Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora (Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section 1; The Near and Middle East) 9004108785, 9789004108783

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ANCIENT JEWISH ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE DIASPORA

HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES ERSTE ABTEILUNG

DER NAHE UND MITTLERE OSTEN THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST HERAUSGEGEBEN VON

H. ALTENMÜLLER . B. HROUDA . B.A. LEVINE . R.S. O'FAHEY K.R. VEENHOF . C.H.M. VERSTEEGH

FÜNFUNDDREISSIGSTER BAND

ANCIENT JEWISH ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE DIASPORA

ANCIENT JEWISH ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE DIASPORA BY

RACHEL HACHLILI

BRILL LEIDEN· BOSTON· KÖLN Igg8

This book is printcd on acid-frec paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hachlili, Rachel. AncientJewish art and archaeology in the diaspora / by Rache! Hachlili. p. cm. - (Handbuch der Orientalistik. Erste Abteilung, Der Nahc und Mittlerc Ostcn, ISSN 0169-9423 ; 35. Bd. = Handbook of Oriental studies. The Ncar and Middle East) Ine!udcs bibliographical refercnccs and index. ISBN 9004108785 (cloth: alk. paper) I. Synagogue architccturc-History. 2. Synagoguc art-History. 3. Jcwish art and symbolism-History. 4. Synagogue art-Syria-Dura -Europos (Extinet city) 5. Art, Ancient. I. Tide. 11. Scries: Handbuch der Orientalistik. Erste Abtcilung, Der Nahc und l'vIittiere Osten; 35. Bd. NA4690.H28 1998 704.03'92403-de2! 97-28225 CIP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnalune Handbuch dcr Oricntalistik / hrsg. von B. Spuler unter Mitarb. von C. van Dijk ... Leidcn ; New York ; Köln: Bril!. ler.

Tcilw. hrsg. von H. J\hclllnüller. Literaturangabcn. Teil\\'. mit Parallel!.; Hanelbook nl' 0I'iel1lal studies

Tcilw. hrsg. \. on ß. Spu-

Abt. 1, Der Nahc und Mittlere Ostcn = The Near and Middlc East / hrsg. von H. Altenmül!er ... NE: Spuler, ßcrtold [Hrsg.l; Ntenmüller, Hartwig [Hrsg.l; Handbook 01' orient al studies

Bd. 35. Haehlili, Rache!: AncicntJc],vish art and archaeology in the diaspora. - 1998 Hachlili, Rachel: AncientJc\\~sh art and archaeology in the diaspora. / by Rache! Hachlili. - Leiden ; Boston ; Köln : Brill, 1998 (Handbuch der Orientalistik : Abt. I, Der Nahe und Mittlere Osten Bel. 3.1 ISBN 90-04-10878-5

ISSN 0169-9423 ISBN 90 04 108785 © Copyright 1998 hy Koninklijke Brill Nf;~ Leiden, 7he Netherlalldf

All nghts reserved. No part rif this puhlication may be reproduced, translated, stored zn a retrzeval system, 01' transmitted zn any firm 01' ~v any means, electronic, mechanical, jJhotocopying, recording 01' otlLe1Wlse. lI;itlLOllt Jlrior wntten permission from the puhlisher. AutllOrizatioll to photocopy items fir internal 01' permnalllse is grantRd hy KOllinklyke Brill provided tlzat tlte appropriate Jees are paid directly to The Cop)'rigltt Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive. Suite 910, Danvers A'lA 01.923. USA.. Fee., are Ju~ject to change. PRI'iTED 11\ THE !'IETHERI.:\:\DS

IN MEMORY OF MY BELOVED PARENTS ABRAHAM (ARTUR) AND FRIEDA WEICHSELBAUM

CONTENTS List of Figures .................... ....................... ................................................. ............... XII List of Plates ............................. ... .......... ..................... ............................. ... .............. XXI List of Colored Plates........................................................................................... XXVII Foreword ................................................................................................................. XXIX Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... XXX Introduction .................... ............................................ ............. ...... ... .................... xxxii Historical Background .... ......... ..................... .......... ....... ...................... ......................... 1 CHAPTER I THE SYNAGOGUE ............................................................................... 13 A The Temple and the Synagogue ................................................................... 13 B Origins of the Synagogue............................................................................... 14 The Emergence of the Synagogue ........ ....... ............. ... ................................ 15 Archaeological & Textual Evidence .............................................................. 17 Archaeological Evidence.. ............................................ ............................. 17 Textual evidence ....................................................................................... 18 Conclusions ........... ................... ........... .......... .......... ......................................... 20 C The Synagogue and the Community ............ ............................................ .... 22 Synagoge Activities ............................................................................................ 22 Synagoge Administration .................................................................................. 23 Women in the Synagoge .................................................................................. 23 CHAPTER II SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE ....................................................... 25 ADescription of Diaspora Synagogues .......... ....................... ............................ Aegina ......................................................................................................... Apamea ....................................................................................................... Bova Marina............................................................................................... Delos ........................................................................................................... Dura-Europos .............................................. ............. .................................. Comparisons Between the Early and Later Dura Synagogue Buildings .............................................................................................................. Elche ........................................................................................................... Hammam-Lif ..................... .......... .............. ... ... .......... ... ... ... .................... .... Lepcis Magna.............................................................................................

25 25 32 34 35 39 44 45 47 49

VI

CONTENTS

Miletus (?) .................................................................................................. Misis-Mopsuhestia ...................................................................................... Ostia ............................................................................................................ Philippopolis .... ......... ... ............................................... ............................... Priene .......................................................................................................... Sardis ........................................................................................................... Stobi ............................................................................................................

51 51 53 55 56 58 63

B Characteristic Features of the Synagogue .................................................... The Torah Shrine ..................................................................................... Torah Shrine Elements ............................................................................ Synagogue Architectural Furnishings .................................................... The Women's Gallery ............................................................................... C Synagogues Known from Architectural Fragments ..................................... D Synagogues Known from Inscriptions .......................................... ................. E General Conclusions .................. ...... ... ... ... ... ......... ....................................... ... Synagogue Locations .......................................................................... ....... Types of Structures. ...... ......... ......................................... ........................... Synagogue Design...................................................................................... Synagogues Converted into Churches .................................................... Distinguishing Features .............................................................................

67 67 76 79 84 85 88 89 89 90 90 92 93

CHAPTER III SYNAGOGUE ART: THE DURA-EURO POS SYNAGOGUE WALL PAINTINGS .................... ... ...... ... ......... ............................................................ 96 ADescription of the Wall Paintings ................................................................. 96 Wall Paintings, Earlier Building .............................................................. 96 Wall Paintings, Later Building, First Stage ............................................ 98 Wall Paintings, Later Building, Second Stage ..................................... 104 The West Wall ..................................................................................... 104 The North Wall ................................................................................... 122 The East Wall....................................................................................... 127 The South Wall.................................................................................... 130 The Dado ................................................................................................. 133 The Dipinti .............................................................................................. 135 B Iconography of the Wall Paintings ............................................................. 135 Figures, Costumes & Gestures ............................................................... 136 Representations of Scenes ...................................................................... 146

CONTENTS

Elements of Scenery, Architecture and Objects ................................. C Composition & Style of the Wall Paintings ............................................... Organization & Composition ................................................................. Color ......................................................................................................... Figures .......................... .......... ........................ ...................... ... .......... ... ..... Frontality & Style ..................................................................................... D Meaning & Interpretation of the Wall Paintings ..................................... E Origins & Sources ......................................................................................... Origins of the Synagogue Structure ..................................................... Origins of the Wall Paintings ................................................................ Sources for the Biblical Paintings ......................................................... Artistic Sources & Influences .............................. ... ................................ F Conclusions .... ..................................... ........................ ...... ... ..........................

VII

155 174 174 176 176 177 178 182 182 182 185 190 193

CHAPTER IV SYNAGOGUE ART: MOSAIC PAVEMENTS ................................. 198 A The Mosaic Pavements ................................................................................. Aegina ....................................................................................................... Apamea ..................................................................................................... Bova Marina............................................................................................. Elche ......................................................................................................... Hammam-Lif ................ .............. ................. ... .... ...................................... Misis-Mopsuhestia ...... .......... ............................... ................ ....... .............. Ostia .......................................................................................................... Philippopolis ............................................................................................ Sardis ......................................................................................................... Stobi .......................................................................................................... B Composition & Style ............... ....... .......... ................. ... ... .............................. C Sources for Mosaic Pavements ..................................................................... D Conclusions .......................................................... ....................... .......... .........

198 198 198 204 205 207 209 216 217 218 231 233 235 236

CHAPTER V FIGURATIVE ART ............................................................................. 237 A BibIical Scenes ........................ ....................................................................... The Sacrifice of Isaac .................... .................................... ... ... .......... ..... David-Orpheus ......................................................................................... Noah's Ark at Misis-Mopsuhestia ........................................................... Noah's Ark on the Earlier Mosaic Pavement .................................. Noah's Ark on the Later Mosaic PavemenL. ...................................

239 239 247 249 249 251

VIII

CONTENTS

N oah on the Apamea Coins ........ .......................................................... 255 The Samson Cyde at Misis-Mopsuhestia .............................................................. 256 CHAPTER VI BURIAL AND FUNERARY PRACTICES ........................................ 263 A Funerary Architecture ......................................................................................... Loculi Tomb Burials ............................................................................................ The Necropolis of Leontopolis ..................................................................... The Necropoleis at Alexandria ..................................................................... The Necropolis at Gammarath Hill.............................................................. Catacomb Burials .......................................................................................... ....... Jewish Catacombs of Rome ............................................................................ The Catacombs of Venosa ............................................................................. The Hypogea of Malta .................... ...... ......................................................... The Hypogea of Sicily .............................................. .................. .............. ........... B Wall Paintings ....................................................................................................... Vigna Randanini ................... ................................................................ ...... ..... Villa Torlonia ................................................................................................... Style & Composition ....................................................................................... Venosa ............................................................................................................. Malta ................................................................................................................. Gammarath Hill, Carthage ................. ........................... ........... ......... ............ C Sarcophagi ............................................................................................................ Sarcophagi from the Catacombs at Rome ....... ..................... ............ ........... Jewish lead coffins from Cilicia ..................................................................... o Gold Glasses .......................................................................................................... E Tombstones ........................................................................................................... F Clay Lamps ...................... ............................................................................. ........ G Miscellaneous Finds . ...................... ..... ............ .................. ... ................................ H Funerary Practices ................................................................................................

263 263 263 264 265 266 266 273 273 275 275 275 279 281 282 282 283 285 285 291 292 304 305 305 306

CHAPTER VIIJEWISH SYMBOLS ......................................................................... 311 A The Menorah ....................................................................................................... The Menorah on the Arch of Titus ............................................................. The Menorah in the Synagogue ................................................................... The Form of the Menorah Depicted in Synagogues ................................. Menorah Depictions in a Burial Context ....................................................

312 312 316 323 330

CONTENTS

B C D

E F

Menoroth Depieted on Clay Lamps ....................................................... ...... Notable Forms of Menorah ........................................................................... Pairs of Menoroth ........................ ................................................................... The Chronological Development of the Form of the Menorah .............. The Signifieanee and Symbolism of the Menorah ..................................... The Shewbread Table ..................................................................................... .... Ritual Objeets ....................................................................................................... Sanetuary & Ark Struetures ......................... ....................................................... The Temple in Jerusalem ................................................................................... The Torah Shrine ................................................................................................ The Ark of the SeroIls......................................................................................... The Ark of the Covenant ................................................................................... The Coneh ............................................................................................................ Lamps Deeorated with Jewish Symbols .............................................................

IX

337 339 340 343 343 345 347 360 360 363 366 370 373 374

CHAPTER VIII MOTIFS OF JEWISH ART ........................................................... 379 A B C D E F

Plant Ornaments .................................................................................................. Geometrie Ornaments ......................................................................................... Animal & Bird Motifs .................. .............................................................. .......... Human Figures ..................................................................................................... Mythologieal Figures ..... ............. .......................................................................... Objeets .................................................................................................................. ,

379 381 382 391 392 394

CHAPTER IX INSCRIPTIONS ................................................................................ 398 A Synagogue Inseriptions ... ... .................... ..................................... ................. ........ Aegina .................................................................................................................. Apamea ................................................................................................................ Delos ................................................................................................................... Dura-Europos ................ ........................................ .................... .......... .......... ... ..... Elche ................................................................................................................... Hammam-Lif .................................... ......................................................... ............ Ostia ................................................................................................................... Philippopolis ................................................................................. ... ..................... Sardis ................................................................................................................... Stobi ................................................................................................................... B Funerary Inseriptions ...........................................................................................

398 401 402 403 403 407 408 409 409 410 412 413

x

CONTENTS

Egypt ................................................................................................................... The Jewish Catacombs of Rome ........................................................................ The Venosa Catacombs ....................................................................................... Malta ................................................................................................................... Sicily & the Roman World ..................................................................................

414 415 416 417 417

CHAPTER X FEATURES OF JEWISH ART .......................................................... 419 A B C D E

Unidentical Symmetrical Compositions ............................................................ 419 Original Jewish Iconographic Conventions ........................................................ 420 The Triadic Symmetrical Composition ............................................................... 421 Groups of Special Numbers ................................................................................. 421 Iconoclasm ............................................................ '" ............................................... 422 Iconoclasm at Dura ............................................................................................... 422 Iconoclasm at Sardis ................................................................ ,............................. 423

CHAPTER XI JEWISH, CHRISTIAN & PAGAN ART. ... ............ ... ..... ... ... ... ......... 424 A Jewish, Christian and Pagan Art at Dura-Europos .......................................... Architecture .......................................................................................................... Decoration ............................................................................................................ Iconography .......................................................................................................... Christian Paintings at Dura ................................................................................ The Dura Synagogue and Christian Art .... ... ..... ....... ... ... ... ........... ... ... ... ........... Dura as an Influence on Early Christian Art ............................................... Dura as the Source of Later Christian Art.... ... ............... ... ........ ..... ..... ... ..... B Funerary Customs and Art ... ... ... ... ... ... ............ ...... ... ......... ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ........ ... Funerary Customs ................................................................................................ Jewish and Christian Catacombs ........................................................................ C Synagogue and Church ............... '" ... ... ... ...... ........ ... ............ ........ ........ ..... ..... ..... Architecture ...... ....... ............... ...... ...... ..... ......... ...... ... ............ ........ ........ ..... ...... .... Art ................................................................................................................... D The Position of Jews in Sardis and their Relations with non:Jews ...............................................................................................................

424 424 425 427 427 428 428 430 432 432 432 434 435 436 438

CHAPTER XII ARTISTS & PATTERN BOOKS .................................................... 441 A Artists, Craftsmen and Workshops ..................................................................... 441

CONTENTS

The Artists ............................................................................................................. Artists Identified by Inscriptions ........................................................................ Dura ................................................................................................................... Sardis ................................................................................................................. Jewish Artists ......................................................................................................... Workshops ............................................................................................................. B Pattern Books .. .... ... .... ...... ... ... ... ....... .... ... .... ...... ....... ... ....... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ......

XI

441 443 443 444 445 445 449

CHAPTER XIII DATING ......................................................................................... 454 A Synagogue Dating ... .... ... ... ... ... ....... ... ....... .... ... ....... ... ... .... ... ... ...... .......... ........... ... 454 B Dating of Tombs and Catacombs ...................................................................... 457 CHAPTER XIV CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................ 459 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... 465 Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 466 Glossary ....................................................................................................................... 487 Chronological Table '" ................................................................................................ 489 Index ....................................................................................................................... 491 Plates

LIST OF FIGURES Chapter 11 Map 1: Diaspora sites. ............................................................................................... 11-1. General area of Aegina (after Mazur 1935:fig. 3) ........................................ 11-2. Aegina synagogue floor plan (after Mazur 1935:fig. 3) ............................... 11-3. Apamea town plan. ........... ... .......................... ............... .......................... .......... 11-4. Apamea: plan of Atrium church and synagogue (after NapoleoneLemaire & Balty 1969:fig. 2) ................................................................................ 11-5. Bova Marina, Synagogues land 11 (after Costamagna 1994:243) ............... 11-6. Delos quarter and synagogue (after Bruneau 1970:Plan A) . ..................... 11-7. Delos synagogue (after Bruneau 1970:Plan B) ............................................. 11-8. Dura-Europos, plan of the city in Parthian and Roman times (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 4) ............................................................................................... 11-9. Dura, block L7 and synagogue (after Kraeling 1979:Plan 11 Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura Europos Archive) ......................................... 11-10. Dura, the early synagogue. ............................................................................. 11-11. Dura, the later synagogue building with House H. .................................... 11-12. Dura: early and later synagogues (after White 1990:fig. 15) ..................... 11-13. Elche synagogue. ............................................................................................. 11-14. Hammam-Lif synagogue ................................................................................. 11-15. Lepcis Magna: Severan forum and basilica (after Ward-Perkins 1952: fig. 1) ....................................................................................................................... 11-16. Lepcis Magna: south chapel, original (after Ward-Perkins 1952:Pl. XXVIII) ................................................................................................................... 11-17. South chapel after fifth century alteration (after Ward-Perkins 1952:Pl. XXIX) ....................................................................................................... 11-18. Misis synagogue (after Bossert 1957:Pl. XXVIII:1) ...................................... 11-19. Ostia later synagogue plan and isometrie plan (after Squarciapino 1960:194). ................................................................................................................ 11-20. Philippopolis synagogue plan (after Kesjakova 1989:fig. 1). ...................... 11-21. Priene synagogue plan (after Wiegand & Schrader 1904:fig. 585) .......... 11-22. Sardis synagogue area (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). ....................................................................................................................

26 30 31 32 33 35 36 37 40 41 42 43 44 46 47 49 50 50 52 54 56 57 59

LIST OF FIGURES

11-23. Plan of the four stages of the Sardis synagogue (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis) ................................................................ 11-24. Sardis synagogue plan (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis) ................................................................................................................ 11-25. Sardis synagogue reconstruction (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis) ........................................................................................... 11-26. City plan of Stobi (after Wiseman & Mano-Zissi 1972:fig. 1) .................... 11-27. Stobi, the Central Basilica church and remains of the synagogue. ......... 11-28. Stobi synagogue remains (after Moe 1977:155) .......................................... 11-29. Ostia aedicula (after Fine 1996:fig.2.17). ..................................................... 11-30. Sardis aediculae. .............................................................................................. 11-31. Dura, Torah niche (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 15) ......................................... 11-32. Priene chancel screen I. ................................................................................. 11-33. Priene chancel screen 11 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 882). ............. 11-34. Sardis screen. ................................................................................................... 11-35. The Chair of Moses at Delos (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 876) ...... 11-36. Sardis, marble table and lions location at the western end of the synagogue (after Mitten 1965:fig. 3) ................................................................... 11-37. Bamah at Aleppo (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 885) .......................... 11-38. Capital from Corinth. ..................................................................................... 11-39. Architectural fragment from Pergamon. ...................................................... 11-40. Tarragona basin (after Beinart 1973:23). .......................................... ...........

XIII

60 61 61 64 65 66 69 70 73 77 78 79 80 82 85 86 87 88

Chapter III 111-1. Dura, Early Building, Assembly hall: a. Walls; b. Ceiling(after

Sukenik 1947:figs. 11, 12) ..................................................................................... III-2. Dura, early building, ceiling Room 7 (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 8) ......... 111-3. Torah shrine and central area decoration: Later building, first stage (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) ........................ 111-4. Central area, above Torah shrine. Later building, first stage (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive). ...................................... III-5. Isometrie plan, later building, second stage (after du Mesnil 1939: fig. 6) ..................................................................................................................... 111-6. Diagram of Dura paintings, later building, se co nd stage. ........................ III-7. West wall diagram (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, DuraEuropos Archive). ................................................................................................ 111-8. West wall, center panel, later building, second stage, early phase: a. suggestion 1; b. suggestion 2 (both courtesy Yale University Art Gallery,

97 98 99 102 103 105 106

XIV

LIST OF FIGURES

Dura-Europos Archive) ........................................................................................ 111-9. Central area, later building, second stage, later phase (after du Mesnil 1939:PI. 23). ............................................................................................ 111-10. Central area, lower part of lower panel (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) ...................................................................... 111-11. Wing panel 11, register A (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive). ....................................................................................... III-12. WB2 (after Renov 1970:fig. 1) .................................................................... III-13 WB3 (after Meyers 1981:36).. ...................................................................... III-14. WC1 (after du Mesnil 1939:PI. L). ............................................................ III-15. NB1 (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 43). .............................................................. III-16. NB2 (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 53). .......................................................... III-17. NC1 (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 43) ............................................................... III-18. NC1, section C3 (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, DuraEuropos Archive). ................................................................................................ III-19. EC1 (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive). ..... III-20. EC2 (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) ...... III-21. SB1 (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 49). ............................................................... III-22. SC1 (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) ....... III-23. SC2 (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 80). ........................................................... III-24. Diagram of Dado (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, DuraEuropos Archive). ................................................................................................ 111-25. Men - Greek wear. ....................................................................................... 111-26. Men - lranian wear. ..................................................................................... 111-27. Aharon in a decorated cloak (after du Mesnil 1939:PI. 28, 1; also, courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) ........................ 111-28. Soldiers' uniforms. ....................................................................................... III-29. Women's costumes: a. WC4 (after Yadin 1963:fig. 77); b. WC1 (after du Mesnil 1939:PI. L); c. WC2 (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive); d. NC1 (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 43) ......... III-30. Reclining figures: a. NA1 (after Sukenik 1947); b. EC1 (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive). ...................................... III-31. Hands of God: a. NC1; b. WA3; c. WC1; d. Wing Panel I; e. Sacrifice of Isaac. ............................................................................................. III-32. Audience scenes: a. WC2; b. WC4; c. Reredos, lower panel; d. Reredos, upper panel. ...................................... ,.......................... '" .... ,. ... .... ... III-33. Sacrifice scenes. a. SC3; b. SC4 (after Sukenik 1947:figs. 50, 51) ......... III-34. Battle scenes. a. NBl (after du Mesnil 1939:PI. 32); b. Dura

107 108 110 112 117 118 120 123 124 125 125 128 129 130 131 132 134 137 138 139 140

141 142 144 147 149

LIST OF FIGURES

house (after Colledge 1977:fig. 44; Rostovzeff 1932a:figs. 2-3) ..................... III-35. Riders: a. Mordecai, WC2; b. Riders in ECI (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive). ............................................... III-36. Riders on graffito from the Dura temple of Azzanathkona (after Goldman & Little 1980:fig. 4). .......................................................................... III-37. Ark bearers a. NBI (after du Mesnil 1939:Pl. 33); b. SBI (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 49). .......................................................................................... III-38. Dura, Sanctuaries: a. WB3; b. WB2; c. WB4; d. WBI. ............................ III-39. Sanctuaries: a. on Capernaum synagogue relief; b. on mosaic floor of Samaritan synagogue at el-Hirbeh. ............................................................... III-40. a. candelabra (after du Mesnil 1939:PI. 27, fig. 57); b. thymiateria ..... III-4I. Altars, Types 1 and 2: a. Sacrifice of Isaac; b. WB2 (both courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive); c. WB4 (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 58) ............................................................................................. III-42. Altars, Type 3: a. SC3; b. SC4; c. NCI. ..................................................... III-43. City walls and gates: a. WB2; b. WA3; c. SC2. ......................................... III-44. Tents in a. WBl (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, DuraEuropos Archive); b. NCI (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 71); c. sacrifice scene. ................................................................................................. III-45. Thrones. Type 1: a. WC2; b. WA2; Type 2: c. upper reredos; d. WC4; e. WC2. .................................................................................................. III-46. a. Table in WB4; b. couch, lower reredos; c. couch, WCl (b & c after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 59, PI. L). .................................................................. III-47. Utensils: a. WC4; b. SC4, SC2, SCl; c. WB4 (after du Mesnil 1939:figs. 92, 57, 113). ........................................................................................ III-48. Chest (a: after du Mesnil 1939:figs. 93, 2; b: courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) ................................................ III-49. Cart (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 62) ............................................................ III-50. a. Incense shovel; b. Lyre (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive). ............. .......... ... .......... ................... ................. Chapter IV IV-I. Aegina mosaic: a. mosaic; b. detail (after Mazur 1935:PI. V) .................. IV-2. Apamea floor (after Sukenik 1942:fig. 1 with additions) ......................... IV-3. Bova Marina mosaic (Courtesy of Soprintendenza Archeologica di Calabria). .............................................................................................................. IV-4. Elche mosaic (after Schlunk & Hanschild 1983:fig. 86) ........................... IV-5. Hammam-Lif mosaic floor, room C (after Biebel 1936:figs. 23, 24). ......

XV

151 152 153 154 156 158 160

161 162 164

165 167 169 171 172 172 173

199 201 204 206 208

XVI

LIST OF FIGURES

IV-6. Misis mosaics (after Budde 1969:37) ........................................................... IV-7. Philippopolis, main hall, upper panel (after Kesjakova 1989:fig. 4) ....... IV-8. Philippopolis, central earpet of upper panel (after Kesjakova 1989: fig. 6) ..................................................................................................................... IV-9. Sardis forecourt (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis) ................................................................................................................... IV-10. Sardis synagogue, loeation of mosaics in main hall (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). ...................................................... IV-lI. Sardis mosaic, bay 1 (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-12. Sardis mosaic, bay 2 (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-13. Sardis mosaic, bay 3 (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-14. Sardis mosaic, bay 4 (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-15. Sardis mosaic, bay 5 (Courtesy of the Archaeologieal Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-16. Sardis mosaic, bay 6 (Courtesy of the Arehaeologieal Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-17. Sardis mosaic, bay 7 (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). .................................................................................................................. IV-18. Sardis apse mosaic (after Goodenough 1965, XII:195, fig. 5) ............... IV-19. Stobi mosaic (after Moe 1977:155) ............................................................ Chapter V V-I. Sacrifice of Isaac, Dura wall painting (after Sukenik 1947:fig. 18) .......... V-2. Sacrifice of Isaac on Beth Alpha mosaic pavement (after Sukenik 1947: fig. 19) ................................................................................................................... V-3. Sacrifice of Isaac on eatacomb paintings and sareophagus (after Ehrenstein 1923: Kapitel IX, figs.4,5,6,8,1l) .................................................... V-4. Sacrifice of Isaac on gold glasses and lamp (after Ehrenstein 1923: Kapitel IX, figs. 13-15,18) ................................................................................... V-5. Sacrifice of Isaae on wall painting from EI Bagawat (Goodenough 1964, XI: fig.71) ................................................................................................... V-6. Sacrifice of Isaac on the glass from Bologna (after Milburn 1988:fig. 177) ........................................................................................................................

210 217 218 219 220 222 223 224 226 227 228 229 231 232

240 241 244 245 246 246

LIST OF FIGURES

V-7. David-Orpheus, Dura wall painting (a: FIesher 1995b: fig. 21; b: courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive; c: Sukenik 1947:fig. 22; d: du Mesnil 1939: PI. 23)) ...................................... V-8. Noah's Ark on the Misis-Mopsuhestia nave mosaic. ................................... V-9. Noah's Ark on Misis later pavement. ............................................................ V-10. Noah's Ark on catacomb wall paintings and sarcophagus and Gold glass (after Ehrenstein 1923:Kapitel IV,figs 5-8,10). ........................................ V-lI. Noah on the Apamea coins (after Goodenough 1953, III:700; Kotzsche-Breitenbruch 1976:figs. 4, 3). ............................................................. V-12. The Samson cyde (after Kitzinger 1973:fig. B) ......................................... Chapter VI VI-I. Leontopolis loculi tomb. ............................................................................... VI-2. Loculi tombs at Gammarath Hill (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 866) ........................................................................................................................ VI-3. Plan of the catacombs of Rome. ...................................... ...... ...................... VI-4. Villa Torlonia catacombs (after Fasola 1976:PI. 1). ................................... VI-5. Vigna Randanini catacomb (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 735) ......... VI-6. Monteverde catacomb (after Konikoff 1986:28). ....................................... VI-7. Venosa catacombs (after Noy 1993:PI. II) ................................................... VI-8. Malta, ]ewish hypogea, nos. 17, 13 (after Buhagiar 1986:figs. 24a-c) ..... VI-9. Vigna Randanini, ceiling painting of Room I (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 737). ................................................................................................ VI-10. Vigna Randanini, ceiling painting of Room II (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 738). ................................................................................................ VI-ll. Villa Torlonia ceiling cubiculum 11 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 806). ....................................................................................................................... VI-12. Wall painting on a Venosa arcosolium. .................................................... VI-13. Menoroth painted and incised on Malta hypogea walls: a-d: incised menoroth; 5: menorah, ship and inscription on a Malta hypoge um (after Buhagiar 1986:figs. 5, 33b, c, 35, 38). ........................................ VI-14. Sarcophagus no. 1 from Randanini, a: front; b: side .............................. VI-15. Sarcophagus no. 4 from Villa Torlonia. .................................................... VI-16. Sarcophagus no. 5 Monteverde (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 733) .............................................................................................................. VI-17. Cilicia. b. ]ewish lead coffin (after Ussishkin 1975:133); b. Menorah on a lead coffin. .................................................................................................. VI-18. Gold glass No. 1. ..........................................................................................

XVII

248 250 252 253 255 258

264 265 267 269 270 271 272 274 277 278 279 283

284 286 288 288 292 293

LIST OF FIGURES

XVIII

VI-19. VI-20. VI-2I. VI-22. VI-23. VI-24. VI-25. VI-26. VI-27. VI-28. VI-29.

Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold Gold

glass glass glass glass glass glass glass gl ass glass glass glass

No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No.

2 (after Sukenik 1932:fig. 22) .......................................... 3 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 964) ......................... 4 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 966). ........................ 5 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 967) ......................... 6 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 971) ......................... 7 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 968). ........................ 8 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 978) ......................... 9 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 969) ......................... 10 (after Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 972) ....................... 11. ........................................................................................ 12. ........................................................................................

Chapter VII VII-I. Scene on the Arch of Titus (Codex Ursianus 1570-80 (after Pfanner 1983:PI ) ................................................................................................................ VII-2. The menorah as depicted on the Arch of Titus. ..................................... VII-3. a. reconstruction of the menorah; b. the Jerculum as depicted; c. a scheme of the Jerculum (after Pfanner 1983:fig. 39). ............. VII-4. Menorah at Dura on the arch of the Torah shrine niche. .................... VII-5. Menoroth at Dura on panels WB2 and WBI. .......................................... VII-6. Menoroth at a: Apamea; b: Hammam-Lif; c: Philippopolis. ................... VII-7. Menoroth from a. Ostia; b. Stobi; c-d. Priene; e. Pergamon; f-g. Sardis; h. Nicaea; i. Bithynion, j. Athens. .................................................. VII-8. Socrates menorah at Sardis (Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis). ........................................................................................ VII-9: Forms of menoroth. ...................................................................................... VII-I0. Chart of synagogue menorah forms. ........................................................ VII-lI. Chart of synagogue menorah forms. .. ...... .............. ........ ............. ............. VII-12: Chart of synagogue menorah forms. ........................................................ VII-13. Chart of menorah forms from the Monteverde catacomb ................... VII-14. Chart of menorah forms from the Monteverde catacomb ................... VII-15. Chart of menorah forms from the Monteverde catacomb ................... VII-16. Chart of menorah forms from Torlonia. ................................................. VII-17. Chart of menorah forms from Torlonia and Cilicia .............................. VII-18. Chart of menorah forms from Randanini. .............................................. VII-19. Chart of menorah forms from the tombs at Venosa, Porto ................. VII-20: Menoroth on sarcophagi... ... ... ... .............. ...... .............. ... ........ .............. ..... VII-21: Chart of menoroth on sarcophagi. ...........................................................

294 294 296 296 297 298 299 299 299 300 300

313 314 315 317 317 318 319 321 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 335

LIST OF FIGURES

VII-22. Chart of menorah form on gold glasses. ................................................. VII-23. Chart of menorah form on gold glasses. ................................................. VII-24. Chart of menorah form on gold glasses. ...... .......................... ... ... ........... VII-25. Menoroth on day lamps. ......... ... .... .......... ... ... ....... ...... ................... ........... VII-26. Pairs of menoroth from Monteverde. ...................................................... VII-27: Pairs of menoroth flanking Arks: a-c. Monteverde; d. Torlonia. .......... VII-28. Pairs of menoroth on gold glasses. .... ... ....... ... ............. ... ............. ............. VII-29. Shewbread table: 1: Arch of Titus(after Pfanner 1983:fig. 34); 2: Dura panel WB1 (after du Mesnil 1939:pl.XXVII) ...................................... VII-30. Ritual objects flan king the menorah. a. Venosa (4 objects); b. Ostia (3 objects); c. Sardis; d. Dura (2 objects ............................................. VII-3I. Ritual objects on synagogue mosaics and reliefs. ................................... VII-32. Ritual objects on synagogue reliefs. ......................................................... VII-33. Ritual objects in Monteverde catacomb. .................................................. VII-34. Ritual objects in Monteverde catacomb. .................................................. VII-35. Ritual objects in Monteverde catacomb. .................................................. VII-36. Ritual objects in Torlonia catacomb. ....................................................... VII-37. Ritual objects in Randanini catacomb. .................................................... VII-38. Ritual objects in various tombs at Venosa, Porto and Carthage. ......... VII-39. Ritual objects on gold glasses. ................................................................... VII-40. Ritual objects on gold glasses. ................................................................... VII-4I. Dura Europos; b. Bar-Kokhba coin; c. Representation of Herod's Temple facade. (after Avi-Yonah 1956:figs.4-6) .................................. VII-42. sanctuary on gold glass no. 8. .................................................................. VII-43: a.Torah shrine on Malaga funerary plaque; b: Torah shrine on clay lamps. ............................................................................................................ VII-44. Arks in synagogue: a.Sardis stone slab; b. a lamp from Ostia ................ VII-45. Arks depicted on Monteverde tombstones. ............................................. VII-46. Ark depictions on Via Torlonia tombstones and wall paintings. ......... VII-47. Arks on gold glasses nos. 1-5, 7. ................................................................ VII-48. Schematic arks. .... ................ ... ... .............. ... ... ................ ....................... ....... VII-49. a. Schematic Torah shrine and ark; b. ark on jericho mosaic; c. ark on Beth Alpha mosaic; d. open door ark on gold glass no. 5. ......... VII-50. Ark of the Covenant on Dura panels: a. WB2; b. WB4; c. NB1; d. Wing Panel III.(after du Mesnil 1939:pl.XXVI, and Wischnitzer 1948:fig.48) ........................................................................................................... VII-5I. Graffiti of the Ark of the Covenant: two from Dura, and inscribedon tombstone from Randanini. ..........................................................

XIX

336 337 338 338 340 341 342 345 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 356 357 358 358 361 362 364 365 365 366 367 368 368

371 371

xx

LIST OF FIGURES

VII-52. Type 1 lamps: a. Rome; b. Alexandria; c. Ostia; d. Hammam-Lif; e. Syracuse (b-e, after Goodenough 1953, III: figs. 927, 955, 949, 932) ...... 375 VII-53. Type 2 lamps a. Ostia; b. Milet(after Mentzel 1969:fig.72,3) ................ 376 VII-54. Lamps with menoroth and Ark of serolls. ............................................... 377 Chapter VIII VIII-I. Dura, a. Lion on reredos; b. dipinto with Hon. ...................................... VIII-2. Capital with lion from Sardis. .................................................................... VIII-3. a-b. Bullocks at Dura, WB2, WB4; c. Head of bull from tombstone. ... VIII-4. a-b. Dura, ram in sacrifice of Isaac and on panel WB2; c. on catacomb relief. ......................................................................................... VIII-5. Dura, horses graffiti. .................................................................................... VIII-6. Birds on tombstones. ................................................................................... VIII-7. Peacocks on Tarragona basin. ................................................................... VIII-8. Dura, central, double door on panel WB3. ............................................. VIII-9. Dura masks (courtesy Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive) .. ......................................................................... ...................................... VIII-10. Bird cages in the Misis mosaic floor. ...................................................... VIII-lI. Candlesticks in the Misis mosaics. ...................................................... ..... Chapter IX IX-I. Apamea inscription no. 1. (after Sukenik 1949:fig.4) ................................ IX-2. Dura Greek inscriptions nos. 29-31 on panels WB2, WA2 (after du Mesnil 1939:fig. 38) ....................................................................................... IX-3: Dura Aramaic inscriptions nos. 3-5 on panel WA3.(after Torrey 1979:figs. 79-81) .......................................... ........................................................... IX-4: Dura Aramaic inscriptions nos. 6-11. (after Torrey 1979:figs.82-87) ....... IX-5 Dura Aramaic inseription no. 2. (after Torrey 1979:fig.78) ...................... IX-6. Elche inscription no. 3. (Courtesy Museo Sefardi, Toledo, Spain) ........ IX-7. Inscription on the Tarragona basin (after Beinart 1973:23) ...................

383 383 385 386 387 389 389 392 393 394 395

402 403 404 405 407 408 414

LIST OF PLATES 11-1 Sardis synagogue main hall, looking east, towards the two shrines and entrance. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. 11-2 Sardis synagogue main hall, north shrine and south walldecoration restored. The marble decoration is hypothetical, placed in a frame of original pilasters Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 11-3 Sardis synagogue limes tone incised screen. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 11-4 Sardis table Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, Photograph by Alison Frantz. 11-5a-b. Sardis table relief, a. side A. b. side B. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 11-6 Sardis pair of lions A+B. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 11-7 Sardis pair of lions C+D. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 11-9 Ostia synagogue aedicula. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia 11-10 Ostia synagogue decorated architraves. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia 111-2 Dura Europos synagogue second stage decorated ceiling. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-4 Dura Europos synagogue decorated niche and reredoes. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-5 Dura Europos synagogue decorated reredos: a.upper panel; b. lower panel. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-7 Dura Europos synagogue panel WAl. Gute's copy. Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-8 Dura Europos synagogue panel WA2. Solomon court. Gute's copy. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-9 Dura Europos synagogue panel WA3. Exodus. Gute's copy. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-10 Dura Europos synagogue panel WBl. Moses and the twelve tribes at the Wilderness encampment. Gute's copy. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive

XXII

LIST OF PLATES

111-15 Dura Europos synagogue panel WC3. Samuel anoints David. Gute's copy. Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive 111-17 a. Dura Europos synagogue North Wall. b. plan Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-21 a. Dura Europos synagogue East Wall. b. plan Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-22 a. Dura Europos synagogue South Wall. b. plan Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. IV-I Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel I. Copyright A.c.L. Brussel 1V-2 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel 11. Copyright A.C.L. Brussel 1V-3 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel III, X. Copyright A.C.L. Brussel 1V-4 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel IV. Copyright A.C.L. Brussel 1V-5 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel IV, Inscription 1. Copyright A.c.L. Brussel 1V-6 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel IV, Inscription 2. Copyright A.c.L. Brussel 1V-7 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel V. Copyright A.c.L. Brussel 1V-8 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel V, with Inscription 5. Copyright A.c.L. BrusseI 1V-9 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel V, with Inscription 4. Copyright A.C.L. Brussel IV-I0 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel VI. Copyright A.C.L. Brussel IV-lI Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel VI, Inscription 6. Copyright A.c.L. Brussel 1V-12 Apamea, Mosaic pavement, panel I. Copyright A.C.L. Brussel IV-I3 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Central panel, Menoroth flanking the inscription. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department IV-I4 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Left panel, rooster. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department IV-I5 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Left panel, basket with fruit. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department 1V-16 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Left panel, basket with fruit. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department 1V-17 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Left panel, Bird. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department 1V-18 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Left panel, Bird. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department 1V-19 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Right panel, Lion. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department 1V-20 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Central panel, upper part. Dolphin.

LIST OF PLATES

XXIII

Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department IV-2I Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Central panel, upper part. Head of fish Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department IV-22 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Central panel upper part. Duck. Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department IV-23 Hammam Lif, Mosaic pavement, Central panel Lower part. Palm Tree Copyright The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department IV-24 Ostia, Mosaic pavement, Room F. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia Vl-I Villa Torlonia. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-2 Vigna Randanini, Room I, ceiling. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VI-3 Vigna Randanini, Room I, walls. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-4 Vigna Randanini, Room I, walls. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-5 Vigna Randanini, Room I, walls. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-6 Vigna Randanini, Room 11, ceiling. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-9 Villa Torlonia. Cubiculum 11, ceiling center, Menorah. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican City VI-lI Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium 11. part of an Ark. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-I2 Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium 11. part of an Ark. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VI-I3 Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium 11. Menorah. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VI-I4 Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium 111. Menorah, Lulav and Ethrog. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VI-I6 Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium IV. Bull. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-I7 Sarcophagos no. 2, Vigna Randanini. Now at Musei National della Terme. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VI-I8 Sarcophagos no. 3, Vigna Randanini. Now at Musei National della Terme Villa Torlonia. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican

XXIV

LIST OF PLATES

VI-19 Sarcophagos no. 22, Villa Torlonia. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VI-20 Gold glass no. 4. Courtesy Israel Museum, Jerusalem VI-21 Gold glass no. 5. Courtesy Israel Museum, Jerusalem VI-22 Vigna Randanini, Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican. VI-23 Monteverde, Tombstone. Courtesy of Musei Vaticani, Vatican City VI-24 Monteverde. Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican City. VI-25 Villa Torlonia. Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican City VI-26 Villa Torlonia. Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican City Vl-27 Villa Torlonia. Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican City VI-28 Monteverde, Tombstone. Courtesy of Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Vl-29 Monteverde, Tombstone. Courtesy of Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Vl-30 Mon teverde , Tombstone. Courtesy of Musei Vaticani, Vatican City VI-31 Monteverde, Tombstone. Courtesy of Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Vl-32 Porto (?) Tombstone. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Vl-33 Vigna Randanini, Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican. VI-34 Vigna Randanini, Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-35 Vigna Randanini, Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican. Vl-36 Vigna Randanini, Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-37 Vigna Randanini, Decorated Tombstone. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican. Vl-38 Villa Torlonia. Cooking Pots. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican Vl-39 Villa Torlonia. Lamps. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VlI-l Arch of Titus. Rome. Relief with the Menorah and Shewbread Table taken as spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem. VII-2 Bova Marina. Mosaic floor with menorah and ritual objects. Courtesy of of

LIST OF PLATES

xxv

Soprintendenza Archeologica di Calabria VII-3 Ostia. Architrave relief with menorah and ritual objects. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia VII-4 Sardis. Socrates Menorah, a. front. b. reverse. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis VII-5 Sardis. Stone fragment with Menorah. No. IN63.43. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. VII-6 Villa Torlonia. Incised Menorah. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican VII-7a-f. Clay Lamps: a. Courtesy Israel Museum; b,c. Courtesy Ashmolean Museum Oxford; d. Courtesy Israel Museum; e. Courtesy Israel Museum; f. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican City. VII-8 Ostia lamps. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia IX-I Ostia inscription. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia

LIST OF COLORED PLATES

11-8 Ostia synagogue aedicula with colonnettes and architraves ending in corbels. Courtesy of Archivio Fotografico della Soprintendenza Archeologica di Ostia. 111-1 Dura Europos synagogue decorated niche. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-3 Dura Europos synagogue West wall. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-6 Dura Europos synagogue, West wall, Wing Panels I-IV. Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-11 Dura Europos synagogue panel WB2. Aharon and the Tabernade. Courtesy of Yale U niversity Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-12 Dura Europos synagogue panel WB3.Jerusalem and the Temple. Courtesy of Yale Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. III-13 Dura Europos synagogue panel WB4. The Ark in the Land of the Philistines. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-14 a,b, Dura Europos synagogue panel WC2. The Purim mirade. Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 11I-16a,b. Dura Europos synagogue panel WC4. The Infancy of Moses. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-18 Dura Europos synagogue panel NC1, Section A. Cyde ofEzekiel. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-19 Dura Europos synagogue panel NCl. Cyde of Ezekiel. Section B, Scenes 1-2. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-20 Dura Europos synagogue panel NC1. Cyde of Ezekiel. Section B, Scenes 3-4. Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-23 Dura Europos synagogue panel SC3. Elijah cyde. Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. 111-24 Dura Europos synagogue panel SC4. Elijah cyde. Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive. VI-7 Vigna Randanini, Room 111, Palm tree. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican.

XXVIII

LIST OF COLORED PLATES

VI-8 Vigna Randanini, Room IV, Menorah. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican. VI-IO Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium I. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican. VI-15 Villa Torlonia. Arcosolium IV. Ark of the Scrolls flanked by Menoroth and ritual object. Courtesy Pontificie Comm. di Archeologia Sacra, Vatican.

FOREWORD This is the second, complementary volume to my previous book Ancient jewish Art & Archaeology in the Land of Israel. Although it is true that too many years separate the two volumes, this study has benefited and is more comprehensive than it would otherwise have been. Also, in recent years there has been a renewal of interest in the subject of the Jews of Late Antiquity and I have been able to inelude the upto-date results of many excavations and research. My first volume set out to demonstrate the existence of an ancient Jewish art in the Land of Israel. This volume will present the evidence for ancientJewish art of the diaspora, and will show how the Jews of Late Antiquity, both in the Land of Israel and in the diaspora, were usually in accord as to their self-identity and their relations hip with their non:Jewish neighbors. I have organized the available material in the same manner as in the first volume. That is, I present the major components of ancientJewish art and archaeology and bring together examples according to specific topics. Among the topics discussed are synagogue architecture, Jewish symbols and funerary practices. The only exception to this organization is the chapter discussing the Dura-Europos synagogue wall paintings: the uniqueness and importance of the paintings justify, I think, a elose inspection and analysis of what makes these paintings so particular. Rachel Hachlili University of Haifa April 1996

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I should like to express my gratitude to the following people who have helped me in the preparation of this book: A deep appreciation to ]oan Michaeli, my editor, for her painstaking and diligent work. The drawings are by Orit Zuf; several drawings were prepared by my daughter, Sigal Hachlili, and a few by the author. The manuscript was typed by Angela Greenson, Research Authority, University of Haifa. My thanks to M. Rosovsky for his preliminary editing. Very warm thanks to my friends and colleagues Rivka Merhav and Stephanie Rachum for reading the manuscript and for their helpful comments. I am grateful to my colleagues and friends who provided me with material for the book: to S. Palomero, Museo Sefardi, Toledo, Spain for data and photographs on Elche synagogue, the Tarragona basin and the Malaga relief. To Nicolü Bucaria of the European Community, for material on Sicily. All material on Bova Marina was provided by L. Costamagna, the exacavator of the site. Acknowledgements are also due to the Archaeological Sacred Commission of the Vatican for permission to visit and research the ]ewish catacombs of Rome and the finds stored in the Musei Vaticani, Sala ]udaica; and to the Archivio Fotografico, Monumenti Musei e Gallerie Pontificie, citta deI Vaticano for the photographs provided. The photographs from Apamea are courtesy of the Ministere de l'Education Nationale, Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique, Bruxelles. The photographs from Dura-Europos are courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, Dura Europos Archive. The photographs from Hammam-Lif are courtesy of The Brooklyn Museum, Egyptian Department. The photos of Ostia from the Ostia Antica were secured with the help of Prof. Floriani Squarciapino, the excavator. The photographs from Sardis are courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

XXXI

The photographs of lamps (Plate VII-4e) are courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Finally, many thanks to my husband Gad, my daughter Sigal and my sons Guyand Niv who have always helped and encouraged me in my endeavors.

INTRODUCTION The Jewish art of Late Antiquity is an art created specifically for the Jewish communities. Although, as will be seen in the following pages, theJews borrowed ideas and motifs from their surroundings, they took care to give their art a Jewish viewpoint, by the addition of Jewish symbols. The data gathered in this book includes most of the published archaeological and epigraphic material, mainly from excavated diaspora synagogues, but also from Jewish tombs and graves. Architecture and decoration are discussed, as well as the finds. By comparison to the amount of data available from excavations in the Land of Israel, the material from diaspora sites is meagre and, unfortunately, limited to a restricted number of sites. Enough evidence exists, however, to draw a picture of the art and architecture of the Jewish diaspora during Late Antiquity. By the term Late Antiquity is meant the period from the end of the Second Temple to the end of the Byzantine period (from the second century BCE to the sixth to seventh centuries CE). The conclusions reached in this book are based on an analysis of excavation reports and the research work of many scholars. Occasionally, because of a lack of any material for an important site, I visited the location myself and prepared my own summary. A case in point is the Jewish catacombs in Rome. Another important source for Jewish life in the diaspora lies in the inscriptions found at many sites. Recently, new material has been published and is discussed here if it pertains to sites identified as being Jewish. Several significant questions are raised in these pages: whether the Jewishness of the material can be identified; whether Jewish art is homogeneous throughout the diaspora, and if not, what are the differences; whether the relations betweenJewish community and their neighbors in each area were similar; and whether there was an interaction between the Jews and non:Jews in the diaspora. Chapter I describes the origins of the synagogue, and compares the synagogue to the Jerusalem Temple; and considers the administration and activities of the synagogue within the Jewish community. Chapter 11 discusses the architectural and decorative features and archaeological finds of the diaspora synagogues, in alphabetic order; and describes the characteristic featuresof the synagogue, such as the Torah shrine and the women's gallery; also, important issues, such as location, plan and design and the conversion of synagogues into churches are discussed here.

INTRODUCTION

XXXIII

Chapters III and IV examine synagogue art: chapter III is devoted to the DuraEuropos synagogue, its architecture and its notable wall paintings; attention is paid to the iconography of the biblical, narrative, painted panels; compositions and styles are analyzed and the meaning and interpretations are discussed; sources and origins are also commented upon. Chapter IV describes the mosaic pavements decorating the synagogues in the diaspora and compares the pavements to contemporary mosaic pavements at the same sites. Chapter V deals with the specific biblical themes that appear in Jewish art, induding the Sacrifice of Isaac, the DavidOrpheus theme, Noah and the Ark and the Samson cyde. This chapter does not deal with the biblical scenes in the Dura synagogue, which are discussed in Chapter 111. Chapter VI explains funerary and burial practices and describes the architecture and decoration of loculi tombs in Egypt and Carthage and the catacombs in Rome, Venosa and Malta; Funerary finds, such as sarcophagi, gold glasses, tombstones and lamps, are described and analyzed. Chapter VII examines the distinctive Jewish symbols such as the menorah, the shewbread table, the ritual objects, the Temple, the ark and the conch. Chapter VIII shows how motifs appear in Jewish art and discusses their transition from non:Jewish designs. Chapter IX indudes inscriptions found atJewish sites, synagogues and tombs. Chapter X discusses several distinguishing features of Jewish art. Chapter XI compares the Jewish art and architecture of the synagogues and burials to that of the non:Jewish art; and shows how Jewish art is related to that of the Christians and pagans. Chapter XII focusses on the artists and workshops who created the art and describes how pattern books were used, apparently the source of most of the synagogue and funerary art. Chapter XIII places the material discussed in the book within a chronological framework. Chapter XIV summarizes the evidence presented in this volume and draws conclusions about Jewish art and archaeology in the diaspora during Late Antiquity.

EXPLANATORY NOTE:

Chronological terms used for dating are "BCE" (Before the Common Era = B.C.) and "CE" (Common Era = A.D.). As most dating mentions centuries of the Common Era, I have dispensed with labelling them as such each time; only centuries Before the Common Era have BCE added to the century.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND "His tory is something that never happened, written by someone who was never there." (Source unknown.) A

THE JEWISH DIASPORA

The term "diaspora" in these pages is that used by modern scholars to describe the Jewish dispersion outside the Land of Israel (see discussions by Rajak 1992: 10-11, 1718; Cohen & Frerichs 1993; Price 1994:170-174, 179). Ancient Christian authors were the first to use the Creek word diaspora which appeared in the Creek bible as a "term for the dispersion of the Jews, with obvious theological tendencies." The word diaspora is not used by ancient Jewish authors. The dispersion of the Jews during the Craeco-Roman period was not caused by exile but was a voluntary migration and we know, from the writings of Josephus and Philo, that by the first century a large Jewish diaspora existed in many cities in the Roman empire. Evidence for "diasporaJudaism" is attested only by archaeological and epigraphic remains, as no body of diaspora literature has survived that can point to a specific Jewish diaspora culture. These remains, however, reveallittle about religious beliefs, rabbinical influences and the conduct of religious life. What can be deduced is that certain practices were shared by all Jews of the ancient world and were central to their identity while living among non:Jews. These practices included the reading of the Torah in the synagogue, communal services, the observance of the Sabbath and the festivals of Passover and Tabernades, circumcision, the special dietary laws and several ritual laws. Jewish communities were grouped around institutions termed synagogue and proseuche. The synagogue was a central institution in the life of the Jewish community and it served both religious and social functions. The J ews of the diaspora did not all have the same standard of living, or the same status in society. In Rome, for example, the Jews were an underdass, whereas in Sardis and other cities of Asia Minor, the Jews were involved in the life of the city and enjoyed a high standing. In Egypt, the situation of the Jews changed from time to time. Differences also existed between the Jewish communities in other aspects of life and worship. Jewish communities celebrated local festivals; they used different translations of the Bible; they did not all follow biblical injunctions with

2

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

the same strictness of observance; and the internal organization of the Jewish communities followed the local civic structure and was different in each community. Regional variations are also noticeable in the manner symbols are used in the synagogues and the fact that different biblical quotations and festivals appear in inscriptions, which also reveal differences in religious expression and devotion to the law, and the belief in the afterlife. However, it is difficult to determine if these differences show variations in the attitude towards the religion, or whether they in fact reflect each artist's religious knowledge. Price (1994:174-179) raises several pertinent questions as to whether the term diaspora should be applied indiscriminately to describe Jews living in areas as far apart as Rome, Greece, Babyion and Spain; what, according to ancient Jewish authors, were the borders of the land from which Israel was dispersed; who exactly was a "diaspora" Jew; and whether a diaspora culture existed amongJews who show no religious, social or political uniformity. 'Jews in antiquity were known for exclusive and separatist habits ... But in reality borders between peoples, even Jews and Gentiles, were blurred, categories were indistincL." Price is correct in concluding that "all generalities about 'diaspora Judaism' should be banned until each Jewish community is understood in its immediate context - and until proper tools are available."

B

Historical survey

In the Roman Empire, the Jews were regarded as an ethnos. Their legal and constitutional position was not fixed and was dependent on local inclinations. Theodosius I (the Great, died 395) protected the Jewish population against attacks by the Christian clergy. "His Edict forbade interference in Jewish internal affairs." Under his rule the Jewish communities flourished and synagogues were built. Millar (1992:110-121) argues that historical evidence for theJewish communities in the diaspora comes from contemporary Christian writing (see also Lieu 1992). The hostile attitude of the Christian clergy resulted in synagogues being converted into churches in Antioch on the Orontes and other sites, as well as the expulsion of Jews from Alexandria. In the reigns of Arcadius (395-408 CE) and Theodosius 11 (408-450 CE) the Jews lost many of their privileges. The Codex of Theodosius (438) deprived the Jews of many of their civil rights and banned them from holding office in the army or the government. The repressive legislation of the Christian emperors towards the Jews during the fourth century reveals detailed information aboutJewish life. One law,

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

3

passed by Theodosius 11 in 423, decrees that synagogues should be destroyed or seized and that the building of new synagogues is banned. However, Judaism was not considered illegal and synagogues were protected by law. By the fifth to sixth centuries, there were Jewish communities throughout the Roman world, but their legal status had considerably deteriorated. Millar (1992:120) maintains that "the evidence suggests that the period of unresolved tensions between Pagan and Christians may have been a relatively favorable and prosperous one for the settled Jewish communities of the GraecoRoman diaspora." The following short historical survey of diaspora sites mainly discusses those sites mentioned in detail in the book, and is based on the detailed survey in M. Stern (1974:117-183; 1983) and Schüreretal. (1986:3-86). Fororganization ofthe communities, religious life and civic law, see Appelbaum (1974a; 1974b) and Schürer et al. (1986:87149); for the evidence of the Jews in Babyion, see Gafni (1987) and Oppenheimer (1987); for the Jews of Asia Minor, see Trebilco (1991). It is difficult to estimate the numerical strength of Jews in the diaspora; the only known fact is that the Jewish population in the Roman and Parthian empires and Babyion exceeded the number of Jews in the Land of Israel. Jewish centers known from literature, inscriptions and archaeological sources are Egypt, Syria and Phoenicia, Asia Minor, Babyion, Greece, Italy and North Africa. According to Josephus (War VII:43), pilgrims to Jerusalem during the feast of Pentecost in the first century came from Arabia, Asia, Cappadocia, Cyrenaica, Crete, Egypt, Elam, Media, Mesopotamia, Pamphylia, Parthia, Phrygia, Pontus and Rome. And, in fact, the necropolis at Beth She'arim indicates the burial of people from these sites in the diaspora.

Egypt Jewish settlement in Egypt dates back to the sixth century BCE (Jer. 44:1; 46:14). The Elephantine Aramaic papyri of the fifth century BCE document the history of the Jewish community of Elephantine in Upper Egypt during the Persian period. Epigraphic and literary sources report on the diffusion ofJews throughout Egypt in the Hellenistic period after Alexander's conquest. Graeco-Roman Egyptian inscriptions, induding 134 Jewish inscriptions, of which 77 are from the burial ground at Leontopolis (Tell el-Yehudieh), provide information about the Jews in Egypt (Horbury and Noy 1992; see Price, 1994: 181, who suggests that certain inscriptions in this corpus attributed as Jewish are suspect or doubtful).

4

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Hellenistic period was the most consequential period in the lives of the Jews in Egypt. During this time, Graeco-Roman literature developed and the Jews absorbed the local culture, at the same time as they kept their customs and practices and built synagogues. Their political rights and privileges were gran ted under royal patronage; the Jews were considered "Hellenes." Under the Romans, the status of the Jews worsened, conflicts occurring between them and the Greeks and Egyptians. The Jews became Egyptians and lost all privileges which had been granted to Hellenes. After the revolt of 115-117 CE, which was confined to Egypt, Cyrenaica and Cyprus, Jewish property was confiscated and the synagogue in Alexandria was destroyed;Jewish life almost entirely disappeared (Schürer et al. 1986:38-60; MelezeModrzejewski 1991; Horbury and Noy 1992; Price 1994:180-184).

Syria

Josephus records Syria as being the largest of the Jewish settlements in the region, with Antioch as the most prominent city. This fact is also attested by inscriptions that mention the synagogue and its officials. Greek epitaphs at the Beth She'arim necropolis record the names of Jews from the following cities in Syria: Antioch, Beirut, Byblos, Palmyra, Phaene, Sidon and Tyre (Kraeling 1932; Schürer et al. 1986: 13-15).

Apamea

Apamea lies on the ürontes, a river which forms a natural fortress. The town was originally named Pella and was a Macedonian military colony, renamed in the fourth century BCE after Apamea of Bacteria, wife of Seleucus Nicator. Apamea became the military headquarters of the Seleucid kingdom and the administrative center of the whole area, issuing its own coins. It is possible that Jews settled in Apamea in the fourth century BCE. Josephus (War 11:18, 5) mentions that the Jewish community of Apamea was saved by its neighbors at the time of the revolt in Jerusalem against the Romans. Apamea is considered in the Mishna (Hallah 3, XI) as being on the outskirts ofJerusalem (Sukenik 1950-51:541-542). The synagogue of Apamea was built in the fourth century, probably during the last years of the reign of Theodosius I. The good condition of the mosaic pavement suggests that the synagogue at Apamea was not long in use; it was destroyed at the beginning of the fifth century and a church was built above it.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

5

Antioch

The prominentJewish community at Antioch is described by Josephus (Ant. XII:3, 1; 119; War VII:3, 3, 44). Further evidence for the community comes from the Apamea synagogue inscriptions dating to the fourth century (Kraeling 1932; Meeks & Wilken 1978). Dura-Europos

A sm all caravan city on the west bank of the Euphrates river, fortified by city walls. Dura-Europos was founded in 300 BCE and controlled by the Seleucids during the Hellenization of Syria. The Parthians controlled Dura in 113 BCE. The city came under Roman rule, being governed by Verus in 164 CE, and was part of the Roman limes, later becoming a Roman colony. The city was most affluent during the century from 50-165 CE, aperiod of Roman influence. Jews probably lived in Dura from the late Parthian period (the end of the second to the first centuries BCE), according to the Maccabean co ins found there. Later on, a synagogue was constructed in a dwelling house in Block L7. Houses A and B became a synagogue in the period between 165-200 CE. The Jewish community at this period, although not numerous nor wealthy, was prosperous enough to remodel the property into an assembly house with a courtyard. Kraeling (1979:328) describes the early community as being a modest ethnic and religious group, a minority in a pagan society, permitted to live its own life without interference from the civic authorities or the Roman military government. The erection of the later synagogue in 244/5 CE indicates a radical change: the synagogue is enlarged and elaborate paintings adorn the walls; there is a growth in the numbers of the community: the early synagogue accommodated about 60 people whereas the later synagogue holds about 140 (Kraeling 1979:328, n. 36). The inscriptions too indicate the wealth of the community and suggest that Jews had reached positions of influence in the city (also White 1990:77). Furthermore, the entrance in the later synagogue is changed to provide more security and supervision. Unfortunately, the Jewish community did not enjoy its newly built and decorated synagogue for long, as the city was captured by Shapur I, the Sassanian, at the end of 256/7 CE (Kraeling 1979:322-339; Schürer et al. 1986:10-13; MacDonald 1986). Asia Minor

According to Josephus, Jewish communities existed in Asia Minor by the first century BCE (Ant. XIV: 10, 185-267; XVl:6, 160-178). Decrees and privileges were

6

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

gran ted to the jewish community at Sardis, concessions that the lews sustained through later periods. Inscriptions of the Graeco-Roman period referring to the Temple in jerusalem testify to the lews retaining their jewish identity; other inscriptions prove that they observed jewish customs, as weIl as being involved in the life of the city in which they lived (Schürer et al. 1986:18-20; Trebilco 1991:33-36;187-190). Sardis

Sardis in Lydia was ruled by Croesus in the mid sixth century BCE and later came under the rule of Cyrus the Persian. Alexander the Great captured the city in 334 BCE. In 133 BCE the city passed into Roman hands. lews possibly lived at Sardis from the early days of the city. The synagogue at Sardis, the largest in the diaspora and situated in a prominent position in the city, is evidence of an influential and wealthy jewish community and of the friendly and tolerant relations of the city council towards the jews. An existing building was converted by the jewish community, probably in the third century. The architecture and decoration of the synagogue point to a stable, confident jewish community. Remarkably, the synagogue at Sardis was never converted into a church, as was the case with the synagogues of Apamea and Stobi. This fact further strengthens the assumption that the jewish community in Sardis held a prominent position, despite the growing power of Christianity during the fourth and fifth centuries. The fourth century church, EA, in fact, is much smaller and less significant, indicating a less prosperous community (Foss 1976:30-34; Hanfmann 1983:191-204; Kraabel 1983:178-190; 1987; Trebilco 1991:40-54,57).

Priene Priene was a smaIl, Hellenistic city in Ionia, on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The only evidence for ajewish community is a small synagogue discovered during excavations. Miletus

The jewish community in Miletus is known from josephus (Ant. 14:244-246) and from an inscription found in the theater. Remains of a building with a small room have been identified by some scholars as a synagogue (Chapter 11, p. 51; Gerken 1921,1922; Sukenik 1934:42-43; Goodenough 1953,11:78, II1:fig. 880). However, no

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

7

Jewish evidence has been found to prove it (see also Kraabel1979:488-489; Brooten 1982: 125; Trebilco 1991 :56, who suggests the building is a pagan temple). Apamea, Phrygia

Jews may have settled in Apamea during the third century BCE becoming an important part of the community by the first century. Scholars suggest that the city of Apamea adopted a new, second name, kibotos, because of Jewish community influence, based on the saga of Noah and the Ark (kibotos in Greek), which is portrayed on the city's coinage (Schürer et al. 1986:28-29; Trebilco 1991:86-95, 176). The Position 01 the jewish Communities in Asia Minor

Jews were gran ted privileges by the Roman authorities, such as sending taxes to the Temple and observing the Sabbath and other Jewish laws. There is evidence, however, that these privileges were withdrawn at various times by certain Asia Minor cities and that hostility sometimes existed between the Jewish communities and the cities (Trebilco 1991:167-185). Generally, however, a tolerance of, and a positive interaction with, theJewish communities was maintained. IndividualJews possessed local citizenship or Roman citizenship, but as a body the Jewish communities did not possess the citizenship of the cities in which they lived. Jews were involved in the cultural life of the cities and attended the theater, the odeum and the gymnasium, as attested by inscriptions from Miletus and Aphrodisias. They were also influenced by local customs, a further sign of their involvement in the life of the cities. The position of Jewish women was also positively affected by the prorninence of wornen in Asia Minor. Gentiles, apparently, actively participated in Jewish communities, such as the "Godfearers" (or "Godworshippers") at Aphrodisias. The Jewish community encouraged non:Jews to be involved in the synagogue. Jews succeeded in society and served in civic office outside the Jewish community. They usually had complete freedom of religious expression. Trebilco further claims that the J ews were admired and emulated by their neighbors; they were 'Jews first" and comfortable Asians second, unlike Egyptian Jews, who Noy (1994: 171-2) calls "Egyptians first and Jews second." Trebilco also contends (1991:57) that the Jewish communities in Asia Minor, far removed from rabbinical influence, worshipped a different form of Judaism than that practiced in the Land of Israel (but see Price, 1994:185-6, who maintains that what Trebilco demonstrates "is not in direct conflict with rabbi nie al Judaism"). Few

8

H1STORICAL BACKGROUND

details of ritual and belief are available for the Jews of Asia Minor and Trebilco does not discuss these issues as he is more interested in the political and social relations between Jews and non:Jews. The Jewish communities in Asia Minor disappear only with the invasions of the seventh century.

Greece

Evidence of the Jewish dispersion in Greece is attested by inscriptions and by literary and archaeological data from the third century BCE onwards, usually associated with sites inhabited by Jews (Mazur 1935:7-14; Schürer et al. 1986:64-66,69-72). Aegina

The Jewish community at Aegina probably took refuge on the island off Piraeus at the end of the second century, during the barbarian invasion of the Greek mainland. The synagogue was built within the city limits, dose to the naval harbor and is dated to the fourth century (Mazur 1935:29-30). Delos

This island, considered to be the birthplace of Apollo, became a free port in the second century BCE. Jewish and Samaritan communities lived on the island during the Hellenistic period. A synagogue building and inscriptions have been found.

Macedonia Stobi

During the second and third centuries, Stobi was a Roman administrative center in Macedonia (former Yugoslavia), becoming a Christian city during the fourth and fifth centuries. Several churches were built within and outside the city. The synagogue, decorated with mosaics, was established some time during the second or third century and was converted into a basilica church in the fourth century.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

9

Italy BovaMarina

Remains of a synagogue building point to aJewish settlement in Bova Marina, near Reggio Calabria, south Italy. Ostia

Ostia was the port of Rome during the early Empire. The city consisted of a harbor, warehouses and blocks of dwellings. The community consisted of traders, slaves, Jews and Christians. The synagogue and the inscriptions discovered in it prove the existence of a Jewish community from the first century onwards and especially during the fourth century (Meiggs 1973).

Rome Jews probably began living in Rome during the Maccabean period in the first century BCE. They were expelled several times during the first century CE, returning each time and gradually settling throughout the city. Jewish catacombs as weIl as inscriptions and other finds indicate their presence and status in Rome during the third to fourth centuries. Inscriptions mention eleven synagogues in Rome, none of which have ever been discovered (Leon 1960; Schürer et al. 1986 :73-81; Rutgers 1995). Venosa

Jewish catacombs with inscriptions and wall paintings were discovered in Venosa, Apulia (Leon 1954; Colafemmina 1978; Noy 1993:61-149).

Malta

Jewish settlement in Malta is attested by several Jewish hypogea burials and by inscriptions found in the Rabat region (Buhagiar 1986; N oy 1993:222-227).

10

HISTORlCAL BACKGROUND

Spain

Jewish dispersion in Spain begins in the third century, as can be dated from both the literary data and the remains of the synagogue at Elche (Schürer et al. 1986:8485).

Gaul & Germany

According to the finds, Gaul and Germany were also settled by Jews (Schürer et al. 1986:85).

North Africa

Archaeological and epigraphic evidence indicate Jewish settlements in North Mrica (Schürer et al. 1986:62-4). Jewish finds discovered at Carthage, and from the Jewish necropolis in Gammarath HilI, include Latin inscriptions and engraved menoroth. At Hammam-Lif (Naro), a synagogue with Latin inscriptions was discovered. In Cyrenaica, aJewish community existed al ready by the seventh century BCE andJews took part in disturbances in the first century BCE. Recorded also is the Jewish rebellion in the reign ofTrajan (Appelbaum 1979). In Lepcis Magna in Tripolitania, a possible synagogue was discovered with a Greek inscription.

Babylon

Since the Babylonian exile, the Jewish settlement of Babyion was the main Jewish center in the Parthian empire. Nehardea and Nisibis were the main cities for the Jewish settlement, but Jews also lived in other parts of Babyion, for instance in Edessa (Stern M. 1974:170-179; Gafni 1987; Oppenheimer 1987).

Black Sea Region

Inscriptions record Jewish settlement along the northern coast of the Black Sea from the first century onwards (Schürer et al. 1986:36-8). A building at Chersonesus in the Crimea (MacLennan 1996) may have been a synagogue.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

C

11

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIASPORA AND THE LAND OF ISRAEL

Jews in the Hellenistic diaspora were linked to the Hellenistic culture through the Greek language and literature. However, even though they were part of Hellenistic society, the Jews remained loyal to the Torah and practiced Jewish law. No literary sources, inscriptions or archaeological data have ever indicated tendencies of assimilation or adoption of the Greek culture. The Jews of the diaspora were also closely attached to the Land of Israel, and regarded themselves as "Hebrews living abroad" (Stern M. 1974:184-214; Safrai 1982:456-472; Rutgers 1995:203-207). During the Second Temple period, Jewish life centered around Jerusalem and the Temple. TheJewish diaspora relied on the authority ofJerusalem for fixing the New Year and for the proclarnation of the appearance of the new moon. The Jews of the diaspora probably paid their half-shekel to the Temple (the money brought to Jerusalem by groups and convoys), although possibly less regularly than the Jews living in the Land of Israel. They also set aside priestly dues, tithes and gifts for the priests and Levites in Jerusalem. The pilgrimage to Jerusalem on the three annual feasts-Passover, Pentecost and Tabernacles-was an obligation binding to the individual, as far as it was practical. This obligation included both men and women, proselytes and even gentile worshippers. The pilgrims from the diaspora did not travel every year, and when they did come, they frequently stayed for a longer period than the holiday, during which time they studied the Torah under the sages. They came to meet people, to make contacts and get advice (Safrai 1965). M. Stern (1974:192-3) maintains that synagogues of the various diaspora communities were established in Jerusalem at that time as a result of immigration from the diaspora; the synagogues were connected to the pilgrimage of the feasts and were used as hostels and study centers. Envoys representing the Sanhedrin, the supreme institution of Judaism in the Land of Israel and the diaspora, forged bonds and links between diaspora Jews and the official institutions of the high priesthood. The Sanhedrin in Jerusalem was the high court (Beth Din) for the diaspora and its rulings were communicated to diaspora Jews. Mter the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple a short break probably occurred in the relations between the diaspora and the Land of Israel, especially with the Temple and its institutions. Shortly after the destruction, however, the proclarnation of the appearance of the new moon, an important bond with the diaspora, was renewed. Pilgrimages to the Land of Israel ceased, although visits to the city continued merely as a way of commemorating the Temple; other bonds took the place of the Temple. A general renewal of relations with the diaspora took

12

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

place in the days of Raban Gamliel 11, president of the synod of Jamnia at the end of the first century. The link was maintained as long as there was a national center in the Land of Israel in Jamnia, Lydda and later in the towns of the Galilee. The apostoli (envoys, many of them distinguished sages) sent by the Nasi (patriarch) to the diaspora, were a fixed institution already in the Second Temple period; these envoys again started traveling to the diaspora at the end of the first century. Their task was to supervise the communities, to control administration, to inspect the implementation of the halacha, and to levy thc taxes due to the Nasi office. Sages of Jamnia were appointed as presidents of Jewish courts of law in diaspora communities, while sages from the diaspora were appointed to leading positions in institutions in the Land of Israel. Price (1994: 178, n. 47) maintains that the reports of the travels of the sages are evidence for a rabbinical influence in the diaspora centers, although other scholars deny that diaspora Judaism was "rabbinical" at all. Immigration to Israel by individuals, families and sages continued during all periods. The immigrants came because of yearnings for the Land of Israel and because of the wish to fulfill the commandments. The translation ofthe bible into Greek by Aquila, the proselyte from Pontus, was made under the supervision of the rabbis ofJamnia. It was introduced throughout the diaspora and it partly took the place of the Septuagint version. Reinterment, the practice of bringing the dead from the diaspora for burial in the Land of Israel, became a custom in the second century, another indication of the link between the diaspora and the homeland. Except for a short period after the Bar Kochba revolt, relations between the diaspora and the homeland remained firm. These ties helped, in spite of the dispersion, to create a sense of nationhood. The sense of one nation was also sustained by the daily Jewish life and customs, by the historical past and by hopes for the future. The Jews of the homeland relied on the help of diasporaJews, even though they were not always clear as to what help they wanted. The Jewish communities retained their religious identity while participating in the life of the cities (for a discussion on identity, see MilIar 1987). There was coexistence as weIl as confrontation between the Jews and their neighbors. Many local factors influenced the Jewish communities, such as local architecture and decoration, whether wall paintings or mosaic pavements; certain burial practices; names they gave their children, and the position ofwomen in theJewish communities. Similarities between the synagogue and funerary architecture and the finds from the various sites are considerable and indicate a Jewish diaspora that had much in common with the communities in the Land of Israel, as weIl as affinities with the art and architecture of the local, non:Jewish communities.

CHAPTERONE

THE SYNAGOGUE

A

THE TEMPLE AND THE SYNAGOGlJE

Two important institutions characterize Judaism, the Jerusalem Temple and the synagogue. ThroughoutJewish history both have been dominant in Jewish religious, social and cultural life. The Jerusalem Temple was the focal point for the Jewish nation, the center far worship and the place where political, economic and spiritual affairs ofworldJewry could be discussed and determined. The Temple of the Second Temple period resembled the Temple of biblical Israel in its main religious and architectural features. During the first century, the Temple in Jerusalem was still the center of worship and ritual of the entire Jewish community in Judea and the diaspora. Here Jews could participate in ceremonies and in the teaching of the Law conducted in the Temple courtyards, and could settle administrative questions in the Temple courts. In 70 CE with the destruction ofJerusalem and the Temple, the Jews were forced to look for new ways to worship to replace the Temple and the sacrificial cult. The synagogue with the elevation by the rabbis of Torah reading, study and prayer as supplements to the sacrificial cult was the answer to the catastrophe. This new, important and unique Jewish institution was invented during the Second Temple period (Schürer et al. 1979,11:427-428; Cohen 1984:151-174; Safrai 1987:31-51;). The synagogue institution was a revolutionary concept in terms of worship and faith: first, as a place of worship, not only far the privileged few, that is the priests, but rather for a large, participating community fulfilling the need for individual self-expression; second, as a structure to house the Torah shrine, the central place of worship built onto the Jerusalem ariented wall; and third, as an assembly house used for communal as weH as for religious occasions. Differences between the Temple and the synagogue as religious institutions can be seen in cult, location and participation.

Cult. The Temple was the sole center for religious activity in the form of sacred animal sacrifice. By contrast, the synagogue was a center for Torah study, probably conducted only on feast days and Sabbaths, and prayer, for ritual and for lawgiving.

14

CHAPTER ONE

No textual evidence exists that Torah study in any way replaced the sacrificial cult (Cohen 1984:160). Scripture reading was not a substitute for Temple sacrifices or liturgy: it simply supplemented Temple worship (Safrai 1976b:912). Temple ritual was conducted by the priests who were politically and socially the predominant class. They were assisted by the Levites and the Israelites. The priests provided communal and individual offerings and sacrifices, burned incense, tended to the Menorah in the sanctuary, participated in rites with the Levites, and sounded two trumpets at the start and conclusion of the daily singing. They were the only ones who had access to the altar and to the sanctuary. The main elements of Temple worship-offerings and sacrifices-were not transferred to the synagogue, not even symbolically, nor was the priestly role. Location. The Temple was located in Jerusalem, on Mount Moriah, the sacred site where the saga of the Sacrifice of Isaac took place. This was one temple for the one God (Josephus, Ant 4, 201; Against Apion 2, 193). On the other hand, synagogues were built throughout the Land of Israel and the diaspora, and even private houses could be used as synagogues (Cohen 1984: 171). Participation. A smalI, exclusive group of priests practiced in the Temple. Entry into the Holy of Holies was allowed only to the High Priest himself. Ordinary worshippers were relegated to the outer courtyards of the Temple precincts. Cult was performed by a small group on behalf of the masses. In the synagogue, by comparison, all the participants were involved in the performance and conduct of the ceremonies. Worshippers took turns in reciting prayers and reading the Torah. Cult was conducted by the individualJew (Cohen 1984:161). The relationship between Temple and synagogue is further strengthened by the use of related iconography and symbols of the Temple in the architecture and decoration of synagogues (Chapters 11, VII; see also Branham 1994). The Jewish communities in the Land of Israel and the diaspora were anxious to preserve and remember the sanctity of the Temple, its sacred vessels, its cult and ceremonies, and thus used them in the synagogue decoration as weIl as in the religious services.

B

ORIGINS OF THE SYNAGOGUE

The origins of the synagogue is today one of the crucial issues in the study ofJewish history (Hachlili 1997; Levine 1996). Various theories have been promoted concerning the period, the form, function and the location of the first synagogues.

THE SYNAGOGUE

15

Generally, five theories are posited for the first appearance of the synagogue:

The Emcrgenee oj the Synagogue

(a) Land of Israel during the First Temple Period: Several scholars maintain that the institution of the synagogue was created by the Deuteronomic Reformation of Joshua in 621 BCE in Judea (Gutmann 1975:73; n. 7, 8, eiting the scholars who advocate this theory, 1981:1-3). They suggest that the bamoth, places for the sacrifieial cult, were transformed into meeting places for public worship with prayer and songs but without the sacrifice. Rural congregations needed these meeting places because of the difficulty undertaking long pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Furthermore, they eite Psalms 74:8 andJeremiah 39:8, mentioning the destruction of mo'adei-el and beth ha-am in an attempt to read these words as meaning a meeting place, that is, a synagogue. However, bamoth continued to be used as sacrifieial sites after the death of King Joshua, hardly lending credence to this theory. (b) Babylonian Exile: Exile to Babyion, after the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE, is considered by some to be the cause of the development of local houses ofworship (Moore 1927:283; Zeitlin 1975:18; Gutmann 1975:72). The exiledJews in Babyion gathered together for communal worship and instruction. On their return to Land of Israel, they brought with them the synagogue concept that had developed while in exile. Kraeling (1979:33) also thinks that Babyion was the "pioneer and contributor" to the development of the synagogue. The later Babylonian synagogues of the Talmudic period (fourth to sixth centuries) are considered traditionally to be linked to the beginning of the Babylonian diaspora (Oppenheimer 1987:147; Gafni 1987). However, no archeological remains of such places have been found in Babyion. Possibly, the meeting places in Babyion were for community purposes only, the congregation maintaining them in memory of Temple worship and to encourage the hope of rebuilding the Temple. (e) Jerusalem Temple, Return from Exile: On the basis of rabbinical tradition some scholars (Safrai 1977:46-47) assert that the synagogue originates in Torah reading and prayer assemblies conducted in the Temple courts on Sabbaths and festivals, with the return of the exiles from Babyion to Jerusalem in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. These assemblies were later institutionalized and led to the creation of the synagogue. This theory has been refuted by Hoenig (1975:69-70) who concludes that

16

CHAPTER ONE

"... to assert that there were regular 'religious meetings' in the Temple court is also incorrect. The populace gathered there on the festivals, but mostly as observers of the Temple ritual-not as participants in a synagogue service." (d) Egypt, Third Century BCE: The Jewish diaspora in Egypt probably dates from the sixth century BCE. Scholars (Griffiths 1987:2-6; Kasher 1987:127ff) assume that the synagogue structure has its roots in Egypt in the third century BCE, even though the earliest buildings are temples. This assumption is based on dedicatory inscriptions found at various sites using the term proseuche meaning "house of prayer." According to Josephus a temple was built in Leontopolis (Tell el-Yehudiyeh) by the priest Onias IV in about 160 BCE, its structure and altar being copies of those of the Jerusalem Temple (Ant. 12:388; 13:64-72; 20:236; War 1:33; 7:431-432). A temple of Yahweh was erected by the Jewish colony in Elephantine at the end of the first millennium BCE (Schürer et al. 1986:145-6; Griffiths 1987:2; Kasher 1987: 120-122). Both temples were used for sacrifices, in contrast to the synagogue where sacrifices were not offered. Griffiths (1987:14-15) concludes

"that the earliest synagogues arose in Ptolemaic Egypt, and that in two respects-the Pylon and the basilica-their architecture was sometimes influenced by tradition of their environment. Their main purpose, which combined worship and instruction, may weIl reflect a double emphasis found in Egyptian religious institutions, especially in the Per Ankh." Kasher (l987:p.vU) in discussing the synagogues in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt, contends that they were originally assembly places for prayer and held a central position in the religious life of the EgyptianJewish community. He further suggests that they should be defined as synagogues because of the various buildings added to these prayer houses. (e) Judea, Second Temple: On the basis of epigraphic and archaeological evidence several scholars date the origin of the synagogue to the second century BCE (Zeitlin 1975:21-26; and followed by Rivkin and Gutmann 1975:75; 1981:3-4; also Hengel 1974, 1:82). This thesis maintains that the emergence of the synagogue should be linked to the Hasmonean revolt and to the rise of the Pharisees who developed this unique institution as a secular meeting house to deal with socio-economic problems of the local communities, and to read and interpret the Torah to the assembly. Other scholars refute this thesis: Neusner (1982:75-83) in his analysis of the literary and archaeological evidence maintains that there is no evidence that first century Pharisaism built stylized architectural or institutional organizations for group worship. Grabbe (1988:408-410) contends that literary and archaeological evidence

THE

~'YNAGOGUE

17

show that the synagogue in Palestine was a post-Maccabean phenomenon and that there is nothing Pharisaic about it.

Archaeological & Textual ~vidence

Any examination of the origins of the synagogue must consider the archaeological and textual evidence 1 : Archaeological Evidence

Early Synagogues in the Land of Israel: Archaeological evidence for the existence of synagogues in the Second Temple period is inconclusive. Public structures discovered at Gamla, Masada, Herodium, Capernaum and reported at Chorazin (now lost) were built during the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem (Hachlili 1988:8486). These structures are considered synagogues because of circumstantial evidence: they show similarity in their architectural plan and therefore in their function. However, no actual proof has been uncovered. During the revolt against the Romans, structures were remodeled into assembly halls for the re bels at the fortified sites of Masada, Herodium and Gamla. All the structures have several architectural features in common: oblong halls are divided by rows of columns into a central nave and surrounding aisles; stepped benches are erected along all four walls of the hall facing inwards; and the buildings were probably single storied. Furthermore, the structures share a similar date for their construction in the first century, although Gamla may have been erected already by the end of the first century BCE (Hachlili 1988:84-88). Early Synagogues in the Diaspora: Two excavated synagogues are dated to the pre-70 CE period, at Delos and at Ostia. The synagogue of Delos, the earliest synagogue in the diaspora, was found near the shore at Delos in a residential area far from the city center. The structure was originally a dwelling house built in the second century BCE but later remodeled as an assembly building in two stages: stage 1 is dated to the late second or early first century BCE before 88 BCE, and stage 2 to the first century BCE (Chapter 11). Identification of the Delos building as a syna-

1 Flesher's (1995a:34, 39) suggestion, that literary sources as weil as the archaeological evidence confirm that the synagogue which originated in Egypt gained acceptance as a major religious institution in the Galilee and not in Judea, is unconvincing.

18

CHAPTER ONE

gogue even though no Jewish symbols were found is based on the architectural plan of room A, on the dedicatory inscriptions on four bases discovered in two rooms as weIl as its similarity to the assembly buildings of Gamla, Masada and Herodium. The early synagogue of Ostia dated to the first century was discovered under the later synagogue (Chapter 11). It consisted of a main hall with benches along the walls. This structure is considered to be an early synagogue because of the later synagogue above it that kept some of the early features, albeit changed. Comparison 0/ Early & Late Synagogues: Many unmistakable differences emerge from a comparison of early and late synagogues, both in architectural features and in functions. • Early synagogues were erected to serve as local assembly halls during a time when the Temple was still the center for worship and ritual. Synagogue buildings of Late Antiquity served as centers for ritual practices, now concentrated exclusively in the synagogue. • The pre-70 CE synagogue was a house for reading the Bible and for study; reading had a didactic aim (Fleisher 1991:28 and p. 11). The late synagogue emphasized prayer and cult with a liturgical aim to the ritual. • The focal point of the early synagogue was the center of the hall, evidenced by the fact that the congregation sat on benches around the walls that faced inwards. The focal point of the late synagogue was the Torah shrine built on the Jerusalem oriented wall (Hachlili 1988:167-187). • In the early struetures benehes are constructed prominently along all four walls whereas in the later structures the benches are oriented according to the loeation of the Torah shrine (Haehlili 1988:148-155). • Arehitectural decoration of the early synagogues was simple. Ornamentation of the late synagogues is rich and varied. Emphasis is on the interior where the hall is decorated with mosaie pavements or wall paintings. Textual evidence

Evidence for the origins of the synagogue is largely based on semantic analysis, on literary and epigraphic evidence and on textual sourees, especially on the interpretation of the terms proseuche, synagogue and beth knesset used in inscriptions. Proseuche (JtQOOE1JX~): In the diaspora, the word proseuche appears in inscriptions at

Delos as weIl as on several later synagogue mosaic floors at Elche (see Chapter IX). Philo, who mentions this term 18 times, emphasizes the educational funetion of the proseuche (Kasher 1987:125; Kee 1990:5). Josephus describes proseuchai at Tiberias

THE SYNAGOGUE

19

(Life 54 = 277-280). Proseuche was the official term for synagogues in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt (Horbury & Noy 1992:215). Proseuche is considered by scholars to mean a place of prayer, of worship, instruction and the teaching of law (Hengel 1975:27-54; Schürer et al. 1979, 11:425-426; 439-440, Trebilco 1991:134; Rajak and Noy 1993:76). Mazur (1935:21) reads this term as votive, without a Jewish connotation. Kasher (1987:122) maintains that prayer was as important as sacrifice to Egyptian Jews, thus the proseuche could discharge the non-sacrificial duties of the Temple and could also be considered a suitable location for expressions of faith. Hengel (1975:27ff, 166) implies that the proseuche may have been influenced by Hellenistic shrines, and that the term means "house of prayer." Grabbe (1988:402, n. 5) maintains that proseuche can be interpreted as a form of diaspora synagogue. Others assert that the term is usually used when referring to the Jewish synagogue building (Kraabel 1979:492-493). Noy (1992:119) believes the word appears mainly in a Jewish context. Synagogue (o'Uvaywyrj): The word synagogue is interpreted in several ways: the Septuagint uses synagogue as the translation of iT1l) edah, "the gathered community." The New Testament reports of Jesus' and Paul's visits to synagogues (Luke 4:16-22; Acts 13:13-16), and especially to a synagogue at Capernaum (Mark 1:21; Luke 7:1)

where the term means "meeting house" (Griffiths 1987:5; White 1990:87). Hoenig (1979:451-452) in his definition of synagogue excludes those institutions in which the law was read without the accompaniment of prayer. Schürer et al. (1979, 11:429440) maintain that synagogue signifies "the congregation (= the group gathering), not the place of assembly (= the building)." The word synagogue appears in an important piece of epigraphic evidence, the Greek inscription ofTheodotus, found in Jerusalem and generally dated to the first century. It mentions a synagogue "built for the purpose of reciting the Law and studying the commandments" (Roth-Gerson 1987:76-86; but see Kee, 1990:7-8, who suggests a later date for the inscription, the second half of the second century, which in his opinion fits well with the archaeological evidence of synagogue remains built after the destruction of the Temple). Beth knesset (no:J:l n'::l): The Hebrew term beth knesseth means "house of assembly" (Schürer et al. 1979, 11:429-430). Zeitlin (1975:20) maintains this term "betrays the origin and character of the synagogue." The Jews after the return from the Babyion exile gathered in secular assembly houses scattered all over the country. Rabbinical literature (ET. Ketubot 105a and jT. Megillah III, 1, 73d) mentioning synagogues in Jerusalem accuses Titus and Vespasian of destroying either 394 or 480 synagogues. AJerusalem synagogue is recorded in Tosefta Sukkah 4, 5. These Rabbinical statistics

20

CHAPTER ONE

are considered an exaggeration (Safrai 1977:67), nor can they be inferred as historical comments. Interpretations vary as to the differences in meaning between the terms discussed above (Levine 1987:20-22): Geographical difJerence. Hengel (1975:4lff) maintains that the term proseuche refers to the diaspora whereas synagogue refers to Judea. However, this is not always the case. Josephus refers to a proseuche at Tiberias; and the word archisynagogue occurs on the mosaic inscription of the fourth century Aegina synagogue (Chapter IX; Lifshitz 1967:13-14, no. 1). Chronological difJerence. The term proseuche is the early one, used from the third century BCE to the first century CE. However, the term synagogue was used by Josephus in the first century CE to describe a synagogue at Caesarea (War 2.14,285289) and at Dora (Ant 19.6.3, 300-305). Architectural difJerence. Proseuchai was also used in the Hellenistic world far pagan loyalty shrines, while synagogue was exclusively used to describe Jewish edifices (Gutmann 1975:74). Furthermore, the term proseuche is used usually when referring to theJewish synagogue building (Hengel1975:166; Schürer et al. 1979, II:439-440), or when describing different forms of buildings, proseuche as an imposing structure and synagogue as poor. The exact opposite is also argued. Substantive difJerences. Gutmann (1975:74; 1981:3) maintains that proseuchai in third century BCE Egyptian inscriptions do not automatically prove the existence of the synagogue. He concludes that "the Judaism that was practiced in the proseuche... was a Judaism that had responded to the challenges of the Hellenistic environment." He also objects to the use of proseuche as synonymous with synagogue, maintaining that "whatever the proseuche was cannot be definitely ascertained," although he does not present any argument far this comment. Kee (1990:5) concludes that "the religious function would be highlighted by the choice of proseuche; the term synagogue would imply nothing more than that a meeting had convened."

Conclusions

Jewish aspirations in the diaspora for aseparate identity and community life result in the construction of assembly structures in Egypt and BabyIon during the Second

THE SYNAGOGUE

21

Temple period; concurrently at Delos a dwelling house is used for assembly purposes. These local centers probably existed as community assembly halls where services would be conducted on Sabbaths and feast days (Hachlili 1988:138-140). The Zealot assembly structures at the fortresses of Masada, Herodium and Gamla probably served as local assembly halls during the years of the revolt against Rome, a time during which it was extremely difficult for the congregation to travel to Jerusalem in order to participate in Temple worship. During the time these structures were serving as small community centers, worship may have been conducted in them, even though no convincing evidence has yet been found. Synagogue structures that existed for a short time in the first century were not rebuilt, except at Capernaum and Ostia. Such structures may have had a focal point in the center of the hall, which would explain the function of the benches lining the walls: the congregation would have faced inwards. Evidence for synagogue origins comes from literary, epigraphic and archaeological sources. These sources however are not homogeneous neither as regards date nor location, and it is lamentable that many scholars combine inscriptions, sources such as Josephus, the New Testament and late Rabbinical literature as weIl as the archaeological evidence into one monolithic model to draw their conclusions (also the same criticism by Hoenig 1979:451-452; Grabbe 1988:401 and n. 2 p. 402; Kee 1990:3-4). The terms proseuche, synagogue and beth knesset were used in the periods prior and after the destruction of the Temple; it is not possible to differentiate between them chronologically, geographically or architecturally. Furthermore, it is likely that one term describes completely different institutions of the same period. Probably, the meaning of these terms and their religious significance evolved from the earliest inscriptions of the third century BCE in Philo's and Josephus' days, to the Delos inscriptions, and thence to the later inscriptions found on fourth century synagogue mosaic pavements. What can be deduced from the evidence of structures dating to the first century BCE to the first century CE at remote sites in the Land of Israel and in the diaspora, taken together with the terms proseuche, synagogue and beth knesset, is that these communal structures we call synagogues served as multipurpose places of assembly (see also Levine 1996: 431, 443). Certainly it is conceivable that the pre-70 CE structures had didactic functions as weIl as being centers for assembly and for the community, but they were not places of cult or worship. As long as the Temple existed in Jerusalem, the Jews were careful to avoid any competition with it. Following the destruction of the Temple, the sages of Jabneh established the mizwa "act" of compulsory prayer, a new institution inJewish life, invented for social

22

CHAPTER ONE

and educational reasons (Cohen 1984:165; Fleisher 1991:28 and n. 9; on the sanctity of the synagogue see Fine 1993). This imposition of prayer on the ]ewish community as a law was one of the most important in the history of the nation. It not only healed the theological calamity, it also strengthened the dispersed survivors into a unique national and religious unit (Fleisher 1991:34-35). The synagogue building began functioning now as an assembly hall for the local congregation as weIl as a spiritual, religious and social center; it was not a substitute for, nor did it replace the Temple, but served only local needs. It appears that the origins of the synagogue are to be found in the assembly halls of the Second Temple period. Following the destruction of the Temple, they were adapted to function also as places of local worship in addition to their previous function of community center, becoming symbols of the uniqueness of the ]ewish community. Late Antiquity synagogues operated as a combination of congregational assembly hall and, more importantly, as a place for reading the Torah, for obligatory prayer and for instituting and teaching religious law, the halacha. The congregation inside the hall prayed facing the Torah shrine, and, therefore, facing ]erusalem and the Temple. Thus, the distinctive feature of the later synagogue emerges, the Torah shrine built on the ]erusalem oriented wall (Chapter 11), that determined the synagogue orientation and that symbolized the sanctity of the place, acting as areminder of the Temple.

C

THE SYNAGOGUE AND THE COMMUNI1Y

Synagogue Activities

The organization of the ]ewish community was partly modeled on that of a Creek city or on the collegia. Smallwood (1981:133-136; also Trebilco 1991:114; White 1990:90) argues that the synagogue was in its beginning a collegial or social association in which women and nonJews participated, becoming a religious institution in the third or fourth century. Rajak and Noy (1993:76-78) discuss group identity and the synagogue as a religious association. Synagogue activities consisted of reading the Torah, study and prayer. The synagogue also served as a community assembly hall for activities such as congregational affairs, fund-raising, communal meals and legislative matters. Schools, guest houses, ritual baths and official residences (Chapter 11) were often attached to the synagogue.

THE SYNAGOGUE

23

Synagogue Administration

The synagogue was governed by representatives of the jewish community. Hierarchy in the synagogue probably followed the person's standing in thejewish community. Epigraphic data mention archisynagogos, "father [or mother] of the synagogue," archon, Gerusiarche, presbyter and ltautn. The most important among them is the archisynagogos "head of the synagogue." Archisynagogos is a distinctively jewish title mentioned in literature and in thirty-two inscriptions that date over a wide span (first to sixth centuries) and occur throughout an extensive area (Chapter IX; see the comprehensive study by Rajak and Noy 1993 especially p. 85 and appendix 1). The title ran in families, and females as weIl as a child held this title (Brooten 1982:5-33; Rajak and Noy 1993:86-87). Rajak and Noy (1993:88) also maintain that a non:Jew could have been an archisynagogos as long as he took an interest in the jewish community. Archisynagogoi are found as patrons, donors or benefactors. They had wealth, high standing and a civic position in the community. Rabbi: The term rabbi appears in many forms, and is often ambiguous. Sometimes,

a person holding a high position is meant, or a teacher; rabbi is also a technical term for an ordained person who has achieved status within society; it may be that the term indicates the wealthy dass (for an epigraphic catalogue and discussion of about 58 rabbis from the Land of Israel and the diaspora, see Cohen 1981, 1992; Rutgers 1995:205). The inscriptions do not give any data on the nature of the judaism practiced by the rabbis. The rabbis wrote the rabbinicalliterature but were not the leaders of the synagogues. They were not leaders of diaspora jewry either, and the diaspora "did not look to Israel for rabbinical leadership" (Cohen 1981: 15; see also Millar 1992: 11 0-111). Perhaps the word was used as a technical term only. Hazan: The hazan was the master of ceremonies and in charge of running the

synagogue.

Women in the synagogue

In numerous inscriptions women appear as donors, title-holders, office-holders and benefactors, and may have been wealthy in their own right. Forty-three inscriptions were found commemorating women who donated by themselves or with their husbands or who are commemorated by a donation on their behalf. Many of these inscriptions were discovered in diaspora synagogues, for example at Delos, Apamea,

24

CHAPTER ONE

Hammam-Lif and Sardis (Brooten 1982:141-144; appendix nos. 7-15, 30-34, 39-40; 22; 25-27). The position of women in ancient synagogues is also attested by literary sources that indicate that women attended synagogue services (Brooten 1982:141). Brooten (1982: 149) also claims that women office-holders had functional equality with the male officials. Trebilco (1991:104-126) shows that someJewish communities in Asia Minor gave an unusually prominent position to women. Rajak and Noy (1993:87) maintain that "the contribution of women, just as that of men, must be envisaged as paternal and perhaps ceremonial rather than religious." That women worshipped together with the men seems to be the only conclusion to be drawn from the inscriptions and the archaeological and literary evidence. In any case the contrary, that women worshipped in a gallery or in aseparate section of the hall, has not been proven (Chapter 11). In conclusion, the synagogue in the diaspora as in the Land of Israel was not only a center of worship and religious life but also a community center, conducting educational, social and financial activities. Synagogues were built by the Jewish communities through their leaders who often financed the building themselves. Numerous inscriptions indicate that finance for the erection of the structure and its decoration as well as for repairs, remodeling or rebuilding came from private and public donors, usually Jewish.

CHAPTER TWO

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

Arehiteetural remains of fourteen diaspora synagogues have been surveyed or exeavated at Apamea and Dura-Europos in Syria; Misis-Mopsuhestia, Priene and Sardis in Asia Minor; Hammam-Lif and Lepeis Magna in North Mriea; Philippopolis in Bulgaria; Aegina and Delos in Greeee; Stobi in Maeedonia; Ostia and Bova Marina in Italy; and Elche in Spain (Map 1; Haehlili 1992; Rutgers 1996). Diaspora synagogues have little in eommon as regards their arehiteetural design; in faet, their features are rarely similar, either among themselves or by eomparison with synagogues in the Land of Israel (Haehlili 1988:141-199; 227-233). The evidenee of the arehiteeture of diaspora synagogues presented here proves that there was no universal eanon or standard plan for synagogue strueture. Design seems to be purely a loeal matter, relying on the loeation of the synagogue in the town, on loeal topography and on the eommunity's wealth and resourees. Nevertheless, there is one element that appears in all the synagogues, the Torah shrine that served as the foeal point in the synagogue building. As in the synagogues of the Land of Israel, it took one of three forms: aedieula, niehe or apse (Haehlili 1988:166-187). The Torah shrine is built on the Jerusalem oriented wall; in the synagogues in Syria of Apamea and Dura-Europos this was the south wall; in the others it was the east wall.

A

DESCRIPTION OF DIASPORA SYNAGOGUES 1

Aegina

The synagogue of Aegina (Greeee) is situated in an abandoned harbor. It was probably erected adjaeent to the Jewish quarter lying in the eity proper (Figure 111; Mazur 1935:25-31, figs. 3, 4; Sukenik 1934:44-45). The eommunity presumably ereeted Synagogue I at the end of the seeond eentury, when they settled on the

I Sites are discussed in alphabeticalorder. The historical background of each site is discussed in the Historical Background section.

Synagogue

~

~~~~~~~I km

"f' -

41

. '•• .• I.,.~.;:>. •

12

6 ;~'(:!;.I":';~ . ~,,\

/.'~ .,j/'~ ... .. .

-:> ,~

~' 7

" )

.

S TOB I .0

000

..0

Figure 11-26. City plan of Stohi.

umn found in the forecourt of the basilica, where it had apparently fallen from the north-east corner of the colonnade (Hengel 1966). That this inscription belongs to synagogue I is indicated by additional piaster fragments found in the fill with traces of Polycharmos' name ex voto and on dipinti. The inscription is not precise as to the type of synagogue Polycharmos built or donated. The inscription (Chapter IX) describes a two-storied house, a dining room and large rooms for assembly on the first floor, and a colonnaded courtyard with remodeling and additions. Originally a private house donated to the Jewish community, the upper storey continued to be

65

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

Il

'\

.,

Figure 11-27. Stobi, the Central Basilica church and remains of the synagogue.

used by Polycharmos and his family (Hengel 1966:161; Poehlman 1981:237-239; White 1990:71, 78-9). A copper plaque with a dedication found below the mosaic bedding of synagogue II probably also belonged to synagogue I (Poehlman 1981:237). A bronze sealing plaquette with a menorah and the name Eustathius was found in the sewage canal (Wiseman 1973b:209). The remains indicate a house with dimensions of at least 15m x 15m (similar to the Dura-Europos remodeled house-synagogue). Some ashes and evidence of burning were found between synagogues land II, indicating either a limited fire or clearing operation before the building of synagogue 11. Poehlman (1981:242-245) maintains that the construction ofPolycharmos' house was part of a change in the area to domestic use between the first century BCE to the second century CE, and that the donation and remodeling of Polycharmos' house as a synagogue probably occurred in the second century. The evidence of pottery and coins found with the pIaster fragments dates the Polycharmos synagogue I to the late third century. The evidence also confirms that the rooms and walls recorded in the inscription were used as a synagogue from the second to late third (or early fourth) centuries. For historical reasons Hengel (1966:150-159, 181183) suggests the third century for Polycharmos' donation.

66

•

CHAPTER TWO

--::--::::: ~~"_ " '_ !'I I~J_ .L~-~§~."_.,

r r-,

I

,

, I

,, ,,

---_.=-----~~~~~-_.:::_~

,.

,I 'I

-' , ........

I

I

~J~

'1' I

:

1

4

Figure 11-28. Stobi synagogue remains.

Synagogue 11. Synagogue 11 consists of a main hall about 13.3m x 7.85m with three entrances (Figure 11-28). A bench constructed of a Iayer of flat stones was attached to the south wall. A small platform with steps served as a Torah shrine at the end of the east wall. The hall was decorated with a colored wall painting, attested to by the many fragments found at the site. The synagogue mosaic floor was designed with geometrie motifs (Chapter IV). A erude menorah graffito was diseovered on the west wall of a room that eonneeted the synagogue with a eomplex of rooms, the House of Psalms (Moe 1977:154; Chapter VII). The interior, especially the windows and doors, were deeorated with stuceo moldings (Wiseman & Mano-Zissi 1971:410, fig. 8). Creek graffiti were incised into the pIaster. Synagogue 11 was probably built in the early fourth eentury, above part of synagogue I, and was probably destroyed at the end of the fourth eentury. The Central Basiliea ehureh with an apse, three aisles and a foreeourt was built above the ruins

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

67

of the synagogue (Figure 11-27). The terminus post quem for the construction of the Central Basilica is provided by a coin (71-165) ofLeo, dating to 457-474 CE (Kolarik 1987:303, note 21).

B

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE SYNAGOGUE

The Torah Shrine

The most important duty in the synagogue is to read the Torah,4 so its repository, the Torah shrine, became the most prominent feature of the ancient synagogue. By Torah shrine is meant the architectural structure used as a receptacle for the Ark of the Scrolls. The Torah shrine was usually built on the Jerusalem-oriented wall. Thus, in the synagogues of Syria, Apamea and Dura-Europos, it was on the south or west wall of the synagogue; in the Western diaspora the Torah shrine was usually on the east wall. An exception is the Hammam-Lif synagogue, which has a niche in the western wall that may have served a different purpose (see above, p. 11-10). The Torah shrine structure in ancient diaspora synagogues, as in those in the Land of Israel, took one of three forms (Hachlili 1988: 166-167): a) Aedicula, usually a stone structure added to the synagogue interior on the Jerusalem-oriented wall; this structure presumably housed the Ark of the Scrolls. The aedicula consists of a raised platform with a stone facade of columns and pediment. Aediculae were discovered at the synagogues of Ostia, Sardis (two aediculae), and Stobi. b) Niche, built inside one of the synagogue walls to house the Ark of the Scrolls. Two forms of niches, square and semi-circular, were discovered in diaspora synagogues: a square niche was found in the synagogues of Apamea, Lepcis Magna and Priene; a semi-circular niche was found in the synagogues at Bova Marina, Dura-Europos and Hammam-Lif. c) Apse, an integral part of the synagogue building. It housed the Ark of the Scrolls and may sometimes have also contained a single menorah or two menoroth. An apse was built in the synagogues at Aegina, Elche and Mopsuhestia. An apse was also found at Sardis, but it served a different purpose, not for housing the Ark but as a se at for the congregation notables. All these structures contained the Ark of the Scrolls. The Ark oj the Scrolls was most 4

A general term for the scrolls of the Hebrew bible.

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probably a ehest or an ark, eommonly of wood and eontaining shelves to hold the Torah seroIls, whieh was plaeed in the aedieula, niehe or apse. Until reeendy seholars premised that in early Galilean synagogues in the Land of Israel there was no permanent strueture for the Ark of the SeroIls, and that the serolls were plaeed in a portable, wheeled ehest that was moved into plaee whenever neeessary (see p. 11-24 and Goodenough 1953, 11:91 for his solution of the niehe and side room at Hammam-Lif). Only later, in the fourth eentury, was a fixed repository built. However, in reeent exeavations of early Galilean synagogues, and synagogues in the diaspora, vestiges of a base for the Torah shrine have been found in the majority of synagogues. It seems, therefore, that most synagogues in the Land of Israel and the diaspora had a permanent strueture to house the Ark of the Serolls from as early as the seeond eentury (Haehlili 1988:166). The bamah is a raised stone platform, added in front of or dose to the Torah shrine. It did not house the Ark but was used for reading the Torah (Haehlili 1988:167). Bamoth were found at the synagogues of Aegina, Dura, Delos and Ostia. At Sardis, a strueture is eonsidered a baldachin by the exeavators, not a bamah (see p. 75-76). The Torah shrine strueture ean be reeonstrueted from those found in synagogue exeavations. In addition, artistie renditions on wall paintings, tombstones and gold glasses augment what is known from the exeavations. Several examples of Torah shrine depietions appear in the Land of Israel (Haehlili 1988:184), but in the diaspora depietions are restrieted to funerary art where the Ark of the Serolls only is portrayed. The Ark of the Serolls is shown as an open ehest eontaining serolls plaeed on shelves (Figures VII-43-45, 47) and no indieation appears of the form of the assoeiated Torah shrine. Aedicula

Aedieula usually eonsist of a stone base approaehed by steps. Columns stand on top of the base, surmounted by pediments (for example, at Sardis) or architraves (at Ostia). The aedieula is usually a strueture added on to the Jerusalem-oriented wall. Pairs of aedieulae were found in several Galilean synagogues (Nabratein, Capernaum, Chorazin and Meroth, Haehlili 1988: 1 73-175), but in the diaspora only the Sardis synagogue yielded two aedieulae. Ostia. The Ostia synagogue passed through several phases. The earliest synagogue (I), probably built in the first eentury, had no Torah shrine. Synagogue 11 had two stages: Stage 1 (early fourth eentury) was a remodeling of Synagogue land to this

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Figure II-29. Ostia aedicula.

phase may have belonged an inscription on a marble slab, used to repair the Stage 2 vestibule floor and dated to the second to third centuries (Chapter IX). The inscription mentions the construction of an ark (kibotos). The Ark was probably a repository for the Torah scrolls used in the synagogue in the early fourth century, but it is difficult to determine its form. Stage 2: As part of the rebuilding later in the fourth century, a Torah shrine was added in the form of an aedicula built on the Jerusalem-oriented east wall. The structure stands free alongside the south-east wall, blocking one of the earlier three entrances to the main hall (Figure 11-29; Squarciapino 1963:197). It has a podium with four steps. Two marble colonnettes with composite capitals stand on the front of the podium; an apse is built at the end, its ends fixed with two architraves resting on the colonnette capitals (Plate 11-8). The architraves end in corbels with a decoration in low relief ofJewish symbols, the menorah flanked by a shofar, ethrog and lulav. The outer sides of the architraves have cornices. 5 5 The shape of this aedicula like a sigma possibly suggests that the fourth or fifth century synagogue inscription from Side in Pamphylia mentioning OLllllu (Frey 1952:no. 781) may in fact refer to a Torah shrine (Squarciapino 1962b:306; Noy 1993:24).

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Figure li-3D. Sardis aediculae.

Sardis. A pair of aediculae flanks the central entrance to the Sardis synagogue, built against the interior eastern wall of the main hall, one to the north of the entrance, and the other to the south (Figures 11-30, 24; Plate 11-2). They are constructed of marble blocks laid in mortar and consist of stepped platforms 0.55m high, 2.31m long and 3.00m wide (the height of the upper step is 30cm and of the lower 25cm), with smaIl, unfluted and spirally fluted columns standing on bases and surmounted by triangular pediments. The south aedicula (named by the excavator the south shrine = SS) has Tuscan Doric capitals, the original pediment with side acroteria and a carved disk in the center of the gable. The north aedicula (NS) is similar, but Corinthian capitals top its pair of columns. A similar pediment was reconstructed on this aedicula (Plates 11-1,2). One of the shrine columns has a sm all dowel hole, probably for a curtain or veil (Seager 1975:109, n. 40). The capitals were notched, probably to hold a screen or curtain (Kraabel 1983:189). The two aediculae were constructed during stage 4 of the Sardis synagogue, probably dating to the second half of the fourth century (Seager 1972:433-434). A low balustrade may have stood on the platforms as fragments of railing and a marble slab incised with a menorah, lulav and shofar (Figure 11-34; Plate 11-3) were found dose by. One of the aediculae was used to house the Ark of the ScroIls, as in the Land of

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Israel. The second aedicula may have been used to house the menorah (Hachlili 1988:197). Seager (1972:434; 1983:170; also KraabelI983:189) suggests that the two shrines were constructed to maintain symmetry and both may have been used as the repository for the Torah. Kraabel (1983:189) also thinks that the south shrine was the more important because of the better quality of the construction and the fragments of Hebrew inscriptions found there. Other scholars suggest that one of the aediculae served as a raised platform for the delivery of the priestly benediction (Meyers et al. 1981a:238, 242, at Nabratein) or that it was used as a platform for reading the Torah and that a Cathedra d'Moshe was housed in this aedicula (Yeivin 1985:285, figs. 2, 8, at Chorazin).6 Several architectural fragments which may belong to Torah shrines were found at Sardis: a small marble aedicula, a limestone relief representing ark doors (both unpublished) and two miniature marble structures recorded by Seager (1983:175, 283 n. 56). Stobi. A rectangular brick podium on a concrete foundation was built against the east wall of Synagogue 11. Three steps were aligned along the axis of the room (Figure 11-28; Wiseman and Mano-Zissi 1971:410; Moe 1977:156, fig. on p. 155). The podium was probably the base for the Torah shrine in the form of an aedicula, built on the Jerusalem-oriented east wall. Niche

The niche was a stone structure with steps leading up to it, built on the Jerusalemoriented wall and extending into the hall. It served as a repository for the Ark of the Scrolls and took two forms: square and semi-circular. Niches could be decorated, as the facade and interior of the Dura-Europos niche shows. The square niche at Lepcis Magna is the result of blocking an entrance, like square niches in the Land of Israel (Hachlili 1988:179-180). Square Niche

Apamea. A square niche was found on the Jerusalem-oriented south wall of the synagogue (Figure 11-4) of Apamea and belongs to the fourth century synagogue (Verhoogen 1964:pl. IV, fig. 14). 6 Note that a Sardis inscription names the Torah shrine nomophylakion = "that which protects the Law" (Kraabel 1983:189, fig. 275).

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Lepcis Magna. A eentral, square niehe built of small stones eovered with pIaster stood in the closed entranee on the south-east,Jerusalem-oriented, wall of the south room of the Lepeis Magna basiliea. The room probably served as a small synagogue (Ward Perkins 1952:118, fig. 1, 2, PIs. XXb, XXI, a, b; Foerster 1986:55). The eentral niehe measures 1.98em wide by 60em deep; it extends about 60em into the hall, and probably was 200em high. Its lower part is destroyed at floor level, apparently beeause of the rem oval of a marble sI ab (Figure 11-17). Steps next to the niehe form a raised seat, possibly used as an elders' seat, similar to the eombination of niehe and Se at of the Elders at the Dura-Europos synagogue (and in the 'En-Gedi synagogue in the Land of Israel).

Priene. A square niehe (1.50m wide by 1.50m deep) is built on the eastern, Jerusalem-oriented wall of the Priene synagogue (Figure 11-21).

Semi-Circular Niche Bova Marina. A semi-eireular 'rüehe was added to the eenter of the south-east wall of the Bova Marina synagogue in its later phase, in the sixth eentury (Figure 11-5; Costamagna 1994:242). A platform was built in front of the niehe with a balustrade eonstrueted of stone and marble. Dura-Europos. The niehe at Dura is eompletely preserved (Figure 11-31; Plate 11-2). It extends from the west wall, and is built at a height of l.06m above the hall floor. Four steps lead up to the niehe. It is built of a rubble eore with an ornamented faeade (Kraeling 1979:16, 55-62; Goodenough 19531:229-239; 1964 IX:65-77). The niehe-form Torah shrine was in use during both stages of the synagogue. The deeorations of the Torah shrine belong to the first stage of the eommunity's efforts to ornament their synagogue. The faeade of the niehe eonsists of a pair of flanking eolumns 1.13m high and 26em in diameter set on pedestals 30em high, 40em wide and 31em deep standing on the third step. These eolumns support an areh with an extended faee portraying one of the most important wall paintings appearing at Dura. The top of the niehe finish es in a pIaster eoneh forming a semi-dome. Holes in the upper part are assoeiated by Kraeling (1979:257, fig. 73) with the hanging of a veil (see below, p. 76). The niehe is deeorated with a geometrie, eolored design. Hammam-Lif. A semi-cireular niehe was built onto the western wall in the eentral hall of the synagogue building (Figure 11-14). The niehe is not on the Jerusalemoriented east wall. A mosaie pavement bears an inseription oriented to the east away

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Figure 11-31. Dura, Torah niche.

from the niehe; Goodenough (1953, 11:91; III:fig. 892) maintains that this niehe served for the Cathedra d'Moshe and that the small room (D) to the east with an inseription was the rcpository for the Ark of the Scrolls, in the form of a portable wheeled ark. Reeently, however, the eoneept of portable Arks being used in synagogues has been rejeeted, as a strueture for the Ark has been found in almost aIl synagogues (Haehlili 1988:166-187). It seems more likely that room D served as a Torah shrine like the room at the Hammath-Tiberias synagogue (see above page 48).

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Apse The apse is a semi-cireular reeess built along the entire width of the main hall. The apse is usually larger than the niehe or aedieula and may have housed the Ark as well as the menoroth. In fact, it was probably due to the desire to house the Ark and menoroth together that led to the development of this form. The apse appears in the late fifth or early sixth eentury in the Land ofIsrael (Haehlili 1988:180-181). In diaspora synagogues the apse appears earlier; the Aegina synagogue, for example, is dated to the fourth eentury. Aegina. A semi-eireular apse (5.50m in diameter) was eonstrueted on theJerusalemoriented east wall (Figure 11-2). No remains of the floor were found (Mazur 1935:2627). Elche. A semi-eireular apse (approximately 3.0m wide) was eonstrueted on the Jerusalem-oriented east wall (Figure 11-13; Wisehnitzer 1964: 11; Halperin 1969:27).

Misis. Budde eonjeetures that an apse was built on the east of the strueture beeause of a few remains that were found (Budde 1969:31; Figure 11-18). Sardis. The apse of the Sardis synagogue passed through several stages (Figure 1123). In stage 2 it probably served as a tribunal, its niehes being used for the display of statues of divinities or emperors, at a time when the whole building functioned as a Roman eivil basilica (Seager 1972:432; 1983: 172). The apse in its final form (stage 4) consists of three tiers of coneentric benehes seating approximately 70 people; the apse was separated from the hall by a railing. The apse eontains a curved brick wall, with curving brick benehes about 75em in width. Its floor is deeorated with a semi-circular mosaie 7.50m north-south by 2.25m east-west that includes a dedieatory inseription dated to the late fourth or early fifth eenturies (Mitten 1964:30-32). The apse (in stage 4) apparently served as the seat for the eommunity elders, the donors and the heads of the community (Seager 1972:426; 1975:89; 1983:169). The benehes were built uniformly, no one seat constructed more prominently than the others, leading Seager to assert that the benches did not include a Se at of the Elders as such, but that probably the leader of the eongregation sat among the other synagogue notables. Bamah

This is a raised stone platform built in front of an apse or nie he and was probably used for the reading of the Torah. Remains only have been found.

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Aegina. A white strip (1.50 m long, 0.35 cm wide) was noted on the east end of the

mosaic pavement at its center, in front of the apse (Figure 11-2). The termination of the pavement in a straight line suggests to Mazur (1935:27) that there were steps leading to the apse, and that the white strip was "intended to be covered by a wooden object, a tribune or pulpit." Mazur suggests the bamah was used for reading the Torah. Wischnitzer (1964:4) proposes steps leading up to the apse and that "the white strip was intended as a safety marking." Probably the bamah was raised in front ofthe apse, as is found in synagogues in the Land ofIsrael (Hachlili 1988:182-183). Dura-Europos. Four holes in the form of a trapezium about 1m wide, were diseovered to the south of the Torah shrine. Aceording to Kraeling (1979:256) they may have held the legs of a raised wooden bamah providing standing room for one person only. He compares it with the small stone bamah from Aleppo (see below, Figure 11-37). Elche. Halperin (1969:27) suggests that a bamah existed at Elche in front of the apse

because of the way in which the geometrie pattern of the mosaic floor finishes abruptly at this point, and also because of its proximity to the central inseription (Figure 11-13). Ostia. A stone podium is constructed along the slightly curved western wall of the

main hall, 6.20m long, 1.25m wide and 0.79m high. Access was either from the front or from the side by four low steps (Squarciapino 1963:199). It served either as a bamah for Torah reading or as the se at for the congregation elders and notables. Wischnitzer (1964:7) is probably right in suggesting that the platform size indicates its use as a seat for the community elders, like the apse in Sardis. Baldachin Sardis. Four stone slabs were set into the center of the floor of the synagogue hall after the mosaic floor had been laid (Seager 1983:170, fig. 253). They form a square of about 3sqm in bay 4 (Figure 11-23, 25; Hanfmann 1983:figs. 252-253). Each stone sI ab probably held an upright post, as attested by a dowel hole cut in each stone. The mosaic inseription between these stones was also inserted after the mosaic floor and refers to a donation by a priest and sophodidaskalos (teacher, rabbi?). Seager (1983: 170) suggests that this was a baldachin, a four-pillared structure supporting a canopy, probably the place from whieh the "teacher" taught, and not a bamah or raised platform as earlier suggested. He thinks that the structure may have been the platform for reading the Torah because of its prominent position in the synagogue

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hall, and that the obscure inscription refers either to a baldachin or a bamah. ür, alternatively, that the inscription was added later when the bamah was no longer in use. Torah Shrine Elements

In this seetion we discuss elements associated with the Torah shrine such as the veil, the chancel screen and architraves. The Veil The veil (parochet) was a Torah shrine fixture hung in front of the Ark of the Scrolls to screen the facade ofthe Torah shrine (Krauss 1922:381; Kraeling 1979:258). The existence of the veil is well-known from remains found in synagogue excavations and from artistic depictions on catacomb wall paintings and on gold glasses. It is also found in synagogues in the Land of Israel (Hachlili 1988:191-192). Four holes were found on the niche's arcuated lintel facade at the Dura-Europos synagogue, two at the upper right beside the picture of the tent in the Isaac sacrifice scene and two in the opposite corner above and on top of the picture of one of the menorah lamps (Kraeling 1979:257-258, fig. 73). Kraeling infers that the holes are associated with a veil hung from a rod in front of the niche to hide the Ark of the ScroBs. The rod was attached by dowels or pins set into the lower holes on either side of the Torah shrine. A sm all dowel hole in the top of the aedicula column at the Sardis synagogue may be associated with a curtain (Seager 1975:n. 40, p. 109). Representations of veils appear on several gold glasses from ]ewish catacombs in Rome. They are shown hanging in front of the Torah shrine, drawn aside (Figure VI-21; Plate VI-21), or hanging in front of the Ark (Figures VI-18, 19). A similar veil suspended from the upper part of the arcosolium appears in a wall painting in the catacomb of Villa Torlonia (Plate VI-15). Examples in synagogues in the Land of Israel show a veil covering the Torah shrine at Beth Alpha, the Ark at HammathTiberias and Beth She'an (Hachlili 1988:192, pI. 101, 102, 103). It is intriguing that paintings at Dura-Europos show draperies covering the Ark of the Covenant (Wing Panel 111; Plate 111-6) and a veil which separates the Holy of Holies in the Temple of Solomon (Panel WB2; Plate III-ll) that are probably similar to the veil that actually hung in the synagogue (Chapter 111). Wischnitzer (1964: 17) maintains that the parochet was aTempie accessory, serving to separate the Holy of Holies (dvir) from the main hall (11 Chronicles 3: 14). The

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Figure 11-32. Priene chance! screen I.

Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah IV.5) mentions that scrolls were moved behind a curtain (also Landsberger 1945-46:356-363, for Torah curtains). Chancel Screens

Stone chancel screens were regularly used to separate the Torah shrine from the congregation in the synagogue hall (for discussion see Branham 1992). A screen consists of two posts with a sI ab between them slotted into grooves in the posts. Inscriptions are sometimes found on the posts and slabs. The posts bear capitals, and the slabs are usually decorated on one or both sides with a carved sevenbranched menorah flanked by the ritual objects, the lulav, ethrog and shofar. Two birds appear on a slab from Priene (Figure 11-33), similar to birds added to a screen from Tiberias (Hachlili 1988:pl. 36). Chancel screens have been found in several diaspora synagogues or at sites co~ectured as being of synagogues. In several synagogues screens were found very near the Torah shrine, for example at Sardis, and in the Land of Israel (Hachlili 1988:187-191). Similar screens are found in Christian churches where they form a barrier between the clergy and the congregation (Hachlili 1988:189-191).

Priene. The synagogue of Priene yielded two stones that appear to be parts of chancel screens. A beautifuIly-carved stone (Figure 11-32) found in a nearby church was probably

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Figure 11-33. Priene chance! screen 11.

taken from the synagogue (Wiegand and Schrader 1904:475, fig. 582; Goodenough 1953, 11:77, III:fig. 878). The screen is decorated with a seven-branched menorah flanked by a lulav and shofar on the right and ethrog on the left. The ends of rolled-up Torah scrolls are carved above the tripod base of the menorah, in a similar manner to other examples. Another screen (61cm x 77cm) shows a seven-branched menorah flanked by two birds and a lulav on the left; on the right an oddly-shaped object is rendered, Kraabel (1979:490) interprets it as an ethrog, or it might be a vase (Figure 11-33; Wiegand and Schrader 1904:481, fig. 586; Goodenough 1953,11:77, III:fig. 882; Fine 1996:Pl.XII) . Sardis. A broken decorated marble slab (Figure 11-34; Plate 11-3) was discovered at the Sardis synagogue (Mitten 1963:43, fig. 33). The sI ab (S.62.26; 57cm high, 64cm wide) was lying face up on the mosaic floor dose to the south aedicula. The slab is decorated with an incised seven-branched menorah flanked by a shofar on the right and a lulav on the left; rolled Torah scrolls are carved under the curving branches flanking the central branch, in a similar manner to the Priene slab (Chapter VII). The sI ab appears to have been part of a low balustrade connected to the south aedicula, as there are cuttings in its upper corners for damps. Other fragments of railing were found nearby and mayaIso have been part of the balustrade.

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Figure II-34. Sardis screen.

Architraves

Ostia. Between the ends of the aedicula and the capitals were built two corbelled architraves, [h: 0.33-0.35m; w:0.47-0.485m; 1:1.85m] (Plate 11-10) caIVed at their ends with ]ewish symbols: a central menorah, decorated with a pattern of diamonds and circles, and flanked by a shofar on one side and a lulav and ethrog on the other. The architraves are caIVed in low relief and were probably originally gilded as traces remain. The outer sides are simple cornices; each of the inner sides bears a deep incision which served either to connect them or to support a pediment (Squarciapino 1963: 197). This pair of reliefed architraves is unique in synagogue decoration, although the symbols used for the ornamentation are common. Synagogue Architectural Furnishings Stone Chairs: Seat of the Elders

The term "Seat of the Elders" refers to the se at occupied by the leader of the congregation. This seat could be one of the benches where the community notables sat, albeit placed in a more prominent position, or it could be a stone chair standing alone, in which case it is known as a "Cathedra d'Moshe," an empty memorial throne for Moses. The Cathedra d'Moshe or the Seat of the Elders is usually placed next to the Torah shrine and seIVed as a seat for an honored elder such as the archisynagogos. In synagogues in the Land of Israel, chairs are found at Chorazin and

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Figure 11-35. The Cathedra d'Moshe at Delos.

Hammath-Tiberias (Hachlili 1988:193-194). Roth (1949:105; Rahmani 1990:210, 212) suggests these chairs served to enthrone the Torah scroll during certain services. Other scholars designate the Galilean chair as a "symbol ofJewish legal authority conferred upon teachers of Jewish law" (Renov 1975:233; but see Rahmani 1990:200 and n. 40). Yeivin (1985:275, fig. 8) suggests that the Cathedra d'Moshewas placed in the second aedicula in the synagogue of Chorazin and was used by the reader of the Torah; but see Rahmani (1990:202 and note 50) who refutes the suggestion because the platform was too small to accommodate the stone chair as weIl as the person reading the Torah. Safrai (1977:96; but see Rahmani 1990:200-201) maintains the chair served "the sage who taught Torah to the congregation." The Dura chair is considered by Rostovtzeff (1938:106) to be reserved for the Cohen. Roth (1949:102-105) and Rahmani (1990:212) contend that those chairs known as Cathedra d'Moshewere used as receptacles to hold the Torah scroll during the service. Deios. A Cathedra d'Moshe, a white marble chair with footstool (Figure 11-35) was found in situ flanked by a row of marble benches along the northern half of the west wall at Delos in room A (Figure 11-7). White (1987:148) writes that the benches and precisely-centered throne belong to the period of the renovation of Room A. Goodenough (1953, 11:71, n. 9) compares the Delos chair with thrones found in Greek theaters at Athens and Tegea; and thinks that it was a copy of a pagan throne for Jewish use. Bruneau (1970:492) similarly compares the chair with the throne of Dionysus' priest found in the theater at Athens, dated to the first century BCE. Hengel (1974: n. 160; 1975:37) suggests that the Delos chair was reserved for the leader of the service and that the Chorazin and Hammath-Tiberias chairs served for

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the teacher. Rahmani (1990:203) maintains that the Delos arrangement matches the description of the seating of the ]ewish court of law. Dura-Europos. A Se at of the Elders consisting of a plaster-covered bench is built on

the west wall, abutting the north side of the niche and forming aseries of five steps (Figure 11-10 and Figure 11-11; Kraeling 1979: 17, 260, pIs. V, XXV). These steps form a raised seat about 28cm above the level of the upper bench; the next to last, deeply worn step probably served as the footrest. Kraeling maintains that Samuel the elder, the builder of the synagogue, sat on this raised se at beside the Torah shrine. Elche. Wischnitzer (1964:12) maintains that "a bench combined with a stand for the

reader" stood along the north wall, and that the inscription which reads "vow of the archons and elders" in front of the bench indicates that it was the Seat of the Elders. Lepcis Magna. Steps forming a raised seat have been found next to the niche on the

]erusalem-oriented south-east wall (Figure 11-17), possibly used as a Se at of the Elders, similar to that at the Dura-Europos and 'En-Gedi synagogues. The Cathedra d'Moshe was clearly a prominent se at for one of the synagogue dignitaries, especially the Delos chair which quite obviously was intended to be sat upon, in the manner of the theater chairs. 7 In fact, the movable, quite elaborate stone chairs of Delos, Hammath-Tiberias and Chorazin should be designated Cathedra d'Moshe; however, for the much simpler raised seats at Dura, Lepcis Magna and 'En-Gedi, the term Seat of the Elders seems more appropriate. Pilasters Sardis. Many capitals and bases of pilasters were discovered in the synagogue of

Sardis. Majewski (1967:48-49, figs. 58-59) counts about 70 pilasters. The capitals are of two sizes: the large are 30cm high and 42cm wide, with base 20cm high and 40cm wide, and the small capitals are 17cm high and 30cm wide, with bases 15cm high and 30cm wide. Pilaster shafts were also found but in smaller numbers; it seems possible that some were made of pIaster. Most of the pilaster capitals were Corinthian. Among them is a large, decorated capital with a striding lion surrounded by acanthus leaves (Figure VIII-2; Mitten 1963:44, fig. 34, no. S.62.16). M.yewski (1967:49, fig. 59) proposes that the pilasters 7 Some pagan chairs, however, such as the Suweida chair that represented the se at of a goddess, were used as a deity symbol or attribute; Rahmani 1990:196, n. 26.

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Figure II-36. Sardis, marble table and lions loeation at the western end ofthe synagogue.

of both sizes were arranged in two tiers over the dado course, and might have been used as frames for the wall decoration. Sardis Synagogue Fumishings A marble table and lion sculptures found in the synagogue at Sardis are unique in their being the only known cases of pagan sculpture being reused in a synagogue.

Marble Table. A marble table stood at the end of the hall on the central axis of the building in front of the apse; it could be approached from the benches or from the side of the apse (Figure 11-25, 11-36; Plate 11-1). The table was found in secondary use, in the latest stage (4) of the synagogue main hall dated to the fourth century. The table supports were set into the floor, cutting into the mosaic thus suggesting that the table was a later addition (Seager 1983: 170). The table (Plates 11-4, 5) consists of a top placed on two supports decorated with eagles, and is named the 'eagle table' (Seager 1974:8-9; 1983:169-170; Hanfmann & Ramage 1978:148-149, no. 217, A, B, figs. 379-382). The top is made of a massive stone slab decorated on its sides with an egg and dart design. Two pairs of free standing lions flank the table. The heads of the eagles and lions were either deliberately destroyed or were unintentionally defaced.

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83

The table supports are decorated on their sides. Support A (Plate 11-4; south side of the table) and support B (Plate 11-5; north side) show eagles in antithetical relief with outstretched wings glancing right on support A, and left on support B. A pattern of overlapping feathers covers the legs, upper wings and ehest. Each foot has claws with three large talons clutching thunderbolts tied at the center. Each lower wing has six long feathers. The tail lies behind the left leg on support A and behind the right leg on support B. The left side of support A shows a strigated decoration which on support B is at the right end. The style of the table top and supports dates the table to the late Hellenistic or early Roman Imperial period. The table supports must have originally belonged to a Roman monument. In fact, the excavators suggest that the eagle sculptures decorated the apse ends when the building had been used as a civic basilica. Seager says that the table probably replaced a similar structure, and that it was used as a lectern for reading the Torah, the reader facing the congregation. Rahmani (1990:211 and n. 61) suggests that a wooden bamah may have served for the Torah reading, but does not exclude the possibility that the table served as a throne on which to place the Torah. This does not seem likely, however, as the table was located behind the congregation who faced east toward the Torah shrine andJerusalem, as did the notables seated in the apse. Another possibility is that the table may have been used to hold ritual objects needed during ceremonies.

Marble Lions. Two pairs of marble lions flanked the eagle table (Figure 11-36; Plate 11-1). The two pairs are identical, each probably carved out of a single marble block (Plates 11-6, 7; Hanfmann and Ramage 1978:63-65, No. 25 A-D, figs. 92-101). Each pair sits erect, back to back, their tails slung over their haunches. Their manes hang down to their shoulders and over the ehest. The faces are small with open, leering mouths. The two pairs of lions may have originally flanked an image of Cybele (Hanfmann and Ramage 1978:21, 34, 36, 64). They were probably originally carved during the period 450-350 BCE, and belong to a transitional period of LydianPersian sculpture when realistic rendering is incorporated into the archaie tradition. The two lion pairs were probably placed on either side of the eagle table during the fourth century (Seager 1983: 170). It was not coincidental that the Jewish community used lion sculptures in the Sardis synagogue (see Chapter VIII): they saw them either as symbols of the "Lion of Judah" (Genesis 49.9) or as a reference "to the existence of the synagogue phyle of the Leontiot"' (Hanfmann & Ramage 1978:38). The lion symbol is associated with both the Lion ofJudah and the traditionallion of Sardis (KraabelI978:22-23), and

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in fact "Leontioz" ("tribe of Judah") occurs on a donor's inscription from the synagogue (Mitten 1964:38). Other sculptures classified as Persian and Archaic that came originally from pagan sanctuaries destroyed under Constantine were used as building material for floors and walls (Hanfmann & Ramage 1978:figs. 5, 20-50; 38; 75-83). Hanfmann & Ramage maintain that the intentional reuse of "older sculpture was part of the ananeosis program carried out in the Gymnasium area during the later fourth to fifth centuries."

s

The Women Gallery

Much effort has been invested in trying to answer the provocative question of where women prayed in ancient synagogues, and many answers exist, as folIows. • Women were completely excluded from the synagogue. There is no evidence whatsoever to support this assumption. • A gallery was built for women. There are grounds to conclude that a gallery was built in some synagogues in the Land ofIsrael (Hachlili 1988:195-196). However, Brooten's (1982:123-138) survey ofavailable archaeological data shows that little archaeological or literary evidence has been offered to prove the existence of a gallery; and, furthermore, that even if it could be proved that a gallery existed, it would still be impossible to prove that it was meant for women. • It is suggested that women prayed in a side room at Aegina, Delos and HammamLif. At Delos, for example, a division between rooms A and B, and room C has been suggested. But, the precise function of these rooms has not been proven, nor is there any reason to designate them specifically for women (Brooten 1982:137). • Women were allowed in the assembly hall with the men but were confined to a separate part of the hall. In the later synagogue at Dura the women worshipped with the men, but were assigned to separate benches (Kraeling 1979: 16, 23-24, but see Brooten 1982:129). Kraeling suggests that a "portable and makeshift" partition may have separated the men and the women. • There was no separation of men and women in synagogue worship. This seems to be the only correct conclusion, based on evidence available from the diaspora and the Land of Israel (Safrai 1963; Brooten 1982:137). At Sardis there is no evidence of aseparation, and at Elche, Ostia, Priene and Stobi no separate section or women's gallery has even been proposed. Women participated in the administration of the synagogue and made donations

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

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for building and decorating synagogues. They also took part in the synagogue rituals as weIl as eommunity events (H. Safrai 1992).

C

SYNAGOGUES KNOWN FROM ARCHITECTURAL FRAGMENTS

Arehiteetural fragments diseovered at diaspora sites, often in seeondary use, may point to the existenee of a synagogue strueture that has not yet been found. This seetion deseribes eertain arehiteetural fragments deeorated withJewish symbols that were not found in synagogue eontexts.

Acmonia, Asia Minor. Two marble eapitals deeorated with amenorah and a Torah seroll may be from a synagogue building (Trebilco 1991:60). Aleppo. A small bamah (Figure 11-37) was found in a mosque that may onee have

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Figure 11-38. Capital from Corinth.

been a synagogue. It consists of a platform approached by three steps, with probably a railing. The columns around the bamah were probably ornamental (Sukenik 1934:58; Goodenough 1953,11:84, III:fig. 885). The bamah possibly served as a reading platform. Athenian Agora. A marble plaque fragment with an incised menorah flanked by a lulav was found at this site (Kraabel 1979:505-7, PI. I). It seems the plaque came from an arcuated doorway or niche, possibly from a synagogue. Bithynion-Claudiopolis, Bithnia, Asia Minor. A column with a Greek inscription and decorated with a menorah flanked by shofar, lulav and ethrog was found at this site (Roth-Gerson 1987b:144-145). Chersonesus, Crimea, Russia. Two stone fragments decorated with a menorah were discovered in second use, one in the Chersonesus basilica and the other in an early Roman cistern (MacLennan 1996:48-49). Corinth. A capital for a half-column and an attached pier was found in secondary use behind the stage in the Corinth theater (Figure 11-38). The pier end was decorated with three menoroth flanked by ethrog and lulav (Scranton 1957:116, no. 130, PI. 130a, b; Foerster 1981:185). Myndos. A screen post discovered at Myndos (Caria, Asia Minor) bears a Greek inscription dedicating a chance! screen dated to the sixth century (Goodenough 1953,11:79, III:fig. 883; Brooten 1982:32-33; Trebilco 1991:107; Rajak & Noy 1993:86, App. I, no. 19). This inscription is unique in the diaspora, although inscriptions are found on screens at several synagogues in the Land of Israel (Sukenik 1935:67; Hachlili 1988: 189). The post is similar to examples from the Land oflsrael (Hachlili 1988:188, fig. 31).

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

87

Figure 11-39. Architectural fragment from Pergamon.

Perga11Wn. An architectural fragment of a pediment (?) (Figure 11-39) was discovered at Pergamon (Mazur 1935:7, fig. 1; Goodenough 1953, 11:78-79, fig. 877). Decorated with a seven-branched menorah, it appears to be part of a pediment, possibly of a Torah shrine. A small amphora seems to be carved on top of the central branch. The menorah was flanked on one side bya lulav and ethrog. Unfortunately, the building to which the fragment belongs has not been found.

Porto. A column and capitals were found; one stone capital bears a crudely incised menorah (Goodenough 1953, III:fig. 793). Tarragona. A white marble trough, 57cm x 44cm x 14cm (Figure 11-40), is now exhibited at the Museo Sefardi, Toledo (Beinart 1973:22-23; Naveh 1978:148, no. 111; Garcia Iglesias 1978:56-57; Noy 1993:254-256, no. 185). On one long side ofthe basin are engravedJewish symbols and Hebrew, Latin and Greek inscriptions. In the center is a menorah flanked by a shofar and a lulav and two peacocks (Noy mistakenly identifies the lulav as a Tree of Life). The Hebrew inscription above the left peacock reads "Peace upon Israel, and upon ourselves, and upon our sons. Amen." The Latin inscription above the right peacock reads "pax, fides." Three unidentifiable Greek letters appear below the word pax. The use of the three languages may help to date the basin to the fifth to sixth centuries (Chapter IX; Noy 1993:254, but see Beinart who suggests the first to second centuries). The menoroth and ritual objects depicted on these fragments are discussed in Chapter VII.

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Figure II-40. Tarragona basin.

D

SYNAGOGUES KNOWN FROM INSCRIPTIONS

Many inseriptions found in the diaspora mention either proseuche or synagogos (see also Chapter IX). Some of the inseriptions are diseussed here. Synagogues in Egypt. Greek inseriptions found in Egypt, dating from the third een-

tury BCE to the seeond eentury CE, are the earliest inseriptions mentioning synagogue buildings. All use the term proseuche to mean a synagogue, and many of them refer to an as yet undiseovered synagogue in Alexandria. In nine inscriptions, the term proseuche explicitly means the synagogue building, thereby eonfirming its meaning as a]ewish plaee ofworship (Horbury & Noy 1992:13-14; 36; 202; nos. 9, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 105, 117, 126. Numbers given here follow those in this book). Honorifie dedications of proseuche are found on two inscriptions, one from Sehe dia, not far from Alexandria (no. 22), and the other from ArsinoeCroeodilopolis (no. 117); they are dated to 246-221 BCE and are the earliest Greek inscriptions mentioning proseuche built by a ]ewish eommunity. It is thought they refer to an early synagogue in Alexandria (Horbury & Noy 1992:36). A seeond eentury BCE dedieation of a proseuche appears on an inseription from Hadra Alexandria (no. 9). An inseription from Athribis, Benha dated to the seeond to first eentury BCE is an honorifie dedieation of an exedra, apart of a proseuche (no. 28). One inscription on asteie of unknown origin dated to the first to seeond eenturies notes the building of a proseuche by one family, an unusual oeeurrenee and probably indieating great wealth (Horbury & Noy 1992:215-216, no. 126). Referenees to Egyptian synagogues are found not only in inseriptions: the Talmud mentions the great synagogue of Alexandria (jT, Sukkah V, I (55a, b); BT, Sukkah 51b; Tosefta, Sukkah IV, 6), where it is deseribed as a great basiliea with eolonnades, golden ehairs and a wooden bamah for the hazan (see diseussion Krauss 1922:261-263; Goodenough 1953, II:84-86).

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

89

Synagogues in Rnme. That there were many synagogues in Rome is known from catacomb inscriptions, even though no trace of a synagogue structure has been discovered. No less than 11 synagogues are mentioned in inscriptions: the Agrippesian, Augustesian, Calcaresian, Campesian, Elaea, Hebrew, Secenian, Siburesian, Tripolitan, Vernaelesian and Volumnesian. Four further synagogue names have been suggested as appearing in the inscriptions but Leon (1960: 135-166) rejects them for lack of evidence. The term synagogue in Greek and Latin is usually mentioned in connection with officials of the congregations. Synagogues in Asia Minor. Both synagogue and proseuche have been found in inscriptions from Asia Minor dated from the first to the third century. The Julia Severa inscription from Acmonia ca. 60 CE mentions a synagogue erected by Julia Severa and others who restored it and donated wall murals and ceiling (Lifshitz 1967:no. 33; Trebilco 1991:58-60, 83). On a pillar from Deliler, Lydia, third century, the dedication of a synagogue is cited (Schürer et al. 1986:167; Trebilco 1991:162). A third century inscription commemorates Tation, a woman from Phocaea, Ionia, who donated a whole synagogue building (Trebilco 1991:110-111). At Side a fourth century inscription mentions a synagogue furnished with two menoroth and two capitals (Goodenough 1953, 11:81-83; Lifshitz 1967:no. 36). These inscriptions all use the term synagogue; three other inscriptions use the term proseuche (Trebilco 1991:136-137,155-156).

E

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

Synagogue Locations

Diaspora synagogue buildings are situated at various locations in their town or village. Synagogues at Aegina, Delos, and Hammam-Lif are built near the sea or on the sea shore, and the Ostia synagogue stands on a river bank. The Sardis and Stobi synagogues are situated at the center of the town where they are part of large complexes of civic and religious buildings. The synagogues of Delos, Dura-Europos, Priene and Hammam-Lif are situated in dwelling quarters. The communities of Philippopolis and Elche constructed their synagogues far from the town center. It is possible that a factor in the location of these synagogues was the convenience they provided for commercial and communal activities, in their being situated elose to the city center, or to main roads. Most synagogue structures were detached buildings, except for those at Dura-

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Europos and Priene, and were a central structure in the Jewish quarter, making it easily accessible for worship. In most communities the synagogue was built in a prominent position.

Types 0/ Structures Dwelling Houses Refurbished as Synagogues. Often, dwelling houses were alte red and renovated so that they could be used as synagogues. At Delos, Dura-Europos, Priene and Stobi, residences were converted into assembly halls and community centers. The earliest Delos synagogue in the second century BeE probably existed in a typical private house taken by the Jewish community and refurbished as a community center of worship. The later Dura synagogue was also a typical Durene private house, albeit modified. A large room was created that included a Torah shrine niche, a colonnaded portico was built, the courtyard was paved and rooms were adapted for travelers' lodgings. The house-tumed-synagogue served from then on as a religious building as well as a community center when it was remodeled in the second part of the second century, in the early days of the Roman occupation. At Priene, a modest Hellenistic house was renovated as a synagogue in the second century. The building re~ains of synagogue I at Stobi together with the important inscription of Polycharmos indicate that the rooms of a dwelling house were remodeled in the second to third centuries for use as a place of worship. Strnctures Built as Synagogues. Synagogues erected for the specific purpose of worship and constructed as rectangular halls with a Torah shrine are found at Apamea, Ostia and Philippopolis dating to the fourth century and at Hammam-Lif dating to the fifth to sixth centuries. At Sardis, a civic building was renovated into the largest of the diaspora synagogues.

Synagogue Design Diaspora synagogue design usually seems to be the result of local choices according to contemporary styles. White (1990:62) maintains, for example, that there was a "line of development for the synagogue as a result of the social contexts of its diffusion and adaptation." Although design may lack conformity, synagogue plans do seem to have several common characteristic features (Table 11-1).

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

91

General plan. This is usually an oblong central hall, sometimes divided into a main hall and aisles by columns (Priene) or piers (Sardis). Several synagogues have a courtyard, portico and narthex attached to the prayer hall (Aegina, Dura-Europos, Hammam-Lif, Ostia, Philippopolis, Priene and Sardis). Basilical plan. This is a longitudinal hall divided by columns and mosaic decoration into a nave and aisles. Synagogues of this type are found at Aegina, Elche, Mopsuhestia, Philippopolis and Sardis, dating to the fourth to sixth centuries. An apse or aedicula served as the Torah shrine. Torah Shrine. The important focal point of the building in the majority of synagogues is the Torah shrine in the form of an aedicula, niche or apse, usually on the wall oriented towards Jerusalem. Benches lined the prayer hall walls at Delos, Dura-Europos, Priene and Stobi. At the synagogue of Sardis the benches were built into the apse, and not along the walls. At Ostia there was probably seating on the bench abutting the west wall. Entrances. Synagogues at Aegina, Delos, Hammam-Lif, Ostia and Sardis had tri pIe entrances; Dura-Europos had two entrances; others at Elche and Priene had a single entrance. Additional rooms built onto the main structure served as residences and hostels for visitors from other communities in the synagogues at Delos, Dura-Europos, Ostia and Priene. Forecourt. The forecourt is a characteristic feature at Sardis and probably existed at Aegina and Philippopolis. There was an inner courtyard at Dura-Europos and Hammam-Lif. Axial plan. In late synagogues a change occurs in architectural design: the main hall, the Torah shrine and the forecourt are aligned, all conforming to the direction of worship. At Dura-Europos and Sardis in the later periods, and at Priene and Stobi, colonnaded frontal courts with receptades for water or fountains are laid out along the central axis. Seager (1975:93-97) contends that the development of this axial courtyard may be connected to the placement of the Torah shrine on the Jerusalem oriented wall. The courtyard and the Torah shrine were possibly created at the same time, a Dura invention. Seager maintains that the courts served the Jewish community as a gathering place and anteroom for entry into the hall, and the water source possibly

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served for hand washing before prayer. The axial alignment, position and organization of the court were significant and not incidental. "They may have represented a new or increased emphasis on the directionality of worship, or at least astronger architectural expression of it," by comparison with the Galilean synagogues where "attention is directed inward to the central space." Seager further argues that the colonnaded court has its origins in Hellenistic-Roman monumental structures. Kraeling (1979:22), by comparison, maintains that the general axial organization and form of the Dura synagogue derives from the domestic architecture of Mesopotamia. Decoration. Decoration of synagogues in the diaspora as weIl as in the Land of Israel, consisting of architectural ornamentation, wall paintings and mosaic pavements, is infused with Jewish symbols and motifs. It is interesting to note that in some of the diaspora synagogues the hall is divided into nave and aisles not by columns but by the pavement ornamentation, for example at Sardis, Stobi and Elche. The lack of any mosaic pavements at Dura-Europos and Palmyra should also be noted. Furnishing. Synagogue furnishings and fittings were also important to the Jewish

community's sense of esthetics, indicated by the attention paid to architectural detail, decoration and furnishings. Bamoth, chance! screens, holes for veils, Cathedra d'Moshe (or Seat of the Elders) have been found at diaspora synagogues. Especially noteworthy are the outstanding furnishings at the synagogue of Sardis, induding a reused marble table flanked by pagan lion sculptures.

Synagogues Converted into Churches

In the late Roman Empire, synagogue, church and temple coexisted side by side. During the third century synagogue and church are established within dwelling houses whereas pagan temples stand in a conspicuous location, but by the fourth century synagogue and church are also recognizably visible, transforming the face of the ancient city. During the fourth century Jewish communities flourished in the diaspora, erecting many synagogues. This was the time of Theodosius I, who published an edict forbidding government interference in Jewish internal affairs and protecting the Jews against attack by the Christian dergy. By the reign of Theodosius 11 (408-450), however, the status of the Jews had deteriorated. The Codex 01 Theodosius deprived the Jews of their civil rights and forbade them to hold government or military office, while at the same time assaults on Judaism were instigated by the Christian

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

93

clergy. One result was the expulsion ofJews from cities such as Alexandria. Proselytism was forcibly practiced and synagogues were converted into churches, or were destroyed and churches were built above them, throughout the diaspora. The synagogues of Apamea, Elche, Lepcis Magna and Stobi (and also Gerasa in Jordan) were found below churches. At Apamea, the synagogue mosaic pavement has survived in an excellent state, evidence that it existed for a short period only (Sukenik 1950-51:543). In the fifth century, the Christian Atrium church was built on the synagogue and was enlarged and decorated in the sixth century (Brenk 1991). At Gerasa a synagogue built in the fourth (Sukenik 1932:55-56) or early fifth century (Kraeling 1938:323) was supplanted deliberately by a church in 530 CE, as attested by the church inscription. 8 At Ostia, Sardis and Hammam-Lif, by contrast, the synagogues were not supplanted by churches. The Elche building may have been originally a fourth century synagogue, as attested by the inscriptions, and was later converted into a church. A wall and side chambers were added after the fourth century (Schlunk & Hauschild 1978:l43-147; Wischnitzer 1964:12). At Stobi, synagogue 11, although still in good condition, was deliberately replaced by the Christian Basilica church during the late fourth or early fifth century at considerable expense. The small synagogue hall at Lepcis Magna was probably converted into a church during the sixth century (Ward-Perkins 1952:111-112; Foerster 1986:55-56). The intentional conversion of diaspora synagogues into churches demonstrates the political power gained by Christianity throughout late antiquity. For example, many churches were discovered at Apamea in Syria and Stobi in Macedonia, reflecting the strong position of Christianity in these towns. However, the conflict between the religious groups did not develop at the same pace throughout the Roman Empire. Whereas at some sites synagogues were completely destroyed or supplan ted, at other places, such as Ostia and Sardis, synagogues survived and even prospered.

Distinguishing Features The early synagogues of the first century BCE to the first century CE (such as at Delos and in the Land of Israel) had no distinguishing architectural features. Social 8 Brenk, 1991:17-19, maintains that remains at Rabbat Moab and at Chersonesos (Crimea in Russia; also MacLennan 1996) show that there too Christian buildings were built above synagogues.

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needs of the Jewish community as weIl as liturgical requirements were the reasons for the construction of synagogues in the form of assembly halls, with those characteristic features which help to identify them. Only after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple did the synagogues acquire their distinctive appearance, especially the Torah shrine constructed on the Jerusalem-oriented wall. The Torah shrine took three forms: the aedicula found in the diaspora synagogues of Sardis, Stobi and Ostia and in synagogues of the Golan, Galilee and elsewhere in the Land of Israel (Hachlili 1988: 167-179); the niche found in diaspora synagogues of Dura, Apamea and Priene, and in the Land of Israel in the Jordan valley andJudea (Hachlili 1988:179-180); and the apse in the synagogues of Aegina and Elche, and at Sardis where it had a different function-for seating, as weIl as in many sixth century synagogues in the Land of Israel (Hachlili 1988:180182). From its inception the Torah shrine, the characteristic structure for containing the Ark of the ScroIls, was the major architectural feature of the synagogue in the diaspora and in the Land of Israel. It was given a permanent place in the synagogue structure from the second century on. Sardis was the only synagogue in the diaspora which had two aediculae. However, in the Land of Israel there are quite a few synagogues with two similarly constructed aediculae flanking the entrances, at Nabratein, Capernaum, Chorazin and Meroth, all in the Galilee (Hachlili 1988:173177). One pair of aediculae may have served to house the Ark of the ScroIls, the other to house the menorah. The apse in the diaspora synagogues appears in the fourth century at Aegina and Elche. In the Land of Israel, however, it was a later invention, an integral structure in the synagogues of the sixth century (except for synagogues in the Golan and Galilee, Hachlili 1988: 196-199). The architecture of the diaspora synagogue structure is seen to vary widely from place to place, indicating that uniform worship did not require a uniform plan; no standard design exists for synagogue buildings (Table 11-1). Jewish features such as the Torah shrine and menorah, as weIl as benches, distinguish the synagogue structures. Archaeological evidence indicates diversity of architectural forms for the various communities and for various social or liturgical conditions. Furthermore, the frontal axial court appearing in some of the diaspora synagogues, and also characteristic of the fifth to sixth century synagogues in the Land of Israel, made unnecessary the ornamented facades which decorated the exterior of the Galilean and Golan synagogues (Hachlili 1988:231). The size, location, form and decoration of a synagogue were determined by local influences and circumstances. The building reflected the social environment; the

SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE

95

size and social standing of the ]ewish community in the city; the status and weaIth of the patrons and donors; the money and resources available for the purchase of the property, whether land or structure; and the resources of the community to renovate the site partly or extensively. Thus, the communities who refurbished houses as assembly halls were apparently small and their means limited. Dura is an exception, where the community aIthough small, about 140 people, had the means and the will to decorate their synagogue with elaborate murals. Communities which built synagogues such as Sardis and Aegina were well established and may have feit the need to glory in their large, well-appointed synagogues. Inscriptions found in the synagogues of the diaspora prove the importance of donors, patrons and leaders of the ]ewish community and their involvement in property donations, and in the construction and decoration of the synagogues. The state of the synagogue buildings and their numbers compared to the churches and pagan temples can also convey the relationship between the lews and the local population, pagan or Christian. Although religious life varied according to local conditions, maintaining ]ewish identity was important and this is reflected in the synagogues and their decoration.

CHAPTER THREE

SYNAGOGUE ART: THE DURA-EURO POS SYNAGOGUE WALL PAINTINGS

ADESCRIPTION OF THE WALL PAINTINGS

The third century Dura-Europos wall paintings, I the visual expression of a community's religious philosophy, are considered some of the most important and unique in the ancient world. Synagogue hall, walls and ceiling are covered by narrative compositions and ornamentation that from the very beginning form an integral part of the synagogue design concept, and remain so throughout all building stages. The paintings are not fresco but "powdery tempera brushed into dry pIaster" (Hopkins 1973:15, 17). At each phase of the building, wall paintings were executed as part of the decoration of the synagogue. There were three stages to the construction of the building: 1. The earlier building. 2. The later building, first stage. 3. The later building, second stage. This is the stage in which the narrative scenes were painted.

Wall Paintings, Earlier Building

Decorations covered the walls and ceilings of the assembly hall and room 7, probably executed in the second half of the second century. Assembly Hall: The walls are decorated in three horizontal zones (Figure III-1a; Kraeling 1979:PI. XLIX). The highest zone is plastered in white. The middle zone is decorated with a dado about a meter high, in painted imitation of marble, bordered with a wide reddish-purple band. The area is divided by panels of solid

I The wall paintings are discussed in chronological order, mainly following the description by Kraeling.

97

SYNAGOGUE ART: THE DURA-EUROPOS SYNAGOGUE

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and black diagonal shapes with diamonds inset with discs at their centers, in black, yellow, green and red. Similar designs in marble decorate the walls of the Sardis synagogue (Plate 11-2). The lowest zone is an imitation of marble flint in yellow with veins in ochre, green and yellow. The ceiling in white, red, blue and black is decorated by pIaster, painted to imitate a coffered ceiling. The design consists of sunken blue panels in rows intersecting on a gridiron of beams; red discs appear at the intersections. Each panel has a pIaster gold rosette mounted at its center (Figure 111-1 b; Kraeling 1979:Pl. L). The design is framed by black, red and white lines. RoQm 7: Ornamentation here is more modest, and little of it has survived. The south wall is divided horizontally by a red band about 1.50m above the floor. The upper section is painted in yellow with fruit and flowers and overpainted with foliage in green, red and black. The lower section is painted white. The ceiling is painted with red bands dividing it into small squares outlined in black. Each field contains a single fruit or floral motif in color on a white background. A border of stripes in black, blue and red on a cove molding frames the design (Figure III-2; Kraeling 1979:36, PI. L). The ceiling design is meant to imitate a garden trellis. Decoration of the walls of the earlier building consists of simple and modest designs. Walls and ceilings are painted in a traditional and conventional manner, probably executed by local artists who took the themes from a general repertoire. No Jewish symbols are included, nor are animals or humans depicted, except for

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Center Panels (The Reredos)

Apart from the decorations on the Torah shrine itself, the paintings on these panels, due to their position above the Torah shrine and at the center of the most important wall of the assembly hall and because of the focal importance of the Torah shrine they decorate, must be considered as being especially significant. The center panels of the west wall above the Torah shrine, called "reredos" (by Goodenough 1964, IX:78), were redecorated in two successive phases: an early phase utilizing the painting of the previous phase, but with figural additions; and a later phase when it is divided into two equal panels flanked by four narrow Wing Panels (I-IV). The paintings of the central panels on the west wall are aligned slightly off-axis.

Redecoration, Early Phase. In the early phase of the second stage, the tree and certain symbolic objects from the previous stage are preserved, but with important changes. These include the addition of a large lion superimposed on the tree's foliage in the center of the picture; and, in the upper panel, a king, seated on a throne attended by servants, also superimposed on the foliage (Figure III-8a). Sukenik (1947:62) and Goodenough (1964, IX:79-92) think that the lyre player

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Figure 111-9. Central area, later building, se co nd stage, later phase.

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belongs to this phase (Figure 111-8); du Mesnil (1939:27-28) maintains that the tree leaves were painted to cover the human figures. The king, his associates and the lion are interpreted by Kraeling (1979:220) as the Promised King ofJudah (David) and the Lion according to the Shiloh prophecy (Genesis 49:9-10). Others suggest it represents David as the Messiah (Weitzmann & Kessler 1990:164-5). Redecoration, Later Phase. At this stage a group of six panels was painted above the Torah shrine, not exactly centered upon the axis of the Torah shrine (Figure 1119; Kraeling 1979:214-217). This part of the west wall now consisted of two horizontal central panels flanked by four narrow Wing Panels (Plate 111-4), unfortunately in a bad state of preservation. A red wash covers the earlier painting and the two center panels are redesigned with a new composition. The upper center panel is decorated with a single scene, the lower with three scenes (see also Goldstein 1990:71-72) . Upper Center Panel. The king and his two companions survive from the design of the earlier phase (Kraeling 1979:225-227). An important personage, probably a king, sits on a throne in the center of the panel flanked by a large group of figures. He is painted in a similar manner to the figures of Pharaoh and Ahasuerus (Figure 11132). The group of figures is arranged in two rows, standing facing the audience (Figure 111-9; Plate 111-5a). They wear long-sleeved tunics, trousers and boots, except for the two companions beside the seated figure who are dressed differently in white chitons and himatia. They gesture with their hands. Six figures stand in the upper row above the king's throne, three on either side. In the lower row, seven figures have been added, four on the left, three on the right. This brings the number of additional figures to thirteen, which has encouraged some scholars to interpret the scene as King David presiding over Israel, 13 representing the eleven tribes and the two half tribes (the 11 sons of Jacob and the two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh) . This interpretation, suggested by Kraeling (1979:225229), has been accepted by many scholars; others, however, have given the panel other interpretations: the apotheosis of Moses with Aharon and Hur (du Mesnil 1939:43-45); Pharaoh confronted by Moses and Aharon (Leveen 1944:24-31); Moses' Blessing (Sonne 1947:342-355);Joseph and his brethren in Egypt (Wischnitzer 1948:91-99); the Glorification of Israel (Goodenough 1964); Moses and Aharon flanking Pharaoh who agrees to let the Israelites leave Egypt (Sukenik 1947:64); the Messiah, Moses and Elijah (Goldstein 1990:94); David and the two attendants; the prophets Samuel and Nathan (Weitzmann & Kessler 1990:90-91).

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Figure III-lO. Central area, lower part oflower panel.

Lower Center Panel. Some of the older design is still preserved in this panel. Red wash covers the tree and the flanking objects. Two scenes based on Genesis 48-49 appear in the lower part (Figure III-10, Plate 111-5b). On the left side of the panel, Jacob reclines on a yellow couch with a green mattress, a yellow footstool placed beneath the couch. His left arm is supported by a cushion, his face framed with dark hair looks straight ahead. His twelve sons are depicted behind hirn in two groups of six, dressed in tunks, trousers and boots, en face with curly hair. On the right side of the panel stands Joseph, his hands touching his two sons Manasseh and Ephraim. He is also shown in a frontal position; behind hirn Jacob reclines on a similar couch; they too wear tunics, trousers and boots, and Joseph has a sword at his left side. The scenes represent the blessing by Jacob of his 12 sons, on the left and his blessing of Joseph and his two sons, on the right. On the upper part of the same panel, the lion from the earlier phase is preserved at the center. A musician is depicted seated on a throne in the upper left corner (Figure 111-9). It is clear that he is a later addition to the panel, as he has been painted on top of the red wash and the foliage from the first stage (see Sukenik, 1947:62, fig. 22, who maintains that the seated musician belongs to the original first stage of the decoration of the later building; Figure 1II-8b). The musician wears a royal costume of an ornamented long-sleeved tunic and trousers, white boots, a "Phrygian" cap and a chlamys over his left shoulder. In his left hand he holds a lyre which he plays with his right; vestiges of the throne can be seen beside his right shoulder; a large yellow eagle perches on the rail of the throne (?). The figure seems to be playing to the lion, a possible eagle, a monkey (?) and a

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bird and is typical of depictions of Orpheus. Kraeling (1979:224-5, and most scholars) identifies the figure as King David dressed as a musician to emphasize his piety (see Chapter V).

Center Panels 0/ the West Wall-Chronological Summary. Much controversy exists among scholars as to the chronology of the various scenes on the center panel of the west wall (for a good summary of the controversy see Goldstein 1990:67-77). Evidence as to when each phase was painted is equivocal and uncertain, so that a definite conclusion is alm ost impossible. The following summary is mainly based on the evidence and descriptions given by Kraeling (1979:215-287) and the available photographic material. Three layers of painted scenes are observed: To the first stage of the later building belongs a tree that takes up the whole of the central area. On either side of the tree trunk is an object: on the right, a table supported by a rampart pair of lions, possibly with a crater vase placed in front of them; and on the left, a throne with objects on top and under it (Figure 111-3). In the early phase of the second stage, a large lion is superimposed on the tree in the center of the panel above the tree trunk; a king seated on a throne and flanked by two courtiers is painted on the tree leaves at the top center (Figure 111-8a,b). In the later phase ofthe second stage the central area is divided into two horizontal panels flanked by four Wing Panels. In the upper panel the seated figure is now flanked by additional figures arranged in two rows, six figures in the upper row and seven in the lower one (Figure 111-9). A seated lyre player, with an eagle perched on its left (?), is portrayed in the lower panel, on top of the red paint covering the tree; below, two blessing scenes are depicted: the left scene shows a figure reclining on a couch flanked by twelve figures; the right scene shows two smaller figures, their heads touched by a figure standing in front of a reclining figure on a couch (Figures III-9, 10; Plates III-4, 5). The Wing Panels Four narrow Wing Panels flank the center panels, helping to frame the central area and to emphasize its importance (Plates 111-4, 6). Each Wing Panel portrays a single figure who seems to represent an individual person in a historical narrative. The head has been chosen for special attention by the artist and is treated in a manner which recalls Hellenistic mummy portraits in Egypt.

Wing Panel I, Register A, to the right of the upper center panel (Plate III-6 upper right). A figure stands frontally, his right hand extended and gesturing towards a bush on the left, his shoes placed beside hirn next to the bush; a Hand of God is shown above the figure to the left. The figure's head is depicted in a frame, he is

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Figure III-ll. Wing panel II, register A.

bearded and has curly black hair; he is dressed in chiton and himation. Between the figure's legs a cast shadow is rendered as an inverted V. A dipinto, two lines to the right of the figure's shoulder, are written in Aramaic: 'i'? 1:l i1illr.l "Moses, son of Levi" (Torrey 1979:271, inscr. 6). Kraeling (1979:228) and other scholars agree in identifying this scene as showing Moses and the Burning Bush (Exodus 3).

Wing Panel 11, Register A, to the left of the upper center panel (Figure 111-11). Approximately three-quarters of the scene survives, showing a moving figure wearing a chiton and ornamented himation with tassels. His right hand holds a square object to the right. Two boots are placed close to his left foot, similar to those in Wing Panel I, but depicted in a simpler manner. Most scholars identify the figure with Moses Receiving the Law (Exodus 24; Kraeling 1979:231-232), but others interpret it as the scene of Joshua confronted by the angel (foshua 5:13-15; Leveen 1944:33; Sukenik 1947:70). Wing PanellII, Register B, to the right of the center panel (Plate 111-6 lower right). This panel is one of the most finely executed paintings at Dura. A figure, dressed in chiton and himation and wearing sandals, stands frontally holding an especially large scroll. The figure's head, bearded and with curly hair, is rendered in a frame; feet and hands are carefully drawn. A round-topped object covered with a red cloth is depicted beside his feet on the left, similar to others in WB2, WB4, NB1, and probably represents the Ark of the Covenant (Chapter VII). The interpretation of this scene is in dispute: Kraeling (1979:234-234), du

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Mesnil (1939:92-94) and Perkins (1973:64) identify it as Ezra reading the Law (Nehemiah 8). Grabar (1941:178-190) says it isJoshua reading the Law (11 Kings 23:13; 11 Chronicles 34:29-31). Sonne (1947:300) suggests Samuel the EIder, the builder of the Dura synagogue. Kessler (1987:152-154) suggestsJeremiah with the hidden Ark of the Covenant. Leveen (1944:32-35), Sukenik (1947:64-73), Goodenough (1965, XII:164-165) and Avi-Yonah (1973:119) maintain that Moses is represented as referred to in Exodus 24:7 reading the Book of the Covenant, or a mystic scroll (?). Wing Panel W, Register B, to the left of the center panel (Plate 111-6 lower left). An old man with hair and beard painted white, dressed in an ornamented chiton, himation and wearing sandals, is represented frontally, his hands crossed and covered by the garment folds. His head is placed in a black frame and a cast shadow in the form of a dark inverted V is painted between his feet. The upper part of the panel is painted with astral bodies consisting of the sun (left), the moon (right) and seven stars. Various interpretations are given to this scene: the figure is identified as Joshua ordering the sun and moon to stand still before the battle of Gibeon (joshua 10: 1214; Leveen 1944:34; Sukenik 1947:72); as Jacob in his dream at Bethel (Genesis 28:10ff; Sonne 1947:291-298); as Abraham because he is the first person mentioned in the bible as having white hair, and because the gesture of crossed and covered hands signifies the receiving of promise and divine favor (Genesis 15; Kraeling 1979:237-238; Wischnitzer 1948:79-80; Hopkins 1973:147; Perkins 1973:64); as Isaiah prophesying the age to come (Kessler 1987:149-152); and as Moses recounting the Song and Blessing to the people before his ascent of Mount Nebo (Deuteronomy 32:33; Schneid 1946:46; Goodenough 1964, IX:110-123; 1965, XII: 164-165; Avi-Yonah 1973:119; Goldstein 1990:87-89,99).

The four Wing Panels flank the center panels on the west wall. They are unified by composition, design and location in the painting scherne: each panel shows a single figure flanked by objects, all the figures are dressed similarly, their heads are treated similarly and the panels are placed symmetrically on the wall. What is represented, therefore, is the same figure depicted in various situations. The identification of the figure with Moses seems to be the most well-grounded.

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Description of the Narrative Panels Later Building, Second Stage 2 The Panels of the West Wall Register A

Register A consists of (from left to right) three panels, two badly preserved and one long panel in a better condition.

WAl. This panel is poorly preserved, only about 30cm remaining of the lower part of the composition (Plate 1II-7). Feet of two groups are depicted, moving from left to right. The figure on the extreme right is dressed in chiton and himation, the second figure in decorated trousers, tunic and boots. On the left, the bare legs of a group of five figures survive. Identification is difficult. Kraeling (1979:87-88) suggests the anointing of Solomon, perhaps connected in subject to WA2 (I Kings 1:38-40). Du Mesnil (1939:48) proposes Joseph greeting his brothers in Egypt or presenting them to Pharaoh. Sonne (1947:274ff) suggests Jacob's burial. Wischnitzer (1948:70f) proposes Sau I among the Prophets. WA2. A narrow strip, poorly preserved, survives. On the right a king sits on his throne with two seated members of his court flanking hirn (Plate III-8). The surviving part of the throne includes a six-step dais. A crouching lion and an eagle confront each other at the ends of each step in an alternating pattern (see the section in this chapter entitled lconography ofthe Wall Paintings; Figure III-45). The two men flanking the throne sit on golden folding chairs with red cushions; they are dressed in chiton and himation and their feet rest upon the cushions. On the left three figures appear, two of them women. The women wear ornamented shawls or cloaks above skirts, garments of a queen or princess. Two Greek tituli appear in the panel: CAHMWN "Solomon" is inscribed on the third step of the dais and CYNKAe~POA "Counselor," appears under the folding chair at the left of the throne (WeHs in Kraeling 1979:279, nos. 30, 31). This scene has been identified as Solomon meeting the Queen of Sheba (I Kings 10-13; Kraeling 1979:89; Sukenik 1947:86f), or Solomon'sJudgment (I Kings 3:16-28; du Mesnil 1939:46f; Grabar 1941:6; Wischnitzer 1948:71-73).

WAl. A long composition of three scenes is depicted here. The scenes develop from right to left (Plate III-9). 2 The numbers of the panels follow that in Kraeling. On each wall the order of the panels is from left to right.

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Scene 1: On the extreme right a city wall with an open gate and free standing columns is portrayed, representing Egypt (Exodus 9:22-26). Stones are shown falling on the building. Kraeling (1979:74-86) and others maintain it was the plague of hail; and Sukenik (1947:60) contends it represents the stones and arrows thrown by the Egyptians on the Israelites. A very large figure dressed in chiton and himation leads a host from the city towards water. The host is arranged in isocephalic convention in four horizontal companies, moving towards the left. The figures in the foreground row are dressed as civilians; one man holds a child and a bag or a roll of cloth, representing the unleavened dough for the Passover. Several men look back. The second and last rows show soldiers, with heImets, spears and shields (KraeIing 1979:figs. 17-21). It is unusual to portray soldiers among the departing IsraeIites, but it may represent the rabbinical interpretation of Exodus 13: 18 (as in jT. Shabbat VI, 4 ,Kraeling 1979:80-81 and n. 237). Between these two companies is a row of twelve civilians wearing chiton and himation representing the elders of the tweIve tribes of Israel (Exodus 12:21). The large bearded figure of Moses is rendered striding to the left, wearing a chiton, himation and sandals. His raised right hand holds a staff about to strike the water. An Aramaic titulus appears between his legs "Moses when he went out from Egypt and cleft the sea" (Figure IX-3; Torrey 1979:269-270, inscr. 3). Scene 2: The drowning of the Egyptians is presented by figures swimming and drowning in the water in horizontal lines. Moses with the staff in his right arm stands to their left. A faded Aramaic dipinto above his shoulder reads "Moses" (Figure IX-3; Torrey 1979:270, inscr. 4). The artist has omitted horses, chariots or any indication that the swimmers are soldiers. Scene 3: This scene also shows Moses, once again painted large and identical to the figure on the right. He holds the staff to a narrow strip of black, fish-inhabited water. Towards his left two companies cross the Red Sea: one is the eIders of the twelve tribes holding "standards" and the second is a company of soldiers. They cross 12 paths painted behind the figures of Moses. An Aramaic dipinto is inscribed to the left of the figure of Moses "Moses when he cleft the sea" (Exodus 12-14; Figure IX-3; Torrey 1979:inscr. 5). A red Hand of God appears out of the cloud in scenes 2 and 3, depicted as a pair (see the section in thischapter entitled Iconography 01 the Wall Paintings; Figure III-31b). Moses is the central figure in each of the scenes. The company of the Israelites has been portrayed in a similar manner throughout, although in scene 3 only two companies appear. Wide black and red bands along the upper part of the background represent clouds in all three scenes, interpreted (Sukenik 1947:60; Kraeling 1979:76) as "the pillar of cloud" and "the pillar offire" (Exodus 13:21-22).

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Two columns standing beside the city gate with Corinthian capitals, one with a black shaft and one with a red shaft, mayaIso represent the pillar of cloud and the pillar of fire. These scenes in the paintings are weIl visualized, interpretation being corroborated by inscriptions 3-5: the three scenes portray the Exodus (scene 1), the Drowning of the Egyptians (scene 2) and the Crossing of the Red Sea (scene 3). The Panels 01 West wall Register B

Four panels, WBl-4, are depicted on register B of the West Wall.

WBl. First panel on the left (Plate III-10; Kraeling 1979:118-125). An aedicula consisting of two columns surmounted bya gable stands in the upper center of the panel; the seven-branched menorah and the shewbread table flanked by a pair of candelabra appear in front of the sanctuary. Twelve winding streams of water flow from a weIl towards twelve tents arranged six on either side of the scene. Small figures in Iranian wear, hands upraised, stand in front of the tents. A tall bearded figure, Moses, stands to the left of the weIl, dressed in Greek wear. In his right hand he holds a staff that touches the water in the weIl. The figures and the tents are drawn to a different scale. Note the empty fifth tent on the right, its figure standing next to the weIl. There is no consensus about the meaning of this scene: Kraeling (1979:118, 123-124) using Numbers 2:21 suggests it depicts the Wilderness Encampment and the Miraculous WeIl of Be'er; Du Mesnil (1939:64-69) maintains it portrays the Feast of Tabernacles; Sonne (1947:305) thinks it shows the Wells of Elim; Sukenik (1947:98-101) chooses the Waters of Marah; Wischnitzer (1948:55-58) identifies it as Moses giving the Law; and Gutmann (1984a:1320-1321) identifies the scene with Miriam's WeIl. According to Weitzmann (Weitzmann & Kessler 1990:66-67) the tabernacle menorah is flanked by two candlesticks, not thymiateria or incense burners as interpreted by Kraeling. Furthermore, "the candlestick used twice in the Dura fresco to flank a menorah can only mean that it had lost its original meaning and that the two have simply become part of a larger temple inventory, no longer associated with the tent tabernacle." Weitzmann disagrees with Kraeling that the table represents the shewbread table because it shows no bread; he believes that it represents the altar of incense (for a discussion of the shewbread table, see the section entitled The Shewbread Table in this chapter and Chapter VII).

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Figure III-12. WB2.

WB2. (Plate III-11; Figure III-12; Kraeling 1979:125-131). The lower part of the panel portrays a crenelated wall, representing a temenos, with three closed doors surmounted with conch-decorated arches. The central door is larger than the two side ones. A green-pink curtain hangs in front of the middle door. The interior of a sanctuary appears in the upper part of the panel. It is a modest structure with gabled roof and columns, similar to the one shown on panel WB3. The Ark of the Covenant stands inside the sanctuary and in front of a veil; the Ark is similar to the Arks on panels WB1 and WB4 (Chapter VII). In front of the sanctuary a sevenbranched menorah, similar to the menorah in WB1, is flanked by two thymiateria or candlesticks, similar in form to those in WBl. Green and pink curtains hang on the upper panel to the right and left. Aaron in High Priest ceremonial dress (Figure III-27) stands next to the sanctuary. He is designated by a Greek dipinto "Aaron" (Torrey 1979:inscr. 29; Chapter IX). A sacrificial animal lies on top of an altar to the left. Three figures stand at each end of the composition, wearing Iranian dress and holding short curved trumpets in their right hands. A figure at the lower left of the scene grasps the horns of a humped red heifer in his left hand and holds a long-handled ax in his right. At the lower right, two sacrificial animals, a ram and abullock, are shown.

Generally, this scene is interpreted as the consecration of the Tabernacle and its Priest (Exodus 40, Numbers 7). Goodenough (1964, X:19-26) suggests it presents the

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Figure III-13. WB3.

"Open Mystic" Temple of the priests; see also the assumption by Renov (1970:67fO that the scene is a view of Herod's Temple from the Nicanor Gate; and the critique by Avi-Yonah of Renov (ibid:73-74). It should be noted that a similar scene of the consecration of Aharon in the Service of the Tabernacle is depicted on the fifth century synagogue mosaic pavement at Sepphoris, which only partly survived (Weiss & Netzer 1996:20-23). WB3. (Plate 111-12; Figure 111-13) Two elements comprise this composition: crenelated walls and atempIe structure. Seven crenelated city walls each of a different color form the background to a structure which is rendered in two planes. The lower plane consists of three decorated city wall gates of with closed, decorated doors (Figure VIII-8); the central gate is larger than the two flanking gates. The upper plane shows a sanctuary set on steps with a gabled roof with acroteria, columns and facade with double, closed doors (see the section entitled Sanctuaries in this chapter and Chapter VII). The scene is gene rally identified with the walled city of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon (Kraeling 1979:110-113; Sukenik 1947:92). Other suggestions, however, include beth shemesh, "the House of the Sun" (du Mesnil 1939:84-92, Wischnitzer 1948:65); the restored Temple ofJosiah (Grabar 1941:180-182, Leveen

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1944:36); the "Closed Mystic" Temple (Goodenough 1964, X:42-73); the Heavenly Temple (Hopkins 1979:148); the Temple of Dagon at Ashdod (Moon 1992:600).

WB4, the extreme right panel (Plate 111-13). This panel consists of two scenes moving from right to left. The incidents are depicted in a summarized manner (Kraeling 1979:99-105). Scene 1. Atempie facade consisting of columns and a pediment stands on the right of the scene. Its cult utensils, painted yellow, are scattered about in the foreground. The interior of the temple reveals a table flanked by two empty pedestals for the fallen cult sculptures (Kraeling, 1979:101, maintains that the Ark was placed upon the table, according to 1 Samuel 5:2). Scene 2. This side of the panel is dominated by the Ark of the Covenant mounted on a cart drawn by a pair of oxen. Two figures in Iranian dress lead the oxen, while behind, in the upper plane, three figures in Greek dress follow the cart. The two combined scenes are identified by most scholars as the Ark in the Land of the Philistines (I Samuel 5-6), except for Goodenough (1964, X:96-97) who interprets it as the symbolic Ark versus Paganism. The Panels 01 West wall Register C

Four panels flank the Torah shrine on the west wall. They are weIl preserved, except for WC4 which is damaged. WCl and WC2, the longer panels, appear on the left of the Torah shrine, WC3 and WC4 on the right.

WCl, the extreme left panel (Figure 111-14; Kraeling 1979:143-150). The scene, developing from left to right, portrays a tall woman holding a limp child in her arms in the course of handing hirn to someone. In the center, a man reclines on a couch and holds a child in his arms. The Hand of God is depicted above. To the right, the woman is shown again, this time holding a clothed child in her left arm and gesturing to the man on the couch with her right hand. The women wear veils. The scene is generally identified as Elijah reviving the son of the widow of Zarephath (I Kings 17: 17-24), an identification confirmed by the Aramaic titulus "Elijah" inscribed on the rail of the couch (Figure IX-4; Torrey 1979:271, inscr. 7). It should be noted that this scene is part of the Elijah cycle of scenes depicted on the south wall (SC1-SC4). WC2. The composition of this panel (Plate 111-14) includes two scenes that unfold either from left to right (Kraeling 1979:151-164) or from right to left (Sukenik 1947:105).

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Figure III-14. WCl.

Scene 1. This scene occupies a small space at the right end of the panel. A king wearing a coat sits on a decorated throne. The throne consists of achair with a handrail in the form of golden lions. The chair is placed on a dais of five steps decorated with lions and eagles at their ends. This throne is similar to that of Solomon (see panel WA2 and seetion entitled Iconography 01 the Wall Paintings; Figure 111-45). A queen sits next to hirn, to his left, seated upon a less elaborate throne. A courtier approaching from the left receives or delivers a document with his right hand; it is unclear what form the document takes, whether letter or seroll. The portrayal of the king, his attire and posture is similar to the depiction of Pharaoh in WC4. The king and queen are identified by Aramaie tituli: "Ahasuerus" appears on the dais of the king's throne, and "Esther" under the footstool of the queen's throne (Figure IX-4; Torrey 1979:271-272, inscr. 9-10). Attendants stand behind the king and queen: two male attendants stand behind the king, one holding a book (?) the other a pen (?), and one female attendant stands behind the queen. Esther's turreted crown is similar to the crowns of Tyche or other goddesses on reliefs at Dura (Goodenough 1964, IX: 179, fig. 160; Downey 1977:fig. 5). Her posture is comparable to a goddess from Palmyra, dated to the first century (Colledge 1976:fig. 38). Scene 2. This scene appears on the left of the panel. A man in Iranian dress similar to the king's costume (Figure 111-35) is mounted on a white horse which is

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led by a bare-Iegged, Iranian-dressed figure. A group of four men in Greek attire stand next to them. Aramaic dipinto "Mordecai" under the horse's belly (Fig. IX-4; Torrey 1979:271, inscr. 8) identifies the scene as Haman leading Mordecai (Esther 6:11). General agreement exists among scholars that the panel presents the Purim miracle of the "triumph of Mordecai and Esther" (for detailed discussions of posture, costumes and audience scenes, see section B Iconography oi the Wall Paintings; but see different interpretations and citations from the Book oi Esther: du Mesnil 1939:546-563; Sukenik 1947:105-106; Grabar 1941:143-192; Kraeling 1979:162-164). WC3. This is a short scene portraying a group of eight men (Plate 111-15; Kraeling 1979:164-168). Seven of the men are rendered in isocephalic convention. The taller figure on the left extends his right arm and touches the head of the third figure with ahorn. The third figure in the group stands out from his group by his dark red Greek dress; both his hands are covered. All the figures wear the same Greek attire, each in a different color. The scene is explicitly identified by the Aramaic titulus "Samuel when he anointed David," appearing to the left of Samuel's right shoulder (I Samuel 16; Figure IX-4; Torrey 1979:272, inscr. 11). Some scholars (Moon 1992:587f; Wharton 1995:44) suggest the theme of this panel was chosen because of Samuel the EIder (mentioned in inscription 1, chapter IX), who sat on the se at below the painting (but see Kraeling, 1979: 168, who rightly refutes this suggestion by noting that "the coincidence in names ... cannot itself have been the determining factor in the allocation"). WC4, on the extreme right (Plate 111-16). This, the longest panel in Register C, is

partly damaged and consists of four scenes combining to tell a story. A river rendered as a white band is depicted along the bottom of the entire panel, with black plants growing along its banks. The scenes move from right to left (Kraeling 1979:169-178; see also Weitzmann, Weitzmann & Kessler 1990:26-34, who suggests the scenes are based also on Targum Onkeles). Scene 1. A city represented by a wall with an open gate is presented at the extreme right (Figure III-43b). Similar but less elaborate than WA3, it probably alludes to the Pithom and Ramses cities. The king, coated and dressed like Ahasuerus in WC2 and identified as Pharaoh, sits upon a throne with two attendants flanking hirn (see the section on the iconography of audience scenes). Two standing women turn towards the king; they are identified as the two midwives receiving instructions from Pharaoh (Exodus 1:15-16).

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Scene 2. A third woman at the feet of the midwives bends into the river. She is probably Jochebed, the mother of Moses, shown depositing hirn in the ark (Exodus

2:3). The two groups are simultaneously separated and united by the ornamental draperies in the background. Scene 3. A naked woman, the daughter of Pharaoh, stands in the river holding a nude child in her left arm (for a discussion of the Pharaoh's naked daughter, see Moon 1992:595-6). An empty ark floats by her side (Figure III-48). Three female attendants dressed in ornate court costume and holding various objects stand on the river bank behind her. Scene 4. Two women and a child make up the last scene in this panel. The woman on the right, Miriam the sister of Moses, holds Moses and passes hirn to his mother Jochebed. Panel WC4 is interpreted as showing the story of Pharaoh and the infancy of Moses (Exodus 1-2). Scholars differ as to the identification of scene 2: Hopkins (1979:162-164) says it shows Pharaoh's daughter laying the child at Pharaoh's feet, and Sonne (1947:315f) suggests it shows a Hebrew woman in childbirth. The North Wall

Only a few panels have been preserved along the north wall (Plate 1II-17): one panel in register A, two panels in register B (one complete), and a single large panel in register C.

NAI, Register A. The scene is only partly preserved (Figure 1II-30a; Plate 111-17). A himation-clad man lies on a stone-rock mass, while above hirn two Iranian-dressed figures climb a large yellow ladder (Kraeling 1979:70-74). The scene portrays Jacob's dream at Bethel (Genesis 28:10-17). NBI, Register B. This panel is well preserved and shows two scenes (Figure 111-15; Plate III-17; Kraeling 1979:95-99). Scene 1. On the right of the panel a battle rages, presented in three planes: the central plane portrays two horsemen (the left on a black horse, the right on a white horse) charging toward each other with lances. The white horse is interpreted to represent Israel, the black horse the Philistines (Weitzmann in Weitzmann & Kessler 1990:73); Wischnitzer (1948:67f.) suggests the opposite: the white horse represents the Philistine conquerors and the black horse is Israel. Above the riders, on the upper plane, two groups of infantrymen advance, dressed in mail and holding shields and swords; in the lowest plane three pairs of in fantrymen are engaged in combat.

SYNAGOGUE ART: THE DURA-EUROPOS SYNAGOGUE

123

Figure III-15. NB!.

Scene 2: On the left of the panel, the Ark of the Covenant mounted on a two stepped base with poles held by four figures in Greek dress occupies the center of the scene. They are identified as captured Levites (du Mesnil 1939:72-74); Shiloh priests (Sukenik 1947:116); or as Philistine civilians (Schneid 1946:15; Kraeling 1979:99). Pairs of soldiers dressed in scale armor and holding shields and swords flank the ark on the upper plane; one pair is portrayed in front of the ark. The panel is interpreted as the Battle of Eben-Ezer, between the Israelites and the Philistines, and the capture of the Ark (I Samuel4:1-11), mainly because of its juxtaposition to the scene of the Ark in the Land of the Philistines on WB4, next to NBl.

NB2, Register B. More than half of this panel was destroyed; only the lower left half is preserved (Figure 111-16; Kraeling 1979:93-95). A city wall is shown on the left. The lower parts of two figures are preserved on the right, showing a woman leading a boy. The scene is identified by most scholars as Hannah bringing the child Samuel to the sanctuary of Shiloh (I Samuel1:21-28). Others suggest Samuel and Eli at Shiloh (Grabar 1941:8f; Sukenik 1947:115; Wischnitzer 1948:61-63). Ne1, Register C. This, the longest panel in the synagogue paintings, portrays the Ezekiel cyde. It is subdivided by Kraeling into three sections from left to right, A, Band C, by a change in the background color (Figure III-17; Plates III-18-20;

124

CHAPTER THREE

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Kraeling 1979:178-202. But see Sukenik 1947: 128ff; see also Riesenfeld 1971). Kraeling suggests the following organization into three sections for the panel's composition. Al

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Each section is divided into several scenes. Sections A and B show Ezekiel in both Iranian and Greek attire, and his prophecy of the raising of the dry bones; section C is difficult to interpret.

Section A. This section shows three scenes. Scene Al: on the left, three large figures in Iranian dress stretch out their hands (EzekieI37:1-2). A Hand of God on the left grasps the hair of the first figure's head and another Hand of God, turning to the right, is placed above the figure's outstretched hand. Human heads, hands and feet are scattered on the ground in the lower left of the scene. Scene A2: a double range of mountains piled up in a pyramid effect on the right are crowned with a tree. A Hand of God, turning to the right, is placed along the upper border. Human heads, hands and feet are scattered on the lower slopes of the mountain. Scene A3: three corpses lie ranged one above the other on the right under a mountain crowned with a tree. Above them in the mountain is rendered a chest (EzekieI37:4-8) .

125

SYNAGOGUE ART: THE DURA-EUROPOS SYNAGOGUE

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