Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries 1979: The Fourth Anglo-Saxon Symposium at Oxford 9780860540953, 9781407323558

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Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries 1979 The Fourth Anglo-Saxon Symposium at Oxford Edited by

Philip Rahtz, Tania Dickinson and Lorna Watts

BAR British Series 8 2 1980

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE �TERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands ! B.Sc., �I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :\I.A.

E. A. R. 82, 1980: "Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries, 1979" ©The Individual Authors The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540953 paperback ISBN 9781407323558 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540953 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

ANGLO-SAXON CE METER IES 1 979 The F our th Ang lo-Saxon S y mposiu m a t O xford e di ted b y P h i lip R ah tz , T an ia D ickinson , a nd L orna Wa t ts w i th c on tr ibut ions b y :

C hr is Arno ld Andrew B odding ton R ichard B radley

R oger Mike t

L awrence B ut ler

Do min ic P ow les land

B ob C hap man

E l len-Jane P ader

Tania D ick inson

G lenys P utna m

B ruce E ag les

P h i lip R ah tz

V era E v ison

Warw ick R odwe ll

Va lerie F enw ick J a mes Graha m-Ca mpbe l l S usan H irst

K e i th J arv is R ichard J ones

Mark B risbane

C a ther ine H i l ls

I an H odder E dward J a mes

Hayo V ierck Mar tin We lch L eonard Wi lkinson

The S y mpos iu m was h e ld u nder t he a usp ices o f t he Depar t men t o f E xterna l S tudies o f t he U n ivers i ty o f O xford

CONTENTS

P age L ist o f C on tr ibutors

v i

L is t o f F igures L ist o f Tab les

x i i i

EDITOR IAL PREFACE :

P h i lip Rah tz a nd Tan ia D ick inson

S ECTION A : 1 .

T . D ickinson

S urvey o f S ub jec t

The P resen t S ta te o f A ng lo-Saxon C e me tery S tudies

2 .

E . J a mes

1

Merovingian C e me tery S tudies , a nd S o me Imp lica t ions f or Ang lo-Saxon E ng land

S ECTION B : 3 .

R . C hap man

C . Arno ld

Dea th , C u lture a nd S oc iety :

aP reh istor ian 's 5 9

Wea lth a nd S oc ia l S truc ture :

a Ma t ter o f

L ife a nd Death 5 .

E . P ader

8 1

Ma teria l S y mbo lis m a nd S oc ia l Re la t ions i n Mortuary S tudies

6 .

I . H odder

1 43

S oc ia l S truc ture a nd C e me ter ies :

aC ri t ica l

Appra isa l 7 .

R . B rad ley

1 61

A ng lo-Saxon C e meter ies :

S o me S uggest ions 1 71

f or R esearch S ECTION C : 8 .

R . J ones

Methodo logy a nd T echn iques

C o mputers a nd C e meter ies :

O pportunit ies

a nd L im i ta t ions 9 .

C . H i l ls

1 79

A ng lo-Saxon C re ma t ion C e meter ies , w i th p art icu lar r eference t o S pong H i ll , N orfo lk

1 0 .

M . B risbane

1 1 .

G . P utna m

1 2 .

L . Wi lk inson

3 5

Theoret ica l A pproaches a nd App lica t ions

P erspec t ive 4 .

3

Ang lo-Saxon B ur ia ls :

1 97

P o t tery , Product ion a nd

S oc ia l S ta tus

2 09

S pong H i l l C re ma t ions

2 17

P rob le ms o f Ana lysis a nd I n terpre ta t ion o f S ke le ta l Re ma ins iv

2 21

P age 1 3 .

D .

P ow les land

1 4 .

S . H irst

T he E xcava tion o f I nhu ma t ion B ur ia ls S o me A spec ts o f t he Ana lysis a nd P ub lica t ion o f a n I nhu ma t ion C e me tery S ECT ION D :

M . We lch

T he S axon C e me ter ies o f S ussex

1 6 .

B .

A ng lo-Saxons i n L indsey a nd t he E as t R iding o f Y orksh ire i n t he F if th C en tury

1 7 .

R . Mike t

K . J arv is

2 55

2 85

AR e-s ta te men t o f E v idence f or B ern ic ian 2 89

A ng lo-Saxon B ur ia ls 1 8 .

2 39

Area a nd S i te S tud ies

1 5 .

E ag les

2 33

A n Ang lo-Saxon C e me tery a t B arga tes , 3 07

C hr istchurch , Dorse t S ECTION E :

S utton H oo

1 9 .

P . Rah tz

S ut ton H oo O p inions —For ty Y ears A f ter

3 13

2 0 .

W. Rodwe l l

C o m men t

3 27

2 1 .

V .

C o m men t

3 31

2 2 .

H . V ierck

C o m men t

3 35

2 3 .

H . V ierck

The C re ma t ion i n t he S h ip a t S ut ton H oo :

F enw ick

aP os tscr ip t

3 43

2 3 .bis V . E v ison

T he S u t ton H oo C of f in

3 57

2 4 .

The S ut ton H oo P urse :

M .

S pra t ling

Ana lysing t he

We igh ts o f i t s C ontents S ECTION F : 2 5 .

A . B odding ton

L a ter C e me ter ies

A C hr ist ian Ang lo-Saxon Graveyard a t Raunds , N ortha mp tonsh ire

2 6 .

2 7 .

3 63

J . Graha m-

The S candinav ian V ik ing-Age B uria ls o f

C a mpbe l l

E ng land —so me P rob le ms o f I n terpreta t ion

L . B ut ler

The C hurchyard i n E as tern E ng land, A D 9 00-1100 :

s o me L ines o f Deve lop men t

3 73

3 79

3 83

L IST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dr C hr is Arno ld , L ec turer i n t he Depart men t o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f L eeds Andrew B odding ton , Archaeo logy U n i t , N ortha mptonsh ire C oun ty C ounc i l R ichard B radley , L ec turer i n t he Depart men t o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f R eading Mark B r isbane , A ss istan t Keeper o f Archaeo logy S outha mp ton C i ty Museu ms Dr L awrence B ut ler , S en ior L ec turer i n t he Departmen t o f A rchaeo logy , U nivers i ty o f L eeds Dr B ob C hap man , L ec turer i n t he Depar t men t o f Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f R eading Dr Tan ia D ickinson , L ec turer i n t he Depart men t o f Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f Y ork Vera E v ison , P rofessor o f Ang lo-Saxon Archaeo logy , B irkbeck C o l lege , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon Dr B ruce E ag les , Roya l C omm iss ion o n H istorica l Monu men ts , S a lisbury Va ler ie F enw ick , L ec turer a t T uf ts U n iversi ty , Mass . , USA J a mes G raha m-Ca mpbe l l , L ec turer i n t he Depart ment o f H istory ( Medieva l Archaeo logy ) , U n iversi ty C o l lege L ondon Dr C a ther ine H i l ls , Ass istan t L ecturer i n t he Depart men t o f A rchaeo logy , U nivers i ty o f C a mbr idge S usan H irst , Research S tudent , B irkbeck C o l lege , U nivers i ty o f L ondon Dr I an H odder , Ass is tan t L ec turer i n t he Depart ment o f Archaeo logy , U niversi ty o f C a mbr idge Dr E dward J a mes , L ec turer i n t he Depart men t o f H istory , U n ivers ity o f Y ork Ke i th J arv is , P oo le Museu ms Archaeo log ica l U ni t , B orough o f P oo le

v i

D r R ichard J ones , L ec turer i n t he S choo l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c iences , U n ivers i ty o f B radford R oger Mike t , K eeper o f A rchaeo logy , Tyne a nd Wear C oun ty C ounc i l , S ou th S h ie lds E l len-Jane P ader , R esearch S tuden t i n t he D epar t men t o f Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f C a mbr idge D om inic P ow les land , R esearch S tuden t i n t he D epar t men t o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f Manchester G lenys P u tnam , R esearch S tuden t i n t he D epar t men t o f A rchaeo log y , U n iversi ty o f C a mbr idge P h i l ip Rah tz , P rofessor o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f Y ork D r Warw ick R od w e l l , D irec tor , C . R . A . A . G . S . ,B r is to l D r Manse l S pra t ling , L ec turer i n t he D epar t men t o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f L eeds D r Hayo V ierck , I ns t itut f t ir U r- u nd F rühgesch ich te , MUns ter D r Martin We lch , L ec turer i n t he D epar t men t o f H istory ( Medieva l Archaeo logy ) U nivers i ty C o l lege , L ondon D r L eonard Wi lkinson , S en ior L ecturer i n t he D epar t men t o f A na to my , U n ivers i ty C o l lege , C ardif f

•

v i i

L IST OF F IGURES

Page S ec t ion A 1 : T . D ick inson 1 .1

D iscovery o f b ur ia l s i tes i n U pper Thames

1 5

1 .2

U pper Tha mes b ur ia l s i tes :

e ar ly f i f th c en tury

2 4

1 .3

U pper Tha mes b ur ia l s i tes :

f i f th c entury

2 5

1 .4

U pper T ha mes b ur ia l s i tes :

s ixth c entury

2 6

1 .5

U pper T ha mes b ur ia l s i tes :

s ize a nd d a t ing

2 7

S ec t ion B 4 : 4 .1

C . A rno ld

T rend s urface map o f p agan A ng lo-Saxon g raves b y g r id g enera l isa t ion . L owest c on tour 5 0 p er 2 5 s q km , t hereaf ter a t 1 00 , 2 00 , e tc

4 .2

8 3

C hrono log ica l a nd g eograph ica l d istr ibut ion o fb a t t les r ecorded i n t he A ng lo-Saxon C hronic le AD 4 50-700 ( b lack d o ts r epresen t t he a ggressor )

4 .3

G raphs s how ing weapon c o mb ina t ions .

8 5 1 L yminge ;

2 B ifrons ; 3 K ings ton ; 4 G i lton; 5 S arre ; 6 P o lh i l l; 7 C hesse l l D own; 8 A lfr is ton ( f or k ey s ee T able 4 .1) 4 .4

G raphs s how ing w eapon c o mb ina t ions .

8 8

1 A b ingdon ;

2 L ong Wi t tenha m ; 3 B erinsf ie ld; 4 Whea t ley ; 5 P e tersf inger ; 6 H arnham H i l l; 8 B lackpa tch

7 Wor thy P ark ;

( f or k ey s ee T ab le 4 .1)

4 .5

Map s how ing d istr ibu t ion o f b a lances i n E ng land

4 .6

Maps s how ing d is tr ibut ion o f u n moun ted g o ld c o in i n t he B r i t ish I s les AD 5 95-625 ( l ef t ) a nd AD 6 25-675 ( r igh t )

4 .7

9 8

1 00

N u mbered e le men ts o fg rea t s quare h eaded b rooches o f ' Chesse l l D own ' t ype

4 .11

9 7

G raph s how ing f a l l-of f i n d is tr ibut ion o f d isc b rooches f ro m h ypo the t ica l s ource a t C an terbury

4 .10

9 3

T rend s urface d iagram o f r a t io o f amber b eads p er g rave i n s ou thern E ng land b y g r id g enera l isa t ion

4 .9

9 2

T rend s urface d iagra m o f a bso lu te d is tr ibu t ion o f amber b eads i n s ou thern E ng land b y g r id g enera l isa t ion

4 .8

8 9

1 02

D is tr ibu t ion o fg rea t s quare h eaded b rooches o f ' Chesse l l D own ' t ype

1 04

v i i i

Page 4 .12

D istr ibut ion o f s quare h eaded b rooches w ith i n la id g arne ts

4 .13

L y minge :

1 05 g raphs s how ing d istr ibu t ion o f wea lth

1 wea lth s cores , 2 ma le , 5 ma le , 4 .14

1 12

wea lth s cores;

2 ,4 N o o f t ypes )

2 ,4 N o o f t ypes)

1 wea lth s cores , 2 ma le , 3 f e ma le ;

1 wea lth s cores ,

2 ma le ,

3 f e ma le ;

4 N o o f t ypes ,

6 f e ma le

1 wea lth s cores ,

18

2 ma le ,

3 f e ma le ;

4 N o o f t ypes , 19

6 f e ma le

L ong Wi t tenha m I , g raphs s how ing d is tr ibut ion o f wea lth 1 wea lth s cores , 5 ma le

4 .2 0

15

B erinsf ie ld , g raphs s how ing d istr ibut ion o f wea lth 5 ma le ,

4 .19

4 N o o f t ypes ,

6 f e ma le

A bingdon , g raphs s how ing d istr ibut ion o f wea lth 5 ma le ,

4 .18

14

P o lh i l l , g raphs s how ing d istr ibut ion o f wea lth 5 ma le ,

4 .17

1 13

K ingston ( 1 -2 ) a nd G i lton ( 3-4 ) , d is tr ibut ion o f wea lth ( 1 ,3 wea lth s cores;

4 .16

4 N o o f t ypes ,

S arre ( 1 -2 ) a nd B ifrons ( 3-4 ) , d istribut ion o f wea lth ( 1 ,3

4 .15

3 f e ma le;

6 f e ma le

2 ma les ,

3f e ma le; 4 N o o f t ypes , 1 21

6 f e ma le

H arnha m H i l l ( 1-2 ) a nd Whea t ley ( 3 -4 ) , g raphs s how ing d istr ibut ion o f wea lth ( 1 ,3 wea l th s cores , 2 ,4

4 .2 1

5 ma le ,

o f t ypes , 1 24

2 ma le ,

3 f e ma le ;

4 N o o f t ypes ,

6 f e ma le

1 26

Wor thy P ark , g raphs s howing d istr ibu t ion o f wea lth 1wea lth s cores , 5 ma le ,

2 ma le .

3 f e ma le;

4 N o o f t ypes ,

6 f e ma le

1 27

Winna l l , g raphs s how ing d is tr ibut ion o f wea lth 1 wea lth s cores , 5 ma le ,

4 .25

3 f e ma le; 4 N o

B lackpa tch , g raphs s how ing d is tribut ion o f wea lth 5 ma le ,

4 .24

2 ma les ,

6f e ma le

1 wea lth s cores ,

4 .2 3

1 22

P e tersf inger , g raphs s howing d istr ibu t ion o f wea lth 1 wea lth s cores ,

4 .2 2

N o o f t ypes )

2 ma le ,

3 f e ma le ;

4 N o o f t ypes ,

6 f e ma le

1 28

C hesse l l D own ( 1-2 ) a nd A lfr iston ( 3-4 ) , g raphs s how ing d istr ibut ion o f wea lth ( 1 ,3

wea lth s cores;

t ypes

2 ,4

N o o f 1 30

i x

Page 5 : 5 .1

E . P ader

Kayapo I nd ians o f C entra l B raz i l :

ma ter ia l c u lture

markers r e la t ing t o a ge a nd s ex r e la t ions ( af ter T urner )

1 46

5 .2

P lan o f P o lywe l l R ow c e metery ( af ter L e thbridge 1 931)

1 48

5 .3-5

Ho lywe l l R ow :

1 51

5 .6a

A du lt ma les :

f e ma le a nd ma le g raves s pa t ia l d istr ibut ion b y a r tefac t c lass;

p r inc ipa l c o-ordina te a na lyses 5 .6 b

A du lt f e ma les :

s pa t ia l d istr ibut ion b y s ke leta l a nd

a rtefac t p osi t ioning ; p rinc ipa l c o-ordina te a na lyses 5 .6c

A du lt ma les :

1 54

s pa t ia l d istr ibut ion b y a r tefac t c lass;

p rinc ipa l c o-ordina te a na lyses S ec t ion C 8 :

1 53

1 54

R . J ones

8 .1

B licquy :

r a te o fp ar t i t ioning i n to c lUsters

18 5

8 .2

B l icquy :

d istr ibu t ion o f d a ted g raves

1 87

8 .3

B licquy :

d is tr ibut ion o f c lusters

1 89

8 .4

B licquy :

p er iods d iv ided b y c luster

1 90

8 .5

S e t if : 9 :

d istr ibut ion o f c lus ters o f i nhu ma t ions

1 92

C . H i l ls

9 .1

S pong H i l l :

d istr ibut ion o f f if th-century b rooch t ypes

2 01

9 .2

S pong H i ll :

d istr ibu tions o f s o me s ta mplinked p o t g roups

2 05

1 0 : 1 0 . 1

M . B risbane

S pong H i l l : 1 1 :

t ab le o f s e lec ted u rn f abr ics

2 11

G . P utna m

1 1 . 1

S pong H i l l :

c re ma t ion c on ten ts

2 1 8

1 1 . 2

S pong H i l l :

c re ma t ion s ex a nd a ge

2 18

1 2 : 1 2 . 1

L . Wi lkinson

L oveden H i l l :

max i mu m t h ickness o f f e mora l c or tex i n

6 6 a du lts 1 2 . 2

2 22

L oveden H i l l :

max i mu m l eng th ( >1 cm ) o fl ong b one

f rag ments i n 8 1 i ndiv idua ls 1 2 . 3

L oveden H i ll :

max i mu m s ize ( >1 cm ) o f s ku l l f rag ments

i n 7 8 i ndiv idua ls 1 2 . 4

L oveden H i l l :

1 4 .1a

2 24

max i mu m t h ickness ( >2 m m ) o f c ran ia l

v au lt i n 5 7 a du lts 1 4 :

2 23

2 25

S . H irs t

S ewerby :

g rave g oods a rranged i n o rder o f most c o m mon

o ccurrence

2 44

Page 1 4 . 1 b

S ewerby :

b ur ia l p osi t ion

2 44

1 4 .2a

S ewerby :

c e metery p opu la t ion

2 45

1 4 . 2 b

S ewerby :

a ge a t d ea th

2 45

1 4 .3

S ewerby :

p os i t ion o f b rooches a nd b eads i n g raves

2 47

1 4 .4a

S ewerby :

d is tribut ion o f b eads

2 49

1 4 .4 b

S ewerby :

d istribut ion o f weapons

2 49

1 4 .5a

S ewerby :

b one c ondit ion a nd s urrounding s o i l t ype

2 50

1 4 . 5 b

S ewerby :

g rave d ep th i n r e la t ion t o g rave g oods

2 50

S ec t ion D 1 5 :

M . We lch

1 5 .1

E ar ly A ng lo-Saxon S ussex :

f if th c entury

2 56

1 5 . 2

R o man S ussex

1 5 .3

E ar ly Ang lo-Saxon S ussex :

s ixth c en tury

1 5 .4

E ar ly Ang lo-Saxon S ussex :

s even th c entury

1 5 . 5 a

A lfriston :

f e ma le g rave g roups

2 62

1 5 . 5 b

A lfr iston :

f e ma le g rave g roups

2 63

1 5 .6

A lfr iston :

weapon g rave g roups

2 64

1 5 .7

A lfr iston :

f e ma le a nd ma le g rave g roups -su m mary

2 65

2 57 2 59 2 60

1 5 .8

A lfr iston :

f e ma le a nd amb iguous g rave g roups

2 67

1 5 . 9

A lfr iston :

ma le g rave g roups

2 68

1 5 .10

A lfr iston :

s exed g raves

2 69

1 5 .11

A lfr iston :

f if th c entury g raves

2 70

1 5 .12

A lfr iston :

s ix th c en tury g raves

2 71

1 5 . 1 3

A lfr iston :

l a te s ixth a nd e ar ly s even th c en tury g raves

2 72

1 5 . 1 4

A lfr iston :

r ich g rave a sse mb lages

2 73

1 5 .15

A lfriston :

' m idd le c lass ' a sse mb lages

2 74

1 5 .16

A lfriston :

' l ower c lass ' a sse mb lages

2 75

1 5 . 1 7

A lfriston :

g raves w i th n o a sse mb lages

1 5 .18

B rooches :

S ussex , A lfriston , H ighdown

2 79

1 5 .19

B rooches :

Mitcha m , G ui ldown , O rp ing ton

2 80

1 5 . 2 0

B rooches> : U pper Tha mes , P ewsey , P e tersf inger 1 7 :

2 76

2 81

R . Mike t

1 7 . 1

P ost-Ro man b uria ls i n B ern ic ia

2 91

1 7 . 2

P ost-Ro man s e t t le men t s i tes i n B ern ic ia

3 02

1 8 : 1 8. 1

K . J arv is

P rov is iona l p lan o f t he l a te s ixth-seventh c entury c e me tery a t Barga tes , C hr istchurch , l oca ted a round t wo B ronze Age r ing-di tches . k nown .

The h ead-end o f e ach g rave i s s hown , where

The o ccurrence o f s h ie ld b osses ( B ) a nd s pearheads

( S ) i s a lso i ndicated S ec t ion E 2 2 : 2 2 . 1 2 2 . 2

3 08

H . V ierck

R i tua l a t tr ibutes o f s e lec ted g raves

3 38

S utton H oo a nd a ssocia ted s i tes ( f ro m M i f i ler- Wi le e t a l

1 978 , F ig

7 8 , p 2 73 )

x i

3 40

Page

23: H. Vierck 1, 2: Fragment of an iron side-piece and iron staple from the bedstead in a grave from Ixworth (Stanton), Suffolk. 3: V. I. Evison's reconstruction of an iron cleat from Sutton Hoo (based on radiographs). 4: Iron cleat from grave 41, Dover, Kent. 5: Iron cleat from grave 44, Lyminge, Kent. Scale 1:8 (l-2), 1:2 (3-5). 1-2 after Smith (1857), 3-5 after Evison (1979)

23. 1

23. 2

23. 3

344

1: House-shaped coffin with iron fittings and ornaments (a-f) from a Langobardic princely grave found at Civezzano, Prov. of Trento, Italy. 2: Reconstruction of a late S axon coffin from Winchester. Not to scale. 1 (a-f) after Wieser (1887), 2 after Winchester Cathedral Treasury (1973)

347

Grave plan (1) and Lethbridge's reconstruction (2) of the bedstead from grave 29, Shudy Camps, Cambridgeshire. a, b Iron fittings and side-pieces of the head-piece. c Iron staples. d Iron cleats

348

23 bis: V. Evison 23 bis. 1

Suggested reconstructed of the side view of the coffin in the ship-burial, with the dish and bottle on top. Sc ale 1 :20

360

Section F 25: A. Boddington

25. 1

Raunds: Anglo-Saxon churches, with cemetery (September 1979)

376

27: L. Butler 27. 1 27. 2 27. 3

Contributory factors to the growth of the churchyard Heysham, Lanes; rock-cut coffins and grave-marker recesses Map of eastern England to show St Helen dedications and holy wells

xii

384 360 3 87

L IST OF TABLES

Page S ec t ion A 1 : T . D ick inson 1 .1 1 .2

Ang lo-Saxon C e metery/Grave E xcava t ions C hrono log ica l a na lysis o f b uria ls f ro m e leven s i tes i n t he U pper Thames Va l ley

1 .3

2 0

C e me tery u se i n t he U pper Tha mes Reg ion : c hrono log ica l s u m mary b y c en turies

S ec t ion B 4 : 4 .1

1 4

2 2

C . Arno ld

Tab le :

p ercen tages ofweapon g raves a nd p roport ion o f

v ar ious weapon c o mbina t ions i n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies o f S outhern E ng land 4 .2

Tab le s u m mar ising n u mbers o fg o ld o b jec ts i n Ang loS axon c e me ter ies i n S outhern E ng land

4 .3

1 03

Tab le o f s cores a ssigned t o c lasses o f o b jec t i n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon g raves i n S outhern E ng land

4 .6

9 5

Ma tr ix e xa m ining r e la t ionsh ip o f a t tr ibutes o fg reat s quare h eaded b rooches o f ' Chesse l l Down ' t ype

4 .5

9 4

Tab le s u m mar ising n u mbers o f s i lver o b jec ts i n Ang loS axon c e me ter ies i n S outhern E ng land

4 .4

8 7

1 09

Tab le s how ing s yn thes is o f d a ta c oncerning a na lys is o f c e me ter ies

10

4 .7

Ana lysis o f r ich s ixth-cen tury ma le g raves

1 33

4 .8

Ana lysis o f r ich s ix th-cen tury f e ma le g raves

1 34

4 .9

Ana lysis o f r ich s even th-century ma le g raves

1 36

4 .10

Ana lysis o f r ich s even th-century f e ma le g raves

1 37

5 :

E . P ader

5 .1

A t tribute a ssoc iat ion ( Ho lywe l l Row )

1 49

5 .2

S ec tor 1 f e ma les ( Ho lywe l l R ow )

1 50

5 .3

S ec tor 2 f e ma les ( Ho lywe l l R ow )

1 50

5 .4

A c o mpar ison o f S ec tor 1 a nd 2 f e ma les

1 52

S ec t ion E 2 4 : 2 4 .1

M. S pra t ling

Va lues a nd c orre la t ions o f we ight i n t he S ut ton H oo s h ip-bur ia l

3 70

EDITORIAL PREFACE

1

ED ITOR IAL PREFACE b y P h i l ip Rah tz a nd Tan ia D ick inson

T h is v o lu me i s t he o u tco me o f t he f our th O x ford Ang lo-Saxon S y mpos ium , aw eekend c on ference h e ld u nder t he a usp ices o f t he D epar t men t f or Ex terna l S tud ies o f t he U n ivers i ty o f O x ford f ro m 9 th t o 1 1th N ove mber , 1 979 . The f orm wh ich i tt ook was l arge ly d ec ided b y o ne o f u s ( PAR ) t oge ther w i th M ichael A s ton , t hen o f t ha t D epar t men t , who u nder took t he a c tua l o rgan isa t ion . Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies h ave n o t b een we l l s erved b y t he p resen t g enera t ion o f a rchaeo log is ts : t here i s n o o vera l l u pto-da te s urvey n or s yn thes is o f c urren t i n terpre ta t ions , a nd t here i s as hor tage o f g ood p ubl ished d a ta f ro m i nd iv idua l s i tes , p ar t icu lar ly f ro m t hose e xcava ted more r ecen t ly a nd b y p rof ess iona ls , a l though t hese mus t b e p r imary s ources f or modern r esearch i n teres ts .

T he S y mpos iu m was n o t d es igned , h owever , a s a n o ppor tun i ty t o

p resen t s uch d a ta f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions ( t hough t h is was r egre t ted b y a t l eas t o ne c on tr ibu tor t o t h is v o lu me ) , n or c ou ld i ti t sel f c ons t i tu te a s yn thes is . T he i n ten t ion was r a ther t o c oncen tra te o n b roader t heore t ica l i ssues —on i n terpreta t ion o f mor tuary e v idence i n g enera l a nd o n t he e ar ly med ieva l p eri od a s a who le —and s o p erhaps t o r efresh a nd e n large t he a t t i tudes o f Ang loS axon s pecia l is ts .

T hus t h is v o lu me c on ta ins p apers b y p reh is tor ians a nd

a n thropo log is ts wh ich e xpress t heore t ica l a pproaches ma in ly d eve loped f or t he s tudy o f p reh is tory i n N or thern E urope a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he U SA ( c f K le jn 1 977) ; t wo o f t he p apers s peci f ica l ly a pp ly t hese t o ma ter ia l f ro m Ang loS axon c e me ter ies .

I n b r ing ing t oge ther i n t h is way a rchaeology a nd a n thro-

p o logy , a nd p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy , t he S y mpos ium r ese mb led more o r l ess a no ther h e ld i n 1 978 a t C ambr idge a nd s hor t ly t o b e p ubl ished ( Chap man e t a l

f or thco m ing ).

Bu t b es ides t hese a vowed ly t heore t ica l a nd

i nnova tory c on tr ibu t ions , t here a re o thers c oncerned w i th t he me thodo logy a nd t echn iques a ppropr ia te t o d a ta r ecovery a nd i n terpre ta t ion , a s we l l a s s ubs tan t ive p apers f ra med i n a more t rad i t iona l mou ld .

B y a sse mb l ing s uch

ar ange o f p apers w e a re n o t s ugges t ing t ha t t rad i t iona l a pproaches s hou ld b e a bandoned who lesa le i n f avour o f s o me n ove l i deo logy ; o n t he c on trary , t aken t oge ther , t hey s hou ld warn a ga ins t u ncr i t ica l a ccep tance o f a ny o ne a pproach ( s ee e spec ia l ly R ichard Brad ley 's c o m men ts i n t h is v o lume ) .

We h ope t ha t

t h is v olume w i l l b e u sefu l a s a n h is tor iograph ica l d ocumen t o f o p in ions h e ld i n 1 979 , a nd t ha t t he 1 980s w i l l s ee t he e nd o f u n th ink ing u se o f Ang lo-Saxon c eme ter ies f or c ircumscr ibed g oa ls a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he ir t rea t men t w i th in ab road ly b ased f ramework .

N o t a l l t he p apers p resen ted a t t he S y mpos ium a re p ub l ished h ere , n or d o t hey a ppear i n t he o rder i n wh ich t hey were g iven , a nd s evera l o ther p apers , wh ich were s ub mi t ted i n r esponse t o ag enera l i nv i ta t ion t o me mbers o f t he

3

S y mpos ium , a re i nc luded .

The p apers h ave b een d iv ided i n to s ec t ions , t hough

g iven t he d ivers i ty o f t he p apers a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he ( much d es ired ) i n terconn ec t ion o f t heory a nd d a ta , t hese a re f ar f ro m s el f-con ta ined . S ec t ion A i s i n troduc tory , c ons is t ing o f t wo p apers wh ich s e t t he s cene b y s urveying t he ' presen t s ta te ' o f M igra t ion P er iod c e me ter ies i n E ng land a nd o n t he C on t inen t . F ur ther c o m men t o n t he f i rs t wou ld b e s uper f luous . E dward J ames n ob ly p roduced h is p aper f or t he S y mpos ium a t i ndecen t ly s hor t n o t ice ; b u t , t oge ther w i th h is o ther r ecen t s urvey o f Merov ing ian c emeter ies ( James 1 979 ) , i tn ow p rovides t he b es t g u ide t o t he s ub jec t f or t he E ng lishs peak ing s tuden t . I n a dd i t ion i th as g iven h im t he o ppor tun i ty t o p ub l ish a p aper wh ich h e d e l ivered o r ig ina l ly t o t he S ocie ty f or Med ieva l A rchaeology 's C on ference a t P o i t iers i n A pr i l 1 979 a nd whose r eg iona l s ub ject i s mos t g ermane t o h is a rgu men t . P erhaps i ti s o f s ome h is tor iograph ica l r e levance t o n o te t ha tb o th a u thors o f t h is i n troductory s ec t ion w ere t ra ined a s h is tor ians a t Ox ford . T he n ew t heoret ica l a pproaches t o mor tuary e v idence n ow c urrent among p reh is tor ians a nd a n thropo log is ts , a nd t he ir a pp l ica t ion t o Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies , a re t he t he me f or S ec t ion B . B ob C hapman p rov ides a w ide-rang ing s urvey o f r ecen t a pproaches , a nd h is f u l l b ibl iography w i l l b e f ound i nva luab le . H e emphas ises t he n eed t o s tudy t he t o ta l i ty o f p as t h uman r e la tionsh ips , d emons tra t ing t he r o le o f c e me tery s tud ies i n t h is ; t o b e e f fec t ive i t mus t b e a ccep ted t ha t a rchaeo log ica l p a t terns c an a nd d o r ef lec t o r ig ina l b ehav ioura l p a t terns . T h is a t t i tude , wh ich was s pearheaded i n Amer ica b y L ew is B in ford a s t he ' New A rchaeo logy ' a nd h as b eco me f am i l iar i n Eng land p ar t icu lar ly t hrough t he w ork o f C ol in Ren frew a nd Dav id C larke , i s embraced b y C hr is A rnold . H is p aper a roused c ons iderable i n teres t a t t he S y mpos ium , f or i t was a r ad ica l ly d i f feren t t rea t men t o f d a ta ma in ly f rom o lder e xcava t ions i n S ou thern Eng land .

H e a na lyses ma ter ia l f ro m t hese i n t erms o f s oc ia l a nd

e cono m ic d i f ferences w i th in a nd b e tween r eg ions ( n o tably d i f ferences i n weap on a sse mb lages a nd i n wea l th i n ferred f ro m r ank ing g rave g oods ) , a nd h e c onnec ts t hese t o t he ir r e la t ive p o l i t ica l , m i l i tary a nd c o mmercia l h is tory. T he mass o f d a ta wh ich A rnold p resen ts a nd t he t heore t ica l p re m ises u nderl y ing t he m d o n o t make h is a rgumen ts q u ick ly d iges t ib le , n or d o h is e xp lan a t ions n ecessar i ly a cco m moda te t he n umber o f p a t terns t ha t h e h as g enera ted , b u t t h is p aper s hou ld b e r equ ired r ead ing f or a l l A ng lo-Saxon is ts . I ts hou ld a lso b e c o mpared w i th t he work o f J ohn S hephard , w ho t akes a s im i lar a pproach t o t he s pec i f ic t op ic o f A ng lo-Saxon b ur ia ls i nb arrows ( Shephard 1 979a a nd 1 979b ). E l len-Jane P ader i s e qua l ly c oncerned t o e luc ida te t he s ocia l o rgan isa t ion a nd b ehav iour o f t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxons , a s r epresen ted i n t wo S u f fo lk c e me ter ies , b u t s he d i f fers i n h er me thodology f ro m A rno ld . D er iv ing h er mode ls f ro m a n thropo log ica l a na logy , s he s tresses t he r o le o f s y mbo l is m t hroughou t s ocie ty , a nd s o t he n eed t o c ons ider a l l c orre la t ions b e tween i nd iv idua l f ea tures o fb ur ia l , a nd a lso t heir d i f ferences , a s p o ten t ia l s oc ia l s y mbo ls ; t o s e lec t , s ay , o n ly t hose a spec ts p er ta in ing t o wea l th i s , f or P ader , t o s i mp l i fy u ndu ly t he c o mp lex i ty o f s oc ia l s tructure . Ano ther c ha l lenge t o Arno ld 's a pproach c o mes f rom I an H odder , who s uppor ts a s tructura l is t i n terpre ta tion : a l though t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord d oes r e f lec t s oc ia l b ehav iour , t ha t b ehav iour may i nvo lve i deas a nd i dea ls wh ich a re i n d isagreemen t w i th o r e ven o ppos i t ion t o 4

mundane reality. Richard Bradley, who ably and wittily concluded the entire Symposium, ends this section: he sums up the range of current theoretical approaches and presents students of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries with some lead­ ing questions which arise out of these approaches and prehistoric studies in general. We can agree with Pader that these approaches may not have all the answers, but they are asking new questions. Sections C, D and F in fact overlap in their themes, but they have been divided on the following basis: Section C is mainly concerned with methodology and techniques, Section D with substantive contributions on particular areas or sites, and Section F with cemeteries of the eighth century and beyond. Richard Jones' paper links Section C back to Section B, for his discussion of the use of computers to generate correlations and classifications in cemetery data is really a discussion of the theoretical premises behind these and their relationship with actual past social systems. Jones prefers to stress acqui­ sition of good data and discovery of their internal patterning as first priorities, with the search for explanations coming second. This empirical stance is also adopted by Catherine Hills, who cogently documents the historiographical and theoretical reasons for excavating a vast cemetery like Spong Hill, as well as briefly bringing the story of discoveries there up to date. Following nat­ urally on from this are two papers by specialists working on particular parts of the Spong Hill data, Mark Brisbane on analysis of pottery fabrics and Glenys Putnam on the skeletal material. The results produced and problems posed by Putnam's work can be compared with those discussed by Leonard Wilkinson with reference to another massive and mainly cremation cemetery, Loveden Hill in Lincolnshire. Problems of excavating, analysing, and publishing inhumation cemeteries are dealt with by Dominic Powlesland and Susan Hirst in relation to two Yorkshire sites, West Heslerton and Sewerby. Their argu­ ments should be read in connection with those of Andrew Boddington, whose paper on Raunds, Northants, comes in Section F because it deals with a ceme­ tery of post-pagan date. Section D's substantive contributions, which are more 'culture-historical' in approach, include three regional surveys, two summarising work for doc­ toral theses. Bruce Eagles' paper is literally a summary with emendations of his recently published two-volume book on cemeteries in East Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire; he seems now to put greater stress on the fifth-century phase and the case for continuity than was apparent in his book (Eagles 1979). Martin Welch's ideas about Sussex have also altered in part since publication of his earlier but most important article (Welch 1971): he too examines graves in terms of social structure, though without enunciating his theoretical frame­ work, and he draws attention provocatively to certain graves at Highdown which might in fact have been of Roman or sub-Roman Britons rather than, as has always been assumed hitherto, Saxons. Roger Miket presents an important new gazetteer of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in Bernicia. He argues that its brevity stems both from the particular problems of archaeological recognition in the northern landscape, and from the cultural hybridisation of Angles and Britons; inadequate knowledge of the parameters of such hybridisation in the more densely settled Anglo-Saxon areas of the South and of the nature of native British burials in the North impede both recognition and interpretation of material from Bernicia. Keith Jarvis supplies a straightforward interim 5

account of a cemetery recently excavated at Christchurch, Dorset. Like Bernicia, Dorset was on the fringe of the main Anglo-Saxon settled area, and this welcome addition to the sparse cemetery record from the county should be equally relevant to hypotheses about cultural fusion. Section E is devoted to Sutton Hoo. The Symposium offered the first op­ portunity for public debate of current plans to commence a new campaign of excavations. The magnetism which the site exercises was evident: faces which had not appeared for other papers at the Symposium could be seen filling the aisles and back of the lecture theatre-including that of the Director of the British Museum. Likewise the subject aroused strong passions, though regret­ tably lack of time prohibited their development into a full-scale tournament. The course of the debate can be readily appreciated from ·Philip Rahtz's survey, based both on his own involvement in the project and on replies to a question­ naire from contributors to the Symposium and others. One of these replies, by Rayo Vierck, is printed here in full, as are two others submitted subsequently by Valerie Fenwick and Warwick Rodwell; these, together with additional papers, from Rayo Vierck in response to Vera Evison's recent interpretation of a coffin in Sutton Hoo Mound 1 (Evison 1979) (with Professor Evison's com­ ment) and from Mansel Spratling in response to Birgit Arrhenius' almost equally recent argument that the Sutton Hoo coins have metrological significance (Arrhenius 1978), demonstrate that Sutton Hoo is very much a live issue in Anglo-Saxon archaeology and generally. Finally, Section F is intended to remind us that the study of Anglo-Saxon burials should not be confined to eastern England during the pagan period, however much their artefacts might absorb the energies of conservators, typologists, and the searchers after social structure. A welcome recent de­ velopment in medieval archaeology has been the recognition that Christian cemeteries are no less important or interesting than those of the preceding period, and that they have much to contribute on settlement and mortuary studies, not least in interpretation of the so-called 'Final Phase' cemeteries of the seventh century and the transition to burial in churchyards. These themes informed the contributions of Lawrence Butler, Richard Morris (to be published elsewhere-see Morris forthcoming), and Charles Thomas, whose paper on the British West (also not published here) provided a valuable com­ parison with pagan Saxondom. Scandinavian burials in England offer an equally telling point of comparison; with these James Graham-Campbell returns us to problems posed by the graves (or, in this case, lack of graves) of ethnically distinct and initially pagan immigrants. The Symposium did highlight some outstanding problems for Anglo-Saxon cemetery studies: there is clearly scope for more regional studies, incorpor­ ating the use of computers and of theoretical approaches such as Arnold's; there are still too few studies of cemeteries and settlements, viewing their relationship within the total landscape; and, despite the poor showing of the subject in Merovingian archaeology (see James this volume), the question of ethnic identity needs far more rigorous investigation and, not least, a firm basis in knowledge of Romano-British burial customs. After all, to what extent does the meaning which we invest in the term 'Anglo-Saxon' limit our approach, and should it continue so to do? On a more general level the struc­ ture of the Symposium also posed the question: how far should students of 6

Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies r e ma in c on ten t t o d eve lop t heir s ub ject w i th in i t s q uas i-his tor ica l f ra mework , g ra tefu l ly p ick ing u p c oncep tua l a nd methodol og ica l s craps t hrown t o t he m b y a van t-garde p rehis tor ians , a nd h ow f ar s hou ld t hey a bandon t he ir p ar t icu lar is t ic i n teres ts i n f avour o f a more t ru ly i n terd iscip l inary a pproach?

I n e d i t ing t his v olu me we h ave b een g u ided b y t he b el ie f t ha t p ubl ica t ion o f c on ference p roceed ings , i fi ti s t o b e r ea l ly u sefu l , s hou ld o ccur a s s oon a s p ossible a f ter t he e ven t . r a ther t han t horoughness .

C onsequen t ly , o ur c oncern h as b een f or s peed We h ave n o t i mposed a bsolu te c ons is tency o n t he

p unc tua t ion n or o n t he f or m o f b ibl iograph ies , a nd i n g enera l e ach a u thor h as b een a l lowed t o r e ta in h is o r h er own s tyle a nd c ons truction .

Proofs h ave

b een c orrected b y t he a u thors . Last b u t n o t l eas t , we mus t o f fer o ur t hanks t o t he Depar t men t f or Ex terna l S tud ies a t Ox ford f or s ponsorsh ip o f t he S y mpos iu m , t o Michael A s ton f or o rgan ising i t , t o BAR who h ave p rov ided t he ir u sua l i nva luable s erv ices e nabl ing t he r apid p ub lica t ion o f t h is v o lu me , a nd f ina l ly t o a l l t he c on tr ibu tors who s ub m itted t heir p apers w i th e xe mp lary p ro mptness . Depar t men t o f Archaeology , Un ivers i ty o f York , March 1 980 . B IBL IOGRAPHY A rrhen ius 1 978 .

B . A rrhen ius , Rev iew o f R . L . S . Bruce- Mi tford , The

S u tton H oo S h ip-Bur ia l , Vo l . 1 , i n Med ieva l Archaeol . 2 2 ( 1978 ) , 1 89-195. C hap man e t a l f or thco ming .

R . W. C hap man , I . K innes a nd K . Randsborg

e ds ., T he Archaeology o f Dea th ( Cambr idge , f or thco ming ). E ag les 1 979.

B . N . E ag les , The Ang lo-Saxon S e t t le men t o f Humberside B . A.R.

Br it ish S er . 6 8 ( Ox ford , 1 979 ). E v ison 1 979.

V . I . E vison ,

' The Body i n t he S h ip a t S u t ton H oo ', Ang lo-Saxon

S tud . i n Archaeo l . a nd H is t . 1B . A. R . Br i t ish S er . 7 2 ( Ox ford , 1 979 ) , 1 21-138 . J ames 1 979 .

E . J a mes , ' Ce meter ies a nd t he Proble m o f Frank ish S et t le men t

i n Gau l ' , i n P . H . S awyer e d ., Na mes , Words , a nd G raves :

Ear ly Med ieva l

S ett le men t ( Leeds , 1 979) , 5 5-89. K le jn 1 977.

L . S . K le jn , ' A Panorama o f T heore t ica l A rchaeo logy ', Curren t

An thropology 1 8 , n o . 1( 1 977) , 1 -42. Morr is f or thco m ing .

R . K . Morr is , ' The Or ig ins o f C hurchyard Bur ia l ' i n

The C hurch i n B r i t ish Archaeo logy CBA Res . Rep . ( London , f or thco ming ). S hephard 1 979a .

J . F . S hephard , Ang lo-Saxon Barrows o f t he La ter S ix th a nd

S even th C en tur ies A . D. u npubl ished P h .D . d isser ta t ion ( Cambr idge 1 979 ). S hephard 1 979b.

J . F . S hephard ,

' The S ocia l I den ti ty o f t he I nd iv idua l i n

I so la ted Barrows a nd Barrow C e meter ies i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ' , i n B . C . Burnham a nd J . K ingsbury e ds ., S pace , H ierarchy a nd S ociety: I n terd iscipl inary S tudies i n S ocia l Area Ana lys is B .A .R. I n terna t . S er . 5 9 ( Oxford , 1 979 ) , 4 7-79. We lch 1 971.

M. G . We lch ,

( 1971 ) , 2 32-237.

' La te Ro mans a nd S axons i n S ussex ' , Br i tann ia 2 7

S ECTION A S URVEY OF SUBJECT

9

1 .

THE PRESENT S TATE OF ANGLO-SAXON CE METERY S TUD IES' b y Tan ia D ick inson

A l though Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies h ave r eceived t he l i on 's s hare o f a t tent i on i n t he o vera l l s tudy o f Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy , i ti s , a s y e t , d i f f icu l t t o c ons ider t he m a s ad iscre te s ub-d iscip l ine , a nd s o t o g ive a r ounded a nd s uccinct a ppra isa l o f t he ir p resen t s ta te . Wh i le t h is s y mpos iu m may h era ld t he b ir th o f s uch a n ew s ub-d isc ip l ine , Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies h ave b een s tud ied h i ther to a s a n i n tegra l p ar t o f Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy a nd h is tory. S o Is ha l l b eg in b y mak ing s o me c o m men ts o n t h is t rad i t iona l a pproach a nd h ow i ts d eve lop men t may b e c onnec ted w i th t he f a i lure t o p ubl ish t ha t i s s o s trong ly marked a f ea ture o f t he s ub jec t ; Is ha l l g o o n t o d iscuss t he p r incipa l n eeds i n i n terpre t ing c e me ter ies n ow , a nd h ow t hese h ave b een a nd migh t b e a cco mpl ished . Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeology c an b e s a id t o h ave b egun i n t he l a ter e igh teen th c en tury , when J ames Doug las f irs t i den t i f ied c er ta in b ur ia ls i n K en t a s Ang loS axon ( Jessup 1 975 ) .

I t was n o t u n t i l 1 913 t ha t L eeds l a id t he f ounda t ions o f

A ng lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy a s a n a cade m ic d isc ip l ine , b u t h e was o bl iged t o d o s o , a s h e s a id , o n t he b as is o f ' t he ir c e me ter ies , n o th ing more a nd n o th ing l ess ' ( 1913 , 1 6) , f or t hese , e xcava ted i n a bundance t hroughou t t he n ine teen th c en tury , were a l l t ha t was a va i lab le .

Un t i l a f ter t he S econd Wor ld War c e m-

e ter ies c on t inued t o d om ina te Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy , b u t t he q ues t ions t ha t t hey were mos t o f ten a sked t o s o lve , a nd s o t he i n teres ts o f Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy g enera l ly , were l im i ted . E ssen t ia l ly t hese l im i ta t ions c an b e t raced b ack t o t he f ra mework wh ich L eeds e s tabl ished , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t o h is f undamen ta l p urpose .

L eeds w ished t o make Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy h is tor ica l ly

r espec table , t ha t i s , t o p roduce r esu l ts t ha t wou ld s ee m r e levan t t o t he i n teres ts o f h is tor ians . I n p ract ice t h is i nvo lved a t te mp t ing t o r e la te t he c e me ter ies t o t he a va i lab le d ocumen tary r e ferences f or t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon p er iod ;2 a nd t h is mean t , i n e f fec t , c on f in ing t he a reas o f a rchaeo log ica l i n teres t n o t e ven t o t hose o f e ar ly t wen t ie th-cen tury h is tor ians , b u t a ctua l ly t o t hose o f t he h is tor ians a nd p reservers o f t rad i t ion o f t he s ix th t o n in th c ent ur ies . ' T hese were o verwhe lm ing ly p o l i t ica l , mi l i tary , a nd e ccles ias t ic , c onc erned w i th t he e s tab l ishmen t o f s ecu lar s ta tes a nd t he C hr is t ian C hurch .

S o

a rchaeolog ica l i n teres t t ended t o f ocus o n t he ' Adven tus S axonum t , t he e xpans ion o f t he v ar ious A ng lo-Saxon p eop les d ur ing t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies , a nd t he d eve lop men t o f t he ir k ingdo ms , a s r ecoun ted p ar t icu lar ly i n t he e ar ly e n tr ies o f t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le . I ti s n o e xaggera t ion t o s ay t ha t t h is a pproach h as b een d om inan t u n t i l v ir tua l ly t he p resen t d ay.

I ti s we l l e xe mp li f ied i n Hawkes ' e ssay , ' The J u tes

o f K en t ' ( Hawkes 1 956 ) , i tu nder l ies E v ison 's t he me i n h er 1 965 b ook , T he F i f th-Cen tury I nvas ions S ou th o f t he Thames ( Ev ison 1 965 ) , a nd i ti s a n e ssent ia l p ar t o f Myres ' i n terpre ta t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery a nd t he s e t t le men t 1 1

o f E ng land ( Myres 1 969 a nd 1 977 ) , t o n ame b u t t hree ma jor c on tr ibu t ions t o t he s ub jec t ; wh i le i ti nvar iab ly p lays a r o le , i fo n ly i n t he c onclud ing p arag raphs , i n mos t m inor c e me tery r epor ts .3 T o c onver t h is a rchaeo log ica l d a ta i n to h is tory L eeds n eeded f i rs t ab as ic c hrono log ica l f ramework ; h is o n ly s ource- ma ter ia l was t he g rave g oods a nd h is o n ly means t he a ppl ica t ion t o t he m o f t ypo log ica l a nd s ty l is t ic s chemes o f c lass i f ica t ion , i n wh ich C on t inen ta l s cho lars h ad a lready g iven a v i ta l l ead . T hese i n teres ts r ema ined w i th L eeds t hroughou t f or ty /y ears o f r esearch a nd p ub l ica t ion , a s t hey d id a lso f or h is c on te mporar ies , ,erg , Sm i th , B a ldw in B rown , a nd K endr ick . S econd ly , L eeds n eeded t o c o mpare t he s pa t ia l d is tr ib u t ions o f t he v ar ious g rave g oods a nd o f t he c eme ter ies t he mse lves , r e la t ing t he m t o o ther t ypes o f i n forma t ion , n o tab ly t he l o ca l t erra in , t he R oman l ands cape , a nd t he p o l i t ica l g eography r ef lec ted i n t he e ar ly d ocumen ts ; h e was o ne o f t he f i rs t a rchaeo log is ts t o u se d is tr ibu t ion maps t o t h is e f fec t ( Dan ie l 1 975 , 3 03-306 ). L eeds u sed c eme ter ies p r imar i ly a s s ources o f o b jec ts a nd a s d o ts t ob e p u t o n ad is tr ibu t ion map , a nd o n ly s econdar i ly a s e n t i t ies i n t he ir o wn r igh t . T he a t t i tude a nd me thods d ep loyed b y L eeds a nd h is c on te mporar ies h ave r ema ined w i th u s , t hough t here h as b een a n i ncreas ing a t temp t t o e xp lo i t t he d a ti more c omprehens ive ly a nd s ys tema t ica l ly . B u t , t o a dap t ap hrase o f F ow ler , ' t ypo logy i s s t i l l t he o rder o f t he d ay ' ( Fow ler 1 977 , 2 5 ) . E nerg ies a re s t i l l c onsumed i nt rying t o o rder a nd d a te g rave g oods ( p o t tery , b rooches , w eapons , e tc ) , a s ap rerequ is i te f or f ur ther r esearch . T he a rgumen ts i nvo lved a re o f ten v ery c o mp lex ; t hey d e mand a c lear men ta l v is ion o f a l l t he o b jec ts b e ing d iscussed , i nc lud ing t he p ara l le ls a dduced f rom s upposed ly d a tab le c ont ex ts , a nd a n a g i le b ra in a b le t o e ncompass t he i n tr ica te l i nes o f a rgumen t a nd t o p erce ive f a l lac ies when t hey o ccur . They a lso r equ ire a ccess t o ag ood l i brary f or i l lus tra t ions o f t he ma ter ia l u nder d iscuss ion , a s we l l a s af a ir p ersona l a cqua in tance w i th t he u npub l ished ma ter ia l . I ti s n o wonder t ha t t h is s tudy h as a lways b een t he p reserve o f s pec ia l is ts , a nd t ha t n on-spec ia l is ts , w ho h ave b een i ncreas ing ly i nvo lved i n t he r escue e xcava t ion o f c eme ter ies , s hou ld f ee l u nequ ipped t o c ope w i th s uch a n e so ter ic p ursu i t . Bu t i ti s n o t o n ly n on-spec ia l is ts w ho h ave r eco i led i n away f rom t h is d om inan t a pproach t o c e me tery a rchaeo logy . S ome s pec ia l is ts , myse l f i nc luded , h ave b eco me i n r ecen t y ears i ncreas ing ly w orr ied a bou t t he me thods a nd t he u nder lying p rem ises u sed i n t hese c lass i f ica t ions o f g rave g oods , a nd t here h as b een a n e f for t t o move t owards more e xp l ic i t a nd r igorous s ys tems o f a na lys is ( eg A ven t 1 975 ) . I n a dd i t ion , g row ing emphas is i n r ecen t y ears o n e cono m ic a nd s o cia l i ssues , a nd i n p ar t icu lar o n t he s tudy o f s e t t lemen t s i tes ( rura l , u rban , a nd e cc les ias t ic ) a nd o f s e t t lemen t a reas , h as c aused c eme tery s tud ies t ob eco me l ess p ro m inen t . T he n ew a pproach t o A ng lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy was d e l ibera te ly e ncapsu la ted i nt he 1 976 c o l lec t ion o f e ssays e d i ted b y Wi lson ( no tab ly i nt he c hap ters b y F ow ler , Rah tz , B idd le , a nd C ramp ) a nd i n tended a s a n a u thor i ta ti ve h andbook t o t he s ub jec t ( W i lson 1 976 ) .

A l though om iss ion o f ac hap ter o n

c eme ter ies was n o t i n ten t iona l—nor s urpr is ing , i nt ha t t o d o t he s ub jec t j us t ice w ou ld h ave r equ ired y ears o f r esearch , f or t he d a ta a re j us t n o t r ead i ly a ccess ib le— i t s eemed a n i ron ica l r e f lec t ion o f ac urren t mood . E qua l ly , i t may b e h is tor ica l ly s ign i f ican t t ha t w h i le t he f i rs t O x ford A ng lo-Saxon S y mpos ium 1 2

in 1970 included, among a wide range of topics, a fair number of cemetery­ based papers, the specific subjects chosen for the next two were settlement and the landscape (Rowley 1974), and church archaeology. On the other hand, excavation and study of cemeteries has not ceased, and now, after a short phase in which cemetery archaeology has seemed almost to be looked down on, there has been renewed interest (as this Symposium indicates) in what is unde­ niably a very large body of data, capable of shedding light on a wide range of topics. But if we are to make new headway in the subject, then we have got to resolve our chief problem, the appalling record of publication. This, more than anything else, is responsible for disenchantment with the current state of cemetery research and for hampering progress. Not only have we failed to publish the great majority of excavations dug in the last generation, but we have also failed, by and large, to publish or republish the vast amounts of material accumulated before the Second World War. Moreover, the general change in attitudes and expectations which has characterised archaeological thought in the 1970s (primarily in America and in the field of prehistory) means that from the viewpoint of 1979 much of the publication which there has been seems less than satisfactory. Yet the requirements of new lines of interpre­ tation and of new methods of analysis are increasingly exacting, so that the situation seems to have been reached where specialist and non-specialist alike hardly dare publish, because they are aware how far short of the ideals now being envisaged they are falling. Figures of Ar..glo-Saxon cemetery excavation and publication are not readily available. I have compiled one list from the reports in 'Medieval Britain' published annually since 1957 in Medieval Archaeology (Table 1.1). I excluded mentions of sites at which objects alone but no graves have been found, and also the very few sites which are not conventionally early Anglo­ Saxon, such as late- or post-Roman cemeteries without grave goods (Rahtz 1977) and sites of middle to late Saxon date, commonly associated with churches (Morris forthcoming). I distinguished the first report of a site from its second or subsequent reports, which indicate an extended campaign of excavation; the first report does not of course signify a 'new' site, for several had been known and indeed extensively excavated much earlier. In all, 114 separate sites are reported from 1956 to 1977, giving an average of eight excavations per year; numbers are at their highest between 1965 and 1972, while the pro­ portion of sites where excavation has taken place over several seasons has tended to rise in more recent years. While the slow beginning may simply reflect failure to report excavations to the new journal Medieval Archaeology, the decline in numbers since 1972 may perhaps represent a real trend. This pattern might be compared with that for the rate of discovery of all Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in the Upper Thames Region, which I compiled some time ago (Fig 1.1).4 This reflects well the principal periods of activity in the nineteenth century, in this case because of the presence in the area of leading Anglo-Saxon antiquaries like Akerman and Rolleston, and because of industrial activity like quarrying and the railways; it also shows nicely how excavation and recording peaked again during the years of Leeds' Keepership of the Ashmolean Museum. But its relevance to my main argument is the steady decline which it shows since the last war, and that the 1970s, despite

13

Table 1.1

Anglo-Saxon cemetery/grave excavations reported in 'Medieval Britain' for 1956 to 1977 (Medieval Archaeology 1-2 2, 1957-1978) Sites reported for the first time

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 } 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 Total Average Published

Sites reported on subsequent occasion(s)

Total 4 3

4 3 5 7 5 5

2 2 1 2

9 6 7

4

2

6

2 7 9 9 6 8 5 8 8 4

1 2 2 2 4 3 8

3 9 11 11 10 11 13 13 11 8 9 6 5 5

5

3 4 3 3 3 2

6

3 2 3

53 2.5

114 5.4 .22 (19%)

14

7

167 7.9

1 5

t he p resence o f ar escue a rchaeo logy u n i t i n t he a rea , were n o e xcep tion t o t h is .

G iven t he p eak r a tes a ch ieved e ar l ier , o ne i s t e mp ted t o s ugges t t ha t

t he n umber o f n ew c e me ter ies wa i t ing t o b e d iscovered i s a c tua l ly r unn ing o u t :

A l terna t ively a nd more p robably , we a re w i tness ing t he o u tco me o f w iden-

i ng a rchaeo log ica l i n teres ts s ince t he war wh ich h as s hi f ted a t ten t ion a way f ro m Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies .

I n p ar t icu lar , o ne mus t a sk h ow f ar D epar t men t

o f Env ironmen t p o l icy — to a vo id wherever p oss ib le t he e xcava t ion o f Ang loS axon c e me ter ies b ecause o f t he e xcess ive d e mands t he ir p ubl ica t ion p laces o n money a nd manhours—has a f fec ted t he s i tua t ion . I n t rying t o e s t i ma te t he p ubl ica t ion r ecord f or t he s i tes l i s ted i n Med ieva l A rchaeo logy , Ih ave h ad t o r e ly o n my p ersona l k now ledge , a nd i ti s q u i te l i ke ly t ha t Ih ave o ver looked p ubl ica t ions o f s o me sma l l s i tes , e spec ia l ly f ro m a reas w i th wh ich Iam l ess f am i l iar .

B u t o f t he 1 14 s i tes l i s ted , o n ly a bou t

2 2 ( 1 9% ) s ee m t o h ave b een p ub l ished .

M iss A l ison C ook o f t he I nspectora te

o f Anc ien t Monumen ts h as c o mp i led a much s hor ter l i s t o f s i tes d ug w ith t he f inanc ia l a ss is tance o f t he D epar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t o r t he f ormer Mini s try o f Works :5 o f 2 6 c e me ter ies e xcava ted b e tween 1 945 a nd 1 972 t hrough d irect g ran t o r s ponsorsh ip , j us t 7( 2 3% ) h ave b een p ubl ished , wh i le 4 ( 36% ) o f t he 1 1 g ran t-a ided s i tes h ave b een .

F or t he d ecade 1 961-1972 t he p ubl i-

c a t ion r a te i s 2 4% , o r 1 9% i fo n ly t he d irec t-gran t a nd s ponsored s i tes a re c ons idered ; t h is c o mpares w i th a n a t iona l a verage f or t ha t d ecade o f 3 1% i nd ic a ted b y F ow ler ( Fow ler 1 977 , 1 70 , F ig

6 .4 ).

P la in ly , wh i le t he g enera l

r ecord o f a rchaeo log ica l p ubl ica t ion i s p oor , t ha t f or Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies i s e ven worse . S o why i s t h is?

One e xp lana t ion c er ta in ly c oncerns l og is t ics , t he r e-

s ources n eeded t o c arry o u t e xcava t ion a nd p ar t icu lar ly t o s uppor t t he c onserv a tors , d raugh ts men , a nd r esearch a ss is tan ts r equ ired t o p rocess t he ma ter ia l . Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery ma ter ia l p robably makes h eav ier d e mands o n c onserv a t ion a nd d raw ing e xper t ise a nd t ime t han a ny o ther k ind o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta .

A l though t he D epar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t i s n ow b e t ter f inanced a nd

h as b een a b le t o g ive p os t-excava t ion a ss is tance t owards t he p ublica t ion o f e very s i te o n A l ison C ook 's l i s t , t here i s n o d oub t t ha t i n c o mpar ison , s ay , w i th t he r esources a va i lab le t o s tuden ts o f M igra t ion P er iod c e me ter ies i n G er many , Eng l ish workers h ave b een i n ap oor p os i t ion . Bu t It h ink a f ar more f undamen ta l p rob le m h as b een h ow t o p resen t a n i n terpre ta t ion o f t he ma ter ia l wh ich i s a ccep table , whe ther i tb e t o t he t rad i ti ona l a pproach t o Ang lo-Saxon c e meter ies o r t o t he n ewer a nd more s ocio log ica l a pproaches .

One a t temp t t o r eso lve t he i mpasse h as b een t he p o licy o f t he

N or fo lk a nd S u f folk A rchaeo log ica l Un i ts t o p ubl ish r ap id ly t he b as ic f actua l d a ta f ro m t he ir r ecen t e xcava t ions : t wo c a ta logues a re a lready o u t , t ha t o n B ergh A p ton ( Green a nd R ogerson 1 978 ) a nd t he f i rs t v o lume o f S pong H i l l ( H i l ls 1 977) .

Th is d oes n o t mean t ha t t he ir e xcava tors h ave a broga ted r espons i-

b i l i ty f or p ub l ish ing i n terpre ta t ion , mere ly t ha t t hey t h ink s uch i n terpre ta tion i s more s tra igh t forward when b ased o n af u l l a nd c o mp le te d a ta s e t , a nd t ha t s uch i n terpreta t ion w i l l t here fore t ake t ime t o emerge .

I ti s o f c ourse a ma t-

t er f or c urren t d eba te whe ther i ti s p oss ib le t o d raw , d escr ibe , o r e ven e xcav a te p roper ly a nyth ing f or wh ich o ne l acks a g enera l f ra mework o f u nders tandi ng , b e i th ypo the t ica l ly o r emp ir ica l ly f ounded ( see e spec ia l ly H irs t 1 976 , 1 11 4 ) .

P ro mp t p ubl ica t ion o f f u l ly i l lus tra ted c a ta logues may r e l ieve s o me o f 1 6

o ur im med ia te p roblems , b u t t hey c ou ld n ot b e p roduced i n t he ir t urn w i thou t ac er ta in b ody o f k now ledge .

S o i ti s t o t he ma jor a reas o f c e me tery i n terpre-

t a t ion a nd o ur c urren t a pproaches a nd k now ledge wh ich Is ha l l n ow t urn . As Ih ave a lready i nd ica ted , t he d a t ing o f g rave g oods a nd s o o f g raves a nd c e me ter ies i s a ma jor s tumbl ing b lock .

T here i s n o e asy g u ide t o t he

t ypo logy a nd d a t ing o f Ang lo-Saxon ma ter ia l , n or a ny c o mprehens ive , g enera l ly a ccep ted a nd p ub l ished c hrono log ica l f ra mework , c o mparab le w i th t ha t a va i lable f or Merov ing ian c e me ter ies ( see n o tably Werner 1 935 , B öhner 1 958 , Amen t 1 976 , F leury a nd I Dr in 1 978 , 1 : )r in 1 980 ) . I n many ways t he mos t c omprehens ive i ndex t o t he t ypes o f o b jec t l i ke ly t o b e f ound i n Ang lo-Saxon g raves i s s t i l l Ba ldw in Brown 's t wo-vo lu me s urvey ( Ba ldwin B rown 1 915 ). O therwise o ne mus t r ely o n i nd iv idua l s tud ies o f e i ther p ar t o r a l l o f t he e n t ire c orpus o f as ing le o b jec t-type .

I n g enera l t hese a re a va i lable i n p r in t f or

mos t o f t he ma jor b rooch t ypes ,

6

t he p o t tery ( Myres 1 977; E v ison 1 979 ) , g lass

( Harden 1 956a a nd 1 978 ) , s pearheads ( Swan ton 1 973 ) , a nd f i f th-cen tury b uck le t ypes ( Hawkes a nd Dunn ing 1 961 ; E v ison 1 955 a nd 1 968 ) , b u t t here a re n otable e xcep tions l i ke b eads a nd t he mass o f s h ie ld b osses , a nd t here a re f ew wh ich c ou ld b e r eco m mended w i thou t q ua li f ica t ion t o t he n on-specia l is t . Bu t t h is i s n o t a n a rgumen t f or a bandon ing c hrono log ica l s tud ies a nd f or t rea t ing t he e n t ire t wo t o t hree h undred y ears r epresen ted b y t he c e me ter ies a s as ing le u n i t f or o ther t ypes o f a na lys is ( eg o f t he ir s ocia l s tructure ). S uch s tud ies w i l l h ave l i t t le v a l id i ty i ft hey a re n o t s e t w i th in a r e l iab le c hronolog y.

Wha t we mus t d o i s t o i mprove t he q ua l i ty o f t he t rad i t iona l

me thods o f work ing o u t ac hrono logy a nd e xpand t he m .

I n p art icu lar , t he

d egree o f r igour s hou ld i ncrease i n d irec t p ropor t ion t o t he we igh t o f more g enera l a nd h is tor ica l i n terpre ta t ion wh ich a c lass i f ica t ion o r t ypo logy i s t o s uppor t . Typo log ica l d a t ing h as i n t he p as t o f ten d epended o n as el f-ev iden t e volu t ionary d eve lop men t :

X berg 's t ypo logy f or Eng l ish c ruci for m b rooches ,

wh ich h as r ema ined s ince 1 926 ab ackbone o f Ang l ian g rave-chrono logy , i s a g ood e xamp le (berg 1 926 , 2 8-56 , 1 84-194 ) . T o g ive ' abso lu te ' d a tes t o s uch as equence , o ne o r p referably more p o in ts mus t b e t i ed i n to a f i xed c hronol ogy:

t ha t X berg c hose a s h is b eg inn ing t he c AD 4 50 d a te o f B ede f or t he

' Adven tus S axonum ' i s n ow r ecogn ised a s ac rucia l f law ( see N o te 2 ) .

Bu t

s uch a t ypo logy a lso r equ ires t ha t t he t ype i n q ues t ion was u ndergo ing a c t ive f or ma l d eve lop men t . A l though c ruci for m b rooches , a nd s o me o ther Ang loS axon b rooch f orms ( eg c as t s aucer b rooches ) , d o t end t o i ncrease i n s ize a nd e labora t ion w i th t ime , t rue f or ma l e vo lu t ion i s r are . Ra ther e ach a r tefac t t ype mus t b e d iv ided i n to g roups o n t he b as is o f d egree o f s im i lar i ty , a nd t here n eed n o t b e a ny l i nk b e tween t he g roups e xcep t as hare i n t he o vera l l d is t ingu ish ing f ea tures o f t he t ype ; t h is p re m ise u nder l ies , f or e xa mp le , t he s even teen p r inc ipa l g roups o f s pearhead ( A t o L ) d ef ined i n S wan ton 1 973 , a nd t he f our ma jor g roups o f e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon a ppl ied b rooch p roposed b y Ev ison ( 1 978 ).

T he c ruc ia l p roble m i s t o d ec ide wha t c ons t i tu tes s im i lar i ty a nd wha t

k ind o f s im i lar i ty t he c lass i f ica t ion i n q ues t ion i s s eek ing t o e s tabl ish .

These

a re f undamen ta l t heoret ica l i ssues wh ich h ave b een s carce ly b roached ' among A ng lo-Saxon a rchaeo log is ts , t hough t hey h ave b een a ma t ter f or d eba te i n o ther a rchaeo log ica l c ircles ( f or a r ecen t s urvey o f t he ma in c urren t a rgumen ts

1 7

s ee S e l tzer 1 978 , a nd a lso J ones t h is v o lume ) .

W i thou t l aunch ing i n to a d is-

c uss ion o f t h is i ssue , i tc an b e s a id t ha t t he more e xp l ici t t he p re m ises a nd t he r u les b y wh ich s im i lar i ty i s g auged , t he e as ier i tw i l l b e t o a ssess t he v a lue o f t he r esu l t . I n p ar t icu lar t wo a ids t o t h is e nd a re b eco m ing more w ide ly r ecogn ised . T he v ar ie t ies o f q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is , wh ich i nc lude t ypes u t i l is ing c o mpu ter p rogram mes , h ave b een c urren t i n a rchaeo logy f or we l l o ver a d ecade ( Doran a nd H odson 1 975 ) , b u t t hey h ave n o t y e t b een made t he e xp l ic i t b as is f or t he c lassi f ica t ion o f a ma jor g roup o f Ang lo-Saxon a r te facts .

A ven t 's c lassi fica t ion

o f g arne tin la id d isc b rooches was i n for med b y s o me o f t he e ssen t ia l n o tions o f n umer ica l t axono my ( Aven t 1 975 ) , wh i le Wi lson ( W i lson 1 972 , 2 3-40 ) a nd myse l f ( D ick inson 1 976, 2 73-290 ) h ave i ndependen t ly u sed c lus ter a na lyses o n s h ie ld b osses , t hough n e i ther s che me i s p ub l ished .

There a re o bv ious f a i l ings

i n my o wn work , b u t i td id g enera te g roups wh ich were n o t v isua l ly s e l f-ev iden t a nd wh ich d id c orre la te w i th o ther g rave f inds t o s ugges t ac hrono log ica l s equence . T echno log ica l s tud ies a re a lso a c rucia l f actor , s ince e luc ida t ion o f t he me thod a nd p lace o f manu facture s hou ld p rov ide a much s urer g u ide t o t he v a l id i ty o f a ssump t ions t ha t s im i lar i t ies b e tween o b jec ts d o r ef lec t t he ir o r ig in i n ac o m mon p lace a nd a t ac o m mon t ime .

Ag rowing i n teres t i n s uch

s tud ies h as c harac ter ised t he a na lys is o f g rave g oods i n Eng land d ur ing t he 1 970s .

Myres i n i t ia ted t he s tudy o f p o t ters ' s tamps a nd s tamp-linked p o ttery

( Myres 1 969 , 1 20-141 a nd 1 977, 5 9-65 , 6 8-86) , a nd t h is impor tan t w ork i s b e ing t aken u p b y H i l ls ( 1977, 1 3-23 ) a nd o thers , wh i le t he w idespread i n teres t o n t he C on t inen t i n me ta l t echno logy h as b een r ef lec ted r ecen t ly i n w ork o n Eng l ish ma ter ia l ( eg A ven t a nd L eigh 1 977 ;

Manser 1 977;

Hawkes e t a l 1 979 ;

D ick inson f or thco ming ) . Da t ing b y a ssoc ia t ion r a ther t han b y e vo lu t ion o f f or m o r s tyle i s af ar s urer way o f f ix ing d i f feren t c lasses o f o b jec t i n ac hrono log ica l s equence.

I n

M igra t ion P er iod a rchaeo logy t h is i s d one u l t i ma te ly i n t er ms o f a bso lu te d a tes , t he f ina l l i nk o r a ssocia t ion b e ing w i th ma ter ia l f or wh ich a n h is tor ica l d a te i s o bta inable .

F or N or th G erman ic a nd mos t Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeology s uch f ixed

p o in ts a re e x tre me ly s parse ; t he b es t a re b ur ia ls o f h is tor ica l ly k nown p ersons , o f wh ich t he o ne u nassa i lab le i ns tance a nd s o t he l ynch-p in o f t he Merov ing ian c hrono log y i s C h i lder ic who d ied i n AD 4 81/2 a t T ourna i .

The i den ti f ica t ion

o f S u t ton H oo Mound 1 a s t he b ur ia l o f Raedwa ld , d ied c 6 25 , i s n o t c er ta in , b u t b ased o n ac o mbina t ion o f t he t erm inus p os t q ue m i nd ica ted b y t he c oins a nd a rgumen ts o f h is tor ica l p robabi l i ty ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 , 5 78 f f ) . Even s o t he c o ins d o s ugges t af a ir ly c ircumscr ibed d a te-range —the 6 20s t o 6 30s — a nd b ecause o f i t s l arge a sse mb lage o f ma ter ia l S u t ton H oo f or ms t he c rucia l s tar t ing p oin t f or man i fo ld c ha ins o f a ssocia t ion , a nchor ing t he c hrono logy o f much Eng l ish g rave ma ter ia l i n t he l a te s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies .

C oins ,

t hough n o t r e l iable , a re more r ead i ly a va i lable a s f i xed p o in ts , a nd t hree g roups h ave b een e xp lo i ted : g old a nd s i lver c o ins , o f ten i n min t c ond i t ion , a nchor B öh me 's s che me f or t he G er man ic g rave ma ter ia l o f t he l a te f our th a nd e ar ly f i f th c en tur ies f ound b e tween L ower S axony a nd N or th Gau l ( Böh me 1 974 ) ; B yzan t ine a nd Merov ing ian g o ld c oins were t he b as is f or Werner 's f ounda t ion o f t he Merov ing ian c hrono logy ( Werner 1 935 ) , a l though t he t er minus p os t q ue m p rov ided b y many i s o f marg ina l v a lue ; a nd impor ted Ro man c oins 1 8

and other artefacts of Roman manufacture lead to dates for metalwork and hence pottery in pre-Migration Free Germany (for a convenient summary see Morris 1974). In this last case, the chains of association have to be extended far outward from their base, and thus, as Morris so well explained, the ulti­ mate chronological framework for North German pottery can only be inexact. This is why it seems preferable to lay greater stress on English associations with BlShme's system, especially when seeking dates narrow enough to answer historical questions about the 'Adventus Saxonum'. Dating by association depends not only on confidence in the date of the material with which associations are being made; it is also most important that all examples of association are taken into account,_ and this has not always been assiduously done-notably not by Leeds. Further, if some of the other inherent pitfalls are to be avoided (Wilson 1959), it is far better to consider the sequence-dating of all classes of grave goods. This is what Bahner did for the Trier Region, establishing five periods (or Stufen), and what ·B6hme has done for the Germanic material of the Elbe to Loire (BlShner 1958; B6hme 1974); but the method has not yet been used in England. I attempted something of the kind with the material from the Upper Thames Region, though I did it in terms of absolute dates not abstract periods, and I did not incluqe every type of object-baulking at a comprehensive study of the beads (Dickinson 1976) � Nonetheless I feel that this more exhaustive approach does pay dividends in providing a finer chronology, though I hesitated to date any object to a per­ iod of less than fifty years, and I found that in the very few cemeteries where it was possible to analyse more than· a handful of graves only an average of 40% of graves could be dated (Table 1. 2). It should be noted that my chrono­ logical framework was produced without any computerised matrix analysis and seriation programme, though it would undoubtedly be useful to use these to test my results; one major difficulty would be the generally small size of Anglo-Saxon grave good assemblages compared with their variability in terms of individual objects. A third method for giving chronological order to grave goods relies on stratigraphic and spatial relationships within the cemeteries themselves. Again this method has been used by continental scholars, notably by Reichstein in his reappraisal of early cruciform brooches (Reichstein 1975), but it requires well excavated and recorded cemeteries of some size. A site like Spong Hill looks ideal for this purpose (see Hills this volume). Despite all the problems and failings, a good deal has been established, if not always with the precision that one would like. In particular, we now have a much clearer idea of the material of the fifth century, which was opaque to Leeds, thanks largely to Hawkes, Evison and Myres, and to BlShme, whose work now underpins the framework. Likewise, the great programme of analysis on Sutton Hoo has brought light to the chronology of the seventh cen­ tury, and the sequence, especially for its latter half, has been filled out through extensive work on 'Final Phase' cemeteries by Hyslop, Hawkes and Evison (see especially Hyslop 1963; Meaney and Hawkes 1970; Hawkes 1973; Evison 1963 and 1979), though it has yet to reach the degree of fineness cur­ rently being proposed for late Merovingian cemeteries (Ament 1976). The sixth century, being furthest away from the fixed points and less obviously linked to fruitful historical references, h�s suffered relative neglect since 19

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Total no. of burials

37

93

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Chronological analysis of burials from eleven sites in the Upper Thames region

300-400 (Late Roman) 400-450 450-500 400-500 400-550 450-550 ·450-600 500-550 525-575 550-600 500-600 600-700

Date

Table 1. 2

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Leeds studied the major classes belonging to it. We still lack a secure means of distinguishing phases within the century, despite its being the one to which the greatest number of graves can be assigned, as my Upper Thames sample again shows (Table 1. 3). Work is proceeding on Kent, where the links with the Merovingian World have always made it a primary source for chronological association, while Vierck has recently published an outline scheme for the Anglian areas (1977 ). I have dwelt at length on chronology because I believe it is fundamental, as the direction of my own research indicates, and because it does cause so many difficulties. But it is far from the only matter of concern to students and would-be publishers of cemeteries. Even at the level of the so-called 'goodies', there is more to be inferred than dates. The data provided by cemeteries can be seen at three levels:7 the first is that of the graves, their contents, and any other archaeological features, that is the constituents of a cemetery; the second is the cemetery as a whole viewed in terms of the spatial and quantitative relations of its constituent parts; the third is the cemetery as a unit to be related to other data, both archaeo­ logical and documentary. Although proper analysis at level one-of grave structure, layout, skeletal remains, and grave goods-is basic and can be of intrinsic interest, broader conclusions can only be drawn from a comparison of the graves one with another and with material from other sites, that is at levels two and three. In the past, as I have suggested, the transition from a fairly restricted study at level one to interpretation at level three was rapid, the problems studied at this level were limited-the historically related topics of the origin and development of Anglo-Saxon settlement and changes in religion being major concerns-and explicit exploration of the premises and logical sequence of thought leading to conclusions was rare. Now the range of topics on which cemeteries can contribute is recognised as far wider, moving from human pathology, genetics, and demography, technology, art, and dress, through burial ritual to the broader fields of religion, social structure and the distri­ bution of wealth, the development of the settlement pattern, and ethnic and political identity. Much greater stress is laid on analysis of cemeteries in their own right (level two in my terminology) rather than as quarries for com­ parative material and as dots on distribution maps. At present not much of this is in print, but let me single out a few papers from the 197 0s which may reflect the shape of things to come: there is Hogarth' s study of grave-structures, mainly in seventh-century Kent (Hogarth 197 3); both Hawkes and Rahtz have made powerful, if opposing, contributions to the debate on the significance of grave orientation (Hawkes 1977 ; Rahtz 1977 and 197 8); Vierck has analysed the cultural and ethnic distinctions reflected in female costume (most recently in Vierck 197 8); finally, there are Faull's two papers, one on the possible identification of a British stratum in the so-called Anglo-Saxon cemeteries of Northumbria, the other on the different function of the two cemeteries at Sancton (Faull 19 76 and 1977). Since discussion of such broader approaches, and particularly of the sociological approach, to Anglo-Saxon cemeteries is a major theme of the contributors to this Symposium, I do not wish myself to elaborate on them. There must be, however, two prerequisites for these new studies. Firstly, as with chronology, we must be constantly on our guard for hidden assumptions and for too rapid leaps from one level or one class of data

21

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to another. My own experience in attempting to interpret the Upper Thames cemeteries provides a nice example. Tabulation of datable graves and datable cemeteries (Table 1.2, 1. 3) shows a marked increase in numbers from the fifth to sixth century; likewis� distribution maps of the same material show a progressive spread outwards from Dorchester-on-Thames from the early fifth century (comparable with Bl>hme's Periods II and III), to the fifth century as a whole, and then to the sixth century, with an 'infilling' in the sixth century of areas where 'nuclei' of cemeteries had already been established in the fifth (Figs 1.2, 1. 3, 1.4). When I wrote my thesis in 1976, I naively took these to represent a real growth in Anglo-Saxon population and settlement. B ut on reflection I must now ask: how far is the increase in the sixth century an accident of our present ability to date more sixth-century than fifth-century grave goods, and/or a result of fluctuations in the custom of depositing grave goods, especially in the light of continental evidence, which suggests that burial with grave goods went into sharp decline in the fifth century, only to revive dramatically at the end of the century with the beginnings of the Merovin­ gian Reihengraberfelder (James 1979, especially 77, and James this volume, p. 38; Kidd 1977)? I have found that sites datable to the sixth century tend to be much smaller than those which can be shown to have been used in the fifth century (Fig 1. 5). Of course, sites beginning in the fifth century and lasting through the sixth century will be larger than those in use for one century alone. Fault's argument for Sancton may also be applicable here-that cem­ eteries serving several communities are early foundations, while those for individual hamlets or farms were established only at a later date. Certainly, the fact that undat.able sites consist mainly of single graves draws attention to the fact that it is easier to identify sixth-century burials, and that only where a goodly number of burials is recovered is there a reasonable chance of recog­ nising examples of the fifth century. Even if I could resolve the bias in dating, can I be sure that the geographical spread reflects expanding Anglo-Saxon colonisation, or do these so-called Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in fact represent or include a section of the population that was B ritish by origin and who by the sixth century wished or were obliged to conform to the Germanic cultural norm? Secondly, conclusions which rely basically on spatial and quantitative re­ lationships require good and plentiful data. These can be provided only from large cemeteries excavated and published to the highest modern standard; the low quality of most nineteenth- and early twentieth-century excavations just cannot satisfy modern research interests. This above all else is the argument for continuing to excavate Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, and for excavating them with the issues of academic research firmly in mind. On the other hand, old excavations do offer plentiful data, and studies of new individual sites will only be really worthwhile if they are grounded in knowledge of all the other material from the area, and ultimat-ely from the whole country. To this end regional surveys are a prime desideratum. In the last decade they have become a relatively common type of research, emulating at least in aim if not in result the regional surveys of cemeteries in Germany. But it must be reported that achievement has been modest: none of the corpora supported at times by grants from the British Academy has yet reached publication stage, and though a number of doctoral theses have utilised cemetery evidence, few have set out to study it comprehensively (for the contributions to the Symposium of two who have, see Arnold and Welch this volume). 23

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Finally, I would like to return to where I began, the historical involvement of Anglo-Saxon archaeology and the documentary sources. I do think that this has imposed a straitjacket on interpretation in the past, but I do not accept that in widening our field of interest we should abandon the link with history altogether. As will be apparent from my discussion of the chronology, the period in question is brief, beginning and ending in documented history and contemporary with known historical events in neighbouring countries. These provide the synchronisms for our relative dating, which could be established with such a degree of accuracy by no other current means. Moreover, general interpretations relating to social organisation and religion are derived ultimately from analogy; it would be foolish to ignore the potential for analogy provided by the written material for contemporary societies in the British Isles and Western Europe, and to rely solely on ethnographic information from more remote areas. But we must also recognise that historians have changed their approach too; historians of the early Middle Ages are much more concerned with economic and social problems than they used to be. Indeed, they too are turning to anthropology to cast light on the workings of poorly documented communities (eg Dumville 1977a); and in the last few years the study of early medieval documents in Britain has been going through a methodological revol­ ution every bit as important as that currently affecting archaeology (see notably Dumville 1977b). It is vital that documents be rigorously assessed on their own terms, and interpreted as products of their own times before they are exploited as authorities for the 'real' history of more remote times. In comparison with the other papers presented to the Symposium, the issues which I have discussed may seem irrelevant and unrepresentative; moreover, I have confined my remarks strictly to conventional early Anglo­ Saxon cemeteries rather than embracing the full range of early medieval cem­ etery types, let alone mortuary practices in general. Perhaps by this I have conveyed more accurately than I anticipated the past and present state of Anglo­ Saxon cemetery studies; the immediate present and future state may be revealed by the other papers published in this volume. NOTES 1.

This paper was the introductory lecture to the Symposium, and is published substantially as it was given, but for the addition of footnotes. In the interim two review articles have appeared expressing opinions in accord with many of my own (Haselgrove 1979; Hills 1979).

2.

The relationship has been approached in two main ways. Documentary references might be accepted as they stand, and so used for direct corre­ lation with the archaeology or as a key to its interpretation: for example, Bede's mid-fifth century dating of the 'adventus Saxonum' was taken as a general terminus post quern for the presence of Anglo-Saxon material in England by scholars such as Leeds and Rberg (Hawkes 1978, 71-75), while Gildas' statements about the period of peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus have stimulated Myres and Hawkes to look for its archaeological manifestation in a retraction or halt to the Anglo-Saxon settlement (Myres 1969, 115-116; Hawkes 1978, 82). Alternatively, inconsistencies or con­ tradictions between documents and archaeology have resulted in the rejection 28

or emendation of the former in the light of the latter, as, for example, was done by Leeds with his 'Icknield Way' theory and Evison with her 'Frankish-led invasion south of the Thames', with reference to the sixth­ and fifth-century entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle respectively (Leeds 1912, 1925, 1933 and 1954; Evison 1965, 79-87). 3.

I should add that this approach was also highly influential in determining the title of my own doctoral thesis, and no doubt the manner in which I studied the archaeology (Dickinson 1976).

4.

The diagram is based on the first known date of discovery, be it a report of finds or actual excavation; obviously this could post-date considerably the first actual knowledge of a site, and there is an undoubted connection between the beginning of substantial records and the foundation of local archaeological societies and their journals.

5.

I am very grateful to Miss Cook for making her data available to me, and for informally advising me of current Department of the Environment attitudes to Anglo-Saxon cemetery study. What I have written here should not, however, be taken in any way as a statement of their official policy, for which I have neither brief nor authority; if I am in error, t,he fault is mine.

6.

Eg cruciform (Xherg 1926; Reichstein 1975); great square-headed (Leeds 1949); small-long (Leeds 1945); penannular (Fowler 1963); applied saucer (Evison 1978); garnet-inlaid disc (Avent 1975); disc (Dickinson 1979).

7.

This division unconsciously reflected that used by Ian Hodder in his paper to the Symposium (see Hodder this volume, p. 161). BIBLIOGRAPHY

�erg 1926. N. �erg, The Anglo-Saxons in England during the Early Cen­ turies after the Invasion (Uppsala, 1926). Ahrens 1978. C. Ahrens ed., Sachsen und Angelsachsen

(Hamburg, 1978).

Ament 1976. H. Ament, 'Chronologische Untersuchungen am fr�nkischen Grfiberfeldern der j(lngeren Merovingerzeit im Rheinland', Bericht der RlSmisch-Germanische Kommission 57 (1976), 285-336. Avent 1975. R. Avent, Anglo-Saxon Disc and Composite Brooches B.A .R . 11 (Oxford, 1975). Avent and Leigh 1977. R. Avent and D. Leigh, 'A Study of Cross-Hatched Gold Foils in Anglo-Saxon Jewellery', Medieval Archaeol. 21 (1977 ), 1 -46. Baldwin Brown 1915. G. Baldwin Brown, The Arts in Early England Vols. 3 and 4 (London, 1915). Bdhme 1974. H. W. Bdhme, Germanische Grabfunde des 4. bis 5. Jahrhund­ erts zwischen unteren Elbe nnd Loire (Munich, 1974). Bl:Shner 1958. K. Bdhner, Die Fr�nkischen Altertilmer des Trierer Landes (Berlin, 1958). 29

Bruce-Mitford 1975. R. L. S. Bruce-Mitford, The Sutton Hoo Ship-Buri�l. Vol. 1: Excavation, Background, The S?iP, Dating and Inventory (London, 1975). Daniel 197 5. G. E. Daniel, One Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology 2nd ed. (London, 1975). Dickinson 1976. T. M. Dickinson, The Anglo-Saxon Burial Sites of the Upper Thames Region, and their Bearing on the History of Wessex, c AD 400-700 unpublished D.Phil. thesis (Oxford University, 1976). Dickinson 1979. T. M. Dickinson, 'On the Origin and Chronology of the Early Anglo-Saxon Disc Brooch', Anglo-Saxon Stud. in Archaeol. and Hist. 1 B.A.R. 72 (Oxford, 1979), 39-80. Dickinson forthcoming. T. M . Dickinson, 'Ornament Variation in Pairs of Cast Saucer Brooches: a Case Study from the Upper Thames Region', in L. E. Webster ed., Papers from the Seminar on Problems of Jewellery, AD 550-650, held at the British Museum, 27th to 29th May, 1977 (London, forthcoming). Doran and Hodson 1975. J. Doran and R. Hodson, Mathematics and Qomputers in Archaeology (Edinburgh, 1975). Dumville 1977a. D. N. Dumville, 'Kingship, Genealogies and Regnal Lists', in P. H. Sawyer and I. N. Woods eds., Early Medieval Kingship (Leeds, 197 7), 7 2-104. Dumville 1977b. D. N. Dumville, 'Sub-Roman Britain: History and Legend', History 62 (1977), 173-192. Evison 1955. V. I. Evison, 'Early Anglo-Saxon Inlaid Metalwork', Antiq. J. 35 (1955), 20-45. Evison 1963. V. I. Evison, 'Sugar-Loaf Shield Bosses', Antiq. J. 43 (1963), 38-96. Evison 1965. V. I. Evison, The Fifth-Century Invasions South of the Thames (London, 1965). Evison 1968. V. I. Evison, 'Quoit-Brooch Style Buckles', Antiq. J. 48 (1968), 239-249. Evison 1978. V. I. Evison, 'Early Anglo-Saxon Applied Disc Brooches. Part!: On the Continent; Part II: In England', Antiq. J. 58 (1978), 88102, 260-278. Evison 1979. V. I. Evison, Wheel-Thrown Pottery in Anglo-Saxon Graves (London, 1979). Faull 1976. M. L. Faull, 'The Location and Relationship of the Sancton Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries', Antig. J. 56 (1976), 227-233. Faull 1977. M . L. Faull, 'British Survival in Anglo-Saxon Northumbria', in L. Laing ed., Studies in Celtic Survival B.A.R. 37 (Oxford, 1977), 1 -55. Fleury and Perin 1978. M. Fleury and P. Perin, Probl�mes de Chronologie Relative et Absolue concernant les Cimeti�res d'entre Loire et Rhin (Paris, 1978). 30

Fowler 1963. E. Fowler, 'Celtic Metalwork of the Fifth and Sixth Centuries AD: a Reapprais_al ', Archaeol. J. 120 (1963), 98-160. Fowler 1977. P. J. Fowler, Approaches to Archaeology (London, 1977). Green and Rogerson 1978. B. Green and A. Rogerson, The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Bergh Apton, Norfolk: Catalogue E Anglian Archaeol. 7 (Gressenhall, 1978). Harden 1956a. D. B. Harden, 'Glass Vessels in Britain and Ireland, AD 400-1000', in Harden 1956b, 132-167. Harden 1956b. D. B. Harden ed., Dark Age Britain: Studies Presented to E. T. Leeds (London, 1956). Harden 197 8. D. B. Harden, 'Anglo-Saxon and Later Medieval Glass in Britain: Some Recent Developments', Medieval Archaeol. 22 (1978), 1-24. Haselgrove 1979. S. Haselgrove, 'Romano-Saxon Attitudes', in P. J. Casey ed., The End of Roman Britain B.A.R. 71 (Oxford, 1979), 4-13. Hawkes 1956. C . F. C. Hawkes, 'The Jutes of Kent', in Harden 1956, 91-111. Hawkes 1973. S. C. Hawkes, 'The Dating and Social Significance of the Burials in the Polhill Cemetery', in B. Philp ed., Excavations in West Kent 19601970 (Dover, 1973), 186-201. Hawkes 1977. S. C. Hawkes, 'Orientation at Finglesham: Sunrise Dating of Death and Burial in an Anglo-Saxon Cemetery in East Kent', Archaeol. Cantiana 92 (1977), 33-51. Hawkes 1978. S. C. Hawkes, 'Die anglo-s!lchsische Invasion Britanniens', in Ahrens 1978, 71-84. Hawkes and Dunning 1961. S. C. Hawkes and G. C. Dunning, 'Soldiers and Settlers in Britain, Fourth to Fifth Century: with a Catalogue of Animal­ Ornamented Buckles and related Belt Fittings', Medieval Archaeol. 5 (1961), 1-70. Hawkes et al 1979. S. C. Hawkes, G. Speake, and P. Northover, 'A Seventh­ Century Bronze Metalworker's Die from Rochester, Kent', FrC.hmittelalter­ liche Studien 13 (1979), 382-392. Hills 1977. C. M. Hills, The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Spong Hill, North Elmham. Part I: Catalogue of Cremations, nos. 20-64 and 1000-1690 E Anglian Archaeol. 6 (Gressenhall, 1977). Hills 1979. C. M. Hills, 'The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England in the Pagan Period: a review', Anglo-Saxon Engl. 8 (1979), 297-329. Hirst 1976. S. Hirst, Recording on Excavations. I: The Written Record Rescue Publication 7 (Hertford, 1976). Hogarth 1973. A. C. Hogarth, 'Structural Features in Anglo-Saxon Graves', Archaeol. J. 130 (1973), 104-119. Hyslop 1963. M. Hyslop, 'Two Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries at Chamberlains Barn, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire', Archaeol. J. 120 (1963), 161-200.

31

J a mes 1 979 .

E . J a mes ,

' Ce me ter ies a nd t he Proble m o f Frank ish S et t le men t

i n Gau l ' , i n P . H . S awyer e d ., Names , Words , a nd G raves :

E ar ly

Med ieva l S et t le men t ( Leeds , 1 979 ) , 5 5-89. J essup 1 975.

R . J essup , Man o f Many Ta len ts :

a n I n for ma l B iography o f

J a mes Doug las , 1 753-1819 ( London/Ch iches ter , 1 975 ). K idd 1 977.

D . S . W. K idd , ' So me Ques t ions o f Me thod i n t he S tudy o f Migra-

t ion P er iod Po t tery ' , i n K ossack a nd Reichs tein 1 977, 9 3-102. K ossack a nd Reichs te in 1 977.

G . Kossack a nd J . Re ichs te in , Archäo log ische

Be i träge z ur C hrono log ie d er Völkerwanderungsze i t An t iqu i tas , R eihe 3 , S er ie 4° , Bd . 2 0 ( Bonn , 1 977). L eeds 1 912.

E . T . L eeds ,

' The D is tr ibu t ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon S aucer Brooch

i n Rela t ion t o t he Ba tt le o f B ed ford ,

AD 5 71 ' , Archaeo log ia 6 3 ( 1 912).

1 59-202. L eeds 1 913 .

E . T . L eeds , The Archaeology o f t he Ang lo-Saxon S e t t le men ts

( Ox ford , 1 913 ). L eeds 1 925 .

E . T . L eeds , ' The Wes t S axon I nvas ion a nd t he I ckn ie ld Way ' ,

H is tory 1 0 ( 1925 ) , 9 7-109. L eeds 1 933.

E . T . L eeds ,

' The Ear ly S axon Pene tra tion o f t he U pper Tha mes

Area ' , An t iq . J . 1 3 ( 1933 ) , 2 29-251. L eeds 1 945 .

E . T . L eeds , ' The D is tr ibu t ion o f t he Ang les a nd S axons Archae-

o log ica l ly C ons idered ', Archaeo log ia 9 1 ( 1945 ) , 1 -106. L eeds 1 949.

E . T . L eeds , A C orpus o f Ang lo-Saxon G rea t S quare-Headed

Brooches ( Ox ford , 1 949 ). L eeds 1 954.

E . T . L eeds , ' The G row th o f Wessex ' , Oxon iens ia 1 9 ( 1 954) ,

4 5-60 . Manser 1 977.

J . Manser , AT echno log ica l S tudy o f t he ' Bronze ' Brooches

Excava ted a t S pong H i l l , N or fo lk , 1 972-1976 u npubl ished B .S c . t hes is ( I ns t i tu te o f Archaeology , L ondon , 1 977 ). Meaney a nd Hawkes 1 970 .

A . L . Meaney a nd S . C . Hawkes , Two Ang lo-Saxon

C e me ter ies a t Winna l l , Winches ter , Ha mpsh ire S oc . Medieva l A rchaeol . Monograph S er ies 4 ( London , 1 970 ). Morr is 1 974 .

J . Morr is , Rev iew o f J . N . L . Myres a nd B . G reen , T he

Ang lo-Saxon Ce me ter ies a t C a is tor-by-Norw ich a nd Marksha l l , N or folk i n Medieva l Archaeol . 1 8 ( 1974 ) , 2 25-232. Morr is f or thco m ing .

R . K . Morr is , ' The Or ig ins o f C hurchyard Bur ia l ' , i n

The C hurch i n Br i t ish Archaeo logy C .B. A . R es . Rep . ( London , f or thco m ing ). Myres 1 969 .

J . N . L . Myres , Ang lo-Saxon P o t tery a nd t he S et t le men t o f

Eng land ( Ox ford , 1 969 ). Myres 1 977.

J . N . L . Myres , A C orpus o f Ang lo-Saxon P ot tery i n t he Pagan

P er iod ( Cambr idge , 1 977). Per in 1 980.

P . Per in , La Da ta t ion d es T o mbes Merov ing iennes ( Geneva ,

1 980 f or thco m ing ).

3 2

Rahtz 1977. P. A. Rahtz, 'Late Roman Cemeteries and Beyond', in R. Reece ed., Burial in the Roman World C.B.A. Res. Rep. 22 (London, 1977), 53-64. Rahtz 1978. P. A. Rahtz, 'Grave Orientation', Archaeol. J. 135 (1978), 1-14. Reichstein 1975. J. Reichstein, Die K reuzrnrmige Fibel: zur Chronologie der sptl.ten R�mischen K aiserzeit and der V6lkerwanderungszeit in Skandin­ avien, au.f dem Kontinent und in England Offa-Bdcher 34 (Neum(lnster, 1975). Rowley 1974. T. Rowley ed., Anglo-Saxon Settlement and-Landscape B.A.R. 6 (Oxford, 1974). Seitzer 197 8. D. J. Seitzer, 'Problems and Principles of Classification in Archaeology', Helinium 18 (1978), 3-34. Swanton 1973. M. J. Swanton, The Spearheads of the Anglo-Saxon Settlements (London, 1973). Vierck 1977. H. Vierck, 'Zur relativen und absoluten Chronologie der anglischen Grabfunde in England', in Kossack and Reichstein, 42-52. Vierck 1978. H. Vierck, 'Die anglische Frauentracht', in Ahrens 1978, 245-253. Werner 1935. J. Werner, Mfi.nzdatierte Austrasische Grabfunde (Berlin, 1935). Wilson 1959. D. M. Wilson, 'Almgren and Chronology: a Summary and some Comments', Medieval Archaeol 3 (1959), 112-119. Wilson 1976. D. M. Wilson ed., The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England (London, 1976). Wilson 1972. M. E. Wilson, The Archaeological Evidence of the Hwiccian Area unpublished Ph.D. thesis (Durham University, 1972).

33

2. MEROVINGIAN CEMETERY STUDIES AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FO R ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND by Edward James In some ways the cemetery archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England must appear as the poor relation when compared with that of Merovingian Gaul. There are no typological studies of the exhaustive kind such as that provided for the Trier region by Bb'hner (1958); no relatively firm chronology for the fifth century graves such as that given to us by Btlhme (1974); no absolute fixed dates such as that supplied by the grave of Childeric. The number of cemeteries excavated in France, Belgium and the Rhineland has been far larger than the number investigated in England; a not inconsiderable number have been large, almost totally excavated cemeteries. In this paper I want to examine the present state of studies on Merovingian cemeteries, particu­ larly in France, to offer some comparisons with the position in England, to suggest some profitable lines of future research on death and burial in the early medieval period in Gaul, and finally to examine the problems presented by one particular region-the variety of burial practice in France is such that local studies are likely to offer much the greatest possibilities for future research. Cemeteries of early medieval date have been known and recognised for much longer time in France and Germany than in England. Even if one dis­ a counts the references in twelfth and thirteenth century chansons de geste to vast fields of graves containing the bodies of armed men (variously interpreted as battle cemeteries for Christians or for paynims), one must still trace the history of Merovingian cemetery studies back to 1653. In that year, of course, at Tournai, was discovered the immensely rich and spectacular burial of the Frankish king Childeric. Had it not been for the find of the seal ring engraved with a portrait and the reversed inscription CHIIDERICI REGIS it is very un­ likely that the grave goods would have been recognised as fifth-century in date and Frankish in origin. As it was, Childeric was a figure well known to all as the father of Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, who died, according to Gregory of Tours, in around 481-and thus Merovingian archae­ ology was given a firm chronological baseline from the very outset. More­ over, by comparison with the finds in the grave at Tournai, antiquaries of the Enlightenment could assign similar objects correctly to the Merovingian period; for instance, in 1740 in the case of a cemetery unearthed near Strasbourg or in 1834 with discoveries made by Wilhelm in South-West Germany. Even so, antiquaries could err; a number of large Merovingian cemeteries were in the early nineteenth century attributed to the Celts, the defenders of the homeland against the invading Romans, rather than to the Franks, the invading Germans who founded the French monarchy. Another chance find cli,nched matters: the Lindenschmidt brothers in the 1840s 35

e xcava ted a c e me tery n ear Ma inz i n wh ich t hey f ound a g rave c on ta in ing a c o in m in ted i n t he n a me o f t he s ix th-cen tury Emperor J ust in ian ( on a l l t h is, c f

Per in f or thco m ing 1 980 ) .

Ten y ears l a ter t he A bbé C oche t p ub l ished a n

i nf luen t ia l s tudy o f t he a rchaeo logy o f N or mandy ( Coche t 1 859 ) wh ich a ccep ted t he c onclusions o f t he L indensch m id ts a nd c onv inced most o f French s cholars h ip ( even i fs o me s outhern F rench a rchaeo log ists r e ma ined c onv inced t ha t i t was s o me k ind o f n or thern p lo t ). The s ucceed ing g enera t ions w ere s pen t , a s i n E ng land , i n d iscovery a nd c o l lect ion .

T he g rea t b u lk o ft he me ta lwork f ro m Merovingian Gaul w h ich

h as b een p ub l ished o r wh ich s urvives t oday i n museu ms was f ound i n t hese y ears.

I th ard ly n eeds t o b e s a id t ha t i t was t he o b jects f ro m ceme ter ies

wh ich i n terested t he e ar ly Meroving ian a rchaeo log ists, n o t t he c e me ter ies t he mse lves, a nd i ti s v ery r are ly t ha t e ven a c e me tery p lan was p ub l ished , o r t ha t o ne c an n ow b e r econstructed f ro m s urviv ing n o tes.

E ven w hen more

s cho lar ly a t ten t ion b egan t o b e f ocused u pon Meroving ian a rchaeo logy , r ea l ly f ro m t he 1 920s o nwards, t he emphasis was u pon t he t ypo logy a nd c hrono logy o ft he o b jects d iscovered a nd n o t u pon c e meter ies o r e ven mor tuary c usto ms. Th is was n o d oub t t he c orrect a pproach i n s o me ways : made u n t i l av a l id c hrono logy was e stab lished .

n o p rogress c ould b e

B ut i td id mean t ha t i tt ook

al ong t i me b efore i tb eca me g enera l ly a ccep ted t ha t c e meter ies t he mse lves n eeded a ccura te r ecord ing a s we l l a s t he o b jects b ur ied i n t he m . The t wo ma jor a cade m ic e ven ts i n Meroving ian a rchaeo logy t h is c en tury were t he p ub l ica t ion o f Werner ' ss tudy o f c oin-da ted g raves i n Nor th-East G aul ( Werner 1 935 ) a nd B öhner ' ss tudy o f t he Meroving ian a rchaeo logy o ft he Tr ier r eg ion ( 1958 ) , wh ich t oge ther p rov ided a w orkab le c hrono logy f or most t ypes o f a r tefac t t ha t c ou ld b e mod if ied a nd a dap ted f or a pp lica t ion o ver much o f N or thern Gau l a nd t he t err i tory im med ia te ly e ast o ft he Rh ine .

I n r ecen t

y ears, i ndeed s ince t he 1 930s, most o ft he s em ina l work o n t he a rchaeo logy o f Merov ing ian Gau l, o f F rance a nd o ft he w estern p ar t o f G er many , h as b een d one b y Ger man a rchaeo log ists.

T he a reas t ha t h ave b een b est c overed , t here-

f ore , h ave b een t hose p ar ts o f G au l wh ich , a s ar esu l t o f t he e ven ts o ft he f if th c en tury , a re n ow G er man-speak ing .

An o tab le e xcep t ion i s t he s tudy b y

B öh me ( 1974 ) , wh ich i s c oncerned w i th t he c e me ter ies c on ta in ing G er man ic g raves f ro m t he l a te Ro man p er iod o ver t he who le o f N or thern Gau l .

E ven

h ere , h owever , t here i s t he c oncen tra t ion o n t he c on tri but ion o f G er mans; e ar ly med ieva l a rchaeo logy , j ust l ike e ar ly med ieva l h istory , h as u n for tuna te ly a l l t oo of ten b een s een i n G er many a s a bove a l l a n i nvest iga t ion o ft he way i n wh ich t he G er man ic p eop les c on tr ibuted t o e ar ly med ieva l c ivi lisa t ion— in t he p er iod k nown t o t he m a s t he 'Migra t ion P er iod ' b ut , s ign if ican t ly e nough , s t i l l k nown t o many F rench s cho lars a s 't he A ge o ft he Grea t I nvasions ' . Archaeo log ists h ave n a tura l ly l ooked t o c e me tery a rchaeo logy f or p ossib le a nswers t o h istor ica l p rob le ms .

A s i n Eng land , a rchaeo log ists o n t he C on tinen t

h ave p erhaps b een o verin f luenced b y t he a va i lable h istor ica l e vidence , a tt e mp t ing t o f i t t he ir own r esu lts i n to a n h istor ica l p a t tern wh ich , of ten , i s n o t n ear ly s o s ecure a s t hey b e l ieve a nd , t oo of ten , u sing o ut-of-da te h istor ica l a rgu men ts a nd a t te mp t ing t o a nswer t he h istorica l q uest ions wh ich h is tor ians h ave a lready l ong s topped a sk ing .

One o ft hese l ong-held o bsessions , l ong-

h e ld l arge ly b ecause o f t he o verr id ing i n terest i n t he G er man ic c on tr ibut ion

3 6

to European life, has been the-problem of the ethnic.origin of cemetery pop.ilations. With the exception of Faull (1977) this is not a question which has much bothered the Anglo-Saxon archaeologist�nless one includes those who have tried to distinguish Angle, Saxon;·and Jute from each other on the basis of grave goods. It is too ofteµ. assumed that the distinctions between German and Briton in Anglo-Saxon England are, archaeologically speaking, obvious ones. In Gaul the same confidence was felt in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Barriere-Flavy, in his influential volume on The Industrial Arts of Barbarian Gaul (1901),, solved the problem with remarkable facility. All early medieval grave -goods n�rth of the Loire and the plateau of Langres must be Frankish; all to the south and west.of this line were Visigothic; and all to the south and east were Burgundian. These cultural areas were equivalent, in fact, to the political divisions which existed, say, during the period 490 to 507. It did not take;archaeologists in France long to see the flaws in Barriere-Flavy's argument, although the initial response was perhaps equally misleading: the argument w.as that the Visigoths were not present in South-West France for long enough to leave all those graves behind them; the graves must be th·ose of the Franks who conquered the area after 507 and who were in political control thereafter until the late seventh century. As far as South-West Gaul was concerned this was the accepted position until the publication in 1947 of a study by Aberg which argued that the most typical artefact of this area ,. the., Aquitanian buckle' , was not Visi­ gothic as Barriere-Flavy had argued, or Fr�kish, but Roman (Aberg 1947, 40-64; James 1977, 97-160). Not only did he convincingly argue that these were made by Romans but, in all likelihood, worn . by them, even in their graves. Such a demonstration attacked a fundamental belief of Merovingian archaeology in the first half of this century, that burial with weapons, buckles, brooches and other items of personal adornment-in short, burial fully dressed -was a Germanic custom. The Germans buried their dead fully dressed, normally in a wooden coffin or a simple trench-grave; the Romans buried theirs in stone sarcophagi or in graves built up of stone slabs or tiles. By the seventh century, so the by now traditional interpretation runs, the two ethnic groups had been so intermingled and fused into one people that burial customs exhibit a mixture of the two ethnic types: we no longer have a Gallo­ Roman or a Frankish culture, but a 'Merovingian' one. My own view on this has recently been i:ublished (James 1979) and I shall do no more than summarise my argument here•. A particular type of cemetery, with its own individual style and variety of burial customs·, has long been seen as an ethnic indicator: this is the Reihengrn.ber or row-grave cemetery, in which bodies were inhumed fully dressed in separate trenche s, without sar­ cophagi or even coffins, and the trenches dispos�d neatly in rows ,. It is in fact rarely quite so simple as that: sarcophagi, multiple burial and graves without goods are all often found in row-grave cemeteries. In certain cases I do believe that such cemeteries may be an indication of an alien or specifically Germanic intrusion, above all when �emetery types, burial customs and grave goods all appear quite foreign to a particular region. A classic example would bethe Saintonge, where a handful of row-grave cemeteries very probably rer,­ resent the Frankish settlements which, according to one Frankish historical source, were made in this area after the conquest of 507 (Maurin 1971 , 181 ff ; 37

James 1979, 61-3). But in the area where the row-grave cemetery originated it is by no means clear that such cemeteries can be seen as indicators of Frankish settlement. This naturally depends upon one's view of the origin of the row-grave cemetery. The starting point must be B�lme's study (1974) of the Germanic graves of the fourth and fifth century between the Elbe and the Loire-a study which Dickinson has argued (this volume, p 19) is crucial for the understanding of early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries too. The Germanic nature of B6hme's graves is in fact by no means self-ev ident. The :men are buried with weapons, with particular types of buckle, and with vessels of pot and glass; the women with brooches of a very distinctive type which is found also in the cemeteries of North Germany. Most of.the grave goods seem to be Roman in manufacture and the burial type, fully dressed with pots and glass and weapons by the side of the body, was not in fact specifically German; indeed, apart from the weapons it has parallels in Roman Gaul. The most probable explanation is that we are seeing the development on Roman soil of new burial customs among some elements of the Germanic military forces which formed part of the Roman army. Laeti, gentiles and foederati have all been suggested, although the latter group are the most likely (James 1979, 75-6). These burial customs virtually die out in the course of the fifth cen­ tury. We have no evidence from cemetery archaeology, therefore, a bout the fifth-century settlement in Northern Gaul of the Franks: the F ranks when living east of the Rhine did not have this particular funerary custom and d id not adopt it on their first arrival in Gaul. In the later fifth century we seem to have a situation where both Germans and Romans in Gaul are giving up the habit of placing grave goods with the dead. This can be recognised clearly in the evolution of burial customs exhibited in the largest of those cemeteries which continues in use right through from the fourth century to the sixth, Krefeld-Gellep, without doubt the best i:ublished cemetery from late Roman or early medieval Gaul (Pirling, especially 1974). Here the cemetery expan­ ded in a linear direction away from the Roman fort: between the Roman burials near the fort, distinguished and dated by their grave goods, and the Frankish cemetery of the sixth century, likewise clearly distinguishable, lay a whole swathe of graves without goods, which are surely ,

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I n t he u pper T ha mes v a l ley , t he f igure f or A b ingdon , w i th 1 7.1% w eapon g raves ( Fig

4 .4.1) , i s v ery s im i lar t o L ong Wi t tenha m ( Fig

a n e qua l ly l ow f igure o f 1 7.3% .

4 .4.2 ) , w ith

B oth o f t hese c e me ter ies b eg in u se i n t he

f i f th c en tury a nd c on t inue t hrough t he s ix th .

T here i s a lso l i t t le v ar ia t ion i n

t he weapon c o mbina t ions , s pear a nd s pear/sh ield b e ing mos t c o m mon .

A t

B er ins f ie ld , w i th a h igher f igure o f 2 7.3% o f t he g raves c on ta in ing w eapons , t here i s a n u nusua l ly l arge n u mber c on ta in ing merely a s h ield ; t he n umbers a re l ow ( Fig

4 .4.3 ).

o therw ise

The l a te c e metery o f Whea t ley ( Fig

4 .4.4 ) h as a l ow f igure o f 4 .1% , w i th o n ly t he s h ie ld a nd s pear p resen t , a pp aren t ly t yp ica l f or a c e metery o f t h is d a te. Though t he a na lys is l acks e xa mp les o f v ery e ar ly c e me ter ies u npo l luted b y mid-six th c en tury g raves , t here i st h e p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t he e ar l ier e xa mples d isp lay a more e qua l d is tr ibu t ion o f c o mbina t ions w i th a h igher p ropor tion o f weapon g raves , b o th o f wh ich a re r educed t hrough t ime.

Wh i le t he q ua lity

o f t he d a ta may n ot b e u n i for m a nd i ti s d i f f icu l t t o c a l ibra te t he f igures u sing t he n u mber o f f e ma le g raves p resen t , i t s hou ld n o t p ass u nno t iced t ha t t here i s as trong s im i lar i ty b etween t he mid-s ix th c en tury c e meter ies o f K en t , S ussex a nd t he I s le o f Wigh t , whereas e lsewhere i n Wi l tsh ire a nd t he u pper Tha mes v a l ley t here i s ad i fferen t emphas is o n p ar t icu lar weapons , f ewer weapon g raves o n a verage , a nd c er ta in c lasses o f weapon , e specia l ly t he sword ) a re p oor ly r epresen ted .

I t migh t b e a rgued t ha t t h is i s s y mpto ma tic o f t he

Wes t S axons ' n eed f or a ggress ion t owards t he b e t ter p rov ided a reas e lste where i n S ou thern Eng land .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f weapon g raves i n K en t h as n o t p assed

w i thou t c o m men t : ' Sarre .. i s s e t a par t f ro m t he ma jor i ty b y v ir tue o f ah igh p roport i on o f ma le b ur ia ls w i th weapons , i nclud ing n umerous swords , f ar i n e xcess o f wha t i s n or ma l e ven i n a r is tocra t ic c e me ter ies s uch a s B i frons .

The o n ly t ru ly c o mparable c ase i n K en t i s t he c e me tery

a t Buck land , b eh ind D over .

H ere t hen , w e h ave t wo u nusua l ly well-

a rmed c o m mun i t ies i n s tra teg ic p os i t ions c lose t o k nown

a lbe i t l a ter

p or ts ' ( Hawkes 1 969 , 1 91). An e xa m ina t ion o f T able 4 .1 r evea ls t ha t a l though S arre h as more weapon g raves t han B i frons , t he n umber o f g raves w i th s words i s v ery s i mi lar . There a re o ther c e me ter ies w i th a f ar h igher p ropor t ion o f weapon g raves a nd s words .

T he c e me ter ies o f A l fr is ton a nd C hesse l l Down s how a u n i for m

p a t tern w i th S arre ( % o f weapon g raves : C hesse l l Down 2 4 .5 ) .

S arre 2 4 .4 ;

A l fr is ton 2 5.5 ;

C hesse l l Down h as a h igher p ropor t ion o f we l l-ar med

ma les , t han t hese o ther c e meter ies ( Sarre 1 4 .8 ;

A lfr is ton 3 .3 ;

Chessel l

Down 1 8 .5 ) , af igure o n ly s uperseded i n t he s a mp le b y P eters f inger , W i lts ( 23.0 ).

I f t he n umber o f wel l-ar med ma les i s t o b e t aken a s a n i nd ica t ion o f

t he r e la t ive n eed t o p ro tec t c o m mercia l c en tres , S arre a nd B uck land a re n ot a lone i n t h is r espect . I n h is s tudy o f t he r o le o f t he g if t a s a mechan is m f or e xchange i n c ert a in s oc ie ties , Mauss c o m men ted t ha t when ' two g roups o f men

mee t t hey

may move a way o r i n t he c ase o f mis trus t o r d e f iance t hey may r esor t t o a r ms ;

o r e lse t hey c an c o me t o t erms ' ( Mauss 1 954 , 7 9 ).

I n t he move t owards

i ncreas ing ly c o mmercia l t ransact ions a nd c on tro l f ro m a c en tra l a dm in is trat ion , t he n eed wou ld d eve lop f or s tandard u n i ts o f measure , a nd u l t i ma tely f or sma l l

9 0

c urrency.

T ha t u n i ts o f measure e x is ted i s s hown b y t he sma l l b ronze b a l-

a nces o f ten a cco mpan ied b y we igh ts , a pparen t ly t o au n i t o f 3 .1 g , wh ich h ave b een f ound i n t wo a reas o f S ou thern Eng land —Ken t a nd t he u pper Tha mes v a l ley. F ig 4 .5 c o mp le men ts t he o bservable d is tr ibu t ion o f t ypes o f me ta lwork w i th g o ld i n t he ir manu fac ture ; i ti s i n t hese a reas o f S ou thern Eng land t ha t t he g rea tes t c oncen tra t ion o f h igh q ua l i ty me ta lwork i s f ound .

F inds o f

Byzan t ine , Merov ing ian a nd V is igo th ic g o ld c o in , t he p r i mary s ource o f r aw ma ter ia l f or t he manu fac ture o f j ewe l lery , a re c oncen tra ted i n K en t ( Fig

4 .6).

Ad is t inct ion b e tween g rave a nd s tray f inds a ppears t o make l i t t le d i f ference t o t h is p a t tern .

D irec t a ccess t o as ource o f g o ld c o in was n o t g enera l , a nd

Ken t a ppears t o h ave h eld s o me th ing a pproach ing a monopo ly.

C er ta in a reas ,

s uch a s S ussex , a re a l mos t t o ta l ly d evo id o f f i nds o f g o ld c o in , y e t a re n o t w i thou t o b jec ts i ncorpora t ing g o ld i n t he ir manu fac ture .

Wh i le t he r e la t ive

e ase o f a ccess t o as upp ly o f c o in w i l l a f fec t i t s v a lue i n ac er ta in a rea , i t s v a lue i n a no ther a rea may h ave t he e f fec t o f r educ ing t he n u mbers o f s tray f inds a nd g rave d epos i ts , y e t t h is i s af ac tor o f i t s r ar i ty.

T he d egree t o

wh ich i nd iv idua l a reas d isposed o f p recious me ta l i n g raves , w i th wha tever c ons tra in ts , c an b e a ssessed f ro m t he c e me ter ies t he mse lves .

Much o f t he

g o ld i ncorpora ted i n me ta lwork i s i n t he f orm o f g i ld ing o r g o ld f o i l , e tc c omposi te o b jec ts .

o n

T he c loses t t ha t o ne may c o me t o aq uan t i ta t ive a ssess-

men t i s o n t he b as is o f t he n umber o f o b jec ts p er g rave wh ich h ave g o ld d e l ib era te ly i nc luded i n t he ir d es ign . F igures a re p resen ted ( Table 4 .2 ) f or t he n u mber o f g o ld o b jec ts i n f i ft een c e me ter ies i n S ou thern E ng land . I n K en t i ta ppears t ha t t he d isposa l o f g o ld o b jec ts a s g rave g oods was d ec l in ing s tead i ly t hrough t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies .

A t A lfr is ton a nd C hesse l l D own , t he f igures a re a lso h igh , c o m-

p arab le t o t he c on te mporary c e me ter ies i n K en t , y e t i nb o th Wessex a nd t he u pper Thames v a l ley t he f igures a re l ower i n t he s ix th c en tury.

H owever ,

wh i le i n K en t t he q uan t i t ies a re d ec l in ing r ap id ly i n t he s even th c en tury , n orma l ly e xp la ined i n t erms o f t he r ap id d ebase men t o f t he g o ld c o in i n t he e ar ly s even th c en tury a nd t he e f fects o f C hr is t ian i ty o n mor tuary r i tua l , t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t i n Wessex a nd t he u pper T hames v a l ley t he q uan t i t ies were a c tua l ly i ncreas ing t hrough t he s even th c en tury , a l though n ever r each ing t he s ame l eve l a s e lsewhere .

A ccess t o g o ld c o in , g o ld o b jec ts a nd t he a bi l i ty/

w i l l ingness t o i ndu lge i n t he c onsp icuous was te o f d epos i t ing moveab le wea l th i n g raves i s f ar f ro m u n i form . T o e nsure t ha t t h is i s n o t au n i form p a t tern o f g rave g ood d epos i t ion o f a l l t ypes , o r t he r esu l t o f a n o vera l l d ec l ine i n t he a va i lab i l i ty o r a ccess t o p rec ious r aw ma ter ia ls , t he f igures f or g o ld o b jec ts ( Table 4 .2 ) c an b e c o mp ared w i th s im i lar d a ta f or s i lver o b jec ts ( Tab le 4 .3 ).

I n K en t i ta ppears t ha t

t he u se o f s i lver , l i ke g o ld , was i ncreas ing u n t i l t he l a te s ix th c en tury , f ro m wh ich t i me i tb egan t o d ec l ine , a l though ma in ta in ing a h igher l eve l t han g o ld . A t A l fr is ton a nd C hesse l l D own , t he f igures a re a lso h igh , e spec ia l ly a t t he l a t ter , t hough n o t a s h igh a s f or g o ld .

T he f igure f or C hesse l l D own e xceeds

t ha t o f a l l t he o ther c e meter ies s a mp led .

I n Wessex , t he f igures a re c ons is-

t en t ly l ow , a nd s i lver was a ctua l ly a bsen t f ro m o ne c e me tery , y e t h igher t han f or s i tes i n t he u pper T ha mes v a l ley where t he q uan t i t ies a re v ery l ow , b u t l i ke g old , i ncreas ing s l igh t ly i n t he l a tes t c e me ter ies .

Wh i le t hese f igures

a re e x tre me ly c rude , i ti s p oss ib le t o o bserve g enera l t rends . 9 1

T he r a tes o f

•

S

F ig . 4 . 5 Map s how ing d istribut ion o fb a lances i n E ng land

•

•

.

• • • • •

•

•

••

•

• • •

•

• •

9 3

4

B er insf ie ld A bingdon

1 1

L ong Wi t tenha m

5

Whea t ley

5

7

p er g rave

o f g o ld o b jec ts N o

T o ta l g raves

o f g o ld o b jec ts S i te

1 61

2 .48

0 .04

2 2

2 01

5 .40

0 .10

1 0

1 88

2 .65

0 .05

4 6

1 0.80

0 .15

2 72

4 .03

0 .05

7

S arre

1 1

2 3

B i frons

1 1

2 9

9 1

1 1.99

0 .31

1 8

4 4

1 8 .16

0 .40

2 0

1 06

1 1.31

0 .18

1 9

3 08

2 .88

0 .06

1 09

0 .90

0 .0093

1 12

1 1.59

0 .26

6 4

7 .80

0 .14

L ym inge

8

G i l ton

1 2

K ings ton

9

P o lh i l l

1

A lfr is ton

1 3

Pe tersf inger Harnha m H i l l C hesse l l Down Winna l l I Table 4 .2

5 5 2 1 2

1 3 0 9 7 4 3 2

6 4

6 .80

0 .10

1 13

1 8 .56

0 .38

4 5

4 .44

0 .04

T able s um mar is ing n umbers o f g old o b jec ts i n Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies i n S ou thern Eng land

9 4

o f s i lver o b jec ts 1 .24

0 .01

2 01

1 .49

0 .01

1 88

1 .06

0 .01

4 6

2 .17

0 .02

2 72

3 .24

0 .05

9 1

7 .56

0 .19

2

2

1 61

A b ingdon

3

3

L ong Wi t tenha m

2

3

Whea t ley

1

S arre

9

1 6

B i frons

7

1 8

B er ins field

1

p er g rave

To ta l g raves

o f s i lver o b jec ts S i te

1 1

4 4

1 1.35

0 .25

G i l ton

1 3

2 6

1 06

1 2.22

0 .24

K ings ton

2 0

L ym inge

5

6 2

3 08

6 .40

0 .20

P o lh i l l

6

1 1

1 09

5 .46

0 .10

A l fr is ton

4

2 2

1 12

3 .56

0 .19

P e ters finger

0

0

6 4

0 .00

0 .00

H arnha m H i l l

2

3

6 4

3 .12

0 .04

1 13

1 2 .32

0 .23

4 5

4 .40

0 .11

C hessell Down Winna l l I Table 4 .3

1 4 2

2 7 5

Table s ummar is ing n umbers o f s i lver o b jec ts i n Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies i n S ou thern Eng land

9 5

d epos i t ion o f v ar ious r aw ma ter ia ls i n d i f feren t a reas o f S ou thern E ng land i s n o t c ons is ten t , a nd t rad i t iona l e xp lana t ions a re n o t a dequa te i n t hemse lves t o i n terpre t s uch p a t terns . T he e ar l ies t g o ld c o ins i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land a ppear t o h ave b een min ted t owards t he e nd o f t he f irs t h a l f o f t he s even th c en tury , w i th min ts a t C an terb ury , L ondon a nd p oss ibly i n t he u pper T hames v a l ley n ear D orches ter ( R igo ld 1 975 , 6 53 , 6 76 ) .

T he p resence o f g o ld c o inage i n t hese c on tex ts d oes n o t p rove

a mone tary e cono my , a s d is t inc t f ro m a d e mand f or g o ld a t ar el iab le s tandard . I ti s s ign i f ican t t ha t t here i s ac ons is tency i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he b a lances , i mpor ted g o ld c o in a nd t he e ar l ies t m in ts i n S ou thern Eng land . I ti s t oo e ar ly t o d iscuss t he c o mp lex i t ies o f p a t terns o f t rade e xcep t a t a v ery g enera l l eve l , d ue t o a n a l mos t c o mp le te l ack o f i n forma t ion a bou t p rodd uct ion c en tres .

Y e t t he a bi l i ty t o o bta in a nd c on tro l t he move men t o f r are

r aw ma ter ia ls i s o f t he g rea tes t i mpor tance . l ong d is tance t rade o f v a luable ma ter ia ls .

G o ld i s n o t t he o n ly e xa mple o f

G arne ts , g row ing i n p opu lar ity

t hrough t he s ix th c en tury , e spec ia l ly i n K en t , a s embe l l ish men ts t o meta lwork , mus t h ave o r ig ina ted f ro m o ne o f t he ma in wor ld s ources , B ohe m ia , T urkey a nd C eylon .

One a na lys is t ha t h as b een c arr ied o u t h as s hown t ha t B ohe mia

may h ave b een t he ma jor s ource d ur ing t h is p er iod ( Roosens a nd T ho masG oor iechx 1 970 , 1 2-14 ) .

A s g arne t-in la id me ta lwork i s f ound p redom inan t ly

i n K en t , b u t a lso S ussex a nd t he I s le o f Wigh t , i t may t here fore b e t aken a s a n e xa mp le o f a n i mpor ted c o m mod i ty whose u se was g eograph ica l ly l im ited , p robably a lso u nder K en t ish c on tro l .

When w e c ons ider t he u se o f r ed g lass

a s as ubs t i tu te , a nd e ven i t s i m i ta t ion i n b rcnze o u ts ide t hese a reas , i t migh t b e c onc luded t ha t t he s upply was n o t g uaran teed . T here a re o ther ma ter ia ls , a l l u neven ly d is tr ibu ted , t ha t f a l l i n to t he s ame c a tegory , ame thys t f ro m t he E as t Med i terranean ( Kendr ick 1 933 ) , c owr ie s he l ls f ro m t he I nd ian O cean ( Le thbr idge 1 948 , 1 54 ) , e lephan t i vory f ro m t he Med i terranean ( Myres a nd G reen 1 973 , 1 00-103 ) , f ound c oncen tra ted i n Ken t , C a mbr idgesh ire a nd t he s urround ing a reas , a nd i n E as tern E ng land , r espect i ve ly.

T he p o ten t ia l o f s uch l uxury i t e ms i n u nders tand ing t he r e la t ionships

b e tween v ar ious a reas i n e ar ly A ng lo-Saxon Eng land h as n o t b een e xp loi ted . T he f oss i l r es in amber , f or i ns tance , washed o u t o f e x t inc t p ine f ores ts o n t o t he Ba l t ic s hores a nd t o t he e as t c oas t o f E ng land , was u sed i n l arge q uan t i t ies f or b eads .

T he e xac t o r ig in o f amber u sed d ur ing t h is p er iod a s we l l a s d ur ing

p reh is tory h as n o t b een f i rm ly e s tab l ished , a l though i ti s o f ten a ssumed t ha t i ti s Ba l t ic amber ( Beck 1 970 ) .

L e thbr idge d iscussed t he r a t io o f amber t o

g lass b eads a t t he c eme tery o f H o lywe l l R ow , S u f fo lk , a nd s howed h ow i n t he e ar l ier g raves amber was i n am inor i ty , whereas i n t he l a ter g raves g lass b eads were g rea t ly o u tnumbered .

H e b e l ieved t ha t t h is migh t i nd ica te t ha t

B a l t ic amber was b rough t b y i mm igran ts a nd t ha t t he d iscovery a nd e xp lo ita t ion o f t he e as t c oas t s ources wou ld a ccoun t f or t he s udden r ise ( Lethbr idge 1 931, 4 37 ) . H e o ver looked t he i mp l ica t ions o f t he p resence o f l arge q uan t i t ies o f amber i n g raves o u ts ide t h is r eg ion a nd t ha t , wha tever i t s s ource , i n s uch a reas i th as t o b e a n i mpor t f ro m t he e as t . I n a bso lu te t er ms t he g rea tes t n umber o f b eads f ound i n S ou thern Eng land a re i n K en t , t he u pper Thames v a l ley a nd t he I s le o f Wigh t ( Fig 2 50-300 p er s q km .

4 .7) .

E ach o f t hese a reas h as a d ens i ty o f

A more r ea l is t ic s ta t is t ic , i n t er ms o f t he v ar ia t ion i n

d egree o f c onsump t ion , i s t he r a t io o f amber b eads p er g rave ( Fig 9 6

4 .8 ).

s' ‘

9 7

c.o 00

I

I

-1

�

0

0

0

0

_,,-,�

0

Fig. 4. 8 Trend surface diagram of ratio of amber beads per grave in southern England by grid generalisation

... �,,

I

-

..... ... '

I I I

I

I

·/

(

/I

✓"--

__

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-20

-15

-10

-5

-1

T he d is tr ibu t ion s ugges ts t ha t K en t was t he g rea tes t c onsumer o f amber , t he r a t io r is ing t o s ix teen t o t wen ty p er g rave p er s q km , whereas i n a l l o ther a reas i n S ou thern Eng land t here i s a n e ven d is tr ibu t ion , r is ing t o s ix t o t en b eads p er g rave i n W i l tsh ire.

I fi t was K en t t ha t was i mpor t ing t he amber ,

i tn o t o n ly ma in ta ined a n ear m onopo ly b u t a lso e xpor ted i tt o o ther a reas t o g ive a n e x tre me ly e ven d is tr ibu t ion . I fn o t , i ti s s ign i f ican t t ha t o ne a rea i n p ar t icu lar was a b le t o a f ford t o i mpor t s uch l arge q uan t i t ies where o thers w ere n o t .

T here i s c er ta in ly n o t t he g radua l f a l l-o f f i n d ens i ty f ro m e as t t o

w es t t ha t m igh t b e p red ic ted i fe ach a rea h ad e qua l a ccess t o t h is r esource. I tw ou ld b e d es irab le t o a ssess t h is d is tr ibu t ion i n t erms o f we igh t , d ue t o t he e x tre me v ar ia t ion i n s ize o f t he amber p ieces , b u t t h is h as p roved imp oss ible d ue t o t he i nh ibi t ing a t t i tude o f am inor i ty o f museu m c ura tors w i th l arger c o l lec t ions . S o f ar w e h ave c ons idered o ne s ide o f C on t inen ta l t rade , b u t t here mus t h ave b een a g rea t d ea l o f e xchange b e tween t he k ingdo ms . T h is i s s ugges ted n o t o n ly b y t he r ed is tr ibu t ion o f g oods i mpor ted f ro m t he C on t inen t , b u t a lso b y t he d is tr ibu t ion o f g oods manu fac tured i n p ar t icu lar a reas o f S ou thern E ng land .

Wh i le c er ta in t ypes a re r are ly f ound o u ts ide t he a pparen t a rea o f

manu facture , o thers may b e c arr ied o ver c ons iderab le d is tances .

One o f

t he mos t c o m mon c lasses o f o b jec t f ro m Ang lo-Saxon g raves , a nd a bou t whose p lace o f manu facture we c an o f ten c o m men t , i s t he b rooch .

T he mos t d e ta i led

s tudy o f a ny b rooch t ype i s t ha t o f t he K en t ish d isc b rooches ( Aven t 1 975 ) , w hose l arge n umber f a l l i n to a l im i ted n umber o f c lear ly d e f ined g roups . Whe ther t hese g roup ings a re p ure ly s tyl is t ic o r r e la te t o p ar t icu lar workshops , o r e ven c ra f ts men , i s u nc lear , t hough , l i ke p o t tery p roduct ion i n t he c re ma t ing a reas o f E as tern E ng land , t hey g ive t he i mpress ion o f l arge-sca le c en tra l ised p roduc t ion , a s t he d egree o f s tandard isa t ion i s h igh .

T he g rea tes t c oncen tra-

t i ons a re i n E as t a nd Wes t K en t , y e t t h is i s a n o vera l l c on for m i ty , a nd f ew t ypes c an b e i so la ted t o p ar t icu lar a reas .

A ven t p o in ts o u t t ha t T ype 2 .1

d isc b rooches a re f ound p redo m inan t ly i n E as t a nd S ou th-Eas t K en t , whereas a l l t he e xa mp les o f T ypes 3 .2 a nd 5 w ere f ound i n t he Wes t , wh ich may i mp ly t wo ma in p roduc t ion c en tres .

A l though 1 92 e xamp les a re k nown , l ess t han

2 5 h ave b een f ound o u ts ide K en t , s o me o f wh ich a re i n terpre ted a s l oca l i m i ta t ions .

T he f a l l-o f f o f a l l d isc b rooches f ro m a h ypo the t ica l s ource o f

C an terbury ( Fig

4 .9 ) s hows a n or ma l d is tr ibu t ion a nd d oes n o t s ugges t a n

e x tens ive n e twork o f e xchange i n t h is c o m mod i ty o u ts ide t he r eg ion , s ugges t ing c lose c on tro l .

S uch a d is tr ibu t ion may h ave * ab ear ing o n q ues t ions o f r e la-

t i ve v a lue o f c o mmod i t ies d ur ing t h is p er iod , b u t t here a re many o ther f ac tors , s uch a s d is tance , mode o f t ranspor t , f reedo m o f e xchange a nd a ccess ibi l i ty t o o ther e xchange n e tworks a s a l terna t ive s ources o f g oods , wh ich mus t b e c ons idered .

S im i lar s tud ies c ou ld b e c arr ied o u t f or o ther b rooch t ypes ,

s uch a s s aucer b rooches , whose d is tr ibu t ion h ard ly o ver laps w i th t ha t o f t he d isc b rooches , s ugges t ing t ha t p roducers o f t hese t ypes may h ave b een i n c ompe t i t ion b y p rov id ing a n a l terna t ive p roduc t wh ich i s f unct iona l ly v ery s im i lar . The d is tr ibu t ion o f s uch b rooch t ypes s hou ld b e c o mpared w i th l ess c om mon f or ms f ro m wh ich i t emerges t ha t i ti s af unc t ion o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f e ar ly A ng lo-Saxon b rooches t ha t t he r arer t he t ype t he g rea ter t he r ange o f d ispersa l .

T he ' g rea t ' s quare-headed t ypes ( Leeds 1 949 ) were p roduced

9 9

/ \ 1

-

OF

BROOCHES

I

1 00

1-

a t an u mber o f c en tres a nd n o l arge-sca le p roduc t ion a ppears t o h ave t aken p lace.

T he a ctua l s ys te m f or t he manu fac ture o f t hese b rooches i s n o t c lear

a s mos t o f t he b rooches i n t he ma jor s er ies a re p ar t ia l c op ies o f e ach o ther , n ew e le men ts a re i n troduced , a nd t he d is tr ibu t ion c an b e w ide . F our s quareh eaded b rooches d a t ing t o t he f irs t h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury , L eeds ' C hesse l l D own ' t ype ( 1949 , 1 1-16 ,

P ls 8 -10 ),

a re o f i n teres t h ere .

The b rooches ,

C hesse l l D own G rave 2 2 ( Arno ld f or thco m ing 1 980 ) , Pag lesham ( C larke 1 976 ) , L in ton H ea th G rave 9 ( Leeds 1 949 ) a nd Tuddenham ( Kenne t t 1 977 , 4 4 , 5 4-56 ) c an b e d iv ided i n to s even u n i ts wh ich make u p t he who le b rooch , r epresen t ing t he ma jor u n i ts wh ich a re s ub jec t t o v ar ia t ion ( Fig i nd iv idua l u n i ts t o ta ls 3 2 . ma t ica lly ( Tab le 4 .4 ) .

4 .10 ) .

T he n umber o f

T he d egree o f s im i lar i ty c an b e e xpressed d iagra m-

Th is s ugges ts t ha t t he C hesse l l D own b rooch was , o r

w as c lose ly r e la ted t o , t he o r ig ina l mode l , t he o thers d iverg ing a way f ro m t h is i n t he f o l lowing o rder , P ag lesha m , L in ton H ea th , a nd T uddenha m . S uch ac onc lus ion c ou ld a lso b e d rawn f ro m t he s harpness o f t he d e ta i l wh ich d ec reases a s t he d is tance f ro m t he o r ig ina l i ncreases , p resu mably a s t he r esu l t o f c opying . T he d eve lop men t o f t he t ype i s n o t u n i l inear ; f or i ns tance , t he P ag lesham b rooch s hares f ive u n i ts w i th C hesse l l Down , o ne w i th L in ton H ea th , a nd i n troduces o ne n ew u n i t . t wo u n i ts i n c o m mon .

T he who le g roup i n f act o n ly h as

T he e ar l ies t o f t he g roup was l oca ted i n c en tra l S ou thern

E ng land , t he o thers i n Eas tern Eng land ( Fig

4 .11 ).

G iven t he l ack o f s tandard-

i sa t ion i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t t he g roup i s t he p roduc t o f as ing le workshop .

Per-

h aps Oddy 's mode l o f i t ineran t c ra f ts men , o r f ree lance t raders , h as s o me p o ten t ia l i n u nders tand ing s uch a p a t tern ( Oddy 1 977). At h ird e xamp le f ro m t he r ange o f A ng lo-Saxon b rooches c oncerns t he l arge , e labora te s quare-headed b rooches w i th i n la id g arne ts .

G enera l ly

c ons idered a s b e ing o f K en t ish manu facture , t hey a re f ew i n n umber a nd a re w ide ly d is tr ibu ted ( F ig

4 .12 ).

T here a re a pprox i ma te ly t wen ty e xa mples

k nown i n K en t a nd t hey a re o n ly f ound e lsewhere t o a ny l arge e x ten t o n t he I s le o f Wigh t , where t here a re f ive e xamp les , a nd a t H erpes , F rance , w i th s even e xamp les . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f sma l ler s quare-headed b rooches w i th g arne t i n lays i s v ery s im i lar .

A par t f ro m s u i tes o f t hese b rooches i n tended

t o b e worn t oge ther , n o t wo o f t hese b rooches a re i den t ica l .

I tm igh t b e c on-

c luded t ha t t he t ype was s pec ia l ly made a nd was o f s u f f icien t ly h igh v a lue a nd r ar i ty t o b e e xpor ted c ons iderab le d is tances f ro m t he p lace o f manufacture , p erhaps u nder c en tra l ised c on tro l . Very l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he s ources o f t he more p rosa ic r aw ma ter ia ls , b ronze a nd i ron , a nd t here a re f a ir ly c lear i nd ica t ions t ha t r ework ing ma teri a ls was c o m mon ( Myres 1 978 ) . A t wha t s tage e x tract ion o f r aw ma ter ia ls w as r esumed i s u nknown , y e t t he c on t inuous d ra in o f ma ter ia ls a s t he r esu l t o f t he b ur ia l o f g rave g oods mus t h ave p laced t he b a lance b e tween s upp ly a nd d e mand u nder a g rea t d ea l o f s tress .

I ndeed , t he r educ t ion i n t he n umber o f

g rave g oods i n Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he l a te s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies , n orma l ly i n terpre ted a s b e ing o ne e f fec t o f t he a dop t ion o f C hr is t ian i ty , m igh t more r ea l is t ica l ly b e c ons idered a s t he r esu l t o f a n umber o f i n terre la ted f ac tors , t he a dherence t o C hr is t ian p r inc ip les o f b urying w i thou t wor ld ly p ossess ions , ag rea ter d e mand o n ad ecreas ing s upp ly o f r aw ma ter ia ls , a nd a n i ncreased d e mand o n r aw ma ter ia ls a s ar esu l t o f t he e s tabl i sh men t o f t he c hurch .

1 01

4

1 ,2 ,3

2 1

23

F ig . 4 .10

N u mbered e le men ts o fg rea t s quare h eaded b rooches o f ' Chessel l Down ' t ype

1 02

r I

C V r 1

C V

i r D 1 1

I :-

CC

c \ I

! S D C V

1 03

Tuddenha m

L in ton Hea th

Chesse ll Down

F ig . 4 .1 1

D is tr ibut ion o fg rea t s quare h eaded b rooches o f ' Chesse l l D own ' t ype

1 04

•

eV :

F ig . 4 . 1 2

D is tribu t ion o f s quare _ h eaded b rooches w i th i n la id g arne ts

1 05

A number of details emerge from this brief examination. The written sources describe acts of aggression by a limited number of groups against those which were geographically better suited for, and took full advantage of, commerce. The distribution of weaponry is not uniform between the groups isolated for study and complements the pattern of documented aggression. Areas committed to international trade developed a uniform unit for weighing precious substances, particularly gold. There are widely different patterns of distribution of goods and differing systems of production, the two being closely related. While many of the necessary raw materials for industrial activity were readily available, some must have been imported. There is a correlation in specific areas of a number of factors-a concentration of im­ ported luxury goods, a high level of armament, subjection to external aggres­ sion, and intense industrial activity. SOCIAL STRUCTURE An important and observable factor of a developing social structure in a complex society is the changing distribution of wealth within it. It is logical to predict that wealth distribution should become increasingly disproportionate with time. The amount of energy expended in the interment of the dead, seen in this context in the form and quantity of the grave goods, is a key archaeolo­ gical feature reflecting variation in rank structure, which is taken to mean the number, nature and arrangements of its articulated components. The empirical justification.for studying social structure in this manner is the evidence of ethnographically recorded mortuary systems, for which it has been shown that the organisation and status positions occupied by the members of such systems are fossilised at death through variation in mortuary ritual; examples need not be repeated here (Saxe 1970; 1971; Binford 1972). One is concerned with the material correlates of social identities which in various combinations represent the social personae extant in that system's practices of disposal of the dead. The nature of the burial may be a reflection of a combination of factors, wealth and status, descent and kinship, sex and age, manner of death, place of death. Given the generally pyramidal structure of ranked societies it follows that increased relative ranking of status positions in a social system will positively co-vary with increased numbers of persons recognising duty­ status relationships with individuals holding such status positions. It is as­ sumed that as the status grading is of non-egalitarian type, the status symbols should be more esoteric in form, and given hierarchical structure, the more esoteric the form the greater its value and rarity. To make valid comparisons between cemeteries and groups of cemeteries, the analysis has to be limited to the study of associated grave goods as these are the only items for which there has been a uniform pattern of data retrieval in a sufficiently large and available sample. The ideal cemetery, which allows comparisons to be made across space and through time, is large and short­ lived, but although there are modern--excavations where all factors, such as age, sex, mortuary structure, orientation are recorded, an insufficient num­ ber are published or available. One is constrained into using the limited evidence of older inferior excavations to obtain a uniform coverage in each of the areas being considered. The selection of the examples has been con106

t ro l led b y an u mber o f c r i ter ia—s ize , r e l iabi l i ty o f d a ta , t ime r ange , a nd p o ten t ia l a s p ar t o f as equence o f c e meter ies f ro m t he f i f th t o e igh th c en tury f or e ach i den ti f iable p opu la t ion a gg lo mera tion i n S ou thern Eng land .

A l though

am in i mum o f f i f ty g raves was f ixed a s o ne r equ ire men t , i n af ew c ases i t was f ound t ha t t o o bta in a c o mp lete s equence sma l ler c e me ter ies h ad t o b e i ncorpora ted i n t he a bsence o f more s a t is factory d a ta .

The n eed f or t he l i fe

o f t he c e me tery t o b e s hor t c on f l icts w i th t he n eed f or a l arge n u mber o f b ur ia ls . The whole c e metery h as t o b e r egarded e n b loc a s many g raves c anno t b e i sol a ted t o p ar t icu lar p hases .

I t wou ld b e u n jus t i f ied t o e xc lude t he p oor ly

f urn ished , a nd h ence =da table , g raves a s t hey f or m a ma jor c o mponen t . T hough i ti s p oss ible t o o bta in a c o mp le te c hrono log ica l c overage w i th in e ach a rea , t here i s n o g uaran tee t ha t t here i s ac o mparable c overage o f s ta tus p os i t ions f or a l l p er iods , a nd t he o ver lapping c hrono logy o f t he c e me ter ies i n e ach s equence c o mpounds t he p roble m .

Ac ons tan t p opu la t ion h as t o b e a s-

s umed bu t i s u n l ikely. The c e meter ies a nd b ur ia ls i ncorpora ted i n t he f ol lowing a na lys is a re :I s le o f Wigh t C hessel l Down ( Arnold f or thco m ing 1 980 ) Wi l tsh ire P e tersf inger ( Leeds a nd S hor t t 1 953 ) ; Annable ) ;

Harnha m H i l l ( Aker man 1 853 ) ;

R od mead ( Cunn ing ton 1 896 , 7 7) ; 7 9 , 8 5 ) ;

B lackpa tch , P ewsey ( pers c omm A Ford , Lavers tock ( Mus ty 1 969 ) ;

C oo mbe B isse t t ( Cunn ing-t on 1 896, 5 8-9 , 6 3 ,

R oundway D own I ( Aker man 1 855 , 1 -2 ) ;

S wa l lowc li ffe ( Va tcher a nd

V a tcher 1 968 ) H ampshire Wor thy Park ( pers c o m m S Hawkes ) ;

Winna l l I ( Meaney a nd Hawkes 1 970 ) ;

O l iver 's Ba t tery ( Andrew 1 934 ) K en t B i frons ( God frey-Fausse t t 1 876; ( Bren t 1 863 ;

1 866;

1 856 e d ,3 5-94 ) ;

1 868 ) ;

1 880 ) ;

L ym inge ( Warhurs t 1 955 ) ;

G i l ton ( Sm i th 1 856 e d ,1 -34 ) ;

P o lhi l l ( Ph i lp 1 973 , 1 64-214 ) ;

S arre

K ings ton ( Sm i th

C oo mbe ( Dav idson a nd

Webs ter 1 967) Ox fordsh ire C uddesdon ( D ick inson 1 974 ) ; D

M iles ) ;

Whea t ley ( Leeds 1 916) ;

B er ins f ield ( pers c omm

Astha l l ( Leeds 1 924 )

B erksh ire A b ingdon ( Leeds a nd Harden 1 936;

L ong Wi t tenha m I ( Aker man 1 860 ;

L owbury ( A tk inson 1 916) S ussex A l fr iston ( Gr if f i th a nd S a lz mann 1 914 ;

G r i f f i th 1 915 ) 1 07

1 863 ) ;

T he f ir s t me thod o f a na lys is i s b ased o n a t temp ts t o a ss ign v a lues t o e ach c lass o f o b jec t , a l low ing e ach g rave t o b e g iven a t o ta l s core .

G iven t hat t he

l onger t he t ime t aken t o manufac ture a n o b jec t t he g rea ter i t s v a lue , a t te mp ts were made t o a ssess t h is t ime .

S imp ler , e veryday o b jec ts p resen t o n ly minor

p rob le ms i n e va lua t ion , b ut t he c o mp lex i ty o f c er ta in c lasses a nd o ur l im i ted k now ledge o f t he me thods o f manufac ture makes i ti mposs ib le t o make a n a ss ess men t o n t h is b as is . H owever , a ssu m ing t ha t t he g rea ter t he t ime t aken t o manufacture a n o b jec t t he r arer i tw i l l b e a nd h ence t he g rea ter i t s v a lue , t he p ercen tage o f e ach c lass o f a r tefac t i n t he c eme ter ies u nder s t udy was e s tab l ished a nd a s core a scribed i nverse ly p ropor t iona l t o t ha t p ercen tage ( Tab le 4 .5 ) . T here a re a n u mber o f a reas o f p o ten t ia l d istor t ion i nheren t i n t he a ssu mp t ions wh ich n eed t o b e s ta ted . T he s ame c lass o f o b jec t may h ave d if feren t v a lues i n d if feren t r eg ions , e spec ia l ly t hose f ur thes t f rom t he s ource A n o b jec t 's v a lue may c hange t hrough t ime , e i ther i n t he s ense o f a n h eir loo m o r o f a n o b jec t t ha t i s made t hroughout t he p er iod .

Al arger n u mber o f mem-

b ers i n ap ar t icu lar s tatus p os i t ion i n o ne s ex t han t he o ther w i l l r esu lt i n o ne g roup o f a r tefac ts b eing s cored l ower t han t he o ther .

T h is i s e spec ia l ly i m-

p or tan t when i ts eems t ha t f e ma les were p rov ided w i th g reater q uan t i t ies o f ma ter ia l wea lth , b ut f ro m t he a va i lab le f i gures i td oes n o t s ee m t ha t o ne s ex o ut-nu mbered t he o ther i n t he p opu la t ion a s a who le ( Tab le 4 .6) . C er ta in o b jec ts , wh ich a re k nown t o b e c om mon , b ut wh ich a re r are a s g rave g oods , f or wha tever r eason , r ece ive a f i gure o ut o f a l l p ropor t ion t o t he ir p robab le v a lue . O n ly c lasses o f o b jec t c an b e c ons idered; b rooches , f or i ns tance , c anno t b e d iv ided i n to t he ir v ar ious t ypes b ecause o f t he i mp licat ions t ha t o ne w ou ld b e mak ing a bout t he ir r e la t ive v a lues . S uch d is t inc t ions wou ld h ave t o b e made o n t he b as is o f t he c ons t i tuen t ma ter ia ls , c o mp lex i ty o f manufac tur ing t echn ique , a nd e nergy e xpended i n t he p rocuremen t o f r aw ma ter ia ls . T he r eg iona l isa t ion o fb rooch t ypes a nd t he e x ten t o f o ver lapping d istr ibu t ions a lso makes t he d iv is ion o f c lasses o f o b jec t , f or t he p urposes o f t h is a na lys is , meaning less , a nd i s b eyond t he s cope o f t he p aper . T he s econd me thod o f a ssessment e s tab lishes s uch r e la t ive wea lth b y t he n u mber o fd if feren t t ypes o f o b jec t , r a ther t han s imp ly t he n u mber o f o b jec ts . E ach t ype i s c ons idered a s b e ing o f e qua l v a lue .

T he me thod a lso t es ts whe ther

t he n u mber o f o b jec ts i s a n i ndica tor o f s ta tus . T h is i s t o b e e xpec ted a s a g rea ter n u mber o f t ypes w ou ld g ive a h igher s core b y t he p rev ious me thod, a nd i s i n i t se lf a measure o f a n i ndiv idua l 's a b i li ty t o a cquire a v ar ied s e lect i on o fg oods . T he g rea ter t he n u mber o f t ypes i n ap ar t icu lar g rave t he more e xo t ic t hey a re l i ke ly t o b e . Th is me thod l acks t he a pparen t p rec is ion o f t he f ormer , t hough i t s v ir tue may l i e i n i t s s imp l ic i ty . A more g enera l ised p ict ure i s l i ke ly t o b e p roduced a s mu lt ip lic i ty o f i nd iv idua l t ypes , a no ther f orm o f d isp lay , i s n o t a na lysed . B o th t hese me thods o f a na lys is a re f ur ther e xamined i n t erms o f t he s ex o f t he i ndiv idua l where t h is i nforma t ion i s a va i lab le . I n s uch a n a na lys is t he p opu la t ion s ize i s o ccas iona l ly r educed b e low t he a ccep tab le l eve l o f f i f ty g raves . I ti s d if f icu l t t o b r ing t he a ge f ac tor i n to c ons idera t ion a s t he s tandards o f a ge ing s ke le tons a re n otor ious ly v ar iab le a nd i ndiv idua l r epor ts u se d i f feren t a ge b racke ts , making a u n ifor m me thod o f a na lys is i mposs ib le .

10 8

helmet

30

amulet box

20

horse trappings

30

scales

20

drinking horn

30

gold coin

19

girdle hanger

29

arrowhead

18

key /latch-lifter

28

glassware

18

weaving batten

26

pin

18

ivory ring

26

strap-end

18

'sewing box'

26

spindle-whorl

17

iron chain

24

pendant ornament

17

scramasax

24

silver ring

17

perforated spoon

24

bronze ring

17

bronze bowl

24

pottery

16

silver mounted vessel

24

iron ring

16

bronze mounted vessel

23

sword

16

wooden box

23

earring

15

comb

22

shield

15

shears

22

axe

15

crystal ball

22

brooch

11

gold thread

21

spear

11

chatelaine

20

buckle

11

purse

20

knife

9

tweezers

20

bead

2

armlet

20

Table 4. 5

Table of scores assigned to classes of object in early Anglo-Saxon graves in Southern England

109

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I

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T ab le s howing s yn thes is o f d a ta c oncern ing a na lys is o f c e meter ies

I

2 -e. t aive

C hesse l l Down

`0

A lfr is ton

al t ul aj

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The earliest cemeteries in the Kent sample are Lyminge and Bifrons, the latter remaining in use for a longer period of time, into the second half of the sixth century. While at Lyminge (Fig 4.13 .1) the distribution of wealth is limited, there are distinct high scoring peaks clustering together. The graph implies a stratified society with four major ranks, on the basis of wealth, and in which the higher ranks are distinguished by a small number of status symbols. At Bifrons (Fig 4.14. 3) the range of wealth is much greater with isolated rich graves standing out markedly against the clustering of graves at the lower end of the scale. In the areas in which they overlap, the graphs for Lyminge and Bifrons are consistent, but the range at Bifrons is more extensive and includes eight or nine major levels of wealth. The cemetery of Sarre has a much longer life than both Lyminge and Bifrons and may be used to test the observations made about the other ceme­ teries and to isolate possible latel' developments. The range of wealth is greater again (Fig 4.14.1), but there is a much higher proportion of poorer graves with a corresponding void in the middle areas compared with Bifrons. The dispersal of wealth in the Sarre community would appear to favour a small minority of the population. Five ranks are identifiable, less than at Bifrons, and given that these two cemeteries are in use at a very similar period the differences may relate to variations in the activities of the groups using them rather than to an overall change in the structure of the society. Both the cemeteries of Gilton and Kingston (Fig 4.15) cover the period of the later graves of the cemeteries already discussed, but extend the time range considerably. Gilton (Fig 4.15. 3) came into use slightly earlier and reveals a distribution of wealth very similar to Bifrons. Although the range is reduced there are a number of isolated groups of high scoring graves, with seven major groups altogether. Gilton and Kingston (Fig. 4.15.1) reveal patterns very similar to those of Sarre and Bifrons. At Kingston there are a large number of low scoring graves and a relatively large membership of the high scoring grades, with seven grades altogether. The pattern is only marginally different to that of Bifrons with the wealth spread over the whole range. The graph produced for Polhill (Fig 4.16.1), the latest cemetery in the sample, suggests a slight reduction in the number of ranks, to five, with all the groups clustering at the lower end of the scale. It is the range of the graph, however, that has altered and not the general shape. This method of analysis suggests that the greatest change is in the spread and degree of wealth and not in the basic structure of the society which is mar­ kedly stratified from the outset. The less stratified pattern in the latest ceme­ teries is deceptive for there are a number of other factors involved. The in­ troduction of Christianity and a possible increase in pressure on raw materials will have two major effects on mortuary practices, an overall decrease in the quantity of grave goods deposited)n the cemeteries and a reduction in the num­ ber of graves at the upper end of the scale. It is fruitless to attempt to decide how many of the burials in the latest cemeteries are of Christians, there being nothing that conclusively proves this. The date of Augustine's mission to Kent, AD !597, provides a TPQ for the introduction and acceptance of Christianity, which would initially have had greatest influence in the upper ranks of society 111

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Polhill, graphs showing distribution of wealth 2 male, 3 female; 4 No of types, 5 male,

115

1 wealth scores, 6 female

s te m m ing f ro m t he c onvers ion o f t he k ing .

Th is i s c rucia l when c ons ider ing

t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i n t he l a ter c e me ter ies , a s i ti s k nown t ha t A e the lb erh t r ece ived a C hr is t ian b ur ia l i n t he s ou th p or t icus o f S t P e ter a nd S t Pau l , C an terbury , t o b e j o ined l a ter b y h is q ueen a nd a n umber o f s ucceed ing k ings . C on te mporary w i th t h is c hange i n mor tuary p rac t ice i s t he a ppearance o f r ich b ur ia ls u nder b arrows , i n ap agan f ash ion , b u t a way f ro m t he c o mmuna l c e met er ies . An e xa mp le f ro m K en t i s C oo mbe , wh ich m igh t b e t aken t o r epresen t t he s a me e l i t is m a s K ing A e the lberh t 's b ur ia l a t C an terbury , b u t i n ap agan f or m .

T he C oo mbe b ur ia l a nd t he r oya l g raves a t C an terbury s hou ld b e s uper-

i mposed o n to t he p a t tern o f d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i n t he l a ter c o mmuna l c e met er ies t o p roduce t he c o mp le te r ange .

T he i nc lus ion o f C oo mbe , w h ich h as

as core o f 1 41 ( Table 4 .9 ) , w i th t he c e me tery o f P o lh i l l b r ings i ti n to l i ne w i th t he r ange o bservab le i n t he l a ter s ix th-cen tury c e me ter ies , p roduc ing s ix t o s even g rades o f wea l th . Wh i le i ti s n ecessary t o a t te mp t t o d a te t he c hanges wh ich c an b e o bserved o ccurr ing i n t h is s amp le , i ti s u n for tuna te t ha t i ti s o n ly g raves w i th a l arge n umber o f g rave g oods t ha t a re s uscep t ib le t o s uch t rea t men t .

The c e me tery

a t L ym inge c on ta ined o ne r ich g rave ( 4 4 ) , wh ich i s d a ted t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he s ix th c en tury a nd i s o ne o f t he l a tes t d a tab le g raves i n t he c eme tery. A t B i frons a s im i lar d a te c an b e a ss igned t o t he r icher g raves ( 15 , 2 9 , 4 1, 4 2 ) . G rave 4 a t S arre , o ne o f t he f ew r ich g raves i n t he c e me tery , i s a lso d a ted t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury.

T he d a tab le r icher g raves a t G i l ton ( 41 ,

6 6 ) f a l l i n to t he l as t q uar ter o f t he s ix th c en tury , whereas a t K ings ton t h is c lass o f g rave e x tends f ro m t he l a te s ix th c en tury t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he s even th ( 1 5 , 9 6 , 1 42 , 1 61 , 2 99 ) . T he a ppearance o f i ncreas ing ly r ich g raves , a more d ispropor t iona te d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th , o ccurs f ro m t he m idd le o f t he s ix th c en tury a nd c ont inues u n t i l l a te i n t he s even th c en tury , when t hey d isappear a l toge ther f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . F or o n ly t wo o f t he K en t ish c e me ter ies s tud ied , L ym inge a nd P o lh i l l , i s t here c o mp le te i n forma t ion a bou t t he s ex o f t he s ke le tons . A t t he e ar l ier c e me tery o f L ym inge ( Fig 4 .13 .2-3 ) , t here i s ag rea ter o vera l l w ea l th f or ma les , a l though t he r ange o f f e ma le wea l th i s more e x tens ive . T here a re t hree d is t inc t g roupings b y wea l th i n t he f e ma le g raves , t wo l ow a nd o ne h igh s cor ing , whereas w i th t he ma le g raves t here i s a more g radua l f a l l-o f f , w i th f our ma jor p eaks t owards t he r icher e nd o f t he s ca le . A t t he l a ter c e me tery o f P o lh i l l ( Fig

4 .16.2-3 ) , t here a re t hree g roups

o f ma le g raves a nd f i ve f e ma le , t he l a t ter a ga in d om ina t ing t he r icher e nd o f t he r ange . T he f e ma le e le men t i n t he p opu la t ion wou ld a ppear t o b e more r anked t han t he ma le , a nd i n t h is s ense i s ar eversa l o f t he p a t tern o bserved f or L ym inge .

T ha t C hr is t ian i ty s hou ld a f fec t o ne s ex t o ag rea ter e x ten t

t han t he o ther s ee ms u n l ike ly .

Where i ti s p oss ib le t o a ss ign a s ex t o t he

h igh-scor ing g raves o f t he s ix th-cen tury c e me ter ies , t he ma jor i ty a re f e ma le . T he r ange o f f e ma le w ea l th wou ld t here fore s ee m a lways t o b e g rea ter t han t he ma le .

T he ma le g raves o n a verage h ave a l ower s core t han t he f e ma le ,

a l though t h is i s n o t t o s ay t ha t n o tab ly r ich g raves d o n o t e x is t i n t he s ix th c en tury.

Wh i le t he s word i s c ons idered t o b e as y mbo l o f s ta tus i n t he ma le

p opu la t ion a nd i s ar e la t ive ly r are o b jec t , many o f t he g raves w i th a s word 16

do not contain other objects of value. Rich male graves, lacking the decorated jewellery of the female graves, appear earlier in Kent than the fem ale. Two notable examples are Sarre Graves 39 and 54, both dated to the second half of the sixth century. The sequence of richer male graves c u lminates with that of Coombe, dated£ 600. This type of grave is most commonly male, and may account for the limited range and number of ranks in the male population of the later cemeteries, as seen in the analysis of weaponry (Table 4.1). Analysis of the distribution of wealth in Kentish society by assessing the number of types of object in each grave may be used to test the observations made on the basis of the previous method. At Lyminge (Fig 4.13.4) three main groups are revealed, and the greatest number of types represented is seven. The same number of groups is present at Bifrons (Fig 4. 14.4), but there is a greater range of type combinations, the highest being twelve. A very similar distribution is produced for the cemetery of Sarre (Fig 4 .14. 2), where the highest number of types is seventeen. The predominantly later cemetery of Gilton produces something of a reversal of this trend of an in­ creasing number of types. There are fewer distinct groups (Fig 4.15.4) and the wealth is more proportionately distributed over a smaller range, the highest number of types in any one grave being eight. At Kingston (Fig 4.15. 2) there is clustering into three main groups and the greatest number of types in a grave is eleven, which is less than at Sarre, but above average for the re­ gion. The trend of a reduction in the range of type-combinations continues at Polhill (Fig 4.16.4), which produces a regular fall-off to a maximum of five types. The individual grave at Coombe falls outside the range at Polhill, having eight types of object. There is a close correlation between the two methods of analysis, as there is also for analysis by sex. Male graves at Lyminge (Fig 4.13.5) cluster into three groups, and the distribution is more disproportionate in the female graves (Fig 4.13.6). At Polhill, there are more objects in total in the male graves (Fig 4.16.5), although the ranges are the same (Fig 4.16.6). The number of members of each rank in the female graves is very uniform. At Lyminge there is more differentiation in the graphs of wealth scores than those of the number of types, yet the patterns are very similar. In both methods the female graves show a more disproportionate distribution. At Polhill, also, the analysis by wealth iso-l ates more cluster� by the number of objects than the number of types. In the upper Thames valley two cemeteries which are suitable for analysis and start the sequence are Abingdon and Long Wittenham, both interpreted as beginning in the fifth century and continuing to the later sixth. Assessed by wealth scores, Abingdon (Fig 4.17 .1) suggests an extensively structured society with seven to eight clusters, the majority at the lower end of the scale and with two or three separate high-scoring groups. The overall range is high. At Berinsfield (Fig 4.18.1) the range is slightly less. There is a very similar distribution to Abingdon at the lower end of the scale, but it lacks the high scoring groups. There are five major clusters of wealth scores. The long time-span of these cemeteries, the danger that they might have been more intensively used at different periods, and a possible variation in the social

117

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19

p ersona t ypes p resen t among t he u sers o f e ach c e me tery may g o s o me way t owards e xp la in ing t he d i f ferences . T he l a t ter p ar t o f t he t ime-range o f t hese c e me ter ies i s r epresen ted b y Long Wi t tenha m I ( Fig

4 .19.1 ) , wh ich h as a marked c lus ter ing a t t he l ower

e nd o f t he s ca le a nd s ix t o s even g roupings a l toge ther .

Wh i le l ack ing t he l arge

n u mber o f g roups a t t he h igher e nd o f t he , s ca le s een a t A bingdon , t he r ange i s g rea t ly e x tended , w i th a h igh d egree o f wea l th b e ing d isp layed b y a sma l l e le men t o f t he p opu la t ion . T he l a tes t c e me tery , Whea t ley ( Fig

4 .20 .3 ) , h as a sma l l p opu la t ion ,

b u t c onven ien t ly o ver laps c hrono log ica l ly w i th L ong Wi t tenha m I .

T he r ange

o f wea l th i s i den t ica l t o B er ins f ie ld , a nd a l though t he c o mp lex i ty o f t he d is tr ib u t ion i s r educed , p erhaps t o s o me e x ten t t he r esu l t o f t he sma l l n umber o f g raves , f ive g roups a re i nd ica ted .

O ver t h is d is tr ibu t ion o ne may s uper i mpose

t he i nd iv idua l r ich b arrow b ur ia ls o f L owbury , s cor ing 2 29 , Cuddesdon , 9 3 , ( Table 4 .9 ) , a nd p erhaps A s tha l l , a l though t he i n for ma t ion o n t he l a t ter t wo i s i nco mp le te . Wi th C hr is t ian i ty n o t b e ing n om ina l ly e s tabl ished i n t he a rea u n t i l A D

6 35 t he i n f luence o f t h is f ac tor s hou ld n o t b e a s s trong a s , f or i n-

s tance , i n K en t .

Th is may b e o ne e xp lana t ion f or t he l arge r ange t hroughou t

t he s a mp le , e spec ia l ly i n t he l a ter c e me ter ies . Fro m t he l im i ted e v idence , t he e ar l ies t s ugges t ion o f a marked ly u neven d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i s a t L ong Wi t tenham I , G rave 7 1 , wh ich i s d a ted t o t he l a te s ix th c en tury .

T h is wo man 's g rea t wea l th i s n o t r epresen ted b y t he more

u sua l mu l t ip l ic i ty o f t ypes o f o b jec t , b u t b y av ery l arge n umber o f amber b eads . The r icher g raves a t Ber ins f ie ld ( 107 ) a nd A bingdon ( 60 , 6 1 ) a re a l l f e ma le a nd d a ted t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he s ix th c en tury .

H owever , w i thou t au n i-

q ue ly e ar ly c e me tery f ro m t h is a rea , i ti s e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t t o b e c onc lus ive a bou t d eve lop men ts .

I ndeed , a par t f ro m t he o ne r ich g rave a t L ong Wi t tenha m

I , i t migh t b e a rgued t ha t t here were f ew c hanges i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i n t he s ix th c en tury a nd e ar ly s even th c en tu ry i n t he s a mple u sed .

T he g rea t-

e s t c hange i s i n t he i so la ted r ich ma le g raves . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th b e tween t he s exes s ugges ts t ha t i ti s t he f e ma le g raves wh ich d isp lay t he g rea tes t wea l th .

A t B er ins f ie ld ( F ig

4 .18 .2-3 ) t he

r ange o f f e ma le wea l th i s marg ina l ly g rea ter t han t he ma le , t hough t he n umber o f g roups i s t he s ame i n e ach c ase .

A t A bingdon , h owever , t he r ange o f f e-

ma le wea l th i s t hree t imes g rea ter t han t he ma le ( F ig i n to s ix g roups a bove t he r iches t ma le g raves .

4 .17.2-3 ) , c lus ter ing

A t t he l ower e nd o f t he r ange

t here i s as im i lar i ty i n t he d is tr ibu t ion , t hough t he wea l th i s more e ven ly d ist r ibu ted t hrough t he f e ma le p opu la t ion .

T here a re p erhaps f our ma le g roups

a nd s even t o e igh t f e ma le . The l ower s cor ing g raves a t L ong Wi t tenham I ( Fig

4 .19.23 ) s how a

s im i lar i ty i n d is tr ibu t ion b e tween t he s exes , a l though , a s a t A bingdon , t he wea l th o f t he f e ma le e le men t o f t he p opu la t ion i s s pread o ver a r ange s ix t imes g rea ter t han t he ma le a nd s hows a l arger n u mber o f c lus tered g roups .

Fro m

t h is e v idence i ti s c lear t ha t t he f e ma le p opu la t ion e n joyed a g rea t d ea l more ma ter ia l wea l th a nd w ere a more s tra t i f ied s egmen t o f t he t ota l p opu la t ion . The ma le-fe ma le i mba lance i s s o mewha t r ec ti f ied b y t he a dd i t ion o f t he r ich ma le g raves o f L owbury a nd C uddesdon ( Table 4 .9 ) wh ich s core 2 29 a nd 9 3 r espec t ively. 1 20

t ypes n u mber o f

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Assessed i n t er ms o f t he n u mber o f t ypes o f o b jec t , many o f t he a pparen t a no ma l ies o bserved i n t he p rev ious me thod d isappear . A t B er ins f ie ld ( F ig 4 .18.4 ) t he d is tr ibu t ion f a l ls i n to t wo l ow-scor ing g roups a nd o ne sma l ler , b u t s epara te , h igh-scor ing s ec t ion o f t he p opu la t ion .

T he g rea tes t n u mber

o f t ypes i s s even . As im i lar p a t tern emerges f or A b ingdon ( F ig 4 .17.4 ) , where t he s a me n umber o f g roups a re r epresen ted o ver t he s a me r ange , a part f ro m a s ing le h igh-scor ing g rave wh ich e x tends t he t o ta l r ange t o t en . A t Long Wi t tenham I( Fig

4 .19.4 ) , wh ich b y t he p rev ious me thod e x tended

t he r ange o f wea l th c ons iderably , a n a l mos t i den t ica l p a t tern t o B er ins f ie ld i s p roduced w i th o n ly a s l igh t ly r educed r ange , a nd a n a bsence o f s o me o f t he i n ter med iary g roup ings i den t i f ied a t B er ins f ie ld a nd A bingdon .

T he o ne h igh-

s coring g rave p roduced b y t he p rev ious me thod , wh ich was u nusua l i n h av ing w ea lth r epresen ted b y a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f o ne t ype , d isappears i n to t he l ower g roups .

T he max imum n u mber o f t ypes a t L ong Wi t tenham Ii s e igh t .

l a tes t c eme tery , Whea t ley ( Fig

T he

4 .20 .4 ) , migh t b e e xpec ted t o r e f lec t t he i n-

f l uence o f ac hang ing r e l ig ion , a nd i n t he a reas o f t he d is tr ibu t ion wh ich a re c o mparab le t o o ther c e me ter ies i n t he a rea , t here i s ah igh d egree o f c on form i ty , a l though t he r ange i s s l igh t ly l ess t han t he o thers , r each ing s even t ypes . T he a dd i t ion o f L owbury a nd C uddesdon t o t h is p a t tern , h av ing e leven a nd f our t ypes r espec t ive ly , r educes t h is d i f ference . I t may b e a rgued f ro m t h is s a mp le t ha t t he e ar l ies t ma jor e x tens ion i n t he r ange o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i s o bservable a t L ong Wi t tenham I , r epr esen ted b y G rave 1 11 , wh ich i s d a ted t o t he-second h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury , a nd t he wea l th ies t g rave a t Whea t ley ( 2 7 ) mus t b e d a ted t o t he l a te s ix th o r e ar ly s even th c en tury.

T he i nclus ion o f L owbury a nd C uddesdon e x tends

t he r ange a t Whea t ley f ur ther t han a t a ny o f t he o ther c e me ter ies , a nd b o th a re d a ted t o t he e ar ly s even th c en tury. When t he s ame me thod o f a na lys is i s a pp l ied w i th t he d a ta s ubd iv ided b y s ex , a s i s p oss ible f or B er ins f ie ld , A bingdon a nd L ong Wi t tenham I , t here i s f ound t o b e av ery much more u n ifor m d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i n t he f e ma le g raves f ro m e ach c e me tery a nd i ti s t hese g raves wh ich f or m t he h igher e nd o f t he d is tr ibu t ion .

I n t he ma le g raves t he r ange o f wea l th i s more c ons is ten t ,

a l though c ons iderab ly l ess u n i for m . T he o n ly ma jor c hange i s t he i ncrease i n h igh-scor ing e xamp les a t L ong Wi t tenha m I , s ugges t ing t ha t c hanges were t ak ing p lace i n t he ma le s tructure , p re-e mp t ing t he r ich ma le g raves o f L owb ury a nd C uddesdon . I n Wessex , l arge-sca le s e t t le men t o ccurred l a ter t han i n o ther a reas , a nd t he a rea i t sel f i s l ess e asy t o d ef ine . Two e ar ly c e me ter ies , Harnham H i l l a nd P e ters f inger ( F igs 4 .20 , 4 .21) , c o me i n to u se e ar ly i n t he s ix th c ent ury a nd t he l a t ter h as a l onger l i fe . Av ery s im i lar p a t tern o f d is tr ibu t ion o f w ea l th s cores i s r evea led i n t hese e xamp les , e xcep t t ha t a t P e ters f inger ( Fig 4 .21.1 ) t he wea l th i s d ispersed o ver a g rea ter r ange w i th more c lus ter ing t han a t H arnham H i l l ( F ig

4 .20 .1 ).

f inger a nd f ive a t H arnham H i l l .

There a re s ix i den t i f iable g roups a t P e tersG iven t ha t t he t wo c e me ter ies a re s o c lose

t oge ther , b o th c hrono log ica l ly a nd g eograph ica l ly , i ti s r eassur ing t o f ind s uch as imi lar i ty. T he r iches t g rave a t P e ters f inger ( 25 ) , d a tes t o t he midd le o f t he s ix th c en tury.

1 23

3 0

2 0

1 0

I D-

1 .

4 . 1 00

0

3 00

1

2

3

4

5

6 r 7I 8

9

r1 C — )

9

1 0

2 .

5 . 5

1 00

1 0

1 0

3 .

6 . 5

1 00 u n i ts

F ig . 4 .2 1

o f

wea lth

n u mber

o f

t ypes

P e tersf inger , g raphs s how ing d is tr ibu t ion o f wea lth ,

1 wea l th

s cores , 2 ma le , 3 f e ma le ; 4 N o o ft ypes , 5 ma le , 6 f e ma le

1 24

The c e metery a t B lackpa tch ( F ig

2 2 .1 ) c o mes i n to u se l a ter t han Harnha m

H i l l a nd P eters f inger a nd c er ta in ly c on t inues l a ter , i n to t he e ar ly s even th c en tury.

The a va i lab le i n forma t ion s ugges ts a n e x tens ive ly s tructured s ocie ty

w i th a l im i ted r ange o f wea l th d ue t o t he a bsence o f ar icher i so la ted e le men t i n t he d is tr ibu t ion .

There a re f our ma in c lus ters o f wea l th s cores .

A t Wor thy P ark ( Fig

4 .23 .1 ) , h owever , s uch a r ich i sola ted g roup i s

p resen t a nd t he r ange o f wea l th s cores i s c ons iderab le .

There a re s even t o

e igh t i den ti f iable g roupings a nd t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i s l ess u n i for m t han a t B lackpa tch . The l a tes t c e me tery i n t he s amp le , Winna l l I ( F ig

4 .24 .1 ) , i s v ery s im i-

l ar t o c on te mporary c e me ter ies i n o ther a reas , h av ing a more l im i ted r ange , t hough t here i s c lear e v idence o f s tructur ing i n to f our g roups .

T he a dd i t ion

o f t he v ery l arge n umber o f r ich b arrow g raves i n t h is r eg ion ( Tables 4 .9 , 1 0 ) e x tends t he p a t tern f or t he s even th c en tury t o r evea l ac o mp lex ly s tructured s oc iety w i th wea l th s pread w ide ly .

T he ma le g raves o f C oo mbe B isse t t ,

R od mead , O l iver 's B a t tery a nd F ord s core 2 28 , 1 13 , 5 1 a nd 1 27 r espec t ive ly a nd t he r ich f e ma le b arrow b ur ia ls o f R oundway D own I a nd S wa l lowc l i f fe s core 2 10 a nd 2 35 ( Table 4 .10 ) .

B e ing s uch a l arge n umber , t hey may b e a

r e f lect ion o f t he n umerous i n terna l d iv is ions i n t he Wes t S axon p o l i t ica l s truct ure a nd i t s d ispersed p opu la t ion .

Fro m t he e v idence o f t h is r eg ion i ti s p os-

s ib le t o o bserve a d eve lop ing s tructure i n t er ms o f t he p ropor t iona te d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th , a nd wh ich , b y c o mpar ison w i th o ther a reas , was more a dvanced a t t he t i me o f t he i n i t ia l s e t t le men t . I n forma t ion a bou t t he s ex o f t he i nd iv idua l s ke le tons i s a va i lab le f or P e tersf inger , B lackpa tch , Wor thy Park a nd Winna l l I . ( F ig

A t P e tersf inger

4 .21.2 ) t he ma le e le men t o f t he p opu la t ion c lus ters i n to s even g roups

w i th a v ery u neven d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th .

T he r ange o f f e ma le wea l th ( Fig

4 .21.3 ) i s c ons iderably g rea ter , b u t i s d ispersed more e ven ly t hrough t he p opu la t ion a nd c lus tered i n to e igh t p r incipa l g roups . a t B lackpa tch , a l though t he f e ma le r ange ( Fig t he ma le ( Fig

S uch a p a t tern i s r epea ted

4 .22.3 ) , wh i le g rea ter t han

4 .22 .2 ) , i s n o t a s g rea t a s a t P e tersf inger .

T here a re t hree ,

t o f our c lus ters o f wea l th s cores i nb o th t he ma le a nd f e ma le p opu la t ions . The s ame , b u t more e x tre me , p a t tern i s p resen ted a t Wor thy Park .

The

f e ma le r ange i s much g rea ter t han t he ma le , b u t a ga in t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he f e ma le wea l th i s v ery u n i for m .

T he n umber o f g roupings , f ive ma le a nd s ix-

t een f e ma le , i s l arger t han a t B lackpa tch , b u t o f t he s a me o rder a s a t P e tersf i nger .

I n Winna l l I ( Fig

4 .24 .2-3 ) , t he s pread o f f e ma le wea l th a nd t he d e-

g ree o f s tra t i f ica t ion i s g rea ter , b u t c ons iderab ly more u ni for m , t han t he ma le . T he a dd i t ion o f t he r ich , p redo m inan t ly ma le , b arrow b ur ia ls e x tends t he r ange o fb oth a nd r educes t he imba lance . T he g enera l p a t tern t ha t i s p roduced i s o ne o f i ncreas ing i nequa l i ty. Wh i le t he f e ma le g raves c on ta in f ar more wea l th t han t he ma le , i ti s more u n ifor m ly d is tr ibu ted i n a l l t he e xa mp les i n t he s a mp le .

The g rea tes t c hange i s s een i n t he d egree o f ma le wea l th , w i th a c on-

s iderable e x tens ion o f t he r ange t hrough t ime . The d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th s ugges ted b y t he a na lys is o f t he n u mber o f t ypes o f o b ject i n e ach g rave c ons is ten t ly p roduces a c o mp le men tary p a t tern . H arnha m H i l l ( F ig

A t

4 .20 .1 ) t he d egree o f s tra t i f ica t ion i s v ery l im i ted a nd t he

r ange o f t ypes e x tends o n ly t o f ive .

A t P e ters f inger , h owever , t here i s a much 1 25

2 0

1 0 1

1 0

4 . 1 00

2 G0

0

1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 1 0

1 0

2 .

5 . 1 00

5

1 _ 1 0

3 .

6 . 1 00 u nds

F ig . 4 .2 2

o f

5 wea lth

n umber o f t ypes

B lackpa tch , g raphs s how ing d istr ibu t ion o f wea lth

1 wea l th

s cores , 2 ma le , 3 f e ma le ; 4 N o o ft ypes , 5 ma le , 6 f e ma le

1 26

u n i ts o f wea l th

n umber o f

•

9

0 0

8

2 3 2

r i

1 27

0 / 0 3 0-

-

2 0

^ 1 0 -

1 0

-

1

o

1 00

h 1 0-

4

y -

1

2

3

4

5

1 0-

5

2

1

3

1 Ö0

^ 1 0-

1 0-

6

3

3

1 00

u n its

F ig . 4 .2 4

o f wea lth

n u mber o f

t ypes

Winna l l , g raphs s how ing d istr ibu t ion o f wea l th 1 wea l th s cores , 2 ma le , 3 f e ma le ; 4 N o o f t ypes , 5 ma le , 6 f e ma le

1 28

c learer s tra t i f ica t ion ( F ig

4 .21.4 ) a nd t he r ange o f t ypes i s d oub led .

I n t he

p revious a na lys is t he d egree o f s tra ti f ica t ion a nd o vera l l wea l th iness a lso s ee med l ess a t H arnha m H i l l t han a t P e ters f inger .

The r esu l ts o f t he a na lys is

o f t hese t wo c e me ter ies b y e ach me thod a re v ery s im i lar . A t B lackpa tch ( F ig

4 .22 .4 ) t he r ange a nd d is tr ibu t ion i s a l mos t i den t ica l

t o P eters f inger , whereas a t Wor thy P ark ( Fig d ua l f a l l-of f w i th a s l igh t ly r educed r ange .

4 .23 .4 ) t here i s a more g ra-

T he d is tr ibu t ions r evea led a t t hese

s i tes a lso a gree f avourably w i th t hose o f t he p rev ious me thod .

T he a na lys is

o f Winna l l Ip roduces a r educed s pread o f wea l th a nd f ewer s epara te g roups ( Fig

4 .24 .4 ) c o mpared w i th t he e ar l ier c e me ter ies e xam ined i n t he a rea . S ub-d iv ided b y s ex , t he P eters f inger c e me tery p roduces a n u nusua l p a t tern

( F ig

4 .21.5-6) .

T he r ange o f ma le wea l th e xceeds t he f e ma le a nd s hows a

r egu lar f a l l-of f w i th f ive d is t inct c lus ter ings a nd t ype c o mbina t ions .

The f e-

ma le d is tr ibu t ion i s more e rra t ic , h av ing o ne l arge g roup o u t o f at o ta l o f t hree t owards t he m idd le o f t he r ange .

O vera l l t he d is tr ibu t ion o f f e ma le

w ea l th i s more u n i for m t han t he ma le .

A t B lackpa tch t he f e ma le r ange ( Fig

4 .22.6) i s , a s s ee ms more n or ma l , g rea ter t han t he ma le ( Fig

4 .22 .5 ) ,

a l though many o f t he e le men ts f ound a t P e ters f inger a re a lso p resen t h ere . T here a re t hree ma in c lus ters o f t ype c o mb ina t ion i n e ach . T he r änge o f f ema le wea l th a t Wor thy P ark ( F ig 4 .23 .6 ) i s a lso g rea ter t han t he ma le ( F ig 4 .23.5 ) , b u t b o th s ugges t au n i for m i ty o f d is tr ibu t ion a nd a v ery s im i lar p a t tern t o B lackpa tch .

A more r egu lar f a l l-o f f i s p roduced f or Winna l l I ( F igs

4 .24.

5 -6) a nd t he a pparen t ly g rea ter r ange o f wea l th a nd d egree o f s tra t i f ica t ion i n t he ma le g raves i s r educed when t he r ich b arrow g raves a re s uper i mposed , h av ing f ro m t hree t o n ine t ypes . I n c o mparing t hese t wo me thods o f a na lys ing t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i n t h is r eg ion i ti s c lear t ha t t hey a ga in p resen t av ery s im i lar p a t tern .

A ma jor

d i f ference b e tween t hese c e me ter ies a nd t hose o f o ther a reas i s t he more e ven s pread o f f e ma le w ea l th wh ich p ers is ts t hroughou t t he s equence . The o n ly s u i tab le c e me tery i n S ussex a va i lab le f or s tudy i s A l fr is ton , wh ich d a tes f ro m t he f i f th t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury.

T he p a t tern

o f d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th a t A l fr is ton ( F ig 4 .25 .3 ) i s o ne o f ac o mp lex s tra t if i ed s ocie ty , w i th s even d is t inc t c lus ters o f g raves a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ca le a nd t wo h igh-scor ing g raves wh ich more t han d ouble t he t o ta l r ange . o f t he i nd iv idua ls was n o t r el iably r ecorded . o f t ypes o f o b ject p er g rave ( Fig

The s ex

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he n umber

4 .25 .4 ) s i mp l i f ies t he p a t tern c ons iderab ly

a nd b ears c o mpar ison w i th L ong Wi t tenha m I , b e ing r educed t o t wo ma in g roups o f g raves .

The s ame g raves a ppear a t t he u pper e nd o f t he r ange i n b o th me thods

o f a na lys is , a nd a re d a ted t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury. On t he I s le o f W igh t , C hesse l D own i s t he o n ly l arge c e me tery wh ich i s s u i table f or t h is f orm o f e xa m ina t ion .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th s cores ( F ig

4 .25.1 ) i s v ery u neven a nd t hree d is t inct c lus ters a re a pparen t a bove a n e qua l ly w e l l s tra t i f ied c lus ter ing a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ca le i n f our g roups .

T he

r iches t g rave i s f e ma le a nd d a ted t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury.

The

g raph g ives t he i mpress ion o f a n e x tre me ly d ispropor t iona te d is tr ibu t ion o f w ea lth , wh ich i s s uppor ted b y t he a na lys is o f t he n u mber o f t ypes o f o b ject p er g rave ( F ig 4 .25 .2 ) where t he s ame g raves a re p ro m inen t . T he me thod t yp ic a l ly s i mp l i f ies t he o vera l l p a t tern , b u t t he ma in e le men ts a re c o mparable , 1 29

0

0

u n i ts o f w ea lth

n umber o f

c s ,

c \ i

8

9

9

C f i

1 30

the highest number of types being nine. There is a very close similarity between the results for Alfriston and Chessell Down. The analysis has shown that female graves, with very few exceptions, have on average a greater degree of wealth than males. When assessed by the number of types of object per grave this marked difference is less apparent, indicating that female wealth is more often displayed by the multiplicity of objects and not by the variety of types. There is little evidence for an increase in the numbers of social positions, there being an average of six in the whole area of study. The number in indi­ vidual cemeteries varies from four to eight, with two t_o four clustering in a large block at the lower end of the wealth scale, the remainder being posi­ tions with small membership. It is difficult to disentangle the complex rela­ tionship between the size of a cemetery, the length of time it was used, the number of status grades observable, and the overall status of the community using it. It is clear, however, that developments through time in the struc­ ture are not so much in the number of ranks as in the degree of wealth pos­ sessed by them. The average number of rankings in the cemeteries, observed when analysing the wealth scores, are 7 for Kent, Sussex and the h,le of Wight, 6 in the upper Thames valley and 5. 3 in Wessex. The number of wealth posi­ tions in the graphs for the whole cemetery may distort and exaggerate the dis­ tribution in varying degrees as the male wealth is displayed in a different manner to the fer::lale. While many of the groups observed on the graphs sub­ divided by sex must be associated, they have different positions on the graph. Thus on the overall distributions there may be up to twice as many social po­ sitions suggested as actually existed. Where the analysis could take the sex of the individuals into consideration it is shown that there are more female groups than male, but this is more likely to be the result of the greater range of female wealth dispersing the information across the graph. The average wealth scores for the whole area of study is 30, and within individual cemeteries the average scores vary from 15. 5 to 40. 7 points. The average scores in Kent and the upper Thames valley are 28 and in Wessex it is 24. In Sussex and the Isle of Wight, where only single figures are avail­ able, th.e scores are 40. 7 and 33.4 points respectively. A similar variation is found in the average number of types of object in the cemeteries. The overall average is 1.8 types and in individual cemeteries varies from 1. 0 to 3.1 types. For Kent, Sussex and the Isle of Wight the average figure is 2. 0, but in the upper Thames valley and Wessex the value is below average at 1. 6 types. The distribution of wealth in male graves is always more uneven than in female. In the female graves of the upper Thames valley and Wessex, the wealth scores and number of types per grave are also uniformly distributed. Unaccompanied graves are least common in Kent and Sussex, the highest figures being in the later cemeteries of the upper Thames valley and Wessex. The distinctions between the coastal regions and those inland are very apparent. Where there are similarities between areas it need not imply that the same developments were taking place at the same time, yet the same axes of similarity are found not only in this for:01 of analysis but also in the history 131

a nd a rchaeo logy , mak ing i tp robable t ha t s uch s im i lar i t ies a re n o mere c o inc idence. I n g enera l , t here i s ad eve lop men t f ro m t he e ar l ies t c e meter ies e xa m ined where t he ma jor i ty o f g raves a re g rouped a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ca le , t hrough as tage w i th o ne o r t wo s epara te wea l thy g roups t o t he f ina l p a t tern o f o ne w i th v ery r ich g raves r e moved f ro m t he l ower g roups .

The c hange i s t ak ing p lace

f ro m t he midd le o f t he s ix th c en tury o nwards a nd r eaches a c l i max w i th t he r ich ma le g raves u nder b arrows f ro m c A D

6 00 , wh ich a re more c o m mon

i n Wessex a nd t he u pper T hames v a l ley p robably a s t he r esu l t o f t he l a te c onv ers ion t o C hr is t ian i ty a nd mu l t ip le l eadersh ip i n t hese a reas . F ro m t he me thods o f a na lys is u t i l ised a bove i ti s p oss ib le t o e x tract g raves w i th a h igh d egree o f wea l th a nd c o mbina t ions o f o b ject wh ich f requen t ly r ecur s ugges t ing t ypes wh ich may b e ar ef lec t ion o f s ocia l p os i tion .

These

a re n ecessar i ly t he r icher g raves , a s t he d egree o f u ni form i ty i ncreases w i th q uan t i ty , a nd i ti s t hese g raves t ha t a re mos t u se fu l f or d a t ing d eve lop men ts i n s oc ia l s truc ture . Where i ti s p oss ible t o d is t ingu ish b etween ma le a nd f e ma le g raves u s ing e v idence wh ich i s i ndependen t o f t he g rave g oods , i ti s a pparen t t ha t i n t he s ix th c en tury r ich f e ma le g raves p redo m ina te , a l though i ti s p oss ible t o i so la te a g roup o f ma le g raves o f s im i lar wea l th ( Tab le 4 .7) .

These s even ma le g raves

a re c haracter ised b y ap ar t icu lar c o mbina t ion o f o b jects , ac o mp le te s e t o f weaponry , s pear , s h ie ld a nd s word , a nd a c on ta iner , u sua l ly a me ta l-bound ' bucke t '.

Pa irs o f t weezers a re a lso a c o m mon a t tr ibu te .

The g rea tes t

d is t inct ion w i th in t he g roup i s made b y t he p resence o r a bsence o f s word , s pear a nd t weezers .

T he ma jor i ty o f t he g roup h ave wea l th s cores o f o ver

1 00 p o in ts a nd s tand o u t marked ly f ro m t he r es t o f t he p opu la t ion .

T he t ype

i s r are i n t he u pper T hames v a l ley where r ich f e ma le g raves a re more c o m mon . T here i s v ery r are ly a ny d up l ica t ion o f o b jec ts i n t hese g raves a nd l i t t le v ar ia t ion f ro m t he n orm . T he c on te mporary f e ma le g raves ( Table 4 .8 ) o f t he s ame c lass a re c haract er ised b y t he s tandard f e ma le a t tr ibu tes , k n ives , b eads a nd b rooches , bu t a re d is t ingu ished b y t he p resence o f an umber o f r arer c lasses i n wh ich t here i s ag rea t d ea l o f v ar ia t ion .

I n c er ta in g raves t he c o mbina t ion o f p er fora ted

s poon , c rys ta l b a l ls a nd g o ld t hreaded t ex t i les i s c o m mon , b u t e lsewhere b ronze a nd s i lver r ings a re more c haracter is t ic .

T he f ormer a re mos t t yp i-

c a l o f K en t , S ussex a nd t he I s le o f W igh t , whereas t he l a t ter a re mos t f req uen t ly f ound i n Wessex .

T he r ing i n t he u pper T hames v a l ley a nd Wessex

may h ave t he e qu iva len t s y mbo l is m a s t he c rys ta l b a l l/per fora ted s poon c o mb ina t ion e lsewhere .

I ti s t he p resence o r a bsence o f t hese c a tegor ies t ha t i s

mos t s ign i f ican t i n t h is g roup o f g raves . T he wea l th ier ma le i n t he s ix th c en tury d id n o t d isp lay h is s oc ia l p os i t ion b y n umerous o b jec ts , b u t b y al im i ted n u mber o f c lear ly d ef ined s ta tus s y mb o ls , a nd s uch g raves a re n o t c o m mon .

T he f e ma les , h owever , a re a much

l arger g roup a nd d isp lay c ons iderab ly more wea l th i n ag rea ter v ar ie ty o f c o mbina t ions .

Wh i ls t l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he s ta tus o f wo men i n A ng lo-Saxon

s oc ie ty o r o f t he means o f a cqur ing wea l th , i ti s t e mp t ing t o c onc lude t ha t t he wea l th b es towed o n a wo man may b e ar e f lec t ion o f h er h usband 's s ta tus a s much a s h er o wn . 1 32

�

c,,., c,,.,

Table 4. 7

.....e C e D

N

CD

CO

C \ 1

1 4

C)

c o

C ' D

CD C I C \ 1

1 . 1

L C D

L C D

C \ 1

N L ' •

b-

CD

in

C .0

0

CD 1 1

CD

VD

CM 1 4

C I D

°O

7 t( N

C \ I

I C )

ç

c o e z e lm 0 0

C \I

Cq

0 0 C 0 D 0 4 0 i 1 v 4 v -

L C D

t • •

TCO

0 0 4 0 0 0 r 1 -

f i 4 1 B r n o s l f A i 6 2 t r n s o

0 I i 0 0 4 0 1 4 I 1 0 0 r 1 1 -

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I n t he s even th c en tury a n ew c lass o f r ich ma le b ur ia l emerges ( Table 4 .9 ) , b ur ia l u nder b arrows a way f ro m t he c e me ter ies .

T hree o f t he r iches t ,

S u t ton H oo , Tap low a nd Broo m f ie ld , a re o u ts ide t he s tudy a rea b u t may b e t aken a s t he s tandard f or t h is g roup .

T he e xamp les w i th in t he a rea o f s tudy

s how g rea ter v ar ia t ion , mos t c o m mon ly h av ing a s pear , s word , b uck le a nd ac on ta iner , g enera l ly ab ronze h ang ing b ow l .

T he ma jor d is t inc t ions w i th in

t he g roup a re made b y t he p resence o r a bsence o f g lass , j ewe l lery a nd c o mbs ; a nd t he d i f ference b e tween t hese g raves i s n ot s o much t he q uan t i ty o f o b jects b u t t he q ua l i ty.

Wh i le Tap low , B roo m f ie ld a nd S u t ton H oo c o mpare c lose ly

w i th Lowbury , t he c on for m i ty i s o n ly w i th t he t ypes o f o b ject , L owbury h av ing n o p recious me ta l .

C uddesdon a nd O l iver 's B a t tery a re b o th p robably i nco m-

p le te , b u t s hare a s u f f icien t n umber o f a t tr ibu tes f or c o mpar ison t o b e v a l id . T he g rea tes t c oncen tra t ion o f t hese g raves i s i n Wi l tsh ire .

N one o f t hese

b ur ia ls i s k nown i n S ussex , b u t t here , a s e lsewhere , many more a re s ugges ted b y s urv iv ing b arrows a nd t he C ud- p ro tothe me , wh ich was a d om inan t f or m among t he Wes t S axon d ynas ty , a nd wh ich i s f requen t ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s u f f ix h l ww , a' barrow- mound ' ( D ick inson 1 974 , 3 2 ) . Wi th s uch a v ar iabi l i ty i n t he q ua l i ty o f t he o b jec ts i t migh t b e c oncluded t ha t t hese g raves a re a l l o f i nd iv idua ls w i th h igh s oc ia l p os i t ion who a re t he ms e lves s ubd iv ided b y t he q ua l i ty o f t he o b jec ts .

The b ur ia l o f t hese i nd iv idua ls

u nder b arrows i mp l ies a d egree o f e l i t is m , s epara ted a s t hey were f ro m t he c o m muna l c e me ter ies , a nd o ne m igh t d raw a n a na logy w i th t he b ur ia l o f e ar ly k ings i n c hurches , t he r esu l t o f C hr is t ian i ty s pread ing f ro m t he t op o f t he s oc ia l s ca le . C on te mporary r i ch f e ma le g raves a re more r are t han ma le e xamp les i n t he s ix th c en tury ( Tab le 4 .10 ) .

A l l b u t t wo o f t he e xamp les a re i n c e me ter ies ,

t he Wi l tsh ire e xamp les o f S wa l lowc l i f fe a nd R oundway D own I b e ing t he o n ly e xcep t ions .

I n K en t , t he c o m mones t a t tr ibu tes a re a wooden b ox , s i lver

r ings a nd a c h ne la ine , whereas e lsewhere t he p in , c o mb a nd c o ins a re more s ign i f ican t . The more u sua l f e ma le a t tr ibu tes o f j ewe l lery , b rooches o r p end an ts , a re u biqu i tous . One s hou ld e xpec t t o f ind a n ear i den t i ty b e tween t he n umber o f s ocia l p os i t ions i n as ocia l o rgan isa t ion a nd t he n u mber o f s y mbo ls d es igna t ing s uch u n i ts .

I n Ang lo-Saxon g raves t he s y mbo ls a re o f ten f ound i n v arying c o mbina-

t i ons mak ing c onclus ions o n s uch a ma t ter d i f f icu l t t o r each .

T he a na lyses

h ave d e mons tra ted t ha t t he p r i mary ma le s y mbo ls a re a c on ta iner , s word , s pear a nd s h ie ld , a nd t he f e ma le s y mbo ls a c rys ta l b a l l , p er fora ted s poon , g o ld b ra id , k ey , p in a nd r ings .

T he o vera l l a verage n u mber o f s ocia l p os i-

t i ons r evea led b y t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th i s s ix . D ISCUSS ION Many o f t he p a t terns r evea led i n t h is s tudy wou ld c ause l i t t le c o m men t i n i so la t ion , b u t t he c lose c orre la t ion b e tween a n umber o f p a t terns c anno t b e i gnored .

B e l ie fs c oncern i n g t he d is tr ibu t ion o f weaponry i n c e me ter ies h ave

b een a f f irmed , b u t a lso p u t i n to p erspec t ive b y c o mpar ison w i th o ther s i tes . T he v ar ia t ion i n l eve ls o f a r ma men t a nd t he c o mbina t ions o f w eapon t ypes i s c lose ly r e la ted t o t he s uccess o f c o m merce i n ag iven a rea . The q ues t ion o f whe ther t rade t ook p lace a t a l l h as t ended t o mask t he v ery b as ic f ac t t ha t many r aw ma tet ia ls u t i l ised i n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon Eng land were e i ther n o t

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T able 4 .10

a orppau p rag

a va i lab le o r w ere n o t e xp lo i ted , a nd a mechan ism f or t he ir p rocuremen t mus t h ave e x is ted .

T he mechan is m u sed b y e ach o f t he a reas s tud ied i s c losely

r e la ted t o g eograph ica l l oca t ion .

T he a na lys is o f weaponry , p opu la t ion d is-

t r ibu t ion , l eve ls o f i ndus tr ia l a c t iv i ty , a nd t he v ary ing d is tr ibu t ion o f p ar t ic u lar c lasses o f a r te fact r evea ls a c o mp lex p a t tern .

T he a na lys is o f t he

c e me ter ies f or i n forma t ion p er ta in ing t o wea l th d is tr ibu t ion c o mp le men ts t he p a t tern o f r esource a cqu is i t ion a nd u t i l isa t ion . S pec i f ic s ta temen ts a bou t s ocia l s tructure o n t he b as is o f t hese a na lyses a re made h azardous b ecause o f t he d i f f icu l t ies i n i so la t ing t he v arying c r i ter ia i nvo lved i n e ach c eme tery. H owever , t he p a t tern r evea led i n e ach a rea e xam ined f u l ly j us t if ies t h is a pp roach t o t he d a ta , a nd s o me o f t he f ac tors i nvo lved i n t he wea l th d is tr ibu t ion c an b e i so la ted b y c o mpar ing t he r esu l ts f ro m d i f feren t a reas a nd b y d i f feren t me thods o f a na lys is . T he c o mp lex i ty o f s ocia l s tructure , p opu la t ion d ens it ies , a nd l eve ls o f a rmamen t d ecrease w i th d is tance f ro m c o m merc ia l c en tres . The c hanges i n s oc ia l s tructure c an b e mon i tored i n t he c e me ter ies a nd , i nd eed , t he b ur ia l r i te i t se l f c hanges i n r esponse t o ad eve lop men t i n s ocia l s tructure o f e ven g rea ter i mpor tance .

I t mus t a lways b e b orne i n m ind t ha t

t he b ur ia l o f g rave g oods i s n o t o n ly a means o f e qu ipping t he d ead , b u t i s a lso ac onsp icuous was te o f r aw ma ter ia ls . A na lys is o f t he ma jor f actors o f t he f orma t ion o f t hese c o mp lex s ocie t ies , o r k ingdo ms , h as s hown t ha t a reas wh ich w ere a dvan tageous ly l oca ted f or c arrying o ld c o m mercia l a c t iv i t ies , p ar t icu lar ly t he c oas ta l k ingdo ms o f K en t , S ussex a nd t he I s le o f W igh t , d eve loped mos t r ap id ly i n t erms o f s oc ia l s tructure a nd o vera l l l eve ls o f wea l th .

A reas l i ke t he u pper Thames v a l ley ,

l ess s u i tab ly s i tua ted , a t te mp ted t o ma in ta in s uch mercan t i le a c t iv i t ies b u t were s lower t o a ch ieve s uch a h igh d egree o f w ea l th a nd s uch a c omp lex ity o r s oc ia l s tructure . s ion a ga ins t t he more

O ther k ingdo ms , s uch a s Wessex , r esor ted t o a ggress uccess fu l

c oas ta l k ingdoms .

T he r a te o f d eve lop men t

o f e ach o f t he k ingdo ms was c lose ly b ound u p w i th r esource a cqu is i t ion a nd e ach a rea r e l ied t o v arying d egrees o n d i f feren t me thods o f a ch iev ing t h is . Trad ing i s t o b e s een a t i t mos t s uccess fu l i n K en t , w h ich ma in ta ined a monopo ly o ver many r aw ma ter ia ls a nd p layed a ma jor r o le i n s upp ly ing o ther a reas .

T he a ccumu la t ive e f fec t was t o make K en t o ne o f t he r iches t a nd

s tronges t k ingdo ms . T he a pparen t i ncrease i n t he n umber o f mercan t i le c en tres i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies i n N or th- Wes tern E urope i s n o t as udden d eve lop men t , b u t o ne wh ich h as i t s f ounda t ions i n t he s ix th c en tury i fn o t e ar lier .

Tha t

c en tres c ou ld e x is t i s c lear ly s hown b y s uch s i tes a s H e Ig t 5 i n S weden , b u t i ti s n o t c lear a t p resen t whe ther t he Eng l ish e xamp les a re c en tres i n f unct ion a s we l l a s p lace .

T here i s c er ta in ly a c lose c orre la t ion i n Eng land b e tween

s uch a reas a nd t he r ecogn ised p or ts o f t he s ucceed ing c en tur ies , i n Eng land a nd o n t he C on t inen t . T he f orma t ion o f t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon k ingdo ms c an b e v iewed a s d epend ing o n t he i n teract ion o f al im i ted n umber o f f actors a nd t he e x tre mes o f t hese c o mbina t ions may b e b es t d e mons tra ted b y K en t a nd Wessex .

The

f ormer d isp lays h igh d ens i ty o f p opu la t ion , d ispropor t iona te d is tr ibu t ion o f wea l th , s uccess i n i n ter-k ingdo m t rade , a monopo ly o f r aw ma ter ia ls , mass p roduct ion i n manu fac tur ing i ndus tr ies , a nd a h igh l eve l o f a r mamen t .

1 38

The

latter may be said to be poorer in all these factors, displaying instead dis­ persed distribution of population, aggression towards neighbouring kingdoms, lack of industry and raw materials, low level of armament, and lower contem­ porary levels of wealth. In addition it may be observed that Kent has the first documented 'king', the first vernacular laws, and was the first to adopt Christianity. The Kentish system's initial phase of development is indicated by the manner in which some products are constrained within social and/or physical space with the major development in the middle to late sixth century of mass replication of goods. The short time range involved in this period makes it difficult to establish cause and effect in the formation of the kingdoms. The move towards craft specialisation and the necessity for the formation of a socio-economic class ultimately demands the development of a complex organisation to control and maintain the system. What is apparent is that in areas where the manufacture of goods is most advanced, to the extent of mass-replication, the wealth dif­ ferential is greatest and the political organisation most advanced. Some eastern areas of England must surely fall into this category also. The king­ doms emerge and develop most quickly in areas heavily committed to long­ distance trade. A dependence on external conflict is to be seen as an alterna­ tive system. Both are factors involved in the formation of these complex societies and each is heavily dependent on the other. The kingdoms, there­ fore, emerge under conditions of mutual competition. Areas with dense popu­ lation and activity agglomerates were involved in long-distance trade and sup­ ported a complex society, while the reverse is apparent in areas of low density population. Some degree of insight into the complexity of early Anglo-Saxon society has been achieved and the potential for further, more detailed, analyses is most apparent. All areas of Anglo-Saxon England require detailed study within such a framework as is suggested here. Archaeologists and historians alike may continue to study the 'Dark Ages'. It, is hoped that this contribution to the subject makes it clear that such a designation is inconsistent with the evidence that is available. BIBLIOGRAPHY Addyman, P., 1976. 'Archaeology and Anglo-Saxon society', in Sieveking, G. de G., Longworth, I. H. and Wilson, K. E. eds., Problems in Econo­ mic and Social Archaeology (London), 309-22. Akerman, J. Y., 1853. 'An account of excavations in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground at Harnham Hill, near Salisbury', Archaeologia 35, 259-78 and 475-79. Akerman, J. Y., 1855. Remains of Pagan Saxondum (London). Akerman, J. Y., 1860. 'Report on researches in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground at Long Wittenham, Berkshire', Archaeologia 38, 327-52. Akerman, J. Y., 1863. 'Report on further researches in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground at Long Wittenham, Bei;-kshire, in the summer of 186 O', Archaeologia 39, 135-42. 139

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i n I . M. D iakenov e d ., Ancien t Mesopo tam ia , S ocio-Econo mic H is tory ( Moscow ) , 1 73-203. D ick inson , T ., 1 974. Ekwa l l , E ., 1 936.

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n ames ' , Namn o ch B ydg 2 4 , 1 78-83 . 1 40

Fau ll , M ., 1 977.

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e d ., 1 977. The S axon c e metery a t B i frons ' , Archaeol . G odfrey-Fausse t t , T . G ., 1 876 . ' Can t iana 1 0 , 2 98-315. The S axon c e metery a t B i frons ', Archaeo l . G odfrey-Fausse t t , T . G ., 1 880 . ' Can t iana 1 3 , 5 52-6. G r i ffi th , A . F ., 1 915 .

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S upp le men ta l Paper ' , S ussex Archaeol . C o l lect . 5 7 , 1 97-208 . G r i f fi th , A . F . a nd S a lz mann , L . F ., 1 914 .

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A lfr is ton , S ussex ', S ussex Archaeol . C ol lec t . 5 6, 1 6-51. Harrison , K ., 1 976.

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( Cambr idge ). H awkes , S . C ., 1 969.

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Hawkes , S . C ., 1 973 .

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t he P o lh i l l c e me tery ' , i n Phi lp 1 973 , 1 86-201. H awkes , S . C ., 1 977.

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s unr ise d a t ing o f d ea th

a nd b ur ia l i n a n Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery i n Eas t K en t ' , A rchaeo l . Can t iana 9 2 , 3 3-51. J ohnson , G . A ., 1 973 .

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wes tern I ran ' , A n thropo log ica l Papers , Museu m o f An thropo logy , Un iv ers i ty o f M ich igan , 5 1. K endrick , T . D ., 1 933. K ennet t , D . H ., 1 977.

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Proc. C a mbr idge An t iq. S oc. 6 4 , 3 9-62. L a ing , L . e d ., 1 977.

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Proc. S oc . An t iq . London 2 2 , 4 8-65 . L eeds , E . T ., 1 924 .

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( Ox ford ). L eeds , E . T . a nd H arden , D . B ., 1 936. A bingdon , Berksh ire ( Ox ford ). L eeds , E . T . a nd S hor tt , H . d e S ., 1 953.

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An Ang lo-Saxon C e me tery a t

Pe ters f inger , n ear S a l isbury , Wi l tshire ( Sa l isbury ). L e thbr idge , T . C ., 1 931.

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i n Cambr idgesh ire a nd S uf fo lk ' , C a mbr idge An t iq. S oc. Quar to Publ. ( New S er ies ) , 3 .

1 41

Le thbr idge , T . C ., 1 948 . Mauss , M ., 1 954 .

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Two Ang lo-Saxon C e meter ies a t

Winna l l , Winches ter , Hampsh ire ( Soc. Med ieva l Archaeol., Monog . S er . 4 ;

L ondon ).

Mus ty , J ., 1 969.

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Lavers tock , n ear S a l isbury , Wi l tsh ire ' , An t iq . J . 4 9 , 9 8-117 . Myres , J . N . L ., 1 978 .

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b y-Norw ich a nd Marksha l l , N or fo lk ( Repor t o f t he R esearch C o m mi ttee o f t he S ocie ty o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon 3 0 ; Oddy , W. A ., 1 977.

L ondon ).

' G i ld ing a nd t inn ing i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ' , i n O ddy ,

W. A . e d ., A spects o f Ear ly Meta l lurgy ( London ). Ph i lp , B . J ., 1 973 .

' The Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t P o lh i l l , Dun ton G reen ,

K en t ' , i n B . J . P hi lp , Excava t ions i n Wes t K en t 1 960-70 ( Dover ) , 1 642 14. Rah tz , P . A ., 1 979. R igold , S ., 1 975 .

' Grave Or ien ta t ion ' , Archaeo l . J . 1 35 ,

1 -14 .

' The S u t ton-Hoo c o ins i n t he l i gh t o f t he c on temporary

b ackground o f c o inage i n Eng land ' i n R . Bruce- M i t ford , The S u t ton-Hoo S h ip Bur ia l Vo l . 1( London ) , 6 53-77. Roosens , H . a nd Tho mas-Goor ieckx , 1 970 .

' D ie Merowing ische G o ldsche iben-

f i bel v on R os meer ' , A rchaeo log ia B elg ica 1 23 , 5 -18 . Russe l l , J . C ., 1 974 .

' The e ar ly Med ieva l p lague i n t he Br i tish I s les ' ,

V ia tor 7 , 6 5-78. S anders , W. T ., 1 968.

' Hydrau l ic a gr icu l ture , e cono m ic s y mbios is a nd t he

e volua t ion o f s ta tes i n C en tra l Mex ico ' i n B . J . Meggers , e d ., An thropol og ica l Archaeology i n t he Amer icas ( Wash ing ton ) , 8 8-107. S axe , A ., 1 970 .

S ocia l d i mens ions o f mor tuary p ract ice ( Unpub l ished P h .D .

Thes is , Un ivers i ty o f M ich igan ). S axe , A ., 1 971.

' D i mens ions o f mor tuary p rac t ice i n a Mesol i th ic p opu la t ion

f ro m Wad i Ha fa , S udan ', Amer ican An t iqu i ty 2 5 , 3 9-57. Smi th , R . A . e d., 1 856.

I nven tor iu m S epu lchra le ( London ).

Va tcher , F . d e M . a nd Va tcher , H . L ., 1 968 . Wi l tsh ire 1 967:

' Excava t ions a nd f i e ldwork i n

a ddenda f or 1 966 ' , Wi l tsh ire A rchaeo l . Mag . 6 3 , 1 15 .

Warhurs t , R ., 1 955.

' The J u t ish c e me tery a t L y minge i , Archaeo l . C an t iana ,

6 9 , 1 -40. Webb , M. C ., 1 975 .

' The f lag f ol lows t rade ' i n S abloff , J . A . a nd Lamberg-

Kar lovsky , C . C . e ds ., Ancien t C iv i l isa t ion a nd Trade ( A lbuquerque ) , 1 55-210. We l ls , C . a nd G reen , C ., 1 973.

' Sunr ise d a t ing o f d ea th a nd b ur ia l ' , N or fo lk

A rchaeol . 3 5 , 4 35-42. Wi lson , D . M., 1 976.

The A rchaeology o f Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ( London ). 1 42

5. MATERIAL SYMBOLISM AND SOCIAL RELATIONS IN MORTUARY STUDIES by Ellen�Jane Pader INTRODUCTION Recent attempts at correlating the remains of mortuary practice with social organization have focused attention on such formal elements of burial as quantity, quality and material of artefacts, plus, when possible, skeletal position, grave orientation, location, and design. A major part of the analy­ ses have been devoted to determining which types of artefacts are found together most often, with the resultant assemblages then being related to other elements of burial. Following Binford (1962), attempts are often made to categorize artefacts by social function. The aim is to elucidate the age, sex and ranking structure of those buried, assuming a direct relationship between burial re­ mains and social organization (cf Hodson 1977; Saxe 1970 and 1971; Stickle 1968; and Tainter 1978, among others). The argument set forth here considers such models to be too limited. For example, to rank status on a linear scale, from low to high, from 'poor' to 'rich' is misleading (even when age based distinctions are taken into account). It is suggested that social relations are far more complex anc. dynamic than this. When the graves are examined with reference to their symbolic function, these complex relationships become apparent. This entails looking at not only what is used, but how it is used; how, for instance, the artefacts and skeleton are positioned, and how they are together organized in the space of the grave. This information is then examined in terms of spatial variation throughout a cemetery. Ideally it should be possible to suggest why certain types of arte­ facts were used and positioned as they were. The basis for a symbolic approach to mortuary studies is, briefly, that ritual, including the ritual surrounding death, is characterized by the use of certain formalized or patterned behaviours, or symbolic action (cf Huntington and Metcalf 1979). How the living chose to lay out the dead, including their material accessories, is potentially an integral part of the patterned, or sym­ bolic, activity of burial. Before apptying this approach to the archaeological data, it is necessary to elaborate the concept of symbolism, with reference to the symbolic function of material culture. The specific aspect to be dealt with is dress or bodily adornment, which includes weaponry and other access­ ories, as these often tend to be a primary source of data for the interpretation of social relations from mortuary remains. No attempt will be made here to fit the results into a wider framework of Anglo-Saxon studies as this will be found elsewhere (Pader in prep).

143

T he p urpose o f a dop t ing a s y mbo l ic a pproach i s t o e x tend f ur ther o ur u nders tand ing o f wha t ma ter ia l c u l ture o b jec ts mean—o f h ow t he u se o f o b jec ts r e la tes t o t he s oc ia l r ela t ions w i th in a s oc ie ty , b o th i n ag enera l s ense a s we l l a s i n t he s peci f ic c on tex t o f mor tuary r e ma ins .

A l though much work h as b een

d one o n s y mbo l ic r epresen ta t ions , t here i s l i t t le w h ich h as b een s pec i f ica l ly c oncerned w i th t he ma ter ia l a spec t .

S o me r ecen t e xcep t ions a re E b in ( 1979 ) ,

H ebd ige ( 1979 ) , H odder ( 1 977 a nd 1 979 ) , S eeger ( 1 975 ) , a nd Turner ( 1 969 , 1 979a a nd 1 979b ). MATER IAL S Y MBOL IS M T here i s n o o ne a ccep ted d e f in i t ion o f wha t c ons t i tu tes a s y mbo l , b u t c ert a in b as ic c oncep ts a re g enera l ly a greed u pon , wh ich a re r e levan t t o t he a rgumen t p resen ted h ere .

C ohen s ums i tu p b y s aying t ha t :

' Sy mbo ls a re o b jec ts , a c ts , c oncep ts a nd l i ngu is t ic f or ma t ions wh ich s tand amb iguous ly f or a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f d ispara te mean ings ' ( 1 974 , 4 ) . T hese o ccur i n s tyl ized p a t terns o f b ehav iour ; t hey f or m p a t terns o f n orma t ive b ehav iour .

F or e xa mp le , i n o ur s oc ie ty a s traw h a t c an s tand f or , o r

mean , a n E ton ian i n o ne c on tex t , ag ondo l ier , ab u tcher o r av audev i l le p erf ormer i n o ther c on tex ts . o r o bscure .

I n i so la t ion t he h a t i s mean ing less , i e ambiguous

B u t when s een i n c on tex t i td oes b eco me mean ing fu l .

T h is mean-

i ng i s o n ly b y v ir tue o f t he s oc ie ty h av ing d ee med i ts o ( c f S ah l ins 1 976 , 1 70 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o s y mbo l , t wo o ther t erms n eed t o b e e xp la ined : message .

c ode a nd

I n t he s traw h a t e xamp le , t he h a t , p lus t he c ane a nd g loves a re

a l l p ar ts o f t he v audev i l le p er former 's c os tume , whereas t he E ton ian u n i form i s d is t ingu ished b y as choo l t i e a nd b lazer .

When i n c on tex t t hese e le men ts

b eco me t he c odes wh ich t oge ther f orm d iscre te messages : mer a s o pposed t o E ton ian .

v audev i l le p erfor-

T hese c odes o n ly a cqu ire mean ing t hrough n or-

ma t ive b ehav iour , t ha t i s , b y r epea ted u se i n t he s ame c on tex t t ime a nd a ga in . I ti s t h is message t ha t w e mus t t ry t o d ecipher i n o rder t o g e t a t t he mean ing o f , a nd t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween , t he c oded e le men ts . B od i ly a dornmen ts , w eaponry , a nd o ther s uch a ccessor ies f ound i n g raves a re s o me o f t he Ang lo-Saxon is t 's ma in s ources o f s oc ia l i n for ma t ion . T he way i n wh ich c er ta in i t e ms were c hosen t o b e u sed b y t he l i v ing c an b e c ons idered a s ac ode a bou t s oc ia l r e la t ions wh ich o bta ined i n l i fe .

A l though i ti s u n l ike ly

t ha t we w i l l e ver b e a b le t o r econs truct t he e n t ire ' wor ld v iew ' , we s hou ld b e a b le t o r ecogn ize many o f t he s y mbo l ic c odes b y ac lose e xami9a t ion o f t he g rave a nd t hereby f or mu la te s o me o f t he r e la t ions o n wh ich t he s oc ie ty was b ased , eg t he r e la t ive i mpor tance o f a ge f or t he s tructur ing o f t he s ociety/ Turner h as s peci f ica l ly s tud ied t he s y mbo l ic f unct ion o f b od i ly a dornmen t b o th o f t he Kayapo I nd ians o f C en tra l B razi l ( 1 969 , 1 979a a nd 1 979b ) , a nd o f wes tern s oc ie ty f ro m t he f euda l p er iod t o t he p resen t ( 1 979a ) .

On ly a v ery

b r ie f a ccoun t o f s o me o f h is s em ina l a nd mos t i mmed ia te ly r e levan t w ork w i l l b e g iven h ere i n o rder t o p resen t ac oncre te e xamp le o f t he t heore t ica l b ase t o b e a ppl ied i n t h is a na lys is o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . men t i s Turner 's a sser t ion t ha t :

1 44

C en tra l t o my a rgu-

' The d is t inc t ive p lace o f t he a dornmen t o f t he b ody among [ o ther s y mbo l ic med ia , e g l anguage o r g es ture ] ..is t ha t i ti s t he med ium mos t d irec t ly a nd c oncre te ly c oncerned w i th t he c ons truct ion o f t he i nd iv idua l a s as oc ia l a c tor [ e g mo ther , e lder , p o l ice o f f icer o r p unk r ocker ] . T h is i s af unda men ta l c oncern o f a l l s ocie t ies a nd s oc ia l g roups , a nd t h is i s why t he i mpos i t ion o f as tandard ized s y mbo l ic f or m u pon t he b ody , a s as y mbo l o f ...the s oc ia l s e l f , i nvar iably b ec o mes a s er ious b us iness f or a l l s oc ie t ies , r egard less o f whe ther t he ir me mbers a s i nd iv idua ls c onscious ly t ake t he ma t ter s er ious ly o r n ot ' ( 1 979a , 3 2 ) . T ha t t h is i s s o l i es i n T urner 's o bserva t ion t ha t : ' The s ys te m o f b od i ly a dornmen t n o t o n ly c o m mun ica tes t he s ys te m o f s oc ia l r e la t ions , n o t ions a nd v a lues t ha t i tb e tokens , b u t i s i t se l f a n i ns trumen t f or t he c rea t ion a nd a r t icu la t ion o f t ha t s ys te m ' ( 1979a , 3 1 ) . A s i mp li f ied a ccoun t s how ing t he s tructura l c onnec t ion b e tween K ayapo b od i ly a dornmen t a nd s oc ia l r e la t ions i s f ound i n F ig

5 .1.

Af ew o f t he p o in ts

w i l l b e e labora ted o n i n o rder t o d e mons tra te h ow t hey f i t i n to t he l arger c ont ex t o f ' wor ld v iew ' a nd d a i ly s oc ia l r e la t ions .

I n F ig

5 .1 , c h i ldren a re c on-

s idered a s e x tens ions t o t he ir p aren ts u n t i l t hey a re weaned —no te t ha t o n ly u nweaned c h i ldren a nd a du l ts h ave l ong h a ir —a l though a s i nd ica ted i n t he d iag ra m , f e ma les r e ta in i n fan t i le c harac ter is t ics f ar l onger t han ma les . Th is ma ter ia l r epresen ta t ion r e f lec ts t he ir s ubord ina te p os i t ion i n s ocie ty , ap os it i on wh ich i s ma ter ia l ly r e in forced b y , a nd o pposed t o , s uch o b jec ts a s t he ma le l i p p lug .

I n s imp le t er ms , ma les h ave t he r igh ts o f o ra tory a nd c o m mu-

n a l d ecis ion mak ing .

A s a ma le g e ts o lder a nd h is p owers o f o ra tory i ncrease ,

t he s tyle o f t he l i p p lug c hanges a nd i t s s ize i ncreases . p hys ica l e xpress ion o f t h is r o le .

I tt hus b eco mes a

O f ten a n o ld man , n o l onger i nvo lved i n d e-

c is ion mak ing , w i l l e i ther s top wear ing i ta l toge ther , o r wear a d i f feren t , more o rna te s tyle .

C olours a lso h ave s y mbo l ic mean ing f or t he K ayapo , e ach

b e ing c ons tra ined a s t o where o n t he b ody i ti s p u t .

I t e ms wh ich a re c h i ld-

l i nked a re o f ten r ed , t he c o lour o f h ea l th , e nergy a nd v i ta l i ty .

T hey s y mbo l i-

c a l ly f unc t ion t o h e lp f os ter t he g row th o f c h i ldren o f b o th s exes .

W i th r e ference

t o a ge r e la t ions , i ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t ha t c h i ldren u nder a bou t e igh t y ears o ld , j e b e fore t hey a re c ons idered a s f u l ly s oc ia l ized b e ings , a re g iven a s econdary b ur ia l w i th a n a du l t r e la t ive o f e i ther s ex ( Turner , p ers c omm ). Thus i ti s n o t o n ly t he a r tefac t i t se l f t ha t i s d iagnos t ic , b u t h ow i ti s u sed s y mbo l ica l ly t o d i f feren t ia te s oc ia l ly i mpor tan t c a tegor ies . t he p os i t ion ing o f a n a r te fac t , o r i t s p resence o r a bsence .

T h is m igh t i nc lude T oge ther t he v ar ious

e le men ts c rea te a message , n o t o n ly a bou t t he i nd iv idua ls i n t ha t s ocie ty , b u t a bou t t he s oc ie ty a s awho le. I n av ery r ea l s ense t hen : ' Through t he s y mbo l ic med ium o f b od i ly a dornmen t , t he b ody o f e very Kayapo i b a microcos m o f t he Kayapo b ody p o l i t ic ' ( 1979 1 D , 8 23 ). I n o ur s ocie ty sma l l , s ee m ing ly u se less , d i f feren t ia t ions i n d ress d o o ccur w h ich r e la te t o o ur r o les a nd a ct iv i t ies i n a mu l t i tude o f ways . F or i ns tance , i s t here a ny f unct iona l r eason f or h ow w e b u t ton o ur j acke ts —wo men t o t he l e f t , a nd men t o t he r igh t? i n o ur s oc ie ty?

O r i s i tj us t r e f lec t ive o f t he ma le-fe ma le d icho to my

1 45

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U s ing e xamp les f ro m d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he wor ld , a nd o f d i f feren t s oc iop o l i t ica l l eve ls , d oes h ave a s pec i f ic p urpose , t ha t i s , t o emphas ize t he p erv as iveness o f ma ter ia l s y mbo l is m i n a l l t ypes o f s oc ie t ies , a nd t o s how h ow i n tegra l ap ar t o f c u l ture i ti s .

T he i mpor tan t , b u t d i f f icu l t , p ar t i s a pp lying

t hese i ns igh ts i n to t he h ow a nd why o f ma ter ia l s y mbo l is m t o t he a na lys is o f s oc ia l r e la t ions wh ich u nder ly t he p a t tern ing f ound a rchaeo log ica l ly.

T here

a re p rob le ms w i th e x tend ing t he p a t terns o f t he d ead t o t hose o f t he l i v ing ( see e g Hodder t h is v o lume ) .

B u t t he f ac t s t i l l r e ma ins t ha t i ti s p a t terned b ehav iour

wh ich i s b e ing c ons idered . DATA ANALYS IS The a na lys is p resen ted h ere i s p r i mar i ly a bou t t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t H o lywe l l R ow , L e thbr idge ( 1931 ) .

M i ldenha l l , S u f fo lk , wh ich was e xcava ted b y

R eferences w i l l a lso b e made t o t he c e me tery a t Wes tgar th

G ardens i n Bury S t E d munds , S u f fo lk , wh ich was e xcava ted i n 1 972 b y S tan ley Wes t. P rob le ms wh ich w i l l a f fec t t he a na lys is a re t ha t n e i ther o f t hese c e me ter ies h as b een f u l ly e xcava ted , a nd t here i s p os t-depos i t iona l l oss o f i t e ms s uch a s f ood a nd c lo th ing .

T hese , h owever , a re p erenn ia l p rob le ms i n a rchae-

o logy wh ich mus t s omehow b e d ea l t w i th . A s w i l l b e s een , d esp i te t hese h and icaps , p a t terned b ehav iour i s e v iden t . Af ur ther p rob le m i s t ha t t he s tudy o f t he s y mbo l ic f unc t ion o f ma ter ia l c u l ture i n t he t er ms o u t l ined h ere i s s t i l l i n i t s i n fancy .

C oup led w i th t he d i f feren t t ype o f i n for ma t ion f ound i n t he

a rchaeolog ica l r ecord , t h is means t ha t i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t a l l o f t he s oc ia l markers w i l l b e r ecogn ized o r f u l ly u nders tood .

I ti s f or t hese r easons t ha t

w e mus t d eve lop me thods o f a na lys is a nd i n terpre ta t ion wh ich s u i t t he d a ta . A s i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o g o i n to t he f u l l d e ta i ls o f t he c e me ter ies , o n ly a f ew e xamp les i l lus tra t ing t he b as ic p o in ts w i l l b e p resen ted .

5 .2 .

Ap lan o f t he 1 01 e xcava ted g raves a t H o lywe l l R ow i s r epresen ted i n F ig The d ashed l i nes d iv ide t he c e me tery i n to ' sec tors ' , n umbered c onsecu-

t i ve ly f ro m s ou th t o n or th .

T hese a re n o t a bso lu te , n or w ou ld t he b oundar ies

n ecessar i ly r e ma in e xac t ly t he s ame w ere t he e n t ire c e me tery e xcava ted . N one theless , t he s ec tors a re d e f ined i n t er ms o f s y mbo l ic f unct ion , p ar t icu lar ly o n t he b as is o f a ge , s ex , a r tefac t a nd s ke le ta l p os i t ion ing .

A s w i l l b e d e mon-

s tra ted , t he c orre la t ion b e tween g rave s tructure a nd g rave l oca t ion i s n o t a r ando m o ne , n or d oes i ta ppear t o b e ac hrono log ica l ly d e term ined o ne .

G en-

e ra l c e me tery-wide c orrela t ions w i l l b e e xam ined , f o l lcwed b y s ector-speci f ic c haracter is t ics . A t tr ibu te d is tr ibu t ion B y e xam in ing t he a ge a nd s ex d is tr ibu t ion o f a t tr ibu tes i tb eco mes i m med ia te ly a pparen t t ha t i ti s i mposs ib le t o u nders tand t he ma lefe ma le r e la t ionsh ip w i thou t r e ferr ing t o t he a du l t-ch i ld o ne a s we l l , f or t hey a re i n terdependen t ( Table 5 .1) . There a re f our c lasses o f a r tefac ts wh ich a re o n ly f ound w i th f e ma les , b u t a re n o t c ons tra ined b y a ge .

H owever , t here a re o n ly t wo c lasses wh ich

a re 1 00% ma le-l inked . O ne o f t hese , t he s h ie ld , i s t he o n ly a t tr ibu te wh ich i s a n a bso lu te i nd ica tor o f a ge . O f t he i t e ms wh ich b o th ma les a nd f e ma les

1 47

F ig . 5 .2

P lan o f H o lywe l l R ow c e me tery ( a f ter L ethbr idge 1 931)

1 48

Table 5 .1

A t tr ibu te a ssocia t ion NS = N ot s ign i f ican t a t . 4' . %. . " .

i ) :

0 / 0 h az im mel i m et res

t • 4: .: s e

• '• e

t

•• r . •f 5 . • ••• •

F ig . 9 .1

S pong H i l l :

•5 f= :,

d is tribut ion o f f if th-century b rooch t ypes

2 01

a nd p ubl ica t ion o f b as ic i n for ma t ion r a ther t han o n a na lys is , wh ich i n a ny c ase c anno t b e s er ious ly b egun b e fore c o mp le t ion o f t he e xcava t ion .

T he

d iscuss ion wh ich f ol lows i s , t here fore , t o b e r egarded a s p re l im inary a nd t en ta t ive . The f irs t a spec t t o b e c ons idered i s s i mp ly t ha t o f n umbers .

T he e ffec ts

o f r abb i ts a nd u rnd iggers c an a t l eas t b e e s t i ma ted o n t he b as is o f t he weigh t a nd q uan t i ty o f smashed p o t tery l e f t i n t he ir p i ts a nd t he d ens i ty o f b ur ia ls i n t he s urround ing a reas .

E ros ion h as p robab ly a f fec ted t he t op o f t he h i l l ,

where b ur ia ls a re c o mpara t ive ly s parse , b u t i th as n o t c ons iderab ly r educed t he c e me tery e lsewhere , where s urv iv ing b ur ia ls a re s o d ense t ha t i ti s d if f ic u l t t o imag ine many c ou ld h ave b een l os t .

T he m in i mum t ota l o f s o me 3 000

c re ma t ion u rns wh ich c an b e s ugges ted d oes n o t , h owever , s tra igh t forward ly r epresen t t he n u mbers o f i nd iv idua ls b ur ied .

S o me p o ts c on ta ined h ard ly a ny

b ones o r , i ns tead , a mass o f c re ma ted a n i ma l b ones wh ich wou ld l essen t he n umber .

Far more , p robably t he ma jor i ty , c on ta ined n o t as ing le b ur ia l b u t

t he r e ma ins o f t wo o r more i nd iv idua ls ( see P u tnam t h is v o lu me ).

T h is means

t ha t we a re d ea l ing w i th 4 000-5000 b ur ia ls , a nd t ha t i s ac onserva t ive e st i ma te . These a re s pread o ver a t ime wh ich c an b e c onven t iona l ly c a lcu la ted a s t wo c en tur ies , f ro m t he e ar ly o r midd le p ar t o f t he f i f th c en tury t o t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he s even th c en tury .

I ti s n o t a t p resen t p oss ib le t o s ay whe ther t he p opu-

l a t ion was c ons tan t o r f luc tua t ing , b u t o n a ny e s t ima te a t a ny o ne t ime t here mus t h ave b een a p opu la t ion n umbered i n h undreds , n o t t ens .

S o f ar , t here

i s n o s ign o f as e t t le men t o f as ize t o c on ta in s o many , e i ther i n t he i m med ia te v ic in i ty o f t he h i l l top o r i n t he s urround ing p ar ishes .

Traces o f d o mes tic

o ccupa t ion d o o ccur o n t he p er iphery o f t he c e me tery a nd t here i s o ne k nown c on te mporary s i te a s hor t d is tance t o t he wes t . T here i s n o v ery c lear e v idence f or s e t t le men t p a t terns i n Nor fo lk i n t he e ar ly S axon p er iod a nd a d ispersed p a t tern o f h am le ts a nd f ar ms teads wou ld s ee m a t l eas t a s l i ke ly a s o ne o f l arge n uc lea ted v i l lages .

A r eg ion , r a ther

t han a v i l lage , m igh t h ave u sed S pong H i l l a s t he ir c en tra l b urying p lace. More f i e ld s urvey i s n eeded t o e xp lore t h is l ine o f a pproach . T he o rgan isa t ion o f t he c e me tery c an b e a pproached f irs t f ro m s imple o bserva t ion o f t he p lan .

T he i nhu ma t ions a re c lus tered t oge ther a long t he

n or th-eas tern e dge o f t he c e me tery , a l though t here a re s o me c re ma t ions i n t he s ame a rea , i nc lud ing a f ew d ug i n to i nhuma t ions .

T here i s l ess e v idence

o f d is turbance o f c re ma t ions b y i nhu ma t ions : s uch d is turbance migh t h ave r es u l ted i n d is tr ibu t ion o f p o tsherds a nd b ones o ver t he s i te o r i n c are fu l r eb ur ia l wh ich c ou ld e xp la in t he l ack o f r e ma ins i n more t han o ne o r t wo i nhumat i on g rave p i t f i l ls .

I n t h is a rea , t hen , t he t wo r i tes a re p robably c on te mporary ,

b u t t he o n ly d e f in i te e v idence a s t o s equence i s t ha t s o me c re ma tions a re l a ter t han s o me i nhuma t ions .

Amongs t t he i nhuma t ions t here i s f ur ther e v idence

o f s equence : t he more e as ter ly o f t he t wo l arge c hamber g raves w i th in r ingd i tches i s e ar l ier t han t he more wes ter ly a nd a lso p recedes a n i nhuma t ion wh ich c u ts t he e as tern e dge o f i t s r ing-d i tch . Ag rave t o t he s ou th o f b oth c hamber g raves l i es w i th in 1 . n a rc o f as urround ing d i tch wh ich a ppears t o r e la te t o t he t here fore b o th p re-ex is t ing l arge r ing-d t iches .

The sma l l r ing-

d i tch a nd t wo g raves t o t he e as t o f i t migh t a lso b e s een a s l y ing i n d e l ibera te p rox im i ty t o a n a lready c ons tructed l arge r ing-d i tch .

2 02

T here was a ) s ign o f a

p a l isade i n a ny o f t he r ing-d i tches a nd i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t hey o r ig ina l ly s urrounded mounds , wh ich wou ld h ave p rov ided f oca l p o in ts f or t he c e me tery . T he g roup o f i nhuma t ions a nd c re ma t ions t o t he n or th o f t he ma in c e me tery h as n o o bv ious s tra t igraph ica l r e la t ionsh ip t o t he o thers , a nd a l though t here i s a t l eas t o ne c lear ly d e f ined e as t-wes t r ow o f g raves i ti s d i f f icu l t t o s ee o n wha t t h is migh t h ave b een a l igned .

T he s quare e nc losure c u ts o ne i nhuma-

t i on , i s p robab ly c u t b y a no ther , a nd i s c er ta in ly c u t b y s evera l c re ma t ions , a l l o f wh ich p rov ide f ur ther r e la t ive s equences . Amongs t t he c rema t ions i n t he ma in c e me tery t here a re s o me d is t inc t c lus ters .

I n t he w es tern h a l f o f t he s i te t he l arge d i tch a ppears t o h ave s o me

s ign i f icance i n t ha t n o c re ma t ions a re f ound i n i to r c lose t o e i ther e dge . T h is i s n o t t rue i n t he e as tern h a l f o f t he c e me tery , h owever , where t here s ee ms t o h ave b een d e l ibera te b ur ia l o f c re ma t ions w i th in i t .

The c e me tery

h as a c lear ly d e f ined e dge , e xcep t i n t he midd le o f t he n or thern p ar t , b u t t here i s n o s ign o f ab ounda ry d i tch . I to ugh t t o b e p oss ib le t o u se c re ma t ions a ssoc ia ted i n t he g round a s l i nks i n ar e la t ive s equence .

H owever , a l though s o me p o ts c lear ly were p u t i n p i ts

t oge ther , a nd a re t herefore o f v a lue a s b e ing c on te mporary , i ti s n o t a lways p oss ible t o b e c er ta in t ha t p ots wh ich o ver ly o thers a re , i n f ac t , l a ter i n d a te . G roups migh t h ave b een b ur ied t oge ther , t he d amage t o t he u nder lying c rema t ions r esu l t ing f ro m p ressure f ro m t hose a bove r a ther t han f ro m d is turbance . E ven where a s econd p i t h as b een d ug i n to t he f irs t , o r where t he f irs t h as b een r e-opened , t h is migh t h ave t aken p lace s oon a f ter t he o r ig ina l b ur ia l o r a f ter a l ong t ime l apse , a nd t here i s n o way o f t e l l ing wh ich was t he c ase . A ssoc ia t ions b e tween g roups o f t wo o r more p o ts , a pparen t ly p u t c are fu l ly t oge ther a t t he s ame t ime i n to t he s ame p i t , s o f ar s how o ne o f t he f o l low ing p a t terns —very s im i lar p o ts , e i ther s tamp-l inked o r v ery c lose t o e ach o ther i n d ecora t ion a nd f orm , h igh ly d ecora ted w i th p la in p o ts , o r d i f feren t d ecorat i ve t ypes , o f wh ich b ossed a nd l i near p o ts w i th s i mp le l i near p a t terns i s t he mos t c ons is ten t a ssoc ia t ion .

Fur ther work r e ma ins t o b e c arr ied o u t h ere ,

b u t mos t o f t he a ssoc ia t ions s o f ar o bserved s uppor t a n i den ti f ica t ion a s c ont e mporary b ur ia ls , p erhaps i n s o me c ases o f a more i mpor tan t i nd iv idua l i n t he more e labora te p o t , a cco mpan ied b y l esser p ersons i n u ndecora ted p o ts , a l though i t mus t b e a dm i t ted t ha t t he l ack o f c o inc idence b e tween r e la t ive ly r ich g rave g ood a sse mblages a nd e labora te ly d ecora ted p o ts s ugges ts t ha t i den t i fying s ta tus w i l l n o t b e as tra igh t-forward t ask . T he a c tua l ma ter ia l e v idence c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree c a tegor ies , b ones , c rema t ion p o ts a nd g rave g oods . T hese n eed t o b e c ons idered b o th s epara te ly a nd i n r e la t ionsh ip t o e ach o ther , i n t erms b o th o f i nd iv idua l g raves a nd t he c eme tery a s a who le .

T he d iscuss ion h ere w i l l b e c on f ined t o af ew a spec ts

o f c re ma t ion g rave g oods a nd p o ts . S o f ar , i th as n o t p roved p oss ible t o c lass i fy t he p o ts a ccord ing t o s hape , n or h as a ny a l l- e mbrac ing s che me y e t b een worked o u t f or t he d ecora t ion , a l though s o me p rogress h as b een made w i th f abr ic a na lys is ( see B r isbane t h is v o lu me ).

I n f act , i th as b eco me i ncreas ing ly a pparen t t ha t t he p o t tery

d oes n ot f a l l i n to n ea t , c lear ly d ef inab le c a tegor ies , b u t i s , i ns tead , more o f ac on t inuum .

Af ew n ea t g roups c an b e e x trac ted —for e xa mp le , w ide- mou thed

b ag-shaped p o ts a re u sua l ly u ndecora ted a nd made f ro m f abr ic wh ich i s h eav i ly t empered w i th o rgan ic ma ter ia l . These c ou ld b e d o mes t ic c ook ing p o ts , r e-used 2 03

a s c re ma t ion u rns .

There a re a f ew o ther g roups wh ich a re c ons is ten t a s t o

s hape , d ecora t ion a nd f abr ic a nd n o d oub t more s uch c ons is ten t s er ies w i l l a ppear w i th f ur ther a na lys is , b u t s o f ar t he ma jor i ty s ee m t o h over o n t he b oundar ies o f s evera l c a tegor ies , wha tever c r i ter ia a re u sed t o d is t ingu ish t he m . T h is i s e spec ia l ly t rue o f s hape , s ince many o f t he p o ts a re s o l ops ided t ha t o ne s ide o f ap o t c ou ld e as i ly b e c lass i f ied d i f feren t ly f rom t he o ther s ide o f t he s ame p ot , wh ich wou ld c lear ly b e r id icu lous . E xa m ina t ion o f d ecora t ion h as s o f ar c oncen tra ted o n s tamps , s ince i t d oes s ee m t ha t t hrough t hese p roducts o f t he s a me p o t ter o r workshop c an b e t raced .

More t han 4 0 g roups o f s tampl inked p o ts h ave n ow b een i den t i f ied

a t S pong H i l l a nd t here a re p robab ly s evera l more . o r l ess p o ts , b u t s o me a re much l arger . s o f ar 3 1 p o ts .

Mos t i nc lude o n ly f ive

S tamp G roup 7 , t he l arges t , n u mbers

T h is g roup b e longs p redo m inan t ly t o o ne o f B r isbane 's f abr ic

g roups a nd , wh i le t he p o ts a re n o t i den t ica l , t heir s hapes a nd d ecora t ive s che mes d o f a l l w i th in a l im i ted r ange . A ssocia ted g rave g oods a re n ot v ery r e markable , wh ich m igh t i n i t sel f b e s ign i f ican t . T en c on ta ined g lass b eads , t hree b rooches , t wo c o mbs , a nd o ne a s e t o f m in ia tures , wh ich means t ha t a l l ma in c a tegor ies o f o b jec t f ound i n t he c e me tery a s a who le were r epresen ted i n r ough ly t he s ame p ropor t ions a s t hey o ccur e lsewhere , i n s o f ar a s ,s uch sma l l n umbers c an b e r egarded a s s ign i f ican t . S tampl inked p o ts i n g enera l s how p erhaps a l ower i nc idence o f a ssocia ted g rave g oods t han t he r es t o f t he c e me tery , a nd t here

a re n o c onv inc ing a sso-

c ia t ions o f o ne t ype o f o b jec t w i th a l l t he g roups o r w i th a ny o ne g roup .

The

o n ly t en ta t ive e xcep t ions t o t h is a re g lass v esse ls a nd b one p laying p ieces . These a re n o t c o m mon f inds :

f ro m t he a pprox i ma te ly 1 ,275 c re ma t ions

e xcava ted b e fore 1 979 , o n ly 2 1 c on ta ined p laying p ieces a nd 3 5 g lass v essels . 1 55 p o ts , n o t c oun t ing t hose r econs truc ted f ro m d is turbed a reas , c an b e c oun ted amongs t t he s ta mpl inked g roups . O f t hese , s ix c on ta ined p laying p ieces a nd s even g lass v essels , wh ich r epresen ts a d ispropor t iona te amoun t o f t he t o ta ls f ro m t he c e me tery.

G lass v esse ls m igh t b e as ign o f r e la t ive

wea l th , s ince t hey were p robably impor ted .

P lay ing p ieces were f ound w i th

p o ts b e long ing t o S ta mp G roups 1 , 2 , 3 , 7a nd 1 0 .

G roup 7 i s t he o n ly o ne o f

t hese n o t t o i nc lude e i ther s was t ikas o r r unes i n i t s r ange o f s ta mp mo ti fs , a n a ssoc ia t ion wh ich migh t s ugges t s o me r e l ig ious o r r i tua l s ign i f icance . T he c leares t p a t tern s o f ar i s t ha t o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t hese p o ts w i th in t he c e me tery .

A l l o f t he m were b ur ied a way f rom t he c en tre , a l l e xcep t t he

r un ic G roup 3 , o u ts ide t he a ng le o f t he l arge d i tch i n t he wes tern h a l f .

Wi th in

t h is g enera l g roup ing , mos t s epara te sma l l g roups t end t o c lus ter t oge ther a nd e ven l arger g roups a re c on f ined t o o ne o r o ther o f t he ma in s pa t ia l d iv is ions o f t he c e me tery. t hese ,

F ig

9 .2 s hows S ta mp G roups 7 , 5 , 3 1 a nd 1 .

O f

1i s f ound o n ly o n t he wes tern e dge o f t he s i te , 3 1 a long t he s ou th-

e as tern e dge , a nd 7 i s s pread o ver t he n or thern h a l f .

T he s econd l argest

S tamp G roup , 8 , h as a d is tr ibu t ion v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f G roup 7 , w h i le mos t o f t he o ther s tamp g roups c lus ter v ar ious ly i n t he wes t , e as t o r n or thern s ec t ions o f t he c e me tery.

The e xcep t ions t o t h is a re S tamp G roups 5 ( Fig

9 .2 ) a nd 4 , wh ich a re more w idely s ca t tered . I t may b e s ign i f ican t t ha t t hese s tamp g roups a re b o th r epresen ted o u ts ide S pong H i l l , a t o ther Nor fo lk c e met er ies .

Two f ur ther p o ts f ro m S pong H i l l b e long t o a no ther e x terna l g roup ,

t he S ancton-Bas ton workshop ( Myres 1 977 , F igs 2 04

3 47-8 ) , a nd t hese t wo p o ts

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S pong H i l l : d is tr ibut ions o f s ome s tamplinked p o t g roups

2 05

were f ound a t o ppos i te e nds o f t he c e me tery . H i l l p o t ters h as b een t raced e lsewhere .

S o f ar , n one o f t he o ther S pong

S tray p o ts f ro m p o t ters n o t work ing

f or t he S pong H i l l c o m mun i t ies migh t r epresen t i nd iv idua ls f ro m f ur ther a f ie ld , im m igran ts f ro m o ther r eg ions , whereas t he c lus ters o f l oca l p roducts migh t r epresen t u se o f p ar t icu lar a reas b y s epara te c o m mun i t ies o r f am i l ies o r , a l terna t ive ly , t hey c ou ld h ave a c hrono log ica l b as is . I n c ons ider ing g rave g oods t here a re s o me p rob le ms , a s a l though l u mps o f g lass a nd b ronze a re u sua l ly r ecogn izab le a s b eads o r ab rooch , t hey a re n o t a lways i den t if iab le a s o ne s pec i f ic t ype o f b rooch r a ther t han a no ther . Associa t ions b e tween d i f feren t t ypes o f o b jec t d o f a l l i n to s o me p a t terns : s e ts o f m in ia tures a re f ound w i th c o mbs , p laying p ieces o r b one b eads , wh i le g lass b eads , b rooches , s p ind lewhor ls a nd i vory r ings o ccur t ogether . The l a t ter g roups a re p laus ib le f e ma le a sse mblages , b u t s o f ar t he o ther g roups c anno t , a s a t f irs t s ugges ted , b e d e f ined a s mascu l ine .

Th is i s p ar t ly b e-

c ause t here i s s o f ar a r ela t ive l ack o f i den t i f iably ma le b ones amongs t t he c re ma t ions a nd p ar t ly b ecause n o c onv inc ing c orre la t ion h as emerged b e tween s uch ma le b ones a s h ave b een i den ti f ied a nd s e ts o f m in ia tures .

Fur ther work

o n t he b ones i s n eeded h ere , a l though i ti s d i f f icu l t t o s ee h ow t he c o mp l ica t ions p roduced b y mu l t ip le b ur ia ls w i l l b e d isen tang led . T here a re n o i m med ia tely o bv ious l i nks b e tween t ypes o f p o t a nd t ypes o f g rave g oods b u t , a s w i th t he p o ts , s o me k inds o f o b jec t d o h ave c lear d is tr ib u t ion p a t terns .

These a re i n teres t ing i n t ha t t hey a re t o s o me d egree c o m-

p lemen tary t o t ha t o f t he s ta mpl inked p o t tery. T h is i s mos t n o t iceab le w i th t he t ypes o f b rooch s hown o n F ig 9 .1. T hese a re c ruci for m b rooches o f t he t ype w i th s epara te ly c as t s ide-knobs a nd t he s ing le e xa mp les o f ' suppor tinga r med ' a nd e qua l-ar med b rooches .

On ly o ne c er ta in e xa mp le o f t h is k ind o f

c ruci for m b rooch , t he o ne f ro m C re ma t ion 1 034 , was n o t f ound i n t he c en tra l p ar t o f t he c e me tery , t he a rea a vo ided b y t he s ta mpl inked p o ts .

Th is p a t tern

i s r epea ted i fo ne p lo ts b arred z oo morph ic c o mbs , a l though i n t h is c ase t here i s ac lus ter i n t he midd le a nd a much t h inner s ca t ter , r a ther t han a c o mp le te a bsence , a round t he c e me tery e dges . Min ia ture s hears , t weezers a nd r azors s how a l ess c onv inc ing p a t tern o vera l l : t hey a re f ound e verywhere e xcep t t he n or th-eas tern i nhu ma t ion/cre ma t ion a rea .

S e ts o f t hree o r f our i t e ms

( i nc lud ing c o mbs ) i n o ne g rave d o c lus ter , h owever , i n t he midd le o f t he c e met ery a nd t owards i t s e as tern e dge . T he b rooches a nd c o mbs a re t ypes wh ich o ccur o u ts ide Eng land , p ar t ic u lar ly i n t he E lbe- Weser r eg ion o f N or thern G ermany. S e ts o f min ia tures a re c urren t i n t he s a me p er iod , b o th i n G ermany a nd , more f requen t ly , f urt her e as t a nd n or th i n Meck lenberg a nd S ch lesw ig-Ho ls te in . Av ery p rov is iona l s earch f or p o t tery w i th c lose C on t inen ta l p ara l le ls a lso s hows a c lus ter ing i n t he c en tra l a rea , w i th p erhaps a no ther g roup o n t he e as tern e dge , p ar t ly d ug i n to t he e nc losure d i tch . Ar econs truct ion wh ich wou ld f i t a l l t hese o bserva t ions wou ld b e t ha t t here were t wo n uc le i t o t he c e me tery , o ne n ow l y ing i n t he m idd le , t he o ther c lose t o t he f irs t o n wha t i s n ow t he c e me tery 's e as tern e dge .

Po t tery a nd g rave

g oods b rough t f ro m t he C on t inen t o r made , a ccord ing t o t rad i t iona l p a t terns , s oon a f ter a rr iva l were b ur ied h ere .

Ana lys is o f c lay migh t s how whe ther

2 06

a ny o f t he p o ts c ou ld , i nf ac t , h ave b een impor ts .

S ubsequen t ly , s epara te

l oca l c o m mun i t ies w ere e s tabl ished a nd s epara te p o t ters p rov ided c re ma t ion u rns f or t hese c o mmun i t ies .

L a ter b ur ia ls l ay c h ief ly t o t he n or th :

t ure f or t he s ou thern h a lf i s n ot y e t c lear .

t he p ic-

S o me o f t he o lder g rave g oods—so me

o f t he c o mbs , f or i ns tance —were b ur ied l ong a f ter manu facture .

I n g enera l ,

t he p ract ice o f d epos i t ion o f g rave g oods d ec l ined o ver t ime a nd i n p ar t icu lar p eop le o f ten n o l onger b o thered t o p u t i n who le s e ts o f min ia tures , b u t o n ly o ne o r t wo i t e ms .

F ina l ly , w i th t he i n troduct ion o f i nhuma t ion amongs t t he

l ead ing f am i ly o f t he n e ighbourhood , t he c e me tery moved i n to i t s l as t p hase : mos t o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m t he i nhuma t ions c ou ld b e long t o t he s ix th c en tury o n c urren t t h ink ing , s o me t o t he s even th , b u t n one t o t he f i f th e xcep t f or t he s word s cabbard mou th f ro m t he f i rs t c hamber g rave . Th is i s a n e x treme ly r ough s ke tch o f i deas wh ich n eed much more e xa mi na t ion b e fore t hey s hou ld b e a ccep ted , b u t a t l eas t i ts hows t ha t t here a re p a t terns , a nd t ha t p a t terns o bserved f ro m o ne s tandpo in t c an b e s hown t o c orrespond t o o r t o c o mp le men t p a t terns e s tab l ished b y o ther means , a nd t ha t t hose p a t terns migh tb e p laus ib ly e xp la ined .

More d e ta i led a nd c o mp le te

a na lys is when t he e xcava t ion i s c o mp le te s hou ld p rov ide a v ar ie ty o f a l terna t ive e xp lana t ions a nd a lso p robably much p rev ious ly u nsuspec ted i n for ma t ion .

B IBL IOGRAPHY C larke , D . L ., 1 968 . H i l ls , C ., 1 977.

Ana ly t ica l Archaeo logy ( London , 1 968 ).

T he Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t S pong H i l l .

Eas t Ang l ian

Archaeo logy R epor t n o . 6( 1977) . H i l ls , C . a nd P enn , K ., f or thco m ing .

S pong H i l l , P ar t 2 .

Eas t Ang l ian

Archaeo logy R epor t ( f or thco m ing ) . L e thbr idge , T . C ., 1 951 . 1 951 ) Myres , J . N . L .,

AC e me tery a t Lack ford i n S u f fo lk ( Cambr idge ,

a nd G reen , B ., 1 973 .

T he Ang lo-Saxon C e me ter ies o f

Ca is tor-by-Norw ich a nd Marksha l l ( London , 1 973 ). N ev i l le , R . C ., 1 852 .

S axon O bsequ ies ( 1852 ) .

2 07

1 0.

ANGLO-SAXON BUR IALS :

POTTERY , PRODUCT ION AND S OC IAL S TATUS b y Mark Br isbane

I NTRODUCT ION Th is p aper d iscusses t he r esu l ts o f af abr ic a na lys is o f t he c re ma t ion p o t tery f ro m S pong H i l l , N or fo lk ( c f

H i l ls , t h is v o lume ).

The e ven tua l a im

i s t o e xam ine t he f abr ic o f a l l Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery f ro m t he s i te , b u t a t t h is i n ter im s tage t he d iscuss ion i s r es tr icted t o t he u rns f ro m t he 1 972-74 e xcav a t ions .

T he r esu l ts o f t he f abr ic a na lys is a re r e la ted t o t he t he me o f Ang lo-

S axon b ur ia l b y t he f o l low ing h ypo theses : 1 ) t ha t t hrough t he f abr ic a na lys is o f a l l t he p o t tery f ro m a s i te a min i mum n umber o f p roduct ion c en tres w i l l b e d iscern ib le .

I t may

b e p oss ib le t o l oca te p recise ly s o me o f t hese c en tres b y d e ta i led g eo log ica l w ork b u t t he ir impor tance t o t h is i nves t iga t ion l i es i n t he n umber o f c en tres a nd t he ir d is tr ibu t ion i n t er ms o f l oca l o r n onl oca l wares 2 ) t ha t t h is e v idence may b e u sed t o e xa m ine t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p o t tery p roduct ion a nd t he s oc ia l s ta tus o f t he i nd iv idua ls o r g roups o r i nd iv idua ls b ur ied w i th in t he u rns I nt h is p aper t he f irs t o f t hese h ypo theses i s t es ted a nd t he r esu l ts p resen ted i n o rder t o i n i t ia te d iscuss ion o n t he s econd h ypo thes is . METHODOLOGY The me thod o f a na lys is i nvo lved t he p re l im inary e xam ina t ion o f t he p o t tery u nder a b inocu lar m icroscope a t magn i f ica t ion o f x 10 a nd x 30 i n o rder t o d i ff eren t ia te c o m mon m inera log ica l i nc lus ions a nd t o i den ti fy o ther i nclus ions s uch a s ' grog ' a nd o rgan ic ma ter ia l .

I nd iv idua l u rns a nd s herds were t hen

t en ta t ive ly a ss igned t o g roups b ased o n t he p resence o r a bsence o f t hese i nc lus ions .

Ar andom s e lec t ion o f s herds f ro m e ach o f t hese g roups was e x-

am ined i n t h in-sec t ion , wh ich i nc luded t he q uan t i f ica t ion o f i nc lus ions b y t he u se o f ap o in t-coun ter , e nabl ing t he v a l id i ty o f t he g roups t o b e t es ted .

A dd i-

t i ona l ly , g ra in-s ize a nd h eavy- m inera l a na lyses were u sed t o h e lp a nswer q ues t ions c oncern ing c er ta in o f t he g roups . THE URN FABR IC GROUPS At o ta l o f 4 71 u rns f ro m t he 1 972-74 e xcava t ions h ave b een microscop ic a l ly e xam ined a nd t hen g rouped a ccord ing t o t he ir i nc lus ions .

T h is s a mp le

r epresen ts 8 8% o f t he 5 35 u rns e xcava ted d ur ing t ha t p er iod a nd a v isua l i nspec t ion o f t he r ema in ing 6 2 u rns s ugges ted t ha t t hey wou ld n o t s ign i f ican t ly a l ter e i ther t he n umber o r t he r e la t ive s ize o f t he f abr ic g roups .

T he r esu l ts

o f t he e xam ina t ion s howed t ha t t he 4 71 u rns c ou ld b e d iv ided i n to e leven b as ic 2 09

g roups—subsequen t ly r ev ised t o n ine w i th o ne s ub-group o n t he b as is o f d a ta c o l lec ted f ro m p e tro log ica l a na lys is .

H owever , i ts hou ld b e s tressed t ha t

d ue t o t he c o mp lex d r i f t g eo log y o f Eas t Ang l ia t hese g roups a re b y n o means mu tua l ly e xc lus ive .

S o me o ver lap b e tween g roups i s t o b e e xpec ted o n g eo-

l og ica l g rounds a nd u n less a n e xhaus t ive s tudy o f t he b ou lder c lay w ere t o b e p er for med i n c on junc t ion w i th a c o mprehens ive p rogra m me o f h eavy minera l a na lyses o n t he p o t tery , c er ta in d i f feren t ia t ion wou ld b e d i ff icu l t i n s o me c ases . Thus t wen ty-s ix u rns a ppear i n t wo g roups .

N ever the less , i ti s s t i ll r eason-

a b le t o c la im t ha t t he f o l low ing f abr ic g roups a re c oheren t e n ti t ies r epresent a t ive o f t he min i mum n umber o f p roduc t ion c en tres p rov id ing u rns f or t he S pong H i l l c e me tery. T he u rn f abr ic g roups a re d escr ibed b e low i n o rder o f d ecreas ing s ize . G roup I T h is g roup i s d is t ingu ished b y ah igh amoun t o f q uar tz a nd q uar tz i te i nclus ions wh ich t oge ther c o mpr ise more t han 7 5% o f t he t o ta l n umber o f minera l a nd n on- m inera l i nc lus ions .

T he o ther i nc lus ions , e ach o f wh ich o ccur a s o n ly

2% o r l ess o f t he t o ta l f abr ic ( i e i nc lud ing a l l i nc lus ions a nd t he c lay ma tr ix , b u t e xc lud ing v o ids ) , c ons is t o f f e ldspar ( predo m inan t ly p lag ioc lasedn t hose e xam ined i n t h in-sec t ion ) , o paque g ra ins ( probab ly i ron o re ) , f l in t , a nd mica ( ch lor i te , muscov i te a nd b io t i te ) . Traces ( i e l ess t han 0 .5% o f t he t o ta l f abr ic ) o f s ands tone a nd g laucon i te may a lso o ccur .

T hese i nclus ions g ive

t he u rns i n t h is g roup a d ense ly g r i t ted f abr ic w i th more t han 2 5% o f i t c o mp osed o f minera l i nc lus ions .

S ee F ig

1 0 .1 f or t h in-sec t ion a na lyses .

A s i n mos t o f t he u rns e xa m ined b y g ra in-s ize a na lys is , t he s i ze o f i nc lus ions i n t he G roup Iu rns v ar ied g rea t ly . A n e xam ina t ion o f U rn 1 086 p rod uced a mean s ize o f 3 .43 w i th a r e la t ive ly sma l l d egree o f s or t ing ( 61 = 1 .86 ) . The s kewness o f t he g ra in-s ize d is tr ibu t ion c urve was s l ight ly p os i t ive a t 0 .07 a nd p la tykur t ic ( i e . a marg ina l ly l onger d is tr ibu t ion o f f ine g ra ins w i thin ad e f icien t ly p eaked c urve , F o lk a nd Ward 1 957 ;

P eacock 1 971 ) .

G roup Ic on ta ined 2 19 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 4 5% o f t he u rns e xam ined . G roup I The u rns i n t h is g roups a re c haracter ised b y s ands tone i nclus ions , a l though n o t a lways i n l arge q uan t i t ies , a verag ing a bou t 1 0% o f t he minera l i nc lus ions . These a ppear t o b e q uar tzi te s ands tone c o mposed o f c haracter is t ic c lus ters o f l oosely c e men ted , wh i te/g lassy g ra ins .

A lso p resen t i n v ary ing q uan t i t ies

a re l i gh t-co loured , h o mogeneous g ra ins , o ccas iona l ly i ron s ta ined t o p ink o r r ed .

I n s o me G roup I u rns t hese s ands c ons t i tu te a h igh p ropor t ion o f t he

f abr ic a s i n U rn 1 218 w i th c 3 0% o f t hese i nc lus ions .

T here a re a lso sma l l

amoun ts o f f e ldspar ( predo m inan te ly o r thoc lase ) a nd c arbonaceous ma ter ia l a s we l l a s t races o f f l in t a nd g laucon i te . G roup I c on ta ined 1 40 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 2 8% o f t he u rns e xa m ined . G roup I I T h is i s a n o rgan ica l ly t e mpered g roup wh ich c on ta ins c arbonaceous ma ter ia l i nc lud ing g rass a nd c erea l g ra in , n o tab ly b ar ley.

S o me u rns ( e g . 1 434 ,

1 457 , a nd 1 498 ) a lso c on ta in sma l l f ragmen ts o f c harcoa l-l ike ma ter ia l o f u p t o

2 10

1 086

F ABR IC GROUP

URN NUMBER

0 L U

0

QUARTZ ITE

c r E S T O N E M L I

0

GLAUCON ITE

0 0 c r

I

O C D N Y C E H A L

3m m i n l eng th .

I n a dd i t ion t o o rgan ic t e mper ing t hese u rns s how s igns o f

g rass ' mark ing ' a nd ' wip ing '.

M inera log ica l ly , h owever , t h is g roup i s n o t

a s h o mogeneous a s o r ig ina l ly i nd ica ted b y t he microscop ic e xa mina t ion . The u rns d isp lay v arying amoun ts o f q uar tz , q uar tzi te , f e ldspar ( predo m inan t ly p lag ioc lase ) , i ron o re , a nd o ccas iona l ly t races o f m ica , f l in t a nd c a lc i te . T hese minera l i nc lus ions a re s im i lar t o t hose i n t he G roup Iu rns b u t o ccur l ess f requen t ly. G ra in-s ize a na lys is i nd ica ted a f ur ther s im i lar i ty b e tween Groups Ia nd I I , p roduc ing a mean g ra in-s ize f ro m t hree u rns ( 1 308 , 1 338 , a nd 1 505 ) o f 3 .87 + 0 .23 .

T he s tandard d ev ia t ion s howed t ha t t he g ra ins were p oor ly

s or ted b y s ize ( 6 1 =1 .62 + 0 .19 ) a nd t ha t t he s kewness was s l igh t ly n ega t ive a t 0 .12 + 0 .13 a nd p la tykur t ic .

T he s im i lar i ty b e tween g ra in-s ize d is tr ibu-

t i ons i n G roups Ia nd I I may i nd ica te a n a na logous t ype o f c lay s ource f or t he t wo g roups w i th G roup I I u rns d isp laying a t echn ica l v ar ia t ion w i th o rgan ic t e mper ing . H owever , d esp i te t he f luc tua t ions t ha t o ccur n a tura l ly i n t he Eas t Ang l ian b ou lder c lays , t he s l igh t ly l ower p ercen tage o f i norgan ic i nc lus ions i n G roup I I may b e ad is t ingu ish ing f actor b e tween c lay s ources . More g ra ins ize a na lyses a re n ecessary t o c on f ir m o r r e ject t hese s uggest ions . G roup I I c on ta ined 3 5 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 7% o f t hose e xa mined . G roup I V The d is t inc t ive t e mper ing o f u rns i n t h is g roup i s t he sma l l p ar t icles o f b r ickr ed g rog o f c 2mm a cross , r ese mbl ing p u lver ized p ieces o f t i le o r b r ick . P e tro log ica l e xa m ina t ion r evea led t ha t t h is g rog c on ta ins minu te p ar t icles , c 0 .08 m m a cross , o f microc l ine f e ldspar a nd q uar tz.

As ub-group o f s ix

u rns ( 1020 , 1 050 , 1 065 , 1 133 , 1 189 , a nd 1 404 ) h as g rog t ha t i s u n l ike t he r es t , made o f b rown-grey c lay c on ta in ing n o f e ldspar .

A par t f ro m t he m inera l

i nc lus ions i n t he g rog i t se l f , G roup I V l acks t he h igh amoun ts o f i nc lus ions t ha t c harac ter ise G roups Ia nd I , a nd , t o al esser e x ten t , G roup I I .

T here

a re a f ew e xcep t ions t o t h is , n a me ly U rn 1 034 w i th a bundan t q uar tz , q uar tzi te a nd f e ldspar , U rn 1 020 w i th f l in t , a nd U rns 1 025 a nd 1 138 w i th s ands tone. More g enera l ly , h owever , G roup I V , l i ke G roup I I , s hows t he d e l ibera te a dd i t ion o f at e mper ing a gen t t o ac lay ma tr ix t ha t c on ta ins l ess o f t he n a tura l lyo ccurr ing minera l i nc lus ions o f G roups Ia nd I . G roup I V c on ta ined 2 9 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 6% o f t hose e xa mined . G roup V T h is g roup i s c harac ter ised b y c a lc i te i nc lus ions wh ich c o mpr ise a bou t 1 1° , 7 o f t he t o ta l f abr ic .

I n s o me u rns d iagnos t ic r hombic v o ids a re p resen t ,

n o tably o n t he e x terna l s ur faces o f t he u rns , wh ich a re p robably d ue t o s o me f or m o f l each ing a ct ion o n t he c a lci te g r i ts .

O ther i nclus ions a re u sua l ly

a bsen t , e xcep t i n U rns 1 038 , 1 111 , 1 148 , 1 254 , a nd 1 489 wh ich c on ta in q uar tz , q uar tzi te , a nd sma l l amoun ts o f s ands tone a t l ess t han 4% o f t he f abr ic. T here may b e t races o f f e ldspar a nd mica a t l ess t han 0 .5% . G roup V c on ta ined 2 7 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 5 % o f t hose e xa m ined . G roup V I T h is g roup c on ta ins p ro m inen t , we l l-rounded o paque i nc lus ions , mos t l i ke ly 2 12

o f i ron o re .

T hese a re u sua l ly b lack , b u t s o me a re a lso r ed i n c o lour .

d isp lay weak magnet is m .

T hey

S o me o ver lap w i th G roup I i s p oss ib le a s s hown ,

f or e xa mp le , i n u rn 197 wh ich c on ta ins r ounded s and g ra ins .

H owever , t he

d is t inct iveness o f t h is g roup was c on f ir med t o s o me e x ten t b y a n e xa m ina t ion o f f our G roup V I u rns i n t h in-sec t ion ( Urns 1 064 , 1 095 , 1 291 a nd 1 502 ) . T h is d e mons tra ted n o t o n ly t ha t t he i ron o re c o mpr ised a s ign i f ican t amoun t o f t he f abr ic ( 8-14% ) , b u t a lso t ha t , a f ter q uar tz , i ron o re d om ina ted t he o ther m inera l i nc lus ions—be tween 3 0-40% o f t he i nc lus ions were i ron o re . G roup V I c on ta ined 1 7 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 3% o f t hose e xam ined . G roup V I I T h is g roup c ons is ts o f u rns t ha t c on ta in s o f t , wh i te o r y e l low i nc lus ions o f as pher ica l s hape wh ich a re a l mos t c er ta in ly worn l imes tone .

T he s epara te ,

w ea thered , c oncen tr ic p ar t icles may i nd ica te a f oss i l o r ig in , b u t , u n for tuna te ly , t hey a re t oo f rag men tary f or i den ti f ica t ion .

A s i n G roup V s o me u rns h ave

a bundan t v o ids p robab ly d ue t o l each ing b y p erc loa t ing wa ter , b u t u n l ike t he r ho mbic c a lc i te v o ids t hese a re s pher ica l a nd may t here fore b e d i f feren t ia ted e xcep t i n f our u rns w here t he l each ing p rocess i s t oo f ar a dvanced . Quar tz a nd q uar tzi te a re p resen t i n t he G roup V I I u rns b u t a ga in a t a much r educed l eve l c o mpared w i th G roup I .

T here i s as l igh t i ncrease i n

t he amoun t o f f e ldspar ( p lag ioc lase ) i nc lus ions c o mpared w i th t he o ther g roups . G roup V I I c on ta ined 1 4 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 3% o f t hose e xa m ined . G roup V II I T he u rns i n t h is g roup h ave a r e la t ive ly h igh amoun t o f f a ir ly s izable m ica f lakes ( no t e xceed ing 3 m m a cross ) .

I n t h in-sec t ion b io t i te a nd muscov i te

were s een t o p redo m ina te o ver c h lor i te a nd i n U rn 1 092 moda l a na lys is s howed t ha t b iot ite a nd c h lor i te a ccoun ted f or a l mos t 1 6% o f t he m inera l i nc lus ions . Th is was a s u f f ic ien t amoun t t o g ive a "m ica-dus ted" e f fec t t o t he u rn 's e xt erna l s ur face . p resen t .

V ary ing amoun ts o f q uar tz , q uar tzi te , a nd f e ldspar a re a lso

O n ly o ne u rn ( 1 265 ) c on ta ins a sma l l amoun t o f s ands tone .

G roup V I I I c on ta ined 1 1 u rns , a pprox i ma te ly 2% o f t hose e xam ined . G roup I X U rn 1 146 i s a n a no ma ly.

I tc on ta ins d ense ly p acked p ieces o f s he l l wh ich c on-

s t i tu te o ver 2 0% o f t he f abr ic.

A l l o ther i nc lus ions ,

e xcep t ar e la t ive ly sma l l

amoun t o f q uar tz a nd a t race o f q uar tzi te , a re l ack ing . T he o ne u rn i n G roup I X r epresen ts l ess t han 0 .3% o f t hose e xam ined . D ISCUSS ION The d e tr i ta l c o mpos i t ion o f t he Eas t Ang l ian b ou lder c lays a nd t he l ack o f d e ta iled s tud ies o f t he ir p e tro logy i nh ibi t t he i den ti f ica t ion o f s pec i f ic s ources f or p o t ter y p roduc t ion .

H owever , i ti s p oss ib le t o d e ter m ine t ha t

mos t o f t he u rns a nd p robab ly a l l o f t he d o mes t ic p o t tery c ou ld h ave b een made o f c lays f ro m g eo log ica l a reas o f u ns tra t i f ied d r i f t , mos t l i ke ly t he b ou lder c lays . T h is d e term ina t ion i s b ased o n t hree f ac tors . F irs t ly , t he i nclus ions t hemse lves c ons is t o f t yp ica l d e tr i ta l ma ter ia l s uch a s q uar tz , q uar tzi te , f e ldspar , s ands tone , a nd a ccessory minera ls o f i gneous r ocks s uch a s i ron 2 13

o re a nd t ourma l ine .

T hese wou ld b e i n k eep ing w i th a b ou lder c lay o r ig in .

S econd ly , t he amoun t a nd s ize o f t hese i nc lus ions v ar ies w i th in e ach p o t , r ese mbl ing a s ource where s or t ing o f i nc lus ions h as n o t t aken p lace , s uch a s b ou lder c lay .

Ac o mp l ica t ion h ere i s t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t s o me i nclusions

were a dded b y p o t ters .

H owever , i f minera log ica l i nc lus ions were a dded

a s t e mper t hey wou ld p robably p roduce a d is t inc t p eak i n t he g ra in-s ize d ist r ibu t ion c urve .

N o s uch p eaks o ccurred i n t he e xa mp les i nspec ted e xcep t

i n t he d o mes t ic p o t tery wh ich i s n o t d iscussed i nt h is p aper .

Th ird ly , h eavy

minera l a na lyses p er for med o n s ix u rns f ro m G roups I ( 1 029 ) , I ( 1 054 , 1 144 , 1 323 ) , I I ( 1343 ) a nd I V (1020 ) a l l p roduced c harac ter is t ic Eas t Ang l ian b ou lder c lay minera l a sse mb lages c o mpr ised o f a bundan t p ink a nd r ed g arne ts , worn a nd we l l-rounded z ircons , r u t i le , s phene , t ourma l ine , k yan i te , a pa t i te , e p ido te , a nd h ornb lende .

The u nusua l ly h igh p ercen tage o f g arne t ( _ c

3 0% )

i s p ar t icu lar ly d iagnos t ic o f Eas t Ang l ian b ou lder c lays ( Double 1 924 ) .

Un-

f or tuna te ly t he h eavy m inera l a na lyses were u nab le t o p rov ide s u f f ic ien t i nf or ma t ion c oncern ing more p rec ise l oca t ions f or c lay s ources . T o i nves t iga te f ur ther t he p oss ible s ources o f t he S pong H i l l p o t tery , s a mples were s tud ied o f t he c ha lky b ou lder c lay n eares t t o t he s i te .

T he

s amples were c o l lec ted f ro m a n a rea a bou t 1 .5 km n or th o f S pong H i l l . S ubsequen t t o wash ing a nd f ir ing a c lay s a mp le at h in-sec t ion was a na lysed ( see F ig 1 0).

N o t s urpr is ing ly , t he o n ly g roup t o r ese mb le t he c ha lky b ou lder

c lay i s G roup V w i th c a lci te i nc lus ions .

T he s im i lar i ty b e tween t hese t wo

i s s hown b y t he h igh o ccurrence o f c a lci te i n t he l oca l c lay ( 19% ) a nd t he G roup V u rns ( averag ing 1 0% ).

I n a dd i t ion t he s ame t ypes o f o ther m inera l-

o g ica l i nc lus ions s uch a s q uar tz , q uar tzi te , a nd t races o f f e ldspar a re p resen t . A l though t he l oca l c lay d oes c on ta in more q uar tz t han t he u rns , t he s hape a nd wear p a t tern o f t he q uar tz g ra ins a re a l ike i n b o th . I t s hou ld a lso b e n o ted t ha t ap oss ib le e xp lana t ion f or t he h igher p ercen tage o f t o ta l i nclus ions i n t he c lay s amp le may b e d ue t o t he e xper i men ta l f ir ing . I f we p resume t ha t G roup V h as a l oca l c ha lky-bou lder c lay o r ig in a nd t ha t mos t o f t he o ther g roups a re b ou lder c lay d er ived , t hen t h is p o t tery c ou ld h ave b een manu factured w i th in t he a rea o f d ri f t g eo logy u pon wh ich S pong H i l l i s c en tra l ly l oca ted .

T h is a rea , wh ich s tre tches s l igh t ly more t han 1 0 kms ,

e as t a nd w es t a nd a pprox i ma te ly 2 0 kms n or th a nd s ou th o f t he s i te , may b e e nv isaged a s t he p r imary p roduct ion a rea f or t h is p o t tery.

H owever , t he

f i f teen u rns o f G roups V I I a nd I X a re a no ma lous t o t h is a rea a nd a s s uch c o mp r ise t he s o le e v idence f or n onloca l p o t tery p roduc t ion .

Th is p o t tery , r ep-

r esen t ing 3 .2% o f a l l t he u rns e xa m ined , i s c harac ter ised b y l imes tone o r s he l l i nc lus ions , wh ich o ccur a t q u i te h igh l eve ls a s , f or e xa mp le , i n U rn 1 245 ( 13% ) a nd U rn 1 081 ( 18% ).

These t wo g roups a lso i nc lude c ons iderab ly

l ess q uar tz a nd q uar tzi te t han o ther g roups .

A s t o G roup V I I 's s ource , t he

n eares t g eo log ica l ly i den t i f iab le l imes tone t o S pong H i l l o ccurs n ear P eterb orough a nd a lso a t Wragby , L incs . H owever , t he p e trology o f N or fo lk 's c o mp lex d r i f t g eo logy h as n o t b een s tud ied a dequa te ly e nough t o d is m iss c o mp le te ly t he p oss ib l i ty t ha t t he l imes tone i nc lus ions d er ive f ro m a h e terogeneous b ou lder c lay c o mpos i t ion w i th a r es tr ic ted s pa t ia l d is tr ibu t ion . may a lso b e s a id o f t he s he l l i nc lus ions o f G roup I X .

T he s a me

I ti s p oss ib le t o c onclude f ro m t he a bove d iscuss ion t ha t a bou t 9 7% o f t he u rns ( i e a l l g roups e xcep t V I I a nd I X ) o r ig ina ted f ro m d r i f t d er ived s ources 2 14

i n t he S pong H i l l a rea .

Any s ugges t ion , h owever , t ha t t h is p o t tery was p ro-

d uced a t as ing le c en tre i s r e fu ted b y t he d i f ferences n o ted i n t he f abr ic g roups . T hese g roups a re i nd ica t ive o f t he min i mum n umber o f p roduct ion c en tres t ha t were e ngaged i n u rn manu facture .

C oup led w i th a d e ta i led i nves t iga t ion

o f t he Nor fo lk b ou lder c lays f u ture work , p ar t icu lar ly o n G roups Ia nd I , may b e a b le t o i ncrease t h is n umber b y s ub-d iv id ing o n a dd i t iona l c r i ter ia s uch a s g ra in-s ize . A l though s peci f ic s ource l oca t ions f or e ach o f t hese g roups a re i nde term inab le , i ti s p oss ible t o c onc lude t ha t 5% o f t he u rns ( i e Group V ) o r ig ina ted f ro m t he l oca l c ha lky b ou lder c lay.

F ina l ly , t here

a re G roups V I I a nd I X o f n onloca l o r ig in , a l though a ga in p rec ise s ource d e ter m ina t ion i s n o t p oss ib le . Dr

H i l ls c o mmen ts o n t he l a t ter g roups t ha t wh i le t hey a re n o t h o mo-

g eneous w i th r egard t o s hape a nd d ecora t ion , t hey a re i n mos t c ases l i ke ly t o b e r e la t ive ly e ar ly a nd i n s o me c ases t hey migh t a c tua l ly b e i mpor ts f ro m t he C on t inen t .

On ly i n t wo c ases d o t hey b e long t o S pong s ta mp g roups , o ne

o f t hese b e ing a p o t f ro m S ta mp G roup 5 , f or wh ich a n onloca l manu facture i s a rgued f ro m i t s d is tr ibu t ion w i th in S pong H i l l a nd f ro m i t s o ccurrence e lsewhere i n N or fo lk ( H i l ls

t h is v o lume ) .

The d is tr ibu t ion o f u rns w i th in t he c e me tery was i nves t iga ted t o e s tabl ish i fa ny c orre la t ion e x is ted b e tween t he u rns o f e ach f abr ic g roup a nd t he ir p lace o fb ur ia l . H owever , at es t f or r ando mness u s ing n eares t n e ighbour a na lys is a s d escr ibed b y C lark a nd Evans ( 1954 ) i nd ica ted t ha t t here was n o s ign i f ican t c orre la t ion b etween t he f abr ic g roups a nd u rn d is tr ibu t ion .

Tha t i s , o n t he

b as is o f f abr ic , t he u rns were r ando m ly d is tr ibu ted t hroughou t t h is p ar t o f t he c e me tery . T h is d oes n ot h owever r u le o u t t he p oss ibi l i ty o f c lus ter ing w i th in s pa t ia l o r s ocia l s ub-d iv is ions w i th in t he s i te . T here may s t i l l b e ar e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he c en tres o f p roduc t ion a nd t he s oc ia l o r o ther s ta tus o f t hose c rema ted .

Fur ther r e la t ionsh ips a re b e ing e xp lored ;

d irec t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween F abr ic G roup V I a nd Dr

t here i s f or i ns tance a H i l ls ' S tamp G roup 7 ,

b u t f ur ther w ork w i l l b e n eeded t o d e term ine t he ir mean ing . F ina l ly , t he t echno logy o f u rn p roduct ion was e xa m ined .

Mos t o f t he u rns

i nspec ted i n t h in-sec t ion h ad c lay ma tr ices t ha t were o p t ica l ly a n iso trop ic , wh ich s ugges ts a f i r ing t e mpera ture o f b e low 8 500 ( Peacock 1 971 ) . T he p res ence o f r es idua l c arbon i n s o me u rns t ended t o c on f irm t ha t af i r ing o f b et ween 5 00-750° C may h ave b een t he n orm ( H

H odges i n Sm i th 1 965 ) .

E v i-

d ence c oncern ing u rn c ons truct ion i s n o t a s f or thco m ing , b u t p a t terns o f o bl iquely s treaked l i nes i n t he v er t ica l ly s ec t ioned c lay ma tr ix o f s o me u rns a re mos t l i ke ly d ue t o ac o i l ing me thod o f c ons truct ion .

T hese s treaks were

n o t v is ible o n a ny o f t he d o mes t ic ware e xa m ined .

B IBLIOGRAPHY C lark , P . J ., a nd E vans , C . E ., 1 954 .

' D is tance t o n eares t n e ighbor a s a

measure o f s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ips i n p opu la t ions ' , E co logy 3 5 ( 1954 ) , 4 45-53 . D oub le , I . S ., 1 924 .

' The p e trography o f t he l a ter T er t iary d epos i ts o f t he

E as t o f Eng land ' , P roceed ings o f t he G eo log is ts A ssoc ia t ion 3 5 ( 1924 ) , 3 32-58 . 2 15

Fo lk , R . L . a nd Ward , W. C ., 1 957.

' Brazos R iver Bar :

A s tudy i n t he

s igh i f icance o f g ra in s ize p ara me ters ' , J ourna l o f S ed i men tary P e tro logy 2 7 ( 1 957) , 3 -26. Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 971.

' Pe trography o f c er ta in c oarse p ottery '.

i n

B . Cun li ffe , Excava t ions a t F ishbourne 1 961-69 ( Repor ts o f t he Research C o m mi ttee o f t he S ociety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon , 2 7 ). Smi th , I . F ., 1 965 .

Wind m i l l H i l l a nd Avebury :

Kei l ler , 1 925-39 ( Ox ford ).

2 16

Excava t ions b y A lexander

1 1.

S PONG H ILL CRE MATIONS b y G lenys P u tnam

Ana lys is o f t he c re ma ted a nd i nhumed Ang lo-Saxon b ones f ro m S pong H i l l ( s ee H i l ls t h is v o lume ) i s i n p rogress a nd e ven tua l ly e very b one d epos i t w i l l b e a na lysed .

I ti s n ecessary t ha t at o ta l a nd t horough b one a na lys is s hou ld

b e f in ished a s ap ar t ia l e xam ina t ion o f t he ma ter ia l wou ld s po i l t he who le a rchaeo log ica l c oncep t . C re ma ted ma ter ia l i s d i f f icu l t t o a na lyse a nd t ha t f ro m S pong H i l l i s p ar t icu lar ly d i f f icu l t a s i ti s v ery b roken a f ter f i r ing a nd i s a lways i nco mp le te . B one d epos i ts o ccur ma in ly i n c re ma t ion u rns , b u t t hey a re a lso f ound u n-urned o n t h is s i te .

T he ma ter ia l i sb eing me thod ica l ly a na lysed t o s how t he a ge ,

s ex , a nd p a tho log ica l s ta tus o f t he p eop le , a nd i ti s h oped e ven tua l ly t o c ons truct a p roper d e mograph ic mode l . The u rns were c arefu l ly u npacked o n s i te a nd f ur ther a na lys is h as b een u nder taken i n t he l abora tory.

I ti s h oped t ha t e v idence o f f unerary r i tua l w i l l

emerge f ro m c re ma t ion a na lys is .

T he b ones g ive a s uper f icia l a ppearance

o fb eing r ando m ly s e lec ted a nd p ushed i n to p o ts b y c are less

mor t icians ,b u t

a na lys is i n 1 979 s howed t ha t h owever v ar ied t he we igh t o f b ones p resen t ( range f ro m 2 gm t o 5 00 gm ) , t he r ange o f b ones r epresen ted s tays c ons tan t .

T h is

u sua l ly c ons is ts o f n ear ly a l l o f t he s ku l l a nd a f ew p ieces o f l ong b one , p e lv is a nd v er tebrae . Basica l ly t he r i tua l s ee ms t o h ave c ons is ted o f c re ma t ing t he d ead b ody , l a id o u t d ressed , s o me t i mes w i th o b jec ts s uch a s g lass v esse ls a t t he h ead . T hese a re i nvar iab ly f ound f used t o t he b ones o f t he s ku l l .

B eads a re a lso

f ound f used t o t he c hes t a nd a rm b ones , s o t ha t i ti s a ssumed t ha t t he b ody was l a id o n i t s b ack , p robab ly w i th a r ms c rossed . s e lec ted ;

A f ter c re ma t ion , b ones were

i ts ee ms l i ke ly f ro m t he e v idence o f t he 1 979 e xcava t ion t ha t t he

c hosen b ones were f i rs t p laced i nb ags, a nd t ha t t hese were t hen b ur ied d ir ec t ly i n t he g round o r p laced i n a n u rn . p u t i n to t he s ame u rn b e fore b ur ia l .

Fur ther c re ma t ions may h ave b een

I ti s n o t c lear a t t he mo men t when t he

u rn was b ur ied b u t c lear ly s o me g roup ing o f t he d ead t ook p lace .

G roups o f

u rns i n terred t oge ther o n t he s i te s ee m t o b e r e la ted b y c on ten t .

O ne g roup o f

u rns b ur ied t oge ther i n ap i t a nd a na lysed i n 1 979 c on ta ined t he a ssemb lage s hown i n F ig . 1 1.1 .

T h is c ou ld i nd ica te t he p resence o f af am i l ia l o r k in

g roup b u t f ur ther a na lys is may make t h is c lear .

Work s o f ar o n as ta t is t ica l ly

v iab le s a mp le h as i nd ica ted a p robab le o ver-represen ta t ion o f f e ma les ( F ig . 1 1 .2 ) t o ma les a nd a v ery h igh i n fan t a nd c h i ld mor ta l i ty.

Prec ise d e mogra-

p h ic a na lys is w i l l n o t b e u nder taken u n t i l al arger s amp le i s o b ta ined . Th is c e me tery a lso c on ta ined many e xamp les o f ' t oken ' o r ' guard ian ' b ones a ssumed t o b e f u l f i l l ing s o me r i tua l f unc t ion .

S uch b ones a re f ound

w i th a c re ma t ion wh ich i s c lear ly p r i mar i ly a c h i ld , a ma le , o r af e ma le , 2 17

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b u t wh ich c on ta ins o ne s ing le l arge p iece o f f oreign b one , o f ten p e lv is . T he g uard ian b ones a re a lways e as i ly d is t ingu ishab le a nd s eem t o b e ad e l ibera te i nc lus ion . Many c re ma t ions a re c lear ly mu l t ip le b ur ia ls i n t ha t t he s econd a nd t h ird b od ies a re r epresen ted b y more t han a s ing le t oken b one . T h is c onc lus ion c ou ld i n s o me c ases b e c ons idered s ub jec t ive , b u t many c lear c ases e x is t where a n u rn c on ta ins t hree g roups o f b ones , e ach i nc lud ing a n o don to id p rocess o r a mand ib le , a nd n o d oub t a t a l l i s t hen p oss ib le . T he e x is tence o f mu l t ip le b ur ia ls s ee ms r e la ted t o t he g enera l p a t tern o f t he c eme tery wh ich i s o ne o f g rouping u rns t ogether w i th u n-urned b ones a nd i s s trong ly s uggest i ve o f t r iba l , k in , o r f am i l ia l g roup ings . T here i s n o t a t t he momen t a ny v ery c lear e v idence among t hese c rema t ions f or s oc ia l s truc ture , e xcep t t he p resence o r a bsence o f u rns , wh ich i n i t se l f i s more l i ke ly t o r epresen t a l a ter a dd i t ion t o af am i ly g roup . An i ma l b ones a re f requen t ly p resen t , a nd s o me c orre la t ion b e tween h orse a nd ma le , l a mb a nd c h i ld , a nd s heep w i th a du l t f e ma le i s a pparen t .

T he p re-

s ence o f r ed a nd r oe d eer , wa ter b irds , h orses , d ogs a nd c a ts w i l l g ive p len ty o f s cope f or f ur ther a na lys is . Much w ork r ema ins t o b e d one .

E ach s e t o f b ones w i l l b e a na lysed b y

t he n or ma l a n thropo log ica l t echn iques a nd i ti s h oped t o d eve lop n ew o nes t o g a in a n i ns igh t i n to f am i l ia l r e la t ionsh ips a nd d isease p a t terns . O ne v ery i mpress ive r esu l t s o f ar i s t he f actor o f t hree n eeded t o c onver t a n u rn c oun t i n to a h uman p opu la t ion n umber , w i th i mp l ica t ions f or t he s ize o f t he c o m mun i ty u s ing t he c e metery .

2 19

1 2 .

PROBLE MS OF ANALYS IS AND I NTERPRETATION OF S KELETAL RE MA INS b y L eonard Wi lk inson

Th is r ev iew i s mos t ly b ased o n s tudy o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t L oveden H i l l , L inco lnsh ire .

R esu l ts w i l l o n ly b e g iven where t hese i l lus tra te

a t te mp ts t o r eso lve p rob le ms e ncoun tered . CRE MATIONS Me thods There were a pprox i ma te ly 1 000 c re ma t ions o n t h is s i te . T he f irs t p roble m was t hus t he c ons iderable amoun t o f ma ter ia l a nd t he t ime wh ich w ou ld b e r equ ired f or m inu te t o ta l s tudy .

The i n i t ia l a pproach was a g enera l

s urvey b ased o n a n a na lys is o f t he f irs t 1 0 o f e ach 1 00 u rns . me thods c ou ld h ave b een u sed . o f s ex ing .

O ther s a mp l ing

T he n ex t s tage was a c heck o n t he v a l id i ty

Hav ing i den t i f ied p ar t icu lar a reas o f i n teres t , t hese w ere s tud ied

s e lect ive ly . A s tandard ised r ecord s hee t was u sed .

T h is c o mpr ised u rn n umber ,

t o ta l weigh t , g enera l a ppearance , a nno ta ted r epor t o f t he r eg ions o f t he s ke let on r epresen ted , c onc lus ions r egard ing a ge a nd s ex a nd t he c r i ter ia o n wh ich t hese were b ased , a bnor ma l i t ies n o ted a nd d e ta i ls o f e x traneous ma ter ia l i nc lud ing a n i ma l b ones .

An i ma l b ones were g rouped a ccord ing t o s pec ies .

A l l ma jor b ony e le men ts h av ing b een r e moved , a magne t was p assed o ver t he r es idua l d ebr is a nd a s trong h and l ens a nd j ewe l ler 's e yep iece u sed t o l oca te a dd i t iona l ma ter ia l o f i n teres t . R esu l ts D i ff icu l t ies o f i n terpre ta t ion a re , t o ac ons iderable e x ten t , d ependen t o n t he d egree o f c rush ing f o l low ing c re ma t ion .

I n t h is c e me tery , d e l ibera te

f ragmen ta t ion h ad b een mos t t horough , s o t ha t many p ieces were 1 cm o r l ess i n s ize. T he max imum s ize o f l ong b one a nd s ku l l f rag men ts o ver 1 cm f or i nd iv idua ls i s s hown i n F igs 1 2.2 a nd 1 2.4 . Whether b one s urv ives t he p rocess o f h ea t , c rush ing a nd p ro longed b ur ia l d epends mos t ly o n t he t h ickness o f t he c or tex . B ones w i th a t h in o u ter s he l l a nd c ons iderable c ance l lous t i ssue a re u sua l ly l os t . T he e na me l o f e rup ted t ee th s ha t ters d ur ing c re ma t ion , b u t t he p resence o f f u l ly d eve loped r oo ts w i th n arrow r oo t c ana ls i s o ne c r i ter ion o f ma tur i ty.

U nerupted t ee th a re o f ten

i n tac t , a nd t he d egree o f d eve lop men t o f t hese i s a n i nva luable g u ide i n t he a ge ing o f c h i ldren . The d ense c or t ica l b one o f t he mid-sha f t o f ma jor l ong b ones , p ar t icu lar ly t he f e mur , u sua l ly p ers is ts .

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i s a ma jor c r i ter ion i n mak ing a j udge men t r egard ing t he s ex o f t he i nd iv idua l . I fs uch b one i s i nadequa te i n amoun t , o r u nrepresen ta t ive i n t yp ica l r eg ions , i ti s o f ten n ecessary t o r egard t he s pec i men a s s exua l ly i nde ter m ina te. S ex ing o fb ones S exua l ly s ign i f ican t t opograph ica l f ea tures c o m mon ly s een i n i nhu ma t ions , s uch a s p e lv ic c harac ter is t ics a nd s upraorbi ta l r idges , were r are ly a pp l icable i n t h is s er ies o f c re ma t ions . L ong b ones :

The l arger s ta ture o f t he ma le i s r e f lec ted i n t he g rea ter c or t ica l

t h ickness o f t he mid-sha f t o f ma jor b ones , p ar t icu lar ly t he f e mur , a nd F ig Thus a t h ickness a bove

1 2.1 d e mons tra tes t h is s ing le f actor i n 6 6 a du l ts .

8 m m was u sua l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a ma le , a nd t he f e ma les were g enera l ly b e low t h is .

P o ten t ia l ly , h owever , af a l lacy i s i nheren t :

p rov ides p os i t ive e v idence o f a ma le ,

wh i ls t t h ick c or tex

t he a bsence o f t h is i s n o t e qua l ly p re-

s u mpt ive o f af e ma le , u n less t he q uan t i ty a nd r eg iona l s peci f ici ty i s a dequa te ly i nd ica t ive .

Thus t he ' i nde term ina te ' g roup a ppears t o c on for m more t o t he

f e ma le d is tr ibu t ion . The more r obus t ma le b ones migh t b e e xpec ted t o s urv ive c rush ing a s l onger f ragmen ts .

T he max i mu m l eng th o f l ong b one f ragmen ts i n 8 1 s peci-

mens ( 70 a du l ts ) i s s hown i n F ig

1 2.2 a nd may b e s um mar ised a s f o l lows : 4 cm

Ma le

C ran ia l v au l t :

8

1 9

F e ma le

1 3

1 3

I nde ter m ina te

1 3

4

C h i ld

1 1

0

T he t h ickness o f t he v au l t was measured a nd t he d is tr ibu t ion

i s s hown i n F ig i n t h ickness ;

4 cm+

1 2.3 .

I n t he ma le g roup , 1 8 o u t o f 2 5 were 5 m m o r more

i n t he f e ma les , 1 6 o u t o f 2 3 w ere l ess t han 5 m m t h ick .

i nde term ina te g roup s hows a w ide s ca t ter .

The

T hese measure men ts o f b one

t h ickness n eed t o b e i n terpre ted i n t he c on tex t o f t he who le s peci men . p ar ison o f t he max i mum s izes o f s ku l l f ragmen ts i n 7 8 s pecimens ( Fig

C o m1 2.4 )

a re s um mar ised a s f o l lows : 3 cm

3 cm+

Ma le

1 1

1 4

F e ma le

1 5

1 5

I nde ter m ina te

1 3

C h i ld

7

2 1

I tw i l l b e n o ted t ha t , b o th f or l ong b ones a nd c ran ia l v au l t , t he i nde ter m ina te g roup i s c harac ter ised b y sma l l-s ize f ragmen ts . A ma jor o vera l l p rob le m i n s ex ing h eav i ly c rushed c re ma ted b one a ppears t o b e i n t he i den t i f ica t ion a nd e xclus ion o f t ha t wh ich i s t o b e r egarded a s i nde ter m ina te :

2 26

i nc lus ion wou ld

r esu l t , b y mos t c r i ter ia , i n ah eavy b ias t o t he f e ma le s ide .

Th is b eco mes

ama tter o f p ersona l j udge men t , i n wh ich i ti s p oss ible t o e rr o n e i ther s ide , s o i t wou ld s ee m p ar t icu lar ly d es irable t o c heck t h is f ac tor a t s o me s tage f ro m a n e x terna l s ource .

I n t h is s er ies , t he a du l ts were c ons idered t o b e

3 0 ma le , 3 2 f e ma le a nd 2 6 i nde ter m ina te .

There were 1 5 c h i ldren .

V eraci ty o f s ex ing c re ma ted b one C er ta in g rave g oods a re o f k nown ma le o r f e ma le a ssocia t ion . I ft hese a re r e moved p r ior t o e xa m ina t ion o f t he s ke le ta l c on ten ts , t here i s ad ua l a pproach t o s ex ing .

The a na to m is t 's c onc lus ions c an t hen b e c hecked w i th

t he o ther a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . O f t he 4 0 c re ma t ions t ha t were s tud ied i n t h is way , 6 were c h i ldren , a l l j udged b y g rave g oods t o b e f e ma le . O f 3 4 a du l ts , s ke le ta l a na lys is was s exua l ly i nde ter m ina te i n 7 , o f wh ich 5were f e ma le a nd 2 ma le a ccord ing t o g rave g oods . I ft h is p ropor t ion were t rue t hroughou t t he s er ies , t hen s ke le ta l a na lys is a lone h as g iven t oo l ow a p ercen tage o f f e ma les .

A ssum ing t h is t o b e s o , o n t h is f ac tor a lone , t he

c orrec ted f igures a re 3 7 ma le a nd 5 1 f e ma le . I n o n ly f our b ur ia ls was t here d isagree men t b e tween t he t wo me thods o f e va lua t ion .

I n o ne t he s ke le ta l e v idence was u nusua l a nd h igh ly s ub jec t ive ,

i n t he s econd i t was c on fused b y ah igh a d mix ture o f b ov ine ma ter ia l ;

w i th

h indsigh t b o th s hou ld h ave b een r egarded a s s ke le ta l ly i nde term ina te b ecause o f i nadequa te e v idence .

I n t he t h ird t he e v idence i s u ncer ta in b y b o th me thods ,

a nd i n t he f our th i ns tance t here i s r es idua l d isagree men t .

Thus s ke le ta l

a na lyses o f s ex ( o f 2 7 i nd iv idua ls ) c oncurred w i th t hose b ased o n b ur ia l g oods i n 2 3 c ases .

Wh i ls t t h is i s p robably a r easonably a ccep table d egree o f c or-

r e la t ion , s uch a c o mpara t ive r ev iew i s i nva luable i n e nab l ing t he a na to m is t t o r ef ine me thodo log y. u nders tood :

T he s exua l a ssoc ia t ion o f s o me g rave g oods i s p oor ly

as a t is factory d egree o f a ccuracy i n s ke le ta l a na lys is s hou ld

s o lve s o me o u ts tand ing p roble ms o f t h is n a ture . A ge A t te mp ts t o a ge a du l t i nd iv idua ls f ro m p u lver ised c re ma t ion ma ter ia l i s f raugh t w i th p roble ms a nd o pen t o c r i t ic is m .

T he d egree o f e ndos tea l o ver-

g row th a nd f us ion o f s ku l l s u tures i s n o tor ious ly u nrel iable i n i nd iv idua l c ases . O ther e v idence a va i lable i n i nhu ma t ions , s uch a s t he d egree o f s acra l f us ion o r t he p a t tern o f d en ta l a t tr i t ion , h as a l mos t a lways b een d es troyed . s ions c an o n ly b e t en ta t ive :

C onc lu-

t hey p rov ide a d ubious b as is f or d e mograph ic

a na lys is . An i ma l b ones I ti s d es irable t o k now wha t p ropor t ion o f u rns c on ta in a n i ma l r e ma ins , t he s pecies r epresen ted , a pprox i ma te amoun t , a nd r e la t ionsh ip t o t he n a ture o f t he h uman c re ma t ion— ma le , f e ma le o r c h i ld . r equ ires s pecia l is t k now ledge ,

S a t is fac tory i n terpre ta t ion

p re ferably t ha t o f av e ter inary c o l league .

C ons iderable p reponderance o f a n i ma l ma ter ia l may b e as ource o f d i f f icu l ty i n s ex ing h u man r e ma ins .

2 27

PA IRED CRE MAT IONS I n Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies , u rns were s o me t i mes b ur ied i n p a irs . f ea ture h as n ever b een s a t is fac tor i ly i nves t iga ted o r e xp la ined .

T h is

S ince e ach

u rn i n ap a ir may b e o n ly v ery p ar t ia l ly f i l led , a nd a pparen t ly t he t o ta l r ema ins c ou ld we l l h ave b een p laced i n o ne s uch c on ta iner , i t may we l l b e a ss umed t ha t e ach u rn r epresen ts o ne i nd iv idua l , t ha t t wo p eop le d ied a bou t t he s a me t ime , c re ma t ion o f b o th t ook p lace o n t he s ame d ay , a nd b ur ia l t oge ther i n as ing le g rave r epresen ted s i mp le e xped iency.

T h is i s ap oss ible e xp lana-

t i on i n c er ta in i ns tances . Bu t t here a re s o me c ur ious ly s ingu lar , e ven e n igma t ic f ea tures emerg ing f ro m a n i nves t iga t ion o f t h is p heno menon . S o f ar , s ix teen p a irs h ave b een made a va i lable f or s tudy . The b ones o f c h i ldren were f ound i n f i ve p a irs , ah igher p ropor t ion t han i n t he r ando m s urvey , w i th a l ower a ge r ange . Two p a irs c on ta ined a c h i ld i n o ne u rn a nd a n a du l t i n t he o ther . Two p a irs c on ta ined a du l t b one o n ly i n o ne u rn , a nd a c h i ld 's b ones mixed w i th a sma l l q uan t i ty o f a du l t b one i n t he o ther .

There was n o a dm ix ture o f

a du l t a nd c h i ld i n b o th u rns o f ap a ir a s s hou ld h ave h appened h ad t he t wo b een o n t he s ame p yre .

T he p a t tern s ugges ts t wo s epara te c re ma t ions , w i th a

sma l l amoun t o f t he a du l t r e ma ins b eing d e l ibera te ly i nc luded w i th t hose o f t he c h i ld b e fore b ur ia l . One p a ir h ad t he r e ma ins o f t he s ame c h i ld , a ged f our t o f ive y ears o ld i n e ach , f or t here was i nd ispu table a r t icu la t ion b e tween t wo f e mora l f ragmen ts . Y e t t he amoun ts were q u i te sma l l ( 143 gm a nd 4 0 gm ). I n t en p a irs o n ly a du l t r ema ins were p resen t .

T he s ex ing was t he s ame

i n f i ve , d iss im i lar i n t hree , u ncer ta in i n t wo . E v idence f ro m e x traneous ma ter ia l a ) An i ma l b ones Throughou t t he s er ies t here were e i ther n o a n i ma l b ones i n e i ther u rn o r t hese were p resen t i nb o th o f ap a ir . c on ta ined a ny a n i ma l b one. p a irs ;

N o p a ir o f b ur ia ls w i th c h i ld r e ma ins

T here were n o a n ima l r e ma ins i n h a lf o f t he a du l t

i n t he o ther h a l f n o t o n ly were t here a n ima l b ones i nb o th , b u t t here

were s im i lar q uan t i t ies i n e ach a nd t he s ame s pec ies p redo m ina ted i n b o th . T hese o bserva t ions p rov ide a d ouble c on tras t w i th t he g enera l s urvey . I n t h is , f our o u t o f f i f teen c h i ld b ur ia ls h ad a n ima l b one i nc luded .

O f t he a du l t

b ur ia ls l ess t han 2 5% h ad a n ima l r ema ins , a s c o mpared w i th 5 0% o f a du l t p a irs a nd n one i n a du l t/ch i ld p a irs . One p a ir o f a du l t b ur ia ls d eserves s pec ia l men t ion . One c on ta ined s ix teen f ragmen ts o f s heep a s traga l i a nd t he o ther f our teen ( n ine i n tact ). T hese were e v iden t ly i t e ms o f u t i l i ty , p oss ibly g am ing c oun ters .

T he p resence o f s o many

a s traga l i i s q u i te u n ique i n a l l t he s pec i mens s o f ar e xam ined , p rov id ing s trong e v idence o f l i nkage , a nd mak ing i th igh ly p robable t ha t t he s a me i nd iv idua l i s r epresen ted i nb o th u rns . b ) G rave g oods There were more o rna men ts , c o mpara t ive ly , t han f ound i n t he g enera l 2 28

s urvey , a nd t hree o f t hese were o f h igh c on te mporary v a lue , a n i vory b ang le a nd t wo g lass v esse ls .

Two o f t he ma le/ fe ma le p a irs h ad b ur ia l g oods s trong ly

c on f ir ma t ive o f s ex . There were s o me e le men ts o f a ssoc ia t ion , e ngraved c o mb i n o ne a nd c o mb r ive ts i n t he o ther o f ap a ir , f used g lass i n b o th , i ron f rag men ts i n b o th . D iscuss ion a nd c onclus ions Th is s tudy o f p a ired u rns i s n o t c o mp le te , a nd t he n umbers a re n o t c o mp arable t o t he g enera l s urvey .

The i mpress ion s o f ar i s t ha t t here a re f or ms

o f a ssocia t ion o f t he ir c on ten ts wh ich c anno t b e e xp la ined b y c hance , o r b y a n a ssu mpt ion o f t he s imp le s ynchrony i n t he c re ma t ion o f t wo i nd iv idua ls . I n o ne c ase t here i s p roo f t ha t t he r e ma ins o f ac h i ld were p laced i n t wo u rns , n o t f ro m n ecess i ty , b u t f or r easons o bscure . Numerous s heep a s traga l i i n a nother p a ir a lso p oin t t o o ne i nd iv idua l .

S im i lar , o r t he s ame ,ornamen ts

p rov ide l i nkage f or a nother t wo , p oss ib ly t hree .

An i ma l b ones o f t he s ame

s pec ies were f ound i n h a lf t he c oup led a du l t r e ma ins . The n umber o f c h i ldren r epresen ted i s more t han migh t b e e xpec ted f ro m t h is c e me tery;

t hey a re y ounger , a nd i n a l l b u t o ne t he p a ir c on ta ins a n a du l t ;

t h is may w e l l r epresen t ap aren t-ch i ld j o in t b ur ia l . The n a ture o f t he c h i ld b ur ia ls , t he a bsence o f a ssoc ia t ion o f a n i ma l b ones , a nd t he p rofus ion a nd c harac ter o f t he b ur ia l g oods , s ugges t t ha t t h is g roup o f i nd iv idua ls , b ur ied i n p a irs , h as s o me s ingu lar f ea tures . As migh t b e e xpec ted , i ti s n o t a lways p oss ib le t o d e mons tra te e v idence t o l i nk c oup led u rns .

Bu t t he c umu la t ive f ind ings s ugges t t wo p oss ible e xp lana-

t i ons f or t he p heno menon o f p a ir ing .

E i ther t he p a ir r epresen t o ne i nd iv idua l ,

o r , where t wo i nd iv idua ls a re p resen t , t here o f ten a ppear t o b e e le men ts o f a ssocia t ion , s ugges t ive

a t l eas t o f t he p oss ibi l i ty o f s o me f or m o f k insh ip .

I NHU MAT IONS I ti s o n ly p roposed t o g ive a n a ccoun t o f s o me b ur ia ls where t hese a re o f p ar t icu lar i n teres t i n r e la t ion t o s ocia l f ac tors , d isease a nd i n jury , a nd o ccup a t ion .

O f t wen ty b ur ia ls s o f ar e xam ined a t L oveden H i l l , t here were t hree

c h i ldren , t wo y oung a du l t f e ma les , t wo a du l ts i n wh ich t he r e ma ins w ere t oo l im i ted t o d e term ine s ex , a nd a l l t he r es t were a du l t ma les . S oc ia l f ac tors G rave N o

1 was a c o mbined b ur ia l o f a man , c h i ld a nd d og .

T he man

w as v ery o ld a s s hown b y l i gh t p orous l ong b ones , f us ion o f a l l c ran ia l s u tures , o b l ique mo lar a t tr i t ion a nd a dvanced o s teoar thr i t is o f t he l u mbar s p ine l ead ing t o a c tua l f us ion o f v er tebrae .

T he c h i ld was a bou t f i ve a nd a h a l f y ears o f a ge .

T he d og , a bou t t he s i ze o f a sma l l a lsa t ion , mus t h ave b een l a me f or a l ong t ime :

t he d is ta l e nd o f o ne r ad ius h ad a n a bscess c av i ty , a nd t he s ha f t o f t he

b one was d e for med .

I t was n o l onger a work ing d og .

p laced i n t he a r ms o f t he man , a nd t he d og a t h is f ee t .

The c h i ld h ad b een S o h ere we h ave t he

p ic ture o f an a tura l f am i ly s ub-group , p robably l e f t b eh ind a t h o me wh i ls t t he more a g i le me mbers were o u t f ar m ing o r h un t ing—a man , mos t l i ke ly t he g randfa ther , t oo o ld a nd j o in ts t oo s t i f f f or a ct ive work , l ook ing a f ter a c h i ld t oo y oung t o work i n t he f i e lds , a cco mpan ied b y ad og wh ich , t hough c hron ica l ly 2 29

l a me was s t i l l r eta ined a nd c ared f or b y t he f am i ly .

S o me s udden d isas ter

b e fe l l t h is g roup a nd t hey were c arefu l ly b ur ied t oge ther i n a manner wh ich b e tokens a f fec t ion . Three o f t he b od ies h ad b een d ecap i ta ted a nd b ur ied h ead less , a s c on f irmed b y s i te p ho tographs .

Each was a y oung ma le i n t he 2 0-25 g roup.

One g rave c on ta ined a 3 0 y ear o ld man w i th a s h ie ld b oss a t h is h ead a nd p ar t o f ad agger o r s pear , s o was e v iden t ly a ' warr ior ' t ype . w e l l h ea led f rac ture o f t he l e f t c lav icle .

There was a

Ac ur ious f ea ture o f t his g rave was

t ha t t he f eet h ad b een s evered a nd p laced b eh ind t he k nees .

I t wou ld s ee m u n-

l i ke ly t ha t t hese h ad b een d isar t icu la ted t hrough t he a nk le j o in t ,

s ince t here

was n o d a mage t o t he u pper s ur face o f t he t a lus wh ich f i ts i n to t he j o in t mort i ce .

The l ower e nds o f b o th t i biae a nd f i bu lae were miss ing a nd mos t p robab ly

t he f ee t h ad b een c hopped o f f j us t a bove t he a nk le , t hough whe ther t h is was a n te- mor te m o r p os t- mor te m i s n o t p oss ib le t o d e ter m ine .

Bo .nes o f a n e lder ly

d og w i th a r thr i t ic l i pp ing o f v er tebra l b od ies were a lso i nc luded i n t h is g rave . D isease a nd i n jury Exa m ina t ion o f a midd le a ged f e ma le s howed t ha t o n t he u pper p os ter ior a spec t o f t he l e f t f e mur t here was a n a rea o f b one e ros ion a nd s inus f ör ma t ion d ue t o o s teo mye l i t is ( i n fec t ion i ns ide t he b one ) o f l ong d ura t ion .

T h is wou ld

a ccoun t f or t he b ody p os ture i n s i tu , l y ing i nc l ined t o t he r igh t s ide , h ips f lexed a nd l e f t l eg a dduc ted—the p os i t ion t ha t ap erson t hus a f f l ic ted wou ld a ssu me , d ue p ar t ly t o musc le s pas m a nd a vo id ing l y ing o n t he p a in fu l s ide.

R igor

mor t is h av ing s upervened , t he b ody was b ur ied i n t ha t p os i t ion . T he f irs t a nd s econd p ha langes o f t he h and o f o ne o f t he d ecap i ta ted men were b owed o n t he ir l ong a x is i nd ica t ing a ' c law h and ' wh ich was p robably t he r esu l t o f al ong s tand ing n erve i n jury a nd c onsequen t t endon c on trac ture . O n ly o ne s ternu m s urv ived a nd t h is h ad a r ound h o le i n t he l ower s eg men t . Th is was n o t d ue t o i n jury b u t i s a we l l r ecogn ised c ongen i ta l d efec t . T he l e f t c lav ic le o f t he ' warr ior t ype ' s howed h ea l ing o f a mid-shaf t f rac ture i n e xce l len t a l ignmen t .

Wh i ls t t h is b one n a tura l ly h ea ls w e l l , t he

l ack o f a ny a ngu lar o r r o ta t iona l d e form i ty s ugges ts t ha t s o me f orm o f s upp or t ive t rea t men t s uch a s as l ing h ad b een u sed .

I ft h is h ad b een a n i n jury

d ur ing c o mba t , t here may h ave b een o ther s of t t i ssue wounds , wh ich r equ ired b ed r es t , a nd t ha t a lone wou ld c onduce t owards s a t is factory a l ignmen t . T he t ee th g enera l ly f ea tured t he a t tr i t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th a c oarse d ie t : s econdary d en t ine was f ound c en tra l ly a s t he e name l b ecame d enuded . There was v ery l i t t le c ar ies b u t t here was e v idence o f p er iodon ta l d isease w i th a ssc ia ted r esorp t ion o f a lveo lar b one , r e mnan ts o f c a lcu lus f or ma tion , a nd o ccas iona l ly a c ar ious c av i ty l ow d own i n t he i n ter-prox i ma l c erv ica l a rea o f a t oo th . One y oung man a ged a bou t 2 2 y ears h ad ap ers is ten t d eciduous mo lar where a s econd p re mo lar h ad f a i led t o e rup t . Ev idence o f o ccupa t ion Whereas musc les g enera l ly a c t i n g roups , i nd iv idua l musc les d o h ave s peci f ic f unct ions ;

i ft heir b ony a t tach men t i s u nusua l ly we l l marked t h is s hou ld

h ave s ign i f icance .

T hus t he g lu teus med ius , wh ich e x tends f ro m t he ' h ip ' b one 2 30

t o ac ircumscr ibed t end inous i nser t ion o n t he u pper f e mur , c on tro ls p e lv ic t i l t wh i ls t wa lk ing .

I ft h is i nser t ion i s g ross ly e xaggera ted , a nd p ar t icu lar ly

i ft h is f ind ing i s c oup led w i th e v idence o f s acro-i l iac d egenera t ion a nd l u mbos acra l a r thr i tis , t h is w ou ld s trong ly s ugges t t ha t t he i nd iv idua l was a ccus to med t o c arrying v ery h eavy l oads . Th is i s b u t o ne e xa mp le o f s uch d educ t ive i nt erpre ta t ion . Dur ing p ro longed h eavy work , s tress , t rans m i t ted t hrough l i gamen ts , g ives i ncreased r oughen ing o r l i pp ing a t t he b ony a t tachmen ts o f musc les . I n o ne o f t he y oung men , t he a t tach men t o f t he c os to-c lav icu lar l i gamen t t o t he r igh t c lav ic le i s much more marked t han o n t he l e f t ; t h is migh t b e e xp ec ted t o r esu l t f ro m h abi tua l ly s trong u pward a nd d ownward move men t o f t he r igh t a rm a s f or a j oiner s aw ing wood , o r f or ab lacks m i th w ie ld ing a h eavy h ammer . Where a t endon i s l i able t o r ub o ver a b one a sma l l f lu id f i l led s ac ( bursa ) i s f or med .

A s im i lar p heno menon o ccurs where ab one n ear t he s k in s ur face

i s f requen t ly c o mpressed a ga ins t a n u ny ie ld ing s ur face .

S uch ab ursa , p ar t i-

c u lar ly i fi n f la med , may l eave a n i mpress ion o n t he b one —usua l ly a smoo th r ounded a rea s urrounded b y t he r oughen ing o f ap er ios tea l r eact ion .

Th is

was s o me t i mes s een o n t he u pper s ur face o f t he o u ter p ar t o f t he c lav icle , more p ronounced o n t he r igh t s ide , a nd p robably d ue t o c arrying h eavy we igh ts s uch a s t imber o n t he s hou lder .

F ind ings o f t h is n a ture were n o ted i n an um-

b er o f d i f feren t b ones o f t he u pper l imbs i n p ar t icu lar , a nd p rov ide e v idence t ha t t hese i nd iv idua ls b ur ied a t L oveden H i l l , mos t o f who m d ied r e la t ive ly y oung b y modern s tandards , h ad b een e ngaged i n h eavy l abour f or mos t o f t he ir l i ves . S o me t i mes i n tense s cru t iny o f b ones f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s ources r evea ls h i ther to u ndescr ibed d ev ia t ions f ro m t he a ccep ted n or m wh ich c an b e q u i te b a f f l ing . P hotographs o f t he l ower e nd o f Ang lo-Saxon f e mora f ro m B i c i fordo n-Avon h ave b een c ircu la ted t o s evera l we l l k nown a na to m is ts , a re n ow a t t he An thropo logy D epart men t o f t he B r i t ish Museu m , y e t s t i l l p resen t a n e n igma . De ta i led e xa m ina t ion o f r e la t ive ly i n tact s ke le ta l ma ter ia l o f ten p rov ides c ons iderab le u se fu l i n forma t ion .

I ti s more i n te l lec tua l ly c ha l leng ing a nd

t ime-consum ing t han g enera l ly r ea l ised . T he g row ing s hor tage o f med ica l ly q ua l i f ied a na to m is ts w i th c l in ica l a nd p a tho log ica l e xper ience i n o s teo logy , a n i n teres t i n a n thropology , a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f c ons iderable r esearch t ime , i s as tu mbl ing b lock t o g rea ter u nders tand ing o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p eop le .

2 31

1 3 .

THE EXCAVAT ION OF I NHU MAT ION BUR IALS b y D om in ic P ow les land

I n a l l r esearch , o ne ma jor s e t o f l im i ta t ions i s i mposed b y t he q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o f t he a va i lable d a ta .

A rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion i sb y i t s n a ture

a n u nrepea table e xper i men t , p rov id ing o n ly a s ing le o ppor tun i ty f or d a ta c o ll ec t ion . E very e xcava tor h as t here fore a u n ique r espons ibi l i ty t o r e tr ieve a s much e v idence a s p oss ib le , b o th f or c urren t d iscuss ion a nd f or f u ture r es earch , when d i f feren t q ues t ions may b e b e ing a sked .

R ecen t d eve lop men ts

i n e xcava t ion s tra tegy a nd t echn iques c an b r ing u s n earer t o r ecover ing t he max i mum i n forma t ion a va i lable f ro m t he e xcava t ion o f i nhuma t ion b ur ia ls . T h is n o te h as b een s t imu la ted b y t he r ecen t r escue e xcava t ion o f p ar t o f a n A ng l ian i nhuma t ion c e me tery a t Wes t H es ler ton , N or th Y orksh ire .

Wider

c ons idera t ions a bou t t he r e la t ionsh ips o f c e me ter ies t o s e t t le men ts , a bou t t he i n terna l l ayou t o f c e me ter ies a nd t he ' b io log ica l d i mens ion ' o f t he s ke le ta l ma ter ia l a re d iscussed e lsewhere i n t h is v o lume ( e g b y H odder a nd b y C hap man ) . GRAVE F ILLS G raves a re d is t inc t ive amongs t a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures i n f requen t ly b e ing c u t a nd l arge ly b ack f i l led i m med ia te ly w i th u nd is turbed s o i l . c on ten ts u sua l ly r epresen t as ing le d epos i t ion .

T he ir

T h is s i tua t ion h as o f ten r e-

s u l ted i n r ap id a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion o f u pper f i l ls o f g raves u n t i l t he b ur ia l i tse l f i s r eached .

T h is may r esu l t i n l oss o f e v idence .

T he o ccur-

r ence o f an umber o f A ng lo-Saxon s cea t tas i n t he u pper f i l ls o f midd le S axon g raves h as b een n o ted b y R igo ld ( 1974 ) ; s i t ions .

t hey may r epresen t d e l ibera te d epo-

T he p resence o f l arge q uan t i t ies o f c harcoa l i n t he u pper f i l ls o f i n-

h uma t ions i n t he Ang l ian c e me ter ies a t Wes t H es ler ton a nd S ewerby ( l a t ter , i n f S H irs t ) c ou ld r epresen t al ess d e l ibera te d epos i t , b u t may b e d er ived f ro m r i tua l a c t iv i ty a round t he g rave b e fore b ack f i l l ing . I ti s t hus c lear t ha t c arefu l e xcava t ion o f t he e n t ire g rave f i l l s hou ld b e u nder taken .

T he d i f f icu lt ies o f a pp lying t he q uadran t me thod o f e xcava t ion

t o i nhu ma t ions a re f orm idable .

I f , h owever , t h is me thod were u sed , t he

d irec t ion o f b ack f i l l ing m igh t b e d e term ined ;

i tc ou ld b e r e la ted t o t he p re-

s ence o f a d jacen t marked g raves a nd o ther f ea tures .

S im i lar ly , s ec t ions

a nd p rof i les c ou ld g ive d e ta i ls r e la t ing t o t ype o f b ur ia l , f or i ns tance i n a c o f f in , as hroud o r ac is t , wh ich migh t b e l ess o bv ious when e xcava ted i n1 p lan . F ine s iev ing a nd f ro th f lo ta t ion m igh t l oca te , f or e xamp le , t he r e ma ins o f c ooked f ood , f oe ta l b ones f ro m s t i l l b ir ths , a nd ' mor tuary ' s na i ls wh ich may i nd ica te e xposure o f t he b ody ,f or a c ons iderable p er iod b e fore b ur ia l . The a rea a round a g rave may a lso c on ta in f ea tures , b u t o nce t h is h as b een f u l ly e xcava ted t here i s l i t t le t heore t ica l r eason why t he g rave f i l l c anno t , i f n ecessary , b e r e moved a s ab lock ( boxed o r d eep-frozen ) , t o b e s tud ied i n t he 2 33

l abora tory.

H ere b o th e xcava t ion a nd r ecord ing may b e u nder taken i n more

c on tro l led c ond i t ions , w i th l ess l oss o f i n for ma t ion t han i n t he f ie ld .

T h is

a pproach h as b een w ide ly a dop ted o n t he C on t inen t a nd m igh t b e r egarded a s an ecess i ty i fh igh s tandards o f a ccuracy a re e xpec ted i n t he d rawn a nd p ho tog raph ic r ecord . THE BUR IAL S ke le ta l r e ma ins p rov ide t he p r i mary e v idence r e la t ing t o man ( Brothwe l l 1 972 ;

c f

C hap man t his v o lume ) , p rov id ing ab ackground a ga ins t wh ich t o s e t

a l l o ther a rchaeo log ica l d a ta .

G rave f urn i ture may e nable models o f s ocia l

a nd p o l i t ica l o rgan isa t ion t o b e r econs tructed . G raves w i th a h igh l eve l o f o rgan ic p reserva t ion , r esu l t ing f ro m c onstan t a nae o bic c ond i t ions , a re a t ap re m ium .

Oppor tun i ty t o e xcava te s uch b ur ia ls

a r ises o n ly v ery o ccas iona l ly a nd p resen ts c ons iderable t echn ica l d i f f icu l t ies . T he o n ly o rgan ic r e ma ins wh ich n or ma l ly s urv ive a re t he b ones , e i ther p art ia l ly o r more c o mp le te ly. T here may a lso b e l oca l ised a reas o f t ex t i les , wood a nd l ea ther , wh ich a re o f ten p reserved t hrough a ssoc ia t ion w i th d ecaying me ta ls .

I n h igh ly a c id ic s ands a nd g rave ls , h owever , a l l t ha t may r e ma in i s

s i lhoue t te o r b ody s ta in , where o n ly t he h ard e name l t oo th c aps s o me ti mes s urv ive .

I n e x tre me c ases , n o t e ven t he b ody s ta in c an b e l oca ted .

T he f rag i le n a ture o f s ke le ta l r e ma ins i n a ny b u t t he b es t p reserved c ond i t ions d ic ta tes t he u se o f as pec ia l ised t oo l k i t .

D en ta l p robes , p las terer 's

l eaves a nd l i gh t b rushes h ave b een f ound e f fec t ive , a nd a lso ab a t tery-powered mode l l ing d r i l l f or d e ta i led c lean ing o f we l l-preserved b ones .

The p asterer 's

l ea f i s r eco m mended f or b ody s ta ins b ecause i t s f l ex ib i l i ty a nd f ine b lade e nab le t he s ta in t o b e d e tected o n t he b as is o f t ex ture a lone e ven when i t c anno t b e c lear ly s een . As amp l ing p rocedure s hou ld b e d e ter m ined a t a n e ar ly s tage o f e xcava t ion , ap o l icy wh ich m igh t b e a f fected b y s ex ing o f t he b ody i n s i tu . b e r equ ired , f or e xamp le , t o d e ter m ine b lood g roups .

S a mp les may

F or e ar ly ma ter ia l ,

s amp les may b e t aken f or d a t ing b y n i trogen o r f l uor ine a na lys is ; mon ly t hey w i l l b e r equ ired f or r ad iocarbon d a t ing .

p rov ide a min imum s a mp le , b u t 1 000 gm i s r ecom mended . a lso b e r equ ired f or micro-ana lys is .

more c o m-

F or t h is 3 00 gm w i l l S oi l s amp les may

T h is may make i tp oss ible t o i den ti fy

t race e le men t c oncen tra t ions when b one s urv iva l i s p oor o r where n o v is ible r e ma ins s urv ive .

Exper imen ts b y L eo B iek a nd o thers h ave d e mons tra ted

t ha t c oncen tra t ions o f manganese a re h igher i n a reas o f b ody s ta ins t han i n t he s urround ing s o i ls ( B iek 1 957;

K ee ley e t a l

1 977 ) .

O ther workers , e specia l ly

o n t he C on t inen t , h ave s tud ied c oncen tra t ions o f p hospha tes ;

s pray t ests s uch

a s s ugges ted b y G oodyear h ave o n o ccas ion p roduced d rama t ic r esu l ts ( Goody ear 1 971 , 2 09-13 ) .

The p o ten t ia l o f micro-ana lys is o f s o i l f ro m t he s to mach

a rea f or p rov id ing i mpor tan t d ie tary i n for ma t ion i s b r ie f ly d iscussed b y B odd ing ton a nd Morgan ( 1979 ).

O ther s oi l s a mp les may b e r equ ired i n o rder

t o d e ter m ine t he p resence o r o therw ise o f ac of f in , a nd f or p o l len a na lys is . I ti s p oss ible t ha t where a c e me tery h as b een i n u se o ver a n u mber o f d i fferen t p er iods p o l len a na lys is may b e o f v a lue i n d a t ing g raves where n o g rave g oods a re p resen t .

2 34

GRAVE GOODS P rec ise r ecord ing o f g rave g oods i n t hree d i mens ions i s e ssen t ia l .

E ach

o b jec t ( or o b jec t c lus ters i fr e moved t o al abora tory ) s hou ld b e r ecorded i nd iv idua l ly n o t o n ly b y c o-ord ina tes , b u t b y ad raw ing i nd ica t ing wh ich way u p t he o b jec t i s , a nd a lso i t s t i l t ( i .e . n o t mere ly b y as po t w i th a n umber ). O b jec ts c an b e p red ic ted b e fore t hey a ppear b y t he u se o f g eo-phys ica l s cann ing d ev ices .

T hey c an t hen b e g radua l ly d e f ined .

An a irje t i s au se fu l a ccessory

o n l i gh t s oi ls , o r af ine wa terje t i n more c layey ma ter ia l .

I dea l l ing , u nco-

v er ing o f o b jec ts s hou ld b e d one i n c o l labora t ion w i th a c onserva tor . THE WR ITTEN , DRAWN AND PHOTOGRAPH IC RECORD T he g radua l a ccep tance o ver t he l as t t en y ears o f t he p ro f or ma a s t he b as is o f t he wr i t ten r ecord r epresen ts a g enera l t rend i n B r i t ish a rchaeo log y t owards a more s ys tema tic a pproach t o r ecord ing a s im i lar r ange o f i n for mat ion f ro m l i ke s i tes .

T he e x ten t a nd s im i lar i ty i n t he b as ic d a ta c on ta ined i n

i nhuma tions makes t he m i dea l f or t he u se o f p r in ted c on tex t s hee ts .

Two

e xamp les h ave r ecen t ly b een p ubl ished a nd d iscussed b y H irs t ( 1 976 ) a nd b y B odd ing ton a nd Morgan ( 1 979 ).

T he d egree o f i rregu lar i ty p resen t i n p agan

S axon a nd e ar l ier g raves , h owever , r equ ires t he u se o f av ery f l ex ible r ec ord ing s hee t ;

i n s uch c ircu ms tances t he wr i t ten r ecord wou ld b e more i dea l ly

p laced o n ad raw ing . s hee t .

As u i table f orma t mou ld b et o u se a s ing le A l p r in ted

Th is wou ld t ake a n a nno ta ted c o lour p lan a nd s ec t ions a t 1 :5 , an umber

o f d e ta i ls a t s ca les u p t o 1 :1 , p ho tographs , a nd h ave a p r in ted a rea f or a wr i t ten r ecord a nd d iscuss ion .

Prob le ms s uch a s t he v er t ica l d is tr ibu t ion

o f b one a nd g rave g oods c ou ld e as i ly b e a cco m moda ted t hrough t he u se o f o ver lays .

Au se fu l a dd i t ion t o p ubl ished p ro f orma 's wou ld b e c onven t ions

f or t he p os i t ion o f t he b ody a nd o f i nd iv idua l l imbs , a nd f or i den t i f iab le a reas o fb ody s ta in . T he d rawn r ecord s hou ld b e c o mp le men ted b y , o r i n s a lvage c on tex ts e ven r ep laced b y , p ho tograph ic r ecord ing .

T he d evelop men t o f t he p o laro id

c amera ( i nclud ing t he u se fu l n ega t ive f i lm t ype 6 65 ) h as g iven u s t he o pport un i ty t o t ake i ns tan t s ho ts wh ich c an i m med ia tely b e a nno ta ted a nd a dded t o t he r ecord s heet .

E x tens ive p ho tography may s ee m e xpens ive , b u t when i t s

r o le i n t he f ina l r ecord i s c ompared t o t he t o ta l c os t o f modern e xcava t ion , t he c os t i s m in i ma l .

T he c a mera 's a bi l i ty t o f i l ter a nd r ecord s i gh t t ha t i s

i nv is ible t o t he h uman e ye c an , i n a dd i t ion , i ndependen t ly a dd t o t he r ecord . Work a t Muck ing h as s hown t ha t t he u se o f u l tra-v io le t l i gh t c an i ncrease t he d e f in i t ion i n b ody s i lhoue t tes , wh i le t he u se o f ar ed f i l ter s howed a marg ina l i ncrease i n t he c on tras t a nd d e f in i t ion i n p ho tograph ing g raves e lsewhere ( id M

J ones ).

Wherever p oss ib le a l l p ho tographs s hou ld i nc lude t he s i te c ode , c on tex t n umbers , as ca le , an or th p o in t , a nd a s e t o f r eference p o in ts r e la ted t o t he p lan . A lso u se fu l a re a s tandard c o lour b ar a nd g rey s ca le , s uch a s t ha t p roduced b y K odak f or t he p ho tography o f works o f a r t .

The p resence o f t he

c o lour b ar i s v a luable i n o rder t ha t o ne c an r ap id ly i den ti fy c o lour b iases i nheren t i n t he f i lm u sed , o r r esu l t ing f ro m f au l ty e xposure , o r f ad ing o ver al ong p er iod .

The g rey s ca le wou ld e nable o ne t o a ssess t he t ona l q ua l i t ies

o n t he f in ished p r in t .

Ap ara l le l s e t o f c o lour s l ides a nd b lack a nd wh i te

p r in ts i s n ecessary a s t he b as is o f t he r ecord a nd f or l ectur ing . 2 35

T he u se o f

h igh v iewpo in ts h as r ecen t ly b een d escr ibed b y B arker ( 1977 ) a nd t hese a re e spec ia l ly u sefu l f or s tereo p a irs .

I fi ti s n ecessary t o work b eyond t he h ours

o f d ay l igh t , t he u se o f e lec tron ic f lash i s n ecessary.

R ecen t e xper i men ts

u t i l is ing f lash a nd o bl ique f l ood l i gh t ing s howed t ha t t he o vera l l q ua l i ty a nd d e ta i l i n v er t ica ls t aken w i th f lash a t n igh t were b e t ter t han t ha t g a ined i n d ayl igh t , wh i le t he a bi l i ty t o c on tro l t he d irec t ion o f f l ood l igh t ing made i t p oss ible e as i ly t o p ick o u t d e ta i ls o f g rave g oods a s t hey l ay i n t he g round . ' TAK ING THE S ITE HO ME ' F ie ld r ecord ing c an b e r educed i fs oi l b locks a re e x trac ted i n tact , whe ther i n t he i n teres ts o f s av ing t ime o n s i te i n r escue s i tua t ions , o f e nab l ing h igh ly c on tro l led e xcava t ion i n l abora tory c ond i t ions , o r f or d isp lay p urposes .

R e-

c en t work i n G er many h as d e mons tra ted t ha t , g iven a dequa te r esources , i t i s p oss ib le t o l i f t c o mp le te g raves i n tact a nd X -ray t he m b efore e xcava t ion i n l abora tory c ond i t ions .

X -rays e nab led t he e xcava tors t o i den t i fy i n t hree

d i mens ions o rgan ic o b jec ts t ha t r e ma ined i nv is ib le d ur ing e xcava t ion .

The

i den ti f ica t ion o f t hese o b jec ts , wh ich i n o ne c ase a pparen t ly i nc luded a wooden l eg , s hou ld make u s h es i tan t a bou t i den t i fying c omp le te g rave a sse mblages . R esearch h as r ecen t ly b egun a t t he Manches ter U n ivers i ty Med ica l S choo l i n to t he c ons truct ion o f t hree-d i mens iona l a nd magn i f ied X -rays o f s o i l b löcks t aken f ro m t he Ang l ian g raves a t Wes t H es ler ton i n t he h ope o f i den ti fying o therw ise i nv is ible o rgan ic r e ma ins , i n o rder t o a ss is t c onserva tors i n t he d issec t ion o f t he b locks wh ich c on ta in g rave g roups a nd b one .

I ft h is a pproach

i s t o b e a dop ted t hen t he n ecessary ma ter ia ls s hou ld b e g a thered b e fore e xcav a t ion b eg ins , wh i le s pecia l is ts s hou ld b e warned o f t he p oss ible n eed f or t he ir a ss is tance . r ig id b oxes .

S o i l b locks s hou ld i dea l ly b e l i f ted u s ing s pec ia l ly c ons tructed I ti s p referab le t o l im i t t he s ize o f a ny b locks r equ ired a s much

a s p oss ible i n o rder t o r educe t he we igh t , a nd a lso t o make p os t-excava tion work s uch a s X -raying more p rac t icable , a s X -rays d o n o t p ass e as i ly t hrough l arge masses o f s o i l .

T he b lock s hou ld b e e xposed b y c u t t ing a way t he s o i l

a l l a round t he s ides s o t ha t i tr e ma ins f ree s tand ing .

I n s o me s o i ls t h is may

n o t b e p oss ib le w i thou t p r ior c onso l ida t ion o f t he s o i l w i th PVA o r s o me s im il ar b ind ing a gen t . Once t h is h as b een d one t he p repared b ox w i thou t l i d o r b ase c an b e p u t a round t he b lock . I ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t t here b e a s l i t t le f ree a ir s pace b e tween t he b lock a nd b ox a s a ny c av i t ies may a l low t he b lock t o c rack a nd f ragmen t u pon l i f t ing .

Once t he b ox i s i n p lace t he l i d may b e p u t

o n t he t op , p rov ided t ha t a ny f ree s pace o n t he s ur face o f t he b lock h as b een f i l led w i th a d ense ma ter ia l t ha t w i l l s top move men t when t he b lock i s i nver ted . I fa ny a r tefacts o r b one h ave b een e xposed a t t he s ur face o f t he b lock t hey s hou ld b e p ro tec ted a s much a s p oss ible b e fore f i l l ing c an b eg in .

T he mos t s u i table

me thod f or f i l l ing t he c av i ty i n t he t op o f t he b ox i s t o u se p o lyure thane f oam wh ich i s mixed i n t he b ox a f ter t he s ur face h as b een p ro tec ted b y al ayer o f t in f oi l . Once t he f oam h as f or med a nd h ardened a ny e xcess a round t he t op o f t he b ox c an b e c u t a way u s ing a s aw . I ff oam i s n o t a va i lable a nd t he s o i ls a re f ree f l ow ing , t hen t he t op c an b e b ack f i l led w i th s oi l .

T he b ase o f t he b lock

c an n ow b e c u t t hrough a nd a me ta l s hee t c an b e s l id u nder t he b ox .

Once t h is

i s c lamped i n to p lace , t he who le b lock c an b e i nver ted i n i t s b ox a nd ab ase s crewed o n to t he b o t to m b efore t ranspor ta t ion t o t he l abora tory. t hods c an b e u t i l ised f or l i f t ing b locks o f a l l s izes ;

T hese me-

a t F enga te f or i ns tance a

whole i nhuma t ion i nc lud ing g rave g oods was l i f ted , as e t o f s pecia l ly d es igned r o l ler c lamps h av ing b een c ons tructed f or t he p urpose . 2 36

A ma jor r eason f or l i f t ing c o mp le te f ea tures i s f or e duca t iona l a nd d isp lay p urposes .

Work i n G er many a nd e lsewhere s ince t he 1 930s h as d eve loped

ap rocess k nown a s t he l ack f i l m me thode ' whereby l ayers o f s o i l c an b e l i f ted b o th i n s ec t ion a nd i n p lan s o t ha t c o mp l ica ted s ec t ions c an b e p reserved f or r esearch wh i le d rama t ic f ea tures c an b e p resen ted i n museums .

I n teres t i n

t h is me thod , f irs t p ub l ished b y i t s i nven tor E rhard t Vo ig t i n 1 933 , h as b een s l igh t i n t h is c oun try , e xcep t f or work c arr ied o u t b y P e ter S horer o n b eha lf o f t he Br i t ish Museum , where h e h as e xper i men ted w i th v ar ious c onso l idan ts f or l i f t ing s o i l s ec t ion t rans fers ( Vo ig t 1 933 ;

S horer 1 964 ) .

T he me thods

d eve loped b y V o ig t , i nc lud ing d eve lop men ts u p t o 1 977 , h ave b een p ubl ished b y G i t tens a nd Vo ig t ( 1 977) .

T hey a re s um mar ised b e low a s t he ir t echn iques

h ave b een f ound t o b e p ar t icu lar ly u se fu l i n t he l i f t ing o f b ody s ta ins o n t he C on t inen t . A s a me thod i th as c ons iderable a dvan tages o ver t hose u t i l is ing PVA o r r ubber l a tex .

T he b ond ing a gen t , c e l lu lose n i tra te , f or ms a c lear

f i lm b ase wh ich p reserves s o i l c o lour a nd t ex ture ;

i tc an b e a pp l ied d ur ing

a ny b u t t he mos t a dverse c ond i t ions , a nd w i l l l i f t a l l s izes o f ma ter ia l f ro m l arge s tones t o micro e v idence o f f l ora , f auna a nd b acter ia .

The t ransparen t

ma trix a l lows s a mp les t o b e a pp l ied d irec t ly t o microscopic a na lys is , wh i le n o t a f fec t ing c he m ica l a nd p ol len a na lyses .

T he a rea t o b e l i f ted mus t b e

s po t less ly c lean a nd f l a t e xcep t f or a ny o b jec ts o r o ther ma ter ia ls t o b e l i f ted ; t he s ur face i s t hen s prayed w i th a 2 0-25% s o lu t ion o f c e l lu lose n i tra te l acquer i n a ce tone o ver t he w ho le a rea .

When i t h as mos t ly b een s oaked u p t he e x-

c ess a ce tone i s b urn t o f f , t hus d rying t he s o i l a nd t he f irs t l ayer o f l acquer a nd s tabi l is ing t he s ur face .

T he b urn ing o f f p rocess s hou ld b e r epea ted u n t i l

t he s ur face i s o n ly s l igh t ly d a mp , a f ter wh ich a s tronger 7 5% s o lu t ion c an b e b rushed o n to t he s ur face ;

a f ter t wo o r t hree a pp l ica t ions o f t he s econd s o lu-

t i on , t he s ur face i s c overed w i th o ver lapping s tr ips o f g auze wh ich a re b rushed i n to p lace w i th more l acquer .

T he f i lm i s t hen l e f t t o h arden , t h is t ak ing

a bou t h a l f a n h our i n warm wea ther .

Once f ir m a nd d ry , t he f i l m may b e

r e moved b y c u t t ing i ta way f ro m b eh ind wh i le i ti s g en t ly r o l led a round a c ore o f 1 0 cm+ d iame ter .

I ft he f i lm c on ta ins l arge o b jec ts t hen t hese s hou ld b e

f ur ther c onso l ida ted a nd p ro tec ted wh i le l i f t ing .

I n o rder t o s top t he f i lm

b uck l ing a s i td rys o u t i t s hou ld b e moun ted o n to h ardboard u s ing PVA ;

t he

f i n ished s hee t c an t hen b e f ra med t o s top warp ing a nd d isp layed o n a wa l l . T o p rov ide e x tra p ro tec t ion a ga ins t d amage a nd t o g ive a n a tura l d amp a ppearance t he s ur face s hou ld b e v arn ished w i th a 1 0% s o lu t ion o f a n a ce tone-free o i l b ased v arn ish i nb enzine .

T he f ina l p roduc t w i l l b e at h in l ayer o f s o i ls a nd

r e la ted ma ter ia ls p reserved i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ne a no ther a s s een f ro m b eh ind t he v is ible s ur face — the r everse o f t ha t o r ig ina l ly c leaned . Ap rogram me o f r esearch i n to t he ' l ack f i lm ' a nd o ther me thods f or t ak ing s o i l s ec t ion t ransf ers i s c urren t ly i n p rogress a s p ar t o f t he Wes t H es ler ton e xcava t ions .

The r ap id e xpans ion o f f i e ld a rchaeo logy i n Br i ta in o ver t he l as t f i f teen y ears h as l ed t o ma jor c oncep tua l c hanges s o t ha t wha t c ons t i tu ted a r escue e xcava tion i n t he mid '60s wou ld n ow o f ten b e v iewed a s s a lvage work .

The

s pec ia l p rob le ms p osed b y t he e xcava t ion o f i nhu ma t ion c e me ter ies a re s uch t ha t b oth s pec ia l is t a nd s pec ia l is t f aci l i t ies a re r equ ired , a l though t he o vera l l c os t i s t hereby r a ised .

C urren t work b y af ew s pec ia l is ts h as s hown t ha t 2 37

a l though t he n ecessary t echno logy i s a va i lable , t he n u mber o f t echn ic ians a nd f inance a re l im i ted .

Very f ew e xcava t ions o u ts ide t he ma jor u n i ts h ave a f u l l-

t ime s oi l s cien t is t o r c onserva tor . c o l lect ion o f s pecia l is t t echn iques ,

On ly t oo o f ten , t here i s o n ly a n a d h oc h a l f-re me mbered i n for ma t ion , a nd a l imi ted

n umber o f t echn ica l a r t icles , o f ten l oca ted i n o bscure j ourna ls.

Yet i f av a l id

b ody o f d a ta i s t o b e e stabl ished , t echn iques s uch a s d iscussed a bove must b e s ys te ma t ica l ly d eve loped - a nd a ppl ied.

Long t er m r esearch e xcava t ion s hou ld

b e u ti l ised t o d eve lop a nd t es t n ew t echn iques s peci f ica l ly f or u se i n s a lvage work .

The p o ten t ia l o f c o mpu ter ised l aser a nd v ideo r ecord ing a nd r ef ine-

men ts s uch a s h olography a re amongs t t he a reas wa i t ing t o b e t es ted a nd e xp lo i ted .

B IBLIOGRAPHY Ashebee , P ., 1 957.

' The G rea t Barrow a t B ishop 's Wa l tha m ' , Proc . Preh is t .

S oc . 7( 1957) , 1 37-166. Barker , P . A ., 1 977.

Techn iques o f Archaeo log ica l Excava tion ( Ba ts ford ,

1 977). B iek , L ., 1 957.

i n A shbee 1 957.

Bodd ing ton , A . a nd Morgan , M., 1 979.

T he Excava t ion Record :

Par t 2 ,

I nhuma t ions ( Nor than ts C . C . O cc. Paper No . 3 , 1 979 ). Bro thwe l l , D ., 1 972 .

D igg ing u p Bones ( Br i t ish Museum , 1 972 ).

C asey , J ., a nd R eece , R ., e ds ., 1 974.

C oins a nd t he Archaeolog is t ( B. A. R.

4 , 1 974 ). G i t tens , G . a nd Vo ig t , E ., 1 977. s ed i men tary p ee ls :

' The " Lack f i l m" me thod f or c o l lect ing

Archaeolog ica l a pp l ica t ions ', J . F ie ld Archaeo l . 4

( 1 977) , 4 44-457. G oodyear , F . H ., 1 971. H irs t , S ., 1 976.

Archaeo log ica l S i te S cience ( Heine mann , 1 971).

Recording o n Excava t ions :

The Wr i t ten R ecord ( Rescue ,

1 976 Kee ley , H . C . M., Hudson , G . E . a nd Evans , J ., 1 977.

' Trace E le men t

C onten ts o f Human B ones i n v ar ious S ta tes o f P reserva t ion ' , J . A rchaeo l . S cience 4 ( 1 977) , 1 9-24. R igo ld , S . E ., 1 974.

' Co ins Found i n Ang lo-Saxon Bur ia ls ' , i n Casey a nd

R eece e ds ., 1 974. 2 01-5 . S horer , P . H . T ., 1 964.

' Soi l S ect ion Trans fer :

a Method f or t he T ransfer

o f a n Archaeolog ica l S o i l S ect ion o n t o aF lex ible Rubber Back ing ' , S tudies i n C onserva t ion I C , 9 :2 ( 1964 ) , 7 4-77. Vo ig t , E ., 1 933.

' D ie t ber tragung f ossi ler Wirbe l t ier le ichen a u f Z e l lu lose-

F i l me , e ine n eue B ergungs me thode f ar Wirbe l t iere a us d er Braunkoh le ', Pa laeon to log ische Z ei tschr i f t 1 5 ( 1933 ) , 7 2-78 .

2 38

1 4.

SOME A SPECTS OF THE ANALYS IS AND PUBLICAT ION OF AN I NHU MAT ION CE METERY b y S usan H irs t

' The Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery i n B r i ta in h as n ever b een s tud ied a s t he d eep ly r evea l ing l oca l e n t i ty i tc er ta in ly i s .

I to ugh t b y n ow t o h ave

b een r ecogn ised a s a n u nwr i t ten f or m o f h is tor ica l d ocu men t r ough ly e qu iva len t ( t hough a t o nce b roader i n s cope a nd l ess e xac t ) t o t he p ar ish r eg is ter o f l a ter t imes , a nd i nves t iga ted a s s uch '

( Hope-Taylor

1 977, 2 62 ). T here i s n o d oub t t ha t Ang lo-Saxon c e metery a rchaeo !ogy h as b een d om in a ted t hroughou t t h is c en tury b y t he s tudy o f t he g rave g oods a s a r tefacts t o t he d etr i men t o f t he s tudy o f w ider s ocia l , e cono m ic a nd b io log ica l a spects . B u t p erhaps t he t i de o f o pin ion i s t urn ing ;

i n f luences f ro m a n thropo logy a nd

p reh is tor ic a rchaeo logy a re w i tnessed b y t he i nc lus ion i n t h is v o lu me o f t he p apers b y A rno ld , C hap man , H odder a nd Pader .

Many Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo lo-

g is ts a re n ow a ware o f t he r ange o f n ew t echn iques wh ich c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o t he a na lys is o f Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies b u t f ew w i l l h ave t he o ppor tun i ty t o t ry t he m o n a ny s ca le .

E ven w i th a sma l l e xcava t ion , h owever , i ti s p oss ible t o

g ive s o me i nd ica t ion o f t he p o ten t ia l o f Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies f or i l lus tra t ing s oc ia l h is tory a s we l l a s e xpand ing a rchaeo log ica l t ypo log ies . The A ng lo-Saxon c e me tery a t S ewerby , B r id l ing ton , E as t Yorksh ire ( H irs t i n p rep ) was p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted i n 1 959 b y Rah tz , w i th a f ur ther sma l l e xcavat i on i n 1 974 d irec ted b y t he wr i ter .

The 5 0-odd g raves e xcava ted w ere f ro m

a nu nknown p ropor t ion o f t he t ota l c e me tery whose l im i ts were n ot e s tab lished i n a ny d irec t ion .

E ven t h is sma l l e xcava t ion i s e xcep t iona l i n Eas t Yorksh ire

where , o f t he 4 0 o r 5 0 s i tes r ecen t ly d ocumen ted b y Eag les ( 1979 a nd t h is v o lume ) mos t were d iscovered i n t he n ine teen th c en tury a nd n one h as b een a dequa te ly p ub l ished .

On ly t wo s i tes o f a ny s ize h ave b een e xcava ted i n t he

a rea i n t he l as t 5 0 y ears —Sewerby a nd , i n t he l as t y ear o r s o , Wes t H es ler ton b y D en t a nd P ow les land .

B o th s i tes were r escue e xcava t ions where s o me

b o th were r e la t ive ly sma l l-sca le e xcavat i ons a nd i n n e i ther i s t he f u l l e x ten t o f t he c e me tery k nown , a l though i n t he g raves h ad a lready b een d es troyed ;

c ase o f Wes t H es ler ton i t may b e p oss ible t o e xcava te f ur ther .

H ence i n r e-

g iona l t er ms t he S ewerby c e me tery i s p o ten t ia l ly i mpor tan t , a nd i n aw ider c on tex t i t may s erve t o d e mons tra te t ha t e ven sma l l e xcava t ions c an b e made t o y ie ld more d iverse i n forma t ion t han t hey h ave i n t he p as t . The mos t o bv ious o bs tac le t o t he p repara t ion o f a n Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery r epor t i s t he p resen t a s ton ish ing l ack o f e ven a s ing le modern r epor t o f a l arge-sca le Ang lo-Saxon e xcava t ion wh ich c ou ld a c t a s a model .

D ick inson 's

s ta t is t ics r e la t ing t o t he p ubl ica t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies ( t h is v o lume ) s erve t o emphas ize t h is d ire s i tua t ion . 2 39

H owever , t here i s g enera l a gree men t

a bou t t he t rea tmen t o f t he b as ic d a ta o f a n Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery e xcava t ion . Wha t i s e xpec ted i s a n i nven tory d escr ibing t he g raves a nd o ther f ea tures e xcava ted , a nd t he i nd iv idua l g rave g oods , a n o vera l l p lan o f t he a rea , a d rawing o f e ach g rave s howing t he p os i t ion o f o b jec ts i n t he g rave a nd d rawings o f t he o b jec ts moun ted i n g rave g roups . THE BAS IC DATA T he f irs t n ecess i ty i s t o s or t o u t t he g rave g oods .

A t S ewerby t hese

n u mber a bou t 2 00 me ta l o b jec ts , ad ozen p o ts a nd 6 69 b eads —a sma l l-sca le p roble m c o mpared t o t he t housands o f g rave g oods f ound i n l arger e xcava t ions , b u t o ne s t i l l p resen t ing d i f f icu l t ies .

T hese were ma in ly c aused b y t he f ac t

t ha t a t n o t ime s ince t he e nd o f t he 1 959 e xcava t ion h ave a l l t he o b jec ts b een t oge ther i n o ne p lace .

T he o b jec ts were t aken f ro m t he s i te t o t he A ncien t

Monumen ts L abora tory , b u t a l mos t i m med ia te ly t he o wners o f t he s i te , Br id l ing ton C orpora t ion ( now B orough o f N or thwo lds ) , r eques ted t ha t t he DOE r e lease a t l eas t t he mos t s pec tacu lar o b jec ts s o t ha t t hey c ou ld d isp lay t he m a t S ewerby H a l l .

O b jec ts s tar ted t rave l l ing u p a nd d own t he c oun try ;

s o me

wou ld g o u p t o B r id l ing ton , t hen i t wou ld b e f ound t ha t af ew o f t hese were d e ter iora t ing b ecause t hey h ad n o t b een t rea ted f irs t a nd b ack t hey w ou ld g o t o L ondon ;

a nd s o i t wen t o n .

S o me o f t he o b jec ts w ere d rawn a t t he DOE ,

i n o ther c ases v is i ts were made b y DOE d raugh tspeop le t o S ewerby t o d raw o b jec ts t here .

S o me were d rawn t w ice , s o me n o t a t a l l .

S o me o b jec ts r e-

t a ined t he ir e xcava t ion n u mbers , o thers h ad o n ly l abora tory n u mbers , s o me h ad n o n u mbers a t a l l .

O b jec ts wh ich h ad b een d escr ibed a s o ne t h ing i n t he

f ie ld , t urned o u t t o b e q u i te d i f feren t when c leaned i n t he l abora tory .

N ew

o b jec ts were f ound i n s o i l b locks s en t i n to t he l abora tory t o p reserve o rgan ic ma t ter s urround ing o ther o b jec ts .

T h is c hao t ic s i tua t ion was o n ly s or ted

o u t a f ter much t ime-consuming work l i s t ing , c ardindex ing , l e t ter w r i t ing a nd s earch ing .

Fro m a n o r ig ina l l i s t o f 5 0 m iss ing o b jec ts , o n ly 3 h ave s t i l l

n o t b een l oca ted . There were a n umber o f p rob le ms s pec i f ica l ly r e la ted t o t he d raw ing o f t he o b jec ts . T he o ld p o l icy o f a n i nd iv idua l e xcava tor s end ing ma ter ia l t o t he Ancien t Monumen ts L abora tory i n L ondon a nd wa i t ing f or s pecia l is t r epor ts a nd d raw ings t o a rr ive was v ery was tefu l i n t h is c ase .

The l ack o f c o-ord ina t ion

o f work o n t he S ewerby ma ter ia l r egre t tab ly l ed t o al o t o f was ted t ime i n t he d rawing o f f ice .

N o t o n ly were d raw ings d one t wice , b u t v ery many h ad t o b e

c orrec ted , o f ten b ecause t he d raugh tsperson h ad n o t s een t he X-ray , wh ich r evea led d e ta i ls n o t c lear f ro m t he o b jec t , o r o ccas iona l ly b ecause t he d raugh tsp erson h ad wrong ly i n terpre ted a n o b jec t o r a n X -ray .

I ti s a mis take t o t h ink

t ha t i ti s p oss ible t o make o b jec t ive d rawings o f w orn o r b ad ly p reserved o bj ec ts , a nd t he d raugh tsperson mus t b e i n c o m mand o f a l l t he a va i lab le i n forma t ion . On t he o ther h and s o me wou ld a rgue t ha t o b jec ts s hou ld b e d rawn a s s een b y t he n aked e ye , s o t ha t t hey c an e as i ly b e r ecogn ised i n museums , a nd t ha t d raw ings b ased o n X -rays a re mis lead ing .

T he o bv ious b u t was te fu l

a nswer i s t o p ub l ish b o th ; Iwou ld p refer t he d raw ing t o i ncorpora te a l l t he i n for ma t ion a nd l e t p ho tographs b e t he o b jec t ive r ecord . I ti s c lear t ha t t here s hou ld b e c lose c on tact b e tween e xcava tor , l abora tory a nd d raugh tsperson , a nd f or t h is r eason Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies a re f ar b et ter t ack led b y r eg iona l u n i ts where t he s ame t ea m o f a rchaeo log is ts a nd s pec ia l is ts 2 40

who worked t ogether o n t he s i te c an c on t inued t he ir c o-opera t ion a f ter t he • e xcava t ion. Th is i s p robably a lso t he o n ly way t o s peed u p t he p ubl ica t ion o f c e me ter ies , where a who le t eam may b e a ble t o work f u l l t ime o n t he r epor t . A n i nd iv idua l e xcava tor r espons ible f or t he p ubl ica t ion o f al arge-sca le Ang loS axon c e me tery r epor t w i l l i nev i tab ly t ake many y ears a nd v ery p robably b e h ampered b y af a ir ly sma l l a l loca t ion o f money/ t i me f or d raw ing a nd c onserv a t ion f ro m c en tra l DOE r esources .

One Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery where s o me

t housands o f o b jec ts w ere f ound c urren t ly h as a n a l loca t ion o f ah undred d raw ings p er y ear .

A t t h is r a te t here i s n o c hance o f t he r epor t b eing c o mp le ted i n

u nder t wen ty y ears .

The c os t o f c onserva t ion a nd d raw ing o f f inds f ro m Ang lo-

S axon c e me ter ies i s n o t t he l eas t o f t he r easons f or t he c urren t d ec l ine i n A ng lo-Saxon c e me tery e xcava t ions ( see D ick inson t h is v o lume ). S pec ia l is t h e lp w i l l a lso b e r equ ired f or t he p repara t ion o f ar epor t o n t he h uman b ones .

A ddy man p o in ted o u t ( 1976 , 3 10-11) t ha t n o t e nough a t ten t ion

h as b een p a id t o t he s ke le ta l ma ter ia l f ro m Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies , b u t t here a re c ons iderable d i f f icu l t ies .

There i s as hor tage o f s pec ia l is ts t o work o n

t he ma ter ia l , a nd i ti s v ery c o m mon f or b one n o t t o s urv ive a t a l l , o r t o s urv ive o n ly a s as o i l mark , o r t o b e v ery v ar iable i n i t s p reserva t ion a s a t S ewerby.

I ndeed B ro th .v ve l l d ec ided t ha t t he S ewerby ma ter ia l was n o t we l l

e nough p reserved t o mer i t more t han c ou ld b e o bta ined f ro m ab r ie f e xa m ina t ion . S uch a d ec is ion c an c er ta in ly b e v a l ida ted i n t erms o f t he a va i lable r esources a nd t he r e la t ive mer i ts o f d i f feren t s i tes , b u t i f we a re e ver t o h ave t he a nt hropo log ica l d a ta wh ich w i l l e nab le u s t o s tudy Ang lo-Saxon p opu la t ions , a s w e l l a s t he ir g rave g oods , we mus t l earn t o max im ise t he d a ta we h ave. E xam ina t ion o f p oor ly p reserved b one i n s i tu b y as peca l is t wou ld u ndoubted ly y ie ld g rea ter i n forma t ion , a s wou ld i ncreased a l loca t ion o f r esources f or e xam ina t ion o f b ones i n g enera l .

I t may a lso b e p oss ible t o u se s ta t is t ica l

t echn iques s uch a s t hose u sed a t K e tzendor f ( Ahrens 1 977) . H ere , i n al arge 5 53-grave c e me tery , o n ly 3 8% o f t he b ur ia ls were p reserved we l l e nough f or a ge a nd s ex d e term ina t ions t o b e made .

B y work ing o u t t he r e la t ionsh ip b e-

t ween b ody l eng th a nd g rave o r c o f f in l eng th f or t hese g raves , A hrens a rr ived a t af or mu la f or e s t ima t ing t he a ge o f t he r es t o f t he p opu la t ion . T he S ewerby g rave d rawings were o f ah igh q ua l i ty e xcep t where o ccas iona l ly i nd iv idua l d iggers h ad b een a l lowed t o d raw t he m i ns tead o f t he d ir ec tors . ( Grave d rawing i s a n a cqu ired s k i l l , b u t n o t o ne t o b e a cqu ired o n r escue e xcava t ions o f A ng lo-Saxon c e me ter ies ) . The p os i t ion o f o b jec ts was r ecorded i n g rea t d e ta i l , wh ich was f a ir ly u nusua l i n 1 959. E ven i n 1 968 D r V ierck wrote ( pers c omm t ha t S ewerby ' i s t he o n ly s i te i n t he who le o f A ng l ian E ng land where o ne may b e s ure o f a who lesa le i nves t iga t ion o f e very d e ta i l ' , as ad r e f lec t ion o n t he s ta te o f Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a rchaeo log y. O b jec ts i n g raves a re a l mos t u n ique i n a rchaeo log y i n t ha t t hey a re p o ten t ia l ly a l l i n s i tu , n ot where t hey were d iscarded o r d ropped b u t a s l a id i n t he g rave b y mourners o r f as tened o n t he c lo thes o f t he d ead , t hus g iv ing c lear e v idence o f i n ten t ion . A ccord ing ly e very f ind i n a n Ang lo-Saxon g rave mus t b e t rea ted a s ar ecorded f ind . I n s o me c ases , h owever , i ti s n o t p oss ible t o d raw t he o b jec t f u l ly i n s i tu : w hen , f or e xa mp le , a n o b jec t i s c overed b y o rgan ic ma ter ia l wh ich mus t b e p reserved , t he d rawing h as t o b e f i l led i n a f terwards .

X -raying o b jec ts i n

s i tu wou ld c ircumven t t h is p roble m ( i f i t were p oss ible ) b u t i n i t s a bsence i t 2 41

i s i mpor tan t t o b e v ery c arefu l t o n o te a nd p reserve t he o r ien ta t ion o f s o i l b locks c on ta in ing o b jec ts s o t ha t t he ir p rec ise p os i t ion i n t he g rave i s n o t l os t . T he p os i t ion o f b rooch p ins f or e xamp le i s c r i t ica l t o t he s tudy o f d ress . The S ewerby g raves were d rawn a t 1 :6 a nd w i l l b e p ubl ished a t 1 :12 , s t i l l l arge e nough t o p reserve t he d e ta i ls r ecorded . N owadays g raves a re u sua l ly d rawn a t 1 :10 a nd p ub l ished a t 1 :20 , a l though 1 :5 i s o ccas iona l ly u sed . G rave g oods a re o f ten d rawn i n s o l id b lack ( e g s ee G reen a nd Rogerson 1 978 ) , b u t t h is c an o bscure d e ta i l , makes i t u nc lear wh ich way u p o b jec ts a re , a nd b eco mes imposs ib le where o b jec ts a re s uper i mposed .

I n o ther c ases a c o m-

b ina t ion o f h a tch ing a nd o u t l ine d raw ing i s u sed ( s ee Mar t in 1 976).

T he t hree-

c o lour p r in t ing o f t he g rave p lans i n t he Lankh i l ls c e me tery r epor t ( C larke 1 979 ) , where s ke le ton a nd g rave a re i nb lack o u t l ine , c of f in f i t t ings i nb lue a nd g rave g oods i n r ed i s i dea l b u t b eyond t he b udge ts o f mos t p ub l ica t ions .

I n a n

a t te mp t t o p reserve more d e ta i l , t he S ewerby p lans ( H irs t i n p rep ) i nc lude i ns e ts s howing t he p os i t ion o f o b jects i n g rea ter d e ta i l a nd , i n o ne c ase , ap lan s howing t he c o f f in o u t l ine , w i th a s epara te d raw ing b e low o f t he s ke le ton a nd g rave g oods .

Because t he S ewerby d raw ings a re u n l ike ly t o b e p ub l ished n ex t

t o t he r e levan t t ex t , Ih ave i nc luded s o me v erba l e xp lana t ions o n t he m s o t ha t t hey c an b e u nders tood o n t he ir own .

I fl ess d e ta i l i s p reserved t hen t he d raw-

i ngs c an b ep ub l ished a t a sma l ler s ca le a nd t he l ayou t u sed i n t he B ase lBernerr ing r epor t c an b e emp loyed ( Mar t in 1 976 ) .

H ere t he d raw ing o f t he

g rave i s o n t he s ame p age a s i t s i nven tory , w i th t he d raw ings o f t he g rave g oods o ppos i te a nd i ti s o n ly n ecessar y t o i nser t n umbers o n t he d raw ings t o i den ti fy t he o b jec ts ;

t h is a rrange men t s ee ms i dea l .

T he g rave i nven tory w i l l b e b ased o n t he wr i t ten r ecord made o n s i te , t he b one r epor t a nd f u l l d escr ip t ions o f t he o b jec ts made a f ter t hey h ave b een c leaned a nd X -rayed . i n e ssay f or m .

V ery f u l l n o tes were made a bou t t he S ewerby g raves

Mos t o f t h is i n for ma t ion wou ld p robab ly n ow b e p u t s tra igh t

o n t o s pec ia l b ur ia l r ecord ing f or ms , wh ich s ave t ime when a na lys ing i n forma t ion a f terwards a nd e nsure t ha t t he r ecord i s c ons is ten t a nd c o mp le te . T h is may s ee m o bv ious , b u t t here i s a t l eas t o ne Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery e xcav a t ion s t i l l g o ing o n i n 1 980 where t he e xcava tor was h eard t o b e moan t he d i f f icu l ty o f r e me mber ing t o wr i te u p t he e xcava t ion j ourna l when h e g o t h o me a t n igh t a f ter a d ay 's d igg ing ! o f t ables much e as ier .

R ecord ing f or ms a lso make t he p repara t ion

C e me tery r epor ts v ery o f ten c on ta in a t able s how ing

wh ich g rave g oods o ccur i n wh ich g rave b u t s e ldom t he e qua l ly n ecessary t abu la t ion o f t he o ther b ur ia l d a ta , ie l oca t ion , s i ze a nd d ep th o f g rave , o r ien ta t ion , s ke le ton p os i t ion , s ex , a ge , p a tho log y , p resence o f s truc tures , c o f f ins o r g rave markers .

T he a na lys is o f t he s i te i s t hen b ased o n t hese

t ab les , t he i nven tory a nd t he d raw ings . D ISCUSS ION AND ANALYS IS B eyond t h is b as ic min i mum t here i s , h owever , n o g enera l a greemen t a s t o wha t more i s r equ ired o f a n Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery r epor t .

The N or fo lk

Archaeo log ica l Un i t h as a dop ted t he p o l icy o f p ubl ish ing o n ly t he b as ic d a ta w i th f ur ther v o lumes o f i n terpre ta t ion a nd d iscuss ion t o f o l low i n l a ter y ears ( see H i l ls 1 977;

G reen a nd R ogerson 1 978 ).

Mos t p ub l ished r epor ts c on ta in

s o me d iscuss ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon s e t t le men t o f t he s urround ing a rea a nd o f 2 42

t he t opography o f t he s i te , a nd n ear ly a l l c on ta in s o me d iscuss ion o f t he g rave g oods a nd t heir d a t ing , b u t v ery f ew h ave more t han ab r ief men t ion o f s uch t op ics a s c e me tery l a you t , b ur ia l p os i t ion , a nd p opu la t ion s tructure . The i n for ma t ion a va i lable f or a d iscuss ion o f s e t t le men t p a t terns a nd t opography w i l l v ary f ro m s i te t o s i te .

D iscuss ion o f t he g rave g oods c an b e

v ery d i f f icu l t f or t he a rchaeo log is t who i s n o t as pec ia l is t i n Ang lo-Saxon me ta lwork .

Much o f t he p ubl ished work o n o b jec ts i s o u t o f d a te , wh i le more

r ecen t s tud ies h ave n o t y e t a ppeared i n p r in t .

T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue o f

o b jects f ro m Ang l ian a reas wh ich l berg a nd L eeds d iscussed s o me 3 0 t o 5 0 y ears a go ( Aberg 1 926;

L eeds 1 945 ;

L eeds 1 949 ) a nd wh ich V ierck h as

s tud ied i n d e ta i l b u t h as n o t y e t p ub l ished . h ere ;

T he n on-spec ia l is t h as t wo c ho ices

t o r ead wha t i s p ubl ished a nd r e ly o n a dv ice f ro m s pec ia l is ts , a nd t hen

t o a t te mp t ad iscuss ion h ersel f ; o r t o i nv i te s pec ia l is t r epor ts o n t he o b jec ts . T he d isadvan tage o f t he l a t ter a pproach i s t ha t t here a re f ew s pec ia l is ts w i th t he t ime t o t ake o n s uch c omm i t men ts , a nd t ha t t h is may mean a n umber o f r epor ts b y d i f feren t p ersons wh ich may r esu l t i n a n u nwie ldy a nd i ncoheren t d iscuss ion .

H owever , o ne o f t hese c ourses mus t b e a dop ted i ft here i s t o b e

a ny d iscuss ion o f t he d a t ing o f t he s i te . More g enera l d iscuss ion a nd a na lys is o f ac e me tery i s n o t d ependen t o n s pec ia l is t k nowledge ( a l though i n t he c ase o f v ery l arge c e me ter ies i t may b e f ound h e lp fu l t o u se ac o mpu ter f or t he t abu la t ion a nd a na lys is o f q uan t if iable d a ta ) .

I ndeed t he e xcava tor o r r epor t wr i ter i s p robably i n t he b es t p os i t ion

t o d o s uch a na lysis i n i t ia l ly .

T hey w i l l b e u n ique ly i n c o m mand o f t he d a ta

a nd a ble t o c heck b ack t o t he o r ig ina l r ecords w i th e ase , r e fer p roble ms t o t he wr i ters o f s pec ia l is ts r epor ts , a nd c orrec t a ny mis takes wh ich a re s hown u p b e fore p ubl ica t ion .

I ti s v ery o f ten o n ly when d a ta a re u sed i n a na lys is t ha t

i ncons is tencies a nd m is takes b eco me c lear a nd t h is i s as trong a rgu men t f or s ome a na lys is o f t he d a ta t o b e a t te mp ted b e fore p ub l ica t ion . f a ir ly s i mp le a na lys is c an b e a pp l ied t o t he b as ic d a ta ;

Two t ypes o f

f i rs t ly , s imp le c lass i-

f i ca t ion a nd o rdering c an l ead t o c o mpar isons w i th d a ta f ro m o ther s i tes ; s econd ly , a na lys is c an a t te mp t t o d iscern p a t tern w i th in t he d a ta a nd t o t es t h ypo theses . The f irs t t ype o f a na lys is c an b e u sed t o p resen t as i mp le p rof i le o f t he c haracter o f t he c e me tery a nd i s we l l wor th d o ing .

An umber o f d i f feren t

s or ts o f c har ts a nd d iagra ms c an b e u sed f or t h is .

F or e xamp le , p ie c har ts

c an b e u sed t o s how p ercen tages o f d i f feren t a t tr ibu tes s uch a s b ur ia l p os i t ion ( F ig 1 4.1b ) o r t he p ercen tage o f d i f feren t b roochtypes ( see F igs 1 5 .181 5 .20 , We lch t h is v o lu me ) .

T he l a t ter a re g ood s hor t-hand i nd ica tors o f

t he c u l tura l mi l ieu o f t he s i te , a s i s ad iagram s how ing g rave g oods i n o rder o f mos t c o m mon o ccurrence ( Fig 1 4 .1a ) . T h is a lso s erves t o d e mons tra te wh ich o b jec ts a re r ares t a nd t herefore p oss ibly i ndica t ive o f g rea ter wea l th . A t S ewerby , f or e xamp le , F ig 1 4 .1a s hows t ha t t he c o m mones t o b jects a re k n ives wh i le t he b ronze c au ldron , p robab ly a n i mpor t , i s u n ique ( i t o ccurs i n t he g rave w i th t he l arges t n u mber o f g rave g oods ). The i n for ma t ion f ro m t he b one r epor t c an b e u sed t o s how t he p opu la t ion s tructure o f t he b ur ia l g roup e i ther i n t he f or m o f a ge p yram id d iagra ms , F ig

1 4.2a ( wh ich t herea f ter c an b e u sed f or p lo t t ing t he d is tr ibu t ion o f o b jec ts

t o s ee i f a ny a re r es tr icted t o p ar t icu lar a ge o r s ex g roups ) o r p erhaps more

2 43

NUMBER

O F G RAVES I N WH ICH

1 91 , 11 3

1 , 2 3 e 5 6 7 8 KN IFE

OBJECTS OCCUR t 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 , 02 . 12 3 2 .32 f . 2 5

—

B EADS — ANNUL AR BROOCH — BUCKLE — POT S LEEVE C LASPS C PUC 1FORM B ROOCH WOODEN V ESSEL SPEAR — SMALL L ONG BROOCH — G IRDLE HANGER G IRDLE R ING — S OUARE H EAD B ROOCH — PE NDANTS SH IELD

B oss

—

P E NA N NULAR B ROOCH — S TRAP END KEY B RONZE V ESSEL

F ig . 1 4 .1a S ewerby :

g rave g oods a rranged i n o rder o f mos t c ommon

o ccurrence

BUR IAL

POS IT ION

( TOTAL OF 3 5 G RAVES)

F ig . 1 4 . l b S ewerby : b ur ia l p os i t ion

2 44

3 4

1 5

4 5

1 9

4 1

9

2 3

1 3

1 2

1

4 9

3 8

2 9

4 5 -

3 5

8

5 0

3 5

2 6

2 5

1 7 -

1 2 -

4 2

5 1

7-

4 0

4 7

3 9

1 4

2 8

2 2

1 7

2 1

1 6 1 3

4 6

2 7

3 1

4 4

3 7

5 0A

5 5

5 6

4 5

5 3

0-

5 7

5 4

2 4

2 5

1 64

7

2

5 2

1 0

ADULTS

NB

A LSO UNCERTA IN POSS IBLE

A GE

G 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,58

A DD IT IONAL G RAVES

F ig . 1 4 . 2 a S ewerby :

G 35A ,43 ,32 ,36

c e me tery p opu la t ion

1 5-

2 1 0-

a

w e ' 5

' < 7

1 7 12

1 1 2 17

Y EARS OF AGE

1 71 25 A T

2 5 35

3 5 45

2 5.

DEATH

1 5-

I < 7

I

I

7 12

1 2-0

1 7 -25

Y EARS OF- AGE

2 5-35

3 5-65

A T D EATH

FEMALE MALE UNCERTA IN S EX

F ig . 1 4 . 2 b S ewerby :

a ge a t d ea th

2 45

4 5.

u se fu l ly i n t he f or m o f ag raph s how ing a ge a t d ea th f or a l l b ur ia ls , w here t h is c ou ld b e d e term ined , a nd t hen f or e ach s ex .

T he S ewerby g raph ( Fig

1 4 .2b ) s hows a p eak o f f e ma le d ea ths i n t he 2 5-35 y ears r ange w i th a l a ter ma le p eak a t 3 5-45 . These S ewerby p eaks , e spec ia l ly t ha t f or f e ma les , o ccur l a ter t han i s u sua l i n e ar ly Br i t ish p opu la t ions ( Bro thwe l l 1 972 , 8 5 ) ;

h owever ,

t he r e la t ive ly h igher ma le t han f e ma le l i fe e xpec tancy i s i n a ccord w i th Bro thwe l l 's a na lys is o f aw ide r ange o f e ar ly p opu la t ions ( i bid , 8 3 ). S i te t ype-ser ies o f o b jec ts c an b e o f g rea t u se t o t he s pec ia l is t w here a c e me tery p roduced a p ar t icu lar ly w ide r ange o f a ny o ne o b jec t . I n t he c ase o f g lass b eads i ti s d es irable t o p roduce a c o lour p ho tograph o f e ach t ype a s we l l a s ad raw ing .

C o lour p r in ts a re u sua l ly t oo e xpens ive b u t i t may b e p os-

s ible t o p roduce c o lour microf iche a va i lable o n d e mand a s i n ar ecen t a r t ic le o n g lass ( B iek a nd Bayley 1 979 ) . An umber o f G er man a rchaeo log is ts ( e g V ierck 1 978a a nd 1 978b , F igs 1a nd 6 ) h ave a dop ted t he p ract ice o f p ub l ish ing d iagra ms s how ing t he a rrangemen t o fb eads a nd b rooches i n wo men 's g raves w h ich c an b e u sed i n c on junct ion w i th t he t ex t i le r epor t i n d iscuss ions o f d ress .

V ierck 's r ecen t a r t icle

o n Ang l ian d ress g ives g u idance o n t h is ( V ierck 1 978b ), a l though i n terpre ta t ions o f d ress mus t b e made w i th c au t ion e xcep t where t ex t i le e v idence makes i t q u i te c lear t o wh ich o f s evera l g ar men ts ab rooch was a t tached .

The a rrange-

men t o f b rooches a nd b eads i n f e ma le a du l t g raves a t S ewerby i s s hown i n F ig 1 4 .3 . T he s econd t ype o f a na lys is , t he a t te mp t t o d iscern p a t terns a nd s equences w i th in t he d a ta , w i l l o f ten r equ ire t he h e lp o f ac o mpu ter where t he s amp le i s al arge o ne.

J ones d iscusses s o me o f t he t echn iques wh ich c an b e o f h e lp i n

h is p aper i n t h is v olume .

F or sma l ler s amp les , h owever , i ti s p oss ible t o

d o s o me s i mp le a na lyses wh ich may s hed l i gh t o n t he c e me tery.

Mos t o f ten

u sed f or t h is s econd t ype o f a na lys is a re d is tr ibu t ion p lans t o d e mons tra te h or izon ta l s tra t igraphy.

T h is i s d one mos t s a t is fac tor i ly where a c eme tery

h as a l ong t ime-span w i th we l l-da ted g roups o f o b jec ts a s a t S chre tzhe im ( Koch 1 977) .

T hese s er ia ted g roups c an t hen b e p lo t ted o n t he p lan s o t ha t

t he d eve lop men t o f t he c e me tery c an b e s een .

A l terna t ive ly , where f ew g raves

c an b e d a ted , d i f feren t g rave-types may b e f ound t o b e c ons is ten t ly o f d i f feren t d a tes a nd t hese c an t hen b e u sed t o s how t he d eve lop men t o f t he c e me tery a s a t K e tzendor f ( Ahrens 1 978 ) .

T he c e me tery may a ppear t o h ave g rown o u t-

wards f ro m a n o r ig ina l c en tre ( e g a t S chre tzhe im , K och 1 977 , 1 5-47 a nd F igs 2 -7 ) o r a s a t K e tzendor fb e s een t o e xpand s imu l taneous ly i n d i f feren t d irec t ions f ro m d i f feren t n ucle i ( Ahrens 1 978 , 3 23-330 ). H ope-Taylor ( 1977 , 2 62 ) h as p roposed t he u se o f t he words monocen tr ic a nd p o lycen tr ic t o c haract er ise t hese t wo t ypes .

H e h as s ugges ted t ha t s truc tures , t e mples o r s hr ines ,

o r s tand ing p os ts migh t f or m t he n uc lei o f b o th t ypes , b u t t ha t t hey h ave b een missed b y e xcava tors o n ly i n teres ted i n g raves ( 1 977 , 2 64 ) .

A more f requen t

i n terpre ta t ion o f p o lycen tr ic c e me ter ies i s t ha t d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he c e me tery were r eserved f or d i f feren t f am i l ies . T h is was t he i n terpre ta t ion a t K etzendor f where t he e xcava tor was b o ld e nough t o r econs truc t t he f am i ly g roups i n a d iagram wh ich mus t b e t he e nvy o f Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a rchaeolog is ts ( Ahrens 1 978 , F ig

1 5 ) .

2 46

F ig . 1 4 .3

S ewerby : p os i t ion o fb rooches a nd b eads i n g raves

2 47

The d a t ing o f t he S ewerby g raves i s n o t p recise e nough , n or i s t here a l ong e nough t ime s pan , t o s how t he c hrono log ica l d eve lop men t o f t he c e metery . I ti s p oss ible , h owever , t o s ugges t t ha t t he c e me tery may h ave b een p o lycen tr ic . Fro m t he p lan a lone t he g raves a ppear t o b e a rranged i n l oose g roups o f c f our t o s even g raves .

S ign i f ican t g roup ings o f g raves c an o f ten b e d e mon-

s tra ted b y p lo t t ing t he d is tr ibu t ion o f d i f feren t a t tr ibu tes a nd a r te fac ts o n t he p lan a nd s uch p lans a re u sua l ly i nc luded i n C on t inen ta l c e me tery r epor ts . When t he k nown s exes a re p lo t ted o n t he S ewerby p lan t he ma les s ee m t o o ccur r ough ly o ne i n e ach g roup o f g raves ( Fig 1 4.4a ) . Th is p ic ture i s r e in forced b y t he v ery w ide s pread o f weapon g raves a t S ewerby ( Fig 1 4.4b ) . There i s e v idence o f s tructures w i th in t he c e me tery , b u t , a par t f ro m a f ew i nd iv idua l g raves wh ich may h ave h ad marker p os ts , t he g raves d o n o t a ppear t o h ave b een l a id o u t i n r e la t ion t o t he m a nd f am i ly g roups s ee m a more l i ke ly i n terp re ta t ion . Ano ther s i mp le t ype o f a na lys is i s t he u se o f s ca t ter d iagra ms o r c umul a t ive f requency g raphs where t wo o r more a t tr ibu tes c an b e p lo t ted a ga ins t e ach o ther t o s ee i ft here i s a ny a pparen t s ign i f icance i n t he ir r e la t ionsh ip . F ig

1 4 .5a i s ac umu la t ive f requency d iagram w h ich e xam ines t he r e la t ionsh ip

b e tween t he p reserva t ion o f b one o n t he S ewerby s i te a nd t he d i f feren t t ypes o f s ubso i l .

The c on t inuous l i ne s hows t he e ven s pread o f a l l g raves w i th e ach

b one c ond i t ion .

N o t s urpr is ing ly t he wors t p reserved a re t hose wh ich a re s o

s ha l low t ha t t hey d o n o t p ene tra te t he s ubso i l .

O n ly s l igh t ly b e t ter a re t hose

d ug i n s and , wh i le t he b es t p reserved a re t hose i n t he g rave l ( wi th t hose i n mixed s ubso i ls i nb e tween ).

Mr . B iek s ugges ts t ha t t hose i n s and a re l ess

we l l p reserved b ecause t he s and i s l ess we l l d ra ined t han t he g rave l a nd h ence a c ids i n s olu t ion a re i n c on tac t w i th t he b one f or l onger . A rno ld 's p aper i n t h is v o lume makes u se o f t wo s che mes f or t he r ank ing o f g rave g oods .

I ft he h ypo thes is t ha t a bundance o f g rave g oods i s ar e f lec t ion

o f t he r ank o f t he p erson b ur ied i s a ccep ted , t hen t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween r ichness o f g raves a nd o ther a t tr ibu tes c an b e e xam ined .

For e xamp le , t he

h ypothes is t ha t s oc ia l s ta tus i s r e f lec ted i n t he amoun t o f e f for t wh ich h as g one i n to ab ur ia l ( e g s ize o f g rave , p resence o f c omp l ica ted s tructures w i th in o r o ver a g rave ) c ou ld b e t es ted ( Ta in ter 1 975 , 2 ) . r e la t ionsh ips c an b e t es ted w i th t he a id o f d iagrams .

Wi th sma ll s amp les s uch An a t te mp t a t t h is i s

s hown i n F ig 1 4 .5 b where n umbers o f t ypes o f g rave g oods a re s hown i n r el a t ion t o t he d ep ths o f g raves b e low t he n a tura l .

T h is s hows t ha t n o f e ma le

b ur ia ls w i th s ix o r more g rave g oods a re l ess t han 1 0 cm d eep a nd t ha t t he t wo d eepes t g raves a re among t hose w i th t he l arges t n umber o f g rave g oods . A l l b u t o ne o f t he ma le b ur ia ls w i th t hree t o s ix g rave g oods ( t he h ighes t ma le s core ) a re a lso more t han 1 0 cm d eep .

G raves w i th f ew g rave g oods , h owever ,

s how a g rea t v ar ie ty o f d ep ths , b u t o n t he o ther h and a l l b u t o ne o f t he g raves w i th n o g rave g oods a re l ess t han 1 0 cm d eep . T hus s o me l im i ted s uppor t c an b e g iven t o t he h ypo thes is t ha t e nergy e xpended o n g rave d igg ing i s r e la ted t o t he s ta tus o f t he d ead p erson , i ft he n umber o f t ypes o f g rave g oods i s t rea ted a s a n i nd ica tor o f s ta tus . T he s ign i f icance o f o r ien ta t ion c an a lso b e c hecked w i th t he h e lp o f d iagrams . Fau l l u sed o r ien ta t ion d iagra ms t o s how t he p redo m inan t o r ien ta t ions f or d i ff eren t r eg ions ( Fau l l 1 977 , F igs

1 -3 ).

H awkes 1 976 a nd Rah tz 1 978 u sed

o r ien ta t ion d iagra ms t o c heck t he c orre la t ion o f o r ien ta t ion w i th t he s olar a rc 2 48

5 0

ma le

! M I 1 = 1 E Z 1

f e ma le

3 5(

M )

,t e e

f e ma le j uven ile j uv•r i f le

5 4

5 3-

3 4 8

5 4 7C I D 5 ( i

7 0

, 0

2 0

3

5 7‚

)

5 2

P

2 6 0

2

5 6 2 8

I g f l e

6

9 3( t i l l-)

2

2 7 U

1 8

f l 53,

1 01

g

a

e

9 4 11b

4 5

3 6 0 a em, 4 9

3 1

4 6 1 1 11 2 3 2 5

Fig.

%

1 4.4a Sewerby: distribution of sexes

5 0

f

s pear s h Ie ld

b oss

5. -1

5

5 2

7 0

1 0

2 0

5 6 2 8

4 5

\

3 6 2 2

9

r"

2

4 1 . 9

0

2 3 2 5 CD

F ig . 1 4 .4b S ewerby : d is tr ibu t ion o f weapons

2 49

4 0 C )

BONE

COND IT ION

- - - - -

GOOD

BAD

GRAVEL

-

SAND, GRAVEL AND

-

SAND A LL

AND

C LAY

GRAVEL

GRAVES

SAND -

F ig . 1 4 .5a S ewerby :

L AYER 3 , ABOVE

SUBSO IL

b one c ondi t ion a nd s urrounding s o i l t ype

C . )

z 2 : 0 g T f

RO MAN

SUSSEX 5 •

OTHER S Y MBOLS

Q .

G 4 . 1

,

•

2 57 4 \ ,

a s at err i tory t o S axon mercenar ies i n t he f i f th c en tury.

The a ss ignmen t o f

av i l la c o mp lex o n t he wes t s ide o f t he Ouse a t N ewhaven ( Be ll 1 976) h as c onf ir med r a ther t han a l tered t h is h ypo thes is .

S ince 1 971 , Ih ave a t te mpted t o

r eassess t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or S axon s e t t le men t , b ased p r incipa l ly o n t wo c e meter ies e xcava ted b e fore t he F irs t Wor ld War a t H ighdown i n t he p ar ish o f F err ing n ear Wor th ing ( Read 1 895 a nd 1 896) a nd a t A lfr is ton i n t he C uck mere v a l ley ( Gr if f i th a nd S a lz mann 1 914 ;

G r i f f i th 1 915 ).

There i s n o

c e me tery p lan f or H ighdown a nd o n ly a l im i ted n umber o f g rave g roups c an b e r econs tructed f ro m t he p ubl ished a nd u npubl ished r ecords .

A lfr is ton was

more a dequa tely p ubl ished w i th a c e me tery p lan , b u t r econs truct ion o f a sse mb lages c an o n ly b e a ch ieved f u l ly f or t he f e ma le a nd a f ew o f t he ma le g raves . I n n ei ther c e me tery was t he a ssocia ted b one ma ter ia l a na lysed a nd o ne i s r e lian t o n t he g rave g oods t o a ssign a s ex t o e ach o ccupan t .

As y e t Ih ave n o t

b een a ble t o e xa m ine t he f inds o r r ecords o f t he i mpor tan t c e metery e xcava t ion a t B ishops tone b y t he Ouse e s tuary ( Tho mson 1 968 a nd 1 969 ).

This i s a l l t he

more u n for tuna te i n v iew o f i t s c lear a ssocia t ion w i th a c on te mporary s et t lemen t s i te ( Bel l 1 977).

A sma l l e xcava t ion was c arr ied o u t i n t he s um mer o f

1 979 a t S e l mes ton i n t he s carp-foo t r eg ion n ear t he C uck mere , wh ich i den t i f ied s o me 1 4 g raves t o a dd t o t he 2 5 o r s o d iscovered i n 1 897 , c 1 950 a nd 1 963 . The i n ter im r epor t o n t h is e xcava t ion w i l l a ppear i n Med ieva l Archaeo logy. T he o n ly modi f ica t ion Iwou ld s ugges t t o F ig

1 5.1 o n t he b as is o f t h is

r eassess men t i s aq ues t ion mark o ver whe ther t he B edd ingham H i l l b arrow c e me tery b eg ins i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i f th c en tury o r t he f irs t h a l f o f t he s ix th c en tury.

T he s even d isc b rooches a nd t hree b uck les , i nclud ing a l a te

Ro man d o lph in-headed l oop p robably o f C on t inen ta l manu facture , c annot b e c lose ly d a ted i n t er ms o f d epos i tion . F ig

A l l s ix c e me ter ies marked i n b lack i n

1 5.1 were s t i l l u sed i n t he s ix th c en tury , wh ich s ees e xpansion e as twards

t o Eas tbourne a nd wes twards t o t he C h iches ter a rea ( Fig

1 5 .3 ) , p oss ibly

a ssoc ia ted w i th A e l le 's a pparen t ly s uccess fu l c ampa igns a ga ins t t he l oca l Br i t ish p opu la t ion ( Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le , sa 4 77 , 4 85 , 4 90 o r 4 91 ) .

These

c e me ter ies a re a bandoned e i ther i n t he l a te s ix th o r e ar ly s even th c en tury a nd i n s o me c ases a pparen t ly r eplaced b y s even th t o e igh th c en tury c e me ter ies i n t he s ame p ar ish , a s a t Eas tbourne , A l fr is ton a nd G lynde ( Fig

1 5 .4 ).

The

f ounda t ion o f n ew c e meter ies , t he d ouble-ce me tery p heno menon , h as b een t aken t o i mp ly t he i n troduct ion o f C hr is t ian ity t o t he r eg ion ( Meaney a nd Hawkes 1 970 ).

I ti s n o t c lear , h owever , whe ther s uch c eme ter ies i n S ussex h ave t o

b e l i nked t o t he c onvers ion o f t he 6 70s a nd 6 80s ( K irby 1 978 ).

Un for tuna tely

n o c e me tery o f t h is p er iod h as b een e x tens ive ly e xcava ted u nder modern c ond i t ions a nd we n eed a s u f f ic ien t q uan t i ty o f d iagnos t ic ma ter ia l f ro m s uch a c e me tery b efore t h is q ues t ion c an b e a nswered f or S ussex o n a rchaeo log ica l g rounds .

Many o f t he b arrow b ur ia ls f ound o n t he D owns , p ar t icu lar ly o n i t s

s carp e dge , a ppear t o d a te t o t h is p er iod o n t he b as is o f t he d o mes t ic k n ives wh ich a cco mpany t he m. On F igs t ra ted .

1 5.5-17 a n a t te mp t t o a na lyse

t he A l fr is ton c e metery i s i l lus-

The f e ma le g raves c an b e s or ted i n io a h ierarchy b ased o n b rooches

a nd b rooch c o mbina t ions a nd t he p resence o f b eads .

I fg lass a nd me ta l v esse ls

a re t aken a s t he p r incipa l i nd ica tors o f s ocia l s ta tus i n t he b ur ia l r i te , t he p ic ture i s n o t s ubs tan t ia lly a l tered ( F ig

1 5 .7 ).

T he t hree r iches t f e ma le

b ur ia ls a re t hose c on ta in ing a g rea t s quare-headed b rooch o f r n id-s ix th c en tury

2 58

s ix th c en tury 1 10 • i 1

f r 4

2 59

C E METERY:

I DI D

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I D

2 60

4

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i o s even th c en tury

§ 2 7? -

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2 : 2

P LACE NAMES

K ey t o F igs 1 5 .5-15 .7

Agar

a nnu lar b rooch

K ey

k ey

A pp 'd

a pp l ied b rooch

Kn i fe

k n i fe

A rrow A xe

a rrowhead a xehead

L ead M . B ow

l ead f rag men t min ia ture b ow b rooch

B ead(s )

b ead(s )

P 'lar

p enannu lar b rooch

B . F i t t ing

b e l t f i t t ing

P in

p in

B ird

b ird b rooch

P o t

p o t tery v esse l

B i t

b r id le b i t

P . R ing

p urse r ing

B . Pa ir

b rooch p a ir

P yr i tes

i ron p yr i tes

B d . V 'l

b ound v esse l

Quo i t

q uo i t b rooch

B r ihes

b rooches

R ing

r ing

B r 'le t

b race le t

R . moun t

r ing moun t

B r 'V hl

b ronze v esse l

S . B.

s ing le b rooch

B 'ton

b u t ton b rooch

S teer

s aucer b rooch

B uck le

b uck le

S hel l

s he l l

C h ise l

c h ise l h ead

S h ie ld

s h ie ld f i t t ings

C o in

c o in

S -L

sma l l-long b rooch

C o mb

b one c o mb

S pear

s pearhead

C owr ie

c owr ie s he l l

S poon

s poon

D isc ( B.)

d isc b rooch

S .S .H.

D isc Mt .

d isc moun t

D . P in

d ress p in

F aun

f aun 's h ead

S 'wka

s was t ika b rooch

F oss i l

f oss i l

S word

s word

sma l l s quare-headed b rooch

S tud

s tud

F . R ing

f inger r ing

Ta lon

t a lon o r mock-ta lon

F 's tee l

f ires tee l

T oo l

t oo l

G .S .H .

g rea t s quare-headed

T . R ing

t erre t r ing

b rooch

T . s e t

t o i le t s e t

g lass v esse l

Tw tzers

t weezers

H inge

h inge

W. C lasp

wr is t c lasp

I vory

i vory f ragmen ts

G . V 'l

2 61

43

G .S .H .

I

2 8

I

u s

62

2 9

8 5

80

8 7

5 8

1 0 1

1 3

I P

P

P

P

P P

48

4 7

9 8

3 8

F

90

8

r57

68

K

6 9a

I

D .P in P

S 'cer S .S .H .

P

P

P

P

D isc

2 P

M ar M .Bow

I

4

S 'wka Quo i t Ma r

I

I ?

SL .

I

B ' ton

2

5 N 92 8 B eads 1 T a lon

I

Co in

2

G. V II

I

? 3 8

2

I 4

I 3 0

I

6

6 3

8

7 2

I 2 I

B r .V • I

5

I

I

I

B d .V ' l

I

F R ing

I

2

R ing

6

6

P . R ing

I

R .moun t

I

T w 'ze rs

I

T . se t K ey

2

S poon Cowr ie

I

P in B uck le

I

7

I

B .F i t t ing

I

I

I

T oo l K n ife

I 43

F ig .

28

u s

82

1 5 . 5 a A lfriston :

I 29

65

I 60

I 8 7

01 5 6 1

f e ma le g rave g roups

2 62

1 5

48

4 7

9 8

3 8

90

t

F

8

8 8

5 7

K 6 9a

C

1 Gi2 3

7 7

2

1 6

5 1

641 79

92

94

5 G .S .H . D .P in — S.c er S .S .H . D isc

I

A.l a r M .Bow

I

gwka Quo it P.l a r S . -L .

, 6

1 2

9

1 2

Bt on 1 9

2

4

1 5

1

7

B eads T a lon Co in

,

G .V .I B r .V .1 B.c lV I F .R ing R ing P .R ing R . Moun t T v v 'zers Ts e t K ey

2

S poon Cow r ie P in B uck le I

B .F i tt ing

I

T oo l I C

1 03 2 3

K n ife

I

7 7

2

1 6

F ig . 1 5 .5b A lfriston :

5 1

6 4

1 79 9 2

9 4

5

f e ma le g rave g roups

2 63

—.

n

I

c ,. ‘

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-

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c . , c o

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15

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38

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0

Male Female

� Other

Fig. 15. 11 Alfriston: fifth century graves

270

Cj

-•1

-54

I

(>---8

- 12

-13 n

7

-5

-44

-45

E l

Ma le

0

F ema le

A F ig . 1 5 .12 A lfr iston :

s ixth c entury g raves

2 71

C h i ld

94

7 2 7 7 -

1 02

- 89

1 01

1 00

-

--95

7 8

--13 I

--14 - 96

8 7\

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86

- 16

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1 06

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.

68

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e i a83

-

3 3 -

3 1 -

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- 36

--29

--63 3 7

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-

n

Ma le

O ther

F ig . 1 5 .13 A lfris ton :

l a te s ix th a nd e ar ly s eventh c entury g raves

2 72

40

A V 0 0 F ig . 1 5 .14 A lfris ton :

r ich g rave a sse mb lages

2 73

Sword

A xe

Sword & a xe

F ema le

0 0 F ig . 1 5 .15 A lfr iston :

' midd le c lass ' a sse mb lages

2 74

S h ie ld s h ie ld a nd s pear g raves B rooch p a i r g raves

1 04

9 1 --75

la

7 3

1 02

1 01

88

-108

—

— 89

I --95

4

— 7 8

-- 5

—

1 00 — — 96 87\

86

— 71

---10 — 17 — 18

1 5

— 21

— 80

1

--12

— 13

• • 19 —

7 0 67

69. --

—

66

2 4

— 32 35 —

- 65

34

3 1 -

6 1a -

60 -

2 5 —

26

- 30

— 36

•-29

6 2 —

83

-

3 6a --59

2 7 28

— 37 — 38

— 56

39

55 — 40 — 53

SO

—

4 1 — 42

--52 4 3

— 44

45

• •- • -46

— 48

4 6a

S pea r o n ly g raves S ing le b rooch / bead / p in g r aves

F ig . 1 5 .16 A lfr iston :

' l ower c lass ' a sse mb lages

2 75

9 2 1 04

1 03 -9 1-7 4 -

93 - 1 05

--90 94 --

la

7 3 • •7 2

7 7 --

1 0

1 02

am 2

•-89

—

4

3

I I

88 --

• •7

79 — 12

8 7 1 00

8 7\

85 --

99

--82

83

23

65 6 2--

6 1

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— 34 3 5

—

97 e e 26

67

68

1 06

C;s1

89 -

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— 18 20

. # 1 69 a

70 1 07

1 5

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— 80

86

8

1 0

- 14

96

•

3 3.--

1--

--36 — 29

63

5 8

L5 7

59

-- 2 8

-36a

64

37

, 36 b

--38

--56 39

- 55 —

5 3

—

— 54 5 2

— 43

— 48

47--

g raves w i th n o a sse mb lages

2 76

40 4 1 — 42

5 1

49--

F ig . 1 5 .17 A lfr is ton :

0

- 46

ee

i s ag roup o f g raves wh ich c on ta in a v essel o f e i ther g lass o r p o t tery , b u t n o o ther t ype o f o b ject .

F ive o f t hese c on ta in o n ly a s ing le g lass ( Graves 2 2 ,

2 7 , 3 2 , 3 3 a nd 4 9 ) a nd e igh t h ave a s ing le p ot ( Graves 8 , 2 1 , 2 5 , 4 8 , 5 4 , 6 9 , 7 8 a nd 8 2 ) , wh i le G rave 7 9 h as a g lass a nd t wo p o ts .

Three o f t he s ix g lasses

f ro m r ecorded g raves a re o f l a te R o man d a te ( Graves 3 2 , 4 9 , a nd 7 9 ) a nd t he p o t f ro m G rave 8 2 i s aN ew F ores t ware b eaker made i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f our th c en tury.

I ti s n ot i nconce ivable t ha t G rave 8 2 i s af our th-cen tury

B r i t ish bur ia l a nd n o t aS axon g rave .

I f s o , t hen t he G reek-inscr ibed g oblet

o f G rave 4 9 a nd t he g lasses o f G raves 3 2 a nd 7 9 migh t a lso b e b ur ied w i th l a te R oman Br i tons .

Af ur ther p o ten t ia l Br i t ish b ur ia l i s i mp l ied b y t he b rass

m in ia ture b us t o f af aun a ssoc ia ted w i th a p er fora ted Ro man c oin i n G rave 4 7. O ne c an t hen a sk whe ther t he g lasses o f G raves 2 2 , 2 7 a nd 3 3 a lso o ccur i n B r i t ish g raves , b u t t h is t ime o f f i f th-cen tury d a te .

N ot e very g rave b ur ied

w i th a p ot n eed b e B r i t ish r a ther t han S axon , a s t he p o ts o f G raves 8 a nd 2 1 s how , b u t t here i s s u f f icien t e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t t he c e me tery c ou ld h ave s tar ted a s al a te Ro man b ur ia l g round . Th is c e me tery i s l oca ted i n as tra teg ic p os i t ion o n a n i so la ted c ha lk r idge d om ina ting t he c oas ta l p la in . p re-Ro man h i l l for t .

I tl i es w i thin a nd e x tends o ver t he d efences o f a

Par t o f i t s c on te mporary s e tt le men t h as a lso b een i den-

t i f ied w i th in t he h i l lfor t ( Be l l 1 978 , 4 6-7).

Fur ther west o n t he s lope o f t he

r idge i s t he s i te o f aR o man v i l la , whose b a th h ouse was e xcava ted i n 1 938 ( Burs tow a nd Wi lson 1 939 ).

I t a ppears s t i l l t o h ave b een o ccup ied i n t he f our th

c en tury a nd i ti s p oss ible t ha t a Ro mano-Br i t ish c o m mun i ty b ased o n t his v i l la s uperv ised a sma l l S axon c o m mun i ty , p oss ibly s erv ing a s mercenar ies , i n t he f i f th c en tury.

The b e l t e qu ip men t o f l a te Ro man a nd Quo i t Brooch S tyle t ypes

f ound h ere a nd a t A l fr is ton a nd t he r e la ted q uo i t b rooches may h ave b een i ssued b y t he Br i t ish a u thor i t ies t o t he f irs t S axon s et tlers h ere , s erv ing t he Br it ish a s mercenar ies .

T he f e ma le b rooches o f N or th G er man t ype f ound a t H ighdown ,

i n p ar ticu lar t he a ppl ied s aucer b rooches , i nd ica te a n i n i t ia l S axon s e t t le men t t here a round t he m idd le t h ird o f t he f i f th c en tury ( Welch 1 975 ).

T o d a te n one

o f t he c e me ter ies d a table t o t he f i f th c en tury b etween t he Ouse a nd C uck mere h as p roduced s uch e ar ly G er man ic b rooch-for ms a nd i ti s p oss ible t ha t t he c o m mun ity a t H ighdown a n teda tes t he m b y more t han a d ecade . The r ange o f b rooch t ypes f ound i n S ussex i n g enera l , a nd A lfr is ton a nd H ighdown i n p ar ticu lar , a re s hown i n p ie-d iagra ms o n F ig b e c o mpared t o s i mi lar d iagra ms o n F igs

1 5.18.

These c an

1 5 .19 a nd 1 5 .20 o f b rooches f ro m

s i tes o r r eg ions w i th r ela ted b rooch f or ms , i n S urrey , Wes t K en t , t he U pper T hames r eg ion a nd W i l tshire.

F e ma le d ress f ash ion i n f i f th- t o s ix th-cen tury

S ussex i s c lose ly r ela ted t o t ha t p ract ised i n Wi l tsh ire a nd t he T ha mes v a l ley r eg ions e xclud ing Eas t K en t .

The s aucer b rooch f or m i s d om inan t , c o mbined

i n t he r iches t s ix th-cen tury g raves w i th a s quare h eaded b rooch .

Ad egree

o f v ar ia t ion c oncerns t he r e la t ive impor tance o f t he p oorer wo men 's b rooches , w i th t he d isc b rooch d om inan t i n s o me a reas a nd t he sma l l-long b rooch a l li mpor tan t i n o thers .

The a bsence o f b rooches f ro m t he e nd o f t he t h ird q uar-

t er o f t he s ix th c en tury o nwards i n S ussex a lso o ccurs i n t he L ower Thames r eg ion , t hough b rooch manu facture c on t inues i n t he U pper Tha mes r eg ion i n to t he e ar ly s even th c en tury.

S hou ld we i n terpre t t h is a s ac hange o f d ress

a nd/or b ur ia l f ash ion , o r a re we w i tness ing t he i mpover ish men t o f h i ther to modera te ly p rosperous c o m mun i t ies?

T here i s c er ta in ly n o s hor tage o f i ron

2 77

K ey t o F igs 1 5 .18-20

A

a pp l ied s aucer b rooches c as t s aucer b rooches b u t ton b rooches d isc b rooches q uo i t b rooches a nnu lar b rooches p enannu lar b rooches sma l llong b rooches g rea t s quare-headed b rooches sma l l s quare-headed b rooches m in ia ture b ow b rooches m isce l laneous b rooches

2 78

B ROOCH E S

S ussex

A lf r i s ton

H ighdown

F ig .

1 5 .18 B rooches :

S ussex , A lfr iston , H ighdown

.2 79

BROOCHES : SURREY

M itcham

G u i ldown

WEST K ENT

O rp ing ton

F ig . 1 5 .19 B rooches :

Mi tcha m , Gui ldown , O rp ing ton

2 80

B ROOCHES: WESSEX

U ppe r T hames

P ewsey

P e ters fi n ge r

F ig . 1 5 .20 B rooches :

U pper Thames , P ewsey , P e tersf inger

2 81

i n t he l a te s ix th a nd e ar ly s even th c en tury f or n ew s h ie ld b osses a nd s pearheads , b u t t hen i ron c ou ld b e o bta ined l oca l ly f ro m t he Wea ld .

A s udden a bsence o f

g o ld , s i lver a nd b ronze o b jects i n g raves migh t b e e xp la ined i n t erms o f t r ib u te p ay men t t o r iva l o ver lords a nd p erhaps t h is a pparen t impover ish men t r ef lec ts t he c ampa igns i nvo lv ing C eaw lin , t he Wes t S axon k ing , a nd Ae the lberh t o f K en t r ecorded i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron icle . B efore c oncluding , we s hou ld r e turn t o t he d is tr ibu t ion maps o f F igs

1 5 .

1 -4 a nd a sk h ow r epresen ta t ive t hey a re l i kely t o b e o f t he e ar ly S axon s et t lemen t p a t tern .

T he c eme tery a nd o ther s i tes o n t hese maps a re t here a s a

r esu l t o f p lough ing , q uarrying , o r b u i ld ing o pera t ions a nd h ave n o t b een l oca ted i n a dvance b y a rchaeo log ica l f ie ldwork .

C lear ly t he c oncen tra t ion o f s i tes

o n t he S ou th Downs i s n o t t he who le s tory.

Fur ther c e me ter ies a nd s e tt le men ts

mus t a wa i t d iscovery a t t he s carp f oo t t o j o in t hose k nown a t S el mes ton a nd Hassocks .

T he c oas ta l p la in t oo may p roduce f ur ther s i tes , wh i le t he e x ten-

s ive modern f ores ts o nt he Downs wes t o f t he A run h ave h a mpered f i eldwork t here .

F or t he f u ture , more e x tens ive f ie ldwork a nd t he e xcava t ion o f c o m-

p le te c e meter ies w i th t heir a ssocia ted s e t t le men ts mus t f or m o ur p r incipa l a i ms .

B IBL IOGRAPHY Addy man , P ., L eigh , D . a nd Hughes , J . M., 1 972 .

' Ang lo-Saxon H ouses a t

C ha l ton , Ha mpsh ire ' , Med ieva l Archaeo l . 1 6 ( 1972 ) , 1 3-31. Addy man , P ., a nd L e igh , D ., 1 973 . H a mpsh ire :

' The Ang lo-Saxon v i l lage a t C ha l ton ,

s econd i n ter im r epor t ' , Med ieva l Archaeo l. 1 7 ( 1 973 ) ,

B e l l , M., 1 976.

1 -25 .

' The e xcava t ion o f a n e ar ly R o mano-Br i t ish s i te a nd P leis to-

c ene l and for ms a t N ewhaven ' , S ussex Archaeo l . C o l l . 1 14 ( 1976) , 2 18-305 . B e l l , M ., 1 977.

Excava t ions a t B ishops tone , S ussex Archaeol. C o l l . 1 15

( 1 977) , monograph . Be l l , M ., 1 978 .

' Saxon s e t t le men ts a nd b u i ld ings i n S ussex ', i n B randon e d .

1 978 , 3 6-53. Brandon , P ., e d ., 1 978 .

T he S ou th S axons ( 1978 ).

B ruce- Mi t ford , R ., e d ., 1 975 .

R ecen t Archaeo log ica l Excava t ions i n Europe

( 1 975 ). Burs tow , G . 0 . a nd Wi lson , A . E ., 1 939 .

' A R o man Ba th , H ighdown H i ll ,

S ussex ' , S ussex Archaeo l . C o l l . 8 0 ( 1939 ) , 6 2-87. Cun l i f fe , B ., 1 976. E v ison , V ., 1 963.

E xcava t ions a t P or tches ter C as t le , V o l. 2 S axon ( 1976). ' Sugarloa f s h ie ld b osses ' , An t iq . J . 4 3 ( 1963 ) , 3 8-96.

G r i f f if th , A . E . a nd S a lz mann , L . F ., 1 914.

' An Ang lo-Saxon C e me tery a t

A l fr is ton , S ussex ' , S ussex Archaeo l . C o l l . 5 6 ( 1914 ) , 1 6-53 . G r i f f i f th , A . E ., 1 915.

' An Ang lo-Saxon c e metery a t A lfr is ton , S ussex ,

S upp le men ta l Paper , S ussex Archaeol . C o l l . 5 7 ( 1915 ) , 1 97-210 .

2 82

J ones ,

M. U . a nd J ones , W. T ., 1 975 .

' The c rop- mark s i tes a t Muck ing ,

Essex , Eng land ', i n Bruce- M i t ford e d ., 1 975 , 1 33-187. K irby , D . P ., 1 978 .

' The C hurch i n S axon S ussex ' , i n Brandon e d . 1 978 , 1 60-73.

K nocker , G . M., 1 957.

' Ear ly b ur ia ls a nd a n Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t

S nel l 's C orner n ear H orndean , Ha mpsh ire ', Proc. Han ts . F ie ld C lub Archaeo l . S oc. 1 9 ( 1 957) , 1 17-170 . Meaney, A ., a nd Hawkes , S . C ., 1 970.

T he Ang lo-Saxon C e me ter ies a t

Winna l l , Winches ter , Ha mpsh ire ( 1970 ). R ead , C . H ., 1 895 .

' On e xcava t ions i n ac e me tery o f S ou th S axons o n H igh

Down , S ussex ' , A rchaeo log ia 5 4 ( 1895 ) , 3 69-82. R ead , C . H ., 1 896.

' Fur ther e xcava t ions i n a n Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t

H igh Down , S ussex ' , A rchaeo log ia 5 5 ( 1896) , 2 03-14. T ho mson , D ., 1 968 , 1 969.

' B ishops tone , S ussex ', Med ieva l Archaeol . 1 2

( 1968 ) , 1 61, a nd 1 3 ( 1969 ) , 2 40 . We lch , M. G ., 1 971.

' La te R o mans a nd S axons i n S ussex ', B r i tann ia 2 ( 1971) ,

2 32-37. We lch , M. G ., 1 975.

' M i tcha m G rave 2 05 a nd t he c hronology o f a pp l ied

b rooches w i th f l or ia te c ross d ecora t ion ' , An t iq. J . 5 5 ( 1975 ) , 8 6-93.

2 83

1 6.

ANGLO-SAXONS I N L INDSEY AND THE EAST R ID ING OF YORKSH IRE I N THE F IFTH CENTURY b y Bruce E ag les

S o me G er mans s erved i n t he r egu lar g arr ison i n B r i ta in t hroughou t t he p er iod o f t he R o man o ccupa t ion b u t t here i s l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he ir n umbers i ncreased g rea t ly i n t he l a te Emp ire .

A f ter t he m i l i tary r eorgan iza t ion b y

T heodos ius a nd p erhaps u n t i l t he 4 40s , when t he d e fence o f B r i ta in l ay i n t he h ands o f t he l eaders o f t he c iv i ta tes , G erman ic t roops were among t hose s ta t ioned i n sma l l u n i ts i n t he t owns a nd a t s tra teg ic p o in ts t o i n tercep t P ic t ish a nd S axon r a ids .

S o me o f t hese t roops w ere a cco mpan ied b y t he ir

f am i l ies , a t l eas t s ome o f who m p resumab ly s e t t led p ermanen t ly i n B r i ta in . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t G erman s o ld iers were p resen t a t s evera l p laces i n t he a rea i n t he f our th c en tury. Ma l ton ;

G er man o f f icers s erved i n t he g arr ison a t

s o me were b ur ied w i th c rossbow b rooches a nd a n u nassoc ia ted

B üge lknop f f ibe l p robably b e longed t o a no ther .

A s herd f rom a d ecora ted

h and- made G er man p o t was f ound t here i n aR o man b u i ld ing i n t he c iv i l ian s e t t le men t ( v icus ) o u ts ide t he f or t . o f f icer 's f am i ly.

T h is h ouse may h ave b een o ccup ied b y a n

Par t o f ah and- made G er man ic p o t tery b ow l o f t h is p er iod

was f ound a t B rough-on-Humber , a wa l led t own wh ich was a lso a n ava l b ase u n t i l c 3 70 .

AT u tu lus f ibe l f ro m K irm ing ton , al arge R o man s e t t le men t

o n t he L inco lnsh ire Wo lds r idgeway , may h ave b e longed t o t he w i fe o f a s o ld ier s erv ing i n t he f i e ld a r my. O ther a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a ppears t o r e la te t o t he s ame m i l i tary s tra tegy b u t i n t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he f i f th c en tury , when N or th L inco lnsh ire was p resumably t he r espons ibi l i ty o f t he c iv i tas C or i tanorum a nd t he E as t R id ing t ha t o f t he c iv i tas P ar isoru m o r Y ork . Two t r iangu lar b one c o mbs , p robably o r ig ina l ly p laced i n c re ma t ion u rns , s how t ha t t he Ang l ian c e me tery a t K ir ton i n L indsey w as i n u se b y c 4 50 .

I tl i es b es ide t he r idge-way a long

t he C l i f f , al oca t ion w h ich p o in ts t o t he c on t inued i mpor tance o f t h is n a t ive r ou te .

Ag lass b ow l a nd p ar t o f at r iangu lar b one c o mb f ro m t he A ng l ian

c re ma t ion c e me tery a tt he Moun t , York , i nd ica te t ha t t h is s i te , wh ich was i n a n a rea o f R o man b ur ia ls a nd b es ide a R o man r oad , was a lso i n u se a t t h is t ime . S o me o f t he o ther Ang l ian c re ma t ion c e me ter ies i n t h is a rea may a lso i n t he ir i n i t ia l s tages h ave b e longed t o mercenar ies i n t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury. I ft here i s t o b e c er ta in ty o n t h is p o in t , h owever , i ti s n ecessary , i n t he a bs ence o f o ther d a table o b jec ts , t o d e mons tra te t ha t s o me o f t he u rns t he ms e lves a re o f t ypes w h ich wen t o u t o f u se b y t he m idd le o f t he c en tury o r t ha t t he s i t ing o f t he c e me tery a ccords v ery c lose ly w i th t he n eeds o f d e fence a t t ha t t ime .

I ti s v ery d i f f icu l t t o d a te mos t o f t he p o ts .

I n t h is s tudy a n ew

c lass i f ica t ion h as b een made o f a l l t he p agan p er iod p o t tery i n t he a rea ; 2 85

d a t ing

o f v esse l f orms a nd t he ir s che mes o f d ecora t ion h as b een b ased u pon t he d a te o f o b jec ts a ssoc ia ted w i th s im i lar C on t inen ta l a nd Eng l ish v esse ls .

T h is

a na lys is s hows t ha t s o me t ypes p ers is ted o ver s evera l c en tur ies a nd i n t he p resen t s ta te o f o ur k now ledge t hese g roups c lear ly c anno t p rov ide u se fu l d a tes . O n ly 5 7 p o ts , n ear ly a l l o f t he m f ro m c re ma t ion c e meter ies , f ro m at o ta l o f more t han 5 50 e xam ined f ro m t he a rea , c an b e s hown t o b e long t o ap er iod o f ac en tury o r l ess .

F or t he f i f th c en tury , t here i s o ne u rn f ro m

E lk ing ton , i n L indsey , a nd e igh t , o r p oss ibly e leven , f ro m S ancton , i n t he Eas t R id ing , t wo o f t he m d irec t ly d a ted b y b rooches a nd c o mb f ragmen ts . S even o thers f ro m E lk ing ton , t wo f ro m F onaby , t wo f ro m K ir ton i n L indsey , a nd o ne f ro m Wes t K ea l , a l l i n L indsey , a nd t wo f ro m H ewor th , n ear York , a nd e igh t f ro m S ancton a re u n l ike ly t o d a te much l a ter t han c 5 00 .

One o ther

v esse l f ro m E lk ing ton a nd a no ther f ro m S ancton may b e long t o t he l a te f i f th o r s ix th c en tury .

N one o f t hese u rns c an b e s hown t o h ave b een made b efore

r a ther t han a f ter c 4 50 .

I ti s l i ke ly , h owever , b ecause o f i t s l oca t ion t ha t

t he c e me tery a t S ancton b egan i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f i f th c en tury.

I tl i es

n or th o f a n i mpor tan t R o man r oad j unc t ion o n t he Y ork t o B rough r oad a nd o n t he r ou te o f a ny r a id ing p ar t ies o f P icts o r S axons who l anded i n t he H u mber . Az oo morph ic b uck le w i th f i xed p la te o f t he f irs t h a lf o f t he f i f th c en tury a nd p robab ly m i l i tary , wh ich was f ound i n t he Ang l ian c e me tery a t Nunburnho l me , a l mos t c er ta in ly o n t he s ame R o man r oad b u t s ome f ive m i les t o t he n or th o f S ancton , h in ts a t t he p resence o f as econd g roup o f s o ld iers a long t h is r ou te . I ti s p er t inen t t o a sk h ow f ar t h is e ar ly G erman ic p resence b ecame t he magne t f or f ur ther i mm igran ts i n t he f i f th c en tury. d ence f or f i f th c en tury Ang les i n L indsey.

T here i s o n ly s l igh t e v i-

T here a re h in ts t ha t t he E ng lish

may h ave g a ined c on tro l t here a s much t hrcugh d ip lo macy a s b y war .

Da tab le

u rns s how t ha t t he c eme tery a t E lk ing ton was i n u se a nd p erhaps o thers were t oo a t F onaby a nd Wes t K ea l .

N one o f t he o ther o b jec ts f ro m Fonaby , h owever ,

c an b e s hown t o d a te e ar l ier t han c 5 00 ; b ur ia l may h ave b egun n o e ar l ier a t Wes t K ea l where o n ly o ne o f t h ir ty v esse ls i s o f c 5 00 o r e ar l ier a nd where t he o ccurrence o f a n I pswich ware s herd p o in ts t o i n teres t i n t he s i te i n t he l a te s even th c en tury.

Af i f th c en tury c ruci for m b rooch h as b een f ound a t a

R o mano-Br i t ish s e t t le men t a t G len tham .

I n t he E as t R id ing t here a re a ppl ied

b rooches f ro m t he Ang lo-Saxon c e me tery a t S tax ton , t wo g lass b eakers f ro m A ck lan; , c ruci form b rooches f ro m Dr i f f ie ld a nd n ear Ruds ton ( perhaps K i lham ) , az oo morph ic b uck le f ro m L ondesborough , a n i n la id b uck le f ro m S ewerby, B r id l ing ton , a nd j us t p ossib ly a s pearhead f ro m E as tburn .

I t s ee ms p ossible ,

h owever , t ha t many o f t hese o b jec ts w ere s t i l l i n u se i n t he s ix th c en tury when t hey were d epos i ted i n g raves o r l os t .

A l l t he o ther o b jec ts k nown f ro m

S tax ton , A ck lam , D r if f ie ld , K i lham , S ewerby a nd L ondesborough s eem t o b el ong t o t he s ix th c en tury o r l a ter a nd t hese f i f th c en tury p ieces c ou ld b e h e irl oo ms . T he Ang lo-Saxon o ccupa t ion o f t he Ro mano-Br i t ish s i te a t E l mswe l l n ear D r i f f ie ld , a pparen t ly s t i l l i n u se i n t he f i f th c en tury , may h ave b egun a t t he v ery e nd o f t he f i f th c en tury a nd may h ave p receded t he s et t lemen t a t Dr i f f ie ld i t se l f wh ich was i n r oya l h ands b y 7 05 .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he sma ll

c e me tery a t H ewor th , a pparen t ly b eg inn ing i n c 5 00 a nd c er ta in ly i n u se i n t he l a ter s ix th c en tury , r epresen ts a d augh ter s e t t le men t o f S ancton .

B oth

p laces a re u nusua l i n t he ir u se o f t he c re ma t ion r i te a nd t here a re l i nks b et ween s o me o f t he p o t tery u rns .

2 86

It appears that in the fifth century the Anglo-Saxons in Lindsey and the East Riding of Yorkshire did not expand far beyond the settlements established for defence before £ 450. Later in the century there are signs of new immi­ grants in Lindsey who established the cemetery at Elkington. Other cemeteries may not have come into use until £ 500. It was only in the sixth century that the Anglo-Saxons rapidly settled all parts of the region. If the English did not reach Lindsey and the East Riding in numbers until£ 500, these areas can hardly be still considered as 'primary' ones in the history of the English settlement of England.

Summary, with emendations, from B. N. Eagles, The Anglo-Saxon Settlement of Humberside (B.A.R. 68 Pts. i and ii, 19 7 9 ) .

287

1 7 .

A RESTATE MENT OF EV IDENCE FRO M BERN IC IAN ANGLO-SAXON BUR IALS b y R oger M ike t

( ED ITOR IAL PREFACE ) I n t he f ina l p ubl ica t ion o f Y eaver ing B r ian H ope-Taylor ( 1977 ) e xpounds t he c o mp lex c e me ter ies a t Yeaver ing a nd d e mons tra tes t he ir f unda men ta l i mpor tance i n t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s i te .

T h is i n t urn l eads t o ar econ-

s idera t ion o f t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween t he Br i t ish a nd Ang lo-Saxon p opu la t ion i n B ern icia .

I n t h is d iscuss ion a n i mpor tan t e le men t i s t he r ev iew o f Ang lo-

S axon bur ia ls i n B ern ic ia f or wh ich , H ope-Taylor c onc luded , t here was l i t t le r e l iable e v idence . S ince t he c o mpi la t ion o f Yeaver ing , wh ich p receded i t s p ubl ica t ion b y many y ears , t here h as b een c ons iderable work i n t he a rea a nd d a ta h ave a ccumu la ted wh ich were n o t a va i lable t o H ope-Tay lor .

R oger M ike t 's c r i t ica l

r ev iew o f t he e v idence i s t here fore o f e spec ia l i n teres t ;

i t s hou ld b e s een

b o th a s as upp le men t t o t he Y eaver ing v o lume a nd a lso a s e v idence t o b e t aken i n to a ccoun t i n e va lua t ing t he h ypo theses a dvanced t here . I NTRODUCTION Know ledge o f p agan Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia l p rac t ice i n B ern icia h as a dvanced l i t t le f ro m K eeney 's s um mary o f 1 935 ( Keeney 1 935 ) , wh ich was u t i l ised b y Myres ( 1936 , 4 20-1 ) .

We a re u nable t o a dd s ubs tan t ia l c hap ters t o h is a ccoun t

u n t i l n ew e v idence i s f or thco m ing ; y e t w i th o n ly t hree e xcep t ions t he b ur ia l r ecord h as r e ma ined v ir tua l ly u na l tered s ince h e wro te .

T he f a i lure o f a er ia l

p ho tography i n i so la t ing sma l l c e me ter ies u nde f ined b y more r ead i ly d is t ingu ished f ea tures , s uch a s t he d i tched e nc losures t ha t f rame t he i mpercep t ible t races o f t imber s tructures , l eaves t he d iscovery o f n ew b ur ia l s i tes s t i l l l argely a ma t ter o f c hance .

I n t he mean t ime modern t rends , s uch a s a n em-

p has is o n s e t t le men t a rchaeo logy , p rov ide a t tract ive a nd c onven ien t a l terna t ives t o f acing s quare ly t he l ong-s tand ing p rob le ms i nheren t i n t he b ur ia l r ecord , a nd a rchaeo log is ts h ave b een c on ten t t o e xp la in t h is d e f iciency a s e i ther n o th ing more s ign i f ican t t han t he p resen t s hr inkage i n a rable f ar m ing ( Swan ton 1 973 , 1 2 ) o r b y t he a ssump t ion t ha t p agan Ang lo-Saxon s tock c ons t i tu ted a meagre p ercen tage o f t he B ern ician p opu la t ion ( e g H ope-Tay lor 1 977). Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f t hree s i tes n o t as ing le B ern ician g rave h as b een e xcava ted a nd r ecorded b y s tandards t ha t w ou ld s a t is fy modern-day r equ iremen ts .

T he ma jor i ty w ere i n i t ia l ly f ound b y c hance , u sua l ly i n q uarrying ,

l eav ing a d ef ic ien t r ecord t ha t a dm i ts n e i ther a c on te mporary s ke tch o f t he p os i t ion o f t he b ody a nd r e la ted o b jec ts n or t he s urv iva l o f o ne u nden iably A ng lo-Saxon s ke le ton .

R ecen t a t te mp ts t o a ir a fresh s l igh t ly r e ferenced o r

u npubl ished ma ter ia l h as s erved o n ly t o u nder l ine more f orcib ly t he p roble ms 2 89

i nheren t i n a n i nadequa te o r ig ina l r ecord , f ur ther c o mpounded b y t he s ubseq uen t l oss o f many i t e ms . i n q ua l i ty ;

S urv iv ing o b jec ts a re g enera l ly f ew a nd a lso p oor

a s ar esu l t t hey b enef i t l i t t le f ro m t he d e ta i led a t ten t ion b es towed

u pon more a ppea l ing c a tegor ies o f ma ter ia l .

I n t h is r espec t t h ir teen b rooches

c ons t i tu te t he o n ly r e l iab le c hrono log ica l a nd c u l tura l f ramework i n wh ich t o v iew t he ma ter ia l ;

o f t hese o n ly s even w ere u narguably g rave g oods .

I n

f rus tra t ion a t t he meagreness o f t he B ern ic ian b ody c oun t , t he u nhappy p ract i ce o f i n ferr ing b ur ia ls s o lely f ro m o b jec ts h as d eve loped ( Barras ford , B enwe l l , C aphea ton , C orbr idge —see b e low ) , t hereby p lac ing s tress u pon t he c r i ter ia wh ich d is t ingu ish b e tween g rave g oods a nd s tray f inds . T he i nco mp le teness o f t he o vera l l p ic ture c an b e r egarded a s b ewi lder ing r a ther t han d epress ing .

I t s p a t tern i s s t i l l l arge ly u npred ic tab le .

Wi th in

t he c on f ines o f ar es ta te men t r a ther t han a r eappra isa l af resh r ev iew o f t he e v idence i s a ppropr ia te , g a ther ing t he d ispersed r ecord i n o ne p lace a nd a lso i n tegra t ing i tw i th b o th n ew a nd r eworked e v idence f ro m o ther s ources .

Wha t

f o l lows c o mpr ises a n i nven tory o f ma ter ia l s hown f ro m e xcava t ions e lsewhere t o b e mos t s trong ly a ssocia ted w i th e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c on tex ts ( f i f th-seven th c en tur ies i nc lus ive ) .

U nques t ionably B r i t ish ma ter ia l t ha t may l i e w i th in

t hese d a tes i s n o t i nc luded h ere , b u t i s r e ferred t o i n t he d iscuss ion wh ich f o l lows .

I ts upp le men ts r a ther t han s upersedes t he r e levan t c oun t ies i n

Meaney 's G aze t teer ( 1964 ) , r ev is ing a nd amp l i fying h er e n tr ies a s we l l a s a dd ing f ur ther p ossib le s i tes .

H ow f ar i ti s j us t i f iab le t o i nc lude g roups o nce

a ccep ted a s h av ing c o me f ro m t he a rea b u t s ubsequen t ly q ues t ioned o r d ebunked w i l l b e b es t j udged b y t hose who h ave s pen t t ime c has ing e lus ive , m is lead ing i n for ma t ion a nd p ubl ished a t tr ibu t ions t ha t h ave b een a l lowed t o l apse i n s i lence. Where t he o b jec ts a re d is tr ibu ted among a n u mber o f museu ms , r e ference i s g iven t o t he ir i nd iv idua l l oca t ions .

S tray f inds a s we l l a s g rave g oods a re

i ncluded i n o rder t o a dd b a lance t o t he ir d is tr ibu t ion a nd p erhaps p o in t t o w here a dd i t iona l b ur ia l g roups may b e p ro f i tably s ough t w i th in t he a rea s hown o n F ig

1 7.1

I NVENTORY 1

B arras ford , N th ( Nor thu mber land )

A lnw ick C as t le

NY 9 19736 A rchaeo l

A e l iana 2 , 7( 1876 ) , 1 4-15

H ope-Dodds 1 897 , I V , 3 11 C o l l ingwood-Bruce 1 880 , 6 7-8 , 1 ) 1 XX I I S econdary b ur ia l i n ab arrow d iscovered i n 1 858 .

T he o b jec ts r ecovered

i nc luded a n i ron s word a nd k n i fe , s h ie ld b oss a nd s ix d iscs , o ne o f wh ich s a t a s as tud o n t he p oin t o f t he b oss ;

t he o ther f ive r e ta ined t races o f

l ea ther a nd p erhaps c ame f ro m t he s h ie ld .

T he t wo wh ich s urv ive a re o f

t inned b ronze . ( 6 th - 7 th c en tury ) 2

B enwe l l , T &W ( Tyne a nd Wear )

Mus A n t N ewcas t le

NZ 2 15648 A rchaeo l

A el iana 4 , 1 3 ( 1936 ) , 1 17-21

A rchaeo l

A el iana 4 , 3 5 ( 1957) , 2 82-3

2 90

F ig . 1 7. 1

P ost-Ro man b ur ia ls i n B ernic ia

2 91

Ag rea t s quare-headed a nd a c rucifor m b rooch were f ound a l i t t le t o t he e as t o f t he Ro man F or t o f C ondercu m i n 1 935 .

Ag lass v esse l f ound w i th

t he f or mer was b roken a nd d iscarded b y work men . ( l a ter 6 th - e ar l ier 7 th c en tury ) 3

B irdoswa ld , N th

Mus An t N ewcas t le

NY 6 17644 Bruce 1 853 , 2 53 a nd P 1 Archaeo l

A el iana 4 , 4 3 ( 1965 ) , 1 2-14

T he o r ig ina l a t tr ibu t ion o f a sma l l-long b rooch t o B irdoswa ld n o l onger a ppl ies . ( ? e ar l ier 6 th c en tury ) 4

Buchan , G r

( Gra mp ian )

Na t Mus An t Edinburgh

NK 1 342 ? Ba ldw in Brown 1 915 , V , 8 12 Myres 1 969 , 4 4n Sma l l s ub-bicon ica l v esse l e xh ibi t ing b osses a nd s tehende b ogen d ecorat i on .

The r ecorded e n try r eads ' f ound i n Buchan , A berdeensh ire , J

G ordon 1 827 ' b u t t h is h as r ecen t ly b een c a l led i n to q ues t ion . ( ear l ier 5 th c en tury ) 5

C a mboise , N th

Br i t Mus Na t H is t

NZ 3 083

( ske le ta l ma ter ia l )

Br i t ish Museum 1 923 , 1 922 , 1 01 , F ig

1 21

Wi lson 1 964 , 4 8n ( t hese b ur ia ls a re n ow p laced i n t he 1 0 th c en tury ) 6

Caphea ton , N th

Mus An t N ewcas t le

NZ 0 17796 Archaeo l

A el iana 1 , 1( 18822 ) , C ona t ions 3 & 3 2

H odgson 1 827, 2 29n Archaeol Proc

S oc

Proc

S oc

Archaeol

A el iana 2 , 4( 1860 ) , 2 51 An t iq

N ewcas t le-u-Tyne 4 , 4( 1930 ) , 2 55-8

An t iq

N ewcas t le-u-Tyne 4 , 5( 1931) , 1 2 , 2 87

A el iana 4 , 8( 1931) , 3 28-9

C ra mp 1 967 , n o Bronze

h a ng ing

1 3

b owl , af inger r ing , a nd ' severa l p ieces o f c opper ' f ound

a t t he e as t e nd o f t wo l arge s tones l y ing w i th in t he c en tre o f ab arrow wh ich p roduced a ' grea t many c ar t-loads o f b ones '.

F ound s o me t i me

b efore 1 813 . ( 7 th c en tury) 7

C as t le Eden , Du

( Durha m )

Br i t Mus 1 946 , 1 0-9 , 1

NZ 4 27385 VCH Durha m I ( 1 905 ) , 2 15 Ba ldw in Brown 1 915 , I V , 8 10 Br i t Mus Quar t 1 5 ( 1941-50 ) , 7 3 Harden 1 956, 1 39 , F ig

2 5b.1

I n 1 775 a g roup o f work men u proo t ing a h edge c ame a cross a s ing le e xt ended i nhu ma t ion b enea th a c a irn .

The s ku l l l ay t o t he e as t a nd o ver t he

mou th a c law b eaker was i nver ted wh ich u pon r e mova l ' appeared t o r eta in as ubt le , a ro ma t ic sme l l '. ( l a ter 5 th - e ar l ier 6 th c en tury )

8

Vindolanda Museum Chesterholm, Nth NY 771804 Henig 1975, 13, Fig 5 Archaeol Aeliana 5, 6 (1978), 178, Fig 4.2 Annular bronze brooch with confronting birds heads forming the pin swivel. Found within the Roman settlement at Vindolanda. (later 6th - 7th century)

9

Chesters Museum Chesters, Nth NY 912704 Archaeol Aeliana 5, 6 (1978), 177, Fig 1. 1 Annular bronze brooch bearing confronting bird heads and Style II orna­ ment, found within the Roman settlement in the nineteenth century. (7th century)

10

Corstopitum Museum (1) Dept of Archaeology Museum, Durham (2) Mus Ant Newcastle (3) Archaeol Aeliana 3, 5 (1909), 406-8, 25 Archaeol Aeliana 3, 6 (1910), 272 Archaeol Aeliana 3, 7 (1911), 190 Baldwin Brown 1915, IV, 811-2 Two cruciform brooches (1) (one now lost) found at a depth of 0. 9 m and 1. 8 m on the east side of Site XI, Corstopitum in 1908. With them were found 32 plain and decorated beads (1), of which 29 are now recon­ structed as a string, but no trace of skeletal remains. In 1909 a small vessel was found near 'what may have been' a small cist (2) and also a mount for a sword scabbard which has since been lost, but is paralleled in the report with early fifth century mounts from Slesvig and Vimose (Fyn). Under Accn Ne 1956.2(3.4) in the Museum of Anti­ quities Newcastle-upon-Tyne are two skeletons and a number of miscel­ laneous objects all recorded as having been found at Corstopitum 'in 1947 or 1948'. They overlay and cut into the wall of a building corresponding to Corbridge 4a (early Antonine), now buried beneath the modern car park. The objects found in the grave fill are singularly uninformative, consisting of pin fragments, studs, nails and a small Roman finger ring-all more at home in a Roman than later context. I A Richmond suggested that the remains may have been Anglo-Saxon on the basis that their orientation was north-south and that they lay in a part of the town occupied up to if not beyond the close of Roman rule. (later 5th - earlier 6th century)

11

Greenbank, Darlington, Teesside NZ 28621507

Corbridge, Nth NY 982648

Brit Mus (1) Ashmolean Oxford (2) Edward Pease Public Library and Art Gallery (3) St Albans Museum (4) North Eastern Indepeedent, 1 Feb 1879 Darlington and Stockton Times, 22 March 1905 Proc Soc Antig Newcastle-u-Tyne 3, 3 (1907), 3 4, 36 VCH Durham I (1905), 205 293

Baldwin Brown 1915, IV, 811, Pl XXXI.4 Wooler 1913, 38 Darlington and Stockton Times, 20 Oct 1962 Med Archaeol. 20 (1976), 62-74: Six 'male, female and childs' ' skeletons lying with their he ads to the west were discovered in 1876. The finds were rapidly distributed and many later sold. The inventory of what was found is believed to comprise two great square-headed brooches (2), two cruciform brooches (2, 3), two small-long brooches (2), two circular brooches, bronze tw eezers, a buckle, chatelaine, amber, glass, and stone beads, chalk talismen, iron key (3), two iron swords, two shield b..osses (one in (4)), two iron bands (2), iron spearheads (3) and three pottery vessels (one in (2)). (later 6th - earlier 7th century) 12

Mus Ant Newcastle East Boldon, T & W NZ 3661 VCH Durham I (1905), 213 Baldwin Brown 1915, IV, 810 A small bronze buckle, now missing its tongue and loop, ornamented on the plate with three garnets held within gold filigree cups. Found in the early 19th century accompanying a. burial in a 'rock-cut tomb'. (7th century)

13

Disappeared upon the sale o f Galewood, Nth the estate in 1938 NZ 953324 MacLauchlan 1876 Proc Sac Antiq Newcastle-u-Tyne 4, 7 (1935-6), 15-17 An inhumation burial was discovered about 1852. Two bronze rings (annular brooches ?), still with fragments of material adhering to them, lay near the head. Also recovered were a single bead with alternating black and white stripes and a small pottery vessel with pierced lugs. Two 'spearheads', of which one was pqssible a knife, lay 'several feet off'. Further excavation at the site, by B Hope-Taylor in 1958 and the present writer in 1973 and 1974, failed to locate additional burials. (6th - 7th century)

14

Great Tosson, Nth Brit Mus. NY 028005 Proc Soc Antiq Scot. 4 (1863), 58-63 Davis 1865, 54-7 Greenwell 1877, 432 A rather confused record indicates that limestone quarrying uncovered a number of stone cists, the majority of which were of the second millen­ nium B C One, however, contained an iron spearhead and another a small bronze buckle. Two other items, an iron bridle-bit and a pair of shears with an ornamental handle, are recorded in the Brit Mus Record Book, Greenwell Collection, as having come from the same site (Nos 1357 and 1358) (?)

294

15

Brit Mus Hepple, Nth NY 983025 Greenwell 1877, 432 Archaeol Aeliana 5, 2 (1974), 275-80 Greenwell records that 'in a quarry near Hepple.••..several undoubted Anglian burials have been met with'. What survives comprises a small bronze spoon, bronze earscoop, iron (?) tweezers, two iron knives, a cut rock-crystal, two bead earrings, and a bronze chain-reported as being part of a work-box. A bone comb from the same grave as the ear­ scoop was subsequently lost. (7th century)

16

Mus Ant Newcastle Howick Heugh, Nth NU 260173 Archaeol Aeliana 4, 16 (1939), 120-8 Between 1928 and 1930 quarrying uncovered a minimum of fifteen inhuma­ tions, which later trenching in 1937 failed to enlarge upon. Skeleton 1 - Lay with its head to the south. No grave goods. Skeleton 2 - Lay crouched facing west, surrounded and partially overlain by large stones, which also underlay the shoulders. A lime­ stone flag covered the feet. No grave good. Skeletons 3 & 4 - No record. Skeleton 5 - Lay beneath a cairn on its left side with head to the west and with knees slightly flexed. Two fragments of knife blade lay across the pelvic and two other knives are attributed to this grave. Skeleton 6 - Lay with its head to the north-east. Two green glass beads lay near the neck and an iron knife lay in the grave. At the feet was a second skull. Skeleton 7 - Lay on its left side with a knife fragment near the chin. There was an indication of burning around the grave. Skeleton 8 - Produced many limpet and periwinkle shells. Skeleton 9 - Disturbed. Skeleton 10 - Female, lying with head to the north-west. Five additional burials are recorded, but not enlarged upon. Additional items found nearby are a very 'mixed bag' and include part of a Roman trumpet-brooch, potsherd, bridle-bit, a single bead and a spear. (5th - 7th century)

17

Humbleton, Nth In the possession of Mr D Short NT 984295 Humbleton Farm Small fragments of an annular loomweight. (5th - mid 7th century)

18

Milfield North, Nth NT 933351 Five inhumation graves lay within a henge monument. Grave goods in­ cluded a number of perforated bronze discs and an annular bronze brooch, which together with a decorative belt-hanger have suggested a later 6th earlier 7th century date. (Dr Anthony Harding and Professor R Cramp :dndly provided this information in advance of publication). (later 6th - earlier 7th century). 295

19

Milfield South, Nth NT 939335 38 inhumations predominantly orientated west-east were discovered in 1977 and 1978. Grave goods were recovered from only one grave where the iron objects accompanying the two skeletons included a knife and a ring.

20

Tullie House Carlisle Netherhall, Cu (Cumbria) SD 432844 Trans Cumberland Westmorland Antiq Archaeol Soc 56 (1956), 70 Cremation urn said originally to have been found at Netherhall but now provenanced to Northamptonshire.

21

Mus Ant Newcastle Newcastle, T & W NZ 250649 North of England Excavation Committee Report 1929-30, 3 Half of a reddish-brown glass bead decorated with blue spots and yellow trails. (6th - 7th century)

22

In the possession of Mr Songinsen, Eamont Bridge, Brougham Trans Cumberland Westmorland Antig Archaeol Soc 55 (1955), 108 Hoard of twenty-three barbarous radiates. (Post-4th century date revised to 3rd century by Dr J Kent of the Brit Mus )

23

Sunderland, T & W Sunderland Museum NZ 397584 A reddish-brown bead with white cable pattern. (5th - 7th century)

24

Whitehill Point, Tynemouth, T & W Mus Ant Newcastle NZ 367674 Proc Soc Antig. Newcastle-u-Tyne 2, 5 (1894), 326 and 238. Great square-headed brooch dredged from the Tyne in 1892. (earlier 7th century)

25

Wooler Nth NT 9927 Small penannular brooch. (5th - 6th century)

Ninekirks, Cu

Brit Mus

26

Yeavering Nth In the possession of the excavator NT 925305 Hope-Taylor 1977 The western cemetery was certainly in use during the sixth and seventh centuries A D and was initially on the site of an earlier stone circle. Within a wattle-screened square enclssure, burials radiated with their feet towards central posts. Upon the removal of the enclosure, radiating burials continue to a total of 28 individuals. Two of the three latest burials lay with their heads to the west and one of these has an iron knife. One burial lay with its head to the east and was also provided with an iron knife. 296

The central focus of burial in the western cemetery shifted to the exterior of an enclosure at the southern end of Building D2 (the temple). With the sole exception of a child orientated with its head to the east and occupying an ex­ cessively large grave-cut, containing a single ox-tooth, fifteen of the sixteen burials were aligned on a west-east axis with their heads to the west. Following the destruction of D2 together with other buildings on this site a cemetery developed around one or possibly two earlier burials on the eastern part of the site (burials AX and BXl). AX was an inhumation lying outside the eastern doorway of Hall A4; BXl lay on the site of an earlier barrow. Initially 64 string-graves were set out in what appears to be a boat-shaped sequence one enclosing a grave (BZ56), whose occupant has been provided with belt fittings and an iron knife. Subsequent depositions were more for­ malised in being contained within a fenced enclosure and both around and within the recently constructed Building B, which is interpreted as a church. A long and complex series of superinhumations followed thereafter into the second half of the seventh century, all lying with their heads to the west, although whereas some lie on their backs, others are on their sides with legs f lexed. 27

Binchester Du In the possession of the excavator NZ 210314 Med Archaeol 23 (1979), 236 and Fig 17.1

In 1978 a female skeleton was discovered within the praetorium of the Roman Fort at Binchester. The skeleton lay crouched on its back with knees drawn up and aligned roughly north-south. The female was at least 20-30 years of age at death, and physical anomalies suggested that she had suffered from gum-disease, a slight scoliosis to the left, and a history of infection during childhood. Associations included an 's'-shaped bronze brooch near the left shoulder, twenty-six beads (18 amber, 6 tubular glass, 1 oval glass, 1 large melon), and several fragments from a hand-made pottery vessel. A lathe-turned antler disc lay at the pelvis and an antler ring by the left femur. Small fragments of corroded bronze, four nails, a rolled lead sheet and a tapering iron rod were also within the fill, although some items may be residual. (Mid-6th century) I am extremely grateful to Denis Coggins for allowing his information on this discovery to be included in the inventory in advance of his more de­ tailed report. Inventory Postscript There is a small scramasax in the British Museum said to have come from a limestone quarry near Lowick. The reference given is 01183965 although this is the centre of Lowick itself (Greenwell gift 889, No 2078). Greenwell's notebook contains (p 2) a record of three extended inhumations being discovered at Dryburn Quarry, Lowick, lying with their heads to the east. 297

One was f ound a bou t 1 841 , t he o thers i n 1 860 .

T h is q uarry l i es a s hor t d is-

t ance t o t he n or th o f t he t own , a t NU 0 05410 . The l ong-c is t b ur ia l f ro m H ound P o in t , Da lmeny , a ccep ted b y Meaney ( 1964 ) a s p oss ib ly o f Ang lo-Saxon d a te i s om i t ted h ere .

I ti s s een r a ther a s

p ar t o f ag roup d iscussed b e low ( p2 99 ). D ISCUSS ION D is tr ibu t ion o f t he ma ter ia l i s h aphazard b u t , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he Buchan v esse l ( 4 ) , f i ts w i th in t he a rea o f e ar ly s e t t le men t a s i nd ica ted b y t he l i terary a nd p lace-name e v idence ( Jackson 1 953 , 2 08 ). A par t f rom a t h in s ca t ter o f o b jec ts a long t he c oas ta l p la in , t he ma jor i ty o f d iscover ies l i e d eeper i n land , f requen t ly a d jacen t t o ab roaden ing o f t he v a l ley marg ins o ccup ied b y l i gh t t ractable s o i ls .

T o p resu me f ro m t h is t ha t i n land l oca t ions were

p re ferred t o t he h eav ier c lays o f t he c oas ta l p la in may r es t o n n o f i r mer b as is t han t he d om inan t me thod o f d iscovery —by q uarrying a nd c a irn e xcava t ion . S o f ar t he g rave l a nd o pen c as t work ings i n Durha m h ave f a iled t o t urn u p ma ter ia l f ro m f ur ther i n land , e specia l ly s urpr is ing i n r espect o f Wearda le wh ich o f fers a s t opograph ica l ly p ro m is ing a l oca t ion a s a ny o f t he N or thu mber land s i tes .

T he c hrono logy o f t h is ma ter ia l i s f ar f ro m s a t is fac tory.

A s n o c e me-

t ery h as b een e xcava ted c o mp le te ly t he d a tes a ss igned t o i t e ms f ro m t he m may n o t r ef lec t t he f u l l d ura t ion o f t he s i tes ' u se . o f al onger c hrono log ica l p eg t han o thers .

S o me o b jec ts r equ ire t he s uppor t

I n t he c ases o f H owick H eugh ,

N or th a nd S ou th M i l f ield , a nd G rea t T osson i ti s o n ly t he c umu la t ive a u thor i ty o f t he f u l l a sse mb lage , c o mbined p erhaps w i th f ea tures i n t he r i te o f i n ter men t , t ha t p ro mp t a n Ang lo-Saxon d a te a t a l l . T he u nd ispu table b ur ia l s i tes may b e d iv ided i n to t hose d a tab le t o w i th in ac en tury ( Cas t le E den , Eas t B o ldon , G reenbank a nd H epp le ) a nd t hose where d a t ing c anno t b e r e f ined f ur ther t han t o s ay t hey l i e w i th in t he e ar ly Ang loS axon p er iod ( Ga lewood , G rea t T osson , H owick H eugh , N or th a nd S ou th Mi lf i e ld ) .

To i nc lude p os tu la ted b ur ia l s i tes w ou ld a dd B arras ford , B enwe l l ,

C aphea ton a nd C orbr idge i n t he f or mer g roup . Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f t he n ow l os t s word- moun t f ro m C orbr idge n o o b jec t c an u nequ ivocab ly b e p laced e ar l ier t han t he b eg inn ing o f t he s ix th c en tury . The ma jor i ty l i e w i th in t he l a ter s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies .

T he s uppor t

t h is p rov ides t owards s ubs tan t ia t ing t he c la im t ha t A ng lo-Saxon s e t t le men t i n B ern icia b egan w i th I da i n A D

5 47/8 i s u nden iab ly a ppea l ing b u t t he

e x is t ing i n tegra t ion o f d i f feren t s ources h as b een made a t t he c os t o f d eva lu ing e ach .

On p ure ly a rchaeo log ica l g rounds t he p oss ib i l i ty o f l a ter f i f th o r

e ar l ier s ix th c en tury d a tes f or C as t le E den o r C orbr idge c anno t b e i gnored . On p ure ly l i terary g rounds wha t h as b een r ecorded i s t he p o l i t ica l t akeover o f t he k ingdo m b y an ew f am i ly a nd t he l i ne o f d escen t wh ich s uppor t i t . T he e x is t ing d a ta c anno t p rov ide r e l iab le e s t i ma tes o f p opu la t ion s ize . Yeaver ing c o mes t he c loses t t o p rov id ing s uch a n i nva luab le r ecord a nd a lso t o a ccoun t ing f or t he p ecu l iar i t ies o f t he f or m o f b ur ia l e ncoun tered t here . Dr

h ard ing 's d iscovery o f f ive b ur ia ls a t Mi l f ie ld N or th a nd t h ir ty-e igh t a t

M i l f ie ld S ou th a re a n e ncourag ing i nd ica t ion t ha t s i zeab le c e meter ies e x is t . I ta lso r educes t o a n a bsurd i ty e s t i ma t ions o f t he m in i mu m n u mber o f i nd iv id ua ls r epresen ted a t o ther s i tes —un t i l t he d iscovery o f t hese l arger s i tes ,

2 98

minimum estimates ran as follows: Barrasford 1; Castle Eden 1; Greenbank 6; • East Boldon 1; Galewood 1; Great Tosson 2+; Hepple 2+; Howick Heugh 15+. This represents a total minimum estimate of twenty-nine individuals in the whole of the kingdom! Remarkably few objects were recovered from these larger cemeteries, underlining the paradox of the quest for 'Anglo-Saxon' burials. It if is accepted that the Bernician population was an amalgam of British and Anglo-Saxon stock then a variety of burial traditions must be invoked, of which the recognisable Anglo-Saxon traits will embody only one strand. Cultural or social exclusive­ ness may be reflected but not necessarily chronological differences. At Yeavering and North and South Milfield such a mixed background of traditions lay literally side by side. Here what may tentatively be taken as the British element-unaccompanied extended inhumation-predominated to the extent that excavation on a smaller scale could well have resulted in severe problems of interpretation. Recognition of the mixed origins of burial tradition in this period also re­ quires the definition of late- and post-Roman British burial practices. The synthesis of burial traditions which then occurred may reflect contemporary religious compromise and this may be fundamental in understanding how Anglo­ Saxon and native achieved mutual coexistence in early Bernicia. The characteristics of British burial tradition within the area of study are still, however, incapable of firm definition. Between the second and late fourth centuries A D , virtually the only available body of burial evidence is derived from sites adjacent to military and civilian settlements of Roman foun­ dation. Here the distinctive character resulting from an overlap of different cultural backgrounds may have influenced native traditions and so can hardly be taken as representative of them. Only beyond direct Roman influence, among the upland settlements of the Cheviot and Simonside Hills or amidst the rectilinear enclosures of the coastal plain where the thread of native tradition continued unbroken, can the British element be expected to lie most untainted. Unfortunately it is also elusive, for away from Roman centres only three Romano-British burial sites have been found in Northumberland. At Beadnell the unburnt remains of eighteen individuals were found within a dry-wall stone cist dated by a penannular brooch to between the first and third centuries A D (Archaeol Aeliana 4, 49 (1971) 153-70). At Chatton Sandyford a disturbed burial was associated with a sliver of glass and rouletted flagon sherds, probably dating to the mid-third century A D (Archaeol Aeliana 4, 46 (1968), 19). Finally at Turpins Hill a cist burial found within a cairn in 1795 contained two urns and coins of Domitian, Antoninus Pius and Faustina (Mackenzie 1825, 377). This burial has features in common with a small burial cairn with two Roman coins at Fulwell, Tyne and Wear (Gentlemans Magazine Oct 1763, 492). A mound adjacent to the settlement at Gunnar Peak, Northumberland, contained sufficient domestic material alongside the fragments of human remains to dis­ count it being a burial site in the strict sense of the term (Archaeol Aeliana 2, 10 (1872-85), 12-37 and Archaeol Aeliana 4, 20 (1942), 155-73). Before leaving what may seem a most unprofitable line of enquiry, one further group of burials calls for some consideration. These comprise burials which in our present state of ignorance could be attributed to any period between 299

t he l a ter I ron Age a nd t he s even th c en tury A D b u t h ave s u ff icien t i n c o m mon t o b e c ons idered a s ag roup w i thou t imp lying c on te mporane i ty:1

Ba mburgh , N th

B r i t

Mus

Na t

H is t

NU 1 84345 Proc

S oc

An t iq

N ewcas t le-u-Tyne 1 ( 1881) , I , 5 7

L ong-cis t b ur ia ls f ound i n 1 865 o n t he l i nks s ou th o f t he c as t le .

H eads

t o west . 2

Br ier ton , Du NZ 4 78302 N or thern Da i ly Ma i l , 5a nd 6 March 1 937 E igh t l ong-cis t b ur ia ls , o r ien ta ted n or th-sou th d iscovered d ur ing g rave l e x tract ion i n 1 937.

One s herd o f g rey p o t tery r ecovered b u t s ubsequen t ly

l os t , 3

C orn for th , Du NZ 3 13329 S ur tees 1 823 , 3 97 Mackenzie a nd R oss 1 834 , 3 21 Rordyce 1 857, 4 00 E igh t o r n ine l ong-c is t i nhu ma t ions were d iscovered i n 1 822.

Two o f

t he b od ies were a cco mpan ied b y s pears . 4

C rosby G arret t , C u

B r i t

Mu

NY 7 32098 G reenwe l l 1 877, 3 87 La ter i nser t ion i n to ab ur ia l mound o f t he b urn t b ones o f ay ou th . g ood i nc luded a n i ron k n i fe , b uck le , s hears a nd ab r id le-bi t .

G rave

F ive o ther

i n trus ions were made b u t n o g rave g oods a cco mpan ied t he b ur ia ls t hey c on ta ined . 5

G r indon H i l l , T &W NZ 3 61545 Archaeo l Proc

S oc

A el iana 3 , 1 1 ( 1914 ) , 1 37 An t iq

S cot . 3 , ( 1905 ) , I 1 97

N ine i nhu ma t ions l y ing w i th t heir h eads t o t he wes t , f ound d ur ing q uarrying i n 1 905 . 6

H ough tonle-Spr ing , Du NZ 3 53492 Archaeo l

A el ian .a 3 , 1 1 ( 1914 ) , 1 23-30

E xcava t ion o f ab arrow o n C opt H i l l r evea led a n i n trus ive l ong-cis t i nhu ma t ion , o r ien ta ted w i th t he h ead t o t he w es t. T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h is l as t g roup a nd l ong-c is t b ur ia ls i n S cot land o r f ur ther wes t a t s uch s i tes a s G reen L e igh ton ( Greenwe l l 1 877, 4 35 ) o r S unbigg in ( I b id , 3 95 ) i s o f l ess mo men t f or t he p resen t a rgu men t t han t o n o te t ha t t hey a re Br i t ish b ur ia ls .

Whe ther Ro mano-Br i tish o r p ost-Ro man Br i t ish ,

t hey n ever theless p rov ide t he mos t p ro m is ing t hread t o f o l low i n s eek ing a n tec eden ts t o t he c o mpos i te q ua l i ty o f l a ter f i f th t o m id-seven th c en tury Bern ic ian b ur ia l t rad i t ions .

3 00

Although the cemeteries found at Milfield lie close to the known Anglo­ Saxon settlement there, only at Yeavering is the relationship between cemetery and settlement beyond question. For the remainder a comparison between Figs 17. 1 and 17. 2 will suffice to show how incompletely the distribution of s_ettlement sites duplicates the burial evidence. Short of believing that great distances indeed separated the living from the dead or that we have severely misinterpreted the real function of hanging-bowls, settlement sites adjacent to these burials must still await discovery. Invoking a continuity of native traditions opens the possibility that such settlements may not follow the re­ cognized Anglo-Saxon type but rather the native form. In this respect, how­ ever, despite the extensive survey and excavation work carried out by G Jobey on native sites in the area, the few finds recovered are not so chronologically sensitive to enable a continuity of settlement form into the fifth and sixth cen­ turies to be established beyond doubt. That such settlement forms continued elsewhere is shown by the discovery of an annular bronze brooch with bead and reel decoration from the floor of a hut within the scooped settlement at Crock Cleugh, Roxburgh (Proc Soc Antig Scot 81 (1946-7), 138-57) and by the o ccurrence of a single bead of post-Roman type within the wall of a hut at Bonchester hillfort, Roxburgh (Proc Soc Antig Scot 84 (1949-50), 113-37). North of Hadrian's Wall the breakdown of the pax Romana may have been felt as early as the later third century; certainly the discovery of Roman coins within the Kettles hillfort near Wooler and a late fourth century coin in a hut floor within the oppidum at Yeavering Bell underline that in such a chan­ ging political climate the defences of an earlier age could still offer attractive alternatives. The belief that immigrant Anglo-Saxon stock accounted for only a small proportion of the total population has until recently been a satisfactory explana­ tion for the few settlement sites recovered. To see Bamburgh, Doon Hill, Yeavering and Milfield as palace sites and therefore atypical of the more nor­ mal village sites encountered further south was compatible with such a view­ point where the handful of Anglo-Saxons settled here occupied the higher echelon in society. Yet this is to presuppose that burial considerations and settlement forms were mutually exclusive to a degree which the evidence from Yeavering denies. The quality of widely distributed pagan Anglo-Saxon grave goods re­ covered hardly reinforces the image of a wealthy aristocracy and it seems in­ creasingly unlikely that Anglo-Saxon structures were quite so exclusive a phenomenon amidst predominantly native traditions. Before Yeavering became a royal centre, it consisted of a settlement of rectangular timber buildings. That they stemmed from good Anglo-Saxon traditions cannot be denied on chronological grounds (contra Hope-Taylor 1977) and it has yet to be convin­ cingly demonstrated that rectangular forms were part of the Northern British native repertoire. As this affects one of the underlying arguments crucial to an interpretation of the true chronological position of the earliest buildings at Yeavering it requires some further expansion. In the Yeavering report (Hope-Taylor 1977, 209-13) reference to rectangular structures at a number of sites and Yeavering's own internal site sequence are interwoven to demon­ strate that firstly rectangular forms were built by late- and post-Roman Britons and secondly that internal site evidence (which includes finds, type of construc­ tion and relative chronology) shows these structures (A5-7, ? 8 and D6) to be the earliest rectangular forms. 301

M i lf ie ld . 1-0 Y eav e r ing . ' T h i r l ing s .

F ig . 1 7 .2

Pos t-Ro man s e t t le ment s i tes i n B ern ic ia

3 02

i b

jr e _ B ambu r gh .

T o t ake t he f irs t p o in t , a par t f ro m t hose s e t t le men ts a d jacen t t o R o man f or ts , wha t l i t t le i s k nown o f h ouse f or ms i n t he B orders a nd N or thu mber land u n t i l t he l a te s econd/ear ly t h ird c en tury i s t ha t t hey a re f ir m ly i n ar ound , n o t r ec tangu lar t rad i t ion .

Therea f ter , u n t i l t he s even th c en tury A D

t here

i s l i t t le t o work f ro m , o ther t han h in ts a t s i tes l i ke C roch C leugh a nd B onc hes ter , wh ich t end t o s uppor t a' c ircu lar ' c on t inua t ion .

T h is i s f ur ther

u nder lined b y t he e ar ly f our th c en tury c o ins f ound w i th in t he r ound h ouse a t Y eaver ing B e l l a nd t he c ircu lar h u t b u i l t o ver t he s unken-f loored r ectangu lar b u i ld ing a t Yeaver ing ( D3 ).

N ow t h is i s n o t t o d eny t ha t t he B r i t ish may h ave

b u i l t i n r ectangu lar f or ms , f or d esp i te t he r ecen t d oubt c as t b y e xcava t ions a t B a lbr id ie u pon t he d a t ing o f t he e ar l ier o f t he t wo r ectangu lar t imber b u i ld ings a t D oon H i l l , Dunbar , t h is s i te may y e t c on ta in a B r i t ish h a l l .

Ra ther i t i s t o

p o in t o u t t ha t o f a l l t he e xamp les o f N or thumbr ian r ec tangu lar s truc tures c i ted i nt he r epor t ( I bid

2 10 a nd f ns ) n o t o ne h as p roduced a ny e v idence t o s how i t

w as c ons tructed e ar l ier t han t he med ieva l p er iod . a t H uckohoe , I ngram H i l l e tc

T he r ec tangu lar s tructures

a re a l l w i th in n a t ive e nc losures , a s a re a lso

t hose a t Dodd ing ton L aw a nd Mur ton C rags .

O f t hose e xa mp les e xcava ted ,

d a table ma ter ia l h as s o f ar b een c on f ined t o t he f l oor makeup a nd wa l l c ores — a l l c lass ic c on tex ts f or d er ived ma ter ia l .

Moreover , i n t hose i ns tances where

ar e la t ionsh ip b etween r ec tangu lar b u i ld ing a nd t he d e fences c an b e i l lus tra ted , t he wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ings c lear ly o ver l ie a nd t here fore p os t-da te t he m .

Af ar

more a ccep tab le i nd ica t ion o f t he ir t rue c hrono log ica l p os i t ion i n t he p resen t s ta te o f k now ledge i s s hown b y t he ir a na logy w i th d e mons trab ly med ieva l h ouse f orms ;

t he d iscovery o f med ieva l p o t tery f ro m a s tone b u i ld ing w i th in t he

R omano-Br i t ish s cooped s e t t le men t a t H e tha Burn a lso s uppor ts t h is .

S uch

a n i n terpre ta t ion wou ld s ee t hese b u i ld ings i n t er ms o f med ieva l r eoccupa t ion . T hese o ld s e t t le men ts p rov ided b u i ld ing s tone a nd s he l ter f or l a ter f ar ms teads a nd s h ie l ings . Turn ing n ow t o t he s econd p o in t , t he i n terna l s equence a nd a ssocia t ions , t he e xcava tor i s t he f i rs t t o a dm i t t he u ncer ta in ty i n e s tabl ish ing a r ig id ly d e f ined c hrono logy f or t he s truc tures A 5-7 , ? 8 a nd D 6.

N ever the less , i ti s

c onv incing ly d e mons tra ted t ha t t hese s tructures mus t p re-da te A 2 wh ich b eg ins a round A D

6 00 a t t he l a tes t .

I n a t te mpt ing t o a ch ieve g rea ter p rec is ion , a

t enuous l ink i s e s tab l ished w i th t he midd le p hase o f t he p a l isade o n t he b as is o f s im i lar i t ies o bserved i n ' t rench f orm a nd p o t tery ' , H owever , t he a rch i tect ure o f ah ouse a nd a p a l isade h ard ly j us t i fy c o mpar ison a nd t he u nre l iabi l i ty o f n a t ive p o t tery a s ac hrono log ica l a id i s we l l k nown . o f t he u pper h or izon o f A 2 =c A D

A s s uch t he e qua t ion

6 00 a lone r e ma ins a s t he e nd o f as equence

w h ich s hows t wo s uccess ive s tructures a f ter t he i n i t ia l b u i ld ing A 7. T o s uppor t t he c rucia l a sser t ion t ha t A 5-7, ? 8 a nd D 6 a re t he o n ly b u i ld ings f ree f ro m a ny s usp ic ion o f Ang lo-Saxon i n f luence t here mus t b e p os i t ive e v idence . Y e t , w i th a l i terary r ecord o f Ang lo-Saxon p resence h ere i n t he l a te 5 40 's , a nd t he p oss ibi l i ty o f a n e ven e ar l ier d a te f ro m c e me tery ma ter ia l , s uch i n f lue nce c anno t , i n a l l f a irness , b e d iscoun ted . Excava t ion a t M i l f ield h as y e t t o d e mons tra te t ha t t he move men t o f t he p a lace t here i n t he m idd le s even th c en tury e s tabl ished a n ew s e t t le men t a nd n o t , a s i n t he c ase o f Y eaver ing 3 .2 kms a way , f i t ted w i th in a n e x is t ing c o mmun i ty.

T he r ecen t d iscovery a nd e xcava t ion o f wha t a ppears t o b e a more

n orma l f or m o f l a te s ix th t o e ar ly s even th c en tury s e t t le men t a t T h ir l ings , 3 03

l y ing w i th in 4 .8 kms o f b oth Yeaver ing a nd M ilne ld , s hows a c oncen tra t ion o f s e t t le men t t ha t f i ts u neas i ly w i th in a min i ma l v iew , mak ing i t d i f f icu l t t o b el i eve t ha t s uch s tructura l f or ms a re a s r are i n B ern icia a s was o nce t hough t . I ndeed t he d iscovery o f y e t af ur ther c o mp lex o f r ec tangu lar t i mber b u i ldings a t S prous ton n ear Kelso r ea f f ir ms t h is b e l ief , f or d esp i te i t s t en ta t ive a ttr ib u t ion b y P rof

S t J oseph t o a monas t ic c o m mun i ty , i ti s s a lu tary t o r e me mber

t ha t Yeaver ing a nd M i lf ield were o nce s o i den t i f ied . A l l t he s i tes d iscovered t o d a te l i e o n t he s ands a nd g ravels , t he s ubso i l mos t r espons ive t o a eria l p ho tograph ic t echn iques .

The d i f f icu l ty i n r ecover i ng

t he s l igh t impr in t o f s uch c ons truct ions f ro m t he h eav ier l oa ms a nd c lays wh ich c over s o l arge a p ar t o f t he k ingdo m a nd wh ich u n t i l r ecen t ly l ed t o s uch a d ist or t ion i n t he k nown d is tr ibu t ion o f I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish s e t t le men ts , may p rove a more p o ten t c ons idera t ion i n a ccoun t ing f or t he p resen t we ighted d is tr ibu t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon s e t t le men ts t han i nvok ing e thn ic minor i t ies. I n s uch a c l i ma te o f t hough t t he p roble ms mu l t ip ly a s t he p oten t ia l o f t he e v idence i ncreases .

Ye t o ne l i ne o f e nqu iry i s c lear —in a ccepting t he mixed

n a ture o f s ociety o n t he t h inn ing f r inges o f Ang lo-Saxon im migra t ion i tf ol lows t ha t ac arefu l r eappra isa l o f e v idence f ro m t he S ou th-Eas t mus t e s tab l ish j us t h ow u biqui tous t his h ybr id iza t ion was .

B IBLIOGRAPHY Ba ldwin Brown , G ., 1 915. Br i t ish Museum .

T he Ar ts i n Ear ly Eng land Vo ls . I I a nd I V ( 1915 ) .

Br i t ish Museu m G u ide t o t he A ng lo-Saxon An t iqu i t ies ( 1923 ).

B ruce , J . C ., 1 853.

The Ro man Wa l l ( 2nd e d ., 1 853 ).

C o l l ingwood-Bruce , J ., 1 880 . C ra mp , R ., 1 967.

A lnw ick C a ta logue ( 1880 ).

T he Monas t ic Ar ts o f N or thumbr ia I ( 1 967).

Dav is , J . B ., 1 965.

C ran ia B r i tann ica ( 1865 ).

F ordyce , W., 1 857.

H is tory o f Durha m I ( 1857) .

G reenwe l l , W., 1 877.

Br i t ish Barrows ( 1877).

Harden , D . B ., 1 956.

G lass V esse ls i n B r i ta in a nd I reland , A .D. 4 00-1000 ,

i n D . B . Harden e d ., Dark-Age B r i ta in S tud ies Presen ted t o E . T . Leeds ( London , 1 956) , 1 32-167. H en ig , M ., 1 975.

V indo landa J ewe l lery ( 1975 ).

H odgson , J ., 1 827.

H is tory o f N or thumber land P ar t I V o l . I( 1827) .

H ope-Dodds , M ., 1 897.

A H is tory o f N or thu mber land I V ( 1897).

H ope-Taylor , B ., 1 977. umbr ia . ( 1977).

Yeaver ing-An Ang lo-Br i t ish C en tre o f E ar ly Nor th-

J ackson , K ., 1 953. Keeney , G . S ., 1 935 .

Language a nd H is tory i n Ear ly Br i ta in ( 1953 ) . The O ccupa t ion o f t he C oun t ies N or thu mber land , Durham ,

Cumber land a nd West mor land f ro m t he Four th t o t he E igh th C en tur ies ( Unpubl ished PhD D isser ta t ion , Un ivers i ty o f Ox ford , 1 935 ). 3 04

MacKenzie , E ., 1 825 .

A H is tor ica l T opograph ic a nd Descr ipt ive V iew o f t he

Coun ty o f N or thumber land ( 1825 ). MacKenzie , E . a nd R oss , M., 1 834. MacLauch lan , H ., 1 867.

H is tory o f Durham I ( 1834 ).

N o tes N o t I ncluded i n t he Me mo irs A lready Pub-

l ished o n Ro man R oads i n N or thu mber land ( 1867). Meaney , A ., 1 964.

G azet teer o f Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon Bur ia l S i tes ( 1964 ).

Myres , J . N . L ., 1 936.

Ro man B r i ta in a nd t he Eng lish S e t t le men ts ( 1936).

Myres , J . N . L ., 1 969 .

Ang lo-Saxon P o t tery a nd t he S et t le men t o f Eng land

( 1969 ). S wan ton , M. J ., 1 973 . S ur tees , R ., 1 823.

H istory o f Durham I I ( 1823 ).

W i lson , D . M., 1 964 . Woo ler , E ., 1 913.

The S pearheads o f t he Ang lo-Saxon S et t le men ts ( 1973 ).

Ang lo-Saxon Orna men ta l Meta lwork 7 00-1100 ( 1964 ).

H is tor ic Dar l ing ton ( 1913 ).

3 05

1 8 .

AN ANGLO-SAXON CE METERY AT BARGATES , CHR ISTCHURCH , DORSET b y K e i th J arv is

Dur ing 1 977 a t r ia l e xcava t ion o f a n a rea t hrea tened b y t own c en tre r ed eve lop men t d iscovered a S axon c e me tery i n t he Barga tes med ieva l s uburb o f C hr is tchurch . T h is e xcava t ion was f o l lowed i n 1 978 b y al arger a rea e xcava tion wh ich r evea led a p agan S axon c e me tery o f t he l a te s ix th t o s even th c en tury , c ons is t ing o f a t l eas t 3 0 i nhuma t ions a nd f our c re ma t ions ( Fig

1 8 .1 ) .

T he e xcava t ions w ere d irec ted b y t he a u thor f or t he P oo le Museu ms A rcha eo log ica l U n i t o n b eha l f o f C hr is tchurch B orough C ounc i l .

T he t r ia l e xcava-

t i on was f inanced b y aJ ob C rea t ion S che me o f t he Manpower S erv ices C ornm is ion ( imp le men ted b y C hr is tchurch B orough C ounc i l ) wh i ls t t he a rea e xcav a t ion was ma in ly f i nanced b y t he D epar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t . T he c e me tery was s i tua ted c 1 00 m o u ts ide t he d e fences o f t he l a te S axon b urh o n t he n or th-eas t s ide o f al ow g rave l s pur .

I t was 5 m a bove OD a nd

f lanked b y t he f l ood p la ins o f t he R ivers A von a nd S tour .

T he c e me tery was

n ear t wo Bronze Age r ing-d i tches wh ich were d iscovered d ur ing t he e xcava t ions . T here i s s o me e v idence t ha t t hese w ere r ound b arrows w i th mounds wh ich were c lear ly v is ib le i n t he S axon p er iod .

T h is i s b ased o n ac o mpar ison o f

t he d ep ths o f g raves i ns ide a nd o u ts ide t he r ing-d i tches a nd a lso b y t he b ehav iour o f s o me o f t he med ieva l d i tches . B one d id n o t s urv ive i n t he g raves e xcep t a s s ta ins b u t t he g rave g oods s ugges ted t ha t t here were t en d e f in i te ma le b ur ia ls . One g rave , wh ich c ont a ined a s pearhead a nd a k n i fe , was s urrounded b y ap enannu lar g u l ly .

T he

r ema in ing t wen ty g raves i ncluded t we lve w i th k n ives o r o ther sma l l i ron o bj ec ts a nd e igh t w i th n o f inds . T he l ayou t o f t he c e me tery was n o t f or ma l ly o rgan ised a nd v ar ious a l ignmen ts o ccurred w i th n or th-wes t a nd s ou th-wes t p referred .

S evera l s ub-groups

o f g raves were r ecogn ised i nc lud ing a l i ne o f s ix o n t he n or th-wes t s ide o f R ing D i tch 1 .

There were a lso sma l l g roups i ns ide R ing D i tch 1 a nd t o t he s ou th-

e as t , wh i ls t s o me g raves w ere r e la ted t o R ing D i tch 2 .

T he l im i ts o f t he

c eme tery were o n ly p ar t ia l ly r ecovered .

T he s ou thern l im i t was e s tabl ished

a nd t he c e me tery t h inned o u t t o t he wes t .

H owever , t he g raves n ear R ing D i tch

2i nd ica ted t ha t t he c e me tery e x tended i n t h is d irect ion i n to g ardens o u ts ide t he t hrea tened a rea . T he d a te o f t he c e metery i s i nd ica ted b y t he me ta lwork a nd t he c re ma t ion p o t tery a nd t hese b o th s ugges t ad a te i n t he l a te s ix th o r s even th c en tury . T he f our c re ma t ion p ots i nc lude o ne v esse l w i th c o mbi mpress ion d ecora t ion , wh ich i s al a te s ix th o r s even th c en tury t ra i t .

T he o ther t hree v esse ls i nc lude

t wo b ases a nd t he c o mp le te p rof i le o f a n u ndecora ted p o t p robably o f s im i lar 3 07

C

2

BS

1 2

R ing d i tch t wo

0

C :2 2 ,

BSS

(CD

•

CZ )

BS ano m b

•

•

0

C rema t ions

S axon g raves

.1 0

B a rga tes , C hr is tchurch S axon C eme te ry F ig . 1 8 .1

Me tres

P rov is iona l p lan o f t he l a te s ixth-seven th c entury c e me tery a t B arga tes , C hr istchurch , l oca ted a round t wo B ronze Age r ing-ditches . The h ead-end o f e ach g rave i s s hown , where k nown .

T he o ccurrence

o f s h ie ld b osses ( B ) a nd s pearheads ( S ) i s a lso i ndica ted

d a te . The me ta lwork i s c urren t ly b e ing e xam ined b y Dr C Arno ld o f L eeds Un ivers i ty a nd i nc ludes s ix s h ie ld b osses o f s ugar-loa f t ype a nd n ine s pearheads .

T he me ta lwork i nd ica tes a s im i lar d a te b u t n o d ecora ted p ieces

o r b rooches h ave b een i den t i f ied s o f ar .

I t s ee ms u n l ike ly , t here fore , t ha t

an arrower d a te r ange w i l l b e e s tab l ished . S tructura l f ea tures i n g raves were r are b u t o ne g rave w i th a s pear a nd k n i fe was s urrounded b y ap enannu lar g u l ly.

T h is g u l ly was v ery s ha l low a nd

n o s take- h o les were r ecorded b u t ap os t-ho le o ccurred o n t he n or th-eas t s ide . T he g u l ly p resumably h e ld a s take f ence s im i lar t o t he b e t ter p reserved e xa mp les f ro m t he S t P e ters c e me tery i n K en t ( Hogar th 1 973 ).

T he g rave was

u nusua l i n t ha t i t was n o t a l igned t owards t he e n trance o f t he p enannu lar g u l ly . I ti s n o table t ha t t h is g rave was o n t he e dge o f t he c e me tery wh ich i s u sua l ly t he c ase e lsewhere . B one d id n o t g enera l ly s urv ive e xcep t a s s ta ins ; a l l t he g raves w ere e xcava ted i n h or izon ta l l eve ls t o r evea l t he s ta ins o f t he s ke le tons . T hree o f t he g raves c on ta ined c o mp le te s ta ins b u t t he ma jor i ty o f t he g raves c on ta ined e i ther i nco mp le te s ta ins o r n o s ta ins a t a l l .

T he g raves were e x tens ive ly

s amp led a nd a n a na lys is o f t he s amp les i s b e ing c onduc ted b y Dr a nd A

S aunders o f t he Anc ien t Monumen ts L abora tory.

H

K ee ley

A l though s ta ins h ave

b een r ecorded i n g raves b e fore , t h is i s t he f irs t c e me tery c o mp le te ly e xcava ted b y e xpos ing t he s ta ins .

T h is h as e nabled s o me i n for ma t ion a bou t t he p os i t ion

o f t he s ke le tons t o b e r ecovered wh ich wou ld o therw ise h ave b een l os t . T he c e metery i s c ons idered t o b e t ha t o f a sma l l S axon c o m mun i ty o f t he l a te s ix th o r s even th c en tury.

A l though t en g raves were o f a r med p eop le t he

r e ma in ing t wen ty g raves p robably i nc luded g raves o f wo men a nd c h i ldren . There was n o d irec t e v idence o f t he s ex o f t hese t wen ty g raves .

T he p ropor t ion

o f a rmed p eop le i n t he c e me tery ( 33% ) i s r a ther h igh b u t t he s a mp le s ize i s sma l l a nd t he c e me tery was n o t c o mp le te ly e xcava ted .

Ano ther n o table f ea ture

o f t he c e me tery was t he l im i ted r ange o f a r tefacts a nd t he l ack o f p ersona l o rnamen ts .

These a re n o t u nexpec ted f ea tures o f ac e metery o n t he f ron t ier

z one b etween t he B r i t ish s ou th-wes t a nd t he S axon s e t t le men t i n H a mpsh ire i n t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tury. O ne f ur ther a spec t o f t he d iscovery o f t he B arga tes c e me tery h as b een t he n ew l i gh t i th as s hed o n t he i mpor tance o f s evera l s tray f inds n o t p rev ious ly p ub l ished i n a ny d e ta i l . S axon p o ts a re k nown f ro m I f ord a nd R edh i l l , wh i ls t ab ronze b ow l was d iscovered n ear B osco mbe C h ine . T hese may i nd ica te S axon c e me ter ies wh i ls t al oo m we igh t f ro m Wick may i nd ica te a s e t t le men t . These f inds , wh ich a l l s ee m t o d a te t o t he l a te s ix th o r s even th c en tury , p rov ide a t l eas t s o me b as is f or a ssess ing t he S axon p ene tra t ion i n to D orse t d ur ing t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies .

B IBL IOGRAPHY H ogar th , A . C ., 1 973 .

' S truc tura l F ea tures i n Ang lo-Saxon G raves ' ,

A rchaeo l . J . 1 30 ( 1 973 ) , 1 04-119 .

3 09

S ECTION E

SUTTON HOO

3 11

1 9.

S UTTON HOO OP IN IONS — FORTY YEARS AFTER b y P h i l ip Rahtz

Wi th t he p ubl ica t ion o f t he f irs t t wo v o lu mes o f t he d ef in i t ive r epor t o n S u t ton Hoo , t o b e f o l lowed v ery s oon b y t he t h ird ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 , 1 978 a nd 1 980 ) , t he p ossib i li ty o f r esu m ing work o n t he s i te h as b een u nder d isc ussion .

Dr

B ruce- M i t ford i nv i ted P rofessor C ra mp , Professor Cun li f fe

a nd mysel f t o j o in h im i n as teer ing c o m mi t tee t o e xp lore t he p oss ibi li ties o f f ur ther r esearch o n t he s i te a nd i t s p roble ms .

We p roduced s o me me moranda

wh ich a t te mp ted t o s e t o u t t he b ackground o f wha t h ad b een a ch ieved , wh ich o u ts tanding p rob le ms were o f i n teres t t o t he p resen t g enera t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon s cho lars , wha t work m igh t b e u nder taken , h ow i tc ou ld b e d one , a nd wha t t he c os t migh t b e , i f r esearch f unds were a va i lable. A lthough t hese me moranda were o n ly ab asis f or d iscuss ion , n ews o f t heir e x is tence q u ick ly s pread t hrough t he a rchaeo log ica l g rapev ine .

Many p eop le

e xpressed c oncern t ha t t here was n o w idespread d iscuss ion o f e i ther t he e th ics o r t he me thods o f a ny f u ture work o n t he s i te , a nd t ha t t hey i n p ar ticu lar were b e ing k ep t i n t he d ark . I n v iew o f t h is c oncern , we t hough t t ha t t he 1 979 Ox ford S y mpos iu m wou ld b e au sefu l o ccas ion t o a ir c urren t v iews o n S u t ton H oo .

T o t h is e nd Ic ircu-

l a ted a q ues t ionna ire t o a l l t he s peakers a nd t o o ther s cho lars k nown t o b e i n terested .

The v iews o f t hose who r ep l ied were c ol la ted a nd Ia t te mp ted t o

e xpress t he v ar ious p oin ts o f v iew r epresen ted . I n d o ing t h is Ih oped t o p resen t a n u nbiased v iew o f t he r ange o f c urren t o pin ion , i nclud ing t hose o f o ur sma l l s teer ing c om m i t tee .

A f ter my p aper ,

d iscussion was t hrown o pen t o t he c on ference a nd Il a ter r eceived f ur ther c om men ts b y p os t .

Ih ope t ha t t h is e d i ted v ers ion w i l l b e au se fu l i nd ica t ion

t o p oster i ty o f wha t ar epresen ta t ive b ody o f p eople t hough a bou t S u t ton H oo 4 0 y ears a f ter t he e ar l ier e xcava t ions . I n t he p ast s evera l s cholars h ave e xpressed t he v iew t ha t f ur ther work was b oth d es irable a cade mica l ly a nd a lso n ecessary t o p u t Dr f ina l r epor t i n to a w ider c on tex t .

B ruce- M i t ford 's

I n 1 964 C hr is topher Hawkes , i n h is t renchan t

p iece i n An t iqu i ty ' Su t ton H oo - 2 5 y ears a f ter ' ( Hawkes 1 964 ) , was t hank fu l t ha t p ublica t ion h ad b een s o l ong d e layed , s ince a nyth ing p roduced e ar l ier wou ld h ave b een mis lead ing ly p re ma ture ;

a t t he s ame t ime h e b era ted t he Br i t ish

Museu m a bou t g et t ing o n w i th t he d e f in i t ive r epor t , wh ich h as o f c ourse c o me t o f ru i tion a d ecade l a ter .

H e d id n o t , h owever , v en ture a ny o pin ions o n f ur-

t her d igg ing . Myres i n 1 969 emphas ised t he i so la t ion o f t he 1 939 d a ta , a nd s uppor ted f u l l e xplora t ion o f t he g rave-f ie ld , wh ich s hou ld , h e s uggested , a ma jor o b jective o f B r i t ish a rchaeology ' ( Myres 1 969 , 4 23 ) .

3 13

' now b eco me E igh t y ears

l a ter Myres r e in forced t h is w i th a s tronger p lea , n o t o n ly f or f ur ther e xcavat i on , b u t a lso ( a p o in t t o wh ich Ir e turn ) t he n eed f or p ro tec t ion .

Iq uo te :

' These s ecre ts w i l l n ever b e f u l ly r evea led u n t i l a l l t he b ur ia l mounds o n t h is u n ique s i te h ave b een p roper ly e xp lored , a nd t heir c on ten ts a ssessed w i th t he s k i l l a nd p a t ience d isp layed b y Bruce- M i t ford a nd h is c o l leagues ...In a ny o ther c iv i l ized c oun try t h is wou ld h ave b een e f fec ted l ong a go b y t he c o mb ined f orces o f n a t iona l p r ide , i n te l lectua l c ur ios i ty a nd t he c la i ms o f t our is m .

I ti s d ep lorab le t ha t i n B r i ta in ,

n o t o n ly s hou ld i th ave t aken f or ty y ears ...to h ave b egun t he f u l l p ub l ica t ion o f s uch a n o u ts tand ing h is tor ica l t reasure , b u t t ha t t he s i te i t sel f w i th a l l i t s u nexp lored mounds ( a n a t iona l monumen t o f t he f i rs t i mpor tance , i fe ver t here was o ne ) s hou ld s t i l l n ot b e i n p ubl ic o wnersh ip , a nd s t i l l r e ma in p ro tec ted o n ly b y t he f l i msy p re tence o f t he s chedu l ing p rocedure .

T ha t t he g rea t s h ip i t sel f s hou ld h ave b een

l e f t e xposed i n 1 939 t o t he u nres tr ic ted p assage o f t racked v eh ic les , mu t i la t ion b y s l i t-trenches , a nd c asua l v anda l is m , i s p erhaps j us t e xcusable b y t he e x igenc ies o f war .

B u t t here i s n o s uch e xcuse n ow

f or l eav ing s t i l l v ir tua l ly u npro tected a nd e n t ire ly u nopened t he r ema in ing p ar ts o f o ur g rea tes t h is tor ica l a rch ive f or t he e ar ly Ang loS axon a ge '

( Myres 1 977 , 8 51) .

More r ecen t ly , i n ar ev iew o f V o l

Io f S u t ton H oo , Mar t in B idd le s uppor ted

f ur ther work , a nd emphas ised t he i ncreas ing t hrea t t o t he s i te b y r abb i ts a nd me ta l d e tec tors ;

h e a lso s tressed t he n eed t o i ncorpora te w ider r esearch ,

i nc lud ing a ma jor a t te mp t t o l oca te t he c on te mporary s i te a t R end lesham .

H e

r ea l ised t ha t r esump t ion o f w ork o n t he s i te ' wou ld b e av as t u nder tak ing , n o t l i gh t ly t o b e s e t i n mo t ion w i thou t t he r esources t o s uppor t af u l l-t ime t eam t o e nsure t ha t d iscovery , a na lys is a nd p ub l ica t ion f o l low s peed i ly o ne u pon a no ther ' ( B idd le e t a l

1 977 , 2 64 ) .

My q ues t ionna ire a sked f or o p in ions o n t he f o l lowing : 1 .

H is tor ica l p roble ms a bou t S u t ton H oo wh ich w i l l s t i l l r e ma in w hen t he p resen t d e f in i t ive p ub l ica t ion i s b rough t t o c o mp le t ion

2 .

T he r e la t ionsh ip o f f ur ther work o n t he s i te i t sel f t o r esearch o n o ther

3 .

T he d es irab i l i ty o r o therw ise o f f ur ther e xcava t ion , g iven a dequa te

a ssocia ted a reas s uch a s R end lesham o r I ken f unds , a nd h ow e x tens ive t h is s hou ld b e 4 .

I ft he a nswer t o 3 . was ' yes ' , t he e xcava t ion s tra tegy a nd me thods n eeded , a nd t he t ype o f o rgan isa t ion , t oge ther w i th t he l ike ly c os t

5 .

T he d es irab i l i ty o f d eve lop ing e xper i men ta l t echn iques o f s pec ia l r e lev ance t o t he s i te

T he h is tor ica l p roble ms ( us ing t ha t word i n i t s w ides t s ense a nd n o t i n r e la t ion t o t he p roble ms o f d ocumen ta t ion i n t h is p er iod ) may b e c onven ien t ly s um mar ised b y r ecap i tu la t ing , p erhaps u nnecessar i ly , t he i ncreas ing i mport ance o f t he 1 939 e v idence , t oge ther w i th t he p roble ms t hus p osed , w h ich may b e e luc ida ted b y f ur ther work .

3 14

T he s pecia l i n teres t o f t he s i te i s t ha t i ti s e xo t ic .

T he e ar l ier e xcava-

t i ons y ie lded ma ter ia l wh ich , a s L es l ie Webs ter s tresses , ' reshaped b u t d id n o t c lari fy o ur n o t ions o f e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon c u l tura l c hrono logy , r e l ig ious p ract ice , t echno logy , a nd c o m mercia l a nd p o l i t ica l i n terna t iona l c on tac ts '. T o Tan ia D ick inson i ti s s pec ia l b ecause ' i t i s d ocumen t-l inked ( i f c urren t i n terpre ta t ion i s c orrec t ) t hrough B ede t o t he p a lace , e ar ly c hurch , a nd h ea then c u l t c en tre a t R end lesham ;

i f Mound 1was i ndeed t he b ur ia l-p lace

o f R aedwa ld , i ti s t ha t o f ad ocumen ted k ing o f c 6 25 , p rov id ing t he o n ly c lose ly-da ted a sse mb lage a par t f ro m t ha t a ssoc ia ted w i th S t C u thber t , t he s tar t ing-poin t f or a l l t he a rchaeo logy o f t h is p er iod , i nc lud ing t ha t o f t he B r i t ish Wes t a nd a lso o f t he S cand inav ian V ende l c u l ture , wh ich i ta nchors t o t ha t o f t he Eng l ish .

T he c e me tery a s a who le i s t he o n ly k nown e x tan t

r oya l b ur ia l g round o f t he Ang lo-Saxons , p ara l le l t o t ha t a t O ld U ppsa la , a nd i s ay ards t ick f or o ther a r is tocra t ic g raves s uch a s t hose a t Tap low , C uddesdon a nd B roo m f ie ld . E ven i ft he c urren t i n terpre ta t ions a re n o t c orrec t ( as Wa l lace-Hadr i l l ( 1 960 ) a nd more r ecen t ly A rrhen ius ( 1 978 ) may i mp ly ) Dr

D ick inson s tresses

t ha t t he s i te i s u n ique a nyway a nd i t s c o ins g ive a TPQ o f d epos i t ion a nd a p oss ib le d a te-range. N o t e verybody , h owever , a grees t ha t f ur ther e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n e xo t ic a nd p oss ibly we l l-documen ted s i te i s a t p resen t a n a ppropr ia te g oa l f or e xpend i ture o f ma jor r esources i n B r i t ish a rchaeo log y.

T he c oun ter-argumen t i s t ha t

S u t ton Hoo i s c oncerned w i th o n ly a r ar i f ied s ect ion o f s ocie ty , a nd i s t heref ore a typica l ;

we s hou ld c oncen tra te o n t he a rchaeo logy o f s e t t le men ts o r

c e me ter ies o f t he o rd inary p eop le , d iver ted n e i ther b y e xo t icism n or a t tract ive l i nks w i th h is tor ica l d ocumen ts —in o ther w ords ,

t he a pproach o f t hose modern

p reh is tor ians who a re u nencumbered b y h is tor ica l ly-der ived p reconcep t ions a bou t wha t i s ' i n teres t ing ' o r ' impor tan t '.

N ever the less , s een f ro m t he v iew

p o in t o f t he h ardl ine A ng lo-Saxon a rchaeo log is t , t he i mpor tance o f t he s i te n eed n ot b e l aboured . We may t urn n ex t t o wha t e x tens ion t o t he p resen t d a ta-se t may b e e xpec ted f ro m f ur ther w ork , a nd h ere my c orresponden ts were e xp l ic i t . F irs t ly , we may h ope t ha t p resen t k now ledge may b e p u t i n to a w ider c on tex t —w i th in t he b arrow-ce me tery i t sel f a nd t he i m med ia te a rea o f t he D eben e s tuary , a nd w i th in t he E as t Ang l ian k ingdo m a s a who le .

T o t ake t he

b arrow g roup , we may h ope f or e luc ida t ion o f t he c hrono logy o f t he s i te i n t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod a nd o f t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he b arrows t o e ar l ier u se o f t he s i te .

Pau l A shbee s ugges ts t ha t s o me o f t he b arrows may o r ig ina l ly h ave

b een p reh is tor ic —one , h e s ays , h ad a c ausewayed d i tch —and o f c ourse t here i s ma ter ia l o f t he f i rs t a nd s econd mi l lenn ia B C a t l eas t . H e a lso t h inks t here may b e B r i t ish i n f luence i n t he mo ti fs o f t he j ewe l lery , s ome ' conscious a rcha is m i n t he s even th c en tury ' , l i nk ing E as t Ang l ia t o i t s Br i t ish b ackground . T he p reh is tor ic b ackground t o t he s i te c ou ld b e more i mpor tan t t han i t a ppears o n t he b as is o f t he e v idence c urren t ly a va i lable , wh ich t aken b y i t sel f m igh t s ugges t d iscon t inu i ty b e tween t he p reh is tor ic ma ter ia l a nd t ha t o f t he s even th c en tury .

H owever t enuous e le men ts o f c on t inu i ty may a t p resen t

a ppear , t hey may n ever the less b e f undamen ta l i n d ef in ing t he o r ig ins o f t he

3 15

s i te a nd e specia l ly i t s r e l ig ious b as is .

S u t ton B oo may h ave i t s N eo l i th ic

a nces try , a nd may i ndeed b e a s B r i t ish i n i t s o r ig ins a s H ope-Tay lor h as n ow a rgued f or Y eaver ing—fro m s tone c irc le t o f o lk-cen tre ( Hope-Taylor 1 977) . T here a re a lso t he s pa t ia l a nd s tra t igraph ic r e la t ionsh ips t o b e e lucida ted . Dr

B ruce- M i t ford h as a lready i n V o l

c lus ters ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 , 5 )

Ip o in ted o u t c er ta in a l ignmen ts a nd

wh ich h in t a t r e la t ionsh ips o f t ime , a nd

p erhaps o f k in . We may e xpec t t o l earn much more n o t o n ly o f t he o r ig ins o f t he b arrow g roup , b u t a lso o f i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o f la t i nhu ma t ion g raves , s ku l l-p i ts a nd c re ma t ions . T hese d a ta may h e lp i n t he s tudy o f t he w ider a spec ts o f Ang loS axon b arrows a nd t heir o r ig ins i n t he l a ter s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies ( c f S hephard 1 979 ) , a nd o f c ourse o f t he who le s ub jec t o f mor tuary p rac t ice . V ierck , ( see b e low , p p 3 35-7 , 3 49-50 ) c o mmen ts o n t he impor tance o f t he r i te o f b ur ia l , a nd o n t he p erenn ia l p roble m o f Mound 1— inhu ma t ion ( i n s i tu o r t rans la ted t o C hr is t ian b ur ia l g round ) , c eno taph , o r c re ma t ion .

H e f avours

t he l as t ( V ierck 1 973 ) , t he p oss ibi l i ty b eing t ha t t here was a c re ma t ion o n t he Anas tas ius d ish , a cco mpan ied b y u nburn t g rave g oods .

V ierck b ases h is

a rgumen t o n a na log ies f ro m o ther s i tes , a nd o n t he a ssocia t ion o f 2 1 d i f feren t g rave a t tr ibu tes .

H e wou ld , t here fore , s ee o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l a i ms o f f ur-

t her w ork t o b e t he d e f in i t ion o f s uch a t tr ibu tes i n t he r e ma in ing g raves , wh ich wou ld h e lp i n t he i n terpre ta t ion i n Mound 1 ;

c rema t ion wou ld f avour t he i den-

t i f ica t ion o f t he Mound w i th R aedwa ld r a ther t han h is C hr is t ian s uccessors . T here i s o f c ourse t he p oss ib i l i ty o f more i n forma t ion o n s h ipbu i ld ing t echn iques , s h ip-hand l ing me thods , p er for mance a nd n av iga t ion i n t h is p er iod , t he ' nau t ica l d i mens ion o f t he Eas t A ng l ians i n t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies ' ( see F enw ick b e low ) . T here s hou ld a lso b e af ur ther r ange o f o b jec ts , wh ich wou ld k eep a r te fac t-bu f fs b usy f or s evera l more d ecades , n o t t o men t ion t he w izards o f s pa t ia l a nd s oc ia l a na lys is . T hese may s ee m r a ther p ar t icu lar is t p o ten t ia ls , e ven i ft hey h ave w ide r epercuss ions f or Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy a s aw ho le , b u t e verybody s tresses t ha t t he r ea l a im o f f u ture work o n t he s i te wou ld b e t he d e f in i t ion o f i t s f unct i on ;

whe ther f or i ns tance i ti s s o le ly a r oya l b ur ia l g round , o r t ha t o f a

n oble f am i ly , o r e ven o f a l l s ec tors o f s ocie ty ; t i ons o ther t han a s ac e metery .

o r whe ther t he s i te h as f unc-

I f , a s h as b een a rgued , Mound 1 i s a ssocia ted

w i th R aedwa ld , a nd t he r e ma in ing mounds w i th o ther Eas t Ang l ian k ings , e ar l ier a nd/or l a ter , t hen w e c an l ook f or f ur ther u nders tand ing o f t he o r ig ins o f t he d ynas ty o f t he Wu f f ingas , a nd o f i t s E as t S cand inav ian c onnec t ions . T he w ider f oreign t rade a nd c on t inen ta l l i nks s ugges ted b y t he 1 939 f inds a re c lear ly r e levan t t o t he p o l i t ica l , e cono m ic a nd s oc ia l s tructure o f t he whole k ingdo m . On a l ess e xo t ic n o te , f ur ther e xcava t ion m igh t i ncrease o ur r a ther s parse d a ta o n t he t opograph ic a nd e nv ironmen ta l e v idence o f t he a rea , a nd o n t he r easons f or t he s i t ing o f t he b arrow g roup i n t h is p ar t icu lar p lace . Wh i le mos t p eop le wou ld a gree o n t he h igh h is tor ica l p o ten t ia l o f t he r es t o f t he s i te , t here a re warn ing n o tes .

C hr is A rno ld i s n o t s o c onv inced t ha t

t he b arrows a re more t han a s er ies o f d iscre te d a ta-se ts , whose r e tr ieva l may n o t b e s uscep t ib le t o s uch w ider u nders tand ing a s we t h ink . 3 16

L es l ie

Webs ter a lso wonders whe ther f ur ther work w i l l s o lve a ny p rob le ms o r mere ly p rov ide more p rob lems a nd r esearch t op ics f or a cade m ics .

C on tr ibu tors w ere u nan i mous i n t he ir b e l ief t ha t t he s i te , whe ther o r n o t i ti s e xcava ted f ur ther , c an o n ly r ea l ise i t s f u l l p o ten t ia l i n t he c on tex t o f w ider s tud ies i n E as t Ang l ia a s a who le .

B efore we c an c ons ider wha t work

e lsewhere may b e c omp le men tary t o t ha t a t S u t ton H oo i t se l f , we may f i rs t c ons ider t he e th ics o f f ur ther e xcava t ion— 'to d ig o r n o t t o d ig— tha t i s t he q ues t ion—whe ther ' t is n obler t o f orsake t hese mounds f or f u ture g a in , o r ... p u t a n e nd o n 't .' T hose who b e l ieve t ha t we s hou ld d ig i n t he n ear f u ture emphas ize t he t hrea t t o t he s i te f rom r abbi ts a nd t reasure-hun ters .

T he d epreda t ions o f t he

f ormer c an b e c oun tered b y u nderground b arr iers , b u t as tee l-l ink ' s ta lag ' f ence t o d e ter t he me ta l d e tec tor wou ld b e u naccep tab le t o t he o wners o f t he s i te .

S tan ley Wes t b el ieves t ha t t here i s a2 4-hour t hrea t f ro m t reasure -

h un ters ;

a nd i n more g enera l t er ms h e a sks w he ther we c an e xpec t t he

f o l low ing d ecades t o b e l ess d amag ing t o t he s i te t han t he f our s ince 1 939 . T he p rotec t ion a f forded b y s chedu l ing i s i nadequa te , a nd t he p roposed G uard iansh ip may b e l ong d e layed , e ven i fi te ven tua l ly l eads t o g rea ter p ro tec t ion . T he S COLE c omm i t tee b e l ieve t ha t ' i t wou ld b e d es irable t o b eg in e xcavat i on i n t h is d ecade b ecause t he e n terpr ise wou ld b e l aunched w i th t he s k i l l a nd u npara l le l led e xper t ise r es id ing i n D r

B ruce- M i t ford t.

C a ther ine H i l ls

b e l ieves t ha t f ur ther w ork may b e j us t i f ied a s t he c o mp le t ion o f ap rogra m me , a nd t o make t he mos t o f t he c ons iderab le i nves t men t a lready p u t i n to i t .

T he g enera l o p in ion e xpressed b y my c on tr ibu tors was , h owever , a ga ins t f ur ther e xcava t ion o f t he s i te , o ther t han t ha t n eeded t o c onserve i t . Much o f t he a rgumen t i s o n t he f am i l iar l i nes o f r esearch v ersus r escue , wh ich we n eed n ot e labora te h ere .

Par t icu lar s tress i s l a id o n t he s pec ia l p rob le ms o f

S u t ton Hoo — i ts s andy s o i l a nd t he n eed f or s pecia l ised t echn iques wh ich may b e more r ead i ly a va i lable t o f u ture g enera t ions .

S evera l p eop le b e l ieve t ha t

we s hou ld wa i t u n t i l t he p resen t d ef in i t ive v o lumes h ave b een p ub l ished a nd f u l ly d iges ted . H ayo V ierck b e l ieves t ha td iggers o n ly f ind wha t t hey a re l ook ing f or . We n eed , h e s ugges ts , t he f u l l r esponse t o f ina l p ub l ica t ion t o a ch ieve a d e tached a nd s ober v iew o f wha t t o e xpec t i n t he r e ma in ing u nexcav a ted mounds .

We s hou ld a lso wa i t f or t he p ubl ica t ion o f t he c o mp le men tary

e v idence f ro m Tap low , Broo m f ie ld , C aenby a nd A s tha l l .

L es l ie Webs ter

a lso e xpresses c oncern o ver t he s tandards o f w ork t ha t a re t o b e s e t— t oday 's o r t o morrow 's? ' —and who wou ld j udge t he m?

S hou ld we b e t h ink ing o f a n

i n terna t iona l ly-sponsored , r a ther t han a Br i t ish , e xcava t ion?

Why n ow?

We s hou ld b e a l l t he more wary , s he s ays , b ecause i ti s ak ey s i te , a nd mot ives may b e more a ssoc ia ted w i th t he g la morous c ha l lenge o f t he s i te a nd a t tendan t p res t ige t han w i th s ober a cade m ic e va lua t ion .

T o d ig i s t o d es troy

—wha t i s t he mora li ty o f t he d es truc t ion o f e ven p ar t o f a ma jor European monumen t?

3 17

Tan ia D ick inson b e l ieves t ha t i ft here a re r esources a va i lable t o f ur ther t he s tudy o f t hese a spec ts o f Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy , a nd o f t he K ingdo m o f E as t Ang l ia , t hey s hou ld b e a ppl ied t o o ther s i tes w here t here i s l ess l i ke l ih ood o f p ro tec t ion , s uch a s t he c e me tery o f S nape , c urren t ly b eing d amaged b y p lough a nd r ecen t ly b y p ipe-l ines . T here a re t hus r eserva t ions , a nd f ur ther work mus t b e i n i tia ted o n ly w i th r ecogn i t ion o f t h is r espons ib i l i ty , a nd o n ly , S tan ley Wes t s tresses , ' a f ter f u l l a nd o pen d eba te ' , o f wh ich t he O x ford S y mpos iu m m igh t b e s een a s ap re l im inary s ess ion ;

' and o n ly ' , h e s ugges ts ,

' a f ter a f ina l d ecis ion b y a n

a ppo in ted c o m miss ion '.

E verybody i s a greed t ha t S u t ton H oo c an b e u nders tood o n ly i n t he c on tex t o f w ider s tud ies o f t he a rea , t he e th ics o f wh ich a re l ess c on ten t ious t han t hose o f f ur ther work o n t he s i te i t se l f . I ti s c harac ter is t ic o f t he a rchaeo logy o f ap ro toh is tor ic p er iod t ha t t he t arge ts f or f u ture work s hou ld b e p laces men t ioned b y a ncien t wr i ters .

T he

e x is tence o f e ven a o nel ine r e ference s ee ms t o i nves t ap lace w i th a n h is tori ca l a ura o u t o f a l l p ropor t ion t o wha t wou ld o therwise b e s een a s i t s a rchaeo log ica l p o ten t ia l w i th in modern s et t le men t s tud ies . T here was t hus r epea ted r e ference t o t he n eed f or t he l oca tion a nd f ur ther e xam ina t ion o f t he r oya l p a lace , c hurch a nd p agan t e mp le a t R end lesham , we l l-known f ro m B ede , where Raedwa ld h ad a l tars t o C hr is t a nd t he D ev i l , a nd where t here was a r oya l b ap t is m i n 6 64 , a nd o f t he monas tery a t I canho , f ounded i n 6 54 b y Eas t Ang l ian K ings , a nd v is i ted b y C eol fr i th b e fore h e a nd B ened ic t B iscop f ounded J arrow a nd Monkwear mou th .

T h is may h ave b een

I ken , where r ecen t work b y S tan ley Wes t l oca ted among o ther e v idence a n Ang lo-Saxon c ross s ha f t i n t he b ase o f t he i so la ted c hurch .

T here a re a lso

Wes t T i lbury , t he s i te o f a monas tery f ounded i n t he m idd le o f t he s even th c en tury b y S t C edd , t he b ro ther o f S t C had ; B lytheburgh , i n whose c hurch Raedwa ld 's n ephew Anna i s s a id t o h ave b een b ap t ised i n 6 54 ; t he monas t ic b u i ld ings o ccup ied b y S t Fursey i n B urgh C as t le , w hose a rchaeo log ica l p o tent ia l was s hown many y ears a go b y C har les G reen ; a nd s i tes w i th c on te mporary f inds s uch a s B r ightwe l l H ea th a nd Wickham Marke t . T hese a re t he o bv ious ' h is tor ica l ' t arge ts .

L es l ie Webs ter a nd H ayo

V ierck , h owever , s ugges t t he p oss ibi l i t ies o f o ther u nrecorded s e t t lemen t o r r e l ig ious s i tes a nd workshops , o r e ven b ur ia l g rounds , n earer S u t ton H oo i t se l f , s uch a s Woodbr idge , f ro m where t he mounds were p erhaps i n tended t o b e s een , a nd o f t he r oya l manors c lose b y , o f K ings ton a nd Mel ton . S u t ton H oo wou ld h ere b e s een a s at ype o f ' l eadersh ip ' s i te , wh ich mus t a lso r epresen t al oca l f ocus f or t hese c on t ingen t a c t iv i t ies . L es lie Webs ter b e l ieves t ha t t he f i rs t g oa l s hou ld b e i n tens ive s urvey o f t he i m med ia te a rea —on ly t hen c an f u l ly-in for med d ecis ions b e made o n h ow t o e xcava te S u t ton H oo a nd i n terpre t wha t i s f ound . S tan ley Wes t p roposes t ha t r esources s hou ld b e d irected t owards e x tend ing t he c urren t work o f t he S u f fo lk Un i t ( a lready b egun a t e g Wes t S tow a nd Bury

3 18

S t E d munds ) i n t he w ho le f ie ld o f t he r ura l s e t t le men t o f E as t Ang l ia—to a er ia l a nd f i e ld s urvey , d ocumen tary a nd p lace-name r esearch , g enera t ing a nd t es t ing mode ls —and t owards i n tens i f ica t ion o f t he Un i t 's s uccessfu l work a t I psw ich . T h is t own was e s tab l ished b y r oya l i n i t ia t ive , a nd h as p o ten t ia l e qua l t o t ha t o f H a rnw ih , D ores tad t o r H edeby.

H e t h inks e ar ly e cono m ic s upre macy was a

c r i t ica l f ac tor i n e s tab l ish ing Raedwa ld a s B re twa lda , a nd t ha t i t was o ne r eas on b ehind Mercian mo t iva t ion f or e s tab l ish ing p o l i t ica l c on tro l o f t h is a rea . Wes t wou ld n ot o n ly s uppor t f ur ther work a t I ken , b u t w ou ld i n i t ia te a s urvey o f a l l e ar ly p ar ish c hurches i n t he a rea , i n as earch f or e ar ly a rch i tec tura l d e ta i l . T o s um mar ise , a n i n terd isc ip l inary p rogram me o f f i e ld a nd o ther s tud ies , w i th o r w i thou t f ur ther e xcava t ion a t S u t ton H oo , s hou ld h ave a s i t s u l t i ma te o b jec t ive n o th ing l ess t han wha t P au l A shbee c a l ls ' an a rchaeo log ica l a nd h ist or ica l p ro f i le o f Raedwa ld 's k ingdo m ' , i t s d ynas t ic , e thn ic , p o l i t ica l , s oc ia l , e cono mic a nd r e l ig ious b as is .

S uch r esearch f ur ther a f ie ld wou ld c lear ly p u t c urren t k now ledge o f S u t ton H oo i n to a w ider p erspec t ive ;

b u t i tm igh t a lso i n f luence t he e x ten t a nd mode

o f f ur ther work o n t he s i te i t se l f .

I ft he c ase f or f ur ther e xcava t ion c an b e

made , e i ther n ow o r i n t en o r t wen ty y ears ' t ime , we may n ow c ons ider wha t m igh t b e d one .

S uch s ugges t ions made i n 1 979 a re more r e levan t t o t he

p rospect o f e xcava t ion i n t he 1 980s t han i n s ubsequen t d ecades , f or wh ich f u ture s peakers a t O x ford c on ferences w i l l b e a ble t o p u t f orward ab e t terin for med p rogra m me . F irs t ly , t here i s t he v exed q ues tion o f whe ther t o e xcava te a l l o r p ar t o f t he s i te . T he a rgumen ts f or t o ta l e xcava t ion a re we l l-known , a nd h ave r ec en t ly b een r es ta ted b y P h i l ip Barker ( 1977) ;

t hey a re t ha t p ar t ia l e xcava t ion

n o t o n ly g ives a n i ncomp le te d a ta-set , b u t a lso p oss ibly a n a c tua l ly m is lead ing o ne— for i ns tance t he p ar t t ha t was l e f t i n tac t migh t c on ta in a t e mp le o r ac hurch . R ichard B rad ley s uppor ts t h is v iew — 'd ig a l l o f S u t ton H oo o r n one o f i t '. Ia t tacked Barker 's e xcava t ion p h i losophy r a ther f l ippan t ly o n t he g rounds t ha t B arker ian a rchaeo logy was t oo t ed ious a nd t enuous , l ead ing v ir tua l ly t o p ara lysis o f e xcava t ion ( Rah tz 1 978 ) .

A more s er ious a t tack c ame f rom p re-

c ise ly t he o ppos i te d irec t ion , f ro m O la f O lsen i n ap aper t o t he C ha teau-Ga i l lard c on ference i n S wi tzer land i n 1 978 ( O lsen 1 980 ) .

H e c onde mned Barker a s a

v anda l , who wou ld l eave n o th ing f or p os ter i ty a nd i t s a dvanced t echn iques . Th is i s t he v iew t aken a lso b y my c on tr ibu tors , who b e l ieve t ha t a ny f ur ther e xcava t ion s hou ld b e h igh ly s e lec t ive a nd p roble m-or ien ta ted , a vo id ing s uch d isas ters a s t he who lesa le s tr ipp ing o f S tonehenge i n t he 1 920s u nder taken i n t he h ope t ha t ' answers m igh t emerge '. T he q ues t ion i s w h ich p ar ts o f t he s i te a nd why? S hou ld a d e f in i te t arge t b e s e t a nd a dhered t o , o r s hou ld a ny e x tens ion b eyond t he p r i mary o b jec t ives b e s ub ject t o c on t inuous r ev iew? T he g enera l o pin ion i s t ha t a ny p rogra m me s hou ld b eg in w i th t wo a i ms . One w ou ld b e t o c o mp le te t he d e ta i led s urvey , t o mas ter t he l og is t ic a nd t echn ica l p roble ms o f t he s i te i t se lf , a nd t o b u i ld u p at ea m h igh ly s k i l led i n t he 3 19

s pec ia l p roble ms o f s andy b oa t- a nd o ther mounds i n Eas t Ang l ia .

T he s e-

c ond , wh ich may b e c ons idered a s t he means b y w h ich t he f i rs t migh t b e a ch ieved , i s t he t o ta l e xcava t ion o f o ne o r more o f t he mounds s amp led b y Bas i l B rown , t o p u t t he ir i mpor tan t f inds i n to a max im = c on tex t , t o r ecover a ny s urv iv ing i n forma t ion o n t he s tructure o f t he mounds a nd p oss ib le b oa tr es idues , a nd t o s ee wha t f ea tures o r o ther e v idence were s ea led i n t he p re mound g round l eve ls . T he s tra t igraph ic r e la t ionsh ip o f t hese mounds t o e ach o ther , t o t he 1 939 s h ip-barrow , a nd t o f ea tures i n t he g round b e tv ,e en t he m , w ou ld b e t he f irs t s tep t owards e s tab l ish ing a s tra t igraph ic a nd c hrono log ica l s equence f or t he s i te . At h ird p r i mary o b jec t ive migh t b e t o e xcava te t he a reas o f g round b et ween t hese mounds , embracing t he t r ia l h o les a nd t renches d ug i n t he e ar ly 1 970s , s o t ha t t he e xcava ted a rea f or med a c on t inuous b lock o f e xam ined g round , w i th n o p ar t l e f t u ndug . T oo many u ncer ta in f ac tors p rec lude a ny a ccura te e s t i ma te o f h ow l ong t h is i n i t ia l p rogram me migh t t ake , b u t Ib e l ieve t ha t i t wou ld t ake t wo s ubs tan t ia l s easons o f work b y ar easonab ly s ized t eam a t a n o vera l l c os t a t t he c urren t 1 979 v a lues o f a t l eas t £ 50 ,000 p a , a ssum ing t ha t t he work was t o b e o f t he v ery h ighes t q ua l i ty. Ip ersona l ly wou ld s uppor t t he i dea n o t o n ly t ha t t hese f irs t t wo s easons wou ld b e d irec ted t owards max i mu m t echn ica l mas tery o f t he s i te 's p rob le ms , b u t t ha t o ne o f t he j us ti f ica t ions f or e xcava t ing a s i te o f ma jor i mpor tance ( i f i n t heory i tc ou ld b e p ro tec ted a ga ins t t wo- a nd f our l egged d es troyers ) i s t ha t i t wou ld b e a n o ppor tun i ty f or d eve loping a rchaeo log ica l t echn iques . The r esu l ts wou ld b e a pp l icab le n o t o n ly t o S u t ton Hoo , b u t t o o ther s i tes , e spec ia l ly t hose o n s and . I f ame mber o f s ta f f w ere emp loyed s pec i f ica l ly t o f ind o u t t he r ange o f t echn iques wh ich c ou ld b e u sed i n a rchaeo logy , a nd t es t t he ir a pp l ica t ion t o S u t ton H oo , r esources wou ld h ave t o b e a l loca ted t o t h is work wh ich migh t n o t b e d irec t ly p roduc t ive o f a ny n ew d a ta .

Bu t Ib e l ieve t h is s hou ld b e e nv isaged a s a n i mpor tan t p ar t o f t he work ,

d es irable n o t o n ly i n i t s o wn r igh t , b u t a lso a s e ssen t ia l t o e nsure t ha t a ny e xcava t ion a t S u t ton H oo was a t t he h ighes t p oss ib le l eve l o f d a ta r ecovery , a nd was i n f act e qua l i n q ua l i ty t o a ny i n t he wor ld .

Id iscuss t he p oss ible

d irec t ions o f t echn ica l a dvance l a ter i n t h is p aper . S uch a n i n i t ia l p rogram me wou ld i nc lude p repara t ion , e xcava t ion , d a taa na lys is a nd d a ta-order ing f or p ubl ica t ion .

A t t he e nd o f t h is p er iod t he

s uccess o f t he work a nd o f t he o rgan isa t ion wou ld b e r ev iewed .

I ft he r e-

e xcava t ion o f o ne o r more o f t he mounds d ug b y B as i l Brown h ad b een p rod uc t ive , t hen t he r e ma inder o f t hese migh t b e c omp le ted i n o rder t o c lear u p a l l u n f in ished work . A t t h is s tage , t he p oss ib i l i ty o f e xcava t ing a n u nd ist urbed mound , a no ther p oss ible s h ip-bur ia l , migh t b e moo ted , a nd p roceeded w i th , i fc er ta in c ond i t ions h ad b een f u l f i l led . F irs t ly , t he e xcava t ion t ea m was b y n ow p roved t o b e ah igh ly c o mpe ten t u n i t , w i th a n i mpeccab le b ack-up o rgan isa t ion , i nclud ing f ie ld a nd l abora tory c onserva t ion ;

s econd ly , t he f irs t

t wo s easons h ad met w i th t he g enera l a pprova l o f t he a cade mic wor ld , a l l d oub ts o f t he e th ics o f e xcava t ing a t a l l h av ing b een r eso lved o r s ubdued ; t h ird ly a nd l as t ly , t he f inancia l s ponsorsh ip was s ecure e nough t o a l low f or t he p o ten t ia l ly e nor mous t ask o f e xcava t ing a nd p ub l ish ing a p oss ib lyin tact s h ip-barrow o f ac o mp lex i ty e qua l t o o r g rea ter t han t ha t o f 1 939.

3 20

Here i s , Ib e l ieve , t he c rux o f t he p roble m : f i nance b e f ound o r g uaran teed t o c on t inue?

c ou ld s uch v ir tua l ly u n l im i ted

Wou ld i tb e a va i lable i n t he f irs t

p lace t o i n i t ia te s uch ap rogram me a s t ha t o u t l ined a bove , wh ich mos t a gree i s t he o n ly j us ti f iab le b eg inn ing t o f ur ther work a t S u t ton H oo? My o wn b e l ie f , i n wh ich Ih ope t o b e p roved mis taken , i s t ha t s uch b ack ing w ou ld n o t b e a va i lable , t ha t t he l oaded c oncep t , wh ich Ih ave s o o f ten u sed mys el f , o f c os t-ef fec t iveness , wou ld v ery q u ick ly b e u n leashed , a nd t ha t n o s pons ors wou ld i n t he e ven t a gree t o g uaran tee t he f inance n ecessary t o embark o n s uch a p rogram me .

T hey wou ld e xpec t more ' resu l ts ' f or t he f irs t £ 50 ,000

o r more t han a re l i ke ly t o a ccrue f ro m t he c lear ing u p o f p re-war work a nd t he mas tery o f s i te t echn iques—and s o wou ld t he g enera l p ub l ic a nd t he p ress . O ne c an imag ine r eac t ion t o ap ress r e lease o u t l in ing t he v a luable c on tr ibu t ion t ha t t wo y ears o f e xpens ive e xcava t ion a t S u t ton H oo h ad made t o t he u nders tand ing o f mound-s tructure , s o i l-prof i les a nd s and-excava t ion l og is t ics . O ne migh t p ro tes t t ha t t he r eac t ion o f t he p ubl ic d oes n o t ma t ter , t hough I t h ink i t wou ld b e u nwise t o d o s o i f we w ish a rchaeo logy t o c on t inue . I t may b e b e l ieved t ha t f inanc ia l s ponsors a re r espons ib le a nd a cade m ica l lyin for med , a nd n o t l i ke ly t o b e d e terred b y t he f a i lure o f t he s i te ( t o p u t i tc rude ly ) t o y ie ld l oo t , r a ther t han v ar ia t ions i n t he c o lour o f s and .

T hose o f u s who h ave h ad

s o me e xper ience o f t hese ma t ters a re more s cep t ica l .

One h as o n ly t o r e me m-

b er t he Ar thur ian t a i l w h ich wagged t he S ou th C adbury d og , my o wn f a i lure t o i mpress my G las tonbury s ponsors , o r t he p roble ms o f S i lbury H i l l . A l l t h is d iscuss ion o f t he p roper way f or o ur g enera t ion t o a pproach S u t ton H oo may b e mere ly t heore t ica l ;

s ponsorsh ip may i n f act b e a va i lab le o n ly f or

t he im med ia te embarka t ion ( i f t ha t i s t he word ) o n a n u nd is turbed s h ip-bur ia l l i ke ly t o p rov ide a t t he l eas t d e ta i ls o f an ew b oa t , a nd h ope fu l ly a no ther d epos i t o f r oya l g rave g oods .

My own v iew i s t ha t i ft he f inanc ia l s ponsors were

n o t p repared t o a ccep t t he p roposed p re l im inary p rogra m me , t hey c ou ld n o t b e r e l ied u pon t o s uppor t t he p o ten t ia l ly e nor mous b urden o f e xcava t ing a n ew s h ip-bur ia l p roper ly a nd e nsure i t s a dequa te p ubl ica t ion .

I n t h is c ase , we

m igh t c onc lude t ha t t he r esources a va i lable f or a rchaeo logy i n t h is c oun try were i nsu f f icien t t o d o t he j ob p roper ly , a nd t ha t S u t ton H oo h ad b e t ter t o l e f t a lone u n t i l a more e n l igh tened a ge c ou ld s o d ea l w i th i t .

I f I am b eing u ndu ly a nd u ncharacter is t ica l ly p ess im is t ic , t hen we may p roceed t o t he p roble ms o f o rgan isa t ion . d isagree men t .

H ere t here a re a reas o f c ons iderab le

One a pproach wou ld b e t he t rad i t iona l B r i t ish o ne o f as hor t ,

i n tens ively manned s um mer s eason u nder a d irec tor who f or t he r es t o f t he y ear h ad o ther r espons ib i l i t ies , s uch a s museum a dm in is tra t ion o r u n ivers i ty t each ing ;

t he t eam w ou ld b e r ecru i ted a fresh f or e ach s eason , t hough h opefu l ly

w i th a s much c on t inu i ty a s c hang ing c ircums tances a l lowed . T h is a rrange men t t ends t o l ead t o af a i lure t o p ubl ish i n a dequa te t ime o r n o t a t a l l . S tan ley Wes t i s a daman t i n t he l i gh t o f h is e x tens ive e xper ience t ha t t he s um mer i s i n f act t he w ors t t ime t o d ig a t S u t ton H oo —rap id d rying o f s and i nh ibi ts s o i l o bserva t ion a nd e ncourages e ros ion .

T h is c ou lJ b e o verco me b y

h av ing a c overed e xcava t ion a nd c on tro l led t e mpera ture a nd l um id i ty ( s ee b e low ).

T hese a nd o ther p rov is ions i nvo lv ing ma jor c ap i ta l e xpend i ture wou ld 3 21

b e mos t e cono m ica l ly e xp lo i ted b y a sma l ler t eam work ing f or l onger p er iods , p erhaps d ur ing t he s pr ing o r a u tumn . There i s ag ood d ea l o f s uppor t f or t he emp loy men t o f a sma l l p ro fess iona l t eam —a S u t ton H oo Un i t —who wou ld b e s upp le men ted t o al im i ted e x ten t d ur ing t he d igg ing p er iods ( perhaps u p t o s ix mon ths i nt he y ear ) a nd wou ld s pend t he r es t o f t he y ear i n d a ta-ana lys is a nd p repara t ion f or p ubl ica t ion .

T he p ro jec t

wou ld b e u nder t he c on tro l o f af u l l-t i me D irec tor , who wou ld b e a ppo in ted i n t he f irs t p lace f or a t hree o r f our y ear p er iod i n a ccordance w i th t he p rogramme o f work o u t l ined a bove , w i th p oss ib le e x tens ions a s t he r ev iew p o l icy d ecided . Who wou ld s uch a D irec tor b e?

P re ferab ly s omeone who i s o f h igh a cade m ic

s tand ing , t horough ly f am i l iar w i th t he p er iod a nd i t s p rob le ms , a nd e specia l ly w i th t hose o f Eas t Ang l ia a nd o f S u t ton H oo i n p ar t icu lar ; b u t a lso a n e xcava tor o f t he h ighes t p oss ib le c a l ibre , a nd s u f f icien t ly a ware o f a l l modern a dvances i n t heore t ica l a nd p ract ica l a rchaeo logy t o b e a b le t o b r ing t o b ear e very p oss ib le f i e ld a nd a na lyt ica l t echn ique o n t he work .

S uch p aragons , h owever ,

t end n o t t o b e l ook ing f or j obs , o r i ft hey a re , a re l ook ing f or o ne w i th more t enure t han S u t ton H oo c ou ld o f fer .

C an s uch a p erson b e t e mp ted o u t o f h is

o r h er p resen t s ecure emp loy men t t o u nder take t he d irec t ion o f S u t ton Hoo f or a n u ncer ta in p er iod? Can s uch a p erson b e f ound who i s b o th e xper ienced e nough a nd y et y oung e nough t o s ee s uch a p ro jec t t hrough t o c o mp le t ion w i th e nergy a nd d e ter m in a t ion?

I fn o t , i s i tp oss ible t o a ppo in t at a len ted y ounger man , s eek ing t o

make h is n ame , b u t p repared t o b e g u ided b y a nd p erhaps e ven c on tro l led b y ac om m i t tee , s ub jec t t o s ubs tan t ia l s uperv is ion , a t l eas t u n t i l h e o r s he h as a cqu ired t he n ecessary e xper t ise t o b e i ncreas ing ly i ndependen t? t o t h is l as t q ues t ion , b y Mar t in B idd le , i s ar esound ing NO .

T he a nswer

He b e l ieves t ha t

a ny d irec tor o f ac a l ibre s u f f ic ien t t o b e p u t i n c harge o f S u t ton Hoo w ou ld n o t a ccep t t he j ob u n less h e o r s he were i n a bso lu te c on tro l f ro m t he s tar t . I fi t were i ndeed b e l ieved t ha t ay oung , amenab le , t a len ted a nd modes t d irec tor c ou ld b e f ound , p o l icy a nd p rogram me c ou ld b e d ec ided b y a sma l l s e lec t c o mm i t tee who wou ld b e c hosen f or t he ir i nd iv idua l e xper t ise , a nd wou ld make r ea l d ec is ions , r a ther t han j us t mee t o nce a y ear t o r ece ive t he D irector 's r epor t . E i ther way , o ur p ro fess iona l d irec tor mus t b e h igh ly-pa id , a nd b e s upp or ted b y as ta f f . On t h is we n eed n o t d wel l , e xcep t t o i ns is t o n t he ir q ua l ity a nd o n t he n eed f or h igh p ay , whe ther d iggers , d raugh ts men , p ho tographers , s c ien t is ts e tc.

I t wou ld b e h oped t ha t t he Br i t ish Museum wou ld p u t i t s u nT

p ara l le led e xper t ise i n c onserva t ion a t t he s erv ice o f t he p ro ject . T hey wou ld i n a ny c ase b e t he u l t i ma te c onserva tors a nd d isp layers o f t he ma ter ia l . I t wou ld b e v a luable i ft hey were a ble t o s econd a me mber o f t he ir s ta f f t o s e t u p , i n c onsu l ta t ion w i th t he D irec tor , af i e ld c onserva t ion u n i t t o b r idge t he d ang erous g ap b e tween t he e xposure o f a n o b jec t a nd i t s a rr iva l i n t he B r i t ish Museum l abora tor ies . I n a n e s tab l ished Un i t t here wou ld b e s o me f u l lt i me p os ts ;

a dd i t iona l

e xper t s ta f f c ou ld b e s econded when n eeded f ro m e x is t ing Un i ts , who m igh t b e g lad t o s ave t he ir own f unds i n t h is way , a nd a lso t o g ive t heir s ta f f ac hange f ro m t he r igours o f u rban e xcava t ion .

3 22

The Unit would be supported by i.ts committee, if not actually controlled by it. SCOLE and Suffolk County Council are very anxious that the Suffolk Unit should be intimately associated with the project, both in its local setting, and in the wider research of the region, in which they have already made such substantial contributions in the Anglo-Saxon period. There would, hopefully, then be participation ancl academic links with other bodies and Universities, both here and abroad, especially SCOLE, the Centre for East Anglian Studies, and the University of Uppsala. Deep involve­ ment has also been promised from the National Maritime Museum with their especial expertise in boat-recording and reconstruction; while the proposed taking of the site into Guardianship should ensure the help of the Department of the Environment.

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Publication should, it is considered, be of two modes. A full Annual Report should be published as soon as possible after the close of each field season, preferably within a few months. This would des�ribe what had been done, and include plans and a catalogue with illustrations of all important material. It would contain a minimum of synthesis or comment, but it would make the basic data available to scholars without delay, as Catherine Hills has done for Spong Hill. A fuller volume of synthesis would be completed at perhaps triennial intervals, with a definitive final publication when the project was deemed to be completed. *

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I have envisaged a programme of work initially of three years, with ex­ tensions dependent on the success of the results and the security of the spon­ sorship. Ideally, a total of ten to fifteen years might be necessary to make a substantial contribution to our understanding of the East Anglian Kingdom. If the work did go on for that length of time, we would expect it to generate much a...r1cillary research by graduate students and others, here and abroad, and to be a catalyst for the futherance of Anglo-Saxon studies. I have already stressed the opportunities also provided for the development of field techniques, and I will now list those which it would be worth developing at Sutton Hoo (see also Powlesland, this volume): 1.

G€ophysical, chemical and other forms of prospecting to explore the site and area as three-dimensionally as possible before excavation begins; continuance of such predictive techniques on all exposed sur­ faces, as a process of automated scanning; and the development of field X-ray and other three-dimensional exploration of buried objects and features as a preliminary to physiGal dissection. These would be a monitoring process complementary to normal visual pattern delineation

2.

Cover for the excavation area strong enough to resist all weather, and incorporating temperature and humidity central

3.

Provision within this for vertical and oblique S'.ereo and photogrammetric 323

p ho tography i n c o lour a nd monochro me , a nd f or a u to ma ted s urvey g r ids , p erhaps o n a n o verhead s ys te m 4 .

Modes o f e xcava t ion t ha t p er m i t t hree-d i mens iona l r ecord ing o f e very c on tex t ( l ayer o r f ea ture ) r e moved w i thou t t he p rov is ion o f a ny s tand ing s ect ion

5 .

A u to ma t ic r ecord ing o f a l l c o-ord ina tes a nd o ther d a ta i n af or m s usc ep t ib le t o c ompu ter a na lys is a nd r e tr ieva l i n at hree-d imens iona l f orm .

P or table c o mpu ter o r t er m ina l o n s i te t o f aci l i ta te f eedback

o f i n forma t ion . 6 .

A d jus table c rad les s uspended a bove c r i t ica l a reas s uch a s g raves t o a l low t he e xcava tor t o work w i thou t d amage t o b ur ied s tra ta

7 .

C onso l ida t ion b y c he m ica ls o r f reezing o f i mpor tan t d epos i ts t o a l low r e mova l t o l abora tory f or d issec t ion u nder i dea l c ond i t ions

8 . 9 .

Au to ma t ic s iev ing/ f lo ta t ion a nd o ther max imum r e tr ieva l t echn iques ( f ro m S COLE ) A l l s c ien ti f ic t echn iques a nd t echn ic ians t o b e ON TAP b u t n o t ON TOP

T h is i s n o t t he o ccas ion t o g o t hrough t he p oss ible b udge ts , b u t t here h ave b een t en ta t ive c os t ings , b o th b y o ur c o mm i t tee a nd b y me mbers o f SCOLE. T hese t ake i n to a ccoun t t he s a lar ied s ta f f , t rave l , p lan t h ire , f ie ld HQ , c ons erva t ion , p ho tography a nd s c ien ti f ic d a ta , a nd p ub l ica t ion .

The c os t o f s uch

ap rogram me m igh t w e l l b e i n e xcess o f £ 50 ,000 p a , a nd o ver a p er iod o f t en o r more y ears m igh t we l l i nvo lve a n e xpend i ture o f am i l l ion p ounds o r more ; t h is wou ld b e a pproach ing t he c os t o f p resen t-day u n i ts s uch a s York o r London , c urren t ly s pend ing u p t o aq uar ter o f am i l l ion p ounds ay ear . We s hou ld a sk f ina l ly whe ther S u t ton H oo j us t i f ies t h is e xpend i ture i n c o mpar ison w i th o ther s i tes , b ear ing i n mind o f c ourse t ha t a ny money p o tent i a l ly a va i lab le f or S u t ton H oo i s u n l ike ly t o b e a va i lab le f or mos t o f t he work b e ing d one i n B r i t ish a rchaeo log y t oday. D ISCUSS ION I n r esponse t o P h i l ip R ah tz 's s urvey , Dr R L S B ruce- M i t ford r eminded t he c on ference t ha t h e h ad b een i nvo lved i n S u t ton H oo s ince 1 946. A s an ew a ss is tan t k eeper a t t he B r i t ish Museum , h e was s hown ab ox c ont a in ing a n u n l icenced r evo lver a nd 2 5 r ounds o f am mun i t ion b y S ir T ho mas K endr ick , who d ied j us t b e fore sthe c on ference .

T h is h ad b een u sed t o g uard

t he S u t ton H oo t reasure o n i t s j ourney f ro m t he C oroner 's i nques t t o t he B r i t ish Museu m .

D r

B ruce- M i t ford d ep lored t he c oncept o f t reasure

wh ich h as c o me t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th S u t ton H oo ,

H e s uppor ted t he p ro mo t ion

o f a ma jor r esearch e xcava t ion , a nd t hough t t ha t t he c oncen tra t ion o n r escue e xcava t ions h ad t ended t o p roduce a s hor tage o f s yn thes isers i n a rchaeo logy. T here s hou ld , h e c ons idered , b e n o p roble ms i n r a is ing money f or a p ro ject a s e xc i t ing a s t ha t p roposed . H e s ugges ted t ha t R ah tz h ad b een t oo f ree w i th t he w ord e xo t ic i n h is s urvey —no t a l l t he S u t ton H oo f inds e re o f t h is n a ture . 3 24

Many o rd inary o b jects were d ea l t w i th i n t he t h ird v o lume o f t he d ef in i t ive p ub l ica tion—co mbs , t ex t i les , s hoes , t ubs , b ucke ts a nd k n ives .

These p ro-

v ided a c ons iderable f eed-back f ro m S u t ton H oo t o ' ord inary ' a rchaeo logy. T he r esearch d one o n t he l yre p rovoked r ecogn i t ion o f s evera l o thers —e g f ro m Tap low , A bingdon , B ergh Ap ton a nd Morn ing thorpe . w ere i ndeed e xo t ic , b u t h ow d id t hey g et t here? w ere impor tan t .

The s i lver b owls

The e cono m ic i mpl ica t ions

S o t oo was t he e v idence o f i n terna t iona l l inks i n c ra f t a nd

t echn ique , b oth i n r e la t ion t o S cand inav ia a nd t he C e l t ic wor ld . Dr

Bruce- Mi t ford t hought i tu n l ike ly t ha t t here was a ny s e t t le men t s i te

c lose t o t he b arrow c e me tery ;

a na lys is o f t he s oi l b enea th Mound 1 h ad c on-

f i rmed t ha t i th ad b een p loughso i l .

T here was a s trong c ase t o b e made f or

r esearch e lsewhere i n S u f fo lk , a nd h ere t he e xper t ise o f t he S u f fo lk Un i t mus t b e u t i lised t o t he f u ll .

There was n o v a l id i ty i n p u t t ing o f f f ur ther e xcava t ion

i n t he h ope t ha t t echnology wou ld i mprove —a lraady 4 0 y ears h ad p assed s ince t he o r ig ina l e xcava t ion .

H ow much more t ime was n eeded , a nd who wou ld

s ay when t he mo men t was r igh t —why n o t n ow? p roble ms i n c onnect ion w i th c onserva t ion .

We a lready k now t he wors t

The Br i t ish Museu m 's work o n

t he f inds h as t augh t u s al o t a bou t t he k ind o f f i eld r ecords t ha t a re n eeded t o e nsure max i mum i n for ma t ion f ro m s ubsequen t c onserva t ion .

Ac ons iderable

e xper tise h ad b een b u i lt u p i n t he Br i t ish Museu m 's S u t ton H oo u n i t —i t s hou ld n o t b e t hrown a way . b roken .

I n t en o r t wen ty y ears ' t ime , c on t inu i ty w i l l h ave b een

N ew a dvances i n t echno logy a re made i n t he c ourse o f work a nd n o t

t heoret ica l ly.

The 1 967 r e-excava t ion o f t he b oa t h ad p er fec ted t he t echn iques

o f mak ing p las ter-cas ts a nd g lass-f ibre p os i t ives o f b oa t r es idues , wh ich h ave a lso b een a ppl ied t o t he G raveney b oa t . Dr

Dav id Wilson ( D irector o f t he Br i t ish Museu m ) emphas ized t ha t t he

Museu m 's p osi t ion was c en tra l t o a ny n ew S u t ton Hoo p ro ject .

T hey h ad c on-

s is ten t ly t aken t he l i ne t ha t t here s hou ld b e n o more d igg ing u n t i l t here h ad b een f u l l p ublica t ion o f p rev ious work , d igest ion o f t he r esu lts , a nd f u l l a cad em ic d iscussion .

V olume I I s hou ld b e a va i lable b y t he e nd o f 1 980 , a nd t he

B r i t ish Museum 's work o n t he Tap low ma ter ia l was we l l a dvanced .

T hey were

a lso a rrang ing a l oan o f S u t ton H oo ma ter ia l t o S tockho lm i n 1 980 , a nd t here was t o b e a n i n terna t iona l s e minar t here t o d iscuss S u t ton H oo p roble ms , i n a ssocia t ion w i th t hose o f o ther b oa t-graves i n S weden .

T he Trus tees wou ld

u l t i ma tely b e w i l l ing t o c on tr ibu te c ons iderable f inances t owards a ny p roper ly c ons t itu ted e xcava t ion a t S u t ton H oo i fa nd when i td id t ake p lace , b u t n ot o n t he s ca le o f t he £ 50 ,000 p a t ha t was b eing moo ted . T he Br i t ish Museu m wou ld a lso c ons ider u nder tak ing t he p ubl ica t ion o f f ur ther work o n Mounds 2 , 3a nd 4 .

They wou ld a lso b e w i l l ing t o h e lp i n t he c onserva t ion a nd p ro-

t ec t ion o f t he s i te i t se l f . a l l t he t i me . d ea l w i th i ron .

Meanwh i le , e xper tise a t t he museu m was i ncreas ing

One o f t he o u ts tand ing p roble ms s t i l l t o b e s o lved was h ow t o I n c onclus ion , Dr

Wi lson s tressed t ha t t he Br i t ish Museum

wou ld l ike t o b ack a S u tton H oo e xcava t ion , a s h e wou ld p ersona l ly , b u t t hey mus t k now wha t was g oing t o b e d one , a nd h ow ;

t he p roposa l n eeded v ery

c arefu l a nd p ro longed c ons idera t ion . There was s o me d iscussion o n t he t o ta l c os t o f S u t ton H oo t o d a te , a nd h ow t his r ela ted t o t he v a lue o f t he t reasure t o t he n a tion . b y Dr

There was a p lea

Lawrence Bu t ler f or max i mum s urvey a nd p ho tography , a nd n on-

3 25

d es truct ive g eophys ica l p rospec t ing b efore a ny f ur ther e xcava tion i s p ro jec ted . P re ferably t he r abbi ts s hou ld b e g assed , t he s i te b ur ied i n c lay a ga ins t me ta l d e tec tors , a nd s ea led f or 3 0 y ears .

H e s aw S u t ton H oo a s ' a h ore le i s i t t ing

o n t he b anks o f t he D eben b eckon ing a rchaeo log is ts o f t h is g enera t ion ' —a t e mp ta t ion t hey mus t r es is t . J ohn S chof ie ld s ugges ted t ha t t he r ea l c os t o f ap ro jec t s uch a s t ha t e nv isaged w ou ld b e a bou t aq uar ter o f a mi l l ion p ounds p a— f inance o n t h is s ca le s ca le c ou ld c o me o n ly f ro m mu l t i-na t iona l c o mpan ies .

Wha t was n eeded I Aa s

a med ium-s ized p ro fess iona l u n i t . D r

B ruce- Mi tford a rgued a ga ins t a n i nbred s pec ia l is t t ea m .

t he p ro jec t w ou ld b es t b e r un f ro m u n ivers i ty d epar t men ts .

H e t hough t

This w ou ld e n-

c ourage t he p ro mo t ion o f aw ider i n terd isc ip l inary p rogra m me , i nvo lving t he r is ing y ounger g enera t ion o f a cade m ics . P ro fessor R ose mary C ramp , i n s um m ing-up f ro m t he c ha ir , s tressed t he p os i t ive o ppor tun i t ies wh ich S u t ton H oo o f fered . was a wor thwh i le p ro jec t t o d o n ow .

S he t hough t ha t i t

We m igh t f or o nce d o s o me th ing

n ew i n B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , ad i f feren t k ind o f c o-opera t ive e f for t f ro m t ha t we h ad b eco me a ccus to med t o i n t he DOE —sponsored w ork o f t he l as t d ecade . I t wou ld a lso b e a n i n terna t iona l p ro jec t wh ich f ocussed o n av ar ie ty o f p roble ms a nd wou ld p rov ide n ew a nd e xci t ing p oss ib i l i t ies .

I t was e v iden t , h owever ,

t ha t f aced w i th a n o ppor tun i ty o f t h is k ind o ne r an i n to many e n trenched o pin ions a nd i n teres ts .

I fS u t ton H oo was n o t t he p ro ject , t he way f orward i n Br i t ish

a rchaeo logy was t o h ave f oc i o f t h is t ype a nd f rom t he m t o d eve lop w ho le s er ies o f r esearch p rogra m mes .

One d ay we wou ld h ave t o f ace t he f act t ha t i n a

f u ture w i thou t r escue f unds we wou ld h ave t o s eek o ther n a t iona l a nd i n terna t iona l f und ing f or s uch a ma jor c o-opera t ive p ro jec t .

S he c onc luded t ha t t he t one o f

t he d iscuss ion s ugges ted t ha t S u t ton H oo was n ot t he p ro jec t wh ich e veryone wou ld s uppor t .

T he r esponse o f t he c on ference was n ega t ive , i ns tead o f t he

p os i t ive s uppor t wh ich m igh t h ave b een e xpec ted when s o me th ing u t ter ly n ew was b e ing p roposed f or B r i t ish A rchaeo logy .

A f ter t he S y mpos ium , t wo f ur ther c on tr ibu t ions o n S u t ton H oo w ere r ec e ived . One e xpresses a p os i t ive p o in t o f v iew , i n c on tras t t o t he n ega t ive r esponse o f t he S y mpos ium , a nd t o t he i mpar t ia l s urvey Ia t te mp ted ; s econd i s a more t echn ica l c o m men t .

t he

They a re p ub l ished o n t he f o l low ing p ages

t oge ther w i th t he f u l l t ex t o f H ayo V ierck 's c on tr ibu t ion , wh ich a lso makes s o me o bserva t ions n o t s tr ic t ly r e la ted t o my q ues t ionna ire . s ee e nd o f n o 2 2 ).

3 26

( For b ib liography

2 0 .

S UTTON HOO — CO M MENT b y Warwick R odwe l l

Iwas u t ter ly d is mayed a t t he n ega t ive r esponse b y t he a ud ience .

A s

Pro fessor C ra mp s a id i n h er s um m ing-up , we h ad b efore u s ag rea t c ha l lenge , ap oss ible p ro jec t o f n a t iona l a nd i n terna t iona l i mpor tance , ac hance t o t ake al ead a nd make p os i t ive a dvances i n wor ld a rchaeo logy.

When f aced w i th a

r ea l c ha l lenge , t he B r i t ish i gnore i t , r un a way , l e t i t s l ip t hrough t heir f ingers o r , r e luc tan t ly ,

l aunch s o me th ing wh ich g oes o f f a t h a l f-cock .

A t t he O x ford

S y mpos ium we s aw ad is t ingu ished a ud ience o f Ang lo-Saxon s cho lars r un a way f ro m t he p rob le m .

T he ' oppos i t ion ' f l oundered i n as ea o f mud , o u t o f wh ich

t he o n ly f l icker o f l i fe c a me i n t he f or m o f af ew r ed h err ings . T he c ase f or g o ing o n : 1 .

The 1 939 work i s n ow wr i t ten u p a nd a va i lab le .

Ic anno t s ee a ny p ar-

t icu lar a dvan tage i n wa i t ing f or a d ecade wh i le t he a rchaeo log ica l wor ld ' d iges ts ' Vo ls

I -I I I.

C r i t ic ism i s b ound t o b e r i fe , b u t t o wha t e x ten t i s t ha t r e levan t?

I ti s u se less t o d iscuss t he t echn iques o f 1 939 i n t h is c on tex t . H ad Vo ls n o t b een wr i t ten t hen t here wou ld h ave b een a n u nassa i lab le c ase f or t he o ppos i t ion . 2 .

The s i te h as b een l e f t i n ad ere l ic t a nd u n f in ished s ta te .

It h ink t here

i s as trong c ase f or i ns is t ing o n t he c o mp le t ion o f work o n Mounds 2 t o 5a nd t he g round b e tween t he m . t ive—Phase I .

T h is t idying u p o pera t ion s hou ld b e t he f irs t o b jec-

Wh i le r abb i ts a nd t reasure h un ters a re o bv ious ly a t hrea t , I

c ons ider t he m i rre levan t t o a n a cade m ic d ec is ion o f t h is i mpor tance .

I ft he

s i te i s t o b e e xcava ted f ur ther , t hen t he t hrea t w i l l b e e f fec t ive ly c oun tered ; i f , h owever , t he d ec is ion i s a ga ins t e xcava t ion , t hen t he s i te s hou ld b e p rov ided w i th a n e nve lope o f a t l eas t 0 .15 m o f c lay , wh ich wou ld k eep o u t b o th f or ms o f i n trus ion .

Th is i s as er ious ma t ter .

Aga in i t wou ld b e t yp ica l ly Br i t ish

f or u s t o a rgue a bou t t he p ros a nd c ons o f e xcava t ion f or t he n ex t t en y ears wh i le t reasure h un ters move i n a nd l oo t t he p lace .

S u t ton H oo i s s o a t tract ive

t ha t Iwou ld n o t b e a t a l l s urpr ised i f ah igh ly o rgan ised r a id t ook p lace . R eme mber t ha t t reasure h un ters a re n o b et ter t han b ank r obbers — they h ave b een k nown t o wa tch t he move men ts o f l and-owners , wa i t f or t he r igh t mo men t ( e g e verybody g oes o n h o l iday ) a nd s woop o vern igh t . mach inery t o h e lp t hem ( o f

They migh t b r ing i n l i gh t

r ich E truscan t o mbs where t he s po i ls make i t

wor thwh i le t o u se mach inery a nd e xp los ives ) .

An a cade m ic d ecis ion mus t b e

made f irs t , a nd a n t iloo t ing p recau t ions worked o u t a nd a pp l ied a f terwards . T he c ase a ga ins t g o ing o n : Ic anno t s ee a s ound a rgumen t h ere .

I ft he money a nd f aci l i t ies were

g uaran teed , t hen a c are fu l ly t hough t-ou t a nd p hased work p rogram me s hou ld b e p repared . The o ppos i t ion r a ised t he t wo f avour i te c hes tnu ts :- ' l eave i t

3 27

a lone u n t i l t echn iques o f e xcava t ion h ave b eco me " per fec t" d ay wh ich i s a lways j us t r ound t he c orner ) ;

( t ha t U topian

a nd ' i s t h is t he mos t i mpor tan t

s i te t o i nves t iga te f or i t s r esearch p o ten t ia l?'

T he t hough t p rocess b eh ind

t he f irs t s en t i men t r e f lec ts i n te l lec tua l d e fea t a nd c oward ice —i t i s n o more r espons ib le t o p os tpone d ec is ion mak ing a d i n f in i tum t han i ti s t o make r eckl ess d ec is ions .

T he s econd l i ne o f a rgumen t r e f lec ts c o mp le te n a ive ty o f

t hough t . I ts upposes t ha t a ny o ne s i te c an b e g iven a mark o f s ingu lar import ance wh ich i tn ever p ossessed i n t he a nc ien t wor ld . There i s n o s uch t h ing a s t he s i te wh ich w i l l a nswer a l l t he ma jor q ues t ions i n Ang lo-Saxon a rchaeo logy. We h ave s pen t t he 1 970s i n t ha t s ingu lar ly u nreward ing p rocess o f ' g e tt ing o ur p r ior i t ies r igh t '.

T he o n ly way t o f rame t he q ues t ion h ere i s , w i l l f ur ther

e xcava t ion a t S u t ton H oo c on tr ibu te s ign i f ican t ly t o f ur ther ing Ang lo-Saxon a nd k indred s tud ies? c ash ;

One a lways n eeds a g ood p ro jec t t o r a ise a l arge s um o f

t he money wh ich migh t b e r a ised f or S u t ton H oo wou ld n ot , o n t he who le ,

b e a va i lab le f or o ther p ro jec ts i n a rchaeology. There a re many o ther r easons f or c ons ider ing t ha t t h is i s ag ood t ime t o c on t inue work— the i mpe tus g a ined f ro m t he p ubl ica t ion w i l l b e ma in ta ined ; Dr

B ruce- M i t ford i s t he l i nk- man b e tween t he o ld work a nd t he n ew ;

t he

B r i t ish Museum R esearch L abora tory a nd v ar ious i nd iv idua ls h ave b u i lt u p v a luable s k i l ls wh ich s hou ld c on t inue t o b e d rawn u pon ;

t he l andowners a re

amenable . It h ink t here i s at endency t o o verp lay t he u n iqueness o f t he s i te , t he e x ten t o f t he r iches ( i e l oo t ) wh ich i t s t i l l m igh t h o ld , t he d i f f icu l t ies o f c onserva t ion , e tc , e tc . I ti s a l l a ma t ter o f k eep ing l eve l-headed a nd k eep ing t h ings i n p erspec t ive ; t here i s n o c er ta in ty t ha t much more l oot r e ma ins t o b e f ound ;

t he c onserva t ion p roble ms c anno t b e a ny worse t han

t hey h ave b een s o f ar ;

a nd t echn iques o f e xcava t ion , r ecord ing a nd s i te c on-

s erva t ion h ave g o t t o b e d eve loped o n t he j ob . P rocedures : Ac are fu l ly d ev ised s tra tegy i s r equ ired , o f w h ich P hase Is hou ld b e t he mopp ing-up o pera t ion .

P hase I s hou ld b e i n tens ive f ie ld s urvey a nd e xcava-

t i on i n t he a rea o f S u t ton H oo , t o f ind t he i m med ia te c u l tura l a nd e nv iron men ta l c on tex t o f t he b arrows .

P hase I I migh t b e t he e xcava t ion o f f ive more mounds ;

a nd P hase I V s hou ld a t te mp t t o p u t S u t ton H oo i n to i t s w ider Eas t Ang l ian c ont ex t .

F ina l ly , aP hase V migh t b e c on te mp la ted t o e xcava te t he r e ma inder

o f t he b arrow c e metery .

The e xcava t ion o f t he e n t ire b arrow g roup s hou ld

n o t b e t he s o le o b jec t ive , a nd s o me b arrows migh t b e l e f t u n touched f or p ost er i ty.

T he who le a rea a round S u t ton H oo mus t b e d issected w i th a s ca lpel .

S u t ton H oo mus t b e p u t i n to c on tex t , wh ich w i l l mean f i e ld s urvey a nd p robab ly l arge-sca le e xcava t ion a t R end lesham , S nape , I ken e tc . Manage men ts a nd L og is t ics : Manage men t w i l l n eed t o b e b y ab oard o f n o t more t han s ix s cho lars o f t he f i rs t r ank ( no r epresen ta t ives o f t h is , t ha t o r t he o ther b ody).

Ad irector

o f r esearch w i l l n eed t o b e a ppo in ted who i s a n e xcava tor a nd s cho lar o f h igh r ank , a nd who h as w ide r ang ing i n teres ts .

D ec is ions s hou ld b e make b y t he

manage men t b oard a nd d irec tor i n u n ison , a nd t hen t he d irec tor l ef t a lone t o d o h is j ob w i thou t d a i ly i n ter ference .

O bv ious ly , t he d irector w i l l n eed t o b e 3 28

ap erson who i s n o t a fra id o f s eek ing a dv ice where a ppropr ia te , a nd mus t e nsure t ha t e very p oss ib le o unce o f i n for ma t ion i s wrung o u t o f t he s i te . R esearch d es ign h ere mus t b e a l lowed t o e vo lve t o al arge e x ten t a long w i th t he s i te. Manage men t o f p ub l ic r ela t ions i s g o ing t o b e v ery d i f f icu l t — af ar more f orm idable t ask t han t he e xcava t ion .

The Br i t ish p ub l ic i s s o s teeped i n t he

d oc tr ine t ha t a rchaeo logy = l oo t t ha t i ti s g o ing t o t ake a mass ive e f for t t o k eep p ub l ic i ty c o mp lete ly a way f ro m t he s ub jec t o f g rave g oods a nd wea l th .

F ina l ly ,

It h ink £ 50 ,000 p a i s w e l l o ver t he o dds . I ta l l d epends h ow o ne c ons t itu tes t he u n i t a nd h ow l arge a p rogram me i s d ev ised f or e ach y ear .

3 29

2 1.

S UTTON HOO — CO M MENT b y Va ler ie F enwick

A s an au t ica l s pec ia l is t , Iwou ld l i ke t o c o m men t o n t he p oss ible b ear ing o f t h is r esearch e xcava t ion o n o ur k now ledge o f Ang lo-Saxon s h ip-bu i ld ing . T he p resen t s ta te o f t he s ub jec t i s o u t l ined a t t he b eg inn ing o f C hap ter 8 o f t he G raveney R epor t ( Fenw ick 1 978 ) a nd i n af or thco m ing b ook , A rchaeo logy a nd t he S ea ( B lackman a nd F enw ick e ds

f or thco m ing ).

S ince Iam t he o n ly

a rchaeolog is t t o h ave e xcava ted a nd s tud ied i n d e ta i l b o th a n Ang lo-Saxon s h ipi mpress ion a nd a we l l-preserved d ere l ic t b u i l t i n t he s ame t rad i t ion , my c o mmen ts o n t he q ua l i ty o f e v idence t he f ormer c an p rov ide may b e o f s o me v a lue . Ih ave i n terpre ted t he S u t ton H oo r ive t-pa t tern i n t he l i gh t o f t he G raveney r ive t-ho les ( Fenw ick 1 978 , 2 36 ) , t he s car f-r ive ts i n t he l i gh t o f G raveney 's r epa irs ( i bid , 2 21 ) .

W i thou t wa ter logged s pec i mens o f ac lose ly c o mparable

t ype we c an o n ly o f fer h ypo the t ica l i n terpre ta t ions o f t he c ons truc t ion o f as h ip b ur ied i n s and a t t hose p o in ts where i ron f as ten ings h ave b een u sed ( BruceM i t ford 1 975 , F ig

2 90 .

N o te t ha t wood-gra in i s n o t s hown ).

T h is p o in t i s

T he s o i l o f S u t ton H oo i s e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t t o e xcava te.

F ew o u t l ines

made o n t wo c oun ts : Wood :

o r i mpress ions a re c oheren t , b u t a ppear a s i n ter m i t ten t b lobs a nd b lurs . T h is i s t rue e ven a t t he d ep th o f S h ip Ik eel i n s ec t ions where t he h u l l was n o t d is torted b y war t i me a c t iv i t ies .

O le C rum l in-Pedersen ( excava tor o f t he

S ku ldelev s h ips ) a nd Is pen t many h ours i n t he b o t to m o f t he s h ip d issec t ing t he k ee l a nd r ib i mpress ions w i th a s ca lpe l a nd were u nable t o r each a ny f ir m i dea o f t he c ons truct ion o f e i ther .

The b es t-preserved s ect ion o f t he k ee l was

l i f ted i n ab lock a nd Ie xcava ted i ti n t he B r i t ish Museum e ven more c arefu l ly . T he c leares t s ec t ions a re p ubl ished i n F ig 2 16 ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 ) a nd f ro m t hese o ne c an g a in s o me i dea h ow t enuous t he e v idence f or t he s hape o f t he c o mponen ts i s . I ron : T he s o i l o f S u t ton H oo ( p lus t he o xa l ic a c id b a th e f fec t o f ab ur ied o ak s h ip ) i s i n im ica l t o t he p reserva t ion o f i ron .

S u t ton H oo i ronwork f requen t ly

r esembles t ha t f ro m u nderwa ter s i tes , i n t ha t t he i n ter ior i s h o l low a nd t he o x ides h ave migra ted t o c oncre te s and o u ts ide t he o r ig ina l p rof i le o f t he o b jec t . I ft h is p rocess were more c ons is ten t we wou ld b e a b le t o o bta in s yn the t ic r ubber i mpress ions o f t he o b jec ts , a s h as b een d one w i th c oncre t ions f ro m u nderwa ter s i tes .

Un for tuna tely , my s tudy o f t he i ronwork f ro m S u t ton H oo s hows t ha t i t

d oes n ot h ave a ny s uch c lear-cu t o u t l ines i n terna l ly .

A s ar esu l t we c anno t

b e c er ta in o f t he e xact o u t l ine o r f orm o f t he f as ten ings u sed i n t he s h ip . d o h ave a g ood i dea o f t he ir s hape f ro m a verag ing o u t a bou t 2 00 e xamp les ,

3 31

We

b u t c anno t p ick o u t r epa ir-r ive ts a nd v ar ian ts— much l ess t i e t he m t o a ny sm i th ing ' s tyle '.

Wood g ra in i s s o p oor ly p reserved i n t he s and e ncrus t ing

t he i ron t ha t we c anno t e ven t e l l whe ther t he G raveney d owe l-techn ique ( Fenw ick 1 978 , 2 24 ) was u sed o r n o t . L ack o f t h is e v idence i s d ue n o t t o t he s tandard o f e xcava t ion i n 1 939 ( or 1 965-7 ) b u t t o t he s o i l c ond i t ions . I f , f or t he s ake o f a rgumen t , w e were l ucky e nough t o f ind b e t ter p reserved wood-gra in a nd more c oheren t i ron c orros ion p roducts e lsewhere o n t he s i te , wha t migh t ab e t ter s h ipi mpress ion b e e xpec ted t o t e l l u s a bou t A ng lo-Saxon s h ipbu i ld ing , me thods o f p ropu ls ion a nd s a i l ing?

We k now we c anno t h ope t o

f ind t hose b eve ls , t oo l- marks a nd d e ta i ls o f t imber c onvers ion wh ich awa terl ogged f ind c an p rov ide .

S h ip I ( i t i s a rgued ) h ad i t s d eck ing , q uar ter r udder

a nd mas t s uppor t s ys te m ( i f i th ad o ne ) r e moved t o f aci l i ta te t ranspor t o ver land . I f we were l ucky e nough t o f ind a sma l ler s h ip f or wh ich s uch s tr ipp ing was u nnecessary t here i s v ir tua l ly n o c hance o f t he s urv iva l o f i n terna l s uppor ts , t hwar ts , e tc .

We wou ld h ave a no ther v esse l , i n i t s p ropor t ions a nd r ivet-

p a t terns e i ther s i mi lar o r d i f feren t f ro m S h ip I .

D educ t ions f ro m l eng th/

b read th r a t ios f rank ly b e long t o t he i n fancy o f n au t ica l a rchaeology a nd a re n o t d e ter m inan ts .

Mü l ler- W i l le ( 1 970 ) h as s hown w ha t c an b e d educed f ro m t hese

a s f ar a s b ur ia l s h ips a re c oncerned .

Ano ther s im i lar ly c ons truc ted v esse l

w i l l i ncrease t he l i ke l ihood t ha t b o th w ere t he p roducts o f al oca l y ard . w i l l n o t p rove i t .

Mound 1 c on ta ined i mpor ts ;

I t

p erhaps t he s h ip was o ne o f

t he m . On ly t he e xceed ing ly r are d iscovery o f u n f in ished c ra f t , s uch a s t he Tundern d ugou t a nd t he Bre men c og , c an p rec ise ly l oca te t echn iques o f c ons truc t ion , a l though d endrochrono logy a nd p lan t-re ma ins c an h e lp b y p rov id ing r eg iona l l im i ts .

H owever , t he r e ma ins o f b oa tyards a nd s l ipways c an t el l u s

av ery g rea t d ea l a bou t l oca l ised s h ipbu i ld ing t rad i t ions , a nd , l ike wa ter fron ts , c an p rov ide f rag men ts o f s h ips . T hese s i tes a re d espera te ly n eeded i n S uf fo lk , t he c oun ty wh ich h as p rov ided ( w i th t he s o le l a te e xcep t ion o f G raveney ) a l l o ur e xa mp les o f s h ips i n t h is p er iod .

Wa ter logged w ood f ro m S u f fo lk s i tes

w i l l a dvance o ur k now ledge o f Ang lo-Saxon s h ipbu i ld ing i n a way t ha t n o s h ipb ur ia l c an . T he r oya l manor o f Me l ton l i es o ppos i te S u t ton H oo . Ar ing-road b e tween i ta nd t he r iver was c o mp le ted t h is y ear . T he s econd p hase o f t he Woodbr idge l ink r oad i s t o b e d r iven b e tween t he t own a nd t he r iver .

C on-

s truct ion o f t h is r oad w i l l p rov ide p erhaps t he o n ly o ppor tun i ty i n o ur l i fet ime t o l ook f or i ns ta l la t ions o f t h is k ind , n o t t o men t ion wooden b r idge a bu tmen ts a nd Ang lo-Saxon s e t t le men t . A s a n a rchaeo log is t c lose ly c oncerned i n t he s tudy o f Mounds 2 -4 a nd t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he o b jects wh ich f or med t he b as is o f Dr Bruce- M i t ford 's p ub l ica t ion o f t he m , Ih ave a lways h oped t ha t t hese mounds wou ld e ven tua l ly b e r e-excava ted .

I n f ac t , c o mp le te e xcava t ion o f Mound 2 f or med t he b as is

o f ar eco m menda t ion made i n 1 964 , n ame ly t ha t w e s hou ld c o mple te ly e xcava te t h is messed-up mound i n o rder t o d eve lop b e t ter t echn iques o f d ea l ing w i th s h ips u nder mounds .

H av ing s pen t t hree s easons r e-excava t ing Mound 1 , I

am e ven more c onv inced o f t he n eed t o d o s o , a nd f ee l t ha t S cand inav ian e xp er t ise mus t b e u sed h ere .

T h is r obbed b oa t-bur ia l , i n wh ich o ne t h ird o f t he

v esse l p robably s urv ives ( Fenw ick 1 978 , 1 97) , wou ld s t i l l make a n e xcel len t s ub jec t f or s uch a n e xper imen t .

3 32

Ib el ieve t ha t i ron c ou ld b e o ne o f t he ,f ac tors r e la ted t o t he e cono m ic b as is o f k ing ly p ower i n Eas t Ang l ia .

T h is c onv ic t ion a rose f ro m my s tudy

o f t he i ronwork i n Mound 1 ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 980 , C h

9 ) .

Iam c urren t ly

e xcava t ing a n Ang lo-Saxon i ronworks d ue e as t o f S u t ton H oo a nd am r e la t ing t h is t o as tudy a nd a na lys is o f t he o nes i n t he r eg ion .

3 33

2 2 .

S UTTON HOO — CO M MENT b y Hayo V ierck

A s h as a lways b een a ccep ted , t he c rucia l p o in t i n t he a l loca t ion o f t he d ea th-da te o f ap ar t icu lar k ing t o S u t ton H oo , a nd t hereby p lacing t he d iscovery i n i t s p roper h is tor ica l p erspec t ive , r es ts o n c ircums tan t ia l e v idence p rov ided b y an u mber o f d a ta .

A l though t he b a lance f or o r a ga ins t l abe l l ing t he s h ip-

mound w i th t h is o r t ha t k ing 's n a me d epends , f or e xamp le , n e i ther o n t he r ega l ia n or t he e v idence o f t he 3 7 Merov ing ian c o ins a lone , o ur s uccess o r f a i lure i n d e ter m in ing t he r i tua l emp loyed f or b ur ia l i s o f d ecis ive i mpor tance . H owever , a s h as o n ly r ecen t ly b een s tressed i n t he d iscuss ion i n r ev iews p ub l ished s ince t he i ncep t ion o f Dr R L S B ruce- M i t ford 's f ina l p ubl ica t ion , t he d iagnos t ic v a lues o f n um is ma t ic , t opograph ica l , r i tua l a nd c ere mon ia l f ac tors t he mse lves r ema in o pen . Dr

S hor t ly b efore p ub l ish ing h is f ina l a ccoun t ,

B ruce- M i t ford p o in ted t o t he t hree p oss ible r i tes o bserved : i nhuma t ion

( Bruce- M i t ford 1 972 , 4 0 ) ;

t he r a is ing o f ac eno taph ( i bid ,

4 0-64 ) ;

a nd c re-

ma t ion ( i bid . 6 1) —even t hough t he l as t was o n ly c ons idered ' a s o mewha t f reak ish i dea '. H av ing s ince p rac t ica lly a bandoned h is o lder c eno taph t heory , Dr

B ruce- M i t ford n ow e xp la ins t he b ur ia l i n t er ms o f i nhuma t ion , t he b ody

h av ing d isso lved c o mp le te ly.

B e tween t hese t wo p ubl ica t ions , Ip o in ted t o t he

o ne p oss ible i n terpre ta t ion o f t he a va i lab le d a ta t ha t migh t c l inch t he ma t ter o f t he k ing 's i den t i ty ( V ierck 1 973 ).

I ft he c hö ice b e tween a C hr is t ian , p agan-

C hr is t ian ( s yncre t is t ic ) , o r p agan k ing c ou ld b e r educed t o p agan is m b y s howing c rema t ion t o h ave b een t he mos t l i ke ly r i te o bserved , t h is wou ld a l mos t c ert a in ly p rec lude a l l o ther c and ida tes b u t K ing Raedwa ld .

T he u nsurpassed

wea l th o f t h is b ur ia l among E ng l ish f inds , a s we l l a s t he d a te o f t he c o ins ( A D 6 25-30 ) , e xclude a ny o ther c ho ice f ro m t he E as t Ang l ian d ynas ty b efore h is d ea th-da te o f c A .D. 6 24-25 ;

t he p agan n a ture o f b ur ia l e xcludes a ny

o f h is C hr is t ian s uccessors . Ih ave d we l t b r ief ly o n t h is s tar t ing p o in t f or my o wn i n teres t i n S u t ton B oo b ecause o f i t s d irec t b ear ing o n t he q ues t ion o f f u ture e xcava t ion a t t he s i te . Opin ion o n t he r i te o bserved a nd t he i den t i ty o f t he k ing b ur ied a t S u t ton B oo i s more d iv ided t oday t han e ver , t o j udge f ro m r eviews a nd o ther s ta te men ts p ub l ished s ince t he a ppearance o f t he f irs t v o lu me o f t he d ef in i t ive r epor t .

I t

i s t rue t ha t t he o nce f avoured c eno taph t heory ( so much s o a s t o h ave e n tered t ex t b ooks a s t he a pproved v ers ion ) i s s carce ly r e ferred t o t oday , b u t t he i nh uma t ion t heory h as n o t f ound c o mp le te a pprova l . T he s pec trum o f p oss ibi l i t ies h as e ven b een e n larged b y af ur ther v ar ia t ion , t he modi f ied i nhuma t ion t heory . Dr

J N

L Myres made t he i n teres t ing s ugges t ion t ha t t he k ing 's b ody h ad

b een b ur ied i n t he s h ip-grave , b u t h ad l a ter b een t rans ferred t o aC hr is t ian g raveyard ( Myres 1 977).

Fur ther o bservers h ave a ccep ted t he n ew i nhu ma t ion

t heory a s r ead i ly a nd u ncr i t ica l ly a s o thers h ad a t a n e ar l ier d a te t he c eno taph t heory ( Arrhen ius 1 978 ;

Warren 1 977 ; 3 35

C ameron 1 977 ;

L orren 1 977;

Brown

1978, 60). While Rosemary Cramp is more concerned with other problems posed by the burial, paying scant but necessary attention to the discussion of rite-'a full and fair survey of the possible answers' (Cramp 1978, 427)-yet another group of observers take critical notice of the cremation theory as well. This is considered a 'notion ...worth entertaining' (Hawkes 1975, 344), a fair conclusion to be drawn from 'burial rituals at Sutton Hoo' that 'may be far more complex and have a much wider Anglo-Scandinavian background than Dr Bruce-Mitford has been willing to accept' (Dickinson 197 5, 227), a 'weighty alternative' (Sternqvist 1977 /78, 155-6) and a 'distinct probability' (Hauck 1978, 455). Representing a more general feeling about the possible alternatives, Graham-Campbell deserves to be cited in full: 'It is the generally academic practice first to establish the nature of the available evidence before proceeding to draw conclusions from it. In the instance of "The coins", this logical process is reversed. The practice is also disregarded by the author in debating the date and nature of the burial, in this first volume. Such matters would have been better held over until the total range of the evidence had been presented, for there is a danger that hypotheses advanced at this stage may influence the discussion of the material that still re­ mains for full publication. We are thus informed of the author's opinion that "the great ship­ burial can be regarded as probably a genuine burial, with no trace of the body surviving, and with a funera,l offering of (grilled) meat..• placed on the Anastasius dish" (r 715), and that there is a "very strong case for concluding that the Sutton Hoo ship-burial is the tomb of Raedwald" (p 717). Space prohibits review of more than one of these contentions. This interpretation of the remains on the Anastasuis dish as being of animal rather than human bone rests on Dr Bruce-Mitford's re­ fusal to accept the possibility of a mixed rite with a cremated body being accompanied by unburnt grave goods. The evidence for this as an occasional Germanic practice is not discussed by him, but is dismissed in a footnote (p 714). The mixture of rites described at Beowulf's own funeral is evidence discarded as "confusion of thought or text, or of distance in time from the days when such ceremonies were performed" (P 717). Yet unburnt objects occur with the cre­ mations in Mounds 3 and 4 at Sutton Hoo and the wider evidence, now marshalled by Dr Vierck (1973), demonstrates that there are no major objections to the ashes on the Anastasius dish being those of a human body. Indeed, whilst the only positive argument of sub stance for the presence of an unburnt body is based on phosphatic traces on the sword scabbard, the theory of a cremation, placed on a silver dish at the centre of the burial-chamber, will now be seen by many to be slightly more probable' (Graham-Campbell 1977, 80). This is not the place to repeat and endorse with new arguments my own interpretation of the rite in question. But one cannot help noting a sense of disorientation on the part of those who limit their choice to the cenotaph versus the inhumation theories, allowing even for co.mpletely new candidates to be 336

introduced into the argument (Arrhenius 197 8). Or, in the words of Martin Biddle: ' •..one of the most difficult issues, that of cenotaph � burial, has not been solved either by the book or by these reviews (compare the contribu­ tion of Professors Warren and Cameron with that of Dr Page), and it seems unlikely that this can now ever be resolved' (Biddle et al 1977, 249-250). Having partly rested my own argument on topographical considerations, I am less sceptical than is Biddle who concentrates his attention on the ship­ grave alone. He suffers a methodological setback shared by the reviews on which he comments as well as by some others. Graham-Campbell, Chadwick Hawkes, Dickinson, Hauck and Wilson (latter in Mtlller-Wille 1978, 269-70), on the other hand, share my opinion that the overall context of all graves at Sutton Hoo (and beyond) is as important for identifying the ritual observed in the ship grave as is a close scrutiny of the chamber in the ship grave itself. In the last resort, it was only the combined list of all ritual features from the site (Fig 22.1, Graves 1-4), that allowed me to conclude that the burnt bone on the Anastasius dish is likely to represent all that remains of King Raedwald, set to rest on this silver vessel-an appropriately costly urn. (Grave 2 has been included but is not strictly relevant to the discussion since the absence of human remains precludes a definition of the nature of the burial as well as the occurrence of unburnt grave goods; the latter occurred in cremation Graves 3 and 4). Even if further excavation in the remaining grave mounds at Sutton Hoo does not result in, say, the discovery of more c_remations or inhumations, it would allow the completion of my list of all traits pertinent to ritual. This would generate more decisive arguments for or against the theories so far-inhumation, modified inhumation, cremation, or cenotaph. A further and equally topographical point favours the resumption of exca­ vations at Sutton Hoo. The juggling of a generation of archaeologists and historians to associate the ship-grave with this of that East Anglian king tends to favour a climate which takes the royal nature of the burial for granted. However, it must be stressed again that unsurpassed wealth and similarly unique criteria provide only circumstantial evidence of royal provenience. It was J M ·wallace-Hadrill (196 0), who, in choosing a strictly historical approach, first cast doubt on a royal identity. One of his arguments was the lack of objects that could be declared beyond any doubt as regalia. This cri­ ticism has recently been renewed by Dr Page (1977) with the trenchant scepticism of a philologist accustomed to the pitfalls of runic epigraphy. Joining him in raising the regalia question seems particularly apposite in view of vol II's acceptance as a sceptre of that uncouth object composed of a whetstone resting on an inverted cup and topped by a ring, which in turn is surmounted by a bronze stag. Here another historian's argument comes to our assistance. Karl Hauck (1978) points out the number of objects and cus­ toms in the cemetery that group Mounds 1-4 closer together and at the same time distinguish them from other Anglo-Saxon cemeteries. This cumulative evidence tends to confirm the royal nature of Grave 1 by viewing it in the wider context of a 'dynastic mausoleum'. The importance of this argument, which further excavation may affect, is highlighted by the apparent weakness of that topographical argument which links the ship grave and the royal 'residence' of Rendlesham, searched for about 6.4 kms upstream from Sutton Hoo. Birgit Arrheniu s (197 8) was right 337

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t o p o in t o u t c er ta in f ea tures o f t he s i te t ha t s peak i n f avour o f i t s c onnec t ion w i th a s e t t le men t n ex t t o i ta nd n o t a t R end lesham .

F or s ince If irs t c o l lec ted

t he a rgu men ts i n f avour o f Ang lo-Saxon c e me ter ies b e ing s et u p i n t he c loses t p rox im i ty t o s e t t le men ts ( Dav ies a nd V ierck 1 974 , 2 61-6 ) , n ew d iscover ies h ave made i ti ncreas ing ly c lear t ha t t h is f ea ture h o lds a s t rue f or Ang lo-Saxon E ng land a s i td oes f or C on t inen ta l s i tes . Moreover , t he imp l ici t c oncep t o f t he ' residence ' a t R end lesha m a s as upposed ly c ons tan t r esor t o f K ing Raedwa ld i s a lmos t c er ta in ly af a lse o ne .

T he a rcha ic k ingsh ip o f Ear ly M idd le Ages

was t i ed u p t o many ' r es idences ' o r v i l ls , v is i ted o ver t he s eaons o r y ears . I n t he t en th c en tury , t wo more r oya l manors a re men t ioned j us t o pposi te a nd p resu mably i n s igh t o f S u t ton H oo ( Fig

2 2.2 ).

I ft hese were f ound i n t he

A ng lo-Saxon p er iod , t hose who were b ur ied o n t he s i te may j us t a s we l l h ave l i ved a t K ings ton o r Me l ton , o r , i ndeed may t hey n o t h ave l i ved a t a n h is tor ica l ly u nrecorded v i l l a t S u t ton H oo i t se lf? D oes t h is o bl ige u s t o r esume e xcava t ion a t S u t ton H oo?

Fro m a p ure ly

h is tor ica l p o in t o f v iew , p a ten t ly y es , b u t , f ro m a c onserva t ion p o in t o f v iew , mos t p robab ly n o t n ow . Iam n o t c ons ider ing t he mere t hrea t o f marauders , b u t t ha t v ery r ea l a rchaeo log ica l c o m monp lace ' excava t ion i s d es truct ion ' . T o c i te t h is d ic tum s ee ms t o b e p ar t icuar ly H oo .

a ppropr ia te i n t he c ase o f S u t ton

I ti s h ard ly a n e xaggera t ion t ha t mos t e xcava tors e xp lor ing a n u nusua l ly

d i f f icu l t s i te t end t o d iscover s i mp ly t ha t wh ich t hey h ave b een t augh t t o l ook f or , t ha t wh ich t hey e xpec t t o f ind .

H ad a mixed r i te o f c re ma t ion a nd l av ish

g rave g oods b een k nown a t t he t ime o f t he s h ip g rave 's d iscover y , t he Anas tas ius d ish a nd i ts c on ten ts w ou ld p resumably h ave b een s cru t in ized more c lose ly. A t au n ique s i te o f s uch impor tance i n Eng land a nd b eyond we s hou ld measure c are fu l ly o ur p resen t c apabi l i ty t o c on t inue t he e xp lora t ions im med ia te ly. We mus t c er ta in ly wa i t f or t he f u l l r esponse t o t he f ina l p ub l ica t ion i n o rder t o a ch ieve a d e tached a nd s ober ly b a lanced v iew o f wha t t o e xpec t i n Mounds 5 -15 .

Moreover , i ft he n ecessary n u mber o f p er manen t c onserva t ion a nd

l abora tory s ta f f were u nava i lable , f ur ther d es truct ion o f d a ta wou ld b e b ound t o o ccur , b ecause o f t he q uan t i ty o f f inds t o b e e xpected f ro m a r esearch e xcava tion o f t h is magn i tude .

One n eeds o n ly t o r eca l l t he s heer amoun t o f

t echn ica l i npu t o f t he B r i t ish Museum S u t ton H oo Un i t ( conserva t ion l abora tory , p ho tograph ic a nd d raugh t ing ) i n o rder t o r ea l ize t he l ong t erm i mp l ica t ions o f f ur ther e xcava t ion . Af ur ther g enera t ion 's c on t inuous work may we l l b e i ncurred . N eed less t o a dd , t h is h o lds e qua l ly t rue i fc on t inu i ty i s a bsen t i n t he o ne p ers on who s hou ld b e e n trus ted w i th g u id ing t he e n t ire r ange o f o pera t ions , f ro m e xcava tion t hrough c onserva t ion a nd p repara t ion t o p ub l ica t ion . A s a nybody mus t h ave e xper ienced who i s a cqua in ted w i th e d i t ing s o meone-e lse 's e xcavat i on n otes , e ven t he mos t c o mp lete d ocumen ta t ion c anno t a l low f or d ec is ions t ha t c ou ld o n ly b e made i n c ases o f d oubt b y t he i n formed me mory o f t he man who h as b een i n c harge o f t he s i te . I n t he mean t ime , l esser s i tes o f s im i lar c o mp lex i ty may y e t p rov ide u s w i th a g rea ter r ange o f e xper ience b efore r esum ing work a t S u t ton H oo .

I

c an e ven c onceive o f ar eg iona l s urvey o f t he S u f folk S and l ings b e ing u ndert aken b efore r e turn ing t o S u t ton H oo f or g ood .

A f ter a l l , t h is l ine o f i nqu iry

h as r evea led i t s A ng lo-Saxon s ubs tance t hrough P rofessor Cun l i f fe 's s urvey i n t he h is tor ica l ly s ure ly l ess impor tan t a rea o f C ha l ton , Han ts .

T o a modern

s e t t le men t a rchaeo log is t a t l eas t , af ew o f t hose p ar t ly e xcava ted s i tes t ha t

3 39

A ldeburgh

W ickha m Mar ke t

A K ings ton 2m 0

e s 4 km

Zr .

= . I I L ate R o man s hore f ort • B r igh twe l l N — Hea th

• Bur ia ls o f 54 h7t h Centur ies

A

S uggested s i tes o f an E ast Ang l ian Ro yo t p a lace A K nown r oya le s tates i n1 0t h C entury

Co

R end lesha m P ar ish Boundary Wa l ton C as t le

AFTER

F ig . 2 2 .2

V IERCK 1 978

S ut ton H oo a nd a ssoc ia ted s i tes ( f ro m M t i l ler- W i l le e t a l F ig

7 8, p

2 73 )

3 40

1 978,

h ave h ad a lready a nd may h ave f ur ther b ear ing o n t he e xp lora t ion o f S u t ton H oo w ou ld s ugges t t hemse lves i m med ia te ly f or p r ior r e-excava t ion—Snape , Marke t Wickham a nd t he a rea o f B r igh twe l l H ea th .

T hree f ur ther s i tes might

b e men t ioned which h ave s hown f ea tures s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t S u t ton H oo Mound 3 a nd 4 :

t hose o f L oveden H i l l , L ines , Broo m f ield , E ssex a nd As tha l l

Barrow , Oxon .

I n t he e nd , s uch a c ircu mspect s tudy o f S u t ton H oo w i thin i t s

Ang l ian ( and S axon ) s e t t ing may we l l b r ing more s harp ly i n to r e l ie f wha t d ist i ngu ishes t h is s i te f ro m o thers i n Eng land :

i t s c lass i f ica t ion t ogether w i th

ah andfu l o f d iscover ies s ca t tered o ver t he r es t o f Europe , t ha t r e f lect n o t s o much t heir r eg iona l b ackground b u t a l l t ha t i s l e f t t o u s o f a n i n tere thn ic c our t c u lture .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ( f or p apers 1 9-22 ) A rrhen ius , B ., 1 978 .

Rev iew o f B ruce- Mi t ford 1 975 , Med ieva l Archaeo l.

2 2 ( 1978 ) , 1 89-95 . Barker ,

P ., 1 977.

T he T echn iques o f A rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ion ( London ,

1 977). B idd le , M., B inns , A ., C a meron , J . M., Me tca lf , D . M., Page , R . I . , S parrow , C . a nd Warren , F . L ., 1 977.

' Su t ton H oo P ubl ished :

A R ev iew ' ,

Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 6 ( 1977) , 2 49-65. B lackman , D . a nd F enwick , V ., e ds . f or thco m ing .

Archaeology a nd t he S ea

( Acade m ic P ress , f or thco m ing ). B rown , D ., 1 978.

A ng lo-Saxon Eng land ( 1978 ).

Bruce- Mi t ford , R . L . S ., 1 968 .

T he S u t ton H oo S h ip Bur ia l :

A Handbook

T he S u t ton H oo S h ip B ur ia l :

A Handbook

( Bri t ish Museum , 1 968 ). B ruce- Mi t ford , R . L . S ., 1 972.

( 2nd e d ., Br i tish Museu m , 1 972 ). B ruce- Mi tford , R . L . S ., 1 974.

A spects o f Ang lo-Saxon Archaeology:

S u tton H oo a nd O ther D iscover ies ( London , 1 974 ). B ruce- Mi t ford , R . L . S ., 1 975 .

T he S u t ton H oo S h ip-Bur ia l V o l . I :

E xcava t ions , Background , The S h ip Da t ing a nd I nven tory.

( Br i t ish

Museu m , 1 975 ). B ruce- Mi t ford , R . L . S ., 1 978 . A r ms , Ar mour a nd R ega lia . Bruce- Mi tford , R . L . S ., 1 980.

T he S u t ton H oo S h ip-Bur ia l V o l . I : ( Br i t ish Museu m , 1 978 ). T he S u t ton H oo S h ip-Bur ia l V o l . I I

( 1 980 o r f or thco m ing ). Cameron , J . M., 1 977. C ramp , R ., 1 978 .

i n B idd le e t a l . ( 1 977).

R ev iew o f Bruce- Mi t ford 1 975 , An t iq . J . 5 8 ( 1978 ) ,

4 26-8 . Dav ies , W. a nd V ierck , H ., 1 974 .

' The C on tex ts o f Tr iba l H idage :

S oc ia l

A ggrega tes a nd S e t t le men t Pa t terns ' , Früh m i tte la l ter liche S tud ien 8 ( 1974 ) , 2 23-93.

3 41

D ick inson , T ., 1 975 .

Rev iew o f Bruce- M i t ford 1 974 , An t iqu i ty 4 9 , N o. 1 95

( 1975 ) , 2 27-8. Fenwick , V ., 1 978 .

The G raveney Boa t ( B. A .R . 5 3 , 1 978 ).

G raha m-Campbe l l , J ., 1 977.

Rev iew o f Bruce- Mi t ford 1 975 , An t iqu i ty 5 1,

N o . 2 01 ( 1977) , 7 9-80 . Hauck , K ., 1 978 .

' Zu m e rs ten Band d er S u t ton-Hoo Edi t ion ' , Frühm i ttel-

a l ter l iche S tud ien 1 2 ( 1978 ) , 4 38-56. Hawkes , C ., 1 964.

' Su t ton Hoo :

Twen ty F ive Y ears A f ter ' , An t iqu i ty 3 8 ,

N o . 1 52 ( 1964 ) , 2 52-7. Hawkes , S . Chadwick , 1 975 .

' Pos t-Ro man a nd P agan Ang lo-Saxon ' , Archaeo l .

J . 1 32 ( 1975 ) , 3 32-48 . Hope-Taylor , B ., 1 977.

Yeaver ing ,

( Depar t . Env iron . Archaeol . R epor ts

N o . 7 , 1 977, p ubl . 1 980 ). Lorren , C ., 1 977.

Rev iew o f Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 , Arch kdog ie W dMva le

7( 1977) , 3 01-13. Mü l ler- W i l le , M., 1 970 .

' Bes ta t tung im Boo t .

S tud ien z u e iner n ordeuro-

p aeschen G rabs i t te ' , O f fa 2 5/26 ( 1970 ). Mü l ler- W i l le , M., V ierck , H . a nd Wi lson , D ., 1 978 .

S ect ion r e B oo tgrab

i n J . Hoops , Rea l lex ikon d er G er man ischen A lter tumskunde , e d . H . Beck e t a l ., Vo l . 3 , 4 .3/4 ( 1978 ). Myres , J . N .L ., 1 969.

Rev iew o f Bruce- M it ford 1 968 , An t iq. J . 4 9 ( 1969) ,

4 23. Myres , J . M. L., 1 977.

Rev iew o f Bruce- M i tford 1 975 , Eng . H is t . R ev iew

9 2 , N o . 3 65 ( 1 977) , 8 47-51. O lsen , 0 ., 1 980.

' Rabies Archaeo logoru m ', An t iqu i ty , 4 4 , N o. 2 10 ( 1 980 ) ,

1 5-20 . Page , R . I . , i n B idd le e t a l . ( 1977). Rah tz , P ., 1 978.

Review o f Barker 1 977, Curren t Archaeo l . 6 3 ( 1978 ) , 1 27.

S hephard , J . F ., 1 979. C en tur ies A . D.

Ang lo-Saxon Barrows o f t he La ter S ix th a nd S even th

( Unpubl ished P h .D . D isser ta tion , Un iversi ty o f C a m-

b r idge , 1 979 ). S t jernqv is t , B ., 1 977/78 . Reorgan isa tion ,

' The S u t ton Hoo S h ip-Bur ia l —A Methodo log ica l

' Medde landen Fran Lunds Un ivers i te ts H is tor iska

Museu m ( 1977-78 ) , 1 51-6. V ierck , H ., 1 973 .

' Redwa lds Asche ' , O ffa 2 9 ( 1 973 f or 1 972 ) , 2 0-49 .

Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , J . M., 1 960 .

' The G raves o f K ings :

An H is tor ica l No te

o n S o me Archaeolog ica l Ev idence ' , S tudi Med ieva l i 3 rd S er ies 1 ( 1960 ) , 1 77-94. Warren , F . L ., 1 977.

i n B idd le e t a l . ( 1977) .

3 42

2 3.

THE CRE MAT ION I N THE SH IP AT S UTTON HOO : A POSTSCR IPT b y Hayo V ierck

S ince t he a bove c o m men ts ( No

2 2 ) were wr i t ten a nd s ub mi t ted f or t he

Ox ford S y mposiu m , d iscuss ion c oncern ing t he p ossible b ur ia l r i tes p ract ised a t S u t ton Hoo h as t aken y e t a nother s urpr is ing t urn .

Th is i s t he r esu l t o f

p er t inen t o bserva t ions r ecen t ly made b y P rofessor Vera I Ev ison ( 1 979 ). T hese a re b ased o n t he n ewly p ublished e v idence f or s ix teen i ron c lea ts ( ) bid F igs

1 .3 ) , f ound i n t wo more o r l ess p ara l le l r ows , l a id o u t a t ad is tance o f

a bou t 1 .50 m a par t a nd o ver a l eng th o f more t han 3 m o n e ach s ide o f t he d ep os i t s tretch ing a long t he s hip 's k ee lline.

I n d irect ing n ecessary a t ten t ion

t o t hese c lea ts , wh ich , Professor E v ison s tresses , h ave b een om i t ted f ro m e ach a nd e very g rave p lan p ubl ished b efore Vo l

Io f t he d ef in i t ive r epor t

( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 ) , s he p u ts f orward i n t wo s tages a n ine-po in t a rgu men t . F avour ing t heir i den t i f ica t ion a s f i t t ings o f ac of f in ( I ) , t h is p laus ible e xp lanat i on a l lows h er t o p ro ject a n i mag ined s kele ton o n t o t he g rave p lan ( I I ). R egardless o f whe ther t he i n terpreta t ion h o lds wa ter o r n ot , h er d iscovery a s s uch i s i mpor tan t a nd f ro m n ow o n s hou ld b e c ons idered t ogether w i th wha t h as b een wr i t ten s o f ar .

Is ha ll i n t he f i rs t p lace c oun ter h er s ugges t ions

w i th a n a rgumen t t ha t c an b e p resen ted i n t hree d is t inct s ec t ions . Iam p ar t icu lar ly o bliged t o t he e d i tors f or a l lowing me t o modi fy my o r ig ina l p o l icy i n t h is v o lume o f n ot e ndors ing my own i n terpre ta t ion o f t he r i te i n q ues t ion w i th n ew a rgu men ts . They h ave t hereby g iven me a n o ppor tun i ty t o p resen t s ubs tan tia l , e ven i fp rel i minary, c o m men ts o n P rofessor E v ison 's f ind ings a nd , i n p ar ticu lar , o n t h is n ewly r econs tructed g rave p lan w i th i t s h ypothet ica l s kele ton s uper imposed ( Ev ison 1 979 , F ig

6 .3 ).

O ther-

w ise t hose r eaders l ess a cqua in ted w i th t he p roble ms o f s even th c en tury c eme teries might c ons ider much o f wha t h as b een s a id a bove t o b e a n o bsole te b as is f or f u ture r esearch .

T h is p ar t icu lar ly a ppl ies t o t he s ugges t ion t ha t

t he e v idence f ro m g raves o ther t han t he s h ip-bur ia l i s a s impor tan t f or e st ab l ish ing t he b ur ia l r i te i n q ues t ion a s a re t he c lues p rovided i n t he s h ip i t sel f . Ih es i ta te t o s hare t he c on ten t ion t ha t , b ecause o f Professor Ev ison 's e v idence f or t he i nhuma t ion t heory , f ro m n ow o n f ur ther r esearch d irec ted t owards t he r i tua l o bserved i n t he s h ip a t S u t ton H oo may b e d is missed a s ' unnecessary work i n i rre levan t f i elds '.

Th is d oes n o t d eny e i ther t he i mpor tance o f t he

s ix teen c lea ts n or o f t he l ong s equences o f d e ta i led o bserva t ion t o wh ich t hey g ave r ise .

The c ase wou ld , h owever , s ee m t o b e o vers ta ted .

F or wh i le

t h is e xplana t ion i s p romoted s o f ir m ly a s t o l eave n o r oo m f or d iscuss ion o f t he a rgu men ts p u t f orward i n f avour o f t he o ther t heor ies , h er s erend ip i tous d iscovery s ee ms t o h ave h indered h er f ro m c ons ider ing p lausible e xp lana tions o ther t han i n t er ms o f ac of f in :

3 43

2

5

4

F ig . 2 3 .1

1 ,2 :

F rag men t o f a n i ron s ide-p iece a nd i ron s tap le f rom t he

b edstead i n ag rave f ro m I xworth ( S tan ton ) , S uf fo lk .

3 :

V . I .

Ev ison 's r econstruc t ion o f a n i ron c lea t f ro m S ut ton Hoo ( based o n r adiographs ) . 5 :

4 :

I ron c lea t f ro m G rave 4 1, Dover , K en t :

I ron c lea t f ro m G rave 4 4 , Lyminge , K en t .

1 :2 ( 3-5 ) .

S ca le 1 :8 ( 1 -2 ) ,

1 -2 af ter Sm i th ( 1857) , 3 -5 a f ter Ev ison ( 1979 )

3 44

I .

I n B ruce- M i t ford 's t en ta t ive words , t he c lea ts w ere ' . ..presumably

c onnected w i th t he c ons truct ion o f t he b ur ia l c ha mber o r w i th s o me f i t men t w i th in i t ' ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 , F ig 1 11-12 ). Iwou ld p re fer t o b eg in a t a n e ven e ar l ier s tage t han t h is g uarded a ssump t ion b y f irs t c ons ider ing whe ther t he c lea ts migh t h ave b e longed t o t he s h ip 's p lank ing b enea th t he g rave g oods . F or i ti s a t o dds w i th P ro fessor E v ison 's e xp lana t ion t ha t t he c lea ts were n o t f ound p ara l le l t o t he p resu med b ur ia l s pace a s i s t he c ase i n t he i nhu ma t ion a t D over ( Ev ison 1 979 , 1 .4 ) , b u t a t r ight a ng les t o t he b ur ia l a x is . h as b een k ep t o f whe ther t he n a i ls p o in ted u pwards o r d ownwards .

No r ecord Pro fessor

E v ison imp l ies t he f or mer a nd a ssumes t ha t t he c lea ts h ave t aken t he ir p res en t p os i t ion d ue t o t he s ides o f t he p os tu la ted c of f in c o l laps ing o u twards o n e ach s ide o f t he g rave a x is .

Bu t t he f ewer a ssump t ions t ha t a re i n troduced ,

t he more c onv inc ing t he t heor ies b ased o n r econs truct ion .

A ssuming t he

c lea t n a i ls p oin ted d ownwards , wou ld i tn o t b e p oss ib le t o i mag ine t he m c l inch ing i n s i tu s ome d amaged b o t to m p lanks o f t he s h ip?

A f ter a l l , s im i lar

d ev ices , ie r epa ir c lamps , were c er ta in ly u sed f or t h is p urpose d ur ing t he p er iod i n q ues t ion ( Mü l ler- W i l le 1 970 , 3 0 , F ig Id o n o t i n tend t o p ress t h is a rgumen t .

6 .1 ).

Ih ave men t ioned t he p oss ibi l i ty

a s s i mply o ne e xamp le o f h ow t he c lea ts c ou ld s erve a no ther p urpose . f essor Ev ison h as , w i th a l mos t f orens ic p rec is ion , a dduced men ts i ndeed .

Pro-

we igh ty a rgu-

They p o in t t o t he c lea ts ' c onnec t ion w i th s o me f i t men t w i th in

t he b ur ia l c ha mber .

H owever , b e fore a cknow ledg ing t h is , i t s hou ld b e n o ted

t ha t s ix o u t o f h er n ine p oin ts ( 1-3 5 , 7 , 8 , E v ison 1 979 , 1 28 ) a re e i ther n o t c on trovers ia l among t he d efenders o f t he v ar ious t heor ies , o r c an ( and h ave b een ) i n terpreted d i f feren t ly.

I n p ar t icu lar i th as n ever b een d oubted t ha t ,

b y a nd l arge , t he p os i t ions o f s o me o b jec ts r e la te t o ah ypo the t ica l c orpse , s ince Bruce- M i t ford a nd G amber f irs t d iscussed t he p os i t ion o f t he s word , c lasps , b uck le a nd p urse ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 950 , 1 66f f ;

G amber 1 966 , 1 65-92 ) .

O n t he c on trary , t he e x is tence o f t h is ' body s pace ' h as e ven b een r e in forced b y my own c o mpar ison o f t he a rray a t S u t ton H oo w i th t he p r ince ly i nhuma t ion a t T aplow , ac o mpar ison s uppor ted b y P ro fessor E v ison ( 1979 , 1 25-26). H er i n terpre ta t ion o f w ooden r e ma ins b e tween a nd a long t he e n t ire l eng th o f t he c lea ts a s t he r e ma ins o f t he b o t to m p lanks o f ac of f in i s a tb es t h ypo thet i ca l , s ince i te vades c ons idera t ion o f e v idence f or wha t t he e xcava tors h ave c a l led a wooden t ray b enea th t he Anas tas ius d ish c o mp lex .

T h is f ea ture

mus t n o t b e i gnored b ecause s im i lar f ind ings ( b y o ther e xcava tors ) i n S u t ton H oo Mound 3 ( and a t B roo m f ie ld ? ) h ave b een n o ted ( V ierck 1 973 , 2 6) . I .

Two o bserva t ions o f P ro fessor E v ison 's d o , h owever , e n t ire ly c on-

v ince me t ha t ( desp i te t he a wkward p os i t ions o f s o me o f t he c lea ts ) t he f or mer e x is tence o f s o me f i tmen t a round t he b ody s pace mus t b e t aken i n to a ccoun t . T hese a re h er p o in ts 6 ( cen tra l a rray o f g rave g oods d epos i ted a l mos t a l l w i th in t he l im i ts o f t he h ypo the t ica l c o f f in ) a nd 9 ( t races o f s o me k inds o f t ex t i le o ccurr ing o u ts ide , a nd o ther k inds w i th in t hese l im i ts , n o tab ly a f url i ke c loth w i th l ong s i lky p i le ).

I f s o me i n ter ior f i t men t h ad , h owever , s tood

i n t he g rave c ha mber , n eed i th ave b een a c of f in?

F or t wo i n terna l a nd o ne

e x terna l r eason Is ugges t a more l i ke ly a l terna t ive . F irs t ly , o ne wou ld e xp ec t r a ther more o rna te f i t t ings f or a c o f f in t han t hose v ery c rude c lea ts when o ne c ons iders t he e xce l len t work mansh ip a nd p red i lec t ion f or wrough t i ron p resen t i n t he g rave , p ar t icu lar ly t he i ron l a mp-s tand , f or mer ly i den t i f ied 3 45

a s as tandard .

T hese c lea ts make a s tr ik ing c on tras t i n s i mpl icity a nd f unct ion

when t he o rna te l a te S axon c of f in f i t t ings ( F ig

2 3 .2 .2 ) d iscovered a t Win-

c hes ter a re c ons idered ( W inches ter C a thedra l Treasury 1 973 , 1 9 , F ig

5 9 ).

Th is a pp l ies e qua l ly t o t he r ough ly c on te mporary L angobard c hief ta in 's g rave a t C ivezzano , d isp laying a i l i ma ls ‚heads a f f ixed t o t he c of f in l i d , n o t d iss im i lar t o t hose a dorn ing t he i ron l a mp-s tand f ro m S u t ton H oo ( W ieser 1 887 ; 1 939 ).

F ranz

Fur thermore Ic anno t a gree w i th P ro fessor E v ison 's c on ten t ion t ha t

ac o f f in i s t o b e e xpec ted b ecause t he c hamber r ese mb les a we l l-known t ype o f p r ince ly c hamber-grave c on ta in ing a c o f f in ( Mar t in 's Morken t ype ) .

As I

h ave d e mons tra ted e lsewhere , t h is r oofed c hamber b u i l t i n to t he c en tre o f a s h ip r epresen ts a v ar ian t o f ag rave t ype wh ich s hou ld l i tera l ly b e t aken a s a ' house o f t he d ead ' , f or i t i m i ta tes t he t en t u sed am idsh ips o n v esse ls o f t h is a nd r e la ted t ypes ( V ierck 1 973 , 2 1-23 ) .

A t l eas t , c oncep tua l ly s peak ing , t here

w ou ld t hen b e n o n eed f or t hese i mag ined l i v ing q uar ters o r ' k ing 's c ab in ' t o h ouse a c of f in d ur ing h is j ourney t o t he b eyond .

C onverse ly , migh t o ne n o t

e xpec t s o me d isp lay o f t he ' house o f t he ( dead ' ( eg V ierck 1 973 , 2 3 n1 7a ; R eyno lds 1 976) i n P ro fessor E v ison 's h ypo the t ica l c o f f in?

C er ta in ly t h is i dea

was i n t he minds o f t hose , who , e ar ly i n t he s even th c en tury , b ur ied t he l ord o f C ivezzano i n ac of f in t ha t owes s o much i n g enera l s hape a nd o rnamen t t o t he c lass ica l t rad i t ion o f t he s arcophagus .

H owever , t h is n o t ion h as b een

mod i f ied b y t he i ron h eads o f s tags ( or b u l ls ) a nd r ams ( Fig . 2 3.1a , b , e ) . T hese wou ld s ee m t o d ec lare t he l i d a s t he r oo f o f am in ia ture b u i ld ing n o t d iss im i lar t o t he r econs truct ion f avoured b y s o me f or t he g ab led r oo f o f Heoro t , t he l ord 's h a l l i n B eowu l f ( P fe i ls tücker 1 936 , 2 3-24 , 5 3 , 4 9 , F ig

9 ;

b u t s ee

C ramp 1 957, 7 3 ). Dr

B ruce- M i t ford o b l ique ly r e fers t o ap oss ible f i t men t midsh ips t ha t

c ou ld h ave b een a l ow p la t for m ( 1975 , 4 84 ) a nd a dds :

' The p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t he

b ody was a t ah igher l eve l t han t he r es t o f t he d epos i t s hou ld b e b orne i n mind when c ons ider ing S u t ton H oo , a l though t here i s n o e v idence f or i t .

I ti s c er-

t a in ly u n l ike ly t ha t t hwar ts s panned t he who le f i f teen-foo t w id th a t ta ined b y t he S u t ton H oo am idsh ips ' ( I b id , 5 02 ).

I n t h is -c onnec t ion Va ler ie Fenw ick k ind ly

men t ioned t o me h er i mpress ion t ha t t h is migh t h ave b een ab ed-l ike p iece o f f urn i ture .

Is ha l l a t te mp t t o e labora te o n b o th t hese i deas .

F or a l though i n

P ro fessor E v ison 's a rgumen t much i s made o f c lea ts a s e v idence f or ac o ff in , t he o n ly d irec t p roof f or t he ir u se i n a n Eas t Ang l ian g rave o f t he s even th c en tury i s n o t men t ioned .

T h is i s t he d iscovery b y L e thbr idge o f s im i lar

c lea ts ( ' foo t c lamps ' , F ig 2 3.31d.2 ) i n G rave 2 9 a t S hudy C a mps i n C a mbr idges h ire ( Le thbr idge 1 936, 1 0-12 ) . T h is p ara l le l may h ave p assed u nno t iced b ecause h ere more s tap les t han c lea ts were u sed t o f i x t he wa l l o f af i tmen t . H owever , t h is i s am inor d i f ference when o ne c ons iders wha t l ooks l i ke a mos t s a t is fac tory r econs truc t ion o f a mass ive b eds tead ( F ig 2 3.3 .2 ) . L e thbr idge 's r econs truct ion i s a l l t he more c onv incing s ince wooden b eds a re a lso k nown f ro m t he F rank ish p r incel ing 's g rave u nder C o logne c a thedra l ( Werner 1 964 , 2 09 , F ig

6 ) a s we l l a s f ro m a f ew A la mann ic g raves .

H e was s ure ly r igh t

i n p ropos ing t ha t t he s even th c en tury Ang lo-Saxons more o f ten t han g enera l ly s upposed p u t t he ir d ead t o r es t o n

b eds teads ( Le thbr idge 1 936 , 1 1) .

T here i s

a t l eas t o ne p ara l le l t o t he t wis ted s ide-p ieces f rom S hudy C a mps , u sed t o h o ld t oge ther t he woodwork a t t he h ead o f t he b ed . I n t he I xwor th ( S tan ton ) g rave o f a n a pparen t ly r ich C hr is t ian l ady , 4t er m ina ls f ro m s ide p ieces w ere f ound t oge ther w i th 2 4 o rd inary s tap les ( Fig 2 3 .1.2 ) . 3 46

T h is v ery s ame g rave

1

F ig . 2 3 .2

1 : H ouse-shaped c of f in w i th i ron f i t t ings a nd o rnamen ts ( a -f ) f ro m a L angobardic p r ince ly g rave f ound a t C ivezzano , P rov . o f T ren to , I t a ly . 2 : R econstruc t ion o f al a te S axon c of f in f ro m Winches ter . N o t t o s ca le . 1( a -f ) af ter Wieser ( 1887) , 2a f ter Winches ter C a thedra l T reasury ( 1 973 ) 3 47

4 • 16

I 1 4 , 3— f t Ir l

4 1 0-

0

I •

a . • ••

I

m u.

2 F ig . 2 3 .3

G rave p lan ( 1 ) a nd L e thbr idge 's r econs truc t ion ( 2 ) o f t he b edstead f ro m G rave 2 9 , S hudy C a mps , C a mbr idgesh ire . a nd s ide-p ieces o f t he h ead-p iece . 3 48

a ,bI ron f i t t ings

c I ron s tap les .

d I ron c lea ts

y ie lded t he f a mous S tan ton p endan t c ross , made o f g o ld a nd s tep-cu t g arne ts , a s w e ll a s ag o ld-and-garne t d isc-brooch ( Smi th 1 857 , 1 62-164 ; P I

5 9 ,

N o

1 67 ;

M i t ford , t hecross

B rown 1 973 ,

1 75-199 , F ig

AM25 ) .

A ven t 1 975 ,

A ccord ing t o B ruce-

i s c o mparab le t o j ewe l lery f ro m t he S u t ton H oo ' schoo l '

( Bruce- M i t ford 1 974 , 3 2 , P l , 5 a ; 1 975 , 7 07) . H ence we a re d ea l ing w i th t wo b eds teads n o t o n ly f ound i n g eograph ica l p rox im i ty b u t a lso u sed b y s o me w ider e n tourage o f K ing Raedwa ld 's c our t . C onsequen t ly we mus t n ow c ons ider t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t he c lea ts f ro m t ne r oya l s h ip-grave a t .S u t ton H oo f or med n e i ther p ar t o f t he s h ip i t se l f n or p ar t o f ac o f f in , b u t r epresen t a n o vers ized b edl ike p iece o f f urn i ture o f ' pod ium '. I I .

I f we a ccep t t he ' pod ium ' r econs truc t ion , t he b as ic p roble m —o f t he

i nhuma t ion t heory v ersus t he i dea o f ac re ma t ion w i th u nburn t g rave g oods a rranged i n t he mode o f a n i nhuma t ion—has o f c ourse n o t b een s o lved , b u t o n ly l ed t o ac hange o f p erspec t ive .

N ever the less , a s we s ha l l s ee , t here i s l i t t le

r eason t o r enounce t he l a t ter a s t he more l i ke ly s o lu t ion .

T h ir ty y ears a go

B ruce- M i t ford p ro jec ted a no ther h ypo the t ica l s ke le ton o n t o t he g rave p lan , b u t h e t hen d ec ided , c on trary t o h is l a tes t r econs truct ion i n t he f ina l p ubl icat i on , t ha t t here was n o t s u f f icien t r oo m i n t he ' body-space ' f or a c orpse t o h ave d isso lved c o mp le te ly ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 950 , 1 95 ) . Id o n o t s ee h ow t h is p ruden t s ugges t ion c an b e s er ious ly s ha t tered e i ther b y h is o wn o r b y P ro fessor E v ison 's r econs truct ion .

A l though s he a dmi ts h erse l f t ha t t he a rea wes t o f t he

A nas tas ius d ish i s a n u nsu i tab le p lace f or a s ke le ton t o v an ish w i thou t l eav ing a ny t race b ecause a t l eas t ' . .. s o me l eg b one s hou ld h ave s urv ived u nder t he t h ick c lo th a nd d r ink ing h orn c o mp lex ' ( Ev ison 1 979 ;

c f . V ierck 1 973 , 2 4 n 25 ) ,

s he d oes n o t h es i ta te t o d raw t he h ypo the t ica l s ke le ton c overed t o i t s k neebones b y t hese v ery r e ma ins .

1

F ur ther more , s he i s i mpressed n e i ther b y Myres '

c r i t ic is m o f t he mos t e labora te c ircums tances , wh ich , a ccord ing t o B ruceM i t ford , l ed t o t he d isso lu t ion o f ab ody i n ak ind o f c he m ica l b a th ,

2

n or ,

a nd n o tably , t he n ega t ive v erd ic t u t tered w i th p ro fess iona l p rec is ion b y ab ioc hem is t a nd a f orens ic p a tho log is t ( Cameron 1 977;

Warren 1 977) .

T he r eader i s a ga in r e ferred t o t he c onc lus ions f orma l ized i n my a t tr ibu te d iagra m ( V ierck 1 973 , 2 9 , F ig

3 , a bove F ig

2 2 .1 ) a s we l l a s t o G raham-

C ampbel l 's v iews o n t he t heor ies t es ted s o f ar ( above p 3 36 ) a nd c onsequen t ly t o t he t wo , e ven t hough e qua l ly d isco mfor t ing , a l terna t ives t ha t r ea l ly ma t ter i n mak ing a d ec is ion . E i ther o ne a ccep ts t he e v idence f or b urn t b one o n t he l av ish Anas tas ius d ish a s p roo f t ha t e ven a t t he d awn o f Eng l ish C hr is t ian i ty h ea then r oya l ty c ou ld s ee f i t t o u se c re ma t ion , o r o ne i s b ound t o a ssume t ha t Ang lo-Saxon c u is ine h ad r e ma ined a s ' barbar ic ' a s t o p u t t he ' . ..burn t a nd o vercooked b ones ...' o f ' . ..for e xamp le , t he r e ma ins o f a n o x r oas ted a t a f unera l f eas t ' ( Myres 1 977 ,

8 47-851 ;

B ruce- M i t ford 1 950 , 4 2 ) i n to a k ing 's

g rave i n s p i te o f g enera l ly a cknow ledged a dvances i n t he f i e lds o f o ther m inor a r ts .

3

Hav ing n e i ther e s tabl ished c onv inc ing ly t he f or mer p resence o f ac o f f in

n or c orpse i n t he s h ip-grave , t he o nus , a t l eas t t o b e e xpec ted o f t hose s t i l l f avour ing t he i nhuma t ion t heory , i s n ow t o p rov ide p os i t ive c lues f or t h is c arel ess c usto m . My o wn r ead ing o f t he e v idence f or t he p lac ing o f mea t i n a c ons iderable n u mber o f Ang lo-Saxon i nhuma t ion g raves s ugges ts t ha t t he b one r ema ins a re a lways i n a n i mpeccab le s ta te , a s f ar a s t he c ook ing i s c oncerned . I n t he l i gh t o f my a rgu men ts , Ic o mm i t mysel f t o t he f o l low ing c onclus ions i n c orrobora t ing wha t h as b een s a id b efore ( V ierck 1 973 ) . 3 49

Wh i le a gree ing w i th

P ro fessor E v ison a nd D r

B ruce- M i t ford t ha t t he t wo r ows o f c lea ts mos t

l i ke ly d er ive f ro m s o me f i t men t w i th in t he b ur ia l c hamber , If ind P ro fessor E v ison 's p roposa l t ha t t he c lea ts c an o n ly r epresen t ac o ff in u naccep table . T hese Ii ns tead a scr ibe t o a' pod iu m ' s ubs truc ture , p oss ib ly a n o u ts ized b ed , c overed b y af i ne c lo th a nd d ecked w i th t he mos t p ersona l a nd mos t p rec ious g rave g oods , l a id o u t i n f ron t o f t he s i lver u rn .

A l though t hese u nburn t p res-

t ige i t e ms were d is tr ibu ted i n as im i lar way t o t hose k nown f ro m p r ince ly i nh uma t ion g raves , a l l t he d a ta we h ave f avour t he n o t ion o f ac re ma t ion g rave ( no tably n o c of f in , a bsence o f a ny t race o f as ke le ton i n t he a rea o f a' b ody s pace ' wh ich d isp lays e x tre me ly g ood c ond i t ions f or t he p reserva t ion o f o rgan ic s ubs tances , a nd p resence o f t races o f b urn t b one o n t he Ans tas ius d ish ;

c f a lso

a bove F ig 2 2 .1) .

I ti s p erhaps a ppropr ia te n ow t o s tand b ack a nd e xam ine a f ur ther c oncep tua l d i f f icu l ty wh ich was b rough t h o me t o me i n d iscuss ions .

T he t wen t ie th c en tury

o bserver may f ind i td i f f icu l t t o a ccep t au n ique m ix ture o f t wo f unda men ta l ly d i f feren t c oncep ts ' ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 972 , 6 1) , when a sked t o r econc i le t he s even th c en tury e x tre mes o f a lmos t u t ter d es truc t ion o f mor ta l r e ma ins , a nd t he c are t aken t o h ouse a nd c onserve w i th t hese r e ma ins t hose o pu len t g rave g oods o f s uperb q ua l i ty s he l tered b y as ta te ly c hamber i n as h ip- mound . Ab e t ter u nders tand ing o f t h is s ee m ing ly p aradox ica l s ta te o f a f fa irs m igh t b e g a ined b y r e-read ing B eowu l f , L .3110-82 , a nd b y d raw ing a t ten t ion t o p ub l ica t ions t ha t h ave a ppeared s ince If irs t d eve loped t he c re ma t ion t heory . One i s P ro fessor Kossack 's d e f in i t ion o f P rünkgräber , ' d isp lay g raves ' ( Kossack 1 974 , 1 -33 ) . H e p aves t he way t o c o mpar ing g raves o f t he S u t ton H oo c lass n o t o n ly o n a n i n tere thn ic l eve l b u t a lso d iachron ica l ly t hrough s evera l c u ltures . As urpr is ing ly u n i form amoun t o f e v idence t hroughou t t he me ta l a ges a l lows h im t o c onc lude t ha t i n t imes o f p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i tary s uccess , a s w e l l a s o f c u l ture c hanges , w i th i t s men ta l r e-or ien ta t ion , s im i lar monu men ta l g rave s truc tures c an b e r a ised b y l ead ing f am i lies ,

r egard less o f whe ther r ank h ad

b een o bta ined a nd wea l th h ad b een a ccu mu la ted w e l l b e forehand . Where d iff er ing c u l tura l s ys tems c o me i n to c lose c on tac t , t he r esu l t ing b ehav iour o f ten t ranscends u sua l b ur ia l p ract ices o f t he c u l tures i n q ues t ion .

A c ase i n p o in t

i s t ha t o f i mpor ted l uxury g oods s uch a s c os t ly v esse ls d epos i ted f or t he !e terna l b anque t ' , t hus s igna l izing p ar t ic ipa t ion i n t he p res t ige o f t he n eighb our ing c iv i l iza t ion .

T he r u l ing c lass i s n o t n orma l ly c omm i t ted t o p os thu-

mous d isp lay o f s ta tus .

When f orced i n to a c r is is o f c u l tura l i den t i ty , h owever ,

i t may f ee l an eed t o s y mbo l ize i t s v a lues a nd c oherence b y a dap t ing f ore ign mode ls . One o f t he mos t p ower fu l means o f a f f irm ing t he c o m muna l i den ti ty i s t o r ev i ta l ize r i tua l i nd ica tors o f s oc ia l t rans i t ions , s uch a s b y b ury ing l av ish g rave g oods o r b y c hoos ing p re-e m inen t p laces f or b u i ld ing e ven more i mpos ing g rave s truc tures „ u pon t he d ea th o f t he ir more i mpor tan t l eaders . T he B r i t ish r eader w i l l b e p ar t icu lar ly i n teres ted i n K ossack 's i n terpret a t ion o f R o man c ha l lenge a nd C e l t ic r esponse o f t he A yles ford-Swar l ingC u l ture ( Be lgae ) i nb u i ld ing t he r ich We lwyn-type b ur ia ls f or t he ir l ead ing me mbers ( Kossack 1 974 , 2 7-28 ) . H e d oes n o t d ea l p redo m inan t ly w i th t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod , b u t h is t heory c ou ld we l l b e s uccess fu l ly a pp l ied t o t he s pec i f ic h is tor ica l c on tex t o f t he mounds n ear t he D an ish r es idence o f

3 50

J e l l inge a nd s im i lar ly r ich b ur ia ls ( Mü l ler- W i l le 1 978 ) .

T he ' dynas t ic mau-

s o leum ' a t S u t ton H oo , w i th a l l i t s p res t ige i t e ms a nd i t s i mpos ing s i t ing i n t he l andscape c er ta in ly l ends e qua l ly i nd iv idua l izing s uppor t t o K ossack 's s truc tura l is t a pproach .

H ere t he i nd iv idua l izing a spec t s pr ings f ro m t he we l l-

k nown t ens ion b e tween R o man C hr is t ian i ty a nd G er man ic p agan is m a nd i s h ighl i gh ted b y t he p re-e m inence o f Raedwa ld a s B re twa lda .

T he t heory g a ins

f ur ther s uppor t f ro m t he e labora te b ur ia l r i tes t o b e i n ferred f ro m t he g rave i t se l f a s we l l a s b y t he r e levan t p assages i n B eowu l f ( L .1108f f ,2 124f f ,3 137f f ; V ierck i n Mü l ler , Wi l le e t a l

1 978 ) .

I n t h is c onnec t ion t he b ur ia l mound i n

E as tern Ken t c o mes t o m ind , v enera ted e ven i n t he t imes o f B ede a s t he monumen t o f t he c onqueror H orsa ( Bede HE I , 1 5 ) . A par t f ro m K ossack 's e xamp les o f c re ma t ion b ur ia l , d i f fer ing f ro m t he n orma l c on te mporary r i tes b y d isp laying e xcep t iona l ly r ich s e ts o f u nburn t p res t ige i t e ms ,

s uch a s t he We lwyntype g raves ( S tead 1 967 ) o r t he r oya l t o mbs

a t S a la m is i n C yprus , a no ther ' dynas t ic mauso leum ' a t V erg ina , may n ow b e a dded t o s uppor t h is a rgumen t .

Th is c on ta ined t hree r oya l t o mbs w i th t hree

=d is turbed a nd o ne l oo ted b ur ia l , a nd was r ecen t ly e xcava ted b y Andron icos a t t he f our thth ird c en tury B C c ap i ta l o f Macedon ia ( Ham mond 1 972 , 4 344 36 ; •Andron icos 1 978 , 5 4-77;

1 979 , 3 9-55 ).

Af our th t o mb w i th t he f acade

o f as ma l l I on ian t e mp le h ad a lready b een d iscovered i n 1 937-38 ( Rho ma ios 1 951 ;

Andron icos 1 972 , 7 -9 ).

Th is a s we l l a s t he n ew ly d iscovered T o mbs I

t o I I a re o f t he b arre l-vau l ted Macedon ian t ype .

They c on ta in c hambers a nd

a n techa mbers a nd d isp lay t he g rave a rch i tec ture o f aD or ic _ f acade , p resumably r em in iscen t o f ap a lace—poss ib ly t he o ne f ound n earby ( Andron icos 1 972 ). These a re c ons truc ted f or t he s o le p urpose o f c onduc t ing t he ' r i tes o f p assage ' , t o u se Van G ennep 's t er m , a nd t o s y mbo l ize t he h ouse o f t he d ead ( Van G ennep 1 975 ) .

E qua l ly c onnec ted w i th t h is c u l t o f t he d ead mus t h ave b een a marble

t hrone i n t he 1 937-38 t o mb , f ound n ex t t o as tone t ab le o r b ed wh ich h ad b een u sed t o h o ld t he u rn .

T he s ame a pp l ies t o b roken s herds o ver t he ma in t o mb

( I I ) , t o a n a l tar p laced o ver t h is t o mb a nd t o ah eroön , t races o f wh ich were f ound o u ts ide t he ' Grea t Tumu lus ' wh ich c overed a l l t hree t o mbs .

Bu i l t o n

t he e ve o f Macedon ian-He l len is t ic i mper ia l is m , t he h is tor ica l c on tex t o f t he e rec t ion o f t hese c hambers i s r ead i ly e xp la ined i n t er ms o f K ossack 's t heory , n ame ly a s a n e xpress ion o f t ens ion a nd a ccu l tura t ion b e tween t he i nd igenous a nd t he s uper ior G reek c u l tures .

T he a sp ira t ions a nd f ina l s uccess a t e x tend ing

a u tocra t ic k ingsh ip o ver d e mocra t ic a nd o ther n e ighbours a l ike ( Ham mond a nd G r i f f i th 1 979 , 1 41-149 ) may h ave a dded t o t hese t ens ions .4 P ar t icu lar ly r e levan t t o t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he s h ip-bur ia l a t S u t ton H oo , n o t a s ah o mo logy — th is c anno t p oss ib ly h ave e x is ted b e tween t he b ur ia l p ract i ces o f Macedon ia i n 3 00 B C a nd Eas t Ang l ia i n A D 6 00 —bu t a s a n a na logy , i s t he s pec i f ic a dap ta t ion o f c re ma t ion b ur ia l t o t he d e mands o f r oya l s y mbo l is m o f s ta tus i n t imes o f u nres t . p a in t ings ,

N o t o n ly t he a rch i tec tura l f acade b u t a lso wa l l

c os t ly f urn i ture a nd a wea l th o f o ther p res t ige i t e ms d ec lare t hese

c hambers a s t he ' l iv ing q uar ters ' o f t he h ouse o f t he d ead .

A t V erg ina 3 T o mb

I I c on ta ined a k ind o f ' t able ' w i th a c av i ty worked i n to i t s u pper p ar t , i n to wh ich a s i lver h ydr ia was p laced , c on ta in ing t he b urn t b ones o f t he d ead ( Andron icos 1 979 , 5 4-55 ).

Among t he o rgan ic s ubs tances s ca t tered o n t he

f loor i n f ron t o f t h is u rn were t he r e ma ins o f a wooden b ed . H igh s ta tus o bj ec ts o ccurred i n p ro fus ion ( vesse ls a nd a l amp-s tand were f ound i n o ne c orner

3 51

a nd weapons i n t he a n techa mber ).

Wha t i s e ven more s tr ik ing a re t he p oin ts

o f c ompar ison b etween t he a rray i n Raedwa ld o f Eas t Ang l ia 's g rave c ha mber a nd i n t he ma in c ha mber o f V erg ina T o mb I , p rov is iona l ly a ssigned t o Phi l ip I o f Macedon ia , f a ther o f A lexander .

H ere mos t g rave g oods ( a c lus ter o f

p recious v esse ls a t t he n or th wa ll , a r mour a nd weapons i n t he s ou th-wes t c orner ) h ad b een p laced o n e i ther s ide o f ah o l lowed-ou t marble s arcophagus c on ta in ing t he mos t p recious v esse l i n t he g rave , ag o lden c aske t w i th t he a shes o f t he k ing .

I t s ee ms t ha t a wooden b ox a nd t he mos t p ersona l p rest ige

i t e ms i n t hese ' l iv ing q uar ters ' ( body a r mour ,

s anda ls , g reaves , s word ,

s cep tre a nd r ega l d iade m ) h ad o r ig ina l ly r es ted o n ak l ine o r b eds tead , t he d ecayed wooden f ra me a nd i vory c arv ings o f wh ich were f ound i n f ron t o f t he u rn ( Andron icos 1 978 , 7 2 ). NOTES 1 .

These a re p recisely t he c ons idera t ions wh ich , i n 1 972 , c aused me t o r e fra in f ro m med ia t ing b etween t he t wo t heor ies b y a ssu ming a d ouble b ur ia l o f i nhu ma t ion a nd c re ma t ion ,

s uch a s as u t tee ( t he Ang lo-Saxon

e v idence f or t h is a nd r ela ted c us to ms b e ing s um mar ized i n V ierck 1 973 , 4 0 n 100 ;

af ur ther p oss ible c ase may n ow b e a dded , f ro m S u t ton 'Hoo ,

Mound 4 :

Bruce- M i tford 1 975 , 1 35-36:

b one r epor t b y G e jva l l , s ta ting

t ha t t h is mound c on ta ined , b es ides a pparen t ly a h u man ma le a nd a h orse , ah uman f e ma le. 2 .

B ruce- M i tford 1 974 , 4 93-510 ;

Myres 1 977 , 8 49 :

' . .., i t may p erhaps

b e d oubted whether t h is e v idence i s s tr ict ly r e levan t t o t he o pen a nd r e lat ive ly d ry c ondi t ions t ha t p robab ly p reva i led f or a g ood many y ears i n t he S u t ton H oo b ur ia l c hamber b efore i t s g abled r oof f e l l i n '. 3 .

T h is i s p erhaps t he p lace t o r eca l l t ha t , i n p r inc ip le . Bruce- M i t ford a dm i ts t ha t t he c as ts o f f err ic p hospha te f ormed f ro m b urn t b one f ound o n t he Anas tas ius d ish , a re s u f f ic ien t i n q uan t i ty t o r epresen t ah u man s ke le ton ( 1975 , 5 42 , 5 47 , 5 52-53 , 7 13-14 ).

I ti s r a ther h is c ons tan t

d is m issa l o f t he i mpor tance o f t h is o n ly s c ien t i f ica l ly a t tes ted ' hard ' e v id ence f or a s e t o f b ones t ha t h as r esu l ted i n d iscard ing t he p oss ib i li ty o f ac re ma t ion b ur ia l c o mp le te ly ( eg Ev ison 1 979 ) , o r a t l eas t t o al arge e x ten t i n s econdary l i tera ture a nd among u na t ten t ive r eaders ( eg Myres 1 977 , 8 49 ;

a' sma l l a nd meagre d epos i t ' ).

E ven i ft he q uan t i ty o f burn t

b one was u nusua l ly sma l l , t h is wou ld h ave l i t tle b ear ing o n d e termin ing o r d is m iss ing c re ma t ion .

F ew r e ma ins c ou ld b e e xpected a f ter a p yre

h ad e xp ired , i ft h is h ad b een e rec ted o n t he s ame h uge s ca le a s was t he r es t o f t he b ur ia l .

C er ta in ly t he p r incely p yres men t ioned i n B eowu lf

L .1119-20 a nd 3 112-13 .43-45 were g igan t ic ( much f ue l , c o l lec ted f ro m s evera l v i l ls i n t he a rea , s ea o f f lames , t h ick smoke ).

3 52

4 .

T h is a ssu mpt ion i s s treng thened when o ne c ons iders t ha t , i n ad ynas t ic s ense , b ur ia l a t V erg ina s hou ld h ave c on t inued f or a bou t 3 00 more y ears i n t he n ecropo lis o f t he P to le m ies i n Egyp t .

T he mu m my o f A lexander

h av ing b een t rans ferred t o t h is ' d ynas t ic mauso leu m ' a t A lexandr ia , h is c u lt a s ag od was p er for med n ear h is t o mb u p t o i mper ia l R o man t imes ( Fraser 1 971,

1 , 3 2f f .;

2 . 1 02f f ) .

3 53

B IBLIOGRAPHY Andron icos , A . M., 1 972.

Verg ina ( Kera mos G u ides ,

Andron icos , A . M ., 1 978 .

' Rega l Treasures f ro m a Macedon ian G rave ' ,

N a t iona l G eograph ic 1 54 , Andron icos , A . M., 1 979.

1 972 ).

1( 1978 ) , 5 4-77.

' The T o mbs a t t he G rea t Tumu lus o f V erg ina ' ,

G reece a nd I ta ly i n t he C lass ica l Wor ld ( Ac ta o f t he 1 1th Congress o f C lass ica l A rchaeology , L ondon 3 -9 S ept ., A ven t , R .,

1 975 .

( B .A .R . 1,

1 978 ( 1979 ) , 3 9-55 ) .

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B idd le , M ., B inns , A ., C a meron , J . M., Me tca lf , D . M., Page , R . I . . S parrow , C . a nd Warren , F . L .,

1 977.

' Su t ton H oo Published :

A Rev iew ' .

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A H andbook

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5 7-77 . E v ison , V . I . ,

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1 21-38 .

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museu m z u I nnsbruck .

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1 9 ( 1939 ). Fraser , D .,

1 971.

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' The S u tton H oo Mi l i tary E qu ip men t -An A t temp ted

R econs truction ' , J ourna l o f t heAr ms a nd Armour S oc . 5 , 6 ( 1 966 ) ,

1 65-

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I b id .

u nd G . U lber t , S tudien z ur v or -

u nd f rühgesch ich t lichen Archäo log ie Vo l . I . ( 1974 ) , 1 -33. 3 54

Fes tschr if t f ur J . Werner

L e thbr idge , T . C ., 1 936.

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( Ca mb. An t iq. S oc. Quar to P ubl . N .S . 5 , 1 936). Mü l ler- W i l le , M., 1 970 .

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p ä ischen G rabs i t te ' , O f fa 2 5/26 ( 1 970 ). Mü l ler- W i l le , M., 1 978 .

' Früh m i t te la l ter liche P runkgräber i m s üd l ichen

S kand ivan ien ' , B onner J ahrbücher 1 78 ( 1978 ) . 6 33-52. Mü l ler- Wi l le , M., V ierck , H ., a nd Wi lson D ., 1 978.

S ec t ion r e B oo tgrab

i n J . H oops , R ea l lex ikon d er G er man ischen A l ter tumskunde e d . H . Beck e t a l ., V o l . 3 , L . 3 /4 ( 1978 ). Myres , J . N . L ., 1 977. 9 2 ,

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f rühange lsächs ischen Kuns t ( 1936). Reyno lds , N .,

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S a in t-Den is ' , An t iqu i ty 3 8 ( 1964 ) . 2 01-16. Wieser ,

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( 1 973 ).

3 55

23bis.

THE SUTTON HOO COFFIN by Vera Evison

My thanks are due to the editors for the opportunity to add some hastily assembled observations on Dr Vierck's postscript. Misunderstandings have arisen on one or two points, and further explanat10n may be useful. No com­ ment is made on the analogies from other countries and times described by Dr Vierck, which provide interesting comparisons, for lack of familiarity with the fields precludes me from estimating their relevance to an E ast Anglian burial of the seventh century. In order to provide parallels to the Sutton Hoo cleats I cited only two graves from modern excavations, and there it was clear that they functioned as coffin fittings. At Dover their position was 35 cm above the floor of the grave, and this gave the clue to the reason for their positions on the north side of the ship­ burial grave where the side of the coffin must have fallen outwards, so carrying the fittings 35 cm north of their original vertical position. . It did not seem to be relevant, in a short preliminary article at this stage, to refer to any of the other forms of iron fittings to wooden structures found in Anglo-S�"'Con graves, such as those on the beds at Shudy Camps and Ixworth, which are of a comple­ tely different shape and must have been part of a different form of furniture.

A wide range of wooden structures, some with iron fittings, have been found in Germanic graves of this period. They are interpreted as planks, blocks, biers, beds, coffins of different shapes, some perhaps without a lid, and even a sea-chest or wagon body with curved base in Valsgttrde Grave 7 (Arwidsson 1977, 99-103, Abb 101, Taf 42). The following are further points in favour of a coffin here. The crudeness of the fittings suggest a structure hastily put together for the occasion such as a coffin rather than the kind of bed normally in use in a royal house. No coffin is known from the early Saxon period in E ngland which has more elaborate metal fittings. The precise way in which all grave goods are neatly contained just within the limits of the struc­ ture indicates vertical confining walls. In particular, the large number of various objects, leather and textiles under the Anastasius dish could have been packed much more conveniently into a box-like container than balanced pre­ cariously one on top of the other. The extraordinary collection of items is listed o n pp 215-6 of Volume I (Bruce-Mitford 1975). Had the structure been a bed or podium the silver bowls at the head and the spear halves each side would have been perilously near the edge. Dr Vierck quite rightly draws attention to the angle at which the cleats were lying as being of importance in the reconstruction. That position shows that they must originally have been fixed vertically across the join of two hori­ zontal planks, the lower one being about 34 cm wide. The wood remains show that the floor of the coffin consisted of planks also running lengthwise from west to east. 357

T here i s much more we n eed t o k now, h owever , a nd i ti s f u t i le t o s pecul a te f ur ther o n t he e xac t n a ture o f t he s tructure u n t i l t he r e ma ins o f t he i ron f i t t ings , a nd o f t he wood , i n r e la t ion t o t he r ecords h ave b een c lose ly i nves t ig a ted b y t he Br i t ish Museum t eam .

I ti s n ecessary t o k now t he e xac t n u mber

o f t he f i t t ings a nd a s much a s p oss ib le a bou t t he ir p os i t ions .

S o me a re s a id

t o h ave b een c urved , a nd t h is m igh t i nd ica te s o me th ing l i ke a c onvex l i d . T he n a i ls i n t he o ne p ub l ished c lamp a re s hown w i th s ha f ts c ircu lar i n s ec t ion , whereas S axon n a i ls a re s quare i n s ec t ion . T he l eng ths o f t he n a i ls must a lso b e s tud ied a s f ar a s p oss ib le , a nd i n p ar t icu lar , t races o f wood g ra in o n t he ir s ha f ts a nd o n t he i nner s ur faces o f t he i ron b ands , t he t ypes a nd d irec t ions o f w h ich c ou ld g ive u sefu l i nd ica t ions o f t he s hapes o f p lanks u sed a nd t he me thod o f c ons truc t ion .

T he p ho tograph a t t he t op o f F ig 1 52 i n V o lume I

( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 ) f or i ns tance , s ee ms t o s how t ransverse wood g ra in a cross p ar t o f t he l e f t h a l f o f t he i ron b ar . D e ta i ls o f t he t races o f wood r e ma ins s hou ld a lso b e s tud ied :

t he t races

b e low t he f unera l d epos i t wh ich c orrespond t o t he a rea e nclosed b y t he c lea ts , a nd t he ir r e la t ionsh ip t o wood o ver t he d epos i t , a nd o f t he s h ip i t sel f .

t he wood o f t he c hamber wa l ls

T he q ues t ion s hou ld b e a sked w he ther i ti s p oss ib le

t ha t t he i mpress ion wh ich h as b een g a ined o f a wooden t rough u nder t he Anas tas ius d ish c o mp lex was c aused b y i mproved l oca l p reserva t ion o f t he c of f in b ase b y t he p resence o f s o much s i lver a nd b ronze i n t h is a rea . O n t he q ues t ion o f t he c o mp le te d isappearance o f t he b ody , Dr

V ierck

h as m isunders tood my t h ink ing i n r e ferr ing t o Bruce- M i t ford 's s uppos i tion t ha t s o me l eg b ones s hou ld h ave s urv ived u nder t he t h ick c lo th a nd d r ink ing h orn c omp lex .

My s i lence o n t ha t p o in t u n for tuna te ly s ee ms t o h ave s ugges ted

a gree men t , b u t i n f ac t i ts ee med t o me a n u nsubs tan t ia ted s pecu la t ion .

I ti s

n o t n ecessary t o e nu mera te h ere g raves where t he s ke le ton h as d is in tegra ted c o mp le te ly , f or t hey a re many , a nd o ne n eed l ook n o f ur ther t han S pong H i l l , f or e xa mp le .

T he r easons f or t h is , a s e xper ts h ave e xp la ined , a re e x tre me ly

c o mp lex a nd d i f f icu l t t o e s tab l ish , r e la t ing t o a ge a t d ea th o f t he b ody , c on ten ts o f t he g rave a nd s urround ing s o i l a nd d ra inage c ond i t ions . T he f ac t i s , h owe ver , t ha t i td oes h appen .

O ccas iona l ly a p iece o f b one s ee ms t o h ave b een

p reserved when i n c lose c on tact w i th b ronze .

On t he o ther h and , o ther b ones

i n c on tac t w i th b ronze h ave c o mp le te ly d isappeared , a nd o ther meta ls a nd ma ter ia ls s ee m t o h ave n o p ar t icu lar c ons is ten t ly p reserva t ive e f fec t , o f ten t he o ppos i te i n f ac t .

A s a n i l lus tra t ion , ad ouble g rave a t D over , 9 6 , c on-

t a ined t wo men s ide b y s ide , o ne a ged p robably a ver f or ty a nd o ne b e tween t wen ty a nd t h ir ty. T he b ones o f t he y ounger man w ere b e t ter p reserved , t he f ee t b e ing more o r l ess c o mp lete .

T he o lder man was l ess w el l p reserved ,

a l though s o me o f t he b ones o f h is h ands were amongs t t hose r e ma in ing .

A

s h ie ld h ad b een p laced s o t ha t t he b oss was i m med ia te ly o ver h is f ee t , a nd t he b ones o f t hese h ad c o mp le te ly d isappeared . T h is o ne g rave i l lus tra tes t he d i f feren t r a te o f d eco mpos i t ion b e tween o lder a nd y ounger b ones i n t he s a me c ond i t ions , a nd a lso a n a pparen t s t imu lus t o d eco mpos i t ion b y c on tac t w i th i ron . T he p lac ing o f g rave g oods o n t he l ower l egs was a c us to m o f ten f o ll owed , a nd t here i s n o r eason why b one s hou ld b e p reserved i n t h is p os i tion a t S u t ton H oo a ny more t han e lsewhere i n t he b ur ia l .

3 58

O n t he q ues t ion o f c re ma t ion v ersus i nhuma tion , i ft he b urn t b ones o n t he A nas tasius d ish h ad r epresen ted t he c re ma ted r e ma ins o f t he k ing h i mse lf , a more i mpress ive d isp lay p a t tern o f t he g rave g oods migh t h ave b een e xpec ted f or r i tua l e f fec t .

S e t t ing o u t t he p ersona l i t e ms a s i fo n ab ody , a nd p lac ing

t he d ish h o ld ing t he a shes a t t he f oo t o f t h is n on-ex is ten t b ody , s ee ms a n i rra t iona l a rrange men t , p ar t icu lar ly a s s o me o f t he f ine g arnet j ewe l lery a nd t he s p lend id p urse w ere f ace d ownwards .

C re ma ted b ones , i fs uch t hey were ,

o n ad ish a t t he f oo t o f ab ody , i mag ined o r n o t , s ugges ts a p os i t ion o f s ubs erv ience p roper t o as ub jec t o f t he k ing , o r e ven t o af avour i te a n i ma l . H owever , f ur ther i n forma t ion may b e g leaned f ro m D r

V ierck 's u sefu l

r econs truc t ion o f t he s ide v iew o f t he Anas tas ius d ish a nd a l l t he b e long ings p i led u p u ndernea th i t ( V ierck 1 973 , A bb. 2A ).

T h is g ives a much b e t ter

i mpress ion o f t he amoun t o f g oods i n t h is a rea t han t he p lan , f or t here t he l arge d ish i t se l f h ides a l mos t e veryth ing e lse .

I ft h is s ec t iona l d raw ing i s

c ons idered i n r e la t ion t o t he p ho tographs o f t he d ish i n t he g rave ( BruceM i t ford 1 975 , F ig

1 15 a nd 1 39 ) , i tb eco mes c lear t ha t t he d ish , a nd t he

p o t tery b o t t le b es ide i t , were a t ah igher l eve l t han t he o ther o b jec ts .

I n

f ac t , i t s ee ms v ery l i ke ly t ha t t he d ish a nd t he b o t t le were p laced o n t op o f t he c losed c o f f in l i d wh ich c oncea led t he j u mble o f b e long ings i ns ide ' .

B o th

were f la t-based v esse ls a nd t he i n ference t o b e d rawn f ro m t he ir p os i t ions i s t ha t t he l i d o f t he c o f f in was f la t ( F ig 2 3 b is 1 , p . 3 60 ).

T h is wou ld mean

t ha t s o meth ing t o d r ink a nd s o me th ing t o e a t were b o th p laced o n t he c o f f in . T he g rea t s i lver d ish was t here fore u sed f or a r oya l s erv ing f or t he k ing , a nd t ha t we k now f ro m a s tory b y Bede ( Bede 's E ccles ias t ica l H is tory I I , 6 ) was t he a ppropr ia te u se a t t he t ime f or a s i lver d ish : ' I n s hor t , i ti s r epor ted , t ha t when h e was o nce s i t t ing a t d inner , o n t he h o ly d ay o f Eas ter , w i th t he a foresa id b ishop , [ A idan] a nd a s i lver d ish f u l l o f d a in t ies b efore h im , a nd t hey were j us t r eady t o b less t he b read , t he s ervan t , who m h e h ad a ppo in ted t o r e l ieve t he p oor .

c a me

i n o n as udden , a nd t o ld t he k ing , t ha t ag rea t mu l t i tude o f n eedy p ers ons f ro m a l l p ar ts were s i t t ing i n t he s tree ts b egg ing s o me a l ms o f t he k ing ;

h e i m med ia tely o rdered t he mea t s e t b e fore h im t o b e

c arr ied t o t he p oor , a nd t he d ish t o b e c u t i n p ieces a nd d iv ided among t he m . A t wh ich s igh t , t he b ishop who s a t b y h im , much t aken w i th s uch a n a ct o f p ie ty , l a id h o ld o f h is r igh t n and , a nd s a id , "May t h is h and n ever p er ish ." ( G i les 1 859 , 18 ).

Wh ich f e l l o u t a ccord ing t o h is p rayer

T h is a ct o f K ing O swa ld 's mus t h ave b een r egarded b y B ishop A idan , b y h is c on te mporar ies a nd b y B ede a s ac ons iderab le p ersona l s acri f ice i n o rder t o mer i t t he a ward o f a n i ncorrup t ib le r igh t h and .

F orego ing t he d a in t ies

p ro f fered may h ave b een u nsua l b ehav iour f or a k ing , b u t i t was h ard ly r e marka b le .

I t mus t h ave b een t he s acr i f ice o f t he s i lver d ish wh ich made s uch a n

i mpac t o n A idan .

T he r easons f or t h is s ee m t o b e t wo fo ld .

F rom B ede 's

s tory we g e t t he i mpress ion t ha t t he s i lver d ish a nd i t s c on ten ts p er for med a n impor tan t p ar t i n t he r i tua l o f a n Eas ter F eas t a t c our t , where i t s tood b e fore t he k ing wh i le t he b read was b lessed .

F ro m t he e v idence o f t he c on ten ts o f

G erman ic g raves o f t h is p er iod i n t he who le o f n or th-wes t Europe we k now t ha t Med i terranean s i lver was e x treme ly r are a t t h is t ime , a nd t ha t as i lver d ish , whe ther o f Med i terranean o r a ny o ther o r ig in , h as o n ly b een f ound a t S u t ton H oo . 3 59

F ig . 2 3 b is .1

S ugges ted r econs truc t ion o f t he s ide v iew o f t he c of f in i n t he s h ip-bur ia l , w i th t he d ish a nd b ot t le o n t op .

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H eysha m , L ancs; r ock-cu t c of f ins a nd g rave- marker r ecesses

3 60

E ven t ha t d ish was a pparen t ly a h igh ly t reasured p ossession a s i t was a t l eas t ah undred y ears o ld a t t he t ime o f b ur ia l .

O swa ld 's d ish was t herefore

v a luable b oth b ecause o f i t s r i tua l i mpor tance a nd b ecause i t was a n e x tre mely r are l uxury a r t icle f ro m a d is tan t l and s o t ha t i t was i rrep laceable .

There

i s as trong p robabi l i ty t ha t s uch a c us tom i n f orce a t O swa ld 's c our t was a lso f o l lowed a t Redwa ld 's c our t o n ly a f ew y ears e ar l ier . As t o t he ' crema ted ' b ones , t he f rag men ts o n t he Anas tas ius d ish a re , i n a ny e ven t , c on trovers ia l , a s i tc an n ever b e e s tabl ished whether t hey were a n ima l o r h u man .

F ur ther d oubt i s t hrown o n t he m b y an ote a dded t o Volu me

I( Bruce-1 V Ii t ford 1 975 , 5 42 , n ote 1 ) , i n wh ich i t i s s ta ted t ha t p hospha t ic d ep os i ts o n a n i ron o b ject r igh t a t t he o ther e nd o f t he c ha mber a lso c on ta ined b one-like f ragmen ts w i th c arbon p ar t icles l i ke t hose o n t he Anas tasius d ish . I nves t iga t ion mus t n ow b e d irected o nce more t owards a scer ta in ing whether i n f ac t s uch c arbon p ar t ic les p rove t ha t t he b one h as b een b urn t o r whether t hey c ou ld b e t he p roduct o f t ime a nd e nv ironmen t . The mos t u rgen t t ask n ow i s f or t he r esearch t ea m a t t he Br i t ish Muse = t o e xa m ine t horough ly t he e v idence o f t he i ron f i t t ings a nd wood t races o f t he c o f f in s o t ha t f u l l k nowledge o f t he s tructure w i l l b e a va i lable i ff ur ther e xcav a t ions a re u nder taken a t S u t ton H oo .

B IBLIOGRAPHY A rw idsson , G ., 1 977.

D ie G räber funde v on Va lsgärde I I , Va lsgärde 7 ,

( Uppsa la Un ivers i tets Museum f ör N ord iska F ornsaker , U ppsa la 1 977). Bruce- Mi t ford , R ., 1 975.

T he S u t ton H oo S h ip-Bur ia l , V ol . I( Br i t ish

Museum 1 975 ) . G i les , J . A ., 1 859 .

T he Venerable B ede 's E ccles ias t ica l H is tory o f Eng land ,

1 859. V ierck , H ., 1 973 .

' Redwa lds A sche ' , O f fa 2 9 ( 1973 f or 1 972) , 2 0-49.

3 61

2 4.

THE S UTTON HOO PURSE:

ANALYS ING THE WEIGHTS OF I TS CONTENTS b y Mansel S pra t l ing

I n h er r ev iew o f t he f irs t v o lu me o f t he f u l l d ocu men ta t ion o f t he S u t ton B oo s h ip-bur ia l ( Bruce- M i t ford 1 975 ) , A rrhen ius d irec ted h er a t ten t ion t o a n a na lys is a nd c ons idera t ion o f t he we igh ts o f t he g o ld b i l le ts , c oins a nd d iscs c on ta ined w i th in t he p urse ( Arrhen ius 1 978 ,

1 91-4 w i th T ables 1 -2 ).

S he

a rgued t ha t ' I t s eems t o me q u i te p robable t ha t t he c oins h ave b een d e l ibera tely s or ted t o f or m weigh ts '; t ha t t he mak ing o f t he d iscs ' two o f wh ich a re h eavy a nd o ne l i gh t , c ou ld b e i n ten t iona l ( i .e . t hey c ou ld h ave a s pec ia l f unct ion i n t he we igh ing p rocess ) '; a nd a lso t ha t t he who le h oard c ons is ted o f t he e qu iva len t o f t wo R o man o unces o f g old , d esp i te a d ev ia t ion o f ' 10 .7 % ' a bove t he a ssumed Ro man n or m . Wh i le Arrhen ius ' b as ic a rgu men t —tha t we igh t p layed a n e ssen t ia l p ar t i n t he s e lec tion ( and p robably , i n p ar t , manufacture ) o f t he i t e ms f or t h is h oard —w i l l n ot b e c on tes ted i n t h is b r ief s tudy , h er t hree p r incipa l a rgumen ts c annot b e a ccep ted i n t he f ace o f c r i t ica l e xa m ina t ion o f t he s a l ien t f acts . T he s econd c onclusion s ee ms c orrec t i n t er ms o f t he p hrasing a dop ted b y h er , b u t e v iden t ly n o t i n t he i n tended ( or a pparen t ly i n tended ) s ense. We may e xam ine t he l ast o f h er a rgu men ts f i rs t .

H er a rgumen t may b e

q uo ted i n f u l l : ' I t wou ld b e t e mp t ing t o e x trapo la te t ha t t he c o in mean v a lue 1 .2733 g i s t he Merov ing ian e qu iva len t t o t he R oman we igh t u n i t s cr ipu la ( s ic ) w i th a we igh t o f 1 .137 g wh ich c orresponds t o t he weigh t o f s ix s i l iquae .

H owever , t he d i fference f ro m t he Ro man weigh t u n i t i s

a s much a s 1 0.7% ( s ic ).

T he who le c o in-hoard wou ld i n t ha t c ase

c orrespond t o 2 88 s i l iquae ( t he c o ins a nd b lanks

j e t he d iscs b e ing

f or ty t imes 6 s i l iquae a nd t he b i l le ts t wo t imes 2 4 s i l iquae ).

A s 1 44

s i l iquae i n R o man t imes was mean t t o make o ne o unce , t he h oard t hus c ons is ted o f t wo o unces '. Wh i le t he c hange i n t he l as t s en tence t o t he p as t h is tor ic t ense f ro m t he c ond i t iona l o f t he p reced ing o ne i n troduces a c er ta in ambigu i ty i n to t he p recise mean ing o f h er a rgumen t ,

s he i s a c tua l ly wrong i n h er c a lcu la t ion o f t he d e-

v ia t ion f ro m t he a ccep ted n or m f or t he Ro man u n i t , t ha t i s , i n t he manner i n wh ich s he e xpresses i t ;

f or , a l though t he s cr ipu lu m i s o n ly 8 9.3% o f t he

mean v a lue o f t he c o ins a nd d iscs , t he l a t ter i s a ctua lly 1 1.99% g rea ter t han t he s cr ipu lu m .

T his i s c lear ly u nacceptable , f or i t we were t o a rgue s uch a

3 63

l arge marg in o f e rror i n t he c a l ibra t ion o f t he w eigh ts t he mse lves , t hen we c ou ld n o t r ea l is tica lly c ons ider t he i t e ms i n t he S u t ton H oo p urse t o h ave b een u sed a s weigh ts . H owever ,

s ince Imay b e misread ing Arrhen ius ' mean ing ,

i ti s p er t inen t

1

b r ief ly t o c ons ider t he q ues t ion o f h ow a rchaeo log is ts a nd n umis ma t is ts h ave s e t a bou t t he t ask o f e s tabl ish ing t he v a lues o f t he u n i ts o f weigh t emp loyed i n t he Ro man Empire . T he g enera l ly a ccep ted v a lue o f t he R o man l i bra o f 1 2 u nciae ( =2 88 s cr ipu lae = 1 728 s i liquae ) i s 3 27.45 g ( Chan tra ine 1 961).

T h is v a lue i s based

o n t he measure men t o f s o l id i i n f ine , o r e ven b e t ter , c ond i t ion , wh ich were s truck a t t he r a te o f 7 2 t o t he l i bra .

A s l ong a go a s 1 817 , L etronne t hus c a l-

c u la ted t he v a lue o f t he l i bra a t 3 27.18 g ( Letronne 1 817 , 3 -8 ) ,

av a lue t ha t

was l a ter r evised s l igh t ly u pwards t o 3 27.45 g b y B öckh ( 1838 ,

1 65 ) .

The

l a t ter v a lue was l a ter a dop ted b y Hu l tsch ( 1882 , 1 58-61 ) , a nd , d espi te t he r eserva t ions h e e xpressed , i ti s t h is v a lue t ha t h as c o me t o b e w ide ly a ccep ted a s t he t rue o ne f or t he l i bra .

N ever the less , o ther s cho lars h ave d ispu ted t h is

v a lue , a nd h ave s uggested a l terna t ive o nes , g enera l ly l ower b u t o ccas iona l ly h igher ( c f

C han tra ine 1 961;

G r ierson 1 964 , x i-x iv ).

H owever , when we c ons ider t he n a ture o f t he e v idence , i ti s i mprobable t ha t we s ha ll e ver b e a ble t o e s tabl ish t he v a lue o f t he ' Ro man p ound ' w i th p recis ion ; q ua l if ied .

o n ly a s ta t is tica l p robabi l i ty i s a ppropr ia te , a nd e ven t h is mus t b e One i mpor tan t p o in t t o b e b orne i n mind i s t ha t we d o n o t a ctua l ly

k now t he e x ten t o f t he d ev ia tion i n we igh t o f f icia l ly t o lera ted f or e ach c o in . Af ur ther p roble m i n c a lcu la t ing t he v a lue o f t he l i bra f ro m c o ins d er ives f ro m t he h oarder 's a l mos t u n iversa l h abi t o f s e lec t ing t he h eavier c o ins f ro m t he t o ta l p opu la t ion o f a ny g iven c urrency .

S ince h eav ier s o lidi a re t hus l i ke ly

t o h ave b een e xchanged l ess f requen t ly t han t he o thers a nd w i l l c onsequen t ly b e l ess worn , t hey a re t he v ery o nes t ha t we a re l i ke ly t o s e lect f or c a lcu la t ing t he v a lue o f t he l i bra .

I tt herefore f o l lows t ha t , i f we r e ly o n c o ins f or o ur

c a lcu la t ions , we a re l i ke ly t o e s ti ma te a h igher v a lue f or t he l i bra t han t he r ea l o ne.

I ti s t hus n o t f or tu i tous t ha t 3 27.45 g l i es t owards t he h igher e nd o f t he

r ange o f v a lues c la i med f or t he l i bra , a nd t ha t t he o f f ic ia l ly s ta mped

s i lver

b i l lets o f t he l a ter Ro man Emp ire t ha t b ear i nscr ip t ions o f t heir w e igh t c ons ist en t ly i nd ica te l ower v a lues ( g _ v _ Pa in ter 1 972 ).

T he h ighes t o f t hese b i llet-

v a lues i s o n ly s l ight ly l ower t han t he mos t a u thor i ta t ive ly e s tablished l ow v a lue f or t he l i bra-322 . 5 6 g( Nav i l le 1 920-22 ) —wh ich i sb ased o n t he c onc lusion . a lso a rr ived a t b y Lusch in v on E bengreu th ( 1 910 ) , t ha t t he s o l idus was min ted a t a n a verage v a lue o f 4 .48 g . A l lowance f or wear migh t s l igh tly r a ise t h is f igure , f or , a s G r ierson ( 1964 , x iv ) h as r ecen tly r e marked , ' I f o ne c ou ld s tar t a ga in f ro m s cra tch

i n o ur c a lcu la tions

p robably b e b e t ter t o a ccep t f igures o f 4 .51 gm .

i t wou ld

f or t he s o l idus a nd

3 25 gm . f or t he p ound r espect ive ly.' I t s hou ld , h owever , a lso b e n o ted t ha t o ther u n i ts o f we igh t o f e ven l ower v a lue a re a t tes ted i n G au l i n l a te Ro man a nd Merov ing ian t imes —un i ts wh ich r each b ack t o t he p re-Ro man e ra ( c f

S chwarz 1 963-4;

S pra t l ing 1 973 ,

1 20 ) .

I n L h is c on tex t i ti s , t herefore , mean ing less t o a t te mp t t o c o mpare s upposed u n i ts o f weigh t i n G erman ic Europe d ur ing M igra t ion Per iod w i th a p resumed 3 64

v a lue o f 3 27145 g f or t he Ro man l i bra ;

n o t o n ly d oes t h is i nva l ida te Arrhen ius '

t h ird c onc lus ion , b u t a lso Bakka 's r ecen t a rgumen ts c oncern ing t he o r ig in o f t he u n i ts o f we igh t emp loyed i n N or thern Europe i n p re-V ik ing t imes ( Bakka 1 978 ) . We may n ow t urn t o t he f irs t o f Arrhen ius ' a rgu men ts —tha t t he c o ins a nd d iscs were u sed a s weigh ts .

Th is was b ased o n t he p ropos i t ion t ha t t wen ty

o f t he m were h eav ier a nd t wen ty l igh ter t han t he mean v a lue o f 1 .2733 g . H owever , i ts hou ld a lso b e n oted t ha t t h is d oes n o t c orrespond t o t he median v a lue , wh ich l i es a t 1 .25945 g ; t h is ( c f

f i f teen a re l i gh ter , t wen ty-f ive h eav ier t han

Arrhen ius 1 978 , Table 1 ) .

A rrhen ius a lso o bserved t ha t t he mean v a lue o f t he c o ins a nd d iscs was e qu iva len t t o o ne-quar ter o f t he mean v a lue o f t he t wo b i l le ts .

The d i f ference

b e tween t he mean v a lue o f t he b i l lets ( 5 .0904 g ) i s o n ly 0 .0028 g ;

s ince t he

l a t ter i s o n ly 0 .055% g rea ter t han t he f or mer , t he d i fference c an p robably b e d iscoun ted .

E xpressed i n a nother way , t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he we igh t

o f t he c oins a nd d iscs a nd t ha t o f t he b i l le ts i s 5 :1 ( 50 .9292 : 1 0 .1808 g ; x 5= 5 0.904 ).

1 0 .1808

Th is r e la t ionsh ip d oes s ee m t o b e s ign i f ican t . b u t i t s r ea l s ig-

n i f icance s ee ms t o h ave e scaped Arrhen ius .

N o t o n ly d oes i tg ive u s ad irec t

i nd ica t ion o f t he a ccuracy t o wh ich t he c on ten ts o f t he p urse were weighed . b u t i ta lso n ega tes t he f orce o f h er a rgumen t .

S ince t he d i fference b e tween

t hese t wo v a lues i s o n ly 0 .0252 g , i t s ee ms r easonab le t o s ugges t t ha t t he b a lance u sed i n t he s e lec t ion o f t he c o ins , a nd i n t he s e lect ion a nd manu facture o f t he d iscs a nd b i l lets , was a t l eas t t h is s ens i t ive .

The s ensi t iv i ty c an t hus

b e c a lcu la ted t o b e 0 .0495% ( t he c a lcu la t ion b e ing 5 0 .9292:50 .9040 = 1 .000495 : 1 T he l i ke l ihood t ha t t h is i s t rue i s i ncreased b y t he f act t ha t t he d i f ference i n w e ight b e tween t he t wo b i l le ts ( 5 .2131 a nd 4 .9677 g r espec t ive ly) i s 0 .254 g . t ha t t h is i s i den t ica l t o o ne-six teen th o f t he c o mb ined we igh t o f t he t hree d iscs ( 3 .9281 - 1 6 =0 .2455 g ) . a nd t ha t t he t hree d iscs a ppear t o h ave b een manuf ac tured t o c are fu l ly d e termined v a lues o r t o h ave b een c arefu l ly s e lec ted f or t he p urpose o f b r ing ing t he t o ta l we igh t o f t he c oins u p t o 5 0 .9292 g .

I tc anno t ,

s ure ly , b e c oinciden ta l t ha t t he l igh tes t d isc i s o n ly 0 .0305 g h eav ier t han t he l i ghes t c oin ( wh ich i s i t se l f 0 .1616 g l igh ter t han t he n ex t l igh tes t c o in ) , t ha t t he h eavies t d isc i s 0 .0733 g h eav ier t han t he h eavies t c o in ,

a nd t ha t t he o ther

d isc i s 0 .0091 g l i gh ter t han t he h eav ies t c o in—tha t i s , t ha t t he t hree d iscs l i e a t b o th e nds o f t he s pec trum o f we igh ts o f t he c o ins a nd d iscs . I f we r equ ire f ur ther c orrobora t ion o f s uch e xact i tude i n work mansh ip , we n eed l ook n o f ur ther t han t he f i rs t p a ir o f i den t ica l g arne tin la id g o ld r ec tangu lar p laques a ssocia ted w i th t he s word-harness i n t he g rave , wh ich we igh r espec t ively 3 6.121 a nd 3 6.028 g ( Bruce- M it ford 1 978 , 4 56-60 , F ig 3 24 ) .

The d i f ference b e tween t he m i s o n ly 0 .093 g , wh ich h as p robably b een

e nhanced b y t he d if feren t ia l l oss o f p ieces o f i n lay.

We migh t a lso c onsider

t he f ra me , c lasp a nd l ock ing- mechan is m o f t he p urse i t sel f wh ich n ow h ave ac ombined we igh t o f 1 81 .989 g ( I bid , 4 91; 5 16) —a f igure o f s o me i n teres t i n t ha t i t i s o n ly 1 .341 g u nder t hree t imes t he t o ta l weigh t o f o ur h oard o f c oins , d iscs , a nd b i l le ts ( a d ev ia t ion f ro m t he l a t ter o f o n ly 0 .73% ).

When

we c ons ider t ha t , i n b o th t hese i ns tances , i n lays a re i ncluded i n t he we ight , t hen t he c orrespondences s ee m a l l t he more s tr ik ing .

3 65

Bu t t he c orrespondences

d o n o t e nd h ere , f or t he t o ta l p resen t w eigh ts o f t wo o f t he g roups o f j ewe l lery d e f ined b y B ruce- M i t ford ( 1978 , 4 47) ,

G roups I ( t he c lo isonné buck les , f our

p laques , a nd s trap-d is tr ibu tor ) a nd V I ( t he c o mp le te s e t o f f i t t ings f or t he p urse ) , a re r espec t ively 2 93 .476 a nd 2 95-018 g ;

d esp i te t he v ar ious d epre-

d a t ions ( e g l oss o f i n lay ) t ha t t he c ons t i tuen t p ieces h ave u ndergone , t he c orrespondence i n we igh t i s a ga in s tr ik ing .

Tha t i ti s n o t f or tu i tous i s s ug-

g es ted b y t he p resen t t o ta l weigh t o f a l l t he c lo isonné j ewe l lery l is ted b y Bruce,M i t ford ( I bid ( Groups I , I , I I , I V , V I a nd V I I ) ,v i 1 098 .229 g , wh ich i s j us t . e igh teen t imes 6 1.0127 g ; t h is i s o n ly 0 .0973 g l ess t han t he c o mb ined we igh t o f t he c o ins 2d iscs a nd b i l le ts .

I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t s o many o f t he p ieces o f

i n lay h ave b een l os t f ro m t hese p ieces , a nd i n o rder t o e s tabl ish t he a ctua l a ccuracy o f t he c orre la t ion we mus t b eseech o ur c o l leagues i n t he B r i t ish Museu m t o a t te mp t a n e s t i ma te o f t he we igh t o f t he miss ing i n lay , w hen t he S u t ton H oo T reasure r e turns f ro m i t s t rave ls . H owever , t he c orre la t ions d o n o t e nd h ere , s ince t he c o mbined w e igh t o f t he p a irs o f s cabbard-bosses a nd p yra m ida l s trap- moun ts ( 60.985 g ) i s o n ly 0 .125 g l ess t han t ha t o f t he h oard o f c o ins , d iscs a nd b i l le ts ( 6 1 .11 g ) ; s ince t he c o mbined we igh t o f t hese f our p ieces a nd o f G roups I -IV , V I a nd V I I o f t he j ewe l lery ( I b id )( 1 159 .214 g ) i s n ine teen t imes 6 1.0113 g ( wh ich i s o n ly 0 .0987 g l ess t han t he h oard o f c o ins , d iscs a nd b i l le ts ) ; o f t he ' grea t g o ld b uck le ' ( 4 12 .7 g ) i s 6 2 - x6 1.141 g . s um mar ised i n T able 2 4 .1.

a nd s ince t he we igh t

These r e la t ionsh ips a re

We c an , t here fore , c onc lude t ha t t he t o ta l we igh t v a lue o f t he h oard o f c o ins , d iscs a nd b i l le ts h as a s ign i f icance h i ther to n o t r ea l ised ;

t ha t i ts ug-

g es ts t ha t t he h oard a nd t he r es t o f t he j ewe l lery , t oge ther w i th t he h arness f or t he s word a nd i t s s cabbard , were a sse mb led a nd manu fac tured i n o ne a nd t he s ame workshop a t t he s a me mo men t i n t ime ;

a nd t ha t t he h oard may h ave

b een i nc luded i n t he p urse e ver s ince t he d ay o f t he l a t ter 's manu fac ture . Wh i le Imus t l eave a f u l l a rchaeo log ica l a ssess men t o f t h is t o t hose v ersed i n M igra t ion-Per iod a rchaeo logy , t here c an b e n o d oub t o f t he me tro log ica l u n i ty o f t hese o b jec ts , n or i ndeed o f t he v a lue o f me tro log ica l a na lys is i n t h is s phere o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch . T hus u n fa ir ly f or ti f ied b y ab a t tery o f me tro log ica l d a ta u nava i lab le t o Arrhen ius a t t he t ime s he wro te h er r ev iew , we c an r e turn t o t he e va lua t ion o f h er a rgumen t t ha t t he c o ins , d iscs a nd b i l le ts w i th in t he p urse were u sed a s b a lance we igh ts .

The a rgu men t i s i n i t se l f n o t p ar t icu lar ly c onv inc ing ,

f or we mus t s ure ly p onder why s o many ' we igh ts ' w ou ld h ave b een n eeded . H er r eason ing a lso s ee ms c on fused , i n t ha t t he o n ly c once ivab le n eed f or s o many we igh ts wou ld b e i n t he c on tex t o f af ar h igher o rder o f p recis ion w eigh ing t han t ha t e nv isaged b y h er .

2

Wh i le t ha t i s p erhaps n ow a v ery r ea l p oss ibi l i ty ,

i n v iew o f t he n ew c orre la t ions o bserved a bove , Is t i l l f ind i ti mprobab le . Wi th in t he t er ms o f h er own a rgumen t , i ti s n ever the less u nconv incing , f or t he d ev ia t ions f ro m t he d ouble mean v a lue i n p a ir ing t he l i gh tes t a nd h eav ies t c o ins , t he s econd l i gh tes t a nd h eav ies t , a nd s o o n , a re s o g rea t a s t o o bv ia te t he i n ten t ion o f p rec is ion measure men t . I ti s p robab ly a lso a n a nachron is m t o e nv isage t ha t t he h oarder t hough t i n t er ms o f mean v a lues ;

we mus t b e

c arefu l h ere ( as a lways i n o ur r esearch ) n o t t o i mpu te modern modes o f t h ink ing t o o ur a nces tors .

3 66

Tha t c o ins were o f ten u sed a s b a lance we igh ts i s c lear f ro m e ar l ier Ang loS axon c on tex ts i n Br i ta in ( Sm i th 1 923 ;

A rno ld f or thco m ing ) , a s i ti s f ro m l a ter

S cand inav ia a nd e lsewhere , b u t t h is i s n o a rgumen t i n A rrhen ius ' f avour . Where c oins a re u sed i n t h is manner , t here i s a lways a c lear p ropor t iona l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he m , e ven i ft he a c tua l a ccuracy i s o f ten r a ther l ow ( c f A rno ld f or thco m ing ) .

Moreover , where g rea t a ccuracy was d e manded , t h is

i s c lear ly r e f lected i n t he v a lues o f t he we igh ts t he mse lves .

I n t h is c on tex t ,

i ti s a ppos i te t o r eca l l P e tr ie 's measure men t o f ag roup o f I s la m ic g lass h a l fd inar we igh ts , t hree o f wh ich , made i n t he y ear A D 7 80 ( we igh ing r espect i ve ly 3 2.662 , 3 2.665 a nd 3 2 .667 g ra ins ) , d i f fered f ro m e ach o ther b y n o more t han 1 /200 th g ra in , o r 0 .3 mg ( Pe tr ie 1 918 , 1 15 ) . I n s um , If ind i ti mposs ib le t o a gree w i th A rrhen ius ' a rgumen t t ha t i n t he S u t ton Hoo p urse ' we h ave a n a sse mb lage o f we igh ts o f t he h ighes t a ccuracy '. T ha t t here i s e v idence f or p rec is ion we igh ing i n t he S u t ton H oo g rave , a nd i n t he c o mp lex o f i t e ms c onnected w i th t he h oard o f c o ins , d iscs a nd b i l le ts , s eems i rre fu tab le , b u t i ti s n o t o f t he k ind e nv isaged b y A rrhen ius . Two f ina l ma t ters o ugh t n ow t o b e b r ief ly c ons idered , t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he metro log ica l c orre la t ions o bserved a bove t o c on te mporary u n i ts ,o f meas uremen t emp loyed i n E ng land ;

a nd G r ierson 's a rgumen t t ha t t he f or ty c o ins

a nd d iscs a nd t wo b i l le ts were i n tended a s as y mbo l ic p ay men t t o t he o ars men , ' cap ta in ' a nd h e l ms man o f t he S u t ton H oo s h ip ( Gr ierson 1 970 ;

1 974 ) .

If eel c er ta in t ha t t he l a t ter a rgumen t mus t b e a f fec ted , a t l eas t i n p ar t . b y t he more d e ta i led me tro log ica l o bserva t ions , i n t ha t t he s y mbo l ic p ay men t wou ld c lear ly h ave b een u nequa l i n ma ter ia l t er ms , a t l eas t t o t he d onor i f n o t t he r ec ip ien ts .

H owever , i f we were t o r egard t h is p ay men t a s ac o l lec t ive

o ne , t ha t i s , t o t he c rew , r a ther t han i t s me mbers s evera l ly , t hen t he a rgumen t may s t i l l b e v a l id ;

b u t , s ince t h is r epresen ts a f unda men ta l c oncep tua l c hange

i n t he n a ture o f t he p ay men t , Imus t l eave a more c ons idered j udge men t o f t he i ssue t o b e made b y o thers .

N ever the less , i n s y mbo l ic t erms t he c o ins a nd

s ubs t i tu te c o ins ( i e t he d iscs ) a re

i den t ica l , i n t ha t i n p ay men t f or s erv ices

r endered t o t he l eader i ti s t he d es igna ted r a ther t han t he i n tr ins ic v a lue t ha t c oun ts .

Wha tever i n terpre ta t ion we may p re fer , t he h oard d oes s t i l l p rov ide

f ur ther e v idence f or t he p ract ice o f measur ing c o in b y we igh t i n t he M igra t ion P er iod ( c f Werner 1 954 ; a nd a lso t he C ronda l l h oard ; S u ther land 1 948 ; G r ierson 1 953 ) . T he q ues t ion o f me tro log ica l c orre la t ions i s more c o mp lex . i n t ha t t he v a lues o bta ined a bove d o n o t c orre la te a s e xac t ly a s o ne wou ld l i ke w i th t he u n i t o f measure men t d e tec ted f ro m s e ts o f b a lance-we igh ts f ound i n Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls i n Eng land ( c f

Sm i th 1 923 ;

A rno ld f or thco m ing ).

t o mu l t iples o f av a lue o f we igh t al i t t le o ver 3 .1 g ( c f

T hese c an b e r educed

Sm i th 1 923 ;

A rno ld

f or thco ming ) . T he t o ta l we igh t o f t he h oard o f c o ins , d iscs a nd b i l le ts . 6 1 .1100 g , c ou ld b e c ons trued a s t wen ty t imes 3 .0555 g . wh ich wou ld r epresen t ad ev ia t ion f ro m t he Sm i th-Arno ld v a lue o f al i t t le o ver 1 % .

H owever , i tm igh t

b e more a ppropr ia te t o p lace a g rea ter r e l iance o n t he S u t ton H oo v a lue , i n t ha t t he w e ights s tud ied b y Sm i th a nd A rno ld a re mos t ly c o ins o f c opper-base a l loy a nd t hus more s uscep t ib le t o d is tor t ion o n a ccoun t o f c orros ion . T he q ues t ion o f a ny r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he u n i ts o f we igh t u sed i n c on te mp orary Sweden , where t he c loses t s tyl is t ic , ‚ r i tua l a nd s oc ia l l i nks w i th t he 3 67

S u tton H oo s h ip-bur ia l a nd i t s c on ten ts a re t o b e l oca ted , a lso d eserves d et a i led c onsidera t ion .

Bu t , s ince t ha t l i es b eyond my p resen t k now ledge a nd

c onsequen t ly c o mpetence t o j udge , i t mus t b e l e f t t o d iscuss ion o n af u ture o ccas ion . A cknowledge men ts Iam g ra tefu l t o Professor Rah tz f or t he i nv i ta t ion ( a t v ery s hor t n ot ice ) t o c on tr ibu te t o t h is v o lume , t o Dr Arrhen ius ( S tockho lm ) , Mr Dr

J ohn K en t , Dr

C hr is topher Arnold ( Leeds ), D r

Andrew Burnet t , . Mr

R ichard Reece a nd Dr

B irg i t

J a mes G raham-Ca mpbe l l ,

Dav id M

Wi lson ( a l l L ondon ) ,

f or t heir a dv ice , c r i t icis m a nd d iscuss ions o f t he me trology o f t he S u t ton H oo h oard d ur ing t he g es ta t ion o f t h is p aper o ver t he p as t t hree y ears , t o Dr Arno ld o nce more f or a l low ing me t o q uo te f ro m h is p aper i n a dvance o f i ts p ubl ica t ion , a nd t o C aro le F i tches f or t yping o u t my manuscr ipt a t e ven s hor ter n ot ice . No tes 1 .

S o me o f t he ambigu i t ies i n Dr

Arrhen ius ' t ex t may s i mply b e c onsequen t

u pon t rans la t ion , u pon d i f feren t n uances o f mean ing i n S wedish t ha t c ou ld n o t b e e xac tly r endered i n to Eng l ish . t ime t o c lari fy t h is w i th Dr 2 .

Ir egret t ha t t here h as n o t b een

Arrhen ius n or w i th h er t rans la tor .

The o rder o f p recis ion wou ld h ave t o h ave b een a bou t 0 .1 mg t o h ave b een a ble t o d is t ingu ish b etween t he we ights o f c oin n o d isc n o

3 9 .

i n o rder 2 5 a nd

Maybe t he h oarder d id h ave a s s ens i t ive aba lance a s t h is ,

b u t we mus t f ind s o me way o f d e mons tra ting r a ther t han a ssum ing i t .

B IBLIOGRAPHY Arnold , C . J ., f or thco m ing . ( for thco m i ng ). Arrhen ius , B ., 1 978 .

The B a lance o f Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon T rade

Rev iew o f Bruce- Mi t ford 1 975 .

Med ieva l A rchaeol .

2 2 ( 1 978 ) , 1 89-95 . Bakka , E ., 1 978 .

Two Aurar o f G o ld .

o f t he M igra t ion P er iod . Böckh , A ., 1 838 .

C on tr ibu t ions t o t he Weigh t H is tory

An t iq . J . 5 8 ( 1978 ) , 2 79-98 .

Metrolog ische Un tersuchungen ü ber G ew ichte , Münzfüsse

a nd Masse d es A l ter thums i n i hre m Z usam menhänge ( Ber lin , 1 838 ). Bruce- M i tford , R . L . S ., 1 975 . The S u t ton H oo S h ip-Bur ia l , Vo lume 1 . Excava t ions , Background , t he S h ip , Da t ing a nd I nven tory ( London , 1 975 ) . Bruce- M i t ford , R . L . S ., 1 978 .

The S u t ton H oo S hip-Bur ia l , Vo lume 2 .

Arms , Ar mour a nd Rega l ia ( London , 1 978 ). C han tra ine , H ., 1 961.

Uncia .

I n Pau ly - Wissowa , Rea l-Encyclopäd ie d er

K lass ischen A lter tumswissenscha f t , I X .A .1 ( S tu t tgar t , 1 961) , 6 04-65. G r ierson , P ., 1 953.

A s tray f ro m t he C ronda l l h oard .

S er . 6 , 1 3 ( 1953 ) , 1 48-9 .

3 68

Nu mis m . C hron .

Gr ierson , P ., 1 964. a nd Coinage.

T he Presiden t 's Address , S ess ion 1 963-1964.

Weights

N umis m . C hron ., S er . 7 , 4( 1964) , i -xv i i . T he Purpose o f t he S u t ton Hoo C o ins .

G r ierson , P ., 1 970.

An t iqu i ty 4 4

( 1 970 ) , 1 4-18 . T he S u t ton H oo c oins a ga in .

Gr ierson , P ., 1 974. Hu l tsch , F ., 1 882.

An t iqu i ty 4 8 ( 1974 ) , 1 39-40 .

G r iech ische u nd r öm ische Metro log ie ( Second e di t ion ,

B er lin , 1 882). Le tronne , J . A ., 1 817.

C ons idera t ions g bn ra les s ur l ' va lua t ion d es

monna ies g recques e t r o ma ines ( Par is , 1 817). Lusch in v on E bengreu th , A ., 1 910 .

Der Denar d er L ex S a l ica .

d er Ka iser l ichen A kade mie d er Wissenscha f ten i n Wien :

S i tzungsber ich te

Ph i l. h is t . K lasse

1 63.4 ( 1910 ) , 5 9-89 . Nav i l le , L ., 1 920-22 .

Frag men ts d e m aro log ie a n t ique .

Revue s u isse d e

n u mis ma t ique 2 2 ( 1920-22 ) , 4 2-60. Pa in ter , K . S ., 1 972.

A La te-Ro man S i lver I ngo t f ro m K en t .

An t iq. J .

5 2 ( 1972 ) , 8 4-92 . Pe tr ie , W. M. F ., 1 918 .

G lass weigh ts .

Numis m . C hron ., S er . 4 , 1 8

( 1 918 ) , 1 11-16. S chwarz, G . T ., 1 963-4.

G a l lo rö m ische G ewich te a us Aven t icum .

S chweizer M i lnzblä t ter 1 3-14 ( 1 963-4 ) , 1 50-57. Sm i th , R . A ., 1 923.

E ar ly Ang lo-Saxon weights .

S pra t l ing , M. G ., 1 973 . P art I .

The I ron Age s et t le men t o f G ussage A l l S a in ts ,

The b ronze f oundry.

S u ther land , C . H . V ., 1 948 . C ronda l l H oard Werner , J ., 1 954.

An t iq . J . 3( 1923 ) , 1 22-8 .

An t iqu i ty 4 7 ( 1973 ) , 1 17-30 .

Ang lo-Saxon G o ld C o inage i n t he l igh t o f t he

( London , 1 948 ) . Waage u nd G eld i n d er Merowingerze i t .

d er Bayer ischen Akade mie d er Wissenschaf ten : K lasse , J ahrgang 1 954

( 1954 ) , 3 -40 .

3 69

S i tzungsber ich te

Ph i losoph isch-H is tor ische

Table 2 4 .1

Va lues a nd c orrela t ions o f weigh t i n t he S u t ton Hoo s h ip-buria l S ources o f d a ta :

I t e ms C on ten ts o f p urse ( CP )

Bruce- M it ford 1 975 a nd 1 978

Weigh t ( g ) 6 1.1100

C orrela t ions x5 /6 = 5 0 .9250 ( coins , d iscs ) — 6=1 0 .1850 ( b i lle ts )

C o ins a nd d iscs

5 0.9292

— 5= 1 0 .1858 ( b i lle ts ) x1 .2 = 6 1.1150 ( CP )

1 0.1808

B i l lets

x 5= 5 0 .9040 ( coins , d iscs ) x 6 =6 1.0848 ( CP )

Heav ier b i l le t

5 .2131

L igh ter b i l le t

4 .9677

D iscs

3 .9281 4 7.0011

Co ins

d i f ference = 0 .2454 — 1 6 =0 .2455 4 7.0011:61.11 ( CP ) =1 0:13.002

Purse : f ra me , c lasp ,

1 81.989

l ock ing- mechan is m

1 81.989

— 3=6 0 .663 ( CP )

J ewe l lery: G roup I

2 93-476

c f

G roup V I

G roup V I

2 95 .018

c f

G roup I

G roups I -IV , V I , V I I

1 098 .229

— 1 8 =6 1.0127 ( CP )

S cabbard b osses & p yramida l s trap moun ts

6 0 .985

c f . CP

E ide m + j ewe l lery G roups I IV , V I , V I I ' Grea t g o ld b uck le '

1 159-214 4 12.7

— 1 9 =6 1.0113 ( CP ) =

x6 1.141 ( CP )

Ear ly Ang lo-Saxon u n it o f weigh t ( Sm i th-Arnold )

3 .1

CP — 2 0 =3 .0555

3 70

S ECT ION F

LATER CE METERIES

3 71

2 5 .

A CHR ISTIAN ANGLO-SAXON GRAVEYARD AT RAUNDS , NORTHA MPTONSH IRE b y Andrew B odd ing ton

I NTRODUCTION The s ub ject o f t h is p aper i s t he e xcava t ion a nd i n terpreta t ion o f a C hr is tian Ang lo-Saxon g raveyard a t Raunds i n E as t N or tha mp tonshire.

T he

g raveyard i s s t i l l u nder e xcava t ion , s o i ti s n o t y et p oss ible t o a ssess f u l ly t he v a lue o f t he me thods o f r ecord ing a nd p os t-excava t ion a na lys is i n u se. The c e me tery i s a pparen t ly c on ta ined w i th in a d i tched e nclosure , c 3 0 m x4 0 m.

The c hurch i s s et o f f-cen tre , t owards t he n or th-wes t o f t he

e nclosure , a nd i th as b een s hown t o h ave d eveloped f ro m a s ing le-cel led s tructure measur ing c 4 .5 m x 3 .0 m , t hough t t o b e o f t en th c en tury d a te . T h is was l a ter e xpanded b y t he a dd i t ion o f ac hancel .

I n t he e leven th c en tury

t h is bu i ld ing was d e mol ished t o make way f or a l arger c hurch 1 5 .2 m l ong , a ga in w i th a n ave a nd c hancel d iv is ion , wh ich c on t inued i n u se u n t i l t he e ar ly t we l f th c en tury

when c hange t o as ecu lar u se o ccurred .

The c o mple te e xcava t ion o f t he c hurches a nd t heir g raveyards h as b een g iven p r ior i ty o ver i nves t iga t ion o f t he a ssoc ia ted med ieva l manor a nd midd le S axon s e t t le men t .

I th as b een d ecided t ha t a l l g raves w i l l b e e xcava ted ,

a nd t ha t e ach g rave w i l l b e r ecorded i n d eta i l t o t he s tandards s e t o u t i n e ar l ier h andbooks o f t he N or tha mp tonsh ire C oun ty C ounci l ( Bodding ton 1 978 ; B odding ton a nd Morgan 1 979) .

A l l b ur ia ls w i l l b e r e moved a nd p repared f or

s pecia l is t a na lysis , wh ich w i l l b e c arr ied o u t i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th i n tegra ted s i te r ecord ing a nd p os t-excava tion p rocedures .

F ew e xcava ted S axon c e me-

t er ies a re a s d iscrete ly d ef ined a nd r ela t ive ly u nd is turbed a s t ha t a t R aunds a nd t he t o ta l e xcava t ion o f t he g raveyard w i l l b e c o mplete a nd d e ta i led . EXCAVAT ION The g raveyard i s s i ted ma in ly o n o o l i t ic c lay , as ubso i l i n wh ich t he d ef in it ion o f g raves i s p ar t icu lar ly d i f f icu l t .

A l arge n u mber o f g raves h ave

b een d ef ined b y f inding o ne b one a nd p ursu ing t he r e ma inder o f t he s kele ton , t he e dges o f t he g rave-cu t o f ten b eing n ear ly i mposs ible t o d e ter m ine u n less as tone l in ing i s p resen t .

Wh i le i ti s t e mpt ing t o e xcava te t he u pper l eve l

o f t he f i l l r ap id ly o nce t he b ur ia l h as b een l oca ted , t h is a pproach c an b e d angerous i n v iew o f an umber o f i ns tances where i n fan ts h ave b een i nser ted i n to a du l t g raves .

A f ter i n i t ia l t rowe l-c lean ing , t he b ur ia l i s washed c lean

o f c lay w i th s ponges p r ior t o r ecord ing . The a verage t ime r equ ired f or t he e xcava t ion a nd r ecording o f an orrra l a du l t bur ia l a nd i t s a ssoc ia ted g rave-cu t a nd f ea tures i s f our d ays .

Where

t he b ur ia l i s a ssoc ia ted w i th c o mp l ica ted s tone a rrange men ts ( see b e low ) o r i sb adly c rushed , t he t ime t aken may b e d oubled . 3 73

RECORD ING T he me thods i n u se a t Raunds h ave b een d iscussed i n B odd ing ton a nd Morgan 1 979 .

T hey c o mpr ise t he p repara t ion o f b o th g enera l p lans o f t he

g raveyard a nd s peci f ic p lans o f t he i nd iv idua l g raves a nd b ur ia ls , t he d etermina t ion o f s tra t igraph ic r e la t ionsh ips w i th in t he g raveyard , a nd t he p roduct i on o f d e ta i led r ecords f or t he b one s pecia l is t a nd f or p os t-excava t ion u se. P lann ing e ach b ur ia l b y c onven t iona l means h as b een a bandoned i n f avour o f s ca le p ho tographs , t hough t hese r equ ire a v ery h igh s tandard o f c lean ing . T he me thods u sed a t Raunds a re s o mewha t s imp ler t han p ho togra m me try a nd h ave b een u sed e lsewhere o n g raveyards ( e g P h i l ips 1 976 a nd Morgan 1 978 ) .

Sma l l wh i te t ags a re p laced e i ther s ide o f t he s hou lders , b e tween t he

f e murs a nd b etween t he a ng les , a t k nown c o-ord ina tes .

T he p ho tograph i s

t aken f ro m a s n ear a v er t ica l p os i t ion a s p oss ib le o ver t he c en tre o f t he b ur ia l b y ap ho tographer p erched o n a4 m h igh p a in ters ' t res t le s i tua ted t o o ne s ide o f t he g rave o r , i n t he c ase o f sma l ler b ur ia ls , a s tr ide t he g rave. T he r esu l t ing p ho tographs w i l l b e s l igh t ly d is tor ted i n t hose i ns tances where t he p os i t ion o f t he c amera was n o t d irect ly a bove t he mid-po in t o f t he a x is o f t he b ur ia l , b u t s uch d is tor t ion c an b e r e moved d ur ing e n larg ing . A s hee t i s d rawn u p s howing t he p os i t ion o f t he t ags p laced i n t he g rave a t a s ca le o f c 1 :10 .

T h is i s p laced o n t he b ase p la te o f t he e n larger a nd t he

n ega t ive i mage i s p ro jected o n to i t .

The b ase p la te a nd t he e n larger h ead

a re a d jus ted u n t i l t he t ags o n t he p ro jec ted n ega t ive c orrespond t o t hose o n t he s hee t a nd t he p r in ts a re t hen p roduced a t 1 :10 .

S o me d is tor t ion w i l l s t i l l

b e p resen t f ro m t he c a mera a nd e n larger l ens b u t t h is w i l l b e min ima l . I n o rder t o s i mp li fy e n larg ing , t he marker t ags were i n i t ia l ly p laced a t t he t op o f t he g rave i n ar ec tang le , b u t t h is was s hown t o p roduce d is tor tion where t he b ur ia l was i n ad eep g rave-cu t . T he d is tor t ion i n t he c ase o f a3 5 mm f or ma t a nd 5 5 mm f oca l l eng th l ens was f ound t o p roduce a f oreshor teni ng o f t he b ur ia l b y c 2% f or e ach 0 .1 m o f g rave-cu t . T he d escr ipt ion o f t he b ur ia l u t i l ises ap ro f orma s hee t s pec i f ica l ly d es igned f or u se w i th i nhu ma t ions .

C on t inua t ion s hee ts a re a va i lab le f or d es-

c r ip t ion a nd s ke tches . A f ter l i f t ing a nd b agg ing t he s ke le ton , p lans o f t he r es t o f t he e xcava t ion a re d rawn a t 1 :20 .

T he p lann ing s ys te m , wh ich i nvo lves t he impos i t ion o f

a n a rb i trary 5 m g r id o ver t he s i te , h as b een d iscussed e lsewhere ( Bodding ton 1 978 ) . POST-EXCAVATION T he f ina l p a t tern o f p os t-excava t ion work f or t he R aunds c e me tery c an o n ly b e d e ter m ined a s t he work p rogresses , b u t i n i t ia l ly work h as p roceeded o n t he b as is o f a' bur ia l p ackage '.

T he ' package ' i nvo lves g roup ing a l l t he

r ecords r e la t ing t o e ach b ur ia l t ogether a nd i s d iv ided i n to t wo e lemen ts —the ' s truc tura l ' e le men t a nd t he ' ske le ta l ' e le men t . T he s tructura l p ackage c o mpr ises t he f o l low ing : 1 .

A n A 4 p ho tograph ic r ecord , o n to wh ich i s p as ted a 1 :10 s ca le p ho tog raph o f t he b ur ia l , p roduced a s d escr ibed a bove . 3 74

Th is c ard i s f u l ly

c ross-re ferenced t o n ega t ives , t ransparenc ies a nd a ny o ther r e levan t d e ta i ls . 2 .

Fur ther p ho tograph ic r ecord c ards a re u sed where r equ ired t o s how a ny d e ta i led v iews o f t he s ke le ton o r ma ter ia l w i th in t he g rave .

3 .

Ap ro f orma s hee t o f p o lyes ter f i lm i s u sed t o p roduce a s che ma t ic d rawing o f t he b ur ia l a t 1 :20 s ca le , r educed f ro m t he s ca le p ho tograph a nd s i mp l i f ied t o a n o u t l ine .

T h is p lan i s i n tended t o s how t he p os i-

t i on o f t he b ur ia l a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o o ther g rave f ea tures .

F ro m

t h is p lan t he c en tra l a x is ( a l ignmen t ) o f t he b ur ia l i s d e term ined . T he p ackage

s ys tem i s i n tended t o b e e xpanded a ccord ing t o r equ iremen ts .

Wi th t hese s hee ts a re g rouped o ther d e ta i ls s uch a s t he u n i t ( con tex t ) d esc r ip t ion s hee ts f or t he g rave f i l ls , c u t , s tone p i l lows e tc .

Each g rave c u t

i s a lso p lanned i nd iv idua l ly a nd c onsequen t ly i t s p lan c an a lso b e s tored w i th in t he ' package '. T he ' ske le ta l ' p ackage c urren t ly c o mpr ises t wo g roups o f s hee ts , o ne f or ' Sku l l Measure men ts a nd O bserva t ions ' , t he o ther f or ' Pos t-Cran ia l Measure men ts a nd O bserva t ions '. A PRELIM INARY S URVEY OF RESULTS I n t he p er iod f rom J une 1 978-Sep te mber 1 979 , t he r e ma ins o f a pprox ima te ly 2 70 i nd iv idua ls were e xcava ted f ro m a n a rea o f 9 50 s q m ; t he t o ta l n umber o f b ur ia ls w i th in t he c e me tery i s u nknown b u t i s e s t i ma ted t o b e b et ween 3 00 a nd 3 50 . F ro m a s amp le o f 2 22 , 1 99 b ur ia ls w ere a r t icu la ted w i th in t he g raves a nd 2 3 were d isar t icu la ted , 3o f t hese b e ing r e-bur ied i n o ther g raves a nd 5b e ing r e-bur ied i n sma l l p i ts .

The r e ma inder o f t he d isar t icu la ted s ke le-

t ons w ere f ound s ca t tered t hroughou t g rave f i l ls a nd b u i ld ing c ons truct ion l eve ls . B ased u pon s i te e xa m ina t ion , s o me 6 7% o f t he b ur ia ls were t hough t t o b e ma ture , i .e. p robab ly o ver 2 5 y ears , 1 2% were t hough t t o b e i m ma ture , i .e . p robab ly b etween 1 2 a nd 2 5 y ears , a nd 2 1% were t hough t t o b e i n fan ts . There i s as urpr is ing l ack o f i nd iv idua ls i n t he i m ma ture r ange , t hough t h is may b e d ue e n t ire ly t o e rros i n d e ter m in ing ma tur i ty i n t he f i e ld .

S evera l

o f t he i n fan ts a ppeared t o b e n ew b orn o r w i th in t he f irs t mon ths o f l i fe . T he g raveyard l ayou t i s n o t y e t f u l ly u nders tood ;

work h as c oncen tra ted

s o f ar o n t he g raveyard t o t he s ou th , e as t a nd n or th o f t he c hurches ( s ee F ig 2 5 .1 ) . T he a rea t o t he wes t o f t he e leven th c en tury c hurch a ppears t o b e l ack ing i n b ur ia ls e xcep t f or f our i n fan ts d iscovered t o t he wes t o f t he e ar l ier c hurch b u i ld ing . A l l t he b ur ia ls a re s up ine a nd a re o r ien ta ted e as t-wes t a nd i ti s a pparen t t ha t d ur ing a t l eas t o ne p hase t he g raves t o t he s ou th o f t he c hurch were l a id o u t i n f a ir ly r egu lar n or th-sou th r ows .

T o t he e as t o f t he

c hurch t wo d is t inc t a l ignmen ts c an b e s een , o r ien ta ted 2 5° a par t , e ach a l ignmen t a pparen t ly c ons t i tu t ing a d i f feren t p hase o f g raveyard u se .

T here a re

an umber o f i n tercu t t ing b ur ia ls a nd i ti s h oped t ha t f ur ther i n forma t ion a bou t t he g raveyard p has ing c an b e d educed f ro m t hese .

3 75

. 4 2

3 76

Ang lo-Saxon c hurches , w i th c e me tery ( Septe mber 1 979)

Ver y little can be determined about the shape of the graves themselves due to difficult soil conditions. Within 6 0% of the graves, stone had been utilized either before or after burial to support or cover the burial or to line the grave. There are many different types of stone arrangement and further work is needed before these can be fully categorized. The most common use of stone was to support the back of the head, and in most cases it appeared that the head was being proposed upright to look down the length of the grave (i.e. eastwards). These 'stone pillows' varied from a single rough stone slab to more elaborate groupings, some neatly laid, others quite rough. In one case a slab had been placed vertically against the west end of the grave-cut and it is assumed that the ·head was propped up against this. In a number of examples a circle or a triangle of fragments was used. Such stone arrangments involving the laying of stones prior to the burial were found in 21% of the graves. In others � 15%) the 'rillows' were more elaborate, involving the packing of rough stones around the skull as an addi­ tional support. In two of the burials the stones were packed over the skull, including one instance where quite large rough slabs up to O. 35 m aoross were pitched around the skull, one of the slabs being utilized to cover the face completely. A feature similar to the head 'pillows' is the use of 'supports' but these were relatively rare, occurring in only 5% of the graves. In 9% of the graves, stone slabs, frequently of dressed stone, were used to line the sides, but only in a few cases did the lining extend around the complete perimeter of the grave and in many instances only two or three such slabs were utilized. A lining of slabs for1he bottom of the grave only occurred in three cases. Covering the skull with stones has already been mentioned, but in many graves other parts of the body were also covered. Seven burials were com­ pletely covered by a single stone slab, two of these by decorated slabs dated tentatively to the tenth century. Two other burials were completely covered by an arrangement of stone slabs, one comprising a group of four horizontal slabs and one vertical slab acting as a marker at the foot end, and the other with a group of three slabs forming the flat top of a triangular-sectioned cist. In less elaborate examples a stone cist was formed by packing rough stones around and over the burial with seemingly little regard to their arrangement. Rough stone had been used in some form to cover the body in 23% of burials. For six of the graves a marker stone survived at ground level, invariably of rough-hewn vertical slabs, four of them placed at the foot and two at the head of the grave. There was no evidence for wooden coffins and the presence of stone in 6 0% of the graves suggests that wooden coffins were not used. One individual was buried in a stone coffin covered with a plain stone lid. In several cases infants had been -�uried in adult graves, usually disturbing the bones of an adult. CONCLUSIONS Many questions can be asked about the structure and growth of a Christian churchyard and about the pathology and dem,ography of its buried population.

377

T hese q ues t ions may o n ly b e a nswered when s u f f icien t d a ta h ave b een g a thered . T here a re many p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted S axon g raveyards , i nc lud ing t hose where d e mograph ic s tud ies a re i mposs ible d ue t o p oor p reserva t ion a nd o thers where i nd iv idua l u nda ted b ur ia ls s pan s uch a p o ten t ia l ly w ide t ime s ca le t ha t t heir v a lue i s l im i ted .

T he R aunds g raveyard h as a d e f inab le p er iod o f u se , wh ich

a l lows u s t o s tudy t he g row th o f t he g raveyard , a nd t he e x ten t o f i t s u se t hrough al i fespan o f p oss ibly t wo c en tur ies .

A l though t he l im i ted n u mber o f i n ter-

c u t t ing b ur ia ls may i nh ib i t i n ferences a bou t p has ing , i td oes l ower t he i ncidence o f d is turbance i n t he e ar l ies t i nhuma t ions .

T he u se o f s tone w i th in t he g raves

i s c lear ly a ma jor t op ic f or s tudy a nd i th as a n o bv ious p o ten t ia l f or i n for ma t ion o n b ur ia l p ract ice , p ar t icu lar ly when c o mbined w i th t he d e mograph ic i n forma t ion . I fS axon p opu la t ion a nd b ur ia l s tud ies a re t o p rogress i tw i l l o n ly b e b y a sk ing a ppropr ia te q ues t ions o f s a t is fac tory d a ta , a nd u n t i l t he d a ta a re a va i la ble s uch q ues t ions w i l l n o t p roduce s ign i f ican t a nswers .

A t Raunds i ti s f e l t

t ha t t he e v idence i sb eing r ecovered p urpose fu l ly , b u t o ne s i te i s o n ly g oing t o p rov ide a m inu te p ropor t ion o f t he i n for ma t ion t he s ub jec t r equ ires . I fa ny f u ture t rend i s t o d eve lop i n t he e xcava t ion o f S axon c e me ter ies i t mus t b e t owards t he c o mp le te e xcava t ion o f t hose c e me ter ies i n wh ich a h igh p ropor t ion o f t he o r ig ina l b ur ia ls c an b e s hown t o s urv ive ;

c e meter ies which

a re we l l d a ted a re c lear ly o f more u se t han t hose w h ich a re n o t ;

t hose , s uch

a s Raunds , wh ich c an b e s tud ied i n t he c on tex t o f as e t t le men t p a t tern w i l l a ssume a g rea ter i mpor tance .

I n o rder t o e nsure c ons is ten t a nd v a l id r esu l ts ,

e ach e xcava t ion s hou ld b e c onducted a ccord ing t o ar esearch d esign a nd a s pec i f ied me thodo logy .

I ft h is c anno t b e a ch ieved w i th in t he c urren t f i nancia l

c ons tra in ts t hen w e s hou ld a sk o urse lves whe ther e xcava t ion o f s uch s i tes s hou ld b e a t te mp ted a t a l l .

T he l arge amoun t o f h a l f-co mp le te a nd o f ten p oor ly

r ecorded c e me ter ies w h ich h ave a ccu mu la ted s o f ar w i l l o n ly h ave a v a lue when t hey a re s tud ied w i th in t he f ra mework o f c o mp le te a nd we l l r ecorded s i tes . B IBLIOGRAPHY B odd ing ton , A ., 1 978 .

T he E xcava t ion R ecord :

P ar t I , S tra t i f ica t ion .

A rchaeo log ica l O ccas iona l P aper N o . 1 , N or than ts C oun ty C ounc i l . B odd ing ton , A . a nd Morgan , M ., 1 979. I nhuma t ions . C ounc i l . Morgan , M ., 1 978 .

T he E xcava t ion R ecord :

P ar t I ,

A rchaeo log ica l O ccas iona l Paper N o . 2 , N or than ts C oun ty

E xcava t ion a nd R ecord ing T echn iques a t t he c eme tery o f

S t N icho las S hamb les S i te , L ondon , 1 975-8 , L ondon A rchaeolog is t 2 , N o . 8 . P h i l ips , A . D ., 1 976.

E xcava t ion T echn iques i n C hurch A rchaeology , i n

P . A ddy man a nd R . Morr is e ds ., T he A rchaeo log ica l S tudy o f C hurches ( CBA R es . R ep. N o . 1 3 ) .

3 78

2 6.

THE S CAND INAV IAN V IK ING-AGE BUR IALS OF ENGLAND —SO ME PROBLE MS OF I NTERPRETAT ION

b y J a mes G raha m-Ca mpbe l l T he p urpose o f t h is s hor t p aper i s t o i n troduce a c o mp l ica t ing f actor i n to t he s tudy o f b ur ia l i n A ng lo-Saxon E ng land — the V ik ings —and t o c ons ider b r ie f ly s o me o f t he p rob le ms p resen ted b y t he r ecogn i t ion a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f t he ir b ur ia ls , a l though Is ubscr ibe f or t he mos t p ar t t o t he n ow w ide ly a ccep ted v iew t ha t ' t he V ik ings r espec ted C hr is t ian b ur ia l g rounds a nd u sed t he m f or t he d isposa l o f t he ir o wn d ead ' ( W i lson 1 967 , 3 7 ) . T he p er iod f ro m t he m id-n in th t o t he m id-e leven th c en tury was o ne o f c o mpara t ive ly we l l-docu men ted S cand inav ian l and-tak ing a nd s e t t le men t i n Eng land , e ven i ft he n umber o f S cand inav ians i nvo lved r e ma ins a much d eba ted ma t ter .

The s o mewha t sma l l n umber o f V ik ing-Age b ur ia ls i n E ng land —fro m

at o ta l o f t wen ty-f ive s i tes a ccord ing t o Wi lson 's l a tes t r eckon ing ( 1976 , 3 96) 1 —has i nev i tab ly b een b rough t i n to t he a rgumen t b y t he m in i ma l is ts .

The e xac t

n umber o f s uch b ur ia ls i s i t se lf a n u nse t t led ma t ter , f or n o c orpus h as b een a t tempted s ince t ha t p ub l ished b y BWrn a nd S he te l ig i n 1 940 ( based l arge ly o n f ie ld-work c arr ied o u t i n 1 925 ) ;

Wi lson h as n o t p rov ided f u l l d e ta i ls t o

a ccompany h is maps ( 1 968 , F ig

1 ;

1 976 , F ig

1 0 .1 ).

T here h as t hus b een

n o modern a t te mp t t o c o l la te c r i t ica l ly t he a va i lab le e v idence f or a l l k nown a nd s ugges ted S cand inav ian b ur ia ls i n Eng land , h owever p u ta t ive , i n o rder t o e s tabl ish a n uc leus o f p roven s i tes a nd t o g rade t he c la i man ts o n as ca le o f r e l iabi l i ty a s t o t he ir e thn ic i den ti f ica t ion a nd d a te .

A s R ichard B rad ley

u rged i n g enera l a t t he e nd o f t he O x ford S y mpos iu m , t here i s c er ta in ly a n eed i n t h is p ar t icu lar f i e ld t o c a l ibra te t he q ua l i ty o f o ur e v idence b efore we c an s tar t t o u se i t . T he f irs t V ik ing r a ids o n Eng land t ook p lace d ur ing t he l as t t wo d ecades o f t he e igh th c en tury a nd i t was n o t u n t i l 8 51 t ha t af orce i s k nown t o h ave s tayed e ven o ver a w in ter .

I n 8 76 , i n t he words o f t he C hron ic ler , ' Hea l fdene

[ the D an ish l eader] s hared o u t t he l and o f t he N or thumbr ians , a nd t hey p roc eeded t o p lough a nd t o s upport t he mse lves '.

B y t he e nd o f t he c en tury t here

were Danes s e t t led i n E as tern Eng land f ro m t he T yne t o E as t Ang l ia a nd i n C en tra l Eng land t hey h e ld t he T err i tory o f t he F ive B oroughs ( Derby , N o t t ingh am , L eices ter , L incoln a nd S tam ford ) .

T he N or th- Wes t ,fro m C umbr ia t o

Chesh ire , e xper ienced S cand inav ian l andtak ing f ro m c 9 00 , i nvo lv ing N orse s e t t lers f ro m I re land ( t hey were e xpe l led f ro m D ubl in b y t he I r ish i n 9 02 ) , t he I s le o f Man a nd t he H ebr ides , p oss ibly a ugmen ted b y n ew s e t t lers f ro m t he ir N orweg ian h o me lands .

I ts hou ld , h owever , b e r e me mbered t ha t t h is

was t he p er iod d ur ing wh ich t he s e t t le men t o f I ce land was t ak ing p lace wh ich wou ld h ave f or med a r iva l a t tract ion f or s uch l and-seekers .

T hus Eng land

was s e t t led f ro m t wo d irec t ions a nd d iv ides i n to t wo ma in a reas o f d i f feren t e thn ic a ct iv i ty , a l though t here a re s o me p lace-names i n Yorksh ire wh ich a re b es t e xp la ined b y s et t lemen t f ro m t he Wes t . 3 79

T he f i rs t S cand inav ian b ur ia ls o f t he V ik ing A ge i n E ng land t ha t w e migh t t herefore e xpec t t o e ncoun ter a re t hose o f l a te e igh th t o m id-n in th c en tury r a iders a nd warr iors .

T hese a re , h owever , d i f f icu l t t o i so la te f ro m t he l a te

n in th/ear ly t en th-cen tury ma le b ur ia ls o f t he s e t t le men t p er iod b ecause t he t ypes o f w eapons f ound i n t he g raves c anno t g enera l ly b e d a ted s o c lose ly a s t o e nab le s uch h is tor ica l i n terpre ta t ions t o b e made .

T hey w i l l i n a ny c ase

b e r e la t ive ly f ew i n n u mber a nd t he ir d iscovery ama t ter o f c hance . O n t he o ther h and , we m igh t e xpec t g raves o f Dan ish s e t t lers t o b eg in t o a ppear i n E as tern a nd C en tra l Eng land i n s o me q uan t i ty f ro m t he 8 70s . A t t ha t t ime t he D anes were f or t he mos t p ar t p agans who p ract ised a cco mp an ied b ur ia l u s ing e i ther i nhuma t ion o r c re ma t ion f or t he d isposa l o f t he b ody . G raves w ere g enera l ly c apped b y mounds , o r s omet i mes marked w i th s tone s e t t ings .

C re ma t ions were n o t n ecessar i ly p laced i n c on ta iners ,

migh t b e b ur ied i n ac o f f in , c ha mber , c hes t , o r wagon b ody ; r are ly u sed f or t h is p urpose .

b u t c orpses

b oa ts w ere

H owever , D an ish b ur ia ls o f t he V ik ing Age

were g enera l ly l ess w e l l e qu ipped w i th g rave g oods t han w ere t hose o f N orway a nd S weden , w i th a f ew n o table e xcep t ions wh ich d a te t o t he t en th c en tury. D enmark was t he f irs t o f t he S cand inav ian c oun tr ies t o b e s ub jected i n tensive ly t o C hr is t ian i n f luences a nd , f o l low ing t he c onvers ion o f K ing Hara ld B lue tooth i n t he 9 60s ( who c la i med , o n t he me mor ia l s tone e rec ted b y h im a t J e l l ing , t o h ave made a l lt h e D anes C hr is t ian ) , i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t t he p agan t rad it i on o f b ur ia l w i th g rave g oods d id n o t o u t las t t he c en tury.

One s hou ld n o t

t herefore e xpec t t he a rr iva l o f n ew D an ish f orces i n t he l a te t en th c en tury a nd t he c onques t o f E ng land i n t he e ar ly e leven th t o h ave l e f t a ny t races i n t he f orm o f an ew s tra tum o f p agan b ur ia ls .

I ns tead t here i s f ro m L ondon t he we l l-known

t o mbs tone , w i th i t s R inger ike-s tyle o rnamen t o f e xce l len t q ua l i ty, f ound i n S t P au l 's c hurchyard b ear ing a S cand inav ian r un ic i nscr ip t ion t ha t c on ta ins t he n ames o f t he S cand inav ians who e rec ted i t . A s n o ted a bove , t here a re f ew b ur ia ls i n E ng land t ha t may b e a t tr ibu ted s peci f ica l ly t o D an ish s e t t lers , a l though t hey mus t i nc lude t he s er ies o f b arr ow b ur ia ls a t I ng leby , D erbysh ire a nd i so la ted ( ? ) g raves l i ke t ha t f ro m Wens ley c hurchyard , N or th Y orksh ire , where a warr ior was b ur ied n o t o n ly w i th h is w eapons b u t a lso w i th a s ick le .

The r ecen t r ecogn i t ion t ha t t he f e-

ma le b ur ia l a t S a f fron Wa lden , E ssex , i s n o t al a te a no ma ly b u t o f t he s e ttlemen t p er iod 2 means t ha t Wh i te lock 's ( 1 941 ) o bserva t ions o n t he c onversion o f t he E as tern Dane law s t i l l s tand : ' The e v idence .., a l l p o in ts t o aw ide a ccep tance o f t he n ew f a i th a lready b y t he a nd o f t he n in th c en tury .

I n t he f i rs t d ecade o f t he

t en th c en tury t he D anes c an s t i l l b e c a l led " pagans" b y t he ir e ne mies , b u t t h is i s t he l as t i nd ica t ion o f a ny c on t inuance o f h ea then r e l ig ion . N e i ther a rchaeo log y n or p lace-names s ugges t t ha t i ts urv ived i n t h is r eg ion f or a ny c ons iderab le l eng th o f t ime '. I n t he N or th , h owever , w e c anno t t e l l h ow q u ick ly t he C hurch was a b le t o c onv er t t he p agan S cand inav ian s e t t lers , b u t i t was c er ta in ly a s lower p rocess. T he i nc idence o f S cand inav ian b ur ia ls w i th g rave g oods i n c hurchyards , p art i cu lar ly t he e igh t o r n ine g raves f ound u nder t he c hurch a t K i 'da le , N or th Yorksh ire , h as s ugges ted t ha t c hurchyard b ur ia l b ecame t he n or ma l V ik ing p ract ice ( as i th ad d one a lso i n t he I s le o f Man ) w i th t he r esu l t t ha t ' t he l ack 3 80

o f g rave g oods i n E ng land i s h ard ly s urpr is ing i n v iew o f t he d is turbed n a ture o f t he s o i l i n s uch p laces ' ( W i lson 1 976 , 3 97).

T here r e ma ins a p roble m o f

i n terpre ta t ion . Ba i ley ( 1980 , 4 4 ) a t tr ibu tes t o Wi lson t he c onc lus ion t ha t t he d iscovery o f w eapons i n c hurchyards i s ' ev idence f or a n e ar ly a d jus t men t t o l oca l r e l ig ious a nd s oc ia l o bservances '.

H a l l ( 1 976 , 1 4 ) b el ieves t ha t ' bo th t he Wens ley

a nd K i lda le f inds a re a dd i t iona l ly i mpor tan t f or t hey s how t he ming l ing o f E ng l ish C hr is t ian a nd S cand inav ian p agan b ur ia l r i tes '.

Y e t a l l t ha t Wi lson

a c tua l ly c la i ms i s t ha t t he S cand inav ians r espec ted ' t he s tr ic t n a ture o f t he e x is t ing b ur ia l g rounds ' ( 1976 , 3 97 ) , a pparen t ly mean ing t ha t t hey f e l t i t a ppropr ia te t o b ury t he ir d ead a longs ide t he E ng l ish d ead wha tever t he d i f fere nce o f r i te .

I ndeed W i lson s ee ms t o s ee a l l s uch a cco mpan ied b ur ia ls a s

s pec i f ica l ly p agan t o j udge f ro m h is c o m men t t ha t ' a C hr is t ian c o m mun i ty w ou ld p robab ly n o t t o lera te a p agan b ur ia l i n t he ir c hurchyard u n less i t was u nder p agan c on tro l ' ( I bid ) . t he c hurch was s t i l l i n u se .

We c anno t e ven b e s ure i n s uch i ns tances t ha t I ti s i n teres t ing t o s pecu la te whe ther e xcava t ion

a t K irkda le , N or th Y orksh ire , m igh t r evea l s uch b ur ia ls b ear ing i n m ind t ha t i t s e leven th-cen tury s un-d ia l r ecords h ow ' Or m , s on o f G ama l , a cqu ired t he c hurch o f S t G regory w hen i t was t u mb led a nd r u ined , a nd h ad i tr ebu i l t f ro m t he g round i n h onour o f C hr is t a nd S t G regory , i n t he d ays o f E dward t he K ing a nd Tos t i t he e ar l '. T here i s n o

d oub t f ro m t he g rave f inds i n N or th- Wes t Eng land t ha t t here

w ere p agans amongs t t he f irs t t en th-cen tury S cand inav ian s e t t lers o f t h is a rea , a l though i nd iv idua l ly t hey a re n o more r e markab le o r b e t ter e qu ipped t han t hose f ound e lsewhere i n Eng land .

T h is i s p robab ly t o b e e xp la ined b y t he

f ac t t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he s e t t lers a ppear t o h ave b een f i rs t , s econd , o r e ven t h ird-genera t ion s e t t lers f ro m I re land , S co t land , a nd t he I s le o f Man , who a re l i ke ly t o h ave modi f ied t he ir t rad i t iona l p agan b ur ia l-r i tes , p ar t icu lar ly u nder t he i n f luence o f C hr is t ian i ty; c onver ts .

s o me p ropor t ion w i l l a lready h ave b een

B ear ing i n mind t he a verage p auc i ty o f g rave g oods i n p agan

S cand inav ian g raves i n Eng land we w ou ld d o we l l t o l ook a ga in a t s econdary i n ter men ts i n p reh is tor ic mounds t ha t may o therw ise b e a t tr ibu ted t o s even thc en tury Ang lo-Saxons o n t he b as is o f f ragmen tary g rave g oods , a s M iss D e irdre O 'Su l l ivan o bserves i n h er s urvey o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a nd V ik ing s e t t le men t o f C umbr ia . 3 Wha t , f or i ns tance , o f t he r e-used b arrow a t K irkby S tephen w i th o n ly a l os t f ragmen t o f b ronze v esse l a nd ab lue g lass b ead t o p roc la im t he d a te a nd i den t i ty o f t he s econdary i n termen t?

T here i s a f ter a l l f ro m K irkby

S tephen a V ik ing-Age s cu lp ture d ep ic t ing ab ound f igure t ha t i s l i ke ly t o b e p agan i n i nsp ira t ion . T he g rea t ma jor i ty o f t he V ik ing-Age s cu lp ture f ro m N or thern E ng land , n ow a bly r ev iewed b y Ba i ley ( 1980 ) , c ons is ts o f C hr is t ian monu men ts w i th a C hr is t ian s ign i f icance , b u t t here r e ma ins ab ody o f c arv ings o f wh ich we c ann o t b e c er ta in whe ther i t i s C hr is t ian o r p agan— in p ar t icu lar t he h ogbacks , f or v ery f ew o f t hem c arry C hr is t ian s cenes o r s y mbo ls .

S o me h ogbacks

a t S ockburn o n T ees a nd a t L ow ther , C umbr ia ( I bid , 1 34-8 ) , a re c arved w i th s cenes wh ich p resen t ad ec ided ly n on-Chr is t ian i mpress ion .

H ogbacks d e-

v e loped i n t hose p ar ts o f N or thern Eng land s e t t led b y t he N orse a nd G ae loN orse i n t he t en th c en tury , b u t a l though n one h as b een f ound i n d e f in i te a ssoc ia t ion w i th a g rave , t here i s ad oubt fu l r epor t t ha t a weapon was f ound u nder

3 81

one of the hogbacks at Heysham, Lancashire. This serves in conclusion to remind us once again both of the necessity of calibrating the quality of our evidence and for caution in the manner in which we interpret burials with Scandinavian grave goods found i. .1 Englfsh churchyards. 1

NOTES 1.

In addition to the sites counted by Wilson, a small urban cemetery has been found around the church of St Mary Bishophill Junior, York (Hall 1976, 22).

2.

For a recent bibliography, see Graham-Campbell 1980, No 164 Mr. Stephen Bassett kindly informs me that the grave with its Scandinavian­ type necklace 'is part of an ordered cemetery in which clearly -defined rows are evident'. The cemetery was first established by the third century and was in effectively continuous use until the thirteenth century (Bassett forthcoming).

3.

I am most grateful to Miss 0' Sullivan for discussing the results of her research with me before the submission of her Ph D thf'sis (University of Durham). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bailey, R. N., 1980.

Viking Age Sculpture in Northern England

(London).

Bassett, S., forthcoming. Saffron Walden: Excavations and Research, 1972-78.

Bj�rn, A. and Shetelig, H., 1940. Viking Antiquities in Great Britain and Ireland, Part IV, ed. H. Shetelig (Oslo). Graham-Campbell, J., 1980. Hall, R. A., 1976.

Viking Artefacts: A Select Catalogue (London).

The Viking Kingdom of York (York).

vVhitelock, D., 1941. The Conversion of the Eastern Danelaw, Saga Book of the Viking Soc., 12, 159-76. Wilson, D. M., 1967. The Vikings' Relationship with Christianity in Northern England, J. Brit. Archaeol. Ass. (3) 30, 37-46. Wilson, D. M. � 196 8. Archaeological Evidence for the Viking Settlements and Raids in England, Frfi.hmittelalterliche Studien, 2, 291-304. \Vil son, D. M., 1976. The Scandinavians in England, The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. D. M . Wilson, (London), 393-403.

382

2 7.

THE CHURCHYARD I N EASTERN ENGLAND ,

AD 9 00-1100 :

S OME L INES OF DEVELOP MENT b y Lawrence B u t ler

A s tudy o f t he d eve lop men t o f c hurchyards i n t he l a te S axon p er iod mus t a sk more q ues t ions t han i tc an a nswer , b ecause o f t he d ear th o f e v idence b oth h is tor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l .

Among t he p eoples who h ad s e t t led i n e as tern

B r i ta in s ou th o f t he F or th t here was a c o m mon i nher i tance :

t he ir c onvers ion

t o C hr is t ian i ty o ccup ied much o f t he s even th c en tury a nd t he ir s ub jec t ion t o p agan V ik ing a t tacks a nd o ccupa t ion h ad c o m menced i n t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he n in th c en tury .

C hurches were b e ing b u i l t o r r e founded d ur ing t he e n t ire

p er iod o f c onvers ion , c onso l ida t ion a nd r econvers ion a nd i ti s t e mp t ing t o a rgue t ha t t here wou ld h ave b een a c o m mon p a t tern o f o r ig ins a nd d eve lop men t . H owever , t he ma in t enor o f a rgu men t c oncern ing t he m igra t ion p er iod o f t he p agan t r ibes h as b een t o emphas ise t hose t ra i ts i n t he ir b ur ia l p ract ice a nd a r t is t ic p references wh ich r evea l t he ir d i f ferences r a ther t han t hose wh ich i nd ica te a c o m mon G erman ic i nher i tance .

I t may b e d oubted whe ther t he

a dop t ion o f C hr is t ian i ty was p er s e s u f f ic ien t t o i mpose a u n i for m i ty i n a t t i tudes t o c hurch b u i ld ing a nd c hurchyard c rea t ion , p ar t icu lar ly when many d ioceses w ere a r e f lec t ion o f p o l i t ica l a nd t r iba l u n i ts .

I ns tead o ne s hou ld l ook f or ,

o r a t l eas t b e a ler t t o t he p oss ibi l i ty o f , d ivergen t s trands o f i n f luence , b o th p o l i t ica l a nd e cc les ias t ica l , e ach o ne p roducing d i f feren t emphases i n t he s equence o f c hurch b u i ld ing a nd a ssoc ia ted b ur ia l .

The f our f actors i n

t he c rea t ion o f aC hr is t ian b ur ia l g round a ppear t o b e t he p resence o f a c hurch , t he e rec t ion o f ac ross , t he mark ing o f t he g raves a s C hr is t ian a nd n o t p agan r es t ing-p laces , a nd t he t o ta l o r p ar t ia l e nc losure o f t he b ur ia l g round . T he p resence o f ah o ly w e l l may b e af ur ther f ac tor f ocuss ing C hr is t ian a t tent i on t o ap ar t icu lar l oca t ion ( F ig

2 7.1 ) .

T here i s ad anger t ha t t he s equence

d iscovered i n af ew t ype s i tes ( S t S ever in a t C o logne , Xan ten ) a nd p os tu la ted f or o thers ( S t A lbans ) w i l l b e r egarded a s t he n or m a nd t ha t s cho lars may c lose t heir m inds t o o ther p oss ib i l i t ies o r f a i l t o

r ea l ise t ha t t o ta l ly d i f feren t

s equences o f e ven ts i n t he p er iod 9 00-1100 c ou ld s t i l l y ie ld t he s ame e ndp roduc t i n t he a ppearan ce o f ag raveyard . T he c hurch a nd i t s c e me tery a re r egarded a s au n i ty i n C hr is t ian p ract ice . E xamples o f t he c lose r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he t wo c an b e i ns tanced f ro m A rdwa l l o r R aunds where t he p rov is ion o f an ew c hurch b u i ld ing o n ad i f feren t a l ignmen t c an b e s hown t o i n f luence t he s ubsequen t a l ignmen t o f t he b ur ia ls ( Tho mas 1 971, 7 2 ; G o f f 1 979 ) . H owever , t he c hurch i s n o t an ecessary f ocus o f ab ur ia l g round e i ther among C hr is t ian c o m mun i t ies i n R o man c i t ies o r i n t hose Ang lo-Saxon u rban c en tres wh ich s epara ted c hurch s tructure f ro m b ur ia l g round .

E xamp les c an b e g iven o f c e me ter ies c la i med t o b e C hr is t ian

b u t w i thou t ac hurch ( Le igh ton Buzzard I :

H ys lop 1 963 ) a nd o f u rban c en tres

w i thou t i n tra- mura l b ur ia l a t t he minor c hurches . 3 83

O ccas iona l ly t he c hurch

Church

G raves

F ig . 2 7 .1

C ross

Y ard

C on tr ibu tory f ac tors t o t he g row th o ft he c hurchyard

w i thou t p resen t v is ib le e v idence o f b ur ia l i s ap ar ish c hurch wh ich h as b eco me d epressed i n s ta tus d ur ing t he c en tra l m idd le a ges .

T he e v idence o f f i e ld

c hape ls i n t he D o mesday Monachorum o f C hr is tchurch , C an terbury s hows h ow c ons iderable was t he s ubs tra tu m o f r e l ig ious p rov is ion b enea th p aroch ia l s ta tus .

I ti s n o t c lear w he ther t he mo ther c hurches p rov ided s paces f or b ur ia l

t o ap opu la t ion d e term ined b y g eograph ica l l im i ts o r f ixed b y k insh ip l im i ts ; t he l a t ter p oss ibi l i ty m igh t b e t raced t hrough e xcava t ion a nd s tudy o f c ran ia l s im i lar i t ies .

E qua l ly t he g row th o f ap ar ish c hurch m igh t d epend l ess o n

g eograph ica l f actors t han u pon t he e cono m ic c apaci ty o f ac o m mun i ty t o p rov ide t he s uppor t f or a p r ies t , h is h ouse , h is d a i ly ma in ta inance , t he n eeds o f h is a l tar a nd t he r epa ir o f t he s truc ture .

T he l aw c odes o f t he t en th a nd

e leven th c en tur ies i nd ica te t he p resence o f c hurches w i th c e me ter ies a nd o f ac lear g rada t ion i n s ta tus .

H owever t he L aws o f t he N or thu mbr ian P r ies ts

i nd ica te t ha t p rob le ms a rose w i th u nconsecra ted a l tars a nd c e me ter ies . T h is may b e t he l egacy o f e piscopa l a bsence o r l ax i ty d ur ing t he V ik ing i nvas ions .

Consecra t ion c ou ld o n ly b e p er for med b y t he b ishops , s o me t i mes l ong

a f ter b u i lding a s t he a c ta o f t h ir teen th-cen tury b ishops i n Worces ter s how. T he p oss ibi l i ty o f r earrange men t t o t he p aroch ia l o rgan isa t ion h as b een a rgued f or e leven th-cen tury J ersey a nd t wel f th-cen tury I s le o f Man : L ikew ise t he p oss ib i l i ty o f i nser t ing n ew c hurches i n to a n a lready s e t t led r ura l l andscape h as b een a ssocia ted w i th G ru f fydd a p C ynan i n e leven th-cen tury Ang lesey a nd L leyn .

Mother c hurches wou ld v iew w i th c oncern a l l n ew f oun-

d a t ions wh ich r esu l ted i n al oss o f t he ir o wn f ees f or a dm in is ter ing t he s acramen ts . H owever , c hanges i n t enur ia l d om ina t ion c ou ld b r ing a bou t c hanges o f s ta tus ;

c hurches c ou ld b o th r ise a nd f a l l .

T he s ta tus o f ac hurch i n p apa l

e nqu ir ies a nd b ishops ' r eg is ters o f t he l a te t h ir teen th c en tur y i s n o g uaran tee t ha t i th ad a lways e n joyed t ha t s ta tus . T he p resence o f c hurches s erved b y o ne-ha l f ( b p r ies ts a t D o mesday B ook may c oncea l as ubord ina te o r d iv ided s ta tus . I th as o f ten b een a rgued t ha t t he p reach ing c ross was t he s ubs t i tu te f or o r p recursor o f ac hurch , a nd t ha t t he s tone c ross was p receded b y a wooden o ne .

A par t f ro m t he e xa mp le a t S t B er te l in 's , S ta f ford ( Oswa ld 1 955 ) wooden

c rosses h ave n o t a ppeared i n a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a nd i ti s t he a r t-h is tor ica l a rgumen ts f or t he p ro to types o f s tone c rosses t ha t h ave b een t he ma jor s ource f or t h is t heory .

T he d i f f icu l ty o f f ind ing s uch e v idence e xcep t a t c hurches

a bandoned b e fore t he e leven th c en tury i s a ma jor h indrance t o v eri fying s uch a rgumen ts . I n g enera l t he f orms o f t he c ross emphas ise t he ir p r i mary me mor ia l p urpose r a ther t han a p ure ly d idac t ic n a ture . a t B ewcas t le may f u l f i l many f unc t ions ;

Ac ross s uch a s t ha t

i t may g i .ve i ns truc t ion o n t he d iv ine

mys ter ies , i t may c onvey t he s acramen t o f C hr is t 's B ody a nd B lood , i t may s tand a s ar e me mbrance o f ad onor , c o m me mora te a n a c t o f c onvers ion o r b eseech a s ecu lar b a t t le v ic tory. i t was p r i mar i ly a me mor ia l .

I t may f u l f i l a ny o r a l l t hese f unc t ions b u t

T he p assage i n t he V i ta Wi l l iba ld i d escr ibing

S axon p ract ice h as y e t t o r ece ive s uppor t f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s ources ;

' i t

i s t he c usto m o f t he S axon p eop le ...to e rec t n o t ac hurch b u t t he s ign o f t he h oly c ross r a ised o n h igh ' ( quo ted i n Rad ford 1 976 ).

T he c oncep t o f miss ion-

a r ies g a ther ing t he f a i th fu l a round a l one ly c ross o n aw indswep t moor s ee ms more ap roduc t o f aH igh Ang l ican t ra in ing c o l lege t han o f ah is tor ica l o r a rchaeo log ica l r ea l i ty .

The i so la ted c rosses a re u sua l ly b oundary markers 3 85

t hough t hey migh t o ccas iona l ly p o in t t o t he p resence o f a wooden c hurch n ever r ep laced i n s tone o r o f af i e ld c hape l wh ich d id n o t s urv ive t he r el ig ious a nd p o l i t ica l u pheava ls o f t he m idd le a ges .

I ti s ad angerous a rgumen t t o a sser t

t ha t ' a c hurch w i th ( s tone ) c rosses o f t h is i mpor tance c an o n ly h ave b een a s tone c hurch a t t he p er iod i n wh ich t hey were e rec ted ' ( Rad ford 1 976 , 3 4 ). I so la ted c rosses s uch a s t ha t t en th-cen tury c eno taph o f d ynas t ic p r ide , t he P i l lar o f E l iseg n ear L lango l len , may mark a r is tocra t ic g raves u nder mounds b u t w i th n o c hurch p rov ided n earby u n t i l 1 200 .

T he t endency o f med ieva l

c hurch b u i lders t o r ob o u t lying s i tes a s we l l a s t he ir o wn c hurchyards f or s tructura l ma ter ia l a nd f or n ine teen th-cen tury a n t iquar ian i ncu mben ts t o c o l lec t c rosses i n to t he ir o wn c hurchyards makes i td i f f icu l t n ow t o i den t i fy a l l t he i so la ted s i tes where c rosses s tood .

I ti s c lear t ha t t he e rec t ion o f

c rosses b o th i n i so la t ion a nd a s a d junc ts t o c hurches was a c o m mon p henomenon o f t he e n t ire p er iod 9 00-1100 . T he o r ig ins o f c hurchyard b ur ia l h ave b een s tud ied i n d e ta i l b y Morr is ( f or thco m ing ) a nd T ho mas ( 1971 ) f or e as tern Eng land a nd wes tern Br i ta in r espec t ive ly .

T he t rans i t ion f ro m p agan c e metery t o C hr is t ian g raveyard

s o me t i mes t ook p lace w i th in t he s ame e nc losure .

T he t endency o f e igh th-

c en tury b ishops t o c onde mn t he b ur ia l o f u nbe l ievers am id C hr is t ians s hows t ha t t h is was s t i l l ac oun try i n t rans i t ion , a nd t he a rchaeo log is t mus t b e a ware o f t h is s tage , p erhaps w i th t oken o r m in i ma l g rave g oods o r w i th a marked d i f ference o f a x is .

T he p oss ibi l i ty o f t he V ik ings r ein troducing p agan c us-

t o ms b y t he i nc lus ion o f g rave-goods i n ab ur ia l a t aC hr is t ian c hurchyard h as b een s ugges ted ( W i lson 1 967) .

T he g rave g oods a t Rushen A bbey , I s le

o f Man , i n t he t we l f th c en tury may b e p ara l le led b y t he f requency o f t rade o r s ta tus s y mbo ls b e ing c arved o n c o f f in l i ds o f t wel f th a nd t h ir teen th c en tury i n t he Dane law a reas o f e as tern Eng land .

Wi th t he i ncreas ing n umber o f e xca-

v a t ions a t e cc les ias t ica l s i tes t here h as b een a c orrespond ing i ncrease i n e v id ence f or C hr is t ian worsh ip a nd b ur ia l f ro m a d a te e ar l ier t han t he f i rs t d ocumen tary r ecord o r a rch i tec tura l e v idence .

T he h eads tones o r g rave markers

f ro m Raunds , Wharra m P ercy , T ong a nd S t Marks i n L inco ln d e mons tra te c e me ter ies i n u se b e fore c 1 050 , a nd h igh l igh t t he n eed f or more p rec ise d a t ing o f me mor ia l s cu lp ture e spec ia l ly o f t he n on-in ter lace d es igns .

I ti s

' certa in ly p oss ib le t o i den t i fy c ross f orms a nd t ypes o f mou ld ing t ha t b e long t o t he S axo-Nor man o ver lap p er iod b u t t h is s hou ld b e t he s ub jec t o f r eg iona l s tud ies .

T he s urv iva l o n t he h ead land wes t o f S t P a tr ick 's C hape l a t H eysham

o f s ix r ock-cu t c o f f ins , f ive w i th s lo ts f or h ead-s tones , p o in ts t o a no ther p roble m ( F ig 2 7.2 , p3 60 ). T he v ar ie ty o f s hapes d isp layed i n t hese c o f f ins a ny t ypo log ica l s tudy d i f f icu l t .

T he d angers o f i sola t ing e v idence o f t he r e-

u se o f R o man c of f ins d eepens t he p rob le m e spec ia l ly i n r eg ions where l oca l s tone was o f p oor q ua l i ty a nd l oca l s a in ts were o f h igh miracle-work ing p ot en t ia l .

Whe ther t he c o f f ins o r r e l ic c hes ts t ha t were i n tended t o b e s een

were o f ad i f feren t s hape a nd g iven a g rea ter d egree o f d ecora t ion t han t hose wh ich were b ur ied c anno t e as i ly b e d e ter m ined t hough t he o va l c of f in a t Wareham a nd t he o va l l i d a t D over may h in t a t s uch d is t inc t ions . T he t rans i t ion f ro m t he u nenc losed t o t he e nc losed c e me tery h as b een a rgued b y T ho mas ( 1971, 5 0 ) a nd Rah tz ( 1 977, 5 6 ) t o b e a n e ar ly e xpress ion o f C hr is t ian a c t iv i ty. J us t a s t he v a l lum monas ter i i h ad a n a l mos t mys t ica l s y mbo l ic p urpose a s t he e dge o f e nc losed l i fe s o t he b ounds o f t he c hurchyard

3 86

0

SO

no

SO

F ig . 2 7 .3

M .

I KM . 1 50

Map o f e as tern E ng land t o s how S t H e len d ed ica t ions a nd h o ly we l ls

3 87

i ncreased i n i mpor tance a s t he e dge o f r esurrec t ib le l i fe a nd were s ub jec t t o c o m muna l r equ ire men ts o f r epa ir . T he n a ture o f t he e nclosure i s i nd ic a ted b y s uch p lace-na mes a s B angor ( an i n terwoven f ence ) o r L ichborough , N or than ts ( ag raveyard w i th ab oundary ).

T he e xcava t ions a t Raunds a nd

Deerhurs t h ave s hown t he s imp le f or m o f b ank a nd/or d i tch b u t n o e v idence h as y e t c o me o f t he s epara te i n i t ia l c onsecra t ion o f ac hurchyard ( d is t inct f ro m a c hurch ) o r o f e ar ly med ieva l g raveyard e xpans ion s hown b y s econdary b anks o r d i tches w i th in t he s ame c hurchyard .

W i thou t t o ta l e xcava t ion i t

may n o t b e p oss ib le t o d e ter m ine t he s uccess ion o f f ea tures w i th in ag raveyard a nd i n t he a bsence o f c eram ic o r e co log ica l d e term inan ts t he t ask may b e i ncapable o f s o lu t ion . A no ther f ocus f or w orsh ip was t he h oly we l l . o f t he we l l i s w ide ly r ecogn ised .

w i th in t he c hurchyard a nd d is tan t f ro m i t . as i mp ly b u i l t e nc losure ; s tand ing w e l l c hape l .

I n wes tern Bri ta in t he c u l t

T here a re many i ns tances o f we l ls b o th S o me t i mes t here i s n o more t han

i n af ew i ns tances t here i s a n e labora te f ree-

I n e as tern Eng land t he e x is tence o f h o ly we l ls h as n o t

b een w ide ly r ecogn ised a l though t he n eed f or wa ter , b o th f or b ap t ism a nd f or c lean ing t he s acred v esse ls , was a c ons tan t r equ ire men t i n C hr is t ian worsh ip . T he g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion o f ' ho ly ' we l ls a nd c hurches d ed ica ted t o S t H e len ( t he f inder o f t he T rue C ross ) h as y e t t o b e f u l ly c orre la ted ;

t he v en-

e ra t ion o f s a in ts w i th a qua t ic a t tr ibu tes , s uch a s S t A lke lda a t M idd leha m ( N Yorks ) , may i nd ica te p re-Chr is t ian p laces o f worsh ip ( Fig 2 7.3 ) .

T he more

r egu lar t he f l ow o f t he s pr ing o r t he more s pec tacu lar t he f or m o f i t s i ssue , t hen t he more l i ke ly i t was t o b e r esor ted t o i n w onder a nd f a i th .

S uch we l ls

n ear Hun t ingdon a nd n ear S ta m ford g ave t he ir n ame t o as e t t le men t a nd i ts c hurch .

U n less t here i s e ar ly s cu lp ture o r d is t inc t ive v o t ive o ffer ings i n

t he we l l , d a t ing w i l l b e u ncer ta in .

T he f i l l may o n ly p os t-da te t he l as t t horough

c learance . The t enor o f t h is p aper i s t o s ugges t t he v ar ie ty w i th in l i nes o f d eve lopmen t i n t he c hurchyard a nd t o s tress t ha t n o o ne e xp lana t ion w i l l s u f f ice .

T o

al arge e x ten t t h is s urvey i s n o t ad ec lara t ion o f c er ta in t ies b u t ar ev iew o f p oss ibi l i t ies .

F ur ther w ork s hou ld m in im ise t he g rey a rea o f u ncer ta in ty .

B IBL IOGRAPHY G o ff , P ., 1 979 .

R aunds 1 979 ( Nor thamp ton 1 979 ) .

H ys lop , M ., 1 963 . ' Two A ng lo-Saxon c e me ter ies a t C hamber la ins B arn , L e igh ton Buzzard , B ed fordsh ire ' , A rchaeo l . J ourn ., 1 20 ( 1963 ) , 1 61-200 . Morr is , R . K ., f or thco m ing .

' The O r ig ins o f C hurchyard B ur ia l ' , c hap . 7

i n T he C hurch i n B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , CBA R es . R ep . O swa ld , A . H ., 1 955 . E xcava t ion R epor t : S ta f ford ( B ir m ingham 1 955 ) . Rad ford , C . A . R ., 1 976.

T he C hurch o f S t . B er te l in 2

' The C hurch o f S t A lkmund , D erby ' , Derbyshire

A rchaeo l . J ourn . 9 6 ( 1 976 ) , 2 6-61. Rah tz , P . A ., 1 977.

' La te R o man C e me ter ies a nd B eyond ' , i n R . R eece

( ed .) , Bur ia l i n t he R o man Wor ld , CBA R es . R ep . 2 2 ( 1977). 3 88

T ho mas , A . C ., 1 971.

T he E ar ly C hr is t ian A rchaeo log y o f N or th Br i ta in

( London 1 971 ). W i lson , D . M ., 1 967 .

' The V ik ings ' R e la t ionsh ip w i th C hr is t ian i ty i n N or thern

Eng land ' , J ourn . B r i t ish A rchaeo l . A ssoc . I I , 3 0 ( 1 967 ) , 3 7-46.

3 89