Archaeobotanical investigations of plant cultivation and husbandry practices: at the Early Bronze Age settlement Küllüoba in West-Central Turkey: Considerations on environment, climate and economy 9781407314273, 9781407343860

Citation preview

Archaeobotanical investigations of plant cultivation and husbandry practices at the Early Bronze Age settlement Küllüoba in West-Central Turkey: Considerations on environment, climate and economy

Özgür Çizer

BAR International Series 2766 2015

Archaeobotanical investigations of plant cultivation and husbandry practices at the Early Bronze Age settlement Küllüoba in West-Central Turkey: Considerations on environment, climate and economy

Özgür Çizer

BAR International Series 2766 2015

First Published in 2015 by British Archaeological Reports Ltd United Kingdom BAR International Series 2766 Archaeobotanical investigations of plant cultivation and husbandry practices at the Early Bronze Age settlement Küllüoba in West-Central Turkey: Considerations on environment, climate and economy

© Özgür Çizer 2015 The Author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, are hereby expressly asserted All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407314273 paperback ISBN 9781407343860 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407314273 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

All BAR titles are available from: BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORTS LTD Oxford United Kingdom Phone +44 (0)1865 310431 Fax +44 (0)1865 316916 Email: [email protected] www.barpublishing.com

Contents Acknowledgements Abstract Introduction 1-Environment Geographical and geomorphological outlines Modern climate and palaeoclimate Modern vegetation, agriculture and village life Outlines of the vegetation history

Presence of non-botanical material (mouse dung) Analyses on the origin of the sample compositions Seed density Ubiquity of the taxa Ratio of plant remains Analyses of crop processing Application of crop categorization Application of weed categorization Ratio analysis for crop categories Summarising results of ratio analysis for crop processing Application of multivariate analysis for crop processing Analyses of dung-derived seeds Behaviour of wild taxa in crop processing Proportions of crop taxa and their rachis fragments Biology and the ecology of the wild plants Summarising results for analyses of dungderived taxa Spatial analysis of botanical samples Botanical variation in archaeological contexts Summary of botanical variation in the archaeological contexts Spatial distribution of the samples Evaluation for ecology and economy Approaches for weed ecology Application of multivariate analysis for ecogroups Summarising results of the botanical analyses

IV V V 1 1 3 6 7

2-Archaeology Outlines of archaeological research in the region Chalcolithic Periods Transition into EBA (3600-3300 B.C.) EBA Periods (3300-200/1900 B.C.) EBA I (3300-3000 B.C.) EBA II (3000-2600 B.C.) EBA III (2200-2000/1900 B.C.) Settlement patterns of Küllüoba The Late Chalcolithic Transition period into the Early Bronze Age Early Bronze Age I Early Bronze Age II Collapsed building in AG 22 Early Bronze Age III

11 11 11 12 12 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 17 18 20

3-Methodology Archaeobotanical methods Sampling on the excavation (on-site sampling) Flotation method Off-site sampling Identification Calculation method of total counts Documentation Analytical methods Quantification Theoretical approaches for evaluation Univariate methods Multivariate methods

21 21 21 22 23 23 26 26 26 26 27 27 27

4-Analytical approaches Studies on the origin and taphonomy of botanical remains Formation process through carbonisation Influence of harvesting methods on plant composition Crop processing as origin of the botanical remains Studies of crop processing in archaeobotany Differences in crop processing of hulled and naked cereals Processing of pulses Collected wild plants Dung as origin of the botanical remains Modern seed contamination Presence of mineralized seeds

30

5-Crops and cultivars Cereal cultivation Hulled wheats Einkorn and question of single- and twograined forms Einkorn in Küllüoba Emmer Free-threshing wheats Comments on wheat cultivation Barley Evidence of ground cereals Pulses as food and fodder Bitter vetch Lentil Pea Chickpea Grass pea/chickling vetch Broad bean Fruits Vitis vinifera Possible cultivars Oil and dye plants Descurania sophia and Camelina sativa Carthamus tinctorus Cephalaria syriaca

30 31 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 III

37 37 38 38 39 40 42 44 44 52 52 65 66 66 67 75 77 78 81 81 114 114 116 121 124 124 124 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 137 138 139 139 140 141 141 141 142 142 143 145

Isatis tinctoria Linum usitatissimum Lallemantia iberica Medicinal/aromatic plants Bupleurum rotundifolium Anthriscus cerefolium Erysimum crassipes Allium ampeloprasum-type Considerations on crop cultivation and use of cultivars

145 146 146 147 147 148 148 150

Acknowledgements I wish to thank to my supervisors Prof. Dr. Dr. HansPeter Uerpmann and Prof. Dr. Emel Oybak Dönmez, who encouraged me with their guidance and advice to undertake and complete my PhD project. I would like to thank Assist. Prof. Dr. Can Yumni Gündem, whose guidance led me to undertake the project on the botanical remains on the Küllüoba excavation. The botanical project is indebted to Prof. Dr. Turan Efe and the Archaeological Museum of Eskişehir for allowing me to collect and use the archaeobotanical material from Küllüoba and to Assist. Prof. Dr. Murat Türkteki and Assist. Prof. Dr. Fatma Şahin, who replied to my enquiries for documentation and supplementing publications. I appreciate the help and support of Prof. Dr. R. T. J. Cappers for welcoming me on my visit to Groningen and worked with me in the laboratory and in the comparative collection; my thanks also for PD. Dr. Elena Marinova, who helped me for the identifications of numerous botanical taxa. I owe additional thanks to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Birol Mutlu for the further identification and documentation of Erysimum seeds and Prof. Dr. Atilla Ocak for checking out my tentative identifications of modern plants at his University facilities. I would like to thank also to villagers from Yenikent, Metin Özgül and Yasin Kamacı for the valuable information about agriculture and village life. I am grateful to my father Kamuran Çizer, M.A. who supported me with his experience in all questions of architecture, settlement development, computing and statistics. He refreshed my 3D knowledge and encouraged me with fruitful discussions on architecture and archaeology during the whole project. I am also thankful to my mother Prof. Sevim Çizer who shared her knowledge about ethnology and traditional dung production and helped me collect the modern plants in the spring fields and surroundings of Küllüoba. I am grateful to my family for their financial support of my Ph.D project as well. I am thankful to my colleague and dear friend Dr. Dragana Filipovic who replied to my questions about dung analyses and supported me by sending her Ph.D Thesis. This thesis owes a debt of gratitude to the following archaeobotanists for the discussions about the crops and possible cultivars and information in their articles: Dr. Helmut Kroll, Prof. Dr. Dorian Fuller, Prof. Dr. George Willcox, Prof. Dr. Mordechai Kislev, Assist. Prof. Dr. Soultana-Maria Valamoti, Prof. Dr. Laura Sadori, Prof. Dr. Niels Roberts, and Dr. Füsun Ertuğ, and I appreciate Prof. Dr. İbrahim Atalay, for the books and access to vegetation maps. I appreciate Ms. Bethany Mendenhall, as well, for her help in editing my thesis. The encouragements and the lovely and sympathetic company of my friends Prof. Dr. Renate Kreile, Hakan Mutlu, M.Sc., Dr. Zehra Satar Özbulut, Dr. Marlijn Noback, Dr. Anat Hartmann-Shenkman, Lilia Drebant, CananYılmaz, Dipl. Geologist Matthias Schuh, and Dr. Jan Guse kept me calm and helped me out during the intensive work on my thesis. I also wish to thank my colleagues Ahmet İhsan Aytek, M.Sc., Doğa Karakaya, M.Sc. and Corina Rössner, M.A. for sharing their creative ideas in interactions and discussions about archaeobotanical work.

151

6-Crop and animal husbandry in EBA Küllüoba Aspects of the crop husbandry Soil preparation and irrigation Fallow and crop rotation Weed control Manuring Crop harvest Considerations on crop husbandry Sowing time of crops Intensity of the cultivation Use of landscape for agriculture Location of the fields Considerations on animal husbandry Evidence of grazing and foddering Dung production and use as fuel Considerations on crop and animal husbandry

153 153 153 155 155 157 158 159 159 162 164 165 166 168 169 170

7-Conclusions Beginning of the settlement and human influence on the landscape Settlement development, crop and animal husbandry Settlement decline and abandonment at the end of EBA: drawing a scenario

171

Catalogue of plants Spring Flora of Küllüoba

175 205

Appendices Taxa: Absolute counts of botanical remains according to taxa classification Sample contexts: Archaeological contexts of the botanical samples collected Eco groups: Autecological categorisation of the wild plant taxa Ratios: Categorisation of the samples for the crop-processing stages Wild-weeds: Categorisation of wild/weed taxa for aerodynamic properties Flowering time: Categorisation of wild/weed taxa for their flowering time Ubiquity: Frequencies of the botanical taxa Samples: Sample distribution according to occupation periods Species: Key for the species abbreviation

206

Bibliography

253

171 171 173

206 231 234 237 244 247 250 251 252

IV

Abstract

Introduction

This work is designed to introduce new archaeobotanical evidence from the Early Bronze Age settlement Küllüoba in west-central Anatolia. Archaeobotanical data is used as the basis for the investigations of the subsistence economy at this EBA settlement located on a flat mound in the upper Sakarya valley. For the investigations of crops and animal husbandry, evidence of the weed taxa and their ecological meaning in the archaeobotanical records have been considered as the main sources of information in order to understand husbandry practices such as cropping sequences, intensity of the crop cultivation, harvesting methods and long or short term cultivation of the fields.

In the archaeological records of the Balkans, Greece and the Aegean coast of Anatolia, the transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age shows a period of socio-cultural and economic change. In the course of the Early Bronze Age in this geographic region, the first evidence emerges in architectural and other material records of settlement structures that points to social differentiation and control by local rulers (Renfrew 2011, Steadman 2011). With the introduction of metallurgy in the course of the Late Chalcolithic and Copper Ages, changes in architecture and material culture are observed; the transformation is not limited only to the fortifications and extended repertoire of instruments for direct conflicts, but is seen also in the pottery assemblages (Korfmann 1972, Ivanova 2008, Renfrew 2011, Steadman 2011).

The majority of the botanical samples are dominated by the broad spectra of crop taxa, pointing out that the main source for the botanical remains could be crop processing. In order to ascertain the crop products and by-products deriving from different stages of crop processing, previous approaches based on ethnographic models and related statistical methods have been applied. Analyses of crop processing show that in certain contexts cereal grains and pulse seeds were fully processed prior to their storage, whereas a considerable part of the crops were found in the form of semi-processed grains mixed with low or high portion of wild/weed contaminants. The samples of mixed crop products and semi-processed grains with high wild/ weed contents are questioned for alternative origins of botanical remains such as deriving from dung. Despite the scarce evidence of dung in highly fragmented form and the lack of intact dung remains in the botanical samples, with the methods based on the ecological and physical properties of the wild taxa, taxa of ‘arable’ and ‘non-arable’ origin could be identified. The results have been considered in light of the ethnographic and experimental studies. In the case of the Küllüoba samples, understanding the possible origin of the botanical remains was essential for the reliable reconstruction of the husbandry practices. Furthermore, the determination of the potential dung-derived taxa gave an opportunity to understand the animal husbandry practices and the interconnections between agriculture and animal husbandry. The evidence of wild/weed taxa indicate that crop cultivation was conducted intensively in long-term fields and the majority of the crops were sown in autumn/winter, implying close proximity of the fields to the settlement. Considering the archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological evidence together, small-scale intensive crop and animal husbandry was the subsistence strategy for the inhabitants of EBA Küllüoba.

Theories defining the settlements that developed in western Anatolia as ‚proto-urban’ go back to the excavations at the Bronze Age settlements on the Aegean Islands, Poliochini on Lemnos (Brea 1964), Emporio on Chios (Boardman 1967) and Thermi Lesbos (Lamb 1936a). The architectural remains and material culture such as pottery and metal objects from these sites have been correlated with those of Troy; the similarities found in architecture and material culture have been used to establish the theories for ‘protourban’ centres flourishing along with the progress of metallurgy and supra-regional trade contacts (Dörpfeld 1902, Blegen et al. 1951, Korfmann 2006, Efe 2007, Renfrew 2011). The importance of Troy as a Bronze Age settlement is widely known; its importance was underlined with outstanding documentation and full investigations based not only on architectural remains and material culture but also on numerous scientific approaches that were essential for the reconstruction of the ecology and economy of the settlement throughout the occupation periods (Dörpfeld 1902, Blegen et al. 1951, Uerpmann et al. 1992, Riehl 1999, Uerpmann and van Neer 2000, Uerpmann 2003, Korfmann 2006, Çakırlar 2007, Gündem 2010). In the context of archaeological research in Anatolia in general, the scale of the archaeological work in westcentral Anatolia is by comparison very limited. The pioneer excavations were conducted in the first half or at the beginning of the second half of the last century, and despite their extensive publications and the accessibility of documentation, there was only sporadic application of bioarchaeological research. Furthermore, in comparison with the number of excavations conducted, the systematic sampling of charred plant remains is underrepresented in this region. In west-central Anatolia, given the lack of bioarchaeological studies in general and archaeobotanical ones in particular, the underlying view of archaeologists – the assumption that the urbanisation process and the social stratification of societies might already have started with the beginning of EBA I and progressed during EBA II – cannot yet be supported with bioarchaeological data.

Subsistence economy with broad spectra crops and cultivars gives strong evidence for a risk-buffering strategy that might reflect the social organization of EBA Küllüoba as an egalitarian farming community, established by ‘extended families’ who lived in building complexes such as ‘Complex I’ and ‘Complex II’ together.

V

Despite the extended long-term excavations along the western coast of Anatolia, archaeobotanical investigations are concentrated in only a few settlements, like the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age settlements Gökçeada/ Yenibademli, Liman Tepe and Bakla Tepe (Özkan and Erkanal 1999, Oybak Dönmez 2005, Oybak Dönmez 2006). The botanical work at other sites in western Anatolia with Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Bronze Age occupation periods like Yeşilova Höyük and Ulucak Höyük provides some important preliminary results (Çilingiroğlu and Çakırlar 2013).

and Transitional Period into the Early Bronze Age (TP), are completely lacking. The introduction of systematic sampling in 2009, with the documentation of sampled contexts, gave the opportunity to integrate the samples from the excavation seasons before 2009, and samples obtained from EBA I until the end of the settlement’s occupation, the late period of EBA III, were used in the analyses. Geographically, northwestern Anatolia offers a corridor function by which early farming could spread from the Near East and southeastern Anatolia during the Early Neolithic, providing a good climatic and environmental basis for the transmission of crop cultivation into the Balkans and the northern part of Europe. Therefore the analyses of the botanical remains from EBA Küllüoba offer a unique opportunity for understanding the domestication and cultivation process of different crops, as will be shown in the following chapters that document a distinctive crop repertoire. The results of the botanical analyses from Küllüoba can be considered as complementary to the existing archaeobotanical research conducted at Bronze Age settlements in Greece, Bulgaria, the Balkans, and western coastal Anatolia, which emphasize crop and animal husbandry practices as a continuity of the Neolithic tradition of land use for the beginning of the Bronze Age (Halstead and Jones 1989, Halstead 1994, Riehl 1999, Halstead 2000, Valamoti 2003, Valamoti 2004, Oybak Dönmez 2005, Marinova 2006, Oybak Dönmez 2006, Popova 2010, Reed 2012).

As will be discussed in Chapter 2, northwestern Anatolia is well investigated, with numerous surveys; however excavations conducted for early and later prehistory are almost absent and thus archaeobotanical research is almost completely lacking for the inner part of western Anatolia. About the site geographically nearest to Küllüoba, EBA settlement Demircihöyük, only a short preliminary report is available (Schlichterle 1977/78). In southwestern and Central Anatolia, despite numerous excavations only limited occupation periods of a few settlements have been investigated botanically, such as the settlements at Hacılar (‘Neolithic’ Helbaek 1970) and Çatalhöyük (‘Neolithic’ Helbaek 1974, Fairbairn et al. 2002, Filipovic 2012a), Kuruçay Höyük (‘Late Chalcolithic’, Nesbitt 1996), Beycesultan (‘Late Bronze Age and Byzantine’, Helbaek 1961) and further east, Gordion (‘Middle Bronze Age and Phyrigian’) and Kaman Kalehöyük (‘Middle Bronze Age and Hittite-Assyrian’ Nesbitt 1993, Fairbairn 2002). The majority of these settlements have scarce archaeological evidence from EBA, and thus the botanical remains from EBA are absent. A single Chalcolithic/MBA settlement from the northeastern coast of Black Sea, İkiztepe, provides results for botanical analyses from EBA period (Çilingir 2009). Considering the above-illustrated state of research, the study of archaeobotanical macroremains from EBA occupation layers of Küllüoba constitutes basic research, not only for the settlement itself, but also for all of westcentral Anatolia for the time period under consideration. Apart from the unattainability of the botanical results from contemporary sites in the same region for the comparisons with Küllüoba’s botanical data set, additional difficulties have emerged in the course of the analyses, such as the inaccessibility of ‘fine’ chronological resolution for the sample contexts determined by the limitations of the absolute dating and by the documentation quality of the stratigraphic units in general. Excluding Erysimum crassipes storage, this study is based on 104 samples with more than 500.000 seeds and therefore constitutes one of the most detailed archaeobotanical studies among the Anatolian sites. Nevertheless, the scope of the samples and the archaeological contexts still cannot be regarded as implicitly representative of all of the archaeological contexts and occupation periods at Küllüoba; samples from the earlier occupation periods, the Late Chalcolithic

ar

ch

VI

y

an

t o bo

ae

Environment

1-Environment

but by zones of a gradual transition (Yakar 2000). Thus the northwestern part of the plateau, due to its proximity to the Sea of Marmara and broad river basins, is less arid and has some of the best soils and pastures (Yakar 2000). The eastern and northeastern parts of the central plateau with their higher relief are topographically more varied and more humid than the southern plateau. Here the soils are fertile along river valleys (Hütteroth and Höhfeld 2002, Yakar 2000).

The environmental background, past and modern climate, and past and modern vegetation for the Early Bronze Age settlement Küllüoba are illustrated in the following sections. First section gives a brief overview of the geological and geographical outlines of the Eskişehir region, where Küllüoba is located. The following section outlines modern climate conditions and the palaeoclimate of Eskişehir and west-central Anatolia is briefly introduced. Third section discusses the vegetation, agriculture and village life in the Eskişehir region and in the modern village of Yenikent near EBA settlement of Küllüoba. Last section illustrates the vegetation history of west-central Anatolia and the Eskişehir region, using data obtained from studies of different pollen-coring sites and multi-proxy climate studies of the relevant region.

It has been suggested that the tectonic and geomorphological development of west Central Anatolia began in the Precambrian and continued with the metamorphosis of crystalline basements that occurred during the Caledonian and Variscan tectogenesis until the Mesozoic and Holocene (Güldalı 1979, Şengör and Yılmaz 1980). Underlying crystalline basement occurs sporadically in forms of clods or mostly covered by younger sediments or denudation layers of basins and rift valleys (Chaput 1936, Ardel 1955, Gözler et al. 1985, Gözler et al. 1996). Sedimentation with marl, conglomerate and lime deposits in Palaeolakes of west and Central Anatolia continued in the Miocene and Pliocene (Güldalı 1979). In contrast to the mountainous topography with highly contrasting relief patterns of the eastern and coastal parts of Turkey, which are thought to have developed as a consequence of the collision of African-Arabian and Eurasian continents during the MidTertiary, part of Central Anatolia and also the region of Eskişehir consist mostly of the basin-plateaux systems (Erol 1978, Güldalı 1979, Erol, 1981, Fairbridge et al. 1994). Research work on geological history of Eskişehir is still scarce and mainly concentrated on tectonics, due to the wide occurrence of earthquakes in the northern part of the region (Şengör and Yılmaz 1981, Ocakoğlu et al. 2007, Ocakoğlu 2007, Aydemir 2009). The geomorphological development of the southwest part of the region, where Küllüoba is located, appears to be less relevant for tectonic studies; the few geomorphological observations give only a brief overview of the landscape and soil development (Ardel 1955, Gözler et al. 1985, Gözler et al. 1996). For the region of Eskişehir in general, it has been suggested that Paleozoic-aged recrystallized limestones constitute the basement and the Sivrihisar and Sündiken mountains are thought to be formed with Palaeozoic and Mesozoic crystalline slates, plutonits and ophioliths, covered by tertiary layers (Ardel 1955, Wiegand 1970, Güldalı 1979, Gözler et al. 1985, Gözler et al. 1996). The basins between the mountains are mostly formed by neogen-lacustrine sedimentation (Ardel 1955, Erol 1983, Wiegand 1970, Ocakoğlu et al. 2009). Sepiolith formations of volcanic origin in Eskişehir, considered to have developed in the Neogene, have been important for the mining industry since the medieval period; the famous white sepiolith pebbles are mined for pipestone production. Another important ore, boron, has been mined in Kırka, ca 15 km southeast of Küllüoba and near the town of Seyitgazi, and the mining work is reported to cause pollution of underground water reserves with boron and arsenic (Yüce and Uğurluoğlu Yasin 2012). Copper and silver mines in

Geographical and geomorphological outlines Two different geographical regions, Aegean and Central Anatolia, are separated by the Emir and Türkmen mountains, and the Central Anatolian plateau is bordered on the northwest by the upper Sakarya subregion and Sakarya River basin (Erol 1983). The Porsuk River and Sarısu stream drain the basin floor as well as the surrounding plateau to feed the larger Sakarya River in the east (Erol 1983, Louis 1985). The Sakarya basin is bounded by the Sündiken Mountains (1768 m) on the north and by the Emir Mountains (2241 m) on the south (Erol 1983, Louis 1985, Bilgin 1990). The valley located between the Sündiken and Köroglu mountains has a low elevation to the west that creates microclimate conditions for agriculture. Türkmen Dağı, ca. 45 km. distant from Küllüoba with an altitude of 1825 m, is the highest mountain in the Eskişehir region. The basin is flanked eastwards by the plateaus of Cihanbeyli and Haymana, which lie about 1200-1400 m above sea level (Güldali 1979, Erol 1983, Bilgin 1990, Yakar 2000). Eskişehir constitutes the main geographical junction for the modern as well as for the prehistoric routes between the Marmara and Aegean regions in northeast and southeast Anatolia (Efe 2007 a, Ivanova 2008). The western Anatolian mountains, situated in a subMediterranean climate region, create a kind of barrier from the milder Mediterranean climate (Güldalı 1979, Hütteroth and Höhfeld 2002). Most of the tributaries of Sakarya river originate from this mountain chain and are fed by melting snow in the springtime. The central massif of Anatolia extends from the Aegean coast south of İzmir to Sivas in eastern Turkey, where the level of the land rises eastward from 500m to 1000m. The western, northwestern and eastern geographic extensions of the central plateau are not clearly delimited. For instance, the Aegean and the Marmara coastland and interior are separated not by a clear geographic division 1

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba B L A C K

S E A

MARMARA BLACK SEA CLIMATIC REGION TRANSITIONAL REGION KÜLLÜOBA

A E G E A N

EASTERN ANATOLIAN REGION

INNER ANATOLIAN REGION

AEGEAN GEOGRAPHICAL REGION MEDITERRANEAN TRANSITIONAL REGION

SOUTHEASTERN ANATOLIAN TRANSITIONAL REGION

MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATIC REGION

M E D I T E R R A N E A N

BLACK SEA CLIMATIC REGION Humid-temperate broad-leaved forest subregion Coastal mountains humid cold coniferous forest subregion Subhumid-cold coniferous forest subregion of backward Black Sea plateau and mountains

MEDITERRANEAN TRANSITIONAL REGION Lower subregion Mountain subregion SOUTHEASTERN ANATOLIAN TRANSITIONAL REGION Steppe subregion Dry forest (Oak, Redpine) subregion Dry forest (Oak) subregion Mountain grass subregion INNER ANATOLIAN REGION Steppe subregion Dry forest-Antropogene steppe subregion Mountain grass subregion EASTERN ANATOLIAN REGION Steppe subregion Mountain steppe subregion Mountain grass subregion

Dry forest shrub subregion of backward Black Sea region MARMARA TRANSITIONAL REGION Dry forest (Blackpine, Oak) subregion Ergene dry forest-Antropogene steppe subregion Dry forest (Maquis, Redpine) subregion AEGEAN GEOGRAPHICAL REGION Lower Aegean (Redpine) subregion Aegean mountain (Blackpine) subregion MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATIC REGION Lower Mediterranean (Redpine) subregion Mediterranean mountain (Cedar, Blackpine) subregion

B

L

A

C

Map 1.1. Geographical and vegetational outlines of Turkey and the location of Küllüoba in the northwestern part of the Inner Anatolian region (modified from Atalay 2002, appendix).

K

S

E

A

Küllüoba A E G E A N

M E D I T E R R A N E A N

Anatolian Soil Map

Costal dunes

Retsina (calcerous) soils

Dark (humus) soils

Alluvial soils

Calcerous forest soils

Vertisols

Red Calcareous soils / Marls

Arid (salty-alcaline)soils

Braun and marron coloured soils

Reddish Mediterranean soils (terra rossa)

Acid reaction forest soils

Regasols and lithosols on volcanic terrains

the Eskişehir region are located in Kütahya/Gümüşköy and appear already to have been in use in prehistoric times (Pernicka et al. 2003).

Map 1.2. Soil map of Turkey and the location of Küllüoba in the region of the rich brown soils (modified from Duran 1975, pp. 22).

be a ‘low active zone’, it still causes serious earthquakes in the Eskişehir region. Some recent studies consider the EFZ to be a ‘ghosted part’ of the North Anatolian Transform that runs towards Thrace, cut and displaced in the Marmara Sea (Sakınç et al. 1999, Yaltırak 2002, Ocakoğlu et al. 2007). Eskişehir’s active fault zone separates the tectonic units of extension-dominated western and Central Anatolia (Barka et al. 1995, Koçyiğit 2000, Ocakoğlu et al. 2007). The hydrography of the region is defined as promising for agricultural purposes and settlement development, due to the high ground water table that supports the Sakarya River and its tributaries even during the dry-hot summer (Erinç and Tunçdilek 1952, Tunçdilek 1952-1953, Erol 1983, Ardos 1985, Bilgin 1990, Bottema et al. 1993).

The province of Eskişehir is built mainly on alluvium and three suspected main fault segments lie under the alluvial sediments (Ardos 1985, Ocakoğlu et al. 2007, Ocakoğlu 2007). As a sign of high tectonic activity, hot mineral water springs and thermals are extensive in the northern part of Eskişehir (Ocakoğlu et al. 2009). The Eskişehir Fault Zone (EFZ) and Eskişehir Graben are proposed as PostPleistocene intraplate deformation zones and run in an E-W direction as a 20 km wide belt, extending 400 km from Bursa to Central Anatolia (Ocakoğlu et al. 2007, Ocakoğlu 2007). Even though this tectonic system is considered to 2

Environment Studies on soil properties are very scarce for the Eskişehir region and completely absent for the vicinity of Küllüoba. A general overview of the soil properties shows brown soils in uplands and the mountainous regions with deciduous tree cover, and alluvial soils without specific plant cover (Türe and Böcük 2007). The agricultural soils of the Central Plateau and Eskişehir region are described in the secondary literature as part of the brown soil group, whereas ca. 50 % of the central drylands have clay and clay loam soils and ca. 40 % consists only of loam. The majority of the topsoils lie on the calcareous parent material and have no more than 1 m depth, which results in the limited preservation of water reserves (Durutan et al. 1991). A soil map of Turkey provides a general overview for soil distribution of Küllüoba in a regional context (see Map 1.2.).

B

L

A

C

K

S

E

A

KÜLLÜOBA

A E G E A N M E D I T E R R A N E A N

> +10O

+10O +5O

+5O 0O

-5O -10O

0O -5O

-10O -15O

< -15O

Map 1.3. January isotherms for Turkey and the region of Küllüoba (modified from Duran 1975, pp. 18). B

As regards soil morphology, nearby Gordion, a wellstudied prehistoric site, lies ca. 70 km. northeast of Küllüoba. Soil studies for the area of Gordion show marl and gypsum outcrops for the east of the Sakarya’s floodplain; farther east is siltstone pediment with basalt intrusions (Kealhofer 2005, Marsh 2005). From the perspective of land use, almost half of the Eskişehir region is suitable for agricultural activities, while one-fourth is occupied by meadows and the remaining part by forests. The most common land use type is unirrigated cultivation (mostly cereals) followed by meadows, irrigated cultivation (sugar beet and sunflower) and fruit vegetation. The Kireçkuyusu deresi could have been flowed south of EBA Küllüoba. The development of its streambed is known only from interviews with the local population and my own personal observations. Before Kireçkuyusu deresi was dried out, it constituted a part of the tributary system of the Sakarya, fed partly from underground water sources. It is very probable that the stream had a larger flood plain in the past and parts of the cultivated lands were probably periodically inundated, which can be concluded from the wetland taxa of Küllüoba, discussed in following chapters. The alluvial history and the development of riverbed of the upper Sakarya and its influence on the surrounding landscape should be a matter for further studies.

L

A

C

K

S

E

A

KÜLLÜOBA

A E G E A N M E D I T E R R A N E A N

> 30O 1

25O 30O

20O 25O 1

5O - 20O

0O - 15O

< 10O

Map 1.4. July isotherms for Turkey and the region of Küllüoba (modified from Duran 1975, pp.18). B

L

A

C

K

S

E

A

KÜLLÜOBA

A E G E A N M E D I T E R R A N E A N

> 2000 mm

1500-1000 mm

750-500 mm

400-300 mm

2000-1500 mm

1000-750 mm

500-400 mm

< 300 mm

Map 1.5. Isohyets for Turkey and the region of Küllüoba (Modified from Duran 1975, pp. 19).

Modern climate and palaeoclimate

winds that come from the Black Sea and some from the Aegean Sea bring humidity. Although Central Anatolia is characterised by pronounced rain shadow especially in summer, the region of Eskişehir is in part positively influenced by the orogenic effects of precipitation regimes, especially in the proximity of mountains (Erol 1983, Louis 1985). On the lower plateaus, Central Anatolian climatic conditions prevail, with dry and very hot summers and cold and wet winters. The maximum precipitation in the Eskişehir region occurs in early spring; in winter snow is the predominant form of precipitation and its amount is very important for supplementing the groundwater table and decisive for the rain-fed cereal agriculture (Erol 1983, Louis 1985).

Eskişehir and Küllüoba are located at the northwestern border of Central Anatolia, where a strong summer-winter rainfall contrast prevails. During the summer months, from July until October, the high relief and mountains prevent the cyclones of maritime origin, loaded with humidity, from reaching the inner parts of the land (Güldalı 1979, Hütteroth and Höhfeld 2002). Only during winter months can a part of the northern cyclones penetrate to inland Anatolia and bring precipitation to the highlands, mostly in form of snow (Güldalı 1979, Wigley and Farmer 1982, Roberts and Wright 1993, Fairbridge et al. 1994, Bryson and Bryson 1999). Inland winds are mostly dry; only the 3

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba 14o B

Summer

L

A

C

Autumn

16o

K

S

E

Winter

Autumn

A

Autumn

Summer

KÜLLÜOBA

A E G E A N

18o

Winter

Spring

Spring

Winter

Spring

Winter Winter

14o

16o

18o

Winter Winter

20o

20o M E D I T E R R AN E A N Black Sea forest climate Northeastern continental climate Steppe climate (Inner Anatolian type) Steppe climate (Eastern Anatolian type)

Steppe climate (Southeastern Anatolian type) Mediterranean climate (South Anatolian type) Mediterranean climate (Aegean type) Mediterranean climate (Marmara type)

Map 1.6. Climate and precipitation regimes for Küllüoba and Turkey (Modified from Duran 1975, pp.19).

Trakia transitional type Innerwestern Anatolian transitional type

According to the Turkish State Office for Meteorology (Devlet Meteoroloji İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü) the mean annual maximum temperature for Eskişehir is 17 °C, the mean annual minimum 4 °C and the average precipitation is 360 mm. A recorded hail problem in the modern village Yenikent near Küllüoba has caused considerable yield loss in agricultural production and prompted the villagers to take out special insurance policies (pers. comm. with villagers).

of the sedentary village communities in EBA, the gradual development of agriculture and the exploitation and deforestation of woodlands– which influence the interpretation of palaeoclimate data (Riehl 2008a). Palaeoclimate studies suggest many multicentennial climate oscillations from the Mid-Holocene onwards, with notable arid phases occurring around 5300-5000 cal. BP, 4500-3900 cal. BP and 3100-2800 cal. BP, which correspond to the major archaeological period transitions in the eastern Mediterranean region, namely the Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age, the Early Bronze Age to Middle Bronze Age and the Late Bronze Age to Iron Age (Brice 1978, Fairbridge et al. 1994, Rossignol-Strick 1998, Riehl 2008b, Roberts et al. 2011).

Numerous studies that include palaeoenvironmental reconstructions are available for Upper Mesopotamia and Levant; however similar studies on central and western Anatolia are relatively scarce (Wilkinson 1997, Uerpmann 2003, Riehl and Marinova 2007, Marinova et al. 2008, Riehl 2008b, Riehl et al. 2009). Considerable differences in distance, geographical settings and climatic conditions do not allow regional correlations of southeastern Anatolia with its western part (Roberts and Wright 1993, Wilkinson 1999) (Table 1.1.). Therefore further climate studies are needed for a reliable reconstruction of past environments and settlement development of western Anatolia.

In order to understand the possible reasons for the flourishing and decline of the Early Bronze Age settlements in Anatolia and adjacent regions in general and of EBA Küllüoba in particular, it is essential to understand the so-called “4200 BP event” that was recorded as a global climate event in δ18O isotopes from ice, marine cores and sediments from Greenland, the northern Atlantic, Mediterranean lakes and from cave speleothems (Bond et al. 1997, Labeyrie et al. 1997, Bar-Matthews et al. 1997, Bond et al. 2001, Wick et al. 2003, Issar and Zohar 2004, Cordova et al. 2007, Pustovoytov et al. 2007, Deckers and Riehl 2007a, Deckers and Riehl 2007b, Roberts et al. 2008). Using stable isotope analysis, dating for the 4200 BP event has been suggested as corresponding to approximately 2250 BC (Riehl 2008a). According to records of different lake varves, cave stalagmite sediment and records from lake basins from the Near East and Anatolia, a climatic optimum started about 8000 B.P. and continued until ca. 5000 B.P.; unstable phases are recorded between 5000-4000 B.P. and strong fluctuations in dry and wet periods from 4000 B.P. onwards (Erol 1994, Lemcke and Sturm 1997, Issar and Zohar 2004). Instead of continuously increasing aridity, there is evidence for better moisture availability between 2100-2000 BC, and a short period of climatic amelioration prior to the 4200 BP event (Issar and Zohar 2004). It has also been suggested that the amelioration is visible in the geochemical records of Lake Van (Wick et al. 2003).

Most of the palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimate studies of the Near East and Anatolia are concentrated in the time scale from the Pleniglacial (ca. 20000 BP) until the Mid-Holocene (ca. 6000 BP) (Brice 1978, Butzer 1978, Blanchet et al. 1998, Sanlaville 1998, Kuzucuoğlu and Roberts 1998, Rossignol-Strick 1998, van Zeist and Bottema 1982, van Zeist and Bottema 1991, Riehl 2008b, Riehl et al. 2009). With the beginning of the Holocene, multi-proxy palaeoclimate data show evidence of regional differences in increase of humidity until about 4000-5000 BC (Bar-Matthews et al. 1997, Rossignol-Strick 1998, Rossignol-Strick 1999, Roberts et al. 2001a). With climatic amelioration, archaeological records of the Eastern Mediterranean region show evidence that settlements flourished from 9000 BP onwards (Wilkinson 1997, Akkermans and Schwartz 2005). The changes in climatic conditions are closely associated with increasing human impacts on the environment – such as the establishment 4

Environment Possible reasons for the 4200 BP event have been proposed using climate models, and the susceptibility of southern Anatolia, northern Syria and Mesopotamia to aridity and drought has been explained by the periodic occurrence of warmer global cycles and northern swings of the jet stream, aeolian dust, and astronomical effects like the progressive shifting of the orbital precession which might be responsible for the suppression of the monsoon system and result in cooler sea surface temperatures, partial marine anoxia, interruption in S1 sapropel formation in the Mediterranean, and oscillations in the river discharge patterns (Fairbridge et al. 1994, Cullen et al. 2000, Emeis et al. 2000, Riehl and Bryson 2007, Roberts et al. 2011). Integrated studies of multi-proxy climate data and bioarchaeological records can make regional differences in climate development for archaeological sites and their relation to the 4200 BP event more comprehensible, as noted in numerous palaeoclimate and bioarchaeological studies (Lemcke and Sturm 1997, Wick et al. 2003, Hazan et al. 2005, Pustovoytov et al. 2007, Riehl 2008a, Riehl 2008b, Riehl et al. 2009). However, the extent and the nature of the settlement collapse at the end of the Early Bronze Age in the Near East and its relation to the climatic crisis are still matters of debate and the conclusions are more complex and less homogenous, and probably also less synchronous, than expected (Wilkinson 1997, Weiss et al. 1993, Weiss 1997, Uerpmann 2003, Kuzucuoğlu 2007, Marro 2007, Deckers and Riehl 2007a, Riehl 2008a, Riehl et al. 2009).

2000 BP

5000 BP

Iron age

DRY LATE HOLOCONE

550 BC 850 BC

1600 BC

MBA

1600 BC

LBA

1200 BC

EBA III L EBA III E 2500 BC

EBA

Transition Phase

4000 BP

330 BC

End of optimum

3000 BP

EBA II L EBA II EBA I Transition Period

3250 BC

2000 BC

Phyrigia New Hittite K. Hittite Empire Hittite Old K. Early Hittite EBA IV

2400 BC 2700 BC 3000 BC 3200 BC 3350 BC

Late C.

3800 BC

Chalcolithic

Increasing dryness

7000 BP

CILIMATIC OPTIMUM

Late C.

6000 BP

CENTRAL ANATOLIA

KÜLLÜOBA

Chalcolithic Chalcolithic

Table 1.1. Occupation periods at Küllüoba in the west-central Anatolian Chalcolithic-Iron Age chronology with climatic development (data is modified from Roberts et al. 2011, pp. 151, Fig. 3).

2009). However, problems with the wide-scale availability of the 13C data and the lack of radiocarbon dating of archaeobotanical samples using AMS methodology create difficulties for the reconstruction of the 4200 BP event. Dry periods at the end of EBA and MBA might have covered short term fluctuations or phases, as evident in 13C records of cereal grains (Riehl et al. 2009, Riehl 2014). Annual precipitation curves show a temperature decrease ca. 5800 BP onwards until ca. 3900 BP (Riehl et al. 2009). After this decrease, an increase of temperature is recorded in local climate models of the Urfa region (Riehl et al. 2009). Stable isotope evidence from pedogenic carbonates helps also to reconstruct these local and site-specific climate developments (Riehl et al. 2009). According to these results, a shift of isohyets in northern Mesopotamia at the end of EBA is possible and in agreement with the results of δ18O records from Soreq Cave and Lake Van (BarMatthews et al. 1997, Lemcke and Sturm 1997, Wick et al. 2003, Riehl et al. 2008 and Riehl et al. 2009). Some methodological problems with the interpretation of 13C values still exist: if plants steadily confronted increasing dryness, that might result in plants low 13C values; alternatively, irrigation can result high 13C values, and in such cases 13 C values might lead to misleading interpretations for climate models. The solution for obtaining stable carbon tests is to choose for analysis crops and wild plants that do not require irrigation during water-stress (e.g., barley) or plants that are not indicative for water availability (Riehl et al. 2007, Riehl et al. 2008, Riehl 2009b). Possible effects of a desiccation event in 4200 BP for the subsistence

As methodological approaches, multi-proxy palaeoclimate data supported with δ18O records, combined with archaeobotanical data such as analysed macrobotanical seed assemblages, stable carbon isotopes 13C obtained from ancient plant remains and from pedogenic carbonates, models of regional moisture availability and temperatures, and records of 13C are all considered to be suitable as independent methods to prove the correlations between cultivated crops as a consequence of agricultural decisionmaking (Riehl 2008, Riehl et al.2009). However, charcoal remains appear to be less suitable for such combined analyses: short time climate change like increasing humidity can be visible in archaeobotanical macro remains spectra, but would not immediately be recorded in woodland composition, which is consequently not visible in charcoal remains from the same site (Deckers and Riehl 2007a). In northern Mesopotamian sites, evidence of a continuous decrease in soil moisture from the Neolithic until the end of EBA I and an increase in soil moisture after EBA II have been reported (Riehl 2009a, Riehl 2009b). After this short episode, with the end of EBA (around 4000 BP), a renewed decline in soil moisture is recorded with an increase in 13 C values and decrease in 13C throughout the whole MBA (ca. 4100-3500 BP), which indicates a long-term stress in water availability until the end of the LBA period (ca. 3200 BP) (Riehl et al. 2008, Riehl 2009b, Riehl et al. 5

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba economy of Küllüoba will be discussed in later chapters, in light of the results of the botanical remains.

left for a few decades without grazing, the recovery of the initial vegetation would occur relatively fast. Species of Artemisia are relatively resistant to overgrazing, due to their robust, woody lower parts. It can also suppress grasses due to its salt tolerance, if the soil degradation and bad drainage have led to a high salt content, which is disadvantageous for the grasses (Louis 1937, Walter 1956). However, due to these properties, Artemisia steppe is probably the dominant part of the original vegetation cover of the nearby region of Tuz Gölü (Salt Lake) (Louis 1937). In general, the vegetation of Central Anatolia can be seen as part of Mediterranean vegetation, with more frostresistant species in the composition due to the region’s continental character (Louis 1937).

Modern vegetation, agriculture and village life In comparison with the European cultural landscapes, the recovery of vegetation cover of Anatolian landscapes after intensive grazing and farming activities is more difficult due to stress from long periods of aridity and low annual average precipitation. This sensitive balance in vegetation has a long history of human occupation (Louis 1939, Walter 1956, Zohary 1973). In west-central Anatolia, the vegetation is also affected by the region’s great distance from the sea and the barrier effect of the mountain chains, as mentioned above. Due to orographic shadow effects, only the remnants of dryforest and steppe vegetation have been found on the southern slopes of the Sivrihisar Mountains, while the northern slopes of the Sündiken Mountains are covered by dryforests (Zohary 1973, Erol 1983, Kont 1987, Atalay 2002). Steppe-grassland vegetation prevails on the plateau of the upper Sakarya, characteristic for Central Anatolia (Louis 1939, Erol 1983, Walter 1956, Cordova et al. 2007). The northwestern slopes of the Türkmen, Murat and Emir mountains are covered with Pinus nigra and Pinus brutia forests (Zohary 1973, Atalay 2002). It has been recorded that Seyitgazi, the district town next to Küllüoba, is influenced by the Aegean climate, while the northern-lying district towns of Sarıcakaya and Mihallıçık are influenced by the climate of the Black Sea region (Öksüz and Abeş 2008). In general, the region of Eskişehir is located in a vegetation zone of dry forest and an anthropogenic steppe subregion (Atalay 2002, see Map 1.1.).

Today, the forest composition in the mountainous parts of the Eskişehir region consists of black pine, red pine, yellow pine, and beech (Louis 1939, Zohary 1973, Atalay 2002). According to some field observations for the protected landscape areas in Ankara and Eskişehir, the vegetation composition consists of the grasses Festuca, Phleum and Melica, along with biennial or perennial plants like Melilotus, Alyssum, Hypericum, Galium, Scabiosa, Astragalus, Centaurea, and Ornithogalum; annuals like Adonis, Matthiola, Ziziphora, Senecio, and Rochelia accompany the first two groups (Walter 1956). Many members of the taxa listed have also been collected by the author of this work (see Chapter 9, catalogue of modern plants), as well as observed in the archaeobotanical remains from Küllüoba. According to personal observation during the 2009 excavation season between mid-July and mid-September, intensive farming and overgrazing have apparently had a strong impact and the Artemisia community showed the characteristics of an overgrazed landscape in the fields, and small uncultivated land patches between the excavation area and the village of Yenikent. The deforestation of the area may likely have begun in early prehistoric times, aggravated by intensive agricultural activities, animal husbandry and the need fora wood supply for metallurgy. In general, the upper Sakarya plain is an important region for cereal cultivation, such as bread wheat and barley; moreover, the cultivation of summer vegetables, sunflower and safflower also has an important part in the agricultural economy (Erol 1983). And today viticulture is possible, due to suitable climate conditions on the western slopes of the Emir and Türkmen mountains (Hütterroth and Höhfeld 2002).

The recent vegetation of Küllüoba is defined as being at the border of the Xero-Euxinian vegetation belt (Zohary 1973). The potential vegetation cover of northwest Central Anatolia has not been sufficiently investigated prior to longterm human influence and the change to its composition as consequences of intensive farming and grazing activities. Knowledge about the beginnings of deforestation, the extension area and the natural boundaries of natural grassland-steppe vegetation of inner Anatolia is still matter of debate, though some attempts have been made to compare inner Anatolia with other regions with similar climatic conditions in order to understand the development of vegetation (Walter 1956). Studies on Central Anatolian flora, recorded from vegetation patches unintentionally isolated from overgrazing and farming show that grasssteppe vegetation, now dominated by Artemisia fragrans, must have been composed predominantly of Bromus and Stipa prior to intensive farming and overgrazing (Walter 1956, Akman et al. 1984). The occurrence of plant communities in these studies is apparently determined specifically by the degree of grazing intensity and not by altitude or soil properties (e.g., highland-lowland, poor or rich soil) (Louis 1937, Walter 1956, Zohary 1973). Therefore, it has been suggested that if the landscape were

The modern village of Yenikent is approximately 1,5 km from the mound of Küllüoba where the excavation house is located. As a consequence of increasing seasonal transhumance from the village of Yenikent to the provincial city of Eskişehir, the population, counted as 138 inhabitants in 2000, has continued to decline, especially in the last decade; the former primary school has been closed and converted into the excavation house. In contrast to the small villages of Anatolia that were commonly built with relatively provisional and simple materials, the houses in the village of Yenikent have been constructed with 6

Environment fabricated bricks and designed as rectangular, multi-room buildings enclosed with a courtyard, and thus Yenikent shows all the characteristics of a contemporary modern village. In contrast to the progressive architecture, the infrastructure of the village is still primitive: there is still no connection to the sewage system of the province. As in most of the cosmopolitan villages with a migration background in the Eskişehir region, the inhabitants of Yenikent arrived as deported Crimean Tatars during the Bolshevik and Stalinist periods in the early 20th century and after the Second World War, and kept their Tatar traditions after their migration to Turkey (Williams 2001).

of Yenikent, after crops like sugar beet, sunflower, some vegetables, wheat and barley have been sown in autumn and left over winter months in the fields. Scattered fruit trees like apples, different sorts of plums, pears, mulberry, and cherry grow between the extensive fields for largescale cash crop production; they also grow in the gardens of the houses, from which the villagers obtain fruit for their own consumption (pers. comm. with villagers). Fruit trees in the form of orchards that are destined for largescale cultivation and surplus production were not observed in the vicinity of Küllüoba. Whether the scattered trees are the remnants of the extensive wild orchards of the past mentioned in the study by Woldring and Cappers (2001) or whether they were planted as scattered single trees in modern times is a matter for further study. The deforestation of the area probably began in early prehistoric times and was due to intensive agricultural activities, animal husbandry and metal working. In the area of animal husbandry, small ruminants like sheep and goats play the major role and are kept by a few families of villagers whose agricultural production is devoted to animal fodder like clover and common and bitter vetch rather than to crops for human consumption (pers. comm. with villagers). Both sorts of vetch (Vicia ervilia and Vicia sativa) and clover (Trifolium spp.) have been cultivated exclusively by these families as animal fodder for their own livestock, especially sheep and goats.

The landowners mostly have large fields and live in the village only during the relatively short summer months, e.g., the period of crop-harvesting. During winter months the villagers prefer to live in the provincial city, Eskişehir, about 25 km distant from the village, rather than in the closer small town of Seyitgazi (ca. 14 km) (pers. comm. with villagers). One of the important reasons for this preference is so that their children can have a better school education in the provincial city. They obviously achieved this kind of modern transhumance due to improvements in their agricultural productivity. Modern agricultural technology introduced after the 1950s and water supplied by modern irrigation channels from dams in the region from the ‘70s onwards have permitted the villagers to acquire a certain level of wealth over the past half-century. Before the construction of the Kunduzlar and Çatören dams on the Seydi Suyu (one of the tributaries of Sakarya River), the water supply of the plain was primarily artesian wells, due to the region’s suitable water table.

Outlines of vegetation history In contrast to the earlier models of pollen studies that characterise regional vegetation development based on homogenised airborne pollen components, modern methods of palynology also document forested environments and help to distinguish between local and long-distance components in pollen deposition, including substantial fractions transported by surface run off and inflowing streams (Robinson and Hubbard 1976b, Birks 1993, Fish 1994, Prentice et al. 1996, Prentice et al. 2000). These methods are widely used for the pollen analysis of temperate European landscapes, but their application for the vegetation of Near Eastern landscapes is rather scarce. In contrast to the European sites, the palynological data offer weaker evidence for the reconstruction of the palaeovegetation of Near Eastern sites, especially for the younger periods from the Mid-Holocene onwards, as a consequence of the rarity or absence of water bodies, poor pollen preservation and low chronological resolution (Faegri and Iversen 1975, Bottema 1987, Fish 1994). Additional difficulties in terms of distinguishing between climate-induced and man-made vegetation change in the pollen spectra can be mentioned (Riehl and Bryson 2007). Recent research projects like the mapping project of the Mediterranean-Black Sea Corridor Region, the so-called BIOME 6000, for the evaluation of pollen data provide an essential contribution to the reconstruction of the vegetation from the Last Glacial Maximum and the MidHolocene, with more objective methods than those used in

The area surrounding the flat mound of the prehistoric settlement of Küllüoba is a wide plain area, completely free of tree coverage aside from sporadic cultivated orchards. Today, the nearest open-forest patches of mixed pine and oak trees are located on the eastern extension of the slopes of Türkmen Dağı, at about 1200 m altitude, ca. 12 km distant from Küllüoba. The fields surrounding the prehistoric mound are still under cultivation by the villagers of Yenikent. Today’s crop cultivation focuses on sunflower, sugar beet, maize, bread wheat, and barley, together with oil and spice crops such as safflower, cumin and aniseed. Modern irrigation techniques allow the cultivation of sunflower and watermelon, based on fully modernized large-scale agriculture and good harvesting seasons with high yields. Except for the cereals wheat and barley and pulses like vetch, the other crops cultivated now can be regarded as plants introduced later, or newcomers, rather than as cultivars relevant for the study of past agriculture. Current irrigation techniques with mechanized pumps and modern channels may also allow a certain spectrum of cultivated plants that is totally different than those of EBA period. Even though household activities in the modern and ancient villages may be regarded as quite similar in some respects, such as cooking, heating, etc., rubbish dumps and their composition no doubt differed. Crop rotation has commonly been practiced in the vicinity 7

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba B.P. cal.

AD/ BC

0

2000

Zone 7P

1000 2000

Zone ine forest

7

1000 1

3000

1000

4000

2000

5000

3000

6000

4000

7000

5000

8000

6000

9000

7000

10000

8000

11000

9000

12000

10000

13000

11000

14000

12000

15000

13000

16000

14000

17000

15000

18000

16000

19000

17000

20000

18000

21000

19000

22000

20000

23000

21000

24000

22000

6b 6a 5

Forest regeneration Forest clearing Predominant pine forest

6

Zone Coniferous forest Open veg.

Coniferous forest with altering cedar pine dominance

Oak, juniper, pine forest

4

3c

3b

Transition from Steppe/ forest-steppe to forest Steppe with scattered trees

Steppe with oak and pine forest stands

5

Transition from steppe/ forest-steppe to coniferous forest

5P

Zone ine forest

4

Forest clearing

3e

Forest regeneration

3a-d

Forest clearing

2

Pine-cedar forest

1

Cedar dominated Coniferous forest

Pine forest

5

4P

3

Steppe and open forest stands

Dominantly steppe with tree stands

2

Increasing aridity

Forest-steppe

3c

Climatic optimum

3b Dry period

Pine forest with deciduous oak, juniper steppe veg.

Deciduous oak

Climatic Transition

Younger dryas cold and dry 2 2nd warming

Steppe, forest-steppe and cedar forest

Cold phase

Steppe with scattered tree stands

1

3a

ine with cedar

4200 BP event

3d

3a

4

Climate proxies

Steppe and open forest with cedar and oak

1st warming after Glacial

Cold and dry

Glacial

2b

Steppe with less trees

2a

Steppe with Oak-forest stands

1

Steppe with open forest stands

Table 1.2. Brief overview for the past vegetation cover reconstructed from the geographically closest pollen core sites to Küllüoba (based on the pollen research conducted by van Zeist et al 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984, Bottema and Woldring 1990, van Zeist and Bottema 1991).

1

Steppe-forest

In the Mediterranean sector of Greece and Anatolia many plants have adjusted to a climatic regime of winter rain and summer drought. The vegetation cover of the Near East and Anatolia includes some major pollen producers, which enables many researchers to reconstruct the history of the Mediterranean-type climatic regime from palynological data. Some of the work has concentrated on the reconstruction of Late Glacial vegetation (Bottema 1978, Emery-Barbier and Thiébault 2005); however the majority of the studies represent research results from Early to Late Holocene vegetation (van Zeist et al 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984, Bottema and Woldring 1990, van Zeist and Bottema 1991, Roberts and Wright 1993, Eastwood et al. 2007).

past decades (van Zeist and Bottema 1991, Prentice et al. 1996, Prentice et al. 2000, Cordova et al. 2007, Eastwood et al. 2007, Cordova et al. 2009). The vegetation cover of semi-arid regions in which the long-term mean annual precipitation is below 400 mm isohyet responds to long-term aridification trends notably faster than in the more humid regions (Bryson 1997, Riehl 2006, Riehl 2008b). The loss of arboreal vegetation cover in semi arid regions after a long desiccation period is mostly irreversible and the reforestation of a semi-arid region progresses more slowly when human impact has had a strong influence on the landscape (Roberts 2011, Roberts et al. 2011). 8

Environment A regional correlation of pollen diagrams appears to create problems as well (Cappers et al. 1998). The ratio of arboreal pollen to non-arboreal pollen could indicate the amount of forest and open landscape as the first evidence for a quantitative analysis of the environment. One might consider whether the translation of this ratio into terms of forest and open landscape is possible. For the reconstruction of archaeological sites it is important to understand the potential vegetation cover prior to human impact in order to understand the possible manmade changes to the vegetation cover. According to pollen evidence, vegetation development in Anatolia goes back to the Würm Glacial, with refuges for arboreal taxa on the higher mountains of Central Anatolia during the Ice Ages (van Zeist et al. 1968, Brice 1978, van Zeist and Bottema 1982, Bottema 1987, van Zeist and Bottema 1991).

al. 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1990). In addition to the evidence provided by Artemisia, the Plantago lanceolatatype pollen spectra is (recorded as an indicator for human influence) show an increase in the Beyşehir Occupation Phase (BOP) and in many other pollen diagrams from Anatolian and Greek pollen coring sites (Bottema 1979, Bottema and Woldring 1984, Bottema et al. 1986, Bottema and Woldring, 1990). Gramineae pollen has been suggested as one of the most important pieces of evidence for human occupation in pollen diagrams (Bottema 1992, Bottema and Woldring, 1990). An increase in Gramineae pollens and the decline of arboreal pollen (AP) production at the beginning of the BOP has been interpreted as an indication of the destruction of the forest, resulting in the occupation of Gramineae in the clearances (van Zeist et al. 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984, Bottema et al. 1986). The proof for this argument lies in the comparison of these results with modern pollen rain, which shows the same evidence as an increase in the Gramineae-Cerealiatype pollen spectra (van Zeist et al. 1968). However, the Cerealia-type pollen would have to have been specified in greater detail to be informative for prehistoric activities, and therefore Plantago lanceolata-type and Poterium-type pollens are presently among the most useful indicators of human interference in most of Anatolia (Bottema and Woldring 1990).

The beginning of the Preboreal biozone was recorded in pollen cores from 9770- 11,720 BP with a high ratio of Chenopodiaceae pollen spectra (Fairbridge et al. 1994, Rossignol-Strick 1998, Roberts et al. 2001). From 11.000 to 10000 BP, the Younger-Dryas period is represented with by a very arid and cold phase, followed by a postglacial climate optimum with a rapid expansion of the deciduous tree pollen between 9,000 and 6000 B.P. as a sign of warm winters and humid summers (Fairbridge et al. 1994, Rossignol-Strick 1998, Roberts et al. 2001, Eastwood et al. 2007, Roberts et al. 2011). The earliest evidence for human influence on vegetation in Anatolia dates back to approximately 7000 B.C., with the beginning of farming. The changes to vegetation caused by the oldest farming communities like those of the earliest Neolithic cultures are said not to be really distinctive in pollen records (Bottema et al. 1986). It has been suggested that through the intensive use of fire for metalworking with the beginning of the Near Eastern Early Bronze Age, changes in the vegetation were more widespread and were better reflected in pollen data (van Zeist and Bottema 1991, Roberts 1990, Roberts et al. 2001).

Barley and wheat, the most important cereal crop plants of the Near East and also of Anatolia are self-pollinators that produce very few pollen grains. Consequently, these species are presumed to be seriously under-represented in pollen rain and in the fossil pollen record (van Zeist et al. 1968). On the other hand, many wild grasses that are included in Cerealia-type pollen assemblages are windpollinators and hence represented in a higher percentage in pollen rain (van Zeist et al. 1975). The other potential crop plants, such as Lens culinaris (lentil), Pisum sativum (pea), Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch), and Linum usitatissimum (linseed), are insect-pollinators and as a result are rarely represented in pollen precipitation (van Zeist et al. 1975). Southwest Anatolia, the region between Afyon and Antalya, is a huge area with interior river drainage and contains many lakes, particularly in the southern part (Erol 1978). Unfortunately not all of the lakes are suitable as coring sites and therefore the number of available pollen cores is restricted. The nearest lake to Eskişehir is a saltwater lake, namely Eber Lake, approximately 70 km from Küllüoba, which appears not to have been investigated palynologicaly, probably because of its unsuitable conditions for pollen preservation. Saline environments give rise to a selective corrosion for some pollen types and consequently certain other taxa like Liguliflorae can be overrepresented due to their salt resistance (Havinga 1984).

The palynological picture of Central Anatolia is one of Xero-Euxinian forest-steppe and resembles that of the Zagros oak woodland; although the values of herbaceous types are much lower (Zohary 1973). The evidence of human activity for agriculture and grazing is called the ‘landnam’ effect in palynological research (Behre and Kućan 1986, Behre 1990). The visibility of this effect in pollen diagrams has been represented by Plantago lanceolata-type pollen which is sometimes also accompanied by Poterium-type (Bottema and Woldring 1984, Bottema and Woldring 1990). The interpretation of steppe-taxa in their natural range creates some significant difficulties as an indicator for human activity: herbaceous taxa, Artemisia, increase in the southwestern Anatolian pollen records of Beyşehir and Söğüt lakes, probably due to the destruction of the natural forest cover by human activity, whereas the Chenopodiaceae family is said to be less indicative of human activity in Anatolia (van Zeist et

Geographically the closest pollen coring site to Eskişehir is Karamık Bataklığı, which lies farther south than Eber Lake (van Zeist et al.1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984). 9

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba and Marmara seas provide additional support for the results of earlier pollen studies made in order to understand vegetation development in Anatolia and Bulgaria (Caner and Algan 2002, Filipova-Marinova and Atanassova 2006, Mudie et al. 2007, Cordova et al. 2009). In the present work, data on the arboreal vegetation and corresponding climatic key events are represented with a comparative diagram (see Table 1.2.) based on the results of the pollen coring sites Karamık Bataklığı, Söğüt Gölü and Beyşehir Gölü (van Zeist et al. 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984, Bottema 1993, Bottema et al. 1986). The original dating of the pollen cores is given as uncalibrated BP, and the time scale calibrated as AD/BC corresponds only roughly to the uncalibrated data.

Yenikent

0

5 km

This form of presentation attempts to simplify the connection between vegetation and climatic events in comparison to the relatively complicated zonation of the pollen cores. In this way, the pollen diagrams without radiocarbon dating can be roughly correlated with the results from other sites with available radiocarbon dates. Due to difficulties with absolute dating, direct correlation of the archaeological occupation phases with the pollen zones seems still to be problematic. As seen on the diagram, from the beginning of the transition period into EBA (ca. 3000 B.C.) the vegetation development in southwestern Anatolia (Söğüt Gölü and Beyşehir Gölü) shows evidence of oak, juniper and pine forest together with some cedar, and in the inner parts of the region there is evidence of forest-steppe, a possible sign of human influence. In the course of EBA occupation until the Iron Age, pollen data obtained from Karamık Bataklığı gives evidence of coniferous forest with cedar predominance (van Zeist et al. 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984).

KÜLLÜOBA

Map 1.7. Structure of the agricultural terrain in upper Sakarya.

As part of the same research project an extensive modern surface sampling was conducted at 59 different sites in order to compare the present vegetation with the past vegetation cover (van Zeist et al. 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1984).Other pollen coring sites near Eskişehir are in western Turkey: the lakes İznik Gölü, Kuş Gölü (Manyas), Apolyont Gölü, and the recently drained marsh in Yenişehir/Bursa have all been cored within the scope of the research project at the Ilıpınar excavations (Bottema 1993). However, the lack of radiocarbon dates makes correlation with other diagrams and further interpretations unlikely; consequently, the younger ranges of the Holocene pollen spectra from these sites are mentioned very briefly in the publications (Bottema 1993). The present vegetation of the area south of İznik Gölü lies between the Euxinian mixed deciduous zone, the Mediterranean xerophytic forest and Sub-Euxinian deciduous forest (Zohary 1973, Mayer and Aksoy 1986). It has been reported that the NonArboreal-Pollen spectra of the Late Glacial is high and the region may be a potential refuge zone for arboreal spectra (Zohary 1973, Mayer and Aksoy 1986). The survival of forest remnants during the the Last Glacial could have been in form of individual trees in restricted spots rather than survival in vegetation belts (Zohary 1973, Mayer and Aksoy 1986).

During the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000 B.C.) the pollen core from Söğüt Gölü gives no evidence of changing vegetation from human influence or increasing aridity from 4200 BP onwards, whereas the second core from Beyşehir Gölü shows evidence for forest clearance as an indication of human impact (van Zeist et al. 1975, Bottema and Woldring 1986). According to pollen evidence, it is very likely that during the occupation of Küllüoba, from the Late Chalcolithic until the end of the Bronze Age, the vicinity of the settlement had partially steppe-woodland vegetation. The mountain slopes of the Türkmen Dağları were probably covered with denser coniferous and oak woodland vegetation. Future research is needed for the reconstruction of the palaeovegetation in the Eskişehir region, in order to understand the scale and development of the woodland degradation and interrelate it with climate conditions.

Pollen analyses for northwestern Anatolia were conducted in 1980s. Thirteen sites were cored in the area between Adapazarı and Samsun at the Black Sea and bordered by the Kızılırmak River in the south (Bottema et al. 1993). Central and northern Turkey expands over a large area with diverse geographical contrast. The main annual precipitation in the coastal part is over 1000 mm, whereas in the southern part on the Kızılırmak River the main annual precipitation is less than 400 mm, categorised with semi-arid environments (Bottema et al. 1993). Recent pollen studies obtained from marine cores from the Black

ar

ch

10

ny

ae

ob

a ot

Archaeology S E A

N R. Sa

ka

Marmara Sea

Fikirtepe Pendik

rya

M er

iç

R.

B L AC K

Kumtepe

Manyas L.

A E G E A N

TROY

Demircihöyük Porsuk R.

Yortan Susu

KÜLLÜOBA rluk

R.

Sakarya R.

Gediz R.

Limantepe

0

2-Archaeology

50

100 km

Map 2.1. Küllüoba and some Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age settlements in northwest Anatolia.

The pioneer surveys were chiefly related to the Phrygian culture of the region (Cox and Cameron 1937). Later researchers have attested that northwestern central Anatolia was also inhabited in earlier occupation periods, such as the Chalcolithic, Neolithic and Palaeolithic (Arık 1956, Çambel 1952, French 1961, French 1969, Haspels 1971, Efe 2007). However, archaeological research in west-central Anatolia has still been scantily conducted for entire occupation periods and there is a lack of evidence for the Palaeolithic. Rather, the detail and the coverage of area in geomorphological and prehistoric surveys constitute only the beginnings for further systematic research (Chaput 1941, Kökten 1948, Kökten 1951, Efe 1990b, Efe 2007). Some recent surveys in the Eskişehir region show evidence of pre-Bronze Age occupation from the Neolithic to the Early-Middle Chalcolithic periods in the localities of Asmainler, Fındık Kayabaşı, Kes Kaya, and Kanlıtaş (Kalıkavak, in the near of Bozüyük), based on the pottery collected from the surface and records of scarce architectural remains (Efe 1990, Yakar 1994).

In this chapter, Küllüoba is presented as a settlement in an intra-and supra-regional context and there is an attempt to shed light on the settlement’s development from the Late Chalcolithic until the end of its occupation in the late phase of Early Bronze Age III. Accordingly, in the section and its related sub-sections, archaeological research conducted in western Anatolia is briefly outlined in order to give an overview of the settlement development of Küllüoba and its contemporary sites from the Chalcolithic to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age periods. Following section reviews archaeobotanical research in western Anatolia. Finally, last section presents the settlement pattern at Küllüoba in light of the excavation campaigns that have been conducted and the information obtained from the excavators.

Outlines of archaeological research in the region

The Chalcolithic

The first scientific surveys and archaeological excavations in the Eskişehir region were conducted by Bittel and Otto in the late 1930’s on the mound of Demircihüyük (Bittel and Otto 1939, Efe 2007), followed by researchers from the 1950s to the present (Arık 1956, Çambel 1952, Burney 1954, Haspels 1971, Sivas and Tüfekçi, Sivas 2007, Efe et al. 1995, Efe 2007). As seen from the accessible and published data, despite numerous research campaigns, most of these excavations and surveys were not systematically carried out and were rather short-term in nature. The main work of these expeditions was concentrated on collecting and grouping the pottery remains in order to define cultural regions, based generally on morphological descriptions, whereas the technological background and possible functions of different pottery types have scarcely been questioned.

Settlements with Early Chalcolithic occupation, Hacılar I (Mellaart 1970) and Can Hasan (French 1963) in Central Anatolia, and Kuruçay in the Lake District, may be considered as settlements that may have been established by egalitarian societies; in settlement structures that have been excavated, architectural features that might be interpreted as public, administrative or temple areas are absent (Efe 2003a). Closer to Küllüoba, Demircihüyük and Keçiçayırı can be noted as settlements that have Neolithic occupation periods; salvage excavations were conducted for the latter from 2006 to 2009 (Efe 2007). Following the excavations by Bittel and Otto (1939), the excavation of Demircihüyük was renewed between 1975 and 1978 (Korfmann 1983, Seheer 1987, Efe 1998, Efe 2007). The evidence of the 11

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba material culture suggests that the site may have been inhabited from the Neolithic onwards, although due to the high ground water table, the architectural stratigraphy prior to EBA I is scarcely known (Korfmann 1983, Seheer 1987, Yakar 1994, Efe 1998).

information about settlement development based on architectural remains in their stratigraphic contexts.

In general, archaeological evidence for the Chalcolithic periods in the northwestern part of Central Anatolia is very scarce; until the present, only two sites with Early Chalcolithic occupation have been excavated close to Küllüoba, Demircihüyük and Orman Fidanlığı. The material culture of Orman Fidanlığı might help to correlate the Early Chalcolithic chronology of Thracian settlements with Anatolian sites (Efe 2001b, Greaves and Helwig 2003, Schoop 2011). In the region of Eskişehir, the Late Chalcolithic (ca. 4250-3000 B.C.) is as scantily represented as other sub-periods of the Chalcolithic. Especially in terms of architecture, a considerable gap exists between the later fifth and early fourth millennia. The occupations of Demircihüyük and Orman Fidanlığı appear to have been renewed during the Late Chalcolithic, after an occupation gap during the Middle Chalcolithic period (Korfmann 1983, Efe 2001).

The criteria for the transition from the Late Chalcolithic to EBA and the subdivision of the latter into three phases have been questioned as being rather arbitrary, as in the case for the three-age system that has been adopted from Aegean chronology (Yakar 2011, Schoop 2011). Not only for the west central plateau, but also for the major part of Anatolia, cultural changes have been defined only by pottery assemblages, and therefore EBA chronology that has been used has been considered to be an unsuitable gauge of the social, economic and political dynamics that might have led to the gradual change and social development of societies during the third Millennium (Schoop 2011, Steadman 2011, Yakar 2011). On the Central Anatolian Plateau, architectural evidence from EBA Beycesultan, Küllüoba and Karataş has been interpreted as an early stage of centralisation and social differentiation among the inhabitants, due to the town-like settlement outlines and fortifications at these sites (Korfmann 1983, Mellaart 1998, Mellink 1989, Efe 2003, Ivanova 2008, Yakar 2011, Steadman 2011). However, in comparison to Mesopotamian urban settlements, the village/townlike settlements of west Anatolia appear to be structurally much less organised in terms of their control over the land (Çevik 2007, Steadman 2011).

Transition into EBA (3600-3300 B.C.)

As a characteristic of the Late Chalcolithic period in westcentral Anatolia, the pottery assemblages appear to be “strongly regionally pronounced” (Shoop 2011. pp.166) and thus comparative studies of pottery zones might create difficulties at the intra- and supra-regional level. For the major part of west Anatolia, this period is represented only by the material culture and pottery assemblages of Aphrodisias-Pekmez VIII, Kuruçay and Beycesultan (Lloyd and Mellaart 1962, Sharp Joukowsky 1986, Schoop 2011). In comparison to inland west Anatolia, the Late Chalcolithic layers of Kumtepe on the Aegean coast provide more reliable stratigraphy for the Late Chalcolithic chronology of west Anatolia (Gabriel 2000, Schoop 2011).

The evidence of metal objects from arsenic bronze and pyrotechnic tools shows that metal technology had gradually been developed from the Middle Chalcolithic onwards (Chernykh 1992, Pernicka et al. 2003). It has been suggested that tin bronze appears as early as the transition from the Late Chalcolithic to EBA (Pernicka 1998, Pernicka et al. 2003). The Beycesultan cultural zone in western Anatolia and Bakla Tepe on the Aegean coast already show developing metallurgy during the transition period, with copper, bronze finds and moulds for metal casting (Erkanal and Özkan 1999, Efe 2002a).

Beycesultan, an important EBA site approximately 200 km south of Küllüoba, is, with its Late Chalcolithic occupation sequences, considered to be a chronological reference point for the west Anatolian settlements, although the relative dating of the pottery assemblages from these occupation periods is still a matter of debate and subject for further studies (Sharp Joukowsky 1986, Duru 1996, Schoop 2011). For the Upper Sakarya Valley in the vicinity of Küllüoba, knowledge of the Late Chalcolithic appears to be restricted to some pottery collected during survey expeditions southeast and southwest of Eskişehir, Mihallıççık and Sivrihisar (Efe 2007); however, with respect to Orman Fidanlığı and Demircihüyük, recent revisions show that the pottery assemblages formerly dated to EBA period may possibly belong to the older Late Chalcolithic layers (Seheer 1987, Efe 2001, Schoop 2011). The pottery tradition of the Konya plain and upper Sakarya may form more or less a ‘single unit’ with its characteristic black burnished ware, bowls with thin walls (Efe 2002a). As a goal for further research, systematic surveys and excavations seem to be necessary in order to obtain more

EBA Periods (3300-2000/1900 B.C.) The chronology of EBA sites in western and central Anatolia is based mostly on the evidence of material culture, dominated by the definition of pottery assemblages, which might show evidence for regional and supraregional relations with Troy and other EBA settlements on the Aegean coast and with Tarsus at the southeast part of the Mediterranean coast (Çilingiroğlu et al. 2004, Efe 2007a, Yakar 2011, Steadman 2011). In northwestern Anatolia, Troy still constitutes the only settlement with a reconstruction of its environment and economy based on extended multidisciplinary analysis (Uerpmann et al. 1992, Riehl 1999, Uerpmann and Van Neer 2000, Uerpmann 12

Archaeology

Map 2.2. Küllüoba excavations on a topographic map. Northwest part of the excavation with “West sector trenches’ R 7/8, S7/8, T7, U7, U8, U9, U10 and V9 which are relevant for the periods “Late Chalcolithic” and “Transitional Period into EBA I”. For the detailed illustration of the excavation seasons see also Map 3.1.

2003, Çakırlar 2007, Gündem 2010). Archaeological and biological evidence of EBA occupation periods at Troy (I-III), the so-called “Trojan Maritime Culture”, suggest a subsistence economy based on maritime resources and well-developed trade relations with coastal settlements of the Aegean and southeastern Mediterranean (Uerpmann and Van Neer 2000, Çakırlar 2007, Gündem 2010). For the major part of western Anatolia, despite local differences, an overall homogenous picture of the material culture can be assumed throughout EBA periods (Özdoğan 2002, Efe 2007d). According to architectural and pottery evidence,

the Central Anatolian Plateau may have constituted the ‘core area’ for EBA settlement development and the expansion of the period’s socio-economic system into west Anatolian coastal and east Thracian settlements (Özdoğan 2002). The development of metallurgy, with the appearance of new metal materials like tin alloyed bronze, lead, silver, and gold in inventories from EBA onwards and their consequence for trade relations, has been considered to be one of the major factors that may have led

13

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba to the increase and development of settlements and the centralisation of societies (Efe 2002a, Pernicka et al. 2003). The ‘Anatolian Trade Network’ or ‘Great Caravan Route’ has been suggested as a trade structure for the distribution and exchange of metal objects from the west to the southeast or far beyond to Mesopotamia (Şahoğlu 2005, Efe 2007a, Muhly 2011). Because the provenance of tin, an essential component of bronze alloy, is still unknown for west Anatolia, both southwestern Europe and the Near East have been considered as reasonable possibilities for its long-distance trade (Renfrew 2011, Pernicka et al. 2003). A common tradition in metallurgical development from the middle of the fourth Millennium onwards, in the region that stretched from south-eastern Europe to eastern Anatolia, has suggested the name “Circumpontic Metallurgical Province” (Chernykh 1992, Pernicka et al. 2003). Based on the lead isotope results from bronze objects from west Anatolian EBA settlements, the provenance of tin is posited as eastern or central Asia, because the only geologically possible appearance of very old Precambrian deposits shows up in these regions (Pernicka et al. 2003). This thesis has been supported by the fact that a considerable time gap exists between the first occurrence of tin bronze in the eastern Mediterranean and the later occurrence of tin bronze in western and central Europe, even though rich tin deposits are located in central and western Europe (Pernicka et al. 1984, Pernicka et al. 2003). With the introduction of tin bronze, metallurgical development progressed, and the repertoire of metal objects and weapons shows evidence of new moulding techniques like ‘bi-mould casting’ through the ‘lost wax’ method (Müller-Karpe 1994, Efe 2002). With further developments in metallurgy, the equipment for human conflicts likely reached new dimensions because the mass production of different weapons by specialists became possible (Korfmann 1972, Pernicka et al. 2003, Ivanova 2008).

from the Late Chalcolithic to EBA I, representing the time period of 3350-3050 B.C., is supported with calibrated dendrochronological oak remains (Yakar 2002, Yakar 2011). From one of EBA settlements nearest to Küllüoba, radiocarbon dates from Demircihöyük Phases H and E suggest that the settlement may have been established at the beginning of 3000 B.C. and occupied until ca. 3500 B.C. (Korfmann and Kromer 1993). Megara with trapezoidal outlines and entrances opening to central open areas like courtyards and arranged on a radial plan are characteristic for EBA I Demircihüyük and called an “Anatolisches Siedlungsschema” (Anatolian Settlement Plan) (Korfmann 1983). From an archaeological point of view, Demircihüyük’s radial settlement outlines with trapezoid buildings have been considered to be similar to those of Küllüoba’s EBA I- II periods (Schoop 2012, Steadman 2011), though in Küllüoba the trapezoidal megara without radial arrangements form instead square-outlined building complexes (Efe 2007). In southwestern central Anatolia, architectural evidence from Beycesultan’s EBA I occupation layers is said to be rather scant (Lloyd and Melaart 1962, Steadman 2011), which is probably the reason for the lack of botanical analyses from this time period. The material cultures of Troy I and Beycesultan XIX-XVII show strong similarities to those of Küllüoba (Efe 2007a, Steadman 2011). About 80 km southwest of Küllüoba, excavations at Seyitömer/ Kütahya show archaeological and pottery evidence of a continuous settlement occupation from EBA I to the Roman periods (Topbaş 1992, Topbaş 1994, İlaslı 1996). At EBA site Karataş-Semayük, located in southwestern Anatolia, radiocarbon dates obtained from EBA phases suggest that the settlement may have been established at beginning of the third Millennium (Stuckenrath et al. 1966, Yakar 2011). Some rather small-scale rescue excavations of EBA I-II cemeteries Küçükhüyük and Uluçayır were reported to have been excavated in 1980s by an archaeologist employed by the Archaeological Museum of Eskişehir (Gürkan and Seheer 1991, Efe 2007). Other surveys were conducted by Efe from 1988 to 1995, and according to survey results, about 220 settlements with evidence for EBA pottery sequences have been recorded for the provinces of Eskişehir, Kütahya and Bilecik (Efe 1990, Efe 1994a, Efe 1997). However, after these extended survey expeditions, except for Demircihüyük, Küllüoba remains the one and only site that has been excavated in the Eskişehir region to date. Another culture based on pottery remains, the ‘Yortan Pottery Culture’, has been defined by finds from the destroyed EBA II cemeteries in the geographical area roughly between Eskişehir and İzmir (Yakar 1985, Ivanova 2008).

EBA I (3300-3000 B.C.) During EBA I, cultural regions such as Kanlıgeçit in east Thrace, Yortan and Troy appear in northwestern Anatolia (Özdoğan 2002, Efe 2003b). The dating of Troy I is fixed by the results of radiocarbon and thermoluminescence methods as between 2920-2740 B.C. (Wagner and Lorenz 1992, Korfmann and Kromer 1993, Begemann et al. 2003, Yakar 2011). Characteristic pottery forms for Troy I like depa and tankards have been uncovered in western Anatolian EBA settlementsas well as in Küllüoba, which suggests trade relations among EBA settlements in this region (Sazcı 2005, Efe 2007a). Along with the material culture absolute dates from some important EBA sites help to clarify the correlation problems in creating a chronological framework.

EBA II (3000-2600 B.C.)

For Limantepe on the middle Aegean coast, a relative chronology based on the pottery of the transition period

On the northwestern Aegean coast, in the course of EBA II, many small settlements of EBA I period grew to larger 14

Archaeology extensions to the fortifications of the previous periods testify to an overall picture of an increasing need for more security (Ivanova 2008), and appear to contradict the theory of well-balanced relations among the settlements on administrative and trade levels.

East Gate

North Gate

In west-central Anatolia during EBA II, not only the extension of fortified settlements, like Troy II, Beycesultan and Kusura, but also the development of cemeteries surrounded with walls and tombs with burial goods for more than one individual, like those at DemircihöyükSarıket, Karataş-Semayük and Yortan, has been suggested as being an indication of the progressive centralisation and development of a stratified society from a social and economic perspective (Lamb 1936b, Wheeler 1974, Kamil 1982, Seheer 2000, Ivanova 2008, Steadman 2011). According to the evidence in material culture, the use and trade of raw metals in order to produce tin bronze could have been well-developed in the course of EBA II (Efe 2002a, Pernicka et al. 2003), but the increasing need for more raw metals like tin and copper may have created reasons for conflicts and resulted in confrontations. Extensively burnt layers of Troy II (Phase g) and Demircihüyük (Phase E) may be considered as possible evidence for such conflicts (Korfmann 1983, Ivanova 2008).

Court Court

South Gate Court

Lower City

Map 2.3. Suggested settlement reconstruction for Küllüoba on the southeastern slope. Excavated areas for the Early Bronze Ages II and III (through the end of the 2009 excavation season) are given in black, whereas the outlines in grey show reconstructed parts of the settlement structures.

settlements, although many others were abandoned; in comparison to EBA I, the number of EBA II settlements is in general reduced, and the reason for this overall picture is explained by the fusion of the settlements into larger but fewer sites (Ivanova 2008). After EBA I occupation of Troy, the size of Troy II increased with extensive defensive walls during EBA II (Blegen et al. 1950). Another significant development was surely the fortification of the ‘citadel’ in the upper part of the settlement with five large megara, of which Megaron II A in the centre was built on a stone platform (Blegen et al. 1950). Megara in the centre were surrounded by ‘hall-and-porch-style’ building structures, which may have been used for domestic purposes (Steadman 2011).

EBA III (2200-2000/1900 B.C.) On the western coast of Anatolia, the upper city at Troy was not rebuilt immediately after the conflagration of Troy IIg (Blegen et al. 1950); however settlement continuity has been recorded for Troy III in the lower part of the settlement (Korfmann and Kromer 1993). The general architectural outlines of Troy III were similar to those of Troy II, although free-standing buildings were replaced more commonly by ‘building complexes’ (Blegen et al. 1951). The Troy III building complexes can be considered to have possibly representing building functions similar to EBA II building complexes in Küllüoba. During EBA III a ‘building complex’ has been recorded for Beycesultan X-VIII levels as well (Lloyd and Mellaart 1962, Steadman 2011). The end of the Troy Maritime Culture, Troy III and the beginning of Troy IV have been suggested as dating to the transition phase to when the Middle Bronze Age began, although controversy still exists (Jablonka 2011). The material and bioarchaeological evidence of Troy IV shows an economy based increasingly on relations with west-central Anatolia and the use of more inland-based resources (Riehl 1999, Gündem 2010).

The pottery tradition in western Anatolia appears to be continuous from EBA I onwards and Efe (2003b) has observed only a relative discontinuity between the pottery traditions of EBA I and EBA II occupation layers at Beycesultan. The technical refinements of pottery shapes indicate that pottery must have been produced mostly on a fast wheel (Blegen et al. 1950, Steadman 2011). Characteristic pottery assemblages include tankards and depas amphikypellon, which are found also at contemporaneous sites in west-central Anatolia (Efe 2003a, Efe 2003c, Efe 2007a, Steadman 2011). Due to the coincidence of the ‘Trojan’ type of pottery forms in Küllüoba during EBA I and EBA II, it has been suggested that such characteristic Trojan forms may have originated from inland Anatolia (Efe and İlaslı 1997, Steadman 2011). Similar trends in pottery shapes and ornaments within western Anatolian communities have been interpreted as peaceful communication and harmonically developed relations during EBA II (Efe 2003b), although

On the west-central Anatolian plateau, architectural evidence for EBA III period is more scantily represented than that for EBA I and EBA II periods. Surveys conducted in the Eskişehir region show that numerous EBA sites like Şarhüyük, Karahüyük, Tavsanlı Hüyük, Hacıkebir, Geçek, and Malatça have been recorded solely with the help of pottery assemblages (Efe 2007d). The continuity 15

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba of settlements from EBA II into EBA III has been recorded for inland Anatolia with Beycesultan, Seyitömer and Küllüoba, and on the Aegean coast with Troy III, Liman Tepe and Bakla Tepe (Korfmann and Kromer 1993, Erkanal 1996, Erkanal and Özkan 1999, Efe and Türkteki 2005, Steadman 2011, Şahin 2013). Pottery evidence at Bahçehisar has been identified as belonging to EBA III/ Transition period into to the Middle Bronze Age, which is a period largely missing for northwestern Central Anatolia (Efe 1994b). Based on the pottery assemblages and small finds from Demircihüyük/Sarıket and KarataşSemayük, it has been suggested that trade and cultural relations between the southwestern and northwestern parts of Anatolia were well developed (Wheeler 1974, Efe 1994a, Seheer 2000). The characteristic Mesopotamian inventory of metal objects like toggle pins and lead bottles was excavated in the cemeteries at Demircihüyük-Sarıket (Seheer 2000, Efe 2003c).

excavations in Küllüoba were started in 1996 by team led by Prof. Dr. Turan Efe from Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University. The site has since been excavated without interruption, including in 2014. To date the excavators have defined six periods of occupation. The cultural stratigraphy of the settlement starts with the Late Chalcolithic and lasts until the final occupation phase at the end of Early Bronze Age III. This stratigraphy is indicated by the evidence of both the architecture and the pottery; the latest occupation probably occurred in the last phase of EBA III, which is also mentioned by Efe as a transitional period into the Middle Bronze Age (see Table 2.1.). The stray pottery finds from the Middle Chalcolithic period found in later levels suggest possible earlier phases. Although the settlement’s last occupation period appears to be the latest phase of the Early Bronze Age or the Transitional period into the Middle Bronze Age, Roman and Byzantine pottery remains and traces of a prehistoric necropolis were recorded during surveys south and southeast of the settlement mound (Efe and Türkteki 2005, Efe 2008).

The main occupation phases of Gordion, the capital city of Phrygian culture located in the lower Sakarya Valley, were concentrated in the Iron Age, and it is the only settlement in the Eskişehir region for which extended surveys have been conducted, including geomorphological and bioarchaeological ones (Kealhofer 2005, Marsh 2005, Miller et al. 2009, Miller 2010, Miller 2011). Surveys in the region of Gordion suggest a constant increase in the number of settlements from the Chalcolithic to the MBA; following the Iron Age during the Phyrigian period, some of the previous Bronze Age sites were reoccupied, mainly those closest to the flood plain (Kealhofer 2005). Changes in settlement development in the lower Sakarya Valley show evidence of increasing population and intensification of agriculture, which may have resulted in the degradation of the stable EBA landscapes throughout the MBA. Geomorphological data obtained from uplands above Gordion suggest that the occupation of the lower Sakarya Valley began declining as the LBA progressed (Kealhofer 2005). Landscape degradation and results from a botanical analysis show evidence of a shift toward a more pastoral economy (Kealhofer 2005, Marsh 2005, Miller et al. 2009, Miller 2010, Miller 2011, Miller and Marshton 2012).

Late Hellenistic remains, a Hellenistic pavement (Grid AJ 26) and walls (Grids AJ 22 and AJ 26), and a burnt mudbrick structure at the southern part of the mound (Trench AC 25-26) were also recorded in the general vicinity (Efe 2007). As is characteristic of the settlement pattern, buildings have been arranged in order to form a courtyard in their centres (Map 2.3.). A similar pattern with central courtyard can be found in EBA settlement Demircihüyük, as already mentioned, though due to its rectangular outlines it is not quite the same. As in the case of Demircihüyük, in Küllüoba too the back walls of the longitudinally-adjacent buildings, strengthened with stones or earthen dams, provide the settlement with extra protection against enemies. Such a characteristic settlement plan may have been determined by what was originally a flatter topography, as in the case of other EBA settlements in western Anatolia that are not located in a ‘naturally protected area’, such as being on a high mound (Ivanova 2008).

Settlement patterns of Küllüoba

The Late Chalcolithic

The relatively flat and oval-shaped mound of Küllüoba rises almost 10 m above the level of the upper-Sakarya (Sangarius) plain and measures approximately 300 m by 150 m., with a dried ancient streambed (Turkish: ‘Kireçkuyusu deresi’), at the southern slope of the mound. The prehistoric settlement lies 35 km southeast of the provincial city of Eskişehir, 15 km northeast of the small city of Seyitgazi and 1,3 km south of the modern village of Yenikent (Efe and Türkteki 2005).

According to recent excavation results, the Middle Chalcolithic is represented solely through scarce pottery remains found in later layers of the settlement (Efe and AyEfe 2001, Efe 2002). Thus the Late Chalcolithic appears to be the oldest occupation period at Küllüoba. Architectural remains from this period are relatively scarce, and are built as simple structures with circular or rectangular outlines and on stone foundations. The occupation layers of this period are represented on the northwest of the mound, called the “West Sector” (with the Grids R-V/ 8-10, see Map 2.2.). It has been reported that the Late Chalcolithic deposit in the western trenches reached up to 1.5 m in

After wide-ranging surveys in Eskişehir, Bilecik and Kütahya provinces between 1988 and 1995, the first 16

Archaeology three building phases on the northwestern trenches, which directly follow the Late Chalcolithic layers. The architectural characteristics of this period are the buildings with rectangular or trapezoidal outlines leaning toward the fortification. Structures built with mudbricks on stone foundations that are partly well-preserved up to 2-2,5 m give evidence of an organised village community (Efe 2008). The front sides of these buildings have not been excavated completely, which makes a systematic study of the architecture impossible. The fortification was built from mudbrick without a stone foundation in characteristic ‘zigzag’ outlines. The fortification was strengthened by an earthen berm behind it that was probably derived from refuse from the clay and earth used for roofing, pottery production or other crafts.

Calibrated C-14 dates Küllüoba East West

MBA

II A II B II C II D

Late EB III

Demircihüyük I-IV 2044-1937 BC 2139-2010 BC 2198-2160 BC Hiatus

Hiatus ? Early EB III

EB II

b a

EB I Transitional period into the EBA Late Chalcolithic

2314-2197 BC

Complex II

c

III A III B III C IV A IV B IV C IV D IV E IV F IV G

2603-2487 BC

2600 BC

H-I G

1 2 3

Q P L-O

2701-2620 BC 2862-2809 BC

2700 BC E-F 2900 BC

D

4 5

Hiatus

6 7 8

C

With the transition into the Early Bronze Age, the pottery assemblage also changes; ‘Red Slipped Ware’ with its characteristic forms of EBA pottery assemblages of the region, like knotted-handle bowls, also appear in Küllüoba. There are no botanical samples available for analysis from this period.

Table 2.1. Settlement chronology of Küllüoba with building phases. The above mentioned radiocarbon dates are obtained from charcoal samples with conventional methods of radiocarbon dating during excavation seasons before 2005. From the collected botanical samples (2005 onwards), the cereal grains have been chosen for the radiocarbon analyses using the AMS method. The analyses are still in progress. Due to the lack of AMS dating, the chronological resolution of the occupation periods into the phases is based on a few radiocarbon dates and relative dating of pottery assemblages.

The Early Bronze Age I The occupation phases of EBA I, corresponding roughly to 3000-2700 B.C., are better represented on the northwestern slope of the mound; the excavators interpreted building structures at the northern outer walls as constituting a fortification wall (Efe and Ay-Efe 2001, Fidan 2012). At the northwestern part of the settlement, earlier phases, such as the Late Chalcolithic and the Transition period into EBA I, appear to be partly destroyed by pits excavated in later periods, whereas the later EBA II and EBA III phases may have been destroyed by agricultural activities (Efe and Ay-Efe 2001, Efe 2007b, Fidan 2012). Meanwhile, the knowledge about EBA I from the southeast part of the settlement is limited to the scarcely-excavated architectural remains in Grids AI/AJ 23, AJ 23/24 and AJ 23 (see Map 2.3.). Three partly excavated megara have been reconstructed by the excavators with help of technical drawings and represent the last phase (VA) of EBA I. As mentioned above, the developments in EBA I settlement patterns and pottery tradition at Küllüoba show characteristics of west Anatolian culture (Efe and Ay-Efe 2001, Efe 2003a).

depth (Efe and Ay-Efe 2001, Efe 2002). Thus the paleosoil was reached in these trenches 7.50 m below the surface of the mound. Due to intensive agricultural activity, the occupation phases later than EBA I on the northwest part of the settlement appear to have been destroyed (Efe and Ay-Efe 2001, Efe 2002). Recovered pit structures were possibly used initially for storage and later as rubish dumps. The pottery assemblage of the period in question shows forms characteristic of the Late Chalcolithic period: ‘blackish dark burnished (unslipped) ware’ (Efe and Ay-Efe 2001, Efe 2002). The Late Chalcolithic occupation has been subdivided into three phases that are based mainly on the changes in the ceramic spectra. This period is dated solely according to the pottery assemblages. Only two soil samples were obtained from this period, and apparently consist of fine charcoal remains; other kinds of identifiable macrobotanical remains were not recorded.

Early Bronze Age II (2700-2400 B.C.) The EBA II period at Küllüoba has been defined in four building phases, IV E-F, IV C-D, IV B, and IV A. Due to topographic factors, uneven spatial distribution and discontinuation of the occupation phases, and finally disturbances through later activities, it was impossible to represent all the occupation phases in the excavated grids. For the Early Bronze Age II (2700-2400 B.C.) occupation period at Küllüoba, Efe suggests a fortified

Transitional period into the Early Bronze Age In comparison to the Late Chalcolithic, more evidence of architecture and pottery is available for the transitional period into the Early Bronze Age (3300-3000 B.C). The transition period into EBA is defined with its 17

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba ‘upper-settlement’ and a ‘lower-settlement’ outside the fortifications (Efe 2003a, 2003b).

AG 22, as will be discussed in the following chapters. During the later building phases of EBA II (IV C-D), the east side of the fortification was probably reinforced with additional earthen banks and stones. The architectural evidence for the south and southwest side of the settlement is rather complex. The northern walls of the buildings in AE 22/23, AF 22 and AG22 form double-walled sand structures rebuilt with new stones, apparently to fortify them. A possible gate structure at the southwest side of the settlement, also dated to this phase of EBA II, opens to Complex II. In a later phase, this structure was turned into a building where pottery and small terra cotta finds were found in situ (Efe 2007c, Efe 2011). From the same building phase (IV C-D), at the northwest side, a detached building with a trapezoid outline belonging to Complex II was also recovered, together with the two-room adjacent building to its north; some structures in this building were changed during building phase IV B (Efe 2007c, Efe 2011). Scarcely any architectural remains were excavated from the latest phase of EBA II, namely IV A. Towards the end of EBA II, ceramic assemblages change and display the characteristic EBA III forms: tankards, strippedslipped ware, tripod-kitchen wares, anthropomorphs, and animal figurines appear (Efe 2007c, Efe 2011). Seals made from terracotta suggest long-distance relations with neighbouring regions.

In the northern part of the settlement, the north walls of adjacent buildings were built with stone foundations during this period. Of the two building complexes, the first one, named ‘Complex I’, dates to the early phase (IV E-F) of EBA II and consists of four megara that are connected on the western side (Efe and Ay-Efe 2007), and other facilities located at the north, south and east of the megara are functionally continuous. Together they rise and enclose a large, rectangularly shaped central courtyard (see Map 2.3.). The largest megaron, 8,5 m long in the middle, offers access to the other two smaller megara (Efe 2003, Efe 2007b, Efe and Ay-Efe 2007). The buildings at the northern and eastern sides of courtyard were probably used as kitchen and storage facilities during different building phases (IV E-F and IV C-D). In the southern buildings of Complex II, the rooms lying behind each two-roomed megaron have pits, possibly used for storage. At the northern side of the complex, two rooms likely served for storage. Due to its topography, the courtyard of building Complex I is situated deeper than the buildings surrounding it. The same topography also provides a kind of natural outline on the western side of the outer wall of Complex I. The second building complex, ‘Complex II’ may have been built later than Complex I; it dates to the late phase of EBA II (IV C-D) and consist of five building structures. A megaron with its ante-chambers, centred hearth and smaller annexes was possibly used as a kitchen and storage facility. The complex apparently sustained the addition of new structures that developed during the course of EBA II. Stratigraphically its latest part may be the longest threeroomed building (see Map 2.3.). Remains of wooden balks and a centred hearth have been recovered under the roof of the largest room. According to the excavators, this building could have had an administrative purpose, functioning as a meeting room (Efe 2003a, Efe 2003b). Another room in the same building has a hearth with an ashy deposit surrounding it. Three other neighbouring buildings show evidence of having been storage facilities.

Collapsed building in Grid AG 22 During the excavation in the 2009 season, work in the trenches AG 21 and AG 22 was extended in order to understand the course of the southern extension of the fortification. Burnt debris with building structures were recovered immediately under the topsoil (Efe 2011). Apparently, due to deep disturbances from later times, only the interior plaster on the east and west walls has survived (Efe 2011). On the south wall there is an entrance with threshold stones into the room. The wall from the entrance onto the east continues with a high stone foundation like that of the northern wall. This wall joins the northern wall, forming another room there, and a hearth was discovered at the northeast corner of the trench (Efe 2011). The room in the middle of the trench has a well-preserved hearth next to the back wall. Four wooden posts were recovered on the same line in an east-west direction, between the entrance and the oven (Efe 2011). Another post was found to the north, next to the interior of the west wall, and very probably another post is still buried in the unexcavated part of the east wall. Their upper parts ca. 50 cm above the floor have been very well preserved in carbonised condition (Efe 2011). The parts that were sunken in the earth have been preserved partly in an uncharred condition. They were uncovered and kept for further dendrochronological analysis. The building in square AG 22 gives clear evidence for an extensive fire of almost catastrophic dimensions. Probably a fire spread out from the oven structure before the owners were able to

Five adjacent buildings in the southern part of the settlement (trenches AE 22/23, AF and AG 22) show evidence of having been destroyed by a catastrophic fire. These buildings are almost contemporary with Complex I and also belong to building phase IV E-F. Due to the extensive fire, excavated material culture like pottery, looms, mortars and stones for grinding and pounding, and stone tools have been recovered in situ (Efe 2007c, Efe 2011). These building structures are relatively small for living facilities, and based on the evidence of pottery and small finds they may have functioned as work places or facilities for the trade/exchange goods with the visitors to the settlement. This hypothesis is supported by the analysis of the botanical remains from the building in 18

Archaeology

Map 2.4. AG 22 region Fig 2.1. The view of Grid AG 22 from north, excavation layer 5.

stored in textile sacks rather than in such containers. Similar storage methods are suggested for the burned house A607 in EBA 2 Arslantepe (Sadori 2006) or for the excavation of Servia (Ridley and Wardle 1979) in which the two-grained einkorn and lentil were recovered in storage contexts where they were slightly mixed with each other; they had probably been stored in containers of non-ceramic origin, very likely in baskets or sacks, as mentioned in Hubbard and Clapham (1992). It has also been noted that in excavations at Late Bronze Age Assiros the original content of crops that were mixed together when the storage room collapsed could be reconstructed with the help of the known position of the containers, although the containers are free of crops (Jones et al. 1986). However the almost pure einkorn content of samples 155, 156 and 177 suggests that the crop was stored in separate containers with very few rachis fragments inside. Some well-preserved pots with their contents (sample AG 22 123) have been unearthed in situ at different depths in theroom’s burnt debris. Several factors raise the possibility that the room had two storeys: the walls preserved to a considerable elevation, a thick layer of burnt debris, and the fact that most finds were recovered not on the floor level but in the burnt debris fill (Efe 2009).

Fig 2.2. Pottery assemblages excavated from Grid AG 22.

control it; the house’s owners may have been surprised and perhaps had no chance to extinguish the fire and rescue the building. The excellent preservation of the wooden piles, wood charcoal and seed remains suggests that the fire may have broken out in an oxygen-thin environment and probably came to end of its own accord. Miller (1984) mentions in her ethnological studies on the modern village of Malyan (Iran) that the accidental burning of plant material and small scale roof fires occur commonly in current settlements. However, she also comments that she has never seen completely burned-down construction materials in village houses, which suggests that generally the inhabitants can control the fire. Similar evidence of excellent seed preservation of the in situ remains resulting from accidental fires that affected whole or parts of settlements is noted in various publications (Ridley and Wardle 1979, Valamoti 2004, Sadori 2006). The location of pottery remains in house AG 22 and their condition (in situ, broken or intact) are not documented in detail. Some of these pots were found in an area where Triticum monococcum (einkorn) samples were scattered, although it can be assumed that the crops may possibly have been

The reconstruction of the building suggests it as a possible two-storey facility with wooden pile construction on the first floor and a second floor shored through the beams of the front wall. The second floor may have been used for storage space and activities like food preparation, and cooking may have taken place on the first floor. Most of the samples of EBA II period were obtained during the sampling process from the above-mentioned building in the trenches of Grid AG 22; it has been assumed that the differences between the building facilities result in different contexts thus the possibility of multiple sampling 19

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba can be excluded. A similar case was mentioned in an archaeobotanical study of Troy for samples from the MBA phase (Riehl 1999). In contrast to the adjacent building in AF 22, which was also destroyed by a catastrophic fire, in this building many samples contain charcoal remains that appear to be derived from the building’s construction material and not wood used as fuel source. It has been assumed that these botanical remains, which originated in the numerous terracotta pots and their surroundings and were stored in pure form with almost no threshing remains (see Appendices 1- Taxa for species composition and absolute counts), may have been used as seed corn (Turkish: tohumluk) saved for planting in the next season (Cappers, pers. com.). Due to its location outside the ‘phase II’ fortification, this facility could be interpreted as a kind of simple ‘store’ that served for food preparation and possibly also the exchange of seed corns, aromatic/medicinal plants and other goods (pottery) rather than as the living facility of a single family or designed for overnight stay.

Fig 2.3. Suggested 3D reconstruction of the building in Grid AG 22

Bronze Age III (transition period into Middle Bronze Age) (2400-1900 B.C.) The period of Transition into the the Middle Bronze Age is also called EBA III. The evidence for the transition period to the Middle Bronze Age in west-central Anatolia is little-known due to there being few excavated sites. The Küllüoba settlement is important for shedding light on the architecture of this period and consists of 5 building phases, which have been named II E, II D, II C, II B, and II A (Şahin 2013). The earlier two building phases, II E and II D, are considered the ‘early phase of the Transition period’ and the later ones constitute the main ‘Transition period’ (Şahin 2013). The stratigraphy and the architectural remains of the relevant periods have been recovered in the excavation trenches Y 19, Z 17, Z 18, Z 19, Z 20, AA 16, AA 17, AA 18, AA 19, AA 20, AB 16, AB17, and AB 18, located in the northeastern part of the courtyard of Complex II (Şahin 2013). It is possible that the courtyard of Complex II was not built during the earlier occupation periods (EBA I and EBA II). It is situated relatively lower than Complex II itself, as mentioned above, and thus the Late EBA III building structures from this part of the settlement mound survived destruction, while due to the proximity to the soil surface, the architecture in other parts of the mound may have suffered from erosion, agricultural activities and the removal of material for building purposes that happened in modern times (Efe and Türkteki 2005, Şahin 2013). Excavated structures consist of some squareoutlined, free-standing buildings, stone foundations and many pits that could have been used for votive offerings. Megaron-type buildings appear in the later building phases II C and II Band constitute building complexes, albeit with somewhat irregular outlines (Şahin 2013).

Fig 2.4. Suggested 3D reconstructions for inside of the building in Grid AG 22.

Developments in architecture and material culture suggest that relations with inland Anatolia became stronger than those with the West. Efe’s hypothesis of “long distance trade relationships” is based on material culture and has been supported by original and reproduced EBA III pottery assemblages from Küllüoba (Efe and Türkteki 2005, Efe 2007a, Efe and Ay-Efe 2007). A characteristic example of this relationship are the ‘Syrian-type bottles’ found in Küllüoba. This production has also been recovered at other west Anatolian EBA settlements and gives strong evidence for activity with Upper Mesopotamia (Efe 2002a, Efe 2003b, Efe 2003c). The techniques for the production of depas appear to be more developed and refined, as they were no longer produced using hand-building techniques but rather with a wheel (Efe and Türkteki 2005, Şahin 2013). Other wheel-formed pottery assemblages are beakers, amphorae and horizontally handled pots. Characteristic pottery types for the period in question are ‘bead-rim mounded bowls’ and ‘spouted-mouth jugs’ (Efe and Türkteki 2005, Şahin 2013). 20

Methodology

3-Methodology

from an excavation has been questioned in archaeobotany (Hillman 1984, M.K. Jones 1991, van der Veen 1992). The ideal case is that the samples obtained for archaeobotanical analysis might form an assemblage that is representative of the excavated site as whole. The sampling strategy must be chosen in order to fulfil the required highest degree of sample representativeness. In many excavations, even if most of the contexts are sampled with an extended sample strategy, only a restricted number of the samples can be analysed due to the limitation of time for analyses. The selection of material for sub-sampling can also be conducted by ‘checking’ the samples or as ‘random’ sampling based on given numbers (van der Veen 1992), although random sampling might be disadvantageous, due to poor coverage of the excavated areas (M.K. Jones 1991).

The first part of this chapter introduces the methods that have been used in order to obtain the botanical material from the archaeological contexts, such as sampling strategies, followed by the methods used for their identification and documentation respectively. The second part of the chapter presents the analytical methods that have been applied in order to assess the origin of the botanical material and the ecological and economical meaning of the taxa in question.

Archaeobotanical methods The relevant methods employed by archaeobotanists have been used in the scope of this work. These include the application of a suitable and systematic sampling strategy for the soil samples that might contain botanical remains the flotation method, which has been judged to be a suitable recovery method for botanical remains from sampled soils methods of sub-sampling that are considered to be appropriate for further analysis in the laboratory identification criteria for botanical remains, using comparative collection sand literature calculation methods for counting the botanical taxa and finally, the various methods for documenting botanical remains.

At Küllüoba the first soil samples for botanical research were collected by the excavation team from the 2003 excavation season onwards, though there was no systematic sampling for whole excavation area. The samples were kept in huge plastic bags in one of the excavation houses for several years. The samples from the 2008 excavation season were processed by the excavators using wet sieving or hand flotation. Due to the inappropriate application of hand flotation techniques, the contents of the samples hardened into small lumps and could not be considered for the later analyses. The intensification of sampling with a suitable sampling strategy was first conducted by the author in 2009, using a combined method of ‘decisive (judgmental) sampling’ and ‘systematic sampling’ considering the excavation methods and contexts. The term decisive or judgmental sampling can be understood as a context-dependant decision regarding soil sampling by the archaeologist and requires the recognition of a change in the contexts in the course of the digging process (van der Veen 1982, van der Veen 1983, M.K. Jones 1991, Riehl 1999, Filipovic and Maric 2013). Even though this method was chosen as the most suitable sample method due to its being more practicable for different excavations, the risk of misinterpretation of contexts by the archaeologists still remains a problem and can lead to ‘over- or under-sampling’ of a certain area. As a solution to the subjective selection of botanical material by the archaeologists or archaeobotanist, the systematic sampling of all excavated areas has been suggested, even those that appear to have no significant structures; however its practicability is limited by what is feasible at the excavation. Therefore, a combination of both sampling strategies, the “sampling of all structures and features with flexibility”, as suggested by Filipovic and Maric (2013), can be seen as an appropriate method also for Küllüoba, in order to obtain a manageable number of samples with respect to the budget of the excavation, and in order to improve the storage condition of the samples. Other sampling methods discussed in the literature such as ‘random sampling’ (van der Veen 1983, M. Jones 1984), and ‘interval sampling’ (Riehl 1999) are considered to be less appropriate for Küllüoba, because they require more

Sampling on the excavation (on-site sampling) Sampling for botanical remains has a longer tradition than is generally known at archaeological sites. Already in the 19th century, archaeologists were interested in the meaning of botanical remains and recognized their importance for the interpretation of the past settlements. The earlier sampling was done in the form of collecting ‘only visible botanical remains’ from archaeological contexts like burnt houses and layers, hearth/oven structures, the insides of vessels or containers, etc. Although archaeobotanists have developed systematic sampling methods based on appropriate theories from the 1970s onward (e.g., Mueller 1975, van der Veen and Fieller 1982, Nesbitt and Samuel 1989, M.K. Jones 1991) this knowledge is still not applied on many excavations in the Near East and Turkey. It is a common problem that the archaeologists invite the archaeobotanist after many excavation seasons in which no soil samples were collected at all, or, if some samples were collected, most of them lack any appropriate documentation such as records for contexts and coordinates of the samples and total soil volume. However, as suggested by Filipovic and Maric (2013), the sampling of ‘primary contexts’ (e.g., storage spaces, ovens, hearths burnt in situ) must be ensured in order to “secure the even representation of the entire deposits” while in secondary contexts like pits and floors, debris might be selectively and “less systematically” sampled in comparison to the primary deposits. The ‘representativeness’ of the samples collected

21

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

East Gate

North Gate Court Court

South Gate Court

Lower City 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2009

Map 3.1. Representativeness of the excavation trenches for analysed samples shown by a schematic overview.

information from the excavation area prior to digging (e.g., mapping with geomagnetic prospecting and collecting the data prior to the start of the excavation).

discussed in the literature (e.g., French 1971, Helbaek 1972, Jarman et al. 1972, Toll 1989, Nesbitt and Samuel 1989, Wagner 1989, Riehl 1999, Pearsall 2000) are hand flotation and flotation in a simple water-tank with continuous flowing water, as well as more developed techniques like a flotation machine with a motor that allows water to recycle to the water tank. In this report, a motorless construction for flotation is described as a ‘flotation installation’. The huge volume of collected samples and the fact that hand flotation gave no satisfying results supported the decision to build a ‘flotation installation’ at the Küllüoba excavation house. A ‘flotation water tank’ was built by local metal workers under the author’s supervision. In contrast to a generous water supply, due to unreliable electricity at the excavation house the initial construction sketches suggested for the flotation machine (Fig. 3.1.) were changed for Küllüoba as offering a more simplified installation without a water-recycle pump (Fig. 3.2.). This design also ensured the regulation of water pressure, which is a decisive factor for the proper preservation of remains during the flotation process. To effect the flotation a strong plastic mesh of 1 mm (standard fly-net for windows) was placed in the flotation tank, where water flows through the small pipes and separates the carbonized plant remains from heavier parts of the soil sample to ease the rise of the lighter carbonized remains to the water surface. Only the samples with available documentation from the past

When the archaeologists took samples during the 2009 excavation season at Küllüoba, they filled out a ‘sample instruction sheet’ with information on soil volume, soil properties and context description. A small sketch for the description of the sample location was also requested. The target sampling volume per context had a standard volume of 30 liters, although an attempt was made to sample the smaller contexts (e.g., hearth/oven structures, pots and small pits) and the intensively burnt layers as whole. Pit contexts from the excavation seasons before 2009 have also been completely collected to the extent they were noted in documents. For the larger contexts (especially for trench AG 22), samples have been taken from different locations in order to understand whether there are recognizable differences in activity zones within the contexts. The initial goal was to obtain equal numbers of samples for each period for further analysis but this was not feasible due to the limitations in botanical sampling.

Flotation method Among the different flotation methods that have been 22

Methodology excavation seasons were chosen for further processing. Approximately 2400 liters of sediment were processed by the author during the 2009 excavation season. When seen during sediment flotation, the soil composition of the Küllüoba samples had a very fine, greyish, almost ashlike, and less clayey appearance. Probably due to the soil’s alkaloid compounds, the effect during the flotation process was ‘frothy’, which was definitely an advantage for the effectiveness of the flotation and which also improved preservation after its application.

with the appropriate flotation technique and suitable for further investigations in laboratory were chosen for further analysis in this work. They total 117 samples, although 14 of them consist of pure charcoal from the remains of building debris and fuel residues. The charcoal in the remaining samples was also segregated for evaluation of charcoal to seed/fruit ratios and for charcoal analysis. The sorting of Küllüoba’s botanical remains was conducted using a 7X-90X magnification stereoscopic trinocular microscope, model 003t000m, which the author chose as laboratory equipment for its low-magnification and focus properties for macrobotanical remains. Coarse flots and samples with a large amount of charcoal were examined and the seeds and fruits were separated for identification. Only the fine flots (< 0, 5 mm) from some very rich samples (AD 21 492, AD 21/22 445) and the coarse flots (>1 mm) from most monocrop and storage samples were sub-sampled and multiplied according to total counts of the relevant sub-sample. Sub-sampling was made using a riffle-box using 1/2, 1/4 and 1/8 of each sample. Large almost pure monocrop samples with fewer accompanying taxa were counted as sub-samples and weighed using a laboratory scale with three digits (after the point) in the laboratory for Vegetation Ecology of Tübingen University, and the results multiplied.

The soil, due to its fine, powdery and blackish-grey appearance, most likely originated from the basaltophiolith bedrocks of the nearby mountain, Türkmen Dağı, deposited by the tributaries of the upper Sakarya as alluvial sediments. Further interpretations of soil character and properties are not possible due to the lack of soil studies in the excavation area and its vicinity. During the flotation processes the floated plant parts were collected on two stainless- steel laboratory sieves, the upper one with a mesh size of 1 mm and the lower one with a mesh size of 0,10 mm. These sieves of different mesh sizes allow the separation of the plant remains into coarser and finer fractions and ease the identification of the material on the upper sieve, which can become mixed with modern plant material, such as roots, and other types of contaminants (e.g., insects, plastic parts). The very fine mesh size of the lower sieve is important for obtaining the smallest weed and wild seeds, which can play an important role for the ecological and economic reconstruction of the site.

Identification In contrast to pollen remains which cannot be recognized with the naked eye, the terminology ‘macrobotanical remains’ in the archaeological context defines the remains that are readily visible without a microscope (see also Miller 1994), although a low-magnification microscope is still necessary for taxonomical identification. Seeds, fruits, the remains from threshing cultivated crops, and in some cases also tubers and other more fragile plant parts can be uncovered and identified. Charcoals also make up a considerable part of the macro remains and are being analysed by specialists for anthracology and wood anatomy. (It is common for specialists skilled in both disciplines to contribute to the analysis of macrobotanical remains and wood anatomy). The general problems encountered in identifying plant remains using archaeobotanical methods can be illustrated as follows:

The heavy residues that remained on the plastic mesh were collected and examined for bones of rodents, fish and other macrobiological residue. Depending on the sample composition, there were some problems with the buoyancy of certain taxa, as in the case of Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch) (sample 67 from trench AI 24) and the two-grained Triticum monococcum (einkorn) (sample 177 from trench AG 22). Most of these taxa could not be floated due to their heavy seeds and had to be collected from the heavy residue. Such problems have also been mentioned in earlier studies (Jones 1983, Hansen 1999, Riehl 1999). The floated samples were dried, preferably on fine-sized mesh and quick-drying pieces of synthetic fabric for curtains, which was easily and cheaply available in almost every town. The fabric pieces were carefully wrapped and hung on a clothes line in shady places where they were not exposed to direct sunlight. The avoidance of direct sunlight is important for preserving the bagged macro remains in intact condition. In the course of the onsite work, a small quantity of the samples was partly sorted using a stereoscopic microscope in the excavation house.

Plant taxonomists who deal with modern flora work with identification methods based on complete plants with flowers. In contrast to the methods of modern plant taxonomy, archaeobotanical identification methods are based in general only on the shapes of the seeds or fruits, namely ‘grain morphology’ (see also Jones 1998). However the reliability of these methods is subject to question due to following circumstances:

Off-site sampling

1. Taphonomy and the preservation of archaeobotanical finds. 2. Species richness of the numerous genera in Turkish flora.

All samples collected from excavation seasons 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2009 that were obtained 23

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba Such conditions complicate and endanger the reliability of archaeobotanical work, and young scientists and students with less identification experience are especially affected by this problem. The identification of the macro remains from EBAKüllüoba was conducted in the laboratory for archaeobotany at the Eberhard-Karls University of Tübingen, Germany, in the botanical laboratory of Groningen University, Holland, and in the archaeobotanical laboratory of Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey. As essential identification literature and for the descriptions of seed morphology, the Atlas of Seeds, Part 2, Cyperaceae (Berggren 1969) the Atlas of Seeds, Part 3, Salicaceae-Cruciferae (Berggren 1981), and the Atlas of Seeds, Part 4 Resedacea-Umbelliferae (Anderberg 1994) were used.

Fig 3.1. Suggested construction of a flotation machine with a motor for water-recycling.

In addition, the Digital Atlas of Economic Plants, Part 1, 2a, 2b (Cappers, Neef and Bekkers 2009), the Digital Atlas of Economic Plants in Archaeology (Neef and Cappers 2012), the Identification Guide for Near Eastern Grass Seeds (Nesbitt, 2006) and the Identification guide for prehistoric barley and wheat finds (Jacomet 1987) were used for seed/fruit identification and the economic use of the relevant taxa. Ecological information, the modern distribution of the relevant taxa and, in part, the description of seed/fruit morphology have all been taken from ‘Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands’ (Davis 1965-1988), which together with its supplemental volumes by Turkish botanists is an essential source. The most recent editions of Davis’s ‘Flora of Turkey’ with listings of additional new taxa have also been considered in this work (see Erik and Demirkuş 1986, Özhatay et al. 1994, Özhatay et al.1999, Nydegger-Hügli 2001, Nydegger-Hügli 2002). For the chemical compounds of plants the ‘Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen’ (Hegnauer 1963-2001, Vol. 1-11) has been used. Recent debates about botanical terminology that are used for the identification and description of the macrobotanical remains have briefly been discussed. An important part of the ‘Old-World’ cereals (e.g., wheat, barley, rye) belongs to the tribe Triticeae of the family Poaceae and grows almost in all temperate regions of the world. As a result of different proposed taxonomic names, many members of Triticeae have more than one correct scientific name and some names have multiple interpretations (Barkwort and Bothmer 2009). Until recent times, the taxonomic classification of the flowering plants (angiosperms) was solely based on the morphology of the plant parts and their chemical compounds. With developments in genetic research in the plant sciences, plant taxonomy was reviewed on phylogenetic evidence through the collaboration of the APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) (APG 1998, APG II 2003, APG III 2009). Thus taxonomic terminology for most of the crop species has recently been revised based on genetic research, and new terminology has been introduced (van Slageren 1994, Kilian et al. 2009, Cappers and Neef 2012, Zohary et al. 2012) (see Table

Fig 3.2. Applied construction for flotation without waterrecycling in Küllüoba excavation.

3. The possible differences between the current distributions of flora and those of the past flora, due to climatic changes or human impact on the landscape over time. 4. The limited extent of the comparative collections in institutions. Established botanical collections that are regularly revisited and include herbariums constitute an essential foundation for reliable archaeobotanical analyses. Their collections should properly be supervised by the botanists and specialists who deal with the modern flora of a relevant country or region. If this is not the case and the botanical collection is not checked regularly, some recentlyintroduced species could be missing, changes in taxonomic nomenclature might not be made, or errors that occurred during the cataloguing process would not be corrected. 24

Methodology the apical fragment is in the same orientation as the other part of the rachis fragments and not twisted (van Slageren 1994, Cappers and Neef 2012). Following this line of reasoning, in this work the ‘twisted’ specimens of emmer rachis fragments and the well-preserved ‘untwisted’ specimens have been identified as definitely. Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccon rachis fragments (RF) while the other ‘untwisted’ specimens, which lack a decisive diagnostic for distinguishing einkorn or emmer rachis fragments, due to preservation bias, have been classified as Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum/Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccon rachis fragments (RF).

3.1.). Nevertheless, the nomenclature of the Triticeae is still not homogenous (van Slageren 1994, Barkworth and Bothmer 2009, Cappers and Neef 2012). According to genetic studies, the new classification of the wild ancestors of domesticated wheat species as a separate species is considered to be unjustified, due to the existence of fully fertile hybrids between progenitors and cultivars, which suggest that both sites have homologous chromosome sets (Kilian et al. 2009, Zohary et al. 2012). Another good source for current information on the nomenclature of Triticeae can be found in the International Plant Names Index (IPNI). In most of the previous archaeobotanical studies, the term ‘chaff’ has been used as a summarising term for spikelet forks, glume bases and rachis internodes of the tribe Triticeae (Jones 1998b, van der Veen 1999, Cappers and Neef 2012). According to the new terminologies introduced by Cappers and Neef (2012), ‘chaff’ is suggested as the term only for the awn, palea and lemma parts of a spikelet that covers the grain kernel as bracts. Thus, the spikelet forks, glume bases, rachis nodes and internodes are classified as ‘rachis fragments’; in particular, the differentiation between spikelet forks and glume bases is considered irrelevant for specific classification, because the glume base is half of the spikelet fork (see Table 3.1., Cappers and Neef 2012, pp. 306-307). For this new classification, it has been argued that differentiation among the glume bases, rachis nodes and internodes may not help in the reconstruction of different crop-processing stages. Instead, the evidence of culms and culm bases with an attached root should be considered useful for understanding how the farmers harvested their crops, e.g., whether they cut them with a sickle blade immediately under the ears, just above the topsoil or uprooted almost the complete plants (Cappers and Neef 2012). Only four culm bases were identified from Küllüoba; other kinds of culm fragments, which would give evidence for cutting height (see Hillman 1984), were not recovered. Difficulties in distinguishing between the spikelet forks (or glume bases) of Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum (einkorn) and Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccon (emmer) that result from fragmentation or distortion have also been mentioned by Cappers and Neef (2012). Especially due to deformations caused by charring, it is mostly the case that morphological differences between rachis fragments of both species are blurred, which was observed as well for the rachis fragments of einkorn and emmer from Küllüoba. The main criteria, based on the width and angle form of the spikelet forks, is inappropriate for distinguishing between emmer and einkorn rachis fragments, if the two-grained form of einkorn and emmer co-occur within the same samples (Cappers and Neef 2012).

Calculation method for total counts The criteria for determining countable half-grain items is also described in Valamoti (2004): the embryo end is used for counting cereals and wild grasses, and the fragmented seeds of wild species were each counted as one seed unless the broken fragments are from the same seed. For fruits (Medicago sp., Silene spp., Malva spp.), if the seeds are visible, a direct count was made of the seeds; if the seeds were not visible because the fruits were closed, the average seed number per fruit was calculated (e.g., Silene spp.). All other samples were sorted completely. For the calculation of the rachis fragments, the possibility of aberrant occurrences among the grains (e.g., T. monococcum ssp. monococcum with two kernels or T. turgidum ssp. dicoccon with single kernel per spikelet) and due to the high presence and absolute counts of the two-grained form of T. monococcum in the samples, the rachis fragments were not counted using multiplication. As mentioned above, the identification criteria for the threshing remains of cereals suggested by Cappers and Neef (2012) for well-preserved glume bases with recognisable ‘rachis nodes’ in different cereal species have been used as units for counting and for evaluation methods, but the term ‘rachis fragment’ is used for counting rachis nodes, depending on the number of grains in the relevant cereal category on the taxa list. Therefore, a rachis fragment (a glume base includes one rachis node) of emmer and two-grained einkorn corresponds to two grains, whereas one rachis fragment (a glume base with one rachis node) of single-grained einkorn corresponds to one grain. However, due to the strong presence of emmer, two-grained einkorn and single-grained einkorn throughout Küllüoba’s botanical assemblages, the differentiation of the rachis fragments among the emmer and einkorn was not always possible, as mentioned above in section. And referred to on the taxa list (see Appendices 1-Taxa). Therefore, all the hulled wheat taxa and their rachis fragments have been considered together for the ratio analysis, in order to use the sample compositions to assess crop processing stages.

Another reliable criterion, a ‘twisted rachis internode’, is morphologically clearly observable as evidence in ‘apical’ rachis fragments. Such twisted apical fragments are evident only in tetraploid wheats, like emmer; for einkorn 25

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

Documentation

manuals (e.g., Baxter 1994, Baxter 2003, Fletcher and Lock 2005, Drennan 2009) are especially designed for the archaeologist and are suitable for consulting to get an easy and quick way to understand the relevant methods for particular purposes. In addition to the statistics books for archaeologists, the evaluation methods used in biology and ecology are considered to be relevant for the purposes of ecological and economic evaluations of sub-fossil plant remains. The following sections describe the quantification methods used in the first step of the evaluation and a brief overview is given for the theoretical basis of evaluation methods in terms of available statistical methods followed by a short presentation of the methods applied for the evaluation of the Küllüoba samples in particular, as univariate and multivariate methods.

Different documentation techniques, like drawings, photomicrography (with analogue camera), digital photography, and SEM pictures (from scanning electron microscopy) support the identification of botanical remains and are traditionally used in archaeobotanical research. The best-known documentation method from the very beginning of biology is surely drawing whole plants or plant parts ‘by hand’. The restriction on hand-made drawings for documentation was for a very long time due to technical limitations, although the importance of technical drawings for botanical remains is still emphasized as an addition to the descriptions of the identified seeds (Goddard and Nesbitt 1997). SEM photography is particularly useful for very small items or details that are difficult to draw and for showing subtle cell patterns or characters in plant anatomy. However, the technique is restricted to botanical remains under 3 mm in length, and consequently the three-dimensional shapes can be poorly represented, nor is this technique suitable for the complete seeds/fruits of most cultivars. A combination of all three techniques is recommended as the ideal documentation method (Goddard and Nesbitt 1997).

Quantification The initial identification categories of plants that appear to represent the same taxa are combined in summarising categories (e.g., Vicia ervilia and cf. Vicia ervilia) (see also Riehl 1999, Valamoti 2004) and the categories are listed for a better overview (see Appendices 1-Taxa). This ‘amalgamation’ helps to avoid the projection of taphonomical differences among samples rather than differences in species composition. As Valamoti (2004) illustrated, in another case of combining the data, the ‘amalgamation of samples’ makes sense when the samples are from the same stratigraphic context or are samples of very similar composition. In order to achieve this goal, it is important to differentiate between samples of ‘different deposits’ and multiple sampling of the same ‘behavioural episodes’ (Jones 1991). In general, the amalgamated samples include more items and therefore provide a more reliable estimate of the relative quantities of different taxa than the unamalgamated samples. However in the case of the Küllüoba samples, there was no evidence to justify a multiple sampling of the same deposits or of a similar sample composition, thus the necessity for the amalgamation of samples did not occur.

Digital photography gave satisfying results for documentation and appeared to be the most appropriate method of documenting a considerable number of taxa. Digital photos and seed measurements were obtained using a 3 million pixel USB PC digital microscope camera from the stereoscopic trinocular microscope of type up003t000m with a 7X-90X magnification that was mentioned above, together with its software application ‘Scope Photo, version 3.0’ to optimise the result and photo quality. In additional photo processing, after the seeds/ fruits were measured using Scope Photo’s calibration function, only scales were added using Adobe Photoshop’s Adobe Creative Suite CS3 version. However, any kind of ‘digital manipulation’ with software was avoided. Numerous background materials were tested to prove their suitability for obtaining appropriate results for photos of the monochrome dark seeds/fruits that had been subject to charring. Certain specific views were digitally recorded, per the documentation method suggested by Goddard and Nesbitt (1997): for the cereals at least the lateral, dorsal and ventral views; for pulses only the proximal and lateral views, as long as the features are recognisable; and for the rachis fragments the abaxial (front), lateral (side) and adaxial (back)views. The photos of the plant remains are shown in the Catalogue section of this work.

A sample size at least 50 items was determined to be the relevant threshold for multivariate statistical evaluation in this work. Two samples that have only ca. 20 items were excluded from multivariate analyses in order to eliminate ‘noise’ and obscure data patterning, as mentioned in Jones (1991), van der Veen (1992), Riehl (1999) and Valamoti (2004). The overall distribution of countable items per sample includes more than 50 items. The same method of filtering was also applied to species represented in less than 5 % of the samples. Almost pure monocrop storage samples with huge absolute counts, such as Erysimum crassipes (sample AG22-123), Triticum monococcum storage (AG22-177) and Vicia ervilia storage (AI 2464) constitute ‘outlier samples’ on the CA graphs and were excluded from CA analysis because they distort the classification. With the exclusion of the five samples

Analytical methods Statistical evaluation is considered to be an inevitable task in the archaeological sciences, and became established especially in English-speaking countries from the 1950s onwards (Myers 1950, Tugby 1969). Different statistical 26

Methodology mentioned above, the CA analyses include a total of 103 samples. A large number of Triticum grains are badly preserved and consequently could not be identified at the species level. They are represented with their original counts on the general taxa list (see Appendices 1-Taxa); however in this form they would distort the statistical analysis, and so in order to avoid this problem, the absolute counts of Triticum spp. are proportionally divided into the existing Triticum taxa categories based on where their samples originated.

from past times, its use in archaeobotanical studies seems to be rather unlikely.

Univariate methods Within the scope of this work, what is called ‘univariate analysis’ in statistics was applied as the first step in the evaluation of the identified and counted botanical remains, in order to examine only ‘one variable’ in ‘one step’ of analysis. The univariate type of analysis is based on the absolute counts or the presence of seeds throughout the samples and includes the distribution of the crop species and their relation to the wild/weed taxa throughout the occupation periods; these analyses are illustrated using bar or pie charts. The absolute seed counts of the botanical taxa were listed using Microsoft Excel charts and the seed density per litre of sediment was added to the general taxa list (see Appendix 1-Taxa) and to the ratio analysis (see Appendix 4-Ratios) as essential information, in order to understand the relationship of the absolute seed counts to the seed density per sample. These Excel charts constitute the basis for the further analyses of the origins of the sample compositions, such as crop-processing analyses of the dung-derived seeds and the spatial distribution of the samples all of which are supported by analyses of seed density per litre of sediment (see also Appendices 1-Taxa and 4-Ratios) and of the ubiquity of the taxa throughout the samples (see also Appendix 7-Ubiquity) as well as ratio analyses (see also Appendix 4-Ratios). Due to the rich species composition and high seed abundance in the Küllüoba samples, the results of these univariate analyses had to be supported with multivariate analyses detailed in the following sections.

Theoretical approaches for evaluation In order to consider the ecological and economic meaning of the archaeobotanical data, it may be of interest to comment on some of theoretical approaches and evaluation methods used in ecology, from which most of the archaeobotanical theories and evaluation methods derive. The available literature for plant ecologists gives a good overview of the scientific theories and their application to ecological sciences (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). As in all other sciences, scientific studies in ecology must be supported by theoretical and methodological foundations. The basic contention is that the collection and analysis of data should serve not only to describe and classify the ecosystem, but should go one step further and be ‘explicative’ in nature. Both ‘inductive’ and ‘deductive’ methods of analysis find their place as scientific theories in ecology. Inductive methods, in terms of ecological studies, are based on any kind of collected data without the formulation of prior hypotheses. This approach can prove disadvantageous, due to the inefficiency of collecting large amounts of data that may find only partial usage (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). Deductive methods are widely used in the natural sciences and work on the basis of the existing knowledge and theory in the relevant sciences. The hypotheses derive from a prevailing base of theory and collected data, and the analysis of the data follows, accepting or rejecting each hypothesis. Simply described, deduction is the testing of hypotheses and proving them to be true or false, for instance, in response to observed variations in vegetation cover forming hypotheses for the causes of the variation, like human or climatic factors (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). One of the issues that are questioned regarding the applicability of deductive methods is the ‘dependency of test results on sample size’ (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). This kind of dependency increases or decreases the chances of a statistically significant result. Due to the difficulties of applying deductive methods, many studies are restricted to ‘inductive approaches’ on a descriptive or observational basis. The results of those analyses are listed as major vegetation types together with their controlling factors. In scientific work, including in ecology, the next step after hypothesis rejection or verification is described as ‘prediction’ (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). Predictability can be applied reliably in the ecological sciences, but due to the nature of data belonging to vegetation cover

Multivariate methods In collections of archaeobotanical data, when more than ‘one’ or ‘two’ variables exist in a data set, it is necessary to use multivariate statistics for the manipulation of data. In mathematics, a variable is a value that can change within the scope of a given problem or set of operations or characteristics that is to be measured for the units (Fletcher and Lock 2005). Due to the multivariate nature of plant community data, multivariate data analysis has a long tradition in plant ecology and the related disciplines (Gauch 1982, Kent and Coker 1992, Colledge 1998). In plant ecology, the ‘variables’ consist of vegetation data (e.g., data of samples and species) and when their associated environmental data are listed in a raw data matrix, those kinds of data must be reduced in order to obtain suggestive variables (Gauch 1982, Kent and Coker 1992). The application of multivariate statistics in archaeobotany has a relatively recent tradition and is inspired by plant ecology; accordingly the purpose and relevance of these 27

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba Traditional taxa name

New introduced taxa name

English name

Hordeum vulgare var. distichium

Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon

Two-rowed hulled-barley

Triticum aestivum

Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum

Bread wheat

Triticum monococcum

Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum

Einkorn

Triticum dicoccum

Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccon

Emmer

Triticum durum

Triticum turgidum ssp. durum

Durum wheat

Table 3.1. Revised taxonomic names of the relevant cereal taxa for Küllüoba

statistical methods for archaeobotanical analyses are still a matter of debate. The quantification of archaeobotanical remains serves the purpose of accurate descriptions of the sample compositions and contexts, enabling meaningful comparisons to be based on the descriptions (Hubbard and Clapham 1992). The purpose of the comparison may be an economic, technological or ecological interpretation of the plant remains. However, it has also been argued that the botanical samples collected from pit or debris contexts are ‘plant remains of unknown origin’ and not suitable for reliable botanical analysis (Hubbard and Clapham 1992). Nevertheless those contexts constitute the majority of the sampled archaeological contexts from which derive the richest samples in terms of the abundance and richness of species. This is also observed in the case of the majority of the excavation contexts at Küllüoba, as will be mentioned in this chapter. Neglect of such contexts would lead to the loss of economic and environmental information, and therefore searching for the best method of evaluation for such contexts remains inevitable.

One of the methods vegetation ecologists use most for the analysis of multivariate data is Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). A basic component of multivariate analysis for ecological studies, ‘ordination’ means that samples from vegetation units have been arranged or ‘set in order’ according their relation to each other, to similarities in species composition and to the environment (Gauch 1982, Kent and Coker 1993, Kent 2012). Canonical ordination consists of the methods for searching the relations between the species composition of the plant communities and the environment; thus, the environmental variables of CCA are the essential components for modern vegetation and ecology studies (Ter Braak and Šmilauer 2002, Kent 2012). In many ecological studies of modern vegetation, the collected samples can be classified in terms of the floristic variation and the correlations with environmental variables that are generally not available for archaeobotanical data due to the lack of information about soil properties, temperature and moisture. Nevertheless, in order to obtain a maximum separation between the sites, some attempts have been made to use CCA in archaeobotanical studies, although these were produced on the basis of species composition and constrained by the external variables (e.g., environmental or other data) (Palmer 1998b, Bogaard 2004, Bogaard 2012, Riehl 2014).

Different statistical approaches for multivariate data appear to be suitable for pattern searching in archaeobotanical data. Methods such as PCA (Principal Component Analysis), LDA (Linear Discriminant Analysis) and CA (Correspondence Analysis) are applied in diverse archaeobotanical studies, especially for the explanation of specific patterns in rich plant assemblages (Hillman 1984, Jones 1987, Jones 1991, van der Veen 1992, Cappers 1994, Charles 1997, Riehl 1999, Valamoti 2004, Filipovic 2012a, and Reed 2012). Hillman (1983) has noted the need for multivariate statistics in archaeobotany. He argues that through a simple inspection of samples, any similarities in a sample composition with that of other samples would often be obvious (Hillman 1983). However this inspection method would not be effective if it were applied to numerous samples with rich sample composition, because any significant pattern of similarities cannot easily be recognised ‘by eye’. In such cases, choosing the right method for reducing the number of variables and finding a suitable method for the evaluation of more than one variable without losing any essential information seems to be the appropriate approach.

Archaeobotanical analyses are based on searching for ‘similar’ patterns rather than on the variances in botanical data (Gauch 1982, Baxter 1994, Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). Therefore, in order to search for similar patterns, correspondence analysis’ (CA) was considered to be a suitable method for this work. CA appears to offer a good opportunity for the suitable presentation and comprehensible explanation of archaeobotanical data. Simple correspondence analysis is ideally suited to the abundance type of data and CA makes no assumptions concerning the distribution of variables in the data set (Colledge 1998). As in the case for community ecology, also in archaeobotanical analysis the presence or absence of a particular species and the amount or abundance of each species present may be of interest (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012). The relation of species and samples to each other over time periods is illustrated in CA graphs as relative positions of scatter plots where a horizontal axis 28

Methodology (1. axis) and a vertical axis (2. axis) define an area of twodimensional space (Colledge 1998, Kent 2012). The first axis accounts for most of the variability in the species data, whereas the second axis accounts for most of the sample variability or other given variables arranged according to sites or samples (Jongman et al. 1987, Jones 1991, Palmer 1998, Riehl 2008b). Plots on the diagram show the position of each sample relative to the all other samples and to each taxon; additionally, they present the relationship of each taxon to all the other taxa. The simplified two-dimensional figures represent the original multi-dimensional quality of the data clustering. As such, the diagrams produced with CA can be used to create hypotheses about the patterns that emerged (Colledge 1998, Kent 2012). Such kinds of hypotheses, such as ecology, chronology and origin of the samples obtained, can be proved with help of external variables (Jones 1991, Colledge 1998, Riehl 2008b).

other words, the abundance of species classes expresses the meaning of these plants from an ‘economical aspect’. The second classification is based on the ‘presence of the species classes’, which is important to understand the ecological meaning of the taxa; ‘neglected species classes’ that do not appear in high abundance can be detected and demonstrated by this kind of evaluation method. It is also possible to plot species and sample data together on one diagram, but this creates ‘noise’ in the graph and, due to the superposed plots of the species and the samples, it could be difficult to interpret the graph. Therefore, to the extent that the form of the analyses allowed it, in this work such samples with an overlapped occurrence are supported by CA graphs of the scatter plots, where either the samples or the species are better visible on the graph (e.g., graphs for crop-processing analyses). The multivariate analyses follow the univariate analyses of crop processing in the first section the following in section the ecological meaning of the plant remains, and in the last section the economic meaning of crops and related plant remains are questioned.

Plant species that consist of a set of individual plants originating in a certain geographical unit and at a certain time period characterize the ‘community’ in terms of plant ecology (Kent and Coker 1992, Kent 2012, Cappers 2012). The computer software ‘CANACO’, an acronym for CANOnical Community Ordination, was designed especially for studies in community ecology (Braak and Šmilauer, 2002, Lepš and Šmilauer, 2003). As part of the multivariate analysis, CANACO recognises the response variables like ‘samples’ and ‘species’ as well as the explanatory variables like environmental or supplemental variables, which are rarely available for archaeobotanical studies. The response variables can be usually “0” or a positive value (e.g., a plant species has no or more than one counted specimens in one sample). The second part of the program, ‘CanoDraw’, contains not only the information about properties of the analysis, but also translates the original analysed data and the ordination results calculated by CANACO into graphic illustrations (Braak and Šmilauer, 2002, Lepš and Šmilauer, 2003). The illustrations may be in the form of plotted values of species or explanatory variables in the ordination diagrams and species or samples by group symbols (Braak and Šmilauer, 2002).

ar

ch

The high number of the absolute seed counts and the rich species composition in a considerable number of samples from Küllüoba led to the necessity for applying multivariate analyses in order to detect the differences and the similarities among samples as well as the species and ecological information throughout the occupation periods of the settlement. Within the scope of the evaluation methods used in this work, basically two different classifications of species were made. The first is the absolute counts of seeds/fruits and other plant parts (e.g., rachis fragments), described by CANACO by the term ‘abundance of species’, which equals the terms ‘quantity’ or ‘amount’ of a species. This type of evaluation demonstrates the dominant plants in terms of absolute counts in each sample; going further, in most cases the crops appear as the dominating taxa in each period. In 29

ny

ae

ob

a ot

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

4-Analytical approaches

been noted as charring, waterlogging, mineralisation, desiccation, oxidation, and imprinting (Riehl 1999, Cappers and Neef 2012, Valamoti 2003, Zohary et al. 2012). Depositional processes, such as sediment and soils properties, play a decisive role for the preservation of plants. Sediments with a high amount of clay or high carbonates content negatively influence the preservation of botanical remains (Boardman and Jones 1990). The reworking or physical rearrangement of the sediments or soil profile by modern faunal or botanical activity (also called ‘bioturbation’) influences the preservation conditions of archaeobotanical remains. Recognition of this process requires the knowledge of soil sciences, especially of pedology, which is relevant for studies of soil formation, morphology, chemistry, and classification. All kinds of vertebral or invertebral microfaunal agents and the roots of plants searching for water and oxygen availability may be responsible for the disintegration of macro remains. Sedimentological aspects that may also have taphonomical influences on the macro remains at Küllüoba are based only on-site observations by the author. The observation about soil properties was noted in the section about flotation processes. One important factor in the post-depositional distortion of charred remains is the removal of ancient soil as fertiliser for the modern fields (see Miller 1994, Cappers and Neef 2012). Due to their destructive effects, such methods have been widely forbidden by law and their frequency has decreased, but nevertheless they are still illegally practiced in many sites in the Near East and Turkey.

As a result of human activities in past times, archaeobotanical assemblages can reflect the cultural formation process. In this chapter, first section introduces the possible origins and formation processes of archaeobotanical remains and related analytical approaches, in terms of the reconstruction of crop-processing stages, the dung remains seeds as a source of the seeds that have been analysed, and the reasons for the presence of mineralised seeds in the individual sample compositions, all of which are relevant for the investigation of crop and animal husbandry of the settlement in question. Following section constitutes the analyses of the botanical samples and is subdivided into sections on the analyses of the origins of the sample compositions such as crop processing as well as non-crop species, like the plant material from dung remains, that might not directly derive from crop-processing activities.

Studies on the origin and taphonomy of botanical remains The story of sub-fossil plant remains found in archaeological sites as a subject of archaeobotanical analyses begins with the ‘process of selection’. Selection itself starts with the transport of plants by humans in the form of crop or wild plant gathering from the surrounding landscape. As a result of the harvesting process, the plants with a certain growing height, determined by their competitiveness with other plants, were selected. Additionally, the survival abilities of the plants were influenced by certain strategies, such as their seed/fruit dispersal mechanism and germination inhibition, that were decisive for their selection. As for the post-depositional survival of plant remains in a settlement, it is not only the form and degree of the carbonization process, but also the selective deposition of charred remains during sedimentation that is decisive. After their deposition, through selective sampling by the archaeologist and archaeobotanist and the application of different flotation techniques, a renewed selection occurs. The selective preservation of botanical remains in archaeological contexts has been widely discussed in archaeobotanical studies (Miller 1984, Cappers 1995, Riehl 2003, Valamoti 2004, Cappers and Neef 2012). Not only the selection, but also numerous mechanical, biological and chemical degradation mechanisms determine the survival of botanical remains from past times onwards. Charred remains exposed to chemical and physical effects, changes in soil moisture and temperature, and mechanical abrasion can all result in their fragmentation or complete disintegration (Miksicek 1984, Boardman and Jones 1990). All the processes that influence the preservation of plant remains in soil are summarised under the definition of taphonomical processes.

The depositional and post-depositional processes have a filter effect on the plant material, more or less depending on the settlement context, uncovered excavation areas and excavation methods. In general, the detection of the origin of the components of charred seed assemblages derived from archaeological deposits is a relatively complicated process. The composition of the plant assemblages may have been determined by the crop choice of humans, agricultural history and environment, and crop-processing activities. The origin of the plant material may be not only the prehistoric seed rain and the direct use of the plant sources, but also the ‘incidental inclusion’ of seeds and fruits incorporated in other sources like weeds during harvesting or wild seeds in animal dung (Dennell 1974a, Dennell 1974b, Dennell 1976, Hillman 1981, Minnis 1981, Bottema 1984, Miller 1984a, Miller 1984b, Miller and Smart 1984, van der Veen 2007). Crop processing and burning dung as fuel have been considered to be the major sources for the entry of plant remains into archaeological contexts (Charles and Bogaard 2005, Miller et al. 2009, Filipovic 2012a, Wallace and Charles 2013). In the analysis part of this chapter, some attempts are made to consider these factors in order to detect animal husbandry and agricultural practices at EBA Küllüoba. First subsection of ‘studies on the origin and taphonomy of botanical remains’ looks at one of the most

General preservation conditions and linked taphonomical reasons affecting the state of botanical material have 30

Analyses widespread preservation forms of the archaeobotanical seeds and fruits, ‘carbonisation’ and the effect of charring on the botanical remains. In the second subsection crop processing as a possible origin of botanical remains is illustrated with the help of the previous ethnobotanical and archaeobotanical studies.

and ‘puffing’ of the grains can occur (Zohary et al. 2012). The unequal survival changes of different plant parts through charring are mentioned in the literature (Cappers and Neef 2012, Zohary et al. 2012). In rare cases, the tubers and roots of plants may survive the charring, but if they are actually preserved, it is mostly in desiccated condition (Hather 1993).As expected, the grains have a better survival potential than the fragile rachis fragments; in general, the chaff remains (e.g., palea, lemma) endure charring when they are not separated through crop processing and are still attached to the cereal grains or pulses. Consequently, these important aspects of the different survival chances of botanical remains must be considered in interpretations of crop-processing stages. The charred preservation of seeds like linseed with high oil content is rarely documented in good condition. In archaeobotany, some attempts based on experimental studies have been made in order to characterise the deformation and distortion of the botanical remains through charring. However, methods are limited to a qualitative characterization of distortion using a simple ‘deformation scale’ (Hubbard and Azm 1990, Reed 2012). The deformation scale ranges from 5 degrees of distortion/ deformation from ‘perfect’ (>75% of the seeds showed no signs of distortion and the epidermis was completely intact) to identifiable only by gross morphology (Hubbard and Azm 1990). In the case of Küllüoba, a ‘deformation scale’ might be relevant only for the preservation of wheat species: about half of the wheat species could be identified only through their ‘gross morphology’ and could not be identified on the species level. Solely tree storage samples of einkorn (AG 155, AG 22 156 and AG 22 177) have excellent preservation of wheat grains. Despite the high deformation degree, a separation between barley and wheat grains was indeed possible. Beside this, the overall preservation of other crops like barley can be described using a scale between 2 and 3 (with or without intact epidermis virtually intact with only slight puffing) and for the pulses (e.g., lentil, bitter vetch) between 3 and 4 (clearly distorted seeds with an incomplete or fragmented epidermis).

Formation process through carbonisation Preservation through charring is the most common form of preservation for archaeobotanical material all over the world and is also the major form of preservation for Küllüoba’s botanical remains. Several mechanisms have been suggested that might be responsible for the charring of plant remains found in archaeological contexts, including accidental and catastrophic burning of the buildings in a settlement, intentional burning of the plant material primarily through use as fuel, and waste disposal (Hubbard and al Azm 1990, Minnis 1981, Miller 1984a, Miller 1984b). Catastrophic fire is rare, and thus other sources of fire led to the preservation of the majority of archaeobotanical assemblages. Grain-rich samples are generated by accidents and the samples that derive from daily activities contain few grain and more weeds and chaff, and thus an understanding of the taphonomic pathways of the individual samples is important (Bottema 1984, Van der Veen and Jones 2006). Experimental studies conducted to understand the effects of charring for pre-depositional processes on macrobotanical remains show that the different preservation condition of crops and their crop-processing by-products might be the result of their different resistance to fire during charring (Kislev and Rosenzweig 1989, Boardman and Jones 1990, Pearsall 2000, Wright 2003, Märkle and Rösch 2008). The differences in quality of preservation between intensive, slow burning and extensive, fast burning can be recognised from the degree of distortion in the charred remains (Miksicek 1987). Results of charring experiments suggest that the seeds/fruits exposed to lower temperatures (400-600 °C) lose the diagnostic parts like seed coats or epidermis and deformed strongly (Kislev and Rosenzweig 1989, Boardman and Jones 1990, Pearsall 2000, Wright 2003, Braadbaart 2004, Braadbaart and Bergen 2005, Braadbaart 2008). However, if oxygen is almost absent many seeds might survive the higher temperatures (Braadbaart 2008, Hillman 1981, Wright 2003). If the charring occurs under limited oxygen supply, the plant remains are not exposed to the direct fire but the temperatures are high enough to lead to the preservation of the remains through carbonisation (Boardman and Jones 1990). As a result of the carbonisation process, the organic components of the plants are replaced by carbon molecules, which hinder the decomposition of the plant parts. If the temperatures are 200 °C upwards, deformation, shrinkage

In uence of harvesting methods on the plant composition One of the important factors influencing the plant remains in sample compositions is the harvesting method. Ethnological studies conducted on the cultivation, harvesting and processing of cereals show that harvesting methods can be summarized roughly as reaping with help of a harvesting tool (e.g., sickle), uprooting, and earharvesting with or without using a tool (Hillman 1981, Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Peña-Chocarro 1996, Cappers and Neef 2012). Reaping with a sickle may result not only in harvested ears and straw, but also weeds species (depending on the cutting height). In addition, harvesting by uprooting results in culm bases. It has been recorded that the culm bases may have entered the domestic context 31

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba only sporadically, because generally the roots with culm bases were already cut in the field when the cereals were stacked, in order to prevent the transport of soil particles and small stones to the threshing floor (Hillman 1981, Cappers and Neef 2012). Due to the tendency of the freethreshing cereals to ripen unevenly, they are harvested mostly by cutting the stem just above the ground. Earharvesting is preferred instead for the harvest of the hulled wheats, due to the light, breakable basal rachis of the ears, as is also recorded in modern times (Peña-Chocarro 1996, Capers and Neef 2012). As a result of this harvesting method, only the ripe grains are harvested and the unripe grains remain attached to the cereal stem.

mechanized farming communities in modern times help for understanding the crop husbandry practices and cropprocessing stages of prehistoric farming communities. After the industrial revolution, in northern and western Europe, the rapid modernization of agricultural techniques has limited the possibilities for ethnographic studies of nonmechanized farming; nevertheless, ethnological studies conducted in Turkey make important contributions to the reconstruction of crop-processing stages in archaeological contexts (Hillman 1973, Hillman 1983, Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Hillman 1984c). In contrast to Dennel’s ‘internal methods’for the reconstruction of crop processing, which are based solely on the direct interpretations of archaeobotanical remains (Dennel 1974a, Dennel 1974b, Dennel 1976), Hillman’s methods illustrate an ‘external approach’ due to their basis on ethnographic origin. His studies describe in detail the crop-processing stages for hulled and naked wheat species (e.g., harvesting, threshing, winnowing, sieving, dehusking, and groats preparation) and their products and related by-products (see Hillman, 1983, Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Hillman 1984c). His studies have been applied in combination with statistical approaches in order to distinguish the archaeobotanical remains that might derive from different crop-processing stages (Jones 1981, Jones 1984, Jones 1987, van der Veen 1992, Charles 1998, Riehl 1999, Valamoti 2004). It has been argued that archaeological samples consist mostly of later stage of crop-processing like fine sieve by-products and that products from earlier stages like winnowing and coarse-sieving are mostly absent (van der Veen 1992, van der Veen and Jones 2006, Cappers 2012, Filipovic 2012a, Reed 2012).

In chapter 6 some attempts have been made to assess the crops’ maximum harvesting height, by looking in the archaeobotanical samples for the species recorded in studies that show that harvesting by sickle allows for climbing weeds like some species of Galium and Polygonum (Bogaard 2004, Filipovic 2012a). While an estimate of maximum plant height might help to reconstruct harvesting regimes based on the harvesting method used (e.g., sickle harvesting or ear-plugging), this possibility appears to be limited by the accuracy of the taxonomic identification of the botanical material: if the majority of the wild/weed taxa can be identified only on the genus level or as ‘types’, the maximum heights of the weed taxa cannot be obtained accurately. This point will be discussed for Küllüoba in Chapter 6, within the scope of the crop husbandry regimes.

Crop processing as origin of the botanical remains

In addition to the study of crop-processing remains, Jones suggests with her studies on naked-cereals (Jones 1983a, Jones 1984, Jones 1987, Jones 1991, Jones 1992) that the major stages of crop processing can be recognized on the basis of the relative frequencies of weed seeds, grouped according to their relevant physical characteristics, like being light/heavy, small/big and headed/free. Studies conducted by Hillman and Jones are used as appropriate methods to explain the origin of the botanical remains in archaeobotanical samples and to identify products and by-products that derive from crop-processing stages (e.g., winnowing, coarse sieve, fine sieve) and that are used as well as animal fodder. However, Charles (1998) has attempted to explain with studies on dung that wild/ weed seeds do not fit into the results of crop-processing stages and may have originated from regularly burnt dung. His approach (Charles 1998), presents the possible association of botanical remains from crop processing and dung remains, and suggests that the seeds do not fit for crop-processing stages may have been used as fodder. According to ethnological studies (Palmer 1998a, Forbes 1998, Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaraş 1998) the rachis fragments (e.g., glume bases and chaff) and wild/weed plants may have been gathered as fresh fodder and brought to the settlement or used partly as kindling for fire. The

As is known from modern ethnological observation, for the cultivation of major crop species, cereals and pulses, the farmers of past societies must have undertaken certain seasonal activities such as soil preparation and manuring prior to sowing, weeding, watering (irrigation) if needed, harvesting, and crop processing. All these activities are influenced by other factors such as the availability of labour, climate conditions and the social structures in their society. Thus an analysis of crop processing might help to highlight the society’s agricultural activities and economy. In this work, there is first a brief overview of the significance of crop processing for archaeobotany and the reconstruction of past crop and animal husbandry regimes in the next subsection followed by a discussion of the differences between the processing of hulled and naked cereals and the processing of pulses in the last subsection.

Studies of crop processing in archaeobotany The processing of crops has been considered to be one of the major processes to affect botanical assemblages in archaeological contexts (Hillman 1981, Fuller et al. 2005, Cappers and Neef 2012). Ethnological studies of non32

Analyses contributions to the studies of dung remains make it possible to understand the tight connection of the use of crop-processing remains as fodder and its reappearance in dung remains (Miller 1984a, Miller 1984b, Miller 1984c, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaraş 1998, Filipovic 2012a).

the grain, and in most cases hulled cereals need a second step of threshing (Hillman 1981, Hillman 1984b). The term ‘dehusking’, which is often used in ethnographic and archaeobotanical studies, refers to the process of removing the chaff and glumes from cereals and pulses. With the aid of ethnographic analogies, two different forms of dehusking methods have been suggested; one is better suited to humid climates, the other is used more in semiarid environments (Hillman 1984b, Cappers and Neef 2012). It has been recorded that, in contrast to dry regions where hulled wheats are mostly fully processed and stored as already-dehusked grains, in settlements with humid conditions after the ‘coarse-sieving’ stage the grains are stored as whole spikelets, mostly with their accompanying weed flora, and dehusked by pounding in mortars on a dayto-day basis prior to consumption (Hillman 1984b). Due to such ethnological observations, if the whole spikelet is the predominant form in an archaeobotanical storage assemblage, it is interpreted as deriving from humidland conditions, as in the case of the storage as whole spikelets in Greek Assiros and Iolkos, where dry and hot summers prevail and storage as spikelets does not seem to be necessary, but where it has been assumed that possible migrants from northern cooler and moister climates may have kept their traditional crop processing and storage form and as part of their cultural habits (Jones 1981, Jones 1982, Jones 1986).

Thus, it can be assumed that in Anatolia and the Near East the seeds/fruits from burnt dung cannot be separated easily from the weed flora, if the livestock feed on the harvested fields or eat stubble. Therefore in mixed-farming communities with herding, a clear boundary between harvested field weeds and wild/weed seeds derived from dung remains cannot be expected. As in the case for many other sites in the Near East and Anatolia where burning dung is still very commonly practised, as well as in the analysis of Küllüoba’s samples, regular dung burning is considered as a possible source of botanical remains and as an explanation for the occurrence of crop-processing byproducts together with other wild plants.

Differences in crop processing of hulled and naked cereals Most of the ethnographic studies of crop processing rely on the studies of cereal processing stages (Hillman 1981, Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Jones 1981, Jones 1984). Ignoring the difference between hulled and naked forms in cereals, both wheat and barley have their flowers arranged in a compound spike, known as ‘ears’, which consist of a number of spikelets on a central axis. Series of rachis segments are located on this central axis (or rachis). During the threshing of hulled cereals, the spike breaks up due to the brittle attachment between these segments; the ear divides into spikelets that bear glumes, called palea and lemma. The attachment can also be tough (or strong), in which the axis remains intact and the grain is usually naked, like Triticum aestivum and Triticum durum (Charles 1984a, Cappers and Neef 2012). Moreover, the chaffs of free-threshing wheats can be removed on the threshing floor in one step and can be stored or used by the farmers, whereas the chaffs of hulled wheats are removed in different steps, which reduces the amount and the utility of the whole chaff for other purposes like dung cake production or as animal fodder (Cappers and Neef 2012). However naked-wheat chaffs are very rarely found in archaeological contexts, due to their fragility in comparison to the hulled ones and due to the possible locality of threshing floors outside the residence/living areas of the settlement (Cappers and Neef 2012).

While ‘parching’ is suggested as the easiest method for removing the glumes from the grains prior to dehusking hulled wheats (Hillman 1984, van der Veen 1992), numerous ethnological studies show that parching is not necessary for einkorn and emmer, because slightly moistened spikelets can be dehusked easily without parching (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Moistening the grains appears to be necessary when shallow mortars are used for the dehusking process (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). This knowledge is important because many archaeobotanists and archaeologists believe that grains regularly come into contact with fire during the parching processes. However, if the grains are dampened and pounded on a day-today basis, drying the grains after pounding may not be necessary (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Wooden mortars and querns seem to be the most common and most suitable tools for pounding (Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, Ertuğ 2004). If the hulled cereal grains are pounded in a mortar or by a quern, in most cases a second stage of winnowing gives satisfying results for separation of the grains from their glumes (Küster 1984, Meurers-Balke and Lüning 1992, Nesbitt and Samuel 1996), though this differs from Hillman’s experimental results (1984b). The studies by Meurers-Balke and Lüning (1992) show that the second coarse and fine sieve stages for hulled cereals may be unnecessary if the first sieving was satisfactory for separating the weeds, and thus a second winnowing without sieving would suffice to separate the glumes and chaffs from the grains. Depending on the cropprocessing method used, the sample composition could

In the next step after threshing, winnowing helps to separate plant parts, like palea and lemma, and light seeds, which are lighter than the grain itself. After winnowing, an initial stage of coarse sieving can be applied, in order to remove larger and heavier plant parts (e.g., straw nodes, incompletely threshed ears) or weed seeds from 33

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba differ slightly: the by-products of the first winnowing would include the light weed taxa and only a small part of the glume and chaff remains, whereas the by-products of the second winnowing would consist mostly of the glumes, chaff and a lesser amount of weeds (Hillman 1981, Jones 1981, Jones 1983, Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Jones 1984, Jones 1992, Van der Veen 1992, Cappers and Neef 2012). The experimental results show that einkorn and emmer glume bases can be separated completely by winnowing but the maslin of both must be fine-sieved (Bogaard 2004).

commonly processed in the same way as the naked cereals, although with more than one threshing stage, due to the characteristic uneven shattering nature of the pods (Jones 1984, Butler 1999). This factor is not widely mentioned in archaeobotanical studies of the weed flora that might derive from the cultivation of the pulses. It must be taken into account that a considerable part of the weed flora can also accompany pulses, depending on their cultivation form; small-scale intensive cropping of pulses would lead to a more limited occurrence of accompanying weeds than cultivation on a less intensive scale.

Sieving is applied to the crops mostly with help of two sieves with different mesh sizes (one coarser, the other finer), in order to separate the chaff and the weeds, taking advantage of the size difference between the crops and weeds (Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Cappers and Neef 2012). It has been noted that the mesh size is determined by cultivated crop types (e.g., einkorn, emmer, barley) and a high level of accuracy is needed in order to obtain the appropriate mesh size for the elimination of weed seeds. However, despite the use of precisely produced sieves, both the ‘tail seeds’ of the crops and the weed seeds of a similar size can pass through the meshes and be found in the household residues and pit contexts as discarded remains (Capppers and Neef 2012). Ethnographic studies show that einkorn and emmer can be processed in different ways depending on the region (Ertuğ 2004, Filipovic 2012b). For example in the case of bulgur preparation, it has been recorded that whole spikelets are milled, then winnowed and fine-sieved (or at least sorted by hand) in order to separate bulgur from chaff or unground grains (Hillman 1984b, Filipovic 2012a).

Based on the theoretical and ethnological knowledge discussed above, the methods used for the analysis of the Küllüoba samples and an evaluation using multivariate methods are described in section ’approaches for weed ecology’.

Collected wild plants Numerous ethnobotanical studies on Central Anatolia can be consulted regarding the use and cultivation of wild plants for their different plant parts, like leaves, roots or seeds, either in the present or the recent past (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Ertuğ 1998, Ertuğ 2000a, Ertuğ 2000b). However, knowledge about the cultivation and use of wild plants in the ancient past is still very fragmentary, generally determined by the taphonomic selection and preservation bias of the organic plant parts. The taxa that might have been utilised by past societies may have been neglected or replaced by other plants in today’s communities. Such a case is recorded for the use of Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil) replaced by Petroselinum crispum (common parsley) in the course of time, probably due to its weaker disease resistance, even though chervil is recorded to have a more delicate and intensive taste; today its cultivation is limited to some regions of France (Howard1987, Bradley et al.2009).

The processing of hulled barley has also been recorded in studies to determine the effect of crop processing on glume wheats and free-threshing cereals (Hillman 1984a and Hillman 1984b, Charles 1984a). Hulled barley can be processed like the free-threshing wheats, due to their chaffs (e.g., palea and lemma), which are not connected to the glumes and cover only the grain itself (van der Veen and Jones 2006). However, because the hulled barley grains are protected by florets (unlike hulled wheat, for which the grains are protected by glumes) lemma and palea can be removed if the florets have been remoistened (Charles 1984a). If barley is harvested as whole ears, it is not necessary to thresh them for fodder or beer production, because two-rowed barley grains can germinate also in hulled form (Cappers and Neef 2012).

At Küllüoba, there are numerous taxa that can be used or collected as wild plants, such as Isatis tinctoria, Camelina sativa, Allium sp., Petroselinum-type, Anthriscus cerefolium, Anthriscus spp., Bupleurum spp., Carthamus tinctorus, Descurania sophia, Erysimum crassipes, Lepidium-type, Malva spp., Lallemantia iberica-type, Allium ampeloprasum-type, Cephalaria syriaca-type, Portulaca oleracea, Hyoscyamus niger, Thymelaea sp., and Valerianella vesicaria-type. These are plants that are used today for culinary purposes as dietary enrichments, and some of them are also important as oil and dye plants. Of the taxa listed here, Erysimum crassipes constitutes the only taxon of which the cultivation could be recorded, owing to in situ storage in a small pot, as mentioned in an archaeological context. Wild plants with an economic significance that occur at Küllüoba will be illustrated in the first subsection of chapter five.

Processing of pulses If pulses are grown for their green seeds, they are mostly harvested by hand-picking before seed maturity; after seed maturity, the dried plant can be completely uprooted (Charles 1984b). As with the cereals, the ethnographic studies show that pulses like Vicia and Lathyrus are 34

Analyses

Dung as origin of the botanical remains

Results of experimental studies suggest that a single dung pellet of a goat/sheep may contain up to 200 weed/wild seeds and 3-4 cereal chaffs and a goat produces in average 300 pellets per day; consequently, it can be assumed that livestock dung might be one of the main sources for the origin of the seeds in archaeobotanical assemblages (Valamoti and Charles 2005, Wallace and Charles 2013). Unless the dung remains are deposited in an environment suitable for preservation of organic matter, like other kinds of organic material they also undergo taphonomic processes mainly of natural and anthropogenic origin. Natural processes include the decomposition of organic matter, bioturbation and the formation of so-called ‘authigenic minerals’ (Shahack-Gross 2011). In other environments, dung decomposes faster and gets mixed with soils and its evidence might be detected with help of geomorphological analysis. Anthropogenic/cultural factors that influence the taphonomy of dung remains can include the tramp-ling of dung by humans or animals and can be indicated by micro-laminated structures detected with the help of micromorphological analysis (ShahackGross 2011).

Crop-processing remains of crop and wild/weed seeds might reach the settlement contexts not only directly as by-products used for fuel or as storage grains in unsieved form, but they also may originate from dung used as fuel (Charles 1998, Miller 1984b, Miller and Smart 1984, Valamoti and Charles 2005, Wallace and Charles 2013). Questioning dung burning as a possible origin of archaeobotanical seed assemblages has focused mostly on sites in the arid or semi-arid environments of Africa, the Near East, Asia and America (Miller 1984, Hastorf and Wright 1998, Reddy 1999, Linseele et al. 2010, Miller and Marston 2012). However some archaeobotanical studies consider the presence of dung as fuel in humid temperate areas like southern or northern European settlements (Van der Veen 1992, Valamoti 2004, Valamoti 2005, Valamoti and Charles 2005) and it has also been suggested that dung is considered to be a preferred fuel source, independent of the availability of wood resources in a settlement’s vicinity (Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaraş 1998, Charles 1998). Macroscopic remains of dung can be identified if they can be found in archaeological contexts in ‘intact’ form, as in cases of the excellent preservation of organic matter or charring (Charles 1998, Charles et al. 2010, Linseele et al. 2010), However, if the dung remains are highly fragmented due to taphonomic processes and damage by flotation, distinguishing dung remains from the other amorphous organic residues is possible only with the help of microscopic identification (Miller 1984b, Matthews 2005, Matthews 2010, Shahack-Gross 2011). The identification and analysis of dung remains provide information that enables the integration of zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical data (Miller et al. 2009, Charles and Bogaard 2002). In the Küllüoba samples, recovery of any intact dung was not possible and the occurrence of clearly distinguishable dung remains was very rare. During a laboratory session at the University of Groningen, some highly fragmented dung remains with their characteristic structures were found to show small, fine, needle-like amorphous-fibrous structures in different directions that could be recognised under a microscope (Cappers pers. com.)

Ruminant digestion has an important influence on plants that survive in dung remains. Through digestive selection, certain plant parts might be overrepresented, whereas some others might be underrepresented; seed dispersal by animal dung is noted as one of the prevailing forms of preservation, in which the seeds from medium size to heavy are better represented (Wallace and Charles 2013). Some experimental studies concentrate on the digestive differences between small ruminants like sheep/goats, while some others consider cows and also mono-gastric animals like horses, donkeys and mules; however there are no available studies of pigs, probably because their dung is not used as a fuel source and so is not recorded ethnographically (Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaraş 1998). With the help of experimental studies it has been shown that digestion as a mechanical and chemical process has a breaking effect on seed dormancy; in sheep dung, the average duration for the reappearance of seeds after digestion is around 1, 5-3 days; however in some cases durations of 6-10 days have also been recorded (Wallace and Charles 2013). The size and hardness of the seed/fruit coat might determine the survival rates of the seeds in the animals’ digestive tracts: observed survival rates do not differ for seeds under 2 mm, whereas seeds larger than 2 mm tend to be retained in the upper part of the so-called ‘reticulo-omasal orifice’, which separates the upper and the lower parts of the ruminant digestive system (Wallace and Charles 2013). Consequently, the seeds/fruits larger than 4 mm do not survive intact through the digestive system of the small ruminants, with the exception of those that possess toughened endocarps (Poppi et al. 1985, Peinetti et al. 1993, Dehority 1996, Wallace and Charles 2013). The lack of survived cereal grains has been mentioned in different studies (Valamoti and Charles 2005, Wallace and Charles 2013). Therefore, an underrepresentation

The investigation of dung evidence in relation to its archaeological context and the incorporated botanical remains can support its use as fuel. Herbivore dung consists mostly of organic remains that derive from ingested plants (ca. 55%) and a small amount of inorganic material (Shahack-Gross 2011). For most of the climatic regimes and open-air sites, the survival chance of organicpoor dung remains is higher than that of the organic-rich parts (Macphail et al. 2004). The composition of the dung, depending on the diet and physiology of the individual animal, can include more plant residues of wild/weed flora or more crop remains inclusive of the crop-processing residues (Miller 1984a, Miller 1984b, Shahack-Gross 2011). 35

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba of thin-coated and larger seeds is assumed in the archaeobotanical assemblages from Küllüoba. Probably only the seeds/fruits of 3-4 mm that have strong endocarps seem likely to have survived the ruminants’ digestion systems and the cereals are not supposed to survive. It has been noted that other botanical remains like rachis fragments or glume bases are longitudinally split after they pass through a goat’s digestion, irrespective of whether they are fed as whole spikelets or in dehusked form. It has also been observed that, due to preservation conditions, distinguishing between the composition of hulled wheat by-products and dung-derived chaff remains in such samples would be unlikely (Valamoti and Charles 2005). Experimental studies show that knowledge about archaeological contexts alone might not help to distinguish further whether chaff/rachis is derived from dung or from crop processing; however, if weed plant seeds can be found in samples associated with crops, distinguishing between crop-processing remains and dung-originated chaff/rachis would be more likely (Charles 1998). Nevertheless, the reliability of the reconstruction of crop-processing stages depends on whether the weed taxa can be identified on the most desired level of accuracy, namely on the species level.

the archaeologists at the excavation area also practise stubble-burning as a cleaning activity. In such cases, the contamination can be recognised, due to the partly charred condition of plant remains and the modern taxa not likely cultivated in prehistoric times (e.g., sunflower). Due to seasonal stubble and weed cleaning with the help of fire by the excavators at Küllüoba, some of the archaeobotanical samples were contaminated with half-burnt Hordeum grains and rachis fragments that were immediately excluded from the analysis. Another possibility for sample contamination that happens rather seldom is the occurrence of modern plant seeds/fruits transported by the activity of rodents, ants or other animals that have dug their tunnels throughout the sediment layers of archaeological sites. The preservation of botanical material in desiccated form which is a common preservation form only for very arid and desert areas (Capper and Neef 2012), was not expected at Küllüoba.

Presence of mineralized seeds During the sorting and identification work, an examination of seeds/fruits that are in an uncarbonised condition is useful for understanding if they are preserved in mineralised form.

The studies show that in general the fire produced by dung does not reach the high temperatures of that produced by wood and thus provides the optimal conditions for the preservation of plant seeds by charring. A negative correlation of the abundance of dung-derived plant material and the preservation of intact dung remains has also been observed (Wallace and Charles 2013). Another method for tracing dung remains is geomorphological analysis using thin sections (Matthews 2010). In the area of quantitative ‘bulk analysis’, it has been recorded that fragments of dung may be recognised through an analysis of soil samples. The phytoliths, pollen and spheruliths (the spherical calcite bodies formed in the gut of herbivores) can be extracted from those samples, although for this kind of analysis it is necessary that the dung remains be recovered in an undisturbed form (in situ form if possible) (Brochier1983, Courty et al. 1989, Miller 1994, ShahackGross 2011). Because the dung could not be observed in intact form but only as small fragments in soil samples from Küllüoba (which were primarily obtained for archaeobotanical analysis), further micromorphological and chemical analysis are required in order to understand the intensity of dung use in the settlement contexts and the location of the animal enclosures or pens.

Even if this form of preservation in archaeological contexts is not as common as the carbonised form, nevertheless it is a common preservation form for certain taxa like members of Boraginaceae family (e.g., Lithospermum sp., Echium sp., Anchusa sp.), due to the accumulation of silica in their nutlets in a kind of natural mineralisation process (Robinson and Straker 1991, Zohary et al. 2012). Other taxa that are not commonly found in mineralised conditions in archaeological contexts should be checked for the type of mineralisation, that is, whether they are ‘calcified’ through calcium carbonate, silica or phosphate accumulation. Depending on the cell properties and preor post-depositional conditions, one of those types of mineralisation can occur. Uncarbonised preservation due to carbonate or silica replacement can be distinguished by observation and through examination of the uncarbonised botanical remains in the samples using a diluted acid concentration (HCL), as recorded in archaeobotanical studies from Troy (Riehl, 1999). In many cases differences between the uncharred sub-fossil and modern remains can be observed with the naked-eye or with the help of a microscope. In the case of Küllüoba’s specimens, almost all genera of the Boraginaceae family (except for Heliotrophium sp.) appear to have a typical ‘silicified’ state of preservation, because a diluted HCL solution could not dissolve the seeds, as also observed by Riehl (1999). Some of the seeds appear to be only superficially coated by carbonate. Members of some other families such asAsteraceae (e.g., Carthamus sp., Centaurea sp.), Brassicaceae (e.g., Camelina sativa, Thalaspi

Modern seed contamination In general, the contamination of some samples by modern plants can occur if, for example, stubble-burning is practised by the farmers on fields that are still used for crop cultivation in the immediate vicinity of excavated trenches. Unfortunately, on many excavations in Turkey, 36

Analyses

11

01

00

Fumaria sp. (min.)

Presence of non-botanical material (mouse dung)

1000

An important element of the sample composition that is not of ‘botanical origin’ was recorded as ‘mouse dung’. Mouse dung constitutes strong evidence for rodent activity and occurs in numerous samples in high abundance (ubiquity of 25 %, see Appendix 1-Taxa and Appendix 7-Ubiquity). The faeces seem to have originated from the house mouse due to their small sizes, but rodent bones could not be detected in the coarse residues of the archaeobotanical samples, and therefore an identification of rodents based on dung remains was not possible. The mouse dung derives not only from the outdoor pit contexts, but also from archaeological contexts related to an indoor context, such as possible fodder storage facilities. The samples from both context types show evidence of animal pens and will be represented in the relevant section. The amount and frequency of dung remains are higher in Küllüoba’s first two occupation periods, namely in EBA I and EBA II, than in EBA III. The relatively high abundance and frequency of rodent dung suggest that the relevant sample context was not primarily used by the inhabitants of Küllüoba as housing and may very probably have been used as animal penning, either in the form of outdoor enclosures or as indoor facilities. Whether the rodent activity influenced the living quality and the health of the inhabitants of Küllüoba, especially during EBA I and II periods, is a subject for further studies.

673

-type (min.)

40

Silene spp. (min.)

20

Papaver sp. (min.)

18

Chenopodium (min.)

12

Anagallis sp. (min.)

10

Centaurea spp. (min.)

9

Glaucium sp. (min.)

9 7

Ajuga chamaepitys (min.)

4

Graph 4.1. Distribution of mineralised seeds at Küllüoba as absolute counts.

arvense), Caryophyllaceae (Silene sp.), Chenapodiaceae (Chenopodium sp., Salsola sp.), Lamiaceae (Ajuga chamaepitys, Stachys byzantina), Papaveraceae (e.g., Fumaria sp., Papaver sp.), Polygonaceae (Polygonum sp., Eleocharis sp.), and Primulaceae (Anagallis sp.) were almost completely dissolved in HCL, and show evidence of ‘calcification’ through an accumulation of calcium carbonate in their cell structures. It has been mentioned in archaeobotanical studies that, among other reasons, the mineralisation of the seeds/fruits could originate with the dung or coprolite remains with high mineral contents that are also commonly used in mudbrick production (Green 1979, Kreuz 1998, Marinova 2006, Filipovic 2012a).

Analyses of the origin of the sample compositions

The mineralised taxa of Küllüoba are listed separately from the same taxa preserved in charred form, in order to gain a picture of the sample context from which the mineralised remains derived (see Appendix 1- Taxa) and here illustrated as absolute counts (see Graph 4.1.). The soil in Küllüoba’s vicinity shows characteristic of alluvial origin; the nearest rocky places are relatively far away, based on field observations by the author, and there is no clear evidence of a high concentration of carbonates. Due to the lack of a soil analysis from Küllüoba, the exact soil properties are still unknown. A carbonate test for soil properties, as mentioned in Riehl (1999), would be revealing for Küllüoba.

Different evaluation methods for the origin of the botanical remains in samples have been applied by archaeobotanists in order to understand the origin and context of the botanical assemblages. The analysis of crop processing constitutes one of the essential methods for the evaluation of archaeobotanical sample composition and contributes to understanding archaeobotanical formation processes, as well as further differentiating between domestic and other activity areas. Crop-processing analysis can contribute important information about the reconstruction of crop husbandry and related methods, like the sowing time, crop rotation, irrigation, and harvesting methods of the crop species. Furthermore, an analysis of a sample composition to understand crop processing combined with the observation of the ‘behaviour of the non-crop species’ can give information on pastoral practices and animal husbandry (Charles 1998, Charles and Bogaard 2002, Filipovic 2012a). For the wild plants that might derive from sources other than crop-processing activities, the seasonality, flowering time and duration of non-crop taxa may help in the reconstruction of animal husbandry and to establish dung burning without the direct evidence of intact dung remains (Charles 1998, Charles and Bogaard 2002, Filipovic 2012a).

Botanical studies at Çatalhöyük, supported by the results of soil micromorphology, show that the mineralised seeds and grains may derive from the animal pens that are located very close to the housing in the settlement (Filipovic 2012a). The calcification of most of the mineralised seeds might be explained by the presence of mineral-rich animal urine. It has also been noted that waterlogged contexts like latrines or waste pits mixed with inorganic compounds at other settlements like Late Bronze Age Kinet Höyük might contain a high concentration of dissolved minerals (Çizer 2006). Building structures with courtyards similar to those at Çatalhöyük can be observed at Küllüoba and therefore the possible contexts for mineralised seeds may be the animal pens in front of the building structures. 37

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba The following sections of this chapter begin with a discussion of three basic analytic methods: seed density ubiquity and ratio analyses. These three methods are applied in analyses of crop processing in analyses of dung-derived seeds and in spatial analyses of the botanical samples. In section ‘analyses of crop processing’ the botanical samples from Küllüoba were analysed to determine the origin of the plant remains in their sample compositions according to crop-processing stages, and the distribution of the samples in the archaeological contexts was reconsidered in light of spatial analyses.

42 are dominated by cereals and chaff and are relatively poor in wild/weed species. Not surprisingly, storage sample AG 22 177 demonstrates the highest seed density. Pits and ditches are rich in chaff remains, and wild/weed seeds and grains are consistently dominant within samples collected from storage and hearth contexts. House samples also have a high percentage of fruit remains, while general occupation levels have a high percentage of wild/weed seeds. Samples AG 22 182 with the taxa Matthiola longipetalatype and Phalaris arundinacea-type, and sample AG 22 191 with a concentration of Artemisia annua-type appear at the top of the diagram; even though these samples are small, the seed density is relatively high and they appear at the top of the 2. axis (vertical) because only a few taxa are concentrated in these samples. Samples AG 22 122 and AG 22 215 are relatively poor in seed remains in comparison with the floated soil volume; therefore both samples occur at the lower right end of the diagram. Sample plot Z 19 393 occurs separately from the other samples with a similar seed density as a result of its seed composition; its few crop seeds and wild/weed seeds consisting almost only of Galium spp. influence the sample’s appearance on the upper right part of the 1. axis (vertical).

Seed density In previous archaeobotanical studies, the density of the plant remains has been used as an important part of the analyses of the origin and the taphonomy of the samples (Jones 1983, Jones 1991, Van der Veen 1992, Riehl 1999, Valamoti 2003, Filipovic 2012a). The density of the botanical remains in collected samples has been suggested as a method of understanding taphonomy and depositional and preservational variability according to archaeological contexts, but it is strongly influenced by taphonomic bias. In combination with the degree of fragmentation and the preservation condition of the botanical remains, a ratio analysis of the samples is also useful for the reconstruction of crop-processing stages. The density of the botanical remains in a sample is calculated according to the number of seeds per litre of soil processed or floated.

Ubiquity of the taxa Ubiquity analysis allows for an understanding of how frequently a taxon is present throughout the occupation periods of a site or multiple sites (Van der Veen 1992, Riehl 1999, Valamoti 2003, Reed 2012). Independent of the absolute counts of the plant remains, the frequency of the taxa can contribute to recognizing their environmental and economic significance. Ubiquity or frequency is widely used in the ecology community, although the method’s accuracy is restricted by the possibility of bias in sampling methods and the comparability of the sample sizes (Riehl 1999).

The calculation of density can be conducted in different ways. Among the possibilities are calculating absolute counts of seeds/fruits of plant remains per litre of sediment and calculating seed/fruit weight per litre of sediment (Riehl 1999, Miller 2010). Calculation methods use either mean or median seed densities; more accuracy can be achieved with the latter when the botanical samples derive from different sites and if it is necessary to compare different occupation periods (Reed 2012). Since multi-site comparison is not necessary in the case of Küllüoba, solely the calculation of mean density has been considered to be appropriate and the aim has been a search for patterning among the samples, using CA analysis (see Graph 4.2. and Graph 4.3.).

In this work, ubiquity is used as a means of estimating the economic and ecological importance of certain taxa, even though the method’s use is restricted by limitations in the accuracy of taxonomic identification, preservation conditions and the representativeness of the analysed samples for settlement-wide contexts. Within the scope of the analyses, the ubiquity or frequency of each plant taxon is illustrated as a percentage, in order to obtain information not only on the economic meaning of the crop species, but also on the intensity of the ecological distribution of wild/ weed species (see Appendix 7-Ubiquity).

In density measurements throughout the samples, more than half of the samples (60 samples) collected from each context type show a density 4-25 seeds per litre of sediment, about 20 samples have a density of 60-200 items, and only seven samples have a great variety of seed densities – between 300-3250 per litre of sediment (see Graph 4.2. and Graph 4.3.). The samples with the highest density derive from storage and pit and contexts (AG 22 155, AG 22 177, AD 23 29, AD 23 42, AD 21 492, AD 21/22 445). The samples with very high seed density (AD 21 492, AD 21/22 445) derive from pit contexts, dominated by wild/ weed seeds and are also rich in rachis and crop species. In contrast, the other two pit samples AD 23 29 and AD 23

Ratio of plant remains Ratio analysis has been widely applied in archaeobotany, using univariate data analysis to compare biological 38

Analyses 9AG22-182

1.5

remains within a data set through different occupation phases of one site or multiple sites (Miller 1984, van der Veen 1992, Miller 1997, Miller 1999, van der Veen and Jones 2006, Miller et al. 2009, Miller 2011, Miller and Marshton 2012, Reed 2012). There can be methodological biases such as the quantification difficulties that result from the direct comparability of absolute counts of botanical remains with the weight of charcoal or animal remains (Miller 1999, Miller et al. 2009, Miller and Marshton 2012). It has also been observed that the potential importance of pulses in the economy of archaeological sites may have been neglected because the pulses tended to be underrepresented in the ratio analysis due to their preservational difference in comparison with cereals (Miller 1984, van der Veen 1992, van der Veen 2011). In studies of animal husbandry and agricultural production, higher ratios of pigs and cattle in comparison with ratios of sheep/goats and lower ratios of wild/weed plants in comparison with cereals might suggest that a settlement’s economy was focused more on agriculture than a pastoral economy, although in these studies the pulses are excluded from ratio analysis (Miller 1999, Miller et al. 2009, Miller and Marshton 2012).

9AG22-191

SAMPLES 10

9Z19-393

50

7AF22-205

150

7AD21-492

9AG22-122

-1.5

9AG22-215 5.0

-1.0

Graph 4.2. Küllüoba samples as attribute plot for values of density.

1.5

9AG22-182 9AG22-191

Density 9Z19-393

1-10

6AD23-50

10-20

9AG22-155

70-300

20-70 9AG22-143

300
1,5 > 1,1 > 1,1

Table 4.2. Ratios showing the whole plant ratio per cereal category, ratios of the grains to their rachis fragments and weed ratio values; also what constitutes a low and high value (following Reed 2012, Table 6.4).

Crop processing category Ra os Semi-cleaned Fine sieve by-products Products

Sieved FT wheat Rachis: grains 1-1,4 > 1,5 < 0,1

Weed-wild: grains Low Low Low

Unsieved FT wheat Rachis: grains 1-1,4 > 1,5 < 0,1

Weed-wild: grains High High High

Table 4.3. Applied ratios of free-threshing wheat (FTW) rachis fragments to free-threshing wheat grain and wild/weed seeds to grains for the classification of samples as ‘sieved’ or ‘unsieved’ semi-cleaned grains, products, and fine sieve by-products.

Crop processing category Ra os Spikelets Fine sieve by-products Products

Sieved hulled wheat Rachis: grains 1,6-2,1 > 2,2 < 0,4-< 0,6

Weed-wild: grains Low Low Low

Unsieved hulled wheat Rachis: grains 1,6-2,1 > 2,2 < 0,4-< 0,6

Weed-wild: grains High High High

Table 4.4. Applied ratios of hulled wheat rachis fragments to hulled wheat grain and wild/weed seeds to grains for the classification of samples as ‘sieved’ or ‘unsieved’ spikelets, products, and fine sieve by-products.

Crop processing category Ra os Semi-cleaned Fine sieve by-products Products

Sieved H barley Rachis: grains 1-1,4 > 1,5 < 0,6

Weed-wild: grains Low Low Low

Unsieved H barley Rachis: grains 1-1,4 > 1,5 < 0,6

Weed-wild: grains High High High

Table 4.5. Applied ratios of hulled barley rachis fragments to hulled barley grain and wild/ weed seeds to grains for the classification of samples as ‘sieved’ or ‘unsieved’ semi-cleaned grains, products, and fine sieve by-products.

43

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba carbonization and can have a size similar to bread/durum wheat. The measurements of carbonized ancient grains could lead to the false reconstruction of the sieve mesh size used; however, using modern material might be also misleading due to the size differences among the ancient and modern populations of the cultivated cereals species. In comparison to the modern measurements referred to by Reed (2012), the shrinkage of the Küllüoba wheat and barley species is obvious; however the modern specimens are broader in width than the Küllüoba specimens, which contradicts the above-mentioned experimental results (Braadbaart and van Bergen 2005, Braadbaart 2008). Therefore my own width measurements for the Küllüoba cereal grains were used to differentiate the ‘big’ and ‘small’ wild/weed classes. Furthermore the Küllüoba samples contain a large amount of highly distorted wheat grains that could not be identified on the species level. A simplified ‘big and small weed categories’ (considering the ratio category 5, small-to-big weed seeds, see Table 4.1. and 4.2.) is used for the Küllüoba assemblages.

have tight long awns and tended to remain on the coarse sieve during the earlier stage of crop processing (Filipovic 2012a); therefore they are classified as ‘big headed heavy’ even though they are narrow in width after carbonization. According to experimental sieving, the pod of Coronilla sp. tends to remain intact during crop processing, but no indehiscent pods of Coronilla sp. were found in Küllüoba’s samples and, due to their width of ca. 0,50 mm, the seeds are classified like the other small leguminosea as ‘small free heavy’. In Reed’s study (Reed 2012) Lallemantia iberica has large-sized seeds and is classified as ‘big-freeheavy’, but at Küllüoba their width is ca. 1 mm and are therefore classified as ‘small free heavy’. Echium sp. is classified by Reed (2012) as ‘small-free-heavy’ and at Küllüoba these specimens have a width of >2 mm and are therefore classified as ‘big-free-heavy’.

Ratio analysis for crop categories Küllüoba’s samples are listed according to cereal category in the crop-processing analysis, in order to obtain a better overview of the sample composition. A subdivision was made for the crop-processing stages, which can be recognised using the calculation of crop type specific ratios (see Tables 4.1-5.). Some samples with ‘anomalous appearances’ that are unlikely to have derived from crop stages have been considered for further analysis in order to understand their origin (e.g., burnt dung).

The wild/weed seed categories used in earlier studies of crop processing (Jones 1984, van der Veen 1992, Bogaard 2002, Filipovic 2012a, Reed 2012) were also applied to Küllüoba’s taxa. Wild/ weed seed categories based on their size (small/big), weight (heavy/light) and aerodynamic properties (free/headed) were created in 5 different divisions. Taxa classified as Small-Free-Light (SFL) might derive from winnowing (or dung-derived seeds), Big-Headed-Heavy (BHH) and Small-Headed-Heavy (SHH) might constitute the ‘coarse sieving by-products’, whereas SFH and BFH might be regarded as fine sieving by-products (see Appendix 5-Wild/weed). No wild/weed taxa that might be categorised as Small-Headed-Light (SHL) were observed in the Küllüoba samples. This categorisation is used in the scope of the multivariate analyses in section. A cut-off of point of 2 mm. was established for the measurements of the Küllüoba samples because einkorn and emmer, which constitute the major cereal categories, show a width between 2 mm-3 mm. It might be useful to apply the smallest possible width of the cereals to determine the mesh size of the sieves, in order to keep as many of the cereal grains as possible on the upper part of the sieve. The seeds/fruits of shrubs and treelike plants like Rubus, Vitis and Juniperus are excluded from analysis, because such seeds/fruits cannot be found in the harvesting of cereals and pulses. Some seeds like Anthriscus cerefolium and Bromus spp. could have been classified as small, due to their width under 1,5 mm, but since their length can reduce their potential for passing through the sieve, they are therefore classified as ‘big free heavy’. Depending on the width of their capsule (calyx), Silene spp. and Verbascum thapsus can be classified as ‘big headed heavy’, but when the capsule is broken, their seeds spread and can go through the fine sieve mesh, due to their width of 1) was used to designate the ‘unsieved’ free-threshing wheat samples, which make up the 14 % of all analysed samples. Sample classification as unsieved suggests that the relevant cereal has not been sieved before or after dehusking, resulting in an abundance of weed seeds and spikelets in products or in fine sieving by-products. The category unsieved free threshing wheat includes the same number of samples classified as product and semi-cleaned grains. As in the case for the sieved free-threshing wheat samples, only one sample was classified as unsieved fine sieve by-product.

The rare occurrence of ‘unsieved fine-sieve by-products’ might suggest that the processing of the free-threshing wheats occurred and was almost completed outside the sampled areas, which corresponds to the evidence for the common practices and is also known from the ethnological studies and observations of the archaic form of cereal cultivation in modern farming communities (Hillman 1981, Hillman 1984c, Jones 1984, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Cappers and Neef 2012). However, the relatively high evidence of semi-cleaned grains in both the ‘sieved’ and ‘unsieved’ categories compared to the sieved products could suggest that those samples containing semi-cleaned grains were not completely processed. As mentioned above in connection with the samples containing free-threshing wheat products or semi-cleaned grains, the immediate co-occurrence of free-threshing categories with hulled barley or hulled wheat products or spikelets (semi-cleaned grains) suggests that the free-threshing wheat species may have regularly been sown with these cereals and harvested together as crops. The evidence of ‘unsieved products’ could be the result of missing crop-processing stages or due to a sample composition with the other crops’ cropprocessing products or by-products mixed in. However plant sources for those samples other than crop processing, like fire kindling or dung remains, can also be considered.

Product

Samples with a ratio of rachis fragments to free-threshing grains (FTWR: FTWG) lower than 0,1, which make up 4 % of all analysed samples, have been classed as ‘unsieved’ free-threshing wheat product, combined with products of hulled barley and hulled wheat fine sieve by-products (AD 21 492, AF18 204 and X/Y 20 5) or with hulled wheat spikelets (AG 22 124). These samples appear not to be thoroughly processed; the possible reasons for this could be the mixing of those samples with fine sieve residues or missing crop-processing sequences, as also mentioned by Reed (2012).

Semi-cleaned grains

Unlike the sieved semi-cleaned grains, the samples in this category include unsieved semi-cleaned grains (AD 21 99, AF18 189, Y 20 236, Z 19 312, Z 19 372) and are mostly combined with semi-cleaned grains of hulled barley (Y 20 236 and Z 19 372) or occur together with hulled wheat fine sieve by-products (AD 21 99) or with pulses (e.g., Z 19 312). The co-occurrence of these categories might suggest that samples of unsieved semi-cleaned freethreshing wheat derive from crop-processing residues and, with some supplement of pulses, were probably used as animal fodder. However the presence of dung must be also questioned for such samples, as will be done in the following section ‘analyses of dung-derived seeds’. The sample Y 20 236, which is rich in mineralised seeds, might derive from an animal pen context.

In order to gain a better overview of the samples with freethreshing wheat content, both the ratios of the rachis to the grains and the ratio of the grains to the rachis fragments have been applied, in order to see the distribution of the free-threshing wheat according to occupation period. As can be observed from the data, in the first two occupation periods under consideration, EBA I and EBA II, the abundance of the free-threshing grains is high relative to that of their rachis fragments. With the late phase of EBA II, a visible decline in grains and increase in their rachis fragments is seen. With the early phase of EBA III and until the abandonment of the settlement at the end of the late phase of EBA III, the abundance of both categories shrinks considerably (see Graphs 4.4. and 4.5).

Fine sieving

As in the case of the ‘sieved’ free threshing wheat category, also in the ‘unsieved’ free threshing wheat category only one sample (AD 21 640) was classified as fine sieve by-

46

Analyses

Hulled wheat category As mentioned above in the context of the ratio analysis for crop-processing stages, the grains and the rachis fragments of emmer and einkorn as single- and two-grained forms, have been combined in a hulled wheat category. Both forms of einkorn predominate as much in abundance and as in ubiquity (94% single-grained form and 80% two-grained form) in Küllüoba’s botanical assemblages throughout the occupation periods, with the exception of the latest occupation period, EBA III L, when emmer is predominant (see also Chapter 5). Emmer and einkorn have similar crop-processing requirements as cereals, and therefore they may have been processed together.

EBA I

EBA II

EBA IIL

EBA IIIE

EBA IIIL

Total

FTWG

1529

1433

1513

537

214

5226

FTWR

303

239

1224

193

78

2037

5

6

1,2

2,78

2,7

FTWG / FTWR

Table 4.6. Distribution of the absolute counts for free-threshing wheat grains and their rachis fragments throughout the considered occupation periods of Küllüoba.

1800 1600 1400 1200

Sieved

1000

FTWG

800

As in the case of other sieved cereal categories, a lower ratio of wild/weed to crops (< 1) was observed in the hulled wheat samples, which suggests cleaning by sieving prior to consumption or storage, resulting in minor wild/ weed content. Forty-three percent of all analysed samples are classified as sieved hulled wheats. Among these samples, the products make up the majority, followed by the spikelets and the fine sieve by-products.

FTWR

600 400 200 0 EBA IE

BA IIE

BA IIL

EBA IIIEE

BA IIIL

Graph 4.4. Distribution of the absolute counts for free-threshing wheat grains and their rachis fragments throughout the occupation periods of Küllüoba under consideration.

Product

In the ratio analysis of 100 samples, 30 % were classified as sieved hulled wheat products, with a ratio value of less than 0,6 for the hulled wheat rachis fragment to grains (HWR: HWG). Samples classified as sieved products consist mostly of single- or two-grained einkorn grains like the storage samples AG 22 177 and AG 22 155, followed by emmer grains. A major component (Vicia ervilia) of sample AI 24 67 was excluded from the ratio analysis in order to see the other crop components of the sample, which also contains a considerable number of hulled and distorted wheat grains (Triticum spp.) (see Appendix 4-Ratios); due to almost perfectly cleaned storage, the sample contains no wild/weed seeds. Further information on the sample’s major content, Vicia ervilia, is given in the following Chapter 6 (see Appendix 1-Taxa). Many sieved hulled wheat products also contain free-threshing wheat and hulled barley products (AD 21 365, AG 22 143, AG 22 155, AG 177, AD 23 42, AD 23 50, AA18 299, AH/AI 23 31) and numerous samples of the hulled wheat sieved products are combined with the products of hulled barley (AG 171, AJ 23 89 and Y 20 326).

Total

2308

FTWG 5977

FTWR

Graph 4.5. Absolute counts of the free-threshing wheat and their rachis fragments as percentage occurrences for EBA periods.

hulled wheat species were probably used to supplement animal fodder in the pens. AI 24 67 as a sample of Vicia ervilia storage is combined with the minor component of hulled wheats. Another small sample (AH/AI 23 25) also contains pulses and both samples can be considered as possible ‘maslin’ samples.

Spikelets

According to the ratio values given in detail (see table in appendices), the samples categorised as ‘sieved spikelets’ consist of hulled rachis fragments to hulled wheat grain (HWR: HWG), showing a ratio between 1.6 and 2.1 (see Tables 4.2-4.). Sieved hulled wheat spikelet samples make up 9 % of all analysed samples. The low ratio of wild/ weed seeds to crops (with a value lower than 0, 9) shows that the spikelets in the crop were sieved prior to storage and fewer wild/weed seeds than crop grains are present in the sample. As mentioned by Reed (2012), when rachis fragments have been badly preserved, the ratio of hulled wheat grains (recorded as einkorn) can extend to a value between 0.6 and 1.5.

A relatively high number of the samples (AD 21 492, AG 22 101, AG 22 113, AG 22 118, AG 22 122, AG 22 245, AG 22 275, AD 23 63, AI 24 66, AF 20 226, AF 22 126, AF 22 197) have been classified as consisting only of sieved hulled wheat products. Some of the sieved hulled wheat product samples contains mineralized seeds (AG 22 121, AD 23 20, AF 22 131, AF 22 220, AF 22 240, X 20 71), which might suggest that mineral-rich fluids were present in the contexts from which the samples derive; 47

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba Some samples containing almost entirely sieved hulled wheat spikelet remains were identified (AG 22 78, Y 21 66, AH 23 11, Z 19 419); in some other samples, the relevant category was combined with the products of hulled wheat and barley (AD 23 29 and Z 21 163) or only with the products of free-threshing wheat (AG 22 125). Combinations of the sieved hulled wheat spikelets with semi-cleaned free-threshing wheats and hulled barley products (AD 23 33) and with hulled wheat fine sieve byproducts (AG 22 169) were also observed. According to the listed categories, the combined occurrence of sieved hulled wheat spikelets suggests that the relevant category may have constituted stored grains in spikelets that were processed piecemeal prior to human consumption or possibly added as a kind of admixture into animal fodder.

samples rich in wild/weed seeds could be the result of either the omission of stages from the later processing sequences or of fine sieving residues being mixed with the products (Reed 2012), such as samples deriving from a possible pit context. In the case of Küllüoba, another possibility might be the evidence for dung. The analyses for determining the dung-derived taxa are shown in the following section.

Spikelets

Samples categorised as ‘unsieved spikelets’ consist of a high abundances of both grain and glume base (HWR: HWG), and, like the sieved spikelet samples, show a ratio value between 1.6 and 2.1; however, in contrast to the sieved spikelet samples, these show a high ratio of wild/ weed seeds to crops, with ratios ranging from 1,3 to 7 (see Appendix 4-Ratios). Five samples with relatively low seed amounts consist only of sieved hulled wheat spikelets (AG 22 198, AD 22 78, X 20 70, AC 18 257, Z 19 372). In other samples the unsieved spikelets are combined with the products of the free-threshing wheats (AG 22 124), or free-threshing wheat semi-clean grains (AD 21 99), or with the semi-cleaned grains of free-threshing wheat and hulled barley (AF18 189 and Y 20 236), or only with finesieving of the hulled barley (AB 16 165). Samples X 20 70 and Y 20 236 are relatively rich in mineralised seeds, which could suggest that these samples derive from an animal pen context.

Fine sieving

Samples AA 18 314, AA 20 155, AG 22 23, AD 21/22 445, and X 20 85, classified as sieved fine sieve by-products, make up 5 % of all analysed samples and are predominated by the rachis fragments of the glume wheats rather than the grains (HWR: HWG), with a ratio value higher than 2,2 and poor in wild/weed seeds. This kind of combination of the crop-processing remains suggests that the wild/weed seeds were previously separated from the hulled wheat grains by sieving and then dehusked, with the remains from the dehusking making up the primary components of this category. Sample AG 22 23 might also be categorised as ‘spikelets’, due to the high abundance of distorted wheat grains (Triticum spp.). The sample classified as semi-cleaned threshing wheats and hulled barley (X 20 85) contains a large amount of mineralised seeds, which can be interpreted as evidence of animal pens in this sample’s context (see also see Appendix 4-Ratios). Sample AA 18 314 contains semi-clean hulled barley grains, sample AA 20 155 combines semi-clean hulled barley grains as well as the fine sieving of free-threshing wheats, and sample AD 21/22 445 also contains the products of free-threshing wheat and semi-cleaned hulled barley.

Fine sieving

The samples that are classified as sieved fine sieve byproducts make up 10 % of all analysed samples. The samples containing unsieved hulled wheat fine sieve byproducts show a higher amount of wild/weed seeds and rachis fragments than grains (HWR: HWG), with a ratio value higher than 2,2. This evidence suggests that the samples were not sieved prior to the dehusking process. Some of the unsieved hulled wheat fine-sieving samples consist only of fine-sieving remains (AG 22 191, AG 22 303, AB 16 103, Z 19 393, Z 19 420). Single samples that combine various grains include those with the products of the free-threshing wheats and hulled barley (AD 21 492), with only free-threshing wheat products (AF 18 204), with free-threshing wheat products and semi-cleaned barley (X/Y 20 5), with semi-cleaned hulled barley (AH 18 140), and with the semi-cleaned free-threshing wheat (Z 19 312).

Unsieved As already mentioned in connection with free-threshing and hulled wheats, samples that show a ratio value >1 for the category wild/weed to crops are classified as unsieved hulled wheat samples. The hulled wheat samples classified as ‘unsieved’ make up 23 % of all analysed samples.

Results for hulled wheat category

Product

The results of the ratio analyses show that the majority of the hulled wheat samples consist of sieved products (% 30), followed by the ‘unsieved fine-sieve by-products (10%), and ‘sieved’ and ‘unsieved’ spikelets (both 9%). As expected, samples classified as ‘sieved’ fine-sieve byproducts (5%) and ‘unsieved’ hulled wheat products are rather rare (3%). As indicators of crop-processing stages, both categories could result either from crop-processing stages that were omitted or mixed sample composition

The samples that have been classified as unsieved hulled wheat products show a ratio value of less than 0,6 for hulled wheat rachis fragment to grains (HWR: HWG) but they are rich in wild/weed seeds. Samples AG 22 132 and AG 22 257 are classified only as unsieved hulled wheat products, whereas sample AD 21 640 contains also hulled barley and free-threshing wheat products. As has been mentioned in previous studies, in contrast to the samples that contain ‘sieved’ product, the ‘unsieved’ product 48

Analyses containing crop-processing products or by-products of other crops. However it is necessary to consider plant sources other than crop processing with regard to those samples, like plants collected as kindling or the remains of dung burning. If all the occupation periods are considered together, the higher percentage presence of hulled wheats as products, spikelets (semi-cleaned) and by-products versus the same categories of free-threshing wheat and hulled barley, suggests that einkorn (both single- and twograined forms) and emmer were the predominant cereals in the Küllüoba settlement. The ratio analysis for the hulled wheats categories for all occupation periods under consideration is summarized using bar charts (Graphs 4.6. and 4.7.). The graph shows higher abundances of rachis remains to grains (HWR: HWG) during EBA I, in contrast to the large amount of hulled wheat grains to their rachis fragments during the main occupation phase in EBA II. From the late phase of EBA II until the end of the settlement’s occupation a continuing decline in grain abundances can be observed. The high abundance of the hulled wheat grains in EBA II is determined by the einkorn storage samples (AG 22 177 and AG 22 156). If the abundances of hulled wheat (Graph 4.4.) and free-threshing wheat are compared (see Graph 4.6.), the predominance of hulled wheat versus free-threshing wheat throughout the occupation periods is distinctive. Higher abundances of rachis fragments to grains for EBA I and for the Early and Late Periods of EBA III could suggest that agro-pastoralism was more emphasized than agriculture during these periods. However, it is useful to consider that taphonomic bias and the contextual differences of the samples among the different occupation periods may have influenced the results.

EBA I

EBA II

EBA IIL

HWG

3542

105244

12729

HWR

9183

32796

12391

EBA IIIE

EBA IIIL

Total

2340

740

124595

2761

1418

58549

Table 4.7. Distribution of the absolute counts for hulled wheat grains and their rachis fragments throughout the considered occupation periods of Küllüoba. 120000 100000 80000 60000

HWG HWR

40000 20000 0 EBA IE

BA IIE

BA IILEB

A IIIEEB

A IIIL

Graph 4.6. Distribution of the absolute counts for hulled wheat grains and their rachis fragments in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

Total

62728

HWG 127675

HWR

Graph 4.7. Absolute counts of the hulled wheat and their rachis fragments fragments as percentage occurrences in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

Sieved As with the sieved free-threshing and hulled wheat categories, a lower ratio of wild/weed to crops (< 1) was found in sieved samples of hulled barley, resulting in minor wild/weed content. Eighteen percent of all analysed samples are classified as sieved hulled barley. The majority of the hulled barley samples consist of the products, followed by the semi-cleaned grains and the fine sieve by-products.

Hulled barley category After the hulled and free-threshing species of wheat, hulled barley constitutes the second most important cereal in the Küllüoba botanical assemblages (see also Chapter 5), with a relatively high ubiquity of 70% throughout the analysed samples. Sample AA 18 299 shows the highest abundance for the hulled barley gains and is classified as ‘sieved semi-clean’. Ratio analysis of 100 samples included in the study shows that hulled barley is represented in 25 % of all analysed samples.

Product

Of all analysed samples, 16% are classified as ‘sieved hulled barley products’. In contrast to the samples classified as consisting only of ‘sieved hulled wheat products’, for the hulled barley category the samples classified as products are always combined with the other cereal species. The same treatment has also been noted in section for the samples classified as free-threshing wheat products. Most of the sieved hulled barley product samples are classified as combined with free-threshing and hulled wheat products (AD 21 365, AG 22 143, AG 22 177, AD 23 42, AD 23 50), or with hulled wheat products alone (AG 22 171, AH/ AI 23 31). This kind of evidence of the combined products of different cereal categories (which in

Due to the presence of only the two-grained form of hulled barley in the samples, a ratio of rachis fragments to grains (HBR: HBG) lower than 0,6 can be used as a reference for product, a ratio between 1-1,4 can be suggested for semicleaned grains and a ratio higher than 1,5 given for fine sieve by-product (see Table 4.5.). As in the case for the free-threshing wheat, depending on the thoroughness of the crop processing and taphonomy, an overlap between the categories ‘semi-cleaned’ grains and ‘fine sieve byproducts’ should be considered. 49

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba some samples occurred in small quantities) could suggest that these cereals might have been stored together after processing. An extra category was introduced in the ratio analysis in order to understand the possible co-processing of hulled barley and free-threshing wheat, as will be discussed in a later section. Both samples (AA 18 299 and Y 20 326) also contain semi-cleaned free-threshing wheats and hulled wheat products that show relatively high amounts of mineralised seeds (see Appendix 4-Ratios). This evidence suggests that the contexts for these samples may have been animal pens and that probably dung-derived seeds were collected from such contexts. Similar evidence is observable for the samples AD 23 29, Z 21 163 and Z 19 419, which are rich in mineralised seeds and consist of hulled wheat spikelets and free-threshing wheat products, and therefore the contexts for these samples can also be suggested as animal pens and the dung material obtained there. Other categories co-occur in only three samples: sample AA 18 314 contains ‘hulled wheat fine-sieve byproducts’ and ‘hulled wheat spikelets’; sample AD 23 33 contains ‘semi-cleaned grains of the free-threshing wheat’; and sample AG 22 169 combine ‘sieved hulled barley products’ with ‘hulled wheat by-products’ and is also rich in Vicia ervilia seeds.

sample AA 20 155 may derive from an animal fodder context, but the presence of only one mineralised seed is weak evidence for suggesting an animal pen. Sample X 20 85 contains hulled wheat by-products, semi-cleaned free-threshing wheats and a few mineralised seeds, and therefore could derive from a temporary animal pen or dung collected from a similar context.

Fine sieving

A ratio value higher than 1,5 of hulled barley rachis to hulled barley grains (HBR: HBG) is used to designate the category of hulled barley ‘sieved fine sieve by-products’. Sample AF18 198 is also classified as free-threshing wheat product and sieved hulled wheat by-product. Due to its mineralized seeds content, the sample shows evidence of having derived from animal pens or from dung collected from such a context, and the free-threshing product may have been part of the animal fodder.

Unsieved As in the calculation of the wheat categories, for hulled barley, a wild/weed to crops ratio higher than ‘1’was used to specify ‘unsieved’ samples. Nineteen percent of the analysed samples are classified as ‘unsieved’ hulled barley. The majority of the hulled barley samples consist of semicleaned grains, followed by products and fine sieve byproducts.

Semi-cleaned grains

As in the free-threshing wheat category, the term ‘semicleaned’ grain is used instead of the term ‘spikelet’ for the hulled wheats, because the dispersal unit for hulled barley is a ‘floret’ and, unlike the hulled wheats, the grains of hulled barley are not tightly protected by glumes; consequently, the grains can be threshed like those of free-threshing wheat and the rachis can be separated from the grains in the earlier stages of crop processing. The grains of hulled barley can be stored for animal or human consumption in threshed form; however, even if the rachis has been separated by threshing and winnowing, the grains remain in their ‘husks’ (e.g., pallea and lemma) and must be pounded for dehusking prior to human consumption, as with the preparation of the ‘pearl barley’ and for flour production. However, it has been recorded that dehusking is not necessary for brewing beer or similar fermented fluids (Cappers and Neef 2012). Just as with the semicleaned free-threshing wheat samples, due to their similar threshing requirements the semi-cleaned hulled barley samples can be considered to be not thoroughly threshed or possibly samples of products mixed with fine sieve byproducts. The samples classified as ‘semi-cleaned’ hulled barley contain a high proportion of rachis fragments as well as grains, with a ratio of between 1 and 1,4 for the category HBR: HBG (see Table 4.5.). Three samples are classified as containing sieved semi-cleaned hulled barley grains (AA 20 155, AD 21/22 445 and X 20 85). As a rich sieved sample with high seed density, sample AD 21/22 445 appears to be combined with free-threshing wheat products and hulled wheat by-products and also contains a few mineralised seeds. As already noted in connection with the sieved free-threshing and hulled wheat by-products,

Product

As mentioned above in relation to the free-threshing and hulled wheat categories, the samples classified as ‘unsieved products’ may represent product samples that were not thoroughly sieved or products mixed with fine sieve by-products. The rich sample AD 21 640, as already mentioned in the discussion of the free-threshing wheat and hulled wheat categories, also contains unsieved products of both. Another rich sample, AD 21 492, consists of freethreshing wheat product and hulled wheat fine sieving, and as mentioned above, may have derived from animal pens.

Semi-cleaned grains

The category ‘semi-cleaned’ hulled barley shows ratios of rachis fragments to grains of between 1 and 1,4 (HBR: HBG). Hulled barley semi-cleaned grains co-occur in sample X/Y 20 5 with hulled wheat fine sieve by-products and free-threshing wheat products. Three samples have a similar sample composition (AF18 189, Y 20 236 and Z 19 372), consisting of hulled wheat spikelets and freethreshing wheat semi-cleaned grains. Samples AF18 189 and Y 20 236 also contain mineralized seeds that may have derived from animal pens.

Fine sieving

In the hulled barley category, a ratio value higher than 1,5 of hulled barley rachis to hulled barley grains (HBR: HBG) was used to define the ‘unsieved fine sieve by-products’. In the sample composition of AB16 165, unsieved hulled 50

Analyses barley fine sieve by-products co-occur with the hulled wheat products. The evidence of dung mixed in this sample’s composition will be questioned.

Results for hulled barley category

EBA I

EBA II

EBA IIL

EBA IIIE

EBA IIIL

Total

HBG

1383

907

4556

623

170

7639

HBR

9

154

881

202

25

1271

Table 4.8. Distribution of the absolute counts for hulled barley grains and their rachis fragments throughout the considered occupation periods of Küllüoba.

Ratio analyses show that the hulled barley samples mostly contain sieved products (% 16), followed by the ‘unsieved’ (4%) and ‘sieved semi-cleaned grains (2%). As with the free-threshing wheat samples, the hulled barley samples classified as ‘sieved’ and ‘unsieved’ fine-sieve by-products are rare (1%). Similar to the evidence for free-threshing wheats, the low occurrence of fine-sieve by-products suggest that hulled barley may have been processed outside the sampled occupation areas. The samples containing semi-cleaned grains for both the ‘sieved’ and ‘unsieved’ categories can be interpreted as having been incompletely processed. The co-occurrence of the samples containing hulled barley products or semi-cleaned grains combined with the free-threshing categories of products or spikelets (semi-cleaned grains) suggests that hulled barley may have been grown and processed together with the hulled and free-threshing wheats. The evidence of ‘unsieved products’ (2 %) is rather weak and, as mentioned earlier in relation to the wheat categories, may be the result of missing crop-processing stages. Alternative plant sources for the wild/weed taxa in such samples, like dung remains, can be also considered. It has been argued that the ‘unsieved products’ of the cereals might constitute animal fodder, because it can be expected that crops intended for human consumption are more thoroughly processed than the crops intended for animal fodder. However, on the basis of ethnographic studies the evidence for this appears to be rather weak in case of hulled barley, which was very probably used as animal fodder. This evidence supports the thesis that hulled barley may have been partly cultivated with hulled and free-threshing wheat.

5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500

HBG

2000

HBR

1500 1000 500 0 EBAI

EBAI IE

BA IILE

BA IIIEEB

AI IIL

Graph 4.8. Distribution of the absolute counts for hulled barley grains and their rachis fragments in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

Total

1498

HBG 8432

HBR

Graph 4.9. Absolute counts of hulled barley grains and their rachis fragments as percentage occurrences in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

most abundant cereal categories with the highest ubiquity, might be considered as strong evidence for broad spectrum crop cultivation. However, during EBA II L occupation there is evidence of Vicia ervilia predominating in the crop assemblages, not only in ubiquity, but also due to the discovery of the Vicia storage sample (AI 24 67). The possibility that an agricultural ‘shift’ may have been occurred during this period due to the deterioration of the climatic and soil conditions will be considered and argued in Chapter 7.

The bar charts for hulled barley show that the rachis fragments appear to be almost absent during EBA I, although the evidence is probably influenced by preservation bias (Graph 4.8.). A relative decline in the abundances of hulled barley can be observed for EBA II period. In the late phase of EBA II, both grain and rachis fragment categories appear to have high abundances and ubiquity throughout the sample compositions.

Distorted and undistorted wheat rich categories Due to strong deformation, a high number of wheat grains could not be identified on the species level and have been categorised as ‘Triticum spp.’, as previously mentioned in. The grains of hulled wheat and free-threshing wheat have been added to the calculations of the categories ‘distorted wheat rich’ and ‘undistorted wheat rich’ (see Appendix 4-Ratios). For the ratio of Triticum spp. to hulled wheat grains and free-threshing wheat (Triticum spp.: HWG+FTWG), a simple ratio threshold was applied for the samples rich in ‘distorted’ (ratio values of >1) or ‘undistorted’ (ratio value 20%), and the acreages cannot be cultivated in a fully mechanised way (Karagöz 1996). The average yield from such small fields sown with einkorn and emmer is recorded to be approximately 600 kg/ha (Karagöz 1996). In addition, ethnological records from the small farming communities in Turkey’s Black Sea region report that although the free-threshing wheat species are still cultivable despite the limited possibilities for fully mechanised farming due to high slopes, the farmers prefer to cultivate the hulled wheats due to ‘taste preferences’, which are interpreted as being connected with their ‘cultural identity’ (Ertuğ 2004, Filipovic 2012b). In a few villages of the Kastamonu region along the Black Sea, einkorn cultivation is conducted for flour and bulgur production, while emmer cultivation appears to have been gradually abandoned in this region and the cultivation of einkorn has also declined, probably due to the difficult dehusking process in comparison with

Domesticated einkorn was formerly grown for bread making, and is nowadays sporadically cultivated as ‘relic crop’ in some western Mediterranean countries (France, Spain and Italy), as well as in the Near East, North Africa and Sweden for porridge and similar dishes, and is used also as grain forage (Jaradat et al. 1996, Knüpffer 2009). Einkorn is known to be cold-resistant and suited to heavy rainfall, and was cultivated in Europe until the beginning of 20th century. Despite its properties, its cultivation in central Europe has almost been abandoned, probably due to its poor yield in comparison to free-threshing wheats, and it is now grown only in southern Italy and some mountainous provinces of Spain like Asturias (PeñaChocarro 1996, Peña-Chocarro and Zapata-Peña 2003, Laghetti et al. 2009). It has also been recorded that einkorn has high water requirements and is drought-susceptible, due to the weak water uptake capability of its root systems, which is observable in the botanical assemblages of EBA UpperMesopotamian and north Syrian sites as the possible disadvantage of einkorn against the polyploidy wheats (Riehl et al. 2008, Riehl 2008b). Considering einkorn’s other growing requirements and conditions in comparison to the other wheats, it is also known to be resistant to cold and rust diseases (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Modern case studies show that einkorn is still cultivated in modern times in marginal areas with salinity problems (Harris et al. 1993).

125

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

Today in Turkey einkorn is cultivated in northwest and northern Anatolia, especially in the Kastamonu region (Perrino et al. 1996, Karagöz 1996, Ertuğ 2004, Filipovic 2012a). Depending on the region, the Turkish word ‘siyez’ may refer to emmer and also einkorn; in the Kastamonu region, emmer has the local Turkish name ‘gernek’. Both einkorn and emmer are used for human consumption in the form of flour or bulgur and as animal fodder (Karagöz 1996, Ertuğ 2004, Filipovic 2012b). In Kastamonu, through a local festival organization and state subventions, the farmers have been encouraged to cultivate these neglected wheat species (Filipovic 2012b). Considering generally einkorn’s preparation forms and nutritional properties, experimental studies show that einkorn flour is principally suitable for yeast-risen or leavened bread (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, Ertuğ 2012, Filipovic 2012b). According to its chemical analysis, in comparison to durum wheats, einkorn contains more proteins and soluble sugars, and significantly higher levels of phosphorus and potassium (Abdel-Aal et al. 1995). Einkorn also has higher riboflavin, pyridoxine and beta-carotene compared to the other wheats, and therefore is regarded to be promising for the non-allergic dietary requirements of patients with celiac disease (Abdel-Aal et al. 1995, Castagna et al. 1996)

and the dorsal side round but not pronounced like the single grained one (Cappers and Neef 2012). Proceeding from knowledge about the wild progenitor, there have been different approaches to the two different wild einkorn forms, namely, T. monococcum ssp. aegilopoides and T. monococcum ssp. thaoudar, with some botanists treating them as separate subspecies or as separate species (Schiemann 1948, Kreuz and Boenke 2002). The terms ‘single- (or one-) grained’and ‘two-grained’have been used in the botanical literature in order to define the variations in numbers of grains per spikelet. When the presence of single- and two-grained forms of wild einkorn was observed in early botanical works, it was described as race, subspecies or separate species. The single grain form is labelled ‘race’ by Thellung (1930) and named ‘Boeoticum Boiss. ’, while the two-grained one was named ‘Thaoudar Reuter ’. The same wild forms are denoted by Schiemann (1948) as separate subspecies, namely, the single-grained form as T. boeticum ssp. aegilopoides and the two-grained one as T. boeticum ssp. thoudar. Evidence of the co-occurrence of both single- and twograined forms of einkorn in prehistoric settlements has been relatively rare in the archaeobotanical assemblages in the Near East (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, van Zeist and Waterbolk-van Roooijen 1996, Pasternak 1998, Willcox 2001), in Balkan sites (Körber-Grohne 1987, Kroll 1992, Marinova 2006) and in sites in Europe (Maier 2001, Kreuz and Boenke 2002). The majority of the archaeobotanical analyses of the two-grained form focus on morphological descriptions (Kroll 1992).

Recent genetic studies in botany suggest that domesticated einkorn originated in southeastern Turkey near the Karacadağ area (Heun et al. 1997, Kilian et al. 2007), although there are some alternative arguments that the first centre of domestication must have been in the southern Levant (M.K. Jones 1998). According to genetic studies, only one race ( ) of wild einkorn (T. boeticum) can be traced back as the progenitor of today’s domesticate einkorn (Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum) (Kilian et al. 2007b, Kilian et al. 2009). However, untypically for the expected effect of domestication, the haplotype and nucleotide diversity of cultivated einkorn are higher than the race- of wild einkorn. This genetic evidence suggests that domesticate einkorn may not have been influenced by the ‘bottleneck effect’ of the domestication process that normally leads to gene reduction. According to the genetic evidence, domestication events are thought to have occurred in several places within the core area of the Fertile Crescent, which may have allowed genetic exchanges between domesticated einkorn and stands of wild einkorn populations and thus a genetic variation of the haplotypes (Kilian et al. 2007, Kilian et al. 2009).

Modern studies show that the single- and two-grained forms of wild einkorn are defined as two geographically different major races (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). The relatively small one-grained form is characteristic of the Balkans and western Anatolia, while the two-seeded form is a larger form that grows mostly in southern Anatolia, Iraq and Iran where there are summer dry seasons; meanwhile, morphological intergradations and intermediates of both types occur as part of mixed populations throughout Anatolia (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Nesbitt 2001, Zohary et al. 2012). Due to the occurrences of genetically intermediate types determined by spontaneous gene mutations, it has been argued that the separation of one-grained and two-grained forms on a subspecies level is inappropriate (van Slageren 1994, Willcox 1999). Archaeobotanists argue that the ‘domesticated type’ of two-grained einkorn must have been independently domesticated from the ‘wild-twograined’ einkorn (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, Kreuz and Boenke 2002, Fuller pers. comm.). This hypothesis is founded on the predominant occurrence of two-grained einkorn as abundance and ubiquity in the archaeobotanical assemblages from single sites, and interpreted to signify that the predominant occurrence of two-gained form cannot be reduced to evidence of ‘spontaneous gene mutation’ (Kreuz and Boenke 2002). Local domestication

Concerning the phenomenon ‘two-grained einkorn’, only a brief overview of the studies that discuss the single- and two-grained forms is given here. In einkorn spikelets, mostly only one floret is fertile and produces a grain (or caryopses), but types with two fertile florets exist that are called ‘two-grained’ einkorn (Davis 1985, van Slageren 1994). As regards grain morphology, the single-grained form is laterally flattened and both dorsal and ventral sides are rounded, whereas in the two-grained form both grains are flattened not laterally, are on the ventral side, 126

Cultivation

of two-grained einkorn from the western Anatolian wild two-grained einkorn stands has been considered to be likely, based on the predominating evidence of two-grained einkorn in western Anatolia and Greece, which contrasts with the predominating evidence of the one-grained form in the Fertile Crescent and southeastern Anatolia (van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres 1982, Nesbitt and Samuel 1996).

Due to the general lack of archaeobotanical analyses from west-central Anatolia, the predominant evidence of einkorn for Bronze Age Küllüoba must be considered in light of the archaeobotanical evidence from more distant regions, like northern Mesopotamia, Greece and the Balkans. Archaeobotanical evidence from Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria suggests that einkorn appears to have declined from EBA onwards and almost disappeared from the archaeobotanical records during the MBA and LBA (Riehl et al. 2008, Riehl 2008b). In EBA Troy, einkorn appears not to play an important role in comparison to emmer (Riehl 1999). However in the Balkans and Greece the cultivation of einkorn is recorded to have continued also during EBA and later periods (Valamoti 2003, Halstead 1996). Especially in northern Greece, einkorn was predominant in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages; archaeological contexts suggest that einkorn was the staple food for human consumption, and used as well as animal fodder (Valamoti 2003). The predominance of einkorn at Bronze Age Assiros has been interpreted as surplus production for provision against famine and stored for exchange and as a prestige good acquired from other regions (Halstead 1994). Similarly, the evidence of the predominance of einkorn at Bronze Age Kastanas has been interpreted as an indication of exchange with the Mycenaean culture (Kroll 1983).

Modern experiments with growing wild einkorn grains suggest that the plants’ selection pressure and chemical inhibition mechanism for grain development under ‘stress’ conditions can be decisive for the development of one- or two-grained forms from the same plant (Wilcox 1999, Nesbitt 2001). Apparently the change of sowing time for wild einkorn, from spring to autumn, might result in single- or two-grained forms from seedlings of the same plants (Willcox 1999). Germination tests of two-grained wild einkorn in laboratory conditions with periodic cycles of 14 days also result in the one-grained form, which can be explained by the stress conditions in laboratory that result in the inhibition of the second grain and the development of only a single grain. With regard to the two-grained wild einkorn, it has also been argued that selection pressure could have been responsible for the common occurrence of the ‘one-grained’ domesticated form, which was probably selected by virtue of factors like harvesting, crop processing and sowing during the course of the domestication process, due to its larger spikelets in preference to the ‘two-grained’ one with smaller grains (Nesbitt 2001).

Einkorn in Küllüoba Einkorn with both single- and two-grained forms was the dominant cereal in Küllüoba’s archaeobotanical assemblages in all periods, as shown with the analysis of the sample compositions throughout the occupation periods in Chapter 4. Few einkorn storage contexts at Küllüoba consist of relatively well-sieved grains. Threshed monocrop T. monococcum storages in the AG 22 building were probably prepared for transport or trade by exchange, because transporting them as whole spikelets would have used too much space and weight. Hulled cereals are generally completely dehusked piecemeal by pounding prior to the consumption of the grains (Cappers and Neef 2012), and the necessity of parching prior to pounding has been questioned (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996).

Aside from the experiments on how the inhibition mechanism affects einkorn’s grain development (a trait that is based on a chemical mechanism), there are no further genetics-based studies that look at whether the two-grained form of wild einkorn is genetically different from the single-grained form, despite the theories that the occurrence of the ‘two-grained form is based on ‘gene mutations’ within the same parent plant or with a possible spontaneous hybridisation with Aegilops (van Slageren 1994). Hybridization with the Aegilops species seems to be unlikely because the experiments to hybridize einkorn directly with some Aegilops species result mostly in lethal or semi-lethal hybrids that cannot survive (Sears 1944). Therefore, two-grained einkorn either cannot constitute an ‘alien species’ that is mostly sterile or else the hybrids are unviable. Considering the evidence discussed above concerning the scarcity of chemical and genetic analysis, archaeobotanists and taxonomists continue to debate whether the single- and two-grained forms of cultivated einkorn derive from a single species or originate from two different cultivated/wild species that differ genetically. Therefore it remains unclear whether the single- and two-grained forms should be handled as separate species, subspecies or only as intraspecific variations. Even the taxonomical separation of both forms does not seem to be genetically founded, because the two-grained form cannot be attested as genetically divergent from the one-grained form.

A primary habitat of a small wild einkorn population has been documented in the vicinity of Konya, on the volcanic mountain of Karadağ, but due to genetic evidence, this population cannot be regarded as potentially local domestication (Hillman and Davies 1990, Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, Nesbitt 2001). Karadağ population does not belong to einkorn’s primary distribution area in the southeast Turkey/Karacadağ region. In light of this evidence, it can be assumed that the domesticated einkorn at Küllüoba derives from the ‘primary distribution’ area in southeastern Anatolia. The past distribution area of the genetically different Central Anatolian einkorn populations is unknown, due to very scarce archaeobotanical analyses 127

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

‘thickness’ are higher than those of the emmer and bread/ durum wheats. Due to the multivariate nature of the grain measurements ‘thickness’, ‘width’ and ‘length’ for each grain, they can be plotted into correspondence analyses, in order to see the differences and similarities of the measurements among the wheat categories.

SPECIES Aestiv-durum

M.2 seed-dicoccum

Monococcum Mon.2 seed

Mon-dicoccum

0.15

Dicoccum

-0.15

The results of the CA show that the wheat grains in the taxa category ‘T. aestivum/durum’ bread/durum wheat) are clearly separated from the grains of the other Triticum based on the grain measurements. T. monococcum (singlegrained einkorn) and T. dicoccum (emmer) show up as two distinct categories in their measurements, but, based on the measurements, the ‘in-between’ category ‘T.monococcum/ dicoccum’ is situated between them. The overlapping area between the taxa categories T. monococcum (single-grained einkorn) and ‘T.monococcum/dicoccum’ (einkorn/emmer) is remarkable, and suggests that many of the measured seeds in the ‘T. monococcum/dicoccum’ category are morphologically more similar to einkorn than to emmer.

-02 03

0 0

Graph 5.1. Distribution of the whole wheat taxa categories based on the measurements of ‘thickness’, ‘width’ and ‘length’.

and a lack of botanical surveys in Central Anatolia. Therefore it can only be speculated whether in EBA central Anatolian forms of einkorn were distributed also in the Eskişehir region. In view of sporadic occurrences of hybridisations among domesticates, it can be assumed that weedy or wild forms may have been responsible for einkorn diversity in Küllüoba. As mentioned in the previous section, it is impossible to determine whether the occurrence of the two-seeded form of einkorn in Küllüoba, especially during EBA II period, may have been the result of a change in sowing time (e.g., moving the common sowing period for wheats from autumn to spring) or other factors.

Considering both einkorn forms, T. monococcum (singlegrained) and T. monococcum two-grained, their relatively separate occurrences on the diagram (Graph 5.1.) are determined by the different measurements of the ‘width’ and ‘thicknesses’ of the grains. It is remarkable to observe that the grains of two-grained einkorn appear closer to the grains of emmer (T. dicoccum), due to similar measurements in ‘width’ and ‘thickness’ in both categories, whereas the emmer grains generally show higher measurements in ‘length’. The majority of the grains belonging to the ‘in-between’ category ‘T. monococcum two-grained/ dicoccum’ are scattered near the plots of T. dicoccum and T. monococcum two-grained. Some of the grains that belong to the ‘in-between’ categories may derive from the basal and upper spikelets of emmer and einkorn. Studies show that morphological variation can also result from the grains’ different locations within the same spike. The basal spikelet of emmer can produce only a single grain, which is similar in appearance to einkorn (Cappers and Neef 2012). As noted above, the evidence suggests that the morphological similarities and differences of the einkorn and emmer categories can be argued objectively based on grain measurements.

Nevertheless, the intraspecific variation and morphological diversity of the einkorn grains from Küllüoba is remarkably high, as recorded by the grain measurements (see Graph 5.1.). Many samples have forms that are morphologically ‘in-between’ einkorn and emmer, so it is only possible to identify them as einkorn/emmer. Two ‘in-between’ categories have been suggested: the first one, ‘T. monococcum ssp. monococcum/T. turgidum ssp. dicoccon’, refers to the grains that share the morphology and measurements of one-grained einkorn and emmer, whereas the second category, ‘T. monococcum ssp. twograined /T. turgidum ssp. dicoccon’, represents the grains that have the morphological characteristics of both two-grained einkorn and emmer. In order to present the morphological character of each wheat category, 30 grains from each category were selected for measurements of ‘thickness’, ‘width’ and ‘length’. The measurements were made according to seed anatomy criteria, and so the measurements for ‘width’ correspond to the widest place taken from the ventral side, and the ‘thickness’ are taken from the ‘lateral’side and corresponds to the measurements from the highest point on the dorsal side to the ventral side. Therefore, despite the ‘flattened’ appearance of the one-grained einkorn grains, the measurements for their

Comparing Graphs 5.2. and 5.3., it is apparent that during EBA II the two-grained form was three times more common than the single-grained form. The evidence of the high abundances of one-grained and two-grained forms found in each of the storage contexts in AG 22 177, AG 22 155 and AG 22 156 suggests that both forms could derive from a single harvest, probably from the same or nearby fields. The predominating evidence of einkorn versus emmer and free-threshing wheats at EBA Küllüoba might be interpreted as the inhabitants’ objective preference for cultivating it, due to its adaptability for cold climate conditions, disease resistance and its suitability for saline soils. However the relevance of these aspects would have 128

Cultivation

been of secondary importance if the inhabitants’ cultural preferences, such as taste and traditional forms of food preparation, which can be defined as part of their cultural identity, played a more important role. Considering climate conditions in Küllüoba today, it is possible that also during EBA the average annual precipitation was sufficient for dry-farming einkorn, and that, due to einkorn’s drought susceptibility, in years of drought risk the water supply for einkorn may have come from the stream or else it was planted in the fields along the nearby stream. Because einkorn is recorded to be relatively salt-resistant, the salt saturation of the irrigated fields (indicated by the high ubiquity of Salsola species), may not have constituted a problem for the cultivation continuity of einkorn. The relatively cold winters in the Eskişehir region would also not have been a problem for autumn sowing of the relatively cold-resistant einkorn.

T. monoc. ssp. m onococcum 34523 15206 3351 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

1172

146

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.2. Relative abundance of single-grained forms of Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum from the analysed occupation periods at Küllüoba.

T. monococcum two-grained

However, as mentioned in previous sections, it can be argued for the presence of two-grained einkorn, especially its predominant occurrence during EBA II, that spring sowing may have been practiced. Evidence of the wellcleaned or semi-cleaned products in einkorn storages suggests that einkorn could have been stored also as whole spikelets, after the fine-sieving of the weed seeds. As illustrated in detail in Chapter 4, depending on the archaeological contexts, einkorn products might constitute food storages, seedlings for the next year or animal fodder.

109050

1113 EBA I

EBA II

9267

355

75

EBA II L

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.3. Relative abundance of two-grained forms of Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum from the analysed occupation periods at Küllüoba.

Emmer

4.0

Based on phylogenetic analysis, two wild races of emmer have been suggested. The southwestern race was distributed in today’s Syria, Israel and Lebanon, whereas the northeastern wild emmer race was distributed in southeast Anatolia, Iraq and Iran (Kilian et al. 2009, Zohary et al. 2012). The northeastern race is considered to be the progenitor of domesticated emmer (Kilian et al. 2009). As with einkorn, the Karacadağ region is also posited as the centre of distribution for emmer, from Asia to Europe and Africa (Dubcovsky and Dvorak 2007). Genetic research suggests that similar to the evidence for einkorn, the bottleneck effect of domestication for T. turgidum ssp. dicoccon was relatively low, which means that the number of genetic similarities between the wild progenitor and domestic emmer is relatively high (Kilian et al. 2009).

Samples EBA III L

22

62492 34914 4468

EBA III E EBA II L EBA II EBA I

14 997

15

51

35 1058 58 1380 93 6507 39 83 28 61 401 21 63 58 28 53 31 43 173 18

5058

Ethnographic studies in Iran show that the differentiation between emmer and spelt rachis fragments can be problematic: in the case of the wedge-shaped disarticulation of spelt rachis fragments (spikelet forks), distinguishing between emmer and spelt is almost impossible on a morphological basis (Kuckuck and Schieman 1957, Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). This ethnographic approach suggests that the difficulties in distinguishing between emmer and spelt rachis may be the main reason why spelt is not considered to be evident at Near Eastern sites.

85

-4.0

17

-1.0

2.5

Graph 5.4. Triticum monococcum two-grained symbol plot. Ordination diagram with sample attribute, axes 1x2 (CA).

129

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

from EBA II L onwards in the botanical assemblages, and it becomes the predominant wheat only during the late occupation period of EBA III. As was illustrated in Chapter 4, neither storage nor pure emmer product samples were observed. It is hard to interpret the predominance of emmer during EBA Late because the botanical evidence in general is rather weak in comparison to previous occupation periods. Without supporting evidence from further analysis on botanical and soil samples, it can only be speculated whether the increasing aridity from EBA II L onwards, which probably roughly corresponds to the 4200 BP event, might have led the inhabitants to produce more emmer than einkorn, due to emmer’s better drought tolerance or the progressive salinization of the fields as a result of intensive irrigation in the previous occupation periods.

T. turgidum ssp. dicoccon 5820

4697

971 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

821

541

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.5. Distribution of absolute counts of emmer grains in EBA periods at Küllüoba. Supporting this argument, it has been suggested that due to spelt’s ‘emmer-like’ spikelet forks, emmer finds may be overrepresented at many Near Eastern sites. Indeed a considerable part of these finds may constitute the rachis fragments of spelt, and therefore a re-examination of emmer finds from Central Anatolia using the secure identifications of spelt from Europe and Transcaucasia might shed light on the origin of spelt domestication (Cappers pers. comm.). With regard to the emmer evidence at Küllüoba, the possibility cannot be excluded that in the reality some of the emmer rachis fragments belong to spelt.

Free-threshing wheats Archaeobotanical evidence and genetic studies postulate that domesticated hexaploid T. aestivum ssp. aestivum (bread wheat) occurred as a hybrid of two donors, tetraploid emmer wheat and wild goat grass Aegilops tauschii (van Slageren 1994, Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). It has been shown that the distribution of wild emmer in the Fertile Crescent was subdivided into the southwestern and the northeastern expansion areas. Taxonomists and geneticists assume that wild emmer populations in the northeastern area may have overlapped with the distribution area of Aegilops tauschii, from which derive the D genomes of bread wheat and its properties of cold-resistance (van Slageren 1994, Zohary and Hopf 2000, Kilian et al. 2009, Zohary et al. 2012). The results of genetic studies show that T. urartu, a wild diploid species without domesticated forms, is the donor of the A genomes of all tetraploid and hexaploid wheats (Dvorak et al. 1993, Nesbitt 2001, Kilian et al. 2009).

Looking at its growing properties and demands as a wheat species, emmer is recorded as adapted to cultivation even in poor soils, and is relatively resistant to fungal diseases, pests and moisture in storage facilities (Hillman 1984, Riehl 2008b). Therefore, even if only in limited regions, emmer is still cultivated today in mountainous areas in Anatolia (Kastamonu region) and Europe (e.g., Italy) for its ability to grow in spite of shallow and poor soils and for its resistance to fungal diseases (Ertuğ 2004, Laghetti et al. 2009, Filipovic 2012b). Ancient races of emmer have also been considered to be relatively resistant to saline conditions (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Emmer is recorded to be the most abundant wheat at Mesopotamian sites during the Bronze Ages (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Archaeobotanical evidence for emmer cultivation suggests that emmer was not only cultivated as a monocrop, but was also cropped ‘mixed’, as it appears together with spelt wheat in storage facilities (Halstead 1994). In northern Syria and Upper Mesopotamia, emmer is recorded in low abundances for EBA, but occurs with high ubiquity throughout the botanical assemblages from different sites (Riehl 2008b).

In this work, the taxa category T. aestivum/durum refers to the grains of both hexaploid T. aestivum ssp. aestivum (bread wheat) and tetraploid T. turgidum ssp. durum (durum wheat) wheats, due to the ‘inseparability’ of the grains based on morphological criteria, as mentioned in Chapter 3. Botanists report that the difficulty of distinguishing between the grains of bread wheat and durum wheat based on grain morphology lead to problems in identifying both wheats (Hillman 2001, Cappers and Neef 2012, Zohary et al. 2012). Therefore the archaeobotanical evidence of free-threshing wheats is relatively ambiguous, and this ambiguity influences interpretations of the economy of the ancient farming communities. The rachis fragments of bread and durum wheats are generally separable, based on morphological criteria, but they are underrepresented in the records at many archaeological sites, determined in part by the taphonomic differences of free-threshing wheat rachis that disadvantage it as a form of preservation (Boardman and Jones 1990), but also due to differences

In dietary quality, modern experiments show that, in comparison to einkorn, emmer flour is more suitable for baking yeast-risen bread (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Although emmer appears to be a more suitable wheat than einkorn in terms of drought-resistance and salt-tolerance, and despite emmer’s occurrence with high ubiquities (73%) throughout all EBA periods in Küllüoba, solely a slight increase of emmer can be observed in abundance 130

Cultivation

in crop-processing requirements (Hillman 1984c, Cappers and Neef 2012). Bread wheat is known to be more drought-susceptible than durum wheat (Riehl 2007, Riehl 2008b). Durum wheat is stated to be better suited to drier environmental conditions than bread wheat and can grow on poorer soils (McCorriston 1998). Archaeobotanical records of the Bronze Age settlements in Khabur valley and Upper Mesopotamia suggest that the evidence of free-threshing wheat declines with the increasing aridity from EBA to MBA periods, probably due to their droughtsusceptibility (Riehl 2008b).

T 4745

4619

2527

EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

537

220

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graphs 5.6. Distribution of the grains of bread/durum wheat category in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

The relatively easy processing requirements and high yield capacity of free-threshing wheats characterize them as the most important wheat species in the agriculture of the modern times. In comparison to hulled wheats, due to the absence of tight glumes, free-threshing wheats can easily be threshed from their rachis fragments without the need for a second threshing and additional pounding (Hillman 1984a, Hillman 1984b, Cappers and Neef 2012, Zohary et. al. 2012). Today, food production from bread wheat is manifold; the flour has a high yeast quality and is suitable for bread production, the grains can also be roasted (Hillman, 1984c, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997). Durum wheat flour is recorded to be weak for yeast-risen bread baking, while it is suitable for groats and ground wheat like ‘bulgur’ and also for the conservation of surplus milk products in the form of a stewed dough-cheese mixture (Charles 1984a; Hillman 1984b, Hillman 1984c). Today, durum is known to be the major wheat species of commercial importance for macaroni production (Charles 1984a).

T. turgidum ssp. durum (RF) 567 233 60 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

133

86

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.7. Distribution of rachis fragments of T. turgidum ssp. durum in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

In EBA periods at Küllüoba, the overall representation of the grains of the bread and durum wheats is lower than those of the hulled wheats. Due to the inseparability of the bread and durum grains based on grain morphology, the distribution of the rachis fragments of bread and durum wheat can be considered instead. During EBA I and in the last two occupation periods at Küllüoba, durum wheat rachis fragments have higher abundances and presence in comparison to bread wheat rachis fragments. In the early and late periods of EBA II, the rachis fragments of bread wheat occur with higher abundance and presence throughout the samples. The direct evidence of the botanical remains suggests that the cultivation of free-threshing wheats was of secondary importance in comparison to hulled wheats. However, it must be considered that the unidentified distorted Triticum grains constitute an important proportion of the recovered wheat grains as a whole, and a considerable number of them may belong to the ‘free-threshing wheat’ category, as determined by taphonomic differences in charring for free-threshing and hulled wheats (Boardman and Jones 1990). Therefore, even though no direct storage contexts for free-threshing wheats have yet been recorded, it is necessary to set this ‘negative evidence’ aside and to consider the possibility that both free-threshing wheats may likely have played a more important role in human consumption than indicated

688

49 EBA I

179

EBA II

EBA II L

65

32

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.8. Distribution of rachis fragments of T. aestivum ssp. aestivum in EBA periods at Küllüoba by the direct botanical evidence. The possibility that the free-threshing wheats at Küllüoba may have been brought from other settlements seems less likely; even though their rachis remains are much lower in abundance than those of the hulled wheats and despite the possible taphonomic bias shown by experimental studies (Boardman and Jones 1990), they are represented in the botanical samples with relatively high ubiquity. Comments on wheat cultivation Archaeobotanical approaches have reported that, despite the presence of free-threshing wheats together with hulled 131

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

is much too scarce to be able to understand EBA farmers’ agricultural decisions with regard to cereal cultivation and the possible continuity or discontinuity of trends that occurred from the beginning of cereal cultivation until the end of the Bronze Age.

4546 1383

EBA I

907 EBA II

EBA II L

656

182

EBA III E

EBA III L

Barley The cultivated two-rowed hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon), which occurs as the only form of barley at Küllüoba, bears one grain in each of the two fertile florets, whereas six-rowed barley has two developed grains in each of the three florets per dispersal unit (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012, Cappers and Neef 2012). Whole forms of barley are recorded to be a short- and cool-season crop, grown as a spring or winter cereal (Cappers and Neef 2012). Barley is known to be more salttolerant and drought-resistant than the wheat species, and can also grow in poor soil conditions and semi-arid to arid environments (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Cappers and Neef 2012, Zohary et al. 2012). Archaeobotanical evidence suggests that six-rowed naked barleys were cultivated during the Neolithic period in the Near East, but were replaced by two- and six-rowed hulled barley forms in the course of the Bronze Age (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). According to ethnographic records, hulled barley is processed in a similar way to the hulled wheats in small farming communities (Hillman 1984c, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997).

Graph 5.9. Distribution of two-rowed hulled barley in EBA periods at Küllüoba. wheats in botanical assemblages from the Neolithic onwards, it apparently took a long time for bread/durum wheat to become dominant, not only in the Near East and Anatolian sites, but also in Greece and the Balkans (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, Zohary and Hopf 2000, Hillman 2001, Valamoti 2003, Zohary et al. 2012). Archaeobotanical evidence suggests patterns of decline for the hulled wheats in the agricultural economy along an east-west gradient that extended from Mesopotamia to the Aegean and the Balkans (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996). Unlike the observable reasons for the decline of European spelt in modern times, the gradual decline of emmer and einkorn cannot be understood using modern analogies, such as the response of the plant to modern breeding, soil fertilisation or mechanised farming (Nesbitt and Samuel 1996, Nesbitt 2001). Furthermore the gradual decline of hulled wheats in contrast to the increase of free-threshing ones from the Neolithic onwards might be considered as evidence for ‘extensification trends’ in the farming communities, which needed to improve the yield for their settlements’ growing populations on the way to ‘urbanism’. Evidence of decreasing emmer and einkorn during the Bronze Age is observed in northern Mesopotamia and Syria, whereas emmer and einkorn cultivation appear to be emphasized in Greece, the Balkans and southern Europe, not only at the beginning, but also during the end of the Bronze Age. Evidence of both decreases and increases has been interpreted by archaeobotanists as due to socio-cultural and economic factors rather than to changes in environmental conditions (Kroll 1983, Valamoti 2003, Valamoti 2004, Riehl 2008a).

Looking at the use of barley cereal for different purposes, in today’s small farming communities one of the widest uses of barley is as animal fodder, but it is also used for human consumption occasionally and in small quantities (Hillman 1984c, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997). Despite this, barley has been widely used for malt production since Classical times, although botanically the ‘direct evidence’ based on sprouting grains as evidence of malt production in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages is rather scarce (Valamoti 2003, Dineley 2004). At Küllüoba, sprouting grains and other direct evidence for malt production are lacking in the contexts where barley was found. Ethnological analogies suggest that barley flour can also be used for bread making, but given wheat’s availability, barley is not preferred for bread baking despite its being richer in nutrient compounds like proteins in comparison to wheat (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997). In archaeological contexts, barley occurrence with low abundances but high ubiquity has been interpreted as the use of barley primarily as fodder and secondarily for human consumption (van der Veen 1992). Archaeobotanical evidence suggests that despite its easy threshing properties in comparison to the hulled form, the cultivation of naked barley decreased in the course of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages (Zohary and Hopf 2001, Zohary et al. 2012). The preference for hulled barley over the naked one was probably determined by hulled barley’s resistance to fungal diseases and its ability to withstand

Despite the continuous decrease and abandonment of einkorn at Mesopotamian sites, Küllüoba, with its evidence of einkorn dominating in the botanical assemblages, constitutes a unique EBA settlement in Anatolia, with evidence rather comparable with EBA settlements in northern Greece. No evidence can be seen at Küllüoba for a decline in hulled wheats similar to that which is observable as a trend in ‘extensification’ at numerous EBA settlements in Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria. The botanical evidence obtained from the excavations in western Turkey 132

Cultivation

an increase in moisture in storage facilities (van der Veen 1992). Deterioration in climate conditions and changes in consumption patterns, such as using barley as fodder rather than for human consumption, have also been also assumed.

cereals in water were observable (Valamoti et al. 2008). Fracture surfaces of the grains broken or cut prior to experimental charring (at 200-300 °C) are shiny and smooth in appearance, and in many cases the endosperm is slightly oozing or bulging. The grains broken after charring have instead a pitted surface with larger hollows and a relatively blunt breaking surface. Experiments suggest that ground cereals ‘soaked’ in water also have a smooth, shiny, glasslike fracture surface; however, all grains, soaked or not, stick together and create a solid mass if they are charred at more than 350 °C (Valamoti 2002). It has been observed that the shiny, glass-like appearance of soaked or boiled grains leads back to the chemical reaction of starch in hot water, in which the molecular bonds of starch are broken and starch becomes a gelatine-like structure (Valamoti 2002, Bayram 2000).

In comparison to wheats, barley is represented with a high frequency (70%) but with rather lower abundances at Küllüoba, which could signify that barley was intended more as animal fodder than for human consumption (van der Veen 1992). However, the ubiquity of barley in the Küllüoba assemblages is as high as those of emmer and bread/durum wheat and barley’s use for human consumption can be argued with the presence of ground cereals, as will be discussed in the following section. The use of barley in ground and roasted form has been recorded ethnographically in Anatolian villages (Hillman 1984c, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997). Therefore, barley may have had an important role as a crop cereal as well as animal fodder in the agricultural economy, alongside einkorn, emmer and bread/durum wheat.

Today ground cereals are produced mostly from emmer and durum wheats, and occasionally from bread wheat (Hillman 1984c, Bayram 2000, Valamoti 2002, Valamoti 2009). Ethnological analogies suggest that cereals pretreated through boiling, roasting and drying can be stored for longer time periods without becoming damaged by insects, especially if they have been prepared mixed with dairy products like milk and yogurt (Hillman 1984c, ErtuğYaraş 1997, Valamoti 2011b). At that stage, ground cereals like Turkish ‘bulgur’ or Greek ‘pilgouri’ can be prepared quickly, mixed with vegetables or on their own (ErtuğYaraş 1997, Valamoti 2009, Valamoti 2011b, Valamoti et al. 2013). Due to their relatively simple preparation, they have been considered as ‘traditional fast foods’ in botanical studies (Valamoti et al. 2008, Valamoti 2011b, Valamoti et al. 2013). Despite the introduction of rice as a cereal accompanying almost all dishes prepared with meat and vegetables, in modern Turkey bulgur consumption still plays an important role. Modern observations show that ground cereals are used not only for human consumption but also as a supplement for animal fodder, especially for the feeding of juveniles, old animals and ewes, and dairy cattle (Halstead and Jones 1989), in order to optimize the intake of nourishment (Morrison 1957).

Evidence of ground cereals Cereals pre-treated for later food preparation can be seen as one of the scarce pieces of direct evidence for ‘food’ in archaeobotanical samples. The botanical remains of cereals, pulses or other edible plants do not directly reflect the ‘food’; rather they constitute the taxa that must be prepared with different processing stages such as dough, boiled or cooked cereal from flour, or soups or meals, and roasted pulses eaten as snacks (Hillman 1984c, Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Ertuğ 1998, Ertuğ 2000a, Ertuğ 2004, Filipovic 2012b). The tools for grinding can vary depending on the technology of the site. Ethnographic observations in Anatolian villages show rotary mills, flat-bottomed stone mortars and wooden pestles being used (Hillman 1984c), but for Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements the use of saddle querns and flat quern stones has been suggested instead (Valamoti 2002).

Ground cereals or processed cerealia are represented in the Küllüoba samples with 14 % ubiquity and relatively high abundances in the early and late periods of EBA II, albeit not in a storage context. Unlike the finds from Greek EBA Mesimerani and Archandio found as conglomerations, the ground cereals of Küllüoba are rather fine granules that were not stuck together. As in the case of the Greek examples (Valamoti 2002), fragmentation prevents identification of the grains on the species level, and the fragments could be recognised only as deriving from barley or wheat (Valamoti 2002). If the dorsal ridge and relatively deep ventral groove were preserved, the fragment could be identified as deriving from wheat, whereas the fragments that were instead laterally biconvex with a shallow ventral groove could be classified as being from barley (Valamoti 2002). Despite their occurrences in Küllüoba only in

Some important macroscopic and experimental studies and SEM examinations are considered to be relevant for the interpretation of the ‘ground cereals’ found in the Küllüoba samples. In order to investigate the cereal cooking practices of prehistoric settlements, ground cereal remains preserved in charred form from Bronze Age sites in Greece and Bulgaria have been analysed (Valamoti 2002, Valamoti et al. 2008, Valamoti 2011b, Valamoti 2011c, Valamoti et al. 2013). At the relevant sites, ground cereals have been found with high ubiquity and abundances, as well as in storage samples (Valamoti 2002, Valamoti et al. 2008, Valamoti 2009, Valamoti 2011b). The analyses proved whether the grains were fragmented before or after charring and whether they were boiled in water prior to storage. Experiments on the archaeological and modern ground cereals show that the surface patterns and starch microstructures that typically result from boiling ground 133

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

mixed sample contexts and not in storages, it can be claimed that they did not derive from cereal fragmentation during pounding to dehusk the grains, and furthermore they could have been produced deliberately as ground cereals for later consumption. This thesis can be supported with the evidence that the fracture surfaces of the ground cereal fragments are smooth and bulging in appearance, and in some fragments progressively swollen. A shiny or glass-like appearance on the fracture surface is lacking in most of the fragments. In order to say more about the processing of Küllüoba’s ground cereals, whether they were generally parboiled or only cracked, further samples that contain ground cereals are needed for a more detailed analysis of the starch structure, as conducted for the Greek and Bulgarian samples (Valamoti et al. 2008).

against frost, wind and insect damage as well against the effects of grazing, and the mature seeds are easily stored and edible for a long time period (Butler 1998). Most of the environmental constraints on the pulses are determined by symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Güler 1990, Butler 1998). Experimental evidence shows that legume crops can develop biomass through nitrogen fixation (Papastylianou 1988, Buddenhagen 1990, Harris et al. 1991, Palmer 1998), and that pulses can reach effective nitrogen-fixing nodulation with the help of the natural symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium or with a modern agricultural method like ‘inoculation’, either of which is important for the growth of the plants and makes the use of fertilizers on annual legumes unnecessary (Güler 1990). From the beginning of the domestication process, selection of the pulse species as cultivars addressed the properties of high yield, cold and drought resistance, simultaneous maturity of the seeds, and large seed size. In order to support the tall-growing wheats, mixed cropping of cereals and pulses was used because the pulses can support the cereal stems and prevent the plants from lodging, but regular weeding of the pulses is required, due to their weak competition with weeds (Butler 1992, Cappers and Neef 2012).

In EBA Küllüoba, whether the ground cereals were exclusively used for human consumption or also to supplement animal fodder can be argued solely based on the evidence of the contexts. The presence of ground cereals in mixed indoor contexts, possibly deriving from cooking activities, as well as evidence from refuse pit contexts suggest that they were very probably primarily intended for human consumption and discarded after food preparation together with the crop-processing remains that were fed to animals.

In the regions with satisfactory rain during winter or autumn, farmers have preferred the monocropping of pulses. In areas with low rainfall accumulation, cereals and pulses have been intersown or else pulses were intersown with mustard, since the latter appears to be less competitive due to different demands for soil moisture (Bhattarai et al. 1988, Papendick et al. 1988, Butler 1992). Ethnographic studies suggest that mixed cropping does not require much labour input until harvest, although the harvest must be conducted carefully, and is therefore regarded as being ‘woman’s work’ (Rassam and Tuely 1957, Butler 1992).

Pulses as food and fodder In the history of the Old World, several grain legumes appear as constant companions of the cereals. The most frequent pulses in southwest Asia are recorded as lentil (Lens culinaris), pea (Pisum sativum), bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), and grass pea/ chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus/cicera) (Kislev 1989, Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). The seeds of the Leguminosea family are characterised by a thick outer seed coat or ‘testa’ with two large cotyledons, which store energy for germination in the form of protein, starch and occasionally oil (Melamed et al. 2008, Zohary et al. 2012). The pulses lack the endospermic tissue of the cereals that is rich in starch. The legume seeds are characterised by high protein and amino acids and contain essential amino acids such as lysine, and thus are essential to human nutrition as supplements of the cereals (Charles 1984b, Melamed et al. 2008).

Despite the modern studies that show the advantages of pulse cropping in terms of manure, crop rotation and for animal grazing, the archaeobotanical evidence for EBA is rather scarce in terms of possible evidence of an increase in their cultivation. Lentils and chickpeas seem to have been more intensively cultivated during EBA in the southern Levant, whereas garden peas and grass peas occur more abundantly in northern Syrian sites, followed by a general decrease in pulse records during the MBA period (Riehl 2008). Vicia ervilia and Lathyrus cicera/ sativus are recorded as being predominant in the botanical sample compositions in Thessaly during the Neolithic and Copper Ages, whereas Cicer, Pisum and Vicia faba occur only in low abundances and frequency throughout the botanical assemblages (Kroll 1981).

The legumes are consumed by man as green vegetables and dried seeds, and are valuable fodder as hay; as green manure they are known to be soil-enrichments, and thus fertilizer is not needed for pulse cropping (Butler 1992, Palmer 1998). Considering the cultivation and environmental requirements, the pulses are known to be well adapted to seasonal fluctuations of precipitation and temperatures due to their large seed size, thick outer-seed coat and hypogeal germination mechanism (Butler 1998). Hypogeal germination is known to protect pulse seeds

Eskişehir lies in one of the dryland areas where both fodder and food legume production make up ca. 3 % of the agricultural production (Güler 1990). In the region today, except for the cultivation of Cicer arietinum as 134

Cultivation

poisonous to humans, but also to domestic animals like pigs and poultry; they are tolerable for ruminants in small amounts, but poisoning of livestock by Vicia species is still reported today, due to high concentrations of canavanine or vicianine (Russi et al. 1992, Enneking 1994). In Vicia species, the water-soluble toxins with low molecular weight can be reduced by soaking and boiling (Stahl 1989, Enneking 1994).

commercial pulse and vetches (Vicia sativa and Vicia ervilia) on a rather small scale, the gathering of wild pea (Pisum elatius Stev.) and wild bean (Vicia narbonensis var. intermedia Strobl.) are recorded, and they are consumed in form of flour mixed with wheat and baked into bread (Scheibe 1934, Enneking 1994). As in modern times, it can be assumed that in general the climatic and environmental conditions in the region of EBA Eskişehir and Küllüoba were suitable for the cultivation of different sorts of pulses as subsistence crops.

Chemical analyses suggest that the changing concentrations of Vicia toxins can be seen as selection pressures that are related to biological functions, whereas geographical and climate factors appear to influence the biochemical differences of the Vicia species (Enneking 1994). The main toxic component of Vicia ervilia, ‘L-Canavanine’, is recorded to be lower in the cultivated form than in forage and weedy genotypes (Enneking 1994). The common toxins of Vicia species (vicianine, vicine, -glutamyl-cyanoalanine, -cyanoalanine, L-canavanine, and convicine) function as feed intake inhibitors for monogastric animals including humans (Enneking 1994). The intoxication of ruminants is prevented by the shift of gram negative bacteria in rumen fluid, which breakdown L-Canavanine into canaline through enzymes, and therefore the overconsumption of bitter vetch can be more dangerous for mono-gastric animals like pigs than for the ruminants (Enneking et al. 1993, Enneking 1994). Intoxication after V. ervilia consumption can be seen in a strong ammonia peak and the inhibition of argininerelated nitric oxide generation, accompanied by nervous symptoms and problems with blood pressure (Enneking et al. 1993, Enneking 1994). In most cases, animals can limit their food intake in order to reduce the toxic compounds to ‘non-toxic’ levels, which vary with individual animals. A similar feed-intake inhibition mechanism is observed in humans, and individuals suffering from malnutrition and diseases appear to be more affected by L-Canavanine (Enneking et al. 1993, Enneking 1994), although no detailed studies or information are available about the long-term effects of Vicia as a food on human health (Enneking 1994).

Bitter vetch The wild ancestor of bitter vetch is recorded to be distributed in west-central, southwest and southeast Anatolia as well as in the northern part of Iran, Iraq and the western part of the Fertile Crescent. According to current research, its phyletic origin is not well known (Zohary et al. 2012). The wild form of bitter vetch is distinguished from the other legumes by a tendency toward an erect growth habit and a woodland habitat (Butler 1998, Davis 1970). Due to this fact, it has been assumed that the exploitation of its wild progenitor and the plant’s domestication may have started at the woodland margins, where Vicia may have occurred as a tolerated weedy species in the fields of legume crops prior to its domestication (Erskine et al. 1994, Butler 1998). As the pulse most tolerant to water-stress, bitter vetch can grow in poor soils and where other legumes are not able to grow well. Due to a short life-cycle and growing season, it is mostly planted as summer crop. Today its cultivation is restricted to only fodder, due to high toxicity, and it is cultivated as fodder hay, cut before the plant matures and dried for winter feed for horses, cows, pigs and small ruminants (Enneking 1994, Enneking et al. 1995, Zohary et al. 2012). Vicia ervilia with Vicia sativa together constitute the vetch production as fodder plants, ca. 10 % of the legume cultivation in modern Turkey (Güler 1990). In addition to their fodder quality, the tribe Vicieae are considered to be important for improving the soil quality for modern agriculture in terms of green manure and are used to replace bare fallow in cereal and cereal/pasture rotations. Bitter vetch provides grazing and is recorded to be effective in terms of weed control (Enneking 1994).

Due to the lack of scientific studies on the human consumption of Vicia ervilia, here is a ‘case study’, based on the research of a playwright. The use of bitter vetch in a case of famine danger in modern Turkish villages was documented in the late 1960s and was used as the subject of a play, titled ‘Ayak-Bacak Fabrikası’ (in English, ‘food-leg fabric’) (Çağan 1963). The play is based on real incidents that happened in the southern Turkish district of Anamur, in the villages of Bodeyme, Yivil, Karakilise, Uluyat, Karaçukur, and Sarıdana, located at the forest margins. According to the account of the events, due to restrictions by local government authorities, the ‘Orman İşletmesi’ (local office for forest management), the farmers were not allowed to clean bushes and shrubs from their arable fields over a long period of time and used only unsuitable parts of the land with very poor soil quality for agriculture, where

Like the other Vicia species, bitter vetch contains toxic compounds (Melamed et al. 2008). The toxins are concentrated in the raw legume in the form of the chemical compounds canavanine, vicianine, hydrocyanic acid, and glycoside, and therefore bitter vetch has mainly been cultivated as animal fodder and only rarely for human consumption (Russi et al. 1992, Enneking 1994, Enneking et al. 1995, Miller and Enneking 2014). If bitter vetch is intended for human consumption, it requires intensive processing with dehusking and boiling (Stahl 1989, Miller and Enneking 2014). These toxins are not only 135

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

Vicia ervilia

only the cultivation of bitter vetch (in Turkish, kara tohum, burçak or fink) was possible. According to the records, these villagers processed the bitter vetch into flour and, when other cereals were available, mixed it with barley, oat, or in a few cases, with wheat flour. In Çağan’s work, these villagers experienced the irreversible effects of the most long-term use of bitter vetch that has been observed. The villagers who ate only bread made from pure bitter vetch flour were more affected by paralysis, collapse of nerves and vascular disease, especially on the lower extremities. Seemingly, the possible techniques for removing the toxic compounds of bitter vetch by dehusking the pod and boiling prior to processing into flour was not well known to the villagers. The most plausible explanation for these incidents is that the use of bitter vetch as famine food had been forgotten over a long time period, and so knowledge of its toxicity and irreversible effects on human health was overlooked. The incidents fit with the assertion that “without a detailed knowledge of preparative and culinary practices used for their consumption, one man’s food could well be another person’s poison” (Enneking 1994, pp. 13). However, despite its toxicity, modern ethnological records show that Vicia ervilia has specific medicinal uses in northwest Turkey. Treatment possibilities with bitter vetch are recorded in the form of a decoction drunk as hypoglycemiant (against diabetes) and a decoction of the leaves used as compress on the extremities against rheumatic pain (Yeşilada et al. 1999). According to Roman and Greek historical records, although the toxicity of Vicia ervilia was well known, the plant is had been used for medicinal purposes (Enneking 1994, Zohary et al. 2012, Miller and Enneking 2014), but whether the toxicity of bitter vetch was already known in prehistoric times cannot be concluded from the direct botanical evidence.

4 3,5

width

3 2,5 2 1,5 1 1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

Length

Graph 5.10. Measurements of the Vicia ervilia seeds for the seed size variation. Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L EBA III E EBA III L

Graph 5.11. Relative abundance of Vicia ervilia seeds during occupation phases of Küllüoba. The storage sample from AI 24 67 is excluded. Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.

Bitter vetch is recorded to have been cultivated in PreCeramic eastern Europe and in the Near East, where although it appears as a minor crop in EBA sites in Upper Mesopotamia and the Euphrates valley, it occurs with high abundances in the MBA settlements of this region (Kroll 1991, Willcox et al. 2008, Riehl 2008b, Willcox et al. 2009, Zohary et al. 2012). Archaeobotanical records suggest that lentil appears to have been replaced by the cultivation of the more drought-resistant V. ervilia during EBA period at Tell Mozan, due to increasing aridity recorded around 4200 BP (Deckers and Riehl 2007a). Despite its toxicity for humans, the use of bitter vetch as food in the form of maslins (a deliberate mixture with another crop) has been suggested (Jones and Halstead 1995). Due to the higher survival chance of the cultivated species in mixed farming in times of desiccation or drought (Jones and Halstead 1995), such mixed crops may have been used in seasons of good yield for livestock, and in the worst case, like crop failure, may have been used for human consumption. Therefore, the archaeobotanical contexts of ‘maslin’ are open for interpretation as animal fodder or for human consumption.

1000000 100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L EBA III E EBA III L

Graph 5.12. Relative abundance of Vicia ervilia seeds during occupation phases of Küllüoba. The storage sample from AI 24 67 is included.

136

4.0

Cultivation

44

Judging by the archaeological evidence from EBA II L, the occupation of Küllüoba was rather less expanded then in comparison to in the earlier periods of EBA. Therefore the peak of Vicia ervilia cultivation during the late Period of EBA II suggests a possible deterioration in soil, precipitation or environmental conditions, so that other crops could not be cultivated with the same performance and yield as was possible in the previous periods. If the evidence of cereal and pulse cultivation is compared for the early and late occupation periods of EBA II, it is observable that both forms of einkorn were cultivated, but they occur throughout the samples with much lower abundances (einkorn in EBA II with a total of 143.573 grains, in EBA II L with a total of 24.477 grains). Even if this evidence may be partly determined by the context differences of both periods, it can be considered that trends in the deterioration of climate conditions (recorded using multi-proxy data) chiefly responsible for the reduction of einkorn as a major crop and the increasing cultivation of bitter vetch. The other three cereal taxa, emmer, bread/ durum wheat and barley, which do not predominate in the botanical assemblages, remain almost constant during both periods. This evidence might support the thesis of declining cultivation patterns for einkorn in EBA II L versus bitter vetch, because einkorn is known to be the most drought-susceptible wheat, despite its salt tolerance. Nevertheless, without obtaining radio carbon dates for the occupation sequences at Küllüoba and isotope analyses of plant remains, the conclusion that the emphasis on Vicia ervilia cultivation was determined by increasing aridity circa 4200 BP remains rather speculative in nature.

Samples

18

EBA III L EBA III E EBA II L EBA II EBA I

12 131 39 25 10

65

9 314 7 97 231 254 34 32

24 28 33

13 411

36 50

225 180

98 105 175

-4.0

1343 -1.0

2.5

Graph 5.13. Distribution of Vicia ervilia as abundance in EBA periods. Ordination diagram with sample attribute, axes 1x2 (CA). Storage sample AI 24 67 is excluded.

In Küllüoba’s botanical assemblages, bitter vetch occurs as the most abundant (ca. 200.000 seeds throughout all periods) and frequent (80 %) pulse crop throughout the occupation periods. The pure and fully processed bitter vetch storage found in Grid AI 24 suggests that this pulse crop was destined for human consumption, and was probably kept against an imminent crop shortage as a consequence of a poor harvest season. Except for the storage sample, the records showing high ubiquity in all context types can be seen as evidence for regular human consumption rather than being only animal fodder. As visible on the graphs (Graphs 5.10., 5.11. and 5.12.), if the Vicia ervilia storage sample is considered together with the other samples, with a constant increase in its cultivation from EBA I onwards, Vicia is most abundant at Küllüoba during the late period of EBA II, which might point to an increased need for animal fodder or ‘risk-buffering’ crop species during this occupation period.

Lentil The species of lentil are probably one of the oldest crop legumes in world agriculture. Archaeobotanical records suggest that wild forms as progenitors of domesticated lentil were gathered prior to the Neolithic, and evidence for the first domesticates is found in Neolithic settlements of southeastern Anatolia (Van Zeist 1988, Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). Genetic evidence shows that two different forms of domesticated lentil derives from two different progenitors: the first form of domesticated lentil distributed in southern Europe is genetically related to wild Lens nigricans, whereas the second form of domesticated lentil that occurs in the eastern Mediterranean originates from Lens orientalis (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012).

Nevertheless, it is impossible to establish an increasing need for animal fodder from the zooarchaeological data, due to mixed contexts for animal remains from the EBA II and EBA III periods currently analysed to date, as will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Therefore, bitter vetch cultivation as ’risk-buffering’ agriculture or as a response to increasing aridity from EBA II L onwards seems to be plausible.

Lentil is counted to be one of the most cold-resistant pulses and is tolerant of temperature extremes (Butler 1998). Although lentil is recorded to be drought-tolerant, experimental studies show that lentil has higher water requirements during its growth period, and therefore the yield can be lower or higher depending on seasonal rainfall, whereas temperature plays a minor role in the yield qua137

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

to interpret. It can be assumed that with irrigation farmers could grow lentil despite the drought conditions. Despite the higher requirements for the intensive cultivation of lentil, the yield was probably sufficient, which can be assessed from the seed measurements. As visible on the Graph 5.15., the lentil seeds show great variation in size; very small seeds are relatively rare (2,3-2 mm), while average sized (2,6-3,6 mm) and relatively big sized seeds (2,8-4,6 mm) are abundant in the samples. Another factor for its preferred cultivation would be the well-known lack of toxic compounds in lentil seeds and therefore its high palatability combined with a high level of vegetable protein content.

Lens culinaris Medik. 2066 693

355 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

262

99

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.14. Distribution of lentil as absolute counts in EBA periods of Küllüoba.

Pea

thickness

Lens culinaris 3 2,8 2,6 2,4 2,2 2 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1 2

2,5

3

3,5

diameter

4

4,5

Pea is one of the oldest domesticated pulses of the Old World, and from the Neolithic onwards accompanies the records of domesticated wheat and barley (Zohary and Hopf 1973, Zohary et al. 2012). Based on the combined evidence of cytogenetics, ecology, morphology, and molecular analysis, two species have been recorded for the domestic pea, Pisum sativum and Pisum fulvum (Zohary et al. 2012).

5

The cultivated garden pea (Pisum sativum) is recorded to be adapted to cold and warm climatic conditions (Zohary et al. 2012). As a plant, peas have high water requirements, and, probably determined by this aspect, as a crop pulse it occurs in high abundances in the archaeobotanical records of in the Upper Mesopotamian and north Syrian EBA settlements with a main annual precipitation above 400 mm (Riehl 2008b). In the same region during the MBA, the distribution area of the pea is more restricted to the humid areas west of the Euphrates, and this retreat in distribution to the western part of Syria and the Euphrates region is considered to have been determined by shifts of isohyets and therefore changes in precipitation regimes (Riehl 2008b). Consideration of the botanical data from many MBA sites shows that garden pea was gradually replaced by bitter vetch in northern Mesopotamia, very probably due to the increasing aridity that is recorded

Graph 5.15. Measurements of lentil for the seed size variation.

lity (Erskine and El Ashkar 1993, Riehl 2008a, Riehl 2008b). Lentil is also recorded to be the pulse crop most resistant to insect pests and damage among the legume species (Chernoff 1992). Its high protein content and lack of toxins in contrast to other crop legumes make its dietary contribution indispensable not only for prehistoric societies, but also in modern farming communities (Enneking 1994, Zohary et al. 2012). Lentil is recorded to prefer warm environmental conditions and loose, sandy soils. It can grow in association with other legumes that appear in similar growing conditions, but it has been recorded as a poor competitor against weeds (Butler 1992, Erskine et al. 1994). At Küllüoba, Lens culinaris appears to be the second most important pulse after Vicia ervilia, with high ubiquity (70%). In comparison to bitter vetch, the cultivation of lentil was very probably conducted in well-watered but also well-drained soils. Its weaker competition with weeds could have been a problem for Küllüoba’s farmers, and the rich weed evidence, especially the occurrence of Galium sp. in high frequencies and abundances throughout the samples, suggests that farmers needed to cultivate lentil in intensive small-scale plots, with regular weeding. Despite the possibility of drought from EBA II L onwards that is supported by the strong evidence of Vicia ervilia cultivation and the decline in the other crop categories and wild/weed taxa, its occurrence with high abundance during EBA II L is rather difficult

82

92

7 EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.15. Distribution of pea as absolute counts in EBA periods at Küllüoba. 138

Cultivation

as the 4200 BP event (Riehl 2008b). Due to the limited abundance and frequency of garden pea in the Küllüoba samples, no far-reaching conclusion can be drawn. Based on the current analysis, it is hard to conclude whether pea constitutes a weedy component of other crops at Küllüoba or can be seen as deriving from mixed cropping, as has been observed ethnologically as well as archaeologically for many cereal and pulse species (Jones and Halstead 1995, Valamoti 2003, Cappers and Neef 2012).

72

13

9 EBA I

Chickpea

EBA II

EBA II L

EBA III E

2 EBA III L

Graph 5.17. Distribution of chickpea as absolute counts in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

Cicer reticulatum, the proposed wild ancestor of chickpea, is currently distributed in southeast Turkey (Berger et al. 2003). The central part of the Fertile Crescent has been considered as a possible cultivation area for the first domesticates (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012).

Grass pea/chickling vetch It has been assumed that Lathyus sativus was the first crop domesticated in the Near East and Europe (van Zeist 1973, Zohary and Hopf 1973, Kislev and Bar-Josef 1988, Kislev 1989, Mahler-Slasky and Kislev 2010). The closely related species Lathyrus cicera is recorded to have been domesticated in the Iberian Peninsula and southern France from 4000 BC onwards, probably cultivated as a mixed crop (Kislev 1989, Mahler-Slasky and Kislev 2010). Despite the possibility of differentiating Lathyus cicera and Lathyrus sativus based on papillae morphology using a SEM (Kislev 1989), in terms of archaeobotanical material L. sativus and L. cicera have been regarded as inseparable (Kroll 1979, Kislev 1989, Mahler-Slasky and Kislev 2010).

With 5% of the production, today Turkey is the third largest chickpea producer in the world after India and Pakistan; chickpea production is concentrated in western Central Anatolia (Güler 1990). The crop is distributed in the Mediterranean and the Near East as well as in India and Ethiopia as an important field legume with high protein content (about 20 %). Chickpea has adapted to subtropical or Mediterranean climate growing seasons, and one of the main differences between wild and domestic chickpeas is that the wild form germinates in autumn, whereas domesticated chickpea is traditionally sown after the spring rain, when the soil has stored a sufficient amount of water for plant growth (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Tanno and Wilcox 2006, Zohary et al. 2012). Due to its deep taproots, the plant can grow in dry conditions, but also tolerates waterlogging (Butler 1998). Farmers probably prefer the spring timing for sowing because this inhibits the reproduction of a kind of blight called ‘ascochyta’ that leads to considerable yield loss (Reddy and Singh 1985, Güler 1990, Abbo et al. 2003, Tanno and Wilcox 2006).

Lathyrus species can grow in the light, sandy soils of coastal plains, where cereal cultivation can barely be conducted (Mahler-Slasky and Kislev 2010). In comparison to lentil, grass pea/chickling vetch is more drought-tolerant, and, due to its limited ability to respond to high soil moisture, can tolerate waterlogging where lentil cannot grow. Therefore grass pea and chickling vetch have a competitive advantage over lentil in wet areas as well as

The chickpea has been found in Neolithic and Bronze Age layers of the Near East (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). Despite the occurrence of chickpea in low abundances in archaeological records, it has been suggested that its evidence in Bronze Age Greece and Balkan sites constitutes in reality a ‘rare’ species that must have been harvested carefully, and its occurrence as a possible weedy form has been excluded from consideration (Kroll 1983). Like other pulses with low abundance and ubiquity, C. arietinum has been assumed to have been cultivated, although without any considerable economical significance for the settlement community (Kroll in prep.). At Küllüoba, chickpea occurs with very low ubiquity (Cicer arietinum 7% and cf. Cicer arietinum 13%). It is likely that chickpea was cultivated in mixed form together with other pulses or cereals, like a ‘maslin’. However, direct evidence of the storage of maslin, which can be used as food or as animal fodder, could not be detected in the Küllüoba contexts.

55 38

32 18

EBA I

EBA II

EBA II L

EBA III E

8 EBA III L

Graph 5.18. Distribution of grass pea as absolute counts in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

139

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

under conditions of very low rainfall (Erskine 1994, Butler 1998). Lathyrus is known for its toxicity, determined by the chemical compounds -N-oxalylaminino- and -diaminopropionic acid ( -ODAP), which can lead to ‘lathyrism’ in cases of long-term, moderate or even shortterm overconsumption, but, due to its water solubility, can be removed up to 70% by boiling (Hansen 1999, MahlerSlasky and Kislev 2010). Today, the white-flowered and seeded race of chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus) is preferred for human consumption in Spain and Greece, due to a lower content of lathyrogenic substances, and studies show that there is a negative correlation between the protein content and toxic compounds (Hernández Bermejo and León 1994, Hansen 1999).

the modern distribution may reflect the ancient cultivation patterns, and therefore the Lathyrus distributed in the past in countries to the east of Italy is suggested as belonging to the species ‘Lathyrus sativus’ (Kislev 1989). Lathyrus does not occur frequently or in large amounts throughout the seed assemblages of Küllüoba, which suggests that Lathyrus probably accompanied weedy species in cultivated fields of Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch). Similar evidence is observable in modern samples from local markets in Turkey, which sell V. ervilia as a main fodder crop with an admixture of Lathyrus, Galium aperine and Cephalaria syriaca. In addition to its use as a fodder crop, a possible use for human consumption during episodes of famine or crop failure seems plausible.

Archaeological record show that in settlement deposits Lathyrus often occurs in low amounts as an admixture of other crop species, always in lower abundances and ubiquities than bitter vetch, lentil, or pea in the Neolithic settlements in southeastern Anatolia, Iraq and Iran, as well as in Bulgaria (Renfrew 2011, van Zeist 1973, Hopf 1986, Kislev 1989, Zohary and Hopf 2000). Grass pea in higher abundances than only few seeds occurs first in the late Neolithic Balkan and Aegean islands, as a sure sign of its domestication (Kroll 1979, Kislev 1989). In Dimini (Greece) grass pea reaches frequencies similar to pea and lentil (Kroll 1979). Lathyrus finds at Late Chalcolithic Kuruçay constitute the unique example for Anatolia, and this site is interpreted to be the centre for Anatolian domestication of Lathyrus sativus/cicera versus the theories that support the origins of its domestication in the Balkans (Nesbitt 1996, Kislev 1989). During the Middle Bronze Age in Iraq grass pea, the main pulse, is recorded to be accompanied by lentil (Renfrew 2011, Erskine et al. 1994). The modern distribution of L. sativus occurs in northern temperate Europe, Mediterranean countries, India, and central Asia, while a concentrated occurrence of L. cicera is limited to regions of southwestern Europe, like Spain, France and Italy. Thus it has been suggested that

Broad bean The origin and the early spread of Vicia faba is still unclear, and the wild progenitor of the domesticate is still unidentified, due to scarce prehistoric remains and the fact that the domestication criteria of ‘non-dehiscent’ pods and the ‘smooth appearance’ of testa morphology are mostly not preserved in archaeological contexts (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Tanno and Wilcox 2006, Zohary et al. 2012). The possible extinction of the wild form is also mentioned, due to the high degradation of the alluvial plains of the Fertile Crescent caused by human impact (Tanno and Wilcox 2006). Due to the lack of morphologic and genetic evidence, Vicia narbonensis has been considered as a possible progenitor of Vicia faba, based on the chemotaxonomic study of the GEC (y-glutamyl S-ethenylcysteine) content of the seeds (Enneking 1994). In terms of ecological preferences and cultivation requirements, broad bean grows in waterlogged or marshy fields and heavy/damp soils, and therefore is suited to the soil conditions of alluvial plains (Tanno and Wilcox 2006). As a plant, like lentil it is known as a cold-resistant pulse species (Butler 1998). V. faba is recorded to be the only food legume among the Vicia species that is suitable for long-term human consumption, despite toxins like vicine and convicine (pyrimidine glycosides), which can be eliminated by cooking (Enneking 1994). In the recent past, the seeds were added to wheat flour for baking and to some extent used as animal fodder (Van Zeist 1988). The seeds of the broad bean already appear in the archaeobotanical contexts of Neolithic Turkey (Van Zeist 1988), and are recorded in small amounts during EBA at Mediterranean coastal sites, but disappear from the records during the MBA period, perhaps in connection with the increasing aridity around 4200 BP (Riehl 2008b). Küllüoba’s locality on the alluvial fan of the upper-Sakarya River may also have provided suitable conditions for V. faba in the past. An understanding of the extent of broad bean cultivation is not possible due to the rarity of the seeds.

Vicia faba L.

8

EBA I

12

EBA II

16

EBA II L

4

3

EBA III E

EBA III L

Graph 5.19. Distribution of broad bean as absolute counts in EBA periods at Küllüoba.

140

Cultivation

Fruits

and northern Syria, the cultivation of grapes was extended by means of irrigation (Riehl 2008b). During the MBA, due to increasing desiccation circa 4200 BP, the occurrence of grapes is recorded to have been lower than in earlier periods (Riehl 2008b). In addition to grape consumption in the form of fresh fruit or dried raisins, wine production can be deduced from the chemical analyses of pottery that show tartaric acid from wine fermentation (Singleton 1994), although it is probable that this substance could also be found in other fermented or sugar-containing fruit products (Miller 2008). From EBA onwards, wine is recorded as an important trade good in the Mediterranean region (Zohary et al 2012).

Fruit gathering and cultivation in Küllüoba are represented by only scarce remains. The possibly gathered fruits of Rubus ulmifolius are found in relatively low ubiquity (8%) and in small amounts in samples AB 16 165 (15 seeds), AD 21 99 (3 seeds), and AG 22 191, and also in the einkorn storage AG 22 177 (1 seed), as well as in an indoor context in a sample of possible animal fodder (Y 20 236, 4 seeds). Vitis vinifera is also represented with few remains, but as EBA finds these remains point to early evidence of grapevine cultivation, which is relatively uncommon for west-central Anatolia. The cultivation or use of fruits from wild orchards in the Eskişehir region, which is widely recorded in modern times as well (Woldring and Cappers 2001), is not to be excluded, even though no botanical remains are evident in the Küllüoba samples.

At Küllüoba, Vitis remains are represented with low ubiquity (6 %) and abundance (total 19 seeds). The samples with Vitis remains are mostly crop and wild/weedrich from indoor and outdoor pit contexts that may have been used for kitchen disposal or animal fodder (AD 23 42, AD 21 492, AD 21/22 445, Y 20 326) but also in one indoor sample with possible dung remains (AG 22 198). Despite the scarce evidence of Vitis seeds, the presence of Vitis in samples from EBA I until EBA III L suggests that the inhabitants may have regularly consumed grapes, maybe in small amounts, and local cultivation in the region of Küllüoba is likely. Viticulture may already have been established from EBA onwards in the highlands of Anatolia, due to the plant’s tolerance for colder climates, and it is conducted today on the western slopes of the Türkmen Dağları (Hütteroth and Höhfeld 2002).

Vitis vinifera The first evidence for the domestication of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. vinifera) is recorded from the Early Bronze Age onwards in the Levant, southeast Anatolia and Greece (Hopf 1961, Zohary and Spiegel-Roy 1975, Hopf 1983, Miller 1991, Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). Vitis vinifera is recorded to be the sole species of the large genus Vitis in the Mediterranean Basin (Mullins et al. 1992, Zohary et al. 2012). With grapes consumed not only as fresh fruit, but also as dried raisins or in the form of wine, grape production has long been important in the economies of Mediterranean cultures. Due to the plant’s relative resistance to cold and humidity, the cultivation of Vitis could be extended into the northern temperate parts of Europe. Unlike the ‘dioecious’ wild progenitor reproduced by seeds, the domesticated Vitis species are ‘hermaphrodites’ and propagated vegetatively; therefore the new plants with desired ‘fixed’ qualities are produced relatively quickly by vegetative cloning (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). Recent studies suggest that cultivated Vitis has the complex forms of the wild progenitor combined with some possible extinct forms, and that these cannot be recognised due to the crossability of domesticated and wild or feral forms that results in fully fertile hybrids (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012). Despite the arguments over the inseparability of the seeds from wild and domesticated Vitis based on seed morphology (for this controversy see Kislev 1988), it has been suggested that the greater seed size variation found in archaeological assemblages might point to domesticated Vitis, due to the existence of fully and underdeveloped seeds in the same berries, something not found in wild forms (Kroll 1999).

Possible cultivars The farmers’ decision to cultivate crops not only for subsistence, but also as complementary elements of the human diet was possibly one of the most crucial developments in agricultural economy. The plants used as dietary enrichments may have been collected deliberately for long time periods, but they also may have accompanied the cereals and pulses in the fields as weeds prior to their domestication or cultivation. Crop processing aside, farmers may well have collected these plants as weeds and may have unintentionally consumed considerable numbers of seeds, which appeared in prepared food. Depending on seed properties such as palatability, taste and oil/aromatic content, these plants may have been tolerated in the crop fields later on, or, going one step further, may have been collected deliberately. Apart from the occurrences in pits/ debris in household contexts in small abundances that can point to seeds as the remains of crop processing, the evidence of storage presents a case for the deliberate collection and possible cultivation or domestication of such plants.

Grapevine is recorded to be a relatively drought-susceptible plant, due to its high water requirements during growth (precipitation >500 mm). In EBA in Upper Mesopotamia

With edible plants, it is mostly their fresh green parts like leaves and stems that are consumed, as well as their roots. In contrast, because the seeds are the parts that are commonly 141

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

used for oil and dye production, the seed evidence for oil and dye plants may survive the taphonomic filters and be preserved as archaeobotanical remains, although due to their rich oil content, the condition and even the likelihood of their preservation are mostly not comparable to those of the cereals and pulses. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedical studies of the plants distributed in Anatolian landscapes show that numerous edible greens that possess certain chemical agents may also have been used for medicinal purposes (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Yeşilada et al. 1999, Ertuğ 2000, Sezik et al. 2001, Doğan et al. 2004, Köse et al. 2005). The seeds are rarely used as ethnomedicines, but in such cases the chance of survival of the potential medicinal plant is considerable higher, as will be discussed in the next section with regard to the unique preservation of Erysimum crassipes seeds in a small pot.

There are numerous plants in Küllüoba’s botanical assemblages that may have been collected and deliberately cultivated as oil and dye plants. In this work, such plants are illustrated with background information on their cultivation and history, and, when relevant, details of their chemical compounds. The minor occurrence of some potential useful plant taxa will be mentioned briefly, in order to avoid the risk of far-reaching speculations of their use as oil, dye or medicinal plants.

Descurania sophia and Camelina sativa Some members of the Brassicaceae family (also called ‘cruciferous’ due to the family’s former name prior to the taxonomic revision), have rarely been recorded as possible cultivars in central Europe from the Neolithic onwards; however records of their wider distribution appear in later periods, such as Hellenistic and Roman times (Schlichterle 1981, Zohary et al. 2012). The earliest evidence of the storage and possible processing of Brassicaceae seeds, identified as Brassica/Sinapis, derive from a PPNA settlement in Syria dated to the 10th Millennium BP (Willcox 2002), followed by finds from Neolithic Iraq (Zohary et al. 2012).

Oil and dye plants Finding evidence of possible oil plants in the archaeobotanical assemblages of ancient settlements is important not only for understanding the possible source of oils and their local cultivation or trade in these past societies, but also to examine the changes in the soil and climate conditions of the settlements in regional contexts, as shown in a number of studies (McCoriston 1998, Jones and Valamoti 2005, Marinova and Riehl 2009). Many Old World plant species that contain edible oils are considered by botanists to have been distributed as weeds of the primary founder crops and brought under cultivation in later prehistory (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Zohary et al. 2012, Cappers and Neef 2012).

Among the Brassicaceae family members, some species of Descurania, Camelina, Brassica, and Sinapis are recorded to be highly competitive and can infest crop fields. As mentioned above, they may have been actually cultivated later on, after they had been regularly harvested and processed together with crops. Modern ethnological analogies suggest that the decision regarding their further collection or cultivation would be the plausible next step, depending on whether farmers either liked their taste or experienced a positive effect from their consumption.

Studies on the origins and development of Carthamus and Lallemantia cultivation suggest that the farmers of the different regions may have made similar attempts to select the most suitable oil crop for specific environmental conditions (Jones and Valamoti 2005, Marinova and Riehl 2009). During the Early Bronze Age, various crops had a potential for use as an oil source in southeastern European settlements. Among these, the use of Linum, Camelina sativa (Kroll 1990, Riehl 1999, Marinova 2003) and Lallemantia (Jones and Valamoti 2005) take an important place. The occurrence in Bronze Age Europe of a crop adapted to arid areas, like Carthamus or Lallemantia, has been interpreted as a sign of long-distance cultural and economic exchange (Damania 1998, McCoriston 1998, Jones and Valamoti 2005, Marinova and Riehl 2009).

In archaeobotanical records, one of the rarely evidenced members of the Brassicaceae family, Descurania sophia, called ‘wild mustard’, is recorded as a high-yielding collected plant, with seeds containing ca. 23 % oil and a taste similar to cultivated mustard. Descurania is found in the archaeobotanical records of later prehistoric and Iron Age settlements of central Europe, but in Anatolia its cultivation/collection had apparently already begun in the Neolithic (Filipovic 2012a). Descurania is also evident in the Küllüoba samples with a high ubiquity (38%). The relative abundance of Descurania mixed with other members of Brassicaceae and other wild taxa in some of the samples from refuse pit contexts is relatively high (e.g., AD 21 492 (1355 seeds), AD 21 640 (389 seeds)), but in other samples, its abundance is less than a little over 50 seeds per sample. Considering the present evidence of Descurania, it is not easy to draw any conclusions about the deliberate and systematic collection of Descurania at Küllüoba.

In archaeobotanical records some arable weed taxa like Lithospermum arvense have been interpreted as dye plants, due to chemical compounds in their root parts, like some other members of Boraginaceae such as species of Anchusa that are found in oven and hearth contexts in the prehistoric houses of Feudvar, Serbia (Kroll in prep.). Ajuga chamaepitys, from the Lamiaceae family, can also be used as a dye plant (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997).

Due to the regular co-occurrence of Camelina sativa (gold 142

Cultivation

mostly in samples that derive from refuse pit contexts (e.g., AD 21 492 (128 seeds), AD 21 640 (136 seeds), AD 21/22 445 (171 seeds)) as well as in the samples with strong evidence for dung remains (e.g., AG 22 191 (232 seeds), AG 22 198 (263 seeds)). In the other samples the abundance of Camelina seeds approximates 20-60 seeds. Therefore, the evidence of Camelina can be interpreted as ‘sure’ with reference to having derived from crop processing, but whether it was also selected from the harvested crops and used as an oil plant or deliberately collected from stands of growing crops is open to discussions. The plant may also have been tolerated as a weed in the crop fields where ‘mixed cropping’ was conducted to grow possible ‘maslins’ for animal fodder or for human consumption. Ethological records suggest that a minor amount of oil plants can be fed to animals as part of household discards or crop-processing remains (Ertuğ 1998). The occurrence of Camelina in the samples associated with dung can also be interpreted as resulting from animal grazing or feeding.

of pleasure) seeds together with Linum usitatissimum (flax)at some Neolithic settlements in Germany, the plant is thought to have been first considered to be a weed in fields of cultivated flax, and only secondarily domesticated in later periods (Schlichterle 1981, Erskine et al. 1994). Based on modern field observations, it has been suggested that fields infested with gold of pleasure suffer yield loss, whereas the consumption of linseeds with high amounts of gold of pleasure seeds can also have toxic effects (Schlichterle 1981). Camelina sativa, also called ‘gold of pleasure’, ‘false flax’ or ‘dutch flax’, is recorded to have recently disappeared from commercial cultivation as an oil plant in central and eastern European countries (Cappers and Neef 2012, Zohary et al. 2012). Camelina sativa as a cultivated form can be distinguished from the weed and wild species such as Camelina alyssum and Camelina microcarpa based on the seed (actually ‘fruit’) morphology. The fruits of cultivated C. sativa are recorded to be longer than the weed or wild species and are pyriform in appearance (Zohary et al. 2012). The possible use of Camelina as an oil plant is recorded at different prehistoric sites in the Balkans, Greece and central Europe from the 5th and 4th Millennium onwards, partly in larger amounts in pure samples (Schlichterle 1981, Kroll 1981, Kroll 1991, Zohary et al. 2012, Kroll in prep.). Camelina finds from Anatolian and Syrian Late Chalcolithic, Late Bronze Age and Iron Age sites have also been recorded (Miller 1991, Nesbitt 1996, Oybak-Dönmez and Belli 2007).

Carthamus tinctorus Genetic studies suggest that wild species Carthamus palaestinus, distributed in western Iraq and in the desert regions of southern Israel, is the progenitor of the domesticated form Carthamus tinctorus (Damania1998, McCorriston 1998, Chapman and Bruke 2007, Marinova and Riehl 2009). Modern observations show that crosspollination between wild and domesticated forms of Carthamus appears to be possible. However, due to the wider distribution area of another wild Carthamus species, Carthamus flavescens (‘Carthamus persicus’ in the revised nomenclature) in Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, the progenitor is still a matter of discussion (Hanelt 1961, Knowles and Ashri 1995, Weiss 2000, Chapman and Bruke 2007, Marinova and Riehl 2009).

At Late Bronze Age Feudvar, Camelina sativa is represented with a high ubiquity (20%) throughout the samples, and considered to have been cultivated as a common oil plant, although it is absent from the Croatian botanical assemblages that date earlier than the LBA (Zohary and Hopf 2000, Reed 2012). The Camelina samples from Feudvar are mentioned as containing relatively high numbers of Camelina seeds (ca. 100-150), but the assemblages are dominated by einkorn grains and their rachis fragments (Reed 2012). In the preliminary report on the botanical finds from Demircihüyük, Camelina sativa is mentioned with a single seed (Schlichterle 1977/78). In the case of Küllüoba, with only 4 % ubiquity, flax evidence is rather weak, and therefore Camelina very likely may not constitute the weed predecessor of flax. As already demonstrated in the analysis of crop processing as well as implied by the mixed samples, it is hard to draw any conclusions about wild/weed taxa as associates of a given crop species.

The earliest evidence for Carthamus sp. derives from Syrian sites of the middle Pre-pottery Neolithic B (c. 7500 B.C.), whereas in Europe the first archaeobotanical evidence comes from Neolithic settlements (5800 B.C.) (Marinova and Riehl 2009). The earliest Carthamus records in Anatolia come from Chalcolithic Kumtepe, near Troy, where the plant was identified on the genus level (Riehl 1999, Marinova and Riehl 2009), while a later record from the Late Bronze ship wreck ‘Ulu Burun’ was identified as Carthamus lanatus (Haldane 1991, Marinova and Riehl 2009). The Carthamus finds identified on the species level as Carthamus tinctorus originate from northern and central Syrian Early Bronze Age settlements (van Zeist and Bakker-Herres 1985, Marinova and Riehl 2009). The possible route of distribution is suggested as having been from northern Mesopotamia to Egypt, and then via the Aegean to southeastern Europe (Damania1998, McCorriston 1998, Marinova and Riehl 2009). With regard to the Early Bronze Age in northern Syria, it has been suggested that farmers may have domesticated wild

In the Küllüoba assemblages, Camelina sativa reaches a high ubiquity of 37 % with excellent preservation, partly also in mineralised form. The contexts of the mineralised seeds are possible animal pens and fodder storages, as mentioned in Chapter 4. The abundance of the seeds in the samples is quite diverse, but as with the evidence of Descurania seeds, high abundances are concentrated 143

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

seeds for dye production in early prehistory, such as that the wool dyeing occurred in midsummer after the sheep were sheared, and that the wool and safflower seeds were processed near a river (McCorriston 1998). Further analysis of the textile remains from Küllüoba that are preserved in excellent condition in a small pot of Erysimum might provide an occasion for further interpretations of the fabric in the remains and the dye plants used. It is possible to assume that Küllüoba’s farmers had occasion to treat wool with dye extracted from Carthamus seeds, as will also be suggested for other potential dye plants.

Carthamus plants first as a dye plant, prior to the increase in seed size and decrease in the achenes thickness that are interpreted to result from domestication, because harvesting for dye production in the form of immature flower heads would not result in selection for larger seeds with thin walled achenes (Mc Corriston 1998). During the Early Bronze Age, safflower and flax occur together at Levantine and Iranian sites, which may show the similar use of the two crops, despite their completely contrasting ecological requirements (Marinova and Riehl 2009). This evidence has been interpreted as that safflower may have been used like flax for oil from the beginning of its cultivation (Marinova and Riehl 2009). The Middle Bronze Age evidence of Carthamus in northern Mesopotamia and Syria is rather weak, determined by settlement shifts with an increase in aridity beyond the modern 200 mm isohyets that are suggested to have been connected to the 4200 BP event. Therefore whether Carthamus was cultivated as an alternative crop to flax in cases of ‘aridity and salinity’ cannot be proved in the light of present archaeobotanical evidence (Marinova and Riehl 2009).

Although its modern cultivation is concentrated in northwest Central Anatolia, especially in Eskişehir (Knowles 1967, Ertuğ 1998), the Carthamus finds at Küllüoba appear to be the only recorded EBA finds in Anatolia (Marinova pers. comm.). Prior to the Carthamus finds at EBA Küllüoba, it had been stated that evidence for Carthamus was ‘virtually absent’ in Anatolia, since only a few seeds had been recorded from the Bronze Age site Kaman-Kalehöyük in Central Anatolia (Kennedy 2000) and the Troad and Late Chalcolithic site Kumtepe in coastal western Anatolia (Riehl 1999), which may have functioned as a ‘bridge’ for the distribution of Carthamus between the Near East and eastern Europe (Marinova and Riehl 2009). Apparently the gap for the archaeobotanical remains of Carthamus is determined by the scarcely conducted botanical analyses of the Bronze Age sites in central and western Anatolia. Future goals will be directed towards closing the research gap in archaeobotany in Anatolia with more systematical sampling of botanical remains from Bronze Age settlements.

Safflower is recorded to be well-adapted to drought, salinity and arid conditions; therefore, an increase in soil salinity has no effect on safflower and does not produce yield loss, whereas flax yield would be reduced up to 50% (Marinova and Riehl 2009). These properties may explain the distribution of safflower in Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant, where the modern annual average precipitation varies between 200 and 400 mm (Marinova and Riehl 2009). Today domesticated safflower is prized for the high oil content of its seeds (25-40%) and for the valuable ‘red’ dye in its flowers (Körber-Grohne 1987, Kroll 1990, Ertuğ 1998, McCorriston 1998, Marinova and Riehl 2009, Cappers and Neef 2012). Agricultural experiments show that, due to its non-depletive properties for soil nutrition, with fallowing periods safflower can be rotated with winter wheat and barley as a summer crop, and grazing on the stubble of non-spiny Carthamus forms is also possible (McCorriston 1998).

Carthamus tictorus has relatively high ubiquity (18%) throughout the assemblages from Küllüoba. Two of the Carthamus seeds have been identified as possibly Carthamus lanatus based on differences in seed morphology with the C. tinctorus specimens. Other Carthamus seeds, identified solely on the genus level, occur in 9% of the samples, with relatively low abundances (see Appendix 1-Taxa). Concerning the seed abundance, safflower is represented by small numbers (ca. 6-15 seeds) in outdoor refuse pit contexts (e.g., AD 23 33, AD 23 42, AD 21 492), and only in the indoor pit sample, a possible fodder storage sample (Y 20 236, from EBA III L), does Carthamus occur with 36 seeds and one additional mineralised one. The occurrence of Carthamus solely in the refuse/fodder pit contexts suggests that even if Carthamus was intensively cultivated, very likely in form of ‘mixed cropping’ with cereals, it arrived in these contexts as the remains of crop processing. As mentioned above, due to the suitability of the ‘non-spiny’ forms of Carthamus, the green leaves and stems could be fed to animals, although the seeds would probably not have been well digested, due to the hard seed coat.

The cultivation of Carthamus in the earlier prehistory has been explained by the suitability of either wild or collected thick-coated safflower seeds primarily for dye production, which is easier than crushing the thick-walled achenes for oil production, and therefore oil production from prehistory until recent times has been considered of secondary importance (Kroll 1990, Zohary et al. 2012, Kroll in prep.) However, considering the relatively difficult method of dye production from Carthamus seeds (described in detail in Körber-Grohne 1987, Dajue and Mündel 1996) that is, kneading the immature flower heads with their seeds in water for a long time until the water-soluble yellow colour has dissolved into the water, and then treating the remaining seeds with alkaline in order to obtain the desired ‘water insoluble red colour’, the crushing method for oil does not seem to be as technically complicated. There are hypotheses concerning the use of safflower

Carthamus cultivation as an alternative oil source to flax in arid and saline environments has been discussed by Marinova and Riehl (2009), as mentioned above. Flax 144

Cultivation

is recorded to prefer wet places, clay soils and marshy areas (Zohary et al. 2012). Today, the average annual precipitation for the Eskişehir region and Küllüoba approximates 380 mm, which would be sufficient for flax cultivation. As will be described in detail in Chapter 6, the botanical evidence of wetland taxa suggest that the Kireçkuyusu, which recently dried up, must have flowed during EBA period. Therefore, if other wet-loving taxa (e.g., Phalaris arundinacea, Eleocharis sp.) could grow in the vicinity of the settlement, the soil and water conditions would be suitable for the cultivation of Linum usitatissimum. If there were satisfactory precipitation, water availability and suitable soils, the cultivation of Linum could have been more valuable than Carthamus as an oil plant. Due to safflower’s hard seed coat, the process of extracting oil from Carthamus would require more effort in comparison to the pressing of oil from linseeds. If the presence of Carthamus in Küllüoba refers to oil extraction versus the very weak evidence of Linum, the preference for Carthamus would probably point to an increase in soil salinity and in the later periods, after 4200 BP, and a decrease in precipitation. The samples with concentrated safflower seeds derive from the later periods (e.g., AD 23 33, AD 23 42, Y 20 236) and Carthamus cultivation along with the evidence of Salsola sp. (ubiquity 36 %) can be interpreted as an indication of the increased salinity of the soils intended for cultivation.

occur with 47 seeds, and therefore, it can be assumed that Cephalaria very probably constitutes a weed that may have accompanied Vicia cultivation, as observed in modern Vicia samples. However, the possibility cannot be excluded that the plant was used for human consumption as an oil source or for improving the quality of flour.

Isatis tinctoria Isatis tinctoria belongs to the Brassicaceae family. The native species is distributed in southwest Asia and the Aegean region, and it is suggested that the centres of domestication were western and central Asia (Spataro et al. 2007, Zohary et al. 2012). The earliest Isatis finds identified on the genus level are recorded with a few seeds at Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Fairbairn et al. 2002). The written records on Isatis tinctoria (woad) go back to the Bronze Age and its use in southwest Asia, but the archaeobotanical records from this period are almost absent (Körber-Grohne 1987). The subtropical Indian perennial plant, ‘true indigo’, (Indigofera tinctoria) cannot grow in northern and central Europe, but the desired indigo blue could be produced locally from Isatis tinctoria, woad, which probably had already been introduced as a cultivated plant from southwest Asia in the European Neolithic and Bronze Ages (Clark et al. 1993, Zohary et al. 2012). The Celtic tribes’ use of woad for body paint and tattoos was recorded in Roman times (Clark et al. 1993).

Cephalaria syriaca

The cultivation of woad has been recorded as being highly profitable, although it is mentioned as having high requirements for soil quality and satisfactory precipitation. With regard to its chemical compounds for dyeing, as in the case of Indian ‘true indigo’, Indigofera, the indigo colour is present in the woad as an ‘indoxyl glucoside’, but the extractable dye is less than what can be obtained from Indigofera (Clark et al. 1993). The dye can be extracted from the leaves through oxidisation, in which a chemical transformation of ‘indoxyl’ to ‘isatin’ occurs. The chemical compound isatin binds with a further ‘indoxyl’ molecule to build ‘indirubin’, an isomer of the dye ‘indigo’. The degree of oxidisation is decisive for the intensity of the dye, and therefore the records of modern observations suggest that the woad leaves be mixed with water and left for a long period of fermentation, even several years (Clark et al. 1993). In recent times, Isatis has been replaced by Indigofera in Europe and in Mediterranean countries, due to its lower performance as a dye plant in comparison to Indigofera (Clark et al. 1993, Zohary et al 2012).

Cephalaria is recorded in the archaeological contexts of Neolithic sites in the Damascus basin in the Levant, and interpreted as a notorious weed of the wheat species (van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres 1982). Cephalaria is distributed as an arable weed in crop fields in Anatolia (its Turkish name is ‘pelemir’ (Ertuğ 1998)), and is observed to accompany bitter vetch along with Galium sp., although the latter appear to dominate the seed assemblages in the harvested crop prior to crop processing, probably due to climbing habits. Ethnographic observations and growing experiments for Cephalaria syriaca in Anatolia suggest that the crushed seeds contain ca. 25% oil; the seeds are added to wheat flour as an antistaling agent to improve the baking quality (Yazıcıoğlu et al. 1978, Ertuğ 1998). Over the course of time, the cultivation of Cephalaria has declined and is now restricted to the provinces of Kayseri and Erzincan in eastern-central and eastern Turkey. Today, Cephalaria is cultivated experimentally also in areas where wheat cultivation is not productive due to the aridity and low productivity of the soils. The plant gives satisfactory yields (per hectare 375 kg), and after processing the seed cakes are used as animal fodder, as in the case of many other oil plants (Yazıcıoğlu et al. 1978).

At Küllüoba, Isatis tinctoria is represented with low ubiquity (5%) and with low seed amounts. Isatis seeds occur with relatively noticeable abundance (48 seeds) only in one sample obtained from an indoor pit context (Y 20 236). The neighbouring context with eight seeds (Y 20 326) can be also mentioned. Both samples contain mineralised seeds and as they derive from the possible animal stall

At Küllüoba, Cephalaria occurs with relatively high ubiquity (26%), but its abundance is not very high (337 seeds). Only in one sample (AG 22 303) does Cephalaria 145

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

contexts rich in mixed crop-processing remains, they are interpreted as having been intended for animal fodder. Whether these seeds were discards from dye processing can only be speculated. Further samples containing Isatis seeds are needed in order to support the thesis of Isatis as a possible dye plant at EBA Küllüoba.

As argued in the previous section about Carthamus as a possible oil plant, based on today’s climate conditions, an environmental restriction for cultivating linseed at Küllüoba seems unlikely, but the evidence of linseed is too low to suggest the extended cultivation of this plant for oil. Flax cultivation for fibre production can be speculated, but, based on the preliminary results of the experimental charring of woollen and linen fabrics in order to make a comparison with the textile remains from Küllüoba, it can be suggested that the only textile remains found were produced from wool rather than from plant fibres. Further analyses on the textile remains will be conducted in order to understand the preferred fibre used to produce them.

Linum usitatissimum Flax is one of the earliest domesticated six founder crops of southwest Asia, and was introduced as a domesticate together with emmer, einkorn and barley. It has been suggested as the wild progenitor of cultivated flax, Linum bienne Mill. (also called L. angustifolium Huds.) (van Zeist 1984b, Damania 1998, Valamoti 2011a, Zohary et al. 2012).

Lallemantia iberica Distributed today in the Eskişehir region, Lallemantia iberica occurs as weed in cultivated lands, and also grows on roadsides, slopes and fallow fields. It is an annual and occurs as an arable weed (Edmondson 1982). As a possible oil cultivar, Lallemantia iberica was first recorded in several Bronze and Iron Age sites in northern Greece and Serbia (Kroll 1983, Kroll 1998, Reed 2012, Neef and Cappers 2013). In the Early Bronze Age sites in northern Greece, the Lallemantia seeds are found in storage contexts, as evidence of deliberate collection or cultivation (Jones and Valamoti 2005, Megaloudi 2006). The finds of Lallemantia in this geographic region are all the more interesting because not only L. iberica, but the whole genus Lallemantia is not distributed as a wild form in Greece or the Balkan countries, and the closest potential stands of Lallemantia in modern flora are recorded in Anatolia. However, the presence of seeds in storage contexts suggests that Lallemantia was cultivated locally in northern Greece, even if its introduction into Bronze Age Greece has been interpreted as an indication of farreaching trade and cultural contacts of northern Greece with Anatolia and northern Europe (Jones and Valamoti 2005). Concerning Anatolia, the one and only record of Lallemantia comes from Central Anatolia at Late Bronze Age Hattuša (Neef unpublished data).

Even if the flax used for fibre and linseeds belongs to the same species of plant, the plants that were bred for their seeds are recorded to be smaller, with more seeds, while the plants for fibre are taller and bear fewer seeds (van Zeist 1984b, Karg 2011). Recent studies suggest that the differences between the types used for fibre and oil production can be distinguished based on their seed measurements (Herbig and Maier 2011). Today, the flax produced for linseeds is reported to be cultivated in Central Anatolia and also in the Eskişehir region, whereas the cultivation of flax as a plant for fibre is mostly concentrated in northwest and northeast Anatolia (Ertuğ 1998). Unlike the production of olive oil or sesame oil, pre-treatment such as roasting or boiling is necessary prior to cold-pressing the linseeds, due to the cyanogenetic acid content of the seeds, which is converted into highly toxic hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid) through contact with air during the crushing process (Charles 1984b, Ertuğ 1998). This process appears to be essential even if the remains of the oil processing are fed to animals. In archaeological contexts, the chance of recovering seeds is unlikely if Linum was used for fibre production, because the plant is mostly harvested before seed maturation (van der Veen 1992, Cappers and Neef 2012), and therefore the seeds found in archaeobotanical assemblages have instead been interpreted to denote the plant’s cultivation for oil extraction. It has been recorded that more than 300 mm precipitation is necessary for the cultivation of Linum (Riehl 2008b). Linseed is recorded in Greek Neolithic and Early Bronze Age settlements (Valamoti 2011a), and also in EBA sites of north Mesopotamia. However, it disappears from MBA sites, probably due to an increasing aridity in this period, when the farming communities could not fulfill linseed’s high moisture requirements (Riehl 2008b).

The oil from Lallemantia can be extracted using methods similar to those for linseed (Ertuğ 1998). Lallemantia is reported to be still widely used in the Near East as an oil plant and available on the commercial markets in Iran, Russia, central Asia, and Transcaucasia (Jones and Marinova 2005). It has been reported that not only are the seeds used for oil extraction, but the leaves are edible as well. Oil from the seeds of Lallemantia can be used for different purposes, such as for food preparation, in candles for light and in medicinal treatments (Jones and Valamoti 2005).

In Küllüoba’s contexts, linseeds are represented only with very low ubiquity (4%). A few badly preserved seeds were identified only as ‘cf.’, chiefly due to their high oil content.

After the unpublished Lallemantia finds at Hattuša, the Lallemantia finds from Küllüoba constitute the second piece of evidence for it recorded in Anatolia (Marinova 146

Cultivation

plant (Cappers and Neef 2012); thus during the burning of refuse pits it can easily have been mixed into the contexts (Cappers pers. comm.) Thus, the actual finds of henbane at Küllüoba give no clear evidence for its use for medicinal purposes.

pers. comm.). At Feudvar, Lallemantia iberica is found in 14% of the samples and totals 671 seeds, the largest concentration of 297 seeds being found in house deposits (Reed 2012). In comparison to Feudvar, Lallemantia at Küllüoba shows higher ubiquity (21%), but the seed abundance is lower (190 seeds in total). The seeds are found mostly in mixed samples from refuse pit contexts, and the abundances vary between ca. 10-70 seeds per sample. Without storage contexts, as evidenced at the Bronze Age sites of northern Greece and the Balkans, it is hard to draw any conclusion about the form and intensity of Lallemantia cultivation in Küllüoba.

A common weed from Brassicaceae family, Capsella bursa-pastoris, is used in traditional folk medicine in Europe and Turkey for its anti-haemorrhagic, diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties (Howard 1987, Köse 2005). In the Küllüoba assemblages, Capsella has relatively high frequency (24%) and moderate abundance, and occurs mostly in refuse pit contexts. The fruits of Juniperus oxycedrus are recorded to be used for the treatments of haemorrhoids, cough and eczema, as well as for healing the wounds of livestock (Yeşilada et al. 1999). Either the fruits are swallowed or a kind tar is produced from the wood (Yeşilada et al. 1999). Juniperus is represented at Küllüoba with few seeds and low frequency (4%), and was probably collected primarily as a fuel source.

Medicinal/aromatic plants In reconstructing the palaeodiet of past societies, the cultivated plants like cereals and pulses are taken as the basis of subsistence, and other plants are regarded to have been cultivated or occasionally collected only as supplements. Thus, in evaluating the subsistence diet, archaeologists tend to oversimplify the food needs and taste preferences of past communities, and consequently the use of fresh greens in the form of collected wild plants can easily be neglected (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997). Ethnographic analogies suggest that wild edible plant parts, seeds and fruits would have been collected even if the quantity was not ‘profitable’ and the plants were not easily accessible and abundant (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Fern 1997).

T. pollium is widely used in both traditional and modern medicine. Medical studies show the relevance of its effects as an antispasmodic, anorexic, antidiabetic, and hypolipidemic, due to chemical compounds like volatile oils, flavonoids and terpenoids (Abdollahi et al. 2003, Parsaee and Shafiee-Nick 2006). Teucrium pollium is recorded in Turkish folk medicine for the treatment of haemorrhoids (Yeşilada et al. 1999) and occurs in 10 % of the Küllüoba samples, as a possible arable weed with low abundances (16 seeds in total) and mostly in refuse pit or animal fodder contexts.

Knowledge about the bioactivity and chemical characterisation of wild plants can help to understand the possible wide-spectrum use of wild plants. In order to avoid underestimating the significance of wild plants, interpretations of the possible usage of the relevant plants must be reached using contexts, frequency and abundance, these methods also help to avoid making ‘overestimations’. Some Onopordum species like O. acanthium are recorded as cultivated plants at Neolithic settlements in Germany; the species have chemical compounds similar to Cynara sp. (artichoke) (Hellmund 2008, Kroll 2012a, Kroll 2012b). At Küllüoba, Onopordum is recorded with only a few specimens identified on the genus level. Depending on the context, the species of Malva and Silene may have been used for medicinal purposes (Rivera et al. 2005, Riviera et al. 2006). One of the important medicinal plants, Hyoscyamus niger, is recorded in central European sites as a possible medicinal plant (Kroll 1981, Herbig 2012) and is used also in modern medicine for different treatments, although with caution due to its chemical agents, which are wellknown as poisons and hallucinogens. Hyoscyamus niger is represented in the Küllüoba assemblages with considerable ubiquity (12%) and relatively high abundance (275 seeds). Only three samples that derive from outside refuse pit contexts show evidence for high abundances between 30-106 seeds. It has been observed that henbane, as a ruderal plant of nitrophilous soils, also grows near refuse pits and latrines, and produces 100-200 seeds per

Some of the Fumaria species, like Fumaria officinalis and Fumaria densiflora are known as medicinal plants, with their different chemical compounds like fumaric acid used in modern medicine for multiple sclerosis therapy (Lee et al. 2013). In the Küllüoba samples, Fumaria sp. constitutes a possible notorious weed, with ubiquities of 36 % as carbonised seeds and 19 % as mineralised seeds and high abundances (see Appendix 7-Ubiquity). All the plants mentioned have a medicinal/aromatic potential, but without a clear context for their storage and use, they should be regarded only as potentially useful plants in Küllüoba samples.

Bupleurum rotundifolium Numerous members of Apiaceae family are rich in secondary metabolites, well-known as plants for spices, herbs and vegetables, due to their wide distribution in temperate climate regions (Heywood 1971, Kubeczka et al. 1982). The members of Apiaceae that could not be identified on a genus level or as a ‘type’ have relatively high ubiquity (19%) and abundance (174 seeds) throughout the Küllüoba samples. Due to preservation, 147

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

among the Apiaceae family seeds identified only on the genus level as a ‘type’ is Petroselinum, known as common parsley. The seeds occur in relatively low ubiquity (6%) with low abundances (76 seeds in total). The contexts are different: three samples with seed abundances of ca. 25-35 come from indoor contexts, two of them from the same building excavated in Grid X 20. The other sample derives from a possible mixed storage of hulled and free threshing wheats.

replaced by common parsley, Petroselinum, in Europe, the Near East and other countries where once chervil was cultivated (Hill 1988) although chervil is still used in France to enrich certain dishes. Today the plant is rarely recorded in Turkey, and its neglect is probably due to the preferred consumption of parsley. At Küllüoba, chervil is represented with 16 % ubiquity, except for the taxa category, which is given as Anthriscus sp. (13%), due to morphological uncertainties. The abundance of the seeds is rather low (total 131 seeds). The majority of the samples with Anthriscus cerefolium are mixed cereal samples from indoor and outdoor contexts such as refuse pits and storage for animal fodder, but a few seeds were also found in the einkorn storage contexts (AG 22 177). Chervil may have constituted a tolerated weed in the cultivated crops and been collected or cultivated deliberately if the inhabitants discovered that the whole plant is edible.

Among the plant taxa in Küllüoba that may have been used for aromatic or medicinal purposes, species of Bupleurum are recorded as weeds, but edible species are also known. In Turkish flora, Bupleurum has up to 47 recorded species of which 21 are endemic ones. Fresh or dried roots of Bupleurum are recorded to be used in herbal medicine for treatment of coughs, fevers, influenza, and malaria (Chang and But 1987). Recent studies show that unsaturated fatty acid compounds, especially the oleic acid content of four Bupleurum species in Turkish flora (B. intermedium, B. lancifolium, B. croceum, B. rotundifolium, and B. cappadocium) have cholesterol-reducing effects (Taner Saraçoğlu et al. 2012). Bupleurum rotundifolium was found with 11 % ubiquity in the Küllüoba assemblages; based on morphological criteria the seeds that could be identified only on a genus level are described as ‘Bupleurum sp.’ and show similar ubiquity (11%). Most of the samples contain few seeds (around 4-10).

Erysimum crassipes The genus Erysimum L. is recorded with 290-350 species that are distributed mostly as perennials or biennials in temperate Europe, the Mediterranean, the Near East, and East Asia as well as North and Central America (Polatschek and Snogerup 2002, Warwick et al. 2006, Warwick et al. 2007, Polatschek 2010). As the second richest Brassicaceae genus in Turkish flora, Erysimum has recently been revised (Cullen 1965, Davis et al. 1988, Yıldırımlı 2008, Mutlu and Geçkil 2009, Mutlu 2010).

Anthriscus cerefolium Apart from the weedy species of Anthriscus, A. cerefolium (chervil) is also edible like common parsley and is still cultivated in some parts of Europe. The plant’s natural distribution is recorded to be in Transcaucasia and western Asia, and it may have been introduced to Europe during the Roman Empire (Usher 1974). Anthriscus can grow in soils from light-sandy to heavy-clayey that are well-drained, but moist (Huxley 1997). Anthriscus is recorded to form well-developed leaves ca. eight weeks after sowing, and the leaves can be collected without its being necessary to damage or uproot the whole plant, so the edible leaves can be harvested several times from the same plant (Huxley 1997).

The Brassicaceae family includes numerous taxa that are used medicinally by humans and also in pharmacy. Different genera of the plant family Brassicaceae also have agents like glycosides, which makes this family desirable for both medicinal and aromatic purposes. In the Brassicaceae family, the trace elements selenium and sulphur in the form of glucosinolate and indolglucosinolate and their effects of on human metabolism have been investigated in detail (Schraudolf 1965, Schraudolf 1969, Bäuerle 1987). Chemical analysis shows that the members of Brassicaceae contain more selenium than other consumed vegetables (Rosenfeld and Beath 1964). The inorganic form of selenium is important for animal and human metabolism, although overdoses of selenium through the consumption of selenium-enriched plants would result in poisoning. The right dose of selenium has anti-carcinogenic properties (Schwarz and Foltz 1957, Schamberger 1980), and daily requirements for selenium (50-200 g) are covered by normal dietary habits in European countries (Gissel-Nielsen et al. 1984).

Like other members of the Apiaceae family, Anthriscus is rich in flavonoids. The taste has a mild aromatic flavour reminiscent of the taste of aniseed, and the leaves are eaten raw in salads or used for flavouring in cooked foods such as stews and soups, though it is not suitable for prolonged cooking (Howard 1987, Bown 1995). Other parts of the plant, such as flowers and roots, are also recorded to be edible (Usher 1974, Bown 1995). Like many other species of the same family, chervil is used for medicinal purposes; as a stimulant for digestion, it has the effects of being a sedative, diuretic and expectorant (Usher 1974, Howel 1987). Cultivation of A. cerefolium has been widely

A well-known member of the genus Erysimum that is used for medicinal purposes is Erysimum officinale, known also as hedge mustard. It is a ruderal or weedy plant species and prior to its taxonomical revision was known 148

5.0

Cultivation

‘erysimoside’, is used in therapies for chronic circulatory insufficiency. Another active glycoside, ‘helveticoside’, also important for medicinal purposes, is formed by autofermentative hydrolysis from erysimoside (Bauer et al. 1960). Parts of Erysimum cheiri are used as a drug in modern medical chemistry for the treatment of spasms, as a laxative for constipation, and for treatment of the liver and heart, although, due to its chemical agents, such as cheirotoxin, cardenolid, erysimosid, and erysinotoxin, its overconsumption can have toxic effects (Bauer et al. 1960). Despite the extended use of these Erysimum species for medicinal purposes, there are no available records of E. crassipes in ethnomedicine in terms of its medicinal or aromatic use. Nevertheless, it is generally assumed that the plants used in the past by different cultures for different purposes would have been neglected or ‘forgotten’, and therefore we cannot possess any adequate knowledge about their potential use and effects today. Erysimum finds in past archaeobotanical research in the Near East are very rare. In Neolithic Hacılar in Central Anatolia, two different genera of Brassicaceae, Erysimum and Capsella, have been recorded in a grain bin context (Helbaek 1964). The Erysimum specimens from Hacılar are identified on the species level as Erysimum sisymbrioides, which may have been consumed for ‘its fat content’.

458

12 309

12

EBA III E EBA II L EBA II EBA I

3

1 1 2

1

33

-3.0

10 93

Samples

11

7 2

37

-1.0

2.5

as Sisymbrium officinale L. Scop. The plant is recorded to have been used by the Greeks for its expectorant, laxative and diuretic effects (Howard 1987). As with many medicinal plant taxa, the species of Erysimum also include poisonous chemical compounds like ‘glycosides’ and ‘erysimosides’. Therefore, it has been documented that the overconsumption of the Erysimum species seriously endangers human health, and feeding on those species by small mammalians and birds could lead to paralysis and death (Häupler and Mür, 2007). The ‘Poisonous plant data base’ of the FDA1 categorizes two species of the genus Erysimum (E. cheiranthoides and E. crepidifolium) among the poisonous plants.

Identification criteria for Erysimum crassipes from Küllüoba’s samples are given in catalogue section of this work. The Erysimum at Küllüoba may have been cultivated for its aromatic taste, which is also the reason for the preference for the consumption of the entire Brassicaceae family at present. As mentioned above, some members of Brassicaceae contain medicinal agents. Thus a medicinal or aromatic use of the Erysimum stored in the small pot should not be excluded, given the effort that was required to collect approximately 2.5 million seeds. Like most of the wild plants, members of Brassicaceae, and Erysimum too, disperse their seeds very soon after seed maturation, which results in the potential for ‘perfect timing’ and the careful collection of whole plants very probably with the help of a large piece of fabric in order to prevent any seed loss. Depending on the individual plant, one can assume that as with many other members of Brassicaceae, 50100 seeds per plant could have been collected, although uneven seed ripening within a plant might result in some underdeveloped ‘empty’ seeds.

Nevertheless the same glycosides are important in medicinal treatments of humans and animals in modern medicine (Bauer et al. 1960, Häupler and Mür 2007). Due to their glycoside contents, Erysimum allionii, E. cheiranthoides, E. canescens, and E. cheiri are grouped in the pharmacological category ‘cardiotonics’ (heart stimulants). A special glycoside of the genus Erysimum,

An examination of stored Erysimum seeds in the small pot shows that they appear to be well developed, and probably only the ripe parts of the plants were collected for the selection and storage of the seeds. Seed-bearing ‘faded’ flowers with short stems that reached maturity together may have been dried in order to separate the seeds from the dry flower petals.

1

Erysimum fruits are found not only in the storage context of the building excavated in Grid AG 22, but are distributed through all occupation periods. The Graph 5.20. shows the

Graph 5.20. Erysimum crassipes symbol plot. Ordination diagram with sample attribute, axes 1x2 (CA) Storage sampleof E. crassipes(AG 22 123) is excluded from CA analyses.

Data bank of U.S. Food & Drug Administration Center for Food Safety &Applied Nutrition Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages

149

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

preservation of vegetative plant parts is exclusive to arid or desert regions, and thus there would probably be no evidence for earlier cultivation of the Allium species in other regions of southwest Asia.

distribution of Erysimum crassipes based on the absolute counts according to period. As a possible arable weed, Erysimum crassipes has relatively low ubiquity (12%) and, except for its storage sample AG 22 123, occurs with relatively low absolute counts throughout the botanical samples. As observable on Graph 5.20., two samples have much higher seed counts, AG 22 191 (458 fruits) and AG 22 198 (309 fruits), and both derive from the building in Grid AG 22, like the storage sample from EBA II occupation period. Some interesting evidence that was noted in these samples is that both also have high numbers of Artemisia annua seeds (AG 22 191: 365 seeds and AG 22 198: 1157 seeds), which very probably derive from burnt dung remains, as was illustrated in the analysis of dung-derived taxa in Chapter 4. The presence of Erysimum crassipes in dung samples could be evidence that crop processing remains in these samples were mixed with dung, or that the Erysimum fruits derive directly from dung remains. It can be speculated whether Erysimum was used for the chemical properties mentioned above, not only for humans, but for animals as well. Feeding medicinal plants to animals to treat diseases is recorded ethnographically for some other plant taxa, such as Vitex agnus-castus for the treatment of human and animal hormonal problems. As the next step, chemical analyses from modern Erysimum crassipes are needed in order to understand its biochemical composition and possible use as an aromatic or medicinal plant.

Today Allium ampeloprasum is an important part of European culinary culture. The species has different variations, one of which, A. ampeloprasum var. ampeloprasum, is known by the common names ‘greatheaded garlic’, ‘elephant garlic’ and ‘Levant garlic’, giving the impression that the species is related to garlic (Allium sativa). However, A. ampeloprasum is genetically more related to the cultivated ‘garden leek’; the plant has broad, flat leaves that are similar in appearance to those of the leek, and a main bulb with numerous small bulblets that have a similarity to cloves of garlic (Brouk 1975, Block 2010). It is probably the origin of the cultivar Allium porrum (used synonymously with A. ampeloprasum ssp. porrum), and therefore the plant has also been referred to as ‘wild leek’ in botanical literature (Brouk 1975). One of the other well-known variations of the plant is A. ampeloprasum var. sectivum (pearl onion), which is produced today in central Europe, and has a taste close to onion, although milder and sweeter. Pearl onion’s different smell and taste compared with elephant garlic even though they are different variations of the same A. ampeloprasum species is evidently the reason for their different common names (Brouk 1975, Randle and Lancester 2002). In fact the characteristic taste and smell of onion comes from ‘syn-Propanethial-S-oxide’, which has a lachrymatory effect when the plant parts are cut or crushed, and exists as well in leeks and A. ampeloprasum (wild leek) but not in A. sativum (garlic) (Randle and Lancester 2002, Brewster 2008, Block 2010). Nevertheless wild leek does have organic sulphur components such as Allicin, which gives the plant its characteristic taste and smell of A. sativa (Brewster 2008). Due to these chemical compounds, wild leek and garlic have anti-fungal and antibacterial properties and reducing effects for atherosclerosis (Brewster 2008, Block 2010). Not all species of the Allium genus are edible, and overconsumption of some Allium species may lead to haemolysis in dogs, cattle and sheep (Fenwick and Hanley 1985). Identification criteria and a morphological description for Allium are given in the plant catalogue section of this work.

Allium ampeloprasum-type The genus Allium has numerous wild/weedy as well as cultivated species. Today this genus includes common garlic and onion, which constitute the main components of Asian and Mediterranean kitchen cultures. Despite the intensive cropping of Allium cultivars all over the world, the weedy species like A. vineale, A. lyconicum, A. scrodoprasum, and A. atroviolaceum have notorious habits that can result in serious yield loss in cereal fields, and also produce an unpleasant taste in dairy products, due to their high sulphur content (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997, Block 2010). The centre of cultivation is thought to be the Near East and the Mediterranean region, where the probable cultivated form A. porrum has the widest genetic diversity (Vavilov 1992, Damania 1998, Fritsch and Friesen 2002). Like many other vegetable crops, due to the vulnerability of Allium’s edible vegetative parts to charring conditions, the domestication process of the Allium genus as food plants is not well known (Damania 1998, Zohary et al. 2012). It has been assumed that many early vegetables as well as the Allium species were cultivated in the spatially restricted and intensively used agricultural areas of the Nile valley (Zohary et al 2012). Allium species like Allium porum (leek) and Allium cepa (onion) are first recorded in desiccated form in the Nile valley in the second and first millennia, even though they were often mentioned in written records (Keimer 1984, Fritsch and Friesen 2002, Zohary et al. 2012). Nevertheless, the desiccated

Allium’s cultivation in prehistoric times may have been based on accurate observations of the plant’s developmental stages and knowledge of plant reproduction from bulblets. It is possible that de-vernalisation through exposing the plants to high temperatures following the vernalisation process, which is practised by farmers today, was also applied in the past in order to store the bulblets for a long time (Block 2010). Vernalisation is applied by farmers in modern times to accelerate the flowering ability of the winter cereals and other biennial or perennial plants, and is practised in the form of artificial exposure of seedlings or whole plants to prolonged cold periods (Chouard 150

Cultivation

1960, Amasino 2004). Once the Allium species have been devernalised, their bulbs grow and increase in size rather than flowering, which contributes to remarkably improved yields. Propagation using ‘increase bulbs’ is recorded as the most suitable form of cultivation for A. ampeloprasum, because the plant is generally not propagated by its seeds (Block 2010). To achieve the effects of vernalisation, the bulbs were generally planted in autumn and harvested in summer (Brewster 2008, Block 2010). They require well-drained soil conditions without salt accumulation for appropriate growth, and if sufficient water is available, the bulbs can grow to large sizes (Brewster 2008). Even if the bulbils or bulblets form a solid bulb in the first year, the plant does not flower until the second year and the parent bulb produces new bulbils and turns into a head with many cloves (Brewster 2008). Generally after the disintegration of bulb tunics, the bulblets remain close to the parent bulb (Davis 1987, Brewster 2008). The plant is cultivated today also for its nice flowers.

big and their morphological criteria give some of the same evidence as the ‘underground’ type of bulb. The deliberate or occasional harvest of Allium species as whole plants for animal fodder can be excluded, due to high sulphur content of the bulbs that gives milk and other dairy products an unpleasant taste, as mentioned above. Therefore, collection for human consumption or for cultivation of new plants from the bulbs is likely, and probably some of the bulbs were discarded with food residues and mixed with cereals and wild plants as animal fodder.

Considerations on crop cultivation and use of cultivars In this chapter, it has been shown in light of the botanical remains that the cultivation of cereal and pulses with an emphasis on wheat cultivation constitutes the main component of the agriculture in Küllüoba. From EBA I until the end of the early period of EBA III, the major wheat species under cultivation was einkorn; in the late period of EBA III, einkorn cultivation appears to be overtaken first by the cultivation of emmer, followed by bread/durum wheat and barley. Looking generally at cultivation throughout the occupation periods, in addition to the strong evidence for the diversification in wheat cultivation with einkorn, emmer, bread and durum wheat, barley cultivation could constitute a non-negligible dietary component during all periods, but especially during the late period of EBA II. In Küllüoba, barley cultivation was very probably intended not only as animal fodder but also for human consumption. A decline of cereal evidence along with pulses together with a remarkable increase in wetland and woodland taxa can be observed from the early period of EBA III until the end of the occupation of Küllüoba. As illustrated in section ‘summarising results for the spatial analyses’, the ‘draw-back’ in crop cultivation versus the rise in the plants of both eco-groups has been interpreted as possibly due to an increased emphasis on animal husbandry as opposed to agriculture during EBA III E.

With regard to the chemical compounds of the genus Allium, numerous species from cultivars also have medicinal properties (Brouk 1975, Brewster 2008). Allium ampeloprasum is recorded as having similar medicinal effects, and, although weaker than garlic, shows antifungal, antiseptic, antiparasitical, and antibacterial properties (Duke and Ayensu 1987, Block 2010). It is also said to have anticancer attributes. At Küllüoba Allium ampeloprasum type bulbs are represented rather with low ubiquity (9 %) and low abundance (in total 42 bulbs), but this is not surprising considering the rather rare evidence of bulbs in archaeological contexts, very probably determined by the taphonomic differences of relatively soft bulbs in comparison to durable seeds. The contexts where Allium regularly appears are the samples collected from Grids AD 21 and AD 23. Sample AD 21 370 is interpreted as a mixed cereal storage, and AD 21 365, AD 21 492 and AD 21 99 are interior pit contexts, probably kept as animal fodder. Samples AD 23 29, AD 23 42 and AD 23 33 are mixed cereal product samples from exterior pit and fill contexts, interpreted also as possible fodder storage in animal pens, and AD 23 50 is related to other samples from the same grid. Except for the seven samples obtained from these two grids, bulbs also occur in AF 18 189 and AA 20 155, both of which are also mixed cereal samples with evidence for fodder storage. Allium bulbs in these contexts do not show any direct evidence for their use for human consumption, but if they derived from fields as weeds, the increase bulbs were unlikely to have been part of the harvested crops unless the whole Allium plants were uprooted. According to my own field observations, wild garlic can produce two different types of bulbs, one that grows underground, and the other type with small bulblets that reach maturity after the plant develops mature flowers on a long stem. The size and bulb morphology of both types of bulbs differ considerably. The types in Küllüoba are relatively

Like the majority of the crop repertoires of the prehistoric settlements in the Near East, Anatolia and the Balkans, Küllüoba’s crop spectra also consist of diverse pulse taxa with strong presences and abundances throughout the occupation periods. In all periods under consideration, the emphasis in pulse cultivation was on Vicia ervilia, which is known as a less demanding and quick-growing crop in a short summer season, but with a strong chemical defence mechanism as protection against being eaten by animals as well as humans. As illustrated in previous sections, despite its toxicity, the cultivation of bitter vetch was apparently not only intended for animal fodder but also for the human consumption. This evidence is supported by the high ubiquity of bitter vetch, and also by the remarkably pure storage sample dated to the late period of EBA II. In the same period, along with the cultivation of bitter vetch, evidence of lentil and other pulses, like Pisum sativum, 151

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

Cicer arietinum, Lathyrus cicera, and Vicia faba, appears to reach the highest level as abundances. Determined by the mixed occurrences of these pulses with cereals and bitter vetch in lower abundances during all occupation periods, it can be well assumed that the relevant pulses may have been cropped together with cereals or constitute partly weedy components that were deliberately collected and consumed with other crops. As illustrated in the previous chapter, strong evidence of Vicia during EBA II L is followed by an abrupt decline in all crop taxa during the early period of EBA III, which continues as a trend as well during EBA III late until the end of the occupation period. This evidence has been interpreted as deterioration trends in climatic and environmental conditions for the Küllüoba settlement, which may have already begun during the late period of EBA II and led to the emphasis on Vicia cultivation as a risk-buffering strategy, not only as animal fodder but also for human consumption.

as storage in a small pot. The broad spectrum of crops and possible cultivars obtained from EBA Küllüoba samples gives an overall picture of the rich plant resources that were determined by suitable environmental and climate conditions and were exploited by human knowledge based on observation of and experiments with nature in the settlement’s vicinity. The evidence of useful plants supports the thesis that not only the consumption of cereals and pulses, but also the use of other plants was important for the inhabitants of EBA Küllüoba.

The possible cultivars as potential oil, dye, aromatic, and medicinal plants are represented with some exceptional taxa that are either rarely found or are recorded for the first time in the archaeobotanical assemblages of prehistoric settlements. These plants, their cultivation requirements and chemical backgrounds are briefly illustrated in the previous section, like the first recorded finds of Erysimum crassipes, Anthriscus cerefolium, Allium ampeloprasum and Isatis tinctoria in Turkey, as well as the first records for considerable numbers of Carthamus tinctorus, Lallemantia iberica, and Camelina sativa for EBA periods in Anatolia. The distribution of the possible cultivars does not give any special patterning according to occupation periods, and furthermore their occurrences appear to be dependent on the sample contexts. As mentioned in the previous sections, except for the Erysimum crassipes recovered in the storage contexts, other possible cultivars do not occur in the storage contexts in considerable amounts, either in pure form, or mixed in storages of crops or other possible cultivars, so that, despite their known properties as dietary enrichments, dye and oil sources, aromatic plants, or medicines, they cannot be speculatively proposed to have been used for these purposes. On the other hand, if the storage of Erysimum were excluded, its evidence throughout the samples would not appear significant, which means that without the opportunity of having found the storage of Erysimum crassipes, it would never have been possible to speculate about its use and cultivation for aromatic purposes, and Erysimum would be neglected as a cultivar among the numerous other plants for which there is no clear evidence of use in the Küllüoba settlement contexts. Therefore, the presence of the potential aromatic, medicinal, dye, and oil plants from refuse deposits indeed indicates that the inhabitants of EBA Küllüoba had the possibility to gather and cultivate those plants in their environment. Consequently they may have possessed the required knowledge to use them when they needed them, as clearly evidenced by the highly timeconsuming collection of the fruits of Erysimum crassipes

ar

ch

152

ny

ae

ob

a ot

Husbandry

6. Crop and animal husbandry in EBA Küllüoba

partly grazed crop remains from the previous harvest or burnt stubble are turned into the soil with help of an ard or plough; depending on the aridity of the region and available moisture in the soils, the soil clumps are broken and using wooden tools, and the soil surface is levelled, in order to prevent moisture loss after ploughing (Butler 1991, Cappers and Neef 2012). In regions where a risk of soil erosion exists, levelling is not conducted (Butler 1991). Soil preparation is stated as being important to the soil’s ability to increase its water up-take and storage capacity. In ‘intensively cultivated’ fields, the preparation of soils with an ard or plough helps to bury the broadcast-sown seeds and dung for manuring, and aerates the soil for better oxygen availability to the plant roots after the germination of the seeds (Cappers and Neef 2012). Repeated soil tillage conducted primarily for weed control prevents the loss of soil moisture as well (Palmer 1998b). Preparation of the soil to control the weeds effectively can improve the crops’ efficiency of water use (Durutan et al. 1991).

In Chapter 4, the analyses of the botanical samples based on crop processing, spatial distribution and dung remains provided a basis for interpretations of the formation and variation of the archaeobotanical assemblages. In this chapter, an attempt is made to understand the two major socio-economic aspects of EBA Küllüoba, crop husbandry and animal herding, which are considered to be tightly linked in the subsistence economy of past communities. Especially for the productivity of dry-farming regions such as Anatolia and the Near East, the forage-livestock systems are accepted as being as important as grain production. The archaeobotanical data from Küllüoba and the results of the analyses that are presented in the previous sections of Chapter 4 serve as the basis for further considerations of these two major aspects of the settlement’s life. In this chapter first an overview is provided of the general aspects of crop husbandry and their related evidence in the botanical assemblages from Küllüoba. The other important aspect of subsistence economy, animal husbandry and its possible reflection in the botanical samples, is illustrated based on the archaeozoological evidence from Küllüoba conducted by Gündem (2010 and 2012).

It must be considered that the weed communities in modern fields differ from those of cultivated lands of the past, determined not only by climate and soil conditions, but also by different soil preparation techniques. In the 1970s, observations on the differences between the fields ploughed by mouldboard or by ard in Turkey show thriving populations ranging from biennial umbels (Ferula spp.), to the biennial composites Centaurea spp., together with Rosaces Rubus sp., spurges like Euphorbia and labiates Teucrium polium that generally do not survive the more effective mouldboard ploughing (Bottema 1984). It has been observed that only a light tilling of a land with an ard results in the survival of many perennials like Astragalus sp., Salvia sp., Satureja sp., Stipa sp., and bulbous and tuberous plants. Certain species of Allium in particular are observed in fields of the sub-Mediterranean zone in Syria and Israel, despite ard-ploughing (Hillman 1981, Hillman 1991). All these taxa are in evidence as well in the botanical assemblages from Küllüoba.

Aspects of crop husbandry The study of the archaeobotanical remains of past settlements can provide evidence for the crop husbandry regimes, which is important for the reconstruction of agriculture- and animal husbandry-based economy and the management of natural resources. Modern agricultural experiments suggest that conservation of available soil moisture, weed control by tillage, and crop rotation are tightly interconnected in the decision-making regarding successful soil preparation (Durutan et al. 1990, Durutan et al. 1991, Karaca et al. 1991, Palmer 1998b). In the following sections, the aspects of soil preparation irrigation, fallow and crop rotation, weed control, manuring, and crop harvest are considered in order to obtain an overall picture of the agricultural techniques that may have been applied in EBA Küllüoba.

Considering the need for irrigation in general, studies suggest that in the Near East in arid areas with less than 200 mm/year average precipitation, irrigation is essential even for the cultivation of cereals. In semi-arid regions with a yearly average precipitation of 250-350 mm, irrigation is applied in order to increase and improve the quality of the crop yield (Charles et al. 2003, Cappers and Neef 2012). For evidence of irrigation in archaeobotanical assemblages, two proxy measures have been suggested, the presence of crops that require irrigation and the presence of weed/wild taxa that prefer moist areas like ditches and river banks (Miller and Marston 2012). In the vicinity of Küllüoba, according to today’s average precipitation regime of 380 mm/year, einkorn, emmer and bread/durum wheat can be grown in dry-farming conditions without irrigation. Barley is recorded to be more drought-tolerant than the wheat species, and can grow with between 200- 250 mm annual precipitation. In general, the pulses need more spring tillage

Soil preparation and irrigation The soils of the Near Eastern landscapes are witness to a long history of agriculture, and therefore the soil character of prehistoric settlements is considered to be important for understanding the fertility of the surrounding landscape and its agricultural potential for a settlement. Modern observations of the initial forms of seed-bed preparation show that at the beginning of soil preparation, first the

153

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba and weeding during their growth, in order to prevent the growth of the highly competitive broad-leaved weeds in pulse fields (Butler 1991, Jones et al. 2000). Even though the pulses are considered to be more drought-tolerant than the cereals, they might need irrigation in the regions where the soils do not store sufficient water during spring rains (Butler 1991). Today in the region of Eskişehir, cultivation of different pulses without the necessity for irrigation has been recorded (Güler 1990, Durutan et al. 1990). Irrigation in the Eskişehir region is mostly used for vegetables grown as summer crops in order to improve the yield quality.

et al. 2003). At Küllüoba as well, the taxa classified as ‘early-intermediate/late’ flowering onset and ‘long’ or ‘late’ flowering duration are possible weed/taxa that require water availability/irrigation for their growth (see the Appendix 6-Flowering time). The members of the ‘long’ and ‘late’ flowering taxa appear to be associated with wetland habitats (e.g., Alisma sp., Phalaris arundinacea-type, Eleocharis sp.) but also appear as arable/ruderals with spring-sown cereals (e.g., Galium aperine, Vaccaria pyramidata, Malva spp., Medicago sp., Hyoscyamus niger), and have been mentioned in field observations as indicators of poorly drained fields (Hillman 1991). Anthriscus sp. and Carthamus tinctorus may have occurred as weeds in the fields near the stream and may have been cultivars, as mentioned in Chapter 5. Another indicator taxon for water availability is Portulaca oleracea, which is classified as ‘early-intermediate/late’ flowering, but with ‘medium’ flowering duration, and which is represented with relatively high ubiquity (21%) throughout Küllüoba’s botanical samples (Cappers and Neef 2012). Other wet-loving arable taxa with strong presences and abundances are the Galium species that appear throughout the occupation periods (Bottema 1984). Their strong evidence supports the thesis that the fields were located near the stream that provided for regular watering/ irrigation. Salsola is represented with high ubiquity at Küllüoba, and, as a salt-tolerant species that grows in dry salt-saturated soils, it can well be evidence of irrigated but badly drained fields that may have been subject to soil salinity due to prolonged irrigation practices. Even if Küllüoba now belongs to a region with a satisfactory annual average precipitation of 300-380 mm with a considerable amount of spring/summer rain, in the course of EBA II L and EBA III periods the settlement may have experienced an increase in desiccation that may have led to the necessity of irrigation. Due to the scarcity of radio carbon data from Küllüoba, it can only be speculated that the possible desiccation event in Küllüoba after EBA II L was contemporaneous with the 4200 BP event evidenced in multi-proxy climate data, as mentioned in Chapter 1.

In particular, the intensive form of farming in small, irrigated plots accommodates wild/weed taxa that hardly occur in dry-farming fields (Bottema 1984). Studies on farming have been conducted in order to understand the differences between wild/weed plant communities in irrigated and rainfed cultivated fields (Charles et al. 1997, Charles et al. 2003). Studies on crop cultivation methods with different irrigation systems conducted in south Jordan show that weed assemblages in different irrigation regimes are characterised by considerable differences in their compositions (Charles et al. 2003). Causal relationships between the irrigation methods applied and weed composition are explained using the weed functional attributes based on the ‘Functional Interpretation of Botanical Surveys’ (FIBS), which is applied in different studies as a method for evaluating crop husbandry practices such as irrigation (Charles et al. 1997), crop rotation and fallowing (Bogaard et al. 1999), crop sowing time (Bogaard et al. 2001), and cultivation intensity (Jones et al. 2000). FIBS studies can be used to understand the differences between irrigated and dry-farmed regimes and numerous functional attributes related to the duration and quality of the growth period (canopy size, leaf size and leaf density), drought avoidance (timing of flowering, root diameter), drought tolerance (stomatal size and density, epidermal cell size and shape), and other miscellaneous attributes (e.g., persistence of seeds in a seed bank). Among the attributes related to growth period, leaf size and leaf density appear to be more relevant for the fertility of the soils than the irrigation aspect, whereas the canopy size appears to be connected to both soil fertility and irrigation. Among the attributes related to ‘drought tolerance’, epidermal cell size shows a clear positive relationship to irrigation practices (Charles et al. 2003).

Studies show that the weed taxa with canopy heights of more than 80 cm appear to be more concentrated in irrigated fields than the shorter taxa (60-40 cm) that occur more in dry-farming fields (Charles et al. 1997, Charles et al. 2003). In Küllüoba’s case, due to the identification of many taxa only on the level of genus or types, the canopy heights of many taxa could not be calculated, and thus solely the growing heights of the wild/weed taxa have been considered in order to have an approximate reference for the evidence of water availability/irrigation in the fields. The growing heights of the wild/weed taxa have been grouped into three categories, ‘short’ (cm). The same data will be discussed in detail in section ‘weed control’, in order to reconstruct the possible harvesting heights of the crops. High presences and abundances of the ‘tall’ and ‘intermediate’ growing taxa are observable throughout the

The attribute ‘timing of flowering’, which is causally connected to the drought avoidance of the wild/weed taxa, suggests that the annual species that flower short and early are ‘drought avoiding species’, and they may complete their life cycles before the onset of dry/rainless conditions. In contrast, despite their water requirements, the long-flowering taxa (which start after May) appear to be associated with irrigated fields in order to survive the dry/rainless conditions (Charles et al. 1997, Charles

154

Husbandry Küllüoba samples, and not only the strong evidence of tall-growing wet-loving plants like Phalaris, Eleocharis and Galium especially, but the relatively high ubiquities of Cephalaria, Chenopodium and Carthamus tinctorus also give evidence for water availability and eventually regular irrigation. In general, the short growing taxa (< 40 cm) are represented in Küllüoba samples with low ubiquities and abundances.

after pulses appear to give ca. 10 % lower yield than when wheat is sown after a fallow period, although the wheat’s water uptake efficiency increases (Karaca et al. 1991). Cultivation of vegetables as summer crops is recorded to occur at the end of a fallow year, because they are thought to diminish the soil’s moisture and organic components less than the continuous rotation of cereals and legumes (Harris et al. 1991). It has been observed that the shortterm practise of cultivating fallow is beneficial for keeping the soil moisture at an appropriate level; however, this type of crop rotation regime would be disadvantageous in the long-term, due to the deterioration of soil nutrients and organic compounds (Güler 1990). Recent studies show that nitrate nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen levels in the soil can be stabilised with pulse/cereal rotation (Güler 1990, Durutan et al. 1990, Harris et al. 1991).

Fallow and crop rotation In the agricultural sciences, crop rotation has been accepted as an essential part of agricultural practice (Durutan et al. 1990, Durutan et al. 1991, Karaca et al. 1991). Today, bare fallow following cereal cropping is the primary form of crop rotation in the Near East and countries of the Mediterranean (Palmer 1998b, Cappers and Neef 2012). In Turkey, fallowing is still widely practiced, not only due to limited or highly variable annual precipitation, but also due to long tradition in farming communities (Durutan et al. 1990, Karaca et al. 1991). There are many regions at the Black Sea where, despite satisfactory annual precipitation (ca 550 mm) and the possibility for continuous cropping, farmers still practice bare fallowing for animal grazing (Karagöz 1996). In 1980s, through state policy for fallow replacement, the farmers were encouraged to apply cereal/ pulse rotation instead of fallowing in areas where fallow has low efficiency (Güler 1990, Durutan et al. 1990). Such areas are characterised with shallow soils, an average annual precipitation higher than 350 mm and high spring/ summer temperatures (Durutan et al. 1990). Like today, it has been presumed that fallowing practice was not the only form of crop rotation in prehistoric times either; cereal/ pulse rotation is thought to have been practised in the Near East and Greece in ancient times as well (Jones 1992, Halstead 1996, Palmer 1998b).

Using comparative experimental studies for legume-cereal and fallow-cereal rotations, researchers have attempted to understand whether crop rotation regimes were applied in past agricultural communities (Buddenhagen 1990, Palmer 1998). As for irrigation practices, different ethnological field studies based on FIBS methods have been recorded also for crop rotation (Jones et al. 1995, Charles et al. 1997). The aim of these studies was the investigation of the effects of crop rotation regimes on present-day weed floras, which, in turn, can be applied to archaeobotanical assemblages to reconstruct past crop rotation practices. In the scope of the analyses, the attribute ‘flowering onset and duration’ of the weed species had to be considered in order to understand crop rotation regimes and the sowing time for crops. With the help of modern growing experiments, it has been shown that autumn-sown crops are mostly associated with weeds with short flowering periods and the spring-sown crops are accompanied by the weeds with long flowering periods that could have been harvested at the end of the summer season with the summer crops (Bogaard et al. 2001). The duration of flowering period is also related to evidence of soil disturbance (Jones et al. 2006). The relevant approaches and their application to archaeobotanical assemblages will be mentioned later. In the botanical assemblages from Küllüoba, potential crop species include the short-growing summer pulse, Vicia ervilia, as well as other pulses like lentil and minor pulses like chickpea, broad bean, pea, and grass pea. They were probably cultivated in cereal/pulse rotation, probably following a season of bare fallow. Bare fallow would have provided an opportunity to graze livestock near the settlement. However without a consideration of the wild/weed taxa based on FIBS, it is only speculation to conclude that crop rotation and fallowing were practiced.

The ethnological studies of small modern farming communities show that the rotation of crops is limited by environmental constraints and influenced by the socio-economic conditions of the community under consideration (Palmer 1998b). Decisions regarding the duration of fallowing or the form of rotation vary greatly from one region to another, due to the farmers’ traditional practices. In Jordan, it has been recorded that three-year cereal/legumes rotation has been practiced mostly by the farmers who also kept livestock, but because it is labourintensive to harvest legume crops, families with enough labour would grow crop legumes (Palmer 1998b). Cutting the winter-sown legumes before their seed maturation as ‘green manure’ during early spring provides more moisture for the subsequent cropping of wheat than growing the legumes for grain; another advantage from this kind of rotation is a more effective seedbed preparation for wheat sowing, because the legumes function as effective weed control (Durutan et al.1990, Durutan et al. 1991). In modern farming communities, wheat species sowed

Weed control In ecological studies on modern vegetation, the weed species encouraged in their distribution by agricultural practices are described as ‘agro-ecotypes’ (Barrett 1983). 155

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba Galium sp.

Diameter

Thickness

Ra o

2 1,94

1,63 1,63

1,228 1,19

Mean Median

Some agro-ecotypes appear to be associated with specific crops, due to their ability to mimic these particular taxa. It has been observed that mimetic weed forms are, in general, the weed species that cannot be separated easily from the crops by hand-weeding during their growth period in the fields or during harvest and crop processing (Barrett 1983, Butler 1991). Modern studies show that sowing lentil and vetch in autumn would result serious weed problems in the spring. Therefore, especially in Central Anatolia, to control spring germinating weeds, farmers broadcast the legume seeds on cereal stubble and then plough to incorporate this seed-bed as soon as the soil conditions are suitable for sowing in early spring (Erskine et al. 1994). At Küllüoba, Anthriscus sp., Bupleurum sp., Bromus spp., Neslia paniculata, and Stipa sp. can be considered to be taxa with a seed size similar to wheat and barley, and therefore if they occurred as weeds in the crop harvest, it was surely difficult to separate them and a considerable portion could have been sown the next year with the crop seeds.

Galium sp. 2,6 2,4

thickness

2,2 2 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1 1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

diameter

4.5

Graph 6.1. Measurements of Galium sp. for the seed size variation. Smaller median values of seed diameter in comparison of higher mean values suggest that the big-seeded Galium are rarer than the intermediate- and small-seeded ones.

Instead of leaving the fields as bare fallow, the application of cultivated fallow and cereal/pulse rotation can reduce the competition of weeds with crops, and consequently effective weed control can increase the efficient water use by the sown crops, as mentioned in the previous sections (Durutan et al. 1991, Güler et al. 1991). Weeds are not only competitive with crops in terms of water sources, but also in terms of light, minerals and organic components in the soils (Cappers and Neef 2012). As with other plants, many weeds, such as species of Convolvulus and Chenopodium, have well-developed chemical compounds called ‘allelopathic inhibitors’ that prevent the growth of neighbouring plants (Cappers and Neef 2012). The tallgrowing and broad-leaved weeds that occur in fields with high density are problematic for the light of the growing crops. Like some other weed species, species of Gallium also use their climbing habits and hooks to become supported by the better-developed stems of the crop plants (Cappers and Neef 2012). The combination of the Galium species’ climbing habit and their similar diameter and shape to the crop pulses like bitter vetch and lentil make the control of this weed difficult, and therefore, also in modern times, the weeding of pulses infested with such a notorious weed is mostly carried out by hand-picking (Papastylianou 1990). The Galium species are recorded as having infested einkorn in studies of Feudvar (Reed 2012). At Küllüoba, Galium, as the most dominant weed species, occurs with high abundances and frequencies in all periods. However it does not occur in monocrop storage samples, but rather in mixed samples containing more than one crop species, and therefore it is not possible to connect Galium as a weed to certain crop species. As previously mentioned, Galium and other wet-loving wild/weed taxa may have occurred especially in the fields along the Kireçkuyusu that were irrigated or partly watered by spring flooding.

1 132 89 9 2965

26

39

634

2007 AD21-492 651

146 SAMPLES EBA III L EBA III E EBA II L

11

EBA II

2

EBA I

-4.0

3

-1.0

2.5

Graph 6.2.Galium sp. CA data attribute plot. Galium abundance according to occupation periods of Küllüoba. In EBA I, the highest abundance, the pit contexts of EBA I contain more Galium sp. derived from crop-processing remains.

156

Husbandry The infestation of poorly drained fields with wet-loving species must have created more problems in the past. It has been remarked that if today these weeds like Alisma, Galium aperine and Galium palustre were limited only to the wet patches, they would have pervaded entire crops and infested huge amounts of the harvest, as in today’s Britain (M. Jones 1984, Hillman 1991). The evidence of Trigonella capitata/lunata as a taxon with high ubiquity and abundance could potentially cause it to be included with the possible weed taxa, even though modern studies suggest that the species of Trigonella are grazed as ‘wild plant of healthy steppe’ and its decline has been interpreted as a consequence of overgrazing (Miller et al. 2009, Miller 2011).

amounts of fuel sources like wood and shrubs were available. The long-term use of fields without appropriate manuring, especially intensive cropping with cereals, can cause decreasing yields and loss of soil fertility. Research on long-term wheat yield indicates that cropping legumes in rotation with cereals is the most suitable method for achieving an increase in wheat yield level (Durutan et al. 1990). However, when the pulses are harvested at seed maturity, much of the nitrogen has been remobilized from the root to the seed and the nitrogen is removed with the harvest (Buddenhagen 1990, Beck et al. 1991, Harris et al. 1991). Cropping pulses in the form of ‘green-manuring’, when the immature crop is ploughed back into the soil, is the most effective form of manuring with nitrogen through pulses (Littlejohn 1946, Butler 1992, Palmer 1998b).

In the studies conducted at the Jezireh/ Mid-Khabur site, three categories were suggested for the wild/weed flora that are also common to the taxa at Küllüoba on the species or genus level (McCoriston 1998). Some taxa are mentioned in the category of weeds as indicators of dry-farming, such as Silene conoidea, Vaccaria pyramidata, Malva sp., Asperula arvensis, and Centaurea hyalolepis. To the second category belong the ‘fallow-steppe indicators’ like the taxa Astragalus, Medicago radiata, Coronilla scorpioides, and Trigonella. It is noted that these taxa might incorporate several different plants; moreover, since some taxa in the genera cited have broad ecological tolerance in disturbed areas, including fields and steppe, they may actually include the steppe and dry-farming weed categories (McCorriston 1998). The third category includes the wild steppe taxa, such as Atriplex leucoclada, Salsola, Euphorbia densa, Teucrium pollium, Ziziphora, Artemisia herba-alba, and Stipa, which are recorded to occur rarely in pioneering, but rather in established settlements (McCoriston 1998). Both the categories ‘wild-steppe’ and ‘fallow-steppe’ taxa may derive from the extensive use of dung fuels at the prehistoric sites of the Near East (McCorriston 1998). If identification on the species level is not possible, it is difficult to distinguish whether some of the fallow-steppe or wild-steppe taxa represent a weed assemblage, and therefore it seems to be rather inappropriate to attempt interpretations for Küllüoba without the identifications of the wild/weed taxa on the species level.

The availability of soil nitrogen and phosphorus is required in order to obtain satisfactory crop yields (Palmer 1998, Cappers and Neef 2012). Understanding the manuring practices of past settlements has necessitated soil analyses, like the analysis of phosphate and phosphor and surveys of surface potsherds in the surrounding area (Miller and Gleason 1994). However, phosphate enrichment in the soils may not only be an indicator of soil manuring with dung, but can be also be evidence for a concentration of animal bones or waste disposal (Shahack-Gross 2011). Intensive manuring can be traced in the soils of ancient fields by means of dung analysis, although this gives no clear evidence for the intensity and dimensions of manuring practices. Another method applied for determining longterm manuring practices is stable isotope analysis (Bogaard et al. 2013b). Experimental studies show that the stable carbon isotope composition of cereals and bone collagen is not influenced by manuring, and therefore cannot be seen as a good indicator for manuring. However, the ratios of the nitrogen isotope ( 15N values) for cereals do provide a useful analytic tool: depending on the intensity of manuring practices, low cereal 15N values (5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Long (>5)

Long (>5)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

long

Early/intermediate/short

long

Early/intermediate/short

Early/intermediate/short

long

long

long

Late

long

long

Early/intermediate/short

Early/intermediate/short

long

Flowering duration Flowering onset duration (Bogaard et al. 2001) (June as threshold)

Spring

Autumn

Spring

Autumn

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Autumn

Autumn

Sowing time

Flowering time

X X

X X

X X X X

X X

X X X X

X X

X X X X X

Convolvulus sp.

Bryonia-type

Juniperus oxycedrus/excelsa

Carex spp.

Cyperus spp.

Eleocharis sp.

Scirpusmaritimus (Bolboschoenus)

Cephalaria syriaca-type

Scabiosa-type

Euphorbia sp.

Astragalus sp.

Coronilla sp.

Medicago sp.

Melilotus sp.

Trifolium sp.

Trigonella capitata/lunata-type

small seeded leguminoseae

Ajuga chamaepitys

Hyssopus of cinalis-type

Lalemantia iberica-type

Nepeta-type

Salvia-type

Satureja-type

Stachys byzantina-type

Teucrium pollium-type

CONVOLVULACEAE

CUCURBITACEAE

CUPRESSACEAE

CYPERACEAE

CYPERACEAE

CYPERACEAE

CYPERACEAE

DIPSACACEAE

DIPSACACEAE

EUPHORBIACEAE

FABACEAE

FABACEAE

FABACEAE

FABACEAE

248

FABACEAE

FABACEAE

FABACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

LAMIACEAE

X

X

X

X

Helianthemum sp.

CISTACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

No records Early-intermediate/Late

X

Salsola sp.

CHENOPODIACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

Chenopodium spp.

CHENOPODIACEAE

X

X

X

X

Beta-type

X

X

CHENOPODIACEAE

X

X

X

Vaccaria pyramidataMedik.

X

X

Stellaria media/holostea-type

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

X

Silene spp. (capsule)

X

X

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

X

X

X

Flowering onset (June as threshold)

X X

Sep- Octotember ber

Silene spp.

July August

Cerastium sp.

June

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

May

Brassicaceae indet.

FebMarch April ruary

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

GENERA/ SPECIES

BRASSICACEAE

FAMILY

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Late

long

Early/intermediate/short

Late

long

long

Early/intermediate/short

long

long

Early/intermediate/short

Early/intermediate/short

long

long

Flowering duration Flowering onset duration (Bogaard et al. 2001) (June as threshold)

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Sowing time

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba

X

Papaver sp.

Plantago sp.

Bromus spp.

Eremopyrum-type

PAPAVERACEAE

PLANTAGINACEAE

POACEAE

POACEAE

249 X

X X

X X X X

X

X X

X X

X X

X X

Phalaris arundinacea-type

Stipa sp.

small Gramineae indet.

Polygonum spp.

Rumex sp.

Portulacaoleracea L.

Anagallis sp.

Adonis sp.

Consolida regalis-type

Ranunculus-type

Rubus ulmifolius-type

Galium spp.

Galium aperine-type

Asperula arvensis L.

Verbascumthapsus-type

Verbascumthapsus-type (capsule)

Hyoscyamus niger

Thymelaea sp.

Valerianella vesicaria-type

POACEAE

POACEAE

POACEAE

POLYGONACEAE

POLYGONACEAE

PORTULACEAE

PRIMULACEAE

RANUNCULACEAE

RANUNCULACEAE

RANUNCULACEAE

ROSACEAE

RUBIACEAE

RUBIACEAE

RUBIACEAE

SCROPHULARIACEAE

SCROPHULARIACEAE

SOLANACEAE

THYMELAEACEAE

VALERIANACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

Melica-type

POACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

X

Lolium spp.

POACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Hordeum sp.

POACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

Festuca sp.

X

X X

Glyceria sp.

X

X X

X

POACEAE

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

July August

POACEAE

X

X

X

Glaucium sp.

PAPAVERACEAE

X

X

X

Fumaria sp.

PAPAVERACEAE

X

X

Malva spp.

MALVACEAE

X

X

X

X

Malva nicaeensis/neclecta-type

MALVACEAE

X X

X

June

Allium ampeloprasum-type

May

Ziziphora sp.

FebMarch April ruary

LILIACEAE

GENERA/ SPECIES

LAMIACEAE

FAMILY

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Sep- Octotember ber

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate/Late

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Early-intermediate

Flowering onset (June as threshold)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Medium (4-5)

Short (1-3)

Long (>5)

Long (>5)

Short (1-3)

Medium (4-5)

Early/intermediate/short

long

long

long

long

Early/intermediate/short

Early/intermediate/short

Early/intermediate/short

long

long

Early/intermediate/short

Early/intermediate/short

long

long

long

Early/intermediate/short

Flowering duration Flowering onset duration (Bogaard et al. 2001) (June as threshold)

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Autumn

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Autumn

Spring

Spring

Spring

Autumn

Sowing time

Flowering time

23

67

83

73

65

27

92

70

14

70

6

2

7

3

6

16

T. monoc. 2 gr./T. turg. ssp. dicoc.

T. monococcum. (RF)

T. monococcum/ dicococcum (RF)

T. turgidum ssp. dicoccon

T. turgidum ssp. dicococcum (RF)

T. turgidum ssp. durum(RF)

Triticum spp.

Triticum/ Hordeum (GC)

processed Cerealia

Cerealia indet.

Vitis vinifera L.

cf. Vitis vinifera

Large fruit indet.

Alisma sp.

Antriscus caucalis-type

Anthriscus cerefolium-type

90

T. monococcum ssp. monococcum

84

40

Triticum aestivum (RF)

26

71

Triticum aestivum/ durum

T. monococcum/T. turgidum ssp. dicoc.

30

Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon (RF)

T. monococcum two-grained

70

Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon

9

Vicia faba L.

4

66

cf. Vicia ervilia

cf. Linum usitatissimum

Carthamus sp.

80

Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.

6

15

cf. Pisum sativum

49

11

Pisum sativum L.

cf. Vicia faba L.

72

Lens culinaris Medik.

Large legumine indet.

Artemisia annua-type

33

Lathyrus cicera/sativus

250

Isatis tinctoria

Erysimum sp.

Erysimum crassipes

Descurania sophia-type

cf. Capsella sp.

Capsella bursa-pastoris

cf. Camelina sativa

Camelina sativa (min.)

Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz

Brassica-type

Alyssum spp.

Lithospermum arvense

Heliotrophium sp.

Echiumsp.

Anchusa sp.

Ornithogalum sp.

Asteraceae indet.

Asteraceae flowering heads

Onopordum sp.

Hieracium-type

Centaurea spp. (min.)

Centaurea spp.

Carthamus tinctorus

Carthamus cf. lanatus

Carthamus sp. (min.)

Artemisia dracunculus-type

Apiaceae indet.

Torilis-type

Sium-type

Petroselinum-type

Bupleurum sp.

Bupleurum rotindifolium-type

Anthriscusspp.

7

13

SPECIES

cf. Cicer arietinum

U%

Cicer arietinum L.

SPECIES

5

9

12

38

19

24

3

3

37

3

34

72

31

2

9

9

17

4

8

15

2

30

18

4

2

9

16

6

19

1

2

6

11

10

13

U%

Astragalus/ Trigonella-type

Astragalus sp.

Euphorbia sp.

Dipsacaceae indet.

Scabiosa-type

Cephalaria syriaca-type

Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae

cf. Scirpus maritimus

Eleocharis sp.

Cyperus spp.

Carex spp.

Juniperus oxycedrus/excelsa-type

Bryonia-type

Convolvulus sp.

Helianthemum sp.

Chenopodiaceae indet.

Salsola sp. (min.)

Salsola sp.

Chenopodium/ Atriplex

Chenopodium (min.)

Chenopodium spp.

cf. Beta vulgaris

Caryophyllaceae indet.

Vaccaria pyramidata Medik.

Stellaria media/holostea-type

Silene spp. (min.)

Silene spp.

Cerastium sp.

Brassicaceae indet.

Thalaspi arvense-type

Matthiola longipetala-type

cf. Neslia paniculata

Neslia paniculata

Lepidium-type

cf. Isatis tinctoria

SPECIES

11

9

6

14

3

26

25

1

60

10

10

4

1

6

6

2

1

36

10

2

57

3

16

29

6

3

45

12

29

1

12

6

15

8

2

U%

Eremopyrum-type

cf. Bromus sp.

Bromus spp.

Plantago sp.

Papaver sp. (mineralised)

Papaver sp.

Glaucium sp. (mineralised)

Glaucium sp.

Fumaria sp. (mineralised)

Fumaria sp.

Malva spp. (fruit)

Malva spp.

Malva nicaeensis/neclecta-type

Allium ampeloprasum-type

Lamiaceae indet.

Ziziphora sp.

Teucrium pollium-type

Stachys byzantina-type (min.)

Stachys byzantina-type

Satureja-type

Salvia-type

Nepeta-type

Lallemantia iberica-type

Hyssopus officinalis-type

Ajuga chamaepitys (min.)

Ajuga chamaepitys

small seeded leguminoseae

Trigonella capitata/lunata-type

Trifolium sp.

Melilotus/Trifolium-type

Melilotus sp.

Medicago (fruit)

Medicago sp.

Coronilla/ Trigonella-type

Coronilla sp.

SPECIES

6

9

38

6

4

18

5

38

19

36

3

48

8

9

17

29

10

16

46

2

4

3

21

3

2

11

32

46

11

14

9

2

17

13

9

U%

mouse dung

Indet.

Valerianella vesicaria-type

Thymelaea sp.

Hyoscyamus niger

Verbascum thapsus-type

Galium aperine-type

Galium spp.

Asperula/Galium-type

Asperula-type

Asperula arvensis L.

Rubus ulmifolius-type

Ranunculus-type

Consolida regalis-type

Adonis sp.

Anagallis sp. (mineralised)

Anagallis sp.

Portulaca oleracea L.

Polygonum/Rumex sp.

Rumex sp.

Polygonum spp. (min.)

Polygonum spp.

Gramineae indet.

Stipa/ Stipagrostis-type

Stipa sp.

cf. Phalaris sp.

Phalaris arundinacea-type

Glyceria-type

cf. Lolium sp.

Lolium spp.

Hordeum sp.

Glyceria-type

cf. Festuca sp.

Festuca sp.

SPECIES

25

13

11

29

12

11

11

70

15

9

22

8

3

3

13

2

37

21

8

14

1

39

25

25

44

19

43

15

9

17

9

5

7

5

U%

Ubiquity

251

2006 AD23-29

2006 AD23-33

2006 AD23-42

2006 AD23-50

2006 AD23-63

2006 AF22-144

2007 AD21-492

2007 AD21-591

2007 AD21-640

2007 AD21/22-445

2007 AD22-78

2007 AF20-226

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

2006 AD23-20

2006 AD21-99

10

13

2006 AD16-43

9

2006 AD21-370

2006 AD16-14

8

12

2006 AB/AC21-15

7

2006 AD21-365

2006 AB16-165

6

11

2005 AB16-103

2004 AC18-257

3

2005 AJ23-89

2004 AA19-205

2

4

2003 AH18-140

1

5

Date Area Semp.no

No

EB3-E5

EB3-E4

EB2-4

EB1-3

EB1-2

EB1-1

EB3-L6

EB2-L7

EB2-L6

EB2-L5

EB2-L4

EB2-L3

EB2-L2

EB2-3

EB2-2

EB2-1

EB3-L5

EB3-L4

EB3-E3

EB3-E2

EB2-L1

EB3-L3

EB3-L2

EB3-L1

EB3-E1

EBA Period

3E5

3E4

2-4

1-3

1-2

1-1

3L6

2L7

2L6

2L5

2L4

2L3

2L2

2-3

2-2

2-1

3L5

3L4

3E3

3E2

2L1

3L3

3L2

3L1

3E1

Smp

50

49

48

47

46

45

44

43

42

41

40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

31

30

29

28

27

26

No

2009 AG22-75

2009 AG22-59

2009 AG22-23

2009 AG21/22-56

2009 AG21/22-43

2009 AF18-204

2009 AF18-198

2009 AF18-189

2009 AF18-187

2009 AA20-155

2009 AA18-314

2009 AA18-299

2007 AI24-67

2007 AI24-66

2007 AF22/23-24

2007 AF22-241

2007 AF22-240

2007 AF22-231

2007 AF22-226

2007 AF22-220

2007 AF22-205

2007 AF22-197

2007 AF22-135

2007 AF22-131

2007 AF22-126

Date Area Semp.no

EB2-8

EB2-7

EB2-6

EB2-5

EB2-L17

EB2-L16

EB2-L15

EB2-L14

EB2-L13

EB2-L12

EB2-L11

EB2-L10

EB2-L9

EB2-L8

EB3-E16

EB3-E15

EB3-E14

EB3-E13

EB3-E12

EB3-E11

EB3-E10

EB3-E9

EB3-E8

EB3-E7

EB3-E6

EBA Period

2-8

2-7

2-6

2-5

2L17

2L16

2L15

2L14

2L13

2L12

2L11

2L10

2L9

2L8

3E16

3E15

3E14

3E13

3E12

3E11

3E10

3E9

3E8

3E7

3E6

Smp

75

74

73

72

71

70

69

68

67

66

65

64

63

62

61

60

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

51

No

2009 AG22-214

2009 AG22-212

2009 AG22-198

2009 AG22-191

2009 AG22-184

2009 AG22-182

2009 AG22-177

2009 AG22-171

2009 AG22-169

2009 AG22-160

2009 AG22-156

2009 AG22-155

2009 AG22-143

2009 AG22-136

2009 AG22-132

2009 AG22-131

2009 AG22-125

2009 AG22-124

2009 AG22-122

2009 AG22-121

2009 AG22-118

2009 AG22-113

2009 AG22-106

2009 AG22-101

2009 AG22-78

Date Area Semp.no

2-14 2-16 2-17 2-18 2-19

EB2-14 EB2-15 EB2-17 EB2-18 EB2-19

2-30

EB2-30

2-34

2-29

EB2-29

EB2-34

2-28

EB2-28

2-33

2-27

EB2-27

EB2-33

2-26

EB2-26

2-31

2-25

EB2-25

2-32

2-24

EB2-24

EB2-31

2-23

EB2-23

EB2-32

2-21 2-22

EB2-21 EB2-22

2-20

2-13

EB2-13

EB2-20

2-11 2-12

EB2-11

2-10

EB2-10 EB2-12

2-9

Smp

EB2-9

EBA Period

EB3-E25

101 2009 Z21-163

EB3-L16

EB3-L15

EB3-L14

EB3-L13

EB3-E24

EB3-E23

EB3-E22

EB3-E21

EB3-E20

EB3-E19

EB3-E18

EB3-E17

EB3-L12

EB3-L11

EB3-L10

EB3-L9

EB3-L8

EB3-L7

EB2-40

EB2-39

EB2-38

EB2-37

EB2-36

EB2-35

EBA Period

EB3-L17

2009 Z19-419

2009 Z19-393

2009 Z19-372

2009 Z19-312

2009 Y21-66

2009 Y20-326

2009 Y20-236

2009 Y20-224

2009 X/Y20-5

2009 X20-85

2009 X20-71

2009 X20-70

2009 AH/AI23-31

2009 AH/AI23-25

2009 AH/AI2-320

2009 AH23-55

2009 AH23-12

2009 AH23-11

2009 AG22-303

2009 AG22-275

2009 AG22-257

2009 AG22-245

2009 AG22-219

2009 AG22-215

Date Area Semp.no

100 2009 Z19-420

99

98

97

96

95

94

93

92

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

84

83

82

81

80

79

78

77

76

No

3E25

3L17

3L16

3L15

3L14

3L13

3E24

3E23

3E22

3E21

3E20

3E19

3E18

3E17

3L12

3L11

3L10

3L9

3L8

3L7

2-40

2-39

2-38

2-37

2-36

2-35

Smp

Samples

BrassiTyp DescuSop

ConvolSp ScabioTyp

TrCapLuT smSeLegu

Brassica-type Descurania sophia-type

Convolvulus sp. Scabiosa-type

Trigonella capitata/lunata-type small seeded leguminoseae

ViciaErv

ViciaFab

LinumUsi

HorVulDi

TAestDur

TMonMon

TMon2gr

TMonTdic

TriticSp

VitisVin

AntCerT

PetroTyp

BryonTyp

AnthriSp

BupleuSp

SiumTyp

TorilTyp

ApiacInd

ArtemAnT

ArtemDrT

CarthSp

CarCfLat

CarthTin

CentaSpp

OnoporSp

AsterInd

Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.

Vicia faba L.

Linum usitatissimum

Hord.vulgare ssp. distichon

Triticum aestivum/durum

Tritic. monoc. ssp. monoc.

Tritic.monoc. two-grained

Tritic.turgidum ssp. dicoccon

Triticum sp.

Vitis vinifera L.

Anthriscus cerefolium-type

Petroselinum-type

Bryonia-type

Anthriscus sp.

Bupleurum sp.

252

Sium-type

Torilis-type

Apiaceae indet.

Artemisia annua-type

Artemisia dracunculus-type

Carthamus sp.

Carthamus cf. lanatus

Carthamus tinctorus

Centaurea spp.

Onopordum sp.

Asteraceae indet.

Plantago sp.

Glaucium sp.

Malva nicaeensis/neclecta-typ.

Trifolium sp.

Melilotus sp.

Medicago sp.

Coronilla sp.

Astragalus sp.

Plantago

Glaucium

MalNiNeT

Trifolium

Melilotus

Medicago

Coronilla

Astragal

LamiaInd

ZiziphSp

Lamiaceae indet.

SatureTyp

Ziziphora sp.

HyssopOff

HelianSp

Satureja-type

Hyssopus officinalis-type

Helianthemum sp.

BetaType

BrassInd

Beta-type

NesliPan

Brassicaceae indet.

MattLon

LepiTyp

IsatisTin

ErysimSp

ErysiCra

Neslia paniculata

Matthiola longipetala-type

Lepidium-type

Isatis tinctoria

Erysimumsp.

Erysimum crassipes

AlyssSpp

PisumSat

OrnithSp

Pisum sativum L.

Alyssumspp.

LensCuli

Ornithogalum-type

CicerAri

Lens culinaris Medik.

SPECIES

Cicer arietinum L.

SPECIES

Polygonumspp.

Stipa sp.

Eremopyrum-type

Papaver sp.

Malva sp.

Allium sp.

Stachys byzantina-type

Ajuga chamaepitys

Stellaria media/holostea-type

Silenespp.

Cerastium sp.

Thymelaea sp.

Verbascum thapsus-type

Festuca sp.

Melica-type

Salvia-type

Nepeta-type

Anagallis sp.

Teucrium pollium-type

Echiumsp.

Anchusa sp.

Valerianella vesicaria-type

Valerianella corronata-type

Hyoscyamus niger

Ranunculus-type

Consolida regalis-type

Polygonum

StipaSp

Eremopyr

Papaver

MalvaSp

AlliumSp

StachByz

AjugaCha

StelMeHo

SilenSpp

CerasSp

ThymeSp

VerbaTha

Festuca

MelicaT

SalviaTyp

NepetaTyp

Anagallis

TeucrSp

Echiumsp

AnchusSp

ValerVes

ValeriCo

HyosNig

RanuncuT

ConsoRega

AdonisSp

Gramine

small Gramineae indet. Adonis sp.

Hordeum

Hordeum sp.

SPECIES

Rubus ulmifolius-type

Juniperus oxycedrus/excelsa

Hieracium-type

Phalaris arundinacea-type

Glyceriasp.

Scirpus maritimus

Eleocharis sp.

Cyperusspp.

Carexspp.

Alisma sp.

Asperula arvensis L.

Galium aperine-type

Galiumspp.

Portulaca oleracea L.

Loliumspp.

Fumaria sp.

Lalemantia iberica-type

Euphorbiasp.

Cephalaria syriaca-type

Vaccaria pyramidata Medik.

Thalaspi arvense

Capsella bursa-pastoris-type

Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz

Lithospermum arvense

Heliotrophium sp.

Bupleurum rotundifolium-type

Anthriscus caucalis-type

Lathyrus cicera/sativus

Rumex sp.

SPECIES

RubusUlm

JunipExO

HieraTyp

PhaArunT

GlycerSp

ScirpMar

EleochSp

Cyperus

CarexSpp

AlismaSp

AsperuAr

GaliumAp

Galium

PorOlera

LoliuSpp

Fumaria

LalemSp

EuphorSp

CephaSyr

VaccaPyr

ThalasAr

CapseBur

CamelSat

LithoArv

HeliotSp

BupRotTy

AntCauT

LatCicSa

RumexSp

Species

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and families of flowering plants: APG III”, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 161: 105–121. ANSONG, M. and Pickering, C. (2013), A global review of weeds that can germinate from horse dung. Ecological Management & Restoration 14: 216–223. ARDEL, A. (1955) Yukarı Sakarya havzası. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi 13-14: 3-24. ARDOS, M. (1985) Jeomorfoloji açısından Türkiye ovalarının oluşumları ve gelişimleri. İstanbul Üniversitesi Coğrafya Dergisi 1: 111-127. ARIK, R. O. (1956) Ankara-Konya-Eskişehir gezileri. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. ASOUTI, E. and Hather, J. (2001) Charcoal analysis and the reconstruction of ancient woodland vegetation in the Konya Basin, south-central Anatolia, Turkey: results from the Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük East. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 10: 23-32. ATALAY, İ. (2002) Türkiye’nin Ekolojik Bölgeleri. (Ecoregions of Turkey). Orman Bakanlığı Yayınları no: 163, İzmir. ATKESON, F. W., Hulbert, H. W. and Waren, T. R. (1934) Effect of bovine digestion and of the manure storage on the viability of the weed seeds. American Journal of Agronomy 26: 390-396. AYDEMİR, A. (2009) Tectonic investigation of Central Anatlia, Turkey, using geophysical data. Journal of Applied Geophysics 68: 321-334. BAR-MATTHEWS, M., Ayalon, A. and Kaufmann, A. (1997) Late Quaternary paleoclimate in the Eastern Mediterranean region from stable isotope analysis of speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel. Quaternary Research 47: 155-168. BARKA, A., Reilinger, R., Şaraoğlu, F. and Şengör, C. (1995) The Isparta angle: its importance in the neotectonics of the eastern Mediterranean region. In: Proceedings of Internation al Earth Sciences Colloqium on the Aegean Region. Edited by: Pişkin, Ö., Ergün, M., Savaşçın, M. Y., and Tarcan, G. Volume 1, pp: 3-17. BARKWORTH, M. E. and Bothmer, R. von (2009) Scientific names in the Triticeae. In: Genetic and Genomics of the Trit iceae. Edited by: C. Feuillet and G. J. Muehlbauer. Plant Ge netics and genomics: Crops and Models. Springer Verlag. BARRET, S. C. H. (1983) Crop mimicry in weeds. Economic Botany 37 (3): 255-282. BARULINA, E. I. (1924/1925) Triticum monococcum as an admixture to cereal crops in the Crimea. Bulletin Applied Botany and Plant Breeding 14, 136-139. BAŞER, K. H. C. (2002) Aromatic biodiversity among the flowering plant taxa of Turkey. Pure Applied Chemistry 74 (4): 527-545. BAUER, S., Országh Š., Bauerová, O., Mokrý, J., Masler, L. Šikl, D. and Tomko, J. (1960) Isolierung von Erysimosid undHevetikosid aus graublätrigem Hederich (Erysimum canascens Roth.) durch Gegenstromverteilung. Planta Med: 8(2): 145-151. BÄUERLE, R. (1987) Schwefel- und Selenstoffwechsel in Brassicaceae. Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften. Fakultät für Naturwissenschaften und Mathematik der Universität Ulm. BAXTER, M. 1994. Exploratory multivariate analysis in archaeology. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. BAXTER, M. 2003. Statistics in Archaeology. Arnold applicationof Statistics, London. BAYRAM, M. (2000) Bulgur around the world. Cereal Food World 45: 80-82. BAYTOP, T. (1994 )Türkçe Bitki Adları Sözlüğü(A Dictionary of Vernacular names of wild Plants of Turkey). Türk Dil

ABBO, S. Berger, J. and Turner N.C. (2003) Evolution of cultivated chickpea: four bottlenecks limit diversity and constrain adaptation. Functional Plant Biology 30: 10811087. ABBO, S., Lev-Yadun, S. and Gopher, A. (2010) Yield stability: an agronomic perspective on the origin of Near Eastern agriculture. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 19: 143150. ABDEL-AAL, E.-S., Hucl, P. and Sosulski, F- W. (1995) Compositional and nutritional chracteristics of spring einkorn and spelt wheats. Cereal Chemistry 72 (6): 621-624. ABDOLLAHI, M. Karimpoor, H. and Monsef-Esfani, H. R. (2003) Antinociceptive effects of Teucrium polium L. total extract and essential oil in mouse writhing test. Pharmacological research 48 (1): 31-35. AKKERMANS, P. M. M. G. and Schwartz, G. M. (2005) The archaeology of Syria, from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (c. 16,000 - 300 BC) 3. edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. AKMAN, Y., Ketenoğlu, O., Quézel, P., Demirörs, M. (1984) A syntaxonomic study of steppe vegetation in Central Anatolia. Phytocoenologia 12 (4): 563-584. AKSOY, A., Dixon, J.M. and Hale, W.H.G. (1998) Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medikus (Thlaspi bursapastoris L., Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Shull, Bursa pastoris (L.) Weber). Journal of Ecology 86: 171–186. ALBERT, R. M., Shahack-Gross, R., Cabanes, D., Gilboa, A., Lev-Yadun, S., Portillo, M., Scharon, I., Boaretto, E. and Weiner, S. (2008) Phytolith-rich layers form the Late Bronze and Iron Ages at Tel Dor (Israel): mode of formation and archaeological significance. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 57-75. ALLABY, R. G., Brown, T. A. and Fuller, D. Q. (2009) A simulation of the effects of inbreeding on crop domestication genetics with comments on the integration of archaeobotany and genetics: a reply to Honne and Heun. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 19: 151-158. AMASINO, R. (2004) Vernalization, competence, and the epigenetic memory of winter. Plant Cell 16 (10): 2553– 2559. AMBRASEYS, N. N. (1969) Some characteristic features of the Anatolian Fault Zone. Tectonophysics 9: 143-165. ANDERBERG, A.-L. (1994) Atlas of Seeds and small fruits of Northwest-European plant species with morphological descriptions. Part 4, Resedacea-Umbelliferae. Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm. Printed by Risbergs Tryckeri AB, Uddevalla, Sweden. ANDERSON, S. (1995) Fuel, fodder and faeces: An ethnographic and botanical study of dung fuel use in Central Anatolia. M.Sc. Dissertation, University of Sheffield. ANDERSON, S., ERTUĞ-YARAŞ, F. (1998) Fuel, fodder and feaces: An ethnographic and botanical study of dung fuel. Environmental Archaeology 1: 99-109. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group I (1998) “An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants”, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 85 (4): 531–553. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II (2003) “An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II”, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 399–436. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (2009) “An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders

253

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba Kurumu Yayınları:578, Türk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Ankara. BECK, D. P., Wery, J., Saxena, M. C. and Ayadi, A. (1991) Dinitrogen fixation and nitrogen balance in cool-season food legumes. Agronomy Journal 83: 334-41. BEGEMANN, F., Strecker-Schmitt, S. and Pernicka, E. (2003) On the composition and provenance of metal finds from Beşiktepe (Troia). In: Troia and the Troad- Scientific approaches. Edited by: G. A. Wagner, E. Pernicka and H.-P. Uerpmann. pp. 143-172. Springer Verlag, Berlin. BEHRE, K.-E. (1979) Zur Rekonstruktion ehemaliger Pflanzengesellschaften an der deutschen Nordseeküste. In: Werden und Vergehen von Pflanzengesellschaften. Edited by: O. Wilmanns and R. Tüxen. pp. 181-214. Vaduz. BEHRE K.-E. and D. KUČAN, (1986) Die Reflektion archäologisch bekannter Siedlungen in Pollendiagrammen verschiedener Entfernung- Bespiele aus der Siedlungskammer Flögeln, Nordwestdeutschland. In: Anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Ed. by KarlErnst Behre, Rotterdam, Balkema. BEHRE, K.-E. (1990) Some reflections on anthropogenic indicators and the record of prehistoric occupation phases in pollen diagrams from the Near East. In: Man’s role in the shaping of the eastern Mediterranean landscape. Proceedings of the INQUA/BAI Symposium on the impact of ancient man on the landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean region and the Near East, 1989, Groningen/ Netherlands. Edited by: S. Bottema, G. Entjes-Nieborg and W. Van Zeist. pp. 219-230. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. BEHRE, K.-E. and JACOMET. S. (1991) The ecological interpretation of archaeobotanical data. In: Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist, K. Wasylikowa and K.-E. Behre. pp. 81-109. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. BERGER, J. Abbo, S., Turner, N.C. (2003) Ecogeography of annual wild Cicer species: the poor state of the world collection. Crop Sciences 43: 1076-1090. BERGGREN, G. (1969) Atlas of Seeds and small fruits of Northwest-European plant species with morphological descriptions. Part 2, Cyperaceae. Swedish Natural Science Research Council, Stockholm. Printed by Berlingska Boktryckeriet, Lund, Sweden. BERGGREN, G. (1981) Atlas of Seeds and small fruits of Northwest-European plant species with morphological descriptions. Part 3, Salicaceae-Cruciferae. Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm. Printed by Berlings, Arlöv, Sweden. BHATTRAI, A. N., Bharati, M. P. and Gyawali, B. K. (1988) Factors limit the productivity of cool season food legumes in Nepal. In: World Crops: cool season food legumes. Edited by: R.J. Summerfield. pp. 217-228. Kluwer, Dordorecht. BİLGİN, T. (1990) Orta Sakarya vadisinin jeomorfolojisi. Coğrafya Araştırmaları 02: 50-59. BINTLIFF, J. L. (1982) Palaeoclimatic modelling of Environmental Changes in the East Mediterranean Region since the Last Glaciation. In: Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory. Edited by: J. L. Binliff and W. Van Zeist. BAR International series 133 (ii) p: 3-40. Oxford. BIRKS, H. J. B. (1993) Quaternary palaeoecology and vegetation science- current contributions and possible future developments. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 79:153-177.

BITTEL, K. and Otto, K. (1939) Demirci-Hüyük : eine vorgeschichtliche Siedlung an der phrygisch-bithynischen Grenze; Bericht über die Ergebnisse der Grabung von 1937. Archäologisches Institut des Deutschen Reiches., Berlin. BLANCHET, G., Sanlaville P. and Traboulsi M. (1998) Le Moyen-Orient de 20000 ans BP à 6000 ans BP essai de reconstruction paléoclimatique. Paléorient 23 (2): 187-196. BLEGEN, C. W., Caskey, J. L., Rawson, M. and Sperling, J. (1950) Troy: general introduction: the fist and the second settlements, Vol. 2. Princeton, N. J. Princeton University Press. BLEGEN, C. W., Caskey, J. L. and Rawson, M. (1951) Troy. The Third, Fourth and Fifth settlements, Vol. 2. Pronceton University Press, Princeton N. J. BLOCK, E. (2010) Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing, Cambridge. BOARDMAN, J. (1967) Greek Emporio. Excavations in Chios 1952-1955. Thames and Hudson, London. BOARDMAN, S and Jones, G. (1990) Experiments on the effects of charring cereal plant components. Journal of Archaeological Science, 17: 1-11. BOGAARD, A., Palmer, C., Jones, G. and Charles, M. (1999) A FIBS approach to the use of weed ecology for the archaeobotanical recognition of crop rotation regimes. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 1211-1224. BOGAARD, A., Jones, G. and Charles, M. (2001) On the archaeobotanical inference of crop sowing time using the FIBS method. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 12111224. BOGAARD, A. (2002) Questioning the relevance of shifting cultivation to Neolithic farming in the loess belt of Western-Central Europe: evidence from the Hambach Forest experiment. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11: 155-168. BOGAARD, A. (2004) Neolithic farming in Central Europe. An archaeobotanical study of crop husbandry practices. Routledge, London. BOGAARD, A., Jones, G. and Charles, M. (2005) The impact of crop processing on the reconstruction of crop sowing time and cultivation intensity from archaeobotanical weed evidence. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14:505– 509. BOGAARD, A. (2005) ‘Garden agriculture’ and the nature of early farming in Europe and the Near East. World Archaeology 37 (2): 177-196. BOGAARD, A., Charles, M., Twiss, K. C., Fairbairn, A., Yalman, N., Filipovic, D., Demirergi, A., Ertuğ, F., Russell, N. and Henecke, J. (2009) Private pantries and celebrated surplus: storing and sharing food at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Central Anatolia. Antiquity 83: 649-668. BOGAARD, A. (2012) Plant Use and Crop Husbandry in an Early Neolithic Village: Vaihingen an der Enz, BadenWürttemberg. Frankfurter Archäologische Schriften. Bonn: Habelt-Verlag. BOGAARD, A., Charles, M., Livarda, A., Ergun, M., Filipovic, D. and Jones G. (2013a)The archaeobotany of mid-later Neolithic Çatalhöyük. In Humans and Landscapes of Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 2000-2008 Seasons. Edited by: I. Hodder. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles. BOGAARD, A., Fraser, R., Heaton, T. H. E., Wallace, M., Vaiglova, P., Charles, M., Jones, G., Evershed, R. P., Styring, A. K., Andersen, N. H., Arbogast, R.-M., Bartosiewicz, L., Gardeisen, A., Kanstrupi, M., Maier,

254

Bibliography U., Marinova, E., Ninovl, L., Schäfer, M. and Stephan, E. (2013b) Crop manuring and intensive land management by Europe’s first farmers. PNAS 31: 12589-12594. BOLLE, H.-J. (2003) Climate, climate variability and impacts in the Mediterranean area: an overview. In: Mediterranean Climate. Variability and trends. Edited by: H.-J. Bolle, M. Menenti and I. Rasool. Regional Climate Studies ´. Springer Verlag. BOND, G. C., W. Showers, M. Cheseby, R. Lotti, P. Almasi, , deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hanjas, I., Bonani, G. (1997) A pervasive millennial scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates, Science 278: 1257-1266. BOND, G. C., Showers, W., Elliot M., Evans M., Lotti, R., Hanjas, I., Bonani, G., Johnson S. (1999) The North Atlantic’s 1-2 kyr climate rhythm: relation to Heinrich Events, Dansgaard/Oeschger Cycles and the Little Ice Age. In: Mechanism of global climate change at millennial time scales. pp: 35-58. Edited by: P.U. Clark, R. S. Webb and L.D. Keigwin. Geophysical monograph 112. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C. BOND G. C., Kromer B., Beer J., Muscheler R., Evans M., Showers W., Hoffmann S., Lotti-Bond R., Hadjas I. and Bonani G. (2001) Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic surface circulation during the Holocene. Science 294: 2130-2136. BOTTEMA, S. (1975) The interpretation of pollen spectra from prehistoric settlements (with specialattention to Liguliflorae) Palaehistoria 17: 17-35. BOTTEMA, S. (1978) The Late Glacial in the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East. In: The Environmental History of the Near and Middle East since the last Ice Age. Edited by: W. C. Brice. pp: 5-12. Academic Press, London. BOTTEMA, S. (1979) Pollen analytical investigations in Thessaly (Greece). Palaeohistoria XXI: 19-40. BOTTEMA, S. (1984) The composition of modern charred seed assemblages. In: Plants and Ancient Man, Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist and W. A. Casparie. pp. 43-62. A.A. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. BOTTEMA, S. and Woldring H. (1984) Late Quaternary Vegetation and Climate of Southwestern Turkey Part II. Palaeohistoria 26: 123-149. BOTTEMA, S., Woldring H. and Aytuğ B. (1986) Palynological investigations on the relation between prehistoric man and vegetation in Turkey: The Beyşehir Occupation Phase. 5th OPTIMA Meeting, Istanbul, 8-15 September 1986. BOTTEMA, S. (1987) Chronology and climatic phases in the Near East from 16,000 to 10,000 BP. In: Chronologies in the Near East. Edited by: O. Aurenche, J. Evin and F. Hours. BAR International Series 379: 295-310. BOTTEMA, S. and Woldring H. (1990) Anthropogenic indicators in the pollen record of the Eastern Mediterranean. In: Man’s role in the shaping of the eastern Mediterranean landscape.Proceedings of the INQUA/BAI Symposium on the impact of ancient man on the landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean region and the Near East, 1989, Groningen/ Netherlands. Edited by: S. Bottema, G. Entjes-Nieborg and W. Van Zeist. pp. 231-264. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. BOTTEMA, S. (1992) Prehistoric cereal gathering and farming in the Near East: the pollen evidence. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 73: 21-33. BOTTEMA, S. (1993) Some Aspects of palynological research. Japan Review 4: 129-140. BOTTEMA, S., Woldring H. and Aytuğ B. (1993) Late Quaternary Vegetation History of Northern Turkey. Palaeohistoria 35: 13-72.

BOWN, D. (1995) Encyclopedia of herbs & their uses: the definitive reference work for every gardener. The Royal Horticultural Society. BRAADBAART, F. (2004) Carbonization of peas and wheat - a window into the past: a laboratory study. Doctoral thesis, University of Leiden. www. amolf.nl/publications/theses. BRAADBAART, F. and van Bergen, P. F. (2005) Digital imaging analysis of size and shape of wheat and pea upon heating under anoxic conditions as a function of the temperature. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14: 67-75. BRAADBAART, F. (2008) Carbonisation and morphological changes in modern dehusked and husked Triticum dicoccum and Triticum aestivum grains. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17:155–166 Ter BRAAK, C.J.F. and Šmilauer, P. 2002. CANACO Reference Manual and CanaDraw for Windows User’s Guide. Software for Cananical Community Ordination. (version 4.5). Biometris, Wageningen and České Budéjovice. Printed in Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, NY USA. BRADLEY, F. M., Ellis, B. W., Martin, D. L. (2009) The organic gardener’s handbook of natural pest and disease control: a complete guide to maintaining a healthy garden and yard the earth-friendly way. Emmanaus, Rodale. BRAUN-BLANQUET, J. 1964. Pflanzensoziologie. Wien, Springer. BREWSTER, J. L. (2008) Onions and other vegetable Alliums. 2nd Edition. Crop production science in horticultural series 15. CAB International Publishing, Oxfordshire. BREA, L. B. (1964) Poliochini, Città Prehistirica nell’Isola di Lemnos I. Bretschneider, Roma. BRICE, W. C. (1978) Desiccation of Anatolia. In: The Environmental History of the Near and Middle East since the last Ice Age. Edited by: W. C. Brice. pp: 141-147. Academic Press, London. BRINKMANN, R. (1976) Geology of Turkey. Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart BROCHIER, J. E. (1983) Combustion et parcage des herbivores domestique. Le point de vue de sédimentologue. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 80: 143-145. BROUK, B. (1975) Plants consumed by man. Academic Press, London. BRYSON, R. A. (1997) Proxy indications Holocene winter rains in southwest Asia compared with simulated rainfall. In: Third Millennium B.C. Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Edited by: N. Dalfes, G. Kukla and H. Weiss. NATO ASI Series I: Global Environmental Change, Vol: 49. Springer Verlag. BRYSON, R. A. and Bryson R. U. (1999) Holocene climates of Anatolia: as simulated with Archaeoclimatic models. TÜBA-AR II: 1-13. BUDDENHAGEN, I. W. (1990) Legumes in farming systems in Mediterranean climates. In: The role of legumes in farming system of the Mediterranean areas. Edited by: A. E. Osman, M. H. Ibrahim and M. A. Jones. pp. 3-29. ICARDA, Aleppo/ Syria. BURNEY, C.A. (1956) Northern Anatolia before Classical Times. Anatolian Studies 6: 179-193. BURROWS, G. E. and Tyrl, R. J. (2001) Toxic plants of North America. pp.1,342.Iowa State University Press. Ames, IA, USA. BUTLER, A. (1991) The Vicieae: Problems of identification. In: New light in early farming. Recent developments in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: J. M. Renfrew. pp. 61-74. Edinburgh University Press.

255

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba BUTLER, A. (1992) Pulse agronomy: traditional systems and implications for early cultivation. In: Prehistoire del’Agriculture: Nouvelles Approches Experimentales et Ethnographiques. Edited by: P. C. Anderson. pp. 67-78. Monographie du CRA 6. Éditions du CNRS, Paris. BUTLER, A. (1998) Grain legumes: Evidence of these important ancient food resources from early pre-agrarian and agrarian sites in southwest Asia. In: The origins of the Agriculture and the crop domestication. Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium. Edited by: Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O. pp: 102-121. ICARDA Aleppo/Syria. BUTLER, A. (1999) Traditional seed cropping systems in the temperate Old World: models for antiquity. In: The Prehistory of food Appetites for a change. Edited by C. Gosten and J. Hather. pp. 478-500. One World Archaeology 32. Routledge, London, New York. BUTZER, K. W. (1978) The late prehistoric environmental History of the Near East. In: The Environmental History of the Near and Middle East since the last Ice Age. Edited by: W. C. Brice. pp: 5-12. Academic Press, London. CANER, H. and Algan, O. (2002) Palynology of sapropelic layers from the Marmara Sea. Marine Geology 190: 35-46. CAPPER, B. S. (1990) The role of food legume straw and stubble in feeding livestock. In: The Role of Legumes in the Farming System of the Mediterranean Areas. Edited by: A.E. Osman, M.H. Ibrahim, M.A. Jones. Dordrecht: Kluwer. CAPPERS, R. T. J. (1994) An ecological characterisation of the plant macro-remains of Heveskesklooster (the Netherlands). A methodological approach. Proefschrift, Rijkuniversiteit Groningen. CAPPERS, R. T. J. (1995) A palaeoecological model for the interpretation of wild plant species. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 4: 249-257. CAPPERS, R. T. J., Bottema S. and Woldring, H. (1998) Problems in correlating pollen diagrams of the Near East: a preliminary report. In: The origins of the Agriculture and the crop domestication. Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium. Edited by: Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O. pp: 51-65. ICARDA Aleppo/Syria. CAPPERS, R.T.J., Neef, R. and Bekker, R. M. (2009) The Digital Atlas of Economic Plants. Barkhuis and Groningen University Library. Online Data Bank: http://econ.eldoc. ub.rug.nl/ CAPPERS, R. T. J. and Neef, R. (2012) Handbook of Plant Palaeoecology. Groningen Archaeological Studies, Vol. 19, Barkhuis Publication, Groningen. CAPPERS, R.T.J. and Bekkers, R. M. (2013) A manual for the identification of plant seeds and fruits. Barkhuis and University of Groningen Library; Groningen. CASTAGNA, R., Borgh, B., Heun, M. and Salamini, F. (1996) Integrated approach to einkorn wheat breeding. In: Hulled wheat. Promoting the conservation and the use of underutilised and neglected crops 4. pp. 183-192. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. Proceedings of the First International Wokschop on Hulled Wheats, Castelveccio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy1995. International Plant Genetic Ressources Institute, Rome. CHANG, H. M. and But, P. P. H. (1987) Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Materia Medica, Vol. 2. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore. CHAPMAN M. and Bruke J. (2007) DNA sequence diversity and the origin of cultivated safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L. Asteraceae). BMC Plant Biology 7:60

CHAPUT , E. (1936) Observation gèologiques dans les règions mèridionaels de l’Anatolie Centrale. Acadèmie des Sciences. Séance du 13 Janvier 1936. CHAPUT , E. (1941) Phrygie, exploration archéologique I, Géologie et géographie Physique, Institut Français d’Archéologie de Stamboul, İstanbul. CHARLES, M. P. (1984a) Introductory remarks on the cereals. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, Vol. I: 17-31. Cambridge. U.K. CHARLES, M. P. (1984b) An introduction to the legumes and oil plants of Mesopotamia. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, Vol. II: 39-61. Cambridge. U.K. CHARLES, M., Jones, G. and Hodgson, J. G. (1997) FIBS in Archaeobotany: functional interpretation of weed floras in relation to Husbandry practices. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24: 1151-1161. CHARLES, M. (1998) Fodder from dung: the recognition and the interpretation of dung-derived plant material from archaeological sites. Environmental Archaeology 1:111-122. CHARLES, M. and Bogaard, A. (2002) Identifying livestock diet form charred plant remains: a Neolithic case study from Turkmenistan. In: Diet and health in past animal populations. Edited by: J. Davies and M. Fabiš) pp. 93-103. 9th ICAZ Conrference, Durham 2002. CHARLES, M., Bogaard, A., Jones, G. Hodgson, J. G. and Halstead, P. (2002) Towards the archaeobotanical identification of intensive cereal cultivation: present-day ecological investigation in the mountains of Asturias, northwest Spain. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11: 133-142. CHARLES, M., Hoppé, C., Jones, G. Bogaard, A. and Hodgson, J. G. (2003) Using weed functional attributes for the identification of irrigation regimes in Jordan. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 1429-1441. CHARLES, M. and Bogaard, A. (2005) Identifying livestock diet from charred plant remains: a Neolithic case study from southern Turkmenistan. In: Diet and health in past animal populations. Current research and future directions. Edited by: J. Davies, M. Fabiš, I. Mainland, M. Richards and R. Thomas. pp. 93-103. Oxbow, Oxford. CHARLES, M., Pessin, H. and Hald, M. M. (2010) Tolerating change at Late Chalcolithic Tell Brak: responses of an early urban society to an uncertain climate. Environmental Archaeology 15: 183–198. CHERNYKH, E. N. (1992) Ancient Metallurgy in the USSR: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. CHERNOFF, M. (1992) Natural resource use in an ancient Near East farming community. Agricultural History 66 (2): 213-231. CHOUARD, P. (1960) Vernalization and its relations to dormancy. Annual Review of Plant Physiology11: 191–238. CLARK, R. J. H., Cooksey, C. J., Daniels, M. A. M. and Withnall, R. (1993) Indigo, Woad, and Tyrian Purple: important vat dyes from antiquity to the present. Endeavour, New Series 17 (4): 191-199. CODRON, D., Codron, J., Lee-Thorp, J. A. Sponheimer, M. and de Ruiter, D. (2005) Animal diets in the Waterberg based on stabile isotope composition of faeces. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 35: 43-52. COHEN, H. R. and Erol, O. (1969) Aspects of the palaeogeography of Central Anatolia. The Geographical Journal 135( 3): 388-398. COLLEDGE, S. (1998) Identifying pre-domestication cultivation using multivariate analysis. In: The origins of the Agriculture and the crop domestication. Proceedings of the

256

Bibliography Harlan Symposium. Edited by: Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O. pp: 51-65. ICARDA Aleppo/ Syria. CORDOVA, C.E., 2007. Holocene Mediterranization of the Southern Crimean vegetation: palaeoecological records, regional climate change, and possible non-climatic influences. Black Sea Basin. In: Yanko- Hombach, V., Gilbert, A. (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 319–344 CORDOVA, C. E., Harrison S. P., Mudie, P. J., Riehl, S., Leroy, S. A. G. and Ortiz, N. (2009) Pollen, Plant macrofossil and charcoal records for paleovegetation reconstruction in the Mediterranean-Black Sea Corridor since the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary International 197: 12.26. COX, C W. M. and Cameron, A. (1937) Exploration archaeologique de la Phrigie. Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua V : 45-47. CULLEN, H. M., De Menocal P. B., Hemming S., Hemming G., Brown F. H., Guilderson T. (2000) Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian Empire: Evidence from the deep-sea. Geology 28: 379-382. ÇAĞAN, S. (1963) Ayak-Bacak fabrikası (Foot-leg Manufactory). Tiyatro oyunu Manuskripti (Theather manuscript). Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Tiyatro bölümü arşivi (University of Dokuz Eylül, Theather Department Archives). ÇAKIRLAR, C. (2007) Coastal adaptations in Troia: Molluscan evidence. PhD Thesis. Universität Tübingen, ÇAMBEL, H. (1952) Frikya’ da Midas şehri yakınlarında bulunan prehistorik mezar, Türk Tarih Kongresi IV: 228229. ÇEVİK, Ö. (2007) The emergence of different social systems in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Urbanisation versus centralisation. Anatolian Studies 57: 131-140. ÇİLİNGİROĞLU, A., Derin, Z., Abay, E.,Sağlamtimur, H and Kayan, İ. (2004) Ulucak Höyük. Excavations conducted between 1995 and 2002. Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Supplement 15. Peeters, Paris. ÇİLİNGİR C. (2009) Crop Processing in the Early Bronze Age houses of İkiztepe: Identification and Analysis of archaeobotanical remains. Unpublished Master Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Settlement Archaeology Graduate Program. ÇİLİNGİROĞLU, Ç. and Çakırlar, C. (2013) Towards configuring the neolithisation of Aegean Turkey. Documenta Praehistorica XL: 21-29. ÇİZER, Ö. (2006) Archaeobotanical macro remains from Late Bronze Age Kinet Höyük and Tell Atchana (Alalakh) in southern Turkey: economical and environmental considerations. Online published Master’s Thesis, University of Tübingen. DAJUE, L. and Mündel, H.-H. (1996) Safflor Carthamus tinctorius L. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops 7 IPGRI. Rome. IPK, Gatersleben. DAMANIA, A. B. (1998) Diversity of major cultivated plants domesticated in the Near East. In: The origins of the Agriculture and the crop domestication. Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium. Edited by: Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O. pp: 51-65. ICARDA Aleppo/ Syria. DAVIS, P. H. (1965-1988) Flora of Turkey and Eastern Aegean Islands. Vol. 1-1965, Vol. 2- 1967, Vol. 3-1070, Vol. 4-1972, Vol. 5- 1975, Vol. 6-1978, Vol. 7- 1982, Vol. 8-1984, Vol. 91985, Vol. 10-1988. Edinburg University Press, Edinburgh.

DAVIS, P. H. Mill, R.R. and Tan K. (1988) Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands(Supplement), Vol. 10. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. DECKERS, K., RIEHL, S. (2007a) An evaluation of botanical assemblages from the 3rd to 2nd millennium BC in northern Syria. In: Sociétés Humaines et Changement Climatique à la fin du Troisième Millénaire: Une Crise a-t-elle eu lieu en Haute Mésopotamie? Èdités par C.Kuzucuoğlu et C. Marro. Actes du Colleque de Lyon, 5-8 décembre 2005. Institute Français d’Ètudes Anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul. De Boccard. DECKERS, K., RIEHL, S. (2007b) Fluvial environmental contexts for archaeological sites in the Upper Khabur basin (northeastern Syria). Quaternary Research 67: 337-348. DECKERS, K., (2011) The “dung-as-fuel” model tested at two Syrian Jezirah sites. In: Holocene ladscapes through time in the Fertile Crescent. Edited by: K. Deckers. pp. 143-155. Subartu XXVIII. Brepols Publishers, Brussels. DEHORITY, B. (1996) Foregut fermentation, in Gastrointestinal Microbiology: Gastrointestinal Ecosystems and Fermentations. Edited by: R. Mackie and B. White. pp. 39–83, Chapman and Hall Publishing, London. DENNEL, R. W. 1974a. Botanical evidence for prehistoric crop processing activities. Journal of Archaeological Science, I: 275-284. DENNEL, R. W. 1974b. The purity of prehistoric crops. Proceeding of the Prehistoric Society, 40: 132-135. DENNEL, R. W. 1976. The economic importance of plant resources represented on archaeological sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 3: 229-247. DEWDNEY, J. C. (1971) Turkey. London. DINELEY, M. (2004) Barley, Malt and Ale in the Neolithic. Oxbow Books. DOĞAN, Y., Başlar, S., Ay, G. and Mert, H H. (2004) Th use of wild edible plants in Western and Central Anatolia (Turkey) Economic Botany 58 (4): 684-690). DÖRPFELD, W. (1902) Troia and Ilion. Ergebnisse d. Ausgrabungen in d. vorhistorischen u. historischen Schichten von Ilion 1870 – 1894. Beck and Barth, Athen. DRENNAN, R. D. (2009) Statistics for archaeologists: a common-sense approach. Plenum Press, New York, London. DUBCOVSKY, J. and Dvorak, J. (2007) Genome plasticity as a key factor in the success of polyploidy wheat under domestication. Science 316: 1862-1866 DUKE, J. A. and Ayensu, E. S. (1987) Medicinal Plants of China. Feddes Repertorium Journal of Botanical Taxonomy and Geobotany, 98 (7-8): 398-401. DURAN, Faruk Sabri, (1975) Büyük Atlas. Kanaat Yayınları, E.D. Hölzel, İstanbul Viyana Coğrafya Enstitüsü. DURU, R. (1996) Kuruçay Höyük II: The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age settlements. Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara. DURUTAN, N., Meyveci, K., Karaca, M., Avcı, M. and Eyüboğlu, H. (1990) Annual cropping under dryland conditions in Turkey: a case study. In: The role of legumes in farming system of the Mediterranean areas. Edited by: A. E. Osman, M. H. Ibrahim and M. A. Jones. pp. 239-255. ICARDA, Aleppo/ Syria. DURUTAN, N., Karaca, M., Meyveci, K., Avcın, A. and Eyüboğlu H. (1991) Effect of various components of the management package on weed control in dryland agriculture. In: soil and crop management for improved water efficiency in rainfed areas. Proceeding of an international workshop held in Ankara, Turkey (May 15-19 1989) Edited by: H.C. Harris, P:J.M. Cooper and M. Pala.

257

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba pp. 251-259. International Center for Agricultural Reserach in the Dry Areas ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. EASTWOOD, W., M.J. Leng, N. Roberts and B. Davis (2007) Holocene climate change in the eastern Mediterranean region: a comparison of stable isotope and pollen data from a lake record in southwest Turkey. Journal of Quaternary Science 22 (4): 327-341. EDMONDSON, J. K. (1982) Lallemantia. In: Davis P. H., Flora of Turkey and the east Aegean islands, Vol 7. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. EFE, T. (1990) 1988 yılında Kütahya, Bilecik ve Eskişehir illerinde yapılan yüzey araştırmaları. 7. Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı: 405-424. EFE, T. (1994a) 1992 yılında Kütahya, Bilecik ve Eskişehir illerinde yapılan yüzey araştırmaları. 11. Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı: 571-592. EFE, T. (1994b) Early Bronze Age pottery from Bahçehisar: the significance of the Pre-Hittite sequence in the Eskişehir plain, Northwestern Anatolia. American Journal of Archaeology 98: 5-34. EFE, T., İlaslı, A. and Topbaş, A. (1995) Salvage excavations of the Afyon Archaeological Museum, Part 1: Kaklık Mevkii, a site transitional to the Early Bronze Age, Studia Troica 5: 357-399. EFE, T. (1997) 1995 yılında Kütahya, Bilecik ve Eskişehir illerinde yapılan yüzey araştırmaları. Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı14: 215-232. EFE, T. and İlaslı, A. (1997) Pottery links between the Troad and Inland Northwestern Anatolia during the Trojan second settlement. In: Poliochni nella Lemno fumosa: un centro dell’antica età del Bronzo nell’Egeo settentrionale (Poliochni on smoke-shroud Lemnos: an Early Bronze Age centre in the North Aegean). pp. 596-609, Athena. EFE, T. (1998) Seyitgazi/Küllüoba 1996 yılı kazı çalışmaları. 21.Kazı sonuçları Toplantısı 1: 117-128. EFE, T. and Ay, D. Ş. M. (2000) Early Bronze Age I pottery from Küllüoba near Seyitgazi, Eskişehir. Anatolia Antiqua VIII: 1-87. EFE, T. (2001) The salvage excavations at Orman Fidanlığı: a Chalcolithic site in inland northwestern Anatolia. TASK Vakfı Yayınları 3, İstanbul. EFE, T. and Ay-Efe, D. Ş. M. (2001) Küllüoba: İç Kuzeybatı Anadolu’da bir İlk Tunç Çağı kenti, 1996-2000 yılları arasında yapılan kazı çalışmalarının genel değerlendirmesi. TUBA-AR 4: 43-78. EFE, T. (2002a) The interaction between cultural/political entities and metalworking in Western Anatolia during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. In: Anatolian Metal II. Der Anschnitt, Zeitschrift für Kunst and Kultur im Bergbau. Edited by: Ü. Yalçın. pp. 49-65. Bochum. EFE, T. (2002b) Küllüoba 2001 yılı kazı çalışmaları. Kazı sonuçları Toplantısı 24 (2): 461-465. EFE, T. (2003a) Küllüoba and initial stages of urbanism in western Anatolia. In: From villages to cities. Early villages in the Near East. Studies presented to Ufuk Esin. Edited by: M. Özdoğan, H. Hauptmann and N. Başgelen. Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları, İstanbul. EFE, T. (2003c) Pottery distribution within the Early Bronze Age of Western Anatolia and its implications upon cultural, political (and ethnic?) entities In: Archaeological Essays in Honour of homo amatus: Güven Arsebük. Edited by: M. Özbaşaran. pp. 87-103. Ege Yayınları, İstannbul. EFE, T. (2004) Küllüoba kazısı 2002 yılı kazı çalışmaları. 25. Kazı sonuçları Toplantısı: 19-28.

EFE, T. and Türkteki, M. (2005) The stratigraphy and pottery of the period transitional into the Middle Bronze Age at Küllüoba (Seyitgazi, Eskişehir). Anatolia Antiqua XIII: 119-144. EFE, T. (2005) Küllüoba kazısı 2003 yılı kazı çalışmaları. 26. Kazı sonuçları Toplantısı: 29-44. EFE, T. (2006a) Küllüoba kazısı 2004 yılı kazı çalışmaları. Online publishing: official homepage of Küllooba excavations: www. kulluobakazisi.bilecik.edu.tr EFE, T. (2006b) Küllüoba kazısı 2006 yılı kazı çalışmaları. Online publishing: official homepage of Küllooba excavations: www. kulluobakazisi.bilecik.edu.tr EFE, T. (2007a) The theories of the “Great Caravan Route”between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 57: 47-64. EFE, T. (2007b) Küllüoba kazısı 2005 yılı kazı çalışmaları. Kazı sonuçları Toplantısı 28: 1 71-90. EFE, T. (2007c) Küllüoba kazısı 2007 yılı kazı çalışmaları. Online publishing: official homepage of Küllooba excavations: www. kulluobakazisi.bilecik.edu.tr EFE, T. (2007d) Eskişehir Bölgesi tarihöncesi dönem araştırmaları ve Önasya Arkeolojisi ve içindeki yeri. Online publishing: official homepage of Küllooba excavations: www. kulluobakazisi.bilecik.edu.tr. EFE, T. and Ay-Efe, D. Ş. M. (2007) The Küllüoba Excavations and the cultural/political development of Western Anatolia before the Second Millennium B.C. In: Belkıs Dinçol and Ali Dinçol’a armağan, VITA Festschrift in Honor of Belkıs Dinçol and Ali Dinçol.Edited by: M. Alparslan, M.DoğanAlparslan and H.Peker. pp. 251-281. Ege Yayınları, İstannbul. EFE, T. (2009) Küllüoba 2009 yılı kazı çalışmaları. Online publishing: official homepage of Küllooba excavations: www. kulluobakazisi.bilecik.edu.tr. EKIM, T., Koyuncu, M., Vural, M., Duman, H., Aytaç, Z. and Adıgüzel, N. (2000) Türkiye Bitkileri Kırmızı Kitabı (Eğrelti ve Tohumlu Bitkiler). Red Data Book of Turkish Plants (Pheridophyta and Spermophyta). Türkiye Tabiatını Koruma Derneği. Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Barışcan Ofset. ELLENBERG, H. (1950) Landwirtschaftliche Pflanzensozilogie Teil I: Unkrautgemeinschaften als Zeiger für Klima und Boden. Stuttgart, Ulmer Verlag. ELLENBERG, H. 1979. Zeigerwerte der Gefässpflanzen Mitteleuropas. Scripta Geobotanica 9: 1-122. ELLENBERG, H. (1988) Vegetation ecology of Central Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ELLENBERG, H. and Leuschner, C. (2010) Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen: in in ökologischer, dynamischer und historischer Sicht. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart. EMEIS, K.C., Struck, U., Schulz, H.M., Rosenberg, R., Bernasconi S.and Erlenkeuser H. (2000) Temperature and salinity variations of Mediterranean Sea surface waters over the last 16.000 years from records of planktonic stable oxygen isotopes and alkenone unsaturation ratios. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 158: 259-280. EMERY-BARBIER, A. and Thiébault, S. (2005) Preliminary Results on the Late Glacial vegetation in south-west Anatolia (Turkey): the complementary nature of palynological and anthrocological approaches. Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 1232-1251. ENNEKING, D., Giles, L. C., Tate, M. E. and Davies, R. L. (1993) L-Canavanine: a natural feed intake inhibitor for pigs

258

Bibliography FAIRBAIRN, A. (2002) Archaeobotany at Kaman Kalehöyük 2001. Anatolian Archaeological Studies XI: 201-212. FAIRBAIRN, A. (2005) A history of agricultural production at Neolithic Çatalhöyük East, Turkey. World Archaeology 37 (2): 197-210. FAIRBAIRN, A. Asouti, E., Near, J. and Martinoli, D. (2002) Macro-botanical evidence for plant use at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, south-central Anatolia, Turkey. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11: 41-54. FAIRBAIRN, A., Near, J. and Martinoli, D. (2005) Macrobotanical Investigation of the North, South and KOPAL Area Excavations at Çatalhöyük East. In: Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: reports from the 1995-99 seasons, Çatalhöyük Project. Edited by: I. Hodder Vol. 4, pp. 137-201. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, London. FAIRBRIDGE, R., Erol, O., Karaca, M., Yılmaz, Y. (1994) Background to Mid-Holocene Climatic Change in Anatolia and Adjacent Regions. In: Third Millennium B.C. Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Edited by: H. N. Dalfes, G. Kukla and H. Weiss. NATO ASI Series I: Global Environmental Change, Vol. 49. FENTON, A. (1985) The Shape of the Past 1: Essays in Scottish Ethnology. John Donald Publishers, Edinburgh. FENWICK, G. R. and Hanley, A. B. (1985, 1986) The genus Allium. Parts I-III. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 22: 199-271, 273-377, 23: 1-73. FERN, K. (1997) Plants for a future: Edible & Useful Plants for a healthier World. Clanfield Permanent Publish. FILIPOVA-MARINOVA, E. and Atanassova, J. (2006) Anthropogenic impact on vegetation and environment during the Bronze Age in the area of Lake Durankulak, NE Bulgaria: pollen, microscopic charcoal, non-pollen palynomorphs and plant macrofossils. Review of Palaebotany and Palynology 141(1-2): 165-178. FILIPOVIĆ, D. (2012a)An archaeobotanical investigation of plant use, crop husbandry and animal diet at early-mid Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Central Anatolia. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. University of Oxford, School of Archaeology. FILIPOVIĆ, D. (2012b) Observation of “traditional” agriculture, Turkey. Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 7 (4): 1167-1191. FILIPOVIĆ, D. and Maric (2013) Proposal of methodology for archaeobotanical sampling at Neolithic/Eneolithic sites in Serbia (English summary) Journal of Serbian Archaeological Society 29: 297-328. FISH, S.K. (1994) Archaeological palynology of gardens and fields (Chapter 3) In: the Archaeology of Garden and Field. Edited by: N.F. Miller and K. L. Gleason. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. FLETSHER, M. and Lock, G. (2005) Digging numbers. Elementary Statistics for the Archaeologists. Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph 33, Oxford. FORBES, H. (1998) European agriculture viewed bottomside upwards: fodder- and forage-provision in a traditional Greek community. In: Fodder: archaeological, historical and ethnographic studies. Edited by: M. Charles, P. Halstead and G. Jones. Environmental Archaeology 1: 11-19. FORTUNGNE, M., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Karabıyıkoğlu, M., Hattè, C., Pastre, J.-F. (1999) From Pleniglacial to Holocene: a 14C Chronostratigraphy of environmental changes in the Konya Plain, Turkey. Quaternary Science Reviews 18: 573-591. FRENCH, D. (1961) Late Chalcolithic Pottery in Northwest Turkey and the Aegean. Anatolian Studies 21: 99-114.

(isolation, identification and significance). Journal of the Science of Food and the Agriculture 61: 315-325. ENNEKING, D. (1994) The toxicity of Vicia species and their utilisation as grain legumes. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. University of Adelaide, Waite Agricultural Research Institute. ERİK, S. and Demirkuş, N. (1986) Contributions to the Flora of Turkey. DOĞA Turkish Journal of Biology 10: 1. ERİNÇ, S., Tunçdilek, N. (1952) The agricultural regions of Turkey. The Geographical Review, 17. 179-203. ERİNÇ, S. (1978) Changes in the physical environment in Turkey since the end of the last Glacial. In: The environmental history of the Near East and Middle East since the last Ice Age. Edited by: W. C. Brice. pp. 87- 108. Academic Press, London. ERKANAL, H. (1996) Early Bronze Age urbanisation in the coastal region of Western Anatolia. In: Housing and settlement in Anatolia. A historical perspective. Tarih Vakfı Yayınları. ERKANAL, H. and Özkan, T. (1999) 1997 Bakla Tepe kazıları, Kazı sonuçları Toplantısı 18. 1 261-279. EROL, O. (1978) The Quaternary history of the lake basins of Central and southern Anatolia. In: The environmental history of the Near East and Middle East since the last Ice Age. Edited by: W. C. Brice. pp. 111-136. Academic Press, London. EROL, O. (1981) Neotectonic and the geomorphological evolution of Turkey. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 40: 195-201. EROL, O. (1983) Die naturräumliche Gliederung der Türkei. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Reihe A (Naturwissenschaften) Nr. 13. Wiesbaden. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. EROL, O. (1994) Geomorphologic arguments for Mid- to Late Holocene environmental change in Central Anatolian (Pluvial) lake basins. In: Third Millennium B.C. Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Edited by: N. Dalfes, G. Kukla and H. Weiss. NATO ASI Series I: Global Environmental Change, Vol: 49. Springer Verlag. ERSKINE, W. and El Ashkar, F. (1993) Rainfall and temperature effects of lentil (Lens culinaris) seed yield in Mediterranean environments. Journal of Agricultural Science 121: 347-354. ERSKINE, W., Smartt, J. and Muehlbauer, F. J. (1994) Mimicry of lentil and the domestication of common vetch and grass pea. Economic Botany 48 (3): 326-332. ERTUĞ-YARAŞ, F. (1997) An ethnoarcheological study of subsistence and plant gathering in Central Anatolia. unpublished PhD Thesis, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Washington University. ERTUĞ, F. (1998) Plant-gathering versus plant domestication: an ethnobotanical focus on leafy plants. In: The origins of the Agriculture and the crop domestication. Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium. Edited by: Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O. pp: 51-65. ICARDA Aleppo/Syria. ERTUĞ, F. (2000a) An ethnobotanical study in Central Anatolia (Turkey). Economic Botany 54: 155-182. ERTUĞ, F. (2000b) Linseed oil and oil mills in central Turkey: flax/Linum and Eruca, important oil plants of Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 50: 171-185. ERTUĞ, F. (2004) Recipes of old tastes with einkorn and emmer wheat. TÜBA-AR 7: 177 188. FAEGRI, K. and Iversen, J. (1975) Textbook of Pollen Analysis. Blackwell, Oxford.

259

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba FRENCH, D. (1969) Prehistoric sites in Northwest Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 19: 41-98. FRITSCH, R. M. and Friesen, N. (2002) Evolution, domestication and taxonomy. In: Allium crop science. Recent advantages, Edited by: H.D. Rabininowitch and L. Currah. pp. 5-31. CAB International publishing, Wallingford, Oxon. FULLER, D.Q., Stevens, C.J. and McClatchie, M. (2005) Routine Activities, Tertiary Refuse and Labor Organization: Social Inference from Everyday Archaeobotany. In: Ancient Plants and People. Edited by: M. Madella and M. Savard. Contemporary Trends in Archaeobotany. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. FULLER, D. Q. (2007) Contrasting patterns in crop domestication and the domestication rates: recent archaeobotanical insights from the Old World. Annals of Botany 100: 903-924. FULLER, D. Q. (2010) An Emerging paradigm shift in the origins of agriculture. General Anthropology 17 (2): 7-12. FULLER, D. Q., Allaby, R. G. and Stevens, C. (2011a) Domestication as innovation: the entanglement of techniques, technology and chance in the domestication of cereal crops. World Archaeology 42 (1): 13-28. FULLER, D. Q., Willcox, G. and Allaby, R. G. (2011b) Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins: arguments against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East. World Archaeology 43 (4): 628-652. FULLER, D. Q., Asouti, E. and Prugganan, M. D. (2012) Cultivation as slow evolutionary entanglement: comparative data on rate and sequence of domestication. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 21: 131-145. GABRIEL, U. (2000) Mitteilungen zum Stand der Neolithikumsforschung in der Umgebung von Troia. Studia Troica 10: 233-38. GARDENER, C.J., McIvor, J.G. and Jansen A. (1993) Passage of legume and grass seeds through the digestive tract of cattle and their survival in faeces. Journal of Applied Ecology 30: 63–74. GARNER, F.H. (1963) The palatability of herbage plants. Grass and Forage Science 18: 79-89. GAUCH, H. G. (1982) Multivariate statistics in community ecology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. GISSEL-NIELSEN, G., Gupta, U.C., Lamand, M. and Westermack, T. (1984) Selenium in soils and plants and its importance in livestock and human nutrition. Advances in Agronomy 37: 397-415. GODDARD, J. and Nesbitt, M. (1997) Why drawing seeds? Illustrating archaeobotany. Graphic Archaeology, pp. 13-21. GÖKGÖL, M. (1939) Türkiye Buğdayları. Die türkischen Weizen. Tom. II. Tan Maatbaası, İstanbul, Türkiye. GÖKGÖL, M. (1955) Buğdayların tasnif anahtarı. Ziraat Vekaleti Yayınları, No: 716. İstanbul, Türkiye. GÖZLER, M. Z., Cevher, F. and Küçükayman, A. (1985) Eskişehir civarının jeolojisi ve sıcak su kaynakları. MTA Dergisi, 103/104, 40-54. GÖZLER, M. Z., Cevher, F., Ergül, E., and Asutay, H. J. (1996) Orta Sakarya ve güneyinin jeolojisi. MTA Rapor No. 9973. GRAY, F. V. (1947) The digestion of cellulose by sheep: the extent of cellulose digestion at successive levels of the alimentary tract. Journal of Experimental Biology 24: 1519. GREAVES, A. M. and Helwing, B. (2000) Archaeology in Turkey: the stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, 2000. American Journal of Archaeology 107: 71-103.

GREEN, F. J. (1979) Phosphatic mineralization of seeds from archaeological sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 6: 279-284. GRIGG, D. (1974) The Agricultural Systems of the World: an Evolutionary Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. GRIME, J.P., J.G. Hodgson and R. Hunt (1990) The Abridged Comparative Plant Ecology. London: Unwin Hyman. GRIME, J.P. (2002) Plant Strategies, Vegetation Processes, and Ecosystem Properties. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. GUNN, C.R. (1981) Seed Topography in the Fabaceae. Seed Science &Technology 9: 737-757. GÜLDALI, N. (1979) Geomorphologie der Türkei. Erläuterungen zur geomorphologischen Übersichtskarte der Türkei. 1: 2.000.000. Beihefte zur Tübinger Atlas des Vordern Orients. A 4, Wiesbaden. GÜLER, M. (1990) the role of legumes in the farming systems of Turkey. In: The role of legumes in farming system of the Mediterranean areas. Edited by: A. E. Osman, M. H. Ibrahim and M. A. Jones. pp. 239-255. ICARDA, Aleppo/ Syria. GÜLER, M., Durutan, N., Karaca, M., Avcın, A., Avcı, M. and Eyüboğlu, H. (1991) Increasing water use efficiency through fallow soil management under Central Anatolian conditions. In: Soil and Crop Management for Improved Water Use Efficiency in Rainfed areas. Proceedings of an International Workshop held in Ankara, Turkey. May 15-19, 1989. pp. 76-83. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. GÜNDEM, C. Y. (2010) Animal based economy in Troia and the Troas during the Maritime Troy Culture (c. 3000-2200 BC.) and a general summary for West Anatolia. PhD. Thesis, University of Tübingen. http://tobias-lib.unituebingen.de/volltexte/2010/4677/. GÜNDEM, C. Y. (2012) The subsistence economy in inland northwestern Anatolia during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age MASROP E-dergi 7: 250-300. GÜNER, A., Özhatay, N., Ekim, T. and Başer, K.H.C. (2001) Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean IslandsVol. 11 (Second suppl.). Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. GÜRKAN, G. and Seeher, J. (1991) Die frühbronzezeitliche Nekropole von Küçükhüyük bei Bozüyük. İstanbuler Mitteilungen 41: 39-36. HAJNALOVÁ, M. and Dreslerová, D. (2010) Ethnobotany of einkorn and emmer in Romania and Slovakia: towards interpretation of archaeological evidence. Památky Archeologické 101: 169-202. HALD, M.M. (2008) A thousand years of farming: late Chalcolithic agricultural practices at Tell Brak in northern Mesopotamia. BAR International Series, Oxford. HALD, M.M. (2010) Distribution of crops at late Early Bronze Age Titriş Höyük, southeast Anatolia: towards a model for the identification of consumers of centrally organised food distribution. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 19: 69-77. HALDANE, C. (1991) Recovery and analysis of plant remains from some Mediterranean shipwreck sites. In: New light in early farming. Recent developments in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: J. M. Renfrew. pp. 213-224. Edinburgh University Press. HALSTEAD, P. and Jones, G.E.M. (1989) Agrarian Ecology in the Greek islands: time stress, scale and risk. Journal of Hellenistic Studies 109: 41-45. HALSTEAD, P. (1994) The north-south divide: regional paths to complexity in Prehistoric Greece. In: Development and decline in the Mediterranean Bronze Age. Edited

260

Bibliography by: C. Mathers and S. Stoddart. pp. 195-219. Sheffield Archaeological Monograph 8. Collins Publications, Sheffield. HALSTEAD, P. (1996) The development of agriculture and pastoralism in Greece: when, how, who and what? In: The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Edited by: D. R. Harris. pp. 296-309. University College London Press, London. HALSTEAD, P. (2000) Land use in postglacial Greece: cultural causes and environmental effects. In: Landscape and land use in Postglacial Greece. Edited by: P. Halstead and C. Frederick. pp. 110-128. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield. HANELT, P. (1961) Zur Kenntnis von Carthamus tinctorius L. Kulturpflanze 9:114–145 HANSEN, J. M. (1999) Palaeoethnobotany and palaeodiet in the Aegean region: notes on legume toxicity and related pathologies. In: Palaeodiet in the Aegean. Edited by S.J. Vaughan and W. D. E. Coulson. pp. 13-27. Oxbow Books. HARLAN, J.R. (1981) Early History of wheat: Earliest Traces to the Sack of Rome. In: Wheat Science Today and Tomorrow. pp. 1-19. Edited by: L.T. Evans and W.J. Peacock. Cambridge University Press. HARLAN and Zohary (1966) Distribution of the wild wheats and barley. Science 153: 1078. HARRIS, H. C., Osman, A. E., Cooper, P. J. M. and Jones, M. J. (1991) The management of crop rotation for greater water use efficiency under rainfed conditions, pp. 237-50 in Harris, H. C., Cooper, P. J. M. and Pala, M. (eds.), Soil and CropManagement for Improved Water Use Efficiency in Rainfed Areas. Aleppo: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas. HARRIS, D. R. and Thomas, K. D. (1991) Modelling ecological change in environmental archaeology. In: Modelling ecological chance, perspectives from neoecology, palaeoecology and environmental ecology. Edited by: D. H. Harris & K. D. Thomas. pp. 27-40. UCL, Institute of Archaeology, London. HARRIS, D.R., Maason, V. M., Berezin, Y. E., Charles, M. P., Gosten, C., Hillman, G.C., Kasparov, A. K., Korobkova, G. F. Kurbansakhatov, K., Legge, A. J. and Limbrey, S. (1993) Investigating early agriculture in Central Asia: new research at Jeitun, Turkmenistan. Antiquity 67 (255): 328-338. HASPELS, C. H. (1971) The highlands of Phrygia. The sites and monuments, Vol. I, N. J. Princeton, Princeton University Press. HASTORF, C. A. (1989) The use of Paleoethnobotanical Data in Prehistoric Studies of Crop Production, Processing and Consumption. In: Current Paleoethnobotany. Edited by C.A: Hastorf and V. S. Popper. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. HASTORF, C. A. and Wright, M. F. (1998) Interpreting wild seeds from archaeological sites: a dung charring experiment from the Andes. Journal of Ethnobiology 18 (2): 211-227. HAVINGA, A. J. 1984. A 20-year experimental investigation into the differential corrosion susceptibility of pollen and spores in various soil types. Pollen et Spores 26: 541-588. HÄUPLER. and MÜR. 2007. Bildatlas der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen Deutschlands, Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart. HATHER, J. (1993) An archaeobotanical guide to root and tuber identification. Volume I Europe and South West Asia. Oxbow Monograph 28. HAZAN, N., Stein M., Agnon, A., Marco S., Nadel D., Negendank J. F. W., Schwab M. J.and Neev, D. (2005) The late Quaternary limnological history of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Quaternary Research 63: 60-77.

HEINRICH, M., Nebel, S., Leonti, M., Rivera, D. and Obon, C. (2006) ‚Local food-nutraceuticals‘: Bridging the Gap between Local Knowledge and Global Needs. In: Local Food Plants and Nutraceuticals. Edited by: M. Heinrich, W.E. Müller and C. Galli. Vol. 59. pp.1-17. Forum of Nutrition. Basel, Karger. HELBAEK, H. (1961) Late Bronze Age and Byzantine Crops at Beycesultan in Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 11:77-97. HELBAEK, H. (1964) First impressions on Çatal Hüyük plant husbandry, Anatolian Studies 14: 121-123. HELBAEK, H. (1970) The Plant husbandry of Hacılar. A study of cultivation and Domestication. In: Excavations at Hacılar. Edited by: J. Mellaart. pp. 189-244. University Press, Edinburg. HELLMUND, M. (2008) The Neolithic records of Onopordum acanthium, Agrostemma githago, Adonis cf. aestivalis and Claviceps purpurea in Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17 (Suppl. 1): 123–130. HENTON, E. (2012) The combined use of oxygen isotopes and microwear in sheep teeth to elucidate seasonal management of domestic herds: the case study of Çatalhöyük, central Anatolia. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 3264-3276. HERBIG, C. and Maier, U. (2011) Flax for oil or fibre? Morphometric analysis of flax seeds and new aspects of flax cultivation in Late Neolithic wetland settlements in Southwest Germany. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20: 527-533. HERBIG, C. (2012) Unkraut oder in Gärten kultivierte Heilpflanze? Die Rolle des Schwarzen Bilsenkrauts (Hyoscyamus niger L.) im Neolithikum – Neue archäobotanische Nachweise in linienbandkeramischen Brunnenbefunden in Sachsen. In: Verzweigungen. Eine Würdigung für A. J. Kalis und J. Meurers-Balke. Edited by: A. Stobbe and U. Tegtmeier. pp. 147-157. Frankfurter Archäologische Schriften 18. HERNÁNDEZ BERMEJO, J. E. and León, J. (Editors) (1994) Neglected crops. 1492 from a different perspective. FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. 26. HEUN, M., Schäfer-Pregl, R. Klawan, D. Castagna, R.M. Accerbi, M., Borghi, B. and Salamini, F. (1997) Site of einkorn wheat domestication identified by DNA fingerprinting. Science 278, 1312-1314. HEYWOOD, V. H. (1971) Biology and Chemistry of the Umbelliferae. Academic Press. London. HILL, T. (1988) The Gardener’s Labyrinth, reprint of the 5th (1652) Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England. HILLMAN, G. C. (1978) On the origins of domestic rye Secale cereal: finds from Aceramic Can Hasan III in Turkey. Anatolian Studies 28: 157-174. HILLMAN, G. C. (1981) Reconstructing crop husbandry practices from charred remains of crops. In: Farming practice in British Prehistory. Edited by: R. Mercer. pp. 123162. Edinburg University Press, Edinburgh. HILLMAN, G. C. (1983) Criteria for identifiying the rachis remains of the free-threshing wheats. 6th Symposium of the International Workshop for Palaeoethnobotany, Plants and Ancient man: Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Groningen. HILLMAN, G. C. (1984a) Interpretation of archaeological plant remains: The application of ethnographic models from Turkey. In: Plants and Ancient Man, Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist and W. A. Casparie. pp. 1-41. A.A. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. HILLMAN, G. C. (1984b) Traditional husbandry and processing of archaic cereals in modern times: Part I, the

261

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba glume-wheats. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, Vol. I: 114-152. Cambridge. U.K. HILLMAN, G. C. (1984c) Traditional husbandry and processing of archaic cereals in modern times: Part II, The free-threshing cereals. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, Vol. II: 1-31. Cambridge. U.K. HILLMAN, G. C. and Davies, M. S. (1990) Domestication rate in wild wheats and barley under primitive cultivation: preliminary results and archaeological implications of field measurements of selection coefficient. In: Préhostoire de l’agriculture: nouvelles approaches expérimentales et ethnographiques. Edited by: P.C. Anderson. pp. 113-158. Monographie du CRA 6. Édition du CNRS, Paris. HILLMAN, G. C. (1991) Phytosociology and ancient weed floras: taking account of taphonomy and changes in cultivation methods. In: Modelling ecological chance, perspectives from neoecology, palaeoecology and environmental ecology. Edited by: D. H. Harris & K. D. Thomas. pp. 27-40. UCL, Institute of Archaeology, London. HILLMAN, G. C. (2001) Archaeology, percival and the problems of identifying wheat remains. In: Wheat taxonomy: the legacy of John Percival. Edited by: P. D. S. Caligari and P. E. Brandham. pp. 27-36. Linnean Special Issue 3: 27-36. Linnean Society, London. HOPF, M. (1961) Pflanzenfunde aus Lerna/Argolis. Züchter 31: 239-247. HOPF, M. (1983) Jericho plants remains. In: Excavations at Jericho. Edited by: K. K. Kenyon and T. A. Holland. pp. 576-621. British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, London. HOPF, M. (1986) Archaeological evidence of the spread and use of some members of the Leguminosae family. In: The origin and domestication of cultivated plants. Edited by: C. Barigozzi. pp. 35-60. Elsevier Publishers, Netherlands. HOWARD, M. (1987) Traditional Folk Remedies. A comprehensive herbal. Century, London. HUBBARD, R. N. L. B. (1976a) On the strength of the evidence for prehistoric crop processing activities. Journal of Archaeological Science 3: 257-265. HUBBARD, R. N. L. B. (1976b) Crops and climate in Prehistoric Europe. World Archaeology 8 (2): 159-168. HUBBARD, R. N. L. B. and al Azm, A. (1990) Quantifying preservation and distortion in carbonized seeds and investigating the history of friké production. Journal of Archaeological Science 17(1): 103-106. HUBBARD, R. N. L. B. and Clapham, A. (1992) Quantifying macroscopic plant remains. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 73: 117-132. HUSSAIN, F. and Durrani, M.J. (2009) Seasonal availability, palatability and animal preferences of forage plants in Harboi arid range land, Kalat, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Botany 41 (2): 539-554. HUXLEY, A. J. (1997) The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gardening. Macmillan, London. HÜRYILMAZ, H. (2006) Gökçeada-Yenibademli topluluğunun Erken Bronz Çağı’nda karma besin ekonomisi. In: Hayat Erkanal’a Armağan: Kültürlerin Yansıması (Studies in Honor of Hayat Erkanal: Cultural reflections) Edited by: Armağan Erkanal-Öktü et al. Homer Kitabevi, İstanbul. HÜTTEROTH V.-D. and Höhfeld, V. (2002) Türkei. Geographie, Geschichte, Wirtschaft, Politik. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt. IVANOVA, M. (2008) Befestigte Siedlungen auf dem Balkan, in der Ägäis und in Westanatolien, ca. 5000 - 2000 v. Chr. Tübinger Schriften zur ur- und frühgeschichtlichen Archäologie 1. Waxmann, München, Berlin.

İLASLI, A. (1996) Seyitömer Höyüğü 1993 yılı kazısı. 6. Müze Kurtarma Kazıları Seminerleri: 1-20. JABLONKA, P. (2011) Troy in regional and international context. In: Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Part IV, thematic and and specific topics, Chapter 32. Edited by: S. R. Steadman and G. McMahon. pp. 717-733. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. JACOMET, S. (1987) Prähistorische Getreidefunde. Eine Einleitung zur Bestimmung prähistorischer Gersten- und Weizenfunde. Botanisches Institut der Universität Basel. JARADAT, A.A., Kanbertay, M., Peña-Chocarro, L., Hammer, K., Stavropoulos, N. and Perrino, P. (1996) Ex situ conservation of hulled wheats. In: Hulled wheat. Promoting the conservation and the use of underutilised and neglected crops 4. pp. 121-128. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats, Castelveccio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy1995. International Plant Genetic Ressources Institute, Rome. JARMAN, H. N., Legge, A. J. and Charles, J. A. (1972) Retrival of plant remains from archaeological sites by froth flotation. In: Papers in economic prehistory. Studies by the members and associates major research project in the early history of agriculture. Edited by: E. S. Higgs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. JONES, G. (1981) Crop processing at Assiros Toumba, a taphonomic study. Zeitschrift für Archäologie 15, 105-111. JONES, G. (1983) The use of ethnographic and ecological models in the interpretation of archaeological plant remains: case studies from Greece. Unpublished PhD Thesis. JONES, G. (1984) Interpretation of archaeological plant remains: Ethnographic models from Greece. In: Plants and Ancient Man, Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist and W. A. Casparie. pp. 43-62. A.A. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. JONES, G, Wardle, K., Halstead, P., Wardle, D. (1986) Crop storage in Assiros. Scientific American 254: 96-103. JONES, G. (1987) A statistical approach to the archaeological identification of crop processing. Journal of Archaeological Science, 14: 311-323. JONES, G. (1991) Numerical analysis in Archaeobotany. In: Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by W. Van Zeist, K. Wasylikowa and K. E. Behre. pp. 63-81. A.A. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. JONES, G. (1992) Weed phytosociology and crop husbandry: identifying a contrast between ancient and modern practice. Review in Palaeobotany and Palynology, 73: 133-143. JONES, G. and HALSTEAD, P. (1995) Maslins, mixtures and monocrops: on the interpretation of archaeobotanical crop samples of heterogeneous composition. Journal of Archaeological Science, 22: 103-104. JONES, G. (1996) Ethnoarchaeological investigation of the effects of cereal grain sieving. Circaea 12(2): 177-182. JONES, G. (1998a) Distinguishing food from fodder in the archaeobotanical record. In: Fodder: archaeological, historical and ethnographic studies. Edited by: M. Charles, P. Halstead and G. Jones. Environmental Archaeology 1: 11JONES, G. (1998b) Why Grain identification-Why bother? Environmental Archaeology 2: 29-34. JONES, G., Bogaard, A., Halstead, P., Charles, M. and Smith H. (1999) Identifying the intensity of crop husbandry on the basis of weed floras. Annual of the British School at Athens 94: 167-189. JONES, G., Bogaard, A. and Charles, M. (2000) Distinguishing the effects of agricultural practices relating to fertility

262

Bibliography and disturbance: a functional ecological approach in archaeobotany. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27: 1073-1084. JONES, G. (2005) Garden cultivation of staple crops and its implications for settlement location and continuity. World Archaeology 37 (2): 164-176. JONES, G. and Valamoti, S. M. (2005) Lallemantia, an imported or introduced oil plant in Bronze Age. Vegetation History and the Archaeobotany 14 (4): 571-577. JONES, G., Charles, M., Bogaard, A., Hodgson, J. G. and Palmer C. (2005) The functional ecology of present-day arable weed floras and its applicability for the identification of past crop husbandry Vegetation History and the Archaeobotany 14: 493-504. JONES, G., Charles, M., Bogaard, A., Hodgson, J. G. (2010) Crops and weeds: the role of weed functional ecology in the identification of crop husbandry methods. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37: 70-77. JONES, M. K. 1984. Regional patterns in crop production. In: Aspects of the Iron Age in Central Southern Britain. Edited by B. Cunliffe and D. Miles, Oxford. JONES, M. K. (1991) Sampling in palaeoethnobotany. In: Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist, K. Wasylikowa and K.-E. Behre, pp. 53-63. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. JONES, M. K. (1998) Wheat domestication. Science 279 (5349): 302-307. JONGMAN, R. H. G., ter Braak, C. J. and van Tongeren, O. F. R. (1987) Data Analysis in community and Landscape ecology. Pudoc Publishing, Wageningen. KAMIL, T. (1982) Yortan Cemetery in the Early Bronze Age of western Anatolia. BAR International Series 145. Oxford. KAPLAN, H.R. (1974) The crisis of the dryness in the 3rd Millennium B.C.E. and its applications according to excavations in Tell-Aviv Exhibition Garden. The Land of Israel, Braver book, 17: 333-338. KARACA, M., Güler, M., Durutan, N., Meyveci, K., Avcı, M., Eyüboğlu, H. and Avcın, A. (1991) Effect of rotation systems on wheat yield and water use efficiency in dryland areas of Central Anatolia. In: Soil and crop management for improved water efficiency in rainfed areas. Proceeding of an international workshop held in Ankara, Turkey (May 15-19 1989) Edited by: H.C. Harris, P:J.M. Cooper and M. Pala. pp. 251-259. International Center for Agricultural Reserach in the Dry Areas ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. KARAGÖZ, A. (1996) Agronomic practices and socioeconomic aspects of emmer and einkorn cultivation in Turkey. In: Hulled wheat. Promoting the conservation and the use of underutilised and neglected crops 4. pp. 171-177. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats, Castelveccio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy1995. International Plant Genetic Ressources Institute, Rome. KARG, S. (2011) New research on the cultural history of the useful plant Linum usitatissimum L. (flax), a resource for food and textiles for 8.000 years. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20: 507-508. KEALHOFER, L. (2005) Settlement and land use: the Gordion regional survey. In: the archaeology of Midas and the Phyrigians. Recent work at Gordion. Edited by: L. Kealhofer. pp: 137-149. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia. KEIMER, L. (1984) Die Gartenpflanzen im alten Ägypten. Verlag Philip von Zabern, Mainz.

KENNEDY, A. (2000) Ottoman plant remains from KamanKalehöyük. Anatolian Archaeological Studies 9:147–165 KENT, M. and Coker, P. (1992) Vegetation Description and Analysis. A practical approach. Chapter 5, Ordination Methods I, 1950-70. Belhaven Press, London. KENT, M. (2012) Vegetation Description and Data Analysis. A practical approach. KILLIAN, B. Özkan, H., Walther, A., Kohl, J., Dagan, T., Salamini, F. and Martin, W. (2007) Molecular diversity at 18 loci in 321 wild and 92 domesticate lines reveal no reduction of nucleotide diversity during Triticum monococcum (einkorn) domestication: Implications for the origin of the agriculture. Molecular Biology and Evolution 24 (12): 2657-2668. KILLIAN, B. Özkan, H. Pozzi, C. and Salamini, F. (2009) Domestication of the Triticeae in the Fertile Crescent. In: Genetics and genomics of the Triticeae, Plant genetics and Genomics: Crops and Models 7, edited by C. Feuillet and G.J. Muehlbauer, Springer Verlag, Berlin. KISLEV, M. E. and Bar-Josef, O. (1988) The legumes: the earliest domesticated plants in the Near East? Current Anthropology 29:175-179. KISLEV, M. E. (1988) Nahal Hemar Cave: desiccated plant remains, an interim report. Atiqot 18: 76-81. KISLEV, M. E. (1989) Origins of the cultivation of Lathyrus sativus and L. cicera (Fabaceae). Economic Botany 43: 262-270. KISLEV, M. E. and Rosenzweig, S. (1989) Influence of experimental charring on seed dimensions of pulses. Palaeoethnobotany and Archaeology. International Work Group for Palaeoethnobotany 8th Symposium. Nitra-Nové Vozokany 1989. pp. 143-157. Acta Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica VII. KNOWLES, P. F. (1967) Processing seeds for oil in towns and villages of Turkey, India and Egypt. Economic Botany 21: 156-162. KNOWLES, P. F. and Ashri A. (1995) Safflower: Carthamus tinctorius (Compositae). In: Evolution of crop plants, 2nd edn. Edited by: J. Smartt and N. W. Simmonds. pp 47–50 Harlow, Longman. KNÜPFFER, H. (2009) Triticeae genetic Ressources in ex situ genebank collections. In: Genetic and Genomics of the Triticeae. Edited by: C. Feuillet and G. J. Muehlbauer. Plant Genetics and genomics: Crops and Models. Springer Verlag. KOÇYİĞİT, A. (2000) Episodic graben formation and extensional neotectonic regime in West Central Anatolia and the Isparta Angle: a case study in the Akşehir-Afyon Graben, Turkey. In: Tectonics and magnetism in Turkey and the surrounding area. Vol 173. Edited by: E. Bozkurt, J. A. Winchester and J. D. A. Piper. pp. 405-421. Geological Society, London. KONT, M. S. (1987) Einführung zur Landeskunde Türkei I. Europäische Hochschulschrieften XI, Vol 304. Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt am Main. KORFMANN, M. (1972) Schleuder und Bogen in Südwestasien. Von den frühesten Belegen bis zum Beginn der historischen Stadtstaaten. Dr. Rudolf Habelt Verlag, Bonn. KORFMANN, M. (1983) Demircihüyük. Die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen1975-1978., Vol. 1. Phlipp von Zabern Verlag, Mainz. KORFMANN, M. and Kromer, B. (1993) Demircihüyük, Beşik Tepe, Troia- eine Zwischenbilanz zur Chronologie dreier Orte in Westanatolien. Studia Troica 3: 135-171.

263

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba KORFMANN, M. (2006) Troia : Archäologie eines Siedlungshügels und seiner Landschaft. Philip von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein. KREUZ, A. (1998) Pflanzenfunde von Hanau-Mittelbach. Germania 76 (2): 865-873. KREUZ, A. and Boenke, N. (2002) The Presence of twograined Einkorn at the Time of the Bandkeramik Culture. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11: 233-240. KROLL, H. (1979) Kulturpflanzen aus Dimini. ArchaeoPhysika 8: 173-189. KROLL, H. (1981) Thessalische Kulturpflanzen. Zeitschrift für Archäologie 15:97-103. KROLL, H. (1983) Kastanas: Die Pflanzenfunde. Verlag Volker Spiess, Berlin. KROLL, H. (1984) Bronze Age and Iron Age agriculture in Kastanas Macedonia. In: Plants and Ancient Man, Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist and W. A. Casparie. pp. 243-246. A.A. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. KROLL, H. (1990) Saflor von Feudvar, Vojvodina. Ein Fruchtfund von Carthamus tinctorius belegt diese Färbepflanzen für die Bronzezeit Jugoslawiens. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 20: 41-46. KROLL, H. (1991) Südosteuropa.In: Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist, K. Wasylikowa and K.-E. Behre. pp. 161-177. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. KROLL, H. (1992) Einkorn from Feudvar, Vojvodina, II. What is the difference between emmer-like two-seeded einkorn and emmer? Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 73: 181-185. KROLL, H. (1998) Die Kultur- und Naturlandschaften des Titeler Plateaus im Spiegel der metallzeitlichen Pflanzenreste von Feudvar. In: Feudvar. Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in einer Mikroregion am Zusammenfluß von Donau und Theiß. Vol. I. Das Plateau von Titel und die Šajkaška, archäologische und naturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zu einer Kulturlandschaft. Edited by: B. Hänsel and P. Medović. Prähistorische Archäologie in Sünosteuropa, Band 13. Verlag Oetker/Voges, Kiel. KROLL, H. (1999) Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche Weinrebenwild oder angebaut? Eine abschließende Bemerkung. Trier Zeitschrift 62: 151-153. KROLL, H. (2012a) Heilpflanzen der Bronzezeit in Mitteleuropa. In: Faszinosum Lausitzer Kultur. Religion, Musik, Medizin. Vol. 3, pp. 57-63. Schrriftehreihe Spreewälder Kulturstiftung Burg Müschen. Burg, Spreewald. KROLL, H. (2012b) Der Kaktus der Bronzezeit: die Eselsdistel Onopordum acanthium L. In: Verzweigungen. Eine Würdigung für A. J. Kallis und J. Meurers-Balke. Edited by: A. Stobbe and U. Tegtmeier. Frankfurter Archäologische Schriften 18: 189-192. KROLL, H. in prep. Das Plateau von Titel und die Sajkaska : archäologische und naturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zu einer Kulturlandschaft = Titelski plato i Sajkaska : arheoloski i prirodnjacki prilozi o kulturnoj slici podrucja / Hänsel, Bernhard, Kiel. KÖKTEN, K. (1948) 1944-1948 yılları prehistoryası araştırılan yerler: Türk Tarih Kongresi IV: 197-211. KÖKTEN, K. (1951) Kuzeybatı Anadolu’ nun tarihöncesi hakkında yeni gözlemler. Dil-Tarih ve Coğrafya Dergisi 9: 201-209. KÖRBER-GROHNE, U. (1987) Nutzpflanzen in Deutschland. Kulturgeschichte und Biologie. Theiss, Stuttgart.

KÖSE, Y. B., Ocak, A., Duran, A. and Öztürk, M. (2005) Eskişehir kent florasına ait bazı bitkilerin Tıbbi kullanımları ve Türkçe yerel adlarıSelçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 20:115-130. KUBECZKA, K.H., Bartsch, A. and Ulmann, I. (1982) Neuere Untersuchungen an atherischen Apiaceen-Ölen (Recent investigation of essential oils of Apiaceae). In: Atherische Ole: Analytik, Physiologie, Zusammensetzung. Edited by: K. H. Kubeczka. pp. 158-187 Thieme Verlag. KUCKUCK, H. and Schiemann E. (1957) über das Vorkommen von Spelz und Emmer (Triticum spelta L. and Tr. dicoccum Schübl.) im Iran. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenzüchtung 38: 383396. KUZUCUOĞLU, C. and Roberts N. (1998) Évolution de l’environnement en Anatolie de 20000 à 6000 BP. Paléorient, Vol. 23/2: 7-24. KUZUCUOĞLU, C. (2007) Climatic and environmental trends during the Third Millennium B.C. in Upper Mesopotamia. In: Sociétés Humaines et Changement Climatique à la fin du Troisième Millénaire: Une Crise a-t-elle eu lieu en Haute Mésopotamie? Èdités par C. Kuzucuoğlu et C. Marro. Actes du Colleque de Lyon, 5-8 décembre 2005. Institute Français d’Ètudes Anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul. De Boccard. KÜSTER, H. (1984) Neolithic plant remains from EberdingenHochdorf, southern Germany. In: Plants and Ancient Man: Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist and W. A. Casparie. pp. 307-311. Balkema, Rotterdam. KÜSTER, H. (1991) Phytosociology and Archaeobotany. In: Modelling ecological chance, perspectives from neoecology, palaeoecology and environmental ecology. Edited by: D. H. Harris & K. D. Thomas. pp. 17-25. UCL, Institute of Archaeology, London. LABEYRIE, L., Leclaire H., Waelbroeck, C., Cortijo, E., Duplessy, J.-C., Vidal, L., Elliot M. and Le coat, B. (1997) Temporal variability of the surface and deep waters of the North West Atlantic Ocean at orbital and millennial scales. In: Mechanism of global climate change at millennial time scales. pp: 77-98. Edited by: P.U. Clark, R. S. Webb and L.D. Keigwin. Geophysical monograph 112. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C. LAGRETTI, G., Fiorentino, G., Hammer, K. and Pignone, D. (2009) On the trail of the last autochthonous Italian einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) and emmer (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) populations: a mission impossible? Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 56 (8): 1163-1170. LAMB, W. (1936a) Excavations at Thermi in Lesbos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. LAMB, W. (1936b) Excavations at Kusura near Afyon Karahisar, Archaeologia 86, 1. LEE, D. H., Stangel, M., Gold, R. and Linker, R A. (2013) The fumaric acid ester BG-12: a new option in MS theraphy. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 13 (8): 951-958. LEMCKE, G., STURM, M. (1997) δ18 O and trace element measurements as proxy for the reconstruction of climate changes at Lake Van (Turkey): preliminary results. In: Third Millenium B.C. Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Edited by: H. N. Dalfes, G. Kukla and H. Weiss. NATO ASI Series I: Global Environmental Change, Vol. 49. LEPŠ, J. and Šmilauer P. (2003) Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data using CANACO. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. LINSEELE, V., Marinova, E., van Neer, W. and Vermeersch, P. (2010) Sites with Holocene Dung Deposits in the Eastern Desert of Egypt: Visited by Herders? Journal of Arid Environments 74 (7): 818-828.

264

Bibliography LINSEELE, V., Riemer, H., Baeten, J., De Vos, D., Marinova, E. and Ottoni, C. (2013) Species identification of archaeological dung remains: A critical review of potential methods. Journal of Environmenal Archaeology 18 (1): 5-17. LISONBEE, L. D., Villalba, J. J. and Provenza, F. D. (2009) Effects of tannin on selection by sheep of forages containing alkaloids, tannins and saponins. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 89: 2668-2677. LITTLEJOHN, L. (1946) Some aspects of soil fertility in Cyprus. Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture 14: 123-134. LLOYD, S. and Mellaart, J. (1962) Beycesultan I: The Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age levels. British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, London LOUIS, H. (1939) Das natürliche Pflanzenkleid Anatoliens geographisch gesehen. Geographische Abhandlungen. Reihe 3/Heft 12, Verlag J. Engelhorns, Stuttgart. LOUIS, H. (1985) Landeskunde der Türkei. Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, Stuttgart. MAHLER-SLASKY, Y. and Kislev, M. E. (2010) Lathyrus consumption in the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age sites in Israel: an Aegean affinity. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2477-2485. MAIER, U. (2001) Untersuchungen in der jungneolithischen Siedlung Hornstaad Hörnle I A am Bodensee. In: Siedlungsarchäologie im Alpenvorland VI. (U. Maier and R. Vogt) Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württenberg 74: 9-384. MARINOVA, E. M. (2006) Vergleichende paläoethnobotanische Untersuchung zur Vegetationsgeschichte und zur Entwicklung der prähistorischen Landnutzung in Bulgarien. Dissertationes Botanicae 401 (Dissertation an Universität Bonn), Cramer, Berlin. MARINOVA, E. M., Atanassova, J. I. and Riehl, S. (2008) The vegetation of Troy –changes and human impacts. Terra Nostra 2: 179-180. MARINOVA, E. and Riehl, S. (2009) Carthamus species in the ancient Near East and the south-eastern Europe: archaeobotanical evidence for their distribution and use as a source of oil. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 18: 341-349. MARRO, C. (2007) Upper-Mesopotamia and the late third millennium crisis hypothesis: state of the art and issues at state. In: Sociétés Humaines et Changement Climatique à la fin du Troisième Millénaire: Une Crise a-t-elle eu lieu en Haute Mésopotamie? Èdités par C. Kuzucuoğlu et C. Marro. Actes du Colleque de Lyon, 5-8 décembre 2005. Institute Français d’Ètudes Anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul. De Boccard. MARSH, B. (2005) Physical geography, land use, and human impact at Gordion. In: the archaeology of Midas and the Phyrigians. Recent work at Gordion. Edited by: L. Kealhofer. pp: 137-149. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia. MAYER, H., AKSOY, H. (1986) Wälder der Türkei. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stutgart, New York. MATTHEWS, W. (2005) Micromorphological and microstratigraphic traces of uses and concept of space. In: Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 1995-99 Seasons. Edited by: I. Hodder. pp. 355-398. McDonald Institute of Monographs, Cambridge. MATTHEWS, W. (2010)Geoarchaeology and taphonomy of plant remains and microarchaeological residues in early

urban environments in the Ancient Near East. Quaternary International 214: 98-113. MÄRKLE. T. and Rösch, M. (2008) Experiments on the effects of carbonization on some cultivated plant seeds. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17: 113-122. MARSH, B. (2005) Physical geography, land use, and human impact at Gordion. In: the archaeology of Midas and the Phrygians. Recent work at Gordion. Edited by: L. Kealhofer. pp: 161-171. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia. McCORRISTON, J. (1997) The fiber revolution. Textile extensification, alienation, and social stratification in ancient Mesopotamia. Current Anthropology 38: 517-535. McCORRISTON, J. (1998) Syrian origins of safflower production: new discoveries in the agrarian prehistory of the Habur Basin. In: The origins of the Agriculture and the crop domestication. Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium. Edited by: Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O. pp: 39-47. ICARDA Aleppo/Syria. McLAREN, F. S., Evans, J. and Hillman, G. C. (1990) Identification of charred seeds from Epipaleolithic sites in SW Asia from chemical criteria. In: Archaeometry ´90: Proceedings of the 15th International Archaeometry Symposium, Heildelberg, 1990. pp. 797-806. Birchauser, Basel. MEGALOUDI, F. (2006) Plants and Diet in Greece from Neolithic to Classic Periods: the Archaeobotanical remains. Oxford, BAR Publishing. MELAMED, Y., Plitmann, U. and Kislev, M. E. (2008) Vicia peregrina: an edible early Neolithic legume. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17 (Suppl. 1): S29-S34. MELLAART, J. (1966) The Chalcolithic and The Early Bronze Ages in the Near East and Anatolia. Khayats Publishing, Beirut. MELLAART, J. (1970) Excavations at Hacılar II: Vol. 1. The British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, Edinburg. MELLAART, J. (1998) Beycesultan. In: Ancient Anatolia. Fifty years work by the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara. Edited by: R. Matthews. pp. 61-68. British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, London. MELLINK, M. J. (1989) Anatolian and foreign relations of Tarsus in the Early Bronze Age. In: Anatolia and the Ancient Near East: Studies in Honour of Tahsin Özgüç. Edited by: K. Emre, B. Hrouda, M. Mellink and N. Özgüç. pp. 319-331. Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara. MEURERS-BALKE, J. and Lüning, J., (1992) Some aspects and experiments concerning the processing of glume wheats. In: Prehistoire del’Agriculture: Nouvelles Approches Experimentales et Ethnographiques. Edited by: P. C. Anderson. pp. 341-362. Monographie du CRA 6. Paris: Éditions du CNRS. MIKSICEK, C. H. (1987) Formation process of the archaeobotanical record. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 10: 211-247. MILLER, N. F. (1984 a). The interpretation of some carbonised cereal remains as remnants of dung cake fuel. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, Vol. I: 45-47. Cambridge. U.K. MILLER, N.F. (1984 b). The use of dung as fuel: An ethnographic example and an archaeological application. Paléorient, Vol. 10(2): 71-79. MILLER, N. F. and Smart, T. L. (1984). Intentional burning of dung as fuel: a mechanism for the incorporation of charred seeds into the archaeological record. Journal of Ethnobiology 4(1): 5-28. MILLER, N. F. (1989) Ratios in paleoethnobotanical analysis.

265

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba In: Current Paleoethnobotany. Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains. Edited by: C. A. Hastorf and S. Popper. Prehistoric Archaeology and Ecology Series. MILLER, N. F. (1991) The Near East. In: Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W. Van Zeist, K. Wasylikowa and K.-E. Behre. pp. 133-160. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. MILLER, N. F. and Gleason, K. L. (1994) Fertilizer in Identification and Analysis of Soil (Chapter 2) In: Archaeology of Garden and Field. Edited by: N.F. Miller and K. L. Gleason. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. MILLER, N. F. (1997) Framing and herding along the Euphrates: environmental constraint and cultural choice (fourth to second millennia B.C.). MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology 14: 123-132. MILLER, N. F. (1999) Interpreting ancient environment and patterns of land use: seeds, charcoal and archaeological context. TÜBA-AR II (1999): 15-30. MILLER, N. F. (2008) Sweeter than wine? the use of the grape in Early Western Asia. Antiquity 82: 937-946. MILLER, N. F., Zeder, A. M. and Arter, S. R. (2009) From food and fuel to farms and flocks: the integration of plant and animal remains in the study of the agropastoral economy at Gordion, Turkey. Current Anthropology, 50 (6): 915-924. MILLER, N. F. (2010) Botanical Aspects of Environment and Economy at Gordion, Turkey. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Philadelphia, PA. MILLER, N. F. (2011) Managing predictable unpredictability: agricultural sustainability at Gordion, Turkey. In: Sustainable Lifeways, cultural persistence in an everchanging environment. Edited by: N. F. Miller, K.M. Moore and K. Ryan. University of Pennysylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia. MILLER, N. F. and Marshton, J. M. (2012) Archaeological fuel remains as indicators of ancient west Asian agropastoral and land-use systems. Journal of Arid Environments 86: 97-103. MINNIS, P.E. (1978) Ethnobotanical indicators of prehistoric environmental disturbance: A case study. In The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany. Edited by R.I. Ford, M.Brown, M. Hodge and W.L. Merrill. Anthropological papers no. 60. University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology. MORRISON, F. B. (1957) Feeds and feeding. The Morrison publishing, New York. MUDDIE, P.J., Marret, F., Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R. and Gillespie, H. (2007) Palynological evidence for climatic change, anthropogenic activity and outflow of Black Sea water during the late Pleistocene and Holocene: centennialto decadal-scale records from the Black and Marmara Seas. Quaternary International 167–168, 73–90. MUELLER, J. W. (1975) Sampling in archaeology. Tucson, Arizona, University of Arizona Press. MUELLER-DOMBOIS, D. and Ellenberg, H. (1974) Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York. MUHLY, J. D. (2011) Metals and Metallurgy. In: Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Part IV, thematic and specific topics, from pastoralists to empires: critical issues, Chapter 39. Edited by: S. R. Steadman and G. McMahon. pp. 858-876. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. MULLINS, M. G., Bouquest, A. and Williams, L. E. (1992) Biology of Grapevine. Cambridge Univeristy Press, Cambridge.

MUTLU, B. and Geçkil, H. (2009) Türkiye’deki Erysimum (Brassicaceae) Türleri Üzerinde Taksonomik Araştırmalar: Unpublished report. TÜBITAK Proje No: 105 T 126 MUTLU, B. (2010) New morphological characters for some Erysimum (Brassicaceae) species. Turkish Journal of Botany 34: 115-121.TÜBİTAK. MÜLLER-KARPE, A. (1994) Anatolisches Metallhandwerk. Neumünster. MYERS, H. O. 1950. Some applications of statistics to archaeology, Government Press, Cairo. NEEF, R. and Cappers, R.T.J. 2012. Digital Plant Atlas of Economic Plants in Archaeology. Barkhuis and Groningen University Library. Online Data Bank: http://econ.eldoc. ub.rug.nl/ NESBITT, M and Samuel, D. 1989. The recovery of ancient botanical remains from Near Eastern excavations: a practical guide. (unpublished manuscript). NESBITT, M. (1992). Early Bronze Age Crops and Dung from Dilkaya Höyük. Ankara, British Institute of Archaeology. NESBITT, M. (1993) Ancient crop husbandry at Kaman Kalehöyük: 1991 archaeobotanical report. In: Essays on Anatolian Archaeology. Edited by: T. Mikasa. pp. 75-97. Bulletin of the Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan 7. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden. NESBITT, M. (1996). Geç Kalkolitik Çağ tabakalarının Bitkisel Kalıntıları Hakkında Ön Rapor. In: Kuruçay Höyük II 19781988 Kazılarının sonuçları Geç Kalkolitik ve İlk Tunç Çağı Yerleşmeleri (Results of the Excavations 1978-1988 The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Settlements. Edited by Refik Duru. Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara. NESBITT, M. and Samuel, D. (1996 a) Archaeobotany in Turkey: a review of current research. Orient Express 1996 (3): 91 - 96. NESBITT, M. and Samuel, D. (1996 b) From stable crop to extinction? The archaeology and the history of the hulled wheats. In: Hulled wheats. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. pp. 41-100. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. NESBITT, M. (2006) Identification Guide for Near Eastern Grass Seeds. London. NYDEGGER-HÜGGLI, M. (2001) Zwölfte Ergänzungen zu P.H. Davis’ “Flora of Turkey and the Eagean Islands“ 1-10 (1965-1988).Bauhinia 15: 97-114. NYDEGGER-HÜGGLI, M. (2002) Dreizehnte und letzte Ergänzungen zu P.H. Davis’ “Flora of Turkey and the Aegean Islands“ 1-10 (1965-1988). Bauhinia 16: 33-35. OCAK, A., Hüner, G.and Ataşlar, E. (2008) The flora of Kalabak Basin (Eskişehir, Turkey) Turkish Journal of Botany 32: 381-410. OCAKOĞLU, F., Açıkalın, S., Gökçeoğlu, C., Nefeslioğlu H. A. and H. Sönmez (2007) Back-analysis of the source of the 1956 Eskişehir Earthquake using attenuation equation and damage data. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment 66: 353-360. OCAKOĞLU, F. (2007) A re-evaluation of the Eskişehir Fault Zone as a recent extensional structure in NW Turkey. Journal of Asian Earth Science 31(2): 91-103. OCAKOĞLU, F., Açıkalın, S., Gökçeoğlu, C., Karabacak, V. and Chernisky, A. (2009) A multistory gigantic subareal debris flow in an active fault scarp in NW Anatolia, Turkey: anatomy, mechanism and timing. The Holocene 19 (6): 955-965. OYBAK-DÖNMEZ, E. (2005a) Early Bronze Age Crop Plants from Yenibağdemli Höyük (Gökçeada), Western Turkey. Environmental Archaeology 10: 39-49.

266

Bibliography OYBAK-DÖNMEZ, E. (2006) Liman Tepe (İzmir) Erken Tunç Çağı Tarla Bitkileri. In: Hayat Erkanal’a Armağan: Kültürlerin Yansıması (Studies in Honor of Hayat Erkanal: Cultural reflections) Edited by: Armağan Erkanal-Öktü et al. Homer Kitabevi, İstanbul. OYBAK-DÖNMEZ, E. and Belli, O. (2007) Urartian Plant Cultivation at Yoncatepe (Van), Eastern Turkey. Economic Botany 61 (3): 290-298. ÖKSÜZ, F. and Gençler Abeş, G. (2008) 2008 yılı Eskişehir İl Çevre Durum Raporu. Eskişehir Valiliği İl Çevre ve Orman Müdürlüğü. T.C. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı Yayınları. ÖZAYDIN, B.U., E. Yücel, (2004) Mihallıççık ilçesinin (Eskişehir) florası. Anadolu University Journal of Science and Technology, 5(1): 83-106. ÖZDOĞAN, M. (2002) The Bronze Age in Thrace in relation to the emergence of complex societies in Anatolia and in the Aegean. In: Anatolian Metal II. Der Anschnitt, Zeitschrift für Kunst and Kultur im Bergbau. Edited by: Ü. Yalçın. pp. 67-76. Bochum. ÖZHATAY, N., Kültür, Ş. Aksoy, N. 1994. Check-List of Additional Taxa to the Supplement Flora of Turkey. Turkish Journal of Botany 18: 497-514. TÜBİTAK. ÖZHATAY, N., Kültür, Ş. Aksoy, N. 1999. Check-List of Additional Taxa to the Supplement Flora of Turkey II. Turkish Journal of Botany 23: 151-169. TÜBİTAK. ÖZKAN, T. and Erkanal, H. (1999) Tahtalı Barajı Kurtarma Kazısı Projesi (Tahtalı Dam Salvage Project). İzmir Arkeoloji Müzesi Müdürlüğü. PALMER, C. (1998a) The role of fodder in the farming system: a case study from northern Jordan. In: Fodder: archaeological, historical and ethnographic studies. Edited by: M. Charles, P. Halstead and G. Jones. Environmental Archaeology 1: 1-10. PALMER, C. (1998b) An exploration of the effects of crop rotation regime on modern weed floras. Environmental Archaeology 2: 35-48. PANAHI, F., Assareh, M H., Jafari, M., Jafari, A.A., Arzani, H., Tavili, A. and Esefahan, E., Z. (2012) Phenological effects on forage quality of Salsola arbuscula, Salsola orientalis and Salsola tomentosa in three habitats in the Central Part of Iran. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 11 (7): 915-923. PAMAY, B. (1955). Türkiye ardıç türleri ve yayılışları. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 1: 91-112 PAPASTYLIANOU, I. (1990) The role of legumes in the farming system of Cyprus. In: The role of legumes in farming system of the Mediterranean areas. Edited by: A. E. Osman, M. H. Ibrahim and M. A. Jones. pp. 3-29. ICARDA, Aleppo/ Syria. PAPENDICK, R. I. Chowdhury, S.L. and Johansen, C. (1988) Managing systems for increasing productivity in dryland agriculture. In: World Crops: cool season food legumes. Edited by: R.J. Summerfield. pp. 237-255. Kluwer, Dordorecht. PARSAEE, H. and Shafiee-Nick, R. (2006) Anti-Spasmodic and Anti-Nociceptive Effects of Teucrium pollium Aqueous Extract. Iranian Biomedical Journal, 10 (3): 145-149. PASTERNAK, R. (1996) Kuşaklı/Sarissa:Edited by : Andreas Müller-Karpe vorgeschichtliches Seminar der PhilippsUniversität Marburg/ Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Leidorf. PASTERNAK, R. (1998) Investigations of botanical remains from Nevali Cori PPNB, Turkey: a short interim report. In: The origins of agriculture and crop domestication. Report of the Genetic Resources Conservation Program 21. pp. 170-

177. Edited by: A. B. Damania, J. Valkoun, G, Wilcox and C. O. Qualset. ICARDA, Aleppo. PEARSALL, D. M. (2000) Palaeoethnobotany, a handbook of procedures. Academic Press, California. PEINETTI, R., Pereyra, M., Kin, A. and Sosa, A. (1993) Effects of cattle ingestion on viability and germination rate of Caldén (Prosopis caldenia) seeds. Journal of Range Management 6: 484–6. PEÑA-CHOCARRO, L. (1996) In situ conservation of hulled wheat species: the case of Spain. In: Hulled wheats. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. pp. 121-129. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. PEÑA-CHOCARRO, L. (1999) Prehistoric Agriculture in Southern Spain during the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The Application of Ethnographic Models. BAR International Series 818. Oxford. PEÑA-CHOCARRO, L. and Zapata-Peña, L. (2003) Postharvest processing of hulled wheats. An ethnoarchaeological approach. In: Le Traitement des Rrécoltes. Un regard sur la diversité du Néolithique au present, Edited by : P.C. Anderson, L.S. Cummings, T.S. Schippers and B. Simonel. pp. 99-114. Actes des XXIIIe rencontres Internationales d’archéologie et d’histoire d’Antibes, Éditions APDCA. PERCIVAL, J. (1921) The wheat Plant. London, Duckworth Publication. PERNICKA, E. Begemann, F. Schmitt-Strecker, S., Todorova, H. and Kuleff, I. (1984) Archäometalurgische Untersuchungen in Northwestanatolien. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 31: 533599. PERNICKA, E (1998) Die Ausbreitung der Zinnbronze im 3. Jahrtausend. In: Mensch und Umwelt i der Bronzezeit Europas. Edited by: B. Hänsel. pp. 135-147. Oetker-Voges Verlag, Kiel. PERNICKA, E., Eibner, C., Öztunalı and Wagner, G. A. (2003) Early Bronze Age metallurgy in the North-East Aegean. In: Troia and the Troad- Scientific approaches. Edited by: G. A. Wagner, E. Pernicka and H.-P. Uerpmann. pp. 143-172. Springer Verlag, Berlin. PERRINO, P. Laghetti, G. D’Antuono, L. F., Al Ajlouni, M. Kanbertay, M., Szabó, A. T. and Hammer K. (1996) Ecogeographical distribution of hulled wheat species. In: Hulled wheats. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. pp. 41-100. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. POLATSCHEK, A. and Snogerup, S. (2002) Erysimum L. In: Flora Hellenica 2. Edited by: A. Strid and K. Tan. pp. 2-130. Koeltz Scientific Books, Germany. POLATSCHEK, A. (2010) Revision der Gattung Erysimum (Cruciferae): Teil 1: Russland, die Nachfolgestaaten der USSR (excl. Georgien, Armenien, Azerbaidzan), China, Indien, Pakistan, Japan und Korea. Annual Naturhistorischen Museums Wien, B 111: 181-275. POPOVA, T. (2010) Plant environment of man between 6000 and 2000 B.C. in Bulgaria. BAR International series 2064, Oxford. POPPI, D. P., Hendricksen, R. E. and Minson, D. J. (1985) The relative resistance to escape of leaf and stem particles from the rumen of cattle and sheep. Journal of Agricultural Science 105, 9–14. PRENTICE, I.C., Guiot, J., Huntley, B., Jolly, D. and Cheddadi, R. (1996) Reconstructing biomes from palaeoecological data: a general method and its application to European data at 0 and 6 ka. Climate Dynamics 12, 185–194

267

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba PRENTICE,, I.C. and Jolly, D. BIOME 6000 participants (2000) Mid-Holocene and glacial-maximum vegetation geography of the northern continents and Africa. Journal of Biogeography 27, 507–519. PUSTOVOYTOV, K. E., Riehl, S. and Mittmann, S. (2004) Radiocarbon age of carbonate in fruits of Lithospermum from the Early Bronze Age settlements of Hirbet ez Zeragon (Jordan). Vegetation Hostory and Archaeobotany 13: 207212. QUIROGA, A. R., Diaz-Zorita, M. and Buschiazzo D. E. (2001) Safflower productivity as related to soil water storage and management practices in semiarid regions. Communal Soil Science and Plant Annual32:2851–2862. RANDLE, W. M. and Lancester, J. E. (2002) Sulphur compounds in Alliums in relation to flavor quality. In: Allium crop science. Recent advantages, Edited by: H.D. Rabininowitch and L. Currah. pp. 5-31. CAB International publishing, Wallingford, Oxon. RASMUSSEN, P. (1993) Analysis of sheep/goat faeces from Egolzwil 3, Switzerland: evidence for branch and twig foddering of livestock in the Neolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:479-502. RASSAM, A. and Tully, D. (1986) Aspects of agricultural labour in North-western Syria. In: Farming system program. pp. 133-141. ICARDA. Aleppo. REED, K. (2012) Farmers in Transition. The archaeobotanical analysis of the Carpathian Basin from the Late Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age (5000-900 BC). Unpublished PhD Thesis at University of Leicester. REEDY, M. V. and Singh, K. B. (1985) Exploitation of host: plant resistance in the management of Ascochyta Blight and other diseases of Chickpeas. In: Faba beans, Kabuli Ckickpeas and lentils in the 1980’s. Edited by: M. C. Saxena and S. Varma. ICARDA. pp. 139-151.Aleppo. REEDY, S. N. (1999) Fueling the hearths in India: the role of dung in paleoethnobotanical interpretation. Paléorient 24 (2): 61-70. RENFREW, C. (2011) The emergence of the civilisation: The Cylades and the Aegean in the Third Millenium B. C. Second edition. Oxbow Books, Oxford. RIDLEY, H.L.C. and Wardle, K.A. 1979) Excavations at Servia 1971-1973: a preliminary report. Annuals of British School Athens, 74:185-230. RIEHL, S. (1999) Bronze Age environment and economy in the Troad. The Archaeobotany of Kumtepe and Troy. Dissertation. Bio Archaeologica 2. Mo Vince Press, Tübingen. RIEHL, S. and Nesbitt, M. (2003) Crops and Cultivation in the Iron Age Near East: Change or continuity? In: Identifying changes: the transition from Bronze Age to Iron Ages in Anatolia and its neighbouring regions. Edited by: B.Fischer. pp. 301-312. Proceedings of the International Workshop Istanbul. RIEHL, S. (2006) Plant production in changing environment. The archaeobotanical remains from Tell Mozan. In: Climate and the Agriculture in the Near East (5000-3000 BP), S. Riehl (2008) Schriftliche Habilitationsleistung. Universität Tübingen. RIEHL, S. and Bryson, R. A. (2007) Variability in human adaptation to changing environmental conditions in Upper Mesopotamia during the Early Bronze Age transition. In: Sociétés Humaines et Changement Climatique à la fin du Troisième Millénaire: Une Crise a-t-elle eu lieu en Haute Mésopotamie? Èdités par C. Kuzucuoğlu et C. Marro. Actes du Colleque de Lyon, 5-8 décembre 2005. Institute Français

d’Ètudes Anatoliennes Georges-Dumézil, Istanbul. De Boccard. RIEHL, S. (2008a) Climate and agriculture in the ancient Near East: a synthesis of the archaeobotanical and stable carbon isotope evidence. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17 (Suppl. 1): S43-S51. RIEHL, S. (2008b) Climate and the Agriculture in the Near East (5000-3000 BP). Schriftliche Habilitationsleistung. Universität Tübingen. RIEHL, S., Bryson, R. A. and Pustovoytov, K. (2008) Changing growing conditions for crops during the Near Eastern Bronze Age (3000-1200 B.C.): Stable carbon isotope evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 1011-1022. RIEHL, S. and Marinova, E. (2008) Mid-Holocene vegetation change in the Troad (W Anatolia): man-made or natural? Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17: 297-312. RIEHL, S., Pustovoytov, K. E., Hottchkiss S.and Bryson, R. A. (2009) Local Holocene environmental indicators in Upper Mesopotamia: pedogenic carbonate record vs. archaeobotanical data and archaeoclimatological models. Quaternary International 209: 154-162. RIEHL, S. (2009a) Archaeobotanical evidence for the interrelationship of agricultural decision-making and climate change in the ancient Near East. Quaternary International 197: 93-114. RIEHL, S. (2009b) A cross-disciplinary investigation of causeand effect for the dependence of agro-production on climate change in the ancient Near East. In: Knochen plastern ihren Weg Festschrift für Margarete und Hans-Peter Uerpmann. Edited by: R. de Beauclair, S. Münzel and H. Napierala. BioArchaeologica 5. pp. 217-226. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westfallen. RIEHL, S. (2010) Flourishing agriculture in times of political instability – the archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence from Tell Atchana. Chapter 10. In: Excavations in the plain of Antioch. Tell Atchana, Ancient Alalakh, a Bronze Age capital in the Amuq Valley, Turkey. The 2003-2004 excavation seasons. Edited by: K. A. Yener. pp. 123-136. RIEHL, S. (2014) Changes in crop Production in Anatolia from the neolithic until the end of the early bronze Age. Prehistoric Economics of Anatolia Subsistence Practices and Exchange Proceedings of a Workshop held at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna November 13-14, 2009. Edited by: C. Wawruschka. Internationale Archäologie, Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Symposium, Tagung Kongress, Band 18. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westfallen. RIVERA, D., Obón, C., Innocencio, C., Heinrich, M., Verde, A., Fajardo, J., Llorach, R. (2005) The ethnobotanical study of local Mediterranean food plants as medicinal resources in southern Spain. Journal of Pharmacology and Physiology 56 (suppl.): 97-114. RIVERA, D., Obón, C., Heinrich, M., Innocencio, C., Verde, A. and Fajardo, J. (2006) Gathered Mediterranean food plants -Ethnobotanical investigations and historical development. In: Local Food Plants and Nutraceuticals. Edited by M. Heinrich, W.E. Müller and C. Galli. Vol. 59: 1-17. Forum of Nutrition. Basel, Karger. ROBERTS, N. (1990) Human-induced landscape change in South and Southwest Turkey during the later Holocene. In: Man’s role in the shaping of the eastern Mediterranean landscape. Proceedings of the INQUA/BAI Symposium on the impact of ancient man on the landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean region and the Near East, 1989, Groningen/ Netherlands. Edited by: S. Bottema, G. Entjes-Nieborg and W. Van Zeist. pp. 53-67. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

268

Bibliography ROBERTS, N. and Wright, H.E. (1993) Vegetational, lakelevel, and climatic history of the Near East and Southwest Asia. In: Global Climates since the Last Glacial Maximum. Edited by: H.E. Wright, Jr., J.E. Kutzbach, T. Webb III, W.F. Ruddiman, F.A. Street-Perrott, P.J. Bartlein. University of Minnesota Press, Mineapolis, London. ROBERTS, N., Meadows M. E. and Dodson J R. (2001a) The history of Mediterranean-type environments: climate, culture and landscape. The Holocene 11: 631-634. ROBERTS, N., Reed, J., Leng, M. J., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Fortugne, M., Bertaux, J., Woldring, H., Bottema, S., Black, S. and Hunt, E. (2001b)The Tempo of Holocene climate change in the eastern Mediterranean region: new highresolution crater-lake sediments data from Central Turkey. The Holocene 11: 721-736. ROBERTS, N., Jones, M.D., Benkaddour, A., Eastwood , W.J., Filippi, M.L., Frogley, M.R., Lamb, H.F., Leng, M.J., Reed, J.M., Stein, M., Stevens, L., Valero-Garcés, B. and Zanchetta G. (2008) Stable isotope records of Late Quaternary climate and hydrology from Mediterranean lakes: ISOMED synthesis. Quaternary Science Reviews 27: p. 2426-2441. ROBERTS, N., Eastwood, W.J., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Fiorentino, G. and Caracuta, V. (2011) Climatic, vegetation and cultural change in the eastern Mediterranean during the MidHolocene Environmental transition. The Holocene 21 (1) 147-162. ROBERTS, N. (2011) “Living with a moving target”: long term climatic variability and the environmental risk in dryland regions. In: Sustainable Lifeways, cultural persistence in an ever-changing environment. Edited by: N. F. Miller, K.M. Moore and K. Ryan. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia. ROBINSON, M. and Hubbard, R. N. L. B. 1977. The transport of pollen in the bracts of hulled cereals. Journal of Archaeological Science 4: 197-199. ROBINSON, M. and Straker, V. (1991) Silica skeletons of macroscopic plant remains from ash. In: New light on early farming, recent developments in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: J. M. Renfrew. pp. 3-13. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. ROSENFELD, I. O. and Beath, A. (1964) Selenium, Geobotany, Biochemistry, Toxicity and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York ROSSIGNOL-STRICK, M. 1998. Paléoclimate de la Méditerranée Orientale et de l’Asie du Sud-Ouest de 15.000 à 6000 BP. Paléorient 23(2): 175-186. ROSSIGNOL-STRICK, M. 1999. The Holocene climatic optimum and pollen records of Sapropel 1 in the Eastern Mediterranean, 9000-6000 BP. Quaternary Science Review 18: 515-530. ROUX, J.-P. (1953) La Turquie. Géographie-ÉconomieHistoire-Civilisation et Culture. Payot, Paris. RUSSELL, N. and L. Martin (2005) Çatalhöyük mammal remains. In Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: reports from the 199599 seasons. Çatalhöyük Project: Edited by: I. Hodder. Vol. 4, pp. 33-98. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge. London. RUSSI, P., Cocks, P.S. and Roberts, E.H. (1992) The Fate of Legume Seeds Eaten by Sheep from a Mediterranean Grassland. Journal of Applied Ecology 29 (3): 772-778. RYAN, P. (2011)Plants as material culture in the Near Eastern Neolithic: perspectives from the silica skeleton artefactual remains at Çatalhöyük. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30: 292–305.

SADORI, L., Susanna, F. and Persiani, C.(2006) Archaeobotanical data and crop storage evidence from an Early Bronze Age 2 burnt house at Arslantepe, Malatya, Turkey. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15: 205-215 SAKINÇ, M., Yaltırak, C. and Oktay, F. Y. (1999) Palaeogeographical evolution of the Thrace Neogene basin and the Tethian-Paratethian relations at northwest Turkey (Thrace). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology and Palaeoecology 153: 17-40. SANLAVILLE, P. (1996) Changements climatiques dans la Région Levantine à la fin du Pléistocène Supérieur et au début de l’Holocène. Leurs relations avec l’évolution des sociétés humaines. Paléorient 22/1: 7-30. SANLAVILLE, P. (1998) Les changements dans l’environnement au Moyen-Orient de 20000 BP à 6000 BP. Paléorient 23/2: 249-262. SAZCI, G. (2005) Troia I-III, die maritime und Troia IV-V, die Anatolische Troia-Kultur: eine Untersuchung der Funde und Befunde im mittleren Schliemanngraben (Do7, Do8). Studia Troica 15: 33-98. SCHAMBERGER, R. J. (1980) Evidence for the antimutagenity and the mutagenity of selenium. Biological Trace Element Research 2: 81-87. SCHEIBE, A. (1934) Über Vorkommen und Nutzweise der Wilderbse (Pisum elatius Stev. und der Wildbohne (Vicia narbonensis var. intermedia Strobl.) in Anatolien. Züchter 6: 234-240. SCHLICHTERLE, H. (1977/1978) Vorläufiger Bericht über die archäobotanischen Untersuchungen am Demircihüyük (Nordwestanatolien). In: Demircihüyük. Edited by: M. Korfmann. pp. 45-53. Istanbuler Mitteilungen, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Istanbul. SCHLICHTERLE, H. (1981) Cruciferen als Neolithische Nutzpflanzen. Zeitschrift für Archäologie 15: 113-124. SCHIEMANN, E. (1948) Weizen, Roggen und Gerste. Systematik, Geschichte und Verwendung. Verlag von Gustav Fischer, Jena. SCHOCH, W. H., Pawlik, B. and Schweingruber, F. H. (1988) An Atlas for the determination of frequently encountered and ecologically important plant seeds. Paul Haupt Publishers, Berne and Stuttgart. SCHOOP, U.-D. (2011) The Chalcolithic on the Plateau. In: Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Part II, chronology and geography, Anatolia in prehistory, Chapter 7. Edited by: S. R. Steadman and G. McMahon. pp. 150-174. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. SCHRAUDOLF, H. (1965) Zur Verbreitung von Glucobrassicin und Neoglucobrassicin in höheren Pflanzen. Experientia 21: 520 SCHRAUDOLF, H. (1969) Serotonin und Indolglucosinolate in Tovaria Pendula. Naturwissenschaften 56: 462-463 SCHULTZE-MOTTEL, J. (1986) Rudolf Mansfelds Verzeichnis landwirtschaftlicher und gärtnerischer Kulturpflanzen (ohne Zierpflanzen), Akademischer Verlag, Berlin. SCHWARZ K. and Foltz, C.M. 1957. Selenium as an integral part of factor 3 against dietary necrotic liver degeneration. Journal of American Chemistry Society 79: 3292-3293 SEARS, E.R. (1944) Inviability of intergeneric hybrids involving Triticum monococcum and T. aegilopoides. Genetics 29: 113-127. SEEHER, J. (1987) Demircihüyük III, 1. Die Keramik. A. Neolithische und Chalcolithische Keramik der älteren Phasen (bis Phase G), Philipp von Zabern Verlag, Mainz.

269

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba SEHEER, J. (2000) Die Bronzezeitliche Nekropole von Demircihüyük- Sarıket. Istanbuler Forschungen 44. Wasmuth Verlag, Tübingen. SEEHER, J. and NEEF, R. (2001) Die Ausgrabungen in Boğazköy/Hattuša 2000. Getreide im Silokomplex an der Poternenmauer (Boğazköy)-Erste Aussagen zur Landwirtschaft. Archaeologischer Anzeiger 3: 333-341. SEZİK, E., Yeşilada, E., Honda, G., Yoshihisa, T., Yoshio, T., Toshihiro, T. (2001) Traditional medicine in Turkey X. Folks medicine in Central Anatolia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75: 95-115. SHAHACK-GROSS, R. (2011) Herbivorous livestock dung: formation, taphonomy, methods for identification, and archaeological significance. Journal of Archaeological Science 38: 205-218. SHARP JOUKOWSKY, M. (1986) Prehistoric Aphrodisias. An account of the excavation and artefact studies. Edited by: R. I. Providence. Brown University, center for Old World Archaeology and Art. SINGLETON, V. L. (1994) An enologist’s commentary on ancient wines. In: The origins and history of ancient wine. Edited by: P.E. McGovern, S.J. Fleming and S. H. Katz. pp. 67-77. Gordon and Breach, Philedelphia. SİVAS, H. and Tüfekçi Sivas, T. (2007) Eskişehir, Kütahya, Afyonkarahisar illeri arkeolojik envanteri 2005, TÜBA Kültür Envanteri Dergisi (Journal of Cultural Inventory): 5: 11-35. SLAGERENvan, M.W. (1994) Wild Wheats: A monograph of Aegilops L. and Amblyopyrum (Jaub., &Spach) Eig (Poaceae). Wageningen Agricultural University papers 7. Wageningen, the Netherlands, Landbouwuniversiteit. SOEST van, P.J. (1987) Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. Cornell University Press. SPATARO, G. Taviani, P., and Negri, V. (2007) Genetic variation and population structure in a Eurasian collection of Isatis tinctoria L. Genetic ressources and Crop Evolution 54: 573-584. STAHL, A. B. (1989) Plant-food processing: implications for dietary quality. In: Foraging and farming, the evolution of plant exploitation. Edited by: D.R. Harris & G. C. Hillman. pp. 171-186. Unwin Hyman Press, London. STAUBWASSER, M., Sirocko, F., Grootes, P. M. and Segl, M. (2003) Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus Valley civilization and the Holocene south Asian monsoon variability, Geophysical Research Letters 30 (8): 4. STAUBWASSER, M. and Weiss, H. (2006) Holocene climate and cultural evolution in the late prehistoric-early historic West Asia. Quaternary Research 66: 372-387. STEADMAN, S. R. (2011) The Early Bronze Age on the plateau. In: Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Part II, chronology and geography, Early Bronze Age, Chapter 10. Edited by: S. R. Steadman and G. McMahon. pp. 229-260. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. STEVENS, C. J. (2003) An investigation of agricultural consumption and production: models for prehistoric and Roman Britain. Environmental Archaeology 8: 61–76. STEVENS, L. R., Ito L., Schwalb A. and Wright H. E. (2006) Timing of atmospheric precipitation in the Zagros Mountains inferred from a multi-proxy record from Lake Mirabad, Iran. Quaternary Research 66: 494-500. STORL, W.-D. (2000) Götterpflanze Bilsenkraut. Nachtschattengewächse – eine faszinierende Pflanzenfamilie, Solothurn.

STUCKENRATH, R. Jr., Coe, W.R. and Ralph, E. K. (1966) University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Date IX. Radiocarbon 8: 348-385. SZABÓ A. T. and HAMMER, K. (1996) Notes on the taxonomy of farro: Triticum monococcum , T. dicoccon and T. spelta. In: Hulled wheats. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. pp. 41-100. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. ŞAHİN, F. (2013) Küllüoba OTÇ’ye Geçiş Dönemi mimarisi. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Istanbul, Department of Prehistory and Protohistory, Istanbul. ŞAHOĞLU, V. (2005) The Anatolian trade network and the Izmir region during the Early Bronze Age. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 24 (4): 339-361. ŞENGÖR, A. M. C. and Yılmaz, Y. (1980) Tethyan evolution of Turkey: A plate tectonic approach. Tectonophysics 75: 181-241. TANER SARACOĞLU, H., Zengin, G., Akın, M. and Aktümsek, A. (2012) A comparative study on the fatty acid composition of the oils from five Bupleurum species collected from Turkey. Turkish Journal of Biology 36: 527532. TOLL, M. S. (1989) Flotation sampling: problems and some solutions, with examples from the American Southwest. In: Current Paleoethnobotany. Edited by: C.A. Hastorf and V. S. Popper. pp. 36-52. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. TANNO, K. and Willcox, G. (2006 a) How fast was wild wheat domesticated? Science 311: 1886. TANNO, K. and Willcox, G. (2006 b) The origins of cultivation of Cicer arietinum L. and Vicia faba L. early finds from Tell el-Kerkh, north-west Syria, late 10th millennium B.P. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15:197-204. THELLUNG, A. (1930) Die Entstehung der Kulturpflanzen. Herausgegeben von J. Braun-Blanquet. Friesing, München. THOMSEN, C.D., Williams, W.A., Vayssieres, M. Bell, F.L. and George M.R. (1993) Controlled grazing on annual grassland decreases yellow star thistle. California Agriculture 47(6): 36-40. TOPBAŞ, A. (1992) Kütahya Seyitömer Höyüğü 1990 Yılı kurtarma kazısı. 2. Müze kurtarma Kazıları seminerleri 1991: 11-34. TOPBAŞ, A. (1994) Kütahya Seyitömer Höyüğü 1992 Yılı kurtarma kazısı. 4. Müze kurtarma Kazıları seminerleri 1993: 297-310. TUGBY, D. J. (1969) Archaeology and statistics. Science in archaeology, edited by: D. Brothwell, Thames & Hudson, London. TUMANJAN, M.G. (1935) Die wildwachsenden Verwandten der kultivierten Weizen in Armenien. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenzüchtung. 20: 352.363. TUNÇDİLEK, N. (1952-1953) Yukari Sakarya vadisinin ziraat hayatina dair bazi notlar. Istanbul Üniversitesi Cografya Enstitüsü Dergisi 05-06: 156-168. TÜRE, C. and Böcük, H. (2007) An investigation on the diversity, distribution and conversation of Poaceae species growing naturally in Eskişehir province (Central AnatoliaTurkey) Pakistan Journal of Botany 39 (4): 1055-1070. TÜRKTEKI, M. 2009. Küllüoba Kazı Çalışmaları-2009. Türk Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Haberler. UCKO, P., DIMBLEBY, G. (2007) The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. proceedings of a meeting of the Research Seminar in Archaeology and Related Subjects. Edited by Peter J. Ucko and G. Dimbleby. London.

270

Bibliography UERPMANN, H.-P., Köhler, K. and Stephan, E. (1992) Tierreste aus den neuen Grabungen in Troia (1989-1999). Studia Troica 10: 145-179. UERPMANN, M. and Van NEER, W. (2000) Fishreste aus den neuen Grabungen in Troia (1989-1999). Studia Troica 10: 145-179. UERPMANN, H.-P. (2003) Environmental aspects of economic changes in Troia. In: Troia and the Troad. Scientific Approaches. Edited by: G.A. Wagner, E. Pernicka, H.-P. Uerpmann. Springer Verlag. USHER, G. (1974) A dictionary of plants used by man. Constable, London. VALAMOTI, S. M. (2003) Neolithic and Early Bronze Age “food” from northern Greece: The archaeobotanical evidence. In: Food, Culture and Identity in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Edited by: M. P. Pearson, BAR International Series 1117: 97-112. VALAMOTI, S. M. (2004) Plants and People in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Northern Greece. An archaeobotanical investigation. BAR International series 1258. VALAMOTI, S. M. and Charles, M. (2005) Distinguishing food from fodder through the study of charred plant remains: an experimental approach to dung-derived chaff. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14(4): 528-533. VALAMOTI, S. M. (2009) Plant food ingredients and ‘recipes’ from Prehistoric Greece: the archaeobotanical evidence. In: Plants and culture: seeds of the cultural heritage of Europe. Edited by: J.P. Morel and A.M. Mercuri. pp. 25-38. Centro Europeo per i Beni Culturali Ravello, Edipuglia Bari. VALAMOTI, S. M. (2011a) Flax in Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece: archaeobotanical evidence. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20: 549-560. VALAMOTI, S. M. (2011b) Ground cereal food preparations from Greece: the prehistory and modern survival of traditional Mediterranean ‘fast foods’.Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 3 (1): 19-39. VALAMOTI, S. M., Moniaki, A. and Karathanou, A. (2011c) An investigation of processing and consumption of pulses among prehistoric societies: archaeobotanical, experimental and ethnographic evidence from Greece. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20: 381-396. VALAMOTI, S. M. (2013) Plant food processing and ground stone equipment in prehistoric Greece: An experimental investigation using seeds of einkorn and grass-pea. In: Regards croisés sur les outils liés au travail des végétaux. An interdisciplinary focus on plant-working tools. XXXIIIe rencontres internationales d’archéologie et d’histoire d’Antibes. Edited by : P. C. Anderson, C. Cheval and A. Durand. Éditions APDCA, Antibes. VALLEGA, V. (1996) The quality of Triticum monococcum L., in perspective. In: Hulled wheat. Promoting the conservation and the use of underutilised and neglected crops 4. pp. 171-177. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats, Castelveccio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy1995. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. VAVILOV, N. I. (1992) Origin and Geography of he cultivated plants (translated in English). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. VEEN, M. van der and Fieller, N. (1982) Sampling seeds. Journal of Archaeological Science 9: 287-298. VEEN, M. van der (1983) Sampling for seeds. In: Plants and Ancient Man, Studies in Palaeoethnobotany. Edited by: W.

Van Zeist & W. A. Casparie. pp. 193-200. A. A. Balkema/ Rotterdam, Netherlands. VEEN, M. van der (1992) Crop Husbandry Regimes. An archaeobotanical study of farming in northern England, 1000 B.C.- A.D. 500. Sheffield Archaeological Monographs 3. VEEN, M. van der (2005) Gardens and fields: the intensity and scale of food production, World Archaeology 37 (2): 157-163. VEEN, M. van der and Jones, G. (2006) A re-analysis of agricultural production and consumption: Implications for understanding the British Iron Age. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15 (3): 217-228. VEEN, M. van der (2007) Formation processes of desiccated and carbonised plant remains - the identification of routine practice. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 968-990. VOGL, S., Picker P., Mihaly-Bison, J., Fakhrudin, N., Atanasov, A. G., Heiss E. H., Wawrosch, C., Reznicek, G., Dirsch, V. M., Saukel, J. and Kopp, B. (2013) Ethnopharmacological in vitro studies on Austria’s folk medicine - An unexplored lore in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of 71 Austrian traditional herbal drugs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. doi:pii: S0378-8741(13)00410-8. 10.1016/j.jep.2013.06.007. PubMed PMID: 23770053. WALTER, H. (1956) Das Problem der zentralanatolischen Steppe. Die Naturwissenschaften 43 (5): 97-102. WARWICK, S. I., Francis A. and Al-Shehbaz, I. A. (2006). Brassicaceae: Species checklist and database on CD-Rom, Plant Systematics and Evolution 259: 249-258. WARWICK, S. I., Sauder, C.A., Al-Shehbaz I. A. and Jacquemond, F. (2007) Phylogenetic relationships in the tribes Anchonieae, Chorisporeae, Euclideae and Hesperideae (Brassicaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal ITS DNA sequences. Annual of Missouri Botanical Garden 94: 56-78. WAGNER, G. E. (1989) Comparability among recovery techniques. In: Current Paleoethnobotany. Edited by: C.A. Hastorf and V. S. Popper. pp. 17-35. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. WAGNER, G. A. and Lorenz, I. B. (1992) ThermolumineszenzDattierungen an Keramik von Beşik-Yassıtepe. Studia Troica 2: 147-156. WAINES, J.G. (1996) molecular characterisation of einkorn wheat. In: Hulled wheat. Promoting the conservation and the use of underutilised and neglected crops 4. pp. 171177. Edited by: S. Padulosi, K. Hammer and J. Heller. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats, Castelveccio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy1995. International Plant Genetic Ressources Institute, Rome. WALLACE, M. and Charles, M. (2013) What goes in does not always come out: The impact of the ruminant digestive system of sheep on plant material, and its importance for the interpretation of dung-derived archaeobotanical assemblages. Journal of Environmental Archaeology 18 (1): 18-30. WALTER, H. (1955) Das Problem der Zentralanatolischen Steppe. Die Naturwissenschaften 5:97-102. WASYLIKOWA, K. (1981) The Role of Fossil Weeds for the Study of Former Agriculture. Zeitschrift für Archäologie 15: 11-23. WEICKMANN, L. (1961) Some characteristics of the subtropical jet stream in the Middle East and adjacent regions. Meteorological Yearbook, Iran, 1957. In: WIGLEY, T. M. L. and FARMER, G. 1982. In: Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the

271

Archaeobotanical investigations at EBA Küllüoba WILLCOX, G., Fornite, S. and Herveux, L.(2008) Early Holocene Cultivation before Domestication in Northern Syria. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17: 313-25. WILLCOX, G. Buxo, R.and Herveux. L.(2009) Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Climate and the Beginnings of Cultivation in Northern Syria. Holocene 19 (1): 151-58. WILLCOX, G. (2012) Searching for the origins of arable weeds in the Near East. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 21: 163-167. WILLERDING, U. (1983) Paläo-Ethnobotanik und Ökologie. Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie 11: 489-503. WILLERDING, U. (1988) Zur Entwicklung von Ackerunkrautgesellschaften im Zeitraum vom Neolithikum bis in die Neuzeit. In: der Prähistorische Mensch und seine Umwelt. Festschrift für Udelgard Körber-Grohne zum 65. Geburtstag . Edited by: H. Küster. pp. 31-41. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in BadenWürttenberg 31, Stuttgart. WILLIAMS,B. G. (2001) The Crimean Tatars. The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation. E. J. Brill, Leiden. WISSKIRCHEN, R., Haeupler, H. 1998. Standardliste der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen Deutschlands. Herausgegeben von Bundesamt für Naturschutz. Verlag Eugen Ulmer. WOLDRING, H. and Cappers, R. J. T. (2001) The origin of the ‘wild orchards’ of Central Anatolia. Turkish Journal of Botany 25: 1-9. WRIGHT, P. (2003) Preservation or destruction of plant remains by carbonisation? Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 577-583. YAKAR, N. (2004) Renkli Türkiye Bitkileri Atlası. Edited by: O. Küçüker. İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Biyoloji Bölümü Botanik Ana Bilim Dalı. Büke Kitapları, İstanbul. YAKAR, Y. (1985) The Later Prehistory of Anatolia. The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. BAR International Series 268 (i). Oxford. YAKAR, Y. (1985) The Later Prehistory of Anatolia. The Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. BAR International Series 268 (ii). Oxford. YAKAR, Y. (1994) Prehistoric Anatolia: the Neolithic transformation and the Early Chalcolithic Period. Supplement No. 1. Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University No. 9 A, Tel Aviv. YAKAR, Y. (2000) Ethnoarchaeology of Anatolia. Rural socio-economy in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Institute of Archaeology of Tell Aviv University. Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology, Graphit Press, Jerusalem. YAKAR, Y. (2002) Towards an absolute chronology for the Middle and Late Bronze Age Anatolia. Anadolu Araştırmaları 16:557-570. YAKAR, Y. (2011) Anatolian chronology and terminology. In: Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Chapter 4. Edited by: S. R. Steadman and G. McMahon. pp. 57-93. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. YALTIRAK, C. (2002) Tectonic evolution of the Marmara Sea and its surroundings. Marine Geology 190: 493-529. YAZICIOĞLU, T., Karaali, A., Gökçen, J. (1978) Cephalaria syriaca seed oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 55: 412-415. YEŞİLADA, E., Sezik, E., Honda, G., Takaishi, Y., Takeda, Y. and Tanaka, T. (1999) Traditional medicine in Turkey IX: Folks medicine in north-west Anatolia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 64: 195-210. YILDIRMLI, Ş. (2008) The genus Erysimum L. (Brassicaceae) in Turkey, some new taxa, records a synopsis and a key, Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 15:1-80.

Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory. Edited by: J. L. Binliff and W. Van Zeist. BAR International series 133 (i): 3-40. Oxford. WEISS H., Courty M-A., Wetterstraom W., Guichard, F., Senior, L., Meadow, R., Curnow, A. (1993) The genesis and the collapse of the third Millennium North Mesopotamian civilisation. Science 261: 995-1004. WEISS H. (1997) Late third millennium abrupt climate change and social collapse in West Asia and Egypt. In: Third Millennium B.C. Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Edited by: N. Dalfes, G. Kukla and H. Weiss. NATO ASI Series I: Global Environmental Change, Vol: 49. Springer Verlag. WEISS, E. A. (2000) Oil seed crops. Blackwell, Oxford. WESTHOFF, V. and van der Maarel, E. (1973) The Braun and Blanquet approach (pp.617-726). In: Ordination and Classification of the Communities. Handbook of Vegetation Science, IV. Edited by R.H. Whittaker. Junk Publishers, The Hague. WHEELER, T. (1974) Early Bronze Age burial customs in western Anatolia. American Journal of Archaeology 78: 415-425. WICK, L., LEMCKE, G. and STURM, M. (2003). Evidence of Late Glacial and Holocene climatic change and human impact in eastern Anatolia: high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic and geochemical records from the laminated sediments of Lake Van, Turkey. The Holocene 13: 665-675. WIEGAND, G. (1970) Zur Entstehung der Oberflächenformen in der westlichen und zentralen Türkei. Zurgleich ein Beitrag zur Hangentwicklung und Pediplanation. Würzburger Geographische Arbeiten. Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft Würzburg. WIGLEY, T. M. L., FARMER, G. (1982) Climate of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East. In: Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory. Edited by: J. L. Binliff and W. Van Zeist. BAR International series 133 (i): 3-40. Oxford. WILKINSON, T. J. (1989) Extensive sherd scatters and the land-use intensity: some recent results. Journal of Field Archaeology 16: 31-46. WILKINSON, T. J. (1999) Holocene valley fills of southern Turkey and Northwest Syria: Recent geoarchaeological contributions. Quaternary Science Reviews 18: 555-572. WILKINSON, T. J. (2003) Archaeological landscapes of the Near East. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson. WILLCOX, G. (1998) Archaeobotanical evidence for the beginnings of agriculture in Southwest Asia. In: The origins of agriculture and crop domestication. Edited by: A. B. Damania, J. Valcoun, G. Willcox and C. O. Qualset. Report of the Genetic Resources Conservation program 21. International Center for Agricultural Research in the dry areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, pp. 25-38. WILLCOX, G. (1999) Agrarian change and the beginnings of cultivation in the Near East: evidence from wild progenitors, experimental cultivation and archaeobotanical data. In: The Prehistory of food Appetites for a change. Edited by C. Gosten and J. Hather. pp. 478-500. One World Archaeology 32. Routledge, London, New York. WILLCOX, G. (2001) La naissance de l’agriculture au ProcheOrient In: Histoire d’Hommes. Histoire de plantes. pp. 79-104. Edited by P. Marinval. Montagnac. WILLCOX, G. (2002) Charred plant remains from a 10th Millennium B.P. kitchen at Jerf el Ahmar (Syria). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11: 55-60.

272

Bibliography YÜCE, G.and UğurluoğluYasin, D. (2012) Assessment of an Increase in Boron and Arsenic Concentrations at the Discharge Area of Na-Borate Mine (Kırka-Eskişehir, Turkey). Terrestrial Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences 23 (6): 703-723. ZEDER, M.A. (1991) Feeding cities: specialized animal economy in the ancient Near East. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. ZEDER, M.A. (1998) Pigs and emergent complexity in the ancient Near East. In: Ancestors for the pig: pigs in prehistory. Edited by S. M. Nelson. MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology. Philadelphia. MASCA University Museum. ZEIST , W. van, Timmers, R. W. and Bottema, S. (1968) Studies of modern and Holocene pollen precipitation in south eastern Turkey. Palaeohistoria 14: 19-39. ZEIST, W. van, Woldring, H. and Stapert, D. (1975) Late Quaternary Vegetation and climate of South-western Turkey. Palaeohistoria 17: 53-143. ZEIST, W. van (1976) On macroscopic traces of food plants in south-western Asia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences275: 27-41. ZEIST, W. van and BOTTEMA, S. (1982) Vegetational history of the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East during the last 20.000 years. In: Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory. Edited by: J. L. Binliff and W. Van Zeist. BAR International series 133 (ii). p: 277-321. Oxford. ZEIST, W. van and Bakker-Heeres, J. A. H. (1982) Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant 1. Neolithic sites in the Damascus basin: Aswad, Ghoraifé, Ramad. Palaeohistoria, 24: 165-256. ZEIST, W. van (1984b) Pulses and oil crop plants. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, Vol. II: 33-37. Cambridge. U.K. ZEIST, W. van and Bakker-Heeres, J. A. H. (1985) Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant 4. Bronze Age sites on the north Syrian Euphrates. Palaeohistoria, 27: 247-316. ZEIST, W. van (1988) Some aspects of early plant husbandry in the Near East. Anatolica, 15: 50-67. ZEIST, W. van and BOTTEMA, S. (1991) Late Quaternary vegetation of the Near East. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Reihe A. Nr. 18. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden. ZEIST, W. van and Waterbolk-van Rooijen, W. (1996) The cultivated and wild plants. In: Tell Sabi Abyad. The Late Neolithic settlement. II Report on the excavations of the University of Amsterdam (1988) and the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden (1991-1993) in Syria. Edited by: P.M. M. G. Akkermann. pp: 521-550. Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologische Instituut te Istanbul, Istanbul. ZHAO, C., Deng, X., Shan, L., Steudle, E., Zhang, S.and Ye, Q. (2005) Changes in root hydraulic conductivity during wheat evolution. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 47: 302-310. ZOHARY, D. (1973) The origin of cultivated cereals and pulses in the Near East. Chromosomes today 4: 307-320. ZOHARY, D. and HOPF, M. (1973) Domestication of the pulses in the Old World. Legumes were companions of wheat and barley when agriculture began in the Near East. Science, 182: 887-894. ZOHARY, D. and SPIEGEL-ROY, P. (1975) Beginnings of fruit growing in the Old World. Olive, grape, date and fig as important Bronze Age additions to grain agriculture in the Near East. Science, 187: 319-327.

ZOHARY, D. and HOPF, M. (2000) Domestication of plants in the Old World. The origin and spread of cultivated plants in West Asia, Europe and the Nile Valley. (third edition) Oxford University Press. ZOHARY, D., Hopf, M. and Weiss, E. (2012) Domestication of plants in the Old World. The origin and spread of domesticated plants in south- west Asia, Europe and the Mediterranean Basin (extended fourth edition) Oxford University Press.

ar

ch

273

y

an

t o bo

ae