Archaeometallurgy – Materials Science Aspects 3030503666, 9783030503666

Table of contents :
Acknowledgements
Contents
Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Introduction: Archaeology and Archaeometallurgy
1.1 Archaeometallurgy as Its Own Discipline
1.2 The Concept of Archaeometallurgy
1.3 Goals of This Volume
Chapter 2: Stages of Early Metallurgical Activities
2.1 Diffusionism Versus Autonomous Developments
2.2 Ore Geology and Environmental Change
2.3 Metallurgical Developments
2.3.1 Preliminary Stage
2.3.2 Initial Phase: The Neolithic Period
2.3.3 Innovation and Consolidation Phases: Early to Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age I
2.3.4 Industrial Phase: Developed Bronze and Iron Age and Later
2.4 Chaîne Opératoire and Metallurgical Chain
Chapter 3: Ancient Ore Deposits
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What Is an Ore Deposit?
3.2.1 Magmatic Ore Deposits
3.2.2 Sedimentary/Surficial Ore Deposits
3.2.3 Diagenetic-Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
3.2.4 Metamorphic Ore Deposits
3.2.5 From Metal Provinces to Metallogenetic Belts
3.2.6 Monomineralisation Versus Polymetallic Ore Deposits
3.2.7 The Design and Morphology of Ore Deposits
3.3 Ore Minerals Intergrowths
3.3.1 Ore Textures
3.4 Spatial Geographic Distribution of Ore Deposits in the Old World
3.4.1 Plate Tectonics and Ore Deposits
3.4.2 The Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt (TEMB)
3.4.3 Polymetallic Deposits and Lead-Zinc Deposits in the Paleozoic of Europe
3.4.4 The Altaids and Uralids
3.4.5 Ore Deposits in Old Cratons
3.4.6 Copper Deposits
3.4.6.1 Copper Minerals
Native Copper and Its Alloys
Copper and Copper-Iron Sulphide Minerals
Sulphosalts
Secondary Copper Ores
3.4.6.2 Copper Deposits
Hydrothermal Copper Veins
The Mitterberg District
Fahlore Deposits
Schwaz/Brixlegg
Ross Island
Cabrières
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits (VMS)
Cyprus
Oman
Anatolia
Iberian Pyrite Belt (IBP)
Sedimentary Copper Deposits
The Kupferschiefer
Kargaly
Wadi Arabah and Sinai
Timna and Faynan
Sinai
3.4.7 Gold
3.4.7.1 Gold Minerals
Colours
Gold, Electrum and Aurian Silver
Copper Containing Gold
Amalgam-Natural or Anthropogeneous?
Gold-(Silver-)Tellurides
3.4.7.2 Gold Deposits
Archaic Orogene Gold-Quartz Veins
Gold in Polymetallic Ore Deposits of Younger Geological Ages
Volcanic Massive Sulphide Deposits (VMS)
Placer Deposits
Residual Deposits and Supergene Enrichment
Eluvial and Alluvial Placers
3.4.8 Platinum-Group Minerals
3.4.8.1 Platinum-Group Elements (PGE)
3.4.8.2 Platinum-Group Minerals (PGM)
3.4.8.3 Platinum Deposits
3.4.8.4 Inclusions of Platinum-Group Minerals in Gold Artefacts
Provenance Studies
3.4.9 Silver
3.4.9.1 Silver Minerals
Native Silver and Intermetallic Compounds
Silver Halogenides
Rich Sulphidic Silver Ores
Fahlores
Argentiferous Galenite
Argentiferous Cerussite
Jarosite
3.4.9.2 Silver Deposits
Hydrothermal Veins
Massive Sulphide Deposits
Laurion
Rio Tinto
Cyprus
Keban
3.4.10 Lead and Zinc
3.4.10.1 Lead Minerals
Native Lead
Lithargite
Galena
Lead Minerals of the Oxidation Zone
3.4.10.2 Zinc Minerals
Sphalerite
Secondary Zinc Minerals
3.4.10.3 Lead-Zinc Deposits (Silver Bearing)
Mississippi Valley Type deposits (MVT)
Hydrothermal Veins
Sedimentary Exhalative deposits (SEDEX)
3.4.10.4 Local Specifics
Great Britain
Germany
Iberian Peninsula
Sardinia (Italy)
Sifnos, Agios Sostis (Greece)
Iran
India
Al-Jabali
3.4.11 Tin
3.4.11.1 Some Problems of Ancient Tin
3.4.11.2 Tin Minerals
Native Tin
Cassiterite
Stannite
Mushistonite and Other Secondary (Copper-) Tin Ores
3.4.11.3 Tin Deposits
3.4.11.4 Regional Specifics
Central and Western Europe
The Ancient Near East and Eurasia
3.4.12 Iron
3.4.12.1 Iron Minerals
Terrestrial (Native) Iron
Meteoritic Iron
Meteoritic Versus Terrestrial Iron
Limonite
Hematite
Magnetite
Pyrite/Marcasite
3.4.12.2 Iron Deposits
Laterites
Pisolitic Iron Ores
Bog Iron Ores
Kidney Ores
Hydrothermal Iron Ore Deposits
Placer Deposits
3.4.13 Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth
3.4.13.1 Minerals and Ore Deposits of Arsenic
Native Arsenic, Cu- and Ni-Arsenides
Arsenic-Sulphides
Arsenates and Enrichment in Fe-Hydroxides
3.4.13.2 Mineralogy of Antimony
Native Antimony
Stibnite
Antimony Bearing Fahlores
3.4.13.3 Antimony Deposits
3.4.13.4 Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Bismuth
3.4.14 Mercury
3.4.14.1 Minerals of Mercury
Native Mercury
3.4.14.2 Ore Deposits of Mercury
3.5 Oxidation and Secondary Enrichment Zones
3.5.1 Old Workings in the Gossan
3.5.2 The Formation of the Oxidation Zone: The Gossan
3.5.3 The Secondary Enrichment Zone (Cementation Zone)
3.5.4 Protore: The Primary Ore Body
3.5.5 Alternative Models of Gossan Formations
3.5.6 Secondary Zoning Versus Metallurgical Models
3.5.7 Special Ores in the Oxidation and Cementation Zones
3.6 Placer Deposits
3.6.1 General Remarks
3.6.2 Formation of Placers
3.6.2.1 Climate and Geomorphology
3.6.3 Gold Placers
3.6.4 Gold Placers and Platinum-Group Minerals (PGM)
3.6.5 Tin Placers
3.6.6 Iron Placers
3.7 Mining Ore Deposits: Geological Factors, Economy and Politics
3.7.1 Early Stages of Exploitation
3.7.1.1 Prospection
3.7.1.2 Mining Laws
3.7.2 Geological Factors and Innovations
3.7.2.1 Ore Shoots and Bonanzas
3.7.2.2 Depletion of Reserves
3.8 The Beneficiation
3.8.1 General Remarks
3.8.2 Dry Treatment
3.8.3 Wet Dressing
3.9 Sampling Ancient Ore Deposits
Chapter 4: Basic Physical-Chemical Principles of Ancient Metallurgy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Silicate and Metal Phase Diagrams
4.2.1 Binary Systems
4.2.1.1 Complete Miscibility: Isomorphic Phase Diagrams
4.2.1.2 Limited Miscibility: Eutectic Phase Diagrams
4.2.1.3 Immiscibility: Monotectic Phase Diagrams
4.2.2 Ternary Systems
4.2.3 Three-Dimensional Presentation in Tetrahedron
4.3 Micro-equilibria and Partial (S)melting
4.4 Firing Conditions
4.4.1 Boudouard-Equilibrium
4.4.2 Colours by Burning
4.4.3 Redox Reactions
4.4.3.1 The Ellingham Diagram
4.4.3.2 Siliceous and Oxide Compounds of Iron and Other Metals
Chapter 5: Archaeometallurgical Slags and Other Debris
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Slags in the Archaeological Context
5.2.1 Prospecting Slag Heaps
5.2.2 Slagging Versus Slagless Metallurgy
5.2.3 Slag Heaps of Metal Smelting
5.2.3.1 Oman
5.2.3.2 Bloomery Slags
5.3 The Investigation of Archaeometallurgical Slags
5.3.1 Questions and Strategies
5.3.2 Sampling Slags and Analytical Approach
5.3.2.1 Macroscopic Evaluation
5.3.2.2 Microscopic Scale
5.3.2.3 Chemical Analysis
5.4 Types of Slags
5.4.1 The Oldest Slags
5.4.2 Crucible Slags
5.4.3 Slag Cakes, Matte Smelting
5.4.4 Slag Cakes and Slag Foam
5.4.5 Dross
5.4.6 Cinder
5.4.7 Tap Slags
5.4.8 Plate Slags
5.4.9 Furnace Slags (Hearth-Bottom Slags)
5.4.10 Crushed Slags
5.4.11 ``Free Silica Slags´´
5.4.12 Iron Working Slags
5.4.13 Fluxes
5.4.14 Ceramic Slags
5.5 The Chemical Composition of Ancient Slags
5.5.1 Iron Slags
5.5.1.1 Bloomery Tap Slags
5.5.1.2 Blast Furnace Slags
5.5.2 Copper Slags
5.5.2.1 Slags from Fahlore-Smelting
5.5.3 Lead-Silver Slags
5.5.4 Tin Slags
5.5.4.1 Tin Concentrations
5.5.5 Antimony Slags
5.6 Important Slag Phases
5.6.1 Slag Phases and Phase Associations
5.6.1.1 Olivines
5.6.1.2 Ferrifayalite (Laihunite)
5.6.1.3 Iscorite
5.6.1.4 Clinopyroxene
5.6.1.5 Pyroxenoide
5.6.1.6 Melilites
5.6.1.7 Andremeyerite
5.6.1.8 Feldspars
5.6.1.9 Leucite
5.6.1.10 Mullite
5.6.1.11 Alite
5.6.1.12 Glassy Slag and Siliceous Residual Liquid
5.6.1.13 Spinel
5.6.1.14 Wuestite
5.6.1.15 Periclase
5.6.1.16 Delafossite
5.6.1.17 Cuprite
5.7 Sulphide Mattes
5.7.1 Sulphide Phases
5.7.1.1 Colours
5.7.1.2 Pyrrhotite
5.7.1.3 Copper-Iron Sulphides
5.7.1.4 Chalcopyrite
5.7.1.5 Magnetite
5.7.1.6 Bornite
5.7.1.7 Digenite and Chalcocite
5.7.1.8 Covellite
5.7.1.9 Galenite
5.7.2 The System Cu-Fe-S
5.7.3 Sulphidic Mattes and Silicate Slag
5.8 Speiss
5.8.1 Composition of Speiss
5.8.1.1 Speiss as Parent Solid Solution?
5.8.2 Speiss and Matte
5.8.3 Archaeological Evidence
5.9 Cupellation Remains
5.9.1 Composition of Litharge
5.9.2 Archaeological Evidence
Chapter 6: Making Metals: Ancient Metallurgical Processes
6.1 General Aspects
6.1.1 Reconstructing Ancient Smelting Processes
6.1.1.1 Roasting
6.1.1.2 Smelting
6.1.1.3 Single-Step Smelting
6.1.1.4 Co-Smelting
6.1.1.5 Multistage Smelting
6.1.1.6 Distillation and Condensation
6.1.2 Metallurgical Installations
6.1.2.1 Crucibles
6.1.2.2 Roasting Installations
6.1.2.3 Smelting Furnaces
6.2 The Metallurgy of Copper
6.2.1 Copper Artefacts
6.2.1.1 Distinguishing Artefacts of Native Copper
6.2.1.2 Ingots
6.2.2 Classification of Copper Ores: Metallurgical Aspects
6.2.3 The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper
6.2.3.1 Smelting of Oxidic Ores
6.2.3.2 Co-smelting of Oxidic-Sulphidic Ores
6.2.3.3 Smelting Sulphidic Ores
6.2.3.4 Matte Smelting: Partial and Dead Roasting (German: Steinarbeit)
6.2.3.5 Matte Smelting: Smelting in Shaft Furnaces for Matte and Slag
6.2.3.6 Matte Smelting in Bronze Age Alps
6.2.3.7 Black Copper Smelting: Partial Roasting/Roast-Reaction (``English or Welsh Process´´)
6.2.3.8 Black Copper Smelting: Dead Roasting with Subsequent Reduction in a Shaft Furnace (``German Process´´)
6.2.3.9 Fahlore Metal and Fahlore Smelting
6.2.3.10 Refining
6.2.3.11 Smelting Furnaces
6.3 The Metallurgy of Gold
6.3.1 Gold Artefacts
6.3.1.1 How Gold Was Traded in Ancient Times
6.3.1.2 Gold Ingots
6.3.1.3 Gold Coinage
6.3.2 Ancient Metallurgical Processes of Gold
6.3.2.1 Roasting
6.3.2.2 Leaded Smelting: Extraction of Gold from Low-Grade Gold Ores
6.3.2.3 Cupellation to Separate Gold from Lead
6.3.2.4 Amalgamation
6.3.2.5 Parting/Cementation
6.3.3 Gilding Through the Ages
6.4 The Metallurgy of Silver and Lead
6.4.1 Silver Artefacts
6.4.1.1 Silver Ingots
6.4.2 Lead Artefacts
6.4.2.1 Roman Lead Production
6.4.2.2 Ingots
6.4.2.3 Medicals
6.4.3 Classification of Silver Ores: Metallurgical Aspects
6.4.4 The Metallurgy of Silver
6.4.4.1 Smelting
6.4.4.2 Extracting Silver from Lead Rich Ores
6.4.4.3 Leaded Smelting
6.4.4.4 Liquation: The Extraction of Silver from Copper
6.4.4.5 Cupellation
6.4.4.6 The Pattinson Process
6.4.4.7 The Patio Process
6.4.5 The Metallurgy of Lead
6.4.5.1 Reduction of Oxidic Ores
6.4.5.2 Roast-Reaction
6.4.5.3 Smelting Sulphidic Ores/Roast-Reduction
6.4.5.4 Distribution and Behaviour of Elements
6.4.5.5 Smelting Furnaces
6.5 The Metallurgy of Tin
6.5.1 Tin Artefacts
6.5.1.1 Rarity of Artefacts
6.5.1.2 Bars and Ingots
6.5.2 Ancient Metallurgical Processes
6.5.2.1 Tin Smelting Furnaces?
6.5.2.2 Tin Crucibles
6.5.2.3 Smelting of Tin Ores
6.5.2.4 Hardheads
6.5.2.5 Tin Slags
6.5.3 Tinning
6.6 The Metallurgy of Iron
6.6.1 Iron Artefacts
6.6.1.1 Meteoritic Iron?
6.6.1.2 Iron Bars and Ingots
6.6.2 Metallurgical Processes
6.6.2.1 Roasting
6.6.2.2 The Bloomery Process
6.6.2.3 Products: The Bloom
6.6.2.4 Products: Slag
6.6.3 Researches on Ancient Iron Production
6.6.3.1 Georgia and the Colchis
6.6.3.2 Iron Production in Central Europe
6.7 The Metallurgy of Antimony
6.7.1 Archaeological Evidence
6.7.2 Production and Processing
6.8 The Metallurgy of Zinc
6.8.1 Rare Finds of Ancient Zinc
6.8.2 Production and Processing
6.9 The Metallurgy of Mercury
6.9.1 Cinnabar and Mercury in Ancient Times
6.9.1.1 Cinnabar
6.9.1.2 Mercury
6.9.1.3 Poisonous Mercury
6.9.2 Production and Processing
Chapter 7: Metals and Alloys
7.1 Ancient Alloys: General Remarks
7.1.1 The Earliest Alloys
7.1.2 Physical Properties
7.2 Copper-Based Alloys
7.2.1 Classifications and Properties
7.2.2 Arsenical Copper
7.2.2.1 The Spread of Arsenical Copper
7.2.2.2 The Copper-Arsenic Phase Diagram and Physical Properties
7.2.2.3 Experimental Work
7.2.2.4 Origin of Arsenical Copper: Impure Copper Versus Deliberate Alloy
7.2.3 Antimonial Copper and Bronze
7.2.3.1 Copper-Antimony Phase Diagram and Physical Properties
7.2.3.2 Origin of Antimonial Copper: Impure Copper Versus Deliberate Alloy
7.2.4 Tin Bronze
7.2.4.1 The Geographical Distribution of Tin Bronze
7.2.4.2 The Making of Tin Bronze
7.2.4.3 Physical Properties of Tin Bronzes
7.2.4.4 Origin of Tin Bronze: Impurity Versus Deliberate Alloying
7.2.5 Brass
7.2.5.1 Ancient Brass
7.2.5.2 Physical Properties of Brass
7.2.5.3 Making Brass
7.2.6 Iron in Copper
7.2.6.1 Visible Iron in Copper
7.2.6.2 Aes Rude and Ramo Secco Bars
7.2.6.3 The Copper-Iron Equilibrium Phase Diagram
7.3 Gold and Gold Alloys
7.3.1 ``Pure´´ Gold
7.3.2 Gold Alloys
7.3.2.1 Gold-Silver Alloys
7.3.2.2 Gold-Silver-Copper Alloys
7.3.2.3 Platinum Group Minerals in Gold
7.4 Silver Alloys
7.4.1 Aurian Silver
7.4.2 Copper-Containing Silver
7.4.3 Silver-Copper Alloys
7.5 Iron Alloys
7.5.1 The Late Coming of Iron and Steel
7.5.2 Iron, Steel and Cast Iron
7.5.3 The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
7.5.4 Phosphorous Iron
Chapter 8: Macro- and Microstructure of Metals
8.1 Macrostructure
8.1.1 Conventional Radiography
8.1.2 Computed Tomography (CT)
8.2 Microstructure
8.2.1 Metallography
8.2.1.1 Casting Metals
8.2.1.2 Foreign Inclusions
8.2.1.3 Working of Metal
8.2.1.4 Iron and Steel
8.2.2 Neutron Diffractography
Chapter 9: Ethnographic Evidence and Artisanal Metal Production
9.1 General Remarks
9.2 Gold Exploitation in Africa
9.3 Iron in Africa
9.4 Copper Smelting in Himalaya
9.5 Pictures of Metal Making in Japan and China
9.6 Bronze Casting in India
Chapter 10: Experimental Archaeometallurgy
10.1 General Remarks
10.2 Early Copper Smelting
10.2.1 (Re-)Melting Native Copper
10.2.2 Microstructural Investigations
10.2.3 Crucible Smelting
10.3 Casting Copper Oxhide Ingots
10.4 Early Tin Assaying and Production
10.4.1 Kestel and Göltepe
10.4.2 Hampshire, Cornwall
10.5 Lead Smelting
Chapter 11: Provenance Studies
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Trace Element Analysis
11.2.1 Grouping of Elements
11.2.2 Developments
11.2.3 Distributions of Trace Elements
11.2.4 Silver and Lead
11.2.5 Gold
11.2.6 Iron
11.3 Isotope Analysis
11.3.1 Lead Isotope Analysis
11.3.1.1 Lead Isotopes
11.3.1.2 Model Ages
11.3.1.3 Geoscientific Aspects of Lead Isotopy
11.3.1.4 From Ore to Metal and Vice Versa: Lead Isotopy in Archaeometallurgy
11.3.1.5 Corpus Massarum Plumbearum Romanarum (CMPR)
11.3.1.6 The Mitterberg Mining District: Source for Copper in the Bronze Age?
11.3.2 Tin Isotopy
11.3.2.1 Analytical Approach
11.3.2.2 Tin Isotopes
11.3.2.3 Fractionation of Tin Isotopes: Corrosion and Metallurgy
11.3.2.4 Tin and Lead Isotopy
11.3.3 Copper Isotopy
11.3.3.1 Copper Isotopes and Archaeometallurgy
11.3.3.2 Copper Isotopes
11.3.3.3 Fractionation of Copper Isotopes in Copper Deposits
11.3.4 Osmium Isotopy
11.3.4.1 Osmium Isotopes and Archaeometallurgy
11.3.4.2 Osmium Isotopes
11.3.4.3 Platinum Group Placer Minerals (PGM) in Ancient Gold Artefacts
Glossary
Bibliography
Subject Index
Geographical Index