Angels as Warriors in Late Second Temple Jewish Literature (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen Zum Neuen Testament 2.Reihe) 9783161517396, 9783161521485, 3161517393

Citation preview

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament · 2. Reihe Herausgeber / Editor Jörg Frey (Zürich) Mitherausgeber / Associate Editors Friedrich Avemarie (Marburg) Markus Bockmuehl (Oxford) James A. Kelhoffer (Uppsala) Hans-Josef Klauck (Chicago, IL)

330

Aleksander R. Michalak

Angels as Warriors in Late Second Temple Jewish Literature

Mohr Siebeck

Aleksander R. Michalak, born 1974; 2001 graduated from University of Gdan´sk; 2006 PhD in ancient history and 2011 PhD in Religions and Theology from Trinity College, Dublin; 2009–2010 working on his habilitation thesis at the University of Tübingen (Faculty of Catholic Theology); 2011 Andrew Mellon Fellow in the Albright Institute of Archaeological Research in Jerusalem.

e-ISBN 978-3-16-152148-5 ISBN 978-3-16-151739-6 ISSN 0340-9570 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2. Reihe) Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2012 by Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany. www.mohr.de This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was printed by Laupp & Göbel in Nehren on non-aging paper and bound by Buchbinderei Nädele in Nehren. Printed in Germany.

Dla Pauli

Preface The present study is based on my doctoral dissertation submitted to the School of Religions and Theology at Trinity College Dublin. It is a great pleasure for me to express my gratitude to the people who most significantly contributed to this work. Above all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Anne Fitzpatrick. She was the first and most important person to help me in my dctoral studies in Dublin. I owe her a great debt of gratitude for her invaluable help both in my work and my private life. Prof. Andrew H. Mayes was always very helpful during my entire period of study in Dublin. It was a privilege to participate in his lectures and seminars. I also benefited a great deal from the knowledge of the other members of staff at the School of Religions and Theology of Trinity College Dublin. I must mention especially Dr. Benjamin Wold. I am also very grateful to my examiners, Dr. Charlotte Hempel and Dr. Zuleika Rodgers, for their helpful suggestions. Herr Prof. Dr. Hermann Lichtenberger generously invited me to Tübingen as a guest of the Institut für Antikes Judentum und Hellenistische Religionsgeschichte. I am deeply grateful for his scholarly guidance and enormous hospitality. He exemplifies what it means to be an excellent scholar, a supervisor, and a truly friendly person. I am also grateful for the generosity of the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst, for enabling my research in Tübingen to proceed. During my stay in Germany I received a Gustav-Adolf Stipendium which significantly helped me to complete my research. I also received funding from Mediterranean and Near Eastern Studies at the Trinity College Dublin. Without Piotr Zieliński and Tomek Gigiel (the latter of whom invited me to Dublin and kindly helped me to settle there), I could not have come to Dublin. I would also like to thank another friend of mine, Dr. Tomasz Kamusella for his generous help during my stay in the capital of Ireland. I cannot fail to mention my fellow postgraduate students from Dublin, participants in the Mediterranean and Near Eastern Studies seminars: Amy Daughton, Jason Silverman, Lidia Matassa, Murray Watson, Killian McAleese, Jason McCann. All of them created the very friendly atmosphere that is so important both in one’s scholarly work and one’s everyday life. In particular I wish to thank Amy Daughton and Lidia Matassa as and Timothy Sailors from the University of Tübingen. They showed enormous

VIII

Preface

patience correcting the grammar of my work. Marietta Hämmerle provided both invaluable assistance in many practical matters and a truly welcoming environment during my entire stay in Tübingen. Thank you very much Marietto. My cousin, Tomek Krawczyk has spent several hours preparing the camera-ready version of this study. I am very grateful for this help. Finally, I want to express my appreciation to the editor of this series, Prof. Dr. Jörg Frey, for accepting this work, and to Mrs. Ilse König and Dr. Henning Ziebritzki for their great assistance to prepare the manuscript for publication. Jerusalem, 24 November 2011

Aleksander R. Michalak

Table of Contents Preface .................................................................................................. VII Abbreviations ...................................................................................... XIII Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1. The Problem.................................................................................................. 1 2. Investigations of angelology ............................................................................. 4 3. Literature concerning the martial connotations of angels ........................................ 9

Chapter 1: The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible ................................................................................ 12 Introduction .................................................................................................... 12 1. Current literature on biblical ‘angelology’ ......................................................... 12 2. The names of lesser divine beings in the Hebrew Bible ........................................ 14 3. Main biblical traditions.................................................................................. 16 3.1. Divine Council in Israel and in the ancient Near East .................................. 16 3.1.1. Psalm 68:2, 18..................................................................................... 22 3.1.2. Blessing of Moses and Song of the Ark .................................................... 23 3.1.3. Numbers 10:35–36 ............................................................................... 25 3.2. Later references to a heavenly army ......................................................... 26 3.2.1. 2 Kings 6:15–17 .................................................................................. 27 3.2.2. Zechariah 14:5 .................................................................................... 29 3.2.3. 2 Chronicles 21:22 ............................................................................... 30 3.3. Iconography........................................................................................ 30 4. Angels: ‫ מלאכים‬............................................................................................. 30 4.1. The Angel of Yahweh (‫ )מלאך יהוה‬............................................................ 35 4.1.1. The Angel of Yahweh in a military role .................................................... 36 4.1.2. Genesis 32:2–3 .................................................................................... 39 4.2. Commander of the Host of Yahweh in Josh 5:13–15 ................................... 41 5. Stars and the host of heaven ........................................................................... 43 5.1. Josh 10:12–13 ..................................................................................... 46 5.2. Habakkuk 3 ........................................................................................ 48 5.3. Other texts referring to the astral host ...................................................... 50 Summary ....................................................................................................... 53

X

Table of Contents

Chapter 2: The principal angels, angelic hierarchies and angelic military names ...................................................................... 55 Introduction .................................................................................................... 55 1. The principal angels and angelic hierarchies ...................................................... 56 1.2. Four, six or seven principal angels? ......................................................... 66 1.2.1. The principal angels and the Watchers ..................................................... 68 1.2.2. Angels as the protectors and destroyers of Jerusalem .................................. 70 1.2.3. The inviolability of the Temple and the Jewish rebels ................................. 72 1.2.4. Other sources about the angelic commitment to the Temple ......................... 76 2. The angel of the presence............................................................................... 82 3. Angelic military titles.................................................................................... 86 3.1. Military terminology in the works of Philo................................................ 95 Summary ....................................................................................................... 97

Chapter 3: Michael and Gabriel ............................................................... 99 Introduction .................................................................................................... 99 1. The name and origin of Michael ...................................................................... 99 1.1. Michael in the Book of Daniel .............................................................. 101 1.2. Archistrategos ................................................................................... 107 1.2.1. Archistrategos in the Testament of Abraham ........................................... 109 1.2.2. Archistrategos in the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch ................................... 111 1.2.3. Archistrategos in Joseph and Aseneth .................................................... 112 1.2.4. The origin of the name and its use in Jewish works ................................... 114 1.3. Michael in other works ....................................................................... 117 1.3.1. Michael in Rev 12:7–8 ........................................................................ 121 2. Gabriel ..................................................................................................... 124 3. Michael and Gabriel in Rabbinic writings ....................................................... 128 Summary ..................................................................................................... 132

Chapter 4: Angels in 1 Enoch ................................................................ 133 Introduction .................................................................................................. 133 1. Host of heaven in 1 Enoch 1:3–8 ................................................................... 134 1.1. 1 Enoch 1:9 ......................................................................................... 137 1.2. 1 Enoch 9–10 ...................................................................................... 139 1.3. 1 Enoch 56:5–7 .................................................................................... 143 1.4. 1 Enoch 8:1; 69:6 ................................................................................. 144 1.5. Divine war in 1 Enoch 90:14 .................................................................. 145 Summary ..................................................................................................... 147

Table of Contents

XI

Chapter 5: Warrior angels at Qumran .................................................... 148 Introduction .................................................................................................. 148 1. The War Scroll .......................................................................................... 149 1.1. War cry of the angels .......................................................................... 157 1.2. Angels and trumpets ........................................................................... 158 1.3. Angels on shields ............................................................................... 161 1.4. 1QM 12 ........................................................................................... 163 1.5. The Prince of Light ............................................................................ 165 1.6. Belial............................................................................................... 170 1.6.1. Belial in the Hymns of Thanksgiving (Chaoskampf) ................................. 176 1.6.2. Belial in 1QM ................................................................................... 180 2. Michael and Melchizedek ............................................................................ 181 2.1. Melchizedek as the heavenly leader in Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice .......... 186 2.2. 4Q529 (The Words of Michael) ............................................................ 189 Summary ..................................................................................................... 190

Chapter 6: Angelophanies in 2 Maccabees and 3 Maccabees ................. 192 Introduction .................................................................................................. 192 1. The idea of angelic help in 2 Maccabees ......................................................... 192 1.1. 2 Maccabees 3:25 ................................................................................. 195 1.2. 2 Maccabees 5:2................................................................................... 198 1.3. 2 Maccabees 10:29–30 .......................................................................... 199 1.4. 2 Maccabees 11:6–8.............................................................................. 201 1.5. 2 Maccabees 15:22–24 .......................................................................... 202 2. Angelic intervention in 3 Maccabees .............................................................. 205 Summary ..................................................................................................... 208

Chapter 7: The conceptions of angels in the works of Josephus and Pseudo-Philo .................................................................................. 211 Introduction .................................................................................................. 211 1. Josephus and angels .................................................................................... 211 1.1. Warlike angels in the writings of Josephus ................................................ 215 2. Angels in the work of Pseudo-Philo ............................................................... 222 Summary ..................................................................................................... 230

Chapter 8: Warrior angels in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs .. 231 Introduction .................................................................................................. 231 1. Angels in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs............................................ 231 1.1. The mighty angel in T.Judah 3:10 ............................................................ 234 1.2. Armies of angels in T.Levi 3:3 ................................................................ 235 1.3. T.Levi 5:6 and T.Dan 6:1–3.................................................................... 236 Summary ..................................................................................................... 240

XII

Table of Contents

Conclusion ............................................................................................ 241 Appendix A: Contest between the good angel and the devil .................. 246 Appendix B: Fravashi ........................................................................... 252 Bibliography ......................................................................................... 255 Index of Ancient Sources ...................................................................... 287 Index of Modern Authors ...................................................................... 311 Index of Subjects .................................................................................. 321

Abbreviations AAT AB ADAJ AF A.J. AGAJ AJAH AJBL AJSLL ALASPM AnBib ANRW AO AOAT ApAb AposCon APOT ApZeph ARW ASCAM AS ASTI AThR AUSS BA BASOR BF BI BibOr BiR B.J. BJRL BJS BK BN BR BS BVB

Apocrifi dell’Antico Testamento (see Sacchi) The Aramaic Bible Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan Aethiopistische Forschungen Antiquitates Judaicae (Antiquities of the Jews) Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums American Journal of Ancient History Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Palastinas und Mesopotamiens Analecta Biblica Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt Acta Orientalia Alter Orient und Altes Testament Apocalypse of Abraham Apostolic Constitutions The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (see Charles R.H.) Apocalypse of Zephaniah Archiv für Religionswissenschaft Archäologische Studien zum christlichen Altertum und Mittelalter Aramaic Studies Annual of Swedish Theological Institute Anglican Theological Review Andrews University Seminary Studies Biblical Archaeologist Bulletin American School of Oriental Research Byzantinische Forschungen Biblical Interpretation Bibbia e Oriente Biblical Research Bellum Judaicum (The Jewish War) Bulletin of the John Ryland Library Brown Judaic Studies Bibel und Kirche Biblische Notizen Bible Review Bibliotheca Sacra Beiträge zum Verstehen der Bibel

XIV BW BZ BZNW CA C.A. CBQ CDSE CH ChE CHW CIS CommDan CP CQ CSCO CTA CTJ DDD DSD EI ÉJ EL ET ETH ETHR EWNT FWJ HB HBT HR HSM HSP HSS HUCA ITQ JA JAAR JANER JANES JAOS JAB JBL JBQ JC JCS JECS JEH JES JETHS JFS JJS

Abbreviations The Biblical World Biblische Zeitschrift Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Classical Antiquity Contra Apionem (Against Apion) Catholic Biblical Quarterly The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (see Vermes) Church History Chronique d’Egypte Christentum und Wissenschaft Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum Jerome’s Commentary on Daniel (see Archer) Classical Philology The Classical Quarterly Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium Corpus des tablettes en cunéiformes alphabétiques, ed. A. Herdner Calvin Theological Journal Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (see van der Toorn) Dead Sea Discoveries Eretz Israel Études Juives Ephemerides Liturgicae Expository Times Ephemerides theologicae Lovanienses Etudes théologiques et religieuses Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament Forschungen zur Wissenschaft des Judentums Hebrew Bible Horizons in Biblical Theology History of Religion Harvard Semitic Monographs Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers Harvard Semitic Studies Hebrew Union College Annual Irish Theological Quarterly Joseph and Aseneth Journal of the American Academy of Religion Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Society Journal of American Oriental Society Journal for the Aramaic Bible Journal of Biblical Literature Jewish Bible Quarterly Jerusalem Cathedra Journal of Cuneiform Studies Journal of Early Christian Studies Journal of Ecclesiastical History Journal of Evangelical Studies Journal of the Evangelical-Theological Society Journal for Semitics Journal of Jewish Studies

Abbreviations JMEOS JNES JQR JR JRAI JSJ JSJS JSNT JSNTSS JSOTS JSPS JSS JSHRZ KTU LAB LD LSJ NRT NT NTS OA OBO OR OTP OTStud Pan PesR PL RAC RB RDSO RÉS RevExp RiB RHPR RHR RM RQ RSI RSO RSPT RSR RTL Ryl SAIS SBLDS SBLSCS SBLSP SC

Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society Journal of Near Eastern Studies Jewish Quarterly Review Journal of Religion Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism Journal for the Study of New Testament Journal for the Study of New Testament Supplement Series Journal for the Study of Old Testament Supplement Series Journal for the Study of Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series Journal of Semitic Studies Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit (see Dietrich) Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum Lectio Divina H.G.Liddel and R. Scott (compilers), A Greek-English Lexicon, (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992) Nouvelle Revue Theologique Novum Testamentum New Testament Studies Oriens Antiquus Oribis Biblicus et Orientalis Orientalia The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (see Charlesworth) The Old Testament Student Codex Panopolitanus the Gizeh Papyrus Greek Text (1 Enoch) Peshikta Rabbati Positions Luthériennes Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum (Stuttgart, 1962) Revue Biblique Rivista Degli Studi Orientali Revue des Études Slaves Review and Expositor Rivista Biblica Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses Revue de l'histoire des religions Rheinisches Museum Revue de Qumran Rivista Storica Italiana Rivista Degli Studi Orientali Revue de Sciences Philosophiques et Theologiques Recherches de science religieuse Revue Théologiques de Louvain Rylands Ethiopic Manuscript 23 (1 Enoch) Studies in the Aramaic Interpretation of Scripture Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Studii Clasice

XV

XVI SCA SEA SJSJ SH SSN SSU STAC STDJ STU STZ SUNT SVTP Sync T12P TA TADAE TANZ TDOT ThA TJ TSAJ TT TTPS UCOS UF VD VS VT VTS WMANT WS WTJ WUB WUNT YCS-Yale ZARBR ZAW ZNW ZRGG ZWT

Abbreviations The Catholic University of America Studies in Christian Antiquity Studia Ephemeridis Augustianum Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism Scripta Hierosolymitana Studia Semitica Neerlandica Studia Semitica Upsaliensia Studien und Texten zu Antike und Christentum Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah Schweizerische Theologische Umschau Schweizerische Theologische Zeitschrift Studien zur Umwelt des Neues Testaments Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha Georgius Syncellus’s Greek Text of 1Enoch Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Testament of Abraham see Porten-Yardeni (Textbooks of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt) Texte und Arbeiten zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, H. J. Fabry Theologische Arbeiten Targum Jonathan Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum Tosefta Targums Texts and Translations Pseudepigrapha Series University of Cambridge Oriental Studies Ugarit-Forschungen Verbum Domini Verba Seniorum Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum Supplements Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament Woodbrook Studies Westminster Theological Journal Welt und Umwelt der Bibel Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Classical Studies Zeitschrift für Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift für neuetestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte Zeitschrift f¨ür wissenschaftliche Theologie

Introduction “The angels of God will fight for him against you”
 



 
      ž


(Joseph and Aseneth 25: 6/7) “Thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to my Father, and he shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels?”1  
 † 
ž     !  
" #  
   $% &  ˜ % (Matthew 26:53)

1. The Problem These two passages invoke a problem which I would like to discuss in relation to Jewish literature, and less directly in relation to Jewish society of the Second Temple Period. This problem concerns religious imagery and could be put in a very simple way: were angels perceived as warriors or were they at least associated with martiality? Both Jesus’ rhetorical question and the statement of Joseph’s brothers reveal the existence of at least a certain belief in angelic beings who could actively participate in human wars. In the ancient world warfare was at least as ubiquitous as it was in later periods. Images of sieges and battles and slaughters were eagerly portrayed in ancient art. Wars constituted a leitmotif in ancient historiography. Descriptions of the battles occupied a significant place both in the Greek and Near Eastern accounts. In the militarized societies of these regions the status of warrior was usually very high. Kings willingly presented themselves as powerful, capable and formidable fighters, supported by gods in 1

Matthew alone records this as Jesus’ declaration. See R. H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary on its Literary and Theological Art (Michigan: Eerdmans, 1983), 539.

2

Introduction

their belligerent deeds. In ancient wars the divine realm was viewed as overlapping with earthly reality.2 Victory in battle was frequently described in mythical terms. The Homeric heroes, both divine and human, were exalted. In Antiquity, the ideal male was frequently perceived as a warrior.3 For many centuries, the social position of a warrior was very high. The Bible slightly differs from other ancient accounts. There is no doubt that wars played an important role in the biblical plot. Peter Craigie has correctly indicated that the Hebrew conviction that God revealed himself in the events of human history provides a clue to understanding conception of God as Warrior.4 However, judging by the biblical descriptions it is difficult to call the ancient Israelite a homo militaris. It seems no coincidence that the greatest Jewish warrior, Judas Maccabeus, appeared in the time when the Greek ideals were already penetrating the territory of Palestine.5 David who killed Goliath constitutes the type of a quasi-anti-warrior to a certain extent. He refuses to use the arms which were regular attributes of the warriors, the sword and armour. Samson, another eminent Israelite warrior, performs his great military achievement using a jaw-bone of an ass. Generally, in earlier materials the Israelite/Jewish heroes do not seem to play a relevant role. Their deeds are always overshadowed by Yahweh’s intervention. Given this the biblical redactors are very consistent. According to them, it was just Yahweh himself who was able to win the battles for his people. Similarly to other Near Eastern Deities, such as, El, Assur, Anat or Baal, Yahweh was considered to be a warrior and was called ‘a man of war’ (‫( )איש מלחמה‬Ex 15:3). Certainly, there is no such thing as a uniform conception of the war in the Bible. Nonetheless, according to some of the religious beliefs of Israelites, Yahweh was not the sole transcendent warrior. Like earthly rulers who have their officers and soldiers, Yahweh had many heavenly subordinates at his disposal. There were, therefore, other 2 Hamblin writes with regard to Old Egyptian Kingdom: “For the Egyptians, war was a heady mixture of violence, religious ritual, magic and divine sanction and intervention.” W. J. Hamblin, Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC, Holy Warrior at the Dawn of History (London and NY: Routledge, 2005), 366. 3 With regard to the Greek states, see e.g. W. G. Runciman, “Greek Hoplites, Warrior Culture, and Indirect Bias”, JRAI 4 (1998), 731–751. 4 P. C. Craigie, The Problem of War, 39. However, this conception was by no means as unique as it was considered to be in the past. Most of the ancient peoples perceived their gods as participating actively in wars. See e.g. M. Weippert, “‘Heiliger Krieg’ in Israel und Assyrien: Kritische Anmerkungen zu Gerhard von Rads Konzept des ‘Heiligen Krieges im alten Israel’”, ZAW 84 (1972), 460–493. 5 On the Greek conception of a warrior see F. Vian, “La Fonction Guerrière dans la mythologie Grecque”, in J. P. Vernant (ed.), Problèmes de la guèrre en Grece ancienne (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 53–68.

1. The Problem

3

divine beings who actively participated in the battles. The existence of these ancient conceptions made me ask about possible appearances of these beliefs in the later times. The goal of my work is to investigate the important aspect of the religion concerning the warlike imagery. This aspect of Jewish religion or folklore has never been profoundly researched so far. It will be, therefore, the main contribution of my work. Hopefully, this research may also throw some new light on the Jewish military struggles of the epoch. The notions of angelic warriors together with their iconographic representations are well known phenomena over centuries.6 The topos of the fighting angel is present in different cultures. Angels appear dressed in military costumes in Byzantine art.7 In the medieval period angelic knights are on army standards and stained glass windows. They were believed to accompany Christian armies in their struggles against the Saracens. The Virgin of Orleans had both Michael and Gabriel on her standard. A warlike character of angels was also not unknown to Islam. In Surah 3.120 we read: “It is not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels sent down?” All these accounts are from much later periods. They can only demonstrate that in some periods, at least, it was rather selfevident to connect angelic status with martial activity. It seems that the concept of angelic armies was rather widespread in the Jewish literature of the Second Temple Period. This idea is present in various pseudepigraphic works, e.g., the Apocalypse of Abraham 19:4–98 or Slavonic Enoch 17:1.9 We, however, would like to ask: was it also obvious or common in the Second Temple Period to consider the angel as warrior who can in one way or another contribute to the result of earthly battles? Was it something which was considered an inherent attribute of ‘angelhood’? Or was it only an incidental way of thinking about the angels? If they were warriors, what implication does it have for Judaism? Was there a particular connection between the holiness of angels and their martial status? The ancient polytheistic societies had their specific warrior deities responsible for victory or defeat in battle. In the Bible, Yahweh himself is

6 D. Keck, Angels and Angelology in the Middle Ages (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 201–203. 7 See e.g. C. Walter, The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), passim. 8 Depicted in old Slavonic as силы e.g.: “l’armeé cette gloire” (силоу невидимыя славы). R. Rubinkiewicz, L’Apocalypse d’Abraham en vieux slave (Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, 1987), 166–167. 9 “Au milieu du ciel je vis une milice armée.” (
       

 .) A. Vaillant, Le Livre des Secrets D’Hénoch, Texte slave et traduction française (Paris: Rue Michelet, 1952), 16–17.

4

Introduction

a ‘Man of War’. It seems however, that in later period some of his prerogatives were transferred to the angels. Numerous references to angels in both Jewish and early Christian literature demonstrate that belief in angelic figures was a widely accepted aspect of late Second Temple Judaism. In various works of extra-biblical literature we find numerous human encounters with angels. It is in this period that the various concepts concerning angelic hierarchy and names also appear. Military language frequently plays a relevant role in depictions of the angelic divisions in Second Temple texts, and in the older biblical narratives descriptions of angels have sometimes a martial character.10

2. Investigations of angelology There have been numerous scholarly investigations concerning the factor of the development of the ideas of angels in postexilic Judaism. Many of them have contributed to the general understanding of Jewish ‘angelic’ conceptions. However, angelology has been rather rarely investigated on its own. Usually it has been a springboard for research concerning Christology, Monotheism and Jewish Mysticism.11 During recent years especially, Christology has been the subject which was the most eagerly researched in the angelological context. As early as 1898 Lueken devoted a monograph to the archangel Michael. He pointed out that Christians ascribed Michael’s position in preChristian Judaism to Jesus.12 However, Lueken used rabbinic and patristic sources in too simplistic a way which significantly influenced and distorted the results of his work. Over forty year later Barbel’s work appeared where the relation of Jewish angelology to Christology was discussed as well.13

10

See S. M. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Served Him: Exegesis and the Naming of Angels in Ancient Judaism (TSAJ 36, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1993), 69. 11 E.g. D. Halperin, The Faces of the Chariot (TSAJ 16, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1988); C. R. A. Morray-Jones, “Transformational mysticism in the ApocalypticMerkabah tradition”, JJS 43 (1992), 1–31. 12 W. Lueken, Michael. Eine Darstellung und Vergleichung der jüdischen und der morgenländisch-christlichen Tradition vom Erzengel Michael (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1898). 13 J. Barbel, Christos Angelos: Die Anschauung von Christus als Bote und Engel in der gelehrten und volkstümlichen Literatur des Christlichen Altertums (Bonn: Hanstein, 1941).

2. Investigations of angelology

5

The fifth chapter (“Die Engel im Himmel”) of Bietenhard’s book Die himmlische Welt im Urchristentum und Spätjudentum14 addresses various angelic concepts. They include: the “Engelklassen”, the “Völkerengel”, the “Fürst der Welt”, the “himmlische Gerichtshof, the “Kult and Lobgesang”. Unfortunately, given the year of publication of this book, Bietenhard was not able take into account the Qumran literature. D. S. Russel in his study of Jewish apocalyptic devoted some space to the problem of the impact of apocalyptic literature upon Jewish angelology. 15 Peter Schäfer, in his Habilitationsschrift, a study of 74 rabbinic texts, focused on the relationships between angels and men in rabbinic literature.16 However, in the introductive part he also has offered a short overview of Jewish pseudepigraphic literature and Qumran sources. His main conclusion is that the angels oppose men because human nature contradicts God’s holiness and justice. The traditions about angels in Schäfer’s research also throw relevant light on the human condition vis-à-vis God. The main, unavoidable weakness of his work lies in the problems or even impossibility of dating anonymous traditions. Hence the relationships between those traditions are highly speculative as well. In his fresh look at the Jewish and Christian apocalyptic traditions, Christopher Rowland also discussed notions involving angelology, especially with regard to the exalted status of the angelic figure.17 In his work, Rowland complained about the shortage of secondary literature concerning so-called angel-Christology. Having said this, in the following years several works were published that dealt with the conception of Engelchristologie,18 angelomorphic humanity or with these two topics together.19 14 H. Bietenhard, Die himmlische Welt im Urchristentum und Spätjudentum (WUNT 2, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1950), 101–142. 15 D. S. Russel, The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964), 240–262. 16 P. Schäfer, Rivalität zwischen Engeln und Menschen: Untersuchungen zur rabbinischen Engelvorstellung (Studia Judaica FWJ 8, Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1975), passim. Rabbinic traditions about the angels are brought together by other scholars as well. See E. Urbach, The Sages, Their Concepts and Beliefs, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 135–183. I refer sometimes to tannaitic and amoraic texts. See the introduction to chapter 2. 17 C. Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982). See especially pp. 78–135. 18 Martin Werner was one of the first who to claim the significance of Engelchristologie for earliest Christianity. Die Entstehung des Christlichen Dogma (Tübingen: Katzmann, 1941). This work was criticised by W. Michaelis, Zur Engelchristologie im Urchristentum: Abbau der Konstruktion Martin Werners (Basel: Heinrich Majer, 1942). See also J. Barbel, Christos Angelos; J. Daniélou, Theology of Jewish Christianity (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1964), 117.

6

Introduction

Larry W. Hurtado has undertaken a study of the angelic host with regard to the monotheistic character of the Jewish faith.20 Hurtado’s concern is “the praxis of early Christian devotion”, and his approach is mainly a phenomenological one. Hurtado has pointed out that Judaism provided early Christianity with the category of thought which he called divine agency and Christians “produced somewhat distinctive modification of these traditions.”21 He identifies three types of divine agents in ancient Judaism. One of them is a category of principal angels. In his work, Hurtado has not found evidence of the worship of angels and he has underlined the unique character of the worship of Christ.22 Loren T. Stuckenbruck posed a question whether and to what degree one may speak of a veneration of angels in Early Jewish and Christian sources, and how (if at all) this motif may have been applied to Christology. 23 Stuckenbruck examined the cultic area involved with the angelological notions and Christology. He indicates that in several texts “angels could be made objects of veneration as beings aligned and subordinate to God.”24 Despite the fact that Stuckenbruck is concerned mainly with veneration as a context for the Christology of the Book of Revelation25, his book constitutes a valuable source for the investigations of angelology in general.26 Darrell D. Hannah has also surveyed the role of Jewish angelology in early Christology.27 His book constitutes the most extensive depiction of 19 L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988); L. T. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology (WUNT 2, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995); C. H. T. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997); C. A. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents & Early Evidence (Leiden: Brill, 1998); D. D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early Christianity (WUNT 109, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999). 20 One God, One Lord, passim. 21 Ibidem, 12. 22 The novelty of the worship of Christ was also claimed by Richard Bauckham. “The Worship of Jesus in Apocalyptic Christianity”, NTS 27 (1980/81), 322–341. 23 L. T. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology, 3–5. 24 L. T. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology, 269, See e.g. LAB 13:6. 25 The Angelomorphic Christology of Revelation was also investigated by P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, Angelology and Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). See also R. Gundry, “Angelomorphic Christology in the Book of Revelation”, SBLSP 33 (1994), 662–678. 26 Stuckenbruck has been more concerned with angelology in the Jewish context per se in his later article. L. T. Stuckenbruck, “‘Angels’ and ‘God’: Exploring the Limits of Early Jewish Monotheism”, in L. T. Stuckenbruck and W. E . S. North (eds.), Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism (JSNTSS 263, London-New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 45– 70. 27 D. D. Hannah, Michael and Christ, passim.

2. Investigations of angelology

7

Michael’s traditions which was published since Lueken’s work. Hannah intends to depict Michael traditions functioning in early Christianity and postexilic Judaism, and to examine to what degree Christology is indebted to Jewish eschatological expectations. In the chapter devoted to the New Testament Hannah pointed out that the image of Christ adopted several features known to be Michael’s.28 It included the leadership of the heavenly host. Alan F. Segal’s book focuses on the rabbinic attitude toward the socalled two power heresy.29 Segal dealt with extra-rabbinic tradition according to which the principal angelic or hypostatic manifestation in heaven was equivalent to God.30 Saul M. Olyan has broadly investigated angelic beliefs from the vantage point of the “emergence of angelic names and the designation for angelic divisions.”31 Olyan persuasively presented the exegetical process leading to the appearance of the new names of individual angelic beings32 as well as designations of angels as groups in the literature of the Second Temple Period and later works. There are also books and articles dealing with the angelomorphic humans, namely the exalted humans who became like angels.33 In particular, Crispin Fletcher-Louis has published a very vast study concerning the priestly angelomorphic model.34 He put forward the thesis that human primordial state was considered angelic. Kevin Sullivan, in his book, discusses the relationships between humans and angels in the literary sources from the period of c. 200 BCE to c. 100 CE.35

28

Michael and Christ, 122–162. A. F. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven, Early Rabbinic Reports about Christianity and Gnosticism (Leiden: Brill 1971). 30 Two Powers in Heaven, x. 31 A Thousand Thousands, 2. 32 E.g. Lahtiel (Lehatim), Abaddon (Duma), Zewaiel, Doqiel, Yephephiyya, Hadriel, Mahpekeil (Haphekiel), Keballa, Mamonas (Mamona), Mastema. 33 L. L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord; C. A. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents & Early Evidence (Leiden: Brill, 1998); C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), passim. 34 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: Brill, 2002). 35 K. P. Sullivan, Wrestling with Angels: A Study of the Relationship between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and New Testament (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2004). 29

8

Introduction

R. M. M. Tuschling focuses on angelology in the context of Syriac sources36 such as Ephraem, Aphrahat and Origen (sic!)37 with regard to Christian Orthodoxy. Tuschling devoted a subchapter of his work to the understanding of angels at Qumran.38 He also very briefly suggested some common points between Syriac ascetism and the Qumran ‘holy war’ against the powers of darkness.39 Tuschling has concluded that Christianity from the area of Palestine and Syria demonstrates a connection between angels and orthodoxy “that remains relatively consistent over the period reviewed.”40 Yet the notion of different angelic ranks can also be used to safeguard monotheistic orthodoxy.41 The most extensive study devoted to the question of beliefs in angels and various angelic traditions was written by Michael Mach.42 He discusses biblical angelology and later development of Jewish angelology. Mach examined several important issues such as: communion with angels, the various angelic functions, a possible political role of angels etc. It is also worth noting the bibliography of Mach’s book since it includes many articles and books very often omitted in other works.43 Mach supposes that the development of angelology in the postbiblical period was connected with the rise of apocalypticism which he viewed as a reaction to the destruction of the first Jerusalem Temple.44 Mach’s work was criticized for being superficial in its treatment of the materials and for a lack of more profound analysis.45 36

R. M. M. Tuschling, Angels and Orthodoxy: A Study in Their Development in Syria and Palestine from the Qumran Texts to Ephrem the Syrian (STAC 40, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007). 37 On the reason of inclusion of Origen among writers from Syria, see R. M. M. Tuschling, Angels and Orthodoxy, 137–138. 38 R. M. M. Tuschling, Angels and Orthodoxy, 36–39. 39 R. M. M. Tuschling, Angels and Orthodoxy, 71. 40 R. M. M. Tuschling, Angels and Orthodoxy, 207. 41 Ibidem. 42 M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des jüdischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer Zeit (TSAJ 34, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992). Moreover, Donata Dörfel, in her published doctoral dissertation, focused on the theological significance of the angelologies found in the books of the postexilic prophets: Ezekiel, Zechariah and Daniel, as well as in 1 Enoch. D. Dörfel, Engel in der apokalyptischen Literatur und ihre theologische Relevanz: Am Beispiel von Ezechiel, Sacharja, Daniel und Erstem Henoch (Aachen: Shaker, 1998). 43 On the general bibliography of angels, see G. J. Marshall, Angels: An Indexed and Partially Annotated Bibliography of Over 4300 Scholarly Books and Articles since the 7th Century BC (London: McFarland, 2008). 44 Ibidem, 114–127. 45 See J. J. Collins (review), “Entwicklungsstadien des jüdischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer Zeit”, JBL 113 (1994), 140.

3. Literature concerning the martial connotations of angels

9

During the last few years an extensive collective work on angelology has been published. The work which is entitled: The Concept of Celestial Beings: Origins, Development and Reception.46 It deals with many angelological speculations. The authors discuss, for instance, the notions of angels in Josephus, Philo’s works, and Enochic literature. However, from the vantage point of our investigations the most important articles are those written by S. Beyerle: “Angelic Revelation in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature”47; D. D. Hannah: “Guardian Angels and Angelic National Patrons in Second Temple Judaism and Early Christianity”48 and A. L. A. Hogeterp: “Angels, the Final Age and 1–2 Corinthians in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls”.49 Given the fact that this book ranges across so many interesting issues we will discuss this book in further detail, throughout the various chapters of this work.

3. Literature concerning the martial connotations of angels To the best of our knowledge the issue of warlike angels in the Second Temple Period never appears as a separate topic of any published book although it frequently returns as a secondary interest in many books and articles. For obvious reasons we are not able to indicate all of them. We attempt, however, to refer here or elsewhere to those that we consider the most important of them. Lukean’s monographic work, dealing with Michael, referred to his military title, archistrategos.50 The issue of angels in the context of their warlike functions appears sporadically in the footnotes of Charlesworth’s edition of the Pseudepigrapha. In his study, Olyan has indicated the military titles denominating angels.51 The above mentioned Michael Mach devoted a subchapter (Das “Heer des Himmels” und die kriegerische Gemeinschaft, 241–255) of his study to the Jewish notion of the fighting angels. He has focused mainly on the angelophanies from 2 Maccabees as well as Qumran texts (1QH 11:32–36; 1QM).

46 F. V. Reiterer, T. Nicklas and K. Schöpflin (eds.), Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature, Yearbook 2007 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007). 47 Ibidem, 205–223. 48 Ibidem, 413–435. 49 Ibidem, 377–392. 50 W. Lueken, Michael, 104. 51 A Thousand Thousands, 69.

10

Introduction

The military speculations involved with Michael and Gabriel were highlighted by Hannah, Urbach (for rabbinic literature) and Ginzberg. Michael’s role as a divine warrior was also emphasized by John J. Collins52 and James Davila.53 Saul M. Olyan lists the military terms which are present in biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew and later applied to angels: ‫גדודים‬, ‫דגלים‬,‫גברים‬, mĕmmunîm (3 Enoch 19:6), ‫( פקודים‬e.g. 4Q405 20; 1QM 2:4; 12:8; 1QS 1:9; CD 10:2; Masseket Hekalot 5 BHM 1:59)54, ‫( שלשים‬3 Enoch 19:6), Masseket Hekalot. 5 (BHM 1:59), ‫( פרשים‬3 Enoch 19:6). He suggests that all these names were not derived from the particular biblical text but constituted “an elaboration or extension of military usage in description of the angelic hosts.”55 The military and cultic function of angels in the Second Temple Period has been investigated relatively widely only in the context of the Qumran Community. This was done especially by Yigael Yadin in his commentary on the War Scroll,56 and in Maxwell J. Davidson’s book Angels at Qumran: A Comparison Study of 1 Enoch 1–36, 72–108 and Sectarian Writings from Qumran.57 It also appears as a secondary subject within many publications devoted to 1QM or other Qumranic writings. The angelology of 1QM has also been researched by Sullivan,58 Ibba,59 Fletcher-Louis,60 Tuschling61 and Lichtenberger.62 It is also worth remembering Carrell’s work: Jesus and the Angels, Angelology and Christology of the Apocalypse of John. In keeping with the title of his work, Carrell examines the book of Revelation with a special focus on its Christology and with reference to Jewish biblical traditions from Daniel, Ezekiel and Zechariah and extra-biblical literature. The military associations of angels occur in the tenth chapter of this book where Carrell deals with Jesus as a symbolic military leader on the white horse 52 J. J. Collins, “The Mythology of Holy War in Daniel and the Qumran Scroll: A Point of Transition in Jewish Apocalyptic”, VT 25 (1975), 596–612. 53 J. R. Davila, Melchizedek, Michael, and War in Heaven (SBLSP 35, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1996), 259–272. 54 See Abegg M. G., J. E. Bowley and E. M. Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance , vol. 2 (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2003), 620–621. 55 S. M. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands, 69. 56 Yadin Y. (ed.), The Scroll of the War of the Sons of the Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). 57 (JSPS 11, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992) 58 K. P. Sullivan, Wrestling with Angels, 155–161. 59 G. Ibba, “Gli angeli del ‘Rotolo della guerra’ (1QM)”, Henoch 19 (1997), 149–159. 60 All the Glory of Adam, 395–475. 61 R. M. M. Tuschling, Angels and Orthodoxy, 117–124. 62 “Heilige Engel sind in der Gemeinde: Engel in den Schriften von Qumran”, in Welt und Umwelt der Bibel, 13 (2008), 28–30

3. Literature concerning the martial connotations of angels

11

(Rev 19:11) and with the identity of heavenly (angelic?) armies (Rev 19:11–16). Carrel notices that Jesus’ role of Divine Warrior in this Apocalypse “shows signs of angelological influence.”63 In the following chapter I would like to begin my examination of the sources concerning biblical conceptions of the warlike role of biblical divine council and the Angel of Yahweh. The martial features included in this imagery may have contributed to the development of angelology in the Second Temple period.

63

Carrell claims that Jesus replaced Michael in his function as the Divine Warrior. Jesus and the Angels, 210.

Chapter 1

The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible Introduction This part of our work primarily constitutes an introduction to the main area of the study, namely, Second Temple angelology. Since many angelic notions would seem to have been developed through the exegesis or expansion1 of biblical texts, this introduction is of great importance for the overall thesis. This chapter is therefore intended to be more than just a cursory summary. However, many problems involved with biblical conceptions of ‘angelic beings’ clearly go beyond the framework of this dissertation.

1. Current literature on biblical ‘angelology’ The topic of the heavenly beings in their military context has not been neglected in the literature dealing with the Hebrew Bible. Indeed there are several works which concern the Hebrew conception of the ‘Divine Warrior’ or the divine war2; however, the heavenly host of Yahweh appears 1

L. H. Feldman writes: “As to angelology, most of the beliefs about the angels are expansion of older-beliefs, for example Ezekiel’s vision of angelic watchdog-like destroyers, and Zechariah’s angels restructuring the entire world.” Generally we tend to accept this conclusion. Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered (JSJS 107, Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2006), 20. 2 E.g., F. Schwally, Semitische Kriegsaltertümer I: Der heilige Krieg im alten Israel (Leipzig 1901); H. Fredricksson, Yahwe als Krieger: Studien zum alttestamentlichen Gottesbild (Lund 1945); J. Pedersen, Israel: its life and culture III–IV (London: Oxford University Press, 1946); D. Merli, “Le guerre di sterminio nell antichita orientale e biblica”, BibOr 9 (1967), 53–68; R. Smend, Yahweh War and Tribal Confederation (New York: Abingdon, 1970); M. C. Lind, “Paradigm of Holy War in the Old Testament”, BiR 16 (1971) 16–31; W. Janzen., “God as Warrior and Lord: A Conversation with G. E. Wright”, BASOR 220 (1975), 73–75; G. H. Jones, “Holy War or YHWH War?”, VT 25 (1975), 642–658; M. C. Lind, Yahweh is a Warrior: The Theology of Warfare in Ancient Israel (Windsor, Ont.: Herald Press, 1980); B. C. Ollenburger, Zion the City of the Great King (JSOTS 41, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987). R. R. Hobbs., A Time for War: A Study of Warfare in the Old Testament (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier,

1. Current literature on biblical ‘angelology’

13

rather rarely in this context. As early as 1903 Hermann Gunkel, the great representative of die religionsgeschichtliche Schule, pointed out that the most primitive Vorstellung of Yahweh was involved with his command over angelic host.3 The issue has been examined much later by some scholars connected with Harvard University. Frank Moore Cross, for instance, was one of the first who paid certain attention to the ‘Army of Yahweh’ in his book Canaanite Myth and the Hebrew Epic4. However, this problem was presented extremely concisely by him. Among the literature which has taken up the issue of the host of heaven more extensively are P. D. Miller’s book: Divine Warrior in Israel’s Early Cult 5 and his short note: “Divine Council and Prophetic Call to War”.6 In the latter Miller has suggested that Yahweh’s divine council “participated as a cosmic or heavenly army in the eschatological wars of Yahweh, those military activities associated with the Day of Yahweh, and that these conflicts (or conflict?) involved a joint participation of human and earthly forces and divine and heavenly army.”7 Miller’s book concerns divine warfare in ancient Israel, its mythological background, and its relationship to the wars of Israel. He focused especially upon the Israelite early poetry (Ex 15; Deut 33:2–5, 26–29; Josh 10:12–13; Judg 5; Ps 18:7–18; Ps 68; Hab 3:3–15; 2 Sam 22:7–18). He also examined early prose traditions (Josh 5:13; Gen 33:2–3; 2 Sam 5:22–25) and 2 Kings 6:15,19; 7:6. It must be admitted that biblical scholarship owes a lot to Miller who first drew its attention to the divine hosts as a most significant factor in the imagery of divine warfare. From his study Yahweh emerges as the powerful commander of a divine army. However, as the author says, his study is in no sense exhaustive. Miller has ended his investigations with the subchapter: “Some-Post Old Testament Developments”,8 in which he only indicates the traces of the developments conception of divine army in pseudepigrapha,

1989); G. H. Jones, “The Concept of Holy War”, in R. E. Clements (ed.), The World of Ancient Israel: Sociological, Anthropological and Political Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); G. von Rad, Holy War in Ancient Israel (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991). 3 “Yahweh was imagined as a powerful general who commands a large ‘host’ of warlike knights, and with them fights his battles in heaven...” H. Gunkel, “Psalm 103: An Interpretation“, The Biblical World 22 (1903), 214. 4 F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and the Hebrew Epic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997). 5 P. D. Miller, Divine Warrior in Israel’s Early Cult (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973). 6 P. D. Miller, “Divine Council and Prophetic Call to War”, VT 18 (1968), 100–107. 7 Ibidem, 100–101. 8 The Divine Warrior, 141–144.

14

Chapter 1: The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible

Qumran and NT. I would like to begin at the point where Miller’s work ends. E. T. Mullen, in his book The Assembly of the Gods9 extensively discusses the Hebrew conception of Divine Assembly on the ancient Near East background, which is to some degree involved with the activity of ‘angelic warriors’. He has quite correctly noted that “though the deity (Yahweh) is described as a warrior, he is rarely depicted as engaged in battle alone. Rather he fights in conjunction with the ‘Holy Ones’, the members of his council…”10 Recently L. K. Handy has made an interesting point about the Hebrew divine pantheon as the reflection of the earthly bureaucracy.11

2. The names of lesser divine beings in the Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible holds several names of the various divine beings that were inferior to Yahweh. They include the names such as: ‫מלאכים‬, ‫יהוה‬ ‫מלאך‬, ‫מלאך אלהים‬, ‫אלהים‬, ‫( מלאכי רעים‬Ps 78:49)12, ‫קדישין‬, ‫( עיר‬e.g. Dan 4:13), ‫גברים‬, 13‫כרב‬, ‫( שרפים‬e.g. Isa 6:2), ‫משחית‬, ‫שטן‬, ‫( אבירים‬Ps 78:25), ‫אלים‬, and only two personal names Michael and Gabriel. The angel Raphael appears in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit. Sang Youl Cho has indicated that certain biblical names specifically denoted the ‘warrior deities’.14 He has listed them as follows: ‫אבירים‬, ‫גברים‬, ‫כוכבים‬, ‫מחנה אלהים‬, ‫מלאך יהוה‬, ‫ממתים‬, ‫משחית‬, ‫צבא‬, ‫קדישין‬, ‫שנאן‬, ‫שר‬. With regard to the name ‫ממתים‬, I am not entirely convinced that it refers to the warrior deities. Certainly ‫ ממתים‬are the agents of death and they bring doom, but it does not mean that they are automatically warriors. Furthermore, Cho’s designation ‘the warrior deities’ is rather unfortunate, since it may suggest some distinct personality which is most often absent when we consider these designations. Nevertheless, those names are obviously related to the military arena. I believe that we also should add also add here terms such as ‫ דגל‬and ‫גדודים‬.

9

E. T. Mullen, The Assembly of the Gods (HSM 24, Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980). 10 Ibidem, 189. 11 L. K. Handy, Among the Host of Heaven (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1994). 12 In the LXX: ˜ %
(. Those angels are portrayed as the tools of the divine punishment. This category of angels bears a resemblance to the ‘destroyer’ (‫)משחית‬ from Ex 12:23; 2 Sam 24:16 and Jer 22:7. ‫ מלאכי חבל‬, which appear in Qumran literature (1Q S 4:12), seem belong to the same category of angels. 13 Also plural ‫( הכרבים‬Gen 3:24). 14 Cho S. Y., Lesser Deities in the Ugaritic Texts and the Hebrew Bible: A Comparative Study of Their Nature and Roles (Piscataway N.J.: Gorgias Press, 2007), 229.

2. The names of lesser divine beings in the Hebrew Bible

15

There are also other terms, closely involved with the council of God.15 They are: 16 ‫בני אלוהים‬, ‫בני אלים‬,‫( בני עליון‬Ps 82:6), ‫ ( קדשים‬Job 5:1; 15:15; Ps 16:3; 89:6,8; Hosea 12:1; Zech 14:5)17, ‫( עבדים‬Job 4:18; Isa 44:26 ), ‫משרתים‬ (Ps 104:4, LXX 
)), ‫( מליץ‬Job 33:23)18, ‫( רוח‬1 Kings 22:21), ‫עד‬ (Job 16:19). When assembly was meant in totality it was called: ‫( עדת אל‬Ps 82:1), ‫( דור‬Am 8:14),19 ‫( סוד קדשים‬Ps 89:8), ‫( קהל קדשים‬Ps 89:6),20 ‫סוד יהוה‬ (Jer 23:18), ‫( סוד אלוה‬Job 15:8), ‫( מועד‬Isa 14:13).

15

On the council of God, see below. Most likely this name was derived from the older Canaanite expression sons/children of El. El was regarded in Canaanite religion as the father of the Gods and creator of heaven and earth. Gods were all, or almost all, the offspring of El. See R. Hendel, “The Nephilim Were on Earth: Genesis 6: 1–4 and Its Ancient Near Eastern Context”, in C. Auffarth and L. T. Stuckenbruck (eds.), The Fall of the Angels (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 18. According to the Ugaritic text El (actually his consort Atirat) had seventy sons (CTA 4.VI.46–KTU1.4.VI. 46. El is called father of gods (‘abû banî ‘ili) CTA 32.I.2, 25, 33). The gods are designated as ‘the sons of El’ binu/banû ‘ili (CTA 5.I.13; 32.I.2, 17, 26, 34; 17.VI.28–29). As creator El stands at the head of pantheon. The phrase ‫ בני האלהים‬is used two times in the Book of Job (1:6; 2:1). In Job 38:7 the name ‫בני אלהים‬ appears. There is no doubt that the sons of Gods are heavenly beings. 17 Despite the fact that Yahweh himself is also designed as ‫( קדוש‬Lev 20:26; Isa 6:3; Ps 99:3, 5, 9) the members of divine council are depicted by the same name. See Ex 15:11 (LXX); Ps 89:6, 8; Zech 14:5; Job 15:15; Hos 12:1; Job 5:1 See also Praeparatio Evangelica I.10.20. E. T. Mullen, The Divine Council, 192. On the holiness in the HB, see W. W. Baudissin, “Der Begriff der Heiligkeit im Alten Testament”, in Idem, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (Leipzig: Grunow, 1876); F. J. Leenhardt, La notion de sainteté dans L’Ancien Testament, Étude de la racine QDSh (Paris: Fishbacher, 1929); A. Caquot, “Le sacré dans l’A.T.”, PL 28 (1980), 3–15; J. G. Gammie, Holiness in Israel, Philadelphia 1989. The word ‫ קדושים‬likewise denotes the pantheon in the 8 th cent. BC Canaanite magical plaque from Arslan Tash. 18 This word, which basic significance is ‘interpreter’, ‘intermediary’, appears in the Karatepe Portal Inscriptions as well (col. 1, line 8). See T. O’Callaghan, “The Great Phoenician Portal Inscription from Karatepe”, Orientalia 18 (1949), 173–205; H. Neil, “Some Notes on ‫ ליצ‬and Its Derivatives”, VT 5 (1955), 169; N. H. Tur-Sinai, The Book of Job (Jerusalem: Kiryath Sepher, 1957), 269–270; S. Mowinckel, “Die Vorstellungen des Spätjudentum vom heiligen Geist als Fürsprecher und der johanneische Paraklet”, ZNW 32 (1933), 102; P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 66, 210. Cf. 1QHª 14:13. 19 This Hebrew word is well known in the Hebrew Bible in the sense of generation, and the expression ‫דור ודור‬, ‘eternity’ occurs very often. However, the other meaning of this word is assembly. There are three occurrences in Ugaritic literature where dr means congregation (UH 2:17: UH 2:34; UH 107:2). See F. Neuberg, “An Unrecognized Meaning of Hebrew Dōr”, JNES 9 (1950), 215–217. P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 66. Cf. Ps 14:5; 24:6; 49:20; 73:15; 84:11; 112:2; Jer 2:31. 20 In the LXX, ™($+ ,$%. This passage clearly reveals the connection of the ‫ קדשים‬with the council of the gods. See E. T. Mullen, The Assembly of the Gods, 191. T. H. Gaster restores the part of the ninth verse of Psalm 29 as follows: ‫קהל קדושים יהללהו‬. “Psalm 29”, JQR 37 (1946–47), 62. 16

16

Chapter 1: The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible

3. Main biblical traditions Michael Mach argued, in our opinion quite correctly, that the development of postbiblical angelology was impacted by two main biblical conceptions. They were the notion of the Divine Council as well as the belief in the Angel of Yahweh. We would like to refer to both these traditions as well as indicate the military elements that are included in them. 3.1. Divine Council in Israel and in the ancient Near East Israel shared with its neighbours a belief in the existence of the heavenly council.21 This was an assembly consisting of various, frequently anonymous and colourless (as far as Israel was concerned), divine beings that functioned both as judicial court and army.22 Psalm 82:1 portrays this first function:23 “God has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods he holds judgment”.24 ‫ נצב בעדת אל‬25‫אלהים‬ ‫בקרב אלהים ישפט‬

According to the vision of Micaiah, Yahweh was a heavenly monarch surrounded by the hosts of heaven.26 “I saw Yahweh sitting on his throne (‫)כסאו‬, and all the host of heaven (‫ )צבא השמים‬standing beside him27 (‫ )עמד עליו‬on his right hand and on his left.” (1 Kgs 22:19; 2 Chron 18:18).

21

H. Huffmont, “The Covenant Lawsuit in the Prophets”, JBL 67 (1959), 285–295; G. E. Wright, “The Lawsuit of God: A Formal Critical Analysis of Deuteronomy 32”, in Israel Prophetic Heritage (New York: Harper, 1962), 26–67; P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 12–13; M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des jüdischen, 16–37. The notion of heavenly council is well discernible in 1 Kgs 22:19: ‫ראיתי את יהוה ישב על כסאו וכל צבא השמים עמד עליו מימינו ומשמאלו‬. 22 The warlike character of Tiamat’s assembly is easily noticeable in the following text: “She has set up the Assembly and is furious with rage. All the gods have rallied to her; Even those whom you brought forth march as her side. They throng and march at the side of Tiamat, Enraged they plot without cease night and day. They are set for combat, growling, raging, They have formed a council to prepare for the fight.” Quoted from P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 26. 23 See also Zech 3:1–5. F. M. Cross, “The Council of Yahweh in Second Isaiah”, JNES 12 (1953), 274–275, n. 3. 24 See 11QMelchizedek 2:10. 25 The figure of ‫ אלהים‬is understood as Yahweh. See M. S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical, 48, 223. 26 See Cho S. Y., Lesser Deities, 66–69. 27 This emphasizes the subordinate status of the host of heaven. They stand whereas their superior sits. See Cho S. Y., Lesser Deities, 66–67 n. 319–320.

3. Main biblical traditions

17

The divine council constituted an important motif in both Ugaritic traditions, as well as in the other areas of the ancient Near East. Miller has expressed the following comment on the function of divine council in this region: The divine assembly is an image for speaking of a system for divine governance and order that is intimately involved with the world but not coterminous with it. The cosmological structure of the universe is operative in the universe but transcends it. The pious ones of Mesopotamia and Syro-Palestine were convinced that all they could see and comprehend and investigate of the universe about them was not all there was to the world.28

This statement indicates a theological significance of the divine assembly in the texts outside Israel as well as an importance of the divine council in the ancient imagery of the cosmos.29 Mullen claims persuasively that the Hebrew concept of the Israelite divine council was more closely paralleled by the Canaanite assembly than by the Mesopotamian.30 It is worth mentioning that even in the oldest biblical narratives the assembly consisted of secondary creatures that subordinated to Yahweh’s rule.31 They are the beings almost without identity. It is only in later writings that the figure of Satan appears (Job 1:6; 2:1–7: Zech 3:1–7), whose function is to patrol the earth.32 As with the figure of Satan, the other members of Divine council developed their specialized functions.33 This includes the angel Michael (Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1) and Gabriel (Dan 8:16; 9:21). The most elaborate angelology, however, was developed in the pseudepigrapha. The former, anonymous members of Yahweh’s council received specific responsibilities in the human and the divine world. The meeting of the council is described in 1 Kings 22:19–23 as well

28

P. D. Miller, “Cosmology and World Order in the Old Testament: The Divine Council as Cosmic-Political Symbol”, HBT 9 (1987), 72. 29 M. S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical, 50–51. 30 The Assembly of the Gods, passim. H. W. Robinson traced the origin of the Hebrew assembly in the Babylonian tradition. “The Council of Yahweh”, JTS 45 (1944), 151– 157. 31 F. M. Cross, “The Council of Yahweh”, 274–277. See also T. H. Gaster, “Psalm 29”, JQR 37 (1946–1947), 55–65. The Mesopotamian gods of the assembly were at the same time gods of pantheon. Mesopotamian council was democratic to some degree whereas Canaanites and Israeli assemblies were autocratic and monarchic par excellence. See T. Jacobsen, Primitive Democracy, 159–172. E. T. Mullen writes: “In no sense could the Canaanite or Israelite assembly be termed “democratic” even in the most primitive understanding of the word.” The Assembly of the Gods, 282. Mesopotamian council was a sort of a feast where gods drank wine, consumed meals and were generally in very careless mood. 32 See Zech 1:8–11. 33 E. T. Mullen, The Assembly of the Gods, 176.

18

Chapter 1: The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible

as 2 Chronicles 18:18–22. The other examples of the Divine Council are Psalm 82:1–8 and the vision of Isaiah (Isa 6). Mullen also demonstrates that “the most striking similarity between the council in Ugaritic and in early Hebrew literature is the role played by the high god-El34 in the Ugaritic texts and Yahweh in the Old Testament.”35 Yahweh was head of the assembly in Israel. However, some scholars have suggested that originally he belonged to the second tier of the pantheon. The title of ‫ עליון‬in Psalm 82:6 may suggest that it was El who was at the top of the hierarchy.36 The origin of the divine assembly in the ancient Near East was probably connected with the earthly, political organization of the structure of the power. The people in the ancient world imagined their gods in an anthropomorphic way, and living in the same kind of world as men did. Therefore it is not surprising that the divine assembly reflects to some degree the earthly one.37 The assembly of the gods in the material from Ugarit is called phr’ilm38 or phr bn ‘ilm (the assembly the sons of El). In some cases the phrase phr m’d, (‘the gathered assembly’) designates the council of gods as well (e.g., CTA 2.I.14–16).39 In biblical literature, the word phr does not appear. However, other appellations from Ugaritic can be found in the Bible. Words such as, ‫( עדת‬Ps 82:1) ‫( מועד‬Isa 14:13; CTA 2.I.)40 and ‫( דור‬Am 8:14) constitute the common Hebrew and Ugaritic names involved with the divine assembly. There are also the words which are not present in the Ug-

34

El’s role as a leader of the pantheon was challenged by several scholars. Nevertheless Mullen presents convincing arguments against their views. 35 Ibidem, 4. 36 On this issue, see M. S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical, 48–49. 37 See T. Jacobson, “Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia”, JNES 2 (1943), 159–172, 167–168. This tendency is also visible in the context of the particular members of the divine council. The figure of Satan, for instance, was probably developed according to the model of an official in Neo-Babylonian or Persian bureaucracy. Similarly the angelic name, ‫( עיר‬watcher) (Dan 4:10, 14, 20; 1 En 20:1), was based on the spies of the Persian ruler. On Satan see A. L. Oppenheim, “The Eyes of the Lord”, JAOS 88 (1968), 173–180; P. L. Day, An Adversary in Heaven: śātān in the Hebrew Bible (HSM 43, Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 39–43; On the Watchers, see J. Texidor, ( Review) “Genesis Apocryphon of Qumran Cave I: A Commentary by J. A. Fitzmyer”, JAOS 87 (1967), 634. 38 Akkadian puhru means ‘assembly’, ‘totality’. Akkadian puhur ilāni designates the council of the gods. 39 A. Herdner, Corpus des tablettes en cuneiforms alphabétiques découvertes à Ras Shamra-Ugarit de 1929 à 1939, vol. 10 (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1963), 7. 40 The word ‫ מועד‬has some parallels in the Phoenician accounts. See J. A. Wilson, “The Assembly of a Phoenician City”, JNES 4 (1945), 245.

3. Main biblical traditions

19

aritic literature but occur in the Bible. One of them is the ‘assembly of the holy ones’ (‫)קהל קדשים‬41, (‫)סוד קדשים‬.42 Both Miller and Mullen pointed out military connotations of the Ugaritic divine council.43 According to Sanchuniathon (Philo of Byblos), El (Kronos) was considered a mighty warrior in the assistance of his allies:
  

-
 ./

0)
 ’2%# ™ (344 The word 

-
 has a military connotation (‘fighting along with’, ‘leagued’ or ‘allied with’).45 Curiously, El’s allies are depicted as winged figures.46 Likewise, Baal and Anat were conceived of as surrounded by a retinue of a military character.47 It is worth underscoring that the notion of El and his council in Philo’s work is different to what is found in the Ugaritic material. We can suppose that Sanchuniathon’s description of El as the warrior and commander of heavenly host belonged to the earlier stage of Ugaritic religion.48 In the Mesopotamian tradition several gods participated in the wars of the king. They attacked collectively.49 We read in the epic of Naram-Sin that “Naram-Sin marched on his way, the gods of the land marched with

41

Ps 89:6. Ps 89:8. In Jer 23:18 ‫ סוד יהוה‬and in Job 15:8 ‫סוד אלוה‬. 43 P. D. Divine Council and Prophetic, 100–107. Idem, “El the Warrior”, HTR 60 (1967), 416ff. 44 Praeparatio Evangelica I.10.20. See K. Mras (ed.), Eusebius’ Werke: Die Praeparatio Evangelica, vol. 8 teil 1 (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1954), 47. Eusebius asserts that his account is “approved as true by the testimony of Porphyry the philosopher.” 45 P. D. Miller, El the Warrior, 417. 46
  

 
 
™4 5 &   ™   6 %" 7 †  8 $ 
9 0)5. Praeparatio Evangelica I.10.37. 47 P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 18–20. The problematic phrase [dt ilm ṯlṯh appears in the Keret Epic (CTA 15.II.7). Regarding the last word, some scholars suggest an analogy with the Hebrew ‫ושישילש‬. Consequently they understand ṯlṯh as the warriors accompanying a chief deity. Ibidem, 20. Mullen accepts this translation but notes that “tlt does designate a military retinue, but it is the retinue of the divine council, not of Ba’l.” The Assembly of the Gods, 181. 48 P. D. Miller, El the Warrior, 431. 49 It is very noticeable in the epic of Tukulti-Ninurta (V A 33’–40’): ‘Aššur in the vanguard went to the attack, the fire of defeat burned upon the enemy Enlil…in the midst of the foe, sends flaming arrows smoking Anu pressed the unpitying mace upon the wicked The heavenly light Sin imposed upon them the paralyzing weapon of battle Adad, the hero, let a wind [and] flood pour down over the fighting Šamaš, lord of judgement, dimmed the eyes of the armies of the land of Sumer and Akkad And Ištar beat (with) her skipping rope, driving their warriors insane.’ 42

20

Chapter 1: The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible

him; In front Nergal (?) marched, behind Zababa [protected] with two horns, the emblems of Annunit and Silaba…pair by pair”50 (2 2–6). There is no equivalent in the biblical accounts. Yahweh is the only God who accompanied the Israelite army. However, this quasi-monotheistic emptiness was to some extent filled by the belief in the host of heaven who went with Yahweh. Unlike, Ugaritic gods, Yahweh is pictured as going out in the company of his council to heavenly battle. In this martial context, the assembly is sometimes described as a host ‫( צבא‬gr.   4).51 This Hebrew and Greek word means army. The ‘host of heaven’ (‫ )צבא השמים‬is the heavenly militia that sometimes fights the wars of Yahweh. G. Westphal was the first scholar to observe the fundamental military connotation of the name ‫השמים‬ ‫צבא‬.52 According to ancient thought, the realms of earth and heaven were closely related. Therefore it was believed that the earthly, organized military order was also found in the heavenly sphere. Gunkel writes: ...originally Yahweh was imagined as a powerful general who commands a large ‘host’ of warlike knights, and with them fights his battles in heaven. 53

This ‘general’ had the other officers at his disposal like the commander who came to support Joshua’s army in the battle (Josh 5:13–15). 1 Sam 17:45 refers to Yahweh as the leader of Israel’s army (‫)אלהי מערכות ישראל‬.54 However, Yahweh is at the same time designated as a leader of heavenly army (‫)יהוה צבאות‬.55 The term ‘host’ appears in the singular about 200 times in the Bible. Yahweh is called ‫ צבאות‬284 times.56 This term most frequently occurs in 50

I follow a quotation from Sa-Moon Kang, Divine War, 45. Deut 33:2; 1 Kgs 22:19; Ps 148:2; 4 Ezra 6:3; Luke 2:13. 52 G. Westphal, ‫צבא השמים‬, Orientalische Studien Theodor Nöldeke zum siebzigsten Geburstag, vol. 2, ed. C. Bezold (Giessen: Töpelmann, 1906), 719–728. 53 H. Gunkel, “Psalm 103: An Interpretation”, The Biblical World 22 (1903), 214. 54 See Cho S. Y., Lesser Deities, 237. 55 It has been claimed that because the divine host appears only in singular (‫)צבא‬, plural form must refer to Israel’s army. On the polemic with this, see P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 154. Furthermore the term ‫ צבא השמים‬indicates the quasi divine beings involved with astral cult. See below. There are also problems involved with the head of Canaanite pantheon, El. The doubts are raised by the Amorite name: Sb’’l, i.e., si-ba-Hal. Some scholars claimed that it should be translated: ‘Warrior of El’, however Miller suggested that ‘army of El’ would be more correct translation. P. D. Miller, “El the Warrior”, HTR 60 (1967), 426. 56 T. N. D. Mettinger, “Yahweh Zebaoth (‫”)יהוה צבאות‬, DDD, 920–924. On this as Yahweh’s title, see L. Köhler, “Die Offenbarungsformel ‘Fürchte dich nicht’ im Alten Testament”, STZ 36 (1919), 33–39. B. N. Wambacq, L’épithète divine Jahvé Sebā‫׳‬ôt (Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1947); W. F. Albright, “L’épithète divine Jahvé Sebā‫׳‬ôt: Étude philologique, historique, et exégétique”, JBL 67 (1948), 377–381. Cf. F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth, 65. 51

3. Main biblical traditions

21

the prophetic books. Cross has pointed out that the term ‫ יהוה צבאות‬cannot be read as “Yahweh of hosts, that is, as construct chain because a proper name cannot be put into the construct state (as a nomen regens) according to grammatical law.”57 Yahweh in all likelihood is a third person singular, causative imperfect of to be, that is, ‘to cause to be’, ‘to create’. Since the verbal sentence must have an object it seems that ‫ צבאות‬is the best candidate.58 Therefore, reading “he creates the host” is the most probable one. Regardless of the fact of whether this translation is appropriate or not there is still the problematic question of what sort of armies were meant: heavenly or earthly ones? It seems more plausible that the reference is to heavenly ones. The title is strongly connected with Yahweh kingship. Like the earthly kings Yahweh has his celestial servants and warriors.59 In all likelihood, there were some connections between title of ‫ צבאות‬and the Ark of Covenant. Many scholars persuasively claimed that the Ark was associated with the wars of Yahweh, constituting a sort of palladium in battle. The earliest account which refers to the Ark is Numbers 10:35–36. Before we focus on this text we intend to consider two other songs referring to the heavenly army and Ark. They are Deut 33 and Psalm 68:2–3. Both of them are also related to the motif march of Divine Warrior from the south.60 It is worth noting that in the LXX the title is translated as 
  4 %.61 The word   $
" which one would expect, is for some reason avoided. Carr argues that this sort of shift happened because, for the translator of the LXX, Sabaoth did not have military significance. The council of Yahweh functioned both as army and consultative body and possibly this latter understanding prevailed in the minds of the translators.62 Interestingly, the Targum on the Hagiographa translates the phrase “Lord, God of hosts” as “Lord, God over all soldiers (‫ )חיילי‬of the heav-

57

F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth, 65. Cf. N. D. T. Mettinger, “Yahweh Zebaoth”, 920. 59 In the military context they appear in: 1 Sam 4:4; 17:45; Isa 10:23; 13:4, 13; 14:24–27; 19:16; 22:5; 31:4; 24:21–22; Jer 32:18; 50:25; Nah 2:14; 3:5; Ps 24:8, 10; 46: 8, 12; 59:6. 60 This motif (present also Judg 5:4–5; Hab 3:3) is involved with the cult of Yahweh having originated in southern Edom. See F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth; M. S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical, 140. 61 E.g. 2 Sam 6:2, 18; 2 Kgs 19:31; Ps 47:9; Zech 7:4. It is only transcribed as 
 :%. See e.g. 1 Sam 15:2. 62 W. Carr, Angels and Principalities, 38. On the other, in my opinion more plausible, explanation of this tendency, see H. D. Betz, “Dynamis (4 )”, DDD, 267–270. 58

22

Chapter 1: The ‫ צבא השמים‬and the other heavenly beings in the Hebrew Bible

ens”.63 This may indicate that the original meaning of this phrase was not entirely forgotten even in a significantly later period. 3.1.1. Psalm 68:2, 18 This Psalm has produced a great deal of exegetical opinion and debate.64 It certainly belongs to the most difficult one in terms of interpretation.65 The Psalm consists of several pieces of war poetry reflecting battle and victory songs, which celebrated the victory of Yahweh and his celestial army. Originally they were separate units.66 It has an affinity with Deut 33, Judg 5 and Ex 15. They all deal with “the cosmic background of Israel’s wars, and Yahweh’s kingship and the establishment of his sanctuary.”67 Verse 2 is a part of the Song of the Ark: “Let God arise; let his enemies be scattered. And let the ones hating him flee from before him.” ‫ יפוצו אויביו וינוסו משנאיו מפניו‬68‫יקום אלהים‬

Almost the same couple appears in Numbers 10:35. Further in the narrative of Psalm 68 the entire heavenly army that accompanies this divine leader emerges. “The chariots of God69 are two myriads. Two thousands the archers of Yahweh. When he came from Sinai with the holy ones...”

63

See R. Kasher, “Angelology and Supernal Worlds in the Aramaic Targums to the Prophets”, JSJ 27 (1996), 171. 64 See S. Iwry, “Notes on Psalm 68”, JBL 71 (1952), 161–165. H. Gunkel, J. Begrich, Einleitung in die Psalmen: Göttinger Handkommentar zum AT (Göttingen 1933), 345; W. F. Albright, “A Catalogue of Early Hebrew of Lyric Poems, Psalm LXVIII”, HUCA 23 (1950/51), 23–24; S. Mowinckel, Der achtundsechzigste Psalm (Oslo: I Komisjon Jacob Dybwad, 1953); A. Weiser, The Psalms (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1962), 277– 290; H. J. Kraus, Psalmen (Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1960), 464–477. H. Pfeiffer, Jahwes Kommen von Süden: Jdc 5; Hab 3; Dtn 33 und Ps 68 in ihrem literatur– und theologiegeschichtlichen Umfeld (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005), 204–250. 65 As early as 1851, E. Reuss published a book where he brought together 400 different commentaries on this Psalm. Der achtundsechzigste Psalm: Ein Denkmal exegetischer Noth und Kunst. Quoted by W. F. Albright, A Catalogue, 7. 66 W. F. Albright perceived them as a collection of incipits of hymns and songs put together in the form of a catalogue. A Catalogue, 23. His opinion was criticised by S. Mowinckel who claimed that Psalm 68 is a perfect unity. Der achtundsechzigste Psalm, 1–78. 67 P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior, 104. 68 Albright replaced ‫ אלוהים‬with the form ‫ יהו‬instead of the Tetragrammaton, which is preserved in Num 10:35. See on this W. F. Albright, A Catalogue of Early, 17. 69 See E. Vogt, “Die Wagen Gottes: Zehntausendfach, Tausende šin’an’, (Ps. 68, 18)”, Biblica 46 (1965), 460–463. Generally on the chariots, see E. Cassin, “A de guerre

3. Main biblical traditions

23 ‫רכ ב אל ה י ם רב ת י ם‬ [ ‫ ] יה ו‬70‫אל פ ש נ נ‬ 71 ‫ב >בא