Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East 0816521743, 9780816521746

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The University of Arizona Press

o 2003 The Ari zona Board of Regents First printing All rights reserved 8 This book is printed on acid-(r«, archival-quali ty paper. Manufactured in the United States of America 080706

05

04

03 6 5 4 ) 2 1

library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wilkinson, 1". J. (lbny J.l Archaeological landscapes of the Near East / T. J. Wilkinson. p.cm. Includes bibliographical rderences and index. ISBN 0-8165-2173-5 - ISBN 0-8165-2174-3 (pbk.) I. Middle East- Historical geography. 2. Landscape archaeology-M idd le East. ). Landscape-Midd le Eas!.!. Title. DS44·9 .w55 2003 911'.394- d C21 200)005024

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

e~ntent.s List of Figures List of Tables

VII XI

Preface and Ack nowledgments Dating Conventions

XIII

xv

Chronological Charts

XVII

f Introduction Approaches to Landscape Archaeology 2

Environmental Context

3 4

Recording the Ancient Near Eastern Landscape Elements of Landscape

j

Landscapes of Irrigation

6

Landscapes of TeUs

7

The Great Dispersal

8

Sustenance from a Reluctant Desert

tJ

Landscapes of the Highlands

f0

15

Glossary

221

223

Bibliography Index

253

229

Techn iques and Analysis

33

44 71

The Fragile Crescent in the Bronze Age

100

Post-Bronze Age Landscapes of the Fertile Crescent 15 1

184

Landscape Trajectories in Time and Space

Notes

3

210

128

Model ofJandscape formationprocesses. 8 1.2 Map of Near East showing regions. 12 1.3 Map of Near East showing key places m entioned in the text. 13 2. 1 Rainfall map of Near East. 18 2.2 Climate proxy records from (a) Soreq Cave (b) Lake Van, (c) the Indian Ocean. 20 2.3 Map of Pleistocene drainage of Arabia. 23 2-4 Relict sabkha on the 'Satina coast of Oman. 24 2.) Section through the Scamandar floodplain near Troy, Turkey. 25 2,6 Pollen diagrams for Sogiitlu in Turkey, Lake Hula in the Jordan Valley, and the Ghab Valley in Syria. 27 2.7a Sediment yield in the Mediterranean basin, 30 2.7b Sediment yield versus precipitation in Israel. 30 2.7c Average sediment loss for various land- use types in the Mediterranean basin. 30 2.8 Sediment yield into the Black Sea over the last ca . 18,000 years. 31 3.1 1:50,000 map afpart of the Horns area in western Syria. 34 3.2 Representative satellite views of part of the landscape to the west of Tclil-lamoukar in Syria. 37 3.3 Landscape (eatures around I-Iam oukar in Syria. 38 3.4 Landscape "taphonomic window" on basalt plateau near Tell Beydar, Syria. 43 4.1 Sketches of some characteristic landscape features. 46 4.2 Main elements of irrigation systems. 49 4.3 Top: Small perennial flow channel near Sohat. so 4.3 Bottom: Upcast mounds alongside the Nahr al Qa'im, Samarra . ')0 4.4 Elements of Early Islamic fields at Arja (Oman) . .54 4.5 Stone c1caram:t' mounds near Kestel , Turkey. 56 4.6 Th reshing floor on Yemen high plains. 58 4.7 Two wine presses by the Euphrates floodplain in Syria. 59 4.8 1op: Wheel rut s from the Amuq. 61 4.8 Bottom: Anci cnt walled roadway in Yemen, 61 4-9 Quarry wong the Euphrates. 63 4.10 Multipniod landscape palimpsest at Harwarwah, Yemen. 69 5.1 Linear settlement patterns in southern Mesopotamia. 72 5.2 Chalcoli thic fields near D'1lI1atabad, [ran. 75 5.3 Physiographic regio ns of the Mesopotamian plains. 77 Ha Auger transect through sedimentary accumulations of the Sippar branch of the Euphrates, Iraq. 79 s.4h Third River Drain section near Nippur, Iraq. 79 5.) Model of aggradation/degradation cycles in the Mesopo tamian phin. 8] ,.6 Landscape taph onomi c zo nes around Nippur/Abu Salabikh, traq , with inset of Abu Salabikh 82. area. 1. 1

viii

\.7 5. 8 5·9 )·9

5. 1 0 5 ·11 5. 1 2

j.13

5. 1 4

6.1 6.2 6.)a 6.Jb

.-4 6.5 6.6

6., 6.8a 6.8b 6.9 6.10 6.1 I

6.12

6.13 6. 14 6.15

6.16 6.17 6.18 7.1

7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

7. 7 7.8 7.R

7.9 7. 10 8. 1 8.2 8.3 8.3 804

8.5 8.6 8.7

FIGlJlIl: S

Moisture mark of cana l near Abu Salabikh, Iraq. 83 image of channel pauerns south of Nippur, Iraq. 86 Left: levee, avulsion and crevasse splays along Tigris floodplain. 88 Right: transition from crevasse splay to a new avulsion channel. 88 Chan ncllevees of the upper Mesopotamian plains. 90 91 Selected major chan nels of the Mesopotamian plain. Irrigation cell in the Mesopotamian plain. 92 Agricultural landscape in the Deh Luran pied man!. 94 Field scatters and canals around Abu Duwari, Iraq. 96 Tells in the eastern part of the Amuq plain . 101 Rainfall and southern limit of rain-fed cultivation in the laLira. 102 Geomorphological units of the upper Khabur basin. 104 Sediment ary units in the Wadi Jaghjagh near Tell Brak, Syria. 104 Seed:charcoal ratios in southern Turkey and north Syria. 105 Block diagram of landscape zones in the Jazira. 106 Map of recent settlement in the lazim wi th distribution uf linear hollows. 107 Size of major tells or tell complexes in the lazira. 109 '[ell Beydar survey: site area:heighl ralios. 110 Development of tells and small sites through time. 1.10 Map of a typical small Ja~ira si te with enclosed depressions. III Geomorphological and landscape features in the vicinity of Tell Brak, Syria . 112 CORONA im age of linenr hollows and map of same at Cholma Foqani, Syria. 113 Section through linear hollow near Tell Brak. Syria. 114 Map of town ofQara Qosh, Iraq, showing fields and local tracks. 115 Three-dimensional view of intersite hollow way near Tell Beydar, Syria. 11 6 Field scatiers around Tel l Sw('yhat, Syria. u8 Landscape of tells: (a) accord ing to field data, (b) inferred from Nuzi texts. 119 Catchment land-use reconstructions: (a) Tell Sweyhat (b) Tell Hawa. 121 122 Reconstrucrion of land -use zones in the. Khabur Basin, Syria. Nineveh and its region. 129 Late Assyrian sett lement west of the Tigris. 131 The distribution of Bronze and Iron Age sites around Tell Seydar, Syria. 1)2 Aggregate settlement area in southern Samaria. 134 Fields of the Bronze Age and Classical periods in Wadi Faynan, Jordan. 137 Radial tracks around Kufr Thulth in Samarian uplands. 139 Anc ient fields near Umm el -Quttein, Jordan. 142 Tup: Fields with clearance mounds in southern Hauran, Jordan. 143 Bottom: Field systems containing kites near Umm al-Quttein, northern Jordan. 143 Pollen diagram from Lake Kinneret, with sedimentation rates and estimated population. 144 Gravel fan deposits overlying a Roman palaeosol, Amuq plain, Turkey. 147 Chronology of lakes and cultural episodes in relat'iol1 to monsoon c'ircul ation. 152 J.alaj and palm gardens in southeast Oman. 156 lop: Mudhayrib Oasis. Oman, from the air. 157 Left: Map of oasis. 157 Sunken gardens in Oman with upcast mounds (1/add) in center of photograph. l58 Reconstruclion of Bronze Age oasis landscape at Bat, Oman. 160 Map of southern Arabi;] showing oases, rhe relict wadi system, and other landscape feat ures. 161 Southern sluice of the Marib Dam. 163 CORONA

Figures

The Marib oasis, the dam, the Sabaean town, and irri gated field areas. 164 Major way stations along the Darb Zubaydah in Saudi Arabia in their geological con text. 166 8. 10 Landscape and water catchment of Birket al-Jumaymah , Saudi Arabi a. 167 8. 11 Birket al-Jumaymah . 168 8. 12a Runoff fa rm in Negev desert. 171 8. 12b Runoff irrigated fie lds in Yemen highlands. 171 ' 72 8.13 Landscape of runoff f.. rOling in cent ral Negev~ 8.14 Schemat ic layout of a desert landscape. '74 178 8.15 Above: Landscape context of kites in basalt terrain, Jordan. 179 8.15 Right: Swarm of kites in Jordan ian basalt terrain. 8 ..16 Trililb in the desert of southern Oman. 180 8. 17 Bronze Age tombs near the Ranllat Sabat'ayn, Yemen . 182 9.1 Taurus mountains near Kestel, Turkey, showing ecological zonation. 185 9.2 Land -use zonation in the mountains of southwest Saudi Arabia. 187 9.3 Terraced fi elds at nearly 3,000 III above sca level, southeast of Yari.m, Yemen. 187 9. 4a Section through a terrace field (Yemen) showing post-collapse gravel deposition. 188 9.4b Erosiona l sequence at Ghazwan, Yemen. 188 9.5 Section through alluvial sequence, Scdd adh- lJhra'ah, Yemen. 191 9.6 Three-dimensional reco tl ~tructio n of Hammat al-Qa, Yemen . 192 9.7a Landscape around Bronze Age Hammar al-Qa, Yemen. 193 9.7b Mod ular Bronzt· AgejHimyarite landscape for part of highland Yemen . 193 9.8 Top: Crol;S-valley wall, Wadi Shalalah, Yemen. 194 9.8 Bottom: Himyaril e dam ofScdd al-Ajmar, Yemen. 194 9.9 Ecological contexts of selected high land landscape Lypes for Anatolia, Iran , and southern Arabia, 196 accord ing to alti tude. 199 9.10 Deserted Luri campsi tes within deserted field s, lran. 9. 11 Three~dimen sio n a l block diagram of Kestel area, Turkey, showing relict landscapes. 203 9. t 2 Mining si tes and landscapes in the hinterland of Sohar, Oman. 205 10. 1 Modular settlement pallerns fo r Upper Mesopotamia and irrigat ed Southern Mesopotamia. 2 11 10.2 Different scales of landscape in the Ncar East. 2 12 10.3 Sequences of landscape change for part of the Yemen high lands. 217 8.8 8.9

2. 1

3.1 4.1 4. 2 4.3

4.4 6.1 6.2

7.1

7.2 8.1

8.2 10. 1

Average Sediment Loss in Terms of Tons per Square Kilometer per Annum from Eight Sites around the 31 Mediterranean Some Basic Imaging Systems Usefu l fo r Landscape Archaeology 36 Means of Distingu ishing Settlement Sites in the Near East 48 Selected Diagnostic Features of the Ma in Types of Water Supply in the Near East 52 Ma in Classes of Roads and Tracks 62 Off-Site Landscapes: Classification and Diagnostic Features 67 Land-Use Zones around a Tell in Upper Mesopotam ia 110 Landscape Features and Their Possible Equ ivalents in Late Bronze Age Nuzi Texts 120 The Number and Aggregate Settlement Area of Early Bro nze and Iron Age Sites in Northern Iraq and Northern Syria 13 1 Settlement and Environmental Trends along the Jordan Valley and Neighboring Areas to the East 149 Amount of Garden Area Required to Support a Given Number of People in an Omani Garden Irrigated by a Falaj 159 Cultural Features Found in the Arabian Desert. According to Common 1b pographic Context and Broad 175 Socioeconomic Function Signature La ndscapes and Basic Categories of Land Use 2 15

Despite landscape being virtually everywhere, nowhere is there a book on the ancient landscapes of the Ncar East. I have therefore wriuen this book to give an ove,r view of the archaeological landscapes of the Near East and by so doing to provide a context for the rise of early States and empires. Although some of what appears in the follow ing pages is based upon my own work, a considerable amOunt is synthcsi ...ed from what is a fragmented literature of regional studies and local surveys. not all of which were o riginaUy cla.'>Sified as landscape studies. To maintain some degree of balance. I have selected case stud ies from a very wide geographical nlnge of studies rather than focusing upon just those areas that haw been investigated in greatest detai l. '!'he reader should also appreciate that I have walked a fine line between the pragmatic empiricism of geoarchaeology and archaeological mrvey on the one hand and the qualitative theoretical approaches of Ihe post-processualisl school on the other. Despite th is balancing act, Ihe volume as it stands has a decidedly empirical flavor. Indeed, parts of th is book could be categorized as "landscape geoarchaeology." I make no apologies for Ihis: a descriptive overview of the subject is much needed, and this book is intended to act as a basic foundat ion for more sophisticated studies in future. Owr,lll, the geographical range of this book extends (rom southern Arabia to the Anatolian and Tramocaucasian highlands, and from the Mediterranean coast of the Levant to fran. Chronologically, it encompasses SOllle ten

thousand plus years. By covering such a broad canvas, there should be somethi ng in this book to annoy everyone. My first steps in landscape archaeology were inspired by the work of Robert McCormick Adams, whose truly seminal studies on Mesopot:lmian settlement and irrigation influenced me even before I became an archaeologist. In terms of the pragmatics of landscape survey, my early work benefited enormously from the influences of Andrew Williamson and Martha Prickett. Al though both died at an early age, their innovat ive stud ies of landscape archaeology (of the Islamic and prehistoric periods respectively) greatly influenced my own work. I must also thank the following excavation directors who invited me, at the start of my career. to work on their fidd projects: Richard Harper, David Whitehouse. Tom Holland, Paolo Costa, and Lee Marfoe. All allowed me to develop my field methods without any promise of an immedi ate return: I am very grateful to all for their encouragement. Others who have helped or encouraged my landscape approach through lhe years indude David and Joan Oates, Nicholas Post gat.. , McGuire Gibson, Andrew Moore, Maurizio Tosi, Donald Whitcomb. Claudio Vita-rimi, Malcolm Wagstaff, Peter M. M. G. Akkermans, Naomi Miller, Aslihan Yener, Mark I.ebeau, Karel Vanlerbcrghe, Gil Stein, Guillermo AJga~e, and Henry Wright. All these individuals had a considerable influence on m}' ideas and the development of my field methodology. I n addilion, I wish to

thank Nick. Kouchoukos, Clemens Reichel. Michael Roaf, Jennifer Pournelle. Carl Phillips. Kris Verhoeven, Graham Philip, Roger Matthews, Chari}' French. Glynn Barrett, Paul GQldberg, Arlene Miller Rosen, Christopher Edens, John Bintliff and Adam Smith, all of whom have contributed to the way I understand proces$Cs of landscape development. A considerable vote of thanks must also go to our students at the Uniwrsity of Chicago (i n Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations as well as in the Department of Anlhropology), who have tested many of my ideas in both the field and the labor,lIory and who have also helped by providing illustrations for this book. Part icularly, I must thank Jason Ur, Jesse Casana, Carrie Hritz. Mark Altaweel, Jerry Lyon , and Krista Lewis. Many of the graphics were produced in the CAMEL laboratory at the Oriental Inst itute. and I am gratefu l to Jason Ur and Ca rrie Hritz. who labored long and hard to produce the remole-sensing images illustrated as well a~ maps derived from them. Many of the map.~ and illustrations were produced by Peggy Sanders. who is to be thanked for her considerable skill and patience through out the production of this volume. Than ks also go to Eleanor Barbanes for additiona l fine drawings and maps. I am particularly grateful to the recent din:clors of the Oriental Institute: William Sumner, Gene Gragg, and Gil Stei n. during whose tenure this book was respectively dreamed up. written, and brought to completion. The Oriental lnstitule has been

xiv

a marvelous place: to write a book such as this. Not on ly did [ benefit fro m tht' fin e research archives and from the help of Chuck lones, the rescarch archivist (who guided me to many tOlTICS J would othcrwise haw neglected to consult ), but my research for this book was enhanced by numerous conversalions with colleagues at the Oriental Institute. It was as a result of many discus· sions and occasional seminars with Mac Gibson, Aslihan Yener, Abbas Alizadeh, David Schloen, Donald Whitcomb, and lohn Sanders that J was able to start 10 draw some common threads fro m a mass of data. IdeaS l'>'Crc also forged and tc.~ted by Oriental Institute seminars o n " the Waters of Babylon" and "Comparative Irrigation Systems" that included faculty, staff and students from both the O riental Institute and the Department o f Anthropology. My fiel dwork has been con ducted in many countries of the Middle East, and I particularl y sho uld thank the follow ing indio viduals who helped o r supported my fi eldwork: Dr. Yusuf Abdullah (,san'a) and Dr. i\bdu Ghabb Othman (San'a), Ali ,sanabani (Dhamar), Hatice Pam ir (Mustafa Kernal University, Antakya) , Sa'ad al Rashid tRiyadh), Salah ai-I Iilwa (Riyadh), Mu' ayyad Sa'id Damerji (Baghdad), Ali Shanfa ri (Muscat), and Sultan Muhesen (Damascus). I also bene fited significantly from my several years associated with the British Archaeological Expedition to Iraq, and [ particularl y wish to thank Warwick Ball, Moslem Mohamed (Tell Afarl, David Tucker, and Manhal labar (Mosul); without their help, no serious work could havt' been done in the North lazira Project. I am also most grateful to the numerous o rganizations that have funded my work or parts of it over the years: the British School of Archaeology in Iraq, the National Geographic Society, the British Academy, the National Endowmelll for the Humanities, the National Science Foundation, the Ameri-

PRE""' :!': A NI) AC,K N OW I. EOGMENTS

can Inst itute for Yemeni Studil's, the Orientallnstitule. the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture, Oman, the Department of Antiquities of Saudi Arabia, and numerous private do nors. The editorial staff of the University of Arizona Press, especially Christine Swter, Alan Schroder, Yvonne Reineke, Nancy Moore, and Anne Keyl, require 11 special vote of grat itude for patiently dealing with an unwieldy manuscript. In addition,two anonymous reviewers ml1de suggestions that enabled the final text to be mort' cohesive and understandable. This book has benefited significantly from the advice of these reviewers and many of the above-mentioned colleagues, but [ remain (ully responsible for any of the mi.~takes or shortcomings in the text. Special thanks go to Eleanor Bar+ ba nes. my wi fe, who has provided much help and commentary on my landscape studies and has been a wonderful companion during a succession of field campaigns.

Dating Conventions Employed in Text Uncalibrated radiocarbon years before present Calibrated radiocarbon years before present Conventional calendar or historical years B.C. o r A .D. Calibrated radiocarbon years B.C. or A.D. No dales arc given in the form uncalibratw rears B.C. or A.D.

H. P.

cal.

H.P.

o r A. D. cal. B.C. or cal. A.D. H.C .

xviii

Dates A. D./S.C.

CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS

Syro-Palesline

Upper Mesopotamia

Lower Mesopolamia

O ttoman Late Islamic

O ttoman Late Islamic

Ottoman Late Islam ic

"00 >000 800 A.D. 600 400 '00 0 >00 400 600 800 1000 B.C.

Crusader & Ayyubid

Middle Islamic

Middle Islamic

Early Islamic

Early Islamic

Early Islamic

Byzant ine

Sasanian

Sasanian

Roman Late Hellenistic Early Hellenistic Babylonian- Persian Iron Age II

Parthian Hellenist ic- Parth ian Hellenistic/Seleucid Late Iron Age Late Assyrian/Iron Age

Parthian Hellenistic- Parth ian Hellenistic/Scleucid Nco-Babylonian

1200 1400

Iron Age I Late Bronze MBA (Middle Bronze Age)

>000 1800

,600 1400

,600

?

MB '/EB-MB EB (Earl y Bronze) IV EB III

EB

Early Early Bronze Age/ Ninevite 5

Old Babylonian Isin Larsa Vr III Akkadian Early Dynastic II/III Early Dynastic I Jemdet Nasr

'" ,

L. Chakolithic/Vruk

Late Uruk

Chalcolithic

L. Chalcolithic

Early Uruk

Chalcolithic

Late Northern Ubaid

Ubaid 4

1800

'000 2200

'400 ,600 2800

3000 )200

3400 3600 3800 4000 4'00 4400 4600

II

Ubaid 3 Early Northern Ubaid

4800

,000 5200 5400

Ceramic Neolithic

,600 5800

Aceramic Neolithic

6000

Late Halaf Middle Halaf Early HalafjSamarran Ceramic Neolithic/ Hassuna

6200 6400

6600 6800

,000 7200 7400

,600 ,800 8000

Middle Babylonian Kassite

Late Bronze/Mid Assyrian Late Bronze Late MB A/Early LBA Middle MBA Early M8A/Old Assyrian Late Early Bronze Age Mid Early Bronze Age

Aceramic Neolithic

Aceramic Neolithic

Ubaid 2 Ubaid I Ubaid 0

Chronological Charts

'"

Dates A.D./B.C.

Anatolia

SE and SW Arabia

Ottoman Late Islamic

Ottoman Late Islamic

Crusader & Ayyubid

Middle Islamic

Early Islamic

Early Islamic

Byzantine

Himyarite (Yemen) Sasanian (Oman) Parthian (Oman)

"00 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 A.D.

600 400 '00 0 '00 400 600 800 1000 B.C.

Roman Late Hellenistic Early Hellenistic Lydian Phrygian/Urartian Syro-Hittite

Sabaean & Qatabanian (Yemen) & Iron Age Cultures (Oman & parts of Yemen)

Hittite (Late Bronze Age)

"Late Bronze Age"

Middle Bronze Age

"MBA"

1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

Early Bronze III

2400

EB II

2600

,800 3000

(Yemen) Wadi Suq (Oman) EBA (Yemen) Umm an-Nar (Oman) EBA (Yemen)

'61

Jemdet Nasr (Oman)

Late Chalcolithic

Aceramic shell middens of the Arabian coastline

3 200

3400 ,600 3 800

&

4000 4'00 4400

Arabian Bifacial Tradition Middle Chalcolithic

Arabian

4600 4800

Bifacial

5000 5200

Early Chalcolithic

5400 5600

Ceramic Neolithic

Tradit ion

5800 6000 6200 6400

Late Neolithic

6600 6800 7000 7200 7400 7600 7800 8000

Aceramic Neolithic

Aceramic Neolithic

JntrbAuctibn Approaches to Landscape Archaeology

Many funda mental works o n the ori· gins of Slates (Wright 1994; Adams 198\) necessarily build upo n landscape data. but the overall study of the Near Eastern landscape itself has nOt been laid out either empirically or theoretically. Moreover, the underpinnings of the state as manifcst in exchange systems, "world srstr nlS," and alternative models (Stein 2(00) are I rndit iollil ily predicated upon the political economy and its social underpinnings, but these too implicitly require an understanding of the structure and distribution of senlcmcnt and landscape. T he lack of syst(.'malic stud y or the Ncar EaSfern landscape has, I believe, impeded the development of archaeological

research. The objective of this book is therefore 10 provide an overview o f the Near Ea.~tern landscape thai can provide a framework for other st udies requiring all understanding of the economic or physical infrastructure of this largt' and fundamental rt'gion. More .~ pec ifi call y, this book attempts to describe the basic attribu tes of the ancient cultural landscape and to place its devc.lopment within tht' context of a dynamic environ ment. Th is task. in tum, requires an understand ing of the principles that underlie the preservation and recovery of landscape tealures. as well as how the cl1lturallandscape was managed through time. The term lmldscape has become increasingly popu lar in the last twenty years. and so its meaning has become st retched well beyond what was o riginally understood. L:lI1dscape archaeology has a long

and d ist inguished h iSTo ry in western Europe for much of the twentieth century, but in the Near East it has been neglected, emphasis having been placed upon art historical and cultural historical approaches. Even wht'n regional approaches to arch3eo logy gained momentum du ring the 1970S, emphasis continued to be upo n either settlement patterns or the physical landscaJX'. The aim of this book is to describe and analyze the archacologicallandsC,,, ",.Mg'"

,

.........

Weir

~""

date palmr hYillt"ees

VGlas &. $piceJ.

Slennlal FaHOW CuII/VlIh.Kj pIIs. 60 • 60 m belWeen~

gnMty /low inigallPO ,

~,

ATellTaya

~

\ J.Sinja, lAbdal·Aziz

,,

-- - -~

---

•

' Ni~eYeh

... Tell Khoshi

,I I

~ .... ~

'-\.--~~~I

"'1~,1

. . u!.r'J,J'-..... I~.I\ I

°Hat,a

,,

•

"

,

1 0

W

•

Ancient sites

•

Modern cities

" ,

Land> SOOm

.---- Mean ilnnUill rilinfall (mm) 100~m

n.....' . ,

Southern limit of rain ·fed agriculture

Fig.6.2 The Jazira of Syria, Iraq, and southern Turkey, showing mean annual rainfall (nun), selected archaeological sites, and the southern limit of rain~fed agriculture. appear to haw conducted greater Aows during the Pleistocene so that their valkys are much larger than the size of the present rive rs would i Illply. In the case of the Khabur, quarry sections to the southeast of Qamishli and near Tell Brak have ex· posed deep accumulations of coarse, well· rounded gravels of eastern Anatolian provenance, together with interbedded palaeo.'rols. The gra vels appear to have been deposited by braided channels. With their associaTed palaeosols, they form a broad sed iment sheet across much of the eastern Khabur basin . The varied rock types represenTed in the gravels, Their high deg ree of roundness, and their contrast with the later Pleistocene and Holocene gra\'els (which are of locaJl imcsTones and

other sedimentary rocks) indicate that during the earlier Pleistocene or Pliocene, major rivers comparable in scale to the Tigris flowed from the eastern Taurus mountains along the present Tigris to pass through the gap between the Jcbcls Abd al-Aziz and Si njar ncar Hassekeh and thence to the Euphrates. At a mOTC general lcvcl. the ancestors of Ihe Tigris-Euphratcs system may once have flowed as a series of subparallel streams frolll north to south from the T:lUrus mountains thro ugh the Wadis Tharthar, Khabur, and Balikh. Only at a later stage of the Pleistocene did Ih(' present deeply incised and locally downfaulted channels of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers form. In such a climatically marginal

environment, water supply is cru· cial for survival. In addition to the Tigris- Euphrates rivers and their tributaries, a large number of freshwater spri ngs were once active, that is, before modern well drilling resulted in a rapid ly declining water table. These springs, which receive their water via recharge into Tertiary dolomite and limestone, issue at various poims along the modern Tu rkiSh/Syrian border, around thc Jebel Abd al-Aziz, as well as in the area of Lake Khatuniye (Kolars and Mitchell 1991: 168- 175). Although many of these springs provide rather meager discha rges, major springs at 'Ayn al-Anls on the Syrian Balikh and Ras al.'Ayn , at the head of the Khabur, once provided a significant proportion of the flow ofthesc rivers.

LalidSCllpes of Tells

Holocene Landscape Evolution The Holocene environmental history of lh~ Ja1.ira cont inul'S to be little underslOod {for reviews, sec Coml y 1994; RQsen 1998; Wilk inson 1999bj, but there is nn emerging picture that suggests that following a Late Pleistllc~ ne stage characteri1:ed by episodically high How along braidl-d channels, river discharges continued to be higher than in recent times througho ut the early to mid Holocene. In the Khabur this manifests itsflf as a shift from an early- to midHolocene braided sand -bed channel, towards (aroulld 3000 R.C.) flow in a meandering silt channel (Ergenzinger 1991). In tributaries of the Turkish Euphrates and in the upper Balikh lIaUcy (Turkey) , higher fl ows resulted in the deposition of riverine gravc.ls during the mid Holocene. A phase of IlQnerosion o r channel incision that foll owed was then infilled, in turn. by Late Roman to Early Byzantine aggraded sediments (nosen 1998). Thai water tables were higher in the mid Holocene can be inferred from valley sediments in the Wadi Awaij (westcrn Khabur), the Wadi Jagh Jagh (central Khabur). and the Balikh valley (fig. 6.2). F..a rl y~ to mid-Holocene enlIirollIoents were also mo re verdant. according to Courty (1994), who recognized episodic moist interva ls that gave way, in the later part of lhe thi rd milkn niulll B.C. and later. to a phase of late- Holocene aridification. The moist phase recorded by geoarchaeologists roughly parallels the early· to mid-Holocene moist phase evident in the palaeocl imatic proxy data from Lake Van (Lemcke and Sturme 1997) . But despite the evidence of large accumulations of both valley fill s and alluvial fan deposits in conjunction wit h considerable degrees of human activity and forest removal, it is still difficult to establish a neal separation of alluvial sequences into a climatic o r human component. Rather, II seems that d uring the mid to late 1·loloccne,

>OJ jma as climatic cond itions were getting drier. populatio n in many places was increasing considerably so that there was a dual stress on the natu· ral vegetation that could have led to landscape destabilization (chapter 1). Moreover, many of the smaller rivers in the Jaz;ra exhibit late-Holocene channc.ls Ihat a.re narrow. deep, and meandering, in contrast wilh those of the early to mid- Holocene, when channels were broader and shallower (fig. 6.3). During the late Holocene. not o nly were regimes destabilil,('d by the removal of woodlands but also increasing amounts of water werc abstracted for purposes of irri gation. These two factors result ed in increased nmoff and soil erosion on the o ne hand, and decreased base flow of rivers on the other. Together, these two factors, as well as the climatic drying that can be infer red from proxy climate records, must have contributed towards greater instability of channel fl ow. Vegetation Landscape Zones Despite its archaeological importance. Upper Mesupotamia has a meager record of vegetatio n histo ry derived from pollen analysis (chap~ ter 2; Bottema and Woldring 1990). Therefore. to produce a model of vegelat i(ln history, it has been neces· sa ry to combine data from carbonized plant remains with palynology and other evidence. Particularly instructive are the vegetat io n reconstructions of Gordo n I·fillman and colleagues. wh ich build upon late.-Pleistocene and l"arly-Holocenc pollen sequences, carbonized plant remains from Neolith ic Abu Hurcrra in the Syrian Euphr.llcs. modern veget,lIion (especially that within protected areas). climate parameters and terrai n type, the density of modern scule.ment. and waler courses, as well as early tr,lVeler's accounts (Moore et al. 2000: 49-91). The map of potent ial vegetatio n ill ustrates what might be expected

to have existed in the absence of vegetational degradation resulting from dense human activity. Afler the spread of agriculture in the ninth millennium IU'.• it is then difficult to distinguish clillllltic effects from thost' of human activity (Moore el al. 1000: 84). FortuJ1ately. as will be discussed below. information conccrlling th(· degradation of woodland vegetatio n can be inferred from carbonized plant remains. In terms of the pollen record. however, unequivocal evidence for large-scale loss of wood land docs not appear until the second or even fi rst millennia B.C. (sec chapter 7; also Bottemil and Woldring 1990). Bearing in mind lhe fra gmentary nature of the database, Hillman's reconstructio ns fo rcefull y point o ut that Oluch of \".hat is today a degraded upland steppe in Turkey would have been a moderately dense deciduous wood land of oaks, various types or wi le! plum or rose, hawthorn. and almond {Hillman's 7.OnesJa and Jb).ln fact. mosl of the Jazira considered here. namely, lhe rain-fed zone or dense Bronze Age settlement. would have fallen within the tercbinlh-almo nd woodland steppe comprising drought -tolerant pistachio trees, shrubby almonds, cherries, and haw thorns (Hillman's zones 3 and 4; Moore c\ al. 2000: 60), It was probably the northcrn pa rt of wne 4 and the southern more xeric paris of zone 3 that wou ld have supported extensive stands of wi ld wheats and rye prior to domestication (Moore et al. :woo: 80). which then weut on to provide the agrarian foundations fo r the latcr Bronze Age dty-states. Overdll . the early- and midHoloccne environment appears 10 have been signifi cantly morc verdant and well wooded than the late Holocene, namely, the period after 2000 B.C. Nevcttheles..~, carbon ized plant remains from the Khabur basin suggest thai during the I-I alaf period in the northern , moister part of the basin , vegetation had become some-

>0.

C HAPTER, 6

Bir Halu

..., WoO

"'"

Jaghlant"1

Kinnert't '

Settlement dedine

Increase in evergreen oak woodland

Wadi Faynan·

I't'tra.l

Jebel Arab 6

Deserlic

Oesert steppe

Mediterranean vegetation with evergreen oak

Degraded Mediterrdnean steppe fores t

Environmental TrC'nds Late ph3sc of degradat ion

Roman/ Byzantine

·170530 mm

Byzantine commercial 3gr iculturc and dispersed settlement

Olive orchards

Degraded steppe

Hellenistic/ Roman

470-

Hel1enisticRuman commercial agriculture and dispersed scttll.'ment

Olive orchards

Degraded steppe

lron Age

470530 mm

Iron Age expansion of setl lement

Olive orchards

Significant human impact

Late Bronze Ag'

47 0 530 nll11

Decline

Oak decline

Local

Middle Bronz.e Age

47 0 530 mm

Middle Bronze Age polities

Oak decline

Early E\ronze Age-Middle Swnz" Age

470 ~

Decline

Low olive

Early Bron7..C Age

-'P 5-

Chakolithk

>30 nll11

impact

520~

Oak decrc.lse; olive increase

Millor polities.

O,k Broad -leafed woodland

550~

Epipalaeolithic complCJ( huntergatherers

Shrub steppe

725 mm

Steppe

steppe with olives

0"

Forest steppe

environment

with deciduous

Minor Moist steppe

Sorcq cn\'c (Bar-Matthews ~t aL 1997, 19911). Note thaI mean annu~! nliufall al 5or~q Cav~ boo Olol) i~ Slightly high~r than "I Olm). therefore the irmd in Ihe r.linfall figurC'S is nmre ~ ignificanlthan IlbSU!I.II~ amu\!nb, ' Geoeraliud trends in S('l1icrne n! to th~ w-est uf the Jurdan. ' FlOm l:Ioruch 119M)_ 'Wadi Faynao, Jordan. based on Barker ft :II, (1997, 19911. 1999, wool_ · PW'i. Jord311, baS('d on the work of Patricia Fa ll ill f'akOllfrand Fall '995; 95-97'!dlel Arab (formerly known ali J~{'eJ DrUlt) il\ $Outhwe'l't Syria, by Wi!lcOJ( (1999) IFrom

((;1.400

th,

woodland Pottery Neolith ic villages and Pre-Pottery Neolithic communities

7000 B.V.)

(15.00012,000 ILP.)

Wooded

oak

6759 50 nlln

(10,000 -

Late Pleistocene

humans

Early Bronze Age urban centers

620mm

Early Holocene

of

570 mm

610mm

Mediterranean vegetation with evergreen oak .md some vioe

Major phase of settlemem and clearance with widcspread human impact

L6cal human impact

bh

Klnn.:.et

'5' creilSt.~

CU APTRR 7

sedimentation should lake

place d uring a phase of settlement

decline is not surprising, because the abando nment of terraces and the neglect of field walls

C'd l1

equally result

in increased e rosion (chapter 9; Bu l ~ It' r 1982: 1)0- 131). Additiontl1 facto rs thaI must have contributed to high

rates of erosion incl ude the incrcast'd m nge of variation in annual rain fa ll in reccnt centuries (Bar-Millthcws ct al. (998), continued aridit y th ai

wuuld place slres.

,,'

,,'

,,'

"

C;,,') ----

--- --

.,'

.• -- ,,'

......

_",_irl_

,,'

~- '-~

Fig.8.6 Southern Arabia showing main oases, the late Pleistoceneearly Holocene wadi system, the distribution of turret tombs, and major areas of Bronze Age settlement in highlands (based on Brunner 1997; Cleuziou et al. 1992; De Ma igret 1996: fig. 13). During the late second millennium B.C. and the early first millenn ium A.D. , there developed in southern Arabia a brisk trade in frankince nse and myrrh between the source area in present southern Oman and eastern Yemen and recipient areas to the north, namely, the Levant , Mesopotamia, and the East Mediterranean (Groom 1981). Profits generated from this trade stimulated the development of a series of large, thriving oasis towns along the route, both within southern Arabia and also along the chain of the Hejaz mountains of western Arabia. The agricultural systems that developed relied on the generation of Road runoff from the highlands, but in contrast to agricultural systems of the adjacent highlands, they were who lly reliant upon irrigation. In fact, Doe (1983: 102) goes so far to suggest that the area of field systems recogn ized was so far in excess of the needs of the local inhabitants that the oases probably exported staple crops to the Mediterranean area. AI -

though there is no reason to support such an optimist ic statement, the scale of these irrigated field systems was such that they have generated legends such as the tradition that a ho rse could travel in green pasture fo r seven days in each direction from Marib (Brunner 1997: 199). The first formal mapping of these oases and their irrigation systems was undertaken in the Wadi Hadhramaut by Catoll-Thompson and Gardner (1939) duri ng the 1930S, fo llowed by Bowen fo r the Wadi Bayhan area during the early 1950S (Bowen 1958). Since then, these oases have produced major geoarchaeological and landscape studies. Oases mapped to date include (from west to east: fig. 8.6): (a) the Marib area (Brunner 1983, Hehmeyer and Schm idt 1991, Hehmeyer 1989, Wagner 1993. and Schaloske 1995); (b) Wadi Bayhan (Bowen 1958; Breton et al. 1998; Marcolongo and Morandi 1997), and Wadi al-Jubah (Grolier et al. 1996; Overstreet et al. 1988a; both near Timna o n fig. 8.6);

(.; H APTI!R 8

(c) Shabwa (Gt'ntellc 1991) and (d ) Hadhramaut (Caton -Thompson and Gardner 1939 and Caton-Thompson 1944).

The common factor in the recognition of these irrigated landscapes is the presence of large areas of sill terrain, which arc conspicuous fro m the air by virtue of their d islinctive paltern of gullies eroded on a rectangular grid. T his erosional pattern has enabled the silts to be d fectively mapped using aerial photographs. Because these sil lS encapsul ate ma ny agricultural features they can be described th rough time (t hat is, sti.ltigraphil'ally in the vertica l plane) 011> well as in space. Deposits arc up to 30 m o r more dt.'ep in the Marib area, in excess of II m in Ihe Wadi Marh;! (Brunner 1997), and from 15- 18 m in the Wadi Bayhan (Bowen 1958: 6S). Although initial studies suggested that such massiVt.' valley fills resulted from natural aeolian and alluvial sedimentation (Caton-Thompson and Gardner 1939), further study demo nstrated that all are indeed the product o f deposition resulting from former irrigation. Be~aust the silts have aggraded by the gradual accretion of mud deposited from the silt laden waters of the Roods (at rates of 0.7- 1 em per annum). they have caused the gr.tdual bu rial of parts o f the archaeological record ( Jocelyn Orchard 1982; Brun ner 198). Consequently, major structures such as the- lower paris of the Har'an temple at Marib haw been obscured , and isolated hamlets and farms appear to have been completely buried (Breton 1998: 17). Th~ sills accumulate as the reSUll of the redistribution of silt-rich floodwaters (the 5(lyl) over irrigated fields. The main periods of fl ood ing usually take place fo llowing the spring (April) or summer ( July/August) mo nsoons. During the fi rst millennium B.C., water was gathered either by dams. ~uch as the great Marib Dam, or by temporary deRector walls COnstructed in the wadis, to be directed into a network of primary, secondary. and

tertiary can al~ thai led water onlO the fields (for description of traditional Rood agricultural systems. set' Serjeant 1988). Channels were of silt, but where strong erosio nal Row was expected , they were reinforced by stone. Such masonry installations were constructed where water \'.'35 released from canals, where it was necessary to prevent erosion at bends. within secondary distribution systems, and at drop structures where water was conducted from higher to lower levels (Bowen 1958: 45). I.rrigation could be by submersion in wh ich fl oodwater was dirt."Cted 011 10 ficld .~ enclosed by silt walls (Hchmeyer 1989: 36 -:37) . As a result, the field became completely immersed until the water drained away. Alternatively. "controlled floodi ng" resulted in floodwater Rowing through each field to the next. Finally, mo rc longlived systems of water supply were lapped from wells or cisterns, and thesE" probably provided supplementary nourish ment fo r sclcc!ed p lants. Of these three systems, the (irst two predominated and caused Ihe rapid aggradation of the si lt fields. One byproduct of such rapid siltation was the preservation o f agricult ural fea tures that include furrows (30-35 cm apart and indicating that the depth of ploughing was 10-1.5 em), rOOI casts of vaTi · OllS plants, and ghosts of the bowls of trees. The last were evident in the fonn of concent ric circles of sill and clay that sometimes projectcd as much as so em above the si lts (Hehmeycr 1989: 39; Hehmeyer and Schmidt 1991: 18-20). Root casts (fossilized root systems) became infilled with soil particles that were originally in contact with roots as well as sediments that trickled down subsequently from above. Rootcast morphology suggests thai three types of plant were present: first , roots of a regular, uniform diameter arc apparently of monocotyledons, p robably date palms. Second , larger irregular casts of dicotyled ons could

be of iruit trees, ' ilb trees (Ziziplllls 5pillll-cl1risli), ban trees (Mori llgfl nptera) cultivated for their oils. or grapevi nes. Third, casts of fi ne root hairs appear to indicate the w l!i· val ion of garden crops. cereals, and fodder ( Heh merer 1989: 41). Although root caslS have been recorded o n l), fro m the Marib silts. the tree circles. which normally occur in rows as would be expected in orchards, have been noted from the Wadi Rayhan (Bowen 1958) . Marib (Heh merer and Sch midt 1991). and Wad i Mahrar (Brun ner 1997: fig. 7). Because rectang ular erosiona l patterns are caused by the development of gullies along less- resistant sand -fi lled irrigat io n channels. they allow the size and shape of fields to be estimated. Most were rectangular, ranging in size from around 0.3S ha to 2 hOi (for Wadi Bayhan: Bowen 1958: 53; Ma rib: Hehmeyer 1989: 35; and Wad i Mahra: Brunner 1997: 1960). Fertili7.3tio n was effected fi rst by the high mineral and o rganic content of Ihe Aoodwaters and second by fertili7.ation, which was apparent in the form of horizons of ash within the sediments. Alternatively. darkened humic hori7.0ns may have resuhed frolll the applications of organic m Ol· nure (HchlOeyer 1989: 36), whereas stray sherds in the soil result from Ihe application of artifact-rich refuse to the lields (Toplyn 1988: 98- 99). Sayl irrigation systems of the Suyhad appear to be an evolutionary development of traditional systems o f flood irrigation. In most cases, the dams are not for mal storage dams bUl rather were designed to deflect water into Ihe canals o r to raise it 10 the height req uired by the fie lds. The best example is the Marib Dam, which was built in probably the fifth or sixt h century B.C. 10 replace ea rlier water-deflection structures extending in date back to the third mi llen nium R. C. The ma in dam is an earthen st ructure some 16 - 20 m h igh and with a length of ca. 600680 III (Brunner and Haefner 1986: 80; Breton (998). O n ly the sluices ate of masonry, and these rise like mas-

Suslrnance from a Reluctant Desert

Fig. 8.7 Southern sluice of the Marib Dam, showing the strong ash lar s uperstructure of the sluice, with the sluice channel to left. Originally, the earthen dam was to the r ight (courtesy of McGui re Gibson). For location, see fig. 8.8: 2. sive fortifications to the north and SQuth of the Wadi Dhanah (fig. 8.7). Although inscriptions supply dates for some of these dams or deflectors, the early history of irrigation must be inferred from the sed iments themsdves. The Holocene stratigraphy of valley fills in the Sayhad is sim ilar to that of the highlands. A black o rganic-rich palaeosol serves as a convenient stratigraphic marker for the mid Holocene (Grolier et al. 1996: 15) and is dated by radiocarbon determ inations to the range 9520 ±280 8.1'. to 5270 ± 90 B. I'. (Grolier et al. 1996: 363) or slightly later. Above this ho rizon arc silty sediments accumulated under a flood-irrigation regime (the 3tlthro SQ!s), whereas below occur alluvial and colluvial deposits. Therefore, as in the highlands, the dark palaeoSQI serves to differentiate the late Holocene sediments thai accllmulated in conjunction with significant human activity from the early Holo-

cene and late Pleistocene deposits that were deposited prior to significant human interference with the environment. At Marib, using the measured sedimentation rate of 0.7-1.1 em per annum, irrigation is estimated to have extended back to around 2400 B. C. ( Hehmeyer and Schmidt 1991: 11- 12). Such an early date for the in it iat ion of irrigation is supported by radiocarbon assay on charcoal obtained from within irrigation silts some 7 m below a wat('r distributor in the Wadi Marha (3640 II.P., Brun ner 1997: 196). The date at wh ich irrigation ceased varies from place to place depending upon social, economic, pol itical, and environmental conditio ns, but by the lime of the collapse of the great dam at Marib in the six th or seventh century A. D. , mosl irrigation systems had fallen o ut of usc. Nevertheless, total collapse should not be assumed, and in some areas, such as the Wadi Marha , there was a continuation of

sayl irrigation, albeit at a smaller scale into the Islamic period. Between thc oases of Marib and Shabwa irrigated sediments arc estimated to cover some 44 ,500 ha (i.e., 445 sq. km; Brunner 1997: 199). Although this area was not necessarily all in tlse at the same time, most was under cultivation during the first millennium B.C. At Marib the total area of some 9,600 cult ivated heclares (or some 8,000 ha, accord ing to Hehmeyer 1989) can be apportioned as 5,300 ha in the southern oasis and 4,300 ha in the northern oasis (fig. 8.8). This compares with an occupied area of the Iro n Age town of Marib of about 100 ha. Although population est imates based on site areas arc very coarse at best, the likely populatio n of the town of Marib (10,000 to 30,000 people) overlaps wit h the potential number of people that could be supported from the est imated field area, but at the lower end of that range (26,400

CHAPTER 8

....

/ 1 Norltl aluice 2 Sov1h alukle

1

Ma~b dam

3 NoI'1h canaJ 4 Norlll dittrlbo.olOr

5 JuIayna dam

o

AockyMs

D

FoeklS wim rllCtilinaar

",0ISi0n

Sandd\nes

6 South di1.1ributor

Fig. 8.8 The Marib oasis, the dam, the town, and irrigated field areas (modified from Brunner 1983: fig. 24). to 96.000). This assumes that the level of intensity was comparable to irrigation systems of the Tihama,

where 0.5 ha of multicropped land can support a family (around 5-7 people), Allowing for a morc generous holding per family of I and 1.5 ha gives supportable populations in the range 26,400 to 31,600, but if levels of intensity were equivalent to an Omani oasis (see above), the irrigated field area would support an even higher population. Therefore, within the range of available land-use parameters and allowing for a reasonable area of gardens per family, the Marib oasis could comfortably support the population of the town but with a potential surplus. This could have been used to supply passing caravans, other nonurban communities around the oasis, or crucial stocks of reserve foods.

Water from a Reluctant Desert Ultimately, water is the key limiting factor for human life in the desert, and if there is to be any long-term

settlement, it is necessary to collect or gather water, ideally from as many water sources as possible. This provides insurance so that if one system fails to yield water, another can be employed. Such "belt-and-braces" tactics might entail the construction of both wells and runoff systems to supply water, but because in some locations physical conditions limit the amount of available water. such strategies arc not always practicable. For example. in northeast Saudi Arabia local water tables fall within 7 to 25 m of the surface, that is, within the reach of hand-dug wells, but further west (i.e., to the west of Rafha), dep ths to water in the 1970S were greater than 160 m and even 350-500 m, thereby precluding the excavation of any wells using traditional techniques. Where it is impossible to extract groundwater or it does not rise to the surface. it therefore becomes necessary to utilize some form of runoff-collection technique or wadi Roods for building up reserves of water for travelers, nomads, or small local desert communities. In 1977

Neil Robe rts defined a major zone for harnessing runoff throughout much of western Arabia, from Yemen to Jordan (Roberts 1977: fig. 1). Although this model can be upheld at a general level, more detailed analysis demonstrates the existence of many potential sources of water in this runoff zone. Consequently, communities have tailored their techniques to local hydrological conditions with a considerable degree of subtlety. Desert commun ities frequently make use of the ecological principle of sources and sinks discussed above to yield an enhanced water supply for any given installation . [n northern Saudi Arabia the bedouin have traditionally utilized so-called I/wJifurs (Le., excavated depressions) to collect water either from enclosed depressions (kh abras) or at the junction of two wadis (Vidale 1978: 115; Lancaster and Lancaster 1999: 135-137). Unfortunately, of the 730 mahfurs noted by Vidale (1978: lI8), none could be convincingly dated. An analogous but more sophisticated system was recorded in the eastern Jordanian desert within an enclosed depression in basalt terrain where mean annual rainfall is ca. 150 mm per annum (Betts and Heims 1989). Two features, a pool and a weil, were situated in a broad depression and received water guided into them by low walts or canals. Weill and pool I each received water from a catchment that captured water from areas of 21,500 and 4,700 sq. m respectively. Using principles developed in the Negev desert by Evenari et al. (1982), Betts and Helms estimate that the catchments would yield some 6,200 cubic m of water, of which around 5,500 would be available for storage in the pool and well (Betts and Helms 1989: 8). As with many desert features, this water-gathering system could no t be dated except to broad possible ranges such as either Pre-Ponery Neolithic or Roman/Byzantine. It is noteworthy, however, that the overall layout and hydraulics of this system closely resemble more formalized systems of

.6,

SlISlcnancc from a t{cluctanl Des.ert

cisterns devised for the supply of pilgrims who passed aJong o ne of the main Hajj roules from Kufa in Iraq 10 Mecca in the Hejaz mountains.

Landscapes o f (he Desert Hajj Routes

Passage through the de. so that the syste m remaios in its l"Ijuilibrium state. homer. A measure.' of ancient ClIl'adl y USview. b ]ollma/ of MeJif('rra!u'rill Ardllleology I ) (I): )-75·

Schaloskr, Michael. 1995. UmerSuc!lImgen

dcr Sabrliscllell Rewilsscrrmgsllll!agen ill Ninril). Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitllt, San ' a. Maim; am-Rhein: Philipp von Zarbern. Schama, Simon. 199). Landscape mrd Melllory. New York: KnOpf. Schiffer. Mich:lcl B. 19&7. /-'onnmio/1 Pro·

cesses of the Archaeologiwl Record. Albuquerque: Ulliver~il}' of New Mexico. Schioler, T. 19f19. "The water mill at the ero.::odile river: A turbillt' dated to 345-380 A n.ri Palesljllt: Exp/omtjoll QUrller/), 1:1..1: 1))- 143.

Schlanger, S. H. 1992. " R~"'Cognizing perSistent places in Anas:tl.i settlement systems." Pr. 91 - 111. iJl Rossignol and Wandsnidcr. .xhl~singer, W. H. , J. F. Reynolds, G. L. Cunningham, l. F. Huenneke, W. M. '~rrell , R. A. Virginia, and W. G. Whitford. 1990. "Biological feedbacks

II.BLl OG )l I\. ~H \'

in global desertifica tio n." Sdl'llft! 147: 10'13- 1048. Schloen . ,. Da vid. 1001. Tht /lolISe vf tilt! Ftlflrer!U Fa" and Symbol: Pam· lIlunju/is", in Vgarit //lui rhe A"dl!lII Nta r l:.",/jl. Camb ridllt, MA: t-l al"V1lrd Semitic Museum Studies in the Ar· chaeology and Hislory of the Levan!. Schmidt. Erich I:. 1940. Flights owr A"cicllt Cities vf Iran. Chicago: Uni· veni ty of o.icago. Scholle. P., Abdu Wa li al-Khul eidi. and ,. J. Kessler. 1991. "i1lt Vt'1:t'lllIio u of

1/11: Repllblic of Yemell (Westem Part). San'a Yl'rnl'n: Agricultural Hesearch Authority and DH V Consultants. Schulz, P. .• and J. W. Whitney. 1986. " Upper pleistocene and Hnlocene I~kes in the an-Nafud. Saudi Ar.lbia.~ Hydrobiolvgia 143: 17S - 190. Schum m, Stanl ey A. 1992. "Gre:!t alluvial rivrrs and ancient civi li1..ations: Stabilit y, flux, catastrophe." Unpublished manuscript 1992. Schwa rtz. Glo.'n ll M., H. H. Curwn, P. A. Gerr itsen, J. A. MacCormack, N. P. Miller, and J. A. Webe r. 2000. ~ E.xca · valion and survey in th e Ja bbul Plain, Wesu.· rn Syria: The Umm ai -Marra Project 1996- 1997,6 American 101/mal of An::hal'lJlogy 104: 6: agriculture on, 87- RS food prodlK tiu lI, 93. 98, 129, U I- l1n.} forests, 18- 19: changes in, 1.6-28, 144, ~O} fnr tifications, 35, 131; highland, 184. 1'J7. 1911 ,1.00.207 frankin cense (RQ$wd/itl Sl!CllI). 19, 161

gaulit'. 153, 176 gt'(l3Tchueology. ' 0. II, 40, 146; linear hollows and, Ill- 17: of Mesopotamian plain. 76-79; T('Cord in, 29-32 grochemical prospectio n, 39-40 Gt'O~rophic Inform ation Systems (G IS). 3). 41 ,7' geography: physical, 15-17 geolog y, 16,76.101, 178: wat er .:aptun: llnd , 166-67

gtOmo rphology, 10; 1-,'le-sopolamian plalll. 76- 79. 8":./.-115, 88(fig.); Persian Gulf. 79-80: upper Mt:"sopuI3mia, 103. I04(tig.) Gl'Orgia, 196 Ghah Va llt'~·, 16. 26. lR. 145, 146, 147 Gik.d , l24 GIS. SU GCQgraphic lnformati{)n SY$ tClllS glohal posit ion ing sYS lems (G [Os). 38 goals, 811. IlO, 121, 122. 148, IS). 16 1. 197 Gobekli I loyii k, 11) Gotall (J aw lan). 114 Goltepe, 202-3 Gome! RiVer, I}O GOl\tian bu rial rcarurc.~, 65 GI'S. See glo bal positioning systems 8min: trade in, IjO. SeE' il/W by type gr.. pcvines, 162, 170, 20l . $u also vines

gr...o:slands,

z6

gr~ ves,

56, 68(tablc): dt:"sert, 6,)-66 gra7.ing, 18, 154, IMI , 174, 17j(tab1e); nomads and, 172 · 73, 118. See IJ/JI) pasturelands Gn'at f\afud iksen, 13(fig.), 152 Grttce, 16, U. 100 grollnd-pt'nelra ring radar, 40 gro llnd wall'r. 155. 1)8, 159. 162 gro undwater supply syste ms. 45, 47. s:z( table). 67( table): qan ats, 155-58 Habl a.~·Sah r, (jQ Hadhnllnaut, 16, 16 1. 177 Had rian, 1)11 Hujar al Chubi, 16

Hajar /I'lounl3ins, 204, 20S(fig.) hajj routes. 64: fealurc~ , 16S- 68, 1111 Iialaf p~riod, 47; set tlement s, 105-6; vegetation changes in, IOj- 4 Halwan na.207 H ammat al -Qa, 190-91, 19z( fig.), 193Cfig.l Hamm ath,60 Hammurabi. II!I Hamouka r, )ACfig.) Harb;, al- . 167 harbors. 91 harra, 141, 176, 180 harrah, 192-9:;, 194(fig.) Harran , 128, 133 Has.a t bin Salt (Cole m an's Ro;;:k). ISO Hasson a ~riod. 106 I'lauran, 13{fig.), 140; field sys k'TllS in, 141- 42; soils in. 141 · 4;1 Hcja7. Mo untains, 16, 45. 151, 161, 165, 167 Hellenistic period, 28, H , 86, 1)11. ' 39, 149(table), 159 hellla sy.~tenl , 18. 174. t75(tahle) H erodo tus. 53 Hesban,l .p highlands. II, lO9, 2Ij-1 4; Analolia, 19.5· l01; environments o f, 184-115: indust ry and mining in, 201 - il; land-use in. U~5-86; lerr.lces, 189- 95 Hila 15 (A I-'A in, U.H.), lS8 l'lili , 156, 1.59- 60 l-lilla. 84 Hillah.76 hill country. Ij9; Isradites in , }B-)4; vegetation changes in, '44--'1 5 hilltop si tes. 191. 207: in Anato)ill, 197, 198. 200: building mat erials on. 188 89: monumel1L~ on . 122 - 13 Himyui te stale, 10, 57, 66. 70. IS4 , 189, 195,200,208,217; dams, 190, 194{fig.); features of. 69(fig.), 191- 9J: track ways in. ,)11- 39 Hittites, 28. 53, 60, 62 , 6J. :1 06- 7,":./.12 hollo w ways, }I, 42, 66, 68(table) Holocene, ISo, 149(tabt('), 154, IN, 195; aridilka tio n in, 1'16, 181 ; channel shifting in, 85-87: climate ~nd envi ronment in, 19-1.l, ) 0-J 2; coastal landscape5 in, ll- 26; hi ghlands in . ,1I(j- 87: landscape eapes. 7. 9. 11 silt l1elds, 67(labk). 162 Sinai. Mou nt (Irbel fo,'lusa), 13(l1g.), 64,

'"

Sinai Dese rt, IJb, I'll, 175, 17] Sin-iddinam. 211 Sinjar/Afar plain. 130, l)l Sippar, 60, 79. 80. 90(fig.) Siya nnu.62 sla l'e labor, 9.5 smeltin g. 64 , 145. 201, 104, 205 social organization; canal systems and, 73-74 , 98 social revolution ; in Ca naan . 1.15

Ind