Archaeology and Entomology in the Eastern Mediterranean: Research into the history of insect synanthropy in Greece and Egypt 9781841711294, 9781407351704

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BAR  S836  2000   PANAGIOTAKOPULU   ARCHAEOLOGY & ENTOMOLOGY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

Archaeology and Entomology in the Eastern Mediterranean Research into the history of insect synanthropy in Greece and Egypt

Eva Panagiotakopulu

BAR International Series 836 9 781841 711294

B A R

2000

Archaeology and Entomology in the Eastern Mediterranean

Archaeology and Entomology in the Eastern Mediterranean Research into the history of insect synanthropy in Greece and Egypt

Eva Panagiotakopulu

BAR International Series 836 2000

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 836 Archaeology and Entomology in the Eastern Mediterranean

© E Panagiotakopulu and the Publisher 2000 Volume editor: John Hedges BSc(Hons), MA, MPhil, FSA, FSAScot, FRAI, MIFA The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841711294 paperback ISBN 9781407351704 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711294 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges Ltd. in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd/ Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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Abstract Fossil insects are examined from the excavation of Late Bronze Age Akrotiri, Santorini, Greece, and from an Egyptian site of Roman age, Mons Claudianus . Insect samples from ancient Egyptian botanical material stored in the Museum of Liverpool and insect remains found in coprolites from Tut 'ankhamun's Workmen's village are also discussed .

The first part of the study discusses the methodological problems encountered, as well as the preservation of the material studied. A brief summary of the archaeological record of pests is given in the next chapter . As most of the insect material studied was recovered from stored products , the accounts of Classical writers on foodstuff storage are discussed in detail. The section on storage is an effort to present the continuity of use of traditional practices to reduce the risk of crop loss in the storerooms.

The second part is a study of the archaeoentomology of the Bronze Age settlement excavated on Santorini. Background information on the main site is given. The insect fauna of the settlement is considered , most of it recovered from the West House at Akrotiri. The discovery of a cocoon of a wild silk moth, found on the site, is discussed, together with a summary of the relevant literary record, general information on sericulture and further iconographic evidence from the Late Bronze Age Aegean. The discussion of a model hive leads to a survey of early evidence for beekeeping. Entomological work on ancient Egyptian stored product faunas was also undertaken to provide comparative material to the Akrotiri finds.

A brief summary of trade in perishable material, as recovered in the archaeological record, and its importance for the reconstruction of past cultures shows the value of archaeoentomological research. The conclusions of the work undertaken and recommendations for further research are offered in the final chapter.

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Acknowledgements This research was undertaken with financial help from the British Federation of Women Graduates, International Federation of University Women, and the British School of Athens. However the main financial body throughout my study, as wellas the person who supported me emotionally, was my mother to whom I am most grateful. I will always be grateful to my dear friend Violetta who has been a sister to me all these years. I am grateful to my doctoral supervisor, Paul Buckland for teaching me the skills of research, guiding and inspiring me all the way, helping me with every problem, and editing the work. Thanks also to Joan, Helen, Pete and Tessa and Phil for sorting out computing frustrations and panics.

I would also like to thank Anaya Sarpaki who suggested the Santorini material, guided, advised, helped and inspired me and was always encouraging. To Peggy Sotirakopoulou I will always be obliged for advice and information about Akrotiri during the early days of the work. I am grateful to Professor Doumas for making available for study the Akrotiri material, as well as giving permission to use illustrations and photographs for the thesis. Also, many thanks are due to J.-P. Wild, P. Warren and C. Broodbank for their useful comments on silk. I am obliged to Peter Skidmore for identifying the dipterous remains from Akrotiri. I would also like to thank Barry Kemp and the Egypt Exploration Society for providing the material from Amama, Delwen Samuels for being so helpful, Marijke van der Veen for the Mons Claudianus material, Piotr Bienkowski for being so obliging during my visit to the Liverpool Musewn, Simone Riehl for providing the Troy material, and John Wade for giving me the program for classical Greek and for reading through the relevant chapters.

Corrections and additions to the Egyptian part of the research was made possible by an award from the Leverhulme Trust, to whom due acknowledgement is made.

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Weaving Weaving wild silk ~0nclusions Abstract

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Acknowledgements

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List of contents

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List of tables

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List of figures

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Chapte r 1 : Introduction Chapter 2 : Methodolog y Introduction Information loss Thanati c Taphic Sullegic Laboratory techniques Akrotiri Sampling methods Laboratory methods Conclusion

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Chapter 3 : The Archaeological record of stored product pests Introduction Insect pests in the storerooms and their archaeological record The sap beetles (Nitidulidae) Necrobia spp . The skin and hide beetles (Dermestidae) The cadelle (Tenebrioides mauritanicus) The saw-toothed grain beetles (Silvanidae) The flat grain beetles (Cucujidae) The lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica) The drug store beetle (Stegobium paniceum) The cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne) The spider beetles (Ptinidae) Ag!enus brunneus The flour beetles (Tribolium spp.) The small-eyed flour beetles (Palorus spp.) The lesser mealworms (Alphitobius spp.) The mealworms (Tenebrio spp.) The seed or bean weevils (Bruchidae) The grain weevils (Sitophilus spp .) Flour moths Angoumois grain moth Diptera in archaeological deposits Ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) Hymenoptera, Parasitica

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Mites

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Previous excavations Recent excavations Description of the site at Akrotiri Chronology Classical Sources The Classical writers Concerning insect pests Observations on insect food habits Climate and geographic factors in the preservation of crops General methods for pest control Treatment before sowing In the field and garden Threshing floors Storage Underground storage Building storerooms Insecticides and insect repellents Storage of legumes Conclusion

Chapter 5 : Crop Storage Introduction Process and choices preceding the storerooms Drying Ways of storing the grain Storage methods Ventilated storerooms Airtight storage Pit storage Storage in receptacles The use of insecticides in storage The ethnography of Greek storage Different storage techniques Traditional use of insecticides in Greece Storage on Santorini The archaeology of crop storage Storage in Egypt : the pictorial and archaeological evidence Greek storerooms Roman granaries Underground storage in Antiquity

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Chapter 6: The Geography, History and Archaeology ofThera Introduction The island of Thera Thera : the mythology The first colonization The Atlantis story Climate and vegetation The Aegean Santorini today - climate and vegetation Past climate and vegetation Settlement and land use Crop husbandry present husbandry past husbandry

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Population estimates The Late Bronze Age destruction The town of Akrotiri The West House and other buildings Cultivation past and present Palaeoenvironmental studies Archaeozoology Mollusca Animal representations in Thera art Deforestation Charcoal Evidence for trade and industry Weights and measures Loomweights Conclusion

Chapter 7 : Akrotiri - the archaeoentomology Introduction Objectives Selection of study area and sampling methods The West House Ground floor First floor The archaeoentomology of the West House Grain fauna Infestation levels Use of insecticides Insect fossils from other contexts House of the Ladies Pessos 17 Delta Building Discussion of the finds

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Chapter 8 : All about silk Introduction Two kinds of silk : true and wild silk Silk's genesis : the Asiatic mythology Sericulture in the Classical sources Silkworm and its names The Classical sources on wild silk Chinese silk and its introduction in the Classical record Silk in the Bronze Age Mediterranean The monopoly of silk Wild silk and Byzantium Seri culture Breeding silkworms Killing the "butterflies" Reeling the silk thread Wild silk moths Preparing the thread for weaving Dyeing

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Chapter 9 : Bronze Age Silk - The evidence from Akrotiri Introduction Context of the cocoon Identification of the cocoon Silk Use in the Mediterranean Pictorial evidence for the Silk Moth in the Bronze Age Aegean Silk Moths and "Tree Shaking" representations Silk Moth Emblems and the Ship Processio n Fresco Pictorial evidence for silk cloth in the Aegean The star symbol on the ships : evidence for another textile? On the history of Cotton Spindles and spindle whorls Conclusion

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Chapter 10 : Bees and beekeeping Introduction Bees and honey Honey-producing bee species Earliest evidence for the use of honey Early representations of bees Honey as food and as a preservative Beeswax Early evidence for beekeeping Egyptian hives ancient and modem Anatolian records Greek hives Classical writers on hives Beekeeping Extracting honey from hives Moveable comb hives, an "innovation " The miniature beehive from Akrotiri

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Chapter 11 : Insect fossils from Egyptian sites Introduction Egyptian samples from the Museum of Liverpool Collections Methodology Discussion of finds Coprolites from Amama : a preliminary environmental assessment The site Results Mons Claudianus Introduction Background information Methodology The food plants Archaeoentomology Conclusions Chapter 12 : Trade in perishables Introduction The evidence for trade in perishable materials

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Insects as indicators of trade

Chapter 13 : Conclusion Summary of results Further research

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List of references

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Appendix 1 : References in the classical record to measures against pest infestation

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Appendix 2: The Papyrus Ebers XCVII-XCVIII

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List of Tables Table 3-1: Primary insect pests in the crop stOierooms (revised from Dobie et al. 1984)

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Table 3-2 : List of infested pulses from archaeological sites (revised from Kislev 1991)

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Table 3-3 : The earliest records of beetle-pests in the storerooms

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Table 5-1: 18-20th Century distribution ofunderground pits according to Sigaut (1979,21-22)

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Table 6-1: Santorini : Population estimate of the West House based on the area of the House (from Sarpaki 1987).

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Table 6-2: Santorini: Estimate of inhabited area in square metres (from Sarpaki 1987).

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Table 6-3 : Santorini : Population estimate based on respective (Table 6.2) inhabited area (from Sarpaki 1987).

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Table 6-4 : The Bronze Age in the Aegean and Egypt, outline chronological tab le (modified from Doumas 1983 & Cline 1994) .

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Table 7-1 : Santorini : List of species from the West House, Akrotiri.

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Table 7-2: Santorini : West House, Akrotiri: insect remains from the Trenches.

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Table 7-3: Santorini: Room 5, West House: Species -Infestation levels

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Table 7-4: Santorini : Species list from Room 5, West House, Akrotiri .

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Table 7-5: Santorini: Insect fossils from the House of the Ladies, Akrotiri.

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Table 7-6: Santorini: Insect fossils from Xeste 3 and Pessos 17, Akrotiri.

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Table 7-7: Santorini: Methods against insect pests practised in the storerooms of the West House, Akrotiri.

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Table 11-1 : Insect remains from Egyptian samples in the Liverpool Museum.

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Table 11-2 : Insect remains from the Amama coprolites, Egypt.

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Table 11-3 : List of insect species from Amama, Egypt.

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Table 11-4 : Insect remains from Mons Claudianus, Egypt.

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List of Figures Fig. 2.1 Preservation on site of Akrotiri. At the right of the photo the remains of a basket are visible. Fig. 3.1 The archaeological record of pests; map of sites around the Mediterranean and Anatolia with first records of pests. Fig. 4.1 Map of Greece with sites mentioned in the text ( _ sites mentioned in classical sources) Fig. 4.2 Ideograms including spices on Linear B tablets from Pylos. Fig. 4.3 Coriander in Linear B (Ventris 1988). Fig. 5.1 Section through Bakhari, as used in Bihar, to show how the grain is stored with Bhusa (chaff) all around it (Sigaut 1979). Fig. 5.2 Different types of underground silos and ways of extracting the grain after Nandor (1966). Fig. 5.3. 1. Section ofa brick granary in Saqqara tomb 3038 after Spencer (1982). 2. Detail ofa Wall painting presenting a 3-domed storage chamber, Tomb 50 (Ti), Saqqara (Vth Dynasty) (after Baines &Malek 1980). Fig. 5.4 Linear B signs and tablet related to cereals and storage. a. ears of barley, b. bifid cereal sign. c. 'granary signs, & e. tablet of cereal class (after Evans 1935). Fig. 5.5 Elevated floor of Roman granary at Corbridge, Northumberland, England. Fig. 6.1 The Cyclades. Fig. 6.2 Bronze Age sites on the island ofThera, after Sarpaki (1987). Fig. 6.3 The excavation of Akrotiri, general plan, after Palyvou (1990). Fig. 6.4 The West House, first floor plan with location of botanical remains after Sarpaki (1987). Fig. 6.5 The West House, ground floor plan with location of botanical remains after Sarpaki (1987). Key to figs. 6.4 and 6.5. Fig. 6.6 The West House, Akrotiri. Fig. 6. 7 Delta Building, Akrotiri, Thera Fig. 7. 1 Pithoi built in benches, Delta I, Akrotiri Fig. 8.1 The Satumiid moth Saturnia pyri and its cocoon (after Zanetti 1980) Fig. 8.2 Sites around the Mediterranean mentioned in the text. Fig. 8.3 Linear B textile ideograms (redrawn from Ventris & Chadwick 1973). Fig. 8.4 Reconstruction of a warp weighted loom, Stong, Iceland Fig. 8.5 Silk Dyeing, redrawn from Rosetti (1540). Fig. 9.1 Cocoon and chrysalis of Pachypasa otus, preserved by calcification, Bronze Age Akrotiri, Thera, Greece. Drawing by A. Kontonis. Fig. 9.2 'Butterflies' on gemstones: a) a late Minoan gem from Knossos (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) (after Kenna 1960). b) l st C BC gem with imago of lepidopteran between its caterpillar (below) and? chrysalis (Coll. Leo Menz, Switzerland) (after Davies & Kathirithamby 1989). Fig. 9. 4. Lepidoptera on Minoan seals : a & b) from Aghia Triada (after Levi 1926 in Niemeier 1992, 274). c & d) from Knossos (after Younger 1983, 128). e) from Aghia Triada (after Evans 1930, 148). Fig. 9.5 Balance of thin gold plate with butterflies on scales (a) and gold butterfly pendant (b), from the third Shaft Grave, Mycenae (after Evans 1930, 150,fig. JOO). Fig. 9.6 The Ring of Minos (after Evans 1935). Fig. 9.7 The Vapheio ring (detail) (after Evans I 930, 148). Fig. 9.8 The Ring ofNestor, fig. 96 (detail) (after Evans 1930, 148).

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5 19 29 30 32 32 34 38

40 41 45 47 50 53 53 54 54 55 69 70 75 78 84 85 86

88 89 90 91 92 93

Fig. 9.9 Details of the flotilla, West House, Akrotiri, Thera, showing lepidopteran interpreted as silk moths and flowers interpreted as "sea daffodils" on the prow of ship no. 2. After Doumas (1992). Fig. 10.1 Pottery beehive from Room Delta 17 after Doumas ( 1983). Fig. 10.2 Gold pendant from Mallia, Crete, 2000 to l 700BC . Redrawn from a photograph. (Archaeological Museum, Heraklion). Fig. 10.3 Beehives and bees on coin from Dyrrachium Obrimi as depicted by Claudio Menetreio in Symbolica Dianae Ephesiae (1657) (after Crane 1983). Fig. 10.4 Model beehives from Akrotiri, Xeste 3. (After Marinatos 1976) & the photographic archive of the excavation. Fig.11. l Map of Egypt, showing sites mentioned in the text. Fig.l l.2 The Workmen's village , Amarna. General map showing 1921-22 and 1979-83 excavations. (after Kemp 1985). Fig. 11.3 Mons Claudianus . General map of Fort, North Annex and Animal stalls (after Bingen et al. 1990). Fig. 12.1 Detail from the tomb ofMenkeheperraseneb (Th 86), Thebes, mid 15th century B.C. one of the Aegean ambassadors holding a bolt of cloth over his arm (from Davies & Davies 1933, pl.5).

94 95 96 99 103 105 107 l 10

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List of Plates

Pl. 1. Seed of Lathyrus clymenum from Akrotiri, Thera, Greece, charred during the eruption. An adult bruchid beetle can be seen emerging from the hole. (L. 3mm.)

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Pl. 2. The charred larva of a bruchid beetle, Bruchus rufipes, recovered from pulses charred by the eruption, Akrotiri , Thera, Greece (L. 2mm.).

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Pl. 3. Virtually complete and uncharred specimen of the lesser grain borer beetle, Rhyzopertha dominica from Akrotiri, Thera, Greece. Dorsal view (L. 2.Smm.).

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Pl. 4. Lesser mealworm beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus from Tut'ankhamun Workmen's Village site, Amama , Egypt.

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Pl. 5. Detail of the flotilla fresco, West House, Akrotiri, Thera, Greece, showing Lepidoptera interpreted as silk moths, and flowers, perhaps of cotton on the prow of Ship 2 (after Doumas 1992).

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Pl. 6. Xeste 3, ' Lustral basin ' fresco on North Wall. Detail from the 'Adorants ' , showing woman in diaphonous garments (after Doumas 1992).

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1. Introduction Although the earliest research upoo ins~ets fr-e,m archaeological sites dates back almost a century and a half, archaeoentomology, the study of insect fossils from archaeological contexts, is a relatively new field of research, still in its infancy in the Mediterranean region. Although there are a number of earlier studies of material from Egyptian mummies (e.g. Hope 1842), the first attempt to reconstruct a past environment from fossil insects from archaeological contexts was undertaken by Rondani, and was included in the report on the Terramare sites of the Parmense, south of the river Po (Strobel & Pigorini 1864). Rondani showed the possibility of reconstructing ancient environments based on entomological evidence. Since then, insects of the order Coleoptera (beetles) have proved very effective in the study of climatic and environmental change (Buckland & Coope 1991). In an archaeological context, the group can be further used to interpret a variety of facets of everyday life that would otherwise pass unnoticed in the record, such as aspects of economy, living conditions, hygiene and trade. The immense scope and power of this research approach are perhaps best known from the pioneering studies in Britain of interglacial, glacial, Lateglacial, Holocene and urban archaeological sediments (e.g. Buckland & Coope 1991; Coope 1994; 1995; Hall & Kenward 1990; Kenward & Hall 1995; Buckland 1990). Work in the Mediterranean, however, has not been systematic, and has been carried out mostly by entomologists with no extensive knowledge of the archaeology involved (e.g. Alfieri 1931; dal Monte 1956), or archaeobotanists with no deep under-standing of the entomological data. For the first time, at the site of Akrotiri on Santorini in the Greek Aegean, a systematic study of insect remains from an archaeological site has been undertaken in the region. However, a variety of problems have had to be confronted. Methodological difficulties occur as a result of the different conditions of preservation compared with North European sites. These rule out the use of the standard technique of paraffin (kerosene) flotation (Coope & Osborne 1968), and other methods of extracting the insect remains have had to be investigated.

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