Are the Arts Essential? 9781479812646

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Are the Arts Essential?

A

Are the Arts Essential? Edited by

Alberta Arthurs and Michael F. DiNiscia

New York University Press New York

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York www.nyupress.org. © 2022 by New York University All rights reserved References to Internet websites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor New York University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Arthurs, Alberta, editor. | DiNiscia, Michael, editor. Title: Are the arts essential? / edited by Alberta Arthurs and Michael DiNiscia. Description: New York : New York University Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021013990 | ISBN 9781479812622 (hardback) | ISBN 9781479812639 (paperback) | ISBN 9781479812653 (ebook) | ISBN 9781479812646 (ebook other) Subjects: LCSH: Arts and society—United States. | Social values—United States. Classification: LCC NX180.S6 A667 2021 | DDC 700.1/03—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021013990 Designed and typeset by Andrew Katz Title page art by Rebecca Blackwell © 2021 New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. We strive to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the greatest extent possible in publishing our books. Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Also available as an ebook

For Ed, who would have loved this book, and for Lee, Dan, and Meg, who grew up surrounded by books, mostly his Alberta Arthurs For my wife, Chris, who is essential to me Michael F. DiNiscia

Contents

Forewordix Lynne P. Brown Introduction: Poems Don’t Stay in Place: How the Arts Move and Change Us

6 Art in Theory: An Insight from Marcel Duchamp 1

Alberta Arthurs

9

14

30

Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss 4 The Arts Today

44

Karol Berger 5 Are the Arts Essential?

8 Talking of Walking

78

Alice Sheppard

Mary Schmidt Campbell 3 Leading Institutional Change: New Thinking about Mission, Values, and Purpose

69

Edward Hirsch

Osk ar Eustis 2 New York Reimagined: Artists, Arts Organizations, and the Rebirth of a City

65

K. Anthony Appiah 7 “Exchanging Signals with the Planet Mars”: Reading as Relationship

Part I: Strengthening Society 1 What Is to Be Done?

Part II: Benefiting the Individual

9 Why Teach the Arts: Beyond Specious Claims Ellen Winner 10 A Human Beauty, a Human Risk: The Arts Within Us

98

Catharine R. Stimpson

Part III: Finding and Fostering Community 11 Reflections: Are the Arts Essential?

57

89

109

Deborah Willis

Darren Walker

vii

12 An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States

Part V: Recording and Sharing Our Histories 118

Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid 13 Cultural Conservatory: Living the Arts

130

Cristal Chanelle Truscott 14 It’s Who We Are

138

148

159

viii  

244

253

Jeffrey Brown 262

Jay Wang 177

Conclusion: The Art of Gathering

269

Michael F. DiNiscia 186

Annotated Bibliography

275

Leah Reisman

Elizabeth Streb

Fred Hersch

24 On the Value of the Arts and Culture in a Global Community

25 The Arts and Global Relations

Mary Miss

19 Jazz and Consciousness

Richard Sennett

Carol Becker

Steven Tepper

18 Unreasonable Movement; Unreasonable Thought

Karen L. Ishizuk a

23 Art Invites the World In

Part IV: Engaging the Sciences

17 City as Living Laboratory: Creating a New Narrative for Climate Change and the Public Realm

218

22 Darkness and Light: the powers of performing232

Tania León

16 The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing

205

Mariët Westermann 21 Art Saved Us . . . from What?

Angela Cox 15 An Artist’s Journey

20 Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter

191

Acknowledgments295 Notes297 About the Editors 309 About the Contributors 311 Index323

Foreword

Ars longa, vita brevis. I first heard this phrase (a Latin apho-

serves as a fitting legacy for the congressman known as “Mr.

rism stressing the long-lasting impact of art over the brev-

Arts,” who then became president of the nation’s largest pri-

ity of life) spoken by then-Congressman John Brademas at a

vate university, known for its preeminent programs in the

congressional hearing he was conducting in the late 1970s on

performing and visual arts. Whether on Capitol Hill or at

funding support for the National Endowments of the Arts

Washington Square, John Brademas remained convinced of

and Humanities. I was then working for John as a very junior

the power of the arts to shape individual lives and define a

staffer, and the phrase has stuck with me ever since.

nation’s soul.

It is a sentiment deeply shared by the over two dozen

Thanks and praise are owed to the talented array of

authors represented in this volume. Informed by a rich diver-

voices captured here; although singing in different keys

sity of backgrounds, experiences, beliefs, and means of artis-

and octaves, depending on their unique perspectives, they

tic expression, they each answer the central question—Are

constitute a chorus of conviction. A final note of admira-

the arts essential?—with a resounding yes, underscoring the

tion to the driving force behind this project, the indomita-

point that while life may be fleeting, the arts long endure.

ble Alberta Arthurs, who combines in equal measure the

I am pleased and honored that the Brademas Center at NYU could serve as home to this endeavor. The collection

passion of a humanist with the discipline of a drill sergeant. Brava.

Lynne P. Brown Executive Director, John Brademas Center, New York University

ix

Introduction Poems Don’t Stay in Place How the Arts Move and Change Us Alberta Arthurs

This book grew, slowly, out of a concern that the arts in the

ply leave the arts behind. We seem to think of them primarily

United States are less valued for ideas and less vitalized to

as “entertainment” or “leisure.” We call on them to show us

advance policy actions and citizen aspirations than they

“beauty.” We are often awed, it seems, but seldom activated

could be. There is every reason to believe that Americans

by the arts. So, for this collection, when we asked the ques-

appreciate and support the arts and artists; they are cri-

tion “Are the arts essential?” we did so out of a conviction

tiqued, conversed about, collected, championed by many of

that there is much more to say about the worth and impor-

us. They are studied in art schools, analyzed in humanities

tance of the arts—much more to the story, much more to

courses, covered in the press. The arts fill spaces large and

absorb from the dance, from music and poems, from per-

small in our communities, on our screens, in our ceremonies,

formance, film, and pictures—than we usually perceive. We

in our schools, at our subway stops, and in our public spaces.

asked a simple question—Are the arts essential?—and when

They give us pause, pleasure; they give us possibilities for

we asked, we got remarkable answers.

understanding and empathy. Americans experience the arts

This book contains those answers, which we believe show

in important and enduring ways, in many forms, and from a

that the arts identify issues as profound and ideas as prob-

wondrous diversity of voices and offerings.

able (or improbable) as those offered by other sectors, by

But when we need to address ideas, consider change,

other professionals, in our society. The contents show us how

challenge our systems, size ourselves up, all too often we sim-

artists themselves and arts supporters and scholars see the

1

arts in our communities, how they think the arts relate to our

that this remains a purpose of the arts in our time, though—

hopes and fears as a society, how the arts actually advance

she might say—it is no longer so perceived by our society.

our ambitions for ourselves and each other. Most of the con-

One can only ask why—why art is seen today as more dec-

tributions were written for this book, directly in answer to

orative than dynamic. My own guess is that today we are so

our question. Some are previously presented works, offered

fascinated by the successes of science and the promises of

because they are relevant to the question. Two contributions

economics that we crowd out other ways of being serious

are interviews; one is a conversation. The eloquence on these

about discovering “who we are and who we might be.” These

pages, I think, is itself proof of the power, the profundity, the

are the words of the musicologist Karol Berger, describing on

persuasiveness of the arts.

these pages what he believes the arts do.

What we offer are twenty-five distinct statements, from

There is another reason, I think, why we tend to set aside

twenty-seven different professionals, from twenty-seven dif-

the arts (and the humanities and much of social science)

ferent places within culture, to show that the arts are—to

when we think about identifying and addressing important

put it simply—important: that painters and poets have pur-

needs and possible answers to dilemmas in our time. Modern

pose, that cultural institutions have obligations, that founda-

societies are driven by a reliance on specialists. Artists are not

tions expect the arts to better us, that dancers question our

specialists. Of course, they create from within disciplines—

balance and composers ask us to hear each other, that every

literature, theater, music, film, dance (though even these

play, every photo, every story forces us to face ourselves and

disciplines are shifting, merging, collapsing in our time). But

the world we live in. The arts describe our needs, offer ideas,

unlike most other fields of endeavor in today’s world, art

inspire ideals and action.

exists beyond expertise and professional categories, beyond

Once I asked a well-known writer why she writes. She answered by citing not her own work but that of earlier

titles or departments or market segments, outside the specializations within which we so often train and traffic.

writers, nineteenth-century writers, whom she studies. She

I find an example at hand in the final section of this book,

said, as though it provided her own answer as well, that they

now called “Recording and Sharing Our Histories.” Originally,

wrote to raise questions and pose answers about the “moral-

this section was called “Recording and Relaying History.”

ities” of their societies and their fellow citizens. She implied

That title was challenged by a thoughtful colleague, who sug-

that these writers were read, considered, and consulted on

gested that it shouldn’t be called “history” because only two

values and obligations by their readers and by the leaders

of the writers in that section are historians. But, in fact, that’s

and theorists of their time as well. She didn’t say whether this

the point. Looking at the arts, it becomes clear that it is not

is true today. But it was easy to take her answer as suggesting

only trained historians who record and relay history. Makers

2  Alberta Arthurs

of monuments, eulogies, symphonies and requiems, poems

the choreographer Alice Sheppard acknowledges that dance

and novels and plays relay history. Curators and art histori-

moves our hearts and that it also increases our comprehen-

ans write history, as Karen Ishizuka does in examining the

sion of each other.

art of the Japanese internment and as Mariët Westermann

Artists, of course, generate ideas in their own unique ways.

does in examining the making and meanings of art objects

They release ideas rhythmically, as Fred Hersch does about

in all forms from prehistoric times to our own. The journalist

illness and as Tania León does about immigration. They stage

Jeffrey Brown uses art to illuminate current history, and Jay

history, as Cristal Chanelle Truscott does, in communities,

Wang, a scholar of diplomacy, sees arts exchange as a way to

historic sites, classrooms, theaters and, as Carol Becker does

share histories across nations. Richard Sennett ranges from

on her campus, using the arts to cut across departments,

Hamlet to Hitler to explain how performance equates with

schools, and specialties. In their processes and in their prod-

history and even makes history. In these and many other

ucts, artists give us what is fluid, fortuitous, in the human

voices, the arts convey our histories. Music, dance, literature,

experience, the overlaps, the disorders. They ask us to think

theater are intrinsic to our understanding of the past—and

about how things happen, about who we are and how we

of the evolving present.

are. And, importantly, they also ask about what we can do.

In other fields and disciplines, as in history, the arts

They do so, as our contributors help us see, by showing

can provide amplifying ideas—more so than we are apt to

us that the arts look at the world from within very wide

acknowledge. The psychologist Ellen Winner shows this in

circumferences. Through the arts, we encounter ideas and

her research on arts education. Research by educators has

insights in diverse, often dramatic places—at a concert or

mostly focused on the extrinsic effects of teaching the arts,

a play, in a film, on a dance floor. The arts record realities

for instance, on the possibility that through studying art,

broadly, eclectically, beyond set interests and established dis-

children improve their performance in other subject areas.

ciplines, beyond headlines and outside offices. So perhaps it

But Winner’s research shows that it is more likely—and more

is not surprising that artists are mostly respected for amusing

important—that in art classes children become observant,

us, moving us, frightening us, enlightening us and that they

gain persistence, that they learn to explore concepts, to visu-

are recognized for their “talents” but that they are assumed

alize opportunities and express their own ideas. As another

to have no serious roles as problem solvers or witnesses or

example, while we all recognize the predominance of tech-

“leaders” in the diagnoses and decision-making that must

nology in this time, the sociologist Steven Tepper details for

be undertaken in this complicated century. This book chal-

us not only how technology influences the arts but—with

lenges assumptions that the arts are not practical or applica-

equal conviction—how the arts influence technology. And

ble or analytic.

Introduction  3

“Strengthening Society,” the first section of the book, is

Given the wide openness of the arts—as I’ve attempted

especially direct in asserting the importance of arts prac-

to show it here—it was hard to think about fixing our

tice in doing just that, in contributing ideas and answers

authors into a “table of contents,” as we do in the book. It is

to our ways of living together. It is stunning to learn from

a challenge to justify using sections, boxes really, that might

Mary Schmidt Campbell’s essay how artists and arts orga-

seem to define fixed ways in which the arts function and

nizations played key roles in New York City’s recovery from

address us. It is a challenge to catch the fluidity of the arts in

its economic crisis in the 1970s. The essay raises compel-

this manner. But it became important to do this if we were

ling questions about how the arts factor into economic

to make clear the specific ways in which the arts address

well-being, beyond what we often say about their impor-

issues, provide insights, inspire action. The organization of

tance for tourism. Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss, leading

the book is meant to aid absorption of the ideas in it, to

administrators in the arts, investigate in their conversation

suggest specific ways in which the arts meet our needs. But,

how established cultural institutions, orchestras and muse-

in fact, each section in the table of contents also, usefully,

ums, must anchor social change and meet societal needs

overlaps and echoes with others. To say it another way, each

in their communities. They describe these as the mission,

essay or interview within a section can easily be reassigned

the obligation, of cultural institutions in our time. Darren

to other sections.

Walker makes clear how ideals of social justice are not just

So it is that Deborah Willis, through photography, sees us

illustrated but are, in fact, advanced in action by the arts

neglecting poverty, tolerating injustice, and—also—stirring

and artists. In the second section of the book, “Benefiting

individual hopes and goals. The gripping photos and prose

Individuals,” we learn from Catharine Stimpson that the

address both social justice and individual aspirations, slipping

arts are a mighty force because they are democratic, invit-

easily in and out of our categories and strengthening them.

ing us all to share experience through art that is right in our

When Angela Cox, in her evocation of indigenous art, shows

sights: shop windows, signs and banners and posters, stat-

the strength of continuity, the claim of the common good,

ues, plants and pots, building shapes and materials, street

her observations resonate with “history,” with “strengthening

vendors, buskers, lights and shadows. Art—the kind we do

society,” as well as with “community.” When Elizabeth Streb

not segregate or sell—is everywhere. Many artists, and their

puts dance and science together, defying our familiar ways of

friends, are making good use of that fact, as Mary Miss

segregating life experiences, she escapes a table of contents

and Oskar Eustis and Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

altogether. I hope our table of contents inspires understand-

do in their environmental, public theater, and community-­

ing of the ways the arts can activate us in concrete, grounded

building initiatives.

ways. I also hope that the contents themselves inspire us to

4  Alberta Arthurs

escape the knowns, the expectations, the categories of our

question out of the very diversity and dynamism, the depths,

lives, as the arts themselves do.

of the arts themselves. What we offer here is a sampling of

The uses of poetry in the collection are a surprising, stunning illustration of the flow and reach of the arts. Entirely

that diversity, dynamism, and depth and an invitation to think further about it.

unanticipated, profoundly moving, the instances of poetry

What we can hope is that readers will put the book to

in Are the Arts Essential? bear witness to the breadth of an

work, develop the ideas in it further, find relevancies, addi-

art form in sounding issues and ideas. Poetry surprises us

tional arguments and insights, more examples of how the

time and again. Edward Hirsch’s essay speaks of the power of

arts are actionable. More programs. More commentators.

poetry to benefit the individual, which he evinces with grace

More ideas. More applications. Because the arts are “essen-

and generosity. But poems, like the arts in general, don’t stay

tial” in more ways than we can count, we need more than

in place. They appear, as needed. Zeyba Rahman and Hus-

twenty-five answers. This is a time to apply the arts to issues,

sein Rashid use poetry when they talk about “community,”

to expect the arts to offer examples and opinions, to extend

as does Deborah Willis when she quotes lines from Gordon

our imaginations because, as Anthony Appiah writes, “Imag-

Parks. Jeffrey Brown cites it (and writes it) in the section on

ination teaches us how to respond to unimaginary events.”

“history,” as does Karen Ishizuka. Catharine Stimpson uses

This is a time to include the arts on task forces, in study

poetry to firm her argument about enriching individual life.

groups, in board rooms, in classrooms, in congresses and

Oskar Eustis puts poetry to work in “Strengthening Society.”

city halls, in consultancies, on air and online, in the news,

Anthony Appiah cites it to strengthen his analysis of the

in all the places where our values and our ways of life are

power of imagination. Cristal Chanelle Truscott opens her

being examined, where communal decisions are being made,

essay drumming within the beat of a poem. Poetry gives voice

where issues and ideas and laws are being mapped and

to ideas across all the divisions of the book and the ideas in it.

moved forward. Our twenty-seven commentators in Are the

There are too many, far too many, lessons in these twenty-­

Arts Essential? tell us, in their experienced voices, how we can

five entries to draw out in an introductory essay or in six

expand our understandings and our options with the help

sections. Are the arts essential? These art makers and art

the arts provide. They tell us how, in what ways, the arts are

supporters and thinkers, in their individual ways, answer the

helpful. Important. Needed. Essential? Yes.

Introduction  5

1 What Is to Be Done? Osk ar Eustis

Agent of change, maybe. I try to be. It’s always hard to get the

In that same decade, legend has it, somebody named

balance right between specificity and broadness, not to sim-

Thespis invented the idea of dialogue at the Dionysus festival.

ply blow hot air but to talk about things you actually know

All of this, by the way, I’m making up. We have some evidence

about—and yet extrapolate from what you know and have

for it. I’m taking the little bit of evidence we have and making

experienced to make something useful to other people.

a story, which is what I do for a living.

The reason I do theater and believe in theater as an agent

As part of this story, we know that at the festival of

for change is that the theater and democracy were invented

Dionysus, people spoke. They danced, they had religious

in the same decade, in the same city, Athens, in the sixth

rituals, and there was storytelling. The entire city of Athens

century BC.

would gather to sit on the side of the Acropolis and listen

Obviously, Athens was a flawed democracy. Women had

to these stories. And then, right at the time they were con-

no authority or right to vote. It was a slave society. There

templating the idea that power should flow from below to

were many, many things wrong with Athenian democracy.

above, Thespis decided that instead of talking to the audi-

But the idea that power flowed from the consent of the gov-

ence, somebody onstage should just turn ninety degrees to

erned, from below to above, not from above to below, was

the left and talk to somebody else—and invented the idea

pioneered in that city.

of dialogue.

This essay was originally a keynote address at “Agents of Change in an Interdependent World,” New York University, April 8, 2019. Cosponsored by the NYU Brademas Center, Asia Society, and the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, the event explored how the arts, culture, and creativity have helped give voice to a new generation of activism, bringing together individuals and communities in a global, interdependent world.

9

In that invention, something fundamental changed about the relationship to the audience that I believe is an exact analogy for democracy.

That was close to hot air. Now let me give you some things I actually know about. I’m lucky enough to sit in the chair that Joe Papp created.

There are two things I want to point out here. The first

At The Public Theater a few years ago, we revived the Mobile

is that the audience’s viewpoint was transformed from the

Unit to take Shakespeare out to people who normally don’t

speaker being the voice of authority to listening to two peo-

get access to the culture. We did it because the immense suc-

ple talking together. When I’m talking to you as you passively

cess of Free Shakespeare in the Park had created a problem.

lean back in your chairs, you may disagree with me, but

Free Shakespeare in the Park has been going for over sixty

you’re going to be polite and quiet about it, because I have

years. It’s a brilliant success. But we removed the economic

the truth and I’m talking to you.

barriers—and Shakespeare in the Park has become one of

But with two people, it’s drama. They’re disagreeing with

the hardest tickets to get in New York City. Because who can

each other. There’s conflict. In that moment, you’re making a

wait in line for eight to ten hours to get a ticket to a Shake-

statement about the nature of truth. You’re saying that truth

speare play? You’ve eliminated 99 percent of your potential

is not the possession of anybody. It’s what occurs in the con-

audience before you’ve even started. As a price of that suc-

flict between different points of view.

cess, we had to revive the Mobile Unit, going back to places

If you don’t believe that, you don’t believe in democracy. You’re just putting up with democracy so you can get your

where people who have the least access to our culture get to have it.

way. If you believe in democracy, you believe that’s how

In the first year we went out, we took Shakespeare’s Mea-

truth emerges. And the theater becomes the artistic tool for

sure for Measure to the women’s prison, which was then on

expressing it.

the West Side of Manhattan. And in Measure for Measure,

The other thing the theater is asking you to do, instead

I will remind you, there is a point when Isabella comes to

of just listening to a speaker, is to identify with one per-

plead for her brother’s life to Antonio, the substitute Duke.

son talking and then to identify with the other person

Her brother, convicted of lechery because he has impreg-

disagreeing with the first person—that is, asking you to

nated his fiancée, has been condemned to death.

practice empathy, to practice putting yourself in some-

She pleads and pleads.

body else’s shoes. And so whether democracy created the

In response, the Duke says, “Yes, I will free your brother

theater or the theater allowed democracy to happen, I do

if you will give yourself to me.” The Duke has developed an

believe that the theater is the fundamental art form of

insane passion for Isabella.

democracy.

10  Osk ar Eustis

She says, “I’m not going to do that.”

He says, “Then your brother will die tomorrow”—and leaves the stage.

the afternoon. We then composed an extremely polite statement that Brandon Victor Dixon read from the stage. I have

At the women’s prison, the brilliant actress who was play-

to say, I have no objections to what Mike Pence did. He lis-

ing Isabella, Nicole Watson, was left alone. She turned to the

tened in the lobby to the statement and then left. When he

audience and said the first line of Shakespeare’s soliloquy, “To

was booed upon arriving at the theater, he turned to his son

whom should I complain?”

and said, “Son, that’s the sound of democracy.” So great.

And a voice immediately rang back, “The police!”

His boss was not quite so sanguine and sent out a series

This was early in the tour. Nicole was a little startled, but

of angry tweets, which led to an online boycott of Hamilton.

then you could see an immense serenity come over her face.

Within a few days, a couple of hundred thousand peo-

She just looked at the woman in the audience and said

ple had signed up for the boycott. I looked at these numbers

the next line Shakespeare wrote for her, “If I did report this,

and said, “Something’s wrong with this picture. These people

who would believe me?”

would never come to Hamilton anyway.”

And the woman said, “No one, girl.”

It wasn’t coming to a city near them. If it did, they couldn’t

On the one hand, the Shakespeare geek in me was com-

afford a ticket. And if they could afford a ticket, they didn’t

pletely freaking out. They were written as call and response!

have the connections to get one. That was when I realized,

Oh my God! That Shakespeare knew what he was doing! But

“We’ve been boycotting them a long time before they’ve

on the other hand, it was simply a very dramatic demonstra-

been boycotting us.”

tion of something we’ve found throughout our time with

Then I took a look at the red and blue electoral map of

the Mobile Unit. People need stories. People need art. They

the United States. Do this as an exercise, not the state by

need it as much as they need food and drink and shelter. And

state but the county by county. If you had given me that

when you go into places where people have been deprived of

county-by-county map and said to me, “Oskar, all of the blue

stories, you feel it. You feel it so powerfully that most of the

is where nonprofit theaters are in the country, and the red is

staff of The Public, when they come out of the mobile tours,

where there is no nonprofit theater,” you would be uncannily

say, “Why are we doing anything else?”

accurate. The theater—by which I hope I can be referring to

So we’ve established that there’s a need.

more than just the theater but the arts—has done the same

Now I’m going to tell you another story, from the other

thing that the economy, technology, and politics have done

end of the spectrum. In January of 2017, Vice President–Elect

to half this country, which is turn our back on them, ignore

Pence chose to come to Hamilton uptown. Some of you may

them, and say, “You are not for us, and we have nothing

remember this. We found out about it only at about two in

for you.”

What Is to Be Done?  11

I’m happy to say that we’ve begun a process to change

It was an astonishing national movement of amateur art

that. Last fall, we sent out a tour of Lynn Nottage’s bril-

and theater making that was swept out of existence by the

liant play Sweat. We toured rural Pennsylvania, Wisconsin,

First World War, the Palmer Raids against leftists, anarchists,

Ohio, Michigan, and Minnesota. What we found—as you

and communists, and, let’s say, the financial exuberance of

might expect, but I wasn’t sure—was an enormous appetite.

the Roaring Twenties. By the beginning of the Depression,

Incredible appreciation. The deepest discussions we’ve ever

the pageant moment essentially vanished.

had with an audience were in those places.

When the brilliant Lear deBessonet brought this history

Again, we know there’s a need, but we have to go to where

to me, we began talking about how to revive it. What we

people are. We can’t demand that they come to us. If we’re

created—and when I say we, I really mean Lear, with me

going to serve, we need to serve the people where they live,

taking credit—is a program that builds community partner-

whether it’s in prison or in Erie, Pennsylvania.

ships across the city, from the Fortune Society, which deals

The third story I want to tell you is the story of our Public

with rehabilitating formerly incarcerated people, to Domes-

Works program. This program was inspired by the pageant

tic Workers United, the union of domestic workers, and the

movement, which took root and flourished in United States

brilliant folks at Dream Yard up in the Bronx. We partner

in the late years of the nineteenth century and the early years

with these community organizations year-round. Then, at

of the twentieth century. Pageants began in the 1870s and

the end of each summer, we put on a pageant that involves

1880s as town celebrations, when towns would mobilize all

five of the great professional actors we can bring together

their citizenry to put on the story of their town.

and two hundred community members, many of whom

But the movement, which was completely an amateur movement, swept the country so that by 1910, the National

have never been on a stage before, to do a Shakespeare musical.

Convention of State Pageant Associations had its meeting

The first time we did it, there were three performances.

in Madison Square Garden and filled it up. Every state in

I was at the first one and then canceled my plans for the

the union had pageants—and the pageants had begun to

next two nights and saw the pageant twice again. I’ve never

expand. John Reed, of Ten Days That Shook the World fame,

missed a Public Works performance since. I knew it would

staged a pageant about the 1913 Paterson Silk Strike, with

be really strong social justice work for the people involved.

hundreds and hundreds of Paterson workers functioning as

I knew they’d feel good. What I didn’t know is that the first

actors. The suffragists put on a pageant on the steps of the

performance of The Tempest would be the best piece of art I

Treasury Department in Washington, demanding the vote.

had seen that year. The best art, artistry, the ability to make

12  Osk ar Eustis

art is not the possession of a few people. It’s the fundamental condition of being human.

In reading a little more, I discovered that there came a point for those artists when they realized that the art they

Every human being has artistic desires, abilities, a need to

were making was not consonant with the politics they

express. The only thing that’s different is the number of hours

believed in. It was not reaching the people they cared about,

we get to devote to it. I am one of the privileged few who

and it was not doing the work they thought their art should

can devote sixteen hours a day to doing it. Most people are

do. It wasn’t that any of them woke up that morning with

lucky if they get to do that much in a year, but there is no

an irresistible need to paint on buildings. They actually sat

binary between who’s an artist and who isn’t. Artistry is the

down and said, “What do we need to do? We need to paint

property of everybody.

outdoors where nobody needs to pay for it. We need to paint

So what I end up with is, People need art. If you’re going

large so that people can see it. And we need to paint subject

to reach people, you have to go to where they are. And if you

matter that people can understand and relate to and will

are going to really make a difference, you give them the stage,

impact their lives.”

and you create art with them, and you give them the chance

They thought up the muralist movement. And that’s the

to become the subjects of their own story—the subjects, not

challenge for all of us artists right now. Recognizing that

the objects, of history.

we are privileged to be able to practice this, that we have

I’m going to close with the only thing I will say that

to figure out how to share that privilege as widely as we

doesn’t have anything to do with the theater. A number of

can, not only to speak to as many people as possible but

years ago, I was at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art

to empower as many people as possible to speak. And we

for a fantastic exhibition of the Mexican muralists’ work in

have to examine our own practice, not through the lens of

the 1920s—Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, Frida Kahlo. Of

simply our own subjectivity or what we feel like doing but

course, I was interested in the subject. But when I went to

through the lens of, What use are we? What role are we

see it, my jaw dropped. Because you could have told me that

playing?

I was looking at late French impressionism, and I would have

It isn’t something that will inhibit or censor our work. It

thought that’s what it was: still lifes, lots of bowls of apples,

is something that can inspire, liberate, and expand our work.

things that look nothing like the muralist movement I had

So that’s all I had to say today. And I thank you very much

come to know and love.

for listening to me.

What Is to Be Done?  13

2 New York Reimagined Artists, Arts Organizations, and the Rebirth of a City Mary Schmidt Campbell

On October 29, 1975, a now-iconic New York Daily News

manifest in the slow transformation of neighborhoods in all

headline read, “Ford to City: Drop Dead.” New York City was

five boroughs, once written off by the political establishment.

on the verge of bankruptcy, and President Gerald Ford had

A key factor over the past forty-five years in the renais-

announced that a federal bailout was out of the question.

sance of some of New York’s most ravaged neighborhoods

Mired in debt, indulging in questionable financial practices,

was the role played by the city’s individual artists and arts

spending more money than it collected in tax revenues, the

organizations. Ironically, in the 1960s and 1970s, as manu-

city was on the verge of collapse.1

facturing exited, as the middle class fled to the suburbs, as

New York, of course, did not collapse; instead, contrary

the city became a warehouse of abandoned real estate—its

to the expectations of any number of seasoned observers,

bridges and tunnels sagging, its subway system broken, crime

the city turned itself around. Relying on a rare combination

on the rise, and a drug epidemic raging—a number of artists

of civic activism and public and private leadership, the Big

and arts organizations chose as home exactly those neigh-

Apple not only halted its downward spiral of insolvency but

borhoods hardest hit by the financial crisis. And as I argue

underwent a reimagining. A rebuilt physical environment,

in this essay, they formed the bedrock of the rebirth in the

a reconfigured civic and cultural landscape, over time, was

twenty-first century of neighborhoods as varied as the South

This article is a version of an essay, “New York Reimagined: Artists, Arts Organizations, and the Rebirth of a City,” originally published in Artistic Citizenship: Artistry, Social Responsibility, and Ethical Praxis, ed. David Elliott, Marissa Silverman, and Wayne Bowman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

14

Bronx, Flushing Meadow Park, Astoria, Long Island City,

tural institutions. Is there the same capacity to capture the

Chelsea, the East Village, Harlem, SoHo, Tribeca, Fort Greene,

intrinsic value of the arts to effect instrumental change in

Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass (DUMBO),

neighborhoods once again?

and Williamsburg.

Artists as pioneers is a long-held, much-replicated tenet

Now, here we are once again, living in a time of crisis. Set

of urban regeneration. Less well known is the extent to which

against the current public health crisis, the nation seems to

artists themselves in the 1960s, in New York, organized and,

have awakened to racial disparities long etched into the con-

as an organized force, participated in negotiations on their

tours of every aspect of American life: the economy, social

own behalf to set the conditions for their eventual coloniza-

justice system, academia, K–12 education, our medical infra-

tion and revitalization of segments of a dying city. Less well

structure, banking, technology, and the workforce. These

known is that their success was a prelude to groups of artists,

inequities, familiar to Black and Brown communities, are

curators, arts administrators, and community activists con-

revealing themselves more broadly in the wake of COVID-19

tinuing the process at an institutional level in the last half

and several recorded instances of excessive police violence.

of the twentieth century. Artists and institutions together

Is art as essential now as it was almost half a century ago?

became significant players in the city’s physical reconstruc-

There is no question that the city changed, but what got

tion and in the rebuilding of neighborhoods that, in the pop-

overlooked? What unfinished business is there? Do artists

ular imagination at least, were irredeemable.

and the city’s arts organizations still wield the same potency

To understand the scale of New York City’s desolation, it

for community building and renewal as they did when the

is useful to refer to the journalist Ken Auletta’s assessment.

city was at its nadir?

He calculates that in 1979 alone, as a result of abandonment,

Compelled by this moment, I take the occasion to revisit

the city was forced to take over fifty to sixty thousand build-

an article I wrote six years ago on the essential role of the arts

ings, housing over a half a million citizens.2 That number did

in the regeneration of New York decades ago. In so doing, I

not take into account the boarded-up, vacant properties

recall the potency of individual artists and their organizing

that, as he put it, multiplied like a cancer.

power when it came to alerting the city to its responsibility

Statistics aside, the image of New York as a ruin was cur-

to preserve its creative community. The article recalls, too,

rent in the popular imagination. Paintings, films, and novels

the agility and inventiveness of fledgling cultural organiza-

from the era vividly depict the city’s decline. A portrait of

tions as they forged unexpected partnerships to become

life in the city was offered in the collages of the Black artist

catalysts for change in neighborhoods throughout the five

Romare Bearden. Jane Jacobs’s 1961 classic The Death and Life

boroughs. Most of these organizations are now mature cul-

of Great American Cities makes use of a phrase that became

New York Reimagined  15

a truism—“eyes on the street”—to characterize the salu-

their visits, bemoaning what was to them an insoluble urban

tary caretaking and ownership of a neighborhood’s citizens.

dilemma.

Bearden’s powerful 1964 Projections (black-and-white photo-

Twenty years after the publication of Wolfe’s fictional

graphic enlargements of collages) implicitly challenges that

account, however, a December 10, 2007, New York Times arti-

dictum. Eyes on the street in a work such as “The Street”

cle declared with the definitiveness of the 1975 Daily News

are eyes that witness destructive as well as generative urban

headline that New York was “No Longer the City of ‘Bonfire’

forces, pitted against each other in a life-or-death struggle.

in Flames.” Noting the city’s plummeting crime rate, its pop-

A 1968 cover of Time magazine depicts a collage of Mayor

ulation growth, and the physical restoration of the South

John Lindsay caught in what looks like the apocalyptic col-

Bronx, the article reported that if the novel were written in

lapse of the city in the wake of strikes by police, firefighters,

the twenty-first century, it “would be about how the city’s

and teachers.

sanitized streets have become a stage set on which New York

Both images were constructed in years when riots erupted on Harlem streets. Years later, the filmmaker Martin Scorsese released his

plays itself, for an audience of tourists.” Of the many forces that bent the arc of New York’s trajectory from ruined to reborn, this essay asks, What was the role of the arts?

now-classic 1976 film Taxi Driver—to this day a terrifying

I came face-to-face with a bleak New York when my

cinematic image of New York. The film’s protagonist, Travis

professional career began at the Studio Museum in Har-

Bickle, is a Vietnam vet who roams the dying city in his taxi

lem, in the fall of 1977. My first day at work was just a few

by night, his deranged state of mind a personification of the

months after the summer’s blackout left the Big Apple badly

unraveling that surrounds him. Another film that portrayed

bruised from a spasm of looting and disorder. The Studio

New York under siege was the 1981 Fort Apache, the Bronx,

Museum, then, as now, was the country’s leading institu-

in which police occupy their precinct in the South Bronx as

tion on the visual arts of the Black Atlantic and a cross-

if it were a fortress, barricaded against the very people they

roads in New York for the gathering of Black artists from

presumably protect.

all over the world. Museum exhibitions were amplified in

Tom Wolfe’s 1987 best-selling novel Bonfire of the Van-

their impact by the outreach work of some of the coun-

ities, a fictional work, sets Wall Street wealth and privilege

try’s most gifted emerging artists, who occupied studios

in collision with the realities of both the South Bronx and

in residence in a floor above the museum’s galleries. The

the city’s internecine political battles. So stigmatized was

museum served local public schools by the artists’ teaching

the South Bronx that two US presidents—Jimmy Carter and

and working with subject-matter teachers to integrate the

Ronald Reagan—on separate occasions visited and recorded

arts into their curricula.

16  Mary Schmidt Campbell

Figure 2.1. Romare Bearden, “The Street,” Projections, 1964

New York Reimagined  17

As lofty as the Studio Museum’s mission may have been,

the academy’s Opera House to house karate demonstrations

physically it was no more than a loft over a Kentucky Fried

on its once-grand stages. Perhaps most disheartening, Times

Chicken and Purple Discount Liquors on Fifth Avenue and

Square, the site of the city’s irreplaceable Broadway theater

125th Street in Harlem, once the world’s Black cultural capi-

houses, was populated with X- and XXX-rated shops and

tal. The 125th Street corridor, a onetime bustling commercial

open transactions of every crime imaginable. The decline of

strip boasting grand architecture and wide streets, was, by

both had become symbolic of the city’s waning eminence as

the time the museum opened in 1968, lined with boarded-up

a global cultural center.

buildings and struggling retail outlets, interrupted frequently

Despite the prevalence of neglect in New York, the artists

by vacant lots full of debris and broken glass. A decade at the

and citizens who led the aforementioned institutions—along

museum not only gave me firsthand knowledge of the strat-

with many other arts organizations—became the epitome

egies nascent institutions like ours had to invent to establish

of civic commitment and care. Remarkably, they launched

ties with the local community and to cultivate the necessary

survival strategies at a time when city government was

partnerships to develop and grow but put me in touch with

impoverished and the institutions themselves were as hand-

a universe of fledgling not-for-profit arts organizations sited

to-mouth as the communities they served. Years subsequent

in other battered parts of the city. They all shared a faith in

to the success of these institutions, scholars, city planners,

the arts, an insistence on a voice and presence in New York’s

government officials, and journalists have written about the

cultural life for all sectors of the cultural community, and a

arts and their role in the rebirth of the nation’s great cities.

commitment to the communities in which they resided.

The arts’ contribution to urban life has been explained in var-

To name those once-new cultural organizations today

ious ways: as an instrument of economic development that

is tantamount to making an inventory of some of the city’s

encourages tourism, stimulates business growth, supports

most progressive cultural institutions: the Bronx Museum

ancillary industries, increases employment opportunities,

of the Arts, the Studio Museum in Harlem, the Queens

and fosters creative capital; as a vehicle for enhancing the

Museum, El Museo del Barrio, PS1, Dance Theater of Har-

livability of neighborhoods; as a means of enhancing social

lem, Harlem School of the Arts, The Joyce Theater, the New

well-being; and as a tool in the educational strategies of

Museum, and the Caribbean Cultural Center. Not only were

public schools.

new institutions invented, venerable institutions in New York

These secondary uses are often referred to as the instru-

were reinvented. The one-hundred-year-old Brooklyn Acad-

mental value of the arts, as opposed to their intrinsic or

emy of Music in Fort Greene, Brooklyn, had fallen on hard

nonutilitarian value. What New York’s revival demonstrated

times. During the 1960s, a failure to attract audiences forced

was that the long-term success of the city’s most progressive

18  Mary Schmidt Campbell

institutions was the result, first and foremost, of the care and

in New York. Their influx hastened the city’s replacement

tending of an art form’s intrinsic value. Preserving, nurturing,

of Paris as the center of the art world. The arrival of Euro-

and, at times, disrupting the intrinsic value of an art form is

pean emigrants coincided with the departure of light man-

a legacy of New York’s revival. Artists and their art making,

ufacturing and industry in the city. When factories closed,

along with arts organizations, settled in seemingly depleted

structures uniquely suited to artist occupancy were vacated.

communities, often powered by the energy and innate cul-

New York was filled with buildings with high ceilings, large

tural assets of those communities.

windows, and light-filled spaces without partitions. City offi-

All of the institutions discussed in this essay proactively

cials, hoping that manufacturing would return, retained the

created a public, an audience, that, over and beyond mere

zoning status that prohibited residential occupancy. Safety

marketing, was able to establish a direct relationship with the

was another issue. Abandoned industrial structures often

art, a production, or an artistic process. Today, they continue

had no sprinkler systems or means of egress suitable for

to support the work of living artists, either as individuals or

residential use.

as part of an ensemble, a collective, or a company. Many also

Given the appealing design of industrial space and the low

keep alive artistic traditions, including the work of artists of

cost most landlords were willing to charge, artists favored

the past, that would otherwise be lost. Many—though not

the dilapidated spaces. Covertly, and often illegally—like a

all—of these institutions play the role of what the scholar

small guerilla army—they imaginatively repurposed former

Daniel Matlin would refer to as “indigenous interpreter”; that

trouser- or hat- or button-making factories into studios for

is, they see and hear in their communities what is fundamen-

choreographing dance, welding sculpture, making a film or

tal to a community’s identity, its sense of continuity that

a large-scale painting. Without a city planning mandate,

feeds collective memory.3 These institutions all have what the

the citizen-artists laid the groundwork for the conversion of

Chicago artist Theaster Gates has referred to as the ability to

dated postindustrial communities into venues for a twen-

deal in the “imaginary.” Gates speaks of “having vision beyond

ty-first-century creative workforce. Neighborhoods with few

a kind of practical response.”4 The arts organizations cited in

amenities—grocery stores, cleaners, restaurants, or coffee

this essay became experts in reaching beyond the practical.

shops—were reenvisioned as residential. Artists from the

New York City’s history of decline and regeneration began

era remember the ease of visiting one another’s studios and

in the years after World War II. Artists began to occupy aban-

the exchanges they shared. Art, its intrinsic value, was the

doned buildings in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The num-

core attraction.

ber of visual artists had increased during the war, when there

Arts organizations played out parallel scenarios. Those

was an exodus of artists who left Europe and sought refuge

that were successful shared remarkably similar attributes.

New York Reimagined  19

They were committed to living, working artists and to the advancement of an art form. They put down organizational

Artists

roots in communities that, physically, were in ruins. They

In November 1960, three New York City firefighters died

were willing to step out of the bounds of the art world to

while extinguishing a fire in an illegally occupied structure.

forge unexpected partnerships across cultural and disci-

Their deaths prompted the New York City Fire Department

plinary boundaries. They were respectful of the indigenous

to increase the frequency of fire inspections. Fire inspectors

culture of the neighborhoods in which they resided and were

paid random visits to artist-occupied sites and, invariably

willing to invest in leadership development that pursued sus-

finding code violations, posted eviction notices.6 A battle

tainable business models for their institutions.

between artists and the city erupted. In March 1961, about

As neighborhoods underwent transformative change,

five hundred artists responded to the evictions by organiz-

many people began to observe that the success of artists

ing the Artists-Tenants Association. They accused the city of

and institutions alike posed a set of hardships, problems

harassing artists and threatened to withdraw their artwork

that were especially evident in 2020. Richard Florida, for

from the city’s galleries and museums. Extending the invi-

example, argues that the gentrification that artists instigated

tation to artists from around the world to follow suit, they

in cities like New York has resulted in monumental losses

demanded that the city find a solution to the stalemate.

for the city.5 Artists and other working-class New Yorkers

By the summer, the protesting artists group had collected

are being gradually displaced as a result of their ability to

the names of hundreds of artists, including several high-­

creatively reimagine previously unmarketable spaces. More-

visibility names—Willem de Kooning, Robert Motherwell,

over, living in an increasingly expensive city is difficult, if not

Mark Rothko, Theodore Stamos, among others. Calling their

impossible, for the young emerging artists who are neces-

action a “moral boycott,” the protesting artists vowed “not

sary to the city’s renewal. The question is worth asking: Is

to cooperate as artists in any public activity in New York,

the city driving out the animating force of its artists and

whether by lecturing, appearing on radio or TV, or being

creative workers? Has consumption replaced production as

interviewed.” Their point was to demonstrate that “artists

the driver of New York’s cultural life? If so, as citizens, how

are a vital force in the life of the city.”7 Organized action

might artists and arts organizations respond to this new

and public assertions translated their intrinsic value into

twenty-first-century reality? New York’s history in the last

civic worth.

half of the twentieth century might suggest some answers

Mayor Robert Wagner’s solution was to give the artists

to what is possible in the dramatically altered New York

“protected status” as artists-in-residence. Status was granted

of today.

if artists applied for and were approved, in return for which

20  Mary Schmidt Campbell

artists had to maintain certain explicit, stated conditions in their lofts. Labeling artists “protected” was an acknowledg-

Institutions

ment on the part of city government of the value of hav-

Insurgent Placemaking

ing artist-supported communities in designated areas of the

As was the case with artists, arts organizations were pioneers

city. Over the years, “protected status” became a legislative

in the city’s derelict neighborhoods. An early example is Ellen

and policy coup for working artists in the form of New York

Stewart (1919–2011), who founded Café LaMama, which first

State’s 1974 amendment of the Multiple Dwelling Law, Arti-

became LaMama Experimental Theater Club and eventually

cle 7B.8 Artists demanded and won for themselves the status

was known as just LaMama. Stewart, Black woman, one-

of law for their “protected status.” As an organized sector of

time fashion designer, with an extraordinary eye for talent,

the city, they convinced the city to carve out space for a cre-

chose New York’s Lower East Side as the venue for LaMama

ative workforce and, at the same time, defined their value

in 1961. At the time, the neighborhood’s livability was spi-

to the city’s well-being. Cities around the country emulated

raling downward. Opening an outpost for artists of all cul-

New York. In addition to the innovations like those of Rick

tures and ethnicities that was exciting and cutting-edge in

Lowe in Houston and Theaster Gates on Chicago’s South

an impoverished neighborhood ran counter to the notion

Side, other cities such as Covington (Kentucky), Seattle, and

that art institutions should reside in upscale communities.

Cleveland adopted initiatives that supported artists’ hous-

With a venue that subverted expectations, LaMama set the

ing, often as a means of reviving distressed areas.9

stage for its antiestablishment artistic presentations. Under

The passage of Article 7B coincided with the publica-

Stewart’s impeccable artistic eye, emerging and well-known

tion of Martin Segal’s report on the economic impact of the

artists made their way to LaMama’s stages, creating an early

arts on the tristate area.10 His report argued that, given the

multicultural venue long before the term was invented. A

pivotal role of the arts, the city should establish a separate

similar model took root in what was then referred to, deri-

cultural affairs agency. The New York City Department of

sively, as the “outer” borough of Brooklyn.

Cultural Affairs, with its role in advocacy of the city’s artists

The Brooklyn Academy of Music, contrary to the other

and arts, was quick to promote policies that supported both

institutions discussed in this essay, was established over one

individual artists and the city’s young arts organizations.

hundred years ago. In the early twentieth century, it was a centerpiece of New York’s cultural life. Every major cultural figure in the country performed there, and New York’s elite attended its events. Located in the Fort Greene section of Brooklyn, the Academy, by the early 1960s, had experienced

New York Reimagined  21

a decline in its fortunes so dire that its handsome building

seen elsewhere in New York. Art and artists were the driving

was slated for demolition. Fort Greene, it was posited, had

inspiration of the institution. To find appropriate space for a

become inhospitable to the Academy’s usual audiences.

production of Peter Brook’s Mahabharata, for example, BAM

When Harvey Lichtenstein (1929–2017), a former dancer,

acquired the ruinous Majestic Theater. BAM affirmed its

became its president and executive producer in 1967, he set a

commitment to Fort Greene by renovating the theater while

model for change that was not unlike what Ellen Stewart was

conveying the tenor of BAM’s mission. The celebrated archi-

accomplishing at LaMama in the East Village, a model that

tect Hugh Hardy “restored” the Majestic Theater (now the

would be repeated by institutions all over the city.

Harvey) so that its finished state looked like a modernized

Lichtenstein made a compelling assumption. Bring the

ancient ruin, a deliberate nose-thumbing to the conventional.

most exciting, forward-thinking, diverse artists to Fort

Architecture and design played a role in the transforma-

Greene—and audiences will find a way to see them. The

tion of many organizations as they became mature cultural

intrinsic value of the art of Pina Bausch or Youssou N’Dour

institutions. They often invited world-class architects to cre-

or a production of Hamlet by the Berlin Ensemble is what

ate signature spaces in physically depleted urban settings.

creates the appetite to overcome biases of nonresidents to

Hardy, who designed the Majestic, also designed the reno-

come to Brooklyn. Artistically, the venue created something

vation of The Joyce, the Dance Theater of Harlem, and the

audiences believed they could not miss. The adventurous

Polonsky Center of Theater for a New Audience; Rafael Vig-

became a program—the Next Wave Series became the Next

noly designed the first renovation of the Queens Museum, its

Wave Festival. The Next Wave asserted that Brooklyn, not

second expansion completed by Grimshaw; Max Bond, the

Manhattan, was the place to encounter the future of the

celebrated African American architect who also designed the

arts on a global as well as local scale. Geography, the “outer”

Schomburg Center for Black Research in Harlem, was respon-

borough, like the Lower East Side, was billed as part of the

sible for the earliest renovation of the Studio Museum in Har-

excitement. Exciting, too, was the balance between local and

lem; Maya Lin was the architect who designed the Museum

global. Dance Africa, for example, acknowledged the cultural

of the Chinese in America; the Japanese architects Kazuyo

roots of the local population even as Brooklyn Academy

Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa  / SANAA designed the New

curators scouted the world for global productions.

Museum. Each of these renovations established beachheads,

To underscore the institution’s new identity, the once staid Brooklyn Academy changed its name to BAM, a stroke

sites of order and physical beauty in Fort Greene, Chelsea, Flushing Meadow, Harlem, Chinatown, and the Bowery.

of inspired branding. To match its changed identity, BAM

BAM’s status now seems unassailable. In the late 1980s,

underscored risk, innovation, and events that could not be

however, there were skeptics. When a request for major cap-

22  Mary Schmidt Campbell

ital funding to renovate the Majestic Theater came to me

cited in this essay had very short lists of individual donors

in my role as New York’s commissioner of cultural affairs,

and few established political relationships on which to rely

I placed the request at the top of my list of projects to be

for local, state, or federal support. Their building a network

funded. A disbelieving city official was stunned that I would

of financial support in order to gain institutional stability was

recommend millions of dollars to a part of the city not nor-

critical, nonetheless, to their ability to accomplish their mis-

mally regarded as the center of culture. His comment was,

sions. Coincidentally, these arts organizations came to life at

“How can we fund this? It’s Brooklyn!”

a time when public funding for the arts was in its infancy,

PS1, in the 1970s a budding visual-arts organization

and the shape and direction of that funding was influenced

founded by curator Alanna Heiss, featured experimental

to a great extent by these organizations. Equally as important

works by artists with ambitious projects who took risks in

were the organizations’ willingness to go beyond traditional

order to produce cutting-edge work. Heiss had been a force

arts funding and enter into unanticipated collaborations.

in the Alternative Space Movement that curated projects in

Unquestionably, public funding for the arts provided

abandoned buildings throughout the city and a founder of

the core operating support for most of New York’s young

the Clock Tower Gallery. At PS1, she curated an encyclope-

arts organizations as the city struggled toward solvency.

dic number of site-specific installations and performance art

Governor Nelson Rockefeller, whose drug laws during his

events and housed artists at work in their studios so that the

tenure were draconian and especially destructive to Black

spectator was in close proximity to the process and produc-

and Brown communities, led the way for public financing

tion of the art as well as to its display.

of the arts. His administration founded the New York State

In a way unimaginable for more conventional arts institu-

Council on the Arts, which became a national model. At the

tions, insurgent placemakers served as sites for communities

federal level, the National Endowments for the Arts and the

of artists. Openings of exhibitions of living artists at the Bronx

Humanities were established in 1965. Declaring the arts and

Museum, El Museo del Barrio, the Queens Museum, and the

humanities as vital in a democracy, the NEA and NEH man-

Studio Museum in Harlem were major cultural events, part

dates called for making the arts widely and democratically

community gatherings, part art-world convocations.

accessible, a validation of the missions of many newly established arts organizations. But it was New York City’s deci-

Unanticipated Collabor ations

sion to create a separate Department of Cultural Affairs in

Conventional wisdom would have discouraged virtually

1976 and to expand membership in its Cultural Institutions

every one of these institutions from launching at a time

Group (CIG)—even as it battled back bankruptcy—that

when the city was failing financially. The arts organizations

gave several of the new arts organizations solid footing. As

New York Reimagined  23

their civic and artistic vision for the future and the futures

ambitious institutional goals, both married the intrinsic value

of their communities grew more expansive, they could rely

of their institutions to an instrumental value. Both accom-

on city government as a partner. (CIG members are eligi-

plished this marriage of convenience with a federal Hous-

ble for operating support, capital funding in some cases,

ing and Urban Development (HUD) Urban Development

discounted energy, and other city services.) City support,

Action Grant (UDAG). Although commitment to the intrin-

however, was by no means sufficient for the full realization

sic value of the art was essential to both the SMH and The

of missions that sought to significantly impact artistic and

Joyce, HUD’s interest in the intrinsic was minimal. The mer-

civic communities.

its of Jean-Michel Basquiat or the Stephen Petronio Dance

One boost that nearly all arts organizations in New York

Company mattered very little to the agency. What mattered

City (and around the country) received came from a source

was the civic covenant. The covenant required the entity

unintended for the arts: the Department of Labor of the fed-

with which HUD entered into an agreement to declare that

eral government and a jobs-training program with the cum-

in return for HUD investment, the private citizens responsi-

bersome title, Comprehensive Employment Training Act

ble for the organization would identify private investment

(CETA). Targeting low-income and long-term-unemployed

that matched the federal grant. Proceeds from federal and

people for public service jobs, the Nixon-era program was

private investment had to be such that they would launch

“reimagined” as a source of training for jobs in not-for-profit

the physical rehabilitation of a physically broken neighbor-

arts organizations. Job specialties in the arts—in museums,

hood and the reawakening of its commercial life.

for example, designers, curators, registrars, security guards,

In SMH’s case, a bank donated a building that qualified

and art handlers—qualified as public service and were

the museum for the HUD grant. The details of the arrange-

categorized as specialties that required training. CETA’s

ment are worth noting, since they demonstrate how far

employees were the low-income, long-term unemployed, a

afield leaders had to stray in order to assure the high func-

condition that often fit artists who, with CETA jobs, acquired

tioning of their organizations. The Ford Foundation awarded

institutional specialties that complemented their incomes

SMH a Program-Related Investment (PRI), a low-cost loan

from their art practice. The program, not surprisingly, signifi-

that served as an advance to the federal funds allotted for

cantly helped not-for-profit arts organizations in New York

the renovation of the donated building, so that it could

survive the city’s fiscal crisis.11 Non-arts funding from other

proceed, and that also jump-started private matching gifts.

federal programs played a critical role as well.

(Ford describes the logic of its investment in its December

The Studio Museum in Harlem (SMH) and The Joyce Theater are a case in point. To access financial capital and realize

24  Mary Schmidt Campbell

1991 publication Investing for Social Gain: Reflections on Two Decades of Program-Related Investments.)

As a revision to SMH’s business plan, the museum divided

community a high-value dance concert hall designed, as

the donated building in half. Half of the floors were reno-

mentioned, by Hardy. Hardy retrofitted the previously dere-

vated for use as museum space; the other half were rented

lict film-revival house into a concert hall for small to midsize

to not-for-profits, their long-term rents (fifteen years) sub-

dance companies, highlighting its elegant art deco elements.

sidizing museum operations and their services (Visiting

As was the case with SMH, a onetime decaying facility

Nurse Service, Community Legal Services, College of New

became an architectural gem and a community asset instead

Rochelle—now closed), extending the museum’s reach into

of an eyesore. Legions of devoted dance fans come to Chel-

its community. A foreclosed building, what could have been

sea, not because The Joyce is an instrument of economic

just another abandoned building on 125th Street, became a

development—which in part it is—but because they are

fine-arts museum that also housed community services.

attracted to the consistent excellence of its artistic program-

The museum flourished. Today, under the expert lead-

ming. Relying on its intrinsic value, like SMH, The Joyce gen-

ership of the accomplished curator and renowned thought

erated unanticipated instrumental economic outcomes for

leader Thelma Golden, exhibitions, artists-in-residence,

its Chelsea neighborhood.

musicians, poets, and thought leaders animate the galleries. Audiences that partake in the intrinsic value of the museum’s

Investing in Indigenous Culture

programs add immeasurable instrumental value to a revived

Many, though not all, insurgent placemakers had as their

commercial corridor. To walk down the 125th Street today

mission investing in “indigenous culture.” The Bronx Mu-

is to walk along a street with Starbucks, H&M, Old Navy, a

seum is a prime example of one that did. The museum,

renewed Apollo Theater, and a string of successful restaurants.

under the leadership of Luis Cancel—curator, artist, arts

In the case of The Joyce Theater, described on its website

administrator—moved out of the rotunda of the Bronx

as an institution founded by dancers—Cora Cahan and Eliot

County Courthouse to a vacated synagogue on the Grand

Feld—for dancers, the Ballet Tech Foundation entered into

Concourse, a gift from New York City. The process of plan-

a similar collaboration with HUD. In this case, Ballet Tech

ning for the physical repurposing of the building and estab-

acquired the old Elgin Theater, a onetime porn house that

lishment of a sustainable cultural organization in the middle

the local community had closed. The Ballet Tech Foundation,

of a community that some people thought a wasteland is yet

with assistance from private donors—including LuEsther T.

another example of artists, activists, and citizens creating an

Mertz (the theater is named after her daughter, Joyce) and

anchor around which further development could take place.

other private donors—invested federal funds from HUD

A few years after the acquisition of the synagogue, museum

into the derelict building. Their investment returned to the

leaders added a structure designed by the Miami-based firm

New York Reimagined  25

Arquitectonica, a dramatically modernist steel-and-glass

ties that have deep ties and long-term lineages in the borough.

building that offered to the world a vision of the future of

The museum’s program content—permanent collection,

the Bronx.

exhibitions, educational and community programs—reflect

Images of the Bronx captured by an older generation

this multiculturalism. Recent acquisitions include artists as

of filmmakers, writers, and artists in the 1970s had not yet

varied as Vito Acconci, Elizabeth Catlett, Martin Wong, and

caught up with cultural currents surging through the over-

Raphael Montanez Ortiz. On the website is a feature titled

whelmingly young borough. Visible to many who lived in the

“Sharing Stories: We Are All Agents of Change,” which show-

South Bronx were the street jams and plug-ins that, without

cases the multiple cultural heritages that make the cultural

a government grant or urban-renewal assistance, were incu-

composition of the borough so diverse.

bating their own forms of music and dance. One of several

In addition to presenting fine artists, the late Holly Block

sites, the South Bronx was a venue for a new kind of music,

(1958–2017), internationally renowned curator, directed

lyrics, dance moves, clothing styles, and performance tradi-

the museum to tap into the vitality of a youth culture by

tions that would grow into the worldwide culture of hip-hop.

organizing a Teen Council. Working with museum staff, the

A resolutely do-it-yourself (DIY) entrepreneurialism was per-

council not only assures community access to museum pro-

colating. In the midst of so-called ruin, a new form of cultural

grams but participates in creating museum content as well.

expression was germinating.

Its B-Girls dance group is one outcome of the work of the

The Bronx Museum of the Arts created an organizational

Teen Council. Another is that every summer, the museum

ecology that balanced its role as fine-arts museum with its

collects and distributes school supplies for local families

role as “indigenous interpreter,” sometimes playing both

and provides family sessions exclusively for parent-child

roles at once. The museum offered exhibitions of world-class

or guardian-child workshops in the arts. For schools in the

painters, sculptors, photographers, printmakers, and installa-

area, it provides pedagogical resources to local teachers, as

tion and performance artists that were critically competitive

well as placing working artists in the schools. At the same

with exhibitions in the city’s so-called elite museums. Cancel,

time, Block made sure that the museum was providing inter-

sponsored by a grant from the NEA, established a network of

national leadership to any number of biennales on the global

relationships with curators, artists, and institutions in Latin

stage, including in Havana, Cairo, and Venice.

American cities that placed local initiatives in conversation with global ones.

Museum education, of course, is not new. Institutions like the Metropolitan Museum and the American Museum

As is the case with Queens, the city’s most culturally

of Natural History were pioneers. Their educational service

diverse borough, the Bronx boasts multiple cultural ethnici-

is at the heart of their early relationship with city govern-

26  Mary Schmidt Campbell

ment. What distinguishes newer institutions like the Queens

Leadership Development

Museum, the Studio Museum in Harlem, the Bronx Museum,

One aspect of these institutions is their ability to incubate

the Museum of the Moving Image, El Museo del Barrio,

leaders. When I arrived at the Studio Museum in Harlem,

BAM, and institutions like them in those neighborhoods

my only leadership experience had been a part-time curato-

is their arrival—or revival—during the city’s darkest days

rial position at an upstate New York museum. Many of the

in communities that government and private investment,

leaders who assumed leadership positions at these institu-

until their arrival, had abandoned. Not only was the cultural

tions—artists and nonartists—were young and came with

expression of the artists they chose validated by mainstream

scant leadership experience. In the past forty years, these

critics, but the museums were willing to mine local treasures

institutions have incubated a remarkable number of arts

and traditions as well. Their embrace of the local recalls an

leaders for government, academia, not-for-profit, and com-

observation that Michael Harrington makes in his 1962 book

mercial entities. Major institutions in New York and around

The Other America: “If a group has internal vitality, a will—if

the country have benefited. Locally, two striking examples

it has aspiration—it may live in dilapidated housing, it may

are Cora Cahan and Harvey Lichtenstein. Cahan, a dancer

eat an inadequate diet, and it may suffer poverty, but it is

and, with Elliot Feld, a leader of The Joyce and also the dance

not impoverished.”12

studios at 890 Broadway, led the 42nd Street Redevelopment

Intended or not, these institutions have been the lens

Agency. The transformation of Forty-Second Street from a

that offers us an innovative means of bringing to wide public

nightmarish state to its prepandemic commercially viable—

attention an ever-changing city and its kaleidoscopic iden-

albeit cluttered—site is probably the single most successful

tities. They function not just as community anchors but

restoration of an urban community in the country.

as community tuning forks, listening for tones and pitches

Lichtenstein, also a former dancer, left BAM after thirty-­

that need to be heard. With the arts at their core, they have

two years and became active in the BAM Local Develop-

become instruments not only of the city’s renewal but of

ment Corporation, now part of the Downtown Brooklyn

its ongoing survival. Now at a historic moment, the public

Partnership. The goal was to support a cultural district

health crisis and social unrest have been stoked by the mass

hospitable to other cultural institutions. The Mark Morris

public witnessing of shameless displays of obsessive police

Dance Center and Theater for a New Audience were two arts

violence against Black and Brown communities. The inequi-

organizations that successfully expanded their institutional

ties of COVID and the public witness compel us to ask, Is

cultural presence in Fort Greene. Both brought architec-

there a role for art, artists, and arts organizations in this crisis,

tural distinction—Morris with Beyer Blinder Belle and The-

as there was almost half a century ago? If so, what is it?

ater for a New Audience with Hugh Hardy for the Polonsky

New York Reimagined  27

Shakespeare Center. The changes made by institutions in the

with their communities that can inform the city as it seeks to

cultural district made it possible to imagine (for better or

recover and regenerate once again.

worse) future development, such as the megaprojects of the Barclays Center and Atlantic Yards.

New York’s story of revival is not without its tragedies. The AIDS epidemic of the 1980s was a cruel and relentless scourge

Leaders from these institutions have assumed leadership

on the city’s community of artists and arts organizations.

roles in city government as well. Directors of three different

AIDS was followed in quick succession by the culture wars, a

museums have served as the city’s cultural affairs commis-

persistent and well-organized backlash to public arts funding

sioners—in addition to the author, Luis Cancel, from the

of artistic expression that ran counter to what conservatives

Bronx Museum, and Tom Finkelpearl, from the Queens

defined as community or religious or family values. A case

Museum. A new generation of cultural leaders represented

in point is an episode involving Mayor Rudolph Giuliani and

by Laurie Cumbo suggests that artistic and political leader-

the Brooklyn Museum. Giuliani withheld city funds from the

ship may grow even closer. Cumbo was the founder in 1999

Brooklyn Museum of Art because he objected to the content

and is the director of the Museum of Contemporary Afri-

of a painting by Christopher Ofili in a show titled Sensation.

can Diasporan Arts (MoCADA), an institution that has as its

The Brooklyn Museum successfully argued a violation of

mission “exploring new artistic production across a variety

free speech, but the mere threat of defunding suggested the

of disciplines.” MoCADA has successfully demonstrated that

depth and complexity of the cultural divides and the deep

expertly curated public spaces, as well as formal museum or

antagonisms that surfaced as institutions presented multiple

theater facilities, can be effective advocates for the intrin-

cultural expressions.

sic value of the arts. Two examples of MoCADA’s programs

The culture wars were an early warning signal of the

are Public Exchange, which hosted programming in public

intractable divides that would grow wider in the post–­

housing, and Soul of Brooklyn, which organized block-party-

September 11 era. After the terrorist attack on the city, there

type arts events. Originally sited in the Bedford-Stuyvesant

was yet another fiscal crisis, in 2008, and then Hurricane

section of Brooklyn, MoCADA now resides within the Fort

Sandy, which reminded the island city of its vulnerabil-

Greene cultural district. Cumbo, a member of New York City

ity. As disabling as these events may have been, there was

Council holding the seat in the Thirty-Fifth District, repre-

an even worse, insidious, chronic problem that was slowly

senting the Brooklyn neighborhoods of Clinton Hill, Fort

threatening the vitality of the city. Soho, Tribeca, the Village,

Greene, Crown Heights, and Prospect Heights, brings her cul-

the Lower East Side, Williamsburg, DUMBO, Chelsea, Fort

tural expertise and point of view directly to city government.

Greene, and Long Island City long ago relinquished their

These leaders have vital insights, practices, and relationships

outer-borough or derelict status. Quite the contrary, they

28  Mary Schmidt Campbell

are among the most desirable locations, ironically making

ies on the positive impact of the arts on schools, presented

these areas, which artists pioneered, unaffordable to them

in a 2011 study completed by the President’s Committee on

and other working-class citizens. New York’s livability, a key

the Arts and Humanities titled Reinvesting in Arts Education:

issue for artists in the 1960s, presents itself as an issue once

Winning America’s Future through Creative Schools, progress

again. The problem of a lack of affordable housing has grown

in the improvement of public schools has been slower than

exponentially. Along with the relentless gentrification of

what is needed. Some people are shocked to hear calls to

once-affordable neighborhoods, the city has segregated itself

defund the police, but, in fact, defunding is exactly what we

against the poor and working class.

have been doing to education by shifting our public well-­

In retrospect, the arts proved themselves to be utterly essential to the revival of the city. Yet, with all of the suc-

being policies. Our priorities have moved from education to prisons, the criminal justice system, and law enforcement.

cess of insurgent new institutions and reimagined older ones,

As a result of this current crisis, New York City may not be

there was a failure on the part of the public and probably

back in 1975 and facing imminent bankruptcy, but we are at

some elected officials to understand the consequences of

a moment when, with resources scarce, we need to identify

bad policy and careless legislation to other parts of the sys-

where in the past public investments have helped us to heal

tem. The effects of merciless drug laws, “Three Strikes, You’re

and imaginatively re-create the city. Once again, we need to

Out,” and welfare reform proved to be more than local cul-

turn to our creative communities to give us a sense of vision

tural institutions could counter. Even with enlightened stud-

and possibility.

New York Reimagined  29

3 Leading Institutional Change New Thinking about Mission, Values, and Purpose Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

This conversation between Jesse Rosen, president and CEO of

pandemic did was force us to understand a few really prom-

the League of American Orchestras, and Daniel Weiss, president

ising signs about the future.

and CEO of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, was conducted

Musicians, who in the orchestral environment are part

over Zoom in September 2020. An earlier conversation that

of a collective, working together under pretty narrowly de-

inspired this piece appeared in the Spring 2020 issue of Sym-

fined roles, timetables, and authority, showed new individual

phony, the magazine of the League of American Orchestras.

agency. At the outset of the lockdowns, musicians were im-

Daniel Weiss: Our comments inevitably will be informed by the way the world has changed in 2020. In that context, I would like to start off by asking you, from where you sit as an institutional leader, How do you see changes in the audiences we serve? And do you think we’re meeting those needs? What I’m really getting at is, How do we define the public interest in light of how the world has changed?

Jesse Rosen: The orchestra field has been behind the curve in creating a place for itself in the digital world. What the

30

mediately creating online content. They put out an enormous body of material that showed themselves in really different ways and gave the public a look into their lives and the nature of artistry from a very different perspective. I don’t think it spells the end of live performance. But it does reveal that there is enormous potential in tapping into the creativity of musicians and providing platforms for them to lead—which in turn creates a new kind of engagement with the public. On a screen, you see musicians in their homes, as 360-​ degree individuals in the clothing they happen to be wearing.

They show up in a very different way than we see them in

the political disruption resulting from polarizing presiden-

the concert hall. The promise here is new content developed

tial leadership followed by a difficult transfer of power. Yet,

especially for digital creation and distribution, as opposed

paradoxically, music and the arts bring people together in

to simply using the internet as a place to broadcast existing

ways that may be more important than in the past. Do you

audiovisual material. That’s one of the creative upsides of

see evidence in your world of increased audience engage-

the pandemic, serving as a springboard for audience engage-

ment or new audiences because of a need to have that kind

ment and evolving the orchestra experience.

of experience?

DW: In the art museum world, I’ve also seen an initial reluctance to use virtual technologies. Both in the world of music and in the world of the fine arts, we celebrate the real thing, the immediacy, the access to the creative act or object itself. But as we’ve gotten more experienced in having to live in this virtual world, people have gotten better at using these platforms creatively. Perhaps now that we see what’s possible, we’ll find we’re at the precipice of greater innovation.

JR: If ever there was an experience to live through that demonstrated that you can’t go it alone in this world—either as an individual or an organization or a society or a nation— this is the experience. It summons all of us to embrace that awareness and do our work in a way that is far more cognizant of it.

JR: Yes, I do. Which gets to the question of public interest and also mission. Orchestra missions for decades were about, “We are the most excellent orchestra, playing the greatest music ever written for the largest number of people.” All references were to yourself. When I became CEO of the League of American Orchestras, I read an article by the museum scholar Stephen E. Weil that spoke about “from being about something to being for somebody.” That phrase always struck me as a powerful way to frame the shift that has been taking place. We were about ourselves, about the music, about how good we were. Our excellence and quality were the defining attributes of what we stood for. Weil’s frame asserted that it’s not enough. You have to be for something greater, for somebody, for people. It was a shift from a completely inward-facing ethos about the

DW: On the one hand, we’re socially isolated and facing a

work to a more outward-facing one, addressing questions of

constellation of problems, any one of which would be era-­

public value and public interest.

defining. There is the pandemic and the economic downturn

About ten years ago, the League did a public perception

associated with it. There is the national reckoning on racial

survey. We asked policy makers, academics, and other influ-

justice and all the social unrest that has been simmering in

entials about their perception of orchestras. Orchestras got

our society for more than two centuries. And then there is

very high marks on a lot of things. But what we scored really

Leading Institutional Change  31

low on was serving a broad cross-section of the community.

is pretty forbidding. To many people, it imposes a kind of

It was certainly true. Frankly, to serve a big cross-section was

engagement that is appropriate for some circumstances but

never a goal.

not for a lot of others. To get out of the concert hall certainly

That began to change about fifteen or so years ago. The

has been a big thrust in the orchestra community for some

League certainly brought forward that information about

years now. When we did a survey of community engagement

perception but also about the need to prioritize public value.

activity, something like 85 percent is occurring in venues out-

DW: Perhaps this is an oversimplification, but years ago I would have identified the mission of an orchestra as to play a repertoire brilliantly, to create magnificent music. Then, whoever’s interested will hear it, and people will come. But the mission was to create the work of art. Now, it is to connect, to bring music to people so it can enrich their lives and make their overall engagement with music more substantive.

side the concert hall.1 Repertoire is probably one element that hasn’t really moved enough. The reason is a combination of the business issue of audience preference for more traditional, familiar repertoire and the lack of desire to take risks on presenting repertoire that may be unfamiliar or challenging to orchestras.

If the mission is shifting, then you’re thinking about reper-

DW: Do you worry that if we move from a mission of pro-

toire, you’re thinking about venues, you’re thinking about

ducing music people can come and appreciate or not, or

what you can modify to be more audience-focused than

filling our museum with works of art we decide are master-

music-focused.

pieces and people can come or not, we might add risk about

JR: That’s a great summation and distillation. You might also say that we’re going from a more transactional way of doing our work to a more relational one. In the period when audience attendance and revenue were strong, and there was a

maintaining standards if we shift to a mind-set of public engagement. Where is the discernment that the leaders of the orchestra, or the leaders of the museum, bring through scholarship and expertise? Is there a line you worry about?

good match of supply and demand of product, people didn’t

JR: For decades, people talked about it in a very unhelpful

ask, “Why does this matter?” “What’s the goal?” and “What

way—which was to assert that these were opposing ideas,

are we here for?”

that engagement with community and adherence to high

Now, there are a lot of experiments taking place in

standards and excellence in quality were oppositional and

orchestras, which are beginning to play with the possibili-

that any effort to engage with the community was, by defini-

ties for connecting people, for being a bridge across differ-

tion, a lowering of standards, introducing nonmusical criteria

ences. Much of it is venue-based. The traditional concert hall

to orchestra priorities.

32  Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

A perfect marriage of these two ideas about excellence

To me, that exchange says it all. It’s not an argument

and engagement is captured by a meeting I had with musi-

against having good acoustics and a great concert hall. But it

cians in the Louisiana Philharmonic right before a concert.

is an argument for rethinking what excellence and quality are

They had been out of their concert hall for four years because

all about and what it takes to achieve them.

of Hurricane Katrina; the Mahalia Jackson Theater was seriously flooded and damaged. For four years, they performed in churches and community centers. So we have this little visit backstage, where they were playing in a church. It was about two weeks before they were going back into their concert hall, with repairs just about completed. I said, “You must be feeling really good about going back.” And they said, “Well, it’s okay.” And I said, “What do you mean, it’s just okay? I would imagine you’d be thrilled.” “As a matter of fact,” they said, “we actually liked the years we spent playing in all these churches and schools.” Intentionally provocative, I said, “How could you possibly like it? The acoustics are terrible, the sight lines poor, the chairs are hard.” They replied, “First of all, when we couldn’t see, we lis-

DW: In some ways, one might argue that serious music and orchestras have been stodgy in the way they think about what they do and who they serve. And in some ways, high culture has been that way across the board. At The Met, for example, until fairly recently there was no sign outside the museum saying what the building is. The idea was, “If you don’t know, you probably shouldn’t be here”—even though at the same time they were saying, “We’re here for everyone.” Sometimes accidents in the moment can help us learn something we never anticipated, like what you described happened after Hurricane Katrina. It makes me wonder, in this moment when we’re seeing so much change, what will the arts be like? And how will they be different with regard to whom they serve and how they deliver their mission?

tened much harder than we ever listened before. And when

JR: Until now, for the most part, we’ve thought of these

we couldn’t hear, we relied on eye contact and physical ges-

issues and challenges as problems to be solved, to get out of

tures to sustain the ensemble. We got better as an ensem-

the way, so we can get back to doing what we do—playing

ble from playing in these conditions.” Then they added,

our concerts and putting on our exhibitions. But if you start

“But the main thing that made us play better was that we

from the idea that the work of the arts is to engage with

could see the faces of the audience while we were playing.

these issues, these dilemmas, these paradoxes, and enor-

And we could see that we were making a difference—and

mous challenges—that’s the richness of the work and where

that inspired us. We played better than we’d ever been

there’s the most creative juice today.

playing before.”

Leading Institutional Change  33

DW: What’s happening in this moment is that there is some-

watched on social media, created a moment of breathtak-

thing close to complete consensus that our missions need

ing urgency.

to evolve in a very thoughtful way: in the musical world, as

At The Met, we experienced a universal demand that we

you described it, from the music to the audience, and, in the

do more, that we acknowledge we haven’t taken racism as

fine arts world, in the museum world, we’re moving far from

seriously as we should, and that there is a profound injus-

a conventional view of what collecting and exhibiting art

tice in our society we have ignored for two centuries. Even

are about to engaging audiences in ways that connect them

more than in the 1960s and the civil rights movement, the

more directly to their own experience, to their own desire

intensity of this moment and the range of people it affected,

to learn—and less about what we need them to know to be

from trustees to our custodial staff, everyone wanted to see

considered cultured people.

us become a different kind of institution—right now.

As we’ve lived through this period of rapid change, I find

I found it more than a little daunting, since institutions

that at The Met, our trustees, curators, educators, everyone

like the Metropolitan Museum of Art are not designed to

wants to see that. Very often when one has great crises, there

change direction on a dime. We are by definition perpetual

is also a huge opportunity. Think about how many things

institutions that are supposed to endure forever. Therefore,

changed in the world after the Second World War. That’s not

change is usually incremental, thoughtful, and deliberate. In

why we went into the war. But when we came out of it, the

this case, the expectation was that we were going to do some

world was never to be the same. And I wonder if that’s some-

serious work right now to make The Met different. My chal-

thing we’re facing now.

lenge as leader was to interpret that mandate in a way that

JR: Is there any particular issue or “aha moment” where you felt the museum wrestled in a new way that really resonated and rippled through the organization?

was consistent with our values, our history, but also our need to change. What does that change look like in terms of collection development, exhibition planning, who we hire, how we pay them, what kind of community we want to create,

DW: My answer is likely the same many people face who

what kind of shared governance models we want to build, so

work within institutions. It has to do with the way the

that the work we do together would permeate the institu-

world shifted on its axis after the George Floyd killing, not-

tion from top to bottom?

withstanding the fact that every thoughtful person knows that racism—explicit and invidious—has been an ongoing presence in this country throughout our history. Somehow that cold-blooded lynching, which the entire country

34  Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

Indeed, that is what’s happening. In my career, I’ve never seen anything like it.

JR: The League has been very outspoken and engaged for

opportunity to keep staying in this very difficult conversa-

a number of years around diversity. The theme of our 2016

tion about defining the work, why it matters, and how we’re

national conference was “The Richness of Difference.” The

going to do it.

overarching idea was that diversity was a good thing, that

It was not a question of who’s in charge but of arriving at

everything is better because of it. It’s a very different idea

a decision with all the relevant voices around the table. We

from antiracism. The murder of George Floyd pointed up the

had a board with a number of African American musicians

stark difference between being an advocate for diversity and

and administrators whose lived experience in orchestras far

confronting racism.

exceeded that of our staff. Those were voices we had to be

It wasn’t as if we didn’t know racism existed. But it was

listening to very closely.

not frankly part of the League’s nomenclature and the way

We spent almost nine months working on how to address

we framed issues around diversity. Inside the League, the

racism, during which we put together this statement and

murder triggered a series of very tough conversations about

decided what actions we must take. We get to the big meet-

racism and the history of racism in the field. These proved

ing at the end of June to approve the statement. The meet-

to be extraordinary learning experiences for us as a staff

ing opens, and the chair of our diversity committee says,

and board, culminating in, among other things, an article

“Okay, you’ve all seen this before. We’ve been discussing it

we had commissioned that looked at the history of racism

for months, and hopefully we will sign off on it today.”

in the orchestra field and its impact. Together with a state-

But we have two relatively new board members, who say

ment apologizing for the racism in which the League and our

right at the outset, “We don’t see ourselves in this. We’re not

membership were complicit, it set forth a direction for the

here, and that’s really a problem for us.”

League to go forward.2

I tensed up and prepared for some rough going. But the

There were some tough, tough conversations within

board handled it brilliantly, with such care and attentiveness

the League. But I’m also very proud that the different views

to the issues that had just surfaced. The conversation went

played out in extremely constructive ways. At one point, the

on for about an hour and finally came back around to those

board and staff were opposed to each other about how we

two new board members saying, “We can sign on to this. This

should address racism in the field. And there was a period

makes sense to us.”

when the staff kept saying to me, “Who is in charge? Why is the board so involved?” I told them that there was a legitimate difference of views—that’s why we have a board—and that we had an

It wasn’t because they were convinced that the issues they raised had been adequately resolved. Rather, I think they felt they had been listened to, and that it wasn’t the end of the journey.

Leading Institutional Change  35

DW: It does raise a really interesting question about shared

porate boards do. Maximizing shareholder value—it’s not

governance. Boards are not management; they’re differ-

that that’s easy to do as a board member, but you know what

ent. You have a job, and the board has a job. In moments

you’re looking for. And you know what kind of objective

of challenge and difficulty, especially when there’s so much

measures of performance you’re evaluating in the leadership.

ambiguity and uncertainty in the world, that kind of shared

In a mission-driven institution, it’s much more ambiguous.

governance can be a very powerful mechanism for thought-

That’s why it’s so important that there be real clarity

ful deliberation and better decision-making. But in my expe-

about two things. One is, What really is the mission of the

rience, it’s also important that there’s some clarity about

Metropolitan Museum of Art or the League of American

who’s responsible for what. We can all identify stories where

Orchestras or Lincoln Center or New York University? What

boards have lost their way because of what they take on in a

is it we’re trying to do? As we have discussed, the idea that

moment of crisis—they know better than the management,

creating great music is not exactly the same mission as serv-

they have more experience, they’re going to tell people what

ing audiences and connecting them to great music. So one

to do.

objective is being really clear about what that mission is. The

Part of the art of effective leadership at mission-driven

second factor that allows boards to be effective is every-

institutions like ours is to harness the power of the board. To

one understanding more clearly the role of governance as

have the kind of discussion you described is really meaning-

opposed to management.

ful, when all voices are heard.

JR: I’ve always felt really lucky about our board, because they are incredibly thoughtful and also very aware of where the lines are. And they tend not to cross them. But I share the concern. I also don’t know that there’s a quick, easy remedy or fix, except to say that such tensions speak to the centrality of a good, strong governance practice, and some clarity around who you want on the board and what you want them there for and what the culture of the board is. The culture of the board is probably the most determinative aspect.

JR: In the orchestra field, one of the challenges around clarity of mission is that within the institution you have multiple constituents who don’t all share the same idea of what business you’re in. Often the definition is the business of putting on concerts, which is a very different business from serving your community through musical experiences. The work of alignment is really, really crucial when you have many different stakeholders within your organization who have to be paid attention to and be part of the deliberative process. I have been a fan of the Harvard education scholar Dick Chait

DW: I think you’re right. Boards—nonprofit, mission-driven

and his view that boards need to be involved in the genera-

boards—have a more ambiguous set of objectives than cor-

tive work of the organization.

36  Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

So the questions we’re asking ourselves in this conver-

institutions toward the more community-based ones, those

sation are questions for boards. To me, these are govern-

serving marginalized communities. For a long time, I was very

ing questions, because they are essentially about, Who are

defensive about that and found myself planting the flag for

we? What are we for? How will we act on the answers to

orchestras and the art form we represent. I don’t feel quite the

these questions?

same anymore, partly because of the conversations around

DW: Stepping back a bit from our immediate experience and looking at the larger world, how do we understand this seismic moment for the arts beyond the world of orchestral music? What do you think is going to happen in light of the challenges and opportunities before us? What I mean is, I’m 100 percent sure that the Metropolitan Museum of Art is going to be fine. The cultural world may be greatly diminished, but the Metropolitan Museum of Art is a strong, resilient place with vast resources. But I do not have confidence that 70 percent of cultural organizations in New York City alone, which collectively make this city what it is, will be okay. We will certainly have Lincoln Center, Carnegie Hall, and The Met, but what about everybody else? And are these smaller organizations going to be lost, requiring that they start all over again after this moment has passed?

racism and privilege and my coming to recognize that we’re able to do what we do as big institutions and Western-canon institutions because of our history and connection to wealth and political power—and a lot of that is derived from being predominantly white institutions. When we go about our business as the League, we have so many ingrained ways of doing things. I was thinking about a position we filled a couple of years ago, really quickly. We needed a new marketing director, and our VP for communications asked if I had any ideas. I said, “Yes, call this person, and he’ll tell you who we should get.” She made the call, we interviewed the person he recommended, we hired her, and she’s fabulous. And for years I prided myself on having a network: “I know who to call. Isn’t that great?” Well, the rest of the world says, “No, that really isn’t great, because we’re not in your network. The only people in your

JR: It’s hard not to think about this without getting into the

network are people you already know.” So much of our

questions of the relationship between our large institutions,

work is conducted that way, surrounded by who and what

which are to some degree able to withstand this type of

we know and our previous experience. I do think, to your

trauma, and the rest of the arts community, particularly the

question, that we need to use our position as established

part represented by people of color and institutions that are

organizations to ensure and support the rest of the arts

carrying forward their work.

community, which has been passed over by the institutional

We’ve been seeing an ongoing shift in institutional philanthropy, away from the traditional, Western-canon-based

funders, by the local funders, and so on. We’re in a position to do that, and I think it needs to be a role for us.

Leading Institutional Change  37

DW: What is so encouraging is that many organizations that

Frankly, the world is pushing too hard on our institutions

have the capacity to do just that—the Ford, Mellon, and

for those old views to stay in place when they just don’t work.

Rockefeller Foundations, for example—have turned on their

Leadership in orchestra now accepts Ron Heifetz’s frame-

axis and are redeploying their endowments in ways that are

work: the notion of distinguishing between technical chal-

responsive to this very moment. They’re being extremely

lenges and adaptive challenges [Heifetz founded the Center

proactive in putting resources in the hands of smaller organi-

for Public Leadership at the Harvard Kennedy School]. For

zations that are facing this existential threat and that without

decades, orchestras saw only technical answers to problems,

those resources will surely fail. The Ford Foundation disperses

such as the idea of dealing with a decline in attendance by

over $500 million a year. Under Darren Walker’s leadership,

improving your marketing practice and changing your mix

Ford has increased the amount of money they’re going to be

of outlets and playing around with pricing. All of these are

dispersing over the next couple of years in order to get it in

important technical adjustments that can make some differ-

the hands of people who need it.

ence. But they neglect the larger picture of what’s going on in

JR: I think big symphony orchestras should be doing this work as well.

DW: How would you say the role of leadership is evolving today, in terms of what you do, how you think about it, and where it is headed?

the society and culture. Getting a bigger piece of a shrinking pie is not a long-term strategy. For many years, we celebrated the expertise of marketing and fundraising and negotiating durable labor agreements and choosing a good music director. But with the massive societal upheavals going on, doing that work and doing it well—which is no small task and still necessary—is really not

JR: That’s a great question. And the answer is, unequivocally,

up to the challenge at hand. One CEO of an orchestra said

yes, there’s been huge, huge change in the orchestra commu-

to me recently, “I think I’m going to be judged by how well

nity. We were never quite in the forefront of how the world is

I navigate my organization through issues of racial equity,

changing. We hung on to the command-and-control model

and nothing in my experience has prepared me to do this

for too long. The essence of orchestra is the act of making

work successfully.”

music together in an ensemble. You can’t imagine a more

There’s a recognition that the leadership job is more than

authoritarian, hierarchical model, with a conductor / music

executing the functional work of the institution. In fact, begin

director standing in front and waving their arms at everyone,

with acknowledging you don’t have all the answers, and

telling them what to do, and making sure they know when

that’s okay—and it’s okay to say it out loud. To be vulnerable

they get it wrong.

and also to live in that world of ambiguity and uncertainty,

38  Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

leading a process with relevant stakeholders, helping them

say in who we are and what we do, the number of constitu-

together to find their way through some of these dilemmas:

encies we are obligated to contend with to develop a leader-

yes, there’s been a profound shift in leadership in our field.

ship vision is much larger than it once was.

Of course, the leadership is still all white. And not only is it

There was a time when the director of The Met worked

all white, but the number twos in all those big orchestras are

primarily with the curators to determine the agenda. That is

also all white. If there’s going to be a real change, there needs

no longer how we develop our thinking. We certainly work

to be a very big investment in young talent development.

with the experts from the curatorial staff, but we think about the education department, the public, the city of New York,

DW: In my experience in art museums as well as universi-

the schools, global tourism, and what is happening in the

ties, I think one of the leadership challenges is that the pool

artistic world. As these voices have become more numerous

from which leaders are selected is, for the most part, made

and disparate, the challenge of somehow bringing them into

up of content experts. If you want to be a university presi-

harmony to harness their collective power changes the lead-

dent, then you should be an accomplished and recognized

ership role in fundamental ways.

scholar—which has very little to do with what is required for

As we look ahead, we’re going to see an evolution in lead-

the role. But you need to have standing as an academic in

ership because there is increasing recognition that it’s a very

order to be seen as credible.

complex job, requiring a wealth of experience and skills. At

In the art museum world, it’s much the same. People tend

The Met and in universities, too, much greater attention is

to rise to the level of leadership because they’re very good

being given to developing a leadership pipeline than there

at some aspect of what the museum does, curatorial work,

used to be. For curators and other staff who have interest

for the most part—the majority of institutional leaders are

in leadership roles, there are training programs within The

art historians. As the leadership demands become more and

Met and beyond where they can be out in the world learn-

more pressing, they transcend the technical and scholarly

ing more about what leadership looks like in the arts. We

questions. If the issues are mostly technical, then we can have

have a partnership with Columbia University, which pro-

people on our team to solve those problems. If we need a

vides training programs for promising middle- and upper-

good marketing strategy, let’s get a good marketing person.

level managers so that they can be more prepared to take

If we have to balance our budget, let’s get a good CFO. But

on bigger roles.

increasingly, as our institutions evolve to be genuinely and substantively more community oriented, and as communi-

JR: One of the dilemmas that arises in orchestras around this

ties take that pledge seriously and therefore expect to have a

evolving new definition of leadership is executive capacity.

Leading Institutional Change  39

Someone still does need to run the organization while the

The director oversees the collection, the curators, all conser-

top leader is fulfilling this expanded role with an ever-growing

vation work, our publications department, imaging, educa-

set of stakeholders and constituents. In the orchestra field,

tion, and exhibitions. Collectively, these activities bring our

most people who become leaders have done so because they

mission to life. Everything else in the museum is really there

love producing. They love the work of putting great artists

to enable that part of the museum to thrive.

together and mounting performances that succeed or fail,

Everyone in the museum is valued for the professional

and the audience cheers or they boo, and that’s the thrill. So

expertise they bring in their dedication to the institution.

this new role is really different.

We have to work hard to make sure people recognize that,

If you look forward into the future, one of the opportu-

because in museums, curators tend to be like professors in

nities is a redefinition of the executive office so that it has at

universities, where they’re seen as higher-level citizens. It is

least two executives. And one will be charged with this larger

our obligation to make sure everybody understands that

strategic set of issues and outward-facing work. It’s normal

without the entire machine operating well, we don’t func-

in the corporate sector to have a chief operating officer, but

tion at all. Most of us are involved in enabling the curatorial

most orchestras still operate with an executive office with

work, the exhibition work, the collection work. That is why

just one person in it.

we’re here. Even though my purview is the full institution, I

As you were describing the leader now being plugged into the full array of activity of the institution, I’m curious

make sure that the director has the support he needs to do the work that advances our mission.

whether any parts of the institution stand apart as being a

It’s really important that the programmatic part of the

greater priority, of greater relevance, with more centrality to

museum feels complete freedom to do what the staff collec-

the mission, that ought to or will enjoy a different level of

tively believes is the right thing to do, even if it might irritate

attention from the leader and institutional resources.

the mayor or a trustee or result in bad press. Fundamentally, creative, engaged work can be controversial. It often bumps

DW: In that sense, museums are like universities. The core

into established points of view. When you’re doing schol-

mission of a university is to create and disseminate knowl-

arly and creative work within a larger institutional setting

edge and to educate students. The rest of it is enabling. It’s

that inevitably has to live and operate within institutional

the same in the museum. We have a leadership structure

guidelines and the law, then sometimes there is concern that

that supports that claim. As president and CEO, I work with

the independent voice will be muzzled or censored in some

the director, who is a bit like the provost in a university. The

way. So I work very hard with the director to make sure that

director is responsible for what matters most to our mission.

doesn’t happen.

40  Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

It doesn’t mean they can behave irresponsibly. But we don’t ever worry about whether an exhibition is going to

ently, or through incremental resources that allow us to hire additional curators. This you can achieve over time.

offend the governor or whether a donor, for that matter, is

The other concern is whether people are with the pro-

going to like it or not. We have to be accountable to a differ-

gram or not. We have staff members at The Met who follow

ent standard.

at some distance what’s going on all around them; they are

JR: How does what you’ve characterized as leadership values for today—the act of being attentive to a wide set of stakeholders, being focused on the environment, the community, societal change—play out in the ranks of the staff? Do you need different types of curators who share that view, or do your current curators adapt?

not especially alert to the need for change. They are here to do their assigned work, and that’s it. As a leader, I don’t worry about having everyone on board for change. If you’re aiming for unanimous support for your agenda, you’re probably in the wrong business. I look for partners. Are there a sufficient number of staff who believe in the vision we’re trying to realize—which, by the way, we have created in consultation with

DW: Another way of putting it would be, How does the insti-

them? And if we can get 70 percent of our staff to believe

tution evolve to deliver that mission, when either the exper-

that the institution is moving in this direction, and they’re

tise or the willingness might change? Years ago, when I was

willing to throw themselves into it, then the other 30 per-

the dean of Arts and Sciences at Johns Hopkins University,

cent of people—most of whom are doing good work but are

we used to talk about that issue in specific content areas. For

not engaged in the larger issues—will come along. If they are

example, in those days, we had several people in the physics

resistant to meaningful change, they can be marginalized or,

department who were experts in nuclear physics, a field of

if necessary, replaced.

diminishing interest to students and funding agents. But we

Good ideas without ownership and leadership don’t go

couldn’t turn those nuclear physicists into economists or art

anywhere. You need to find partners who are committed

historians. You have to work with what you have.

to the work to drive the ideas. We need the content exper-

So part of what you’re asking is, How does the institution

tise to evolve, and we need a team that believes in making

evolve its skill sets, its knowledge base? If we’re going to start

change. Our job as leaders is to make sure we have the for-

collecting, for example, in an area of art we didn’t collect

mer through effective hiring and fundraising and that we cul-

before—sub-Saharan African art, for example—we need

tivate the latter through leadership and engagement.

curatorial expertise that can help us collect wisely and study effectively. That’s a skill we have to acquire through either

JR: I’ve been reading all about the Philip Guston controversy​

evolution of our staff, so that as people retire we hire differ-

—the postponement of his show at major museums because

Leading Institutional Change  41

some of his paintings decrying racism include depictions of

Within the museum, as in the university, it’s important

hooded Klansmen. If, hypothetically, The Met were on the

for leadership to model that there’s a productive way for us

list of museums scheduled to exhibit his works, what would

to disagree with each other, recognizing that we might make

be your process for deciding what you were going to do?

people a little bit uncomfortable, but in so doing, we’re actually provoking greater learning—and perhaps even our

DW: Well, we’ve faced those kinds of issues before. I would

ability to understand each other. Ultimately, that approach

always convene the people who are closest to the work to

breeds better empathy than insulating yourself from any

hear their thoughts and have a discussion, to try to identify

kind of disagreement. It might mean that people are going

what the central issues are, what are the stakes. If the out-

to be upset, even if that is not our intention. But we’re not in

come of that discussion is that if we mount this exhibition,

the business of keeping people from being upset. That’s not

it’s going to irritate people, it might offend people, I’m not

why we’re here. We’re not a sanatorium; we are an educa-

terribly concerned about that.

tional institution and a cultural resource.

The real question is, Does the show do justice to the set of questions we want to address? Is it being mounted in a

JR: How would your mission inform that process?

way that is respectful of the situation and transparent in its

DW: Mission can be complicated, because people might

objectives? We live in a society that is almost paralyzed with

have different views about just what it is. It is very import-

fear that somebody is going to offend. It has so disrupted

ant for leadership to be able to articulate the mission in an

our ability to engage in open and productive debate. We

elevator speech, in a few sentences. For me at The Met, it is

certainly see that at the government level, where legislators

about collecting, studying, and preserving art of the highest

have failed completely and utterly in working productively

importance across all cultures in time and presenting that

across the aisle and listening respectfully to each other. And

material in a way that is intellectually honest and aestheti-

it has certainly permeated higher education. Any honest uni-

cally engaging. In that context, we would ask ourselves with

versity leader would tell you that this is their greatest worry.

regard to the Philip Guston show, “Why did we sign up to

They operate in an environment where students and even

do it in the first place, and why are we second-guessing our-

some faculty call for safe spaces. They don’t know how to

selves now? Do we have new information? Is there something

debate; they have lost the ability to engage and disagree. If

we’re finding out that challenges our belief that the exhibit

one doesn’t have the correct point of view about something,

delivers our mission?”

they run the risk of being “canceled” or some other kind of ostracism.

42  Jesse Rosen and Daniel Weiss

Of course, this does not mean we should ignore political consequences. I don’t mean to suggest that I am indifferent

to that concern, but these questions need to be considered

JR: We could talk about this forever, but I think that what

within a much larger and more important set of issues. Ulti-

you just said is a good summary and explanation for why this

mately, institutions like The Met do their best when they

is the conversation we’re having at this juncture.

think of themselves as independent of any one kind of constraint. That is, our obligation is to do our work as well as we can and be accountable for it.

DW: Well, thank you, Jesse Rosen. It was fun to talk to you. JR: It’s been great. We’ll have to do it again.

Leading Institutional Change  43

4 The Arts Today Karol Berger

In the mid-1970s, I received a valuable lesson from the East

thanks to their diligence, I did not manage to smuggle any-

German police when crossing the border between West and

thing in, but I did come away from the experience with an

East Berlin. At the time, I was a recent exile from Poland,

imperfect but useful rule of thumb: when you think that art

unable to reenter my native country but, thanks to my

is inessential and useless, remind yourself that some police-

freshly minted US passport, able to cross most other borders

men think otherwise.

more or less freely. My older brother, however, was kept in

I have been lucky to have lived most of my life in what

the country of our birth against his will, and East Germany

might be called, with a bow to Anna Akhmatova, “the veg-

was the only foreign territory he would be allowed to visit.

etarian years.” A member of the much-less-lucky generation

East Berlin was thus a natural meeting place for us. Natural,

of my parents, Primo Levi, describes how in Auschwitz the

too, was the pedantic and thorough interrogation and search

recollection of a few lines from Dante, the words of Ulysses

I’d be subjected to at each crossing by the diligent function-

to his crew (“Consider your origin: you were not made to live

aries of the German Democratic Republic. But—and here

as brutes, but to pursue virtue and knowledge”) afforded

comes the lesson—I was struck by their complete lack of

him a rare moment of exaltation: “As if I also was hearing it

interest in the usual objects that intrigue custom authorities

for the first time: like the blast of a trumpet, like the voice of

elsewhere: currencies, drugs, alcohol, etc. No, the only items

God. For a moment I forget who I am and where I am.”1 Levi

my interrogators were interested in were books and period-

was too sober a participant not to observe that much of the

icals, in particular, volumes of poetry and imaginative prose

time a cultivated man was at a disadvantage in the Hobbes-

published in the West that I might want to smuggle in. Well,

ian world of forced labor and barrack life. And yet, he says,

44

the recollected verses “made it possible for me to re-establish

In this broader sense, a church or a palace does represent or,

a link with the past, saving it from oblivion and reinforcing

more generally, evoke an imaginary world, a way of life, beliefs,

my identity.”2 And here we get a second, more authoritative,

values, and preferences of a religious community or a court.

rule of thumb: when you think that art is inessential and

When we visit them, they bring to our minds an imaginary

useless, remind yourself that some survivors think it saved

human world and tell us what mattered to these people. An

them. Friedrich Nietzsche thought that some art, the art he

instrumental minuet evokes a world of aristocratic manners

approved of, would support the ascending, creative life. But

different from the middle-class ambience of a contredanse

Nietzsche was as lucky as we are: he, too, lived in vegetarian

or a rough German peasant dance, as Mozart knew when he

times. Levi reminds us that, when a new deluge comes, art

combined all three in the ballroom scene of the first finale

may be a matter of more than life enhancement; it may be a

of Don Giovanni to show how the harmonious coexistence

matter of survival.

of different estates is disrupted by aristocratic license. The progression from the dark, foreboding minor to the bright,

1

triumphant major in Beethoven’s Fifth and Ninth Symphonies embodies the same utopian hope, the same “solar myth

Art represents fictional worlds—that is, fictional human

of the Revolution” (Jean Starobinski’s phrase) we also know

beings acting and suffering within fictional settings and cir-

from The Magic Flute and Fidelio, a sense of human prospects

cumstances. This bald definition requires a comment or two

very different from the one embodied in the valedictory, pes-

to be at all meaningful and useful. It fits the core cases of

simistic symphonic finales of Brahms and Mahler, the music

traditional sculpture, painting, and literature but does not

that “took back the Ninth,” as Adrian Leverkühn put it. And

seem to fit much else.

there can be little doubt that, no matter how we charac-

“Represents” is a particularly provocative word here.

terize them, the expressive universes of a Rothko and a Pol-

Don’t we know that not all art is representational? Are we

lock painting differ as much from each other as an intensely

not familiar with architecture, instrumental music, abstract

inward contemplation differs from a violent outward action.

painting, and other historically established kinds of art with

What matters, in short, is not the narrowly conceived repre-

no obviously representational character? Sure, but how

sentation but art’s ability to evoke imaginary worlds.

abstract are all these kinds of abstract art, really? Architec-

That these imaginary worlds are predominantly fictional

ture is certainly not representational in the narrow sense of

rather than actual is clear: otherwise, there would be no dif-

the term. Nevertheless, a building embodies the values, pref-

ference between art and history. More controversial will be

erences, way of life of those who commissioned and used it.

the presence of human beings in my initial definition. The

The Arts Today  45

examples just mentioned, however, can be helpful also here. What is at stake is not the literal presence of a human figure

2

in the presented world: clearly, not all painting is figurative,

A philosopher I am rather fond of, Leszek Kołakowski, once

to say nothing of architecture or music. All that matters is

wrote, “We learn history not in order to know how to act or

that human presence be somehow, however tenuously,

how to succeed, but in order to know who we are.”3 Now,

evoked, as it is when everyday domesticity is transfigured in

what strikes me when I read this sentence is that a similar

a Chardin still life or when the attitude of grateful prayer is

point may be made about the arts. They, too, are there not in

embodied in the Molto adagio of Beethoven’s String Quar-

order to tell us how to act or how to succeed (if they do that,

tet Op. 132.

they quickly degenerate into propaganda) but in order to let

All that matters, in short, is art’s ability to bring to mind

us know who we are and who we might be.

imaginary worlds, since all conceivable worlds, heaven and

The point of the fictional representations of art is to pro-

hell included, are at least potentially human, whether actually

vide us with a repertoire of self-images that might help us

populated or not. (Even visions of divinity imply the humans

understand who we are (as well as who we are not) and who

that have these visions.) The predominantly fictional char-

we might become (as well as who we should not become), to

acter of those worlds is what distinguishes art from history

decide not how we should act in specific circumstances but

(predominantly, because nothing prevents a novelist from

how in general we should, and should not, live our lives. The

setting his work in Moscow or making Napoleon appear in

representations of history or social sciences are helpful in this

it). And what distinguishes art from philosophy is its being

way, too, but they are not sufficient, since they tell us only

constituted predominantly of particular images—that is,

about what is, or was, not about what might be. Art allows

imagined sensuous experiences rather than arguments, that

us to imagine ourselves as different; it is our principal tool of

is, general concepts and relations among them (again, pre-

not just self-knowledge but also self-invention.

dominantly, because nothing prevents a novelist from mak-

The arguments of moral and political philosophy may

ing the narrator speculate about the nature of history or a

serve this purpose of self-overcoming and self-invention,

philosopher from telling stories about the struggle of master

too. To be sure, their main job is to make explicit the norms

and slave).

that govern our already ongoing practices; philosophy “is its

The core content of art is constituted by fictional human beings, acting or expressing their states of mind.

own time comprehended in thoughts,” as Hegel claimed.4 But in making such norms explicit, one also opens the way to the possibility that contradictions will be discovered among them, that they will be found wanting in some ways; that is,

46  Karol Berger

one makes it possible to criticize and hence also to improve

phy has replaced, or ever might replace, art as the tool of

them. Above all, one opens the way to the possibility that

human self-invention. I will not rehearse all of them here but

a contradiction will be discovered between our norms and

mention two.

our practices and that making such contradictions explicit

First, observe that while philosophy presents arguments

will force us to revise either our norms or, more likely,

on the subject of how to act (whether in private or public

our practices.

matters), art (and history) shows examples of various ways

Since both the representations of art and the arguments

in which one does or should or should not act. Now, if acting

of philosophy may serve the aim of human self-invention, is

well is a matter of the correct application of general prin-

it possible that one of these is redundant, that they unneces-

ciples to a specific situation, this is never a simple matter.

sarily duplicate each other’s efforts? In a way, Hegel thought

Gadamer correctly noted that “moral concepts are never

so when he suggested that for us moderns, as opposed to

given as a whole or determined in a normatively univocal

the ancients, “art, considered in its highest vocation [that is,

way. .  .  . Judgment is necessary in order to make a correct

as a ‘mode of bringing to our minds the true interests of the

evaluation of the concrete instance.” When a judge evaluates

spirit’], is and remains . . . a thing of the past.”5 Ancient Greeks

the concrete case in the light of a general principle, he “not

could still adequately capture what mattered most to them,

only applies law in concreto, but contributes through his

their conception of who they were and what they wanted, of

very judgment to developing the law. . . . Like law, morality is

how they should live their lives, in sensuous images of their

constantly developed through the fecundity of the individ-

art (of their myths and, above all, their sculpture). For us

ual case.”7 Thus, whether in private morality or in public law,

modern citizens of European states, this is no longer possi-

there can be no question of the replacement of individual

ble. The beliefs on the basis of which we judge and act can

examples by general rules and hence of art and history by

no longer be captured by images. Rather, they need to be

philosophy and law. Representations cannot be replaced by

expressed by means of concepts and arguments. General

arguments if we are to have anything to argue about. And

principles (“universal forms, laws, duties, rights, maxims”),

if we want to educate the skills of acting and feeling aright,

and not particular images, tell us who we are and how we

examples are what we need more than rules. Examples are

should live, because in our world, “the essence of ethical life,

also needed if we are to learn how to listen to new, unfamiliar

i.e., justice and its rational freedom, has already been worked

voices, since skills and virtues of this sort can be learned only

out and preserved in the form of a legal regime.”6

by imitating models.

There are a number of reasons why Hegel was proba-

Second, Hegel, usually a most acute commentator on

bly at least partly wrong when he claimed that philoso-

how his (and, yes, our) age differed from the past, in one

The Arts Today  47

respect misjudged the modern situation of art. As our main

them, not that they will dry out. Entertainment industries,

purveyors of self-images and self-understandings, secular

in particular, film, television, and popular music, are flourish-

art and philosophy have traditionally had an important

ing, and not even governmentally sponsored industrial pol-

competitor: religion. Religion, no less than art and philoso-

icies are likely to suffocate them. Hegel, in any case, did not

phy, has made it its job to tell us who we are and what we

have the future of amusement in mind, since the fictional

should want, to provide us with a sense of individual and

representations whose possible end he considered were only

communal identity and direction. The gradual erosion of

those that brought “to our minds the true interests of the

the exclusive and unique authority of religion in this arena,

spirit”—that is, only “art, considered in its highest vocation.”

first internally by the Reformation and then externally by the

The worry, in short, is not that the muses will depart alto-

Enlightenment, its becoming no more than simply one of the

gether but rather that amusement (a necessary and not in

voices in the conversation of humankind on what matters

itself reprehensible thing) will crowd out any art aiming at

to us most, is surely one of the centrally defining features of

edification, at making us see who we are and who we might

modernity. And just as surely, this process left more rather

become, rather than making us forget it all.

than less room for both art and philosophy to participate in the shaping of our identities and inventing our future.

What, then, is the current situation of “art, considered in its highest vocation”?

In this respect, Nietzsche was more perceptive than Hegel

To understand what is happening to European art today,

when he observed, “Art raises its head where the religions

you need to understand what happened to it in the late eigh-

relax their hold.”8

teenth century. There is nothing surprising in this: to understand what is happening to Europe today, you also need to

3

understand what happened to it in the late eighteenth century. The epic global struggle between the liberal and illiberal

But if Hegel’s thesis of the end of art is flawed, the specter he

forms of democracy that provided the short twentieth cen-

raised, the possibility of the muses’ farewell, is an issue worth

tury, from 1914 to 1989, with its main story line and that, after

considering. One should, however, be clear about what this

a quarter-century armistice, seems to have reignited again

possibility actually entails. We surely need not worry today

was rehearsed for the first time locally in Paris during the

that art tout court—that is, the whole domain of fictional

Revolution. Similarly, the main problems and choices facing

representations—will disappear. Quite the contrary. We

artists today first began to emerge before 1800.

are all now inundated by fictional representations to such

Until the late eighteenth century, the architects, sculp-

an extent that the danger is rather that we might drown in

tors, painters, composers, and poets of postclassical Europe

48  Karol Berger

by and large did not have to worry about the subject mat-

the task of inventing new subjects themselves. It was no lon-

ter of their next work. The architects provided designs for

ger enough for a genius to be ingenious; one had also to be

the churches and palaces commissioned of them, and the

original. An artisan became an artist, and an artist became an

sculptors and painters filled these churches and palaces with

intellectual. The slowly emerging modern, liberal-­egalitarian

representations derived from the rich repertoire of stories

society could no longer be satisfied with self-images and

and images transmitted primarily in the Christian tradition

self-understandings provided exclusively by the tradition

and secondarily also in the pre-Christian, classical tradition

and was busy establishing a newly autonomous space for art,

of Greco-Roman mythology and history. The composers

a space in which artists, together with the rest of the intel-

provided the music, most of it vocal—that is, married to a

lectual class, could debate individual and collective identities

text that unambiguously spelled out its content—for the

and directions now up for grabs, a market in which newly

sacred and secular ceremonies of the church and state, with

autonomous artists would offer to the disoriented public

the subjects, again, derived primarily from the Christian and

in need of new signposts and new mirrors wares of their

secondarily also from the classical traditions. Even the poets,

own invention.

although purveyors of by far the least expensive products

It was in those two heady decades before 1800 that

and hence endowed with much-greater freedom of choice

European music went through a profound transformation,

as to their subject matter, clung to a considerable degree to

a veritable paradigm change. From the late sixteenth to the

the Christian-classical repertoire of narratives, images, and

late eighteenth century, music was content to be predom-

motifs. In brief, until the late eighteenth century, the content

inantly a mimetic art, devoted—like its older sisters in this

of European art was predominantly religious, with the Chris-

role, poetry and painting—to representation, in music’s

tian tradition supplemented by Greco-Roman mythology

case, the representation of the passions of the speaking or,

and history. The job of the artist was not the invention of

rather, singing human subject. Music was for the most part

new subject matter. It was, rather, the ingenious manipula-

vocal, that is, insolubly linked to poetry, and its function was

tion of the traditional subject matter, the invention of new

to amplify passionate speech and thus to make an operatic

ways of presenting it.

audience aware of how it felt to be an abandoned Ariadne

While this job description began to be revised already in

or a bereaved and pleading Orpheus and to instruct church

the sixteenth century, it was only in the late eighteenth cen-

worshipers how they should feel on hearing “Et resurrexit

tury that the revision was complete and there for everyone

tertia die.” The explosion of symphonies, string quartets,

to see. Artists were now saddled not just with the task of

and piano sonatas, of instrumental music of the highest

inventing new ways of presenting their subjects but also with

aesthetic rank, structural complexity, expressive depth, and

The Arts Today  49

interest in Vienna from, roughly, the 1780s through the 1820s,

In Mallarmé’s poésie pure, in Kandinsky’s abstract painting,

the Vienna of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert,

music’s older sisters caught up with her. While surely not

changed all that. The mimetic conception of music could

universal, not even for music (vocal music continued to be

not account for this new repertory. Between 1795 (the date

written and operas continued to be enjoyed, after all), the

of Jean Paul’s Hesperus) and 1819 (when Schopenhauer’s Die

condition of abstraction became the single most character-

Welt als Wille und Vorstellung appeared), North German

istic condition of advanced modern art. It is music’s exem-

Protestant Romantic poets and philosophers answered

plary, pathbreaking role in that process that makes its fate

the challenge coming from the Catholic South and put in

in modernity and its situation today so revealing. Music’s

place a new, more adequate, conception of music. Modern

modern trajectory is, mutatis mutandis, the path of modern

music departed from language and thus abandoned mimesis

art in general.

for abstraction. This, E. T. A. Hoffmann and Schopenhauer

To understand what happened to music in the twenti-

thought, far from impoverishing it, liberated its full potential.

eth century, one needs to keep in mind that throughout the

It became capable of going—as no other medium, and cer-

nineteenth century the new idea of abstraction, incorpo-

tainly not language, could—beyond the surface appearances

rated in the Austro-German symphony, and the older idea of

straight to the essence, of piercing the veil of phenomena

mimesis, incorporated in the Franco-Italian opera, coexisted

and revealing the noumenal truth. Not human passions, not

and interacted in a variety of productive ways. (Think, for

the beauty of the varied surface phenomena, but rather the

instance, of Wagner’s “symphonization” of opera in his late

infinite totality, the sublimity of the metaphysical ground

music dramas or of Liszt’s “mimeticization” of symphonic

of being, inaccessible to language, was the subject matter

music in his symphonic poems; while Wagner gave the oper-

of music. For the first time, a mimetic art transformed itself

atic orchestra an unprecedentedly rich role, Liszt demon-

into an abstract art.

strated that it was possible to endow orchestral music with

But not for the last time. “It is the aim of every art to

a verbal content without introducing a sung text.) But in the

become like music,” noted Schopenhauer in 1814,9 and, with-

late nineteenth century, the significance of abstraction began

out being aware of this private note, Walter Pater echoed

to change. The pragmatist deconstruction of metaphysics

it in 1877: “All art constantly aspires towards the condition

on both sides of the Atlantic at the hands of Nietzsche and

of music.”10 By Pater’s time, the esoteric wisdom of German

James, Heidegger and Dewey, left music without the other,

Romantics became the common coin of aesthetes the world

true, noumenal world that it might reveal behind the veil

over. And indeed, where music went, from mimesis over

of phenomenal appearances. Instead of embodying or dis-

to abstraction, poetry and painting obediently followed.

closing the absolute, it was now seen as nothing more than

50  Karol Berger

itself, a pure sounding form. Deprived of its metaphysical

The combined effect of the modern market’s replacing

pretensions, Romanticism became formalism. (In the case

the premodern forms of ecclesiastical and princely patronage

of music, the formalist interpretation of abstraction was

and of the catastrophic political traumas of the short twen-

introduced—again, exceptionally early—in an 1854 tract by

tieth century was to make the idea of art hermetically insu-

Eduard Hanslick.)

lated from all worldly concerns particularly attractive to a

More importantly, first around 1908 and 1924 but fully

significant portion of the European avant-garde who wished

only after 1945, the Romantic revolution went through an

to escape the trivialities of commercial, Nazi, or socialist-­

unprecedented radicalization. The abstract idea of music was

realist art. At mid-twentieth century, music in the West rad-

now often privileged in art-music circles to such an extent

ically separated into an abstract art speaking to the select

as to make any productive interaction with mimesis quite

few of its own concerns in its own esoteric language and a

impossible. The avant-garde contemptuously left mimesis to

mimetic entertainment offering forgetfulness to the tired

commercial or, worse, political exploitation by popular musi-

multitudes, the latter gloriously vital commercially and more

cians and totalitarian propagandists.

than adequately supported by the market, the former held

That European dictators of the left and right, from Lenin

on life support by the state, which allowed the avant-garde

and Mussolini to Stalin and Hitler, understood that abstract

to combine the comforts enjoyed by its nineteenth-century

art was useless as a tool of mass propaganda was surely a

academic predecessors with the subversive, antibourgeois

factor contributing to the triumph of abstraction and suspi-

self-image of the nineteenth-century bohème.

cion of mimesis among artists who did not want to be politi-

Thus, in an understandable desire to escape commercially

cally exploited, especially after 1945. This new political factor

or politically induced triviality, music and to a greater or lesser

joined the older economic one. Already in the late eighteenth

extent other arts, too, closed themselves off from all non­

century, the new German aesthetics, reacting to the incipient

artistic human concerns so hermetically as to face loss of sig-

commercialization of art, began to note that art “considered

nificance, emptiness. Artists, liberated by the late eighteenth

in its highest vocation” will, under the conditions of a market

century from traditional subject matter and given the task of

economy, lose competition for the paying public to enter-

providing us with new self-images and self-­understandings,

tainment and suggested that, instead of engaging in such

settled by the mid-twentieth century for making art itself

a hopeless competition, art better separate itself as sharply

its own subject matter. Self-absorbed navel gazing took the

as possible from entertainment and pursue its own, higher

place of art “considered in its highest vocation.”

goals. As long as mimesis governed commercially profitable entertainment, it was natural for art to shun it.

The Arts Today  51

4

the shape those lives take depends to a considerable extent on our own free choices: “the right of subjective freedom is

It is in recognizing and predicting this danger that Hegel

the pivotal and focal point in the difference between antiq-

proved himself to be a much more acute observer of moder-

uity and the modern age,” he wrote.12 Unlike our premodern

nity than in his thesis of the end of art. More clearly than

ancestors, for whom to live well meant to play well the roles

any of his contemporaries, Hegel recognized that the recent

assigned to them at birth, we want to script, at least to a cer-

emancipation of music from language promised at the same

tain extent, our own roles and our own life stories, and if we

time both the development of music’s artistic potential

choose traditional scripts, we need to assure ourselves that

to a hitherto unprecedented level of refinement and the

it is we who make this choice. This insistence on the right

increased danger of loss of spiritual significance.11 Today,

of subjective freedom is our glory, but it is also our danger.

one would have to be deaf and blind, as well as completely

For we may insist on this right to such an extent as to be

oblivious to the potential of art “considered in its highest

unable, or unwilling, ever to make a choice, ever to commit

vocation,” not to notice how deeply the muses in their rapt

ourselves to any particular role or script, ever to cash in our

self-absorption have been implicated since the middle of the

abstract subjective right in the objective world. If the right of

past century in the dialectic described by Hegel. The more

subjective freedom is the glory of the moderns, the trap of

art pays attention to itself, the more it focuses on its own

infinite freedom is their danger. The “beautiful soul” making

means, understanding them not as means but as the aim, the

sure that his or her infinite freedom will never get limited by

less room it has for anything else, for any nonartistic human

any commitment to specific practices and institutions and

needs and spiritual concerns.

thus leading a life that is empty and meaningless is a charac-

Moreover, the forces at work in this dialectic run deeper

teristic figure of modernity.

than my story thus far has seemed to suggest. More is in-

It is this dialectic of modern freedom, I would like to

volved here than simply the internal development of the

claim, that is the deepest source of the dialectic of modern

tendencies inherent in art, aided a bit from the outside by

art described earlier. The tendency of modern art toward

political and commercial considerations. I shall take, again, a

self-absorbed abstraction from the world has roots that run

cue from Hegel, specifically from his analysis of how we mod-

deeper than the fear of commercial or political exploita-

erns differ from the ancients.

tion. Modern artists acquired the right to do more than the

Unlike the ancients, Hegel thought, we moderns under-

ingenious manipulation of traditional subjects, the right

stand ourselves to be first and foremost “free subjects”; that

and the duty to invent new subjects, just as modern Euro-

is, we cannot lead meaningful lives unless we believe that

peans acquired the right and the duty to script their own

52  Karol Berger

life stories rather than to play the roles assigned to them by

great ages of art music. (Among the fine arts, it is probably

their circumstances. It would be a folly, it seems to me, to

only architecture that experienced a similar burst of creative

deplore these acquisitions, but it would be equal folly not

vitality at that time.) Between 1981, when he was sixty-eight,

to notice the dangers inherent in them. The emptiness,

and 1992, when he was seventy-nine, Lutosławski created his

sterility, and loss of significance of art at its most radical

Third and Fourth Symphonies, extending the symphonic

perfectly mirrors the emptiness, sterility, and loss of signif-

canon and breathing new life into the ideal of large-scale

icance of the beautiful soul. The task, rather, is to preserve

formal perfection, reinventing the classical form in terms of

the acquisitions of modernity without succumbing to its

refined orchestral-harmonic color. Between 1985, when he

paralyzing temptations.

was sixty-two, and 2001, when he was seventy-eight, Ligeti composed three sets of piano études, poems blending anar-

5

chic slapstick and mechanical terror that constitute the most significant extension of the piano repertoire since Debussy

There was a brief moment roughly in the third quarter of

and join Chopin’s and Debussy’s études at the pinnacle of

the past century when one might have been justified to fear

what has been achieved in this genre. In 1975, the still living

that the end of European music history was at hand—that

and then forty-nine year-old Kurtág began his series of piano

the tradition of art music was running to the ground, stuck

Games, later enriched by the string Signs, Games, and Mes-

in the twin quicksands of self-absorbed, navel-gazing, for-

sages and numerous other miniatures, creating an intimate

malist avant-gardism and simplistic, politically motivated

minimalist diary, breathing new life into the idea of private

populism—and that vitality and creativity were now in the

house music, and reinventing the romantic fragment as if he

arena of Anglo-American and soon global pop.13 Even then,

were a new Schumann, a Schumann who has read Beckett

this pessimism was hardly justified, since significant music

and heard Webern. It was a great age of music and an age of

continued to be written on both sides of the elitist-­populist

old masters.

divide: think of the work of Messiaen or of Shostakovich’s string quartets.

A historiography that focuses on social trends rather than individual achievements has a hard time noticing such

But, in any case, this moment is now long past. Some-

developments. In an admirable history of twentieth-cen-

thing truly astonishing and unpredictable happened in the

tury music, Hermann Danuser proposed to divide the com-

last quarter of the century. Several composers, all of fairly

posers of the postwar period into three broad classes: the

advanced age, have come forward with a series of master-

traditionalists, the modernists, and the avant-garde.14 It

pieces that made the late twentieth century into one of the

will be readily seen that the classification depends on how

The Arts Today  53

a composer understands his or her place in music history

working within the art-music tradition and unpredictably

and that it parallels the most basic political options of the

adding to its riches, rather than extending it in one neces-

past century and more—also those dependent on how one

sary and predictable direction. Lutosławski is not ashamed

sees one’s place in history: traditionalists or conservatives

to say, “I owe a great deal to the Viennese classics. Haydn,

want to preserve whatever permanent order they can from

Mozart, and Beethoven have taught me important things

the ravages of incessant change; modernists or progressives

about classical form and about large-form in general. .  .  .

want to improve on the existing order; the revolutionary

There is a very strong desire in me for a closed large-form,

avant-garde wants to abolish the present to make room

and no-one brought it to such perfection as the Viennese

for an entirely different future. If experimental avant-garde

classics.”15 He clearly does not mean to suggest that he wants

(in the third quarter of the century most prominently rep-

to write neoclassical or postmodern symphonies. Similarly,

resented by Cage and some of Stockhausen) wants not so

Ligeti says, “I feel that to revert to the great tradition of the

much to extend the art music tradition but rather to invent

past is tantamount to taking refuge in ‘safe’ music. There is

a new kind of music altogether, our three old masters are

another way of continuing the work of the great masters of

clearly not experimentalists. That they are not traditionalists

the past, composing at the same level as represented, say,

or populists (in the vein of Adams or Adès) is obvious; nei-

by the late Beethoven sonatas, but in a new language, a new

ther are they traditionalists of the postmodern observance,

style.”16 And finally, when an interviewer asks, “What is the

delighting in poly-stylistic allusion and the blending of art

difference between your music and that of the classics from

and popular gestures. Since they avoid traditional idioms,

Haydn to Bartók?” Kurtág answers, “It is not different in any

the label of elitist modernists would fit them best, but this,

way. It is not different but I am less talented than they were.

too, is uncomfortable: unlike some classic modernists, they

I do what I can. I wish it could be as good.”17

are not searching for the next thing, the next necessary

Joseph Brodsky said somewhere that he did not seek the

step that music history is predetermined to make. But then

applause of his contemporaries but rather the approval of

twentieth-century musical modernism came in two flavors,

his predecessors. Seeking the approval of the old masters,

only one of them wedded to the idea of necessary histor-

the new old masters draft new projects of imagination, new,

ical progress: next to Schoenberg and the leading lights of

unprecedented, and inimitable forms of beauty, new and

Darmstadt, there were also Debussy, early Stravinsky, Bartók,

completely individual modulations of sensibility and ways

Messiaen, and others who did not pretend to be making the

of being in the world; they introduce new ways in which to

next predetermined step. Call our three old masters non-

register the enchantment and the horror over what is, as well

progressive modernists. All three see themselves simply as

as the longing for what should be—and these are the only

54  Karol Berger

things that truly matter when it comes to art, the only things

In politics, the tragedy of the twentieth century has

that really make history. Their example provides a signpost

taught some of us to distrust excessive radicalization. The

for their successors, and it gives us hope.

solutions advocated by the radical left and radical right have now been tried and, one ardently wishes, will not be

6

tried again anytime soon. Our best hope is completely disenchanted, unheroic, shallow politics, endlessly tinkering

What the story I have told here suggests is that the putative

with getting the balance right between liberty and equality,

crisis of modern art did not set in around 1914 and that

between wealth creation and wealth distribution. Private

it is not likely to go away anytime soon. Modern societies

life, family, civil society should remain our only arenas of

are condemned for perpetuity to tinker with and recalibrate

enchantment and depth. For art, the lesson of the twentieth

the ever-precarious balance between the only partially and

century is both different and similar. If art is to remain a tool

imperfectly compatible principles on which they are based

of our self-invention and self-overcoming, we cannot wish

and the goals they pursue. The tasks of combining and bal-

that it loses its radicalism, enchantment, and depth. But we

ancing liberty with equality, as well as wealth creation with

can keep in mind what by now should be patently obvious

the redistribution required by social justice, will never end.

to anyone with eyes to see and ears to hear: that, like modern

Catastrophes aside, modernity will reach no closure; crisis

subjectivity’s inherent temptation of infinite freedom, mod-

is inseparable from it. By the same token, crisis is also the

ern autonomous art’s inherent tendency to self-absorption

normal condition of modern art. The specifically political

may, if pushed far enough, lead to empty sterility. Here, too,

pressures that deepened and radicalized this crisis during

our artists are condemned to endless tinkering with getting

the Cold War may now be gone. What is not gone is the

the balance right between abstraction and mimesis.

temptation to make the arts serve the propaganda needs

As for the rest of us, we shall help them best if we get out

of this or that ideology. Similarly, the commercial pressure

of their way and do not tell them what they should be doing:

on the arts, the temptation to lower the tone for profit,

creativity cannot be fostered by decree, whether societal or

remains as lively as it has ever been in the past two cen-

political (we have already tried that, and it did not work). At

turies. More importantly, nothing essential has changed, or

most, we should celebrate those (necessarily rare) occasions

is likely to change, in our fundamental spiritual condition,

when artists succeed in telling us something vital and new,

in which subjective freedom remains the most inalienable

and we should not hesitate to tell the emperor he is scantily

right, and hence absolute, infinite freedom remains the

dressed on those (necessarily much more common) occa-

ever-present temptation.

sions when he walks about with little to cover his nakedness.

The Arts Today  55

Most importantly, we should create conditions in which

education and health care, also art, the medium of pub-

artists can work without starving, so that they do not need

lic debate over our ultimate identities and directions, is a

to succumb to the temptations of the marketplace. When it

necessary, indispensable component of the kind of society

comes to the production and distribution of amusements,

we want to be and that, since a debate of this sort cannot

the market functions faultlessly. (And I should stress again

flourish supported by the market alone, we have to pro-

that I do not share the puritanical antiamusement stance

vide public support for it, perfecting the mechanisms that

of those who think our entertainments corrupt public mor-

ensure that all sides in the cultural debate are equally and

als or distract us from more important matters.) But the

neutrally supported.

market cannot be expected to support adequately art “con-

Now that the distortions introduced by the Cold War

sidered in its highest vocation,” because there is not much

are long over, now that the western half of Europe no longer

profit in it. The danger that our society might turn away

needs to demonstrate its cultural freedom and superiority

from higher kinds of art and decide that commercial enter-

to the eastern half, we can afford to experiment and find out

tainment is all the art we need is not completely imaginary.

which forms of public sponsorship of the arts work best to

The practical question we face is, Where is the money com-

encourage a flourishing cultural conversation most equita-

ing from to support the kinds of art that are not adequately

bly. There is no good reason why the muses would have to

supported by the market? In answering this question, we

abandon Europe for more hospitable shores. There is every

might think of art the way we think of universal education

reason to help them avoid the twin temptations of self-­

or health services. We might think that just like universal

absorbed emptiness and publicity-obsessed triviality.

56  Karol Berger

5 Are the Arts Essential? Darren Walker

If we visited Detroit, Michigan, together, we would likely go

government and business leaders, and philanthropic groups

to the Detroit Institute of Arts (DIA).

came together to save the DIA, pull Detroit out of bankruptcy,

Inside this venerable, 140-year-old institution, we would

and reduce the size of the city’s pension cuts for its retirees.

take in the incomparable works of Van Gogh and Bruegel,

This Grand Bargain, as it would be called, was in part

Caravaggio and Picasso, Michelangelo and Matisse, all

an emphatic yes that art is essential for our cities and

master­pieces by masters of their crafts.

communities—their vitality and virtue. And yet, in ways big

The DIA is the city’s crown jewel. And yet, when Detroit fell on hard times and then into bankruptcy, creditors called on

and small, we get this question every day, to this day. Art is still under attack. Constantly.

the city to pawn it off. They proposed selling the DIA’s historic, white-marble building—and liquidating its billion-dollar collection. In some ways, they were asking the city—and anyone paying attention—one question: Are the arts essential?

The Essential Threat: The Mentality of Instrumentality

This was hardly the first time I was confronted with such a

We have seen through the decades—in diverse places and

question, but in the moment—during the winter of 2013 and

circumstances—that the arts are usually the first invest-

through 2014—it took on new urgency. To me, and to many

ments tossed overboard in rough economic or political seas.

other supporters of the arts, too, the DIA was, of course,

Our National Endowments for the Arts and the Humanities

essential, and the proposal to sell was not only unconscio-

are constantly under siege. In school and town budgets, arts

nable but unacceptable. And so a constellation of citizens,

are usually the first to be sacrificed. Even people in power

57

who defend the arts do so—all too often—with a narrow emphasis on economic returns. They ask questions about

Art’s Intrinsic Value

how much growth an arts project will generate, how many

There is a better-faith version of this question of art’s intrinsic

jobs it will create, or in the case of the DIA, how much its

value, one that I hear all the time in philanthropy. It’s one

assets can be put up against the city’s debts.

that my friend Judge Albie Sachs—the great South African

At the root of this response seems to be what I call a

freedom fighter and one of Nelson Mandela’s first appoin-

mentality of instrumentality, which threatens to corrupt and

tees to the country’s Constitutional Court—was once asked:

co-opt our assessment of the arts. It sets the precedent that

Is it right for the government to fund art when there is still so

economic performance defines what makes a good perfor-

much hunger and homelessness?

mance or painting or play.

His answer was, “It’s not only right but necessary.”

Now, I am not naïve. I know that some people need to

Albie’s contention was simple: Of course, the poor should

hear about the productive capacity of the arts and its proven

be fed and clothed and housed; in a democratic society, we

ability to create jobs and promote trade and contribute to

share a responsibility to provide for these elemental needs.

our economy.

But all people also yearn for beauty, also long for grace, also

But it pains me to make this argument—to reduce the

have hearts as well as stomachs that need to be fed and filled.

enormity of how the arts make us feel to their mere economic

And people inevitably create beauty and grace when they lift

effects—because no matter how compelling, these numbers

their voices in song, move their bodies to music, shape color

will always fall short. One cannot measure the impact of art,

and form on canvas or in sculpture, or use language to tell

because one cannot measure the impact of hope or empathy

stories in ways that delight and surprise.

or love. It is an impossible task to, say, mark-to-market the

In short, art is an essential element of the human experience.

meaning that music brings to life. One cannot tabulate the

I know this from my own life. Growing up in East Texas,

effect of a drama or dance—of what happens when the lights

our world was small. My mother worked hard as a nurse’s

go down and the curtain goes up, when the colors jump out

aide, and my grandmother cleaned houses for wealthy peo-

or the high note hits.

ple in Houston. Sometimes, my grandmother would bring

So, for those of us who would defend the arts, we can-

me back art magazines and programs given to her by one of

not merely assert that the arts are essential because they are

her clients. I could spend hours flipping through the glossy

instrumental. We have to go deeper, to consider why they

pages—what was, essentially, a wealthier home’s recycling

are intrinsically essential—for ourselves, our societies, and

contents—staring at the dazzling pictures and colors and

our work for justice.

worlds beyond our shotgun house.

58  Darren Walker

In those moments, the arts were not some instrument to

Agnes—Aggie, to her friends—is an eighty-year-old

be used for my economic gain. They were kindling for the

grandmother; a graduate of Miss Porter’s School, Connecti-

fires of my imagination. They unlocked my love and under-

cut College, and Harvard University; and president emerita

standing of the wider world. They helped me develop the

of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. She’s more likely

capacity to dream, to envision a life beyond my hometown,

to be seen on Park Avenue than walking past the gates and

to feel a part of a world I might never have known.

guards and metal detectors of a men’s prison. But Aggie was

Years later, I had a similar experience when I saw, as a college student, the Dance Theater of Harlem for the first time. I had never seen the beauty of Black bodies onstage like that

there anyway and for one simple reason: to learn. Months before, such a visit might have been unfathomable. But she was there because of art.

before. Afterward, I moved to New York, where I voraciously

After watching Ava DuVernay’s powerful documentary

imbibed all the art I could, so inspired by the museums and

13th—which explores and illuminates the connection be-

stages that, until then, had felt like a faraway dream. And

tween slavery and mass incarceration in the United States—

then I met my life’s partner through the art world and forged

Aggie was stunned. She called me looking for advice. She

countless friendships there, too—a community bound to-

reached out to experts, continued her education, met with

gether by this common language of creative expression.

DuVernay in her home, read Michelle Alexander’s seminal

In short, the arts were essential to my life and have become an essential part of my work. And I am far from the

book The New Jim Crow, all inspired by her original experience with a moving documentary.

only one to have had this kind of experience. After all, art

I know, without a shadow of a doubt, that DuVernay’s

allows us to reach across time and language and culture, to

work moved Aggie to action partly because art had already

understand one another in our varied, lived experiences. Art

been a part of her life. Years of exposure to the world’s great-

inspires us to be better, art prepares us to be open and empa-

est works made Aggie open-minded and empathetic. She

thetic, and art can propel us to do justice.

had practiced looking from the perspective of others, spent time with pieces that provoked thought and compassion.

Art Inspires Justice Not long ago, I bore witness to all of art’s majestic powers, not

So it was no surprise that, after decades of charitable donations to museums, she chose to direct her philanthropy toward justice.

at a play or performance, or even in a portrait, but inside the

In 2017, Aggie sold one of her prized works of art—Roy

gates of San Quentin State Prison in California, with my friend

Lichtenstein’s Masterpiece—and used some of the proceeds

the legendary arts patron and philanthropist Agnes Gund.

to establish the Art for Justice Fund, which is now investing

Are the Arts Essential?  59

more than $100 million toward criminal justice reform.

even the most practically minded purveyors of justice must

While patrons of the arts are typically more focused on

take its power seriously.

paintings and buildings, Aggie has created a platform for them to join her in contributing to meaningful, systemic change.

Art Bestows Dignity

What strikes me about Aggie’s journey is the way that,

Let’s consider another powerful illustration. When Bryan Ste-

within it, art and justice are inseparable. It shows how art can

venson founded the Equal Justice Initiative (EJI) back in 1989,

create value, to be sure. But it also shows how art and culture

he had one goal: to provide legal representation to poor pris-

create economies of empathy.

oners on death row in Alabama. These predominantly Black

They create hope, sorrow, joy, compassion, resolve. They

prisoners had no money for lawyers and no other options.

foster fiscal growth, yes, but also spiritual growth, and this

The state had few to no public defenders. Those appointed

spiritual growth allows us to communicate, collaborate, and

by the state were given a mere $1,000 per case. To put a fine

construct. To extend the metaphor further, our return on

point on it, being on death row in Alabama, even if you were

investment comes not only in dollars but in shared under-

wrongly convicted, was a death sentence.

standing and active concern for who we are as people, com-

Bryan Stevenson and EJI have, for thirty years, been work-

munities, and nations. The arts pay us back with human

ing to change all that. They’ve helped over 115 people on

interest and engagement, because the arts are fundamen-

death row reverse their sentence—and, in more than a few

tally about the human experience and human dignity.

cases, earned their freedom.

That day at San Quentin, our guide was a man whose

But on April 26, 2018, EJI did something that seemingly

life could not have been more different from Aggie’s. He

had little to do with its inspiring legal-aid work. It opened a

was Black, convicted at age sixteen, now serving a sentence

memorial and museum.

of thirty-five years to life. His beard had grayed. As they

The National Memorial for Peace and Justice in Mont-

talked—Aggie in a stylish but practical vest; her tour guide

gomery, Alabama, is the nation’s first memorial dedicated

in a jacket labeled “prisoner”—I felt anguish but also hope.

to “the legacy of enslaved black people, people terrorized

These two people, with such vastly different lives, were

by lynching, African Americans humiliated by racial segre-

standing shoulder to shoulder. They were sharing a human

gation and Jim Crow, and people of color burdened with

experience—and conferring, upon each other, dignity.

contemporary presumptions of guilt and police violence.” I

This ability—to bestow dignity upon both subject and audience—is perhaps one of art’s greatest powers. It is why

60  Darren Walker

had the great honor of visiting this remarkable space on that momentous opening day, and it was beyond moving.

Walking through this memorial—reading the names of

During this time, Edsel Ford sought to honor Detroit’s

men, women, boys, and girls who were beaten, tortured, and

industrial triumphs in the city’s still somewhat new, pub-

lynched simply because of the color of their skin—was an

lic art gallery—what would later become the DIA. So he

immersion in pain. And yet nothing could be more necessary.

reached out to a muralist from Guanajuato, Mexico, Diego

With the National Memorial for Peace and Justice, EJI cre-

Rivera, who soon came to the Motor City with his wife, the

ated a vital space, one where our nation and its people can

inimitable Frida Kahlo.

finally mourn so many victims of injustice. And it created a

Only four years before Edsel Ford established the founda-

space for art at its most powerful. As the poet and Andrew W.

tion that still bears his name—endowing it with $25,000—

Mellon Foundation president Elizabeth Alexander put it to

he had commissioned Rivera’s Detroit Industry, or Man and

me, “You could not have told Sanford Biggers or Titus Kaphar

Machine.

or Hank Willis Thomas what image to make. It was Hank Willis

When I think about those of us in the fight for justice, I pic-

Thomas’s imagination that made that unforgettable piece for

ture Rivera’s murals. The five massive frescos—composed of

the Legacy Museum—all those hands up, arms coming up out

twenty-seven panels—depict doctors and scientists, accoun-

of that concrete, in a way that if you’ve seen it, you will never

tants and secretaries, farmers and, yes, artists. They feature

forget it, and you will never forget how it makes you feel.”

workers painted in every color and creed, united, working in

Those hands, and that feeling, are seared into my mem-

common cause. The murals depict these communities with

ory. The sobering sight bestowed an important kind of dig-

dignity, inspire action and understanding, and push us closer

nity on the dead. It offered them a kind of justice.

to justice. These murals—this other gift of Edsel’s—are an

This is what Bryan Stevenson and EJI understand so well— that art can both inspire justice and also provide it.

embodiment of the very meaning of philanthropy, which my friend Elizabeth Alexander put so succinctly: “the animated love of humankind.” Art can be a demonstration of that love and an animator

The Art of Philanthropy

for all of us. In this way, the arts are not just essential—as

If the arts provide hope and dignity and justice, so should

sources of hope and beauty, empathy and justice—they are

philanthropy, both through the arts and beyond them.

an example for all of our work. While philanthropy has an

For us at the Ford Foundation, this deep, long-standing

obligation to support art, we also can, should, and must look

relationship—of shared interest and common cause—goes

to art as a model for building a more just world—a model

all the way back before our founding and even before, to

for how we inspire justice, how we bestow dignity, how we

1932, in the depths of the Great Depression.

create enduring connection with one another.

Are the Arts Essential?  61

6 Art in Theory An Insight from Marcel Duchamp K. Anthony Appiah

An insight from Marcel Duchamp: It’s not what it is or how

object. As a result, there’s no single answer to the question of

it’s made that determines whether something is a work of art.

why the arts matter. That’s one of the reasons “art” escapes

The question is, rather, whether we choose to attend to it in

definition. So no definition, no theory: just three sketches of

a particular way. So it’s a mistake to divide the world into art

ways in which art matters.

objects and objects that are not art. Attending to something

Some of the most marvelous capacities of children are so

on a wall as a work of art has rewards, but the object on the

familiar that we lose our sense of wonder at them. Take their

wall could have been found, or made, like Duchamp’s urinal,

aptitude for make-believe. Harry, in the garden, forms a shape

for some other purpose. Artists, novelists, poets—but also

out of the mud in his hand and tells us, if we ask, that it’s a

curators and critics and theorists—are people who propose

cake. So far, so familiar. And yet something very mysterious is

things for a certain sort of attention. And what is rewarding

happening here. For Harry is inviting us to join him in treating

in accepting that invitation varies with who we are, what the

something that he knows is not a cake as if it were. But only

thing is, when and where we are in place and in time. More

in some respects. He’s not going to put it in his mouth, for he

than this, the rewards of attending to something—an urn,

knows that this “cake” is in fact mud and that mud is no good

a poem, a movie, a dance—can change as we change, when

for eating. He may blow on it when it comes out of the toy

we refocus our attention . . . or when the world changes . . .

oven, because that is what you do with something that is hot.

or when we invent new ways of treating something as an art

But he’s not worried about being burned. The child who plays

65

at cooking does not need to be taught that he is not really

one of the normal consequences of that belief, which would

cooking, that the mud is not a cake, that the oven is not hot,

be (other things being equal) that I had nothing to be sad

that you eat the cake by pretending to put it in your mouth.

about. That’s what it is to permit myself to feel as if someone

We humans come prebaked for make-believe.

had died. We do not need to deny that this feels like real sad-

Kendall Walton began with this fundamental capacity

ness, sadness about an actual regrettable event. But it differs

for as-if play, one shared by children everywhere, and used

from that feeling in not being associated with the kind of

it to help explore the very grown-up activity of responding

belief that normally makes sadness intelligible. What is sus-

to the representational arts: fiction, storytelling, drama. His

pended is not disbelief but the normal affective response to

insight was that there is an important connection between

disbelief. I am reacting—but only in some respects—as if I

the play of children and these adult entertainments. When

believe an unhappy young woman has died. Someone who

we are moved by Horatio’s loyalty to Hamlet (or, for that

didn’t know what the right response was to a real event

matter, Piglet’s faithfulness to Pooh), we respond, he argued,

wouldn’t know how to respond to the fictional one either.

in some respects as we would if we were seeing or hearing

Imagination teaches us how to respond to unimaginary

about actual moments of personal fidelity. And yet (in the

events, as play prepares children for real life.

normal case) we know all the time that what we are seeing

A second sketch focuses that point on the parts of our

represented on the stage is not really happening or that what

real lives that are political. Beginning in 1884, the Fabian

we are reading on the page never happened.

Society in London brought people together to imagine a

Borges once wrote (in a passage Walton cites) that the

new socialist Britain. Their ideas shaped the development of

actor “on a stage plays at being another before a gathering

the welfare state, especially through the Labour Party, and

of people who play at taking him for that other person.”1

finally played a large role in the post–World War II creation

The Argentine writer’s idea was that it isn’t only the actor

of the modern welfare state in Britain. Among those who

who engages in make-believe. We aren’t really moved by the

circled around this group were philosophers like Bertrand

death of Ophelia, he wanted to say; we’re pretending to be

Russell, economists like John Maynard Keynes, and sociolo-

moved. The scene on the stage is a prop in our pretense, as

gists like Beatrice and Sidney Webb, who were at the heart

the mud cake is a prop in Harry’s playing at cooking.2 But if

of Fabianism for a couple of generations. But there were also

we choose, we can, at any moment, like Harry, abandon the

artists, like Ralph Vaughan Williams, George Bernard Shaw,

make-believe.

Augustus John, and Edith Nesbit (author of The Railway

My sadness at Ophelia’s “death” involves not an abandon-

Children). Their presence should remind us that the welfare

ment of the belief that no one has died but abandonment of

state required not just social scientific knowledge and study

66  K. Anthony Appiah

but a radical reimagining of society, the capacity to conjure

thing away and you go back and take it, that is not taboo).

a new world. And the Webbs could not have done that on

The proverb, which you hear often, can be used to say that

their own.

it is good to retrieve what you need from your past. We all

To say that art’s role is simply to enlarge the political

understand that feeling. The connection people feel to cul-

imagination would be to reduce the vital range of art’s work.

tural objects that are symbolically theirs, because they were

But recognizing the error in overemphasizing art’s polit-

produced from within a world of meaning created by their

ical function shouldn’t lead us to understate the extent to

ancestors—the connection to art through identity—is pow-

which that is, in truth, one part of the work art does. As

erful. It should be acknowledged.

Shelley wrote, “The great instrument of moral good is the

The cosmopolitan in me, though, wants to remind us of

imagination: .  .  . Poetry enlarges the circumference of the

other connections. Because there is also the connection not

imagination by replenishing it.”3 He meant it when he also

through identity but despite difference. My people—human

said, more famously, “Poets are the unacknowledged legisla-

beings—made the Great Wall of China, the Chrysler Build-

tors of the world.”4

ing, the Sistine Chapel: these things were made by creatures

My third sketch: One of Goethe’s great poetic cycles is the

like me, through the exercise of skill and imagination. The

West-Östliche Divan. It is inspired by the poetry of the four-

arts connect us to both our local identities and the human-

teenth-century Persian poet Hafez, whose tomb in Shiraz

ity we share.

is still a place of pilgrimage. Matsuo Basho, the magnificent

My three sketches aim to remind us, first, that art enriches

haiku master of the seventeenth century, was shaped to a

our options, in life in general; second, that it does so in pol-

large degree by Zen Buddhism, and so an Indian—Siddhartha

itics in particular; and third, that it connects us powerfully

Gautama, the Buddha—is part of Basho’s heritage. Kurosawa’s

to each other. It’s only because we can understand what it

Throne of Blood—its dark castle walls on Mount Fuji swathed

would be for the world to be different from the way it is that

in mist—is a powerful cinematic rendering of Macbeth.

we can build models of the ideal. And in building such ideal-

My point? The arts are one of the great ways in which

izations, art matters, because it allows us to grasp what isn’t,

we are linked across cultures and identities. Among the

or isn’t yet, so. It readies us for our real lives, enlarges our

many symbols that recur regularly in Asante iconography is

political possibilities, connects us within and across identi-

a little bird, with its head turned back to pick at the feath-

ties. But that, as Duchamp would no doubt have insisted, is

ers between its wings, a bird called sankofa, which means,

just the beginning of what the arts can do.

literally, “go back and get.” There’s a Twi proverb that says,

Of course, the arts can threaten as well as enrich us, as

“Woto twene na wosan kofa a, yenkyiri” (If you throw some-

is evident in the many ways art has been mobilized in the

Art in Theory  67

service of racism, sexism, and xenophobia; and that means

art, which risks (but doesn’t ensure) turning art into propa-

it can divide as well as connect. Those are reasons not to

ganda. Because I am sure of this: that without the arts, our

reject the arts but to work to make sure they are used—

everyday lives, our politics, and our connections with one

as we should want all human creations to be used—in the

another would all be impoverished. What can be used for

service of the good, even as we allow artists to pursue their

evil is nevertheless most often used in ways that advance

work without a filtering obsession with the moral effects of

the good.

68  K. Anthony Appiah

7 “Exchanging Signals with the Planet Mars” Reading as Relationship Edward Hirsch

“Exchanging signals with the planet Mars,” the Russian

in turn infuses them with felt life. Poetry exists to initiate

poet Osip Mandelstam suggested in 1913, “is a task worthy

and create, to deliver and provide, the poetic experience to

of the lyric poet.” It is also a task worthy of the reader of

that reader.

lyric poetry. One might say that the poet and the reader

In a suggestive short piece titled “On the Addressee,”

are bound together by a mutual relationship, a necessary

published in the second issue of the journal Apollon (1916),

compact, by the ways in which they employ lyric poetry

Mandelstam spoke of the mutual relationship, an implicit

itself to exchange just such dizzying signals, urgent and dis-

contractual agreement, that obtains between the poet and

turbing messages, some of them social and historical, others

the reader, the writer and the hidden addressee of the lit-

strange and other­worldly. Poetry is a highly concentrated

erary text. “Why shouldn’t the poet turn to his friends,

verbal medium, a form of imaginative thinking, a type of

to those who are naturally close to him?” Mandelstam

rapid acceleration in language, and the words of the poem

wondered. But those who are especially close to the poet

are a means of connection, a method of transport. They are

aren’t necessarily those who surrounded him or her in daily

an act of attention that, in essence, estranges reality and

life, which has its own practical and utilitarian ends. They

returns us to the world deepened and renewed. The poet

aren’t the ones who surround him or her in ordinary dis-

who tries to exchange signals with the planet Mars, how-

course. On the contrary, the most intimate friend of all,

ever eccentric, does so on behalf of a distant reader who

oddly enough, seems to be someone else entirely, someone

69

the poet has never actually met, a remote stranger, a “prov-

The German-language poet Paul Celan was strongly influ-

idential addressee,” what the nineteenth-century Russian

enced by Mandelstam’s key notion that “though individual

poet Baratynsky called “my distant heir” and “a reader

poems, such as epistles and dedications, may be addressed

in posterity.”

to concrete persons, poetry as a whole is always directed

Mandelstam writes, “At a critical moment, a seafarer

toward a more or less distant, unknown addressee.” There is

tosses a sealed bottle into the ocean waves, containing his

something secretive in it. Poetry may posit a transcendence,

name and a message detailing his fate. Wandering along the

but it always does so with a human horizon, since, however

dunes many years later, I happen upon it in the sand. I read

uncertainly and sometimes with little hope, the writer none-

the message, note the date, the last will and testament of

theless posits a future reader—a distant heir, as surely as a

one who has passed on. I have the right to do so. I have not

speaker implies a listener.

opened someone else’s mail. The message in the bottle was

In Celan’s groundbreaking 1958 speech on receiving the

addressed to its finder. I found it. That means I have become

literature prize from the city of Breman, he suggested that

its secret addressee.”

a poem may claim the infinite, but it always does so by

As a reader, I am overwhelmed by a sense of providence

reaching through time, “not above and beyond it.” He was

when I discover an uncanny message in a bottle, when I

echoing Mandelstam—and, indeed, keeping the Russian

encounter a poem of ruthless authenticity, the one that

poet firmly alive in memory—when he declared, “A poem,

speaks to no one in particular and therefore seems unexpect-

as a manifestation of language and thus essentially dialogue,

edly addressed to me. The discovery has the element of free-

can be a message in a bottle, sent out in the—not always

dom, the freshness of surprise, of speaking from the known

greatly hopeful—belief that somewhere and sometime it

into the unknown. It is a gift from a human beyond, but

could be washed up on land, on heartland perhaps. Poems in

one that the reader, in turn, daydreams into existence and

this sense too are under way: they are making toward some-

expands with thought, or maybe even something deeper

thing.” The poem is en route, Celan suggests, sometimes

than thought, blooding it with experience, gifting it with inti-

for centuries, and longs for a hearing; it survives by moving

mate life. The poem, like a message in a bottle, comes from

“toward something open, inhabitable, an approachable you,

an enormous distance and survives only because a curious

perhaps, an approachable reality.” John Felstiner notes in his

reader in a study or a browser in a bookstore or a student in

perceptive book on Celan that under the cover of the word

a library, a kid on the web, who is like an unsuspecting wan-

“perhaps,” Celan definitely intended “a poem to seek and

derer on a shoreline, finds and revivifies it. Poetry thrives in

even regenerate its hearer.” It has a spiritual task. But that

the electricity of this connection.

project, a particular form of opening, can be fulfilled only in

70  Edward Hirsch

the connection through words, in going with our very being

Reading poetry gives one the visceral shock of an encoun-

to language. “The poem is lonely,” Celan says, and breathes

ter with someone else’s words, which have been crafted into

“in a mystery of encounter.”

being. The encounter may be anticipated but always retains

The dynamic between the writer and the reader is what

an element of wonder, of the unexpected, the unforeseen. It

Martin Buber characterizes in I and Thou as a greeting of

shivers with the freshness of mystery. The poet David Bot-

human spirits. “In the beginning is the relation,” Buber sug-

toms calls poetry “the literary genre that points most willingly

gests. The relation precedes the Word because it is authored

to the veiled significance behind the physical world.” These

by the human. Or, as Rainer Maria Rilke put it in a 1923 let-

secrets unfold, he suggests, in the particular intimacy gen-

ter, “instead of possession one learns relationship” (statt des

erated between individual writers and readers, which largely

Besitzes lernt man den Bezug). Rilke, Mandelstam, and Celan

depends on figurative expression, metaphorical thinking.

all teach us that lyric poetry can exist only in dialogue, in just

Like most poets, who are first of all readers—and I believe

such a human form of greeting and recognition, in relation-

the majority of writers are essentially readers who have spilled

ship. Poetry is a nonutilitarian form of knowledge that teaches

over—I feel as if these crucial encounters with poems have

us to move beyond the literal and think metaphorically—

given me access to my own interior life and thus delivered

Robert Frost considered it a form of education by metaphor.

me to myself. They have taken me to places where I other-

It is a species of play spiritually dependent on the dynamic

wise never would have traveled, which I nonetheless recog-

relationship that exists—that can only exist—between two

nize once I have arrived. They have rescued me from a state

unknowns, the writer and reader. That’s why Marina Tsve-

of what the psychoanalyst George Groddeck strikingly calls

taeva, the most lyrical of modern Russian poets, suggested

“inner muteness.” Groddeck writes, “Man’s most personal

that “reading is complicity in the creative process.” Joseph

thought is speechless, subterranean, unconscious, and the

Brodsky points out that this is not something Tolstoy ever

struggle of the creative forces with mute nature constitutes

would have thought or said. I could add that this is part of

man’s innermost life. The inner muteness is the real human

a lyric idea of exchange, gift culture. The French poet Paul

personality whether one chooses to call it soul or spirit or

Valéry made the case in “Poetry and Abstract Thought”: “A

anything else. It is common to us all, the common factor, the

poet’s function—do not be startled by this remark—is not to

basic human entity. Yet creative ability is a human being’s

experience the poetic state: that is a private affair. His func-

most valuable gift.” Creative ability in general—and creative

tion is to create it in others. The poet is recognized—or at

ability manifested through language in particular—has the

least everyone recognizes his own poet—by the simple fact

capacity to deliver us from an abyss of silence, from inchoate

that he causes his reader to become ‘inspired.’”

thought and feeling, and thus bring us into consciousness.

“Exchanging Signals with the Planet Mars”  71

Poetry urges us to question the familiar world, the one

Reading

we receive almost without thinking, and to reexamine the

My eye frees what the page imprisons:

nature of reality itself. I appreciate what Umberto Eco says

the white the white and the black the black.

about poetic makers in his philosophical investigation Kant and the Platypus: “the discourse of the poets does not replace our questioning of being but sustains and encourages it,” he reports.

The feeling of liberation that comes with freeing the words from the page and letting them fly around inside you puts me in mind of six poems about reading by C. K. Williams, which appeared in his book Flesh and Blood (1987).

It tells us that precisely by destroying our consolidated

Each one is structured as an urban parable. Each takes the

certainties, by reminding us to consider things from

general idea of reading and yokes it to a specific story: a man

an unusual point of view, by inviting us to submit to

fixing a flat tire in bitterly cold weather suddenly stops to

the encounter with the concrete and to the impact

read a newspaper in the trunk of his car, or a cop who usually

with an individual in which the fragile framework of our universals crumbles. Through this continuous re­ invention of language, the Poets are inviting us to take

stands in the hallway with a “menacingly vacant expression” gets completely absorbed by a political pamphlet. There’s a

up again the task of questioning and reconstructing

voyeuristic element to these rapid, notational, ethnographic

the World and of the horizon of the entities in which

poems, a sense of invasive scrutiny, as if the poet had dis-

we calmly and continuously thought we lived, without

covered a person doing something almost illicit, something

anxieties, without reservations, without any further re-

intensely private, in a public setting.

appearance . . . of curious facts that cannot be ascribed to known laws.

Reading literature in general and poetry in particular has been such a formative and defining experience for me that I’ve always treasured poems that take reading as their ostensible subject. For example, there is a two-line poem by the eleventh-century vizier Ibn ‘Ammar of Silves that fills me with a sudden sense of liberation whenever I think of it. The poem is called “Reading,” and I discovered it at the head of an anthology of lyrics from Arab Andalusia. The translator is anonymous.

72  Edward Hirsch

Here he trains his gaze on a woman reading on a bus. A kind of secret complicity arises between the woman, who is intently lost in her book, and the narrator, who is watching her with an equal intensity, perhaps even “reading” her expressions. Like a sonnet, the poem turns in the second half, when the woman suddenly begins to feel the speaker thinking about her, and the watcher becomes the one secretly noticed, watched, and finally even engaged. Reading: The Bus As she reads, she rolls something around in her mouth, hard candy it must be, from how long it lasts.

She’s short, roundish, gray-haired, pleasantly pugnacious-looking, like Grace Paley, and her book, Paint Good and Fast, must be fascinating: she hasn’t lifted her eyes since Thirty-Fourth Street, even when the corner of a page sticks so that she has to pause a bit to lick her index finger . . . No, now she does, she must have felt me thinking about her: she blinks, squints out the window, violently arches her eyebrows as though what she’d just read had really to be nailed down, and, stretching, she unzips a pocket of her blue backpack, rummages through it, and comes out with, yes, hard candy, red and white, a little sackful, one of which she offers with a smile to me.

Wanted to lean, wanted much most to be The scholar to whom his book is true, to whom The summer night is like a perfection of thought. The house was quiet because it had to be. The quiet was part of the meaning, part of the mind: The access of perfection to the page. And the world was calm. The truth in a calm world, In which there is no other meaning, itself Is calm, itself is summer and night, itself Is the reader leaning late and reading there.

Stevens’s poem is not a report but a dramatic realization in

By contrast, Wallace Stevens’s “The House Was Quiet and

the form of a meditative lyric, a poem that moves on the

the World Was Calm” has a spacious privacy. It takes up the

wings of eight stately two-line stanzas. At one moment,

fulfilling experience, the true plenitude, of being alone and

for example, the words seem to come to the fictive reader

reading late on a summer night. I think of this lyric from

unmediated by the printed letters on the page, by the actual

Transport to Summer (1947) as a work of spiritual poise

physical object of the book itself (“the words were spoken as

and attainment that locates and accesses the trans­action

if there was no book”), and he merges with his chosen text

between the reader, the book, the house, the night, and

(“the reader became the book”). At another moment, how-

the world.

ever, he feels himself distanced and hovering over the very

The House Was Quiet and the World Was Calm The house was quiet and the world was calm. The reader became the book; and summer night

same book (“the reader leaned above the page”). Reading is re-created here as a bodily activity as well as a mental action. It is a quest, a desire aroused and fulfilled. I’m struck by the way that all the terms algebraically line

Was like the conscious being of the book.

up in the poem: the reader, the book, the house, the night,

The house was quiet and the world was calm.

the world. The poem establishes a correspondence between

The words were spoken as if there was no book,

the inner realm of the house and the outer one of the Cos-

Except that the reader leaned above the page,

mos. It’s as if the quietness of the dwelling rhymes with the

“Exchanging Signals with the Planet Mars”  73

calmness of the universe on a summer night. The proposition

a reader’s mind in a state of complete receptivity. It moves

is twofold: the house was quiet and the world was calm. Daily

into a part of the mind that often seems unavailable to us

life, the daylight world itself, is suppressed. The poem takes

because it is not antagonized. It dramatizes and re-creates

place at night in order to establish a sense of autonomous

that state of consciousness and thus provides us with a deep

solitude. No one else seems to be stirring nearby. The world

form of mental nourishment. This is a poem of the spirit

sleeps. The reader is alone with a book for company. So, too,

because it triggers a vital principle within the poem, which

this must be a summer night because summer is the season

is part of its meaning. One might even speculate that the

of plenitude and fulfillment.

poem itself is only fully realized when the reader of Wallace

The reader in Stevens’s poem is a poetic quester, a pilgrim

Stevens’s poem becomes exactly like the reader within his

in search of a vivid transparence. He wants to transform him-

poem, finding an access to wholeness or perfection, leaning

self into “the scholar to whom his book is true.” That desire,

late, and reading there.

in turn, leads to an even greater one, since this scholar wants

Reading poetry is an act of reciprocity, and one of the

to be the one “to whom / The summer night is like a perfec-

ethical tasks of the lyric is to bring us into right relation-

tion of thought.” He seeks an utter realization of mind. The

ship to each other. The relationship between the writer and

phrase “a perfection of thought” puts one in the range, in the

the reader is by definition removed and mediated through

unlimited mental space, of the divine, not an otherworldly

a text, a body of words. It is a particular kind of exchange

God but an inward or reimagined divine.

between two people not physically present to each other.

So too the unnamed book that the reader studies be-

This is as true for the encounter with contemporary poetry

comes the emblem of his spiritual meditation. It’s as if

as it is with the poetry of the past. It is equally true for the

through the contemplative act—the act of the mind in the

American readers of, say, the American Poetry Review as it

process of finding what will suffice—the scholar and the

was for the Russian readers of Apollon or the German lis-

book merge with the night in order to become the form of

teners in Bremen, who might well have gone home from

its true substantiation. The silence itself—of the house, of

Celan’s somewhat accessible acceptance speech only to

the mind—makes possible “the access of perfection to the

encounter or reread his difficult, harrowing poems, which

page.” There is a kind of poetic crossing here. Reading itself

are so much more linguistically challenging. They are filled

becomes a mystic activity as the poem enacts its own ulti-

with verbal ghosts and ghostly hauntings, riven and frac-

mately satisfying transport to summer.

tured, yet still driven by the need for what he elsewhere

“The House Was Quiet and the World Was Calm” gives

calls “desperate conversation.” There is always a disjunction,

us access through a third-person center of consciousness to

a separation, between the writer and the reader, and this

74  Edward Hirsch

distance makes possible a certain kind of intensive, interior

of COVID-19, it also became evident that, more than ever,

literary encounter.

poetry speaks to our isolation and quarantine. Poetry fosters

Yet it is this experience itself that seems to have come

what literary theorists call “an interpretive community” but

under threat in our time. One thinks of our alarming illiter-

what I would prefer to call “a community of solitaries.” These

acy rates, which keep climbing, and the tremendous success,

solitudes, as Rilke formulates it in a letter about the freedom

the noisy encroachments, of our superficial, media-driven,

of love, “protect and border and greet each other.”

celebrity culture that routinely debases language and has so

Poetry can give heart and voice to particular and special-

often seemed uncomfortable with true depths of feeling. A

ized groups—in fact, it needs to do so—but it appeals to a

lot of mass culture seems to operate so as to keep us from

larger and more disparate community, too. It’s important to

having our own complex thoughts, our own divided feelings.

remember that there is an element of civitas in poetry. There

Poetry, after all, teaches us that it is possible to have two

are invaluable public poems, political interventions. Poetry

opposing thoughts at once, which our master cultural narra-

can be a crucial form of social action, and there are moments

tives seem to deny. It is as if the culture itself had “lost sight

and times when it can and should mount the barricades to

of poetry’s private pleasures and its public powers,” as Robert

try to change the world. Perhaps this is just such a moment.

Scholes puts it in his book The Crafty Reader.

And yet the civic side of poetry is also in conversation with

At the same time, there has been a deepening interest in

its metaphysical dimensions, its ultimate questions. I am also

poetry over the past twenty years. I first felt this stirring after

old enough to remember a time when almost all of our poets

the September 11 attacks. It was striking to me then, and it is

felt they had to put their art in the service of opposing the

still noteworthy, how many people turned to poetry in their

Vietnam War. I don’t think we should regret that moment

quest to make meaning out of what happened, to try to come

of poetic intervention, though it’s also worth remember-

to terms with it. Poetry became part of their reckoning and

ing that the poems about Vietnam that survive that time

grief. There was hunger for seriousness in our culture, a fresh

period were written by veterans returning from war. These

maturity in our initiation into history. I would like to think

poems were not initiated by political opinions but created

that this maturity is something to celebrate in light of our

from experience, the life lived. We desperately need jour-

recent tragedies. We cannot ignore what is happening in our

nalists, but poetry is not newspaper reporting. The majority

country, and poetry speaks up in the face of grievous threats

of protest poems have historical significance but not much

to democracy. It responds to racial injustice. But it also speaks

of an ongoing interest; they couldn’t survive their moment.

to more private, less social aspects of our experience. When

The poet wants justice. And the poet also wants art, music,

the whole country went into lockdown over the spread

collage, story.

“Exchanging Signals with the Planet Mars”  75

Poetry is a house with many rooms—it needs all of them.

free and become strange in this urgent, oddly self-conscious

It may not be popular to say so, but I believe, as Stevens put

way of exchanging signals and speaking across time, through

it, that there is a life apart from politics, that poetry engages

time. The writer posits the unforeseen reader on the hori-

our imaginations and opens our inner as well as outer lives. It

zon. The reader proceeds as if the text houses meaning and

does many kinds of work. One of its main tasks is to protect

incarnates spirit. They meet when they cross a threshold into

the language, which is in and of itself a political act, especially

the sacred space of the poem itself. Thus it is that Stevens

in this time of the radical debasement of language. It moves

concluded in the Adagia, “One does not write for any reader

into the interior and enlarges our identities. It makes room

except one.” John Berryman declared in The Freedom of the

for the single reader, the social oddball, the poetic misfit and

Poet, “Poetry is a terminal activity, taking place out near the

outsider—a Rimbaud, a Leopardi—and springs into the zone

end of things, where the poet’s soul addresses one other soul

of the Imaginary. “I Dwell in Possibility—  / A fairer House

only, never mind when.”

than Prose,” Emily Dickinson put it in one of her finest poems: “More numerous of Windows— / Superior—for Doors.” “Appealing to a concrete addressee,” Mandelstam argued, “dismembers poetry, plucks its wings, deprives it of air, of the freedom of flight.” It deprives poetry of its freshest air, which is the element of surprise. Poetry most completely fulfills itself, Mandelstam suggests, as a highly concentrated and

Perhaps one literally writes, as Tsvetaeva said, “not for the millions, not for a particular person, not for myself.” Rather, she declared, “I write for the work itself. The work itself writes through me.” Hence her couplet, A poet takes up speech from far, A poet is taken far by speech.

passionate form of communication between strangers—an

But the creator who becomes the vehicle of an inspiration—

immediate, intense, and highly unsettling form of literary

and Tsvetaeva believed that being a poet meant “equality in

discourse. “Perhaps poetry, like art, moves with the oblivious

gift of soul and gift of language”—can be matched only by

self into the uncanny and strange to free itself,” Celan spec-

the act of sustained attention that we designate as reading,

ulated in his “Meridian” speech. It rushes headlong into the

an engaged threshold activity. That’s why Dickinson’s radical

unknown, he noted, “for the sake of an encounter.”

characterization of poetry is so crucial: “If I read a book [and]

Lyric poetry speaks out of a solitude to a solitude. It begins

it makes my whole body so cold no fire can ever warm me

and ends in silence. It crystallizes our inwardness and makes

I know that is poetry. If I feel physically as if the top of my

space for our subjectivity, naming our inner life. It arises from

head were taken off, I know that is poetry. These are the only

an interior planet that is as deep as the human soul and per-

way I know. Is there any other way.” Dickinson doesn’t define

haps as far away as another planet. Language has been set

poetry by its intrinsic qualities per se but by a great shock of

76  Edward Hirsch

contact, by what it mentally and physically does to her, by

That’s why Robert Graves deemed poetry a form of “stored

violent connection. She was seeking to be intoxicated and

magic.” Reading poetry is a way of connecting, through the

radically changed by what she read, which requires a high

highly mediated medium of language, more profoundly

degree of receptivity. Readers of lyric poetry: a secret com-

with yourself even as you connect more fully with another.

munity of intoxicants.

The poem delivers on our spiritual lives precisely because it

The truly individual poem is a last will and testament sal-

simultaneously gives us the gift of intimacy and interiority,

vaged from the shipwreck, sealed in a bottle, and cast out

privacy and participation. The poem implies mutual partici-

into the waters. I think of each of us as a reader who, at least

pation in language, and for me that participation mystique is

for the moment, has turned off the television set and wan-

at the heart of lyric exchange.

dered down to the shore to see what can be found. It’s as if

This is how we proceed then—one by one, alone and

the vast ocean had delivered a message from afar. How often

together, writer and reader. Lyric poetry seems to be a way of

I myself have found an unlikely looking bottle from the past,

speaking both back to the self and outward to another. It is

brought it home, and read it so intently that soon it began

a particular mode of separation that empowers connection,

to inhabit and speak through me. To live with a poem is to

a special form of reading as relationship. It stores a radical

become its secret addressee. The poem has been silently en

unknown excitement. So it is that all of us, in own ways, may

route, sometime for centuries, and now it has singled you out

take up the surprising project—it is a task worthy of a lyric

precisely because you are willing to call upon and listen to it.

poet—of exchanging signals with the planet Mars.

“Exchanging Signals with the Planet Mars”  77

8 Talking of Walking Alice Sheppard

Stop reading this essay.

when they are specifically “out for a walk,” how they move

Gather yourself. Slowly, collect your body and connect

from place to place is less important than what happens

it to your mind. Come to a balanced easy position. Now—

when they get there and what they do and see along the way.

without actually doing it—imagine someone walking.1

But even though our bodies mostly walk on autopilot, walk-

They can be anywhere—in a street, a field, a mountain, even in your home. They can be walking in any way you

ing is never politically or culturally neutral. Indeed, I think of walking simultaneously as an invisible leveler and divider.

please—purposefully, aimlessly. Feel them walking. What

In a former life, I was a professor of medieval studies with

shoes, if any, are they wearing? Do they roll through their

a specialty in Old English. Much of my time was spent with

foot from heel to toe, or are they a toe-walker? Do their arms

dictionaries wrestling strange-looking words into contempo-

swing easily on a flowing torso? Is that a sexy shimmy in their

rary language. As a beginner, I slowly learned to recognize the

hips or the kind of drop in their pelvis a physical therapist

different segments of a word—a prefix, the root, a grammat-

would want to tackle? Do they flounce, prance, or sashay? Or

ical ending signifying tense or person. Over time, I started to

do they shuffle, stumble, lumber, lurch, limp, robot, or zom-

remember the ways I had to translate them. Then, as I stud-

bie their way around your imagination? However you would

ied more Germanic languages, I found that similar-looking

describe their gait, their walk is distinctive. The sounds they

words revealed distinctly different shades of meaning, some

make, the silhouette of their body as they locomote from

of which had counterparts in Modern English. I became

place to place are ways that others will recognize them. For

fascinated both with what Modern English words had lost

most people, walking is unconscious and unintentional. Even

and with what they had added. The gap between usage and

78

meaning drew me in; I felt a space for creativity and a grief for

an alternative relationship to what seems to be a culturally

what had been lost.

neutral act. You may have been shamed for the uniqueness

After I left the academy to become a dancer and chore-

of your step; you may be scared of the pain of a step. You

ographer, I continued to study etymology; I began to ana-

may simply walk in unexpected ways. After all, some of

lyze words as a way of anchoring some of my thinking about

us walk with dance-like gaits that the medical world finds

movement. When I see Modern English “walk,” for example, I

extraordinary. We limp, gimp, stump, shuffle, crawl, hand-

feel the resonances of Old English gewealc, “a rolling or toss-

walk, and crutch our ways through the world. Walking may

ing of waves,” with the added senses of “struggle and fight.”2

mean something altogether unique to you: your capacity to

I am reminded of Old Icelandic válk, “tossing” of waves but

do it might be the result of incredible work. Walking might

also with the sense of “trouble, worry.” Occasionally, I think

feel unnecessary, something you choose to do, or it could be

to the ways “walk” seems to have been used to describe the

an act of desperation. I am a wheelchair user. Although I am

tossing and turning actions of a troubled mind. In some

physically able to plant one foot in front of the other, I navi-

post-Conquest sources, that specific action of the feet (walk-

gate the world from my chair. My daily experience of pushing

ing) is used to describe traveling or wandering back and forth

through the streets and dancing onstage suggests to me that

from place to place. Over time, the listed sources give greater

walking is best done by those of us who roll on wheels.

specificity; the wandering takes place on foot, at a slower pace, for exercise or pleasure. These words are not direct roots of our modern word;

Walking Words

that is, it is not possible to say that our word and what we

When I first began using a wheelchair, I kept stumbling into

use it for—to describe the motion of traveling on legs—is

awkward silences. People did not know what to say to me,

directly descended from this word, but they are related, in

nor I to them. Walking was one such source of conversa-

that the root they share reveals a very different view of walk-

tional clumsiness. Colleagues and friends would use the “w”

ing.3 Somehow, the idea of walking has been cleaned up; the

word and then freeze, unable to recover their conversational

tossing, welling, rolling, heaving, surging, tumultuous, trou-

equilibrium. Was it now inappropriate? What were they sup-

bled messiness of a walk has been flattened into a step, a rou-

posed to say instead? At first, I continued to use “walking”

tine planting of one foot in front of the other.

to describe how I moved in my chair; I was not sure what

Unless, that is, you are one of my people.

else I could say. I was focused on trying to get around an

If, like me, you are physically disabled, chances are that

inaccessible world, not on the semantic niceties that would

the stakes of walking are quite different. You may well share

make it easier for the person I was talking to. In retrospect, it

Talking of Walking  79

seems dramatic, but I was not interested in somehow eliding

my body—as natural to me as my flesh. I began to find the

what was happening to me. I wanted people to take notice,

rhythm of my stroke unconsciously. Then, I discovered how

to witness it and to take it in. I wanted them to be uncom-

to flirt in such a way that my chair became essential to the

fortable: it was not easy for me. Minding the rules of social

turn of my shoulders, the display of my hand and fingertip

conversation—Yes, I’m all right. Thanks!—taking care of

on my tire, the smoothness of my stroke and roll. My chair is

others was far from my mind. I was too busy trying to work

now actively part of my expressions of my sexual identity. I

out how to do my job in inaccessible spaces. I was just trying

know how to position my shoulders and chest in relationship

to live.

to my wheels, so that I look sexy as I lean on my backrest. I

Now, twenty years into disability and seventeen into chair

know when to stroke the tire, glancing at my hand. I know

use, I have a meaningful vocabulary of chaired movement.

when and how to cross my legs, letting my ridiculously high

Some ideas I picked up in community with other wheelchair

heels dangle. (I’m not walking in them, after all!) I know when

users. “We’re going for a push, a roll—even a stroll!” At first,

to haul with every last ounce of strength and when to rely on

these felt awkward, perhaps a little self-conscious, but I soon

an invisible shift of my weight. My fingers extend toward the

realized that this was my own internalized ableism at work.

tires and rim; once they make contact, everything seems to

I was not ready to exist in a community that did not rely on

slip into place. Breath, spine, shoulders, elbows, hands, and

a normative, nondisabled world. These chair users were sim-

wheel become one. My chair glides forward; my hands fly off

ply stating facts: you push a wheel; wheels roll; why wouldn’t

the wheel; and I stretch into the release (some call it a throw)

a walk become a stroll? I learned to enjoy the wry humor

at the end of the stroke. Sometimes, I feel as hot as hell.

of disability community. This wordplay was drole; I got over

Around the time that wheeling became a default mode

myself. Dance class was showing me that there was a tech-

of walking, I noticed that Daniel Dulitz and I enjoyed the

nique to moving in a wheelchair: pull, push, stroke, slam,

intimacy of creating a new shared vocabulary of movement.

shove, haul, feather. I learned how gender and stroke could

Nominally, the words were supposed to describe forms of

live side by slide by listening in on a conversation in which

locomotion. We began with the basics: walk, wheel, roll. In

one wheelchair user discussed the relationship of his stroke

practice, our lexical richness became a private shorthand

to his torso as an expression of masculinity. I became expert

that explained what kind of day I was having, what equip-

at guiding the chair with one finger.

ment was going to be necessary, even the kinds of clothes

As I became more and more embodied in my chair, I felt it

I would be wearing. Was I going to chair it? If I was using

become an intimate part of my sexuality. Wheels were not an

crutches, I could be crutching, legging, or gimping (as

extension of my body; they felt like and eventually became

opposed to chairing). Other crutch users describe “tapping”

80  Alice Sheppard

their way through the world; I returned to my childhood

that I did not like the way that Daniel pushed me through

vocabulary for “stonking” in an attempt to capture in one

the city streets: with way too much caution and politeness.

word the humongous presence, energy, noise, and klutziness

I did not want to wait at the curb cut until all the walkies

of my ways of using my crutches. We began categorizing peo-

had gone; I wanted to feel the whoosh of riding the slope

ple. Wheelers were obvious, but we had to call the rest of

down into the road. I was a newly politicized wheelie. Curb

the world something. In a social media update, I saw Daniel

cuts were my inheritance.4 I believed that I had a right to pro-

self-define as a “legger.” And there it was; he had somehow

ceed through the world without apologizing for myself. I still

captured our experience in one word.

wound my way laboriously through the pedestrians. She had

We knew walking and not walking was a false binary, but

abandoned the sidewalk and was just rolling carefree down

it somehow seemed right. Walking was always both divisive

the road. I vowed I would one day be her. I am not sure that

and constitutive. Walking upright on two legs separates

I have achieved her elegance, but that seems not to matter:

human from ape; baby from toddler, from adult, from elder.

I have found my own way to wheel through the streets of

In our household, the connection between humanity, citi-

New York.

zenship, and walking was very clear. We could see it in the

My street technique was formed primarily in dance class

built environment, in our civic infrastructure, and in the

in an exercise known as “milling.” In short, milling involves

social cultural imaginations of friends and colleagues: how I

walking around the studio on undetermined pathways,

moved defined how I would encounter the world and how

paying attention to the space and the other dancers and

the world would meet me. If I wanted to be admitted into

responding to prompts given by the instructor. Walking as

the world, walking was necessary. The trouble was that if I

a form of movement is critical to defining the postmodern

was walking, I was not living.

dance aesthetic as a space in which “pedestrian” movement— movement that sometimes literally involves walking but also

Wheeling through the World

more broadly describes everyday movement as opposed to movement originating in a defined dance vocabulary—

On the way back from dance class on a particularly dishev-

invites deep explorations of the body and welcomes to the

eled Sunday morning, I was overcome by envy and desire as

stage performers who have not been classically trained.

a woman in Saturday night’s dress, high heels, bowled past

Milling taught me to find the art in the everyday, to learn

me in her chair, hair flying wildly behind her. I was still new

nuance in my stroke, to communicate dance with each push

at my wheels. I did not have the stamina or skill to do much

or pull of the wheel. It also taught me how to navigate peo-

more than the basics of independent movement. I knew

ple, space, and place.

Talking of Walking  81

Breathe for a moment. Gather your body and follow me

film that traces some of the context for my solo, Where Good

into this space. Let’s enter a studio and begin to walk around.

Souls Fear, and discusses elements of my choreographic

We might pay attention to the floor we are walking on. We

practice.5 As with any work of art, Where Good Souls Fear has

might pay attention to air that surrounds us or features of

many starting points. For the purposes of this essay, I return

the studio. Or we might simply be in our own world. Gradu-

to the New York blizzard of 2005. The day after the snow

ally, however, our attention will come to include one another

softened the city, I looked out my window, unable to wheel

and the people in the studio. We will vary our speed. Practice

through the street. My eye landed on a wheelchair user who

stopping. Starting. Waiting. Breathing together. We can greet

had combined his wheels and crutches and was using the lat-

each other: a smile when we make eye contact or a hello.

ter to ski himself through the street. When I decided to build

We will practice moving at A5, our normal average speed; A1,

a dance on wheels and crutches almost ten years later, I was

the slowest speed; A10, the quickest possible speed. We will

shocked to find how difficult it was even to cross the studio,

change levels, travel forward, backward, run, jump, roll. . . .

much less glide across the soft, deep snow.

Are you ready?

The film features clips of me weaving at top speed through

To be able to do this at top speed in a studio of people

the street. Some of the clips also serve as projection video

requires a reliable way to read everyone’s bodies. I found that

for the performance itself. Dahkil Hausif, the director, fig-

I knew how to understand other wheelchair users pretty

ured how to shoot these gritty and unexpected scenes with

quickly. There were a few wheel-rim scrapes, but mostly

a 360-degree GoPro camera that we attached to the frame of

I understood how chairs moved in space. In order not to

my chair. I hit the “on” button and ran around the city streets

run over toes, however, I had to become adept at watching

and into its subways. The camera captures me, viscerally, at

people’s feet and hips and learning how to decode the rela-

my best (riding close and hard, with exquisite technique) and

tionship between body weight, foot position, and direction.

my worst (banging on a car in the intersection and flipping a

Fortunately, the dancers I learned among were all skilled in

driver off). The footage also shows the reactions of the pass-

self-preservation. Now, I charge through the streets and sub-

ersby: expressions of shock and sometimes anger as I zoom

ways like a tank, riding confidently, quickly—some would

past, descend backward into the subway, and generally go

say aggressively. In all my years, my only mishaps have been

about my life.

caused by others’ responses to me. Dodging people on the

My intent was to show the ways that I understand the

street is a pleasurable way to use my technical dance skills,

movement of the street and the movement of the stage as

and sometimes, I share those onstage.

being on a continuum with regard to technique and physical

Making Where Good Souls Fear is a documentary short

82  Alice Sheppard

movement pleasure. I wanted to show the pleasure I experi-

ence daily as my wheels carve paths through the city of New

abled? Daniel and I have discussed this time and again; the

York. As it turned out, the dance and the video both initiated

street figures in our relationship as a site of questioning who

a conversation about the unanticipated body, the nature of

we are and how we relate to others in the world. He recog-

wheeled movement, and the politics of mobility in the dance

nizes that the rules are different for us both. He is a white,

and the public imaginations.6

cisgendered, masculine-presenting, six-foot-plus being. It is

I have been struck time and again by the reception of

true. He could not behave as I do. And yet his frustration is

some of these scenes. Danielle Peers, a wheelchair user,

not personal; it seems more a response to the reminder that

collaborator, and friend, observes, “The video captures the

the commons are not common and that there is nothing

obstacle course that emerges every time I wheel the streets

he can do to find equity in the situation except stand back.

of any large city. The unending bags and butts at face level,

Daniel stands back. Sometimes, I think he is embarrassed,

the unexplained need for bipeds to stand on curb cuts, the

particularly when we travel abroad. At other times, I feel he

inevitable stairs and stares.”7 I have been upbraided by non-

is afraid that someone will respond with rage to an incident

disabled people for not being nice enough or considerate

of being “cut up.”

enough of the other people on the street. Daniel Dulitz,

The rules of the sidewalk are constantly changing, and

who has accompanied me in many similar real-life street

they are different for different people. A jogger faces one

adventures, writes,

set of expectations, a scooter another, a distracted parent

A sidewalk is a commons. To protect it, cooperative behavioral norms have grown up. It’s rude to use a sidewalk in a way that prevails upon others to move. As a fast

with a stroller still another.9 All these are complicated by others’ perceptions of race, gender, and class. It is certainly possible that pity (or the perception that I am a vulnerable

walker and a runner, I’m often slowed by people in front

member of society) gives me more space to break certain

of me, but walking behind until I can find a wider pass-

rules; who would hit a disabled person in public? That said,

ing place is just how it is. Pushy pedestrians may get their

I would contend that I do not get away scot-free. People

way, but leave in their wakes wry glances among the dis-

swear at me, curse me, and yell at me. Some scream in

placed strangers. Such norm-breaking would eventually

shock when they see me (I always scream back). Some even

cause a confrontation were I to do it, and it would make the sidewalk an unpleasant and even dangerous place to be were many to do it.8

attempt to shove me out of the way, often to the detriment of other pedestrians. No, I do not get away with it at all. Rather, I believe, the fact that I move this way brings down

Am I getting away with something? Is there some pity-

greater ire. It is as if I have broken the rules of expecta-

based extra permissiveness granted me because I am dis-

tions for disabled people, in addition to smashing the rules

Talking of Walking  83

of the street. These interactions are unpleasant and often

impact on others. I experience the carving and curving of

disconcerting.

my wheels as being a part of my dance practice, a nonstudio

Al Spivey also recognizes what she calls the “rules of

expression of movement. It is personally liberating and exhil-

engagement” for the street. In her world, the regulated social

arating. It would be dangerous, perhaps, if I did not have the

contract of walking yields to a different kind of theater.

skill, but I do. So I tend to think of it as no better or worse

“Engagement” delineates a much more active set of encoun-

than running on the sidewalk.10

ters and requires a different performance. “Engagement”

Although these scenes were shot specifically for a film,

suggests that at any moment some street interactions might

I feel they accurately represent my moments in daily life.

become hostile. All of a sudden, the flâneur’s walks might

That said, other wheelchair users have asked whether these

become theaters of war. In the beginning of our relationship,

moments were “green-screened.” This last comment gives me

I would charge ahead, impatient at her slowness; she would

pause: How did we arrive at the point where free-wheeling is

worry about why I would have to be so “New York.” From

so unusual that it registers as artificial? I recognize, of course,

behind, Al would follow, watching the waves of shock in my

that I am being somewhat disingenuous here. This is my life,

wake. We would talk for hours about my “rudeness.” As our

but that does not mean I do not pay attention to the implica-

relationship advanced, my habit of using the bike lane or

tions of the way I behave or my reasons for being a particular

simply the roadway became more worrisome: Al began leap-

way. My wheeling style did not just happen. It is a consciously

ing into the street to interpose herself between me and any

developed style and carefully learned technique. I am fully

oncoming traffic—human or vehicular. I would fly down the

aware that it is politically challenging; that is, in part, why

curb cut and skid to a halt. In my mind, I was waiting off the

I wanted this movement to be filmed. My daily pedestrian

edge, as New Yorkers do. I knew that I could cross the street

movement upends the imagination of wheeled movement

more quickly than the “walkies”; why should I wait? Al saw

as bound, limited, and slow. My movement stakes a radi-

only danger; she would try and signal my presence to turning

cal claim for freedom and a new politics of movement. But

traffic by standing ahead of me. At the same time, she would

whatever it says to an outsider, I continue to be surprised by

push back less-aware humans, with a fierce protectiveness.

what I learn for myself. Indeed, the greatest provocation of

Talking in a group from the bike lane, I would turn to find her

the film for me is the realization that I could deepen my com-

suddenly roadside, softly attempting to walk beside me so I

munity roots; the politics, imagination, experience of rolling,

could do my thing safely.

wheeling, or whatever we call it do not belong to me alone.

I am struck by the tensions in perspective. Danielle Peers

This understanding should not have come as a grand

recognizes the barriers; Daniel Dulitz and Al Spivey, the

insight. When I first began using a wheelchair, a friend, Nick,

84  Alice Sheppard

took me out. I learned some important skills: how to go up

a straight line and to zigzag when necessary. Laurel would

and down a curb when there was no cut, how to carry a coffee

tell you that my zig is actually nonexistent, that I yell at peo-

cup while moving, how to create an invisible defense shield.

ple, and then they zag. I would agree with the yell but not

His greatest gift was a walk in which we moved down the

the characterization of my zag. I certainly clap at people on

street together. He showed me how to lengthen my stroke,

phones, yip, call “Yo!” But always, I am ready to move at the

and then, somewhere along the way, he silently synced his

last possible minute. Usually, though, people move before I

stroke with mine. Draw back and breathe, hand to rim, push,

do. Together, heads down, shorter, sharper pushes, we slam

release, float, and repeat. Silently, we flowed down the street.

through the pedestrian traffic, mostly too fast to hear the

I listened to the creaks of his chair and mine. Creaks of chairs

inane commentary behind us. It is exhilarating to feel my

and sounds of strokes are as unique to us as gaits; I know who

body work in this way; rush hour in the Union Square sub-

is coming by the sounds of their pushes. I was overwhelmed

way is a frustrating jigsaw. Times Square with its aimless

by a sense of comfort and community. I was not alone.

tourists confirms our skills, but we mostly avoid it because

I do this now with other chair users. It gives me great

we are penned in by humans. People’s reactions remind us

joy to pull alongside them, silently match their pace, the

that disabled people are supposed to be what the commu-

force of their stroke, its quality and timing. We may talk of

nity sometimes calls “cheery cripples.”11 We are supposed to

other things, or we may wheel in silence. To me, there are

move through the world with long-suffering smiles, getting

few greater acts of care than the power a wheelchair user

on with our business, uncomplainingly making the best of

can give another. I rest my arm on her powerchair handle

hard circumstances. Laurel and I blast our way through the

or on her arm rest; she looks at me and hits the joystick. I

streets and the stereotypes. A heady whiff of sweat, as we

bear down, giving my arm and torso a little rigidity. We move

round the corner and take the last brutal uphill push.

together under her steam. “Watch for the bump,” she calls. I lift my casters; we flow on together.

I rely on my wheelchair as a way to interpret the world. Its titanium and carbon-fiber frame and smooth tires interpose

I share my dance experience of the street with only one

themselves between my body and the ground and return

other person—Laurel Lawson—though I believe she learned

to me a whirl of information about the surface. I read the

her skills in wheelchair basketball. Our best time so far for

contours of the sidewalk as requests for muscular effort or

the thirty-minute walk to the studio is nineteen minutes.

opportunities to flow freely downhill. I know the bitter irony

She would tell you that her technique is better than mine,

that deep carpet imagined as luxurious will in fact make

because I head straight for people, whereas she plans to scal-

getting to my hotel room treacherous; that long, soft grass

lop around them. I deny this, of course; my plan is to ride

is a barrier to participation; that pavements slope wickedly

Talking of Walking  85

downhill toward the road, requiring one side to work harder

detached, even unimplicated in its complexities. It is not by

than the other. Sensations travel from the ground through

chance that the flâneur is a white man; for only white (cis-

the frame into my body. The cartography of the world is dif-

gendered, straight) men have the privilege to pass through

ferent to me now; there’s a new and enforced intimacy with

the streets without experiencing harassment. Prior to be-

the natural terrains and built surfaces that I travel. I read

coming disabled, I refused to react to the glances, smiles,

the contours of the earth as requests for muscular effort; I

comments about my body, my smile, my way of being in the

know slopes that those of you seeing the world visually and

world. Becoming disabled changed the rules of harassment

experiencing it on legs cannot recognize. I know the routes

as disability changed my desirability, and I became privy to

that have curb cuts, do not have tree roots or cracks, are less

new rules of the street.

steep, tend to have less dog shit or chewing gum. I know the

Rule #1. Walking is the sign of faking. Never break the

physical labor it takes to go one way versus another, and I live

walking rule. And if you do walk, do not walk well. Both the

by that knowledge.

popular and some medical imaginations prefer the idea of a

I am not alone in this. I and other wheelchair users have

bright line. Able to walk : not able to walk :: paralyzed : not

internal maps of the cities and buildings we encounter. We

paralyzed :: wheelchair : no wheelchair. The internet is filled

know where there are carpets, poor pavements, accessible

with outrage by nondisabled people who fear that the fak-

bathrooms, escalators, stairs, lifts that you will not find on

ers are somehow getting away with something and with fear

Google. I know, too, the socio-geography of places where I

by disabled people who have been told by medical profes-

am liable to experience racial, disability, and gender harass-

sionals that their need is not genuine and who have expe-

ment and spaces where I can pass unobtrusively. Mine is not

rienced some kind of harassment or doubt from strangers,

the land of the cyborg, the alien simultaneously greater and

family, and friends. I found myself unwittingly caught in a

less than human. Mine is the realm created by the embodi-

spat between the New York Post and the New York Times.

ment of wheels. My chair interposes itself between me and

Under the headline “Walk of Shame,” the Post front page pic-

the physical world, shaping what I experience, pushing me

tured and named a wheelchair user it “caught” walking.12 The

to question what I know and how I embody that knowledge,

article went on to accuse him of a variety of things, includ-

asking me to reconsider the meaning of my experience.

ing fraud. The vitriol and inaccuracy of the piece prompted

Literary and cultural studies’ meditations on walking in-

Peter Catapano (the editor behind the New York Times’ dis-

variably mention Charles Baudelaire’s flâneur, a figure who

ability series) to write an equally powerful op-ed in which he

can wander the streets of Paris as a kind of neutral observer.

decried this binary and named me as an example of wheel-

The flâneur cares about the world he sees, but he seems

chair users who can walk.13

86  Alice Sheppard

Rule #2. Disability and race will combine in unexpected

person to be out enjoying themselves without some kind of

ways, revealing America’s systems of power. Despite broad

institutional or organizational context to frame them. This

acceptance, the folk etymology about “handicapped” com-

response is a problem of interpretation. Societal bias means

ing from “cap-in-hand,” as a way of referring to the socially

that people do not know how to interpret what they see. But

constructed image of disabled people as “beggars,” is not

they do, nonetheless, feel free to share their unwanted and

linguistically accurate.14 Nonetheless, the association rou-

inaccurate opinions. No matter how many of us there are, we

tinely informed my experiences of New York’s streets. Once,

cannot pass without comment. “Hey, are you racing? Slow

when hailing a taxi, I pushed confidently into the street and

down!” My experience of harassment has changed. Prior to

stuck out my arm. The taxi slowed; I surged forward; the

disability, I was rarely free of sexual harassment. Disability

driver hurled two quarters at me and sped off. Unsure as

changed that and, indeed, how harassment operates. At first,

to what had just happened, I picked up the coins and kept

transitioning into disability switched off the visibility of my

them. I felt ashamed for reasons that still are not clear. This

sexuality. There were almost no lascivious or personal com-

happened before the prevalence of ride-sharing services

ments about my body, hair, or smile; I went from fending off

like Uber but in the middle of yet another round of New

unwanted invitations by telling their issuer that I play for the

York’s public conversations about taxis and Blackness. I am

other side to being completely invisible.

a Black woman. When I was nondisabled, I was refused rides

As I gained confidence in wheeled movement, disability

frequently—I assume for reasons of race. Now, it is hard to

harassment began. “Speedy! Slow down! You should get a

tell why a driver zooms away from me. But disability changes

speeding ticket. What’s wrong with you? You’re too young

how people respond. When I was a nondisabled person,

to be in that chair. You don’t look disabled to me.” Then,

however, white people would watch me fail to hail a taxi

one day, my body returned. Except now, my beauty was not

without intervening. Now, people happily yell at the driver

its own; it was a “despite my disability” kind of attractive-

and/or volunteer to hail a taxi themselves and then hand

ness: “You’re too beautiful to be in that chair. Do you have

the ride over to me.

someone to take care of you? I’d take care of you . . . [leer].

Rule #3. No one (or perhaps most nondisabled people)

You have such a nice smile (or eyes or face).” The latter is

expects a visibly disabled person, and more than one is dis-

always said in such a way that the “despite” is loudly unsaid.

concerting. Certain parts of disability community have a joke

“You are so lucky to have a friend like that.” One memorable

that runs along the lines of, “One is an object of pity/curios-

night, a voice sang out to Al, “Is that yours? Take care of it.”

ity; two is a race; three, an institutional outing.” No one (or

I bristled—that? She laughed. Colorism and gender stereo-

perhaps not many nondisabled people) expects a disabled

typing meant that she was often mistaken for a professional

Talking of Walking  87

carer. It had been a while since anyone had recognized the

scious attention to it. The second my mind thought, “That’s

intimacy between us. Racial bias, disability harassment, sex-

it!” I had lost whatever “it” was. At the same time, if I was

ual harassment, and a deeply unsettling combination of all

going to just run, I also felt that I couldn’t run while estab-

of the former. My particular style of wheeling the streets is

lishing a speed contrast in the work. If I was going to run,

antidote to the pain, rage, and humiliation I feel. My dance

that movement had to be pure and called for by the com-

and films aestheticize the street onstage.

munity of the stage. Paxton’s title drew me in immediately. I began to investigate notions of “satisfying” and “love.” I did

Walking on Wheels Walking as a disabled person is a highly complicated under-

not know what he meant by these words, but I knew that wheeled movement is deeply pleasurable. I set myself the task of finding that pleasure.

taking, and yet pedestrian movement can be art. Steve Pax-

Imagine yourself seated in a chair, supported through

ton’s Satisfyin’ Lover asks us as performers to walk from one

your spine. You are held, balanced, relaxed. A cool, smooth

side of the stage to the other. We may stop and hold still or

titanium rim rests in the crook of your fingers, or perhaps

perhaps take a seat. Our timing is self-chosen. I cannot find

you have a finger on a knobby tire. Your feet relax on a foot-

adequate language to describe the instructions for how we

rest, your legs comfortable before you. As you breathe in and

performers are supposed to walk this walk. I want to avoid

out, you are becoming aware that your chair is moving with

“natural, authentic, artifice.” It is somehow all of these and

you, revving itself up, as it were. You pull back your shoul-

none. For my part, I learned that my most meaningful passes

der blades and press down on wheels, your arms begin to

happened when I somehow managed to let the significance

straighten, the chair begins to move, you open your hands,

of the movement emerge and develop without paying con-

let go of your wheels, and fly, blissfully, free.

88  Alice Sheppard

9 Why Teach the Arts Beyond Specious Claims Ellen Winner

Should our schools include the teaching of the arts as a core

because they help students master core subjects that every-

subject, as important as the three Rs—reading, writing, and

one accepts as important—mathematical and verbal liter-

arithmetic? The presence of the arts in the curriculum is sub-

acy, history, social studies, and so forth.

ject to challenge as budgets tighten. The arts are often con-

For example, according to a 1995 report by the President’s

sidered a frill, an extra that is nice but not necessary. With

Committee on the Arts and Humanities, “teaching the arts

this view, it’s easy to make the case for cutting the arts to

has a significant effect on overall success in school.”1 The

make up for budget shortfalls.

report justifies this claim by noting that both verbal and quantitative SAT scores are higher for high school students

Specious Claims

who take arts courses than for those who take none. Similarly, the Music Educators National Conference publishes

To fight against any weakening of the role of the arts in our

data showing that SAT scores of students are positively

schools, American arts advocates (such as Americans for the

related to the number of music courses taken.

Arts, as well as those writing for the President’s Committee

These claims have seeped into American consciousness.

on the Arts and Humanities and the Bulletin of the Music Edu-

A Gallup poll in 2000, conducted for the National Associa-

cators National Conference) have adopted an instrumental

tion of Music Merchants, surveyed people about their beliefs

justification. Their argument is that the arts are important

in the benefits of music education. Eighty-one percent of

89

respondents reported that participating in school music is associated with better grades and test scores and helps stu-

Correlational Studies

dents do better in math and science. But what this finding

We first examined the correlational studies—studies that

really reveals is that we value the arts only as a means to a

compared the academic profile of students who do and do

more important end—enhancing core skills.

not study the arts either in school or in after-school programs. For example, we included in the analysis James Cat-

The Evidence

terall’s study, in which he demonstrated that students who are highly involved in the arts in middle and high school out­

There is a problem here. Despite the common view that

perform those who are not involved in the arts on a multi-

arts education boosts test scores and basic literacies, the

tude of academic indicators and that this relationship holds

evidence for this view is either weak or nonexistent. With

even for students in the lowest socioeconomic status (SES)

my colleague Lois Hetland, I published a volume of studies

quartile of the United States.4 These students earned higher

examining what existing research on academic outcomes

grades and test scores than those who were not arts involved.

of arts education shows.2 We located all studies since 1950

These “high arts” students were also less likely to drop out of

testing the claim that arts education leads to higher test

high school and watched fewer hours of television than did

scores and academic grades, subjecting these to a series

the students who were not involved in the arts. We included

of meta-analyses—statistical summaries of findings across

Shirley Brice Heath’s study showing that at-risk students who

many similar studies. I report here on the study by Mon-

participate in after-school arts organizations for at least nine

ica Cooper and me, which synthesized studies that exam-

hours a week over the course of at least a year are ahead of

ined the relationship between studying the arts (type of

a random national sample of students on a wide range of

art course was not specified) and verbal and mathematical

academic indicators: their school attendance is higher, they

achievement.3 These studies do not allow us to determine

read more, and they win more academic awards.5 And we

which forms of arts students studied. Thus, all we can say

included data from the College Board (1987–97) revealing

about this body of data is that it examines the effects of

that the average SAT scores of students with four years of

studying the arts (which could mean intensive study of some

high school arts were higher than the scores of those who

combination of visual arts, music, drama, and dance) on

took no arts courses at all in high school.

academic achievement.

We performed three meta-analyses synthesizing the correlational studies, each on a different academic outcome (a composite of verbal and quantitative outcomes combined;

90  Ellen Winner

verbal outcomes; quantitative outcomes). All three correla-

data, and we compared the likelihood of arts-involved ver-

tional analyses showed a positive relationship between aca-

sus sports-involved students winning an academic award.

demic achievement and studying the arts.

While both groups were significantly more likely to win an

These three meta-analyses show that students in the

academic award than a random national sample of students

United States who choose to study the arts are also high

were, we found no difference between these two groups.

academic achievers. But because the studies on which these

Eighty-three percent of the 143 arts-involved students and

meta-analyses were based were correlational in design, they

81 percent of the sports-involved students won an academic

allow no causal inferences. Does art study cause higher

award, compared to 64 percent of the national sample. The

scores? Or do students with higher scores take more art?

finding that students intensively involved in sports and in

Or is there a third variable, such as parental involvement,

arts both did well academically is consistent with (although

that causes both greater arts study and higher test scores?

does not prove) the possibility that these are highly moti-

We cannot tell. Unfortunately, such studies have often been

vated students to begin with. Perhaps their high energy is

used erroneously to support the claim that studying the arts

what impels these students to involve themselves in an after-

causes test scores to rise.

school activity in a serious way as well as to do well in school.

One plausible noncausal interpretation of the findings is that high academic achievers (no matter what their SES) may

It is also possible that these students get “hooked,” whether on sports or arts, and so channel their energy productively.

be more likely to choose to study the arts than low academic

Some support for the high-energy hypothesis comes

achievers do—for several reasons. High academic achievers

from a study by Elliot Eisner.6 He compared the SAT advan-

may attend schools that are strong in both academics and

tage of students taking four versus one year of arts to that of

the arts; they may come from families that value both aca-

students taking four versus one year of an elective academic

demics and the arts; or they may have high energy and thus

subject such as science or a foreign language. Students who

have time for and interest in both academics and the arts.

specialized in any subject, whether arts or an academic elec-

One piece of evidence for the high-energy hypothesis

tive, all had higher SAT scores than those who had only one

comes from the study by Heath, which included not only

year in that subject (with academic specialization yielding a

students involved in after-school arts organizations but also

far greater advantage than arts specialization). For example,

those in two other kinds of after-school organizations, those

in 1998, while students with four years of arts had verbal SAT

focusing on sports and on community service. All three

scores that were 40 points higher than those with only one

groups of students were intensively involved in their choice

year of arts, those with four years of a foreign language had

of organization. Heath allowed us access to her unpublished

verbal SAT scores that were 121 points higher than those with

Why Teach the Arts  91

only one year of a foreign language. Similarly, while students

students who take the arts in high school to prepare for a

with four years of arts had mathematics SAT scores that were

national exam that includes the arts attain the same educa-

23 points higher than those with only one year of arts, those

tional level as those with no arts electives.8 This study, which

with four years of science had mathematics SAT scores that

controlled for students’ socioeconomic status, shows that

were 57 points higher than those with only one year of sci-

in the Netherlands, taking the arts in high school does not

ence. Students who specialize or focus might have higher

predict the ultimate educational level these students attain.

energy than those who do not, which could account for their

In the United Kingdom, John Harland and colleagues found

higher academic achievement. It is also possible, however,

that the greater the percentage of arts courses taken in high

that the very process of sticking to something (whether art

school, the poorer the performance on national exams at the

or an academic subject) leads to better academic perfor-

end of secondary school.9 Harland et al. explained this find-

mance in other areas.

ing by noting that in the United Kingdom, the only students

Another reason for the strong correlation found between

who are permitted to prepare for more than one arts subject

arts study and SAT scores could be that high achievers study

for their secondary school exams are those who are academ-

the arts in order to enhance their chances of admission to

ically weak. This policy contrasts sharply with educational

selective colleges. The academic profile of students who

policy in the United States. Academically weak students

choose to take the arts has risen consistently over the past

in the United States are steered into remedial academic

decade. When we plotted the relationship between SAT score

courses, not into the arts. The comparison between the find-

and taking four years of arts in high school (compared to tak-

ings in the United States and those in the Netherlands and

ing no arts), we found that this relationship grew stronger

the United Kingdom suggests that the relationship between

each year beginning with the first year in which the data are

arts study and academic achievement is not a causal one but

available (1988) and continuing through 1999, the last year of

instead reflects different cultural values about who should

data we examined.”7 Thus, the comparative SAT advantage

study the arts.

for students with four years of arts grew greater each year.

We reasoned that even if self-selection (high achievers

As our most selective colleges become ever more competi-

who choose to study the arts) explains the correlation in the

tive, students may feel they need to build résumés that show

United States, there might still be some causal force at work.

strength in a nonacademic area such as an art form.

Might it not be that once high achievers self-select into the

An examination of the relationship between arts study

arts, the arts then foster cognitive skills that translate into

and academic achievement in other countries proved sur-

even higher academic performance? We were able to test

prising. In the Netherlands, Folkert Haanstra found that

this hypothesis by examining the data in James Catterall’s

92  Ellen Winner

study mentioned earlier.10 Catterall reported longitudinal

compared to the growth of similar students who were not

data on students who self-selected into the arts in the eighth

exposed to any special arts program.

grade and remained highly involved in the arts through the

We identified fifteen studies testing the hypothesis that

twelfth grade. If both factors were at work, we would expect

mathematics skills improve as a consequence of studying

the strength of the relationship between arts involvement

the arts and twenty-four studies testing the hypothesis that

and academic performance to rise over the years. But we

verbal skills improve. Of these latter twenty-four studies,

found no change in this relationship. Although these data

nineteen examined arts integration programs (where the

come from only one study, it was a very large-scale study:

arts were integrated with academic subjects such as social

there were 3,720 students who were highly involved in the

studies, for example), and five examined the arts studied as

arts from the eighth through twelfth grades and the same

separate subjects. Here is the bottom-line finding: we found

number who were not particularly involved in the arts over

no significant effects. Thus, we had to conclude that we had

that period. The data fail to support the view that the arts

uncovered no evidence that studying the arts causes aca-

are what caused the academic achievement of these stu-

demic skills to become stronger. We also found no difference

dents to be higher than that of students who were relatively

in the effects of the arts when taught as separate disciplines

uninvolved in the arts.

compared to the effects of the arts when integrated into academic subjects. We can see that there is (yet) no evidence that study-

Experimental Studies

ing the arts, or studying an academic curriculum in which

While the correlational studies, and the meta-analyses syn-

the arts are somehow integrated, results in higher verbal

thesizing them, do not permit causal inferences, studies

and mathematics achievement, at least as measured by test

with an experimental design do allow such inferences. We

scores, grades, or winning academic awards.

therefore also examined two bodies of experimental studies testing the causal claim that when students study the arts, their academic achievement rises. These studies compared

Another Approach: Studio Thinking

academic performance before and after studying the arts.

When we published our findings, we were met with out-

Typically, these studies examined students at the elemen-

rage. We were told that we should never have carried out

tary school level who had studied the arts for a year, both

these studies, or at least should never have published our

as separate disciplines and as integrated into the academic

findings, as we were likely to weaken the already fragile role

curriculum. The academic growth of these students was then

of the arts in our schools. We replied that we wanted to

Why Teach the Arts  93

change the conversation about the role of the arts in edu-

or mathematical reasoning. Six of these skills are broad skills

cation. If we justify arts education only instrumentally, then

that are important in other areas of the school curriculum,

once the truth is out that there is, in fact, no instrumental

although whether the acquisition of these habits of mind in

link, superintendents will have good reason to cut the arts.

a studio art class leads to transfer of these skills to other kinds

Instead, we argued, let’s figure out what the arts really do

of school subjects remains to be determined.

teach—and make the case for the arts on those grounds. We asked this question about the visual arts, in the hope

Observing Closely

that it would lead other researchers to ask the same ques-

Visual arts students are trained to look, a task far more

tion of the other arts.

complex than a layperson might think. Seeing is framed by

Ask a person on the street, and you will be told that arts

expectation, and expectation often gets in the way of per-

classes teach art. A drawing class teaches you how to draw;

ceiving the world accurately. For example, when asked to

a music class teaches you how to sing. But what other ways

draw a human face, most people will set the eyes near the

of thinking do the arts instill? To find out, we carried out an

top of the head. But this perception does not correspond to

observational study of five visual arts classrooms in two local

how a face is really proportioned, as students learn: our eyes

Boston-area schools, one public, the Boston Arts Academy,

divide the head nearly at the center line. If asked to draw a

and one independent, the Walnut Hill School for the Arts,11

whole person, people tend to draw the hands much smaller

followed by a study of elementary and middle school arts

than the face—again, an inaccurate perception. The power

classes.12 Classes were videotaped and photographed; teach-

of our expectations explains why beginners draw eyes too

ers and their students were interviewed as well. The research

high and hands too small. Observational drawing requires

goal was to find out what visual arts teachers were trying to

that one break away from stereotypes and see accurately

teach (besides the techniques of drawing, painting, working

and directly.

with ceramics, etc.).

Over and over, teachers in the study told their students

After coding videos of teaching (two independent coders

to look at the model in relation to the essential geometry

achieved high interrater reliability), we found four potentially

of its form. To be able to see clearly by looking past one’s

generalizable habits of mind and two potentially generaliz-

preconceptions is central to a variety of professions, such as

able working styles that were being taught at the same time

medicine and law. Naturalists must be able to tell one species

as students were learning the craft of painting and drawing.

from another; climatologists need to see atmospheric pat-

None of these ways of thinking (described in the following

terns in data as well as in clouds. Writers need keen observa-

sections) would be picked up on a standardized test of verbal

tional skills, too, as do doctors. Observational acuity is one

94  Ellen Winner

of the possible skills that may, if learned, enhance perfor-

Mathematics (NCTM) and the National Science Education

mance in core areas of the curriculum—especially likely in

Standards both see envisioning as essential to problem solv-

the sciences.

ing, but art classes are where this skill is taught most directly and intensively.

Envisioning What Is Not Seen Another pattern of thought that was observed as being cul-

Expressing Meaning

tivated in art classes is envisioning—forming mental images

In addition, students in the study were urged to move beyond

internally and then using them to guide actions and solve

technical skill to create works rich in emotion, atmosphere,

problems. “How much white space will you be leaving in

and their own personal voice or vision. As one of the drawing

your self-portrait?” asked Kathleen Marsh at the Boston Arts

teachers said, “What hits you first when you look at a work

Academy.13 “How many other kinds of orange can you get?”

of art is not its technique but its evocative properties.”15 This

asked Beth Balliro, also at the Boston Arts Academy, as she

observation suggests another line of inquiry that is rich for

nudged her student to move beyond one shade.14 In fact,

further investigation: perhaps learning to express in art spills

teachers gave students a great deal of practice in this area:

over into evocative writing.

What would that look like if you got rid of this form, changed that line, or altered the background? All were questions

Engaging and Persisting

repeatedly voiced by the teachers, which prompted students

During the research study, students worked on projects over

to imagine what was not there.

sustained periods of time and were expected to find mean-

Like observing, envisioning is a skill with rewards far

ingful problems and persevere through frustration. Clearly,

beyond the art world. Einstein said that he thought in images.

persistence is important in all areas of school and life, but

A historian has to imagine events and motivations from the

whether persistence learned in art classes generalizes beyond

past; the novelist, an entire setting. Chemists need to envi-

those particular classes has yet to be proved.

sion molecular structures and rotate them. The inventor—an envisioner par excellence—must dream up ideas to be turned

Stretching and Exploring

into real solutions. Envisioning is important in everyday life

Not surprisingly, the study found that art classes emphasized

as well, whether for remembering faces as they change over

innovation as a central behavior. Teachers encourage stu-

time or for finding our way around a new city or for assem-

dents to innovate through exploration—to experiment, take

bling children’s toys. Envisioning is recognized as important

risks, and just muck around and see what can be learned.

in other school subjects: The National Council of Teachers of

In ceramics, for example, capitalizing on error is a major

Why Teach the Arts  95

consideration, says Balliro, at the Boston Arts Academy. To

contrast to the reputation of the arts as mainly about self-­

a student struggling to stick clay together, she says, “There

expression and technique, the teachers in the study talked

are specific ways to do it, but I want you guys to play around

far more often about decisions, choices, and understand-

in this first project. Just go with that and see what happens,

ing than about feelings. To develop a habit of reflection is

and maybe you’ll learn a new technique.”16 Teachers told stu-

important for all academic endeavors, but, again, whether

dents not to worry about mistakes but instead to let mis-

such a metacognitive habit learned in art classes generalizes

takes lead to unexpected discoveries. Scholars in all fields

outside those classes must still be tested.

are likely to agree that a willingness to play and explore is important for discovery, but, again, whether the habit of exploration learned in art classes generalizes beyond those classes has not yet been demonstrated.

Concluding Thoughts I have described ways of thinking that I believe reflect the habits of mind used by visual artists. Students should study

Reflection

the arts in order to learn to think like artists, just as they

Most people don’t think of art class as a place where reflec-

should study history to learn to think like historians. Each

tion is central but instead think of it as a setting where

discipline has its own way of thinking, and formal education

students take a break from thinking. But during the study,

should introduce students to all the major disciplines. The

the teachers frequently pushed their students to engage in

habits of mind we observed being taught in art classes are

reflective self-evaluation. They were asked to step back, ana-

important and valuable ways of thinking that capture what

lyze, judge, and sometimes reconceive their projects entirely.

is essential about thinking like an artist.

Teachers regularly asked students to reflect on their art: Is

However, as noted, these thinking dispositions may or

it working? Is it what you intended to do? Can you make

may not be used by students outside the context in which

this part better? What’s next? In group critiques, students

they were learned. If skills do transfer, they may do so only

also learned to evaluate the work of their peers. Making

when teachers explicitly teach for transfer. The study of

such judgments is a qualitative and sophisticated mental

transfer of learning from one domain to another has a long

endeavor with no clear right and wrong answers: the art

and vexed history, and one should never assume that a skill

educator Elliot Eisner calls this making judgments “in the

that “sounds” general is in fact generalized. Only careful

absence of rule.”17

research can tease apart those habits of mind that general-

Many people might be surprised to find such systematic emphasis on thinking and perception in an art room. In

96  Ellen Winner

ize from those that do not—and the circumstances under which transfer occurs.

But whether or not transfer occurs should be irrelevant to the question, Why teach the arts? No person seriously

tion to their workday,’ said Nicholas Fox Weber, the executive director of the Josef and Anni Albers Foundation.”19

involved in the arts is motivated by a desire to gain verbal

Why can’t the arts be justified with regard to their intrinsic

and mathematical skills. How, then, do artists justify their

value? No one appears to be insisting that math and science

involvement in art?

and reading must be justified with regard to their spillover

Here is how the composer Christopher Rouse explained

effects on other academic subjects (or nonacademic out-

his dedication to music: “Without music my life would have

comes, like good citizenship). I believe these subjects are

had no meaning. It has not only informed my life or enriched

important in their own right. Why do we treat the arts as

my life; it has given me life and a reason for living. I’ll never

second-class citizens who earn their right to citizenship only

be able to explain why these vibrating frequencies have the

if they are a servant of academic success?

power to transport us to levels of consciousness that defy

What the quotes from Rouse and Albers suggest is that

words—I simply accept the fact that music has this mirac-

the arts are important for human flourishing. They give joy

ulous power for me and for myriad other people I have

and meaning to our lives. I will end with words frequently

known.”18 And here is what the painter Josef Albers felt was

ascribed to Winston Churchill (whether correctly or not)

art’s impact: “‘This is what art was for him: something that

when he was asked to cut funding for the arts in order to

could affect you, maybe give a little bit of joy to the lives of

secure more funding for the war effort: “Then what would

those people rushing to their trains or rushing out of the sta-

we be fighting for?”

Why Teach the Arts  97

10 A Human Beauty, a Human Risk The Arts within Us Catharine R. Stimpson

On March 8, 2020, I moderated a panel at the Skirball The-

protesting his innocence, Josef K. visits an artist, the court

ater of New York University that preceded a marathon read-

painter, the slobby Titorelli. His small atelier/bedroom is

ing of Franz Kafka’s The Trial.

fetid, disheveled, suffocatingly hot. A flock of sexually aggres-

Little did we know it on that Sunday, but we were one

sive girls clamor for entrance. Titorelli’s competent-enough

of the last live performances in New York for months to

paintings mythologize Justice and feed the vanity of local

come. Shortly afterward, the city began to close public ven-

judges. Yet he tells K. some hard truths about the absurd,

ues in order to contain the coronavirus. What we did know

grotesque legal world into which he has fallen.

was that Skirball was to have presented a production of the

Together, the panel and this passage illustrate con-

novel, directed by a major Polish theater figure, Krystian

tradictory realities about the arts. They seek the refining

Lupa, but the Polish Cultural Ministry had rescinded a grant

heat of truths. Doing so, they risk challenging political, cul-

and doomed the American visit of his company. Given his

tural, and religious authorities. In turn, these authorities

situation, and the many acts of censorship—and worse—by

can defund, censor, attack, and seek to obliterate the arts.

today’s authoritarian governments, the panel’s theme was

Individual artists must be marginalized, silenced, jailed, or

“Art in Danger, Artists at Risk.”1

assassinated. However, the arts can also mythologize, trans-

Preparing for the panel, I reread a central passage in The

forming truths into fictions, poetry, and legends. Kafka did

Trial. Seeking advice about his arrest while simultaneously

so. Some of these fictions, like Kafka’s, are both exhilarat-

98

ing and creatively dangerous. Other fictions, like Titorelli’s

and hear each other, Italians go out on their balconies and

paintings, are hackwork that give comfort to the powerful

roofs. They play instruments and sing. In Florence, the voice

and comfortable.

of one tenor, Maurizio Marchini, rings out as he performs

The arts have such contradictory capacities because they

“Nessun Dorma” from Puccini’s opera Turandot. The whole

go to work in different times and places with different struc-

nation is making music. The fact that one has more skill and

tures of power, genres, and opportunities. Artists do contra-

training, that he illustrates my fourth stage, enhances rather

dictory things because not all of them are Franz Kafkas or

than diminishes solidarity.

Krystian Lupas. Not all art makers embody the better angels

As these four stages evolve, the individual artist may

of our nature. Yet I offer one generalization that holds across

seem super-human or supra-human. The arts as a whole may

cultures about the arts and that roots and grounds them in a

seem different enough to become alien. Yet, as I tell some of

broadly shared human experience: every art represents four

my classes, “Don’t be scared off. In the beginning, all of the

stages of a four-stage trajectory.

arts build on what we all can do—unless life has made us

In the first stage, and foremost to my argument, every

radically physically or mentally different.” As I listen to Ella

art calls on an ordinary human activity that nearly each and

Fitzgerald or Joan Sutherland, I say to myself, realistically, “I

every one of us develops from birth. Exercising that activ-

can never sound like that.” However, I can open my mouth

ity, individuals can play and improvise. No baby crawls or

and make sort-of musical sounds. Indeed, I have a picture

babbles in exactly the same way. In the second stage, the

of myself as a toddler sort-of singing a holiday carol with a

artist fuses that ordinary activity with our equally ordinary

fine determination.

and common making of symbols and endowing them with

In this respect, the evolution of a four-fold trajectory of

cultural and social meanings. My peculiar species is indeed

activity, the artist has some parallels with superb athletes. As

Homo symbolicum. In the third stage, the artist may deploy

I watch Serena Williams serve, I say to myself, realistically, “I

still another ordinary capacity, the invention and use of a

can never hit like that.” Williams, like Roger Federer or Rafael

helpful technology. In the fourth and final stage, the artist

Nadal, is creating a world, a way of playing tennis that consti-

creates another world that is interesting enough, arresting

tutes its own new, shimmering, sweaty, memorable contours.

enough, for an audience to want to visit it, and often to live in

Yet I can run and jump and pick up an object to hit another

it, and then to keep it alive for future generations. This fourth

object. Once, I could even walk onto a tennis court and rollick

capacity is what distinguishes the arts and artists.

through three sets. Pathetic though I am in comparison to

An example from spring 2020: The coronavirus is ravaging Italy. To contain it, the country goes into lockdown. To see

Serena Williams, she and I do share the first stages of my fourfold trajectory of artistry. She inhabits the fourth. I do not.

A Human Beauty, a Human Risk  99

Let me revel in particular arts, and each of my readers can

simply STREB. She was a child in a working-class family in

fill in his or her or their own examples after my first. Dance

upstate New York, but her mother made sure she had

evolves from our common human capacity for moving in

ballet lessons.

space. Take Trisha Brown. She represents that capacity and,

However, I have empirical evidence for the national sup-

in the fourth stage, then creates “a dance.” Literature evolves

port of the arts as well—despite federal efforts to defund

from the common human capacity to speak and then, with

them. My first source of evidence is both frivolous and a rec-

training, to deploy writing; music from the common human

ognition of the power of celebrities in our Celebrity Insta-

capacity for vocalization and for devising technologies to

gram Culture. I searched out an internet site about celebrities,

enhance it; performance from the common human capacity

Googling “Artists Who Are Celebrities.” I made discoveries

to relate to others through imitating them and exchanging

beyond all expectations. One particularly rich site lists celeb-

information; visual arts from the common human capacity

rities who are “amazing artists on the side”: James Franco,

to use technologies to replicate and fashion what is before us;

Miley Cyrus, Taylor Swift, Swizz Beatz, David Bowie, Billy

architecture from the common human capacity to assemble

Dee Williams, George W. Bush, and Prince Charles. The site

and reassemble materials. What do babies and toddlers do

also lists celebrities who are arts lovers: Alicia Keys and Swizz

with blocks?

Beatz, Kris Jenner and her daughter Kylie Jenner, Tommy Hil-

At the beginning of my four-stage trajectory, we are all

figer, Beyoncé and Jay Z, and Leonardo DiCaprio.

artists, a premise of vibrant arts education. Support of the

More respectful of science than my whoop-de-do inter-

arts, be it overt or covert, active or passive, should recognize

net rampages, I consulted a 2018 poll from Americans for

this truth as well. I am probably not “an artist” nor a skilled

the Arts. Not only did federal funding find support, but 81

“craftsperson,” but I can understand an artist’s raw mate-

percent of those who were polled believe the arts are a “posi-

rials—because I have used them, too. This comment may

tive experience in the world”; 73 percent believe that the arts

be an ahistorical overgeneralization, but it is true. Perhaps

give them “pure pleasure to experience and participate in”;

many people in the contemporary United States do implic-

69 percent believe the arts “lift me beyond everyday experi-

itly understand my truth, which leads to more support of

ences.” Finally, 91 percent believe in arts education, a signifi-

the arts than we professional or quasi-professional defenders

cant finding for strategizing about acceptance and praise for

of them might realize. Asserting this, I vividly remember an

the arts.

anecdote about one of the most innovative and risk-taking

Such support for the arts must be the consequence of the

artists of her generation, Elizabeth Streb, more often called

creation since World War II of a highly effective, pluralistic,

100  Catharine R. Stimpson

institutional infrastructure in support of the arts and artists.

The second element of this infrastructure is the growth,

This infrastructure consists of at least three interacting ele-

both nationally and globally, of higher education. This “mas-

ments. Significantly, supplementing all three are such count-

sification” includes art schools, which train artists; education

less (and uncounted) individual efforts as poetry workshops,

schools, which train arts educators; schools for health pro-

book clubs, roadside book exchanges, dance studios, com-

fessionals, which, with education schools, train art therapists;

munity theaters, elaborate displays by home owners during

and facilities for the presentation of the arts. Vital examples

holiday seasons, or the pleasing elegance created by a local

include Arizona State University and Montclair State Uni-

landscape gardener who delights in devising new patterns

versity in New Jersey. One of my most vivid memories from

while constructing a brick patio. These efforts powerfully

my career on the road is watching a performance of mod-

exemplify the first three stages in my trajectory of the evo-

ern dance from a dance program at Weber State University

lution of the arts.

in Utah.

The first element of the post–World War II infrastruc-

Finally, the third element of this infrastructure is the

ture is the creation and establishment of modern media,

support of the federal government, especially the national

including public broadcasting and social media. They offer

endowments with their quasi-autonomous state councils,

networks of information about the arts and artists, both

established in the 1960s. They are still here. The National

emerging and established. These networks often blur the arts

Endowment for the Arts, through its Office of Research, has

with entertainment in ways that may offend the fastidious. I

helped to increase valuable studies of the arts.2 Balancing

have no exuberant love for corny “specials” with the Three

these government offices is the increase in nonprofit groups

Tenors. Moreover, the democratization of the arts in the

devoted to the arts and individual artists. A strength of the

social media, where I can post what I have done, can produce

United States’ funding of the arts, like its funding of educa-

flat confessional monologues, imitative dances, and those

tion, is that it consists of both public and private sources.

now-maligned, truly boring cat videos. However, this democ-

Artists need not be vulnerable because they rely solely on

ratization is perhaps the case proof of my theory about the

private wealth or government support—those ministries of

first three stages of the four-stage trajectory of the arts. Any-

culture that can be visionary, benign, or baleful. These non-

one with the requisite desire and equipment can embody

profits are not limited to big, defiantly cosmopolitan centers.

them. Movement into the fourth stage simply (I write that

They flourish in regions and smaller cities and towns.

ironically) demands much more desire, discipline, devotion, imagination, and, yes, sustainability of talent.

Infusing this tripartite infrastructure is the amazing force of the arts today, a force animated by their pluralism.

A Human Beauty, a Human Risk  101

Primary among the sources of this creative pluralism is the

different activities are in play.3 The first activity is the ten-

exhilarating presence of people of color and their much-­

dency of elements in the cultural sector toward self-pity and

belated recognition by cultural gatekeepers. Great cultural

even a proud self-effacement. These represent the lasting

moments happen when one or more cultures, having been

effects of a romanticism that thrills to being a speck, albeit

marginalized and repressed, break loose into “conventional

a sensitive speck, in the chaos of the cosmos. Unbidden, an

culture.” Boundaries, which have separated cultures and dis-

Emily Dickinson poem, “Poem 288,” comes to my fingertips.

ciplines, lose their power; borders evaporate. Toni Morrison

It begins,

is America’s towering literary figure. In addition, looming challenges, which may seem threatening, energize creative people and prophets. Of course, the challenges of the early twenty-first century include authoritarian governments and

I’m Nobody! Who are you? Are you Nobody—Too? Then there’s a pair of us!

censors, but they are ancient difficulties and torments. Far

Can voices in the “cultural sector” whisper to each other that

newer challenges, and therefore far more inspiring of fears

they are a pair, or even a troop, of nobodies? Alas, yes.

and questions, arise from the Anthropocene itself: the real-

Such auto-written lamentations are socially and psy-

ities of climate change, which humans have wrought, and

chologically different from those of a kid who is bullied and

of the posthuman, the interpenetration of human capaci-

taunted and hurt in school. They are also different from

ties and machine capacities, be they computers or robots.

realistic statements about the precarity of many artists, who

In the early twentieth century, writers such as Virginia

have too few fellowships for which to apply and who have

Woolf wondered what they could do that the camera could

been left behind by a global art market that has created rich

not. Dive into the invisibilities of the unconscious was one

meals for some artists and bare bones for many others. An

response. The Anthropocenic responses are now seeping out

obvious parallel is that a belief in the righteousness of the

and erupting.

market has celebrated wealthy artists in their studios but

Despite my optimistic tone so far, artists do claim that

slashed arts education in the schools as a frivolous “luxury.”

they are less well understood than they should be and less

In the face of such ideologically praised economic inequal-

respected. Of course, what contemporary institution, except

ities, one movement in the art world is to ask the artist to

Celebrityhood, is not? At a time when elites have fetishized

think of him- or herself as an “entrepreneur.” Full disclosure:

disruption and authoritarians have labeled everything out-

for six years, I happily chaired the board of Creative Capital

side their own power and propaganda a hoax? Yet the mis-

and was a member of that board for many more years. As an

understanding of artists does seem special, because two very

organization, we worked hard to encourage artists to think

102  Catharine R. Stimpson

of themselves in that self-enhancing and economically self-­

is truth, truth beauty,—that is all / Ye know on earth, and all

mobilizing role.

ye need to know.” Today, our common revision is, “Ugliness

The possibilities but also the limitations of entrepreneur-

is truth, truth ugliness, and I tell you so, and that you need

ship were clear to me last year as I was perusing the “Styles”

to know.” This revision has the virtue of often being true,

section of the New York Times (January 13, 2019). Even the

but neither the great Old Testament prophets nor modern

most aesthetically interesting entrepreneur may not be

artistic scourges can expect sweet valentines of appreciation,

able to crash the market and its players. The lead story, “A

especially if the recent voices seem to lack self-awareness

Messy Split, for All to See,” was about a divorce in a family of

about their own failings. Tell truth to power, yes, but first

wealthy art dealers and collectors. The husband’s father, the

lead a self-examined life.

wife’s father-in-law, had paid $58.4 million for a Jeff Koons

Given the trajectory of this essay, I hope that arts ed-

in 2013, Balloon Dog (Orange). What, I asked myself, are the

ucation will become a more and more compelling cause.

equivalents of this discrepancy between a rich art market and

Perhaps every child can become aware of my four-stage

struggling individual artists in our contemporary hierarchical

trajectory of artists, celebrate what each child has in com-

economies? Is it as if all bishops lived in luxury, but all parish

mon with professional artists, and, among other possible

priests/rectors/ministers in near poverty? Or if all adminis-

futures, imagine entering that fourth stage of becoming

trators of social-work agencies drew huge salaries, but most

a full-fledged, working artist. Such an education will also

social workers small ones? Or if all surgeons, including plas-

help students distinguish between the inspiring disinfor-

tic surgeons, drove flashy sports cars and tank-like SUVs, but

mation and fakery of the arts and the manipulative dis-

family physicians, especially in rural areas, drove old pickup

information of people in power who seek to retain that

trucks or Chevy sedans?

power. However, arts education should go beyond the

The second activity that can lead to misunderstanding of

schools. Ironically, our brilliant, creative pluralism may lead

the arts is very different from self-effacement. It is a shout,

to confusion. The arts may seem too sprawling, too messy,

the legacy of the European avant-garde. I love this tradi-

too much, too much. Individual artists may seem strange

tion. I still thrill to Ezra Pound and his imperative, “Make it

and perplexing. We need cultural interpreters who can

new.” But this legacy is now mingled with critical theory and

tell the global story of this brilliant pluralism. We have

the imperatives of critical thinkers to tell truth to power.

interpreters of individual disciplines, but the arts need

Coincidentally, 2019 was the two hundredth anniversary of

more equivalents of Jane Mayer on money or James Gleick

John Keats’s poem “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” one of the most

on chaos or Brian Greene on the cosmos or Henry Louis

canonical poems about art. Its famous last lines are, “Beauty

Gates Jr. on individual genetics or Siddhartha Mukherjee

A Human Beauty, a Human Risk  103

on cancer. Our symbol makers and storytellers need their

story Billy Budd, Sailor, which he was still working on when

own spacious storytellers.

he died in 1891.4 Poetic justice infiltrates the soul, its musics

Such a movement toward public education about the

and anecdotes an antidote to despair.

arts must include even more resistance to censorship. I am

I am afraid of being sappy, but no matter what our niche

grateful to the organizations, such as the Andy Warhol Foun-

in the cultural sector, no matter what our place on my four-

dation, that fight against it consistently and strongly. When

stage evolution of the arts, we must do our work with both

we work against censorship, we are keeping open the possi-

pride and humility. Earlier, when I quoted the beginning of an

bilities of telling truth to power but, even more, the possibil-

Emily Dickinson poem, I gave only the first three lines. Here is

ities of human minds and imaginations working freely. This

the rest, from a “nobody” to a “nobody”:

work is increasingly imperative as we democrats are resisting a period that combines official lies, appeals to the reassuring placidities of political and religious fundamentalism, and the growth of authoritarian regimes on several continents. Interestingly, one of their techniques is to use rough comedy

Don’t tell! They’d advertise—you know! How dreary—to be—Somebody! How public like a Frog— To tell one’s name—the livelong June— To an admiring Bog!

(think of Trumpian rallies). The purpose of such humor is to intimidate its targets, to set up a club of thugs who enjoy

Dickinson fiercely resists the extrapolation of easy morals

intimidation, and to cast a savage doubt on reasonable

from her poetry, but surely one can interpret her as a goad

truths themselves.

to us to do our work. The branding must always be second-

Fortunately, we have heroes in the arts who have resisted cruelty and power, often at the expense of their own lives.

ary to the primacy of the work, which so often springs from quiet spaces and private mazes.

We need to sing the names of these sacrificial figures—like

Yet, if at all possible, some of our activity must be su-

Victor Jara, the musician and poet and activist. He was tor-

premely public: the fight for freedom of the press, of thought,

tured in a sports stadium under the Chilean dictatorship in

and of the arts. In part, we are defending our own inborn

1973 by having his fingers smashed. He went on singing. He

capacities and those of our children on the four-stage tra-

was then murdered in a torrent of bullets. To sing his name

jectory of the arts and artists. In part, we are defending

is to practice one of the underestimated gifts of the arts, the

the rights of democratic citizens. How awful it would be if

production of poetic justice. When formal justice is missing,

a future panel on “Arts in Danger, Artists at Risk” were to

then the arts fill the gap with poetic justice, like the sailors’

be held in another country—say Canada—inspired by the

ballad, “Billy in the Darbies,” at the end of Herman Melville’s

United States’ censorship of a New York production of The

104  Catharine R. Stimpson

Trial, the panel an effort to contain the disease of a country,

My thanks to Nessa Rapoport for her impeccable editing and

to the immediate south, now tragically lost in its homegrown

to Alberta Arthurs and Michael DiNiscia for their staunch

metallic authoritarianism.

support.

A Human Beauty, a Human Risk  105

11 Reflections Are the Arts Essential? Deborah Willis

Love, Study, Struggle. It serves as a daily reminder of what

three hundred thousand Americans and one and a half mil-

I am supposed to be doing. Black study and resistance

lion people worldwide have died; and the tragic deaths of

must begin with love. James Baldwin understood love-as-

four Black Americans in four months, which gained nation-

agency probably better than anyone. For him it meant to love ourselves as black people; it meant making love the motivation for making revolution; it meant envisioning a society where everyone is embraced, where there is no oppression, where every life is valued—even those who

wide attention solely because images served as evidence. This essay is my evidence—what I would use to prove unequivocally that the arts are essential! As a photographer, I have found it difficult to sit by and not photograph what the coronavirus has done, the havoc

may once have been our oppressors. —Robin D. G. Kelley

it has wreaked and the ways it has ravaged us, taken that which is most precious. However, as a writer and curator

This essay was started well before the global pandemic and

whose works explore how the female body—dressed and

global lockdowns. Now, the measures of combating and

undressed—experiences its spectrum of migrations con-

coping have become our everyday reality. For the past few

stituted by and manifest in its storytelling, I have found it

months, I have been thinking about how much art is essen-

necessary to look back at my own images and written work

tial to our lives. As I rethink the initial version of this essay,

that explore pain, loss, and joy in the midst of adversity. It

two events are changing our world: COVID-19, in which over

has been over four months since I left my apartment, since

109

I pick up my camera every night at 7 p.m. to photograph from my balcony my neighbors making “noise,” sounding the alerts, reminding all of us to recognize and acknowledge the health-care workers and other essential workers who are risking their own lives to protect and care for us against this unknown “reaper.” How to tell their stories? I also think daily about my ninety-eight-year-old mother, Ruth, and my sixteen-­month-old granddaughter, Zenzi; each and in different ways leads me to the women migrants, leads me to try to imagine their experiences at the borders around the world and wonder how they are protecting themselves and their families. During this time, I also co-organized a fourpart series focusing on women and migrations, and submitted my manuscript on images of Black Civil War soldiers. I believe historical photographs and my images will memorialize a myriad of experiences and help me reflect on the critical artwork that needs to be done to create community that is supportive and more compassionate. Is it possible to tell a story about art and Black identity through photographic self-portraits against this backdrop of Black death and illness? The answer to this question lies

Figure 11.1. “Lockdown” balcony view at 7 p.m. (photograph

in the works of photographers like Gordon Parks and oth-

by Deborah Willis, 2020)

ers, whose photographs serve as a collective visual response to a changing world. “Essential” has been a new term that

the “shelter-in-place” plan was initiated. In these days, I have

expands the theme of this essay and gives new meaning to

lost five dear friends to the coronavirus, all artists and writ-

workers who have been previously ignored. It has become

ers who reframed visual narratives about race and gender in

empowering. For example, health-care workers here in New

the arts.

York and around the world—from where are they gaining

110  Debor ah Willis

strength? It is no irony; my eyes go to the migrations of the

on their backs. Basically, this story has been erased. It was the

female body.

erasure of their sense of freedom but also the erasure of citi-

I have been photographing my closets, continuing the

zenship, the erasure of silence. There’s a silence of women in

new body of work, but in these days, I am looking for clarity—

history, of the clothed Black body, and there’s always a story

considering the stories of the people we have lost, the lack

we know, that people have ragged clothes. There’s an erasure

of mourning, focusing on Black death and the ways people

of trauma when considering the lives of Black women and

are empowering themselves by making masks from pieces of

girls during slavery and today.

fabric found in their closets, cloths worn by deceased family members. Questions abound: What happens when one crosses borders to seek a new life and opportunities? What objects are carried? What is left behind? What is sustained only through the experience of memory—dress, foodways, photographs, religious symbols, sounds? The closet is a quiet space that allows me to reflect on dress and storytelling— certainly the continuum of my work—but I am also investigating the closet as a site where beauty, memory, and labor are enacted, as a space of empowerment for individuals authoring their own identities, contrary to social or cultural convention, and the stories of refugee people. My work has always explored how the female body is the actual evidence, the living narrative archive, of its migrations and what is at stake therein. When I wanted to consider images of women during the period of the Civil War, I found photographs of women who were pregnant during this migration and escape from bondage as they moved through the swamps with their families. I wondered, “How were they dressed?” We know from the photographs that they took whatever clothes they had with them, oftentimes what was

Figure 11.2. Cover of The Black Civil War Soldier (2020)

Reflections  111

How does one look back at the activism of 1968 and connect an image of a little girl’s dress by the photographer Gordon Parks to family love and struggle? In the photograph included in this essay (figure 11.3) is a portrait of a dress worn by a little black girl named Ellen. It hangs on a wire hanger on the edge of a worn wooden bed frame in a cramped and crowded bedroom of the Fontenelle family. It stands in as a portrait of the daughter of the family of eight. It is clean, pressed, and starched. I imagine the mother preparing her daughter for school while thinking about protecting her daughter from the insults of oppression and discrimination. I envision that she knew that once the plaid cotton dress was ready, she would hang it up as she prepared her five-year-old daughter, Ellen, for school. The dress is her armor—its beauty is subtle as it informs the reader that the subplot by Parks was a plea for the viewer to see the humanity in this story. This image may appear to be mundane and less essential to the larger movement for civil and human rights, but look closely and you will begin to imagine the life of the family and the importance of dress and respectability in the late 1960s. The photograph was made in 1967 and published in Life in the March 8, 1968, issue to illustrate a story about poverty in New York City. Gordon Parks begins this story with a short and powerful phrase for the reader to ponder: What I want What I am What you force me to be Is what you are

112  Debor ah Willis

Figure 11.3. Ellen’s dress, the Fontenelle family (photograph by Gordon Parks, 1967; courtesy of and copyright the Gordon Parks Foundation)

For I am You

family is described on the website of the Gordon Parks Foun-

Staring back from a mirror of poverty

dation as follows:

And despair, of revolt and freedom . . . In 1968, Life sent three correspondents into the field to

When I read these words in the mid-1970s as an undergrad-

document the living conditions that black families endured in America’s ghettos. While his white colleagues

uate student, I wanted to meet the photographer imme-

Gerald Moore and Jack Newfield produced broad studies

diately. I had known his name from his book A Choice of

of Chicago’s West Side and the Bedford-Stuyvesant sec-

Weapons and his film The Learning Tree, as well as through

tion of Brooklyn, Parks concentrated on a single family in

other photo essays in Life, but that moment sparked a desire

Harlem, the Fontenelles. . . .

that pushed me forward to reach out to him by writing a letter, explaining to him that I wanted to interview him about his photography. Imagine a shy, wide-eyed, young Black

With winter approaching, British West Indies immigrant Norman Fontenelle, Sr., and his wife, Bessie, were falling short in their efforts to scrape together enough to feed their nine children. Jobless and frustrated, Nor-

woman photographer sending an unsolicited letter to a

man Sr. would drink and then beat Bessie. With no food

photographer of his stature! Today, I recall vividly typing the

to offer, Bessie could not prevent her youngest child,

letter on my portable Olivetti typewriter while sitting at my

three-year-old Richard, from eating the plaster that fell

mom’s kitchen table, then handing the letter and addressed

from the walls of their tiny dirt-covered apartment. On

envelope to my dad to mail on his way to work. (I found Gordon Parks’s address with the help of a librarian.) My parents were curious and excited for me. Less than a month later, Parks responded to my letter and invited me to his apartment at UN Plaza.

Thanksgiving, Parks photographed the family huddled around an empty oven, trying to stave off the cold with their only source of heat.1

I often think about and reference work—sometimes artistic, sometimes political—within the realm of my own iPhone

Over the years, I have read Parks’s books, letters, notes,

selfies or self-portraits with my Lumix. Looking inward and

and articles about his photographic experiences. I have also

outward at the same time allows me to think about my

written about his work, taught his work in my classes, and

own levels of responsibility as an artist within our society.

curated his images in over thirty exhibitions. I am intrigued

Responsibility—that word has become almost routine, so

by Parks’s love of images and his own desire to document life

often in talks, panels, and interviews am I asked about my

in America—he photographed everything from discrimina-

responsibility as artist, historian, and teacher. Now, I find my-

tory practices to family life to sports and the turmoil of the

self in Zoom meetings, reflecting on my response to the un-

civil rights movement. The photo session on the Fontenelle

necessary, racially motivated murders, the pandemic-caused

Reflections  113

deaths and illnesses, and the protesters striving for change

paying their rent and buying groceries, and on the eighth day

here in the United States. To witness world events has be-

of his return to the four-story walk-up in Harlem, he carried

come a process of self-reflection for this photographer, who

his camera. He wrote in his diary on November 6, 1967,

has been “sheltering in place” for 110 days and counting. In truth, we all have been forced to look at ourselves, our intimate spaces and environments, and to consider multiple narratives of desire, complacency, pleasure, and loss. As Stuart Hall notes, “Within racialized forms of ‘looking,’ pro-

Bessie tries to give warmth to the place, but it remains a prison of filth. Her touch shows in the shapeless, soiled curtains; the dime-store paintings on the walls; the shredding scatter rugs covering the cracks in the linoleum; the wax flowers and outdated magazines. It’s a losing bat-

found differences of history, culture and experience have

tle for her . . . ; and, on November 13th Bessie insists on

often been reduced to a handful of stereotypical features,

homework. “They’ve [her children] got to get some kind

which are read as if they represent a truth of nature, some-

of education. I’m hoping that just one of them will make

how indelibly inscribed on the body. They are assumed to

it someday. Just one of them and I’ll be thankful.” It is

be ‘real’ because they can be seen—difference, visible to the naked eye.”2 The year 1968 was pivotal in American culture. It was an

amazing to see how the kids keep their books stacked so neatly inside all the rubble. During late, quiet moments they help one another with their reading. And for a while the place seems to be filled with love.3

era when a number of social movements peaked after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The photo essay

Parks’s intervention in the life of the Fontenelles tells the

on the Fontenelles was published a month before Parks’s

story of poverty in the United States, specifically in Harlem,

death and was printed as he lectured around the country

through his art—photography. He constructs and reveals the

about his dream of a Beloved Community and on poverty

experience of the traumatic effect of hunger, lack of educa-

in the United States. These experiences are forever present in

tion, abuse, and underemployment, while at the same time

America’s collective memory and now, through the stories of

suggesting hope, resistance, beauty, and empowerment.

immigration and border crossings. Today, our world is satu-

Three months after the essay was published, over fifty thou-

rated with iconic images that reflect on and draw from 1968

sand people marched and camped out on the mall in Wash-

and the work of Gordon Parks. Very few show the struggle of

ington, DC, at the Poor People’s March in June 1968.

little Black girls and their invisibility. Parks tried to intervene

Photography is the space where I find my voice as an

by finding a family story that would give hope and honor the

image maker and curator. I also see it as the ideal medium

families who were living in deep despair. He visited the Fon-

for advocacy, as it helps me reflect on the critical work that

tenelle family for seven days without a camera. He helped by

activists, artists, and community members are using as the

114  Debor ah Willis

visual voice to expose injustices. Because of the camera, we are able to see history repeating itself. In the early to mid-twentieth century, images motivated communities in the North and South, informed social consciousness, and aroused public opinion. In viewing the photographs of social protest activities of the human rights and civil rights movements, we are reminded that our actions today will affect the future, just as the actions of determined individuals during the civil rights movement changed the world about injustices against Black Americans. Photographers and citizens played a crucial role by documenting what they witnessed—and those images were a call to action. Photographers and citizens today are recording and publicizing inequities such as racial violence against Black people. Some of the earliest known protest photographs include images of NAACP demonstrations against lynchings, segregation, KKK rallies, and protesters outside federal and state government buildings, calling for the end of segregation in the 1920s, ’30s, ’40s, ’50s, and ’60s. Today, in their coverage of organized mass demonstrations, photographers and other media are directing their cameras on the harsh realities of why the movements around the country are necessary. Again, art is essential! When I think about what makes a powerful image, I believe it is an image’s ability to galva-

Figure 11.4. Black Lives Matter protest, New York City (Photo­graph by Terrence Jennings, terrencejennings.com, 2020)

nize a diverse group of people—for example, the terrifying

and, the same year, the view of the Washington Monument

image of George Floyd pleading for his life; the 1963 church

as protesters from around the country marched on Wash-

bombing at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birming-

ington to hear Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. deliver his iconic “I

ham, where four little Black girls died while in Sunday school;

Have a Dream” speech. We will never forget the photograph

Reflections  115

Figure 11.5. Lockdown (photograph by Deborah Willis, 2020) of young Emmett Till! And, then, again a family photograph

even as we struggle to find words for painful moments in our

can also make a powerful image, as it has the ability to pro­

history, now and in the 1960s, when the nation witnessed a

ject the hopes and dreams of the individuals posing for the

number of events that challenged our understanding of war

camera. The images of George Floyd (and others) resonate

and peace, bookmarked by the Kennedy-Nixon presiden-

today because of a cellphone video taken by a teenage girl.

cies, the Vietnam War, the deaths of Martin Luther King Jr.

Surveillance cameras followed by television news crews and

and Robert F. Kennedy, and the civil rights and Black Power

magazine and newspaper photographers made visible the

movements. The Civil Rights Act and the Fair Housing Act

troubling narrative of abuse that Mothers Against Gun Vio-

of 1968 proved to be the high points of an era of youth-

lence and supporters of ending racially motivated deaths

driven resistance that we see today with the Black Lives

have been espousing for the past twenty years and longer.

Matter movement.

Gordon Parks wrote, “The pictures that have most per-

I am inspired by the activism of our nation’s students

sistently confronted my camera have been those of crime,

as they bear witness, photograph, question, and reinterpret

racism, and poverty. I was cut through by the jagged edges

these moments. I see diverse portraits of new and older

of all three. Yet I remain aware of imagery that lends itself to

leaders; I see activists, artists, and photographs; I see raised

serenity and beauty, and here my camera has searched for

fists, T-shirts, diversity of hairstyles and dress—all voicing

nature’s evanescent splendors. Recording them was a mat-

their displeasure with the plight of Black Americans. And

ter of devout observance, a sort of metamorphosis through

I see the camera as a mighty tool with which to challenge

which I called upon things dear to me—poetry, music, and a

the hate and affirm the love for humanity, as we struggle

matter of watercolor.”4

through a global pandemic, unemployment, health dispar-

We all must continue to be reminded that photography

ity, social movement protests focusing on ending police

can be empowering, that we will make change in/to the law

brutality in Black neighborhoods, and the brutal murders

116  Debor ah Willis

of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbrey, and Tony

Now, though, more than ever, to protect. My verb is protect.

McDade.

The question for me is not “Is art essential?” I am a mother

I end with my own verb, always mindful of who I am of, how to ensure its value, and my life’s work to right history.

who has raised a son. Part of that raising was protecting him; art was the weapon I armed him with.

Reflections  117

12 An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

Introduction The great poet Mir Taqi Mir (d. 1810) writes a beautiful couplet in which he says, ‫ئ‬ ‫ ایٹل وہ ی‬  ‫گ ب‬ ‫س بی‬ ‫دت� یر� ھچک ہن دوا ےن اکم ی ا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫خ‬ ‫د� اس ب ی�اری دل ےن آ�ر اکم امتم ی ا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ی ا‬ All our plans have gone awry, no balm to salve! Look! This dis-eased heart has completely done me in.

ing, merging, and generating something new. This not-sosimple verse is an elegant expression of the evocative power of art. The discussion around this work of art should not be about idealization or idolization of the past but a recognition that the people who came before us are human, that we are human, and that the people of the future are human. We are in constant conversation with the past, present, and future. The first part of this essay is a reflection and analysis of the lines of the poem as a way to understand a flow of

This verse encapsulates a great deal of history, not just in

cultures and cultural dynamism. The second part is a series of

the poem but in what it represents. In its appearance, the

examples of how funding for the arts can create intentional

couplet is a call to a past when one could appreciate beauty,

interventions to generate empathy and action, to generate

regardless of its origin. In its structure, it is a statement of

cultural impacts similar to those demonstrated by this verse.

how human beings express themselves dynamically across time. And in its language, it is the history of cultures meet-

118

The Appearance

distinct that even without knowing the language, a viewer can discern from the script which language is represented.

The script in which the couplet is written is based on Arabic

Mir’s couplet telegraphs this history to the reader—the

script. Arabic is a Semitic language that has become associ-

impact of a religious impetus that extends beyond the reli-

ated with the religion of Islam, because the Qur’an is revealed

gion. Just as non-Muslims read, write, speak, and hear Arabic,

in Arabic. Yet the language does not belong to any religion,

non-Muslims read, write, speak, and hear all these other lan-

as Jewish and Christian Arabs can attest. However, because

guages. The scripts become part of a new cultural idiom with

of its association with revelation, Arabic is the scholarly lan-

which diverse people create.

guage of Muslim communities. It is said that the great Muslim traveler and explorer Ibn Battuta (d. ca. 1369) could travel from Morocco to China knowing only Arabic. As Muslims expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula, they took Arabic with them. Not all societies gave up their

Perhaps Agha Shahid Ali (d. 2001) best summarizes this sentiment in one of his poems, “In Arabic”: A language of loss? I have some business in Arabic. Love letters: a calligraphy pitiless in Arabic.

languages; they learned Arabic along with their own lan-

At an exhibit of miniatures, what Kashmiri hairs!

guages, which many then began to write in modified Arabic

Each paisley inked into a golden tress in Arabic.

scripts. Arabic has twenty-eight letters, and when Persian

This much fuss about a language I don’t know? So one day

started to be written in an Arabic script, four additional let-

perfume from a dress may let you digress in Arabic.

ters had to be added. Urdu, the language in which Mir was writing, has fifty-eight letters. This increase in letters is simply an indication of the flexibility of the script as it moved

A “Guide for the Perplexed” was written—believe me— by Cordoba’s Jew—Maimonides—in Arabic.1

across the world. In the case of Persian and Urdu, the script

Ali starts by speaking of Arabic as a language of loss, a theme

was applied to Indo-European languages, not Semitic ones.

that will return repeatedly in his discussion of poetry. He

The same script is also used by Turkish and Swahili, as well

then switches to talking about calligraphy. “Love letters”

as Xiaojing, a Chinese language written in modified Arabic.

could refer to both the poetry of the language and the callig-

Each of the script systems developed its own form of cal-

raphy that emerges. There is then a commitment to the idea

ligraphy, which melded the cultural idioms of its location

of calligraphy as it relates to the miniature painting tradition

with the fluid lines of the Arabic alphabet. A careful reader

of South Asia.

can tell the geographical and temporal origins of a piece of

The third couplet is a declaration of Ali’s ignorance of the

calligraphy on the basis of its style. The visual styles are so

language. To appreciate the script does not mean that one

An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States  119

understands Arabic. Because the poet could read Urdu, with its fifty-eight letters, he could read Arabic, with its twenty-­

The Structure

eight letters, although since the grammar is different, the

Language is not the only element shared across communi-

two languages are not mutually intelligible. The perfumed

ties. Arabic, in addition to the script, also brings certain lit-

dress is most likely a reference to the story of the Prophet

erary forms that remain highly preserved across time and

Joseph. In the Qur’an, Joseph’s father believes him to be

space. When Ali talks about “a language of loss,” he is most

dead and weeps so much for the loss of his son that he goes

likely referring to the genre of poetry in which he is writing,

blind. When he smells Joseph’s clothes after many years, his

the ghazal. The ghazal is a form that starts as a vehicle for

eyesight is restored. Ali is perhaps yearning for such a mir-

expressing unrealized love. That love may be unrequited, or

acle, so that he, too, may have new sight and be able to

it may be lost if the beloved is promised to another. The form

read Arabic.

quickly comes to be read in two registers, an earthly love and

The insertion of the Joseph story at this point is a power-

a Divine love. The desires of the flesh can also be read as the

ful transition. This story is found in both the Qur’an and the

desire for union with God. This dual reading echoes the ways

Tanakh, in the book of Genesis, evoking common religious

the Song of Songs is read in Judaism and Christianity.

heritage. As Ali talks about the great thinker Maimonides (d.

As a genre whose subject is unrealized love, which can be

1204), the explicit text says that Maimonides was Jewish—

read symbolically, the ghazal can accommodate additional

but wrote in Arabic. It is an unexpected juxtaposition. Just

registers. It comes to be used in nationalist, anticolonialist,

as there is a relationship between Arabic and Islam, there is a

and diasporic poetry; the beloved is no longer a person but

similar one between Hebrew and Judaism. And so there is an

the desired home. Because of its flexibility, the ghazal moves

expectation that Maimonides should be writing in Hebrew,

into a wider variety of other languages, from Arabic to Persian

which Ali subverts.

to Urdu to Turkish to Hebrew to Spanish and now to English.

The modifier “Cordoba” is the implicit message. Maimon-

As adaptable as the form is, there are certain character-

ides wrote during a period of Arab-Muslim rule in the Iberian

istics that help define it, including a rhyme scheme of aa,

peninsula, when Arabic was the language of intellectual dis-

ba, ca, and so on, as well as particular metrical constraints.

course. Not only did one not have to be Muslim to engage

Mir’s mastery is such that he effectively breaks those con-

in intellectual discourse in Arabic, but Maimonides demon-

straints in the couplet, using Indic meters rather than the

strates that learning was valued no matter who was doing it.

Arabic ones that have traditionally defined the genre. The

Arabic was not used in an exclusionary way but as a lingua

words he chooses have a mix of Indic, Arabic, and Persian

franca that brought together a variety of people.

roots. If the ghazal is meant to be poetry that is sometimes

120  Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

performed with music, Mir makes his couplet orchestral and

ology comes from a Muslim tradition, this idea of dissolution

lyrical. Each word in each language evokes whole worlds

into the Divine is shared across religious traditions in South

of meaning.

Asia, such as the bhakti tradition of Hinduism.

The first word, ‫الٹی‬, translated here as “tumult,” is an Indic

This linguistic analysis of the couplet demonstrates the

word that means an inversion. When used to talk about ill-

depth of meaning Mir has crafted in his poem. He writes in a

ness, it is linked to nausea. Therefore, later in the line, when

structure that allows him to engage with multiple ideas and

there is a reference to ‫دوا‬, medicine—which is an Arabic

communities simultaneously. Yet, in the couplet, he does not

word—the idea of illness is already planted in the mind of

enumerate each community but intimates a world where all

the reader, another link between the Indic and Arabic vocab-

these communities, whether marked by religion or language,

ulary as part of the same cultural system. The Persian words

are part of a larger shared culture. The ghazal, as an art form,

for “illness” and “heart” appear in the second line, incorpo-

is descriptive of the world in which its authors lived: polyglot,

rating Persian culture into the larger poetic system in which

interreligious, and multicultural. It is also aspirational on the

Mir is steeped.

individual level, with respect to relationship with the Divine.

The word for “sickness,” ‫بیامری‬,, is not actually a reference to a stand-alone idea of illness. It literally means “without health.” The heart is thus dis-eased. It is sick and uncomfort-

The Language

able, and because of that dis-ease, it dies. Once more, Mir

The language in which Mir is writing is a manifestation of this

plays with the idea of death. He speaks of “the end,” using the

composite culture. “Urdu” is cognate with the English word

word ‫آخر‬. This word refers not to any end but to one with the

“horde,” indicating that it came from a military camp. It may

connotation of the eschaton—the ultimate end that brings

seem odd to talk about a military camp as a site for cultural

together this world and the next. He inflects it with the word

exchange; but armies traveled, and travel is how cultures

‫متام‬, which, in modern Turkish, is used to mean “okay” but

interacted. While cultural travel is usually imagined as tak-

which comes from the Arabic for being full, being enough,

ing place through exploration and trade, the military was an

and being complete. ‫ متام‬connotes a sense of totality that can-

important contributor. Military movements were not always

not be adequately conveyed in translation.

offensive, and army encampments were like mobile cities.

The combination of the two words, “complete” and “end,”

They mixed with local populations and did extensive trading.

evokes the mystical sense of becoming one with the Divine,

It was from this environment that Urdu emerged, a combina-

known as fana, or annihilation. For Mir, there is a vision of

tion of Indo-European and Turkic grammar, with words from

Divine Union, which is the goal of a good life. While Mir’s the-

Indic languages, Turkic languages, Persian, and Arabic. The

An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States  121

language was a manifestation of the diversity of voices of the

While there is an aura around the script, in part because of

camp and the ways they engaged with one another.

its religious connections, it is not fossilized. The script has

Urdu and Hindi, especially in the early period of both,

adapted over time and been used in new languages. As Mir

were often distinguished only by their script. Urdu is written

demonstrates, it is this flexibility that allows Urdu to serve

in the modified Arabic script, and Hindi in Devanagari, the

as a representative language; by not centering on Arabs and

Divine script, indicating a religious tie to the script as well.

Arabic, it undermines the idea that being Muslim is necessar-

Here is Mir’s couplet in Devanagari:

ily tied to an ethnic identity. Urdu becomes a revolutionary

उल्टी हो गईं सब तदबीरें कुछ न दवा ने काम किया देखा इस बीमारी-ए-दिल ने आख़िर काम तमाम किया

language not by jettisoning tradition but by keeping tradition alive and adapting it for the world in which Mir lived. The flow of people, and thus cultures, along this high-

While the aesthetic quality of the Devanagari script is as

way from East to West, from China to Arabia, did not just

strong as Urdu’s, it will elicit a different affective response in

form languages but mingled arts. You did not have to be

readers. For some, there may be a religious resonance, but

aristocratic, wealthy, or even literate to know couplets in the

that is not the key feature. Today, more people read some

poetic tradition of the ghazal that demonstrated you were

form of a nagri—any of the numerous Devanagari-derived

cultured. Found in dozens of languages, the ghazal allowed

scripts—than fluently read what is written in any form of

people to speak across borders. Its poets gave us some-

Arabicized script. Yet the Arabicized script remains an indi-

thing new from the old, an exchange that kept tradition

cator of global range, trade, and impact.

alive. In that milieu, artists exchanged ideas, and the Persian

Urdu is not Arabic, but it has Arabic elements. More significantly, the Urdu script reveals the confluences of cultures.

miniature painting tradition was renewed in the Mughal miniature tradition.

Letters that exist only in Arabic and only in Indic languages

In such healthy exchanges, societies grow and adapt. In a

are visibly comparable to one another. In the nagri version,

more structured way, the acquisition and support of intellec-

many of the Arabic letters are flattened to appear more sim-

tual capital is a source of pride. Looking at the Fatimid empire

ilar to nagri letters. Even when these letters are marked in

and its rival, the Abbasid empire, in the tenth and eleventh

nagri, it is subtle, so that the reader must pay close attention

centuries, we find military conflicts on the borders, but the

to the text. In Mir’s couplet, the viewer sees the interactions

sources of pride were their centers of learning. The Dar al-Ilm

of communities before even reading the text.

in Cairo and the Dar al-Hikma in Baghdad were spaces of

This idea of communicating through the visual image of

investigation, inquiry, and creation. They competed to bring

the text should not be taken as a fetishization of Arabic script.

the best minds to their capitals and provide them with the

122  Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

finest resources. The result was world-renowned libraries,

show and recite ghazal from around the world, in dozens of

astronomical observatories, translation movements, opti-

languages—but children would be bored. Instead, we showed

cal sciences, philosophical explorations, and mathematical

them travel and how ideas spread and people learned from

developments during this period.

one another. They could enter a courtyard where they could

What becomes obvious from looking at this history is

sit and engage with questions of ethics and what we owe one

that these exchanges—whether in military camps or in the

another. There was an exhibit on architecture, which showed

capitals of empires—came from a place of confidence. Peo-

Muslims in everyday places, majestic places, and places down

ple were sure of who they were and so were willing to engage

the street. We let them experience trade, because food is

with others on terms of equality. Even in conflict, there was

such an important part of culture. In the “grand bazaar,” with

a certainty that those who felt they had power could not be

products from all over the world, the children lived what we

corrupted by their rivals. It is this confidence that generated

hoped they would absorb from the exhibition. They took

new forms of communication and art, as we see with Urdu.

Turkish plates, put on fish from Zanzibar, seasoned it with spices from Egypt, laid out rugs from Morocco, and dressed

The Present—Not a Conclusion

in fabrics from Senegalese tailors in New York, to have their meal in the only Central Asian tea house in North America.

That sense of confidence and the resulting desire to explore,

They were not playing at tea; they were playing at global

learn, and exchange ideas was an essential aspect of how we

exploration and cultural mixing, as so many other societies

conceived of the exhibit at the Children’s Museum of Man-

had done in the past.

hattan America to Zanzibar: Muslim Cultures Near and Far

In the US American home, the children saw objects made

(2016–17). We did not want to craft a narrative in response

for multiple Muslim communities and learned how ideas of

to media reports about who Muslims may be but to accept

self-reliance and social change impacted both the Nation of

Muslims as they were and are. We approached the idea with

Islam and the Warith Deen Mohammed communities. Latine

confidence in our facts: Muslims are part of the United States

Muslims were represented, and the Muslim history of New

and helped build the country. They have always been cultural

York hip-hop came alive for them. They saw toys and books

producers in the United States. Most Muslims live outside

of US American Muslim children and told us about their own

the US and have been, for centuries, cultural producers wher-

favorite toys and books, which were similar, if not the same.

ever they live.

Yet it was the differences that allowed the children to think

Since the exhibit was designed for children, our sense of

about what they like and why. These children knew who they

what constituted cultural production had to shift. We could

were and did not care if someone did something different

An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States  123

but wanted to play in that difference, seeing within these

armies but in our schools. These declarations sound like plat-

objects their shared humanity.

itudes, but sometimes we need to state the basics to paint

Despite the rise of education systems that have emerged

our own miniatures.

from philosophies of nurturing students to develop as com-

Mir’s simple couplet is not so simple when we spend time

plete human beings, or as democratic citizens, there are

with it. Even after almost over two hundred years, it is, for

also higher-education institutions based on the idea that

today’s reader, an aspirational call for the confidence to be

the future is STEM and that one can be an educated person

culture creators, not servants to power.

without the humanities. This worldview is an expression of fragility—that who we are as a people is not worthy of study. or theological ones about the logical result of centering the

An Arts Practice Is Essential for Community Well-Being

human being above anything else or some combination

The Somali-British poet Warsan Shire signaled palpable pain

of the two. Yet, for us, the important point is that when

in 2015 when she wrote,

We can make Marxist arguments about late capitalism

so-called liberal institutions, dedicated to teaching about who we are, declare that the humanities, and thus we, are not important, it should then be no surprise when funding for the National Endowment for the Humanities is cut. When the arts are no longer practical, we no longer need the National Endowment for the Arts. If we want to stop this erosion of our value as human beings, if we want to be confident again, if we despise the xenophobia that grips us now, then we need to invest in

later that night i held an atlas in my lap ran my fingers over the whole world and whispered where does it hurt? it answered everywhere everywhere everywhere.

the very realms that are being challenged. Fragility seeks to destroy what it fears. Xenophobia is the death knell of any

Then, as now, this poignant verse communicates intimately

society’s internal cultural exchange.

and urgently across communities and geographies.

If xenophobia rises and art falls when we lack confidence,

To generate trust and well-being in our communities, we

then we have to build our confidence again. We must all

need to bring forward creative approaches to social change.

learn to speak an urdu, where all our words matter, and

Artists have a vital part to perform in achieving this goal.

create a system in which our pride as a nation is not in our

They can help communities and artists from within Muslim,

124  Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

Arab, and South Asian communities in the United States lift

pels inventiveness. Our goal is not to instrumentalize the arts

up their own stories. The arts speak through the language of

and ascribe value to them only because they serve another

imagination to bring alive communities and urgent problems

function, such as generating empathy. Rather, we choose to

that are unfamiliar to us by creating a universal resonance

focus on empathy as an entry point into imagination. Part of

and relatability. In collapsing that distance, they can uniquely

the empathy-generating experience comes from a recogni-

address issues of complexity and identity. A growing array of

tion of our shared humanity, because all cultures produce art.

creative narrative forms rich in imagination offer us bold new

As the psychologist Ellen Winner has said, there are a

ways to see, hear, and feel the unknown experiences of others

multitude of ways in which we can define empathy. While

and, in the process, widen the aperture of our minds and our

art may increase certain types of empathy, it can also gener-

critical thinking. Stories drive change in our world by open-

ate empathy deficit, if we choose not to take action with our

ing imagination to make space for fresh ideas and diverse

increased empathy, having exhausted ourselves in the art.3

perspectives that light up possibility and inspire empathy.

The Doris Duke Foundation for Islamic Art, through its Build-

As the education policy researchers Brian Kisida and

ing Bridges Program, has been funding projects like America

David H. Bowen have written in a 2019 Brookings Institution

to Zanzibar, among others that showcase Muslim culture, as

report, “Engaging with art is essential to the human experi-

part of its mission to support the arts in order to educate, to

ence. Almost as soon as motor skills are developed, children

generate empathy, and to create active engagement.

communicate through artistic expression. The arts challenge us with different points of view, compel us to empathize human condition. Empirical evidence supports these claims:

Projects Advancing Narrative Change

Among adults, arts participation is related to behaviors that

Projects that work with technology and use multiple story-

contribute to the health of civil society, such as increased

telling mediums aim to increase empathy through immersive

civic engagement, greater social tolerance, and reductions in

experiences. The gaming industry has evolved to become

other-­regarding behavior.”2

one of the largest storytelling mediums for consumers.

with ‘others,’ and give us the opportunity to reflect on the

We believe that the arts lend intrinsic value with inven-

Advances in technology have increased substantially, so that

tive thinking to provide unique solutions to systemic societal

consumers can shift the roles they play when they enter the

issues. The creative impulse is an inherent characteristic of

game to embody the characters in the story. Gaming has

being human, an urge embedded in us across cultures, time,

done more to “pioneer best practices in interactive and par-

and space, dating back tens of thousands of years, that com-

ticipatory storytelling than any medium since the ancient

An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States  125

theater traditions.”4 It offers complex storytelling narratives

In parallel, video remains a popular means for distributing

with nuanced and fully evolved, empathetic characters that

art engaged in narrative change. A digital video series called

resonate with users.

The Secret Life of Muslims uses humor to subvert stereo-

A recent gaming project has been particularly productive

types and share less-heard stories about American Muslims,

through the medium of nonfiction storytelling. The gaming

including fascinating careers, unexpected talents, and inspir-

designer Navid Khonsari and the visual anthropologist Vassi-

ing accomplishments. Directed by Joshua Seftel, the episodes

liki Khonsari created a breakthrough historical documentary

are often funny and sometimes sobering. The series features a

that is interactive and places the player inside the action of

diverse group of people telling their own stories about being

the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Using actual audio testimo-

Muslim in America. It is the strong point of view by people

nials, a real-world soundscape, and multiple touchscreen

sharing their experiences, and the invitation to share the

gameplays, 1979 Revolution: Black Friday is the first of a nine-­

videos with others, that makes the videos so successful, with

episode game designed to integrate an emotional, histori-

over forty million views. One powerful episode featuring the

cally grounded narrative. At the same time, it gives players

former marine Richard McKinney was aired on CBS’s Sun-

the experience of making moral choices, under extreme situ-

day Morning and received over three million views. It is the

ations, as they navigate the streets during an uprising.

story of McKinney’s journey from planning a mosque attack

With a similar approach, the war photographer and trans­

intended to result in massive casualties to a transformation

media artist Karim Ben Khelifa created The Enemy, which

that results in his joining the Muslim community. Originally

uses virtual-reality experiences to humanize opposing sides

distributed by Vox, the Emmy- and Peabody-­ nominated

of three deeply contested conflicts in modern world history.

series is now viewable on The Secret Life of Muslims website

The immersive and transformative component takes audi-

and social media sites.

ences beyond the act of looking, as observers, into a dialogue

Comedy is also a well-known and important channel for

and pushes them to consider perspectives other than their

social change. As the American Muslim comedian Hasan

own. Virtual reality, which has thus far been used in gaming

Minhaj says, “Comedy is very disarming. It’s a way to talk

mainly for its transformative power, has potential to prompt

about things and still be lighthearted. And when it’s done

identity shifts and catalyze new understanding in audiences.

really well, you never see the strings, whereas when you

Ben Khelifa and his team worked with cognitive neuro­

watch an infomercial or a politician speaking, a lot of times

science specialists at MIT to design the most effective way

you can see the strings, you can see what agenda they’re try-

to use the virtual-reality approach to facilitate and generate

ing to push.”5

empathy creation.

126  Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

Named by Time magazine as one of the most influential

people of 2019, Minhaj bases his stories on his lived expe-

trucks, park benches, and more. His work with the Smithso-

rience of being an American Muslim immigrant. He incor-

nian Institution has raised his profile, as have global exhibi-

porates his experiences to educate others through his hit

tions at other museums and institutions.

Netflix show Patriot Act. Trevor Noah, host of The Daily Show,

Art 120’s jingle truck provides knowledge and activities

says Patriot Act is a “consistent reminder that Hasan is Amer-

to children who have limited opportunity to experience and

ica. And America is Hasan.”6 Noah’s endorsement of Minhaj’s

interact with people from diverse cultures. According to the

show demonstrates the cross-cultural appeal of humor and

organization’s newsletter, Art 120 News, “When children have

its ability to open spaces of discomfort that can generate

the chance to learn about other cultures it deepens their

change. Minhaj is very good at incorporating action items

understanding of the world, emboldens their sense of self

in his Patriot Act episodes, so that the viewer leaves feeling

and introduces them to the beauty of other cultures. Thirty-­

connected to an issue but also with something to do.

two schools in Hamilton County do not have a full time art program and until now, children in Hamilton County had to

Projects Promoting Inclusive Communities

drive to Atlanta to view visual art from another country.” The

Another tested creative approach Building Bridges supports

vice in the areas where it operates. It is an example of artists

is small-scale, intimate activity designed to engage commu-

empathetically serving a community and thereby increasing

nities in the development of deep and lasting social and

the social impact of their work.

emotional skills to contribute to mutual well-being across communities.

work of Art 120 not only demonstrates Pakistani Muslim culture but also provides a needed social and educational ser-

In a similar vein, Common Bond: The Muslin Ladies Social Club, in Detroit, is a women-only, hands-on fabric-­

Art 120 in Signal Mountain, Tennessee, conceived of a

design workshop that connects Muslim women to diverse

fresh way to create intimate connections among elemen-

women in Detroit neighborhoods. Through the project, the

tary school children in small communities within a 120-mile

women are learning to expand the sewing skills that pro-

radius of Chattanooga. The organization’s purpose is to meet

vide income-generating opportunities while building bonds

the children where they are and engage them in educational

through this shared experience and guided personal story-

programs through a “jingle truck.” A white pickup truck was

telling. Like the jingle truck, the art in Common Bond is coop-

reimagined by the renowned Pakistani truck-art painter

erative and addresses community needs beyond building

Haidar Ali as the program’s medium. For thirty years, Ali has

familiarity with neighbors. The power of cocreation projects

been a jingle truck artist, traveling the world to paint trailers,

is in their ability to increase a feeling of common purpose and,

An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States  127

with it, greater connection and belonging. In these projects,

seven and transported to Charleston’s Gadsden’s Wharf in

participants are not engaged in what Paulo Freire describes as

1807—a point of entry for nearly half of all Africans forced

a banking model of education.7 They are experts in their own

into slavery in North America. By 1808, when the importa-

lives—and a force for expressing their expertise and agency.

tion of slaves was banned, more than one hundred thousand West Africans had been brought through Gadsden’s Wharf.

Projects Exposing History to Rebalance Inequity

Today, as many as 60 percent of the African American community who are descended from enslaved people trace their roots to Charleston.

One of the most distinct projects that the Building Bridges

Upon arrival in the United States, he was sold to a

Program funded is an opera created by the five-time

Charlestonian, a man named Johnson whom Said described

Grammy Award winner and MacArthur Fellow Rhiannon

as particularly cruel. A month later, Said escaped and fled to

Giddens, a musician-composer with a special interest in

North Carolina, where he subsequently was recaptured and

excavating untold histories and stories. Commissioned by

sent to jail in Fayetteville. He spent sixteen days in jail, where

the Spoleto Festival in Charleston, South Carolina, Giddens

he was discovered writing in Arabic on the walls of his jail

has developed an opera about Omar ibn Said, an enslaved

cell. Eventually, he was purchased and taken into the house-

African Muslim man who was brought to Charleston in 1807.

hold of Jim Owen and his brother John Owen, the governor

The opera’s story traces his journey from West Africa to his

of North Carolina (1828–30), with whom Said remained until

capture and enslavement in the Carolinas. Much of what we

his death in his late eighties.

know about Said comes from his autobiography, which he

When the opera opens, it will be accompanied by a

wrote in Arabic in 1831. To create the opera, Giddens con-

constellation of educational programming to provide con-

ducted extensive research and studied with numerous reli-

text and spark dialogue among diverse communities within

gious leaders and scholars to make a work that is historically

Charleston, a city with a long and disturbing racial history.

and religiously informed and to more accurately imagine

The Spoleto Festival USA is deeply committed to telling

parts of Said’s life history that are unknown.

Said’s story. “According to some scholars, as many as 30% of

The opera opens in what would today be considered

the enslaved Africans who arrived in the colonies and subse-

Senegal, where Omar ibn Said was a member of the Fula

quently in the United States were Muslim, which is a largely

ethnic group of West Africa, who lived in a region extend-

unexplored truth in the modern discussions of slavery in the

ing between Senegal and Nigeria. Born around 1770 and a

South,” says Spoleto’s general director, Nigel Redden. “But ibn

scholar in his homeland, Said was captured at age thirty-­

Said is not a number—he’s a man who had feelings, a history,

128  Zeyba Rahman and Hussein Rashid

and a right to life that was taken from him.” In exploring Said’s

When one part is hurt,

story, through a Western classical musical form, viewers see

the others cannot remain

an enslaved man in the nineteenth century as an individual

in peace and be quiet.

rather than one of an undifferentiated group of people. This combination of histories and genres that the opera brings together is our urdu, our combination of languages and cultural forms. It is a way to reckon with a national past grounded in genocide, human trafficking, enslavement, and expropriation of wealth. It is a way to demonstrate that being Black, being Muslim, and being American are not necessarily distinct identities; there is a diversity of voices that sing America, too. But rather than looking at our past to excuse inexcusable behavior in the present, the opera, the arts, the urdu, offer a way forward, a call to face that past by imagining a new and different way of belonging to the nation. That imagination does not come from what is but from what could be, the vision of artists who tell and show us stories.

This declaration of the human condition highlights the power each one of us owns to create stories that hold us. It emphasizes the core principles of human rights—that people are equal in dignity and that we must extend respect to one another. The verse speaks to our fundamental desire for kinship, because we instinctively know that we are connected in physical and metaphysical ways, as Sa’adi tells us. When physical connection is elusive, we turn to stories to anchor us: books, television, movies, sculpture, music, and so many other forms. Our need to reach for connection through the deepest humanizing expressions that move us is a reminder that it is these experiences that have sustained and bound us together through recorded history. Storytelling can impel us from situational acceptance

Conclusion The teachings of the thirteenth-century Persian philosopher-­ poet Sa’adi Shirazi remain essential: ‫بنی‌آدم اعضای یک پیکرند‬

‫که در آفرينش ز یک گوهرند‬

‫آورد روزگار‬ َ ‫چو عضوى به‌درد‬ ‫دگر عضوها را منانَد قرار‬

Human beings are like parts of a body, Created from the same essence.

to galvanizing action. The arts speak persuasively through stories of inquiry, skill, beauty, mystery, empathy, fear, and challenge—from human beings directly to human beings. Such stories are empowering for artists and communities. They serve to ignite the collective imagination, so that we gather and act on common aspirations. Let us never forget, when the world shudders to a halt in dark periods, particularly when calamity is brought on by a failure of imagination, that we turn to storytellers for solace and to make meaning of the world.

An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States  129

13 Cultural Conservatory Living the Arts Cristal Chanelle Truscott

What will you do without your drum?

communities and cultures that survived the transatlantic

I know how to make another one.

slave trade and centuries of enslavement in the Caribbean

What if you can’t get what you need?

and Latin America. While West African drums and drum-

I know how to use whatever I find. What if you can’t be a seeker? I know how to be the drum.

ming were banned throughout the Americas during slavery, unique to the experience of those who were enslaved in the

What if you can’t move?

United States was the near-complete banishment of drums

I know how to lift my voice.

and the loss of ancestral drumming traditions. Not only was

What if you can’t make a sound?

the banishment a means of further dehumanization, but it

I know how to remember.

was also a preemptive disruption of the drums’ power to

What if you forget?

communicate knowledge and pride, to cultivate unity, and

I know how to dream.

to drive freedom.

Long before I encountered fields of theory, the drum and

Growing up in the southern United States as a descen-

its possibilities captivated my creative impulses. Drums are

dant of people who lived through slavery, I knew the drum,

an essential part of the physical, intellectual, emotional,

and it fascinated me. In the absence of the physical drum,

and spiritual life of many West African cultures. Drumming

my ancestors created an abundance of embodied drums that

traditions remain vibrant and nuanced in African diasporic

led to African American genres like stepping and tap dance;

130

to the vocal drums of Negro spirituals, gospel, jazz, R&B, and

formances, arts making, and oral traditions, I developed a

hip-hop; to the visual aesthetics of quilting, wood carving,

theoretical framework called “Cultural Conservatory”—an

and painting that explore light, shadow, shape, and color as

experiential genealogy and immersive analysis of the life-­

rhythm; and to linguistic structures that reach for cadences

integral reality of the arts. In touring with my ensemble

of ancestral tongues through poetry and prose, despite the

Progress Theatre, I have studied and experimented with best

imposed languages of colonization. These cultural phenom-

practices to enter, engage, and exit communities with active

ena became my first artistic and academic inquiries: How

listening and learning, invitation, ongoing connection, and

had the drum managed to thrive without being present?

exchange. Practically, this approach means that while on

As a performance studies scholar, I regard performance

tour, our arts residencies include community-based work-

equally as an object of analysis and as an analytic lens and

shops and collaborative spaces. Rather than entering com-

research method for understanding social and cultural phe-

munities with a prescriptive agenda that mirrors a model of

nomena. I consider performance in the broadest possible

colonization, we honor the work and wisdom of local prac-

sense, from what might most immediately come to mind

titioners, culture workers, and activists. We listen and learn

as artistic (theater, dance, music, literature, film, visual art)

from communities, we offer and share in call-and-response,

to broader frames like cultural performance, performances

we create together, and we stay connected after we’ve gone.

of identity, political performance, and so on. As an artist, I

Methodologically, these spaces enact a technique of Soul-

create a cappella musicals called NeoSpirituals using “Soul-

Work that I call “Unending Climax”—an experience that

Work,” a methodology I developed based on generations-old

starts, builds, and persists with ongoing exploration instead

practices, aesthetics, and methods for performance and liv-

of an absolute outcome, engaging multiple modes of imple-

ing from African American cultural traditions. My NeoSpiri-

mentation that can be continued by the community even

tuals follow the legacies I inherited; they are without musical

after Progress Theatre departs.

instruments but alive with music. There is no physical drum,

I elaborate more on these theories and their artistic,

but the drum, like our very breath, lives as the driving force

pedagogical, and ethnographic tools in my forthcoming

through each moment of the performances, its polyrhythms

book, currently titled SoulWork: Methodology from the Cul-

ordering each step taken, any spoken word, and every reach,

tural Conservatory, which traces the development, philoso-

rounding, and rooting of bodies. All the songs offer melodies

phy, and practical application of SoulWork as a generative

that seek and invoke the call-and-response of the drum.

method for training artists, building ensemble performance,

Through decades of artistic and academic excavation

and connecting communities. Here, I offer Cultural Conser-

and reverse engineering of ancestral cultural practices, per-

vatory as a way of exploring questions of “liveness”: Why do

Cultural Conservatory  131

we behave as we behave? Or, rather, why and how do we

arts is in their ongoing potential for exploration and engage-

“perform” life in the ways we do?

ment that can be activated only in call-and-response: the doing of the arts and the reacting to the arts. Through Cul-

Performing Life

tural Conservatory, I try to impart a holistic rendering of the life-integral reality, necessity, and value of the arts.

I am a writer and my faith in the world of art is intense but

Cultural Conservatory is the accumulation of founda-

not irrational or naïve. Art invites us to take the journey

tional experiences, embodied practices, and intuited knowl-

beyond price, beyond costs into bearing witness to the world as it is and as it should be. Art invites us to know beauty and to solicit it from even the most tragic of cir-

edge that shape our identity (how we understand ourselves and why) and our experience of the world (the ways and

cumstances. Art reminds us that we belong here. And if

tools we enact to live life), influenced by immersion in the

we serve, we last. My faith in art rivals my admiration for

given circumstances (race, class, gender, religion, geography)

any other discourse. Its conversation with the public and

of our communal and social spaces. Everyone is shaped by

among its various genres is critical to the understanding

a Cultural Conservatory—in fact, multiple intersecting ones.

of what it means to care deeply and to be human com-

In the same way that arts conservatories function as immer-

pletely. I believe. —Toni Morrison

sive spaces where all learning serves a person’s interest, practice, and knowledge of a specific creative modality, Cultural

The proclamation that “art is life,” that we are all in our own

Conservatory immersion serves to cultivate and develop

way artists, realizing ideas through embodied experiences,

a person’s sense of their individual identity, the identity of

has become accepted as cliche to the detriment of its pro-

their home community, and their sense of belonging to that

found implications. Pragmatic attempts to define the arts

home community.

often confuse the genres and fields of art—literature, theater,

For example, during the post-show discussion for a per-

music, dance, visual art—with the reality of the arts. Mediums

formance by the Bokamoso Youth Foundation, which was

of the arts—story, interpretation, sound, embodied shape,

vibrant with signature South African musical harmonies

movement, color, light, and shadow—are easily regarded as

and rhythms, an audience member asked, “How were you all

function, overlooking their omnipresence in every aspect of

trained to sing?” The performers paused, seemingly baffled

daily life. However, the arts can be captured neither by intel-

by the question, and looked to each other for words, until

lectual formulas nor by ascribing to them futile absolutes.

one of them finally stated that singing is just everywhere in

Simply put, words alone fail. The actuality of the arts is in

their lives in South Africa, that there was no single focus on

their very “liveness,” which defies finality. The liveness of the

learning how to sing. The audience member pressed on: “So

132  Cristal Chanelle Truscott

you had no formal training? It’s just in your DNA?” A fellow

knowledge that sources our behavior and sense of belonging.

audience member, who happened to be from the same city

While the audience member may not—perhaps because of

and town as the youth, further explained: “To start the day at

their own Cultural Conservatory or definition of training as

school, we sing. When there is a wedding, we sing. At church,

didactic and hierarchical—have categorized the performers’

we sing. When we play, we sing. When we work, we sing. For

vocal training as “formal,” what could not be denied was that

funerals, we sing. In the home, we sing. Everywhere and for

the practice of song was essential in the performers’ lives.

everything, we sing.” It was a straightforward answer but a

Cultural Conservatory equips us with foundational expe-

rich one: the context, community, and culture of their daily

riential knowledge—beyond verbally instructive or explana-

lives—their Cultural Conservatory—taught them to sing.

tory information—that becomes the matter of how and why

Their reflections indicated not only that song was part of

we behave, perform, and live the way we do.

what it meant to be South African but that singing was itself

Where is the drum now?

a way of performing essential life functions, such as learning,

Everywhere.

working, playing, loving, mourning. The spaces and experi-

When do you use the drum?

ences of Cultural Conservatory include the communal and

With every breath. Every move. Every moment.

the institutional, the informal and formal, the intended and

And if you are only dreaming?

the happenstance—all contributing to an intricate system

If I am dreaming then, still, I am living.

of determined and undeclared apprenticeships for practice,

While Cultural Conservatory is the combination of macro

knowledge, and understanding. The realities of Cultural Con-

and micro experiences, it is primarily quotidian, acquired

servatory are so immersive and its outcomes so ingrained

in everyday living. It must extend beyond the personal and

that we have to reflect in order to mine the detailed spe-

familial archive to include the communal, as it is informed

cifics of where and how we learned them and in how many

by geography, class, race, gender, generation, and religion,

intersecting ways and instances that learning was reiterated.

among other factors. A Cultural Conservatory’s communica-

Knowledge and practice from Cultural Conservatory can

ble teachings can be ceremonial, formal, or instructional, but

feel or can be perceived as innate, even though they are not.

they are not necessarily so. Any repeated experiences of cer-

Cultural Conservatory is not in our DNA, as the audience

emony, marked ritual, or macro structures that also contrib-

member projected. It is, as the performers offered, in our

ute to Cultural Conservatory are only impactful in that they

living. And therefore, the practices and arts alive in our Cul-

reiterate or reemploy—perhaps in heightened form—the

tural Conservatories are inherently cultivated. What results

structures and behaviors of our micro, daily, lived experience.

is an archive of embodied, emotional, social, and intellectual

For example, a family of storytellers doesn’t alone make one’s

Cultural Conservatory  133

storytelling an aspect of one’s Cultural Conservatory; it may

shared experience that may be replicated or included in one’s

simply attest to one’s talents, inclinations, or family dynam-

nuclear or extended family unit, but it must not be exclu-

ics. However, storytelling becomes part of a Cultural Conser-

sive to it. To identify any practice as Cultural Conservatory,

vatory if one encounters and is immersed in the practice of

it must be reiterated, replicated, and rehearsed via a range

storytelling being enacted simultaneously and repetitively,

of social and communal experiences, as exemplified by the

spontaneously, and planned in daily life and communal

story of the Bokamoso Youth Foundation performers. So for

spaces such as a mosque, a school reunion, a cookout, a

Texans, let’s say, “y’all” is part of Southern Cultural Conser-

beauty salon or barbershop, a community summer camp,

vatory, not only because individual families say “y’all” but

and so on. Cultural Conservatory is a conditioning and

because it is also said by teachers, doctors, strangers, elders,

identity-­shaping experience realized through the accumu-

leaders, and friends. However, for example, Spanglish and

lation of repeated and simultaneous immersion in a range

Tejano music was as particular to the Cultural Conservatory

of interconnected communal spaces, customs, and events.

of my Mexican American classmates as “playing the dozens”

Part of my Cultural Conservatory includes being born and

was for my Cultural Conservatory. Within our postsegrega-

raised in Houston, Texas, and attending schools in the 1990s

tion generation of multicultural schools, we enjoyed sharing

that maintained integration by “busing”—the transporting

and learning about the specifics of each other’s Cultural Con-

of students, begun in the 1960s, to schools often outside

servatories. In the casual spaces of play for recess and social-

their home communities to achieve school desegregation.

ization at lunch, we self-selected a flow of engagement that

While my classmates and I shared the Cultural Conservatory

included an ease of movement between gathering with peo-

of Houston, in ways we could identify (our shared experience

ple from our home communities and building communities

of what constituted “hot” in summertime and our collective

of friendship across our cultural identities. Our togetherness

use of “y’all”), other aspects of our lived experiences greatly

achieved an inclusiveness that many curriculums still strug-

diverged. We were aware of and keen to represent the range

gle to offer: acknowledging and celebrating our particulari-

of our cultural particularities. While we had a shared expe-

ties as an entry to building connections and collectivity.

rience of some aspects of life in Houston, our specific Cul-

To teach the periodic table of elements, my seventh-­

tural Conservatories ran the gamut of combinations from

grade science teacher would personify each element,

rural to urban to suburban, from Mexican American to

telling us stories to impart an understanding of how the

African American to first-generation Pakistani American to

elements “behaved,” how they interacted with other ele-

Jewish American to White Southern Baptist, from working

ments, and what those collaborations could produce. When

class to middle class, and more. Cultural Conservatory is a

given an assignment to partner and write stories about the

134  Cristal Chanelle Truscott

relationships between two elements, my class produced a

tionality. To assign the arts as an object to be analyzed, as only

collection of romantic tales, family dramas, action-comedies,

a metaphor for life, or as simply a tool or means for achieving

horror stories, and science fiction. Some of us read our stories;

an end implies that the intellect contains all necessary life

others had visual aids. Indeed, my group performed a short

information. In reality, information does not solidify under-

musical! The entire class knew how to tell stories. The ways

standing. The arts do. They needn’t be subjects only to be

we shared our stories echoed both our shared Cultural Con-

analyzed. The practice of the arts is the analysis. They needn’t

servatory and the diversity of our individual identities and

be tools or metaphors for life concepts or actions, such as

Cultural Conservatories. Displays of skill, creativity, or talent

resilience, understanding, connection, healing, change, trans-

were not the objective. It made no difference if we were great

formation, innovation, resistance, or revelation. In reality,

orators or witty writers. Our teacher only wanted us to tell

through their liveness and infinite possibilities (i.e., Unend-

a story to demonstrate our understanding of each element.

ing Climax), the arts are the manifestation of those concepts

But the unnamed and perhaps unconscious assumption on

and actions. They are the change, the innovation, the under-

the part of our teacher was that we all already knew how to

standing, the resistance, the connection, the aspiration.

tell a story. Perhaps that is evidence of the Cultural Conser-

A section of “Notes from a Nonviolent Training Session”

vatory of humanity: that every particular Cultural Conserva-

for protesters in 1963, on display at the National Center for

tory implicitly manifests infinite occasions for story—from

Civil and Human Rights in Atlanta, Georgia, reads, “Sing-

the local Conservatory of our neighborhood communities

ing. Creating unity, easing fear, establishing moral superior-

that might pass down folklore from front porches to the

ity, forcing attackers to deal with demonstrators as a group

national Conservatory of our country, as told and performed

rather than focus on an individual, communicating political

in political speeches.

message, setting a unified rhythm for pickets and marches. Performance singing versus protest singing. Everybody sings,

The Arts as Manifestation

no exceptions. If you can’t sing, sing louder.” The notes go on to outline other instructions for safety and dignity, such

When things are written down we have a tendency to

as dressing with clip-on ties and earrings that could not be

treat them as more final than they need to be.

violently pulled if one were assaulted by counterprotesters

—John O’Neal, cofounder of Free Southern Theater and founder of Junebug Productions

or police and always moving in pairs to make sure that no one was arrested alone. But no other directions besides the

To privilege the intellect or an explanation of the arts over

notes on singing were given for actually how to protest. There

an experience of the arts undermines the arts’ essential func-

was no need. The collective and communal act of singing was

Cultural Conservatory  135

the protest. Singing was the aspiration and the assembly. Its

question, and challenge its teachings to varying degrees. As

liveness—its potential to be ongoing, evolving, and never

adults, we shape our Cultural Conservatory—by continuing

final—provided all at once the action, the information, and

to enact and re-create the experiences and knowledge we

the understanding of protest as a physical, visual, emotional,

inherited and/or by reimagining and implementing new edi-

communal, aural, and storytelling experience.

tions and evolutions. My own practice of creating NeoSpiri-

The arts are intellectual concepts and actions to be lived,

tuals engages this process of being in call-and-response with

essential to the manifestation of our Cultural Conservato-

one’s Cultural Conservatory. Having been shaped by and

ries—the intersecting and interacting of all aspects of our

now shaping the Cultural Conservatory and traditions that

living. The arts produce encounters of civic engagement in

SoulWork builds on, my work explores and reaches for new

which we, as both practitioner and audience, can practice

realizations, questions, and solutions to offer the next gener-

what we preach, rehearse what we represent, and sharpen

ations of humanity as they continue its cycles and evolutions.

our sense of self individually and collectively. The arts are

I am often asked if SoulWork, my methodology of arts

universally accessible because every particular Cultural Con-

making and pedagogy, can be learned from a book. To re-

servatory bustles with them. It is not the sameness of the arts

spond, I share the importance of live chains of transmis-

that makes them universal; rather, it is their particularities

sion and experiential knowledge. SoulWork’s foundational

that stimulate our foundational conditioning for how story,

modalities are designed to mirror the behavior of Cultural

sound, movement, color shaped us and the world around us.

Conservatory immersion—and Cultural Conservatory is not

Those reminders of our Cultural Conservatory create inti-

finite. Therefore, no, a book by itself won’t do for learning

macy, which induces the transmission of emotional impact

SoulWork or understanding Cultural Conservatory. Words

that we experience if a painting makes us smile or a dance

alone cannot capture or teach them. But the writing can be

moves us to tears or a protest inspires us to act. We con-

an invitation, a reminder, a catalyst, a guide for looking deeply

nect to those things that taught us how to understand and

into the ways our artistic practices—past and present—are

interrogate ourselves and our environment. And then we

always expanding and being renewed through the ongoing

reenact and invoke them over and over again to interro-

exchange and call-and-response between the individual, the

gate and understand our changing environments and our

community, and society. The arts are ever evolving through

evolving selves.

their interaction with and enacting of shifting social, cul-

Cultural Conservatory is intergenerational. In childhood,

tural, and political landscapes and dynamics that require

we learn how to understand and navigate our Cultural

more dreams, practices, and responses. The liveness of life

Conservatory as it shapes us. Simultaneously, we accept,

demands constant aspiration or Unending Climax, repeated

136  Cristal Chanelle Truscott

attempt, ongoing exploration, and new discovery. There is no

ence, even as they are indelibly the driving force of our daily

greater manifestation of this cycle than the arts.

lived experiences. Artists are continually asked how we do what we do.

Invitation

Where do our ideas come from? How do we know they will work? How do we generate or enact all that it takes to make

Recently, the collective witnessing of police violence against

our ideas whole? What’s our intended outcome? Whom is

Black people, the second wave of Black Lives Matter protests,

it for? What does it mean? And so on. Our answers tend

with political violence alongside the shelter-in-place and

to express the idea that artists start with a need, a desire, a

social-distancing world of COVID-19 have provided stark

question. Then, we dream, imagine, and explore. Then, we

evidence of how essential arts, creativity, and innovation are

aspire, attempt, practice, and generate. Then, we implement

to living, surviving, and how imperative their liveness is to

and share. People respond. Sure enough, new needs, desires,

human joy and progress. Ironically, our isolation proves how

and questions surface to fuel the next project or to improve

the arts not only are not isolated from all aspects of our daily

what we’ve created or to extend a lifelong inquiry. And the

living but are essential to making life viable. Cultural Con-

cycle repeats. It’s not dissimilar from any other manifestation

servatory as an analytic is a performative intellectual frame-

of human behavior. Whether consciously or not, all humans

work for examining how deeply and inextricably the arts are

behave like artists. So what if we actively, consciously, and

integrated into humanity, our behaviors and social systems.

consistently look to the arts and artists for next steps? What

While the fields and genres of the arts as income-generating

if we return to the drum?

professions might be treated as silos, the cultural capital of the arts is ever present and integrated into all social situations: home, school, faith/worship, play, and leisure. With words alone, we risk situating the arts as something to be

Can I make a drum? You already have. You always do. Then, don’t we all? Yes, all of us. Together.

explained versus experienced or engaged, creating a paradox

How do we make the drum?

whereby they are not valued or funded at the level of sci-

Over and over again and again . . .

Cultural Conservatory  137

14 It’s Who We Are Angela Cox

Introduction

making something with skill and cleverness, which is the highest compliment for something one has made.

Imagine a period of no direct sunlight for sixty-seven days,

And thankfully, Alaskans succeeded in reopening the

during the coldest and darkest months of November through

Alaska State Council on the Arts, a critical cultural institution

January.

that continues to bring art to all the diverse communities of

Imagine your native tongue having no word for art, but

our state.

still having created tools and functional items that are also beautiful. Imagine your state proposing the elimination of the State

Where I Come From

Council on the Arts, nearly making it the only state without

I am Inupiaq, part of the Indigenous group of peoples who

such a cultural institution.

call the most northern part of Alaska home. Probably be-

This is where I am from.

cause of our location and the challenge of access to our communities, whether by sailing ship or plane, contact with

But the place I am from also has seventy-one days of contin-

the outside world happened later than it did for many other

uous light. The sun does not set but makes its way in a great

Indigenous groups. Even as contact, and its effects, has rap-

loop around the sky above.

idly spread since the turn of the twentieth century, many of

And there is also a word, an Inupiat word—sanatu—that

our cultural ways and traditions remain intact. And while we

translates to being skilled in using one’s mind and hands at

no longer travel by dog sled (we did) or live in igloos (we

138

don’t), like so many Indigenous people we continue to find

gas, singing and splashing, as if announcing the bowheads’

our way in bridging two worlds—the not-so-old old and the

arrival.

constant new. Raised in the small rural town of Utqiagvik (Barrow), I am sure I grew up differently than many other kids across the

Once the agviq is spotted, the crew will quickly gather in the boat. Someone will steer, another will harpoon; the shoulder gun is ready.

United States. I come from a whaling family with a diet still

We have always believed the whales come to us—“they

heavily dependent on gathering and hunting—subsistence.

give themselves,” our elders say. When a successful hunt

For those who are unfamiliar with what it means to be in a

occurs, we pray. Then we shout with joy and hug all those

whaling family, it is as it sounds. We get in boats and hunt

around. The butchering begins immediately. So does the

whales. But this isn’t commercial whaling. It is a sacred hunt

community feed. This carries on until the meat and blub-

steeped in tradition, driven by a love of community and a

ber is stored and packed away. A portion will be cooked and

millennia-long relationship with all living things, with the

given freely to all who come. The rest is distributed later in

bowhead whale at center.

the year, again to all who come. My grandmother used to say,

At the start of the new year, we come together to revive

“No one goes hungry.”

the ancient form of the waterproof stitch to sew together

This has happened for countless generations and contin-

our umiat, the lightweight boats made of bearded seal skin

ues today. A hunt occurs again in the fall. And throughout

and caribou tendon. Our whaling crews, mostly composed of

the year, the quest for bearded seals, caribou, and the like

family members, close and extended, head to the end of the

helps us to prepare with materials needed, while keeping our

ice shelf and set up camp. They wear white handmade parkas

bellies full.

and fur hats, heavy boots and snow pants. Someone is always

The dependence on the hunt may have dissipated some

on lookout for polar bears, and the youngest among them is

through the years, though never completely. Rap music and

usually brewing coffee and filling cups.

modern technology have found their way up north, along

There we wait.

with TV dinners and small grocers (where you could, if will-

The mighty bowhead on its migratory route will sur-

ing and able, buy a $30 watermelon).

face close to the ice. Down below are krill, the whales’

But so many of the old ways persist still. And that per-

meal of choice. Out there on the ice, where all is quiet

sistence cannot be attributed to hunger alone; these ancient

and cellphones may not have service, you can hear them

harvests bring us together as a community in celebration

coming . . . the release of air and water from their sprout

and in sharing and in teaching. They lift our spirits and keep

. . . the water breaks. Often preceding them come the belu-

us close to one another.

It’s Who We Are  139

While I could write at length about the whale hunt, I mention it here only to set a backdrop for my personal per-

times. His lifelike carvings depicted the everyday lives of our people. Leona states, “We have pride in our work, because we

spective on the arts.

have pride in life.” Our ancestors were beautiful in everything

Sanatu

they did, she says. And what of no word for art in Inupiatun? Ah, but sanatu​

In my Native tongue, there is no equivalent word for the

—this is what we say when we see a beautiful piece of

English word “art.” But like all Indigenous peoples, until only

work, Leona says. “We don’t say that to describe something

recently, we made everything. And we made everything with

utilitarian.”

care and purpose. Things were not only functional but beautiful. We are no stranger to craft.

Curious still that Inupiatun might be an exception among Indigenous languages, I sought out other perspectives.

The umiaq, the seal-skin boat previously mentioned, ben­

Sonya Kelliher-Combs is an Inupiaq and Athabascan art-

efited from its waterproof stitch, lightweight design, and

ist. Her roots span from the interior of Alaska to the far north.

stealthy lines. Parkas not only provided warmth; they were

Her perspective echoes that of Leona. Are the arts essential?

hand sewn with geometric patterns that would help intro-

I asked her. “They are not separate from the life that we live.

duce a traveler with indications of place and families they

I don’t put them in a box. Everything is influenced by the

came from. Snow goggles, hand carved from wood, had thin

arts—the way we live, the way we gather and hunt and cre-

slits through which to see—the workaround for having no

ate and raise our family—it’s all intertwined. We made and

glass! All so brilliant. All so beautiful.

imbued things within our life and our daily activity that were,

I asked an elder, Leona Okakok, to share her perspective

for all intents and purposes, art.”

on this, and she reminded me that the things our ances-

Were the arts so interconnected with our daily life that a

tors made were not just utilitarian things. “Baskets,” she

separate word was not even necessary? Sonya’s response is

said, “certainly are useful, but they had to be beautiful,

simple and profound: “For me, art is like life. It is just a part of

too, to please the eyes and the heart.” Leona grew up in a

being. That is the closest thing I can say in English.”

time when a cash economy was only starting to take hold. Her grandfather made his living as a carpenter. When he retired, he began making baleen baskets, selling them to

Of Course, Yes

bring in additional income. Her father, Samuel Simmonds,

My initial reaction to the guiding question here—Are the

remains one of the most revered Inupiaq artists in modern

arts essential?—will be like many responses, a resounding

140  Angela Cox

yes. But that this question might even be asked implies that

Elmer Rasmuson, with his mother, Jenny Olson, estab-

the arts can be stripped away, removed from life, and that

lished Rasmuson Foundation. Elmer is also credited with

the arts, or the creative thread that runs through so many,

founding the Anchorage Museum. In his memoirs, Elmer

can exist separate from who we are.

shares the story of how he and his wife, Mary Louise, invited

With a question as big as this, I return to who I am. I go

friends to lunch, and it was there that they offered to

to the core of my beliefs as a woman who was raised in the

bear half the construction costs of the original Anchorage

Arctic, in the ways of her people and Indigenous worldviews.

Museum facility if others would match them. In a short hour,

Art, the things we make with our minds and hands, is a nat-

and the most expensive “free lunch he ever attended,” one

ural part of everyday life.

friend quipped, the Anchorage Museum came to be. Elmer,

And as a woman of color today, I search for work that is value-­aligned with my upbringing. Professionally, I have al-

who was Anchorage mayor at the time, strongly believed that “every great city needs a great museum.”

ways been in pursuit of opportunities that serve community,

The Rasmusons and their brood have a love of music,

with importance placed on my home state of Alaska. Even

poetry—art, in general. I cannot pretend to know the depth

when I ventured far from home, I dreamt only of returning.

of their interest, but much of their appreciation of the arts

Perhaps unsurprisingly, I have found myself in the non-

weaves into the DNA of the foundation, reflected in nearly a

profit sector, primarily working in philanthropy, including

quarter of all grant making invested in the arts. This shows up

my current position. I work at Rasmuson Foundation, the

in many ways, even ways one might not expect.

largest foundation in Alaska that makes grants only in Alaska

When you interview at the foundation, you are asked if

(with a handful of exceptions). Mostly, we fund in the areas

you can sing or dance—among more serious questions, of

of health and human services and housing, and we are work-

course. These two are never requirements for any job but

ing to solve homelessness. A hallmark of Rasmuson Founda-

are always mentioned as pluses when evaluating candi-

tion, however, is our strong commitment to the arts. It is the

dates. When I interned at the foundation for a year in 2004,

thing we are most known for by Alaskans.

I remember “Ode to Rasmuson Foundation,” written by our president and CEO, in celebration of our upcoming fiftieth

The Rasmusons To understand Rasmuson Foundation’s commitment to the

year. Quite often, departing board members or employees are sent off with a musical tribute, highlighting their adventures and service.

arts, I believe it important to have some sense of the family’s love for the arts.

It’s Who We Are  141

Rasmuson Foundation

ple. Annually, we name one distinguished artist and award ten Fellowships and twenty-five Project Awards.

Nearly a quarter of our investments year to year support arts

While many foundations avoid wading into the water of

and culture—more than $100 million since our beginnings

awarding grants to individuals (the IRS requirements create

in 1955. In 2003, Rasmuson Foundation launched an Arts

a heavy load), this is something we have embraced at Ras-

and Culture Initiative with an initial $6 million to support a

muson Foundation. Seeing artists’ joy and watching their

multipronged approach to elevate the arts in Alaska. Fund-

growth is worth it. Seeing new work come of the awards is

ing would support a touring arts fund, so rural communities

worth it. Seeing new doors open for Alaska artists is worth it.

would have access to Alaska’s performing arts and exhibits.

In a 2015 assessment of IAA, we heard from artists that

Grants would also support arts in education, improving

the awards were “vital” and “life-changing” in their impact.

student access to artistic experiences. The Arts Acquisition

These same sentiments and expressions of gratitude carry on

fund would encourage museums to buy art from living art-

throughout the years.

ists to enhance their permanent collections. Perhaps the

Thank-you notes arrive in a steady cadence. It is not un-

most notable part of the initiative was the investment in

usual to receive one, even if years later, with a picture or a

artists themselves.

copy of finished work. The Talkeetna-based author Sarah Birdsall sent the foundation a card in early 2020: “In 2015,

Individual Artist Awards

you awarded me a project award to build much needed writing space and complete a draft of my then novel-­in-

Before the launch of the Arts and Culture Initiative, the

progress. . . . Well, here it is . . . with much thanks for the

foundation had gathered artists and curators, fellow grant

encouragement and support.” Often, the notes contain a

makers, and sector leaders to discuss how best to support

quick update—maybe the recipient has been invited to

arts in Alaska. Much was born from that conversation, in-

an international music forum or has been nominated for

cluding the aforementioned programs. Most exciting was

a Pushcart Prize. Every thank-you note is forwarded to our

the idea of putting funds directly into the hands of artists.

board of directors.

And so our Individual Artists Awards (IAA) program came to be.

Beyond monetary support, we also work to promote, celebrate, and develop artists—giving them shine and encour-

Since the creation of IAA, the foundation has awarded

agement through public-relations campaigns, an annual

552 artists from sixty Alaska communities more than $5.1

party (when such gatherings still happened), and year-round

million—all of this in checks made payable to specific peo-

professional development opportunities.

142  Angela Cox

One example was our partnership with a literary nonprofit to produce stories about the 2017 and 2018 IAA recip-

Alaska and the Arts

ients. Profiles were written on each awardee, by some of

In 2018, a new governor was elected in Alaska. He ran on the

Alaska’s most well-known writers. This in essence created a

promise of restoring the Permanent Fund Dividend to Alas-

compound effect of artists supporting artists and, in the end,

kans. If you are unfamiliar, this is the share of the oil wealth

beautiful stories on some of Alaska’s most talented artists

that each Alaskan receives every year, albeit there are true

being shared across platforms, in larger publications, and in a

philosophical disagreements on how much of the wealth

special web feature on rasmuson.org.

each Alaskan is entitled to.

While many of the programs born at the outset of the

For decades, our state’s vast oil wealth allowed Alaskans

Arts and Culture Initiative have run their course, morphed, or

to receive a dividend check and many services for free.

been absorbed by partner institutions, the Individual Artist

Robust oil revenue and royalties paid for state budgets, filled

Awards continues as a signature program of the foundation.

savings accounts, and seeded the permanent fund. Now,

Our work in the arts has not been limited to Alaska

after several years of depressed oil prices and deficit spend-

only. We helped found, and continue to provide support to,

ing, the state has burned through much of its savings. The

United States Artists, a national organization established to

largest remaining source of funds is found in the earnings

meet the growing economic needs of American artists and

reserve of the Permanent Fund. The previous administration

recognize their importance as a cultural resource. US Artists

accessed those funds, which allowed the state to balance

awards $50,000 to individual artists, typically forty to fifty

its budget.

annually. In 2021, they awarded these fellowships to sixty artists—the largest class to date.

But public anger about reduced dividends and use of earnings for government helped propel Michael Dunleavy to

Our goal of vibrant arts and culture in Alaska cannot be

the governor’s mansion. He promised a “full” dividend, and

met by us alone. Nor will a quarter of our grant making year

he was not alone—support for the idea has existed in both

to year get us there. Therefore, our support also takes the

the House and the Senate. And the election of 2020 brought

form of advocacy and civic engagement—this too is rooted

more lawmakers to our state capitol who also believe in a

in our founders’ active life in public service.

full dividend. However, fulfilling this promise has not been easy, as it comes at great expense to the services that Alaskans have come to enjoy. Deep cuts have been proposed. Almost no sector has been left untouched.

It’s Who We Are  143

Among the governor’s first proposed cuts, the University of Alaska system was looking at a 41 percent reduction

the many other ways we elevate the importance of arts in Alaska and across the nation.

to its annual budget. The Brother Francis Shelter, which

Beyond the obvious ways in which this work benefits the

nightly served 240 adults in the Anchorage area, prepared

arts community, I see artists, many whom I am proud to call

to serve only 100 nightly with beds and mats because of

friends, being recognized for their cultural and artistic con-

the potential loss of funding. And the Alaska State Coun-

tributions. It is wondrous to see their passions and, for many,

cil on the Arts closed its doors, leaving staff unemployed

their life’s work validated and celebrated. It is especially

and Alaska as the only state in the nation without an arts

meaningful when their work brings about change that might

council.

otherwise go unnoticed.

This closure would not last long, however.

One such artist is someone who brought awareness to the

We joined others in a fight to preserve the state arts

issue of missing and murdered Indigenous women in Alaska.

council. The governor’s proposed budget not only aimed

Amber Webb created a large qaspeq, a traditional Yup’ik

to eliminate all state funding for arts in our schools but also

garment, covered with ink portraits of nearly four hundred

removed authority for the state to receive private money

Indigenous women and supplementary Yup’ik designs. The

from Rasmuson Foundation and other private grant makers

project explored injustice, violence, and healing—and made

to support the program. Why? we wondered. What message

loud and local an issue that affects Indigenous women

did that send to our students about the arts? What message

throughout the United States. The finished piece exhib-

did it send to Alaska artists?

ited across the state and gained the attention of national

With partners, we rolled up our sleeves, writing letters

activists.

and taking part in invited testimony. Ultimately, the arts

And dear to me now, as a new mother, is seeing the

council and its community of supporters prevailed. But as

much-deserved success of the Sitka-based Michaela Goade.

we continue to navigate the uncertainty of our state’s fiscal

With her IAA project award, she developed ideas for picture

situation, the fight is not yet over.

books celebrating Indigenous culture. She recently became the first Alaska Native  / Native American to win the Ran-

A Full Life

dolph Caldecott Medal for her art in the children’s book We Are Water Protectors, written by Carole Lindstrom. Michaela

Rasmuson Foundation has established an important legacy

used different types of paint and contrasting colors to illus-

of family philanthropy around the arts. While it is easy to

trate the story of the Indigenous-led movement against

point to our financial support, I would be remiss to leave out

the Dakota Access Pipeline. Some readers may recognize

144  Angela Cox

Indigenous and Privileged I know that as I write this, I enter this volume as the sole Indigenous voice. Knowing that I am invited to occupy this space—to even have access to it—and be the only one of a certain background brings with it a fair amount of pressure. It is the same sort of pressure that exists when I walk into any professional room as a woman of color. This pressure will be recognizable to the BIPOC community. And in philanthropy, there is so little representation of people of color, even more so when one is Indigenous. The thing about Indigenous people is that we do very

Figure 14.1. Amber Webb’s large qaspeq, a traditional Yup’ik garment, brought awareness of missing and murdered Indigenous women in Alaska. Here the qaspeq hangs in the Alaska State Capitol. (Brian Hild / Alaska House Coalition)

little alone. As I approached this piece, I knew I could not do it without amplifying Indigenous voices beyond my own. I reached out to an elder, a linguist, two artists, and a curator (also an artist), who represent different regions and peoples of Alaska.

Michaela’s work from her Google Doodle that celebrated the

I wanted their perspectives on this question. In no circum-

Alaska Native civil rights leader Elizabeth Peratrovich.

stance did I share the question beforehand, as first I wanted

I appreciate that at Rasmuson Foundation a better life means more than just meeting one’s basic needs of a warm place to call home or food on the table. It also means having access to theater and other cultural spaces or helping to reawaken ancient knowledge and craft. This value, entrenched in the foundation’s DNA, reminds me so much of who I am as an Indigenous person and that we cannot view the arts as something unworthy of support. You can have a good life without the arts, but can you have a full one?

Figure 14.2. Michaela Goade was tapped by Google for a “Doodle” to celebrate the Alaska Native civil rights icon Elizabeth Peratrovich.

It’s Who We Are  145

their initial, immediate reaction. For a couple of them, I circled back around just to see if they had anything else they wanted to share after giving the question some thought.

So many pieces central to our lives as Indigenous people were all these things—in sum, both useful and beautiful. Sven Haakanson Jr. is Alutiiq from Old Harbor on Kodiak

For the most part, I knew what to expect when asking

Island and an American anthropologist who specializes in

the primary question at hand. I was more interested in

documenting and preserving the language and culture of

understanding their worldview of the arts. I did not want to

the Alutiiq. He is an associate professor at the University of

assume that our perspectives would mirror each other sim-

Washington and curator of North American Anthropology

ply because we are Indigenous.

at Burke Museum. He is also a MacArthur Fellow—a genius. I called him, originally wondering how to take on this essay

Perspectives, Not Just My Own The Tlingit and Unangaxˆ artist Nicholas Galanin is a multidisciplinary artist from Sitka. This last year, he readied graves for the burial of statues that celebrate colonial monuments

and for his perspective on the essentiality of the arts. He spoke eloquently on our need for the arts: I see all of these brilliant and illuminating humans in every piece, in every cultural piece I look at. I think, “Wow, what was that person thinking? What is the story they want to

such as Captain Cook. In 2019, he requested that his work

share? What are they passing on?” Whether it’s a simple

be pulled from the Whitney Biennial because then–board

bowl to a chalice, all of it is an expression. And in that, art

member Warren Kanders owned a company that produces

is an expression of life. It is an expression of who we are

tear gas “used on Black and Brown men women and chil-

as individuals, who we are culturally, and who we are and

dren.” Much of Nicholas’s work tells the story of Indigenous culture, experience, and identity. Reflecting on how the arts are so much a part of Indig-

how we see our world. When you step back and think about it from that perspective, I’m always humbled, by all our ancestors: their brilliance in taking a raw piece and creating this story—this art, what we call art—and tak-

enous life that they cannot be seen as separate, Nicholas

ing it and sharing it with the world in a way that allows

talks about the work that is at the front of his mind at the

it to carry forward even when they are not here. In that

moment. Currently making a traditional canoe, he notes

essence, art is essential in reminding us of our humanity

that, traditionally, the canoe was used for “connecting com-

and reminding us of who we are individually, culturally,

munity, for survival, for subsistence, for ceremony, for travel, and for its utilitarian design. It is aesthetically magnificent but also serves purpose to handle the waterways of our community safely, to navigate and carry its crew.”

146  Angela Cox

and as a people.

One and the Same

Conclusion

Art is not separate from the Indigenous way of life. We are

At Rasmuson Foundation, we cannot separate the arts from

and have always been creators.

our grant making and still meet our mission. If we are to

Art is not a thing we pull apart from the larger tapestry of life. It is a strand of caribou tendon, woven with other pieces

realize a life that is better for all Alaskans, we must support the arts.

of tendon to make the thread stronger. It is then woven

Our calling is maybe akin to that of Indigenous ways of

into clothing, tools, and shelter. It is the thing that binds

knowing. It is not something that is separate from life—it is

the waterproof stitches of the umiaq—to keep it light and

etched into everything. When we realize that, we realize our

buoyant. The thing that assists in a successful whale hunt.

full selves, our whole selves; not only are our basic needs met,

The thing that brings us together. The thing that keeps us fed

but we can dream, remember, question, and imagine.

and whole. The thing that keeps us alive. We have not boxed it in or separated it from life. It is essential to our way of being.

I’d like to quote the Alaskan poet and social justice warrior Christy NaMee Eriksen, who shared her reaction to Amanda Gorman’s inauguration poem: “Art is like a sixth sense. It

And that is how I view Rasmuson Foundation’s commit-

gives us more information than just what we can see, what

ment to the arts in Alaska—essential to meeting its mission.

we can taste, and what we can hear. We get to experience the world more deeply.”1 Art is deeply tied to the human experience—as I have learned from my ancestors. And what I appreciate about the work of Rasmuson Foundation is the foundation’s understanding of this very notion. Support of the arts is central to our mission because it is innately human. It helps us live our best lives.

It’s Who We Are  147

15 An Artist’s Journey Tania León

Alberta Arthurs interviewed the composer, conductor, and

to leave Cuba? They were poor. There was no money. It didn’t

CUNY Distinguished Professor Emerita Tania León over Zoom

cross their minds that one day I would leave the country.

on October 28, 2020.

Alberta Arthurs: How did your family find money for Tania León: I brought this to show you, a postcard I received as a girl. On the front is the Eiffel Tower. On the back, written in Spanish, it says, “Dear Tania, I am sending warm salutes to you, to your grandmother, and to your mother. Are you studying? I am taking this opportunity to get you scores

piano lessons and for the quality of training you had?

TL: The training of musicians in Cuba is terrific. It always was. My musical training was in the French system; that’s why I wanted to go to the Conservatoire in Paris.

for you to learn. See you soon, Edmundo Lopez.” That was

AA: It makes sense, then, that they would have recognized

from my piano teacher, who was performing in Paris—my

your talent at a young age.

teacher who introduced me to contemporary music, the one who said, when I was leaving Cuba, that Cuba was going to

TL: When I was five years old, my grandfather bought a

lose a pianist and gain a composer.

second­hand piano. He used to pay eight pesos every month

This card was my motivation. It gave me the idea. I told

for a real piano. My grandmother was a seamstress, and my

my family when I was nine years old that Paris was where I

grandfather was a bus dispatcher. My mother was a maid,

was going to live.

and my father was painting houses. So they were in a hurry

My family looked at me like I was crazy. How was I going

148

for me to become something.

AA: When you were in your twenties, you came to New York

happen. And I can say it was destiny, because the only way

on your way to Paris?

you could be provided with a seat on the plane was through

TL: The day before I left Cuba, my grandmother tried to persuade me to stay. She said, “Now that the revolution is here, there’s a real opportunity for you.” And I said, “Grandma, you helped me dream. You are the one who told me my name is going to be in the theaters if I ever traveled the entire world. And now that I am about to do this, you are telling me not to go?” I said, “I have to go. And if it doesn’t work out, I’ll come back.”

AA: And you never went back?

a lottery. My number is the only lotto ticket I have ever won in my life. I thought I would come, do some work, get some money, and go to France. No. What happened is that moments before I boarded the plane, all the passengers automatically lost their Cuban citizenship—something that I didn’t know would happen. And I didn’t know how to tell my family it happened, because I had told my grandma that if it didn’t work out, I would come back. Here I am boarding a plane, under these circumstances, not knowing what was going to happen to me, not knowing

TL: Not for a very long time. Because the tension between

how to deal with this, and arriving in Miami totally broken,

Cuba and the United States became really entrenched. For

spiritually speaking.

twelve years, there was no way for me to go back.

AA: Can you tell your story of arrival and survival, how it felt to be a newcomer here, what you thought might happen to you?

I said to my friends, “Look, I have to go and talk to the Catholic church, because I’m not staying here. I’m going to New York.” They said, “You’re crazy. You don’t speak English.” And I said, “Well, New York is where the music is.”

TL: I had to board a plane that was coming to the United

The church my friends were affiliated with gave me a one-

States because it was my only way out. I didn’t have money

way ticket to New York. I arrived in New York, I believe it was

for the trip. But because of what was happening between the

the first of June 1967.

two countries, the American administration actually pro-

I was greeted by Sarita and Fernando, who were friends of

vided planes for the people who wanted to leave the island.

mine from Cuba. Sarita was a music copyist, but they both

I wrote to a Cuban classmate who was in Miami with her

were working in a factory. They gave me their sofa to sleep

family. The Catholic church they attended provided them

on until I was able to get myself together.

with the form for sponsoring me as a Cuban migrant. I filled

Sarita and I took the Yellow Pages—remember the Yel-

out the application—and it took three years for the trip to

low Pages?—and started looking for something that had to

An Artist’s Journey  149

do with music and music education. We spotted an orga-

five years before I could apply for US citizenship and get a

nization called American Council for Émigrés in the Pro-

new passport.

fessions (ACEP). In fact, they gave me an award years later. There was a lady there who spoke Spanish. I went to see her and explained that I had just arrived and was looking for a conservatory.

AA: So when you arrived, you became stateless. TL: That’s how I started. I got into an immersion class to learn English. Of course, I

She had a piano and told me to play something. Then she

was reading the newspaper, watching television. In the mean-

looked at me and said, “I’m going to get you a scholarship.”

time, the New York College of Music merged into NYU. So

And she provided me with a studio. So I was practicing there,

now I was studying at NYU, learning English, reevaluating

and I was practicing at the church near Sarita—the priests

everything.

gave me permission to use the piano in the sacristy. I was practicing every day.

At times, I wasn’t sure what I was doing here. But I was inspired by my family because they had made so many sac-

The head of ACEP took me to New York College of Music

rifices for me, especially my grandmother. I took a part-time

for an audition. I played. They gave me some music to sight-

job playing at a restaurant called La Carreta, on Ninth Avenue

read on the spot. They left the room to talk. And when they

near the Port Authority bus station. They made an advertise-

came back, they told me I had a scholarship.

ment in the Spanish-language newspapers and radio. I sent

I enrolled there. I had no English. But they gave me a lot

that to my grandmother and received a letter back from her.

of credits because of my abilities and because of my sight-­

She wrote, “Is that why you went to the United States, to play

reading and because of all the things I could do that didn’t

in a restaurant when nobody’s even listening to you?”

require English. They realized I had musical knowledge.

AA: She was ambitious for you.

AA: Tania, I’m struck by your great determination and ability

TL: Yes. I was so overwhelmed that I went that night and told

to find your way and to find friends to help you.

the owner of the restaurant, “I’m sorry, but I have to quit.” “But why? You are playing very well. They are giving you

TL: Yes! But I was in a tremendous predicament. First of all,

tips. You just arrived in this country. And you can make an

I didn’t know how to tell my family that I couldn’t go back.

income.”

They didn’t know that I had lost my Cuban citizenship. When I was interviewed by the American government upon my arrival, they told me that I would have to stay here at least

150  Tania León

I said, “No, I have to leave.” And that is when I said to myself, “I have to make something happen.” At NYU, a classmate of mine in the piano program played

for classes in a school in Harlem and asked if I could fill in for

saw him onstage; he was dancing there. I thought, Wow! And

her one Saturday. “Here are the books. Go there, and they

that’s the beginning of the story.

will tell you who to play for.” I was so happy because I was going to Harlem. I’d seen Harlem in the movies. I took the train to 145th Street, walked to 141st, got there, and the person I was introduced to was Dorothy Maynor. I didn’t know she was a famous singer. She

AA: Your ability to connect with people made your arrival here work. You had some good luck. But you had good luck because you had good instincts.

TL: You asked, “What does it mean to be a newcomer?”

had created the Harlem School of the Arts. She took me to

I was born and raised on an island. I’ve always been look-

this room to play for a woman. I played for her, and she was

ing at the world. I was not a citizen or inhabitant of only one

doing da-dah, da-dah; that’s how I got the rhythms. Between

piece of Earth. I always was very interested in extraterrestri-

one class and the next, there was a gap of about ten minutes.

als. I thought about being an astronaut. I was very interested

I stayed in the room because of the baby grand piano, just

in the universe and the idea that we are on a planet. My mind

playing it.

has been always expansive.

Two lessons later, I was in the room, playing by myself

My family was very poor, yes, but very diverse. There were

again, and then the door opens. This very striking man

three different cultures in my family: the Spanish, the African,

walked through the room. My eyes followed him as he walked

and the Chinese. We were poor, but they had their ways to do

through. A few lessons after, I was playing by myself, and he

things and enjoy life. And I was enjoying what I was learning

came back in. As he approached me, I told him, “No English.”

from this one and then from this one after this one, and they

He laughed. He said some things in Spanish and motioned

were enjoying everything—and that was really incredible.

to get my telephone number. About two weeks after that,

We ask ourselves, Where do we come from? Who are our

somebody called me in Spanish and asked if I could go back

ancestors? Was somebody in music? Because I’m a musician.

to the same place. And there he was, and he told me to play.

And my brother is a musician whose daughter is an opera

Just play. He explained to me he had a project in mind, and if

singer in Barcelona. My youngest nephew is a sound engi-

it worked, he would like me to be his pianist.

neer. Where is this music coming from? We don’t know. My

And that’s when my entire life changed. Because I was talking to Arthur Mitchell—without knowing he was Arthur Mitchell. He was thinking of creating the Dance Theater of

arrival in the States is part of that. The thing that I want to tell you is that regardless of what we’re talking about, I was very afraid.

Harlem. He invited me to Lincoln Center. This was the first

I mean, the flash of New York, Broadway, Lincoln Cen-

time I went to Lincoln Center, to the New York City Ballet. I

ter, the museums—it was an explosion of culture and the

An Artist’s Journey  151

arts. And, of course, Arthur Mitchell. What he did was like

AA: An amazing path. And you were alone; your family was

opening the entire door. Because that’s how we started

still back in Cuba.

working with Marian Anderson. And then Leontyne Price came to talk to us, and Cecily Tyson was telling us how to walk onstage. It was just amazing. All of these people—I didn’t know who they were. Working with Balanchine and Jerome Robbins—it’s like Cinderella.

AA: What was it like for you here as a person of color, as a woman, as a new American not yet a citizen of the United States?

TL: I still was thinking about going to France. My life change came after I wrote my first ballet. Arthur said to me, “You write a ballet, and I will do the choreography.” And I said, “I don’t know if I know how to write ballet, but okay.” I agreed because I had so much admiration for him. I went

TL: Yes, that’s the part I haven’t been able to solve to this day. I remember the first time I went back to Cuba, and even when I go now, I walk in the streets and try to remember. I go and sit in front of the sea, as I used to do. I don’t yet know how I had the courage to leave.

AA: It’s an American story. I want to take us to another place. You’re now a famous American composer. Your music resonates with sounds that come from your history, your homeland, and from the mix of backgrounds that produced you. Your music is unique; it’s the sound of you.

TL: That is what I’ve been understanding more and more when I read other people’s opinions of what I do. The one who helped me do this was my father. In a way, that’s the only inheritance he left me with.

to the library and got books about composition theory. I put

The last time I saw him when I returned to Cuba, I brought

together a piece for piano, an ensemble. We went to a studio,

my music, the recordings I had. And he said, “Your music is

and I recorded the whole thing at the piano. He said, “Follow

very interesting. But where are you in your music?”

my movement,” so that’s what I did.

Months later, he collapsed and he died. And I couldn’t go

Then we had the first performance. When I saw that

back because I didn’t have a visa. I started thinking of him

onstage—the lights, the wardrobe, the audience, the record-

and of the way he was, how he walked, things like that. I did

ing that I made, the whole thing—that’s when I decided to

a piece called “Four Pieces for Cello,” taking some rhythms

study composition.

of his walk that I remembered. And I started playing his

I went to NYU and said I want to change my major from piano to composition.

152  Tania León

rhythms in the music and using materials I knew that were inside of me, that I comprehended very well.

But I had never done it. Because when I first started writ-

TL: I really don’t know. Because, for example, when we

ing music, I was under the influence of all the different theo-

started traveling with the Dance Theater of Harlem, we went

ries and practices and technicalities of the moment that had

to several cities in the South. After the performance, we tried

to do with twelve tones and serialism. Everything had to do

to go to a restaurant, and they wouldn’t serve us. So I saw

with the academic view of what composing was all about.

this. I’ve been followed in stores. When I bought a nice car,

AA: But you drew from your past, from your experience. TL: Yes. Also, I had only one teacher—Ursula Mamlock. It didn’t cross my mind that she was a female composer. For me, it was natural. She was the only person I actually studied with. From then on, I learned by myself. The question of being a person of color is something that, perhaps because of my upbringing, perhaps because of my neighborhood, I don’t believe in. In a way, that is what saves me. It’s not that I don’t understand what the whole thing is

the police stopped me. The last time a police officer stopped me, I gave him a card at the end. I said, “If you want to study music, call me.” And the card said, “Tania León, Distinguished Professor of the City University of New York.”

AA: What about being a woman in your field? TL: Same, same, same. The thing is that this is my physical form. This is not my essence. You cannot see the essence of a person. You have to feel the essence of the person.

about. When people such as Lena Horne came to the Dance

AA: Do you think the arts are particularly important to peo-

Theater of Harlem, she told us her story—a story of being

ple who are looking for their identity, their purpose, their

sentenced to be diminished or devalued from a very, very

field in life? Do you think the arts have a role to play in mak-

young age. This whole thing about color has been a total

ing us who we are, distinct from other experiences?

manipulation and a construct. One group of humanity finds an excuse to take advantage of another group. It can be translated into slavery. It can be translated into Nazism. Therefore, for me, skin tone is a membrane that protects the human form, and it doesn’t matter what color it is. I have never had the type of situation where I feel diminished because somebody doesn’t like my skin.

TL: I think art is one of the main forces of being human. Through an artistic perception, we are giving the narrative not only of that moment in time but of that community, that culture, that way of life. There’s no difference for me between the American culture, the African culture, the Cuban culture, and the Spanish culture. That’s something that hit me when I came back to Cuba, because my nephew

AA: To what extent do you think that positive and self-pre-

told my family that I spoke funny. Why? Because by the time

serving attitude is part of being an artist?

I came back, my Spanish was not the Spanish they were

An Artist’s Journey  153

speaking. I was speaking with an accent I did not notice. They noticed. That means I have absorbed something here that has

TL: I think it’s going to be a big contributor, yes. AA: What do you hope for your own music?

made me different. My gestures are different, my language

TL: I have no idea. Because it is the same thing that happens

is different—and I did not notice. This is what I’m trying

to almost every artist. Pieces that were severely criticized

to say as well of the human species, how we are porous to

twenty years ago, now they’re hit pieces. It is interesting to

each other and how corrupt it is to think that I’m not going

me to see the trajectory. I feel like any artist: You do a piece.

to absorb anything from you because you’re Black or not

You might believe more or less in each piece, but each piece

absorbing anything from you because you’re Latino. The

is a piece of you. There are a lot of things hidden in that piece

more we interact with each other, the more syncretic we’re

that don’t have anything to do with technique or what chord

going to become.

is coming.

AA: What you say suggests that art helps us figure out who

AA: That’s more true now, isn’t it? Because for a while, as you

we are as individuals and as people from a certain country or

suggested, there were schools of music, schools of thought

culture or place in the world—that art individualizes us. It

that dominated. People were part of a theory of music.

takes us out of a characterization such as, Are you a man or a woman? Are you Black or white?

TL: It’s less true for me, and I have no idea if that’s because of my upbringing. Some people have been to Havana and go

TL: Absolutely. I am very enthusiastic right now. I don’t know

to the place where I was born and the room where I grew

if it has to do with the digital world we’re inhabiting, the

up. And they say, “How did you do that?” And I say, “I don’t

computer, this Zoom that we’re doing, but in the terms of

know.” I always had the same respect for every single kind of

the world of composition, there’s an explosion of identities

music I heard in my life. My advocacy now is to give a plat-

that was masqueraded before.

form to composers to talk and to be with audiences—and

People are writing what they want. They are using which-

it doesn’t have to be a composer who writes a symphony.

ever influence, trying to understand other cultures. It’s just

It could be a composer who writes tangos or does film.

unbelievable. And you’re hearing it in the sound. I believe it

Because they’re creating sound. And that sound is helping

is happening in all forms of artistic expression.

us to live.

AA: So that these forms of artistic expression are actually

AA: You created the organization Composers Now. How

ways of helping people understand each other.

would you describe the composers you work with and your

154  Tania León

motivation to make a place for them in the world of music?

now—to see if we can bridge the gap. Because sound is usu-

Why did you do it? What do you hope will happen?

ally the last art form to be understood. It’s more complex. People understand film, people understand poetry, people

TL: Composers Now is addressing everything from social jus-

understand writers. But not sound. We put into a sound

tice to sonic justice. What I mean is that it’s a panoramic view

what it is that makes us live. And in my experience, yes, I can

of the composer. It doesn’t matter how he looks—whether a

play Shostakovich, I can conduct Tchaikovsky. But I dance

woman, a man, any color, any cultural background, all kinds

salsa. What is the discrepancy? Is there a problem?

of physical manifestations. These are people who are creating

That is one of the things I am trying with many, many

the sounds of our century. There are many, many points of

composers, to create a voice for us to speak to society and

view, sonically speaking, as there are many, many points of

talk about how we can contribute, what we’re contributing.

view in humanity.

The fact is, we are contributing to the conversation.

That is what Composers Now is. We’re going to open a series called Impact, a composer talking to an audience, no intermediary, talking about what you’re asking me— aspiration, why do I write what I write, who have been my influences, what have been my experiences in life up to

AA: So it’s a diverse set of individuals, a diverse set of sounds, a diverse set of artistic visions, all aimed at helping us understand ourselves better.

TL: All races, all cultures. Humanity.

An Artist’s Journey  155

16 The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing Steven Tepper

The title of this essay derives from Walter Benjamin’s famous

tainty that profound changes are impending in the ancient

1935 essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Repro-

craft of the Beautiful. We must expect great innovations to

duction.” In the essay, Benjamin argued that the new tech-

transform the entire technique of the arts, thereby affecting

nologies of photography and film fundamentally changed

artistic invention itself and perhaps even bringing about an

how we experience art but, more deeply, how we experi-

amazing change in our very notion of art.”

ence reality. He focused on the power of the new mediums

And so, as we enter the third decade of the twenty-first

to direct our gaze, to amplify, focus, interrupt, slow down,

century, the fundamental questions of art and technology,

reduce, repeat, enlarge; to segment and, most importantly,

and their joint influence on human perception and experi-

to reproduce. For Benjamin, “new” technology fundamen-

ence, continue to demand attention and reflection. In this

tally changed art making, human perception, and experi-

essay, I extend Benjamin’s interpretative frame to look at the

ence—the downside of which included loss of authenticity,

“work of art” in our current age, defined and animated by

manipulation, and distraction.

the fourth industrial revolution and notions of ubiquitous

A 1969 translation of Benjamin’s essay included this quote

computing.

from the philosopher Paul Valéry: “The amazing growth of

The first industrial revolution saw the rise of mechanical

our techniques, the adaptability and precision they have

production powered by steam and water and the migration

attained, the ideas and habits they are creating, make it a cer-

of people from rural to urban centers; the second involved

159

electricity, mass production, and significant increases in the

perhaps too often overlooked, the 4IR will have profound

speed by which people and goods moved across time and

impacts on culture—not only the issues that animate the

space; the third involved electronics and information tech-

work and ideas of artists and designers but also the materials

nology (computing) and marshaled an era of networked

they use, the platforms where their expression is shared and

economies, globalization, automation, and an explosion

circulated, and the spaces, virtual and physical, where their

of media and digital culture. And the fourth industrial rev-

work and ideas are experienced.

olution (4IR) builds from the digital age and is defined by the integration of the digital, physical, and biological. Data rules the 4IR—information stored in ever-smaller proces-

Big Data

sors, embedded in every conceivable material substance

Big data defines the 4IR. I remember when I was in gradu-

and artifact, including biological substances, where it can be

ate school in sociology at Princeton University, I became

analyzed and connected through incredibly powerful com-

obsessed with the idea that everything could be measured: I

puting at unimaginable speeds. This continuous, constant,

was learning advanced statistical modeling, dreaming about

ever-present processing of information is referred to as ubiq-

data, and searching for data to help me answer questions

uitous computing. With the addition of artificial intelligence

about social life. “What if,” I wondered, “we could perfectly

(AI), the 4IR will be dominated by additive manufacturing

describe the world in ones and zeros” and, with such a

(e.g., 3-D printing); the internet of things; synthetic biology;

complete rendering of life, “track all changes all the time—

autonomous vehicles; mixed reality (AR/VR); nanotechnol-

isolating cause and effect so that we could advance better

ogy, and now quantum computing.

policies, better solutions for economic growth, improved

The 4IR is distinct from the technological revolution

health outcomes, better school performance.” My “big data”

that preceded it, according to Klaus Schwab, founder of the

fantasy was, perhaps, the ultimate hubris of Enlightenment

World Economic Forum, because of the velocity and scale of

thinking—the idea that science, fed by data, could someday

its impact. He writes, “The speed of current breakthroughs

understand the world completely and, in doing so, both pre-

has no historical precedent. When compared with previous

dict and direct life in ways that improve humanity. Of course,

industrial revolutions, the Fourth is evolving at an expo-

such fantasies have been the subject of dystopian novels and

nential rather than a linear pace. Moreover, it is disrupting

movies—whether the pre-crime division in Philip Dick’s

almost every industry in every country. And the breadth and

“The Minority Report” or in Gary Shteyngart’s novel Super

depth of these changes herald the transformation of entire

Sad True Love Story, where people carry networked tablets

systems of production, management, and governance.”1 And,

around their necks that broadcast data continuously, from

160  Steven Tepper

cholesterol and stress levels to credit rankings, self-esteem

public plaza in Mesa, Arizona, and invited people to sit and

and relationship history, work history, evaluations of others,

lie on the structures, which vibrated at different intensities

and more.

based on the amount of data being shed from their phones.3

These dystopic futures are unfolding now. Driven largely

Like Raijko, the artists Ben Rubin and Mark Hanson built The

via social media, the world is generating two and a half quin-

Listening Post to raise issues of surveillance, privacy rights,

tillion bytes of data every day. More than 90 percent of all

and data malleability. Featuring 231 screens with constantly

data that has ever been generated was generated in the past

changing snippets drawn from millions of online conversa-

two years alone.2 Half a million photos are shared on Snap-

tions, with algorithmically generated sound keyed to the dis-

chat every minute of the day. Two billion of the world’s seven

played text, The Listening Post shows how our online activity

billion people are on Facebook. Our devices register every

is public and accessible to anyone to use for any purpose.4

question we ask them, every mile we drive, every Google

The scale, complexity, and structure of big data is beyond

search, and, increasingly, biometrics—from daily walking to

comprehension and, in spite of its ubiquity, is largely invisi-

heart rate and blood sugar levels. We are embedding sen-

ble to most. These artists are using haptics (touch and vibra-

sors in every physical structure—from walls of buildings

tion), visualization, and sonification to reveal the political

to auto parts, body implants, bridges, roads, clothing, and

and ethical dimensions of a world where humans are tracked,

more. These sensors monitor temperature, pressure, flows

traced, quantified, and constantly bundled, segmented, sold,

of energy, cellular and molecular activity. They tell us when

and surveilled.

material is breaking down, when things need to be replaced

Artists are also using data to reveal and interrogate

or repaired before they break, and how to operate in our

patterns of economic activity, criminal justice, and envi-

physical environment more efficiently, more sustainably, and

ronmental degradation and change. The artist Carolina

more flexibly—always adjusting to changing realities.

Aranibar-Fernandez, a Mellon Foundation fellow at Arizona

Artists are engaging with this torrent of data—both

State University (ASU), traces flows of capital—cartography,

critically and as a source for new forms of artistic creation

maritime trade, cash crops, and industrial metals—across

and exploration. The multidisciplinary artist Jessica Raijko

bodies of water. She uses data from multiple sites that allow

has created a series of performances and installations that

her to track oil tankers and shipping containers. Aranibar-­

capture “data shed”—the millions of data bytes that people

Fernandez is interested in the relationship between the

release into the world through their devices every day, often

slave trade and the contemporary movement of commod-

unaware. As part of a series of performances and installations

ities that are part of the exploitation of land, resources, and

called Vibrant Lives, Raijko installed bright sculptures in a

labor. The artist and musician Paul Rucker interrogates the

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  161

prison-industrial complex through a haunting visualization

Eyes, uses the complex patterns of color, light, and brightness

of the rise of mass incarceration—with luminous dots rep-

in a human iris to generate 3-D-printed sculptures and 3-D

resenting every prison built in the United States since 1778.

animations that are accompanied by a soundtrack generated

In the work Proliferation, thousands of dots populate a map

from the very same data structures captured by imaging the

of the US over a ten-minute multimedia experience, acceler-

person’s eye.9

ating to an emotional soundtrack of cello music composed

The infrastructure of the first and second industrial revo-

and performed by the artist.5 Finally, Garth Paine and Sabine

lutions involved factories, roads, mass transit, and the electri-

Feisst, at ASU, have created the Acoustic Ecology Lab to train

fication of cities. And the lives of workers and families—their

“citizen-scientists” to record sounds in national parks and

cultural and social habits—were registered to this emerging

other habitats throughout the world.6 These sonic data files

physical reality; our human infrastructure was shaped by our

are not only converted into music compositions and immer-

physical infrastructure. Artists made the new patterns of

sive media experiences but also used to track changes in the

human life visible in plays, paintings, photography, poetry,

natural habitat more quickly and accurately than with typi-

and music. Whether Augusta Savage, Igor Stravinsky, T.  S.

cal field observation. For example, the subtle change in the

Eliot, Martha Graham, or Diego Rivera, artists called atten-

quantity and frequency of birdsong, captured in large sound

tion to the pace, the fragmentation, the exploitation, the

files, can reveal migration patterns and climate threats to

dehumanization, and the anonymity of modern life.

bird populations.

Today’s artists are responding with the same critical in-

Others are embracing what the Wired editors Gary Wolf

sight to the “new” digital infrastructure. Constant streams

and Kevin Kelley call the Quantified Self—using personal

and stores of data are as ubiquitous today as the billions of

data—an N of 1—to create rich and multilayered portraits

miles and tons of concrete and steel that shaped the nine-

of their daily habits, moods, and transactions.7 The New

teenth and twentieth centuries. And, like the artists working

York artist Laurie Frick created an installation called Floating

a century or more ago, today’s artists are making visible the

Data—aluminum panels two stories high that, through the

human consequences—both negative and positive—of this

triangulation of the artist’s Fitbit with GPS location mapping,

new infrastructure.

captures the pattern, including taking into account speed and distance, of her walks through her busy neighborhood in Brooklyn.8 Others are using biometric data—heartbeats,

Intelligent Machines

brainwaves, genetic codes—to generate visual and audio

For more than a decade, computer scientists and technology

portraits. The artist Yoon Chung Han, in her interactive work

writers have been debating when “singularity” will occur—

162  Steven Tepper

that point at which machines are smarter than humans, pro-

lective Obvious and included what it refers to as “generator”

cessing a greater quantity of information at a faster rate than

and “discriminator” functions: a computer program sorts

the human brain. As of today, a single human brain has more

through fifteen thousand portraits painted over the past five

switches (with one hundred billion neurons and upward of

hundred years and generates thousands of new images based

one thousand trillion synapses) than all the computers and

on this input; it then compares the new images to the actual

routers and internet connections on Earth.10 But many peo-

portraits and seeks to discriminate the artificially created

ple predict that we are only decades away from machines

image from the real ones. Portrait of Edmond Belamy was an

that are as powerful as the human brain. Such a future beck-

AI-created image that fooled the computer (it could not dis-

ons endless speculation from filmmakers (Minority Report),

tinguish it from one of the human-produced portraits in the

futurists (Kurzweil’s Age of Intelligent Machines), philosophers

database). Ahmed Elgamma, at the Art and Artificial Intel-

and ethicists (see Jaron Lanier’s Dawn of the New Everything),

ligence Lab, is interested in how people react to computer-­

and science-fiction writers (Clark’s 2001: A Space Odyssey).

generated art versus human-generated art and has found

Even decades before “singularity,” computers and robots

that largely people can’t differentiate between the two and

are now capable of detecting patterns (movement, images,

are almost as likely to feel inspired by the AI art. Using similar

sound, text, cellular activity) in the environment (machine

techniques of importing lots of data, sorting and categoriz-

visioning and signal processing), adjusting how they sort and

ing, generating and discriminating, artists are creating new,

categorize information, and self-generating new code and

computer-generated music, fashion, and poetry.12 But aes-

algorithms to increase accuracy and performance.

thetic response is not straightforward, and creativity involves

There are three areas where artists, designers, and engi-

novelty, nuance, ambiguity, surprise, irony, and making

neers are engaging with AI in powerful ways—using intelli-

meaningful connections (insight) across time and space and

gent machines to create new artistic expression, using signal

from one creative act to another. It is not clear that com-

processing (converting images, sounds, text, and movement

puters will ever be capable of this type of meaning making,

in the world into digital information) for collaborative cre-

which means that AI might produce aesthetic novelty while

ativity and interaction, and designing robots that can inter-

failing to produce shared culture or true innovation.

act with humans at a more expressive level.

Perhaps more interesting than AI-generated art is the way

In October 2018, an AI artwork—Portrait of Edmond

in which artists are collaborating with intelligent machines

Belamy—sold for $432,500 at the auction house Christie’s—

to create new forms of expression. Fashion designers are

the first auction house to offer a work of art created by an

using a platform called Cognitive Prints to find inspiration

algorithm.11 The algorithm was built by the French artist col-

and avoid imitation. A designer can import into the program

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  163

one of their own original designs or an image of an existing

to complement the dancers’ own movements, and the danc-

garment, and, like a “visual search” engine, Cognitive Prints

ers responded in real time in an unfolding collaborative cho-

will find thousands of design elements in online catalogues,

reography. This extraordinary improvisational performance

magazines, archives, and social media sites that share some-

captured what it might look like to see humans and plants

thing in common. The designer can get inspiration, see how

dancing together, a provocation to imagine our connection

a design element has changed over time, combine existing

to nature in new ways.

designs into something new, and avoid duplicating a previous

Discussion of AI often focuses on automation, which

design. Cognitive Prints, while capable of creating computer-­

can be reduced to machines learning how to do routine

generated designs, is perhaps more valuable as a creativity

tasks, adaptively improving with each successive task. But

enhancer—helping designers quickly immerse themselves in

intelligent machines can also augment rather than replace

a network of ideas to stimulate their own creativity.

human activity. For example, socially assistive robots can

Another form of collaboration involves artists improvis-

help people drive better, teach better, or enhance physical

ing with algorithmically generated sounds and images. For

and mental capacities. At the School of Arts, Media, and

example, Garth Paine, noted earlier for his work on acoustic

Engineering at Arizona State University, engineers are team-

ecology, has recorded hours and hours of birdsong from field

ing up with dancers and musicians to use “signal processing”

recordings in New South Wales. Using an algorithm that ran-

and machine learning to help stroke patients rehabilitate. A

domly selects and generates sounds from these recordings,

computer can capture the movements of patients and then

Paine is able to play his flute collaboratively with the birds—

use sound and vibration to help them calibrate those move-

as the computer, detecting patterns in the live playing, gen-

ments more precisely and to motivate them to continue to

erates new bird sounds, to which, in turn, the artist responds

improve. Research finds that socially assistive technologies—

like a jazz session with a flock of kookaburras. Or there is the

whether through screens or robots or devices like Amazon’s

ASU professor Sha Xin Wei’s collaboration with the Canadian

Echo—can motivate people, provide positive feedback, and

choreographer Ginette Laurin, Vegetal Life, which involved

create sustained behavior change.13 (See the research of the

dancers interacting with a high-def, time-lapse video of

University of Southern California professor Maja Mataríc.)

plants, displayed on a screen at human scale. The dancers’

Another form of human augmentation is human-machine

gestures were recorded via motion-capture technology in

collaboration, in which AI-enabled machines can now recog-

real time and then “read” by a computer, which then selected

nize humans and objects and help amplify work in factories,

and generated images of plants (swaying, reaching, bending)

warehouses, laboratories, and operating rooms. Robots are

onstage. The plant movements were algorithmically chosen

cooperating with humans in the exploration of space. For

164  Steven Tepper

example, at ASU, engineers have been designing robots to

possibility of the 4IR is that it reverses fragmentation and,

explore the surface of planets and meteors. But they needed

instead, drives convergence and the mixing of everything—

the help of actors and dancers to create robots that move

our health is connected to entertainment (through gami-

more like humans, so that scientists in Tempe, Arizona, can

fied health data); our bodies are connected to our devices

more effectively and fluently control how the robot inter-

(through human-­machine interfaces); our physical spaces

acts with its environment in space—walking, bending, pick-

are connected with our social and emotional needs (respon-

ing things up, turning—in short, to make a robot move less

sive environments that change and adapt: lighting, sounds,

robotically. As the theater professor Lance Gharavi remarks,

touch, design elements, art); and, through the internet of

“If we’re looking forward to a day when robots are ubiqui-

things, our routines and rhythms of life will be coordinated

tous, and interacting with robots is a common experience

and enhanced—how we shop, drive, give care, cook, com-

for us, what do we want those interactions to look like? That

municate, exercise, and entertain ourselves. The biologi-

takes a degree of design.”14 In a world of ubiquitous comput-

cal, digital, and physical will converge. As the artist Zenka

ing and continuous human-machine interaction, the extent

notes, “We are experiencing a new way of being human.”15

to which such interactions can, in the words of Diane Acker-

This convergence is, perhaps, most immediately seen in the

man, “elicit empathy and make our mirror neurons quiver”

rise of mixed reality—which includes the overlay of digital

will determine whether such interactions truly propel us

enhancements on top of actual physical spaces and objects

to be better (more productive, more compassionate, more

(augmented reality) and the full immersion of people in

capable) humans.

environments where they can interact within a completely synthetic world (virtual reality). Mixed reality is quickly becoming pervasive. Its adoption

Mixed Reality and Immersive Media

is as fast as the iPhone’s. In the iPhone’s first year (2007), it

The fourth industrial revolution shares elements of previous

sold 6.1 million units. VR headsets sold about 6.6 million units

revolutions—accelerating the speed of change, the collapse

in their first year of mass production (2016). The VR industry

of time and space (through travel, electronic communica-

as a whole is growing at an exponential rate,16 with hardware

tion); the ability to scale and reproduce ideas and products

and software sales projected to increase from $6.2 billion in

at low cost; and the fragmentation of experience (creating

2019 to more than $16 billion by 2022.17 The vast majority

separate spheres of life, occupational specialization, mar-

of US homes will have access to VR within the next decade,

ket segmentation). While speed, scale, and immediacy will

and the amount of VR content produced for entertainment

all be taken to a new level, perhaps the most extraordinary

(film and games), culture (museums and performing arts),

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  165

education, and training will rival the catalogues of all movie-­

have led to much human progress. But, in the process, Ritzer

streaming services combined.

contends, we have become disenchanted. In a premodern

But does augmented reality or virtual reality truly trans-

world (or modernizing world), ritual, magic, folklore, and

form our experience of art or of the world? Or is it simply

religion had a more important place in everyday life. Today,

the next-generation pop-up book—adding further dimen-

we are cogs in the wheels of managerial capitalism—driven

sionality to a form of expression (like reading) but not fun-

by data, technical solutions, economic analysis, and bureau-

damentally changing the experience? Like Walter Benjamin’s

cratic routines. Ritzer argues that our desire for “enchant-

argument about early twentieth-century technology, mixed

ment” is now being stimulated by spectacle and cathedrals

and immersive reality is, in fact, transformative, not just

of consumption—Las Vegas resorts, Disney World, cruise

an enhancement.

ships, shopping malls. Virtual reality environments, designed

For the past forty-four thousand years, since the first

by artists who are probing the dimension of human experi-

known cave paintings found in Indonesia, we have experi-

ence, promise a more ethical and richer way to reenchant our

enced visual expression through windows—whether the wall

modern existence. Rather than being a world apart (a desti-

of a cave, a canvas, the frame of a photograph, or a screen. In

nation), VR will be incorporated into our daily lives—making

every case, our gaze is curated and framed through the cho-

this reenchantment durable and deep and meaningful.

sen perspective of the artist. While augmented reality still

Virtual reality not only fundamentally impacts perspec-

presents expression and experience in a frame (typically a

tive and experience; it profoundly alters the nature of the

screen from a phone or tablet), virtual and immersive reality

creative process, changing how artists and designers ideate,

places you inside a fully rendered alternative world. We are

collaborate, and present their ideas. Ideation and design

moving from seeing worlds through windows to experiencing

(generating and testing creative ideas) have always been iter-

worlds without windows. The viewer or the audience is now

ative and experimental. Artists try things—adjusting mate-

at the center of a 360-degree experience, choosing where to

rials, composition, sequencing, layers—constantly revising

place their gaze, what to explore, what and with whom to

until they arrive at a completed work. But this process can be

interact—and, often, influencing the environment itself on

slow and incremental, constrained by the cost of materials

the basis of those choices.

and time. Immersive media allow artists to “test out” fully

The sociologist George Ritzer has argued that modern life

rendered ideas quickly and to make adjustments continu-

has become increasingly defined by rationalism, bureaucracy,

ously, allowing for more rapid and more radical experimen-

efficiency, managerialism, quantification, and expertise.

tation. Architects can design and redesign entire buildings,

These are, of course, the legacies of the Enlightenment and

inhabit those buildings, test out mechanical systems, see

166  Steven Tepper

how humans move through spaces, and adjust materials,

called the iCinema to enable creative collaboration, whether

lighting, and furnishings—all before ground is ever broken

among curators from across the world designing exhibitions

on a new building. The new Star Wars television series The

together or theater artists designing and building new pro-

Mandalorian is using 360-degree immersive screens to ren-

ductions. In the latter example, researchers have worked

der backgrounds in real time during filming (rather than

with the Sidney Theatre to create stage sets virtually and

superimposing them later, in postproduction). Actors are

place actors within those sets so that directors and produc-

now being filmed in an immersive environment where the

tion teams can understand the impact of creative decisions,

director and creative team can adjust, instantaneously, the

including how the stage and actors look from different per-

background, lighting, and perspective during the shoot. A

spectives throughout the theater—all before a single set

scene can be shot during the “day,” and then, twenty min-

is built.

utes later, the same scene can be shot at “night” to compare

Finally, mixed reality is changing how artists present

which scene is more effective. This capacity for constant

their ideas publicly and how they interact with audiences.

and continuous experimentation is changing the creative

As discussed earlier, perhaps the biggest change involves

process. Instead of editing existing footage, filmmakers can

the artists ceding control over where viewers focus their

dramatically try out different scenes and settings on the fly,

gaze (world without windows), allowing audience mem-

in an almost limitless set of combinations. But creativity also

bers to interact actively in a space and make choices about

needs constraints. The big challenge for creators in a world of

where to place their attention. The artist Android Jones has

almost costless experimentation will be knowing how to set

re-created the experience of the Burning Man festival with

parameters to limit choice.

a VR experience at the Renwick Gallery in Washington, DC.

Virtual reality is also changing how artists collaborate.

Visitors walk around the virtual grounds of Burning Man,

In the preceding example related to architecture, global

exploring different installations, light shows, and animations.

companies are bringing hundreds of architects, engineers,

Jones argues that this work gives viewers exponentially more

and clients together in virtual space to design buildings.

opportunities to create meaning. In describing the piece, he

Teams across the world can share their sketches in VR, walk

says, “There is so much spontaneity and chaos that it invites

together inside a drawing to talk and chat about what works

the viewer to make up their own meaning, .  .  . and their

and what doesn’t, and make adjustments to the drawings

meaning is so much more powerful than anything I could

while walking around virtually—the ultimate form of cre-

put out there.” The media artists and musicians Garth Paine

ative collaboration. At the University of New South Wales,

and Sabine Feisst have created a VR experience of a concert

researchers have built a 360-degree immersive media space

in a famous cathedral in New York City, where audience

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  167

members can stand next to the conductor and walk around

tive film called Tree that uses embodied storytelling to cre-

the stage, look back at the audience, and see the full concert

ate a sensory-enhanced experience in which users become

hall. In Elizabethan England, audience members who paid a

a tree—seeing and feeling their arms as branches and their

high price for tickets or who invested in a production were

bodies as trunks as a seed grows into a seedling and then

allowed to sit onstage with the actors during a play. This cus-

a full-grown tree surrounded by a forest fire. The United

tom will return as VR turns every performing arts event into

Nations produced a VR film that follows a day in the life of

an embodied experience, to which each audience member

a young Syrian girl as she navigates a refugee camp in Jor-

will have an all-access pass. VR allows museum visitors to go

dan. And the filmmaker Gabo Arora has teamed up with a

beyond an artist’s painting hanging in a gallery and take a vir-

Harvard sociologist, Matthew Desmond, to create a spatial-­

tual walk around the studio where the work was conceived.

computing AR experience that explores the geography of

And augmented reality has been used by artists to animate

evictions in the United States. Researchers at Stanford Uni-

older works of art—adding an overlay of play, critique, and

versity demonstrated that people who went through a VR

commentary. For example, in ReBlink, an AR installation by

experience of eviction and homelessness were significantly

the digital artist Alex Mayhew, visitors used their phones or

more likely to express empathy for homeless people than

tablets to see the subjects in a painting by George Agnew

those who simply read stories about homelessness.19 They

Reid (Drawing Lots) come alive—three characters who are

were also more likely to sign a petition to support policies to

playing a game together in a parlor transform into three peo-

alleviate homelessness and protect renters. And these feel-

ple absorbed on their cellphones, with smoky traffic passing

ings of empathy endured over time.

in the background.18

This last example helps us understand the power of VR

Most profoundly, virtual reality has been dubbed the

storytelling for learning. Imagine a Sociology 101 class that

empathy machine because of its capacity, literally, to allow

includes a VR experience, in which students walk through a

a person to walk in another’s shoes—or to experience a life,

tent city in Los Angeles, talk to people who are homeless, and

a situation, or a place very different from one’s own. The

experience a day in the life of a homeless person—seeking

filmmaker Karen Palmer created an emotionally responsive,

shelter, navigating social services, and interacting with police.

live-action film with 3-D sound that uses facial recognition

Over the next five years, there will be thousands of VR expe-

and AI technology to navigate through a dangerous riot, pro-

riences designed to advance learning. The filmmakers from

viding a powerful understanding of how power, safety, and

DreamWorks, a top Hollywood studio, have spun off a new

uncertainty can escalate to violence. A team of researchers

VR company called Dreamscape that takes groups of people

at the MIT Media Lab developed a hyperrealistic VR narra-

on VR adventures—to save a whale under the sea; to recover

168  Steven Tepper

a rare gem in a deserted mine shaft; to fly on the back of a

interrogate the ubiquity of computing and big data, to

dragon in order to locate a lost dragon egg; and to visit an

build new interfaces between humans and machines, to

alien zoo on another planet, where almost-extinct species

create new forms of collaboration with one another as well

have been gathered and preserved. All of these experiences

as with audiences, to exponentially multiply the speed and

include haptics (vibrations, wind, water), full immersion, and

quantity of ideas with which they engage and rapidly pro-

sensors on feet, backs, hands, and heads that allow multiple

totype and experiment at almost zero cost, and, finally, to

players to interact with one another’s avatars in real time.

create immersive and intelligent environments that produce

Brilliant writers, visual effects designers, animators, artists,

embodied experiences to drive empathy and deep learning.

and computer programmers have worked together to create

The remainder of the essay focuses on what I am calling key

these alternative worlds. Arizona State University has recently

problems of modern life—conditions exacerbated by tech-

announced a partnership with the Dreamscape team to take

nology that artists, empowered by that same technology,

the creativity, technology, and storytelling of Dreamscape

can help alleviate.

and apply it to education. The first project will convert the Alien Zoo experience into a biology class, where students work in pods of eight to explore the zoo, observe the ani-

The Problem of Invention

mals, take samples from the habitat, collect data, and, in the

The United States has long been a hotbed of invention. We

process, learn about ecology, evolution, and biology. Dream-

have led the world in patents. Our national myth celebrates

scape Learn, the name of the new partnership, will ultimately

the entrepreneur and the self-made man and woman. We

generate hundreds of immersive learning worlds—most cre-

led the invention of the personal computer, the internet, the

ated by artists working alongside education experts. Accord-

modern cellphone, 3-D printing, and the human genome

ing to the noted educational psychologist Edgar Dale, people

map. We were the first to send humans to the moon. We

remember very little of what they read, slightly more of what

are lauded for having the best system of higher education

they hear—and a substantial amount of what they experi-

in the world and, after World War II, the highest levels of

ence. Artistically inspired and rendered worlds, designed spe-

university-based research expenditures. But after decades of

cifically to build empathy and embodied learning through

leading in invention, the United States now ranks twenty-­

personal experience, will be a key driver of education for the

eighth of thirty-six countries in higher-education research

next several decades.

expenditures, and overall research development spending

This essay has so far discussed how artists and design-

is declining. US patents are flat, while China now leads the

ers are using new technologies to critically and creatively

world by far. However, almost all Chinese discoveries are

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  169

derivative of other inventions—as opposed to disruptive

motivated curiosity, not logic.”21 In other words, art, more

innovation. And research shows that it generally takes more

than science, drives invention. Smith shows that artists drove

money, more time, and more people to produce the same

the discovery of fireworks, ceramics, glass, welding, and

productivity gains (invention drives productivity) than in the

advances in metallurgy. Artists drive invention through curi-

past.20 Given ubiquitous computing and artificial intelligence

osity, play, inductive experimentation, and, importantly, as

and the speed of technological change, why are we seeing

Smith shows, by embracing anomalies.

more incremental rather than disruptive invention and inno-

In the 1950s, Bell Labs, a nexus of invention, understood

vation? First, as the cost of research goes up, firms take fewer

the importance of artists and created the EAT program

risks, betting on a sure thing and building off past successes,

(Experiments in Art and Technology), pairing artists like

rather than forging entirely new pathways. And, ironically,

Robert Rauschenberg, John Cage, Merce Cunningham, and

the ability to run powerful data-driven models to test new

dozens of others with engineers to advance new forms of art

drugs, new materials, and new engineering solutions means

but also new forms of technology—modified screens and

that we are using analytics more than instinct and hunch to

projectors, Doppler sonar to translate movement into sound,

advance ideas. Our models minimize and correct for “statis-

special FM transmitters connected to the body, and more.22

tical anomalies,” rather than being inspired by anomalies to

Several decades later, the Xerox PARC laboratory, under the

see alternatives and possibilities. As noted earlier, machines,

leadership of John Seely Brown, created an artist-in-residency

even “intelligent machines” driven by AI, are not good at

program to, in Brown’s words, “re-frame emerging issues in

novelty, nuance, ambiguity, surprise, and making meaning-

ways that may seem pathological, bizarre, or crazy accord-

ful connections. Perhaps we have moved into an era where

ing to the wisdom of the day” but that lead to breakthrough

we are good at making things better but not good at making

innovation—like the laser printer, graphical-user interface,

things different.

Ethernet, and other Xerox PARC breakthrough inventions.23

So what is the role of art and design in addressing the

Today, companies like Autodesk, Hewlett Packard, Google,

problem of invention? We know that artists from early his-

Kohler, Honeywell, Siemens, and Facebook have all hired

tory to today have been critical to discovery. In “On Art,

artists to work alongside engineers and scientists to unleash

Invention and Technology,” the MIT professor Cyril Smith

creativity.24 Again to quote John Seely Brown, “The ability

wrote, “Necessity is not the mother of invention—only of

to imagine is the key challenge, because we have infinitely

improvement. A man desperately in search of a weapon or

power­ful tools to build whatever we imagine. As a result

food is in no mood for discovery: he can only exploit what

we’re limited by our imagination. Working with artists really

is already known to exist. Discovery requires aesthetically-­

opens our imagination.”25

170  Steven Tepper

But the “artist-in-residence” model has not scaled; it re-

point to increasing “alienation,” which sociologists define as

mains a novelty. To deal with the problem of invention, we

feeling disconnected from purpose, connection, meaning,

need this model to be widespread—we need thousands, not

and identity.

hundreds, of artists working side by side with engineers. ASU

Alienation is caused in part by change. Technological,

is preparing those artists in its School of Arts, Media, and

economic, and demographic change create a growing sense

Engineering, and there are a few other relatively boutique

of unease. In response, people feel anxious, they hunker

degree programs across the world in new media and tech-

down, they experience cognitive closure and a sense of alien-

nology. But schools of engineering need more access to the

ation. In other words, people experience life as disconnected

ideas of arts and design colleges; science funders, like the

and lose their ability to make sense of how the puzzle fits

National Science Foundation, should prioritize research proj-

together. When we experience disruptive change in our per-

ects that embed artists and designers.

sonal lives—a death, a divorce, loss of a job, a move—we have counselors and therapists to help us adjust. But whose role

The Problem of Meaning Philosophers, sociologists, and cultural critics have debated

is it to help our communities move through change, to help society grow, transition, and reassemble anew? Artists are particularly suited to this task. They are change facilitators.

the problem of meaning since ancient times. In fact, this

First, artists bring forward stories and narratives that

essay begins with Walter Benjamin’s observation that new

connect us to our past, to our values, and to a reimagined

technology was leading to a loss of authenticity—a notion

future. The thousands of artists working in what is some-

that perhaps best captures in shorthand the complex idea of

times referred to as “creative placemaking/placekeeping” are

meaning. But beyond philosophy and criticism, there is hard

using theater, dance, storytelling, visualization, oral history,

data that we are facing a crisis of meaning. Levels of anxiety

public art and design, and more to help communities build

and depression are growing at alarming rates; opioid abuse is

robust narratives of who they are, what they value, and what

at epidemic levels; suicides continue to rise; and we have wit-

they aspire to become. This critical meaning-making work

nessed significant declines in trust over the past few decades

can empower a community to navigate change and avoid

(both for institutions and between individuals). Optimism

alienation and a loss of power, identity, and self-determinacy.

is also declining, with more than half of Americans in 2018

And, as discussed earlier, artists are using technology—

saying that they expect things to be worse off for their chil-

such as immersive media—for future casting and “world

dren (the first time in the long history of this question that

building.” Artists are raising questions about what the future

more people answered “worse off”). All of these indicators

will look like—feel like—and are bringing those futures to

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  171

life with a variety of simulated and immersive experiences.

So what does it mean to have an authentic experience

And community members are test-driving futures that they

in a world that is mediated by our screens? The average

themselves, working with artists, help design and imagine.

person touches the screen on their smartphone more than

Artists, deploying new technology as well as traditional story-

twenty-seven hundred times a day. This continuous inter-

telling and community art practices, help us become future

action with our screens has, according to some, made us

literate, which is an antidote to the disruptive change that

more impatient (one study of two thousand British adults

causes anxiety and the crisis of meaning. Without the ability

found that 45 percent said that waiting in line for more than

to see the ocean beyond the crash of the wave on the shore,

thirty seconds would try their patience).26 When I sent out a

we will be overwhelmed by what feels like chaos. Artists can

three-minute video to my class last year, only a few students

see beyond and beneath; they can help us reweave “webs of

opened the video. I asked them why, and they told me that

significance,” to quote the anthropologist Clifford Geertz.

three minutes was too long. And, of course, we know that

Related to the problem of meaning is the problem of

the rise of multitasking is creating significant challenges for

experience. Walker Percy wrote an essay called “The Loss of

learning and attention—people who are multitasking have

the Creature,” in which, in the spirit of Walter Benjamin, he

a harder time with abstract thinking, making connections

describes the challenges of having an “authentic experience”

between ideas, persistence, focus, and reading social cues

in a world of mediation. Percy uses the Grand Canyon as an

and body language.27 In an article in The Chronicle of Higher

example, arguing that by the time most of us visit the Grand

Education, I discussed the need for “bigger-than-me experi-

Canyon, we will have already seen it depicted in postcards

ences” in a world where technology often caters to individual

and photographs, in magazines, brochures, and television

immediate wants and desires (IWWIWWHIWI: I want what I

ads. Our experience of the Grand Canyon is always mediated

want when and how I want it).28 According to John Dewey’s

by ideas and expectations already formed through exposure

Art as Experience, an “experience” is one that requires atten-

to media. This point was driven home to me when I took

tion, undergoing or learning or discovery, empathy and

my children to the Grand Canyon when they were in middle

imagination (which often require patience and an ability to

school. In this case, not only had they already seen pictures

slow down). Technology and media, without careful design,

of the Grand Canyon, but they were so distracted by their

push us toward distraction and “flatten” our experiences—

phones that when we arrived, they looked up from their

reduced to processing the rich data of our world to what

screens, shrugged, said “cool,” and then went back to what-

we can see on a screen and ignoring other senses, reward-

ever they were watching or playing—not the transformative

ing quick responses rather than reflection, and undermining

experience I had of the Grand Canyon as a child.

empathy and connection.29

172  Steven Tepper

As discussed earlier, artists are directly taking on the

room), new platforms (the ability to distribute art and music

“problem of experience.” The ASU professor of art and media

through YouTube or Instagram), and new communities of

Sha Xin Wei has created a fully immersive, interactive lab—

fans and dedicated ProAms (professional amateur artists).

Synthesis Center—where he can “experiment with experi-

Techno-enthusiasts celebrate this explosion of creativity and

ences.” In other words, rather than assume that technology

art—Clay Shirky’s notion of cognitive surplus and the wis-

will either flatten experience to a screen or make our lives

dom of crowds; danah boyd’s embrace of participatory cul-

overly complicated, he asks, “Can technology make our lives

ture in a networked era; Chris Anderson’s idea of the long tail

richer, without making them more complicated?” Return-

and new markets for niche and independent culture; Steven

ing to our theme of the fourth industrial revolution and the

Johnson’s argument in The New York Times Magazine that

ubiquity of computing, big data, and the convergence of the

our digital world has unleashed the artist entrepreneur and

biological, physical, and digital, we need to bring artists and

led to more consumption of art and culture than ever before;

humanists and engineers together, as Professor Sha has done

and Lawrence Lessig’s embrace of weakened copyright con-

in his lab, in order to vary conditions of experience—move-

trol that has given rise to a remix culture. And then there

ment, light, sound, touch—as well as how we interact with

are critics who argue that technology, digital distribution,

screens, objects, and embodied and connected sensors. Then

and the internet have eviscerated artistic careers by giving

we must rigorously test and evaluate user experience to de-

everything away for free, increasing competition and creat-

termine what actually creates “enchantment”—or the sense

ing a scarcity of attention, and fundamentally undermining

of awe, wonder, or meaning—and, on the other hand, what

economic models that support working artists (copyright,

makes us feel less human, less connected, and less curious.

long-term employment contracts, unions, affordable housing, and studio space). These techno-pessimists include Scott Timberg, who wrote Culture Crash: The Killing of the Creative

The Problem of Noise, Speed, Time, and Quality

Class, and, most recently, William Deresiewicz’s The Death of

Technology has disrupted the art world—from nonprofit

ger “in the market” but now “of the market”—implying that

arts to the music and film industries. In 2006, I edited a book

their art has fundamentally been altered to first and fore-

with Bill Ivey, Engaging Art: The Next Great Transformation

most entertain and drive eyeballs, “likes,” and “clicks.” And

of America’s Cultural Life, that celebrated the democratiza-

Sherry Turkle reminds us that while technology may enable

tion of the art world made possible by new tools (the ability

artists to tap into new forms of empathy, it can also lead to

to make films on your phone or record music in your bed-

increasing loneliness.

the Artist, in which he forcefully argues that artists are no lon-

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  173

The truth lies somewhere in between. We are witnessing

build a fan base, and only once they show evidence of atten-

a dramatic reshuffling of power and influence (gatekeep-

tion and success will they get a contract or investment from

ers, critics, curators), of taste (new audiences with different

a publisher, studio, or label.

expectations), and of winners and losers (technology com-

The sheer quantity of creative work creates a “noisy”

panies versus labels and studios). Some artists will fare bet-

marketplace—perhaps making it harder for audiences to

ter; some will fare worse. Some types of arts organizations

find powerful and mature work in the midst of so much

and enterprises will thrive; some will be shuttered. It is too

emergent, amateur, and less developed work. For the art-

soon to adjudicate the arguments between the techno-­

ists, the speed of the internet and the social media mar-

enthusiasts and the techno-pessimists. But it is clear that

ketplace—where attention, momentum, and visibility are

there is more art to be sorted and sifted (e.g., the five bil-

essential—create challenges around more ambitious proj-

lion YouTube videos or the fifty million songs on Spotify);

ects that require time, for complex collaboration, for learning

there are new demands on artists to be entrepreneurs, self-­

new techniques, for experimentation, for failure, for revision.

promoters, and their own brand managers and marketers;

Earlier I described how technology—like immersive media—

and there is a premium on speed and getting creative work

provides a creative boost by enabling rapid prototyping and

out quickly and as broadly as possible. I call this the problem

experimentation. Here, we see the downside of speed when

of noise, speed, time, and quality. Deresiewicz writes, “First we

it is driven by market pressure.

had fast food, then we had fast fashion, now we have fast

In theory, this situation leads to a problem of quality.

art: fast music, fast writing, fast video, photography, design

Probabilistically, there may be more great art, but it may be

and illustration, made cheaply and consumed in haste.”30

more difficult to find. We have a greater chance of bumping

Previously, the creative industries operated on the principle

into something that is satisfactory—but perhaps not trans-

of filter first and then publish; now, they operate more on

formative. Our digital platforms might drive us to art that is

the principle of publish first and then filter. Twenty years

similar to what we liked before, rather than encouraging us

ago, gatekeepers (publishers, music labels, studio executives)

to experiment. And artists may feel forced to release work

might place a bet on an artist (who was selected from many

before they think it is ready.

aspirants). That person then was given support to develop,

What are artists doing to address the problem of noise,

find their voice and style, revise, get feedback, start small,

speed, time, and quality? First, many are learning how to tell

and build creative confidence. In other words, there was a

stories differently. There is a rising generation of content pro-

stage of marination and maturity. Today, artists have to put

ducers who are becoming expert in short-form storytelling—

their work up on the internet quickly, market themselves,

creating powerful characters, vivid dialogue, and emotionally

174  Steven Tepper

resonant plots that may last only ninety seconds to three

with the support they need to evolve their ideas over time

minutes. Short-form videos are proliferating on platforms

instead of rushing to publish and post too soon. And immer-

like Twitter, YouTube, Loop Media, TikTok, and Spotlight.

sive media can provide an alternative to the problem of time

Second, artists are embracing “live” events, carving out time

and speed. Studies show that twelve to fifteen minutes is

for deep, meaningful connection with their fans. The rise of

an optimal amount of time for an immersive media expe-

music festivals is a great example of audiences and artists

rience, after which we can experience cognitive fatigue. Our

getting beyond noise, speed, and time to create unplugged,

brains are not yet wired to sustain an immersive experience

extended, and collective experiences. Third, artists are col-

for long periods of time. Of course, that could change as our

lecting micro-patrons and inviting fans into the creative pro-

physiology adjusts to the blending of our physical and digital

cess. Through platforms like Patreon and Kickstarter, artists

worlds. But a twelve-minute immersive experience today can

pitch ideas, share work in progress, and give fans an opportu-

feel like hours, allowing artistically rendered virtual worlds to

nity to engage with them in a more intimate way. In fact, the

produce deep, powerful, and emotionally resonant experi-

recent health pandemic has created renewed opportunities

ences for a hurried and impatient world.

for intimacy and connection, as artists are sharing work living room to living room.

The title of this essay focuses on the object of expression​ —the work of art. We have seen how big data both has pro-

The internet operates on two frequencies. The first is an

vided raw material for artistic expression and has become

extension of Walter Benjamin’s observations about technol-

the subject of interrogation and critique. We have seen

ogies that push art toward speed, repetition, segmentation,

how technology has enabled mixed reality and immersive,

and mass audiences. But remember, slow motion was also

360-degree experiences, exploding the idea of a single gaze

invented in the early twentieth century and was a product

and inviting audiences to interact with artworks in new

of the new technology of film. And so the internet and digi-

ways. We have discussed the rise of human-machine inter-

tal media operate on a second frequency—the intimate, the

action and artificial intelligence, and the ways in which these

singular, and now, with mixed reality, the fully immersive.

technologies have enabled artworks that are responsive and

Instead of artists marketing to thousands of fans who each

improvisational. But, if we read the title differently, we can

pay a nominal fee to download their music, they are able

focus on “the work,” not the “work of art.” In other words,

to build relationships with a few hundred fans and patrons

what is the work that art is performing in an age of ubiqui-

who invest in the creative process and in the success of the

tous computing? What work must it perform? Artists and

individual. These micro-markets, enabled by digital plat-

their work must address the problem of invention, the prob-

forms that serve deeply committed fans, may provide artists

lem of meaning, the problem of experience, and the problem

The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing  175

of noise, speed, time, and quality. Artists and their techno-

no longer simply a tool to do differently or better what we

logically enabled work must slow us down in a world where

have always done. Technology and ubiquitous computing

technology, left to its own devices, tends to speed us up.

are fundamentally altering human experience, as our bod-

Artists must deploy their craft and all the tools available to

ies and brains are connected to everything, everyone, and

build empathy and intimacy in a world experiencing accel-

everyplace. Without doubt, the 4IR will change art; what

erating change and alienation. And artists must continually

is left to be seen is the extent to which artists will change

run experiments on experience. They must use their capacity

the 4IR and its capacity to make life richer and beautifully

to ask “what if” questions, to imagine different futures and

complex—rather than more complicated. In an age of ubiq-

different configurations of community and different ways to

uitous computing, engineers will continue to write code to

interact, play, work, and live.

achieve known outcomes: it will be the artists who will acti-

The fourth industrial revolution is here. Technology is

176  Steven Tepper

vate code to achieve unknown possibilities.

17 City as Living Laboratory Creating a New Narrative for Climate Change and the Public Realm Mary Miss

Artists + Scientists + Community

Made Tangible Through the Arts (CALL). A decade ago, I transformed my practice from that of a single artist working

There is a river running under your feet as you walk along

and collaborating in the public realm to form a nonprofit.

Broadway in the Bronx. This small river was diverted from

The aim was to involve more artists in collaborations with

its natural slow movement through a bird-filled salt marsh,

scientists, historians, communities, and others to address

channeled into a pipe in the early twentieth century to give

the pressing environmental, social, and economic issues of

the city more space to grow. Recently, I was imagining how

our time; we wanted to make sure artists would be recog-

to bring attention to the efforts under way to get this river

nized as an essential, complementary resource. Our envi-

out of the brick-lined sewer to a location where it will see the

ronmental and cultural moment of reckoning demands a

light of day—and once again offer neighboring communi-

reinvention of urban space. CALL envisions our cities as

ties the rich experience of a corridor of wetland plants, with

communities of true sustenance, where residents are con-

perch, muskrats, and blue herons moving through it.

nected to the natural world they are part of, where equity

This initiative, Rescuing Tibbetts Brook One Stitch at a Time, is a part of City as Living Laboratory: Sustainability

is embedded in everything, and where we prepare for the future together.

177

Our experience as we have developed CALL has shown that the emotional, visceral, physical, intellectual involvement made possible through the arts is a powerful means of engaging people in complex issues.

mentioned in such urban-scale projects—but one I believe is an important addition. As we have entered the twenty-first century, it has become clear that we need to redefine how we live our lives,

At CALL, we believe we must imagine a new narrative

use our resources, communicate, educate, work, and collab-

about our relationship to the natural world and to each

orate. It is a time when the ability to picture alternatives is

other if we are to create a resilient future while facing the

our greatest resource. In recent years, a number of questions

multi­faceted challenges of a changing climate. Those chal-

have arisen for many artists: How can we have a more central

lenges are widely but unevenly distributed, with the harshest

role in shaping or bringing attention to the important issues

impacts on those who are most underserved. We recognize

of our times? How can imagination—the prime territory of

the importance of thinking in terms of regenerating the natu-

artists—be used to engage the broader public? How can art-

ral systems that support our lives, to help people understand

ists participate in communicating global ecological aware-

that nature is everywhere and in action at all times—and

ness and its associated social impacts?

that we are part of nature.

The task is to create new bonds and reconfigure the old

Using the methodology that has evolved at CALL, I have

ones between the built environment and the natural world,

developed Rescuing Tibbetts Brook as a small step in this pro-

among various communities and between our history and

cess. It is a conceptual plan conceived to incorporate the

current and future needs. Without the support, understand-

work of multiple artists to “daylight” (the process of bringing

ing, and participation of the individual citizens who make

buried water to the surface) the stream, from the planning

up our communities most in need, change cannot happen.

stage through its full implementation. But this idea raises the

Our engaging communities through direct experience on

question, What is the role of artists in a project that will play

the streets in their own neighborhoods is key to creating

out at the scale of the city over an extended time period—

a new paradigm for a future of sustenance. It is imperative

and why should they be involved?

that cities and planners recognize the importance of artists

Bringing a buried stream to the surface is a huge under-

in this process.

taking involving millions of dollars and multiple state and

While the issues around climate change can be dense and

city agencies, with far-reaching impact on nearby communi-

unapproachable, art is something people can relate to. Artists

ties. Such an initiative will need the support of policy makers,

can help increase awareness and action around environmen-

planners, scientists and engineers, NGOs, academic partners,

tal challenges through the creation of personal experiences

and community members. Artists are a group not typically

for people exposed to their work. They can do projects that

178  Mary Miss

call on community members to imagine their own futures or

tems and infrastructure that support their lives. It consists of

make things that are hidden, unseen, or abstract seem acces-

introducing artists, scientists, other experts, and communi-

sible, real, and tangible. Artists can focus on what is under-

ties to one another, with the goal of accessing the expertise

recognized or threatened. They can promote community

each has to offer. This is a long-term process that begins with

action around specific issues that lead to policy change. In

walks that explore the issues of a given neighborhood. After

short, artists can help reenvision the public realm and con-

a series of these walks with different artist-scientist teams, we

struct a new narrative that gives all of us a voice in imagining

may hold a workshop, inviting community members to artic-

a viable future.

ulate their interests and concerns. The walk teams are pres-

Many artists have been bringing attention to a wide vari-

ent at and participate in the workshop. The artists develop

ety of such issues, often over very long periods of time: Mierle

proposals based on what they hear, to call attention to the

Ukeles, in her decades-long relationship with the New York

concerns they’ve witnessed.

City Department of Sanitation; Mel Chin, with his Operation

After a decade of CALL’s leading walks, conducting work-

Paydirt; Michael Singer, showing that a recycling plant can

shops, and developing projects, several other foundational

be a place to engage the public; and others. There are poets,

principles have emerged:

playwrights, performers, and musicians stepping out of the halls into this expanded field.

Experiences that connect us with the natural world and to one another are critical to getting people’s attention. The

In 2009, the Earth Institute at Columbia University invited

data shared by climate scientists, despite their best efforts,

a group of scientists and people in the arts to a convening.

have done little to change policies and practices in the United

At this gathering, I was able to meet scientists who became

States. In the book The Great Derangement, the novelist Ami-

key collaborators in helping to define and develop the City

tav Ghosh has attributed this deficit to a “crisis of culture”

as Living Lab—the ecologist Eric Sanderson, the geographer

(culture as the generator of desires) and therefore a “crisis

William Solecki, and the climate scientists Stuart Gaffin and

of the imagination,” where nature and culture have become

Cynthia Rosenzweig. These scientists were very aware of the

separated. CALL’s framework for engagement addresses this

difficulty of conveying their research’s outcomes and impli-

issue by providing accessible experiences that people can

cations; they understood and valued the ability of artists not

have in a familiar context, such as their own neighborhood.

just to translate but to communicate.

An artist who lives in a neighborhood stands at the center of

CALL’s approach grew out of these exchanges and led

a park next to a derelict fountain and asks people to imag-

to a process we have developed for engaging communities,

ine the stream that was formerly located there. The ecologist

working with them to become more aware of the natural sys-

who is coleader of the walk notes that the stream has not

City as Living Laboratory  179

six-inch-diameter blue disks, which marked the predicted high-water mark, were installed through the center of town on buildings, infrastructure, and trees. Some discs were ankle high; others were eighteen feet in the air. As the viewer looked from one dot to the next, the high-water line became apparent. That flood level, something that had not occurred in recent memory and was hard to imagine, was tangible when measured against the viewer’s own body. A constellation of heroes/artists is necessary to reflect the multidimensional complexity of the challenges and opportunities before us. Rather than presume that a few singular leaders or a s/hero will lead us to resolution, we at CALL see a different path. We started out in New York City in 2009 with Broadway: 1000 Steps, which imagines transforming this

Figure 17.1. Connect the Dots, Boulder, Colorado, 2007; three

eighteen-mile-long boulevard that runs from the tip of Man-

hundred six-inch diameter disks were placed on buildings, infrastructure, and trees to mark the predicted flood level of Boulder Creek. (Photo: Mary Miss)

hattan to the top of the Bronx as the new green corridor of the city. Here, incrementally, over time, it would be possible to see new ways of living in the city conceived by many dif-

gone away; it is still there but has disappeared into a pipe.

ferent artists, designers, musicians, and poets, collaborating

The goal is to help people relate environmental challenges to

with scientists or other experts, city agencies, and the com-

personal experience—and take action.

munities along the way.

Connect the Dots: Mapping the History and High Water of

During the past decade, we have held over seventy artist-­

Boulder Creek, in Boulder, Colorado, in 2007, was a project

scientist (geographer, historian, sociologist) walks along the

that made it possible to understand the reality of an event

Broadway corridor, exploring the very different challenges

that was never experienced by those who live there. The city

faced by communities that range from the wealthiest to the

of Boulder is one of the highest hazard flood zones in the

poorest in New York City. Among the issues we confronted

western United States. Located at the mouth of a canyon,

are storm-surge flooding, radically high childhood asthma

it is in imminent danger of a catastrophic flood because of

rates, and sewerage overflows. From what we learned, we

changing weather patterns. For this project, three hundred

went on to focus on three areas most in need of support—

180  Mary Miss

Chinatown, Harlem, and the Bronx—doing workshops and

street space is at a premium, Shin pictured the windows of

developing artists’ projects.

the apartments of this dense neighborhood as vertical areas

After a workshop in Chinatown that was attended by

of greenery.

artists, designers, and community members, the artist Jean

We also collaborated with the New York City Department

Shin developed a project based on a discussion she had par-

of Design and Construction to propose a strategy to engage

ticipated in about the desire to have more green space in

many artists in the thousands of construction projects the

Chinatown—but also based on the wide interest in Chinese

city does every year, giving artists opportunities beyond

medicinal plants and health. Shin proposed recycling plastic

the capacity of the program Percent for Art. This program,

bottles to create window gardens, where medicinal plants,

which dedicates 1 percent of a construction budget toward

among others, could be grown. In this area of the city, where

an artwork done at the project site, is used rarely. Over thirty

Figure 17.2. Broadway: 1000 Steps, New York City, 2009–present; proposed white roofs marking the corridor of Broadway.

City as Living Laboratory  181

years, only about three hundred projects have been commis-

different scales: the bridges as giant stitches connecting

sioned in New York City through this program. Our strategy

adjacent neighborhoods to the new stream location; or at a

invites artists to help people better understand the benefits

much smaller scale, in which other artists and local individ-

of the infrastructure and natural systems that support their

uals could participate. The artist Matt Jenson has suggested

lives—and are part of building in the city. If, for example, a

that community members make a quilt that would be a map

water line is being replaced in the street, residents can come

of the upland connections to the future stream corridor,

to know more about where that water originates and how it

showing locations of bioswales for runoff, green roofs, related

gets to their homes.

habitat locations, or infrastructure.

This is one example of how CALL imagines a constellation

In a recent project proposed in collaboration with a New

of artists empowered to address the immediate concerns of

York City Housing Authority housing project in Harlem,

people in their own neighborhoods, working across the city,

the designer Elliott Maltby worked through many sessions

not just on the crossroads of the main streets.

with local residents and the environmental group WEACT

We need to think in terms of co-constructing the next

to design a kiosk where residents can have access to infor-

positive world. As we know, the elevation of fear, with dark

mation in the face of emergencies—everything from a child’s

scenarios about the impending climate crisis, has had a

asthma attack to Hurricane Sandy.

limited impact. When the challenges can be seen as under-

Recognizing the complexity and interconnection of chal-

standable, and individuals feel welcome, respected, empow-

lenges in the face of the changing climate requires that we

ered, and engaged, we can imagine and build stronger, more

embrace the full agenda of sustainable development. It is not

sustainable communities.

possible to address the crisis by attending to a single issue.

In developing a new project, CALL strives to address

The seventeen United Nations Sustainability Goals make

issues in ways that are appropriate to the immediate context,

it clear that climate action is related to health, education,

respectful of the community, democratic, and imaginative.

equity, and social justice, among others.

Our goal is to establish a methodology that is conceptual

Over the past five years, I have been working on Water-

as well as physical. Over time, it can be developed by other

Marks: An Atlas of Water for the City of Milwaukee, a project

artists, scientists, or community organizations. The establish-

to build a citywide network of engagement around the topic

ment of a starting point that is then expanded and enhanced

of water. It focuses on the history, present state, and future

by others is central to our approach.

of water in the city and Lake Michigan. The goal is to engage

The imagery of stitching suggested in the title of Rescuing

citizens throughout the city to become part of the “green

Tibbetts Brook One Stitch at a Time can be imagined at many

infrastructure” by marshaling their use of water. The central

182  Mary Miss

beacon for this project is the smokestack of the waterfront sewerage-treatment plant. This structure, visible throughout the city, is lit and changes color from a moving blue light to red when there is the danger of a sewerage overflow into the lake. (A short video is available for an online version of this book.)

Figure 17.3 (left). WaterMarks: An Atlas of Water for the City of Milwaukee, concept drawing, 2015. Figure 17.4 (below). WaterMarks: An Atlas of Water for the City of Milwaukee, 2014–present, lighted stack of the Jones Island Water Treatment Facility in Milwaukee; stack and vapor change from blue to red with the threat of a sewerage overflow. (Illustration: Shimahara Visual)

City as Living Laboratory  183

In our project, to complement the stack, a network of in-

To continue to build, maintain, and keep this network

dividual WaterMarkers is planned for neighborhoods across

active, a coalition of city agencies, academic institutions,

the city. Building on the idea of an atlas, each individual

community organizations, and artists must be integrated into

marker is topped by a letter of the alphabet selected by

this project. We have established a partners group to help

the community to represent its own interests. The letter

envision its ongoing activation, expansion, and messaging.

A, for agua, was selected for the first marker in this Latinx

We also imagine a mentoring program that would provide

community. When the blue-lit letter on top of each Water-

opportunities to support young artists in communities—

Marker pulses on and off, it sends the same message to the

musicians, poets, performers, and visual artists—to keep

immediate neighborhood as the city’s smokestack about

these sites active.

sewerage overflows.

The arts can construct experiences that are designed to

Creating this network—in one of the most segregated

promote understanding, emotionally and viscerally, within

cities in the United States—that connects all the Water-

communities. Respect. Optimism. Passion. Humility. Con-

Markers with one another and Milwaukee’s many commu-

nection. Generosity. These words need to be in the back-

nities with one another is an ongoing process of community

ground of all our work.

engagement. Following the CALL practices described earlier, we are imagining and cocreating new, positive narratives of

A recent intervention by the artist Bob Braine beautifully

a sustainable future in Milwaukee, not only about water but

illustrates the artist’s ability to make meaningful connec-

about the neighborhoods themselves. How can a project like

tions. At a CALL event that focused on bringing Tibbetts

this help create more robust community organizations and

Brook in the Bronx out of sewer pipes to once again see the

the neighbors they serve? Each neighborhood has different

light of day, Braine painted temporary tattoos of the stream’s

issues that will be reflected in its marker, as well as reflecting

meandering path on the arms, necks, legs, and backs of local

the reality that water is a shared resource for all.

residents—a diverse group of young and old who eagerly

As in other projects, when the resource of water and

lined up. In the half hour he spent with each person, Braine

issues around its availability and protection are raised, mul-

spoke about the history of the stream, what it looked like,

tiple aspects of sustainable development—health, social jus-

and what lived there. These volunteers went home and for

tice, employment, infrastructure, education, nutrition, and

the next few days were queried about what these strange

wildlife conservation—also come into view. Here again we

body markings were about. The artist’s originality revealed

have set out to create a conceptual as well as physical frame-

that data or words are not the only way to the comprehen-

work in Milwaukee, one that will be built out over time.

sion that leads to a sense of ownership and responsibility.

184  Mary Miss

But the future of initiatives such as CALL and our attempt In 2017, CALL held a convening of artists, urban designers,

to show the indispensable role of artists in the public sphere

planners, community activists, and scientists with whom we

remain unclear. The nature of this work is that it is a slow

had worked over the years in settings where there was broad

process. It is through repeated exposures to issues particular

support for our goals. The scientists who were present sug-

to a community that people will become involved, that pol-

gested that we use the CALL template to create nationwide

icy makers will listen to them, and that change will happen.

walks with a replicable method for convening artist-scientist

If the arts are to have a vital, effective role in reimagining

teams, identifying communities, and conducting the walks.

our environment and the public realm, how is this kind of

The following year, CALL WALKS were held in Santa Fe;

work going to be supported? The current levels of funding

Pittsburgh; Milwaukee; Arlington, Virginia; Baltimore; and

for the arts are no match for the task at hand. We need the

New York City. After testing our template, a CALL WALKS

engagement of politicians, philanthropists, foundations,

toolkit was created, which is now available for others to use

and local and national government. Can there be venture

in order to further engage artists, scientists, and communi-

capitalists for social and environmental issues? For artists to

ties across the country.

contribute to reimagining our environment, there must be

The City as Living Lab has undertaken three major urbanscale projects to serve as precedents for artist engagements

a corresponding reimagining of the amounts and sources of funding.

with cities: New York City, Indianapolis, and Milwaukee. This

The creation of an uplifting, empowering narrative about

approach, working at the scale of the city, stems in part from

the public realm, the environment, and climate change must

the scientist Cynthia Rosenzweig’s emphasis on the impor-

recognize interconnections at every level: between nature

tance of undertaking initiatives of scale to have the broad-

and culture, knowledge and experience, opposing political

est possible impact. We have received support from major

views, communities with diverse perspectives, art and sci-

foundations, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the

ence. We must forge these connections with imagination,

National Science Foundation. These projects are all very pro-

dialogue, collaboration, and respect while embracing the

cess oriented, as we go through the steps of exploration and

complexity of the endeavor.

engagement with many communities. We fully recognize

Above all, this new narrative must be a moving one

that the complex issues facing communities are made tangi-

that has the ability to connect with people’s own experi-

ble and actionable only through repeated direct experiences

ences in their own communities, linking everyday lives to a

over time.

sustainable future.

City as Living Laboratory  185

18 Unreasonable Movement; Unreasonable Thought Eliz abeth Streb

The nascent origin of our work at STREB Extreme Action was

it in a humanistic manner, a time-consuming endeavor. For

to stop camouflaging gravity—to land. In my field, I don’t see

over forty years, I’ve been examining this single idea, which

anybody landing. I mean really hitting the ground immedi-

has morphed into a multitude of offshoots of thousands of

ately after being in the air and letting gravity have its way

inquiries and attendant investigations.

with you. And why? Maybe because it hurts. Flight is fantasy and dreamy and poetic. But after your first second of flight, You’re flying down, period. And the impact of having the

An Inquiry into the Nature of Movement

ground abruptly stop you is shocking. Try an experiment:

What exactly is speed, acceleration, momentum, velocity?

Put yourself in a pushup position with your body perfectly

Can we perform the idea of discontinuity when we’re falling?

straight like a ruler. Then just all at once release your arms,

Can we skip a spot in space? Can we perform the moment

keeping your body aligned so when you go down—wham!

where the asymptote mathematically has no value? What are

When I first did that, the hit was so hard, and I couldn’t

the issues germane to physicality, such as size, scale, speed,

believe all that crazy magic was just residing there and we

and time?

after your first launch, the apex is reached pretty rapidly.

were ignoring it. To be real about movement is to examine every aspect of

186

I wonder what the grammar, the syntax of movement actually is. How do you figure out how to unearth the real

content of movement? Is there even such a thing as content in movement? The grammar of motion necessitates an enormous break

Attendant with this definition is the fact that neither force, nor time, nor space has been defined accurately in terms of action.

from either language or architecture, each of which demands

First, the time involved in motion is not clock time; it is

a one-by-one order system to capacitate or to glean any

divided so much more intricately. The true rhythm of move-

meaning at all. Language, as Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guat-

ment has not even developed a proper and specific nomen-

tari explain in their Capitalism and Schizophrenia project, is

clature. As long as the dance world believes that we operate

ordered in an “arboreal” fashion. It’s describing a thought or a

on two legs (mostly), and rhythms are shaped by the predict-

story or an emotion. You have to actually sit there and listen

able transfer of weight, it will never know what the iambic

to every single word before the meaning becomes possible,

pentameter of action truly is.1

and sometimes it takes a while. I have a problem with that. I have a short attention span.

Second, real space has not been named: it’s just “up” or “above the ground.” For a true and complete choreography

Action, however, can be understood in a “rhizomatic”

of action, each tiny and tinier speck of space needs to be

fashion. Like a botanical rhizome, everything or many things

named, so your deciding to go to that spot is fully inten-

can happen at once in it. It’s not literal or dependent on lan-

tional and generalities are finally absent. In music, there

guage to explain it.

are octaves and meters and scales and keys and flats and

This point brings up another deficiency in our approach

sharps and invented machines called instruments that make

to understanding action. The incorrect subject of action has

sounds for only physical reasons. Where are these intricate,

been the body. When you first examine a particular field of

thousands-of-years-old developments for the action timing

knowledge, you must identify the subject. And if we ignore

of dance?

that “first inquiry”—as I think we have in dance—we fail to

Last, the force in movement includes danger, real danger.

acknowledge that it’s actually the invisible part, what the

You get to an unconventional place in space, at previously

body does and where it goes spatially, and how it gets there,

untabulated speeds, and you do not know where you are.

that is the true subject of action.

Because you’ve actually never been there, in this particular

The partners of this nebulous proclamation are force,

way . . . unless you’ve fallen down or slipped on a banana peel.

time, and space. As a human, you can’t ignore space, and you

When you’ve had that exciting experience of the unpredict-

can’t ignore the temporality of actions you’re taking; nor can

able, there is no pretend about it. To me, danger in action is

you ignore the force involved. These three things actually

equal to tragedies in Shakespeare’s dramas.

create movement, or rather action.

Unreasonable Movement; Unreasonable Thought  187

Defying Limits

ing feelings of being in a “foreign” space. But make no mistake, the threat of failure or injury is ever present.

At STREB Extreme Action, our battle cry is, “If you don’t get

We are, of course, familiarized with basic habits of being

both feet off the ground, you’re not really moving.” A real

and moving. But I’m trying to figure out, What situation can

move is one where, once you begin it, you can’t change your

I set up that will help me discover an event that has never

mind. You will get hurt trying to stop it. That’s a real move. Our dictum is to go faster, higher, sooner, harder. You have to change your base of support, so it’s not just the bottoms of the feet. You could, for instance, land on your shins or the backs of your legs or land horizontally onto your stomach, your back, your side. Most of those bases can accept pretty intense impact. We can fall from thirty feet now. The “rate of our falls” is still thirty-two feet per second squared. That’s what’s true in the atmosphere of the Earth, but that’s faster than people go laterally. Inventing action equipment has been critical to our work. Instruments are part of the music world. Once someone decided that the voice was not sufficient to do all you can do with sound, they invented the flute to go higher. They invented the harpsichord, the piano, the violin, the cello, and on and on. I looked at the implementers that had been invented in the field of movement: a ballet barre? some mirrors? shoes? and a piano in the corner? So for action, we had to invent our own. Our equipment, our hardware, are so critical that we call them our instruments, because they help us deal with altitude and help us deal with force and getting to “new” places in space that are foreign and just not available to the human body alone. They help us deal with not knowing where we are and the confus-

188  Eliz abeth Streb

Figure 18.1. Original drawing by Elizabeth Streb with chore­ ographic sequencing for Molinette, 2018. (Molinette designed and built by Noe España)

been encountered and that no one has ever seen before, much less already possesses the technique that can accomplish it? We are trying to trace trajectories with our flesh and bones as we highlight only the being of place and space and time. These tracings will be so fundamental that they will etch their current second-by-second reality into the brains and bodies of audiences, similar to the powerfully tangible yet abstract experience when you smell cut grass or when a passerby is wearing your mother’s perfume. We want to shift respectable attention away from the mistaken idea that movement’s subject is the body and onto what the body is doing, the invisible part. When we tour, we bring our huge box truss frame, because I don’t accept the framing of the Theater. The standard aspect ratio that the proscenium seems so desperate to preserve has mostly no relation to the size of the human body. We are responsible for the accurate and effective framing of action by humans. To witness that they are going really fast and are in a place in space nobody’s gotten to in that particular way before and in a timing system with no name yet, you have to be in relation to a frame capable of revealing exactly the what of “what” they are doing!

Figure 18.2. Original drawing by Elizabeth Streb developing spoke vocabulary for Turn/LERU and London Eye, 2012. (LERU [London Eye Rehearsal Unit] designed and built by Neil Mazzella and Hudson Scenic Studio)

The biggest object that halts our practice in relation to discovering something that we aren’t comfortable with is our

yourself; it’s just part of your makeup. In other words, it’s very

capacity to accept getting hurt. The question is, “How are

hard to shake, much less notice.

we hampered by being individually so careful of real estate

The practice we tend not to try and the scripts that tell us

and our bodies?” I feel that if you’re worried about yourself,

that act is impossible or that you will die doing it often stem

that worry often comes from social class and taking care of

from a habit of thinking. It doesn’t even occur to us to try it.

Unreasonable Movement; Unreasonable Thought  189

The impossibility seems so unquestionably true that we just

these years has been promulgated solely by word of mouth.

don’t question it.

We welcome strangers and interruptions to enter as a part

Chuck Yeager was told that he couldn’t break the sound

of our workday. At SLAM, we have the opportunity to de­

barrier, which is about 770 miles per hour. They told him

mystify the art habits in which we’ve been trained. It’s also an

his plane would explode. And he intuitively felt, “No, I don’t

effort to peel the “stain” of high art from us so that it doesn’t

think it will,” and he got in that plane with no physicists say-

contaminate our capacity to meld with the real-world audi-

ing, “You’ll be fine.” He broke the sound barrier. When Roger

ences we want to attract. People come and watch. And

Barrister broke the four-minute mile, nobody had run the

we deconstruct the myths of operation that artists have

four-minute mile before. And then after that, about a year

absorbed, such as that we can’t be interrupted because we’re

later, someone shaved a few more seconds off, and then a

busy thinking of the next great idea. Because if it’s such a

few years later, a few more seconds. What kind of historic

good idea, I’m sure we’ll remember it again.

event does that signify, when you realize that you can frame

It also means we have five-year-old kids coming up to

a question you know has the capacity to destroy such deep

ask, “Have you ever thought of trying this?” I think, “Hmm,

assumptions about what’s possible and what’s not possible?

no, I haven’t.” They are giving me ideas I would have never had. And then I remember that cigar box full of bolts and

Bringing the Public into Action

nuts falling off my parents’ phone shelf. I caught it, precisely one inch from the ground with both of my hands directly

STREB Lab for Action Mechanics (SLAM) is located in Wil-

under it, with nothing falling out. But somehow I knew that

liamsburg, Brooklyn. We’ve been there for seventeen years,

movement and hardware were going to be my future. I was

and it’s where the “Everybody” and the “EveryPerson” comes

eight then and now I’m seventy, and I still wake up wonder-

wandering in. This message of the publicness of SLAM over

ing about movement.

190  Eliz abeth Streb

19 Jazz and Consciousness Fred Hersch

Alberta Arthurs conducted this interview with the jazz pianist

in the country that acknowledged jazz as an art form. Now

and composer Fred Hersch over Zoom on October 16, 2020.

they’re everywhere.

Alberta Arthurs: I’d like to spend most of our time on My Coma Dreams. We’re lucky it’s now online and streaming on YouTube.

I really learned as an apprentice with the older musicians in Cincinnati, starting in 1973 and then, all through my twenties, as a sideman to some of the great jazz legends in New York, playing with people who were much better than me—

Fred Hersch: We’re really glad we could get it out there so

learning how to be a professional, how you sometimes had

people could see it.

to play a little bit differently in different situations, how to

AA: It’s wonderful. The piece is so dense that having it available, right in front of us in that one-on-one, intimate way, is especially impressive. I’m going to quote you to yourself: “I was one of the last jazz musicians to come up the old way.”

accompany, and then beginning to lead my own groups. New York in the late ’70s was crazy and broke and dangerous—but super exciting. This was before jazz became institutionalized, before Jazz at Lincoln Center and SFJazz. Everything happened in the clubs. Every night, you went out

FH: I did go to music school. I’m a trained musician. But I

somewhere—there were only four channels of TV and no

didn’t go to what we now call a jazz program. At New

technology except for answering machines. You would look

England Conservatory, all of us in the very small jazz depart-

in the Village Voice and see who was playing. Clubs back then

ment took the same classes as everybody else. Back then,

were not that expensive. New York was a real twenty-four-

in the mid-’70s, there were only five or six music schools

hour kind of a place.

191

And I was gay—and into the gay scene, which was also a twenty-four-hour scene. But I led more of a dual existence back then. Although my close friends knew I was gay, I was not out to the jazz world.

were devastated. Fast-forward to 2007. That fall, I was in very bad shape.

AA: But still playing.

I had all these formative musical experiences, but I did

FH: I never stopped playing. I was always super busy. And

not make my first recording as a bandleader until I was thirty,

honestly, I thought, “Okay, if I have a gig in three months,

which is late by today’s standards. Right around the time I

I have to be alive to make the gig.” I needed things to look

released my first trio album—this would be 1985-ish—I

forward to, to motivate me. I was not eating. I was having

found out I was HIV-positive. On one level, I was starting

trouble salivating. I was really thin. In November 2007, I went

my career, while on another, I was wondering if it was over,

on a brutal tour in Europe. It was cold. Every day, getting

because there was no treatment. There was no cure. It could

up and traveling, getting four o’clock lobby calls. I was in

have been a death sentence. So I was pretty determined to be

terrible shape.

as active as I could and document as much as I could before I either died or got sick.

I came back to New York, and sometime in mid-­ December I saw my doctor. He said, “Maybe we’ll take you

I think most artists want to be remembered somehow.

off your antiretroviral drugs for a couple of weeks and see if

They want to leave something behind. I was very determined

you can get some appetite back.” It was what they call a stra-

to leave something behind. And somehow, I got through

tegic therapeutic interruption, or drug holiday. But it wasn’t

all that.

exactly a holiday. Within two weeks, my viral load zoomed

AA: It’s interesting that the coma was not a result of or related in any way to HIV.

FH: Not at all. I certainly had many periods of ill health. In

up into the many millions, and I had full-blown AIDS-­related dementia. Thus, I started 2008 in St. Vincent’s Hospital, where I was given strong antipsychotics. Though they were effective, the dementia continued for a few months.

1996, triple combination therapy came out, the so-called

Fortunately, new antiretroviral drugs had come along.

cocktail therapy. But I was not able to get my viral load

They reduced my viral load to undetectable, and I began

down to the undetectable level, so I suffered a lot of dif-

to recover my health and my appetite. I gained weight. But

ferent small opportunistic infections, including a bacterial

it was very difficult for my partner, Scott, during that time

pneumonia a couple of times. And I became diabetic in the

because I really was paranoid. He was in graduate school,

late ’90s, but nothing that took me out. And, of course, a

getting a master’s in international nonprofit management at

lot of death around me. Friends and the whole arts world

NYU’s Wagner School, and he didn’t know what he would

192  Fred Hersch

come home to, what would be going on with me. I didn’t

became very agitated. I was given methadone. I was strapped

want to see anybody. I was convinced there were conspira-

to the bed, because I would stand up and try to tear out all

cies everywhere. I remember it all. But I couldn’t really help

the tubes.

my craziness at the time.

AA: You call that chapter in your book “Madness.”

It was very difficult for my family, for Scott. I got down to less than one hundred pounds. I was on a feeding tube. Gradually, things got better. They stopped the methadone

FH: I was certifiable. There’s no question. And then around

cold turkey, which was very difficult, I’m told. In early August,

March, April, May, I recovered and was back to my normal

I kind of awoke. When you’re in a coma like that, you don’t

activities. I had some concerts on the West Coast, right

just wake up. In TV shows or movies, you wake up just like

around the beginning of June. I had been feeling weird for a

that and say hello. But it’s not really, “Hello, everybody!” It

few days. I had a high fever and was just not really myself. The

takes time.

last thing I remember is that I took a cool bath. And I could

When I woke up, I was in a very cold room. I couldn’t

not get out of the bathtub. I just didn’t have any upper-body

speak. My right vocal cord had been paralyzed by the intu-

strength. Which is, of course—now I know—a sign of pneu-

bation tube, so I couldn’t speak. I was on a feeding tube, too,

monia. But I didn’t know then that it was a particularly nasty

because you need to have your vocal cords working together

strain of pneumonia.

in order to safely swallow, so fluid doesn’t go into your lungs

I called to Scott from the bathroom, “I can’t get out of the bathtub.” I was clearly in bad shape. He rushed me into

and then you aspirate. I had no hand-eye coordination at all. Of course, I couldn’t walk. Still about one hundred pounds.

a cab and went to St. Vincent’s emergency room. The first

I realized that my life as I knew it had been taken away.

thing they did was to put an oxygen sensor on my finger. My

I didn’t know how long I’d been in the coma. Nobody told

blood oxygen was about 70, and normal is 98. Four doctors

me, which was probably good. And I didn’t ask. When I

wheeled me away. I was in septic shock. My organs had shut

was discharged from St. Vincent’s, I was put in an inpatient

down. They told Scott, “It could go either way” and that they

rehab facility on the Lower East Side called Rivington House,

would know in forty-eight hours.

which is a facility for people with AIDS. They were able to

The doctors decided to induce a coma; they just wanted to shut me down. They put me on dialysis and intubated me. Typically, in these cases, they shut you down for a week or

take my insurance and also to deal with administering all my AIDS medications. I was in there for about a month. It was maybe mid-­

ten days. They can usually bring you out. But this went on for

August when Scott asked me if I wanted to watch something

almost two months. And at some points during that time, I

on TV. I said, “Well, we could watch Wimbledon.” I’m a tennis

Jazz and Consciousness  193

nut. But Wimbledon had happened six weeks before that.

I said to Herschel, “I don’t want to just do a suite of music

That’s when he told me that that I had been under for all

and then have people read about the dreams in a program

that time.

note. I want to do something maybe a little more immersive,

I went home around Labor Day of 2008 and began a very intense program of rehabilitation. I found a magnificent physical therapist right up the block. I also found an amazing

maybe a visual element, I don’t know. What do you think?” And he said, “Just give me the dreams, and I’ll get back to you.”

swallow therapist. Learning how to swallow is very difficult.

He got very inspired and created the idea of using a time-

None of us really thinks about it. You’re trying to build mus-

line, starting with when I went into the coma and ending

cles that have atrophied. It wasn’t until November that I had

with me in my recovery, two-plus months later—telling the

an operation that puts a piece of plastic in my neck to hold

story of my illness, but not just from my point of view. What

my vocal cords together so that I can swallow and speak. I

Herschel came up with was that Michael Winther, an amaz-

started eating solid food on Valentine’s Day of 2009.

ing actor and singer, would play both me and Scott—and

AA: All of that, finding jazz, the illness that took you to the coma, is embedded in one way or another in My Coma Dreams.

some other characters as well. Herschel interviewed Scott, he interviewed me, and he interviewed my doctor, Michael Liguori—and put together this script that follows the timeline. We ended up calling the piece Jazz Theater. Within the

FH: Right. Generally, I don’t remember dreams. But when

work are eight interconnected musical sections, interspersed

I came to, there was a series of eight or nine dreams that I

with text.

remembered super vividly when I came to. When I got home

I told Herschel that I did not want it to be a song cycle.

in September, I typed them into my computer—just a para-

“I want to present each dream in a different way.” There’s

graph about each dream—but for some reason, I wanted to

only one dream that is sung—about a nine-minute song.

document them.

It’s quite an elaborate song right in the center of the show,

After I got better, I realized that these dreams were pretty

and it’s the first thing I wrote. For some of the other dreams,

interesting. As artists, a lot of times we’re dealing with found

there’s just instrumental music and video. In some, Michael

material. I knew I wanted to do something with them. I talked

speaks with the music. Each dream has a unique look and

to my friend Herschel Garfein, a composer and librettist

concept.

who ultimately directed My Coma Dreams. We had worked

I had an eleven-piece ensemble of a string quartet, two

together on my Leaves of Grass project in the early 2000s,

woodwind players on saxophones doubling as clarinets and

which is settings of Whitman’s poetry.

flutes, trumpet, trombone, piano, bass, and drums. If the

194  Fred Hersch

reed players were playing saxophones, I had a big band with

Care Medicine, and I just read the New York Times article

a small string section. And when they were playing flutes and

about your coma. Can I ask you to fly to Barcelona and give

clarinets, I had a chamber orchestra. I could get a lot of sonic

a speech to all the ICU doctors in Europe and then play a

mileage out of a reasonably small group of people. I got the

solo concert?”

best improvising jazz players in New York, and Peak Performances at Montclair State agreed to present the piece.

AA: You had an outstanding commission with them.

I didn’t really know him at all. But there was something compelling about him. He was also a fan of my music. So I went to Barcelona. I gave a speech, described what I’d been through, and played a concert. Subsequently, we did the

FH: Right. I had already done one small piece for Jed Wheeler

piece at the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine in

at Peak Performances, so we had a relationship.

Berlin two years later. In both instances, the feedback I got

I was super grateful to my close friends Linda and Stuart

from doctors was, “This is really going to change the way I do

Nelson, who are huge patrons of contemporary composers.

things, because now I understand from the point of view of

They’ve commissioned, I don’t know, fifty, sixty pieces by

the care receiver what’s going on.”

composers. They were really angels. It turned out to be an expensive and time-consuming process, especially with its level of animation, which was both computer animation and hand drawn. Actually, our computer operator was really the thirteenth

AA: How did you interpret that the fact that they wanted to see the piece and that they responded the way they did? What do you think they found in it from their perspective as medical providers?

member of the band, because there were something like two

FH: It just humanized the experience of coma. What they got

hundred cues in the score. Since there was improvisation, he

from it was the need to be more aware of the people who

had to know when to speed something up or slow it down

are caring for the patient. They needed to be more aware of

and when to move to the next place. He was an integral part

the circumstances surrounding the patient and not just the

of the ensemble.

numbers on their chart.

We did two performances of My Coma Dreams at Mont-

Also, they were kind of surprised. Some say that if you’re

clair State’s Kasser Theater in 2011 and ultimately in San Fran-

in a coma, that’s it; nothing goes on in your brain. There’s a

cisco at the Herbst Theater.

lot of literature about this. But obviously I had a lot going

Rolling back to early 2009, I had gotten an email from

on during the coma. For instance, I was strapped in, I was

an internal medicine doctor in Paris, Jean-Daniel Chiche. He

strapped to my bed, and in one of the dreams I’m strapped

said, “I’m the president of the European Society of Intensive

into a van in a parking lot. There’s a very intense dream about

Jazz and Consciousness  195

a group of women who are knitting. That could be a stand-in

Your eight paragraphs turned out to have resonances and

for the fates or the nurses at the nursing station. There are a

relationships to one another and to life as you had known it,

lot of parallels to the real world in my dreams. Things that

as you were at the time. You start with knitters.

were happening around me somehow found their way into my dreams. I think the doctors were pretty amazed.

FH: That was the prologue.

The final time we did the piece—and probably the last

AA: And the prologue becomes a refrain throughout: “We

time we’ll ever do it—was at Columbia University’s Miller

end as we begin.” That line is repeated; you seem to remind

Theater, under the auspices of Rita Charon, of Columbia’s

us over and over that we end as we begin. And then, with

Narrative Medicine Program. Of course, this piece really

asides and interruptions and elaboration, you go through

fits into the idea of narrative medicine because it is a story

each of the coma dreams in turn, but not necessarily in the

and it is medical, and it is visually and musically involving.

order in which you had written them down.

It’s an artistic statement. This is the performance that is now streaming on YouTube. When we did the premiere at Montclair State, Scott did not want to know anything about it. He just said, “I’ll be surprised. Don’t tell me anything.” And so he got to the premiere and didn’t realize he was a central character in it. My brother was there and he said, “Wow, you’ve taken total shit and made it into art.” This is what we try to do. Somebody hands you something, you go with it and try not to interfere with it. When you get that inspiration to do something, you try to do it the best you can. I wrote the piece at MacDowell, in Peterborough, New Hampshire, in February 2011 and orchestrated it in about three weeks. It was on a pretty intense timetable. We premiered it that May.

FH: Right. Herschel created the piece. It’s an eighty-five-minute piece, so it had to have a dramatic arc. The long song about “The Knitters” was the centerpiece. I used to work with a lot of great singers—cabaret singers, jazz singers. There’s a tradition with singers called the eleven o’clock song, which is the second-to-last number of a show or a set. That’s when you play the really emotionally resonant ballad. You hold the audience in your hand. The whole set builds to that moment. After that magic song, you play something lively to get off the stage. The eleven o’clock song in My Coma Dreams is an instrumental piece I wrote for Scott called “The Orb,” where I see his face inside a glowing orb, like the Wizard of Oz. And in it he’s saying, “Just come to me. I love you.” Both in the show and in my imagination, that’s when I began to wake up. That

AA: The way in which you and your musical colleagues, your

music seemed to be the gravitational pull toward waking up.

theatrical colleagues, put the piece together is so interesting.

The song has that special place in the show, but I’d like to

196  Fred Hersch

think that it had that place in my actual life. It was a year and

to check that.” And dealing with the insurance company—I

half, beginning to end, from the dementia until I began to

don’t know how people deal with that, if they’re alone or if

get back on my feet and eat and travel again. Scott was just

they don’t have somebody who is really capable of navigating

heroic through the whole thing.

through all the things that can happen. Clear communica-

AA: In some ways, “The Orb” is the perfect piece to prepare for the ending, because it’s also the most understandable, the most immediate. It’s the one in which you can sense the conversation between two loving human beings in a very direct way. The other dreams are more mysterious, deeper in a psychological sense.

tion from the doctors to the caregivers is central. And the caregivers have to be on top of that, too.

AA: What about the nightmare of the airplane? FH: That’s more of a comic, surreal dream about being on strange, luxurious airlines with flight attendants in Victorian costumes and sushi chefs. The most psychologically intense

FH: On some level, the whole piece is sort of a valentine to

dream, for classic dream interpretation, is “The Knitters.”

Scott. That’s one of the takeaways. The power that love has is

But there’s also a comic dream about playing with a terrible

something universal.

singer at a jazz diner in the middle of the woods. There’s a lot

AA: The piece makes it clear that he was there from beginning to end, that he was aware of everything going on around you, including the way the doctors behaved, the way people came and went, the way you were in your condition. He was there all the time.

FH: Something the doctors realized, which, of course, was vital to me, is, “How could anybody get through something like this without an intelligent advocate?” Because doctors make mistakes, and hospitals make mistakes. Scott was on top of everything, whether it was a nurse who walked in

of humor in there. And some are just atmospheric. There’s a dream about me being in Brussels and playing ethereal music in a concert hall with a woman who plays an imaginary instrument that is a cross between a viola and lute. In others, there’s just music and a script on the video. Or all kinds of animation effects. There’s a comic dream about Thelonious Monk with some really wild, just fantastic animation.

AA: That’s also an imprisonment dream. You’re imprisoned, and so is Monk. But Monk seems to be doing better than you are.

without disinfecting her hands or a doctor on a rotation

FH: Actually, he’s okay with his situation, and I’m trying to

who would come in and say something, and Scott would say,

get out of there. I’m trying to write my way out of the cage—

“Well, that’s not what the doctor said yesterday. You need

and he’s just kind of hanging out, watching me with his

Jazz and Consciousness  197

trademark Cheshire Cat grin. The dreams have so much res-

beforehand, and I met them for the first time, which was very

onance with my life, during the coma, before the coma.

intense and moving.

AA: There’s even one called “The Boy,” about your boyhood. FH: I don’t know if it’s really about me as a boy. In that dream, there’s an innocent figure, a very young boy who wants to help me. But he’s just a boy, and he really doesn’t know

When the show was over, I was in the lobby, and people were coming up. One of my ICU doctors came out of the theater, and she was weeping. I asked her, “Did I get it right?” I was thinking about the medical aspects.

how to do that. And I keep telling him, “Don’t get near me.

And she said, “Yes,” and gave me this big hug.

I’m contagious.” He’s trying to give me medication, but he

It definitely had an effect on all those doctors who got

doesn’t know what he’s doing. I’m lying on a bed, and there’s this sweet little being trying to be helpful. But it’s not really a childhood dream, per se. It might be an archetype for some kind of helper.

AA: One way or another, each of the dreams seems to have to do with the situation you’re actually in, in a coma.

to see it.

AA: I want to focus on the arc of life and all the different moods you capture in the dreams. It’s interesting that a musical piece can be so profound about the way we live.

FH: We’re all on the way to passing out of this life. That’s the constant, right? They say birth, death, and taxes. If anything

FH: There was this amazing ICU team at St. Vincent’s. Then,

good comes out of this pandemic, it will be that we are all on

between the time I was in the coma and the time we did

this ship together and that life is fragile—so let’s do our best

the piece at Columbia, St. Vincent’s closed. Tragic. There is

to be kind and stay present, while mindful of what lies at the

a piece about St. Vincent’s in the show. That hospital was

end of this life. In some ways, old age or illness can be not

such an important part of my life. They saved my life at least

that different from being an infant, in terms of having other

twice over the years. And St. Vincent’s was such an import-

people care for you, with a diminishment of your faculties

ant historical place, part of downtown New York, which had

and different kinds of needs.

the first AIDS ward in the city. The superb ICU team—all of them—were subsequently hired by Lenox Hill Hospital.

I’m a longtime Buddhist practitioner. The First Noble Truth is, “There is suffering.” The world is going through this

Though they saved my life, I had never met these doc-

right now. This impermanence—everything we thought was

tors. Because by the time I woke up, I was not in the ICU.

concrete is no longer concrete. I haven’t performed with

In 2011, I got hold of them at Lenox Hill and invited them to

another human being in front of a live audience since Febru-

come to the Columbia performance. There was a reception

ary 2020. That’s nine months and counting. Everything I took

198  Fred Hersch

for granted as a performing, creative, collaborative artist is

playing is a character in this piece. It moves the piece along

off the table—for who knows how long?

and forward. It’s not just the stuff that I wrote. I’m a pianist

When you’re faced with something like I was faced with,

as spontaneous composer. And I’m an active character in the

your life indeed does change. It’s a marker. There’s “before

piece. It was just very emotional. I don’t know what it would

coma” and “after coma.” I can’t totally remember how I phys-

feel like to do it now.

ically played the piano before the coma, but I play differently

The other emotional musical experience I had was in

now. I am of the opinion that my music making is better

the fall of 2008. I went back into St. Vincent’s with another

since the coma. Something loosened up.

pneumonia. I was in for just a week. I got out on a Saturday

Ending as we began. That line is Herschel’s line, deliberately ambiguous.

AA: The piece captures the inevitabilities and also the contradictions in life. Being young, being old, being sick, being well, being musical, being poetic—all the ways in which the piece resonates.

afternoon in October. Two nights later, I was playing a seven o’clock set at Smalls in New York. It was completely under the radar. But the place was standing room only, as the word had gotten out. That was the first time I had played a gig since May. And my feeding tube, which I had been on since June, was visible under my shirt. It was not great playing by any stretch. I just thought, “I’m not going to wait for the per-

FH: Things that are scary and things that are absurd, things

fect moment to do this. I’m doing this just to prove to myself

that are surreal—there’s quite a range of experience there. If

that I can. And to know it will get better.”

you’re going to do an eighty-five-minute piece, it can’t be a

I was certainly very proactive in my recovery. When I

one-note thing. I was lucky that the dreams gave us such a

was psychotic, I wanted to die. But after the coma, I had this

great variety of material to work with.

fierce desire to live and get back my life.

AA: It’s also, of course, your talent. Your own musical range is so amazing, and the ways in which you express yourself musically.

AA: I do want to end with a quote from Dr. Rita Charon, who was responsible for bringing the piece to Columbia University and who created the Narrative Medicine Program

FH: The strangest, though, was the first night we did it in

there. In 2018, she gave the Jefferson Lecture for the National

Montclair State. That was definitely the most emotional

Endowment for the Humanities. Her career has been spent

musical experience I’ve ever had. Because there I was, playing

bringing medicine and the arts and the humanities together.

the piano. By all rights, I should not have even been alive.

“What things count as real? What is the status of the things

There is an actor next to me, who is playing me. My piano

we call imagined? Scientists and artists might think that they

Jazz and Consciousness  199

each deal with only one or the other of these poles. Yet I

thing groovy or something without a particular beat.

want to show you how permeable are the membranes that

Whether it’s pygmy music or Bach or hip-hop or free jazz

seem to separate them: that is the arts and the sciences.”

or open improvisation: that’s music. Where I come from, I

You’re a living exemplar of that connection that doesn’t exist

don’t consider a concert or a composition a success unless I

as well as it might—and should—between science and the

feel like I’ve moved someone. Maybe it’s just one person in an

arts, between medicine and music.

audience. Not that it should be all overwrought, emotional,

FH: The Greeks and the Renaissance artists looked at cadavers to understand how muscles worked so that they could make these amazing works of art. Artists used to dig up bodies or get them cast off from the medical establishment. A connection between visual art and medicine has been there for a long time—even just the study of anatomy for visual art. Music and medicine . . . not that many examples come to me. There have been many great writers who have tried to bring them together—Oliver Sacks and other people who’ve written about medicine in a way that is philosophical and humanizing. There’s been drama, too, that’s integrated, like The Normal Heart. But music and medicine? I’m not sure I can think of many examples.

AA: We should all take as an example what you achieved in this incredible piece. In addition to seeing it at Columbia, I’ve watched it online. I find myself moved to tears by the end. I think your doctors and the people who took care of you in the ICU found a magical connection between music and health, between music and personal achievement.

or manipulative. In a set of music like My Coma Dreams, you want to have some moments that are fun, some things that are challenging, some things that are more intense, maybe even romantic. You want to have a variety in any set of music. But ultimately, I don’t want to go to a music performance and walk away being impressed. I want to be stimulated, and I want to be moved. So there has to be the intellect and the emotion. That’s how I feel about pretty much anything. It’s important that there is an emotional resonance, not just something that speaks to the head or is kind of mindless. What we might call entertainment is more escapist. You go to see a superhero movie, you spend a couple hours, and afterwards you talk about the special effects and how that was cool. But then if you go to see something more nuanced, you’re going to come away with some things to think about. Or you and the person you go see the film with might have differing views about a character or their motivation, so it’s more involving. I love TV shows, especially in these confined times. But something accesses the imagination a little bit more when you’re reading a book. That’s why I wish I had grown up in

FH: On one level, music is just “notes and rhythms.” That’s

the days of radio dramas—because you can imagine almost

a definition of music—“sound + rhythm.” It could be some-

anything. I’m not a big fan of art with a capital A, with any

200  Fred Hersch

kind of pretension. If the craft and the heart are there, then

a jazz musician, because we’re composing in real time and

the artistry shows through to me. And it’s not all deadly seri-

making musical choices moment by moment. All of your

ous. Sometimes art can hold up a mirror for us to the more

years of craft and experience allow you to realize it in an artis-

ridiculous parts of life.

tic, satisfying way just the nanosecond it arrives.

Pretty much everything I know or knew about music

You don’t want to edit yourself too much. You don’t

went into My Coma Dreams. It’s not just that there are a lot

want your annoying superego on your shoulder regretting

of styles of music. When I composed it, the main thing I was

what you just played or vibing yourself on what you are not

doing was staying out of the way, just letting the first thought

playing—or whatever some other musician can play that

be the best thought without thinking of what genre it might

you can’t. But you also have to have a certain level of craft

turn out to be. Except for the little piece about St. Vincent’s

so you’re not just playing bullshit. I try to bring that process

Hospital, every piece was a first draft. I didn’t rewrite any-

to composition the best that I can. It’s just, “Okay, here it is.”

thing. There’s a lot of great art that’s worked on over a period

Try not to get too brainy about it, if I can say that. Hopefully,

of time very laboriously. But I’m kind of a believer in “first

the craft and the intellect come through—and it still retains

thought, best thought.”

the emotion.

You could write a number of versions of any composition. You might get something different, but you might not nec-

AA: In essence, our conversation has been about how art

essarily get something better than what you started with. To

captures experience. And about how the distance between

stay out of the way of your original idea is the best you can

art and science can be addressed through this kind of work.

do, so the art moves through you. It’s no coincidence that I’m

We need more of it.

Jazz and Consciousness  201

20 Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter Mariët Westermann

In April 2018, when two dozen scholars and artists gathered

than as vital realms of human invention and endurance. Stu-

at the Villa La Pietra to discuss whether the arts are essential,

dents, too, had long been voting with their feet, as evident

asking the question seemed both a redundant luxury and an

in declining humanities enrollments. There was a consensus

urgent necessity.1 It was a luxury because—well, wasn’t the

among us that when the arts and the disciplines dedicated

answer obvious over three glorious spring days in a Renais-

to their preservation and interpretation—the humanities—

sance villa outside Florence?

were under attack or dwindling, it was important to be able

Nevertheless, the sense of necessity prevailed. At the

to answer the question “Are the arts essential?”

time, the United States administration was trying once again

To me, the question of whether or how the arts are essen-

to zero out the budgets for the National Endowments for the

tial is correlated with a similar problem for the humanities.

Arts and the Humanities; European countries continued to

I was then at the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, engaged

decrease their historically strong support for the arts eco-

in a sustained and coordinated defense of the arts and the

system; and around the world, growing numbers of artists

humanities. The Mellon Foundation exists to reinforce,

and humanists were at risk of persecution and violence.2

promote, and defend the contributions of the humanities

More pervasively, contemporary society was clearly signal-

and the arts to human flourishing and to the well-being

ing its priorities by favoring investments in technology and

of diverse, fair, and democratic societies. The foundation

science, treating the arts as entertainment and design rather

affirms that history, philosophy, storytelling, poetry, music,

205

dance, visual arts, and other media help human beings live

cess of the critique, one could argue, that the artists and

fulfilling lives, that they are crucial to our understanding

humanists gathered at La Pietra could defer the discussion of

of our past and our present and useful and aspirational for

whether “essential” is still a viable term and bring it back on

charting our future.

fresh ground: the arena where a coherent defense of the arts

The humanities and the arts are not identical, but their

might be staged.

practices overlap and stand in a mutually reinforcing relation

How do we know that the humanities and the arts are

to each other. The humanities often take art forms for their

necessities in human lives—that they are essential, in the

objects of inquiry: the theory, history, and criticism of liter-

sense of indispensable, to human and social life and not

ature, music, the performing arts, the visual and media arts,

replaceable by something else, some other form of human

or a range of rituals that involve artful settings, ornamenta-

expression or communication? There are empirical sorts of

tion, and choreography. Together, the arts and humanities

positive proof of this proposition. In the first part of this

form the cultural record. Throughout the half century of its

essay, I give a few examples, from the dawn of human con-

existence the Mellon Foundation has had an abiding com-

sciousness, one closer in time, and one from our very recent

mitment to helping people and institutions create, preserve,

past. In the second section, I reverse the mode of argument

interpret, and present this invaluable resource for human

and give negative proofs that the arts are so vital to human

beings and their communities.

society that they provoke attacks by those who seek to

In the terms of the La Pietra Dialogue, the Mellon Foun-

diminish or extinguish particular communities. I then look

dation clearly believes that the arts and the humanities are

at the conciliatory potential of the arts in our time, ending

essential, in the colloquial sense of the word. Humanists are

with reflections on how arts and culture are indispensable

given to careful parsing of words, and for several decades

and whether they are an unqualified good.

now, the term “essential” has sustained a fair critique on the grounds that essentialist claims tend to mask a conservative impulse to preserve systems—whether economic, political,

Art in Deep Time

biological, or cultural—that deny or limit the rights of the

There will never be consensus on a definition of art that

less powerful or the marginalized. No one in our La Pietra

holds up across all cultures and eras. For the purposes of

Dialogue would have taken issue with this critique, as it has

this inquiry, I consider works of art to be objects and perfor-

been important to exposing and opening up thoroughly

mances that, by means of a conscious human effort, embody

inequitable spaces of art and culture. It is a sign of the suc-

human experience and thereby make that experience known

206  Mariët Westermann

to others through sight, sound, or other sensate pathways.

low human could perceive and understand.4 Whether this

The conscious activity makes the object or performance

and other images of similar age in this cave are pictures with

enhance or transcend its immediate utilitarian purpose (such

aesthetic purpose or purely functional signs remains under

as acting as a vessel to deliver a message, being a utensil for

discussion. The debate hinges on one’s understanding of the

eating or drinking, or serving as a tool for computation). This

terms “image” (from the Latin imago, “likeness” or “represen-

“extra” of the arts is often described as an aesthetic surplus

tation”) and “picture” (from the Latin verb pingere, “to adorn,

of the object or performance. It may be self-evident in works

paint, depict,” hence “a painted thing”). The image is often

of high aesthetic consciousness, like a Renaissance portrait

theorized as fundamentally representational and particu-

bust, a nineteenth-century ballet, or a modern painting, but

larly as representing animals or humans; and the picture, as

it is always there in works of art. It is there in Japanese Jomon

a made thing, is often understood as an image embodied in

pottery decorated with rope impressions unnecessary to its

a medium manipulated by human skill. The oldest images at

function of storing or pouring (fifth millennium BCE); and it

Blombos are certainly engraved in stone with skill but do not

is there in the stones that our Paleolithic ancestors knapped

appear to depict bodies.

into bifacial objects, usually called hand axes, that seem too

Even if we agree that the oldest cave images from the

large or precious to have been used as tools and are datable

so-called Cradle of Humankind in South Africa are abstract

from around 1.75 million to fifty thousand years ago.3 Cir-

signs rather than images that are pictures of something—

cumscribed in this way, the arts appear to be distinctive to

made by humans with the intention that they be perceived

some prehistoric hominins and to Homo sapiens as a species.

as such—representational pictures nevertheless are an early

The astonishing age of aesthetically resonant hand axes

invention of Homo sapiens. The first pictures of humans

suggests that art as embodied knowledge may be as old as

hunting animals go back some forty-four thousand years

human consciousness and communication. While pictures

to the limestone caves of Sulawesi in Indonesia;5 the more

are much younger on the scale of human history, they, too,

famous paintings of lions, rhinos, hyenas, deer, and bison

are very old, and archaeologists seem to find older ones

at Chauvet-Pont d’Arc in France are around thirty-seven

every decade. The earliest known drawing or painting—in

thousand to thirty-three thousand years old; and the cave

the sense of an image consciously made by humans—was

pictures at Lascaux were painted about seventeen thou-

created more than seventy-three thousand years ago in

sand years ago.6 These works date to the period of the great

Blombos Cave, South Africa, as a set of marks on a piece of

dispersion of Homo sapiens out of Africa into Europe, Asia,

stone that had the apparent intent to be a sign that a fel-

and beyond, when confrontation and competition with

Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter  207

any plausible utilitarian function. These painters made art, and we can assume they did so because art was something vital to the lives of their community.8 Evidence abounds of other kinds of artistic production before and alongside the rise of written language and numerical systems, from the adornment of bodies and dress to the enhancement of rituals with music, song, and dance. Working outward from the discipline of art history, Hans Belting has developed a cross-cultural, transhistorical theory of the image (German Bild, “image” or “likeness”), holding that the image fundamentally represents and substitutes for a body

Figure 20.1. Hunting scene with anoa and human figures,

that is absent.9 Belting has shown this core function of the

painting, limestone cave of Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, Sulawesi, ca. 43,700 BCE. (Photo by Ratno Sarki; copyright Griffith University, Brisbane)

image to be closely tied to the emergence of funerary cults in the ancient worlds of the Middle East, Central Asia, and Europe.10 Although he acknowledges that the image has

evolving groups of mammals and predators must have been

roots in cave pictures of animals and in female fertility idols,

a preoccupation.7

he considers the true image to emerge “as a reflection on the

From Africa to Asia to Europe, then, the mark making we

experience of death.”11 This capacity of the aesthetic object

know as painting or drawing predates by about sixty-eight

to store and prompt thought about human experience, how-

thousand to thirty-two thousand years the emergence of

ever fleeting, inherited, or transformative, is what ties the

script and mathematical notation in Mesopotamia and

work of art to human consciousness.

Egypt. At a time when physical security and the provision

Although Belting’s anthropological theory of the image

of food and water must have been the priority for our

considers “art” too limited a term for what an image is, his

ancestors, they bothered to make marks to communicate

circumscription of the image as arising in cults for handling

something more involved than signaling the presence of a

the dead points to the artful character of this ancient human

predator, the sighting of prey, the signs of a gathering storm,

activity. Finds in Jericho of plastered and painted skulls as

or the advent of a fire. We have no way of knowing the signif-

well as plaster and reed statues of humans, all from the sev-

icance of these pictures for their makers and viewers, but we

enth millennium BCE, were worked up by skilled hands to

recognize them as marks cohering into pictures that exceed

project a psychological presence that could suggest substi-

208  Mariët Westermann

tution for the dead, whose continued presence in the com-

histories, and destinies? While it is hard to find literary evi-

munity needed to be preserved and regulated. The elaborate

dence from before the tale of Gilgamesh (2000–1500 BCE),

cults of the dead that focused on statues, reliefs, and pic-

the texts of the Shang Dynasty (1800–1200 BCE), the Rigveda

tures of humans, animals, mummified bodies, and mummy

(1500–1200 BCE), or the Homeric epics (eighth century BCE),

cases in Egypt and Mesopotamia had long prehistories in

the density, metaphorical richness, and sophistication of

early sculptural and pictorial practices around death. These

these works suggest a long oral tradition of working words

acts of developing an object and displaying (or hiding) it to

into poetic statements beyond marks of ownership or gene-

do its funerary work would seem to qualify as an aesthetic

alogical claims.

intervention—as a conscious act of making art.12 If making art is the use of aesthetic surplus to produce an object of reflection and/or social agency, it is clear that art can do much more than stand in for an absent body and is not limited to funerary purpose. From the oldest Egyptian representations of gods, pharaohs, courtiers, and civil servants going back some five millennia, we know this culture invested greatly in bodily adornment of the living through costumes, jewelry, and tattooing. Some of the oldest surviving garments from Asia were made with ostensible intent to impress wearer and viewer. They were associated with the owner’s status and ability to command the finest materials and commission work from clothiers with stunning design ability and hand skills. A one-thousand-year-old sleeveless jacket that belonged to a Sogdian dignitary surely exceeded in splendor and detail the owner’s biological needs to be protected from the winds of Central Asia, but its gold silk embroidered with beribboned ducks holding pearl strings must have stunned peers and subordinates alike.13 What of the conscious shaping of other media, such as words and music, that help people give account of their lives,

Figure 20.2. Bicephalous sculpture from Ain Ghazal, lime plaster over reed, with pigment, eighth to seventh millennium BCE, Amman, Archaeological Museum. (Photo by Dosseman— Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/ index.php?curid=87320699)

Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter  209

Figure 20.3. Ashkan Baghestani and Benedict Carter examining a silk shirt with ducks, samite weave, Sogdian civilization, 600–800 CE. (Photo by Laura Fleishman for the New York Times, 2018)

Affirmation by Destruction

reducing the power of images but rather calls attention to their potency:

The human need for the visual, performative, and storytelling arts may be confirmed by negative argument. Throughout

Iconoclasm . . . only succeeds in destroying the medium

history, repressive governments have banned or destroyed

or the medium-support of an image; i.e., its tangible and

works of human expression and honest historical under-

material or technical aspect. It leaves untouched the

standing because they believe certain artistic productions to endanger their own legitimacy. Similarly, religious authorities that could be aligned or at odds with governments

image itself, for the image remains with the viewer—and this is so even if it was the destruction of the image that was intended by the act of iconoclasm. Iconoclasm, by depriving an image of its physical existence, aims also

have attacked works of art as a menace to their orthodoxies.

to deprive it of its public presence, its existence in the

As Belting has argued, iconoclasm tends not to succeed in

public sphere. . . . The destruction is directed against the

210  Mariët Westermann

image . . . but in fact damages only the stone or bronze of the medium.14

In modern times, the destruction of art and cultural heritage is primarily associated with attacks on minorities or occupied people. In the first years of ISIS’s activity, it fright-

For the erstwhile viewer to retain the image, one could

ened target populations into docility or flight with attacks

argue, the picture would have had to have been strikingly

on their culture as well as their lives. While many ISIS targets

memorable, either by having been ubiquitous by repetition

were aligned with religious sects abhorrent to the group’s

or by being of arresting form: a work of art. Although violence

ideology, they also included sites of pre-Islamic worship that

has been done to images for various reasons, many of the

are not of religious significance to contemporary popula-

targets have been of sophisticated design and resource-in-

tions but have held meaning as sources of tourist income

tensive artifice that may have marked them for destruction.

or a sense of pride in belonging to an ancient land. For ISIS,

Destruction of sites and statues of aesthetic force has

a community’s acquiescence to preserving such objects of

often sent a message of raw power intended to shore up

art sufficed to mark them for destruction. The perpetrators

regimes and subjugate populations. In the fifteenth cen-

amplified the effectiveness of their acts by video and photog-

tury BCE, the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III sought to

raphy to intimidate the conquered and impress new believ-

eradicate the legitimacy of Queen Hatshepsut, his erstwhile

ers into joining the jihad. Contemporary attacks on art and

co-ruler, by ordering the demolition and desecration of her

cultural heritage in the Middle East have not been one-sided.

images—which she, in turn, had commissioned abundantly

As part of the Syrian government’s campaign to defeat rebel

to verify her pharaonic legitimacy.15 In Judaism, Christianity,

groups, it ruthlessly attacked historical and cultural sites,

and Islam, concerns over doctrinal purity have from time

targeting, or certainly not minding the destruction of, build-

to time prompted the destruction of images of holy beings

ings of significance to opponents, such as the Sunni Mosque

and humans. When Moses destroyed the golden calf, the act

of Aleppo.

not only affirmed his loyalty to the First and Second Com-

Throughout the history of iconoclasm, the destruction

mandments but also his political leadership. In the sixteenth

of cultural fabric has often been aligned with the intention

century CE, Protestant Reformers actively encouraged, or at

to kill the people who care about it. In these situations, the

least condoned, the destruction of images of God, Christ,

motivations for cultural destruction are difficult to separate

and the saints in worship. Secular authorities took advantage

from the intent to eradicate a people. In the aftermath of the

of the Protestant iconoclast drive, either taking it as cause

Holocaust, Hannah Arendt showed that between the two

for repression or drawing on its energies to fuel popular resis-

world wars, many nation-states had used policies of cultural

tance to princely rulers.

deracination toward ethnic minorities to prepare the way for

Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter  211

depriving them of their political rights and their lives.16 This

despite grievous harm. In our time, we see the human need

strategy was perfected by the Nazi regime, but any state with

of storytelling, visual art, historical reckoning, and philo-

totalitarian tendencies is inclined to use this tool. Oppressive

sophical reflection among people who live in conditions of

governments regularly effect ethnic debasement by attack-

extreme precarity, such as the swelling refugee communities

ing art and cultural heritage.

around the world.

The Nazi regime’s book burnings and its declaration of

Even if schooling is available to refugees—as is often the

modern art as “degenerate” has innumerable analogues in

first request of refugees as soon as the most basic needs for

cultural atrocities committed in civil conflicts, including

food, shelter, and medicine have been met—displaced chil-

the systematic destruction of the arts in Cambodia during

dren are often too traumatized to resume formal studies.

the Khmer Rouge genocide, the recent desecration of Sufi

The International Rescue Committee (IRC) has been work-

graves in Timbuktu, or the destruction of Tibetan Buddhist

ing for years to address this problem, from Afghanistan and

heritage. Raphael Lemkin, a Jewish refugee from Poland who

Lebanon to Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

coined the word “genocide” around 1944 and helped draft

Together with teachers in refugee settings, the IRC has devel-

the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

oped a Healing Classrooms initiative that helps teachers use

Crime of Genocide adopted by the United Nations in 1948,

storytelling, drawing, toy making, and oral history to help the

recognized this linkage between ethnicity, culture, and lives.

children speak about their experiences and prepare them to

“Burning books” he said, “is not the same as burning bodies,

learn again. The project also fosters solidarity with refugees

but when one intervenes in time against mass destruction of

by encouraging children around the world to learn about

churches and books, one arrives just in time to prevent the

the experience of forced displacement and then create artful

burning of bodies.”17 This is one reason that the protection

objects of hope for their refugee peers. In 2016, for exam-

of cultural heritage is most effective when the people who

ple, more than two hundred thousand young students made

have lived with it and cared for it a long time are centrally

individualized pinwheels for children in the IRC’s Healing

involved: they have the most urgent stake in it.

Classrooms in Iraq and Lebanon.18 Also in 2016, several of Berlin’s State Museums began to

Art, Healing, and Reconciliation

train adult refugees from Iraq and Syria to give museum tours to thousands of refugees and also to Germans. The program,

If attacks on culture can be weapons trained on particular

called Multaka—Arabic for “meeting point” or “encounter”—

populations, conversely the arts can be forces for reconcili-

came about when the director of the Museum for Islamic Art

ation, or at least tools that help communities move forward

asked a Syrian friend how the Berlin museums could help.

212  Mariët Westermann

The friend relayed that his community was eager to be put to

The Multaka project has now also been launched at sev-

work. While they were grateful for the opportunity to reset-

eral museums in Oxford in the United Kingdom. It seems

tle in Germany, they were bored in their temporary housing,

to work because works of art and cultural heritage, in their

were exhausted by the asylum procedures, and wanted to use

immediate materiality, are good things to think with, while

their brains. It turned out that objects that had come from

also allowing a measure of indirection and distance between

the Middle East connected refugees with lost homelands

interlocutors to discuss fraught issues. Registering the con-

in a direct, physical way—even if their presence in a Berlin

sciousness of people from other times and places, works of

museum also sparked debate. When first encountering the

art can prompt fresh consciousness in people who experi-

Ishtar Gate of Babylon in the Pergamon Museum, some Iraqi

ence them later, even if in completely new settings like muse-

participants would ask, “Why is this here?” Unintentionally,

ums. Conversation—another cultural form that is both local

such openers propelled energetic discussion among partici-

and universal—can help move along that reflection in a way

pants and with museum staff about the historical injustices

that may remind us of what we share as a species, notwith-

or accidental benefits of European archaeological campaigns.

standing the differences that divide us and the pain we are

By most accounts, participants in this and associated pro-

capable of inflicting on one another.

grams gained a sense of purpose from the compensated and meaningful work as they began to rebuild their lives.19 The program fostered certain reconciling effects. Tours

Whose Art? History and Heritage

of the Bode Museum, which is largely dedicated to medie-

I have tried to answer the question “Are the arts essential?”

val Christian art, laid bare the complex religious makeup of

by proposing that the arts are older than written records by

the Syrian refugee community. Some Muslim guests were

a factor of ten, that much art is consciously tethered to the

un­impressed by the representation of holy figures shared

life and death of the human body, that works of art are such

by Islam and Christianity, such as Abraham, Mary, and Jesus,

effective markers of cultural power that repressive forces

while members of the Christian communities discovered

will try to destroy them, and that they have conciliatory and

that the city had something to offer them. Whatever the par-

healing potential for individuals and communities. By the

ticipants’ views, the objects helped them talk about religion,

evidence we have of these propositions, the arts seem pretty

often to realize that religious differences among them had

essential. But what is it about art that helps us think and talk

not mattered a whole lot before 2011, when the Syrian regime

about human relations and existential questions?

and its opposing factions began to use religion explicitly as a weapon of division and demonization.20

There is no singular answer to this question, as the specific status and roles of art change over time and space. But for

Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter  213

our contemporary moment, I still like the insight of Roger

ings related to the lives of mammals and practices of hunting

Fry (1866–1934), a painter and thinker in the British aesthetic

or funerary images set up to mark the transitioning of the

tradition. In 1933, when Fry gave his inaugural lecture as Slade

deceased, were created to record and convey human expe-

Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Cambridge, where

rience to others.

he was tasked to establish the first degree program in fine

Does art’s ability to help us understand the experience

arts, he put the resourcefulness of art this way: “Let me give

of another mean that art, as a special form of cultural heri-

you a rough outline of what I conceive to be the function

tage, is always a good thing? Here, it seems to me, the well-­

and modus operandi of works of art. What used to be called

intentioned advocacy of art’s ability to generate empathy may

fine art, as distinct from applied art, of whatever kind it may

be too optimistic, and efforts to preserve cultural heritage as

be, whether poetry, music, or painting is, I believe, the only

an unquestionable good may level the complexity of culture.

means by which human beings can communicate to each

Even if the arts are essential for humans as a species conscious

other the quality and quiddity of their experiences. And in

that others have come before us and others will come after,

this lies its great contrast to science. For science enquires

that does not mean that all art is good for everyone in equal

only what an experience is. For science the experience is

measure. Art and other cultural forms have often changed

summed up in a statement of fact.”21

status within societies as people and their political realities

Even if Fry draws too sharp a distinction between science

change. What is vital to the identity and experience of one

and art—particularly when contemporary artists are deeply

group may be harmful to others or even seem debased and

engaged with the sciences—his definition of the arts cer-

in need of eradication. The long history of iconoclasm makes

tainly suggests that art gives us an essential ability to under-

clear that one tribe’s heritage may be another’s abomination.

stand or recognize the humanity of others, even if we cannot

Walter Benjamin’s thesis on the spoils of history that we

quite put into words how or why that is. This understanding

call cultural treasures states a version of the problem with

has held true for art especially since the Renaissance, which

heritage: “For without exception the cultural treasures [a his-

set in motion an increasingly autonomous understanding

torical materialist] surveys have an origin which he cannot

of art as a sphere of cultural production that can support

contemplate without horror. They owe their existence not

the self-realization of the individual. Perhaps this capacity

only to the efforts of the great minds and talents who have

of art lays the foundations for an empathy that helps us live

created them, but also to the anonymous toil of their con-

together, as the Berlin Multaka project suggests.22 But even if

temporaries. There is no document of civilization which is

Fry’s definition feels modernist, it would seem that the ear-

not at the same time a document of barbarism. And just as

liest art objects made by Homo sapiens, like the cave paint-

such a document is not free of barbarism, barbarism taints

214  Mariët Westermann

also the manner in which it was transmitted from one owner

to understand that these monuments were put up decades

to another.”23

after the end of the war to shore up a system of subjugation

The asymmetries of cultural capital between former colo-

of Black citizens. At the same time, the resistance to these

nial powers and their erstwhile colonies present a persistent

monuments has aroused a defense in the name of “art,” “her-

form of this problem of history. Social justice movements

itage,” and “history” by descendants of Confederate soldiers

have long advocated for reparations that can mitigate cen-

and even by White supremacists who have little or no direct

turies of plunder of the artistic and cultural riches of subju-

relation to the former Confederate states.

gated peoples, but even now this work is not easy, as every forward step awakens forces of passive or active resistance. The two main areas of conflict are, on the one hand, resti-

And Now?

tution of objects of cultural heritage to source communities

All I have said about the indispensability of the arts and their

and, on the other, removal from the public sphere of images

ability to unite and divide was true before the COVID-19

that celebrate racial and ethnic oppression and inequality.

pandemic of 2020, but the global health crisis has under-

The restitution of works of art pilfered from former Euro-

scored these themes. Art and artists did not retreat in the

pean colonies in Africa and Asia took on hopeful urgency in

face of the novel coronavirus, even though the performing

2017, when President Emmanuel Macron of France commis-

and visual arts and the institutions that present and sus-

sioned a vigorous study by two scholars on the history and

tain them were severely impacted by restrictions on human

disposition of African art objects in French museums. The

mobility and contact. Many artists, museums, and perform-

ensuing publication estimated that 90 percent of cultural

ing arts organizations pivoted quickly to create alternative

heritage from former African colonies is in Western posses-

art experiences online. The year 2020 saw it all: new ways of

sion, including ninety thousand such works in France alone,

making music together across our digital rooms, new com-

and recommended the return of numerous objects, with

petitions to re-create favorite works of art with whatever

specific priorities and timelines.24 The pace of change has

was at hand at home, new digital exhibitions curated across

been slow; in the fall of 2020, France at last agreed to return a

institutions, new virtual play readings by stunning actors,

first group of twenty-six looted objects to Benin.

new commissions of art for the worldwide digital commu-

In the United States, the festering conflict around mon-

nity, new conferences about art and culture with higher and

uments to leaders of the secessionist Confederacy, which

more international attendance than ever. Online comedy

launched a civil war to preserve the institution of slavery, has

flourished. We kept professing that we loathed our online

come to a head as growing numbers of Americans have come

dispensation, but we kept getting together on it nonetheless,

Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter  215

frequently for the purpose of enjoying, distracting, and consoling ourselves with art. On March 31, 2020, just a few weeks into lockdown around the world, Forbes published a list of eighteen top armchair destinations. Thirteen of them involved the arts and cultural heritage: four museums and galleries (British Museum, Louvre, Barjeel Art Foundation in Sharjah, and the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City); three cultural heritage sites (Machu Picchu, Angkor Wat, and the High Line in New York City); five performing and film arts venues (SXSW’s Short Film Festival, Berlin Philharmonic, NYU Abu Dhabi Arts Center, Lebanese indie cinema, and Sydney’s Opera House); and a final grab bag of global arts clubs and Google Arts & Culture’s repertoire of over twenty-five hundred cultural institutions for tours and interaction.25 These wonderful resources competed with five natural, science, and general interest treasures: the South Pole, a safari in Africa, the NASA Space Center, lectures at

Figure 20.4. Dustin Klein, Reclaiming the Monument, 2020. (Projection and photo by artist [@videometry]; courtesy of the artist)

the Ninety-Second Street Y, and a baby-goat cam. All through the pandemic, artists, curators, and art in-

brought their voices and designs into the streets and onto

stitutions stepped up to help artists whose incomes had

our screens. As Virginia state law appeared to prohibit the

crashed. They brought light and diversion, insight and com-

removal of the monument to General Robert E. Lee in Rich-

passion to bewildered communities. Plain citizens sang,

mond, hundreds of activists used video projections, graffiti,

played instruments, and made pictures to recognize first

and performance to turn it into a grand and living work of art

responders. People who had never boiled an egg in their

honoring Black lives.

lives became culinary artists; people lacking green thumbs

None of the professional or amateur artists who eased life

turned exuberant gardeners. When Black Lives Matter gal-

and advanced justice in 2020 pretended that their art made

vanized millions in the United States and around the world

them essential workers. That term of honor must forever be

to speak out against anti-Black racism, artists and amateurs

reserved for the extraordinary first responders, nurses, doc-

216  Mariët Westermann

tors, sanitation workers, grocery store clerks, and delivery

nected, it made us recognize our vulnerability, it showed us

persons who brought care, relief, and hope when COVID-

the humanity of others. It helped us reflect on human fini-

19 ravaged the global community. Art cannot cure disease,

tude and endurance.

oversee remote learning, or replace physical contact, but during the pandemic, it has been essential. It kept us con-

Art told us things that could not be uttered in any other way.

Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter  217

21 Art Saved Us . . . from What? Karen L. Ishizuk a

When the war is over

artists who were imprisoned in barbed-wire enclosed camps

And after we are gone

throughout the United States from 1941 to 1946 had double

Who will visit this lonely grave in the wild

vision.2 They saw the raw conditions of their life in camp—

Where my friend lies buried? —Keiho Soga, ca. 1942–45

aberrant, surveilled, unnatural—and also how their community sought to cope with them: with stoicism, restraint, and

Beyond the aesthetics, there is utility in art. Art connects

tenacity.3 They saw beyond their circumstances into the inte-

people across time and space. Art gives form to the human

rior of the experience that still lives in infamy. Their vantage

spirit, to the known and unknown universes. Art not only

points from being insider/outsider interlocutors—insiders

reflects culture; it can actively shape consciousness and pro-

by speaking from within their indigenous community, out-

mote social change. Platitudes, yes, but real, nonetheless.

siders by virtue of their Western context—provide a critical

And, as the artist Ruth Asawa asserted after the mass incar-

viewpoint, aptly described by the West Indian social theorist

ceration of Japanese Americans during World War II, “art

C. L. R. James: “Those people who are in western civilization,

saved us.”1

who have grown up in it, but made to feel and themselves feeling that they are outside, have a unique insight into

Double Vision

their society.”4 As both insiders and outsiders, equipped with sensibility

Born out of their double consciousness of being Japanese

and craft, incarcerated artists were uniquely suited to give

and American—both insider and outsider—Issei and Nisei

form to the complex emotions, conditions, and experiences

218

Figure 21.1. Henry Sugimoto, Freedom Day Came, ca. 1945, oil on canvas, 21.25″ × 25.25″ (Japanese American National Museum, Gift of Madeleine Sugimoto and Naomi Tagawa, 92.97.73)

of being vilified by their own country. In the words of the art-

captured and conveyed the transcendent feelings and expe-

ist Miné Okubo, “To me, life and art are one and the same”—

riences that eclipsed those realist images.

an outlook shared by many artists. Yet, in spite of or perhaps

Born in 1912 in California, Miné Okubo is best known for

because of this oneness, artists like Okubo created two dis-

her graphic autobiography Citizen 13660, first published in

tinct styles of art in situ: documentary images that provided

1946.5 By conjoining the word “citizen” to the government-­

a visual diary of camp life and highly subjective visions that

issued number assigned to her family by her captors, Okubo

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  219

underscores her identity as a US citizen, even as she qualifies

the foundation of Okubo’s book. Rendering them seemingly

that status with her condition as a prisoner.

objectively, Okubo visually infused each drawing—of long

Because cameras were not allowed in camp until later in

lines trailing to mess halls and toilets and various makeshift

their confinement, Okubo—as did other artists—resolved to

activities—with editorial commentary: in the countenances

record daily life in drawings. Compiled to show people on the

of internees’ unsmiling faces, the crowded conditions, the

outside what life in camp was like, these drawings became

bend of their bodies, the bleakness of their surroundings. Occasionally, she would interject a jab into the drawings’ descriptive captions: “Fence posts and watch towers were now constructed around the camp,” to which she added without a beat, “by the evacuees to fence themselves in.”6 In the face of the Office of War Information’s strict control of images and information to obscure the travesty of democracy, Okubo’s drawings of daily life are a counternarrative, defiant, even subversive in their mischievous wit. As the Asian Americanist Vivian Fumiko Chin summarizes, “If we acknowledge that the political context in which Okubo wrote her autobiographical work constructed her as an enemy who needed to be removed from mainstream American society, then we can read Citizen 13660 as a gesture of resistance that sufficiently refuses to represent a compliant, invisible, and silenced Japanese American internee.”7 In contrast to Okubo’s sketches and drawings of daily life, she also made explicitly demonstrative art that portrayed the anguish and anger she and her fellow incarcerees felt—with titles to match. Rendered in bold, dark charcoal, the untitled piece seen in figure 21.3, for example, let loose the fear and

Figure 21.2. Self-portrait of Miné Okubo for the title page of Citizen 13660. First published in 1946. (Japanese American National Museum, Gift of Miné Okubo Estate, 2007.62.217)

220  Karen L. Ishizuk a

fury that her diaristic drawings kept under wraps. Another artist, Chiura Obata (1885–1975), also expressed this double vision, with annotated drawings of everyday life

Figure 21.3. Miné Okubo, Untitled, ca. 1945, charcoal on paper, 20″ × 13.75″ (Japanese American National Museum, Gift of Mine Okubo Estate, 2007.62.5)

in camp alongside deeply impressionistic paintings that gave

subject areas in ninety-five classes a week to over six hundred

form to his feelings. Obata was an Issei who had been trained

students, from ages six to over seventy. When Obata was

in sumi-e, Japanese ink painting, when he arrived in San

transferred to Topaz, in Utah, one of the ten permanent con-

Francisco in 1903. In 1942, when he was sent to the Tanforan

centration camps (coincidentally, the same camp that held

Assembly Center, a converted racetrack, he was an art pro-

Miné Okubo), he again opened an art school.9 Obata’s work

fessor at the University of California, Berkeley, with over 250

has only recently reached national attention, with an exhibi-

solo exhibits under his belt.8 Despite his confinement, one

tion at the Smithsonian American Art Museum that opened

of the first things Obata did when he arrived was to teach

in November 2019 but was forced to close prematurely

art. The makeshift art school soon grew to offer twenty-five

because of the COVID-19 pandemic.10 About Obata’s camp

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  221

art, curator ShiPu Wang says that the artist documented

and adopted the pen name Keiho. After his arrest, he spent

his experiences with a reportorial eye, neither “sentimental

four years imprisoned in four temporary detention centers

or emotional.”11

in Hawai‘i and throughout the continental United States. He wrote the tanka that opens this essay while confined in the

Tanka and Haiku: Interior/Exterior as One

desert of New Mexico between 1943 and 1945. In the following tanka by Sojin Takei (1903–1991), another Issei from Hawai‘i, the deft use of the sound of shoes—

In addition to visual art, another artistic rendering of the

already evoking a palpable sense—invokes an ominous chill

incarceration in situ was in the form of poetry. To the poet

by signaling to a community who rarely wore shoes the

Jane Hirshfield, poems are a set of words with a higher

approaching presence of the FBI:

meaning-to-moment ratio than other written genres.12 This observation is especially true of the Japanese form of haiku, which consists of only seventeen syllables in three lines, and of tanka, which adds two more lines of seven syllables each. In addition to this minimalist structure, key constitutive ele-

The time has come For my arrest This dark rainy night. I calm myself and listen To the sound of the shoes.14

ments are references to nature and, most important, the capturing of emotions implicitly, requiring the reader to actively

As Jiro Nakano and Kay Nakano note, “Although expressed in

engage in the creative process by filling in the silences. As

just a few lines, each of these tanka is in many respects more

Jiro Nakano and Kay Nakano write, this structure “allows the

explicit and poignant in revealing humiliation, agony, and

reader to perceive the unsaid and the intimated.”13

despair than the thousands of words spoken at the recent

Yasutaro Soga (1873–1957) immigrated to Hawai‘i from

Congressional Hearings.”15

Japan in 1896 and soon became one of the most influential

In addition to visual art and poetry, there were many

leaders in the Japanese American community, which resulted

other arts and artists born of camp: photographers like Toyo

in his arrest on December 7, 1941. Best known for being an

Miyatake (1895–1979), who sneaked a lens and film holder

outspoken newspaper editor and publisher who advocated

into Manzanar and made a camera out of scrap wood; car-

for equal pay during the first major plantation strike in 1909,

toonists like Chris lshii (1919–2001), who was a Disney ani-

the quest for citizenship for Issei who were banned from nat-

mator before the war and taught art at the Santa Anita

uralization, and a more equitable future for the Nisei gen-

Assembly Center; and writers like Jim Oki (1900–1983),

eration, Soga also cofounded the first tanka club in Hawai‘i

who wrote critical and scathingly humorous articles for a

222  Karen L. Ishizuk a

camp newspaper under a pseudonym in order to evade government censorship.16

For many years after being released, Henry Sugimoto (1900–1990), an Issei who had attended the California School

Today, the collective art of camp survivors stands as

of Arts and Crafts in Oakland and then studied art in Paris

bearer of knowledge—embodying, transmitting, and illumi-

before the war, resolutely re-created paintings he had made

nating an experience that should never have happened. The

when he was held in Jerome and Rohwer.19 He also created

art bears enduring witness, irrefutable testimony that—as

new works about his wartime incarceration, which spurred

only art can—gives form to the formless, says the “unsay-

him to paint scenes of the prewar discrimination he had suf-

able,”17 “names the nameless, so it can be thought.”18

fered and no doubt repressed. The author and Asian American studies professor Edward Tang comments, “Thus, despite

After the War

national and communal efforts to forget a wartime past in which Japanese Americans endured imprisonment without

After the war, as prisoners just released from incarcera-

just cause, he persisted in resuscitating it with renewed vigor

tion, survivors were advised by their jailers not to congre-

and imagination.”20 Sugimoto testified in 1981 to the injus-

gate with each other, not to bring attention to themselves,

tice of the incarceration before the Commission on Wartime

not to criticize the government. Keeping a low profile has

Relocation and Internment of Civilians, as did Okubo. Both

always been a coping mechanism for people of color in

took their artwork to show as part of their testimony.

this country. In addition, the mass incarceration was a fail-

The Nisei writer John Okada’s No-No Boy, in 1957, is con-

ure of democracy that was not widely known at the time,

sidered the first novel published by a Japanese American,

especially in the era of postwar American exceptionalism.

a distinction made more significant—and surprising—by

It still is not widely known. Survivors—already reserved

its dauntless account of historical trauma on a colonized

by tradition and training—were effectively silenced by the

community. A 2019 New York Times article pointed out that

government, society, and their own circumspection. Not

No-No Boy, published a year after James Baldwin’s Giovanni’s

until after the Cold War, prodded by their Sansei children

Room and Allen Ginsberg’s Howl, was part of a “generational

and grandchildren, did former incarcerees cautiously begin

reckoning with American bigotry.”21 Yet, for America and

to pry open the Pandora’s box that had been kept so well

especially Japanese Americans, the novel’s depictions of the

sealed. Expressing the continued trauma of their wartime

incarceration’s disruptive and demoralizing effects were too

experiences, many artists made new work about their incar-

close for comfort, and No-No Boy was met with disinterest

ceration, even reconstituting and revising works they had

and disdain. Its title comes from the ill-devised “loyalty ques-

made while in camp.

tionnaire” given to all persons in camp, to which many, like

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  223

the protagonist in No-No Boy, answered “no” to two strate-

work he had produced in camp, as well as countless contem-

gic questions: No, they could not forswear allegiance to the

porary drawings and watercolors of camp he continued to

emperor of Japan to whom they had never had previous alle-

make from his memory and imagination. In 1991, he com-

giance. And no, having been stripped of their constitutional

piled a 24″ × 31″ × 3″ handbound artist’s book of more than

rights and imprisoned in American concentration camps

ninety works he had made in Manzanar and Tule Lake, as well

without due process, they were not willing to serve in com-

as almost forty contemporary works on camp, and donated

bat wherever ordered.

it to the Japanese American National Museum, where Higa

Families were separated. Friendships were severed. A

was a curator.

community faced with the impossible burden of having to

Wakako Yamauchi (1924–2018), Mitsuye Yamada (b. 1923),

prove its loyalty—even by blood on the battlefield—was

and Hisaye Yamamoto (1921–2011) are the most well-known

fractured.22 No-No Boy lay abandoned until it was discov-

in a little-known but long tradition of Nisei women writers

ered in a used bookstore and republished in 1976 by a group

rooted in the literary movement of the 1930s and 1940s.25

of young Asian American writers almost two decades after

Their writings—which uncovered, explored, and validated

it was originally published and five years after its author’s

women’s experiences and perspectives—were informed by

death.23 In the 2014 reissue of the novel, the Yonsei novelist,

their time behind barbed wire, whether the incarceration

filmmaker, and Zen Buddhist priest Ruth Ozeki writes, “Only

was at the center of their short stories, plays, and poems or

fiction has the power to ask the questions that bring the past

hovering on the sidelines. Yamauchi’s play 12-1-A (her camp

to life and to record it in all its vibrant confusion and com-

address) dramatized the maelstrom of personal, interper-

plexity. You have done that, John Okada. By filling in these

sonal, and generational conflicts brought about by forced

gaps in the past, you have helped complete the present.”24

confinement. Yamamoto’s story “The Legend of Miss Sasaga-

Hideo Kobashigawa (1917–2001) was a no-no boy whose experience had a lasting impact on his life and art. Consid-

wara” is one of the few works to address mental health issues and emotional isolation in camp.

ered disloyal by the authorities, Kobashigawa—like other

In addition to amplifying women’s voices, all three writ-

no-no boys—was taken from the camp to which he was

ers regularly populated their work with multiracial/ethnic

initially consigned and segregated at the maximum-security

characters and also provided analytical understanding of the

camp of Tule Lake. In his later years, he lived as a recluse in

trauma of the incarceration within the larger context of anti-

public housing in Brooklyn, where he was “discovered” by the

Black racism. Yamada’s poem “Thirty Years Under” tells how

art historian Karin M. Higa, who ultimately gained his trust.

she had “packed up / my wounds in a cast / iron box / sealed

Eventually, Kobashigawa revealed to Higa the vast archive of

it / labeled it / do not open . . . ever,” until one day she heard

224  Karen L. Ishizuk a

Figure 21.4. Hideo Kobashigawa, Manzanar and Tule Lake Camp, 1942–1946, artist’s book, watercolor and ink on paper, 24″ × 31″ × 3″. (Japanese American National Museum. Gift of Hideo Kobashigawa, 92.67.2)

a Black man say, “there is nothing more / humiliating / more

Many artists who were children in camp, too young

than beatings / more than curses / than being spat on / like a

to make art at the time, used their craft as adults to work

dog.”26 Yamamoto writes in the 2001 preface to the updated

through their experiences. The filmmaker Robert A. Naka­

publication of her book Seventeen Syllables, “I came to realize

mura (b. 1936)—called the “godfather of Asian American

that our internment was a trifle compared to the two hun-

media” for his groundbreaking work—spent three years

dred years or so of enslavement and prejudice that others in

behind barbed wire and a lifetime coming to grips with it.

this country were heir to.”27

It was not until Nakamura was part of the first pilgrimage

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  225

to Manzanar in 1969 that he finally grasped the injustice he

let’s just say it was eventful;

had lived through but was too young to comprehend. The

let’s just say that special and eventful journey

next year he made Manzanar, a short, impressionistic doc-

continued long after we arrived in Fresno,

umentary that out-pictured his fragmented, child’s-eye view of being in camp. From then on, the World War II incarceration became the major theme and driving force of his

continued as it does to this very day, to every day I wake up not in Amache, not in Amache.29

work. In 1994, Nakamura directed Something Strong Within,

The songwriter and dancer Nobuko Miyamoto (b. 1939)

an experimental documentary I produced for the exhibition

was two years old when she and her family were taken from

America’s Concentration Camps: Remembering the Japanese

their home in Los Angeles and sent to the Santa Anita Race-

American Experience at the Japanese American National

track Assembly Center, where they were kept in a horse stall.

Museum, which I curated. Consisting solely of excerpts of

When recruiters came to fill the wartime labor shortage, her

eight-millimeter and sixteen-millimeter home movies taken

father leaped at the chance to harvest beets in Montana

by inmates in camp, judiciously edited to maintain the integrity of each original home moviemaker, without narration, interviews, news footage, or visual manipulation, Something Strong Within paints an intimate collage of camp life that, as the film historian Robert Rosen notes, “is not simply additive but dialectical.”28 Like Nakamura, the Sansei poet Lawson Inada (b. 1938) was a child in camp—first at the Fresno County Fairgrounds, then in Jerome in Arkansas and Amache in Colorado. The titles of his major volumes of poetry, Before the War: Poems as They Happened (1971) and Legends from Camp (1992), reflect the continued impact the incarceration has had on his life and art. “Denver Union Station” is a poem about his family’s release from Amache by train. It reads in part,

Figure 21.5. Frame from Something Strong Within, directed What to say of that journey? Let’s just say it was special;

226  Karen L. Ishizuk a

by Robert A. Nakamura, 1994. (Original 8 mm and 16 mm black-and-white and color film, edited on video; Japanese American National Museum)

rather than be sent to a concentration camp—if he could

compounds and then rebuilding their lives after the war. Yet

take his family. Hence, they were able to circumvent being

admiration for this capability vis-à-vis the incarceration and

sent to a permanent concentration camp.

its aftermath—however well founded—often borders on

After a successful career in musical theater, Nobuko an-

infatuation that seems insistent, even obsessive.

swered the call of the burgeoning Asian American move-

Of course, to endure in the face of such hardship is wor-

ment in the late 1960s. In addition to working for social and

thy of the greatest respect. Moreover, for Sansei, Yonsei, and

racial justice, people in the movement were intent on recov-

succeeding generations, we owe our very existence in large

ering the neglected histories of Asians in America, including

part to the ability of the Issei and Nisei to gaman, to with-

the World War II incarceration, which was not taught in

stand what for most of us would be intolerable. For their

schools. Along with the singer/songwriter Chris Iijima, Miya­

courage, we are forever thankful.

moto conveyed the issues and passions of the Asian Ameri-

Today, however, the persistent emphasis on what was

can movement in songs that resounded across the country,

then a necessary tool of survival places more significance on

transforming the othered identity of “Oriental” into an em-

the salvage than on the wrong, overshadowing the essen-

powered one of Asian American. One of their first songs—

tial injustice of the incarceration itself. The journalist Togo

still widely played today—is “We Are the Children.” The first

Tanaka concedes that there were happy times in camp,

verse proclaims,

“but these happened in spite of and not because of it.”31 As

We are the children of the migrant worker

commendable as it was to suffer such a betrayal with grace,

We are the offspring of the concentration camp.

gaman should not be the primary message of one of the

Sons and daughters of the railroad builder

most shameful episodes in American history. Indeed, the val-

Who will leave their stamp on Amerika.30

orization of gaman may be an unwitting accomplice to the silencing of Japanese Americans, which underlies—and epi-

Did/Can Art Save Us?

genetically fuels—their trauma. This silencing also fuels the fantasy that Asian Americans are “model minorities,” which

The capacity of the incarcerees to gaman—the Japanese

necessarily implies that other “minorities”—that is, Black,

value of enduring the seemingly unbearable with patience

Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC)—are not but could

and dignity—has been praised by sympathizers and Japa-

be if only they tried harder. In testimony before the Commis-

nese Americans alike for enabling the incarcerees to cope

sion on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Pro-

with being uprooted from their homes, forced to divest

fessor Yuji Ichioka emphatically proclaimed, “We will gaman

themselves of their belongings, and herded into barbed-wire

no more!”32

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  227

So if, as Ruth Asawa determined, “art saved us,” what did it save them from?

ingly more studies and discoveries, as well as new artistic interventions in writing, dance, film and video, music, and

Insanity. Miné Okubo: “After being uprooted, everything

modern modalities like podcasts and augmented reality.

seemed ridiculous, insane and stupid. .  .  . So the joke and

And, speaking from the moral authority of their past, camp

humor I saw in camp was not in a joyful sense, but ridiculous

survivors and their descendants stand in solidarity with com-

and insane.”33

munities being targeted today with rallying cries of “Never

Bitterness. Or at least “not so bitter.” Henry Sugimoto: “If I can still make my art, I am feeling not so bitter.”34 Death. Eiko Katayama: “My father [Yonekichi Hosoi] would have died in camp if it weren’t for his art.”35

Again Is Now!” “Stop Repeating History!” and “No More Concentration Camps!”36 Survival is no longer the issue. Most incarcerees survived, although many did not.37 Of those who survived, the play-

Even as I began this essay with the question of what art

wright Wakako Yamauchi writes, “The fact of our survival

saved us from, Yonsei artists leave me with the questions, Did

is proof of our valor. And that is enough.”38 Now, instead of

art save us? Can art save us?

survival, the issue is trauma. Previously studied in victims of

Although the incarceration remains a largely neglected

slavery and the Holocaust, “historical trauma” refers to the

event in American history, for Japanese Americans today to

cumulative emotional and psychological wounding of a

simply remember is no longer the issue. Rather, it seems that

person or people caused by a collective traumatic event—

we cannot forget. Time is supposed to heal. But over time,

predatory, shape-shifting, snowballing.

instead of dissipating, the wound inflicted by EO 9066—the

As a Sansei born after the war, l spent an inordinate

presidential order that resulted in the forced removal and

amount of time and effort coming to grips with an expe-

mass incarceration of Japanese Americans—has become

rience I did not have. I heard stories of “before the war”

more embedded, transplanted into Sansei and Yonsei in

and “after the war” but nothing about what severed lives

ways Issei and Nisei could never have imagined.

into two eras. Like many survivors of historical trauma, my

For example, the first pilgrimage to a concentration camp

parents, grandparents, aunts, and uncles never talked about

occurred in 1969, over two decades after the camps closed.

camp, neither what it was nor its meaning and consequence

Now, not only have the pilgrimages continued annually, but

for their lives. After several decades of trying to decipher

their numbers—as well as the number of participants—

the entangled social, political, psychological, and economic

continue to increase. EO 9066 has been commemorated as a

facts and feelings of the incarceration I had inherited, I

day of remembrance by Japanese Americans and their allies

found myself longing to “get out of camp.” I referred to

on its anniversary every year since 1978. There are increas-

this persistent psychological condition as having “barbed

228  Karen L. Ishizuk a

wire of the mind.” When I told this to the Yonsei filmmaker

the World War II incarceration became the driving force of

Daryn Wakasa, he put it more viscerally, saying it was like he

his work as well. The younger Nakamura made Pilgrimage

had barbed wire in his veins. The Yonsei artist Mari Shibuya

(2008) about the first pilgrimage to Manzanar that marked

similarly states, “It lives in our bodies.” She reiterates the

his father’s determination to educate others about the

corporeal harm: “Incarceration is the question you almost

incarceration. Presently, he is making another film about his

asked about the bruise you don’t remember getting.”39

father, after recent events of family separation and detention

Mind, veins, bruise—bodily traces of where the body has

of migrants seeking asylum in the United States triggered

never been.

feelings in his father of déjà vu. Psychological scabs that the

The Yonsei poet Brandon Shimoda (b. 1978), who is writ-

elder Nakamura thought were healed were torn off as the

ing a book about the generational effects of incarceration,

United States was again perpetrating a failure of democracy

calls the era from the 1960s to the present the “afterlife” and

that he had devoted his fifty-year career to prevent.

the “ruins” of the incarceration. He believes it is no longer a

The Sansei artist Na Omi Judy Shintani’s art making

historical event of the past but, rather, a current and ongoing

focuses on remembrance, connection, and storytelling. The

social condition in two ways: first, because its myriad effects

day after attending a pilgrimage to Tule Lake, where her

on camp survivors and their descendants have not ended

father was imprisoned during his teenage years, Shintani and

and, second, because the system by which the incarceration

her father found a dilapidated barracks that was about to

was made possible is still operational and in some cases more

be burned and were invited to take whatever they wanted

forceful. Most evidently, at the time of this writing, seventy

from the site, one person’s trash being another person’s trea-

thousand plus migrant children are being held in US govern-

sure. Her reimagining of the iconic image of the Stars and

ment custody.40 Shimoda believes that he and other descen-

Stripes with wood from the barracks sharply reflects the

dants of the incarceration are “fated” to return to the ruins

irony of the incarceration—that their country, known for its

of camp “to reenact/re-embody their ancestors’ arrest, in

democratic ideals, could lock up its own citizens without due

order to reimagine and redirect it.”41 His Yonsei cohorts bear

process (figure 21.6).

him out.

Why, I wondered, are Sansei and Yonsei, one and two

“Healing” and “trauma” are their key words. The Yonsei

generations removed from the historical event, fated—as

documentary filmmaker Tadashi Nakamura grapples with

Shimoda contends—to return to the ruins of camp? I found

camp in his work to fill the bomb holes that the trauma left in

clues in the words and works of other artists.

his community and, specifically, in his pioneering filmmaker

According to the author Tommy Orange, it may be be-

father, Robert A. Nakamura, for whom, as mentioned earlier,

cause “we are the memories we don’t remember, which live

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  229

within us,”42 a perspective that resonates with Mari Shibuya’s diagnosis that “incarceration is the question you almost asked about the bruise you don’t remember getting.” The author Ken Liu maintains that “every culture has its own set of foundational narratives that are echoed, dialogued with, and reimagined over and over again.”43 In this construct, the work of incarcerated artists created a foundational narrative with which future generations are in dialogue and community. As Audre Lorde, referring to poets, says, incarcerated artists laid “the foundation for the future of change, a bridge across our fears of what has never been.”44 Therefore, Liu advises young artists, “Become the story you yearn to tell and infuse your deeds with the love that you received and strive to pass on.”45 Because ultimately, as the artist Hank Willis Thomas recalls learning from his mother, the artist Deborah Willis, “History is waiting to be told.”46 During camp, a favorite saying of the Issei was “Kodomo no tami ni”: for the sake of the children. This motto reminded them why they endured. There is another Japanese saying, “Koko no shitai jibun ni oya wa nashi”: By the time we wish to thank our parents, they are gone.47 Although not as common as “Kodomo no tami ni,” the latter expresses

Figure 21.6. Na Omi Judy Shintani, Pledge of Allegiance, 2012, reclaimed wood from Tule Lake concentration camp barracks and barbed wire, 4′ × 2.5′. (Courtesy of the artist)

the fervent feeling of remorse shared by many Nisei who had been children in camp and who, only as adults, learned about the suffering and wrong from which their parents protected them. The Yonsei poet Brynn Saito, with the organic farmer and performer Nikiko Masumoto, started the Yonsei Memory

230  Karen L. Ishizuk a

Project (YMP) in 2017, after Trump’s election and the first

Even though Sansei, Yonsei, and Gosei are generations

Muslim travel ban, to use the arts to generate dialogue con-

removed, they also return to the “ruins,” I believe, not in an

necting the World War II incarceration with current civil lib-

attempt to right the wrong, or even to achieve resolution,

erties struggles. Saito wrote to me that she dreamed her Nisei

but simply to visit. It is as if they are drawn there to convene

grandparents had finally returned from camp. It was not 1945

with their roots. Standing on the shoulders of ancestors,

but present day. They arrived at Saito’s home with their suit-

they come searching for the graves in the wild to pay their

cases and appeared happy. She said it felt as if a healing was

respects—and so that they might find their own meaning in

happening, on the other side.

the universe.

Art Saved Us . . . from What?  231

22 Darkness and Light the powers of performing Richard Sennett

Hamlet Two Theaters

are legitimate rulers of the realm. Art deceives. But the theater is also a place in which life can be put on trial; Hamlet

In As You Like It, the melancholy Jaques declares, “all the

does so by putting a play within the play, mimicking the

world’s a stage / and all the men and women merely players.”

real-life murder of his father and exposing the murderers

The celebrated speech that follows portrays the different

who are in the audience. In the play within a play, art

ages of life; Jaques is depressed because the roles people play

tests life.

are permanent, repeating generation after generation: your life isn’t going to be different.

Hamlet’s discovery of the murder comes early on, shocking him because outwardly Claudius acts benevolent and

Shakespeare probably scripted this monologue in 1599.

kind: “one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!” (1.5.107–8).

Around the same time, perhaps a year or two later, “all

So, too, when his mother, Gertrude, tries to comfort him

the world’s a stage” appears in another play as a terrifying

for the loss of his father, the young man reverts again to

possibility.

the malign power of acting: comfort and benevolence “are

In Hamlet, the stage is now a scene of power on which the actors can spin out illusions that dominate others. His

actions that a man might play, / . . . these but the trappings and the suits of woe” (1.2.76, 86).

mother and uncle, conspirators and lovers, have murdered

Yet Hamlet will use the theater to trap these villains. He

his father, covered up the crime, and act as though they

stages a play that mimics the story of Gertrude and Claudius

232

murdering and fucking, while his mother and uncle will be in

would he [the actor] do,” Hamlet asks, “had he the motive

the audience. “I have heard,” Hamlet says,

and the cue for passion / That I have? He would drown the

That guilty creatures sitting at a play Have by the very cunning of the scene Been strook so to the soul, that presently They have proclaim’d their malefactions. (2.2.588–92)

stage with tears” (2.2.518–22). But Hamlet does not cry, and the inability to cry only intensifies his grief and rage. Had such questions been on Machiavelli’s mind, he might have written more in The Prince on just how to go about inspiring love or fear: When should the ruler shed tears over

It works. The play within a play gets to them, troubling them

the misfortunes of his subjects? When should he turn on the

as court whispering and intrigues have not. Art speaks truth

rage? Or, about scenery, how should the throne of state be

to power.

decorated? Where should it be placed? Or about blocking,

Shakespeare was not alone in asserting that politics is a

how should the ruler mount the throne and how descend

form of theater. His Renaissance predecessor Niccolò Machi-

from it? Highly paid consultants today provide answers to

avelli, in The Prince, observed that a ruler always dresses up—

these questions by advising when to do I-feel-your-pain and

assuming one role or another—now behaving as though

when I-am-outraged or what are good camera angles for tele-

furious in order to inspire fear among his subjects, now en-

vised debates or the ways to enter and leave a rally. In Hamlet,

couraging or consoling them, as a father would, to earn his

questions about the “how” of expression are not one-sided;

subjects’ love. (More fury than fatherliness keeps them in

the play within a play was not an obvious confrontation but,

line.) The Prince needs to keep a certain distance from the

rather, as the young prince says, a “cunning” work of art that

roles he acts; he pursues projects, like the making of alliances

took Gertrude and Claudius by surprise.

or rules for taxation, that his subjects would dispute or resist

Here, then, are Hamlet’s two stages: on one there occur

if he presented them openly. He should be a cool character

deceiving performances; on the other, revelations. What is

offstage, subject to neither blind anger nor melting gush.

so worrying is that the same gestures, costuming, blocking,

Although Machiavelli did write a play, Mandragora, Shakespeare is more focused on and more puzzled about what

and lighting can be deployed on either stage; the one art’s resources can both cover up and reveal.

makes performing work. Take the matter of crying. The day before the show, Hamlet ponders the act of crying onstage. An actor can cry on demand. How can it be, Hamlet asks,

The Demagogue’s Stage

that he cannot cry in the same way for the death of his own

This manipulative side of performing is particularly suited

father—that tears do not flow in a real-life tragedy? “What

to demagogues. Hitler and Mussolini built their power in

Darkness and Light  233

part because they were great performers. Many anti-­Semites

immediately to mind. The Nazis adopted Wagner’s operatic

in Germany and paramilitary hooligans in Italy shared

realm as an emblem art for their rigid regime. But Wagner’s

their views but lacked the leaders’ capacity to arouse the

message was not, in fact, a clear one. Although the composer

masses. Which is true more generally: the demagogue’s ges-

was a strident anti-Semite, the Valhalla in which Wagner sets

tures, tones of voice, and facial expressions can arouse and

The Ring resembles an ochlocracy in which the mob is com-

command, even as the words he or she speaks are familiar

posed of gods; the leader is barely in control of his anarchic

and stale.

immortals. The appropriation was a misappropriation—

As a figure, the demagogue identifies with the people

and Wagner in any case is too easy a case. How can a well-­

against the cultural elite. It is a classic trope; Kleon, an ancient

intentioned performer—say a social democratic cellist like

Greek and a wealthy one, posed as a man of the people to

me, a specialist in the chamber music of Gabriel Fauré—

pit himself against the aristocrat Perikles during the Pelo-

somehow be engaged in forms of expression that can be put

ponnesian War. To achieve this effect, he acted crude to

to destructive ends?

shock and offend; he insulted others personally, using vul-

My aunt Leora and I are at a movie theater in New York,

gar language. Aristotle observed that Kleon shouted on the

specifically in the ghetto of European Jewish exiles who

platform and “used abusive language,” even dressing down

clustered around Eighty-Sixth and Broadway; it is 1983. At

to play the part, tying his cloak the way farmers wore theirs.

Leora’s request, we are watching a retrospective of films by

There’s nothing new about Trump.

Leni Riefenstahl. Riefenstahl’s is great art specifically geared

In classical political thought, demagogues flourished in

to serve Hitler, aligning artistic expression to the order he

ochlocracies, which were cities or states ruled by inflamma-

imposed on Germany. The film Triumph of the Will celebrated

ble, fickle, spontaneous mobs—and here there is a difference

Hitler’s visit to Nuremberg in 1934. The pacing of scenes, the

between the past and the present. A modern demagogue

framing of camera angles, the editing of the dictator’s words

like Hitler induced a stupefied, almost trance-like state of

are all carefully thought out. Riefenstahl shot the parade in

attention in his listeners, reinforced by guards who kept the

slow time, as a gradually unfolding ritual; when the führer

spectator crowds under tight control.

ascends to the podium stage, his speech is a sudden explo-

Confirming and cathartic. There are two aspects of dema-

sion, reviving and arousing—a neat parallel to Germany’s

gogic art: it has a clear message, and the message is cathartic.

revival. She created symbolic events out of seemingly unsym-

Complicit? Hamlet’s puzzle about how performing works

bolic materials, making, for instance, a symbol of the use of

contains, for the artist, an unsettling implication, that we are

noise. In the film’s opening, we hear airplane noise; the führer

complicit in the arts of manipulating. Richard Wagner comes

is hidden in the clouds, but the noise tells us he is there, on

234  Richard Sennett

his way to descend from the clouds to the streets. The mixed

for another. Comedy can take pretension down a peg; few

rustle of street noises tells us the leader has not yet arrived at

demagogues will allow people to laugh at them. The dem-

a particular place in Nuremberg; then, silence; he is coming;

agogue deals in absolutes: “my reality is reality”; the rest is

then his motorcade appears; now there is organized shout-

fake. Collage and other compound forms of expression are

ing: “Heil Hitler!”—no longer aimless noise.

seldom found in the dictatorial toolkit; the dictator wants to

As for noise, so for flesh. In Riefenstahl’s film of the Berlin

be direct, unambiguous. This demagogic impulse appears in

Olympics in 1936, she shows champion divers “diving into

almost all British political discourse when the orator declares,

cleanliness,” as Rupert Brooke wrote innocently of diving a

“I am perfectly clear that . . . ,” signaling that he or she wants

score of years before. Repeated again and again, cheering

to assert flat out rather than discuss.

and silence mixed in each repetition (there are cuts of this

If not all expressive tools are complicit in the game of

film in which at each leap off the board, the sound goes

domination, performing does pose special problems. Take

dead, as though we are holding our breath), the divers’

the matter of applause, more particularly, the rightness of

naked prowess becomes a symbol of the idealized blond

applause for Max Bruch’s Kol Nidrei, Op. 47, based on a mel-

Aryan body.

ody chanted by cantors on the evening of Yom Kippur, the

Riefenstahl uses a kit of expressive tools, which of course

Jewish day of atonement. (Bruch himself was a Protestant.) In

can serve other, indeed nonpolitical ends. Novelists use

various versions, the piece can be performed with orchestras,

delays of one sort or another to build up tension and drive

as an encore in recitals, or at funerals of all sorts, Christian as

a story forward, which is how Lawrence Sterne shapes the

well as Jewish.

seeming erratic flow of Tristram Shandy. Noise can be used

Should an audience applaud this work of mourning? Kol

as a marker: silky as are many of Mozart’s early symphonies,

Nidrei’s wail is the religion’s deep acknowledgment of sorrow

he occasionally writes horn entrances that sound like bleats

and regret, which is nothing to applaud. Yet in my perform-

or farts in order to rupture the flow. Repetitions structure all

ing Kol Nidrei at funerals, when there cannot be applause,

theme-and-variation work, in jazz improvisation as much as

I’ve felt a little deflated. In the mourners’ silence, they can’t

in classical music.

signal how well I’ve played. My personal egotism aside, to the

It might seem that expressive tools, like other tools, de-

extent that a performing artist craves applause, he or she

pend for their politics or nonpolitics only on how the maker

shares a complicity with the demagogue who lives or dies by

wants to use them. But a screwdriver cannot cut a piece of

it; the performing artist and politician-performer crave the

wood. In the same way, some expressive tools cannot serve

tangible, audible sign of recognition—the bravura perfor-

the artist who serves a demagogue—comedy, for one; irony

mance that brings people to their feet.

Darkness and Light  235

The performer’s craving for applause strengthens his or her desire to seduce the audience. There are purists who

The Transforming Stage

believe that they are indifferent to how audiences respond,

Hamlet’s other stage reveals and exposes; it speaks truth to

that they are devoted to the score, that they do not want

power. But there are good reasons why art, and especially

to show off, court applause, seduce. Something in every per-

performing art, cannot perform this confrontational labor

former partakes of this purism. Like other human beings,

directly. It has to proceed via a different route. This, I now

however, artists are, in the main, impure creatures. More to

realize, was evident on the streets of New York where Leora

the point, a lot of message art is, as art, not at all interesting,

lived a half century ago.

seductive, or good; it merely asserts, with hackneyed visual

A parade. The Julliard Conservatory then sat at the west-

symbols, the hammer and sickle or sounds like the crashing

ern edge of Harlem. Auto body shops, parking lots, and ware-

spread chords that ended all tractor operas of the Stalinist

houses dominated streets usually void of people; Julliard’s

era. Today, message art makes little more lasting impression

building, a fortress of massive brick and stonework, walled in

than a tweet. At the Riefenstahl festival, this was what most

musicians and dancers. In 1963, however, a civil rights demo

disturbed me, the feeling that a crime was being committed

marching down Broadway lured people outside to watch

by truly great art.

and listen; the protesters had hired the services of a New

My Aunt Leora was at the Berlin games in 1936. She

Orleans blues band.

bought an exit visa only in 1938—a transaction she never

While Julliard students were largely friendly spectators, it

spoke about. She fled Hamburg with money, then dwelt in

would have been physically impossible for cellists like myself,

New York amid fellow exiles living on the margins whom she

harpists, or timpani players to join these marching musicians.

refused to help. Surely, attending a Riefenstahl festival was

Whether mobile or not, few musicians inside the fortress

opening the wound of exile or served as a guilty reminder of

knew the tunes. Neither did correct phrasing of the opening

those in need whom she had failed? But perhaps the images

bars of the Schubert Cello Quintet offer insight into racial

moved her, too. Although she was insistent that I take her to

justice. We seemed more marginal to our time: the upheavals

the festival, all she said to me afterward was, “I have people

of the 1960s—its racial struggles, the Vietnam War, the youth

coming to dinner.”

uprisings in May ’68—prompted the fear that classical music

Could demagogic expression be countered by making another sort of art?

was a museum art, in which the performer functioned like a curator, renewing and refreshing Schubert in performance the way paintings in a museum are cleaned and restored.

236  Richard Sennett

In part, the sense of being out of it reflected a shift in the weight given in the 1960s to popular art at the expense of

lin today. Their curation in exile of an art, practiced for its own sake, affirms its integrity.

classical art. (There’s nothing “low,” in the sense of crude,

In New York, this curation was not the special province of

about popular art, so I won’t use the clichéd contrast be-

exiles from Hitler. As a result of the parade, Julliard opened

tween high and low.) Bob Dylan was simply a more exciting

up two of its practice studios for community use, which led

musician than an academic composer like Easley Blackwood.

to coffee-pot fraternization between classical and jazz musi-

And, in part, the curator sentiment came from the fact that

cians, which led in turn to visits to venues where the jazz

the music we played was mostly imported from another

musicians eked out a meager living. It turned out that many

continent as well as another time.

of the marching musicians were as ambivalent about playing

But serving as a curator had another, nobler side—one

New Orleans tunes as we were distressed about not knowing

evident in the city. Unlike me, the majority of musicians

them. “Sambo music,” the jazzmen said (at that time, almost

studying at Julliard Conservatory or at the Mannes School

all jazz instrumentalists were men), thinking of easy-listening

of Music lived in huge apartments on the Upper West Side,

New Orleans jazz as something commercialized and colo-

vacated by families who had fled to the suburbs. These build-

nized by white tourists. The artistic passion of the marching

ings were particularly attractive to musicians because of their

musicians was “post-bebop,” a complex, innovative music

thick concrete floors and solid plaster walls, making it pos-

that the Julliard cello class of 1962 went to hear them play

sible to practice all night without protests from neighbors.

in a club on 125th Street. The room was sparsely filled with

Many of our teachers also lived in such apartments, theirs

customers who chatted, smoked, and drank while the musi-

furnished, perhaps, with an ashtray from a café in Munich

cians performed; the amazing music being made onstage

from which the Nazis had expelled the teacher or a treasured

functioned as background.

early edition of Novalis that the refugee had managed to

Yet the musicians kept at it, ignoring the audience’s indif-

pack into her luggage. Many of our teachers, driven into exile,

ference. Like the exiles on the Upper West Side, they prac-

kept alive an art that was being destroyed at home—not just

ticed an art for its own sake. About the indifference of the

music made by Jewish composers like Mendelssohn and

public in the jazz club, you might think, so what? This seem-

Mahler but also the broad spectrum of humanistic expres-

ingly hard-boiled attitude neglects a fundamental fact: per-

sion in writing, painting, and the theater suppressed by the

forming is not rehearsing. The public is always there in your

Nazi regime. It’s the same curatorial function that refugees

mind, listening and judging, even if the actual public is doing

from the Taliban or Islamist regimes perform in Paris or Ber-

neither. If that inner listener doesn’t care, it hurts.

Darkness and Light  237

The “lonely artist,” like the “artist in exile,” is, of course, a Romantic trope: nobody understands Genius Me. In New

Mozart stage) do the work of casting doubt on those polished declarations from the principals.

York, the truth behind the trope could be measured in the

These expressive twists, popular interjections, and rhyth-

1960s simply by the artist’s will to keep going. These believers

mic commentaries are political in the sense that we literally

in art for its own sake are not Hamlet’s confronter-artists. It’s

hear the servants making fun of the desires and pretensions

not a matter of one stance or the other.

of the masters. Even when The Marriage of Figaro is per-

Message art. Most confronters seeking to speak truth

formed on the concert stage (as I’ve sometimes performed

to power are not artists. Hamlet speaks of his “cunning”

in it, without costumes or sets or gesturing singers), audi-

in arranging the play within the play—that is, that the art

ences get what’s going on just by listening. The sound they

itself is going to make a difference. How will it happen? What

hear disposes them to identify with, to take the side of,

makes music sound political?

the servants.

In the high art of opera, that sound appears in Mozart’s

It’s not simply an embrace of popular music but of

The Marriage of Figaro in a way it didn’t, for instance, in the

sound with a political edge. Bartók, for instance, collected,

operas of Handel written earlier in the century. Although

recorded, and incorporated into his own compositions folk

many of Handel’s librettos are political, the musical arias can

music from Hungary and Romania; he wrote to his wife in

be—and historically were—moved from work to work, float-

1904, “Another completely different factor makes contem-

ing free of their context. Figaro was based on an incendiary

porary (twentieth-century) music realistic: that, half con-

play by Beaumarchais, portraying a servant smarter than his

sciously, half intentionally, it searches for impressions from

master who outwits the master’s sexual predations. Figaro

that great reality of folk art, which encompasses everything.”

the barber sings this outwitting; his arias are full of phrases

This “realism” in sound served as a political rebuke: how ordi-

that seem decorous but then, when he repeats them, alter

nary people sound is, as Bartók put it elsewhere, a “healthy”

melodically or harmonically so that the initial impression is

sound, rebuking the decadent, self-writhing, bourgeois music

reversed; we hear Figaro sneering at himself for being gra-

he thought emanated from Vienna. Of course, this champi-

cious. As in the late opera The Magic Flute, so in The Marriage

oning of the people’s music invites appropriation, as George

of Figaro: popular street tunes appear in the mouths of the

Gershwin did in gentrifying the sounds of African America

servant characters as comments on the florid, polished, arty

in the 1920s.

declarations of their masters. And throughout Figaro, ritards,

Ours is an age of socially engaged art. If you come from a

accelerandos, and other disturbances of pulse in the sing-

minority or oppressed group, your art is likely to affirm your

ing of “minor” characters (in fact, everyone counts on the

being Black, gay, female; if you are out of sorts with the dom-

238  Richard Sennett

inant powers, you will engage them as a critic, mocking the

In the European context, such transfiguring performances

pomposities of politicians or weeping at their crimes. How-

transcend the duality that Hamlet conjures. The word “trans-

ever, in the view of the Mexican diplomat and writer Octavio

figure,” I recognize, is vague. I’ve dug deep into my memory

Paz, this sort of political art is losing its emotional force;

to make “transfigure” more tangible, in a performance closer

political art has degraded into message art. Sheer rage no

to home and closer in the flesh to death.

longer makes for good art. Paz, who had fought in the Span-

Charles’s final performance. Transfiguring reality is per-

ish Civil War—an experience that turned him, like George

forming art’s greatest gift of light—countering the message

Orwell, against Soviet-style communism—then sought alter-

and the messenger. In the early 1980s, St. Vincent’s Hospital

natives to straight political negation in the art of surrealists

in Greenwich Village had one of the few large AIDS wards in

and in dada, art that unsettled, ironized, mocked, but did not

the city. Many hospitals did not equip themselves to treat

point an accusatory finger. To quote an Ethiopian proverb,

this disease, at least in large numbers; if they had to take in a

“When the great lord passes, the wise peasant bows deeply

patient, he was most often put in isolation. St. Vincent’s, by

and silently farts.”

contrast, had an open ward for AIDS patients in which family,

In The Labyrinth of Solitude, Paz found in certain Mexi-

lovers, and friends could come and go freely without using a

can rituals a way to perform resistance without sinking into

special door or donning surgical gloves, as was required in

message art. These were rituals binding poor Mexican com-

some other places. This was all the more surprising because

munities together, rites that did not directly confront their

St. Vincent’s was a Catholic hospital, and the Catholic church

oppressors. The dances transformed Christian church ges-

hierarchy in New York treated homosexuality as a venal,

tures and movements to pay tribute to the cults of death

verging on a mortal, sin. Even so, the sisters on the AIDS ward

in those ancient Mayan realms that the Christians had

chatted easily with their patients while washing them, cajol-

destroyed. Rather than negating the Mexican church, they

ing the men to eat even though little food would stay down,

transformed it so that a bishop from Rome, say, could watch

gossiping with those visitors who kept useless all-night vigils.

one of these ceremonies of the dead and not realize what was

Charles—at first, my overly organized assistant during

going on. Paz’s idea of transfiguration was borne out by an

the day who directed and acted in plays at night, then sim-

anthropologist who observed one such visiting bishop, the

ply a friend when disease forced him to quit both roles—

cleric imagining that puppets shaped as skeletons referred

decided to do a reading of Shakespeare’s As You Like It with

to the miracle of the Resurrection, whereas for the Mexicans

his fellow patients on the ward. He had previously staged an

the grinning skulls told an older, Mayan story about the plea-

all-male version of this play in a nearby theater. Onstage in

sures of being dead.

the 1980s, it was provocative to see men in dresses embrac-

Darkness and Light  239

ing one another, their lips and eyebrows made up; now, in

the actors and released them from dwelling on the cancer-

the ward, the young men were costumed in hospital gowns,

ous surface of their bodies. Charles suffered a fit of explo-

their makeup a flesh-colored cream that disguised the

sive diarrhea in the midst of the melancholy Jaques’s famous

reddish-­brown lesions of Kaposi’s sarcoma on necks, faces,

speech about the ages of life. We cleaned him up, and he

and hands.

then repeated the entire speech, as though applause from

As You Like It begins in a realm that seems real enough,

an audience had summoned him to do it again—another

a kingdom in which a usurper menaces its rightful leader.

healing illusion. After the repeat, he passed off the crisis by

Escaping persecution, the duke, his family, and entourage

remarking, “My acting gets better each time I do that speech.”

flee to the magical Forest of Arden; here, after various mirac-

It wasn’t clear what the priests who came to adminis-

ulous happenings, the defeat of a lioness sets in train events

ter spiritual balm thought of this transvestite performance,

that set everything to rights. The plot involves gender confu-

although the ward sisters seemed to take a simple pleasure

sions that are pleasurable rather than cleric-condemnable—

in it. The event did not visibly comfort the audience of family,

pleasures that Virginia Woolf understood in writing Orlando,

friends, and lovers scattered around the ward, who remained

her riff on As You Like It. There is darkness in the play, embod-

stony-faced—perhaps because they were spectators to pain

ied in the speeches of the “melancholy Jaques,” but mostly

about which they could do nothing. The momentary release

the make-believe forest is in a place of sun.

afforded by art could not, for them, avert death’s storm cloud.

Charles had chosen his play well. In bed or sitting in

The engaged artist more often dwells on the imagination

chairs—few had the strength to stand for long or move

of suffering than release from suffering. Such an artist seeks

about—the patient/actors read out their lines, often smiling

to involve people through artistic means in facing issues they

to themselves as they went along. Attached to a breathing

would otherwise avoid. The effort succeeds best when it’s

tube (his lungs were weakened by the disease), Charles him-

not in-your-face or virtue-signaling expressions; irony and

self performed in the hospital the role of the melancholy

metaphor are often more powerful in getting around resis-

Jaques, as he had previously onstage.

tances than confrontation is. About issues that are painful,

The cream that coated the Kaposi sarcomas had been

like AIDS, the artist will want to avoid dramatizing the pain

specially made up for the occasion, using chemicals that did

itself but rather draw people into its reality by unexpected

not irritate the lesions. The actors took great care in making

means—as in Tony Kushner’s Angels in America. Still, the

up, assisted both by the nursing nuns and by professionals

work of representation is what the art is about.

who had come from the Theater District uptown. The results

The presentation on the ward of As You Like It is the alter-

on the whole were convincing; the craft of illusion pleased

native, not representation of the reality of dying but release

240  Richard Sennett

from its truth, affording pleasure, if only for a while; in orga-

for public display. Saturn Devouring His Son went into the

nizing two hours of escape, Charles offered to others a balm

dining room (perhaps the act of eating dictated its place-

that priests, doctors, family, and friends did not. As You Like It

ment). The painting is one of the most grisly in the history

performed in an AIDS ward instanced the gift that perform-

of art; the boy’s head and part of one arm have already been

ing can make to people in pain.

devoured. The boy’s red blood and white flesh light up the

The illusion on offer in As You Like It suspends reality,

painting; out of the darkness, the only part of Saturn’s face

providing a welcome release to men faced with the finality

we see is his wide-open mouth and bug eyes. His fingers

of death.

appear like claws, digging into his son’s back as Saturn prepares for another bite. It isn’t stretching the point to interpret this painting

The Two Gods

as about a certain kind of art and art making. Goya’s dark

Darkness and light in performing reflect two ancient gods,

paintings came not only out of deaths in his life-world; the

Saturn and Janus. In one of Saturn’s guises, he presided over

painter had also come to be revolted by painting of the

destructive art; in one of Janus’s, he presided over trans-

public, patron-and-applause-seeking sort; moreover, as we

forming art.

know from his etchings of this time, he thought dreams

Saturn was the Roman name for Chronos, the Greek god presiding over time. Saturn/Chronos was “sated with years,”

to be demonic, Saturnic—the artist devoured by his own imagination.

meaning the past weighed heavily on the present; this is the

In Born under Saturn, Susan Sontag reflects on just this

logic behind the myth that Saturn ate his own children. As

power of Saturn, although she does not directly invoke Goya.

with all myths, Saturn’s story is not simple; although he was

Instead, she encounters the god in writing about Walter Ben-

said to destroy his own children, he was also paired with

jamin. In place of bloody gore, Benjamin believed that Sat-

the harvest, representing the winter, when the productive

urn kills by making people become “apathetic, indecisive,

earth is exhausted. The cannibal Saturn is a symbol of the old

slow”—deadly depressed. Similarly, the “sleep of reason” in

devouring the new—a symbol indelibly imprinted in mod-

Nazi Germany was not to Benjamin a casual metaphor. Freud

ern consciousness thanks to Goya.

invoked the goddess of sleep, Ananke, to portray that deadly

Goya’s Saturn. In 1819, the painter bought a house just

loss of rational consciousness.

outside Madrid, which he started to decorate in a singular

In conducting on the page a discussion with Benjamin,

fashion. Depressed and alone, he began a series of “black

Sontag summoned the violent, bloodlusty Saturn to portray

paintings” to reflect back his mood, paintings never meant

the aesthetics of extreme right-wing, fascist politics. More,

Darkness and Light  241

she spun out the metaphor of the past as consuming the

not protect the other children? Who in Europe were the can-

present. For fascist artists like Leni Riefenstahl, she judges,

nibal god’s accomplices? The artist is not the cause of Saturn’s

there is no freedom from the past; when Leni Riefenstahl

destructive power, but the demagogue is a performer—and

published many decades after the war photographs of the

the arts of performance may enable his power. Sebald’s worry

Nuba tribe in Sudan, whose naked bodies recalled the div-

about complicity is not irrelevant even to something as par-

ers in the 1936 Olympics, Saturn presided; the Nuba slaves

ticular as the desire for applause.

of the gods echoed Aryan slaves to Hitler: in both, a “fascist

Janus, god of the threshold. It may seem that Janus is the

dramaturgy centers on the orgiastic transactions between

destructive god’s companion. Claudius and Gertrude were

mighty forces and their puppets.” Saturn consumes his

“Janus-faced,” in Hamlet’s eyes: the face that a Janus-faced

artist children.

person presents to you is not the face he or she shows to

By another route, the novelist W. G. Sebald invoked Sat-

others. The Romans thought more positively. Janus is the

urn to meditate on the Nazi epoch. In The Rings of Saturn, he

deity of thresholds: the month of January is named after the

records a walk through the Suffolk countryside in England,

god Janus because this month is one of transitions between

where he was visiting another émigré from Germany, his

old and new. The god’s two faces represent looking forward

friend Michael Hamburger. The rings of the planet Saturn

and backward, reflecting on the past, wondering about the

were “fragments of a former moon that was too close to the

future. The ancient god Janus also presided over thresholds

planet and was destroyed by its tidal effect.” The destructive

in doorways and gates (the ceremonial gates of ancient

power of the planet is what Sebald imagines happened to

Rome were called janii). Thus, he is the god of transitions,

émigré lives like theirs, which shattered into fragments. In

rather than an icon of true versus false—but not a reassuring

another image, he describes the god’s destructive power as

god. He could not predict the future, nor could he say where

“the scythe of Saturn.”

to go when you moved through a gate.

Sebald was obsessed by Goya’s painting (I am reporting

Janus appeared frequently in the writings of Ovid, the

a discussion with him). The Sleep of Reason was indeed the

author of the Metamorphoses. Its stories are all about sud-

title of one of Goya’s etchings, in which a demon haunts the

den and unexpected rather than predictable changes. For

sleeper. The image set Sebald off on a riff about complicity.

instance, Daphne is magically turned into a bay tree in

Were the sleeping Germans victims of the demon, or did

order to escape being raped by Apollo. Shakespeare drew

they long for sleep in order that the goblin visit them? In the

on Ovid in writing Romeo and Juliet; the star-crossed lov-

ancient myth, Saturn’s son Jupiter is, by being hidden away,

ers recall Pyramus and Thisbe in the ancient Roman’s tale,

the only one of six children to survive. Why did Saturn’s wife

each lover’s blood turned magically into the dark-red fruit

242  Richard Sennett

of the mulberry tree. As a writer, Ovid summons Janus, the

during its early years. The ward in St. Vincent’s might well

god of thresholds into the unknown, to mark the moment

have appealed to Ovid as a site of metamorphosis. But,

of transformation.

in time, the threshold moment came to seem the most

At Charles’s memorial service, these literary associations

important—the trigger of transformation, of crossing the

came to me, perhaps allowing me to wander away from the

threshold into the unexpected. Here art could play its liber-

feeling of utter helplessness that the AIDS crisis aroused

ating role, Janus opening the gate.

Darkness and Light  243

23 Art Invites the World In Carol Becker

In major universities, most graduate humanities depart-

and Anarchy, “While contemplation, the act of knowing, is in

ments, programs, institutes, and schools educate their

the one contemplating, the artist is a being who has his end,

students to develop objective research that adds to and

[his] telos, outside [himself] in the work.”1

advances the existent body of knowledge in their field. Stu-

This perception did change in modern times, as the

dents learn to theorize, conceptualize, historicize the world

“genius of the artist” was extolled and romanticized.2 But,

they live in, in relationship to their disciplines; their academic

unfortunately, the early polarization of artists and their

production usually takes the form of critical writing in books,

work and the conflation of artists with artisans have had

papers, and articles.

a negative effect on the prestige of artists and art schools

The “life of the mind” is the goal of such an education,

within academic institutions. The result has been a deval-

and this contemplative “act of knowing” has historically been

uing of the artist’s creative process and of the pedagogy of

considered superior to a life dedicated to creating objects,

educating artists.

performances, or events, which are often characterized as

It is true that the making of art can be messy and the pro-

craft. This distinction can be traced back to Aristotle, who

duction atmosphere similar to that of a factory; as a result,

put artists in the same category as artisans, technitai, which

the importance of creative work, the ideas behind it, can be

meant that the productive activity of artists, like that of

lost in the work’s materiality. And because artists can appear

artisans, is in the doing and in the work itself—not in the

at times irreverent and freer than others, as they break with

contemplative act, in the thought process that might have

conservative societal codes, a combination of judgment,

initiated the work. As Giorgio Agamben writes in Creation

stereotyping, and envy may accompany the evaluation of

244

artists, at times diminishing the perception of the appropri-

screenwriters, actors become directors, sculptors become

ateness of having artists within academic structures.

filmmakers, novelists become playwrights, and so forth.

The art school practice of helping individuals to achieve

Therefore, it has become important to help students under-

their maximum creative potential also is unique within uni-

stand that mastery is no longer just about form—it is also

versity settings and therefore not well understood. If artists

about knowing what one wants to say and understand-

are to be valued within such environments, they need to be

ing how best to say it. Today, students need to develop an

perceived not only as workers involved in the perfection of

approach to manifesting ideas through form. To do so, it is

artisanry but as thinkers committed to the production of

best for them to study with practicing artists, who under-

ideas that are manifested through objects, performances,

stand the complexity of what it takes to be an artist in the

installations, film, and other forms.

world and know how to transmit that knowledge to the

Art schools themselves traditionally have played into

next generation.

these stereotypes, focused as they have been on the mastery

Becoming an artist is about choosing a way of being in the

of form and technique. By copying great masters and perhaps

world—a practice requiring an articulated understanding of

hoping to exceed them, student artists often spent their time

where art and artists fit into society at this time and imagin-

replicating paintings and sculptures, acquiring skill through

ing where they might be important in the future. Students

apprenticeship to those who already had reached a high level

now engage in conceptual conversations about important

of accomplishment. But the pedagogy, purpose, and role of

social issues, theorizing race, class, ethnicity, gender, place,

art schools have evolved dramatically. Students still come to

climate, and the political moment. Such issues are as much

learn particular forms and techniques, but the numbers of

the subjects of conversation in art schools as they are in uni-

possible forms, combined forms, and anti-forms have mul-

versities, and they are as important as conversations about

tiplied. There is now built into art school pedagogy a great

techniques and technologies. The expectation is that stu-

interest in theorizing art, art making, and art’s relationship to

dents will not only understand these issues but create origi-

the world and to the future of the planet.

nal work in response to them.

Academies of art have also expanded beyond visual art

As we have seen repeatedly in the history of art during the

to include theater, performance, filmmaking, writing, art

twentieth and twenty-first centuries, art can please, soothe,

history, arts administration, art education, art therapy, cura-

shock, jolt, disrupt, or awaken consciousness. And although

torial studies, and other related fields. Within these singular

it may never achieve any of these goals in the artist’s own his-

disciplines, there is greater fluidity to move between what

torical moment, the work may find a path into mainstream

were once distinct areas of expertise. Playwrights become

society decades later, becoming important to how future

Art Invites the World In  245

societies understand an individual’s interior life within the

artists produce and to recognize it as an important form of

context of the collective experience at a particular time.

research. Artists engage in research not only to understand the production of their work and how it fits into contem-

Art Making in University Settings

porary thought but also to understand the relationship between ideas, materiality, and audience.

In universities, art history and curatorial studies programs

To value the artistic process—by exploring how art comes

analyze visual art. Literature, theater history, and dramaturgy

into being—is the first step in positioning an art school

departments do the same for writing, playwriting, directing,

within a major research university. Those who associate with

and acting; film studies programs survey film and new media.

artists come to understand this process, but those who do

These disciplines all focus on what artists generate, but they

not may find the origins of the work quite mysterious and

do not usually study the process—how the work evolves—

“other.”

nor do they necessarily understand the issues of contemporary production from the artist’s point of view.

People often equate art and science in terms of experimentation, making analogies between the artist’s studio and

Literary scholars may champion the work of James Joyce,

the scientist’s laboratory. Although art can be experimental—

for example, for its historically innovative approach to the

and the studio is the site of that experimentation—art mak-

novel and, at the same time, undervalue or ignore those

ing is in part driven by artists’ passion to reflect their roles

young writers, sometimes in their own departments, who

as individuals within the collective. Perhaps most significant,

today are writing serious, experimental work. Instead of en-

and unlike the work scientists do, the work of artists does

gaging these writers in discussions about their writing and

not, in most cases, have a quantifiable result.

that of their peers—allowing scholars to learn about current

Those who are financially willing to support science invest

trends from contemporary practitioners—academic faculty

in its investigations because there might be important find-

for the most part do not acknowledge these art makers as

ings that could change the way we understand the physical

experts, even though they, too, are developing new bodies

world—and even save lives. But both the making of art and

of literature. This perspective creates a hierarchy and raises

the audience’s response to it cannot be understood in such

the question about who owns the interpretation of art—the

direct ways. Both art’s investigations and the results for an

actual producers or those who study, critique, and theorize it.

audience are subjective. Whether a novel is or is not success-

For major universities to shift this dynamic and begin to

ful, a painting does or does not capture its intent, a film has

benefit from their art schools and from the artists in their

or has not found its purpose cannot be measured objec-

midst, they need to understand the type of knowledge that

tively. Only the artist can say what the intention truly was,

246  Carol Becker

and the work can be measured only against that intention

In some instances, the museums came first; in others, the

and the work’s impact on its audience and on society over

school came first. The Boston Museum School, the School of

time—about which there will never be consensus. Strong

the Art Institute of Chicago, and the San Francisco Art Insti-

opinions will differ from critic to critic, audience to audience.

tute had such affiliations. But even these schools, connected

There will be no absolute answer to the question the work

to major collections and vital to their cities, were left alone

poses or even agreement about the nature of the question.

to determine their own goals and directions. As a result, they

Thus, art making, often deemed inessential to a utilitar-

have been able to cultivate their methodologies and orienta-

ian society, nonetheless can change and has changed how

tions without having to fit into more traditional structures.

we perceive the world. Yet, for some people, the value of the

However, for them to make such stand-alone schools of art

work is not understood as significant until it is proven to

successful, academically as well as financially, has presented

have monetary worth. With external validation through val-

great challenges. Still, the effort to position similar schools

uation, the perception of the work can change, even though

within research universities—which are accustomed to cer-

the quality of the work does not. The art piece is now no

tain protocols, measurements, evaluations of performance,

longer worthless but rather has gained value or might even

divisions between disciplines, and hierarchies—can be even

be considered “invaluable,” of incalculable worth.

more difficult. Yet, if one can make such a relationship work, there is much to gain for both the school and the

Lenfest Center for the Arts

larger institution. As dean of Columbia University School of the Arts since

In order to successfully integrate art schools, their mission,

2007, it has been my job to mediate between the school

and their influence into academic institutions, there needs

and the rest of the university, to communicate the school’s

to be a mediating dialogue about how the work is produced,

importance to the various art worlds it represents. I have

how it comes to have value, what it signifies, and why it is

also invited collaborations with other professional schools

important to society and to the university. When lacking this

in the university whenever possible so that our work would

discourse, art and design schools are often misunderstood,

be familiar to them and its impact understood. And I have

undervalued, and isolated within universities. It is there-

tried to make the enormous successes of the school’s faculty,

fore sometimes better for them to remain independent,

students, and alumni more visible so that faculty and staff

autonomous institutions.

throughout the university share pride in our achievements. I

During the nineteenth century, several major museums in

have been lucky to embark on this challenge in New York City,

the United States established relationships with art schools.

where the work of artists, filmmakers, theater practitioners,

Art Invites the World In  247

and writers is everywhere visible. These efforts have taken

and departments for shared events. Since it opened in 2016,

some time and required finesse, especially the task of pre-

the School of the Arts has partnered with almost all schools

senting the work of stellar, creative people to traditional

and programs in the university to engage issues about which

tenure committees and making these colleagues understand

artists, scientists, and academics are equally concerned: art

that artists’ work is essential research about contemporary

and neuroscience, the state of democracy, the importance

society, embodied in unique and often experimental forms.

of narrative in health care, the rights of indigenous cultures,

I had the confidence that these efforts would succeed

social justice, and the challenges of climate change, urban

because, fortunately, Lee C. Bollinger, president of Columbia

planning, race and representation, public health, mental

University since 2002, was already convinced of the impor-

health, and much more.

tance of art and artists to the academic environment. His

Piano’s building, named for donors Gerry and Marguerite

support was essential. In 2007, he provided the School of the

Lenfest, sits at the heart of the Manhatanville campus. It pro-

Arts with the opportunity to plan a new, small arts venue

vides a strong example of what an art school might achieve

for the Manhattanville campus in Harlem. Designed by the

for a university, because it has offered Columbia’s School of

architect Renzo Piano, the Lenfest Center for the Arts was

the Arts an incredible opportunity to take leadership in con-

built to house events for theater, visual arts, film, and writ-

necting Columbia to its new neighbors in Harlem and linking

ing, as well as for cross-disciplinary collaborations about

(and sometimes even introducing) the university’s multiple

contemporary issues. The concept of an arts building was

academic components to one another. The Lenfest Cen-

so essential to Piano’s thinking about the new Columbia site

ter has made it possible to share visiting artists, copresent

that he referred to his planned structure as “The Lantern,” a

programs, and extend invitations to Harlem’s many cultural

beacon to enlighten and enliven the entire new campus. An

organizations. And because artists always seek an audience,

architect with a poet’s sensibility, Piano understood that art

it is natural for art venues to invite people from adjacent

and artists naturally invite the world in. Such an invitation is

neighborhoods to attend the university’s offerings of films,

not as organic to the work of disciplines such as engineering,

readings, exhibitions, lectures, concerts, conversations, festi-

law, or neuroscience, whose research is not as easily accessi-

vals, and other events.

ble to the general public nor demand audience response to test its premises.

Many departments and schools within Columbia rely on film, visual arts, and contemporary writing to reach larger

The center’s mission—to address the world’s concerns

audiences, so the Lenfest Center has made it possible to part-

through the arts—originated with the school’s vision for the

ner with university colleagues to create programs that bring

building and has drawn to it most of the university’s schools

together diverse audiences for conversations around issues

248  Carol Becker

of shared interest. One such event was “Posing Modernity:

our idea to others, many individuals and groups on campus

The Black Model from Manet and Matisse to Today,” curated

and beyond came forward, all hoping to participate.

by the Columbia art history alumna Denise Murrell, which

The arts too often wait to be invited to engage in serious

was presented at the Wallach Art Gallery in the Lenfest Cen-

conversations with other disciplines, perhaps because artists

ter in 2018. This exhibition brought twenty-two thousand

have internalized society’s judgment that their work is not

diverse visitors to the building—some lived in Harlem, some

as important or directly useful as other forms of research.

had never been to Harlem, and some had never seen the

But, increasingly, as the urgency of issues such as water

new campus. For all, the exhibition was a revelation and an

scarcity and climate change escalates, other disciplines are

opportunity to experience this work contextualized as it had

seeking artists to communicate their concerns to a larger

never been before.

public in new, more engaging, and accessible ways. Art is a perfect vehicle for convening the knowledge of other disci-

Year of Water

plines. For decades, climate scientists and journalists have made enormous efforts to educate people about the pre-

When the School of the Arts and the programming team

carious state of the Earth, but they also are the first to admit

at Lenfest talked about a year of programming focused on

that their analyses have not resulted in immediate action.

water, I introduced a plan to present a series of events, con-

What else is needed to communicate the complexities of

versations, and performances to raise consciousness about

these vast issues? For change to occur, it is essential that

water-related issues: scarcity, inequity, the threat of climate

the general public have a deep psychic understanding of

change, activist efforts, and potential solutions. Our concept

these urgencies and their consequences. Not only can the

was to feature the projects of artists and thinkers who were

arts increase people’s intellectual understanding of these

addressing these issues in various forms. We never expected,

serious concerns; they also can open their hearts to these

however, that the global future of water, a topic of great con-

cataclysmic situations.

cern to the School of the Arts and many other parts of the

Ultimately, the School of the Arts was able to bring

university, would generate such profound interest across all

together the three water institutes at Columbia University;

schools and programs. We could not have foreseen that the

the university’s Earth Institute; the Schools of Public Health,

school would be the force to bring together, for the first time,

Social Work, International and Public Affairs, Law, Medicine,

those faculty, departments, and institutes that were already

Engineering, and Architecture and Planning; the division

engaged in important work on water-related topics but, in

of Arts and Sciences; Columbia World Projects; Columbia

many instances, had never met. As soon as we mentioned

Global Centers, the Data Institute; the Jerome L. Greene

Art Invites the World In  249

Mind Brain Behavior Institute; the Forum; Columbia Univer-

mate Change Conference in Poland. Working closely with the

sity Libraries; and many student groups. Our intention was

geologist Minik Rosing, Eliasson positioned at each location

to make the work already being done around this topic by all

enormous boulders of glacial ice calved from the Green-

these entities more visible both to the public and to others

land ice sheet to form a circle. The positioning referenced

within our own community—and to encourage those who

a clock—time ticking away. As the ice melted, bubbles of

were not working on such issues to see the relevance for

trapped air fifteen thousand years old began to pop. “A cir-

their disciplines. The university’s Year of Water has become

cle is like a compass,” he explained. “It leaves navigation to

a prototype to demonstrate how collaboration across disci-

the people who are inside it. It is a mistake to think that the

plines is possible and how it strengthens both research and

work of art is the circle of ice—it is the space it invents.”4 The

activism efforts.

work really is the open space that the artist creates for con-

Remarkably, art schools can initiate and lead ambitious projects like the Year of Water, because artists are already

versation and for the increased awareness that comes from standing in such proximity to tons of melting ice.

engaged in trying to give form to important questions in

For the project Flint Is Family, the interdisciplinary artist

the public sphere—and are accustomed and committed to

LaToya Ruby Frazier spent five months with three genera-

attracting audiences. Artists have the tools to reveal what

tions of women in Flint, Michigan, documenting the com-

has been invisible and to help activate hope for what is pos-

munity crisis that resulted from government missteps and

sible. In Dark Ecology: For a Logic of Future Coexistence, Timo-

water inequity. For Flint Fit—a project in the exhibition Mel

thy Morton writes, “Art is thought from the future. Thought

Chin: All Over the Place, coproduced by Queens Museum and

you cannot explicitly think at present. Thought we may not

No Longer Empty—the conceptual visual artist Mel Chin

think or speak at all.”3

asked Flint residents to collect ninety thousand used plas-

The arts not only play a unique role within universities

tic water bottles. The plastic was then turned into yarn and

but have also become important to other multidisciplinary

made into fabric for a line of designer clothing, creating new

organizations that focus on transforming contemporary

local economic opportunities across the country, based on

issues through action. Olafur Eliasson, for example, a Danish-­

the “interconnectedness of resources.”5

Icelandic artist who works in multiple forms, mounted his

The work of contemporary artists of many disciplines,

installation Ice Watch in Copenhagen in 2014. The next year,

addressing issues that range from water equity to climate

he brought it to the Climate Change Conference in Paris. And

change, the design of future cities, and race, gender, and

in 2018, he installed the work again in London, to coincide

class conflicts, can become a great repository of individual

with the meeting of world leaders at the United Nations Cli-

and collective consciousness. It can also become a political

250  Carol Becker

force—a way of demonstrating the impact of these issues on

to many issue-oriented conversations at Davos. Socially

individual lives and communities.

engaged artists and designers are now integrated into panels with experts and professionals in their fields of interest,

The Impact of the Arts on Davos

which range, for example, from digital surveillance and cli-

Every year, alongside the many businesspeople who attend

signs in the present, signaling to us from the future. In this

the World Economic Forum’s conference in Davos, there are

way, the arts function at Davos as they do in society, expos-

thinkers and activists—some from the faculties of major

ing the hidden currents that feed the vast sea of contempo-

universities—who work in diverse fields, including cli-

rary thought.

mate change to disability rights and the future of oceans. The voices and work of artists help others anticipate the

mate science, neuroscience, economics, ocean health, and

My most significant contribution to making artists valu-

bio­diversity. They come to Davos to discuss the state of

able to the Forum—and thus to the thousands of influential

the world.

business and world leaders who attend the conference each

On my first visit to the conference in 2008, as invited fac-

year—was to inaugurate a program for the Forum’s Global

ulty, I was surprised to discover so few artists present and

Leadership Fellows. These fellows, chosen from an accom-

that those who had been invited were extremely isolated. No

plished pool of applicants, study with experts to gain the skills

matter the content of their work, artists were on discussion

they need to navigate the business and economic aspects of

panels with other artists, not with experts on those issues

leadership roles. To help them develop their own voices and

the artists were confronting—as if artists and designers could

acquire the confidence to take the stage as leaders—to learn

talk only to each other. Similarly, there were few audience

to be both fearless and present in the public arena—I invited

members who crossed disciplines. But a decade later, thanks

a cohort of fellows to Columbia University’s School of the

to the work of several art and culture leaders, the dynamic

Arts to study with the best theater, voice, improvisation, and

has changed radically; art and artists have become a very vis-

acting professionals we could assemble, expert instructors,

ible and influential force at Davos.

including the master voice teacher and innovator of vocal

With the leadership and support of Hilde Schwab, chair-

techniques Kristin Linklater.

person and cofounder of the Schwab Foundation for Social

I anticipated that the Global Leadership Fellows program

Entrepreneurship, and Nico Daswani, head of Arts and Cul-

would be a one-time experiment, but eleven years later,

ture of the World Economic Forum, the participation of

this program has become integral to developing skills and

artists has increased, and the arts have become important

knowledge in these diverse groups of young professionals.

Art Invites the World In  251

Profoundly moved and transformed by their experiences

The arts and art schools present new leadership models

at the School of the Arts, these future leaders have come to

for the twenty-first century, models of inclusion, collabora-

understand the essential role that art and artists can play

tion, and raising awareness by touching the heart as well as

even in a predominantly business/economic organization

the mind. Once leaders in business, government, the acad-

like the World Economic Forum. They often stay to work for

emies, and technology industries realize that artists know

the Forum in Geneva and help program more art and culture

how to reach people and talk across cultures and disciplines

for the annual event at Davos—or they find positions direct-

while recognizing difference, they might see the benefits

ing nongovernmental organizations throughout the world,

of partnering with artists and art schools to achieve their

relying on some of the strategies learned through Augusto

goals. Those who support change might come to understand

Boal theater techniques, for example, to communicate with

that to solve complex global problems, all disciplines must

diverse populations in transition.

engage with one another and that such dialogue is essential

Over time, the World Economic Forum has opened sig-

to cultivating a multiplicity of forms through which peo-

nificant space for many artists and cultural workers to join

ple communicate their humanity and shared concern for

its ongoing conversations. Remarkably, the Forum has also

this planet. These leaders might then understand that any

invested in the production of new, socially significant, twen-

effective agenda for social change must include the visionary

ty-first-century artwork and performance.

work of contemporary artists.

252  Carol Becker

24 On the Value of the Arts and Culture in a Global Community Jeffrey Brown

The title of my talk is “On the Value of the Arts and Culture in

subject, interview to interview. Feeding this monster can be

a Global Community.” I’d like to tweak that just a bit now to

very exciting. But it never stops.

make it, “On the Value of Reporting on the Arts and Culture in a Global Community.”

I felt a desire to dig deeper into an area I’d always been drawn to and felt needed more attention, especially now. As

They’re related, of course. There has to be value in the

a producer and correspondent, I’d covered the arts for many

subject first in order to find value in covering that subject.

years. Still, it was always a side job, part-time. That’s the way

But my expertise, to the extent I have one, is in the journal-

the arts are generally treated on a news program, if they get

ism, the act of observing, witnessing, and telling other peo-

any coverage at all.

ple what I see—the act of reporting on arts and culture in a global community.

I wanted to expand our coverage into a full-time, focused project.

It’s been over five years since I decided to focus almost

PBS NewsHour is a small organization. We have limited

entirely on covering arts and culture. I’d worked in the daily

resources. It didn’t make sense to have someone committed

news for a long time. I was used to swerving from subject to

to this coverage full-time—until it did.

This essay was originally presented as a lecture on February 18, 2020, at the Winter Park Institute at Rollins College. Slight revisions have been made to the text.

253

I was after a kind of personal fulfillment. But I also wanted

In 2012, the Supreme Court ruled that sentences like the

to continue to expand an experiment started by Robert

one Hough had been given—life without the possibility of

MacNeil and Jim Lehrer (and I want to pay particular trib-

parole—were unconstitutional for cases involving juveniles,

ute to Jim, who died in 2020 at eighty-five), an experiment in

which Hough had been at the time of the murder. He was

how we think of the news and a news program, what news

eventually resentenced and then released.

is, what voices we hear, what stories we tell. I wanted the arts

I met and talked with Larry Krasner, the district attorney

and culture to play a larger role in that ongoing experiment.

who appointed James Hough to this newly created position:

And I quickly realized, from the feedback I was getting,

“artist-in-residence for the Philadelphia District Attorney’s

that others felt this need, too, and that what can at times feel

office.” Krasner is one of the most controversial DAs in the

like an add-on, a “nice” or “lite” topping, is, in fact, a fulfilling,

country, bent on reforming the criminal justice system he

substantive necessity.

sees as a waste of resources and lives. People can and do argue and disagree with him—but it’s difficult to ignore him

A few recent examples:

and impossible to ignore the problem of mass incarceration.

In Philadelphia, I met James Hough, who had just been

Krasner said he himself was a bit puzzled when the idea

named artist-in-residence for a city program. That sounds

of an artist-in-residence at the DA’s office was presented to

normal enough, until I tell you that the residency was with

him. But he thought about how recent developments in

the district attorney’s office and that Mr. Hough had only

culture—movies like Just Mercy, TV series like When They

recently been released from prison, after serving twenty-­

See Us, and musicians like Kendrick Lamar—were addressing

seven years for a murder committed when he was a teenager.

serious issues through the lens of popular art forms. It’s a cul-

He’d been sentenced to life without the possibility of

tural moment for reform, Krasner told me. He came to see

parole and thought he would die in prison, he told me. But

the artist-­in-residence program in that light.

older inmates he met told him to “make this your university,

Passionate people, committed people.

not your casket.” He set about learning, reading, growing up.

But, of course, it’s complicated for many of us: What

And he made himself an artist. In 2006, he began working

forms or lengths of punishment are appropriate? What if

alongside other inmates with a group called Mural Arts Phil-

you are, say, the parents of the young man James Hough

adelphia, designing murals on fabric inside the prison, which

killed so long ago? Are you happy he has found his way in

in some cases were transferred outside to walls around

life? How do you feel about seeing his artwork on walls in

the city.

Philadelphia?

254  Jeffrey Brown

And the rest of us: How do we feel? To what extent do we

The Dallas Street Choir touts itself as the largest such cho-

even care about crime and punishment if they are not, for

rus for the homeless in the country. Jonathan Palant said to

the most part, affecting us?

me, “It’s wonderful that we have such a large choir here in

There’s a lot to unpack, and my story doesn’t do it all, of

Dallas, because so many people are getting [something] from

course. But what it might do, in the context of a news pro-

this choir. They are receiving the benefits of music, of fam-

gram where we cover these kinds of issues regularly, is to

ily, of togetherness. It’s also sad that we have so many people

offer a small window on the world through art and culture.

who require such a service. I would love for this just to be the

Around the same time, I was in Dallas to meet Jonathan

Dallas Choir, but it’s not. It has to be the Dallas Street Choir.”

Palant, a choral professor at the University of Texas. He runs

For me, these stories offer a way in to look at a partic-

traditional choruses—students, community groups. But he

ular problem in American life. In the Philadelphia case, it

also created and directs the Dallas Street Choir. Its members

was mass incarceration and important questions of how we

show up for rehearsals carrying their worldly possessions,

define and mete out justice. In Dallas, the issue was growing

including sleeping bags they used the night before in shelters

homelessness even amid a booming economy.

and public parks. They are homeless, coming to sing for an

The way in was art, not art as a solution—no one involved thought they were solving the problem; I certainly didn’t

hour or two once a week. What do they get for singing in a choir? A two-dollar

think so and didn’t see my stories in that light—but art as

bill—that’s the pay for showing up and following the rules—

a way to see, to feel, to push me and perhaps our audience

and a snack.

to consider what we are seeing and feeling, to know other

But, far more, the choir offers a couple of hours of com-

human beings, to know our laws and economic realities

munity, of being valued and taking part in something to cre-

better, to participate more in the life of our democracy and

ate beauty. Its members perform in churches, at corporate

society, and maybe, for some of us, to get involved and look

and public events. They’ve even performed at Carnegie Hall.

for solutions.

All great, all exciting. But they still sleep in shelters and on

I don’t want to overstate this. I certainly don’t want to

the streets. We went to a large homeless facility where some

inflate my own role: it’s the people on the front lines, the

of these men and women find shelter and saw just how many

ones we’re reporting on, who deserve the attention and

people are in need of the place. And we saw many more sit-

respect for their efforts.

ting in front of the public library, in a public park, along a busy street. You’ve seen them, too.

What I and my colleagues can do is show you what’s going on.

On the Value of the Arts and Culture in a Global Community  255

I gave you two recent examples in this country. There’s also an important global context.

This was her first time acting. The experience was beyond anything she’d expected; she had been preparing to be a

One example: a reporting trip I took to Mexico City.

teacher. But her performance was a sensation, not only be-

What do you know of Mexico? Maybe it’s a tourist desti-

cause it earned her an Oscar nomination but even more

nation. Or maybe what you know mostly is what you see on

because it shone a light on a reality of Mexican life, of the

the news: migrants (characterized in different ways, depend-

two-tiered system in which darker-skinned people are on the

ing on your point of view) trying to get into our country;

bottom, with fewer opportunities. It unveiled truths about

drug cartels and a horrific level of violence; routine political

the plight of domestic workers in Mexican society and the

upheaval.

continuing class divisions and racism experienced by darker-­

All of this is presented on the news, including the News-

skinned indigenous people.

Hour, and it all deserves to be. These are profoundly import-

Aparicio has now become an advocate, a UNESCO am-

ant realities weighing on Mexico and touching on our own

bassador, working on behalf of others to call attention to

country. But how often do we see Mexico or other countries

inequities in Mexican society.

through a different lens, that of their vibrant cultures?

Will things change? I met with the head of a union repre-

In Mexico, I talked with contemporary artists, filmmak-

senting domestic workers. She said the film had helped raise

ers, writers, and a chef helping to re-create what we mean

awareness and pass a law that will raise the living standards

by Mexican food. I saw a rich, varied, thriving cultural life.

of domestic workers, giving them certain rights and benefits

And again, just as in the case of the stories in Philadelphia

for the first time. Much more needs to be done, she said. But

and Dallas, some of these artists and their work were deeply

the film made a difference.

connected to the issues and ills and news of the day.

Another story I worked on in Mexico: In February 2020,

A filmmaker had just returned from the Sundance Film

the Whitney Museum in New York opened an exhibition on

Festival, where her drama about people “disappeared” and

great Mexican muralists of the twentieth century—Rivera,

killed in drug violence had won a big award.

Orozco, Siqueiros—and their influence on US artists such as

I talked with Yalitza Aparicio. Those of you who saw the

Jackson Pollock and many others. The traditional art history

film Roma will remember her well. In the film, directed by

books have Americans looking to Paris and other places in

Alfonso Cuarón and based on his own childhood in a middle-­

Europe for the training and inspiration—and they did. But

class household in 1970s Mexico City, Aparicio played Cleo,

they also looked south. And that is a cross-border interaction

the housemaid at the center of the story.

that perhaps we don’t know enough about. It’s especially

Yalitza Aparicio is an indigenous woman from Oaxaca.

256  Jeffrey Brown

interesting now, isn’t it, to have a larger context and history

of relations between the US and Mexico, perhaps to help us

wish I could do, so much more I wish all of you could see

better understand what’s happening in our time.

in your newscasts, read about in your newspapers or online.

Again, I am not suggesting that these are the only stories and people we should focus on when reporting on Mexico.

To do so requires our being open, looking for it, making a commitment—even a small one—to showcasing it.

Of course not. But I am suggesting that without these kinds

What I would suggest to you is a journalistic version of

of stories, we might not be getting the fullest possible por-

the Golden Rule: report on those places, those “other” places

trait of the news about Mexico today.

and people—in our own country and abroad—just as you

I’ve had an opportunity to do this kind of work centered

would want to be reported on, tough but fair, with many

on the arts in many places around the world, places where

questions and skepticism where warranted but with respect

our usual lens is through war, poverty, famine—all, or mostly

and openness to motivations, traditions, ideas that might be

all, negative.

foreign to us or different from our experiences.

In Haiti, six months after the earthquake, I met artists and

This is the kind of lens we want if outsiders are telling the

writers who were bringing forward a centuries-old tradition

story of us, of America, of life as we live it here. Our writers,

of artistic vibrancy into present-day life in Haiti, painful and

our musicians, our filmmakers, our artists of all kinds—they

joyful.

tell our story, too.

In Israel and Palestine, I did a series of profiles of poets

The NewsHour has long been known for interviewing the

who use words, language, and rhythms to address what they

leading newsmakers of the day. You know who they are: the

see, how they live—the language of the news, the language of

political leaders, the generals, the CEOs. I think of our writers

poetry. One of the poets I met, Taha Mohammad Ali, explic-

and artists as cultural newsmakers—not more important in

itly put them side by side in our talk. His point, I think: we

telling us the news but also important in offering a vision of

need them both.

the world, the news of our world.

In Nairobi, Kenya, I attended a large book festival called Storymoja, met writers and readers from Kenya and through-

I love to talk to artists about how they do what they do, how

out the continent, and saw an exciting and growing literary

they see what they see, why they do what they do.

culture. That shouldn’t surprise any of us. But I think it does,

I talk to actors about how they become a character. Rob-

because we rarely have a chance to see it. I know I’ve had

ert De Niro told me of the craft and mystery of acting and

people come up to me often to talk about the thrill of seeing

how he puts something of himself into every role.

and, on the screen, meeting some of these writers and artists.

I talk to dancers and choreographers about movement,

There are many other examples and so much more I

fear of movement, the embrace and thrill of movement. The

On the Value of the Arts and Culture in a Global Community  257

renowned choreographer Twyla Tharp recently wrote a book

I hear amazing stories, and, I promise you, they never get

on movement and how it applies to all of us as we age. She’s

old or tired. Sometimes, they’re about the art itself; some-

known plenty of success, also some failure. But she has never

times, about the emotions underlying the art.

stopped moving.

In his memoir, Bruce Springsteen wrote of sinking into

Of those failures, she said to me, “They’re adventures of a

deep depression, crippling depression. This is a man who

different kind. You may not have gotten what you set out to

gets up on a stage and plays and sings to eighty thousand

get, but there is something to be learned from everything.”

adoring, screaming fans. He is a world-famous rock star for

I talk to writers about the work of being a writer and also,

the ages.

sometimes, the responsibility of being an artist. I think of

But when I talked to him, he also spoke movingly about

Toni Morrison, who transformed the written page and, in

the insecurity he grew up with and that has stayed a con-

many ways, for many readers and other writers, transcended

stant even with his success—the absolute certainty he carries

it as a model of what an artist can do, of what literature

with him, along with the absolute doubt. He said, “Most art-

can be.

ists I know had one person in their life who told them they

I once spoke to her about an opera titled Margaret Gar-

were the second coming of the baby Jesus and another per-

ner, for which she’d written the libretto. It was based on a

son that told them they weren’t worth anything. And they

true story, the one that had also served as the inspiration for

believed them both, you know? And so you go through the

Morrison’s most celebrated novel, Beloved.

rest of your life in pursuit of both of those things, proving

The words she used about opera apply just as well to her writing: “There’s this other thing, which is a kind of resto-

that both of those things are true. And you feel like the burden of proof is on you.”

ration, redemption that [art] can offer . . . the audience so

A point I want to get across: for me, for my work, artists

that when you leave, you know more, you’ve felt more, and

and writers don’t have to be explicitly addressing social issues

you felt more deeply that somehow you are more human

to add value. Springsteen sometimes does address big issues,

than you were. You feel more human, more humane, more

but also in his music and in our interview, he is singing and

capable than you did when you came in.”

talking about what it takes to get out of bed in the morning,

That was a big thought, a big idea about art. Another time, when we spoke of one of her last books, written in very

when you’re mired in pain or shame or a sense that you, even you, Bruce Springsteen, are a phony.

spare prose, the lesson was smaller, grounded in the work of

And isn’t that the news for millions of us in our daily lives?

being a writer: “I can write forever about anything of a char-

We ask ourselves, Who are we? What are we doing here?

acter. But it’s harder to write less, to make it more.”

What gets us out of bed in the morning?

258  Jeffrey Brown

Or put even more simply, our writers and artists tell us

ment, even changing aesthetic attitudes. There were always

stories—stories about themselves, about other people,

decisions to be made by government officials, conservators,

about us, about the places they’ve been and places we live,

developers, and others, often tough decisions involving fund-

about our country and world.

ing, resources, balancing of the value of one work against

They tell stories—and my job is to tell stories about their stories.

another. But in all cases, there was a sense that something important was at stake and that the stakes went past the individuals involved, beyond the localities, and touched on

There’s another thing I’ve learned: art is intensely personal—

things that made us human and that we all share.

and intensely universal. That’s why it was so dispiriting when, amid growing ten-

Along the way, I began writing poetry—often about my

sions with Iran, our president spoke publicly about attack-

experiences, perhaps because I was so caught up in think-

ing and destroying cultural sites. Yes, those are Persian sites,

ing about the different lenses we use to see the world. In my

those are their sites. But they’re also our sites, our cultural

case, it’s literal: the camera is everything. If something, some

heritage, our shared heritage in human history. That’s why

moment, wasn’t caught on camera, it didn’t happen.

ISIS destroys sculptures and buildings and artifacts, because they know the larger meaning of those works and they refuse a common humanity made manifest through art.

That’s absurd, of course. But in a way, it’s absolutely true to the realities and rules of television news. Even when the camera does capture the action: Which

And that is why nations the world over have decided that cultural sites should be protected in war.

action? What has it missed? What would I see, what would you see, if we turned the camera over here, over there? What did I

Do you like the Mona Lisa? I do—and I’m not a fifteenth-­

see that for one reason or another I wasn’t able to show you?

century Tuscan or a modern-day citizen of Italy. Yes, Italy and

I put some of this into poetry.

France, because the painting hangs in the Louvre, have their

In most cases, I wrote the poems long after the experi-

claims to Leonardo da Vinci and his great masterpiece, the

ences. I went back to read transcripts and sometimes lifted

Mona Lisa. But it belongs to us all.

direct quotes. I looked at my notes from the time and remembered little moments or emotions or funny asides. And

One of the most fulfilling projects I’ve produced over the

then I tried to tell the story in a new way, from a different

years is a series called “Culture at Risk.” We looked at art-

angle, thinking about that lens, sometimes explicitly, as in

works, artifacts, buildings—old and relatively new—at risk

this short poem about a woman in a Haitian village called

from a variety of dangers: war, climate change, overdevelop-

Kacite, where a cholera epidemic had broken out and people

On the Value of the Arts and Culture in a Global Community  259

were dying. This woman played no role whatsoever in our

Of his drifters, the powerful

news story but stayed in my mind long after.

And the pretenders.

Haiti: Kacite We, who lie, who cannot say— For there is no good way to put this— We are here to show the horror of your life.

They stood before a white screen As close to me as you are now— A confrontation that will last. Eyes closed tight and eyes alert. Eyes ahead and eyes askew,

In Kacite they passed out purification tablets

As though they knew not to stare

Displayed with pride their new latrine.

At the viewer—click!—forever.

A woman sweeping her dusty steps—

All gone, dead—forever.

Asked to act naturally for the camera

This is why I call the taking

To act as though we’re not here—

Of portraits a sad art, he said.

More honest and aware than us, replied:

The camera lies all the time,

How can I pretend that you are not here?

It’s all it does is lie. But this

Was that not you who spoke just now?

Is no lie: over there, my father— Sarasota, August 25, 1973,

I talked to others about this question, this problem of

Staring at me, forever. He does

what the camera captures and doesn’t capture. One of them

Not age. But he will not return.

was the celebrated photographer Richard Avedon, with whom I spoke in a large gallery at the Metropolitan Museum in New York City as we were surrounded by giant portraits

What do we see, and what do we say? What story do we tell?

he’d shot over the years.

Sometimes it’s as simple as that. And that, of course, is not

Later, I wrote this:

so simple. Reporting on the arts in a global community matters

Richard Avedon Look around you: all gone, All dead. The heavy-lidded, Snake-charmed, sunbaked. The poets and actors, Capote With the blotched face, Marilyn In sequins, Beckett and one

260  Jeffrey Brown

because it offers a truer and fuller version of the world as presented on a news program. It brings more voices, more visions to the news. It teaches and, yes—why not?—entertains. It makes for a more complete and better hour of news. But reporting on the arts only matters if the arts themselves matter.

Does art matter? Are your eyes open? Is your heart open? Do you have a voice?

Like anything important, it asks for our attention and our judgment.

It matters because it shows us a bit of the world we might

I wrote a short poem called “Song of the News”—just

not otherwise see, takes us places we might not go, because

a little ditty, but I was seeking a simple, clear way to think

it makes us think, because it makes us know other people,

through what I’ve been trying to say to you.

because it makes us laugh and cry. Art and the humanities more broadly also matter because they can show us something about our connections to the

Song of the News What do we see And what do we say?

past, to other people—and that can contribute to making us

Between what happened

better citizens and leaders.

And who cares?

And yes, art matters because it allows us to escape the world or the daily pain or grind. I am not at all against that. That’s a value, too, an extraordinary gift.

Between give a damn And what the hell. Between good evening And good day—

Art is not necessarily good—plenty of it is bad. It’s not necessarily healthy or a way toward making you a

Car crash, caress, The children at play.

better person or us a better democracy. Art has been used

All that we see

for all kinds of twisted purposes.

And all that we say.

On the Value of the Arts and Culture in a Global Community  261

25 The Arts and Global Relations Jay Wang

Productive international relationships rest on trust and cohesion between nations and peoples. Trust is invariably a

Living with Globalization

function of risk, and risk perception is heightened in times

Globalization continues to disrupt and reshape the relation-

of great uncertainty. And these are certainly no ordinary

ship among states, markets, and societies. While the mobility

times. While global connectivity has brought unprecedented

of goods, information, and people is nothing new, what is

rewards in human progress, the contemporary movements of

new is its speed, scope, and scale in our time. With growing

trade, people, and ideas have also engendered considerable

market liberalization and dramatic improvements in com-

tension in our physical as well as imagined spaces. In effect,

munication and transportation over the past decades, inter-

uncertainties abound as the global political and economic

national trade and economic relations are ever more active,

order evolves. The overwhelming character of globalization

including cross-border e-commerce. Principal advances in

demonstrates that it has worked both ways—bringing peo-

digital technology are transforming the way people seek

ple together and driving them apart.

information and stay connected. Meanwhile, stakeholder

As cultural experience, art has played a vital and enduring

communities in the international arena have broadened

role in creating mutual awareness and in celebrating human

to encompass a widening array of players and institutions

bonds. The open question is about the proper role art can

of global consequence, from cities and multinational busi-

play in holding us together while global society undergoes

nesses to multilateral and civil society organizations.

profound social and economic changes.

While globalization has steadily weakened the function and strength of the nation-state, resulting in the diffusion of

262

power in international affairs, the nation-state remains one

insecurity and cultural anxiety among national communities.

of the most significant organizing principles and entities.

The post–World War II, US-led international order is enter-

The nation-state outlook is, in fact, part and parcel of the

ing a new phase of increasing power diffusion among major

globalization process, as economic and cultural globalization

countries and emerging economies, with China at the fore-

embodies both centripetal and centrifugal forces. The ineluc-

front of the “rise of the rest.” In the coming decade, India,

table question is how to surmount this dialectical challenge

China, Africa, and Southeast Asia will drive much of the

and arrive at a harmonious synthesis of the two forces pull-

global economic growth.3 And economic growth generates

ing in opposite directions.

political power on the world stage.

Nowadays, many of the critical issues to be grappled with

As the global political-economic terrain is shifting, nations

manifest complex global interdependence. Our interests are

(especially in the West) are sharply divided on the nature and

no longer easily divisible between national and international

extent of their overseas engagement, in light of the sprawling

boundaries. Given the anticipated substantial increase in de-

complexity of world affairs as well as rising domestic inequal-

mand for food, water, and energy in the coming decades, sus-

ities. There is not only a significant disconnect between the

tainable development is decidedly a transnational agenda.1

elites and the public on these critical matters but also a

Digital innovation and its societal consequences are calling

schism within the elites about the merits of trade, migration,

for new regulatory norms and tools to address new and

and the flow of ideas. It is therefore no surprise that, in recent

emerging practices, from the internet of things to the sharing

years, resurgent populism as a countermovement to global-

economy to automation and the future of work. To success-

ism is spreading in much of the developed world.

fully navigate this fast-moving, ever-more-complex trans-

Amid these destabilizing shifts and interwoven crises, one

national policy arena requires unprecedented international

is reminded of the inevitable limitations of human nature

cooperation and cross-sector collaboration. The COVID-19

and imagination, as the American theologian and social critic

pandemic offers yet another striking example of dire conse-

Reinhold Niebuhr noted decades ago. His thesis of “moral

quences to the world in the absence of global coordination

man and immoral society” contends that, while individuals

to face down the spread of a virus. As Manuel Castells has

may be moral in the sense of considering interests other than

put it, these stark and staggering challenges reveal the glaring

their own, and at times even sacrificing their own interest

gap “between the space where the issues arrive (global) and

for the advantage of the other, this outlook and conduct

the space where the issues are managed (the nation-state).”2

are far more difficult, if not impossible, for human societies

Its tremendous benefits notwithstanding, globalization

such as nation-states. Human groups have “less capacity for

has also exacerbated societal divides, heightening economic

self-transcendence” and therefore are generally incapable of

The Arts and Global Relations  263

seeing and understanding the interests of other social groups

Cultural contacts can be harmonious mixing and min-

as vividly as their own. Niebuhr wrote, “For all the centuries

gling but also contentious and sometimes even violent.

of experience, men have not yet learned how to live together

Given our tendency for homophily in social interactions,

without compounding their vices and covering each other

especially against real or feared downward socioeconomic

‘with mud and with blood.’”4

mobility, our cultural interactions often provoke our basic

This is clearly a pessimistic but realistic view of the human

impulses of prejudice. After all, our tastes and sensibilities are

condition. Recognizing that there is no escape from soci-

varied and distinct and may even clash with others. Mobil-

etal conflict, Niebuhr asked, “What can be done to save

ity in this instance becomes a perceived threat. In response,

societies from endless cycles of conflicts?” His answer was

as the cultural critic Stephen Greenblatt points out, “many

forthright—to reduce them to a minimum by expanding

groups and individuals have attempted to wall themselves

social cooperation. Our task, then, is to develop the incentive

off from the world or, alternatively, they have resorted to vio-

and capacity for cooperative behavior. And the basis of this

lence.”5 The French political scientist Laurent Bouvet calls the

enterprise is to expand the spaces of collective empathy and

phenomenon “cultural insecurity.” Many people simply lack

mutual understanding.

the capacity and resources to cope with the cultural angst brought about by the fast face of globalization. They are

Emotional Truth in a Fracturing World

understandably feeling overwhelmed and exhausted during this transition from a primarily monocultural existence to an increasingly diverse environment.

The drama of human experience is intrinsically historical

The rising populist fervor in the West is in large part a

and social. On the one hand, one feels a wistful yearning for

manifestation of the tensions that result from global mobil-

connecting the present to the past in order to affirm a sense

ity. Is economic dislocation or cultural disruption primarily

of self against obvious changes in the everyday. We seek his-

driving the backlash against trade and immigration? Brexit

torical continuity and authenticity to validate who we are

and the broader European opposition to immigration were

and what we are becoming. The result is a constant nostalgia

arguably motivated less by pocketbook concerns than by

for the way we were. Meanwhile, our being is also a social,

cultural anxiety, as one wrestles with a daily existence—from

conjoint experience. In public spaces and social settings, we

schools and workplaces to stores and neighborhoods—that

now have more opportunities than ever to experience the

is imprinted by the demographic and cultural shifts through

heterogeneous world, as a foreigner and an outsider, and as

mass migration. In the United States, the foreign-born pop-

an insider and someone who is being visited upon by others.

ulation is reaching a historical high comparable to that of

264  Jay Wang

the 1920s (the previous peak of immigration), with the vast

Political Brain that in American political life, the market-

majority of the foreign-born residents now from Latin Amer-

place of emotions matters more than the marketplace

ica and East and South Asia.

of ideas.7

Ours is also an age of information abundance, flooded

Despite many people’s lack of direct international expe-

with images and sound bites. Popular emotion and pub-

riences, there is expanding public participation in wide-­

lic opinion are exerting greater constraints on policies and

ranging social processes through, for instance, digital and

state actions. The information cacophony in the digital

social media channels. We therefore expect that similar

space, with plenty of misinformation and disinformation,

affective forces are at work in how international affairs are

has exacerbated our incredulity and distrust. To make mat-

perceived by the general public, whose expressed views of

ters worse, the excess of reckless political rhetoric through

other countries and cultures are in large measure shaped

these channels of communication makes the public’s exis-

by their feelings and habits rather than information and

tential fear ever more vivid and visceral, fueling the fire that’s

knowledge.

already burning.

This is hardly a novel idea. Albert Hirschman expertly

As in domestic politics, one’s perceptions and opinions

traced the vigorous intellectual debate in the seventeenth

concerning other countries and world affairs encompass

and eighteenth centuries about the complex roles that inter-

both rational and emotional realms, with the emotional

ests and passions play in social decision and human action.

aspect remaining underappreciated and underexplored.

Spinoza’s two propositions about the basic principle of

The assumption of a dispassionate citizenry—a citizenry

countervailing passion remain poignant: “No affect can be

viewed primarily as interest-maximizing agents—has been

restrained by the true knowledge of good and evil insofar as

critiqued as an incomplete understanding of the dynamic

it is true, but only insofar as it is considered as an affect,” and

interplay between the rational mind and the emotional

“an affect cannot be restrained nor removed unless by an

heart in one’s sociopolitical life. The distinguished historian

opposed and stronger affect.”8

Richard Hofstadter explained, “People not only seek their

As evinced in current events, emotion is integral to the

interests but also express and even in a measure define

process of rationality, as opposed to the two being a sim-

themselves in politics; that political life acts as a sounding

plified dichotomy Merely providing accurate information

board for identities, values, fears, and aspirations.” Hence,

is neither sufficient nor effective to communicate with the

“politics can be a projective arena for feelings and impulses

public, for whom dramatic images and events tend to shape

that are only marginally related to the manifest issues.”6

and reinforce perceptions and attitudes concerning mat-

More recently, Drew Western has argued in his book The

ters domestic and international. While facts are essential to

The Arts and Global Relations  265

ground our worldviews, we connect equally through emo-

by confining and minimizing the tensions in cross-cultural

tional truth that is based on understanding each other at a

relations. For art enlightens and can facilitate the mecha-

deeper level.

nism of collective empathy. The playwright David Henry Hwang notes, “My particular form, theatre, for instance,

Art as a Moderating Force

allows us to see both difference and underlying humanity simultaneously. If we watch a show set in a different cul-

It is trite to state that a function of the arts is to advance

ture, we might first notice the superficial differences (habits,

global relations or to relax international tensions. Art is cer-

foods, attitudes). But if the play is good, we very soon find

tainly not merely a utility or a part of geopolitical calculus. It

ourselves thinking something like, ‘That guy reminds me of

has the intrinsic value of revealing an “essential reality” that

my Uncle Frank.’ This ability to understand both difference

transcends time and space; it gives voice to our deeper feel-

and humanity is critical to building significant and lasting

ings that broaden our minds; and it allows and enables us

international connections.”10

to open up vistas of experiences so that we can better cope

However, such cultural mobility does not necessarily

with and negotiate differences. The question then becomes,

translate into a cosmopolitan outlook by the public. When

Does art make us better communities and better citizens in

asked about the role of the arts in creating cross-cultural

our effort to forge a global community?

understanding, the late Martin Roth, former director of

This question is both normative and empirical. We com-

the Victoria and Albert Museum, remarked, “To be honest,

monly view art as the consummate form of communication

today I would say zero. I say this because of the current global

that helps to expand spaces of expression and empathy. As

political situation. I always believed in enlightening interest

an empirical question, we need to capture and understand

in other countries, which is so vital for promoting toler-

the nature, significance, and consequence of the arts in nur-

ance. Now anti-Muslim behavior and attitudes are sweeping

turing cultural generosity that makes “the other” feel less dis-

across Europe and America.”11 This grim assessment under-

tant. When the artist Phyllida Barlow was asked about her

scores the precariousness of efforts to bring people together

representing Britain for the Venice Biennale, she put it sim-

through the arts.

ply: “Representing your country is not your primary concern. It is more a question of ‘we’re all in this together.’”9

Indeed, fostering and sustaining international relationships and cooperation is no easy feat. What is notable is that

As we navigate an increasingly volatile world of extreme

art in its essence captures and expresses our shared human-

tendencies, we find that art serves as a moderating force, for

ity. “There are certain universal ideas that culture connects

it helps us manage, and maybe even overcome, polarities

us to, and culture leads us to understanding other people

266  Jay Wang

and their perspectives,” as Jonathan Mills, former director of

casting aside our provincial views and reimagine and recon-

the Edinburgh International Festival, points out. “To embrace

struct a global community that is capable of coping with

‘the other’ is an adventure in true civility that we should all

interdependence. At moments of great change, art has a vital

embark upon.”12

and urgent role in nurturing a global mind and conscience

As the global challenges we face seem unceasingly complex, we must hope that the world can come together by

and in building our capacity for reciprocal familiarity and cooperative behavior.

The Arts and Global Relations  267

Conclusion The Art of Gathering Michael F. DiNiscia

This volume was the culmination of a multiyear project in

We benefited greatly in this project from having a base at

which we asked artists, professionals working in the field of

the John Brademas Center of New York University. Named

arts and culture, funders who support the arts, and schol-

for the late NYU president and member of Congress, the

ars who study aspects of the field the question, “Are the

center’s mission is to serve as a home for inquiry and civil

arts essential?” Admittedly, we would have been surprised

debate on issues of public policy, particularly those areas

if anyone we asked came right out and answered, “No, they

in which John Brademas was an active legislator: education

aren’t.” So why ask the question? By making the query in

and the arts and humanities. Since its founding in 2004, the

the way we did, we hoped to facilitate a conversation that

center has served as convener in these areas with confer-

does not normally take place. We hoped this conversation,

ences at NYU’s New York campus and global sites, as well

in turn, would lead to deeper arguments for the value of

as in partnership with other institutions such as the Asian

the arts in society than are commonly offered. This required

Cultural Council, the Ditchley Foundation, and the Doris

finding the right mix of participants for the initiative and a

Duke Foundation for Islamic Art. The institutional reputa-

process to engage them—primarily a series of convenings

tion of the Brademas Center as a convenor and NYU’s as

with a goal of producing a collection of essays for publica-

a global research university proved invaluable in recruiting

tion. It also required embracing a process that would not

participants and securing funding for this initiative. We

dictate the outcomes ahead of time but instead enabled

also benefited significantly from the administrative sup-

us to adjust and adapt based on what we learned along

port the center provided that authors or anthologizers

our journey.

seldom have.

269

The three gatherings at the heart of this project—at NYU

working throughout the range of visual and performing arts;

Florence in 2018, the Rockefeller Brothers Fund’s Pocantico

cultural professionals from small nonprofits serving local

Center in 2019, and online in 2020—made significant con-

communities to large institutions serving a global audience;

tributions to shaping the essays in this volume. Indeed, we

and leaders and program officers from foundations support-

do not believe a single academic conference where papers

ing projects in arts and culture and in social justice.

are presented, commented on, and then assembled for pub-

Starting with Florence, the in-person meetings were built

lication would have produced the richness of arguments you

to be conducive to extended discourse. The experience in

find here. Much as our group of participants and the final

Florence—as it was also at the Pocantico Conference Center

group of writers evolved over the course of two and a half

on the Rockefeller estate north of New York City—includes

years, so did several of their theses as they engaged with each

the solitude and aesthetic surroundings of a country prop-

other over time.

erty, inspiring quiet reflection; the gathering at a roundtable

Alberta Arthurs developed the concept for the initial

where no one is at the head and everyone is in an equal posi-

convening with our colleague Ellyn Toscano, then executive

tion for a more fully participatory discussion; and informal

director of NYU Florence. Together we all planned a program

interaction over meals, walks, and even late-night conversa-

and recruited participants for that first conference to bridge

tions, an acknowledgment that we humans do not only do

disciplines within the practice and within the study of the

our thinking in formal settings.

arts, as well as across practice and scholarship. A core mis-

Opening the first convening at Villa La Pietra, the

sion of the Brademas Center, as John Brademas himself said,

sixteenth-­century estate that is home to NYU Florence,

is to “bring together thinkers and doers.” We first drew from

Ellyn Toscano spoke about the ideal of a what a villa was in

our own networks several of the participants who came to

Roman and Renaissance society. A villa was a place where

Florence. We also relied on experts in our networks to pro-

leaders and philosophers could repair away from the noise

vide counsel for whom else to include. In addition, we con-

and distraction of the city in order to think, to reflect, to talk.

ducted research and literature searches on the topics we

With all the distractions we have imposed on ourselves with

planned to cover in order to identify other participants. The

modern technology, it felt even more important to embrace

reputational capital of the Brademas Center and NYU helped

that ideal today. As a participant from a foundation that sup-

in bringing in these participants from outside our networks.

ports arts and community dialogue told us, these meetings

By April 2018, we were ready to convene a group, coming

enabled her to break away from the day-to-day urgencies of

from around the world, of over two dozen scholars in the

work in order to think more strategically about her grant

arts, humanities, social sciences, and public policy; artists

making, in a way she does not usually get to do.

270  Michael F. DiNiscia

Each of the project’s three convenings encouraged a sense

ican audience, to influence decision-makers in public pol-

of solidarity among the participants, which facilitated robust

icy and private grant making and the cultural field, a tighter

discussion in the formal discussions—at times with strong

focus, offering empirical evidence and examples from on the

and frank disagreement that participants felt they could

ground in the United States, could provide a greater oppor-

air because of the trust that had been engendered among

tunity for impact.

them. Even the deliberations at our final convening held

Second, we had not anticipated going into Florence how

over Zoom, with all the limitations that imposed, benefited

much time the scholars and practitioners would devote to

from an equal leveling that everyone appearing as boxes on

exploring the nature of “experiencing art” and what we can

a screen provided.

actually know about the impacts of experience. For the art-

Our conversations at all the convenings were also

ist, can impact be separated from the act of creation? Do cul-

grounded by the participation of multiple working art-

tural programs really change perspectives and offer tools for

ists who shared their own artwork around the table—

community empowerment? Theorists pressed the cultural

photographs, video, and poems. The art itself was present

practitioners to offer more evidence for the arts as instru-

for us. We could see how those around the table took it in,

ments of social change; artists pressed the scholars to expand

moving us in a way that talks alone could not. And it helped

their theories of human connections to more fully include

to place artists—their work and aspirations—front and cen-

the arts. As we set up the meeting on the first morning, we

ter in discourse.

had grouped our participants around the table by the pan-

We had two main takeaways from Florence that influ-

els on which they would be speaking—this meant theorists

enced the direction of our project going forward. That first

were mostly sitting together, with the artists and cultural

convening drew on participants from across the globe. Their

professionals across from them. As we watched the sessions

perspectives made for rich discussions highlighting the uni-

over two days, we were really surprised by the genuine diffi-

versality of the arts and their value. Yet at the discussions

culty these theorists and practitioners were having talking

and reflecting on them afterward, it became apparent to

with each other, of finding common frames of reference and

us that for the project to have impact outside the room,

terminology. We could see that dialogue would not flow just

going forward we needed to narrow our focus to the US

by bringing academics, artists, and practitioners together in

experience. We felt this would give a stronger cohesion to

the same room, no matter how much they were engaged

bind the final essays together. We hoped it would encour-

individually writing about or working in the arts. We real-

age more dialogue among several of the essays themselves.

ized we would have to design the next convening in ways to

And for a book that would be aimed primarily at an Amer-

bridge this gap between theorists and practitioners.

Conclusion  271

Our choice to narrow our scope and to look for ways to

Center Research Fellow Leah Reisman to firm up the evi-

adapt the program to overcome the gap between theory

dence behind our premise. We were interested in knowing

and practice illustrates another important aspect of having

in a more systematic way what had been written by serious

an institutional base for our project. We were able to keep

observers and scholars. She conducted an extensive search

the process moving and secure support for different parts

of the academic literature as well as general-interest publi-

of the initiative from multiple sources even as the project

cations in the field. The bibliography she prepared, included

was taking place. We therefore were not locked into a sin-

in this volume, illustrates a paucity of significantly developed

gle funding source with a proposal that laid out all the steps

and accessible arguments on the intrinsic and instrumental

in advance, culminating in the predetermined “product.” It

value of the arts. Much of the existing academic research and

gave us the flexibility for the initiative to develop organically

public offerings have focused on the economic impact of the

over three years, adjusting the themes and process along the

cultural sector. Leah Reisman’s work illustrates that support-

way. It allowed us to be surprised by our participants and the

ers of the arts have also pointed to their power to unleash

ideas they offered, to shift gears as we went.

creativity, to encourage critical thinking, and to provide

For the next meeting at Pocantico, Alberta Arthurs developed a program that in addition to focusing on the US expe-

emotional connection but that these arguments are often not well defined or supported by robust methodology.

rience included individual sessions tackling the relationship

With this research in hand, a new program ready, and a

between the arts and specific issues for society. These sessions

mix of participants, some of whom had been at Florence and

covered environmental action, arts education, community

some joining us new, we gathered at the Pocantico Confer-

organizing, and combating racism as well as broader themes

ence Center in January 2019. While there, we were impressed

such as the arts and health and well-being and the arts and

by the seriousness with which our conferees approached

the transformation of technology. We hoped the sharing of

the overarching question and the topics they had agreed

more concrete, specific examples would help provide a com-

to address. And we were struck by how willing they were to

mon frame of reference for the discussions around the table,

engage in genuine dialogue around the table. We felt that the

engendering a better understanding between scholars and

scholars and the practitioners and artists were having a real

practitioners of what the arts are capable of doing.

give-and-take in the discussions over the specific examples

In addition to planning the program for Pocantico in the

and models and that this was helping to refine and advance

nine months following the first convening, we began reach-

their own theses. We found the dialogue not to be adversar-

ing out through our networks to bring in new voices for the

ial but to be an honest learning commons. As the discussions

discussions. At the same time, we worked with Brademas

progressed, we grew confident that we were ready to ask

272  Michael F. DiNiscia

those participants who would be writing for the book to put

election took place between the second and third sessions—

their ideas down and expand on their subjects in essay form.

to further engender a sense of community among those who

Throughout the project, we had also engaged on an in-

had been on this journey with us. We were struck by how all

dividual basis academics, artists, and cultural professionals

these people, with so many demands on their professional

who were unable to join the first two convenings but who

lives, took the time over three weeks to join in a real conver-

believed in the importance of the enterprise and offered to

sation about what the arts mean and what their value is. As

contribute essays. Many of these authors joined with those

we have written, our fervent hope for Are the Arts Essential?

essayists who had attended Florence and Pocantico to take

is that it has life beyond what appears between the covers of

part in the final convening we organized in fall 2020. Origi-

this book. From our institutional base at the NYU Brademas

nally planned as a return to Pocantico, this gathering went

Center, with this volume in hand, we plan to engage the pub-

virtual, held over Zoom on three consecutive Mondays in late

lic, policy makers, and professionals in arts and culture in a

October and early November. This final convening had two

conversation about the value of the arts to our development

goals. The first was to help give us a sense of how the individ-

as individuals and communities. Having a group of stake-

ual pieces—the essays—would fit together for this volume.

holders with a shared sense of purpose in this endeavor is key

We had for over a year been working with our authors. This

to furthering this work. Indeed, the solidarity built among

online conference let us step back and listen to them with a

participants throughout the three years of this project has

fresher ear, to hear how the arguments—whether from the

been enormously inspiring and propelled this initiative. And

humanities or social sciences or practice—are interlocked

we hope the work they have contributed here—individually

and build on each other.

and collectively—will provide some serious, deep arguments

This virtual convening was also an attempt in the midst of the pandemic and the strife the country was facing—the

for those who care about the arts to help make the case that yes, indeed, the arts are essential.

Conclusion  273

Annotated Bibliogr aphy Leah Reisman

Methodological Note

Policy-Oriented Academic Work

This annotated bibliography aims to summarize writing and

Belfiore, Eleonora. 2002. “Art as a Means of Alleviating Social

scholarship on the value of the arts to society, spanning

Exclusion: Does It Really Work? A Critique of Instrumen-

academic disciplines, professional literature, and the pop-

tal Cultural Policies and Social Impact Studies in the UK.”

ular press. It incorporates empirical, policy-oriented, theo-

International Journal of Cultural Policy 8 (1): 91–106.

retical, and philosophical works, as well as notable opinion

This article reviews and critiques the value propo-

pieces. Rather than comprehensively reviewing all extant

sitions for the arts that have been represented in British

work, the bibliography focuses on capturing core or typical

cultural policy and funding guidelines in recent history.

approaches within and across relevant fields, as well as par-

According to the author, the current argument for art’s

ticularly notable or seminal works. As such, review articles

value rests on the notion that art is able to combat social

are consulted wherever possible, supplemented by import-

exclusion, promote social inclusion and cohesion, and

ant individual works. The review focuses on work in English.

“contribute to neighborhood renewal” by improving

It centers on the United States but includes work produced

community performance in “health, crime, employment,

internationally that represents important perspectives that

and education.” This perspective, the author argues, rep-

originate in non-US contexts and/or that are missing in US

resents an instrumental conceptualization of art’s value, in

sources. Rather than follow a codified methodology, it has

which the entire value of art is reduced to its contribution

been expanded and developed by the suggestions and con-

to “tackling a social problem.”

tributions of its reviewers.

Bissell, Evan. 2019. “Notes on a Cultural Strategy for Belonging.” Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, UC Berkeley.

275

This paper lays out four strategies by which art and culture can help create a broader “culture of belonging”:

Social Impact of the Arts Project. 2017. Culture and Social Wellbeing in New York City. University of Pennsylvania.

cultivating diverse “cultural practice” that supports lead-

This project investigated the impact of “neighbor-

ership growth by those who are impacted by systems of

hood cultural ecosystems” on social well-being. The

oppression; amplifying the knowledge that flows from

researchers find that cultural resources are unequally

cultural production and creating experiences in which

distributed across neighborhoods, that many social well-­

this knowledge can be “understood on its own terms”;

being indicators are associated with economic status, and

aligning with efforts toward political and social change;

that culture has the largest impact on social well-­being in

and “making social and cultural change into a new ‘com-

“low- and moderate-income” neighborhoods.

mon sense.’” Guetzkow, Joshua. 2002. “How the Arts Impact Communities: An Introduction to the Literature on Arts Impact Studies.” Princeton University Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies Working Paper Series, 20. This piece provides an overview of literature about the instrumental impact of the arts. Broadly, the impacts associated with the arts include improved academic performance, neighborhood revitalization, contribution to economic prosperity, improvement in physical and mental health, and the creation of social capital. Novak-Leonard, Jennifer, and Rachel Skaggs. 2017. “Public Perceptions of Artists in Communities: A Sign of Changing Times.” Artivate 6 (2). The authors conducted a survey about public perceptions of artists, finding that public perception has shifted from considering artists isolated geniuses to key participants in public discourse and civic life, including artists’ role in contributing to social change.

276  Leah Reisman

Public and Commissioned Reports and Evaluations All-Party Parliamentary Group of Arts, Health and Wellbeing. 2017. Creative Health: The Arts for Health and Wellbeing. This report reviews the “state of evidence” on the relationship between the arts and health and well-being, including the role of the arts in lessening the impact of health inequalities. It also reviews art’s contribution to a “sense of place and community” and the quality of one’s environment. Across these topics, the report addresses the uneven quality of research in the field. Americans for the Arts. 2018. Americans Speak Out about the Arts. This project collects the results of a national survey conducted by Americans for the Arts, which found widespread support for art’s impact on society.

Bennett, Jamie. 2014. “Creative Placemaking in Community

ing communities in cocreating content focused on larger

Planning and Development: An Introduction to ArtPlace

issues. The authors argue that arts organizations can play

America.” Community Development Investment Review.

several civic roles and outline a typology of these roles.

This piece provides a pithy overview of the “creative placemaking” paradigm. Under a theory of creative placemaking, art plays an “intentional and integrated” role in local planning and development. While the interventions are creative, the outcomes may not be. Creative placemaking interventions, according to the author, strengthen economic development, encourage civic engagement, build resiliency, and/or contribute to quality of life. Brown, Alan. 2006. “An Architecture of Value.” Grantmakers in the Arts Reader. This conceptual framework by the prominent consultant Alan Brown builds on the Gifts of the Muse report and serves as a call for “new language” to discuss the value of the arts in society. The author thinks about the benefits of the arts as distributed over time (real time to over time or repeat experiences) and over social setting (from individual to social), articulating five types of benefits of the arts in society.

Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. 2019. Culture-Led Regeneration: Achieving Inclusive and Sustainable Growth. Local Government Association. This report summarizes fifteen case studies to argue how the cultural sector can drive economic regeneration. Casale, Laura. 2017 “Arts Engagement Literature Review Summary: Companion to Building the Field of Arts Engagement.” AEA Consulting, for the James Irvine Foundation. https://irvine-dot-org.s3.amazonaws.com. This literature review contains an annotated bibliography focused on deepening and reenvisioning arts engagement—how, why, and what works. Catterall, James, Dumais, Susan, and Gillian Hampden-­ Thompson. 2012. The Arts and Achievement in At-Risk Youth: Findings from Four Longitudinal Studies. National Endowment for the Arts. This report describes correlations between arts activities by at-risk youth, academic achievement, and civic

Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. 2017. Rethinking Relation-

engagement, based on four large, longitudinal databases.

ships: Phase One of the Inquiry into the Civic Role of Arts

The report concludes that disadvantaged youth who

Organisations.

have “high levels of arts engagement” show more positive

This report argues that arts organizations’ civic role has shifted over time from access to education to engag-

outcomes on “academic and civic behavioral measures” and greater academic achievement.

Annotated Bibliography  277

Crossick, Geoffrey, and Patrycja Kaszynska. 2016. Understanding the Value of Arts and Culture. AHRC Cultural Value Project. This report reviews the findings of the Cultural Value Project, a three-year project by the UK Art and Humanities Research Council made up of seventy individual works, including new research, literature reviews, and workshops. The project aimed to transcend familiar dichotomies in the discussion of “cultural value” in society and bridge the myriad types of arts practice and participation, focusing on the value of individual participation in arts experiences. Gute, Deanne, and Gary Gute. 2014. How Creativity Works in the Brain. National Endowment for the Arts.

and the effect of this initiative on “academic, social, and emotional outcomes.” LaPlaca Cohen and Slover Linett Audience Research. 2020. Culture + Community in a Time of Crisis: A Special Edition of Culture Track. In this special edition of a periodic survey, the authors report that during COVID-19, people associated arts experiences with spending quality time with family or friends and felt that the arts could bring people with divergent perspectives together, provide trusted information, and facilitate distraction and escape. Many turned to creative pursuits to weather the pandemic and joined digital arts programming for education, a sense of community, intimacy, and connection.

This report discusses the state of neuro­scientific and

LeRoux, Kelly, and Anna Bernadska. 2012. Impact of the Arts

cognitive psychological research on creativity, including

on Individual Contributions to U.S. Civil Society. National

the need to converge on a definition of creativity.

Endowment for the Arts.

Kisida, Brian, and Daniel Bowen. 2019. “New Evidence of the Benefits of Arts Education.” Brown Center ChalkBoard (blog), Brookings Institution, February 12. The authors argue that engaging with art is essential to the experience of being human and benefits civil soci-

This study examines the effect of arts participation on civil society. Focusing on individual-level impact, the authors find positive effects in the relationship between arts participation and “civic engagement, social tolerance, and other-regarding behavior.”

ety. However, they discuss the lack of empirical evidence

McCarthy, Kevin, Elizabeth Ondaatje, Laura Zakara, and

of the benefits of the arts in K–12 education. Responding

Arthur Brooks. 2004. Gifts of the Muse: Reframing the

to this situation, the authors report on a randomized con-

Debate about the Benefits of the Arts. RAND Research in

trol trial study of a city’s efforts to provide arts education

the Arts.

278  Leah Reisman

This piece provides an overview of the different ways

This report leverages longitudinal data from the

in which the value of the arts can and has been conceptu-

Health and Retirement Study to analyze the relationship

alized. It provides a summary of the instrumental benefits

between arts participation and self-reported health. Find-

that have been attributed to the arts and then broaches

ings include that older adults who attended art events

the subject of the intrinsic benefits of the arts, as derived

and created art “reported better health outcomes” in

from works of aesthetics, philosophy, and art criticism.

the same year. Greater frequency of arts participation

Moran, Jenna, Jason Schupbach, Courtney Spearman, and Jennifer Reut. 2014. Beyond the Building: Performing Arts & Transforming Place. National Endowment for the Arts. This report summarizes a convening of twenty-six representatives of performing arts organizations, industry

and active arts creation were positively associated with outcomes. UNESCO. 2016. “The Value of Heritage.” Video. Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Cultural Heritage Project. https://whc.unesco.org.

associations, and funders focused on understanding how

This video project features interviews with people

performing organizations and related artists “transform

from across the world, talking about the value of their

places through their artistic practices.”

cultural heritage and the impact that the loss of this heritage would have on them. The narrators assert that

National Governors Association. 2019. Rural Prosperity through the Arts and Creative Sector. This report focuses on the creative sector as an economic engine, for general and particularly for rural economies. The authors assert that robust research suggests that the creative sector contributes to a “productive business climate, a diversified economic base, a competitive workforce, a desirable quality of life, and an innovation habitat.”

cultural heritage is essential for building future peace, because it provides an image of historical societal richness that serves as an incentive to rebuild after disaster and violence. Voss, Zannie, and Glenn Voss. 2017. Arts and Culture Are Closer than You Realize: U.S. Nonprofit Arts and Cultural Organizations Are a Big Part of Community Life, Economy, and Employment—and Federal Funding Enhances the Impact. National Center for Arts Research.

Rajan, Kumar, and Rekha Rajan. 2017. Staying Engaged: Health

This report reviews 39,292 arts organizations with

Patterns of Older Americans Who Participate in the Arts.

budgets over $50,000, finding that their combined bud-

National Endowment for the Arts.

gets approach $32 billion. On the basis of this calculation,

Annotated Bibliography  279

the authors argue for the economic value of the arts to

National Endowment for the Arts, Bureau of Economic Analysis and Office of Research and Analysis. 2019. Arts and

the country. WolfBrown and MEM Consultants. 2019. Liberating Academic Mindsets through Culturally Responsive Arts Integration. This report summarizes the results of a multiyear Department of Education Arts in Education Model Development and Dissemination project. Findings included

Cultural Production Satellite Account Report. This report, released yearly, tracks the economic impact of arts and cultural production (commercial and nonprofit) on the US economy, across thirty-five industries.

that students exhibited higher levels of “learner behav-

Seaman, Bruce. 2011. “Economic Impact of the Arts.” Chapter

iors,” strengthened “academic mindsets,” and improved

28 in A Handbook of Cultural Economics, edited by Ruth

test scores.

Towse, 3rd ed. Northampton, MA: Elgar.

Workman, Emily. 2017. Beyond the Core: Advancing Student Success through the Arts. Education Commission of the States.

This piece reviews a typical economics perspective on the value of the arts, revolving around the ways the arts contribute to economic growth.

The report argues that the arts “foster deeper learning skills,” including critical thinking, mastering core content, collaboration, communication, and building academic mind-sets—outcomes that can be achieved through arts education.

Political Science Bleiker, Roland. 2001. “The Aesthetic Turn in International Political Theory.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 30 (3): 509–33. Bleiker argues for the value of “aesthetics” as an

Economics Americans for the Arts. 2012. Arts & Economic Prosperity IV. This series reports the arts and culture industry’s impact on the economy. Framing the sector as made up of entrepreneurial organizations, the authors report $135.2 billion generated by the industry in 2010, representing 4.1 million jobs. The industry also yields $22.3 billion in revenue to the government.

280  Leah Reisman

approach to studying international politics and the importance of aesthetics as a way of thinking in fields beyond art and art history. Chong, Dennis, and James Druckman. 2007. “Framing Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 10:103–26. Kinder, Donald. 1998. “Communication and Opinion.” Annual Review of Political Science 1:167–97.

Framing “refers to the processes by which people

used by the masses to escape the pressures of capitalism

develop a particular conceptualization of an issue or reori-

but also by ruling classes to subjugate the masses. Addi-

ent their thinking about an issue” (Chong and Druckman

tionally, artistic intent may be reflected in audience reac-

2007:104). According to Kinder, “Frames seek to capture

tions or warped by them.

the essence of an issue. They define what the problem is and how to think about it; often they suggest what, if anything, should be done to remedy it” (1998:172). Framing theory is relevant to our understanding of the value of art for multiple reasons. First, artists can be understood as agents of framing: in creating artworks, artists frame and interpret issues through myriad media and styles of communication, thereby advancing particular framings of issues. Additionally, the aesthetic strategies employed by artists can be understood as potentially powerful in amplifying their framing of issues in ways that can produce effects on audiences.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” In Handbook of Theory and Research in the Sociology of Education, edited by John G. Richardson, 241–58. Westport, CT: Greenwood. This piece outlines Bourdieu’s theories of different kinds of capital: social, economic, cultural. Bourdieu’s writing on the forms of capital provides a theory of how the arts are leveraged and implicated in the maintenance and reproduction of social structure and the inequality contained within it. Cultural capital, which is unequally possessed by the upper class, functions as a key exclusionary mechanism in society. Calhoun, Craig, and Richard Sennett, eds. 2007. Practicing

Sociology Blau, Judith. 1988. “Study of the Arts: A Reappraisal.” Annual Review of Sociology 14: 269–92. Kuklick, Henrika. 1983. “The Sociology of Knowledge: Retrospect and Prospect.” Annual Review of Sociology 9:287–310. Mukerji, Chandra, and Michael Schudson. 1986. “Popular Culture.” Annual Review of Sociology 12:47–66. These pieces reinforce the multifaceted nature of art:

Culture. New York: Routledge. This edited volume focuses on the ways culture can be understood through a focus on practice. The contributors show how through the process of everyday, ongoing practices and routines, culture is produced, reproduced, shifted, and legitimated. Therefore, culture emerges through making and doing—everyday practices can also be thought of as performances of culture.

because art is socially produced, it reflects the society and

DiMaggio, Paul, and Patricia Fernández-Kelly, eds. 2010. Art in

social norms from which it came. However, it also has the

the Lives of Immigrant Communities in the United States.

potential to subvert or shift dominant values. Art can be

New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Annotated Bibliography  281

This edited volume focuses on the practice and sig-

to define themselves and their communities. In doing so,

nificance of art among immigrant communities in the

it highlights how art can be used both to include and to

United States. Art is particularly important to individual

exclude.

and group identity because it is a type of culture produced by specialized groups of creators.

Sennett, Richard. 2008. The Craftsman. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Olick, Jeffrey, and Joyce Robbins. 1998. “Social Memory Stud-

Sennett argues that the process of craftsmanship

ies: From Collective Memory to the Historical Sociol-

involves a basic—and critical—human impulse: to do a

ogy of Mnemonic Practices.” Annual Review of Sociology

job well. While he does not write on “high art,” his focus

24:105–40.

in The Craftsman on craft and the importance of physical

This piece represents a sociological take on the im-

making to human life is a clear argument in favor of the

portance of art—here in the form of monuments and

fundamental value of opportunities for artistic creation

public commemorations—in conveying and concretizing

in society.

dominant beliefs, historical interpretations, and cultural configurations in society.

Education

Poletta, Francesca, Pang Ching, Bobby Chen, Beth Gharrity

Chappell, Sharon Verner, and Melisa Cahnmann-Taylor. 2013.

Gardner, and Alice Motes. 2011. “The Sociology of Story-

“No Child Left with Crayons: The Imperative of Arts-

telling.” Annual Review of Sociology 37:109–30.

Based Education and Research with Language ‘Minority’

This piece focuses on narrative and storytelling as an art form, outlining narrative’s fundamental role in (1)

and Other Minoritized Communities.” Review of Research in Education 37:243–68.

human cognition and subjectivity, (2) institutional repro-

This article focuses on the arts as a crucial font of

duction, and (3) political action. The authors underline

habits, skills, and practices of human experience and as a

how the power of a particular story depends in large part

way to develop and bridge cultural identities.

on its artistry. Roy, William, and Timothy Dowd. 2010. “What Is Sociological about Music?” Annual Review of Sociology 36:183–203.

Gadsen, Vivian. 2008. “The Arts and Education: Knowledge Generation, Pedagogy, and the Discourse of Learning.” Review of Research in Education 32 (1): 29–61.

This piece underlines art’s importance to individual

This article summarizes the importance of the arts

and group identity, focusing on the ways people use art

to education and to the development of fundamental

282  Leah Reisman

dispositions, “habits of mind,” ways of knowing, and per-

against conventional economic arguments for the value

spectives on the human condition.

of the arts and reminding us that the arts’ value differs for

Huber, Janice, Vera Caine, and Pam Steeves. 2013. “Narra-

different segments of the population.

tive Inquiry as Pedagogy in Education: The Extraordinary

DeMarrais, Elizabeth, and John Robb. 2013. “Art Makes Soci-

Potential of Living, Telling, Retelling, and Reliving Stories

ety: An Introductory Visual Essay.” World Art 3 (1): 3–22.

of Experience.” Review of Research in Education 37:212–42.

This article uses an archeological/anthropological

This article focuses on the importance of narrative in

approach to the arts, drawing on examples of ancient

education. Highlighting the work of Bruner in psychology

and modern art from both Western and non-­Western

in the 1980s, the authors point to narrative and story as a

societies to advocate for a focus on the “material reali-

“primary way of knowing” that “expresses the fundamen-

ties” and social impact of the arts over their “aesthetic

tal nature of humanity” (214).

qualities.”

Ngo, Bic, Cynthia Lewis, and Betsy Maloney Leaf. 2017. “Fostering Sociopolitical Consciousness with Minoritized Youth: Insights from Community-Based Arts Programs.” Review of Research in Education 41:358–80. This piece focuses on the importance of the arts for “fostering sociopolitical consciousness,” with a focus on marginalized communities. It highlights art’s role in the development of consciousness, empowerment, and identity and in promoting “social action.”

Hallam, Elizabeth, and Tim Ingold, eds. 2008. Creativity and Cultural Improvisation. London: Berg. This edited volume focuses on the relationship between improvisation and creativity. It underlines creativity as a fundamental social process, not something restricted to fine art or to individuals. Murphy, Keith. 2016. “Design and Anthropology.” Annual Review of Anthropology 45:433–49. This article focuses on the relevance of design to anthropology. The authors theorize design as a funda-

Anthropology Dávila, Arlene. 2012. Culture Works: Space, Value, and Mobility across the Neoliberal Americas. New York: New York University Press.

mental human action that highlights how humans both shape and are shaped by the design of their environment. Myers, Fred, ed. 2001. The Empire of Things: Regimes of Value and Material Culture. Oxford, UK: James Currey.

In this volume, Dávila outlines the treatment of art

This edited volume focuses on the multiple types

under neoliberalism, mounting a compelling argument

of value that art objects can take on. Art has typically

Annotated Bibliography  283

been considered as valuable in a manner independent

older adults. The authors caution that the results are not

of money. However, in a globalized world, this autonomy

causal but suggest that arts engagement could help pro-

breaks down, and the other values—political, social, and

mote longevity in older adults.

so on—are revealed. Myers points to the arts’ centrality in identity projects (individual, group, nation) and the ways the valuation of art objects affects corresponding valuations of their producers. Schneider, Arnd. 2006. Appropriation as Practice: Art and Identity in Argentina. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Garnett, Claire, Neta Spiro, Robert West, and Daniel Mullensiefen. 2019. “How Do Artistic Creative Activities Regulate Our Emotions? Validation of the Emotion Regulation Strategies for Artistic Creative Activities Scale (ERSACA).” PLoS ONE 14 (2): e0211362. This study investigates how arts engagement (music,

This volume, part of the tradition that could be

writing, dance, crafts) affects our emotions by investigat-

called the “anthropology of the arts,” focuses on cultural

ing the “emotional regulation strategies” that we mobilize

appropriation by artists in Argentina and on artistic cul-

during arts engagement.

tural appropriation as a type of artistic consumption. Hennessey, Beth, and Teresa Amabile. 2010. “Creativity.” An-

Psychology

nual Review of Psychology 61:569–98. This piece provides a comprehensive review of psy-

Asbury, Carolyn, and Barbara Rich, eds. 2008. Learning, Arts,

chological research on creativity. It takes the position that

and the Brain: The Dana Consortium Report on Arts and

creativity is desirable in society, with psychology’s goal

Cognition. New York / Washington, DC: Dana Press.

being to understand the creative process and the charac-

This report reviews the relationship between arts training and academic performance, reviewing the state of neuroscientific research on the impact of the arts. Fancourt, Daisy, and Andrew Steptoe. 2019. “The Art of Life

teristics and conditions that promote creativity. Sherman, Aleksandra, and Clair Morrissey. 2017. “What Is Art Good for? The Socio-epistemic Value of Art.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 11 (411).

and Death: 14 Year Follow-Up Analyses of Associations

This article sits at the intersection of philosophy,

between Arts Engagement and Mortality in the English

psychology, and neuroscience. The authors critique the

Longitudinal Study of Ageing.” British Medical Journal 367.

current state of neuroscientific interest in art as overly

This study explores the associations between arts

focused on aesthetics and suggest that the field should

engagement and mortality via a cohort study model in

move toward the “social importance” of arts experiences.

284  Leah Reisman

Winner, Ellen. 2018. How Art Works: A Psychological Exploration. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

In a discussion of “feminist rehearsal” as a method, this book highlights the importance of the art-making

Winner’s book focuses on the psychology of taste

process as itself a form of social and political action,

in art: why we like what we like. She points out the lack

through the reinterpretation of events and the building

of empirical evidence for an instrumental benefit of arts

of empathetic “communities of consensus.”

participation or art making on academic outcomes and advocates instead for focusing on the importance of the arts as a valuable part of education in and of itself.

Philosophy/Theory A note on classical and canonical philosophers: It is widely

English/Humanities Amkpa, Awam. 2004. Theater and Postcolonial Desires. London: Routledge.

acknowledged that many of classical and canonical philosophers, including Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, Heidegger, Collingwood, and Dewey, have written on the value of the arts. Rather than review this work in detail here, we instead point

This volume, situated in cultural studies and theater

to Karol Berger’s 2000 book A Theory of Art, which contains

studies, focuses on a comparison of Nigerian and English

a comprehensive summary of the applicability of early and

theater. This book is a powerful example of the ways art

more modern thinkers’ work to the question of art’s function

can teach us about both difference and similarity, provid-

in society. Social theorists’ perspectives on art and art’s role

ing venues for the discussion of politics and opportunities

in society are also comprehensively reviewed in Austin Har-

for change.

rington’s 2004 book Art and Social Theory.

Levine, Caroline. 2007. Provoking Democracy: Why We Need the Arts. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. Levine’s volume focuses on the importance of art making to democracy. It points out the importance of avant-garde art, and therefore the continual evolution of the artistic field, to the central functioning of democracy. Shields, Tanya. 2014. Bodies and Bones: Feminist Rehearsal and

Appiah, Kwame Anthony. 2007. Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers. New York: Norton. In this volume, Appiah addresses the topic of cosmopolitanism. Appiah’s contribution to the question of the value of the arts lies in his exposition of the power of art to reveal both the commonality and the diversity of human culture and experience.

Imagining Caribbean Belonging. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.

Annotated Bibliography  285

Berger, Karol. 2000. A Theory of Art. New York: Oxford University Press. Berger’s volume is helpful both in that it summarizes

Walton, Kendall. 1993. Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

some of the canonical philosophers’ works with relevance

This volume illuminates another facet of art’s impor-

to the question of the value of the arts and in its original

tance in life, connected to the ways in which reacting to

contribution to this question. Berger argues that art pro-

art involves us in imaginative activity that helps to pre-

vides critical and orienting perspectives to human life—

pare us for real life. Drawing analogies to children’s games,

specifically, in his case, to the development of “moral

Walton argues that art provokes responses in us to fic-

consciousness,” decision-making, and perspective. By

tional events that mirror how we would react in real life.

giving us a sense of existing options besides our current reality and their potential consequences, art helps orient human consciousness and normative thought. Bhabha, Homi. Forthcoming. The Right to Narrate. New York: Columbia University Press.

Zuidervaart, Lambert. 2004. Artistic Truth: Aesthetics, Discourse, and Imaginative Disclosure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This volume draws on a wide range of philosophy to explicate the relationship between art and truth. It

In this forthcoming book, Homi Bhabha focuses on

underscores the fundamental communicative impor-

the “right to narrate”—the right to tell stories, retell his-

tance of art: that it points to injustice-related truths that

tory—as a human right and element of individual agency.

are not articulated elsewhere in society.

Bhabha argues that art is valuable in achieving cultural translation at a fundamental level, because of art’s status as an act of narration. Langer, Susanne. 1966. “The Cultural Importance of the Arts.” Journal of Aesthetic Education 1 (1): 5–12.

Zuidervaart, Lambert. 2011. Art in Public: Politics, Economics, and a Democratic Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This volume expands on the author’s arguments in his previous volume, Artistic Truth. The book is a philo-

Langer proclaims that art is ubiquitous in society—

sophical exploration of the question of public funding for

all societies have art—arguing that art is also essential

the arts. It both debunks conventional, reductive argu-

to human progress and intellectual development. She

ments for the value of the arts and offers a complex image

points specifically to the importance of art in conveying

of the ways the arts impact all levels of society.

the depth and variety of feeling.

286  Leah Reisman

Art History Bishop, Claire. 2012. Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship. London: Verso. This book focuses on the social practice of art in a historical and theoretical context, critiquing the idea that

Moxey, Keith. 1991. “Semiotics and the Social History of Art.” New Literary History 22 (4): 985–99. In this piece, Moxey critiques an approach to art history that focuses on the aesthetic value of works of art detached from history and context, underscoring the role of art not only in reflecting culture but in producing it.

participatory art is the paramount political art form. Bonham-Carter, Charlotte, and Nicola Mann, eds. 2017. Rhetoric, Social Value, and the Arts: But How Does It Work? New York: Palgrave Macmillan. In the United Kingdom, “instrumental cultural policies” are the norm, in which the arts are valued according to the standards of other fields. This book reviews the context in which this focus arose and offers ideas about ways to transcend this limited viewpoint on art’s value.

Ethnomusicology Beaster-Jones, Jayson. 2014. “Beyond Musical Exceptionalism: Music, Value, and Ethnomethodology.” Ethnomusicology 58 (2): 334–40. This piece outlines the distinctiveness of “music as a commodity” and in doing so emphasizes the value of music in society. Freeman, Robert. 2014. The Crisis of Classical Music in Amer-

Kester, Grant. 2004. Conversation Pieces: Community and Communication in Modern Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.

ica: Lessons from a Life in the Education of Musicians. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. This book reviews the history of classical music

In this book, Kester defines socially and communi-

education in the United States and the crisis of shrink-

ty-engaged art and puts its rise in the context of art his-

ing audiences and markets, which creates problems for

tory and critical theory.

trained students.

Matarasso, François. 2019. A Restless Art. Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. This book documents the rise of participatory art in Europe over the past twenty years.

Gregory, Andrew. 1997. “The Roles of Music in Society: The Ethnomusicological Perspective.” In The Social Psychology of Music, edited by David Hargreaves and Adrian North. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Annotated Bibliography  287

This piece outlines the varying roles music plays in

tive research,” improved patient-staff communication,

society and the importance of context in determining

improved health outcomes, and general social well-being.

these roles. Arts Council England. 2014. The Value of Arts and Culture to Lidskog, Rolf. 2017. “The Role of Music in Ethnic Identity Formation in Diaspora: A Research Review.” International Social Science Journal 66:23–38.

People and Society: An Evidence Review. www.artscouncil​ .org.uk. This infographic and report describe the results of a

This review piece outlines an ethnomethodological

review of the literature on art’s intrinsic value (the power

take on the importance of art for identity and action,

to “illuminate our inner lives and enrich our emotional

both in shaping understandings of the past and in influ-

world”) and art’s impact on the economy, health and

encing future action. It concludes that music is import-

well-being, society, and education.

ant in “identity formation,” particularly in diasporic communities.

ArtsEdSearch.org. www.artsedsearch.org. This resource is a clearinghouse for research on the

Existing Literature Reviews

arts and education, specifically the impact of the arts on students and teachers.

Americans for the Arts. Arts + Social Impact Explorer. Tool. www.americansforthearts.org.

Arts Midwest and the Metropolitan Group. 2015. Creating

This tool argues for the impact of the arts on society.

Connection: Research Findings and Proposed Message

For each of ten categories, the tool provides a fact sheet

Framework to Build Public Will for Arts and Culture. www​

that shows art’s impact in that area via key impact points,

.artsmidwest.org.

examples of practice, important research papers, and relevant organizations.

This piece reviews results of a literature review and research regarding “the core values that motivate public involvement in the arts and culture” and “how the public

Arts Council England. 2006. The Power of Art: Visual Arts: Evidence of Impact (Regeneration, Health, Education and

defines arts and culture.” It aims to create messaging to connect the arts and culture to public priorities.

Learning), Part Two. This is a review of case studies and other research

Carnwath, John, and Alan Brown. 2014. Understanding the

on arts’ impact in the areas of “design and visual arts

Value and Impact of Cultural Experiences. Arts Council

in healthcare, enhancing medical training, collabora-

England. www.artscouncil.org.uk.

288  Leah Reisman

This piece reviews research regarding the value of personal experiences of arts and culture on individuals,

This article reviews research on the arts and culture as a tool for urban or regional development.

focusing on academic and policy papers over the past twenty years.

Mental Health Foundation. 2011. An Evidence Review of the Impact of Participatory Arts on Older People. Baring Foun-

CultureCase.org. https://culturecase.org. This resource is a repository of academic research on the impacts of art and culture, as well as insights for

dation. https://baringfoundation.org. This literature review focuses on the impact of participatory arts on older adults’ health and well-being.

future planning. Each resource is summarized. CultureLab.net. This resource is an online repository for research on the arts and culture. Several collections exist, including “emerging arts leaders programs, alternative modes of cultural production, civic engagement and the arts, creative placemaking, creative economy, funding equity in the arts, and millennials in philanthropy.”

Menzer, Melissa. 2015. The Arts in Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Benefits of Arts Participation: A Literature Review and Gap-Analysis (2000–2015). National Endowment for the Arts. This review provides support for a “positive relationship between arts participation and the development of social and emotional skills in early childhood.”

Daykin, Norma, and Ellie Byrne. 2006. The Impact of Visual

Newman, Mark, Karen Bird, Jan Tripney, Naira Kalra, Irene

Arts and Design on the Health and Wellbeing of Patients

Kwan, Mukdarut Bangpan, and Carol Vigurs. 2010. Under-

and Staff in Mental Health Care: A Systematic Review of the

standing the Impact of Engagement in Culture and Sport:

Literature. Centre for Public Health Research, University of

A Systematic Review of the Learning Impacts for Young

West England, Bristol.

People. EPPI-Center, Institute of Education, University of

This literature review focuses on the impact of arts for “health interventions,” focused on patient and staff well-being in mental health contexts.

London. www.culture.gov.uk. This evidence review focuses on the impact of culture and sports participation on learning outcomes for youth, in a UK context.

Markusen, Ann, and Anne Gadwa. 2010. “Arts and Culture in Urban or Regional Planning: A Review and Research

Noice, Tony, Helga Noice, and Arthur Kramer. 2014. “Partic-

Agenda.” Journal of Planning Education and Research

ipatory Arts for Older Adults: A Review of Benefits and

29 (3).

Challenges.” Gerontologist 54 (5): 741–53.

Annotated Bibliography  289

This resource is a review of the literature on how “active participation in the arts” supports “healthy aging in older adults,” including dance, expressive writing, music, theater, and visual arts. Staricoff, Rosalia. 2004. Arts in Health: A Review of the Medical Literature. Arts Council England.

agenda, delineating three life stages at which arts participation and education influence human development. National Endowment for the Arts. 2012. How Art Works: The National Endowment for the Arts’ Five-Year Research Agenda. Appendix A & B. www.arts.gov. This resource provides bibliographic examples of rel-

This resource is a review of medical literature be-

evant studies and data sets for each node in the How Art

tween 1990 and 2004 regarding the relationship of the

Works system, including “arts infrastructure, education

arts and humanities to health care and how the arts influ-

and training, arts creation, arts participation, the bene-

ence or affect health.

fits of art to individuals, the benefit of art to society and

Stuckey, Heather L., and Jeremy Nobel. 2010. “The Connection between Art, Healing, and Public Health: A Review of Current Literature.” American Journal of Public Health 100 (2): 254–63.

communities, direct and indirect economic benefits of the arts, and societal capacities to innovate and express ideas.” National Endowment for the Arts. 2016. Arts-Based Programs

This piece reviews existing literature on the relation-

and Arts Therapies for At-Risk, Justice-Involved, and Trau-

ship between arts engagement and health outcomes,

matized Youths. Literature Review. Model Programs Guide,

focused on music, visual art therapy, movement-­based

Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice & Delin-

expression, and expressive writing. The authors report

quency Prevention.

evidence that arts-based interventions reduce negative

This review covers evidence for the benefits of arts-

physical and psychological outcomes, but the link to

based programs and arts therapies for at-risk youth,

health status is unknown.

pointing out problems in existing evidence and the need

National Endowment for the Arts. 2011. The Arts and Human Development: Framing a National Research Agenda for the Arts, Lifelong Learning, and Individual Well-Being.

for additional research. Tsegaye, Salem, Ian David Moss, Katie Ingersoll, Rebecca Ratzkin, Sacha Wynne, and Benzamin Yi. 2016. “Every­thing

This report reviews existing research on the arts

We Know about Whether and How the Arts Improve

and human development and outlines a future research

Lives.” Createquity, December 19. http://createquity.com.

290  Leah Reisman

This piece aims to review and summarize existing

Markusen, Ann. 2018. “The Economics of Arts, Artists, and

literature and evidence about “how art improves lives,”

Culture: Making a Better Case.” Grantmakers in the Arts,

focusing on sources from the United States and the

February.

United Kingdom. The review relies primarily on summa-

Markusen argues that the arts’ economic impact lies

rizing other reviews of the literature and research synthe-

in their influence on long-term growth in local communi-

ses. Some of the other citations in this section have been

ties and argues that prevailing arguments about the arts

pulled from this review and summarized for convenience.

as a weak contributor to the economy are incorrect.

What Works Centre for Local Economic Growth. 2016. Evi-

Moss, Ian David. 2011. “The Critical Supporting Role of Cura-

dence Review 3: Sports and Culture. https://whatworks​

tion in Making Innovation Possible.” ArtsBlog (blog),

growth​.org.

Americans for the Arts, July 26.

This resource is a systematic review of impact eval-

This piece articulates structural and resource-­related

uations of “sporting and cultural events and facilities,”

problems within the arts field, with regard to information

focused on the causal effect of policy interventions and

use and dissemination. It offers an explanation for why

cost-effectiveness.

there has been inadequate consensus in the literature about art in society and insufficient use of evidence in

Independent Media Becker, Carol. 2019. “How Art Became a Force at Davos.” World Economic Forum, February 26. This article reports on successful efforts to include artists and arts-focused programming in the Davos meetings, providing an argument for the value of the arts in personal and professional development, in bridging difference and diversity, and in cultivating alternate perspectives and opening people’s minds, especially in elite settings.

the field. Stone, Chris. 2015. “The Role of Arts and Culture in an Open Society.” Voices (blog), Open Society Foundations, September 22. This piece argues that the arts and culture are essential because they prevent any single entity from having a “monopoly on the truth,” thus contributing to an open society. Taylor, Andrew. 2017. “Belonging Gone Bad.” The Artful Manager: Andrew Taylor on the Business of Art and Culture (blog), June 1.

Annotated Bibliography  291

In this post, Taylor reviews the argument that art

advantaged communities and neighborhood revitalization

fosters a “sense of belonging” by building empathy and

to reports of research findings that creative placemaking

community.

can lead to gentrification and that the arts can support

Taylor, Andrew. 2017. “The Problem with Problems.” The Artful Manager: Andrew Taylor on the Business of Art and Culture (blog), June 7. Taylor critiques arguments that in light of the complexity of the world’s contemporary problems, art has a role to play in suggesting creative, divergent, and innovative solutions.

efforts to combat climate change. Other articles call out art’s, artists’, and arts critics’ power to affect public perception and broad social narratives and to spur people to engage in activism. Some of these pieces problematize the power structures that support the art world, arguing that these power structures affect the ways in which art influences the public by privileging white Western perspectives. Others question whether arts institutions should or can

Taylor, Andrew. 2017. “Defusing Beauty.” The Artful Manager:

act as change agents. Still others argue that cultural shifts

Andrew Taylor on the Business of Art and Culture (blog),

toward political correctness and attention toward racial and

September 13.

gender-based equity in the arts world run the risk of reduc-

Taylor argues in this post for the “love of beauty” to

ing such effects, by curtailing the ability of artists to pro-

be taken more seriously as an argument for art’s value in

duce work that shocks and disturbs us. There has also been

society.

fairly direct consideration of art’s value in public discourse in the United Kingdom, perhaps due to the paradigmatic

The Popular Press

state support for the arts there. During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, these arguments

The topic of the arts is covered frequently in the popu-

gained new urgency in the context of a widespread public

lar press. A cursory review of articles in 2019 suggests that

health crisis and economic shutdown, which imperiled the

the value of the arts is usually covered in one of two con-

survival of many arts organizations. In a cursory review of

texts: (1) broader opinion pieces or reports of notable work

some 2020 pieces about art’s role in society, writers focus,

on arts and social impact or (2) articles about particular

again, on one of two topics: (1) how the arts can help the

artists or artworks, such as those that deal directly with

country and world weather and recover from the pandemic

political issues, in magazine pieces and in book reviews. In

or (2) the need to save the arts and culture from economic

the former category, arguments run the gamut, from clas-

disaster and widespread organizational failure. In the former

sic arguments about how arts programming supports dis­

category, writers speak to art and culture’s ability to reinvigo-

292  Leah Reisman

rate public spaces, foster social connection, promote healing, and open space to imagine a better future. They speak also of arts organizations repurposing themselves as community service centers during the pandemic and art’s role in easing

Gilbert, Sophie. 2017. “The Power of Art That Makes You Pause.” Atlantic, June 29. Hannon, Kerry. 2017. “New Message at Some Museums: Don’t Just Look. Do.” New York Times, March 13.

anxiety and telling the story of life in quarantine for histor-

Janzer, Cinnamon. 2019. “Did the Largest Art Studio Tour

ical memory and future generations. In the latter category,

in the US Drive Minneapolis’ Gentrification?” NextCity,

writers argue that the lack of a public bailout for the arts sug-

June 5.

gests that elected officials do not see the arts as essential, at least in comparison to public health, safety, and education. They write against such arguments, suggesting art and creativity as essential to democracy, to a healthy economy, and to younger generations and highlighting the importance of racial equity in the arts and culture.

Jeffries, Michael. 2018. “The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke.” New York Times, February 22. Johnson, Dirk. 1996. “Does Art Change Things? Or People?” New York Times, September 28. Kornhaber, Spencer. 2016. “Westworld and the False Promise of Storytelling.” Atlantic, December 5. Larmon, Annie Godfrey. 2018. “Can Art Change the World?”

Reviewed Articles (2019) Bazalgette, Peter. 2014. “We Have to Recognise the Huge Value of Arts and Culture to Society.” Guardian, April 26. Beck, Julie. 2015. “Life’s Stories: How You Arrange the Plot Points of Your Life into a Narrative Can Shape Who You Are—and Is a Fundamental Part of Being Human.” Atlantic, August 10. Biondo, Juliana. 2019. “Powerful Art Accounts for Nuance and Variance.” The Hill, September 21. Brooks, David. 2016. “How Artists Change the World.” New York Times, August 2. Bucar, Elizabeth. 2018. “How Muslim Women Use Fashion to Exert Political Influence.” Atlantic, February 1. Fallows, James. 2019. “How Art Can Renew a Community.” Atlantic, October 2.

BBC Culture, May 21. Larson, Jeremy. 2019. “Why Do We Obsess Over What’s Relatable?” New York Times Magazine, January 8. Lescaze, Zoe. 2019. “13 Artists On: Immigration.” New York Times, June 19. Méndez Berry, Elizabeth, and Chi-hui Yang. 2019. “The Dominance of the White Male Critic.” New York Times, July 5. Morris, Wesley. 2018. “The Morality Wars.” New York Times, October 3. Serota, Nicholas. 2018. “The Arts Have a Leading Role to Play in Tackling Climate Change.” Guardian, November 20. Smith, Rich. 2018. “New Study Shows that Arts Organizations Have a Huge Social Impact on Kings County.” The Stranger, October 25.

Annotated Bibliography  293

Sullivan, Paul. “A Push to Invest in the Arts Grows Stronger.” New York Times, October 19.

Marshall, Alex. 2020. “Cultural Life Is Back in Europe. In the U.K., They Talk of Collapse.” New York Times, July 1. Marshall, Alex. 2020. “What Is a Museum? A Dispute Erupts

Reviewed Articles (2020) Fallows, Deborah. 2020. “This Is What We Train For.” Atlantic, May 26. Florida, Richard, and Michael Seman. 2020. “COVID Crisis: We Need All Hands on Deck to Save America’s Arts and Culture Economy.” USA Today, September 8. Green, Jesse. 2020. “Hoping for a Theater Bailout? Better Head to London.” New York Times, July 7. “The Guardian View on Arts in a Pandemic: Harness Their Power.” 2020. Guardian, August 9. Hurdle, Jon. 2020. “Cuts to the Arts Help Philadelphia Address Huge Budget Gap.” New York Times, June 30. Lewis, Helen. 2020. “When Will We Want to Be in a Room Full of Strangers Again?” Atlantic, May 12. Marrone, James, Susan Resetar, and Daniel Schwam. 2020. “The Pandemic Is a Disaster for the Arts.” RAND Blog, August 4.

294  Leah Reisman

over a New Definition.” New York Times, August 6. Moynihan, Colin. 2020. “New Initiative Will Grant $156 Million to Arts Groups Run by People of Color.” New York Times, September 25. Rueb, Emily. 2020. “Transforming the Pandemic into Art.” New York Times, October 26. Small, Zachary. 2020. “Museums Embrace Art Therapy Techniques for Unsettled Times.” New York Times, June 15. Smith, Rosa. 2020. “Getting through a Pandemic with Old-­ Fashioned Crafts.” Atlantic, April 1. Williams, Tandi. 2020. “How Arts and Culture Will Assist Communities to Recover from the Pandemic.” LinkedIn, September 24. Wyver, Kate. 2020. “How Covid Turned Theatre Companies into Community Services.” Financial Times, September 18.

Acknowledgments

We owe profound gratitude to all our brilliant contributors

stage for this book and shows the special place it takes in the

to this volume and to the colleagues and conceptualizers

field. And especially to our colleague Nessa Rapoport, who

who helped make it happen. But thanks must go first to the

worked closely with us for over a year in line editing these

John Brademas Center of New York University for its dedi-

essays, we owe deep gratitude—Nessa supported us and our

cated commitment to this project. The center has been the

authors, shared her wisdom and warmth, and got us to the

home, the harbor, for this effort. During the past decade, it

press on time.

has sponsored a full range of activities and convenings in

Many other institutions and individuals joined us in ad-

the arts, mirroring John Brademas’s own arts commitment

vancing this book. With support from the NYU Provost’s

as a Member of the US Congress and then as president of

Global Research Initiatives, a first meeting was held at NYU’s

NYU. In the spirit of those inquiries, and the remarkable

center in Florence, Villa La Pietra, where the magical Ellyn

people included in them, the center extended its mandate

Toscano and her resourceful staff gave this initiative its

to include this book, with its attention to and assessment of

start. At La Pietra, over two dozen international participants

the arts today, in our time and for our time.

faced our questions and each other. At two subsequent

The whole-hearted engagement of Lynne Brown, exec-

gatherings, one on land and one online, sponsored by the

utive director of the Brademas Center, and the encourage-

Pocantico Center of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, we were

ment of its Advisory Council made this volume possible. We

joined by thought leaders from throughout the arts. We

had inspired support from the center’s Tom McIntyre, dep-

owe special thanks to Ben Rodriguez-Cubeñas of RBF and

uty director of programming and outreach, a master of logis-

to Judy Clark, Regina Creegan, and all the amazing staff at

tics who helped pull together our three conferences; from

Pocantico. We are grateful to our guests in all three settings

Kevin Muehleman and Nyssa Joseph, who provided technical

who gave so much counsel—including, in Florence, Awam

assistance on interviews; and from the brilliant Leah Reisman,

Amkpa, Homi Bhabha, Khadija El Bennaoui, Carin Kuoni,

Brademas Research Fellow, whose bibliography supplies the

Ferdinand Richard, Phloeun Prim, Lee-Ann Buckskin, Arnd

295

Schneider, Uli Baer, Salome Asega, Fairouz Nishanova, and

and teachers; cultural providers; readers, including readers

Susanna Seidl-Fox. At Pocantico, both in person and online,

with special needs; arts activists; and scholars and artists and

we were helped by Mario Garcia Durham, Carlos Motta, Joan

policy makers, especially in the COVID time of renewal.

Shigekawa, Paul Erickson, Frank Candelaria, Kathy Engel,

Ellen Chodosh of NYU Press expressed interest in the

Bethany Martin-Breen, Janet Sarbaugh, Bill Bragin, Jacqueline

project at a very early stage, with many an if and caveat,

Davis, Vishakha Desai, Rachel Cooper, Olga Garay-English,

and made us hew to every one of the press’s very exacting

and Steven Lavine. We received counsel and encouragement

standards to get on its list. It was, of course, the best thing

from Eve Kahn, A. M. Homes, Paul DiMaggio, Scott Stoner,

she could have done for us. We have deep gratitude to her

Diane Kaplan, Rita Charon, Fraser Seitel, and Ruth Ann Stew-

and to our editor, Eric Zinner, and to Furqan Sayeed, our

art, always remembered.

editorial assistant.

We are most fortunate to have had funding and guidance

There would be no book without the bold, brilliant art-

from some of the most interesting and dedicated profes-

ists and thinkers who agreed to contribute to it. They are as

sionals in philanthropy. Ben Rodriguez-Cubeñas fostered this

provocative and probing as we knew they would be. They are

effort with Pocantico meetings, with ideas, and with a signif-

made known to us in their essays and interviews; they are

icant grant from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund. We received

described in the biographies; they bring us a constellation of

support and counsel from Margaret Morton and Lane Har-

ideas, aspirations, and challenges that characterize each one.

well at the Ford Foundation and from Laurie Tisch and Rick

We salute, admire, and take instruction from each wonderful

Luftglass at the Laurie M. Tisch Illumination Fund. Their sup-

one of them. And we thank them, humbly, for all that they

port will help us reach broadly with these ideas—to students

tell us and teach us and for their generosity in doing so.

296  Acknowledgments

Notes

2. New York Reimagined 1. Ken Auletta’s investigative narrative The Streets Were Paved with Gold (New York: Vintage, 1980) is a comprehensive compendium of the fiscal, social, and physical distress of the city during the fiscal crisis of the 1970s. 2. Auletta, 31. 3. Daniel Matlin, On the Corner: African American Intellectuals and the Urban Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013). 4. John Colapinto, “The Real-Estate Artist: High Concept Renewal on the South Side,” New Yorker, January 20, 2014. 5. Richard Florida’s idea that a young vibrant “class” of skilled, educated workers was necessary to urban renewal is a concept that has come under increasing scrutiny, and he has recently reexamined his position. A decade ago, his book The Rise of the Creative Class (New York: Perseus, 2002) was widely quoted by city planners and government officials. 6. John Canaday, “Art and the Fire Department,” New York Times, April 2, 1961, X16. 7. “Artists’ Boycott,” New York Times, August 6, 1961, X6. 8. Excerpts of the law illustrate the extent to which support for the arts became encoded in state legislation: “persons regularly engaged in the arts require larger amounts of space for the pursuit of their artistic endeavors and for the storage of the materials therefore and of the products thereof than are regularly to be found in dwellings subject to this article.” The law also recognizes limited economic opportunity for working artists as a compelling reason for state support in the following passage: “that the financial remuneration to

be obtained from pursuit of a career in the arts are generally small; that as a result of such limited financial remuneration persons regularly engaged in the arts generally find it financially impossible to maintain quarter for the pursuit of their artistic endeavors separate and apart from their places of residence.” The rationale for state support is stated in terms of the health and well-being of large cities: “that the cultural life of cities of more than one million persons within this state and of the state as a whole is enhanced by the residence in such cities of large numbers of persons regularly engaged in the arts; that the high cost of land within such cities makes it particularly difficult for persons regularly engaged in the arts to obtain the use of the amounts of space required for their work as aforesaid.” 9. For an overview of the history of protective housing laws, see Mary Therese O’Sullivan, “Home Is Where the Art Is: The Impact That Housing Laws and Gentrification Policies Have Had on the Availability and Affordability of Artist Live/Work Spaces,” 2002, an unpublished paper in the Rutgers School of Law, available at http://works.bepress.com (accessed November 30, 2014). 10. Segal’s report is referenced in the timeline of the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs website. The arts advocacy organization Alliance for the Arts published subsequent reports that demonstrated the considerable economic benefit of the arts to the city and state in 1983, 1993, and 2007. 11. Two studies published in 2011 document the impact of CETA on the arts and humanities. Both are coedited by Linda Frye

297

Burnham and Steven Durland: CETA and the Arts: Analyzing the Results of a Groundbreaking Federal Job Program, 2011 (Kindle edition, 2011) and CETA and the Arts II: Fifteen Case Studies, a Supplement to the eBook CETA and the Arts (Kindle edition, 2011). See also Jim Hinton, cinematographer and director, A Place in the Workforce, film, 30 mins., produced by MMS subcontractor Media Associates Inc. 12. Michael Harrington, The Other America (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 10.

3. Leading Institutional Change 1. League of American Orchestras, Of and For the Community: The Education and Community Engagement Work of Orchestras (New York: League of American Orchestras, 2017), https://americanorchestras.org. 2. League of American Orchestras, Statement on Racial Discrimination (New York: League of American Orchestras, 2020), https://americanorchestras.org/news-publications/public​ -statements/racial-discrimination-august-2020.html.

4. The Arts Today 1. Primo Levi, “Survival in Auschwitz” and “The Reawakening”: Two Memoirs, trans. Stuart Woolf (New York: Summit Books, 1985), 113. 2. Primo Levi, The Drowned and the Saved, trans. Raymond Rosenthal (New York: Summit Books, 1988), 139. 3. Leszek Kołakowski, The Idolatry of Politics, Fifteenth Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities (Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Humanities, 1986). 4. G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, ed. Allen W. Wood, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 21. 5. G.  W.  F. Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T.  M. Knox, 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 1:9–11. 6. Hegel, 1:10, 1:182. 7. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, 2nd rev. ed. (London: Continuum, 1989), 34.

298  Notes

8. Friedrich Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, trans. R.  J. Hollingdale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 81 (no. 150). 9. Arthur Schopenhauer, Manuscript Remains in Four Volumes, ed. Arthur Hübscher, trans. E.  F.  J. Payne (Oxford, UK: Berg, 1988), no. 338, p. 230. 10. Walter Pater, “The School of Giorgione,” in The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry, ed. D. L. Hill (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 106. 11. See, especially, Hegel, Aesthetics, 2:951–55. 12. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, par. 124, p. 151. 13. This section of the essay reproduces some of the material from my “The Ends of Music History, or: The Old Masters in the Supermarket of Cultures,” Journal of Musicology 31, no. 2 (2014): 186–98. 14. Hermann Danuser, Die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts, Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft 7 (Laaber, Germany: Laaber-Verlag, 1992), 285–99. 15. Lutosławski Profile: Witold Lutosławski in Conversation with Bálint András Varga (London: Chester/Hansen, 1976), 15. 16. Gÿorgy Ligeti in Conversation with Péter Várnai, Josef Häus­ ler, Claude Samuel, and Himself (London: Eulenburg, 1983), 32. 17. Bálint András Varga, ed., Gÿorgy Kurtág: Three Interviews and Ligeti Homages (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2009), 47.

6. Art in Theory 1. From Jorge Luis Borges, “Everything and Nothing,” in Labyrinths: Selected Stories and Other Writings, ed. Donald A. Yates and James E. Irby (New York: New Directions, 1962), 248, as cited in Kendall Walton, “Fearing Fictions,” Journal of Philosophy 75, no. 1 (January 1978): 12. 2. Talk of “props” in this context is one of Kendall Walton’s many good ideas; see Walton, Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 51 et seq. 3. Percy Bysshe Shelley, The Major Works, ed. Zachary Leader

and Michael O’Neill (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 682. 4. Shelley, 647.

8. Talking of Walking 1. This essay has its genesis in the mid-2000s race and disability blogging community. I kept a blog from 2006 to 2013, in which I wrote about the intertwined journeys of becoming disabled and a dancer. Walking was very much a topic. In 2009, brownfemipower (bfp) and Jess Hoffmann began a series of posts they called “Rethinking Walking.” They raised questions of race, disability, and gender in their own writing and invited others to participate in the series: https://flipfloppingjoy.com (no longer accessible). People began taking walks together and talking about them online. A series of provocative and beautiful posts spread across the internet, some remainders of which can be found here: La Macha, “(Re) Thinking Walking: A Collaboration,” bitchmedia, accessed October 5, 2020, www.bitchmedia.org. It was truly a moment of activism and community. I miss bfp and this. I sent in a post that responded to bfp’s question about when the meaning of walking changed and why: “Rethinking Walking Response,” Cripwheels (blog), April 2009, https://cripwheels​ .blogspot.com. Because walking is complex for me personally and professionally as a dancer, I have not stopped thinking or writing about the subject. As walking is so fundamental to our self-conception, I imagine it will remain with me beyond this iteration. 2. Reference dictionaries like The Oxford English Dictionary offer their users a summary of word cognates and roots, as well as a way of tracking the way words were used in selected written sources. Although the term is not technically accurate, we often call these traces “meaning.” As with the action itself, the history of Modern English “walk” is not straightforward. As a verb, Modern English “walk” is a Germanic word and part of a family of words used to describe some of the actions of working cloth: rolling, thrashing, treading, kneading, etc., with either hands or feet. In Old Icelandic, the word had a figura-

tive sense of toying with or pondering over. In Old English sources, as a noun, it was also used to connote the rolling, roiling movement of the waves. All these usages are pertinent here. The Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “walk,” accessed October 5, 2020, www.oed.com (subscription only). 3. The practice of etymology in the hands of both scholars and independent thinkers is risky. Ideas of direct “descent” and lineage have been tied to nationalist and racist practices, where the purity of the word and the transparency of the word mirror the purity of the (often Germanic) race. I challenge nondisabled whiteness in my play of etymology—deliberately highlighting the disabled and raced-ness of our words. 4. Aimi Hamraie, Building Access: Universal Design and the Politics of Disability (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017). 5. Dahkil Hausif, Making “Where Good Souls Fear,” Alice Sheppard, dancer, choreographer, codirector; Jenny Ramirez, editor, 2020, video. 6. Both the film and the dance rely for their title and for their intellectual wallpaper on E.  M. Forster’s Where Angels Fear to Tread and Alexander Pope’s “An Essay on Criticism.” Both these texts take up the question of judgment and interpretation. In Forster’s case, judgment plays out as a kind of Victorian marriage novel in which notions of race, ethnicity, or propriety are tied to a British colonialist tragedy of manners. E. M. Forster stands in for the ideas of politeness, gender, race, sexuality, and disability against which Where Good Souls Fear rebels. With Pope, I engage a strand of critical disability studies that debates the category of monster as a liminal figure in relationship to disability. 7. Danielle Peers, personal correspondence, September 10, 2020. 8. Daniel Dulitz, personal correspondence, September 11, 2020. 9. Indeed, as recent events have shown, the sidewalk and other communal spaces are not safe for BIPOC joggers, walkers, birders, etc. 10. Of course, people do repeatedly point out that runners generally don’t bring metal with them. I refute the argument by pointing out that my chair is sixteen pounds.

Notes  299

11. This moment causes a certain amount of consternation for me. To an outsider, I do not seem “nice.” I do not want to be rude, but I am not sure I am committed to being . . . nice. I experience a lot of pressure around disability, gender, and race; I have learned that nice only gets me so far. Sometimes, being direct or confrontational is necessary. Disabled people are supposed to be nice, long-suffering, smiling. We are supposed to keep going through our ailments without allowing them to spill into the public eye. This social expectation keeps us isolated as individuals who are experiencing a medical problem and allows the nondisabled world not to look at the systems of bias and hate that create the oppression in the first place. I am not sure if I was nice before I became disabled. Certainly, the transition into disability did not change me in this way. 12. “Walk of Shame,” New York Post, July 26, 2018. 13. Peter Catapano, “A Front Page Insult to People with Disabilities,” New York Times, July 26, 2018. 14. The trace evidence from the Oxford English Dictionary suggests how a “handicap” might be construed as a disadvantage in a variety of circumstances. From there, it is easy to see how handicap and disability can be associated, but the connection with asking for money is not immediately apparent. The Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “handicap,” accessed October 5, 2020, www.oed.com (subscription only).

9. Why Teach the Arts 1. Elizabeth Murfee, Eloquent Evidence: Arts at the Core of Learning: Report by the President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities (Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts, 1995), 3. 2. Ellen Winner and Lois Hetland, eds., “The Arts and Academic Achievement: What the Evidence Shows,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 34, nos. 3–4 (2000). 3. Ellen Winner and Monica Cooper, “Mute Those Claims: No Evidence (Yet) for a Causal Link between Arts Study and Academic Achievement,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 34, nos. 3–4 (2000): 11–75

300  Notes

4. James S. Catterall, “Involvement in the Arts and Success in the Secondary School,” Americans for the Arts Monographs 1, no. 9 (1998); James S. Catterall, Richard Chapleau, and John Iwanaga, “Involvement in the Arts and Human Development: General Involvement and Intensive Involvement in Music and Theater Arts,” in Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning, ed. Edward B. Fiske, 1–18 (Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership and President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities, 1999). 5. Shirley Brice Heath, “Living the Arts through Language and Learning: A Report on Community-Based Youth Organizations,” Americans for the Arts Monographs 2, no. 7 (1998). 6. Elliot W. Eisner, “What Justifies Arts Education: What Research Does Not Say,” in Enlightened Advocacy: Implications of Research for Arts Education Policy Practice, ed. Marie McCarthy, 1999 Charles Fowler Colloquium on Innovation in Arts Education, 19–29 (College Park: University of Maryland, 2001). 7. Kathryn Vaughn and Ellen Winner, “SAT Scores of Students Who Study the Arts: What We Can and Cannot Conclude about the Association,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 34, nos. 3–4 (2000): 77–90. 8. Folkert Haanstra, “Dutch Studies of the Effects of Arts Education on School Success,” Studies in Art Education 41, no. 3 (2000): 19–33. 9. John Harland, Kay Kinder, Pippa Lord, Alison Stott, Ian Schagen, and Jo Haynes, Arts Education in Secondary Schools: Effects and Effectiveness (York, UK: National Foundation for Educational Research, 2000). 10. Catterall, “Involvement in the Arts and Success in the Secondary School”; Catterall, Chapleau, and Iwanaga, “Involvement in the Arts and Human Development.” 11. Lois Hetland, Ellen Winner, Shirley Veenema, and Kimberly M. Sheridan, Studio Thinking: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 2007); Lois Hetland, Ellen Winner, Shirley Veenema, and Kimberly M. Sheridan, Studio Thinking 2: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education 2nd ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 2013).

12. Jillian Hogan, Lois Hetland, Diane B. Jacquith, and Ellen Winner, Studio Thinking from the Start: The K–8 Art Educator’s Handbook (New York: Teachers College Press, 2018). 13. Hetland et al., Studio Thinking, 103. 14. Hetland et al., 49. 15. Hetland et al., 56. 16. Hetland et al., 25. 17. Eisner, “What Justifies Arts Education,” 28. 18. Anthony Tommasini, “Obituary of Christopher Rouse,” New York Times, September 24, 2019, B12. 19. Nancy Coleman, “A Modernist Treasure Is Resurrected,” New York Times, September 24, 2019, C2.

10. A Human Beauty, a Human Risk 1. The panelists consisted of Lupa himself with a translator, Jerzy Warman, as well as Monika Fabijanska, Holly Hughes, Felix Kaputu, André Lepecki, and Julie Trébault. 2. For a major moment in the study of support for the arts, see Becky Pettit and Paul DiMaggio, “Public Sentiments towards the Arts: A Critical Reanalysis of 13 Opinion Surveys,” Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, Princeton University, August 1997. In addition, studies by the NEA Office of Research have been exploring the value and impact of the arts, some in collaboration with the US Bureau of Economic Analysis. Subjects include arts and the economy; arts and psychological well-being (for example, the use of the arts to heal traumas); arts and older adults; arts and livability. The overarching rubric for the NEA materials, “Art Works,” has a significant pun. Art is both noun and verb. It consists of individual works, and, like a laborer, it is active. 3. At one point, I might have said a difficulty in the United States was a well-documented feminization of the arts. If this has not wholly disappeared, it has dissipated, in part because of the Tough Guy Modernists, who projected the artist as a swashbuckling figure. Hemingway is their symbol, but I think, too, of the Tough Guy Photographers, in their jeans and cameras, acting most dramatically but also most bravely as war

correspondents. Finally—and this fits with my argument about the arts embodying activities we can all do—nearly everyone now takes, files, and posts images and videos, thanks to digital technologies. Professional artists can and do draw on and reposition this ongoing avalanche of the visual. 4. “Darbies” is a word for irons or handcuffs.

11. Reflections Epigraph: Robin D. G. Kelley, “Black Study, Black Struggle,” Boston Review, March 7, 2016, https://bostonreview.net. 1. The Gordon Parks Foundation, “The Fontenelle Family, 1967,” accessed June 25, 2020, www.gordonparksfoundation.org. 2. Stuart Hall, Different: A Historical Context—Contemporary Photographers and Black Identity (London: Autograph, 2001), 4. 3. Gordon Parks, Voices in the Mirror: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 263–64. 4. Gordon Parks, Arias in Silence (New York: Little, Brown, 1994), 9.

12. An Urdu of the Twenty-First-Century United States 1. Agha, Shahid Ali, “In Arabic,” in Call Me Ishmael Tonight: A Book of Ghazals (New York: Norton, 2003), 80. 2. Brian Kisida and Daniel H. Bower, “New Evidence of the Benefits of Arts Education,” Brown Center Chalkboard (blog), Brookings Institution, February 12, 2019. 3. Ellen Winner, How Art Works: A Psychological Exploration (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019). Chapter 13 focuses on empathy. 4. Kamal Sinclair, “The Art of Storytelling in Gaming: Dispatches from Sundance Institute’s New Frontier Story Lab,” Sundance Institute, December 29, 2014, www.sundance.org. 5. Chaya Babu, “Hasan Minhaj: Maybe There’s Something in the Chai Right Now!,” Rediff.com, May 26, 2017, www.rediff.com. 6. Trevor Noah writing about Hasan Minhaj in “Time 100: The Most Influential People of 2019,” Time, April 2019.

Notes  301

7. See Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Continuum, 1996).

13. Cultur al Conservatory Chapter epigraphs: Toni Morrison, The Source of Self-­Regard: Selected Essays, Speeches, and Meditations (New York: Knopf, 2019); John O’Neal, “Story Circle Discussion Paper,” Junebug Productions, accessed July 31, 2020, www.junebugproductions​ .org.

14. It’s Who We Are 1. KTOO Alaska Public Media, “Alaskan Artists Find Inspiration in Amanda Gorman’s Inaugural Poem,” January 25, 2021, www​ .ktoo.org.

16. The Work of Art in the Age of Ubiquitous Computing 1. Klaus Schwab, “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means, How to Respond,” World Economic Forum, January 14, 2016, www.weforum.org. 2. DOMO, “Data Never Sleeps 5.0,” July 17, 2017, https://web​ -assets.domo.com. 3. Jessica Rajko, Vibrant Lives, www.jessicarajko.com. 4. Ben Rubin and Mark Hanson, The Listening Post, http://www​ .digiart21.org/art/the-listening-post. 5. Mohamed Keita, “Paul Rucker: A ‘proliferation’ of Imprisoned Lives,” Of Note Magazine, Winter 2014–15, http://ofnote​ magazine.org. 6. Acoustic Ecology Lab at Arizona State University, https:// acousticecologylab.org. 7. Gary Wolf, “The Data-Driven Life,” New York Times Magazine, April 28, 2010. 8. Laurie Frick, Floating Data,www.lauriefrick.com. 9. Yoon Chung Han, Eyes, 2018, http://yoonchunghan.com. 10. Elizabeth Armstrong Moore, “Human Brain Has More Switches than All Computers on Earth,” cnet, November 17, 2010, www.cnet.com.

302  Notes

11. Christie’s, “Is Artificial Intelligence Set to Become Art’s Next Medium?,” December 12, 2018, www.christies.com. 12. Paul Tullis, “Is AI the Future of Good Taste?,” Town & Country, February 6, 2018. 13. Ian Chaffee, “A Future with Robots as Companions Could Be Closer than You Think,” USC News, March 10, 2017, https:// news.usc.edu. 14. “We, Robot,” ASU News, January 15, 2019, https://news.asu​ .edu. 15. TEDx Talks, “Will Virtual and Augmented Reality Move Us into the Knowledge Age? | Zenka | TEDxJacksonHole,” YouTube, November 11, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v​ =2FA-IuDTMjE. 16. Thomas Alsop, “Virtual Reality (VR)—Statistics & Facts,” Sta­ tista, June 23, 2020, www.statista.com. 17. Shanhong Liu, “Consumer Virtual Reality Software and Hardware Market Size Worldwide from 2016 to 2023,” Statista, Jun 4, 2020, www.statista.com. 18. Mind Chill 360, “reblink—ar (augmented reality) mind chill showcase,” YouTube, May 21, 2018, www.youtube​ .com/watch?v=1ceyNr2No6M. 19. Alex Shashkevich, “Virtual Reality Can Help Make People More Compassionate Compared to Other Media, New Stanford Study Finds,” Stanford News, October 17, 2018, https:// news.stanford.edu. 20. Geoff Mulgan and Alberta Bravo-Biosca, “Is Innovation Slowing Down? If So, What Can Be Done about It?,” Nesta, May 9, 2019, www.nesta.org.uk. 21. Cyril Smith, “On Art, Invention and Technology,” Leonardo 10, no. 2 (Spring 1977): 144. 22. Lindsay Howard, “Inventing the Future: Art and Technology,” art21 magazine, October 26, 2017, http://magazine.art21.org. 23. “An Interview with John Seely Brown about Xerox PARC’s Artist in Residence Program,” Creativity at Work, January 10, 2011, www.creativityatwork.com. 24. Elizabeth Segran, “Welcome to the Brave New World of the Corporate-Sponsored Artist,” Fast Company, March 10, 2015, www.fastcompany.com.

25. “Artists in Residence Give High-Tech Projects a Human Touch,” All Things Considered, NPR, April 6, 2015, www.npr.org. 26. John Anderer, “Hurry Up! Modern Patience Thresholds Lower than Ever Before, Technology to Blame,” Study Finds, September 3, 2019, www.studyfinds.org. 27. John Wihbey, “Multitasking, Social Media and Distraction: Research Review,” The Journalist’s Resource, July 11, 2013, https://journalistsresource.org; Tim Harford, “Multi-tasking: How to Survive in the 21st Century,” Financial Times, September 3, 2015. 28. Steven J. Tepper, “Thinking ‘Bigger than Me’ in the Liberal Arts,” Chronicle of Higher Education, September 15, 2014. 29. “Find Social Media Frustrating? Try Empathy,” UC Newsroom, University of California. February 11, 2020, www.universityof​ california.edu. 30. William Deresiewicz, The Death of the Artist (New York: Holt, 2020), 9.

18. Unreasonable Movement; Unreasonable Thought 1. As the poet Mary Oliver observed, “The pentameter line is the primary line used by the English poets not for any mysterious reason, but simply because the pentameter line most nearly matches the breath capacity of our English lungs—that is, speaking in English—and thus it is the line most free from any special effect. It fits without stress, makes a full phrase, and leaves little breath at the end. It gives off, therefore, no particular message. It is, one might say, the norm.” Oliver, A Poetry Handbook: A Prose Guide to Understanding and Writing Poetry (Boston and New York: Mariner Books / Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1994), 40.

20. Art and Consciousness from Blombos Cave to Black Lives Matter 1. This essay is based on my contribution to the workshop “La Pietra Dialogues: Are the Arts Essential?” on April 25–27, 2018, in the session “Theory Happening.” I am grateful to my co­

presenters, Homi Bhabha and Richard Sennett, for the engaging conversation and to workshop conveners Alberta Arthurs and Ellyn Toscano for their comments and inspired structuring of a years-long discussion that began at the Villa La Pietra in November 2015. 2. In response to increasing threats against artists in the digital age, the Institute of International Education had in 2015 launched its Artist Protection Fund as a necessary analogue to its Scholar Rescue Fund; and other organizations long involved in this work stepped up their support for artists at risk. 3. Hand axes appear to have been made by various hominin ancestors, including Neanderthal people; finds have been dated from ca. 1.75 million years ago well into the Paleolithic. For a bifacial stone that appears chosen and knapped to conscious aesthetic effect, see the foot-long hand axe found at Furze Platt in Maidenhead, UK, ca. three hundred thousand to four hundred thousand years old (Natural History Museum, London). It is by all evidence too big and bulky to be useful as a tool but could surely signal ceremonial power and status for its steward or tribe. For a range of Paleolithic hand axes and other stones shaped or selected by hominins for symmetry, striking color patterns, and the embedding of fossils like shells, see Tony Berlant and Thomas Wynn, First Sculpture: Handaxe to Figure Stone, exhibition catalogue, Nasher Sculpture Center, Dallas, 2018, and the perceptive review of the exhibition by Anne Wagner, “Neanderthal Art at the Nasher Sculpture Center,” London Review of Books 40, no. 7 (April 5, 2018), www.lrb.co.uk. 4. The image was published in 2018 by C.  S. Henshilwood, F. d’Errico, K. L. van Niekerk, et al., “An Abstract Drawing from the 73,000-Year-Old Levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa,” Nature 562 (2018): 115–18, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018​ -0514-3. 5. M. Aubert, A. Brumm, M. Ramli, et al., “Pleistocene Cave Art from Sulawesi, Indonesia,” Nature 514 (2014): 223–27, https:// doi:10.1038/nature13422; M. Aubert et al., “Earliest Hunting Scene in Prehistoric Art,” Nature 576 (2019): S. 442–45, https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y.

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6. A. Quiles, H. Valladas, H. Bocherens, E. Delqué-Kolic, E. Kaltnecker, J. van der Plicht, J.-J. Delannoy, V. Feruglio, C. Fritz, J. Monney, M. Philippe, G. Tosello, J. Clottes, and J.-M. Geneste, “A High-Precision Chronological Model for the Decorated Upper Paleolithic Cave of Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, Ardèche, France,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 17 (2016): 4670–75, https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.1523158113. 7. Whitney Davis, in “Climatic Variability and Pictorial Oscillation,” Res 63/64 (2013): 20–38, argues persuasively that the significant differences in animal depiction at Chauvet and in the much later cave paintings of Lascaux register changes in climate and human presence in southern Europe over the centuries. 8. Findings and documentation of cave painting and other forms of prehistoric rock art have transformed understanding and interpretation of these mark-making practices over the past thirty years, particularly since the discoveries at Chauvet in 1994 and in Sulawesi since the 1970s. For a range of interpretations of these works as evidence of pictorial activity by behaviorally or psychologically modern humans—i.e., Homo sapiens—see David Lewis-Williams, The Mind in the Cave (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002); Johan De Smedt and Helen De Cruz, “A Cognitive Approach to the Earliest Art,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 69 (2011): 379–89; Stephen Davies, The Artful Species: Aesthetics, Art, and Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); and Davis, “Climatic Variability and Pictorial Oscillation.” 9. Hans Belting, Bild-Anthropologie: Entwürfe für eine Bildwissen­ schaft (Munich: W. Fink, 2001); available in a slightly expanded English edition as An Anthropology of Images: Picture, Medium, Body, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). 10. Belting, Bild-Anthropologie, 84–124; Hans Belting, “Towards an Anthropology of the Image,” in Anthropologies of Art, Clark Studies in the Visual Arts, ed. Mariët Westermann (Williams­ town, MA, and New Haven, CT: Clark Art Institute / Yale University Press, 2005), 41–58.

304  Notes

1 1. Belting, Anthropology of Images, 87. 12. Belting does not claim that the birth of the funerary image represents the birth of art; on the contrary, he has, throughout a deeply thoughtful career, striven to constrain the use of the terms “art” and “aesthetic” to the self-conscious cultural production theorized as art in Europe from the Renaissance into the twentieth century. Belting’s interest is in recovering a longer-term view of the image as a fundamentally human invention that is richer and more truly universal than art. For a perceptive and appreciative critique of Belting’s project, see Christopher S. Wood, “Review: Bild-Anthropologie: Entwürfe für eine Bildwissenschaft by Hans Belting,” Art Bulletin 86 (2004): 370–73. As Wood notes, Belting’s efforts to understand image as one element in a triad with body and medium is startlingly applicable to an amazing range of image making but also allows these terms “perpetually to transmute into one another” (“Review,” 371). And he concludes, rightly in my view, not only that Belting’s image participates in the history of art but that “the place [his argument] is coming from is the place of art” (373). 13. Elizabeth Patton, “This 1,000-Year-Old Shirt Has a $700,000 Story to Tell,” New York Times, April 12, 2018, www.nytimes​ .com. 14. Belting, Anthropology of Images, 5–6. 15. Catharine H. Roehrig, ed., with Renée Dreyfus and Cathleen A. Keller, Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh (New York and New Haven, CT: Metropolitan Museum of Art / Yale University Press, 2005). 16. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1951). 17. Helen Frowe and Derek Matravers, Conflict and Cultural Heritage: A Moral Analysis of the Challenges of Heritage Protection, J. Paul Getty Trust Occasional Papers in Cultural Heritage Policy 3 (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Trust, 2019), chapter 1 and note 10. See also Raphael Lemkin, Totally Unofficial: The Autobiography of Raphael Lemkin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 172. Lemkin’s statements reference Heinrich Heine’s play Almansor (1821): “Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort,

wo man Bücher verbrennt, verbrennt man am ende auch Menschen” (That was but a prelude; where they burn books, they will in the end burn people, too). Heine’s text refers to the burning of the Qur’an by the Spanish Inquisition during the drive to expel Muslims from Spain; it is inscribed in a plaque on Berlin’s Bebelplatz, colloquially known as Opernplatz, where Heine’s books were among those burned in 1933. 18. Students Rebuild, “2016: Healing Classrooms Challenge,” accessed January 5, 2021, www.studentsrebuild.org. 19. The Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, “Multaka: Museum as Meeting Point,” accessed December 28, 2020, www.smb.museum. 20. Multaka Treffpunkt Museum, “Multaka: Museum as Meeting Point—Refugees as Guides in Berlin Museums,” accessed January 5, 2021, https://multaka.de. 21. Roger Fry, Art-History as an Academic Study: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered in the Senate House (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933), 26. 22. For the Multaka project’s concept and implementation in Berlin and Oxford, see Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, “Multaka”; and Oxford Research Centre in the Humanities, “Multaka-­Oxford,” accessed December 28, 2020, www.torch. ox​.ac.uk. In 2019, Hussam Zahim Mohammed, a refugee to Germany from Iraq who became a Multaka guide and then wrote his PhD dissertation on the archaeological museums of Iraq, gave an interview on his experience: Sventlana Sequeira Costa, “Multaka Is Arabic for Meeting Point. Multaka Is the Link between the Past, the Present and the Future,” Arts Cabinet, May 29, 2019, www.artscabinet.org. 23. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” in Illuminations: Essays and Reflections (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), Thesis VII, 199–200. 24. Felwine Sarr and Bénédicte Savoy, Rapport sur la restitution du patrimoine culturel africain: Vers une nouvelle éthique relationnelle (Paris: Seuil, 2018), with English translation, The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage: Toward a New Relational Ethics, http://restitutionreport2018.com. 25. Alexandra Talty, “Stuck at Home? The Best 18 Armchair Travel Opportunities from 7 Continents,” Forbes, March 31, 2020.

21. Art Saved Us . . . from What? Epigraph: In Poets behind Barbed Wire, ed. Jiro Nakano and Kay Nakano (Honolulu: Bamboo Ridge, 1983), 64. 1. During World War II, while the United States was at war with Germany, Italy, and Japan, the US government subjected only Japanese Americans to mass incarceration. There were a variety of facilities run by several different US governmental agencies in two separate but related systems of detention. The first was the internment of approximately 7,000 Japanese immigrants—who, at that time, were barred from becoming naturalized citizens and were therefore considered enemy aliens—by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, Department of Justice, and US Army. The second was the mass confinement of 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were US citizens by birth, in seventeen temporary detention centers, ten concentration camps, and two isolation centers run by the Wartime Civil Control Administration and the War Relocation Authority. While the reason given at the time for this unprecedented travesty of democracy was military necessity, forty years later a government commission concluded that the mass incarceration was because of “race prejudice, war hysteria and a failure of political leadership.” See Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Washington, DC: The Commission, December 1982). 2. Unique to Japanese Americans, cultural identity is based on the number of generations we have been in the United States. Immigrants called “Issei” are first generation. Born in the United States, “Nisei” are second generation. Third generation are “Sansei”; fourth generation are “Yonsei”; and fifth generation, “Gosei.” 3. For Japanese Americans, “camp” is an idiom that refers more to the overall experience than the physical setting. 4. C.  L.  R. James, “Africans and Afro-Caribbeans: A Personal View,” Ten 8, no. 16 (1984). 5. Citizen 13660 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946) was republished in 1973, 1983, and 2014.

Notes  305

6. All drawings in Citizen 13660, without their accompanying captions, can be seen at Japanese American National Museum, “Miné Okubo Collection,” www.janm.org. 7. Vivian Fumiko Chin, “Gestures of Noncompliance: Resisting, Inventing and Enduring,” in Miné Okubo: Following Her Own Road, ed. Greg Robinson and Elena Tajima Creef (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017). 8. Assembly centers were one type of makeshift detention centers run by the Wartime Civil Control Administration to hold Japanese Americans while permanent concentration camps were being constructed. 9. In addition to Topaz, in Utah, the other concentration camps run by the War Relocation Authority included Amache, in Colorado; Gila River and Poston, in Arizona; Heart Mountain, in Wyoming; Jerome and Rohwer, in Arkansas; Manzanar and Tule Lake, in California; and Minidoka, in Idaho. 10. Chiura Obata: American Modern, Smithsonian American Art Museum, November 27, 2019–May 25, 2020. 11. Natalie Orenstein, “A UC Berkeley Professor Was Sent to an Internment Camp. Now His Art Is ‘Part of the American Story,’” Berkeleyside, December 23, 2019. 12. “Poetry: Why Do We Read/Write Poetry as Opposed to Prose?,” The Why Factor (podcast), November 15, 2014. 13. Jiro Nakano and Kay Nakano, introduction to Poets behind Barbed Wire, ed. Jino Nakano and Kay Nakano (Honolulu: Bamboo Ridge, 1983), viii. 14. Sojin Takei, in Nakano and Nakano, Poets behind Barbed Wire, 13. 15. The congressional hearings refer to the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, the official governmental study of the impact of the World War II mass incarceration of Japanese Americans, conducted in 1981 and 1982. 16. From research by Stan Yogi and Patricia Wakida. Stan Yogi, email to author, October 7, 2020. 17. “Failing Better: A Conversation with Ocean Vuong: Viet Thanh Nguyen Interviews Ocean Vuong,” Los Angeles Review of Books, June 24, 2019.

306  Notes

18. Audre Lorde, “Poetry Is Not a Luxury,” in Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (Trumansburg, NY: Crossing, 1984). 19. A collection of 137 paintings of Henry Sugimoto can be seen at Japanese American National Museum, “Henry Sugimoto Collection,” accessed March 2, 2020, www.janm.org. In 2000, the Japanese American National Museum curated a major exhibition of his works, accompanied by a documentary and catalogue. 20. Edward Tang, From Confinement to Containment: Japanese/ American Arts during the Early Cold War (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2019), 101. 21. Thessaly La Force, “The Story of the Great Japanese American Novel,” New York Times, November 4, 2019. 22. Over six hundred members of the segregated Japanese American 442nd Regimental Combat Team and 100th Battalion, the most decorated unit of its size in US history, were killed in action, with thirty-seven hundred wounded. 23. The writers were Frank Chin, Jeff Chan, Lawson Inada, and Shawn Wong. 24. Ruth Ozeki, foreword to No-No Boy, by John Okada (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014). 25. Stan Yogi, “Nisei Women Writers,” Nikkei Review: Japanese American Literary and Cultural Newsletter 1, no. 1 (January 1989): 1–2. 26. Mitsuye Yamada, Camp Notes and Other Writings (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998). 27. La Force, “Story of the Great Japanese American Novel.” 28. Robert Rosen, “Something Strong Within as Historical Memory,” in Mining the Home Movie: Excavations in Histories and Memories, ed. Karen L. Ishizuka and Patricia R. Zimmermann (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 111. 29. Lawson Inada, “Denver Union Station,” in Drawing the Line (Minneapolis: Coffee House, 1997). 30. Chris Iijima and Nobuko Miyamoto, “We Are the Children,” from A Grain of Sand: Music for the Struggle by Asians in America (Paredon Records, 1973), rereleased by Smithsonian Folkways Records in 2011.

31. Audrie Girdner and Anne Loftis, The Great Betrayal (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 238. 32. Yuji Ichioka’s testimony before the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, on Speaking Out for Justice: Selected Testimonies, DVD (Visual Communications and National Coalition for Redress and Reparations, 2018). 33. Deborah Gesensway and Mindy Roseman, Beyond Words: Images from America’s Concentration Camps (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 71. 34. Gesensway and Roseman, 30, 34–35. 35. Gesensway and Roseman, 22. 36. For more information on Japanese American support for migrants subjected to inhumane treatment, see Tsuru for Solidarity: http://tsuruforsolidarity.org. 37. Researchers have found high rates of both illness and preventable death, including suicide, in the camps because of unsanitary conditions, inadequate medical care, and the trauma of unjust incarceration. Studies show that after the war, there have been high rates of cardiovascular illness and mortality, premature death, and posttraumatic stress. Donna K. Nagata, Jacqueline J. J. Kim, and Kaidi Wu, “The Japanese American Wartime Incarceration: Examining the Scope of Racial Trauma,” American Psychology 74, no. 1 (January 2019): 36–48; Gwenn M. Jensen, “Dysentery, Dust and Determination: Health Care in the World War II Japanese American Detention Camps,” Enduring Communities (Discover Nikkei), June 21, 2008, www.discovernikkei.org. 38. Wakako Yamauchi, “The Poetry of the Issei on the Relocation Experience,” in CALAFIA: The California Poetry, ed. Ishmael Reed (Berkeley, CA: Yardbird Books, 1979), xxi. 39. Mari Shibuya, “Healing the Intergenerational Trauma of WWII Incarceration through Art,” Densho, December 29, 2019. 40. Christopher Sherman, Martha Mendoza, and Garance Burke, “US Held Record Number of Migrant Children in Custody in 2019,” AP News, November 12, 2019. 41. Emily Wojcik, “10 Questions for Brandon Shimoda,” Massachusetts Review, January 11, 2019.

42. Tommy Orange, There, There (New York: Penguin Random House, 2018). 43. Ken Liu, interviewed on New Books in Literature (podcast), June 2, 2015. 44. Lorde, “Poetry Is Not a Luxury.” 45. Ken Liu, “In the Beginning Is a Story: Imagining a Sustainable Future,” essay commissioned by the EUGENE Studio, November 2020, https://www.goldwin-sports.com/us/feature/vq/ essay/. 46. Andrew Goldstein, “‘History Is Waiting to Be Told’: Hank Willis Thomas on How Artists Can Reshape the Narrative of the United States in Real Time,” artnet news, July 15, 2020. 47. Thanks to Rev. Masao Kodani and Kazuo Matsubayashi for the adage and translation.

23. Art Invites the World In 1. Giorgio Agamben, Creation and Anarchy: The Work of Art and the Religion of Capitalism, trans. Adam Kotsko (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019), 6. 2. Agamben, 8. 3. Timothy Morton, Dark Ecology: For a Logic of Future Coexistence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018), 1. 4. Cynthia Zarin, “The Artist Who Is Bringing Icebergs to Paris,” New Yorker, December 5, 2015, www.newyorker.com. 5. “Flint Fit,” a website of Queens Museum, New York, www.flint​ -fit.com.

25. The Arts and Global Relations 1. See National Intelligence Council’s reports Global Trends 2025, Global Trends 2030, and Global Trends 2035. 2. Manuel Castells, “The New Public Sphere: Global Civil Society, Communication Networks, and Global Governance,” Annals of the American Academy 616 (2008): 82. 3. See McKinsey & Company’s report The Global Forces Inspiring a New Narrative of Progress (April 2017). 4. Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (New York: Scribner, 1932), reprinted in

Notes  307

Reinhold Niebuhr: Major Works on Religion and Politics (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 2015). 5. Stephen Greenblatt, Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 252. 6. Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style of American Politics (New York: Knopf, 1965), reprinted in the Library of America series on Richard Hofstadter (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 2020). 7. Drew Western, The Political Brain: The Role of Emotion in Deciding the Fate of the Nation (New York: PublicAffairs, 2007). 8. Quoted in Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013). 9. Rachel Spence, “Phyllida Barlow on Art, Politics and the Venice Biennale,” Financial Times, March 10, 2017.

308  Notes

10. David Henry Hwang, interview by the USC Center on Public Diplomacy, published on May 18, 2018, as part of its Q&A with CPD series, available at the center’s website: www.uscpublicdiplomacy.org. 11. Martin Roth, interview by the USC Center on Public Diplomacy, published on October 17, 2016, as part of its Q&A with CPD series, available at the center’s website: www.uscpublicdiplomacy.org. 12. Jonathan Mills, interview by the USC Center on Public Diplomacy, published on August 20, 2018, as part of its Q&A with CPD series, available at the center’s website: www.uscpublicdiplomacy.org.

About the Editors

Alberta Arthurs is a consultant and commentator

Michael F. DiNiscia serves as Deputy Director, Research

active in the fields of culture, philanthropy, and higher edu-

and Strategic Initiatives, of the John Brademas Center of

cation. She is a Senior Fellow of the John Brademas Center of

New York University, overseeing the center’s research proj-

New York University. For over a decade, she was Director for

ects, international conferences, and strategic partnerships.

Arts and Humanities at the Rockefeller Foundation and prior

Working in the field of public policy, the center’s programs

to this position served as President and Professor of English

promote scholarship and civic dialogue on national issues,

at Chatham College (now Chatham University) in Pittsburgh.

particularly in the field of arts and culture and the human-

She has been Dean of Undergraduate Affairs and Acting

ities and in the role of Congress as a policy-making institu-

Dean of Freshmen at Harvard College and Dean of Admis-

tion. In addition to his work on Are the Arts Essential?, he

sions, Financial Aid, and Women’s Education at Radcliffe

is author and editor of several reports on international cul-

College. She has taught English at Harvard and has taught

tural engagement and the role of arts programs in combating

and held administrative positions at Rutgers University and

Islamophobia. Before joining the NYU Brademas Center, he

Tufts University. She coedited Crossroads: Arts and Religion

served as Special Assistant to the Chairman of the National

in American Life and has essays in several books, including

Endowment for Democracy and has worked in publishing

Higher Learning in America 1980–2000, Arts in a New Millen-

and programming at the Council on Foreign Relations and

nium, and The Politics of Culture, and in journals including

the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs.

Public Culture, American Arts, Prairie Schooner, Academe, and

He is a member of the Advisory Council of the American

the Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society.

Ditchley Foundation.

309

About the Contributors

K. Anthony Appiah is Professor of Philosophy and Law

University of California, San Diego. She is a member of the

at New York University. A scholar of ethics, political philoso-

World Arts Forum Foundation Board of the World Economic

phy, and African and African American literary and cultural

Forum. With research interests that range from feminist the-

studies, since 2014 he has taught at NYU’s campuses in New

ory, American cultural history, the education of artists, and

York and Abu Dhabi. From 2002 to 2013, he was a member

art and social responsibility to South African art and poli-

of the Princeton University faculty, and he has also taught

tics, she has published numerous articles and books on cul-

at the University of Ghana, Yale, Cornell, Duke, and Harvard.

tural criticism, including The Invisible Drama: Women and

Among his recent books are Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a

the Anxiety of Change (translated into seven languages), The

World of Strangers (2006), Experiments in Ethics (2008), The

Subversive Imagination: Artists, Society and Social Responsibil-

Honor Code: How Moral Revolutions Happen (2010), Lines of

ity, Surpassing the Spectacle: Global Transformations and the

Descent: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Emergence of Identity (2014),

Changing Politics of Art, and Thinking in Place: Art, Action, and

and The Lies That Bind: Rethinking Identity (2018). In addition

Cultural Production.

to his scholarly work, he writes the weekly column “The Ethicist” for the New York Times Magazine.

Karol Berger is a scholar of music history and aesthetics at Stanford University, where he holds the Osgood Hooker

Carol Becker is Professor of Arts and Dean of Faculty at

Chair in Fine Arts, Emeritus. His books include Musica Ficta

the Columbia University School of the Arts. She was pre-

(1987), recipient of the 1988 Otto Kinkeldey Award of the

viously Dean of Faculty and Senior Vice President for Aca-

American Musicological Society; A Theory of Art (2000);

demic Affairs as well as Professor of Liberal Arts at the School

Bach’s Cycle, Mozart’s Arrow (2007), recipient of the 2008

of the Art Institute of Chicago. She earned her BA in English

Marjorie Weston Emerson Award of the Mozart Society

literature from the State University of New York, Buffalo,

of America; and Beyond Reason: Wagner contra Nietzsche

and her PhD in English and American literature from the

(2017), recipient of the 2018 Otto Kinkeldey Award. In 2011, he

311

received the Glarean Prize of the Swiss Musicological Society,

Imagine. Invent. Ascend, a bold new strategic vision for the

and in 2014, the Humboldt Research Award of the Humboldt

college that builds on Spelman’s legendary legacy to edu-

Foundation. He is a Foreign Member of the Polish Academy

cate Black women for the twenty-first century. Her focus

of Sciences and of the Academia Europaea, an Honorary

has been on ensuring that every Spelman student graduates

Member of the American Musicological Society, and a mem-

with a competitive edge, expanding Spelman’s strategic part-

ber of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

nerships, deepening its excellence in STEM, and wedding that strength to art, innovation, and technology. Campbell

Jeffrey Brown is Senior Correspondent and Chief Arts

received her BA in English literature from Swarthmore Col-

Correspondent for the PBS NewsHour, public television’s

lege. She earned her master’s in art history as well as her PhD

national nightly newscast. He has served as the program’s

in humanities from Syracuse University. She holds honor-

coanchor, studio moderator, and field reporter on a wide

ary degrees from several colleges including her alma mater,

range of national and international subjects and has pro-

Swarthmore. The author of the book An American Odyssey:

filed many of the world’s leading writers, musicians, and art-

The Life and Work of Romare Bearden, she is the recipient

ists of all kinds. His reporting has garnered Peabody, Emmy,

of the 2018 Hooks National Book Award and is a fellow of

and other awards and honors. His book of poems, titled The

the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Campbell has

News, was published in 2015.

served on the the boards of the J. Paul Getty Trust, the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, and the High Museum of Art

Mary Schmidt Campbell is the tenth President of

in Atlanta.

Spel­man College. A leading liberal arts college for women of African descent, Spelman has long enjoyed a reputation

Angela Cox has been Vice President of External Affairs for

as the nation’s leading producer of Black women scientists.

Rasmuson Foundation since 2017. She oversees communica-

Before coming to Spelman, Campbell served as Dean of the

tion, events, and the public policy work of the foundation.

Tisch School of the Arts at New York University for over two

Her previous experience includes serving as Vice President

decades. Campbell began her professional career in New

of Administration at Arctic Slope Native Association, a non-

York at the Studio Museum in Harlem, followed by a stint

profit tribal health organization; as Director of Foundation

as New York City’s Cultural Affairs Commissioner. She was

and Endowment Development for Arctic Slope Regional

appointed by President Barack Obama to be Vice Chair of

Corporation; and as a Program Associate at the Ford Foun-

the President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities

dation. She received her MA in public administration from

in 2009. During her Spelman tenure, Campbell has launched

NYU’s Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service

312  About the Contributors

and BA from Washington State University’s Edward R. Mur-

his breathtaking solo recitals and exploratory duos to his ex-

row School of Communication. She serves as a board mem-

traordinary trios and innovative chamber settings. As a com-

ber for Healthy Alaska Natives Foundation, Ilisagvik College

poser, he is a recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship—and his

Foundation, and Media Impact Funders.

recent releases, Live In Europe with his celebrated trio and the 2020 solo disc Songs from Home, are definitive statements.

Osk ar Eustis has served as the artistic director of The

His acclaimed memoir Good Things Happen Slowly is now

Public Theater since 2005, after serving as the artistic director

available. fredhersch.com; facebook.com/fredherschmusic.

at Trinity Repertory Company in Providence, Rhode Island, from 1994 to 2005. Throughout his career, Eustis has been

Edward Hirsch is President of the John Simon Guggen-

dedicated to the development of new work that speaks to

heim Memorial Foundation. An internationally recognized

the great issues of our time and has worked with count-

poet, he has received a wide range of awards including a

less artists in pursuit of that aim, including Tony Kushner,

MacArthur Fellowship, an Ingram Merrill Foundation Award,

Suzan-Lori Parks, David Henry Hwang, Lin-Manuel Miranda,

a Pablo Neruda Presidential Medal of Honor, and the Prix de

Richard Nelson, Rinne Groff, Tarell Alvin McCraney, and Lisa

Rome. He is the author of ten collections of poems, including

Kron. He is currently a professor at New York University and

The Living Fire: New and Selected Poems (2010), which brings

has held professorships at UCLA, Middlebury College, and

together thirty-five years of his work; Gabriel: A Poem (2014),

Brown University.

a book-length elegy for his son; and Stranger by Night (2020). He is also the author of six prose books, including How to

A select member of jazz’s piano pantheon, Fred Hersch

Read a Poem and Fall in Love with Poetry (1999), a national

is a pervasively influential creative force who has shaped the

bestseller; Poet’s Choice (2006), consisting of his popular col-

music’s course over more than three decades as an impro-

umns from the Washington Post Book World; and 100 Poems

viser, composer, educator, bandleader, collaborator, and re-

to Break Your Heart (2021), his newest book. He taught for

cording artist. With some fifty albums to his credit as a leader

six years in the English Department at Wayne State Univer-

or coleader, he is a fifteen-time Grammy Award nominee who

sity and seventeen years in the Creative Writing Program at

continues to earn jazz’s most prestigious awards, including

the University of Houston. He is currently a Visiting Distin-

recent distinctions as a 2016 Doris Duke Artist and 2018 Jazz

guished Professor of Creative Writing at New York University.

Pianist of the Year from the Jazz Journalists Association. Proclaimed “a living legend” by the New Yorker, Hersch has long

Karen L. Ishizuk a is the Chief Curator of the Japanese

defined jazz’s creative edge in a wide variety of settings, from

American National Museum (JANM), in which role she shapes

About the Contributors  313

the museum’s curatorial direction and agenda. Over her

and Orquesta Sinfónica de Cuba. A founding member of the

career at JANM, she has been a media producer and curator,

Dance Theatre of Harlem, León instituted the Brooklyn Phil-

as well as Director of the Frank H. Watase Media Arts Center.

harmonic Community Concert Series, cofounded the Ameri-

She curated the influential America’s Concentration Camps:

can Composers Orchestra’s Sonidos de las Américas Festivals,

Remembering the Japanese American Experience; established

was New Music Advisor to the New York Philharmonic, and

the museum’s Photographic and Moving Image Archive; and

is the founder and Artistic Director of the nonprofit and

wrote and produced Toyo Miyatake: Infinite Shades of Gray,

festival Composers Now. Her honors include the New York

which was an official selection at the Sundance Film Festi-

Governor’s Lifetime Achievement Award, awards from the

val. She received an MA in social work from San Diego State

American Academy of Arts and Letters and the American

University and a PhD in anthropology from the University

Academy of Arts and Sciences, the ASCAP Victor Herbert

of California, Los Angeles. In addition to numerous articles,

Award, and the 2021 Pulitzer Prize for Music, among others.

she is author of the books Serve the People: Making Asian

She also received a proclamation for Composers Now by the

America in the Long Sixties and Lost & Found: Reclaiming the

New York City mayor and the MadWoman Festival Award

Japanese American Incarceration and coeditor of Mining the

in Music (Spain). León has received honorary doctorate

Home Movie: Excavations into Histories and Memories. In

degrees from Colgate University, Oberlin College, and SUNY

addition to her work at JANM, she serves as President of the

Purchase College and served as US Artistic Ambassador of

Okura Mental Health Leadership Foundation.

American Culture in Madrid, Spain. A CUNY Professor Emerita, she was awarded a 2018 United States Artists Fellowship.

Tania León (b. Havana, Cuba) is highly regarded as a composer, conductor, educator, and adviser to arts organi-

Mary Miss is an artist who is the founder of City as Living

zations. Her opera Scourge of Hyacinths, based on a play by

Laboratory. Her work has reshaped the boundaries between

Wole Soyinka, received over twenty performances through-

sculpture, architecture, landscape design, and installation art

out Europe and Mexico. Recent commissions include works

by articulating a vision of the public sphere where it is possi-

for the New York Philharmonic, Los Angeles Philharmonic,

ble for an artist to address the issues of our time. She devel-

NDR Symphony Orchestra, Grossman Ensemble, Interna-

oped City as Living Laboratory as a framework for making

tional Contemporary Ensemble, and pianist Ursula Oppens

issues of sustainability tangible through collaboration in the

with Cassatt String Quartet. Appearances as guest con-

arts. She was trained as a sculptor, and her work creates situ-

ductor include the Philharmonic Orchestra of Marseille,

ations that emphasize a site’s history, its ecology, or aspects

Gewandhausorchester, Orquesta Sinfonica de Guanajuato,

of the environment that have gone unnoticed. She has

314  About the Contributors

developed projects as diverse as a proposal for a temporary

Later South Asia Galleries; Chief Curator, Alliance Francaise’s

memorial around the perimeter of Ground Zero, marking the

World Nomads Morocco Festival; Project Director, Mid

predicted flood level of Boulder, Colorado, and revealing the

Atlantic Arts Foundation’s Global Cultural Connections; and

history of the Union Square subway station in New York City.

Senior Advisor, Muslim Voices Festival. She is an adviser to

In her current project, WaterMarks, she is creating an atlas

Artworks for Freedom, serves on the board of Grantmakers

of water for the city of Milwaukee. She has been the subject

in the Arts and the steering committee for the Aga Khan

of exhibitions at the Harvard University Art Museum, the

Trust for Culture’s Music Awards, among others. Twice hon-

Institute of Contemporary Art in London, the Architectural

ored by New York City’s government, Rahman is the subject

Association in London, and the Des Moines Art Center. Her

of television profiles as a global arts leader and one of four

influential work has been recognized by numerous awards,

women featured in Women Lead the Way, authored by Linda

including the Urban Land Institute’s Global Award for Excel-

Tarr-Whelan, the former ambassador to the UN Commission

lence and the 2017 Bedrock of New York City Award.

on the Status of Women.

Zeyba Rahman joined the Doris Duke Foundation for

Hussein Rashid is the founder of islamicate, L3C, a consul-

Islamic Art, an extension of the Doris Duke Charitable Foun-

tancy focusing on religious literacy and cultural competency.

dation, in 2013 as Senior Program Officer for the Building

He works with a variety of NGOs, foundations, nonprofits,

Bridges Program. Rahman manages the Building Bridges

and governmental agencies for content expertise on religion

Program’s national grant making to support projects that

broadly, with a specialization in Islam. He is an independent

advance relationships and increase understanding between

scholar who teaches at a variety of institutions around New

Muslims and their neighbors for mutual well-being. Before

York City. His work includes exploring Shi’i justice theology,

joining the foundation, Rahman led internationally and

the interaction between culture and religion, and the role

nationally recognized projects as a creative director/pro-

of the arts in conflict mediation. His research focuses on

ducer to promote understanding between diverse commu-

Muslims and American popular culture, with published aca-

nities. The roles she has undertaken include Director, Asia

demic works on Malcolm X, intra-Muslim racism, teaching

and North America, Fes Festival of World Sacred Music in

Shi’ism, Islam and comics, Sikhs and Islamophobia, Muslims

Morocco; Artistic Director, Arts Midwest’s Caravanserai: A

in film, and American Muslim spaces of worship. He served

Place Where Cultures Meet; Curator, BAM’s Mic Check Hip

as Content Expert for the Children’s Museum of Manhattan’s

Hop; Creative Consultant, Public Programs, Metropolitan

America to Zanzibar exhibit. He is a fellow with the Ariane

Museum of Art’s Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia and

de Rothschild Fellowship in Social Entrepreneurship, the

About the Contributors  315

American Muslim Civic Leadership Institute, and the Tru-

with knowledge and perspective to navigate a rapidly chang-

man National Security Project. He is a member of the Guild

ing environment. Under Rosen’s leadership, the league

of Future Architects and on the board of Anikaya Dance. He

advocated for orchestras’ authentic engagement with com-

is coeditor of Ms. Marvel’s America: No Normal.

munity; renewed efforts to address equity, diversity, and inclusion; encouraged greater fiscal literacy and discipline;

Le ah Reisman , Research Fellow at the John Brademas

and increased use of data to inform decision-making. He has

Center of New York University, is a sociologist, evaluator, and

increased the league’s impact by building partnerships with

nonprofit practitioner with expertise in strategy, evaluation,

organizations such as New Music USA, BoardSource, the

the arts, and immigration. An ethnographer by training,

Thornton School of Music at USC, the Sphinx Organization,

she is a skilled facilitator and strategist with demonstrated

and the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service. Among

research, synthesis, and project-management skills and deep

the initiatives he has spearheaded are Ford Made in America,

experience in both the study and practice of nonprofit man-

the largest-ever orchestra-commissioning consortium; the

agement. At the Brademas Center, she is contributing to

Ford Musician Awards for Excellence in Community Service;

“Staging Change,” a major Mellon Foundation–funded study

the Music Alive composer residency program; the Noteboom

focused on the relationship between arts engagement and

Governance Center, strengthening governance practice; and

social well-being in California. She also works as an indepen-

the American Orchestras’ Futures Fund, promoting experi-

dent arts research consultant for philanthropy and nonprofit

mentation and innovation. He previously served as General

clients. Her original quantitative and qualitative research on

Manager of the Seattle Symphony, Executive Director of the

strategy consulting to nonprofits, Philadelphia’s arts phil-

American Composers Orchestra, and Orchestra Manager of

anthropic ecosystem, cultural philanthropy in Mexico, and

the New York Philharmonic.

professionalization in arts nonprofits has been supported by the National Science Foundation and featured in academic

Richard Sennett currently serves as member of the

journals including the Stanford Social Innovation Review and

United Nations Committee on Urban Initiatives. He is Hon-

the Chronicle of Philanthropy.

orary Professor at the Bartlett School, University College London, and Visiting Professor of Urban Studies at MIT. He

Jesse Rosen retired in 2020 as President and CEO of the

chairs the trustees of Theatrum Mundi, an organization that

League of American Orchestras, where since 2008 he had

brings together young artists and urbanists. Previously, he

been a leading voice for more than seventeen hundred

founded the New York Institute for the Humanities, served

member organizations and individuals, empowering them

as President of the American Council on Work, and taught

316  About the Contributors

at New York University and at the London School of Eco-

ative Capital grantee, and Bessie Award winner, Sheppard

nomics. Over the course of the past five decades, he has

creates movement that engages intersectional disability arts,

written about social life in cities, changes in labor, and social

culture, and history. Her dance writing has appeared in the

theory. His books include The Hidden Injuries of Class, The Fall

New York Times and academic journals.

of Public Man, The Corrosion of Character, The Culture of the New Capitalism, The Craftsman, and Building and Dwelling.

Catharine R. Stimpson is University Professor and

Among other awards, he has received the Hegel Prize, the

Dean Emerita of the Graduate School of Arts and Science

Spinoza Prize, an honorary doctorate from Cambridge Uni-

at New York University. The founding editor of Signs: Journal

versity, and the Centennial Medal from Harvard University.

of Women in Culture and Society, she writes about literature,

Sennett grew up in the Cabrini Green housing project in Chi-

culture, and education. She has also published a novel, Class

cago. He attended the Julliard School in New York, where he

Notes. She has been a University Professor at Rutgers, the

worked with Claus Adam, cellist of the Julliard Quartet. He

State University of New Jersey, where she was Dean of the

then studied social relations at Harvard, working with David

Graduate School and Vice Provost for Graduate Education.

Riesman, and independently with Hannah Arendt.

She has taught at Barnard College, where she was also the first Director of its Women’s Center. Her public service has

A former professor of medieval literatures and languages,

included the chairs of the New York State Council for the

the choreographer and dancer Alice Sheppard trained

Humanities, the National Council for Research on Women,

with Kitty Lunn and was a core company member with AXIS

the Ms. Magazine Board of Scholars, Creative Capital, and

Dance Company, where she toured and taught in the com-

Scholars at Risk. She has served as Director of the Fellows

pany’s education and outreach programs. Since becoming an

Program at the MacArthur Foundation in Chicago. In 1990,

independent dance artist, Sheppard has danced in projects

she was President of the Modern Language Association. She

with Ballet Cymru/GDance and Marc Brew Company in the

has won Fulbright and Rockefeller Humanities Fellowships.

United Kingdom. In the United States, she has worked with Full Radius Dance, Marjani Forté, MBDance, Infinity Dance

Elizabeth Streb has dived through glass, walked down

Theater, and Steve Paxton. Sheppard is the founder and artis-

London’s City Hall, dumped a ton of dirt on her head, and set

tic lead for Kinetic Light, a project-based ensemble, working

herself on fire, among many other feats of extreme action.

at the intersections of disability, dance, design, identity, and

She founded the STREB Extreme Action Company in 1979

technology to create transformative art and advance the

and established SLAM (STREB Lab for Action Mechanics) in

intersectional disability arts movement. A USA Artist, Cre-

Brooklyn, New York, in 2003. Streb holds an MA in humanities

About the Contributors  317

and social thought from New York University, a BS in mod-

Arizona State University, the nation’s largest comprehensive

ern dance from SUNY Brockport, and honorary doctorates

design and arts school at a research university. He is a lead-

from SUNY Brockport, Rhode Island College, and Otis Col-

ing writer and speaker on US cultural policy, and his work

lege of Art and Design and has received numerous honors

has fostered national discussions around topics of cultural

including the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Founda-

engagement, creative work and careers, art and democracy,

tion “Genius” Award, the Guggenheim Fellowship, a Doris

and the transformative possibilities of a twenty-first-century

Duke Artist Award, and a USA Fellowship Award. A board

creative campus. He is the author of Not Here, Not Now, Not

member of the Jerome Foundation, Streb has been a featured

That! Protest over Art and Culture in America (2011) and co-

speaker at TED2018: The Age of Amazement, BRAINWAVE at

editor of and contributing author to Engaging Art: The Next

the Rubin Museum, TEDxMET, the Institute for Technology

Great Transformation of America’s Cultural Life (2007). Prior

and Education, POPTECH, the Institute of Contemporary

to ASU, he was on the faculty at Vanderbilt University, where

Art, the Brooklyn Museum of Art, the Rochester Institute of

he was a chief architect of the Curb Center for Art, Enterprise

Technology, the Association of Performing Arts Presenters,

and Public Policy, a national think tank for cultural policy

the Penny Stamps Speaker Series, Chorus America, and on

and creativity.

NPR’s Science Friday. She also gave the 2019 commencement speech at Otis College for Art and Design. Streb was profiled

Cristal Chanelle Truscott is a playwright/director,

by Alec Wilkinson in an extended essay for the New Yorker

culture worker, scholar/educator, and founding Artistic

magazine, was featured in the Smithsonian Magazine (“The

Director of Progress Theatre, a touring ensemble that en-

New American Circus”), and in 2019 was featured on the

courages social consciousness, cross-community dialogue,

front page of the Wall Street Journal. Streb is the subject of

and cultural awareness. As an artist, she creates “NeoSpiri-

two documentaries: Born to Fly, directed by Catherine Gund

tuals,” or a cappella musicals using “SoulWork” (Black Acting

(Aubin Pictures), which premiered at the SXSW Festival and

Methods, 2016), the generative method she developed from

was featured at the Film Forum in New York City, and OXD,

generations-old African American performance traditions

directed by Craig Lowy, which premiered at Doc NYC. Her

for training artists, building performances, and connecting

book STREB: How to Become an Extreme Action Hero was

communities. Her plays blend pop culture and academic

published in 2010.

conversations to engage antiracism and impact socio­cultural narratives, fusing genre such as Negro spirituals, blues, R&B,

Steven Tepper is Dean and Director of the Herberger In-

and hip hop to produce performances that span and strad-

stitute for Design and the Arts and Foundation Professor at

dle time between histories, the present, and future to sup-

318  About the Contributors

port justice-inspired healing and culture transformation

Line, VOW to End Child Marriage, the Committee to Protect

that standardizes equality. Her scholarly research focuses

Journalists, the National Gallery of Art, and the Smithsonian

on representations of spiritual diversity in African American

National Museum of African American History & Culture.

theater before 1950. Truscott has received the Doris Duke

He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the

Impact Artist Award, National Performance Network Cre-

American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the recipient

ation Fund, New England Foundation for the Arts’ National

of sixteen honorary degrees and university awards, including

Theatre Project Grant, and the MAP Fund. Her plays include

Harvard University’s W. E. B. Du Bois Medal. Educated exclu-

PEACHES (2009), ’MEMBUH, The Burnin’, and, in develop-

sively in public schools, Walker was a member of the first

ment, Plantation Remix, a site-responsive performance to

Head Start class in 1965 and graduated from the University

rehabilitate heritage tourism as an intercultural exploration

of Texas at Austin. He has been included on Time’s annual

of US histories and contemporary realities to reimagine and

“100 Most Influential People in the World,” Rolling Stone’s “25

enact restorative futures as afterlives for sites related to US

People Shaping the Future,” Fast Company’s “Most Creative

slavery. She is Associate Professor of Performance Studies

People in Business,” and OUT Magazine’s “Power 50.”

and Graduate Acting at Northwestern University.

Jay Wang is Director of the Center on Public Diplomacy and Darren Walker is President of the Ford Foundation, a

Associate Professor at the Annenberg School for Commu-

$13 billion international social justice philanthropy. He is co-

nication and Journalism, University of Southern California.

founder and chair of the Presidents’ Council on Disability In-

A scholar and consultant in the fields of strategic commu-

clusion in Philanthropy. Before joining Ford, Walker was Vice

nication and public diplomacy, he has published widely on

President at Rockefeller Foundation, overseeing global and

the role of communication in the contemporary process of

domestic programs. In the 1990s, he was COO of the Abyssin-

globalization. His books include Debating Public Diplomacy:

ian Development Corporation, Harlem’s largest community

Now and Next (as coeditor), Shaping China’s Global Imagina-

development organization. Walker cochairs New York City’s

tion: Nation Branding at the World Expo, Soft Power in China:

Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and

Public Diplomacy through Communication (as editor), and

Markers, the New York City Census Task Force, and serves

China’s Window on the World: TV News, Social Knowledge and

on the Independent Commission on New York City Criminal

International Spectacles (as coauthor). He serves on the edi-

Justice and Incarceration Reform and UN International Labor

torial board of the International Journal of Communication.

Organization Global Commission on the Future of Work. He

He has previously taught at Purdue University and worked

serves on many boards, including Carnegie Hall, the High

for the international consulting firm McKinsey & Company.

About the Contributors  319

Daniel Weiss has served since 2017 as President and Chief

Executive Vice President of the Andrew W. Mellon Founda-

Executive Officer of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, re-

tion, overseeing its grant-making and research programs.

sponsible for the overall leadership of the museum, includ-

Earlier in her career, she was Director and Paulette Goddard

ing establishing its key strategic, institutional, and capital

Professor at NYU’s Institute of Fine Arts and held positions

priorities. A scholar of Western medieval and Byzantine art,

at the Clark Art Institute and Rutgers University. She serves

he was previously President and Professor of Art History of

on the boards of ALIPH—The International Alliance for the

Haverford College and, before that, at Lafayette College. He

Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas and the Educational

has held leadership and faculty positions at Johns Hopkins

Testing Service and chairs the Selection Committee of the

as well. The author of six books, his most recent include

Scholar Rescue Fund. Her current research explores the

Remaking College: Innovation and the Liberal Arts (2013) and

Garden of Eden in the imagination of Judaism, Christianity,

In That Time: Michael O’Donnell and the Tragic Era of Vietnam

and Islam.

(2019). Earlier in his career, Weiss spent four years as a management consultant at Booz, Allen & Hamilton in New York.

Deborah Willis is University Professor and Chair of the

The recipient of fellowships from Harvard University and the

Department of Photography & Imaging of New York Univer-

National Endowment for the Humanities, he is a member of

sity’s Tisch School of the Arts. One of the nation’s leading

the Council on Foreign Relations, the University Council at

historians of African American photography and curators

Yale, and the Advisory Board of the Yale School of Manage-

of African American culture, she teaches at NYU courses

ment and serves as Vice Chair of the Board of the Samuel H.

on photography and imaging, iconicity, and cultural histo-

Kress Foundation. He is a trustee of the Library of America,

ries visualizing the Black body, women, and gender. She has

the Wallace Foundation, the Posse Foundation, and the Insti-

been the recipient of Guggenheim, Fletcher, and MacArthur

tute of Fine Arts of New York University.

fellowships, the Infinity Award in Writing from the International Center for Photography, and the Anonymous Was a

Mariët Westermann is Vice Chancellor and chief exec-

Woman Foundation Award. Her books include The Black

utive of New York University Abu Dhabi. Previously, she had

Civil War Soldier: A Visual History of Conflict and Citizenship

served as the first Provost of NYU Abu Dhabi, charged with

and Posing Beauty: African American Images from the 1890s to

directing the development of the new campus and oversee-

the Present, among many others. She serves as a member of

ing the design of the academic program and recruitment

the Board of Commissioners of the Smithsonian Institution’s

of the faculty. Before returning to NYU Abu Dhabi, she was

American Art Museum.

320  About the Contributors

Ellen Winner is Professor Emerita of Psychology at Bos-

examining how we reason about philosophical questions

ton College and Senior Research Associate at Project Zero

about the arts, questions such as why we dislike perfect fakes

in the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Her research

and how we judge skill in abstract art. She has written over

focuses on two broad issues in the area of cognition in the

two hundred articles and is author of four books and coau-

arts: the impact of arts education on the development of

thor of three. Her most recent book is How Art Works: A Psy-

thinking dispositions or habits of mind, such as reflection,

chological Exploration.

exploration, and observation; and experimental aesthetics—

About the Contributors  321

Index

Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations. ableism, 80. See also disabilities Ackerman, Diane, 165 Acoustic Ecology Lab, 162 “aesthetic surplus,” 207, 209 Afghanistan, 212 Agamben, Giorgio, 244 AIDS, 28, 192–193, 198, 239–241, 243 Akhmatova, Anna, 44 Alaska, 138–147 Albers, Josef, 97 Alexander, Elizabeth, 61 Alexander, Michelle, 59 algorithms, 163 Ali, Agha Shahid, 119–120 Ali, Haidar, 127 Ali, Taha Mohammad, 257 alphabets, 119, 122, 208 Alternative Space Movement, 23 Alutiiq people, 146 American Council for Émigrés in the Professions (ACEP), 150 American Museum of Natural History (New York), 26 Americans for the Arts, 89, 100–101 America to Zanzibar exhibition (New York, 2016), 123, 125 Anderson, Chris, 173 Anderson, Marian, 152 Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 38, 61, 205–206

Anthropocene, 102. See also climate change Aparicio, Yalitza, 256 Apollo Theater (Harlem), 25 Appiah, K. Anthony, 5, 65–68 Arabic language, 119–122 Aranibar-Fernandez, Carolina, 161 Arbrey, Ahmaud, 117 architecture, 22, 45, 53; grammar of motion and, 187; virtual reality tools for, 167 Arendt, Hannah, 211–212 Aristotle, 234, 244 Arora, Gabo, 168 Arquitectonica (design firm), 26 Art for Justice Fund, 59–60 art history, 208, 213–215, 245–246, 249, 256 Arthurs, Alberta, 1–5, 270, 272, 303n1; Hersch interview with, 191–201; León interview with, 148–155 artificial intelligence (AI), 162–165, 168, 170 Art Institute of Chicago, 247 artists, 13, 19, 173, 249; as “change facilitators,” 171–172; in exile, 237, 238; “genius” of, 49, 238, 244; “protected status” of, 20–21; in residence, 170–171, 254 Art 120 (organization), 127 arts education, 214; in Alaska, 144; Campbell on, 29; skills gained from, 94–97; Stimpson on, 101–104; in Tennessee, 127; Walker on, 57; Winner on, 89–97

art therapists, 101, 245 Asawa, Ruth, 218, 228 Asian Cultural Council, 269 Athabascan people, 140 augmented reality (AR), 160, 166, 168. See also virtual reality (VR) Auletta, Ken, 15, 297n1 automation, 160, 164–165, 263 avant-garde, 51, 53–54, 56, 103 Avedon, Richard, 260 Baine, Bob, 184 Balanchine, George, 152 Baldwin, James, 109, 223 ballet. See dance Ballet Tech Foundation, 25 BAM (Brooklyn Academy of Music), 18, 21–23, 27 Baratynsky, Yevgeny, 70 Barlow, Phyllida, 266 Barrister, Roger, 190 Bartók, Béla, 54, 238 Basho, Matsuo, 67 Basquiat, Jean-Michel, 24 Baudelaire, Charles, 86 Bausch, Pina, 22 Bearden, Romare, 15–16, 17 Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron de, 238 Becker, Carol, 3, 244–252

323

Beethoven, Ludwig van, 45, 46, 50, 54 Bell Labs, 170 Belting, Hans, 208–211, 304n12 Benjamin, Walter, 172, 241; on cultural treasures, 214–215; on technology, 159, 166, 171, 175 Ben Khelifa, Karim, 126 Berger, Karol, 2, 44–56 Berryman, John, 76 Bhabha, Homi, 303n1 big data, 160–162, 169 Biggers, Sanford, 61 Birdsall, Sarah, 142 Black Lives Matter, 34–35, 216; Truscott on, 137; Willis on, 109–110, 110, 115, 115–116. See also racial justice movement Blackwood, Easley, 237 Block, Holly, 26 Boal, Augusto, 252 Bokamoso Youth Foundation, 132–134 Bollinger, Lee C., 248 Bond, Max, 22 Borges, Jorge Luis, 66 Boston Museum School, 247 Bottoms, David, 71 Boulder, Colorado, 180 Bouvet, Laurent, 264 Bowen, David H., 125 Brademas, John, ix, 269, 270 Brahms, Johannes, 45 Broadway: 1000 Steps project, 180, 181 Brodsky, Joseph, 54, 71 Bronx Museum of the Arts, 18, 23, 25–27 Brook, Peter, 22 Brooke, Rupert, 235 Brooklyn Academy of Music (BAM), 18, 21–23, 27 Brooklyn Museum of Art, 28

324  Index

Brown, Jeffrey, 3, 5, 253–261 Brown, John Seely, 170 Brown, Lynne P., ix Brown, Trisha, 100 brownfemipower (bfp), 299n1 Bruch, Max, 235 Buber, Martin, 71 Buddhism, 67, 198, 212 Building Bridges Program, 127, 128 Burnham, Linda Frye, 297n11 Burning Man festival, 167 Cage, John, 54, 170 Cahan, Cora, 25, 27 calligraphy, 119 Cambodia, 212 Campbell, Mary Schmidt, 4, 14–29 Cancel, Luis, 25, 28 “cancel” culture, 42 Caribbean Cultural Center (New York), 18 Carter, Jimmy, 16 Castells, Manuel, 263 Catapano, Peter, 86 Catterall, James, 90, 92–93 cave paintings, 166, 207–208, 208, 214, 304nn7–8 Celan, Paul, 70–71, 74, 76 celebrity culture, 100, 102 censorship, 28, 40–43, 98, 104; by East German police, 44; iconoclasm and, 210–212 Chait, Dick, 36 Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon, 46 Charon, Rita, 196, 199 Chiche, Jean-Daniel, 195 Chin, Mel, 179, 250 Chin, Vivian Fumiko, 220 Chopin, Frédéric, 53

Churchill, Winston, 97 City as Living Laboratory (CALL), 177–185 civil rights movement, 114–116, 145, 236; nonviolent training sessions of, 135–136. See also racial justice movement Civil War, 110, 111; monuments to, 215–216, 216 Clark, Arthur C., 163 climate change, 102, 162, 259, 304n7; new narrative for, 177–185; water scarcity and, 249–251 Cognitive Prints (fashion design software), 163–164 Cold War, 55, 56 Columbia University: Earth Institute of, 179; Narrative Medicine Program of, 196, 199; School of the Arts of, 247–252 Common Bond: The Muslin Ladies Social Club (Detroit), 127 Composers Now (organization), 154–155 Comprehensive Employment Training Act (CETA), 24, 297n11 Connect the Dots (art installation), 180 Cooper, Monica, 90 COVID-19 pandemic, 75, 263, 263; art museums and, 30–31; Campbell on, 15, 27; DiNiscia on, 272; Hersch on, 198; in Italy, 99; orchestras and, 30–31; Tepper on, 175; Truscott on, 137; Westermann on, 215–217; Willis on, 109–110, 110 Cox, Angela, 4, 138–147 Creative Capital (organization), 102–103 Cuarón, Alfonso, 256 “Cultural Conservatory” theory, 131–137 Cultural Institutions Group (CIG), 23–24 culture wars, 28–29 Cumbo, Laurie, 28 Cunningham, Merce, 170 cyborgs, 86

dadaism, 239 Dakota Access Pipeline, 144 Dale, Edgar, 169 Dallas Street Choir, 255 dance, 59; León on, 151–152; Sheppard on, 78–88; Streb on, 186–190 Dance Africa (Brooklyn), 22 Dance Theater of Harlem, 18, 22, 59, 151, 153 Dante Alighieri, 44–45 Danuser, Hermann, 53 Daswani, Nico, 251 da Vinci, Leonardo, 259 Davis, Whitney, 304n7 deBessonet, Lear, 12 Debussy, Claude, 53, 54 de Kooning, Willem, 20 Deleuze, Gilles, 187 demagoguery, 233–236, 241–242 democracy, 9–11, 23 Democratic Republic of Congo, 212 De Niro, Robert, 257 Deresiewicz, William, 173, 174 Desmond, Matthew, 168 Detroit Institute of Arts (DIA), 57–58, 61 Devanagari scripts, 122 Dewey, John, 50, 172 Dick, Philip, 160 Dickinson, Emily, 76–77, 102, 104 digital culture, 160 DiNiscia, Michael F., 269–273 disabilities, 79–88, 300n14 Ditchley Foundation, 269 diversity, 35, 127–128, 154–155, 264. See also racial justice movement Dixon, Brandon Victor, 11 Doris Duke Foundation for Islamic Art, 125, 269 DreamWorlds (movie company), 168–169

drug laws, 23, 29 drumming traditions, 130–131, 133, 137 Duchamp, Marcel, 65 Dulitz, Daniel, 80–81, 84 Dunleavy, Michael, 143–144 Durland, Steven, 298n11 DuVernay, Ava, 59 Dylan, Bob, 237 Earth Institute (Columbia University), 179 Eco, Umberto, 72 Einstein, Albert, 95 Eisner, Elliot, 91, 96 Elgamma, Ahmed, 163 Eliasson, Olafur, 250 Eliot, T. S., 162 empathy, 10, 42, 172; Ackerman on, 165; collective, 264; Turkle on, 173; virtual reality and, 126, 168; Walker on, 58–61 entrepreneurship, 169, 173; of hip-hop culture, 26; social, 251; Stimpson on, 102–103 Equal Justice Initiative (EJI), 60 Eriksen, Christy NaMee, 147 essentialism, 206 Ethiopia, 212 etymology, 78–79, 299nn2–3, 300n14 Eustis, Oskar, 4, 5, 9–13 Experiments in Art and Technology (EAT) program, 170 Fabian Society, 66–67 fashion designers, 163–164, 250 Fauré, Gabriel, 234 Feisst, Sabine, 162, 167–168 Feld, Eliot, 25, 27 Felstiner, John, 70 Finkelpearl, Tom, 28 flâneur, 84, 86

Flint, Mich., 250 Florida, Richard, 20, 297n5 Floyd, George, 34–35, 115–117 Fontenelle family, 112, 112–114 Ford, Edsel, 61 Ford, Gerald R., 14 Ford Foundation, 24, 38, 61 Forster, E. M., 299n6 Frazier, La Toya Ruby, 250 Free Southern Theater, 135 Freire, Paulo, 128 Freud, Sigmund, 241 Frick, Laurie, 162 Frost, Robert, 71 Fry, Roger, 214 funerary customs, 208–209, 214, 239, 304n12 Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 47 Gaffin, Stuart, 179 Galanin, Nicholas, 146 gaming, 125–126, 165. See also virtual reality (VR) Garfein, Herschel, 194, 196, 199 Gates, Theaster, 19, 21 Geertz, Clifford, 172 genocide, 129, 212 Gershwin, George, 238 Gharavi, Lance, 165 ghazal poems, 120–123 Ghosh, Amitav, 179 Giddens, Rhiannon, 128 Ginsberg, Allen, 223 Giuliani, Rudolph, 28 globalization, 160, 262–267 Global Leadership Fellows program, 251–252 global warming. See climate change Goade, Michaela, 144–145, 145 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 67

Index  325

Golden, Thelma, 25 Gorman, Amanda, 147 Goya, Francisco de, 241, 242 Graham, Martha, 162 Graves, Robert, 77 Great Depression, 12, 61 Greenblatt, Stephen, 264 Groddeck, George, 71 Guattari, Félix, 187 Gund, Agnes, 59 Guston, Philip, 41–42 Haakanson, Sven, Jr., 146 Haanstra, Folkert, 92 Hafez (Persian poet), 67 haiku poems, 222 Haiti, 257, 259–260 Hall, Stuart, 114 Hamilton (musical), 11 Han, Yoon Chung, 162 hand axes, 207, 303n3 Handel, George Frideric, 238 handicap, 87, 300n14. See also disabilities Hanslick, Eduard, 51 Hanson, Mark, 161 haptics, 161, 169 harassment, sexual, 86–88 Hardy, Hugh, 22, 25, 27–28 Harland, John, 92 Harlem School of the Arts, 18, 151 Harlem’s Studio Museum, 16–18, 22–25, 27 Harrington, Michael, 27 Hatshepsut (Egyptian queen), 211 Hausif, Dahkil, 82 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 50, 54 Healing Classrooms program, 212 Heath, Shirley Brice, 90, 91 Hegel, G. W. F., 46–48, 52

326  Index

Heidegger, Martin, 50 Heifetz, Ron, 38 Heine, Heinrich, 304n17 Heiss, Alanna, 23 Hemingway, Ernest, 301n3 Hersch, Fred, 3, 191–201 Hetland, Lois, 90 Higa, Karin M., 224 Hindi, 122 Hinduism, 121, 209 Hinton, Jim, 298n11 hip-hop culture, 26, 131, 139 Hirsch, Edward, 5, 69–77 Hirschman, Albert, 265 “historical trauma,” 228–229 Hitler, Adolf, 233–235, 237. See also Nazi Germany HIV disease. See AIDS Hobbes, Thomas, 44 Hoffmann, E. T. A., 50 Hoffmann, Jess, 299n1 Hofstadter, Richard, 265 homelessness, 58, 168; Dallas Street Choir and, 255; Rasmuson Foundation and, 141 Homer, 209 Horne, Lena, 153 Hough, James, 254 Hurricane Katrina (2005), 33 Hwang, David Henry, 266 Ibn ‘Ammar, Abu Bakr Muhammad, 72 Ibn Battuta (fourteenth-century explorer), 119 ibn Said, Omar, 128–129 Ichioka, Yuji, 227 iconoclasm, 210–212 Iijima, Chris, 227 immersive media, 165–167. See also virtual reality (VR)

immigrants, 19, 212–213, 231, 256, 264–265 Inada, Lawson, 226 income inequality, 55, 263 Indigenous cultures, 19–20, 218, 248, 256; of Alaska Natives, 138–147; BIPOC and, 145, 227, 299n9; investing in, 25–27 industrial revolutions, 159–160 institutional change, 30–43 international relationships, 262, 266–267. See also globalization International Rescue Committee (IRC), 212 International Society for Intensive Care Medicine, 195 Inupiaq people, 138–147 Iran, 126, 259 Iraq, 212 Ishii, Chris, 222 Ishizuka, Karen L., 3, 5, 218–231 ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria), 211, 237, 259 Ivey, Bill, 173 Jacobs, Jane, 15–16 James, C. L. R., 218 James, William, 50 Janus (Roman deity), 241–243 Japanese American internment camps, 218–231, 219–221, 225, 226, 230 Jara, Victor, 104 jazz, 131, 191–201, 235, 237 Jean Paul (Johann Paul Friedrich Richter), 50 Jenson, Matt, 182 John, Augustus, 66 Johnson, Steven, 173 Jones, Android, 167 journalism, 253–261; poetry and, 75, 257, 259–261 Joyce, James, 246

Joyce Theater (New York), 18, 22, 24, 25 Julliard Conservatory, 236–237 Junebug Productions, 135 justice, social, 59–61, 75. See also racial justice movement Kafka, Franz, 98–99 Kahlo, Frida, 13, 61 Kanders, Warren, 146 Kandinsky, Wassily, 50 Kaphar, Titus, 61 Katayama, Eiko, 228 Keats, John, 103 Kelley, Kevin, 162 Kelley, Robin D. G., 109 Kelliher-Combs, Sonya, 140 Kenya, 257 Keynes, John Maynard, 66 Khmer Rouge, 212 Khonsari, Navid, 126 Khonsari, Vassiliki, 126 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 114–116 Kisida, Brian, 125 Kobashigawa, Hideo, 224, 225 Kołakowski, Leszek, 46 Koons, Jeff, 103 Kramer, Larry, 200 Krasner, Larry, 254 Kurosawa, Akira, 67 Kurtág, György, 53, 54 Kurzweil, Ray, 163 Kushner, Tony, 240 LaMama Experimental Theater Club, 21, 22 Lamar, Kendrick, 254 Lanier, Jaron, 163 Laurin, Ginette, 164 Lawson, Laurel, 85

leadership, 41; adaptive challenges of, 38–39; development of, 27–29, 39; for institutional change, 30–43; shared governance and, 36 League of American Orchestras, 30; diversity concerns of, 35–37; mission of, 31–32, 34, 36 Lebanon, 212 Lehrer, Jim, 254 Lemkin, Raphael, 212, 304n17 Lenfest Center for the Arts, 248–249 León, Tania, 3, 148–155 Leopardi, Giacomo, 76 Lessig, Lawrence, 173 Levi, Primo, 44, 45 Lichtenstein, Harvey, 22, 27 Lichtenstein, Roy, 59 Ligeti, György, 53 Lin, Maya, 22 Lindsay, John, 16 Linklater, Kristin, 251 Liszt, Franz, 50 Liu, Ken, 230 local culture, 25–27 Lorde, Audre, 230 Louisiana Philharmonic, 32–33 Lowe, Rick, 21 Lupa, Krystian, 98–99 Lutosławski, Witold, 53, 54 lynching memorial (Montgomery, Ala.), 60–61 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 233 MacNeil, Robert, 254 Macron, Emmanuel, 215 Mahler, Gustav, 45 Maimonides, Moses, 119, 120 Majestic Theater (Brooklyn), 22–23 make-believe, 65–66, 240 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 50

Maltby, Elliott, 182 Mamlock, Ursula, 153 Mandela, Nelson, 58 Mandelstam, Osip, 69–71, 76 Marchini, Maurizio, 99 Masumoto, Nikiko, 230–231 Mataric, Maja, 164 Matlin, Daniel, 19 Mayan religion, 239 Mayhew, Alex, 168 Maynor, Dorothy, 151 McDade, Tony, 117 McKinney, Richard, 126 Mellon Foundation, 38, 61, 205–206 Melville, Herman, 104 Mendelssohn, Felix, 237 Mertz, LuEsther T., 25 message art, 51, 234–236, 238, 239 Messiaen, Olivier, 53, 54 Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), 26–27, 30, 33–37 Mexican Americans, 134 “milling” (dance exercise), 81–82 Mills, Jonathan, 267 mimesis, 45, 50, 51, 66 Minhaj, Hasan, 126–127 Mir, Mir Taqi, 118, 120–122, 124 Miss, Mary, 4, 177–185 Mitchell, Arthur, 151–152 Miyamoto, Nobuko, 226–227 Miyatake, Toyo, 222 Mohammed, Hussam Zahim, 305n22 Monk, Thelonious, 197–198 Montañez Ortiz, Rafael, 26 Montclair State University, 195–196 Moore, Gerald, 113 Morris, Mark, 27 Morrison, Toni, 102, 132, 258

Index  327

Morton, Timothy, 250 Mothers Against Gun Violence, 116 Motherwell, Robert, 20 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 50, 54, 235; Don Giovanni, 45; Magic Flute, 45, 238; Marriage of Figaro, 238 Multaka project, 212–214, 305n22 murals, 13, 61, 162, 254, 256 Murrell, Denise, 249 Museo del Barrio (New York), 18, 23, 27 Museum of Contemporary African Diasporan Arts (MoCADA), 28 Museum of the Chinese in America, 22 Museum of the Moving Image, 27 museums, 31–40; censorship and, 40–43; mission of, 34, 36; pilfered artworks of, 215; virtual technologies and, 31, 168. See also under specific museums music, 97, 255; avant-garde, 54; Berger on, 44–54; gospel, 131; Hersch on, 191–201; hip-hop, 26, 131; jazz, 131, 191–201, 235, 237; León on, 148–155; mimesis in, 50, 51; operatic, 45, 128–129, 238; orchestral, 30–42, 235–237; rap, 139; Tejano, 134; Truscott on, 130–134 Mussolini, Benito, 233–234 My Coma Dreams (Hersch), 191–201

26, 124; Stimpson on, 101; Walker on, 57; Westermann on, 205 National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), 23, 57, 124, 205 National Memorial for Peace and Justice (Montgomery, Ala.), 60–61 National Science Education Standards, 95 Nation of Islam, 123 Nazi Germany, 212–213, 228, 233–235, 237, 241–242 N’Dour, Youssou, 22 Nelson, Linda, 195 Nelson, Stuart, 195 NeoSpirituals (musicals), 131, 136 Nesbit, Edith, 66 Newfield, Jack, 113 New Museum (New York), 18 New York City Ballet, 151 New York College of Music, 150 New York University (NYU), 150, 269–270 Next Wave Festival (Brooklyn), 22 Nieburh, Reinhold, 263–264 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 45, 48, 50 9/11 attacks (2001), 75 Nishizawa, Ryue, 22 Nottage, Lynn, 12 Nuba people, 242

nagri letters, 122 Nakamura, Robert A., 225–226, 226, 229 Nakamura, Tadashi, 229 Nakano, Jiro, 222 Nakano, Kay, 222 Narrative Medicine Program (Columbia University), 196, 199 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 95 National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), 23,

Obata, Chiura, 220–222 Obvious (art collective), 163 Ofili, Christopher, 28 Okada, John, 223–224 Okakok, Leona, 140 Oki, Jim, 222–223 Okubo, Miné, 219–220, 220, 221, 223, 228, 306n6 Oliver, Mary, 303n1 Olson, Jenny, 141

328  Index

O’Neal, John, 135 opioids, 171 Orange, Tommy, 229–230 orchestras, 30–42; COVID-19 lockdowns and, 30–31; diversity concerns of, 35–37; mission of, 31–32, 34, 36 Orozco, José Clemente, 256 Orwell, George, 239 Ovid, 242–243 Ozeki, Ruth, 224 pageant movement, 12 Paine, Garth, 162, 164, 167–168 painting. See visual arts Palant, Jonathan, 255 Palmer, Karen, 168 Papp, Joe, 10 Parks, Gordon, 110, 112, 112–114, 116 Pater, Walter, 50 Paterson Silk Strike (1913), 12 Paxton, Steve, 88 Paz, Octavio, 239 PBS NewsHour, 253–257 Peers, Danielle, 83, 84 Pence, Mike, 11 Peratrovich, Elizabeth, 145 Percent for Art program, 181–182 Percy, Walker, 172 performance studies, 131 performing life, 132–135 Pericles, 234 Permanent Fund Dividend (Alaska), 143 Persian language, 119, 121–122 Petronio, Stephen, 24 photography, 102, 109–117, 159 Piano, Renzo, 248 poetry, 5, 67, 118–125; Appiah on, 67–68; Berger on, 44–56; Brown on, 258–261;

Celan on, 70–71; Dickinson on, 76–77, 102, 104; Graves on, 77; Hirsch on, 69–77; Hirshfield on, 222; Ishizuka on, 222–231; journalism and, 75, 257, 259–261; Mandel­ stam on, 69–71, 76; Shelley on, 67; Stimpson on, 102–104 Pollock, Jackson, 45, 256 Poor People’s March (1968), 114 Pope, Alexander, 299n6 Pound, Ezra, 103 President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities, 29, 89 Price, Leontyne, 152 prisons, 10–11, 29; art programs in, 59–60, 254–255; Japanese American internment camps and, 218–231, 219–221, 225, 226, 230; mapping of, 161–162 Progress Theatre, 131. See also Truscott, Cristal Chanelle propaganda, 46, 75; Appiah on, 67–68; mimetic art and, 51 PS1 (visual-arts organization), 18, 23 “quality standards,” 32–33 “Quantified Self,” 162 Queens Museum (New York), 18, 22, 23, 27, 250 Qur’an, 119, 305n17 racial justice movement, 15, 31, 59–61, 75, 133; civil rights movement and, 114–116, 135– 136, 145; classical music and, 37; disability and, 87; Japanese Americans and, 225, 227. See also Black Lives Matter; diversity Rahman, Zeyba, 4, 5, 118–129 Raijko, Jessica, 161 rap music, 139. See also hip-hop culture Rashid, Hussein, 4, 5, 118–129

Rasmuson Foundation, 141–145, 147 Rauschenberg, Robert, 170 Reagan, Ronald, 16 reconciliation, 212–213, 215–217 Redden, Nigel, 128–129 Reed, John, 12 Reid, George Agnew, 168 Reisman, Leah, 272, 275–294 Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich “Jean Paul,” 50 Riefenstahl, Leni, 234–236, 242 Rigveda, 209 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 71, 75 Rimbaud, Arthur, 76 Ritzer, George, 166 Rivera, Diego, 13, 61, 162, 256 Robbins, Jerome, 152 robots, 86, 102, 164–165 Rockefeller, Nelson, 23 Rockefeller Brothers Fund, 270 Rockefeller Foundation, 38 Rosen, Jesse, 4, 30–43 Rosen, Robert, 226 Rosenzweig, Cynthia, 179, 185 Rosing, Minik, 250 Roth, Martin, 266 Rothko, Mark, 20, 45 Rouse, Christopher, 97 Rubin, Ben, 161 Rucker, Paul, 161–162 Russell, Bertrand, 66 Sa’adi Shirazi, 129 Sachs, Albie, 58 Sacks, Oliver, 200 Said, Omar ibn, 128–129 Saito, Brynn, 230–231 Sanderson, Eric, 179 San Francisco Art Institute, 247

Saturn (Roman deity), 241–242 Savage, Augusta, 162 Schoenberg, Arnold, 54 Scholes, Robert, 75 school arts programs. See arts education Schopenhauer, Arthur, 50 Schubert, Franz, 50, 236 Schumann, Robert, 53 Schwab, Klaus, 160 Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship, 251 Scorsese, Martin, 16 Sebald, W. G., 242 Seftel, Joshua, 126 Segal, Martin, 21, 297n10 Sejima, Kazuyo, 22 Sennett, Richard, 3, 232–243, 303n1 September 11th attacks (2001), 75 sexual harassment, 86–88 Shakespeare, William, 168, 187; As You Like It, 232, 239–241; Hamlet, 22, 66, 232–234, 236–239, 242; Macbeth, 67; Measure for Measure, 10–11; Romeo and Juliet, 242–243; The Tempest, 12–13 Shang Dynasty, 209 Shaw, George Bernard, 66 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 67 Sheppard, Alice, 3, 78–88 Shibuya, Mari, 229, 230 Shimoda, Brandon, 228–229 Shin, Jean, 181 Shintani, Na Omi Judy, 229, 230 Shire, Warsan, 124 Shirky, Clay, 173 Shostakovich, Dmitry, 53 Shteyngart, Gary, 160–161 Simmonds, Samuel, 140 Singer, Michael, 179

Index  329

“singularity,” 162–163 Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 13, 256 slavery, 9, 111, 153, 215; Aranibar-Fernandez on, 161; drumming traditions and, 130; mass incarceration and, 59 Smith, Cyril, 170 socialist realism, 51. See also message art Soga, Yasutaro “Keiho,” 218, 222 Solecki, William, 179 “sonic justice,” 155 Sontag, Susan, 241–242 “SoulWork,” 131–132, 136–137. See also Truscott, Cristal Chanelle South Africa, 132–134 Spanish Civil War, 239 Spinoza, Benedict de, 265 Spivey, Al, 84 Spoleto Festival (Charleston, S.C.), 128–129 Springsteen, Bruce, 258 Stalin, Joseph, 51, 236, 239 Stamos, Theodore, 20 Starobinski, Jean, 45 step dancing, 130 Sterne, Lawrence, 235 Stevens, Wallace, 73–74, 76 Stevenson, Bryan, 60, 61 Stewart, Ellen, 21, 22 Stimpson, Catharine R., 4, 5, 98–105 Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 54 storytelling, 129, 171; virtual reality and, 125–126, 168 Stravinsky, Igor, 54, 162 Streb, Elizabeth, 4, 100, 186–190, 188, 189 Studio Museum in Harlem (SMH), 16–18, 22–25, 27 Sugimoto, Henry, 219, 223, 228, 306n19 suicide, 171, 307n37 surrealism, 197, 199, 239

330  Index

Syrian refugees, 212–213 Takei, Sojin, 222 Tanaka, Togo, 227 Tang, Edward, 223 tanka poems, 222 tap dance, 130 Taylor, Breonna, 117 Tejano music, 134 Tepper, Steven, 3, 159–176 Tharp, Twyla, 258 theater: Appiah on, 66–68; democracy and, 9–10; Eustis on, 9–13; Sennett on, 232–243; Truscott on, 130–137. See also Shakespeare, William Theater for a New Audience (New York), 22, 27–28 Thomas, Hank Willis, 61, 230 Thutmose III (pharaoh), 211 Tibbetts Brook (New York), 177–178, 182, 184 Till, Emmett, 116 Timberg, Scott, 173 Tlingit people, 146 Tolstoy, Lev, 71 Toscano, Ellyn, 270, 303n1 Tough Guy Modernists, 301n3 Trump, Donald, 11, 104, 231, 234, 259, 273 Truscott, Cristal Chanelle, 3, 5, 130–137 Tsvetaeva, Marina, 71, 76 Turkic languages, 119, 121–122 Turkle, Sherry, 173 Tyson, Cecily, 152 Ukeles, Mierle, 179 “Unending Climax” technique, 131, 135–137 United Nations: Climate Change Conference of, 250; on genocide, 212; Sustainability Goals of, 182

Urban Development Action Grants (UDAG), 24 Urdu, 119–124, 129 Valéry, Paul, 71, 159 Vaughan Williams, Ralph, 66 Vietnam War, 75, 116 Vignoly, Rafael, 22 virtual reality (VR), 160, 165–169; educational applications of, 168–169; empathy and, 126, 168; storytelling and, 125–126, 168 visual arts, 30–43; Appiah on, 65; Berger on, 45–46; Campbell on, 14–29; cave paintings, 166, 207–208, 208, 214, 304nn7–8; Cox on, 138–147; digital technologies and, 159–176; Ishizuka on, 218–230; Miss on, 177–185; murals, 13, 61, 162, 254, 256; photography, 102, 109–117, 159; Tepper on, 159–176; Walker on, 57–61; Westermann on, 205–217; Willis on, 109–117 Wagner, Richard, 50, 234 Wakasa, Daryn, 229 Walker, Darren, 4, 38, 57–61 walking, 78–88, 299n1 Wallach Art Gallery, 249 Walton, Kendall, 66, 298n2 Wang, Jay, 3, 262–267 Wang, ShiPu, 222 Warhol Foundation, 104 Warith Deen Mohammed community, 123 WaterMarks: An Atlas of Water for the City of Milwaukee, 182–184, 183 water scarcity, 249–251 Watson, Nicole, 11 WEACT (environmental group), 182 Webb, Amber, 144, 145 Webb, Beatrice, 66–67

Webb, Sidney, 66–67 Weber, Nicholas Fox, 97 Webern, Anton von, 53 Wei, Sha Xin, 164, 173 Weil, Stephen E., 31 Weiss, Daniel, 4, 30–43 Westermann, Mariët, 3, 205–217 Western, Drew, 265 whale hunting, 139–140, 147 Wheeler, Jed, 194 Where Good Souls Fear (film), 82–84

Whitman, Walt, 194 Whitney Museum (New York), 256 Williams, C. K., 72–73 Willis, Deborah, 4, 109–117, 116 Winner, Ellen, 3, 89–97, 125 Winther, Michael, 194 Wolf, Gary, 162 Wolfe, Tom, 16 Wood, Christopher S., 304n12 Woolf, Virginia, 102, 240 World Economic Forum (Davos), 160, 251–252

xenophobia, 68, 124, 264 Xiaojing, 119 Yamada, Mitsuye, 224–225 Yamamoto, Hisaye, 224–225 Yamauchi, Wakako, 224, 228 Yeager, Chuck, 190 Yonsei Memory Project (YMP), 230 Yup’ik people, 144 Zenka (artist), 165

Index  331