; Overturning the Dynasty of Chiang Kaishek by, 1 3 7 , fig- 13-5 Wei Jingsheng, 2 2 1 Wei Mengke, 1 3 1 Wei Qimei, 2 3 2 , 3 1 7 Wei Rong, 3 1 7 Wei Tianlin, 107, 1 5 4 , 3 1 7 Wei Yinru, 3 1 7 Wei Zixi, 1 4 3 , 1 4 5 , 2 1 5 , 3 1 7 Wen Guochang, 235 Wen Lipeng, 1 3 7 , 2 3 2 , 285n9, 3 1 7 Wen Lou. See Van Lau Wen Yiduo, 37—38, 3 1 7 ; " D e a d Water" by, 3 4 - 3 5 ; evacuation to interior, 38, 93, 94, fig. 9.4; Feng Xiaoqing by, 38, pi. 7; graphic designs, 37, 285n9, fig. 3.2; portrait of Liang Qichao, 42; woodcut of, fig. 3.1 Wen Yuanning, 2 5 - 2 6 , 57, 61—62 Weng Chenghao, 1 7 1 , 3 1 7 Weng Tonghe, 7, 3 1 7 wenrenhua (literati painting), 2 5 3 - 5 4 Wenshi Guan (Institute for Culture and History), 142, 2 4 1 ; Chengdu, 2 5 2

Wenxue (Literature), 1 1 9 Wenxue Yanjiuhui (Literary Research Society), 34 Wenyi yuekan (Literature and art monthly), 47 Wenyi zhoukan (Literature and art weekly), 47 Wenyibao, 266, 278 West, Chinese artists in, 2 6 7 - 7 1 West China Union University (Chengdu), 250 West Lake Eighteen Art Society, 50, 82. See also Eighteen Society Western art: beginnings of, in China, 1 5 , 27—30; books and reproductions, 36; Chinese influence on, 67; early exhibitions of, 30, 31—32; education in, 27, 28, 30—3 1, 1 3 5 ; and guohua's limitations, 25—26; influence on modern Chinese art, 66; synthesis with C h i nese painting, 53, 57, 72, 76, 79, 197; technique, 5, 27; and traditional C h i nese painting, 5. See also oil painting Western culture, 255; and "Chineseness," 280 Wharton, Dolores, 201 Whistler, James McNeill, 36 White Goose Painting Society (Bai'e huahui), 46, 248 White Goose Preparatory Painting School, 46 White Russians, 44 White Terror, 81 White-Haired Girl, 1 5 0 , 1 7 4 , fig. 14.5 Wild Wind Art Society (Yefeng huahui), 83 Wilde, Oscar, 34 Witke, Roxanne, 2 1 8 women painters, 2 8 3 m Wong Po Yeh, 1 9 1 , 192, 1 9 3 , 304, fig. 19.1 Wong, Harold (Huang Zhongfang), 199, 2 1 1 , 305 Wong, K w a n S. (Huang Junshi), 2 1 1 , 304 Wong, Wucius (Wang Wuxie), 1 9 3 , 1 9 7 - 9 9 , 259, 3 1 6 , fig. 1 9 - 1 2 , pi. 52 Woo, Nancy C h u (Wu Chuzhu), 325 w o o d carving, in Taiwan, 188—89 wood-engravers: Cantonese, 104—5; i n Guomindang China, 83—87, 1 0 3 - 5 ; after Liberation, 1 7 5 ; in the 1980s, 259. See also Li Hua; Li Shutong Woodcut Engravers Association, 84, 1 1 5 woodcut illustrations, 29, 80, 1 3 1 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 5 ; depicting liberation of rural China, 1 1 3 , fig. 1 o. 1. See also w o o d engravers; Woodcut Movement Woodcut Movement: Cantonese, 86—87, 104—5; a i d the Chinese cartoon, 1 2 0 ; exhibitions, 8 1 , 84, 1 0 3 , 104, 1 1 5 ; and political struggle, 50, 80, 82; promoted by Lu X u n , 8 0 - 8 1 ; Soviet influence on, 82, 105; during wartime, 86, 102—3, 1 1 5 ; at Yan'an, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 , fig. 9 . 1 7 Wooden Bell Woodcut Research Society (Muling muke yanjiu she), 82, 83, 87 World Peace Movement, 1 3 9

W r i t e r s U n i o n (Anhui), 218 W u C h a n g j i a n g , 172, 317 W u C h a n g s h u o , 1 3 - 1 4 , 25, 317, fig. 1.7; as influence, 9, 14, 15, 250; m e n tioned, 181, 247, 253; portrait of, 12; students of, 8, 1 4 - 1 5 W u C h e n g y a n , 317 W u D a c h e n g , 23, 317 W u Dayu, 317; c o n t r i b u t e d to Athena, 65; exhibited, 39, 59, 205; and H a n g z h o u Academy, 49; after Liberation, 144, 155, 238, fig. 22.11; students of, 205, 238; studied in France, 39, 59; d u r i n g War of Resistance, 91, 93, r 11 W u Deyi, 52, 317 W u Dongcai, 3 17 W u D o n g m a i , 25 W u Fading, 42, 58, 317 W u Fan, 170, 1 7 1 , 3 1 7 , fig. 17.1 W u Fuzhi, 317 W u G u a n z h o n g , 317; at Beijing A c a d emy after Liberation, 1 3 1 - 3 2 ; c o n t e m porary g u o h u a of, 244—45, fig- 2 3-7. pi. 79; d u r i n g Cultural Revolution, 153, 155, 229; evacuation west, 93, 94, 97; and Lin Fengmian, 76, 77, 2 8 7 n i 8 ; m e n t i o n e d , 165, 233; d u r i n g 1950s, 135, 144; d u r i n g 1960s, 146; o n nudes, 225, 273; oil landscapes of, 244, pi. 78; students of, 252; studied in France, 40, 205; works of the 1980s, 228, 245, fig. 23.7 W u Guxiang, 7 W u Hao, 184, 317 W u H u f a n , 317, fig. 1.19; clay portrait of, fig. 16.2; m e n t i o n e d , 247, 251; in Shanghai, 23, 111, 115, 249; students of, 208 " W u in the South and Q i in the N o r t h , " 9, 13 W u Jian, 317 W u Jianfang, 159, 162 W u J u n , 144 W u Junfa, 171, 317—18 W u Li, 208 W u Liang, 272 W u M e n g f e i , 29 W u P u h u i (Pansy Ng), 193, 318 W u School of gentlemen's painting, 7—8 W u Shanming, 318 W u Shanzhuan, 274, 3 18 W u Sheng, 175 W u Shiguang, 318 W u Shixian, 318 W u Shuyang, 318 W u Xiaochang, 235, 239, 318 W u Xuansan, 318 W u Y a o z h o n g ( N g Y i u - c h u n g ) , 197, 318, pl- 49 W u Youru, 27, 318 W u Z e n g , 15 W u Z h e n g , 3 18 W u Z h u g u a n g , 115 W u Z u o r e n , 318; and Artists Association after Cultural Revolution, 217; d u r i n g Cultural Revolution, 153; early nudes, 146; exhibited, 60, 205, 231; and exhibition of foreign works, 60; at

National Central University, 48, 62; in the 1980s, 232; painted by Maksimov, 137; oil-painting studio of, 232; and peasant painting m o v e m e n t , 148, fig. 14.2; and Sixth National Art E x h i b i tion, 228; students of, 234; visited D u n h u a n g , 106, 288n24; d u r i n g w a r t i m e evacuation, 99, 106, fig. 9.9, pl. 24; works after Liberation, 139; and X u B e i h o n g , 72, 113 W u c h a n g College of Art ( W u c h a n g yishu zhuanke xuexiao), 51 W u c h a n g Uprising, 163 W u m i n g H u a h u i ( T h e Nameless), 221, 269 W u x i Academy, 51 W u y u e Pai. See Fifth M o o n G r o u p W u y u e W o o d c u t Research Society ( W u y u e m u k e yanjiu hui), 170, 173 Wyeth, Andrew, 237 X i D e j i n , 203, 3 18 Xi'an Academy, 250 X i a n Incident, 86 Xia Biquan (Ha B i k - c h u e n ) , 199, 318 Xia Daqian, 225 Xia Feng, 3 18 Xia P e n g (Yao Fu), 82, 83, 320 Xia Xiaowan, 3 18 Xia Yan, 95, 2 9 3 n 6 Xia Yang, 184, 318 Xia Ziyi, Wen Yiiuo by, fig. 3.1 X i a m e n Dada, 274, 275 Xiandai M e i s h u H u i ( M o d e r n Art Society; C h e n g d u ) , 99 Xiandai M u k e H u i ( M o d e r n W o o d c u t Society; C a n t o n ) , 84, 104 Xiandai pinglun, 161 Xiandai xuesheng ( M o d e r n student), 119, 120 Xiangshan H o t e l (near Beijing), 206 X i a n g t u Wenyi Y u n d o n g (Native Soil Literature and Art M o v e m e n t ) , 185 xianjin wenrenhua (progressive literati painting), 253 X i a o D i n g . See D i n g C o n g X i a o Feng, 135, 153, 265, 318 X i a o H a i c h u n , 318 X i a o H o n g , 46 X i a o H u i x i a n g , 229, 260, 318 X i a o J u n , 102 X i a o Lu, 318; Dialogue by, 275, fig. 25.6 X i a o Mi, portrait of, 233, pl. 73 X i a o Q i n , 184, 188, 318 X i a o Shufang, 153, 188, 205, 318 X i a o Sun, 8, 108, 318, pl. 2 X i a o Xianggai, 9 X i a o X i u h u a n g , 256 X i a o Yuncong, 8, 250 Xiaozhenbao, 123 X i e G o n g z h a n , 25, 318 X i e Haiyan, 111, 251, 318 X i e H e , Six Principles of, 73 X i e Jinglan, 318 X i e Q u s h e n g , 318 X i e Xiaode, 185, 318 X i e Yuqian (Chia Yu Chian), 201, 318-19 X i e Z h i g u a n g , 62, 247, 319

X i e Zhiliu, 23, 97, 248, 319, fig. 23.11 xieyi style, 242, 252 X i h u Yiba Yishe (West Lake Eighteen Art Society), 50, 82. See also Eighteen Society Xikang, 106 Xiling Hill, 14 Xiling Seal E n g r a v i n g Society (Xiling yinshe), 14, 15 xin chao. See N e w Wave xin guohua. See N e w C h i n e s e Painting X i n H a i z h o u , 3 19 X i n K o n g j i a n ( N e w Space), 255 Xin qingnian ( N e w youth), 32, 33 xin wenrenhua (new literati painting), 254 Xin yue (Crescent m o o n ) , 34 X i n c h u n H u a z h a n . See N e w Spring Art Exhibition X i n g Fei, 269, 319 Xingxing. See Stars X i n h u a A c a d e m y (Xinhua yishu zhuanke xuexiao), 30, 4 6 - 4 7 , 78, 131, 160, 201 Xinhua jikan ( N e w C h i n a quarterly), 47 Xinwenbao, 119 Xinyexing Pai ( N e w W i l d G r o u p ) , 274 X i n y u e Shudian, 60 X i o n g B i n g m i n g , 205, 319 X i o n g Fuxi, 95 Xishuangbanna, 229, 234 Xiyouji (Monkey), 121, 175. See also Z h a n g G u a n g y u , Xiyoumanji series X u A n m i n g , 319 X u Beihong, 6 8 - 7 2 , 319; and After H o u r s Painting Research Society, 42; assessment of w o r k of, 72; attack on Western m o d e r n i s m , 59, 72; Awaiting the Deliverer by, 70; as Beijing Academy director, 44, 72, 73, 113—14; biography and T V serial on, 2 8 7 m ; chaired Artists Association after Liberation, 129—30; childhood and youth, 68; as conservative, 49, 66; in Europe, 38, 39, 40, 41, 69, 71, 285n2; exhibitions of, 60, 70, 71, 74, 96, 98, 160, 201, 205, 287117; 7ite Five Hundred Retainers of Tian Heng by, 70, 98; Forward! by, 34; headed Central Academy after Liberation, 131, 163; horse paintings, 68, 70, fig. 7.2; and H u a Tianyou, 160; influence of Dagnan-Bouveret, 69, fig. 7.1; in the interior, 95, 96, 97, 122; marriage to Jiang Biwei, 68, 70; m e n tioned, 30, 57, 139, 203, 239; at National Central University, 48; and N e w Chinese Painting, 11; d u r i n g N e w Culture M o v e m e n t , 68—69; a s portrait painter, 69, fig. 7.3; realism of, 72, 77, 132; rivalry w i t h Liu Haisu, 73; romanticism of, 69; Self-Portrait, pl. 16; in Singapore, 192, 200; as sponsor, 22, 108; students of, 69, 72; studies, 9, 30; study in Japan, 21, 37, 68; Yu Gong Removes the Mountain by, 71, 98, fig. 7-4, fig- 7-5 X u Bing, 2 6 5 - 6 7 , 274, 275, 279, 319; Tian shu by, 266, figs. 24.16—18 X u D a c h a n g , 68 X u G u , 12, 319

INDEX

3 5 1

Xu Xu Xu Xu Xu Xu Xu

G u a n g q i (Paul), 30 H o n g , 272, 319 J i a n g u o , 3 19 Jin, 2 5 5 , 3 1 9 K u a n g , 170, 3 1 9 Lei, 3 1 9 Linlu, 319

X u M a n g y a o , 319; My Dream by, 272, pi.

3:9

X u X u e b i (Pat H u i S u e t - b i k ) , 199, 319 X u Yang, 2 2 5 X u Y a n g c o n g , 190, 319, fig. 18.16 X u Yansun, 3 1 9 X u Y o n g m i n , 175, 228, pi. 36 X u Y o n g q i n g , 30, 3 1 9 X u Z h i m o , 42, 6 9 , 73; a n d C r e s c e n t M o o n Society, 3 4 - 3 5 ; d e s c r i p t i o n o f W e n Y i d u o ' s h o m e , 38; differences w i t h X u B e i h o n g o n m o d e r n art, 59, 72; a n d Jiang Xin,

159—60

X u Z i x i o n g , 319 X u e Baoxia, 3 1 9 X u e F u c h e n g , 28 Ya M i n g , 19, 23, 153, 154, 2 5 1 , 319, fig. 23-17 Ya S h e (Elegant Society), 178 Y a m a m o t o Baigai, 52 Yamashita S h i n t a r o , 179 Yan D i , 3 1 9 Yan H a n , 113, 3 2 0 , fig. 10.1; d u r i n g e v a c u a t i o n t o t h e i n t e r i o r , 93; after Liberation, 131; in t h e 1980s, 259; in t h e 1950s, 135, 140, 144; prints of, 1 7 0 , 1 7 4 ; at Yan an, 9 4 , 1 0 2 Yan J i y u a n , 3 2 0 Y a n Li, 2 2 1 , 2 2 3 , 2 6 9 — 7 0 ,

320

Yan L i b e n , 142, 159 Yan S h u i l o n g , 179, 3 2 0 Yan W e n l i a n g , 32, 4 9 , 6 0 , 111, 239, 320, pi. 9; a n d S u z h o u A c a d e m y , 48, 7 5 , h i , 131, 2 3 4 ; a n d W e s t e r n art in S u z h o u , 48; w o r k after L i b e r a t i o n , 139, 145 Yan X i s h a n , 135 Y a n a n : artists at, 101—2, 2 4 2 ; cartoonists at, 124; C o m m u n i s t s f r o m , 131; m e n t i o n e d , 105; Talks o n A r t a n d L i t e r a ture, 102, 129, 132, 133, 153, 2 5 0 , 2 7 8 ; W o o d c u t M o v e m e n t , 101, 102, fig. 9 . 1 7 . See also Lu X u n A c a d e m y o f Arts a n d Literature Yan'an University, 101, 130 Y a n g Bailin, 320 Y a n g C h e n g y i n , 278 Yang C h i h o n g , 320 Yang Yang Yang Yang Yang

D o n g b a i , 167, 168, 2 2 8 , fig. 16.12 F e i y u n , 2 5 8 , 273, 320, pi. 83 G u a n g h u a , 252, 320 G u i f e i , 4 0 , 50 J i a c h a n g (A Yang), 104, 3 2 0 , fig.

9.21

Yang Jihong, 271 Y a n g K e y a n g , 117, fig. 10.4 Y a n g Lidan, 23 5

3 5 2

INDEX

Lizhou, 228, 320 Mingyi, 320 M i n g z h o n g , 320 Q i a n , 211

Yang Yang Yang Yang

Q i u r e n , 62, 64, 96, 116, 3 2 0 Sanlang, 179, 320 S h a n s h e n , 116, 192, 193, 3 2 0 Taiyang, 96, 116, 135, 320, pi. 15;

a n d S t o r m Society, 6 2 , 64 Y a n g X i a n r a n g , 174, 3 2 0 Yang X i n g s h e n g , 3 2 0 Yang X u e m e i , 3 2 0 Yang Yanping, 2 4 5 - 4 7 , 320, fig. 23.8, pi.

91 X u Shiqi, 9 7 X u W u y o n g , 3 19 X u X i , 171, 3 1 9 X u X i n z h i , 82—83,

Yang Yang Yang Yang

80

Yang Y a n w e n , 2 5 2 , 320 Yang Y i c h o n g (Yeung Yick-chung), 197,

320

Yang Y i p i n g , 320 Yang, Y u y u (Yang Y i n g f e n g ) , 188, 320, fig. 18.12, fig. 18.13 Yang Z h i g u a n g , 3 2 0 Yang Z h i h o n g , 320 Yanghuisi ( X u z h o u ) , 160 Yangzhou,12 Yangzi B r i d g e ( C h o n g q i n g ) , 168 Yao F u (Xia Peng), 82, 83, 3 2 0 Yao G u i j u , 45 Yao H o n g z h a o ( T h o m a s Yeo), 2 0 2 , 3 2 0 Yao H u a , 7 , 9 , 3 2 0 Yao M e n g f u , 4 2 Yao m i n o r i t y , 147 Yao Q i n g z h a n g , 3 2 0 Yao W e n y u a n , 151, 154, 218 Yao Yuan, 3 2 0 Yao Z h o n g h u a , 232, 3 2 0 Yapole. See A p o l l o Ye Fu, 1 0 4 , 3 2 0 Ye G o n g c h a o ( G e o r g e Yeh), 111, 140, 181

Ye Ye Ye Ye Ye

G o n g c h u o , 3 21 Jianying, 227 L i n g f e n , 80 Qianying, 217 Q i a n y u , 321; as c a r t o o n i s t d u r i n g w a r t i m e , 9 1 , 112, 120, 122, 123; as illustrator, 175; I n d i a n t o u r , 106, 115, fig. 9 . 2 4 ; in i n t e r i o r , 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 9 , 106, fig. 9 . 1 1 ; after L i b e r a t i o n , 129, 148, 217, 2 2 5 ; o n N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y f a c ulty, 113; a n d peasant p a i n t i n g m o v e m e n t , 148, fig. 14.2 Ye Y o n g q i n g , 321 Ye Yushan, 165, 168, 169, 3 2 1 , fig. 16.9, fig.

16.16

Ye Z i q i , 321 Yefeng H u a h u i (Wild W i n d Art Society), 8 3 Yeh, G e o r g e . See Ye G o n g c h a o Yencesse (sculptor), 76 Yeo, T h o m a s (Yao H o n g z h a o ) , 2 0 2 , 3 2 0 Y e u n g Y i c k - c h u n g (Yang Y i c h o n g ) , 197,

320

Yin Fu, 83 Y i n g R u o c h e n g , 273 yingchou (courtesy) p a i n t i n g s , 26 Yishu (Art), 65, 84 Y i s h u S h e (Art Society), 58 Yishu xunkan, 50, 65 Y i x i n g Girls' N o r m a l S c h o o l , 68 Y o k o y a m a Taikan, 22, 142, 178 Yoshitoshi Saito, 4 9 You J i n g d o n g , 176, 321, fig. 17.13 You S h a o z e n g (Jackson Yu), 194, 321 Yu B e n , 1 1 2 , 1 1 7 , 3 2 1 , pi. 2 7 Yu C h e n g y a o , 187, 321, pi. 46 Yu D a f u , 34, 80 Yu Fei an, 9 , 2 3 , 1 0 7 , 1 3 1 , 2 4 1 , 3 2 1 Yu F e n g , 321; as c a r t o o n i s t d u r i n g W a r o f Resistance, 93; c o n t r i b u t e d t o Qingming, 115; d e f e n s e o f Z a o W o u ki, 2 0 6 , 2 2 6 ; in i n t e r i o r d u r i n g w a r t i m e , 96, 9 9 , 106, fig. 9 . 1 2 ; m e n tioned, 245; and N i n e W o m e n ' s E x h i b i t i o n , 2 5 6 ; in t h e 1980s, 263—64, pi. 88; d u r i n g 1960s, 146,

151

Yu, J a c k s o n (You S h a o z e n g ) , 194, 321 Yu J i a n h u a , 321 Yu J i a n y u a n , 163 Yu J i f a n , 321 Yu P e n g , 186, 321, pi. 42 Yu Q i f a n , 58 Yu R e n t i a n , 321 Yu S h a o f u , 238 Yu S h a o s o n g , 43 Yu S h i c h a o , 3 21 Yu S h u i , 175 Yu Y o u h a n , 272, 279, 321, 279, pi. 93 Yu Z h i x u e , 3 21 Y u a n D a o A r t Association, 193 Yuan D e x i n g ( C h u G e ) , 186, 32T, pi. 41 Y u a n J i n t a , 321 Y u a n M i n , 238 Y u a n Shikai, 32, 119 Y u a n S h u n , 2 3 9 , 2 7 2 , 321, fig. 25.1 Y u a n Y u n f u , 153, 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 4 , 2 6 0 , 321; p a n e l f o r B e i j i n g I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , 2 2 9 , pi. 65 Y u a n Y u n s h e n g , 229, 269, 2 7 0 , 321, fig. 2 4 . 2 2 , pi. 6 6

Y u a n Z h i k a i , 44 Yuanling,

93-94

Y u a n m i n g y u a n , 223 Y u g u a n g A r t Society, 4 7 Y u n S h o u p i n g , 12 Y u n n a n p r i n t m a k e r s , 170 Yuyuan Calligraphy and Painting B e n e v o l e n t Association, 14 Z a d k i n e , Ossip, 2 0 5 Z a n g Zongyang, 239 Z a o W o u - k i ( Z h a o Wuji), 324; and abstraction, 206, 207, 209, pi. 58, pi. 59; in C h o n g q i n g , 98; exhibition in B e i j i n g (1983), 206, 226, 259; exhibits,

193,

Yeyu H u a f a Yanjiu H u i (After H o u r s P a i n t i n g R e s e a r c h Society), 11, 4 2 Y i Peiji, 17, 43 Yifeng, 59, 6 0 , 65

205; at H a n g z h o u A c a d e m y in 1985,

Y i f e n g S h e (Art W i n d Society), 59 Y i h u a H u i ( O n e A r t Society), 194 Y i m i n painters, 25

student o f Lin F e n g m i a n at H a n g z h o u Academy, 49, 76; visited C h i n a d u r i n g Cultural R e v o l u t i o n , 154

2 3 9 - 4 0 , fig. 22.12; m e n t i o n e d ,

188,

245, 264; painting o f the m i d - i 9 4 0 s , 2 0 5 , fig. 2 0 . 3 ; i n P a r i s , 2 0 3 ,

205-6;

Z e n g Fanzhi, 3 2 1 Z e n g Jingwen, 3 2 1 Z e n g Shanqing, 247, 3 2 1 , fig. 23.9 Z e n g Wu, 59, 3 2 1 Z e n g X i , 19, 322 Z e n g Xiaofeng, 170, 322 Z e n g Yannian, 322 Z e n g Yilu, 39 Z e n g Youhe. See Tseng Yu-ho Z e n g Zhiliang, 62 Z e n g Zhushao, 163 Z e n g Zongming, 36, 78 Zero Artists Organization, 255 Zhan Jianjun, 2 3 3 , 322, pi. 73 Zhang Anzhi, 146, 163, 203, 322; in the interior, 95, 97, 106, fig. 9.6, fig. 9.7 Zhang Bihan, 192, 322 Zhang B u , 322 Zhang Chongren, 160, 322, fig. 16.2 Zhang Chun, 21 Zhang Daofan, 3 8, 62, 70, 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 3 22, % 3-3 Zhang Daqian (Chang Dai Chien), 19—21, 322; as connoisseur, 19—20; and Dunhuang, 20, 106, 1 1 5 , 288n24, pi. 25; exhibitions, 60, 7 1 , 74, 106, 1 1 5 , 205, 209; expressionist works, 20—21; forgeries by, 15, 1 7 , 19, 20; lithographs by, 2 1 , 284n27, fig. 1 . 1 6 ; lotuses, 20, 247, pi. 4; mentioned, 1 2 , 14, 16, 23, 4 8 , 5 9 , 1 7 1 , 1 9 1 ; panorama of Mount Lu, 20; Plum Blossom by, fig. 1 . 1 4 ; retired in Taiwan, 20, 1 8 1 ; rocks of, 247, fig. 1 . 1 6 ; Ten Thousand Miles of the Yangzi by, 2 1 , 142, 1 8 1 , fig. 1 . 1 5 ; during wartime, 106, 107 Zhang Dazhuang, 2 3 - 2 4 , 248, 322, fig. 23.12 Zhang Ding, 1 5 3 , 2 1 7 , 229, 260, 3 2 2 , pi. 86 Zhang Feng, 1 $0 Zhang Guangyu, 96, 1 2 1 , 129, 322; in Hong Kong, 1 1 2 , 1 2 1 ; mentioned, 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 ; in Shanghai, 46, 120; Xifoumanji series, 1 0 1 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 1 , fig. 1 1 . 5 Zhang H o n g (Arnold Chang), 2 1 1 , 322 Zhang Hongchang, 235 Zhang Hongnian, 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 269, 322 Zhang Hongtu, 2 3 2 , 2 7 1 , 322 Zhang Huaijiang, 322 Zhang Jiahui (Beatrice Ts'o), 197, 322, fig. 19.9 Zhang Jianjun, 2 7 1 , 272, 3 2 2 Zhang Jie, 68 Zhang Jiemin, 322 Zhang Jingying, 97, 203, 207, 3 2 2 Zhang Keduan, 168, 322, 168, fig. 1 6 . 1 7 Zhang Kunyi, 55, 322 Zhang Leping, 1 1 5 , 120, 3 2 2 , fig. 9.3, fig. 1 1 . 4 ; creator of San Mao, 1 2 3 - 2 4 , fig. 1 1 . 8 Zhang Li, 322 Zhang 323 Zhang Zhang Zhang Zhang

Liying (Georgette Chen), 2 0 1 , Min, 103 Peili, 2 5 5 , 274, 279, 323 Qun, 256, 3 2 3 , fig. 24.4 Shanmin, 1 7 1

Zhang Shanzi, 19, 60, 7 1 , 323 Zhang Shoucheng, 323 Zhang Shuang, 173 Zhang Shuqi, 5 1 , 62, 64, 99, 207, 323 Zhang Songnan, 259, 323 Zhang Wanchuan, 323 Zhang Wang, 87, 3 2 3 , fig. 8.8 Zhang Wanli, 323 Zhang Wei, 269, 323 Zhang Xian, 59, 62, 3 2 3 , pi. 1 4 Zhang Xiaofan, 323 Zhang Xiaogang, 279, 323 Zhang Xiaoxia, 323 Zhang Xinyu, 323 Zhang Xiong, 323 Zhang X u , 259 Zhang Xuan, 1 7 5 Zhang Xueliang, 43 Zhang Yangxi, 104, 1 1 6 , 323 Zhang Yi. See Cheung Yee Zhang Y i m o u , 247 Zhang Yixiong, 323 Zhang Yu, 40, 203, 3 2 3 , fig. 20.1 Zhang Yuguang, 30, 3 1 , 46, 58, 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , 323, fig. 2.5; as cartoonist, 1 1 9 , fig. 1 1 . 1 Zhang Zeduan, 1 7 5 Zhang Zhenggang, 323; The Olive Tree by, 258 Zhang Zhengyu, 1 1 6 , 120, 323 Zhang Zhiwang, 323 Zhang Zhixin, 2 1 9 Zhang Zhiyou, 1 7 2 , 323 Zhang Ziwan, 7 Zhantan She (Sandalwood Society), 178 Zhao Baokang, 272, 323; Crown with Brambles series, 272—73 Zhao Bowei, 261 Zhao Chunxiang, 1 8 2 , 2 1 0 , 323 Zhao Dan, 1 5 4 Zhao Gang, 269, 323 Zhao Hongbian, 1 7 5 Zhao Mengzhu, 323 Zhao Shao'ang, 96, 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 3 2 3 - 2 4 ; in H o n g Kong, 191—92, 193; portrait of, 79, fig. 7 . 1 0 ; students of, 197, 2 1 0 Z h a o Shou, 59, 324, pi. 1 1 Zhao Taiji, 94 Z h a o Wangyun, 106, 250, 324 Z h a o Wuji. See Z a o Wou-ki Zhao Xiuhuan, 2 4 1 , 324, pi. 77 Z h a o Yannian, 324 Z h a o Yunchuan, 260 Z h a o Zhiqian, 9, 324 Zhao Ziyang, 226 Z h a o Zongzao, 1 7 2 , 324, fig. 17.3 Zhdanov, A . S., 145 Z h e School, 140 Zhejiang Academy, 29, 50; Gu Wenda and, 264, 265; in the 1980s, 149, 256, 260; Varbanov Institute, 2 6 0 - 6 1 Zhejiang Artists Association, 15 Zhejiang First Normal College (Hangzhou), 29 Zhejiang Provincial Popular Art Center (Zhejiang sheng qunzhong yishu guan), 149, 261 Zhejiang Provincial Wartime Art Workers Association (Zhejiang sheng zhanshi meishu gongzuozhe xiehui), 1 0 2

Zhendan University. See Université Aurore Zheng Fanzhi, Harmony Hospital by, 279, fig. 25.9 Zheng Ke, 324 Zheng Wuchang, 25, 97, 1 1 5 , 324 Zheng Xiaoxu, 7, 324 Zheng X u , 170, 324 Zheng Yefu 1 0 3 , fig. 9.20 Zheng Zaidong, 186, 324 Zheng Zhenduo, 34, 65, 1 1 6 , 1 3 9 Zhenguang meishu hui (Dawn Art Association), 3 1 , 58 Zhenxiang huabao (The true record), 3 1, 36, 53, % 5-1 Z h o n g Kui, 1 2 , 149, 248 Z h o n g Sibin. See C h e o n g Soo Pieng Zhongguo Guohua Yanjiu Hui (Chinese Painting Research Society), 227 Zhongguo Huaxue Yanjiu Hui (Society for Research in Chinese Painting), 8 Zhongguo Liufa Yishu X u e h u i (Association des Artistes Chinois en France), 40, 205 Zhongguo Liuri Meishu Yanjiuhui (Art Research Society for Chinese Students in Japan), 37 Zhongguo meishu bao, 259, 263, 272, 274, 278 Zhongguo Meishu Hui (Chinese Art Association), 62, 97 Zhongguo Meishu Xueyuan (Chinese Art Academy), 72 Zhongguo Quanguo Meishu Hui (AllChina Art Association), 97 Zhongguo Shuimo Huashui Hui (Chinese Ink Painting Association), 185 Zhongguohua, 241 Zhonghua Academy (Zhonghua yishu daxue), 82 Zhonghua Duli Meishu Hui (Chinese Independent Art Association), 5 9 - 6 0 Zhonghua Duli Meishu Xiehui (Chinese Independent Artists Association), 37 Zhonghua manhua (China sketch), 1 1 9 Zhonghua Meishu Xiehui. See Chinese Artists Association Zhongshan Park, 85, 2 3 1 Zhongyang Meishu Xueyuan. See C e n tral Academy Z h o u Bichu, 62, h i , 238, 324, pi. 13 Z h o u Changgu, 324 Z h o u Chunya, 238, 279, 324 Z h o u Duo, 324 Z h o u Enlai: death of, 2 1 5 , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 242; Funeral of Zhou Enlai, 2 1 9 , 2 3 2 , fig. 2 1 . 3 ; initiative to redecorate B e i jing Hotel, 1 5 3 , 229; invitation to N i x o n , 1 5 2 ; mentioned, 44, 76, 1 4 2 , 1 6 3 , 247; as protector of artists, 1 4 5 , 1 5 3 , 2 1 8 , 220, 2 8 9 m ; and reeducation of artists, 129, 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 2 8 9 m ; tributes to, 2 1 7 , 227, 242, fig. 2 2 . 1 ; and X u Beihong, 73, 1 3 0 Z h o u Fang, 175 Z h o u Gucheng, 146, 1 5 1 Z h o u Ling, 40, 205, 230, 2 3 3 , 324, pi. 67 Z h o u Lingzhao, 13 1

INDEX

3 5 3

Zhou Zhou Zhou Zhou Zhou

L u y u n . Set' C h o u , Irene Mi, 149 Ruijian, 1 7 0 Shaohua, 324 Shuren, 36

Z h o u S i c o n g , 2 4 8 , 2 5 6 , 3 2 4 ; Zhou Enlai among the People by, 2 2 7 , fig. 22.1 Zhou Zhou Zhou Zhou Zhou Zhou

X i . See J i a n g F e n g Xiang, 30, 3 1 , 72, 324 Xianglin, 324 Xiqin, 269, 324 Xixin, 324 Yan, 274

Z h o u Y a n g : and A n t i - R i g h t i s t M o v e m e n t , 1 4 4 ; and A n t i - S p i r i t u a l P o l l u tion c a m p a i g n , 2 2 6 ; a p o l o g y o f , 2 2 1 ; attacked in Cultural R e v o l u t i o n , 1 5 1 ; and " B a t t l e o f the T w o S l o g a n s , " 8 $ ; and H u n d r e d Flowers M o v e m e n t , 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 ; and N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o f Literary and A r t Workers ( 1 9 4 9 ) , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 ; and F o u r t h National C o n g r e s s

3 5 4

INDEX

( 1 9 7 9 ) , 2 1 8 , 2 9 3 n 6 ; rehabilitation o f , 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 ; o n traditional painting, 1 4 0 , 1 4 5 ; in Yan'an, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 Z h o u Yuanting, 324 Z h o u Zhaoxiang, 8 Z h o u Zhentai, 325 Zhou Zhiyu, 174, 325 Zhou Zuoren, 33, i l l Z h u B a o s a n , 45 Z h u Chonglun, 325 Zhu Chuzhu, 325 Z h u D a (Bada Shanren): collectors o f , 2 5 , 78; as influence, 8, 9, 1 1 , 1 3 , 2 0 , 2 5 , 7 7 , 1 4 2 , 1 9 2 , 2 0 8 , 248; m e n t i o n e d , 6, 1 6 , 2 5 2 Z h u Dan, 2 1 7 Z h u Danian, 3 2 5 Z h u De, 129 Zhu Zhu Zhu Zhu Zhu

D e q u n . See C h u T e h - c h u n H a n x i n . See C h u H o n - s u n Hui, 325 Jinshi, 3 2 5 Lesan, 3 2 5

Zhu Zhu Zhu Zhu Zhu Zhu

M i n g . See J u M i n g Naizheng, 144, 325 Peijun, 2 5 2 , 3 2 5 Qinbao, 1 7 1 , 325 Qingguang, 325 Qingxian, 262

Z h u Q i z h a n , 1 1 1 , 1 4 5 , 247—48, 3 2 5 ; o n faculty o f X i n h u a A c a d e m y , 46—47; landscapes of, 59, fig. 2 3 . 1 0 Z h u Wei, 2 6 1 , pi. 87 Z h u Weibai, 3 2 5 Z h u Y i y o n g , 2 3 5 , 3 2 5 , fig. 2 2 . 9 Z h u a n g Z h e , 1 8 3 , 1 8 5 , 3 2 5 , fig. 1 8 . 7 Zhuang Zi, 19, 271 Zhukov, 135 Z h u o Duo, 62 Z h u o Hejun, 325 Z h u o Y o u r u i ( Y . J . C h o ) , 2 1 1 , 3 2 5 , fig. 20.8 ziwo ("I m y s e l f " ) , 33 Z o n g B a i h u a , 67 Z o u Ya, 3 2 5 Z o r n , A n d e r s , 85

Designer: Compositor: Text: Display: Printer and Binder:

Steve Renick Integrated Composition Systems 10.5/13 Bembo Frutiger Light and Snell Roundhand B o l d Sung In, through Bolton Associates