An Athenian Trireme Reconstructed: The British sea trails of Olympias, 1987 9780860546238, 9781407347745

Citation preview

An Athenian Trireme Reconstructed The British sea trials of Olympias, 1987

edited by

J. S. Morrison and J. F. Coates

BAR International Series 486 1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S486, 1989: 'An Athenian Trireme Reconstructed' © J.S.Xorrison and J.F.Coates, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546238 paperback ISBN 9781407347745 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546238 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

� L C y "

L i 't

o t

P age U

IHuctra Uo rs

P reface A hbrev Ut i on

sV

C HAPTERS 1 . T he E vidence

J ohn M orrison

2 . T he R econstruction

:

1

J ohn C oates

1 7

3 . T he S ea T rials o f O lympian a t P ores , A ugust

1 987 :

I an W hitehead , J ohn C oates , Owain R oberts 4 . T he S cientific

2 6

A lms : B oris P ankov

6 1

A NNEXES A T he S hip 1 . H ydrostatics , G Z a nd P rincipal W eights 2 . H ogging

:J ohn

C oates

J ohn C oates 3 . R epairs

6 7

I n t he t rieres d uring J uly a nd A ugust 1 987 6 9

P aul L ipke

7 4

B R owing t he S hip 4 .1 . L ist o f P articipants

7 6

2 . P rogramme o f T rials C ompleted

7 7

5 , R owing T ables

7 9

6 . S pecimen Q uestionnaire

8 3

7 . O n P ower a nd P ace i n t he Modern T rieres f rom t he s ea t rials i n 1 987 8 . H ow t o R ow t he T rieres

:T imothy S haw

:F ord W eiskittel

9 . T he R owing M aster 's S tory

:s ome d eductions

:M ichael B udd

8 4 9 8 1 09

G lossary

1 11

B ibliography

1 14

I ndex o f G reek a nd L atin A uthors c ited

1 15

G eneral

1 17

I ndex

-iiLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece: OLYXPIAS Figure 1

2 3 4

5 6

7

8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

30

31 32

33

34 35

36

37 38 39

40 41 42

The Lenormant Relief The Eleusis Relief General Arrangement of Reconstruction Hull Structure Plank Tenons Plank Butt Scarf Hull Interior Beam Ends ,Oarcrew Seats ,and Stretchers Oarsystem Oarstroke Diagram Rowing Master's Position Part-view of Oarcrew Angle of Thranite Oars (a) Angle of Thranite Oars (b) Thranite Recovery Part-view of Oarcrew at Mid-stroke Three Triads of Oars from Above Portside Oars at the Catch Close-up of Portside Zygian Oarloom and Thranite Stretcher Rail Thalamians at the Catch Thalamians at the Finish Oversized Oarcrew (Zygian No.17 Port) Oversized Oarcrew a ppears f rom T heophrastUs 5 ,1 ,6-7 (s ee AT p .190 ) t o h ave c onsisted o f y oung f ir t rees o f s uitable h eight a nd g irth . A s econd i nscription , f rom a bout t he s ame p eriod , i s f rom a d ecree l aying d own t hat a t rieres s hould b e m anhandled u p t he s lipway o f a s hip-shed b y n ot l ess t han [ one h undred a nd ] f orty m en , a nd d own b y n ot l ess t han [ one h undred a nd ] t wenty m en . T he s ame i nscription l ays d own t hat n ot l ess t han [ fifty ] m en s hould b e e mployed t o f it t he h ypozo . nk a (s ee b elow ) . T he n umbers o f m en s pecified i n e ach c ase ( a ccording t o D .X ,Lewis 's v ery p robable g uesses ) i ndicate t hat f or t he s afety o f t he s hip a n o peration o n a c onsiderable s cale w as r equired . T he w eight B C .

( IG .2 2

1 479

o f

t he

. h ypozo z aa i s g iven

B 4 9 c f ,57 :

G OS p .295-5 )

i n

a n

a nd

i nscription

i ts

d ated a fter 3 14

l ength m ay a ccordingly b e

e stimated r oughly a t a bout Q Or a o r 3 00 f t . A t t his d ate t he r ope c ould b elong e qually w ell t o a t etreres o r p enteres a s t o a t rieres . I n a ny c ase i t i s c learly l ong e nough t o b e f itted , d oubled , f rom b ow t o s tern i n a ny o f t hese w arships . I t l inks

i s

I nteresting

t ogether ,

a s

t hat t he A lexandrian

d oes

t he

A thenian

e pic p oet ,

d ecree ,

t he

A pollonius

f itting

o f

o f

t he

R hodes , h ypozo l i la

w ith t he l aunching o f a s hip , i n h is c ase t he l egendary A rgo . H e s ays -2 -

C HAPTER O NE

T HE E VIDENCE

( I 3 63-393): ' F irst o f a ll t hey ' ( Jason a nd a ll f ifty h eroes , t he c rew o f t he p entecontor)' g irded t he s hip m ightily w ith a w ell t wisted r ope f rom w ithin , p utting a t ension o n e ach e nd s o t hat t he p lanks s hould f it w ell w ith t he t enons a nd s hould w ithstand t he o pposing f orce o f t he s ea 's s urge ' . B oth

t he

m ethod

o f

f itting

a nd

t he

p urpose

o f

t he

h ypozoma

i s

c learly

s tated b y t he p oet . N ext , a fter d igging a t rench f rom t he p lace w here s he h ad b een b uilt d own t o t he s ea a nd l aying w ooden s leepers i n i t , 'they t ilted t he s hip d own o n t o t he s leepers s o t hat s he m ight r un o ver t hem a nd b e s lipped . T hen h igh o n b oth

s ides

o f

t he

s hip

t hey

t urned

u p

t he

o ars

a nd

t ied

t hem

a bout

t he

t holepins s o a s t o p roject a c ubit 's l ength ( . 444 m o r 1 7Y a i nches), I n s ingle f ile o n e ach s ide o f t he s hip t he h eroes s tood a nd p ushed w ith c hest a nd h ands ( v iz , a gainst t he p rojecting o ars ) . T iphys , t he k eleustes o r b oatswain , w ent o n b oard t o u rge t he y oung m en t o m ove t he s hip i n t he p roper m anner . H e s houted h is c ommands m ightily . A rgo r esponded q uickly . . .. and s lipped i nto t he s ea . B ut t he h eroes r eined h er b ack a s s he m oved f orward a nd h eld h er i n c ontrol ' . A gain , t he p oet m akes i t c lear h ow a b ig o ared s hip w as s lipped a nd w hy a l arge n umber o f m en w as n eeded f or t he o peration . A pollonius I s l ikely t o h ave d erived h is d escriptions f rom h is o wn o bservation o f t he p reparation a nd l aunching o f t he w arships , t rierels a nd o thers , c ommissioned I n t he t hird c entury B C b y h is n ative c ity , a m aritime p ower I n t he e astern M editerranean . I t m ay t hen b e t aken a s a n i llustration b oth o f t he f itting o f t he hypozoma a nd t he s lipping o f a t rieres a t P iraeus I n t he f ourth c entury w ith a l arge b ody o f m en . A s imilar p rocedure , b ut w ith a s omewhat b igger w orkforce , i s l ikely t o h ave b een u sed I n h auling a t rieres u p t he o ne-in-ten g radient o f a Z ea s hip-shed . I n s lipping

a nd h auling u p t he u se o f n umbers

o f m en

I s

o bviously n ecessary .

I n f itting t he h ypozom .a t he l arge n umber o f m en w as a pparently n eeded t o m ake i t a s t ight a s p ossible . T ona l , t ightening d evices , a re m entioned i n c onnection w ith t he h ypozoma i n i nscriptions 2 ,1673 ,12) a s w ell a s b y P lato ( Laws 9 45 C ), A f urther

r elevant

i nscription

I n

t his

( I G

g roup ,

2

1 610 .23,1613

f rom

t he

t ime

2 80-

o f

t he

P eloponnesian w ar( I G 1 11 99), c ontains t he f irst r eference t o a t ype o f t rieres w hich f requently a ppears I n t he h istorians , t he s tr 'atlotis , d esigned , o r p ossibly a dapted , f or t he t ransport o f t roops

(s ee AT p .156-7 ).

1 .3 .2 . T he s econd c ategory c onsists o f a s ingle I nscription , I G .2 1 951, o n n ine m uch d amaged f ragments o f m arble a nd d ated a t t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury . T he t ext a ppears t o h ave c ontained t he n ames o f c rewmembers o f s hips

w hich

a t

t his

d ate

c ould

o nly

h ave

b een

t rierels .

O ne

l ist , more

f ully p reserved t han t he o ther t wo , b egins w ith t wo t rierarchs ( lines 7 9-81 c f .312-3 a nd 4 06-8). T hen f ollow e leven e pibatal ( hoplite s oldiers , l ines 8 2-3 c f .315-25 a nd 4 09), a k eleustes ( boatswain , l ines 9 6-7 c f ,332-3), a p entecontarch ( purser , l ines 9 8-9 c f .336-7 a nd s ee AT p .124), a n a uletes ( pipeman , l ines 1 00-1 c f .334-5?), a n aupegos ( ship 's c arpenter , l ines 1 02-3), a p rorates ( bow-officer , l ines 1 04-5 c f .330-1) a nd ( archers ,lines 1 06-109 ,or t wo , l ines 1 85-7). T he c ollective s oldiers a nd p etty o fficers a ppears t o h ave b een hyperesia . T here

a re

c f .188ff) 17-84). c asualties

a lso

t he

f ollowed b y T his l atter i n

t he

n ames

o f

n autal

a stoi

( citizen

t hree ' t oxotal t erm f or t hese

s eamen ,lines

t he n ames o f a n umber o f t herapon ' tes ( e ntry h as s uggested t hat t he l ists

b attle

o f

A rginusae

-

w here

3-

s laves

s erved

I n

1 10-16

s laves ,lines m ay b e o f a n e mergency

CHAPTER ONE : THE EVIDENCE fleet with the promise of freedom. But the presence in them of two trierarchs makes this an unlikely possibility since although two trierarchs was regular practice at this time for financial reasons both would hardly have been on board at one time.

1.3.3. The third group of inscriptions relating to the trieres consist of important. These, known as the naval inventories, lists of the ships and gear in the naval dockyards at Piraeus. and intermittently they cover the period 377/6-323-2 BC. The they give falls under the following headings;-

is the most a series of Incompletely information

1.3.3.1. Number of Ship-sheds IG 2'·'1628 (326/5) 481,553 : 372 ship-sheds of which 82 were in Munichia, 195 in Zea and 94 in Kantharos. In IG 22 1611 6 (357 /6) some of the triereis listed are hupaithrioi, not under cover. 1.3.3.2. Number of Ships In the surviving fragments of the earlier naval inventories the total number of ships in the dockyards is not given. IG 2:,, 1611 1-9 ( 357/6) records a total of 283 ships in the dockyard, and IG 22 1613 284302 (353/2) a total of 349 triereis in the dockyard and at sea. IG 2�,, 1628 481,553 gives 360 triereis and a number llf .). They were each a good deal more than twice the length of the ship. The fact that they were issued in pairs, as well as other considerations, suggests that they were fitted and tightened one pair at a time. As was seen, the rope needed to be tight, and would thus have required constant tightening and before very long replacement. The entry 'pieces of hypozomata' in 1610 suggests that they broke in service. Pairs of rudders are recorded (1606 (374/3 BC> 34,1608 (373/2 BC) 24 and 1611 (357/6 BC) 23-4) and of one rudder it is noted that its pteryx, wing, is broken.. A secondary means of propulsion is also attested with the provision of Two masts are regularly masts and sails and of a variety of rope tackle. listed, a main mast and a boat mast (akateios), similarly main sails and boat sails ( 1604 (377 /6BC) passim. Two sorts of sails, thin/light and thick/heavy occur in three inscriptions after 330 BC < 1627 665,1629 371, 1631 415-17). The absence of yards (keraiai) from the lists of wooden gear is surprising and difficult to explain. Possibly they were regarded as inseparable from the masts, or, more probably, from the sails, as in Homer. A further detail of the oarsystem given by the inventories is the fitting of askomata (leather sleeves) to some of the oarports. Since the purpose of such sleeves was clearly to prevent the entry of water either in rough weather or when the ship heeled under sail, the ports so fitted must have been those of the thalamian oars. The importance of askomata is shown by the fact that in the earliest naval inventory to survive, 1604 (377/6 BC), it is noted against each ship in the list either that the askomata are already fitted or that someone named has them in his possession, or that the dockyard has the money for them, or that they are missing. Their importance is confirmed in Aristophanes Frogs 364 where they are included with flax and pitch as contraband articles whose export was forbidden in time of war. The value of a trieres' as.lromata is given as 43 drachmas 2 obols in the inventory abovementioned, five drachmas apiece if the number of thalamians was 52 as is possibly the case in the fifth century, and might have been the case in 377/6 BC. There are numerous entries of screens, of two kinds, canvas and hair, for defence against the weather and enemy missiles < e.g.1611 244-249), and one entry of screens of leather, mare efficient for the latter purpose . T his m aximum c ould o nly b e o btained b y a f ew g roups o f r owers w ho w ere h omogeneous i n s tature , c onfident a nd s killed . L arge r owers a t t he t halamian l evel o bstructed t he b ody s wing o f t he o thers i n t heir f ile ( Fig 27). T halamians n eeded c onfidence t o l eave t heir b lades i n t he w ater i nto t he f inish o f t heir s troke s ince i t w as p ossible f or t hem t o b e f orced i nto ' catching a c rab ' b y a c lumsy z ygian a bove t hem . F ord V eiskittel p rovides a s ubjective v iew o f t his e xperience i n L egatta . o f N ovember 1 987 . P aul L ipke w rites : '

I t w as n ot n ecessary f or a z ygian a ctually t o t rap a

t halamian b lade t o c ause t he l atter t o ' crab ' , t hough m ost c ommon c ause u ntil t he p ractice o f s eparating t hranite o ar i t d id n ot

t his w as b y f ar t he t hese l evels w ith a

w as i nstituted a fter o uting 4 . P articularly t ake m uch f or e ven , a r elatively s killed

i n e arly t raining z ygian t o k nock

a ccidentally i nto h is t halamian 's b lade d uring r ecovery . I f t he s trike w as s ufficiently s trong t o c ause t he l ower e dge o f t he t halamlan 's b lade t o h it t he w ater , a nd/or t hrow t he t halamian o ut o f s tep , w ater p ressure w ould d o t he r est w ith a r esult i dentical t o t hat d escribed . T he o nly e xception o ccurred w ith p articularly f ast , s trong a nd/or s killed t halamians w ho c ould s omehow m anage t o r ecover . I n f airness t o t he z ygians , many t halamians w ere i nitially a nd u nderstandably u nwilling t o s wing t heir t orsos m uch a nd r isk h itting t heir h eads o n t he t ransverse b eams . A s a c onsequence t hey r owed a v ery s hort s troke u sing t heir u pper a rm s trength . T his m eant t hat a djacent t halamians w ho t ried t o r each f ully a nd p roperly u sing t heir u pper t orso i nevitably h ad t o s top s hort o r h it t heir n eighbour i n t he k idneys . I t a lso m eant t hat t he z ygians , n ot r estricted b y t ransverse b eams , w ere h ard p ressed n ot t o o verreach e ven a fter t hey b ecame c onscious o f t he p roblem .

I t o nly t ook a m oment 's l oss o f c oncentration

(e asy e nough d uring

s everal h ours o f r owing i n i ntense h eat) t o g et o ut o f s tep . A fter s olving t he p roblem o f h ow t o p revent z ygian o verreaching , ' crabbing ' w as r educed t o a pproximately o ne a n h our . T wo v eterans t hen t ried s troke-lengthening t echnique w ith c onsiderable s uccess , t hough t here w as i nsufficient t ime t o e xperiment a nd t rain w ith i t e nough t o j udge i ts f ull ( apparently s ubstantial) p otential . T o g et t halamians t o e xtend t heir s troke t hrough i ncreased t orso s wing t he z ygians w ere s topped r owing

42-

' HAFTEP T HPF

:T H

S Ef

I AL

i ure

2 5

3 ov i

F igure

2 6

Garo L agging B ehind t he

S troke

Thranite T ! inish P osition

4' ,-

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

s o t hat t hey c ould r each d own a nd p ad t he t ransverse b eam w ith a h and . T he p ractice a ppeared t o h elp t halamians t o o vercome t heir f ear o f t he b eam w hile a lso a llowing t hem

o pportunity t o f eel

j ust w here t he o ptimum s troke

l ength o ccurred a ccording t o t heir i ndividual p hysique . A s e vidence

o f t he

i mportance

o f c orrect r owing ,

s everal r ecorders a nd

t eam l eaders n oted i ndependently t hat t hree w ell matched , e xcellent , a djacent , t halamians n ot o nly e nabled t heir s ix o ther t riad m embers t o r ow p roperly w ith l onger , s tronger s trokes , b ut t he a djoining t riads f ore a nd a ft s uffered l ess i nterference . T he t hree a ffected t welve o thers . C onversely , l t s howed t hat o ne p oor t halamian c ould r uin h is t riad a nd b oth a djacent o nes , a r atio o f 1 :8 . T hus t he s ingle w eakest r ower c an d o m ore t o a ffect p erformance t han t he s ingle s trongest o ne . S ome t eam c oaches a lso t ried s topping a d ozen r owers r ound a t rapped t halamian w hile t he s hip m aintained f ull w ay w ith t he r emaining o arsmen p ulling , b ut u nder f ull w ay t he o ffending o ar c ould n ot a lways b e moved , e ven w ith t he z yglan a bove s hoving h ard d own w ith h is h eel . T he a lternative w as t o s top t he w hole c rew w ith a s harp b last o f t he w histle . C oncurrently t he t halamians w ere t aught a p rocedure w hen c aught I n a n i mpending ' crab ' . B y l eaning t heir u pper t orso o utboard i nto t he o pen t riangle f ormed b y t he s ide o f t he h ull a nd t he o ar-loom t hey w ere a ble t o a llow t he u ncontrolled l oom t o c ome f orward a gainst t he b eam w ithout t rapping t hem i n b etween . 3 .2 .3 .3 . S peed u nder O ar A v ital f actor I n t he l ong n aval s upremacy o f t he t rieres w as h er g reat s peed . X enophon g ives a c ontemporary v iew o f t he i mportance o f t hat f actor i n Household M anagement ( 8 .8) : w hy I s t he t rieres , f ully manned , s uch a t error t o t he e nemy a nd a j oy t o h er f riends e xcept b y r eason o f h er s peed t hrough t he w ater? I n

b attle

t he

t rieres

n eeded

t o

s print

s hort

d istances

t o

g ain

a

t actical a dvantage o ver h er o pponents w ith a v iew t o r amming a ttacks ( f or e xamples s ee AT p p .68-78 ). S he w as a lso u sed t o u ndertake l ong v oyages a t

s peed ( f or e xamples s ee AT p .4106 ) .The a im o f t he t rials w as t o c onduct a s eries o f t ests d esigned t o monitor t he p rogress o f t he c rew a nd c ompare t he p erformance o f O lympias w ith t he p erformance o f f ifth-century t riereis a s s hown i n t he h istorical s ources . T he s peed o f O lympias w as t o b e m easured o ver s hort b ursts , m easured d istances o f 5 00,1000 , a nd 2 000 m etres , a nd e ventually o n l onger v oyages o f u p t o 2 4 h ours ( including s tops). I t s eemed u nlikely t hat i n t he f irst s et o f t rials t he c rew w ould m ake s ufficient p rogress t o u ndertake a l ong p assage , a nd t his p roved t o b e t he c ase . X easurement o f s peed o n a p assage o f 2 4 h ours o r m ore m ust a wait t he a cquisition o f g reater e xperience a nd s kill I n r owing t he t rieres . E quipment a nd Measurement F or t he m easurement o f s peed d uring s hort b ursts a nd d uring s ustained p eriods o f r owing t he v ery s imple " Dutchman 's l og" m ethod w as u sed . T he f orward o utboard c orner o f t he c anopy-deck a nd t he u pper r udder b earing a ft( o n t he p ort o r s tarboard s ide d epending o n t he d irection o f t he w ind) w ere c hosen a s c onvenient p oints f rom w hich t o o bserve p assage p ast a f loating o bject . T he d istance b etween t hese t wo p oints w as m easured w ith a t ape p arallel t o t he c entre l ine o f t he s hip . T he d istance w as 9 2 ,5 f eet . T o o btain a m easurement o f t he s hip 's s peed o ne m ember o f t he r ecording t eam s tood a t t he f orward p oint a rmed w ith a g ood s upply o f w ood c hips .

A

s econd r ecorder , w ith a s topwatch , s tood b y t he a fter p oint . T he f irst r ecorder t hen , w ith o ne a rm r aised , t hrew a c hip i nto t he w ater w ith t he 44-

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

F igure 2 7

F igure 2 8

Velocity

O versized Thalamian

-

T ime:

d uring A cceleration Trial

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

o ther s o t hat i t f ell w ell f orward o f t he c anopy-deck a nd f ar e nough o ut t o a void t he t urbulence c aused b y t he o ars . W hen t he f orward r ecorder c ame l evel w ith t he c hip h e h ad J ust t hrown h e w ould d rop h is a rm a nd t he r ecorder a ft w ould s tart h is w atch . W hen t he a ft r ecorder c ame l evel w ith t he w ood c hip h e s topped h is w atch . T he s peed o f t he s hip i n f eet/seconds = 9 2 .5 t . T he s peed i n k nots = ( 9 2 .5 � t ) x ( 3600 � 6 080) w here 3 600 s econds = 1 h our a nd a n autical m ile i s b y c onvention 6 080 f eet . F or t he m easurement o f O lympias 's s peed o ver d istances o f 5 00 .1000 a nd 5 000 m etres i t w as n ecessary t o p repare a c ourse f or t he t rieres t o f ollow i n P oros b ay . T his w as d one b y m eans o f a l arge s cale G reek G overnment c hart s upplied b y C aptain P apadas . T he c ourse r an p arallel t o t he c oast o f P ores i sland w ell c lear o f t he f erry l anes :2 96 ' . : ' Magnetic o r i ts r eciprocal 1 16°Magnetic . F ive l andmarks w ere s elected ,all ,to r educe t he m argin o f e rror , a t r ight-angles t o Q ly i i ipias 's c ourse , T hey w ere a s f ollows

( see F ig .35) -

S tarting p oint 5 00 m etres•

a n o belisk o n t he p oint b elow P oros H otel h ouse w ith r ound a rches a t m ost n ortherly p art o f t he

1 000 m etres 1 500 m etres

b ay o f N eorion r ed r ocks j ust w est o f t he b ay b eyond N eorlon t ip o f r ocky p romontory a t S .E .end o f D askallo i sland b luff o n w .side o f a small i nlet ,tbe l ast b efore t he

2 000 m etres

l ight o n t he r ocks a t t he e xit o f P oros B ay b e a r i n g 2 6 0 M a g n e t i c , t h e d e s i g n a t e d p o i n t o f t he m easured W hen a m ark w as c ourse h ad b een r eached . W hen

i t

w as

i ntended

t o

m easure

s peed

o ver

a f ixed

d istance

O lympias

w ould b e s et o n t he c orrect c ourse w ith a c ompass . T he H elmsman w ould t hen c hoose a s uitable mark t o s teer f or . A r ecorder w ith a h and b earing c ompass w as p laced i n t he s tern c lose t o a nother r ecorder w ith a s topwatch . W hen O lympias r eached t he f irst m ark t he r ecorder w ith t he c ompass c alled o ut t o t he r ecorder w ith t he s topwatch w ho t hen s tarted t he s topwatch . I ntermediate d istances w ere a lso c alled o ut b y t he r ecorder w ith t he c ompass a nd t he e lapsed t ime n oted b y t he r ecorder w ith t he s topwatch . O n t he c ompletion o f t he c hosen d istance t he w atch w as s topped . A ll f ixed d istance measurements w ere m ade w ith a r unning s tart . I t w as n ot a lways p ossible t o c arry o ut a r eciprocal r un ( i .e . o ne i n t he o pposite d irection), b ut s ince t here w as n egligible c urrent i n t he b ay a nd m ost m easurements w ere

t aken

u nder

p ractically

w indless

c onditions ,

t his

w as

n ot

t hought

n ecessary . W hen

s peed

m easurements

w ere

b eing

t aken

r ating

w atches

w ere

u sed

t o

r ecord t he n umber o f s trokes p er m inute ( s .p m .). T he a mount o f e ffort r equired o f t he r owers b y t he R owing M aster w as a lso n oted d own . W ind s peed a nd d irection w ere e stimated b y t he e xperienced s eamen o f t he t eam a nd r ecorded

( Annex 5 ) .An a nalysis b y T imothy S haw , t he B ritish H elmsman ,

o f t he p ower a nd p ace a chieved a t P oros i s a ppended a t A nnex 7 . Rowin g w ith a ll o ars O n t he v ery f irst o uting , a lthough t he o arcrew w ere q uite u nused t o t he s hip , i t w as p ossible t o p ull a ll t he o ars t ogether a nd

r each a s peed o f 4 .2 k nots , a dmittedly w ith a F orce 3 w ind a stern . A s o ne w ould e xpect , t he r owers a dapted t o t he d ifferent t echnique r equired a nd b ecame f itter a nd s tronger a s t he t rials p rogressed . A fter o uting 1 1 f ive t onnes o f b allast w ere t aken a board t o b ring t he w aterline t o t he d esired l evel ( see a bove p ,20 ) . T he r owers w ould t hus , i t w as h oped , b e a ble t o u se t heir o ars t o b etter e ffect a nd m ake t he s hip g o f aster .

46-

C HAPTER T EPEE S peeds

T HE S EA T RIAL—

a ttained

a t

l ight

p ressure r anged

f rom

3 .04

k nots

o n

o uting

2

w ith a F orce 2 h ead w ind t o 6 ,09 k nots o n o uting 1 7 w ith a F orce 3 s tern w ind . T he l owest r ating r ecorded a t l ight p ressure w as 2 5 s .p .m . o n o uting 7 , t he h ighest a t l ight p ressure w as 3 4 s .p .m . o n o uting 1 7 . F urther a nalysis w as c arried o ut t o o btain a verage ( i .e . , a rithmetic m ean) a nd m edian < i .e , a rithmetic m ean o f t he f astest a nd s lowest r ecorded) s peeds u nder d ifferent c onditions .

1 edian s peed

A verage s peed 4 .73 k nots

B efore b allasting A fter b allasting

4 .97 4 .88 4 .91 4 .97

4 .89 k nots 4 .79 k nots

O verall 4 ,95 k nots W ith n o w ind T he m edian r ating f or l ight p ressure w as 3 0 s .p .m .

k nots k nots k nots k nots

T he s hip c ompleted o ne 2 000 m etre r un a t l ight p ressure o n o uting 9 a t a r ating o f 2 9 ,5-30 s .p .m . r ising t o 3 1 s .p .m . T here w as n o w ind . T he t imes r ecorded a t f ollows :0 metres

0 m inutes

t owards t he e nd o f t he v arious marks

t he r un . w ere a s

0s econds

B etween marks

S peed ‚ knots ‚ average b etween m arks

5 00 m etres

3 m inutes 1 0 s econds

3 n i in .10 s ec .

5 .11

1 000 m etres 1 500 m etres 2 000 m etres

6 m inutes 3 3 s econds 9 m inutes 3 8 s econds 1 2 m inutes 5 5 s econds

3 m in .23 s ec . 3 m in .5 s ec . 3 m in .17 s ec .

4 .78 5 .25 4 .93

A verage s peed o ver t he 2 000 m etres w as 5 .01 k nots , w hich may b e c ompared w ith t he f igures o f 5 ,09 , 5 .36, 5 .12 , 5 .11, 5 .08 a nd 5 ,55 ( average 5 .22)knots o btained b y t he D utchman 's l og d uring t his s ame r un .The l ongest p eriod o f c ontinuous r owing a t l ight p ressure w ith a ll o ars i n o peration w as 1 5 m inutes o n o uting 2 0 .(See A nnex 5 , T able 1 f or t he f ull l ist o f l ight p ressure m easurements). O nly t wo m easurements o f s peed w ere o btained a t h alf pressure , 4 .63 a nd 4 .73 k nots o n o uting 1 9 ,at a r ating o f 2 9 s .p .m . I nto a F orce 3 h ead w ind . T his w as t he o nly h alf p ressure r un o f t he t rials . T hree-quarter pressure r uns w ere a lso r are . O n o uting 1 8 t he s hip c ompleted o ne 1 000 m etre r un a t t hree-quarter p ressure a t a r ating o f 3 3 s .p .m . . T here w as n o w ind . T he t imes r ecorded w ere a s f ollows : 5 00 m etres 2 m inutes 5 5 s econds 1 000 metres 5 m inutes 4 3 s econds A verage s peed o ver t he 1 000 m etre c ourse w as 5 .67 k nots , t han t he s peeds o f 5 .37 a nd 5 .26 k nots o btained b y t he -

a l ittle f aster D utchmazn 's l og

d uring t his r un . T his w as t he l ongest p eriod o f c ontinuous r owing a t t hreeq uarters p ressure w ith a ll o ars i n o peration , i n t otal j ust o ver s ix m inutes ( See a lso A nnex 5 T able 2 ). A t

f irm p ressure a g ood n umber

o f

s peed m easurements w ere m ade b oth

f rom v ery s hort b ursts o f 1 0-15 s trokes a cceleration , a nd f rom l onger r uns o ver t he 5 00

d uring t he p ractice o f a nd 1 000 m etre d istances .

S peeds a ttained a t f irm p ressure r anged f rom 5 .65 k nots o n o uting 6 i nto a F orce 3 h ead w ind t o 6 .95 k nots o n o uting 7 i nto a F orce 1 h ead w ind . T he l owest r ating r ecorded a t f irm p ressure w as 2 9 s .p .m . o n o uting 7 . T he h ighest w as o n o uting 1 1 w hen I t t ouched 4 4 s .p .m . .

47-

C HAPTER T HREE : T HE S EA T RIALS F urther a nalysis w as c arried o ut t o d ifferent c onditions

o btain m ean a nd m edian s peeds u nder

A verage S peed

B efore b allasting A fter b allasting O verall

1 ( ean S peed

6 ,20 k n . 6 .03 k n . 6 .09 k n .

6 .13 k n . 6 .09 k n . 6 .09 k n .

W ith n o w ind 6 .18 k n . T he m edian r ating f or f irm p ressure r uns w as 3 8 s .p .m . T he s hip

c ompleted

f ive 5 00

m etre r uns a nd

o ne

6 .09 k n .

1 000

m etre r un

a t f irm

p ressure . T hree o f t he 5 00 m etre r uns w ere r owed o n o uting 1 6 . R un 1 A verage

R ating 3 8-39 s .p .m . N o w ind . 5 00 m etres I n 2 m inutes 2 6 s econds s peed o ver t he c ourse w as 6 .65 k nots . N o

s peeds

w ere

o btained

b y

D utchman 's l og . R un 2

R ating 3 9 s .p .m . N o w ind . A n e mergency

' easy o ar ' a t t he e nd o f

t his r un m eant t hat t he e ffort w as n ot s ustained p ast t he mark b ut a t ime w as o btained n otwithstanding . 5 00 m etres i n 2 m inutes 4 5 s econds A verage s peed o ver t he c ourse w as 5 .89 k n .

T hree

s peed

r eadings

o btained w ith t he D utchman 's l og w ere a ll o f 6 ,09 k n . . R un 3

R ating 3 9 s .p .m . N o w ind 5 00 m etres i n 2 m inutes 3 1 s econds A verage s peed o ver t he c ourse w as 6 .44 k n . ,slightly h igher t han

t he s peeds

o btained w ith t he D utchman 's l og : 6 .02,6 .41 a nd 6 .09 k n . T he o ther 5 00 m etre r uns a t f irm p ressure w ere t aken o n o uting 2 1. R un 1

R ating 3 6-38 s .p .m . F orce 2 h ead w ind 5 00 m etres i n 2 m inutes 3 0 s econds A verage s peed o ver t he c ourse w as 6 ,47 k n . T he D utchman 's

l og g ave s peeds

o f 6 .00 a nd 6 .14 k n . R un 2

R ating 3 8 s .p .m . F orce 2 h ead w ind 5 00 m etres I n 2 m inutes 3 0 s econds A verage s peed o ver t he c ourse w as 6 .47 k nots . T he D utchman 's l og g ave s peeds o f 5 ,86 ,6 .02,6.11,6 .06 a nd 6 .28 k nots . A gain t he s peed g iven b y t he m easured d istance w as h igher t han t he s peeds g iven b y t he D utchman 's l og . T he 1 000 m etre r un a t f irm p ressure w as r owed o n o uting 1 8 . R ating 3 2-34 s .p .m . N o w ind 5 00 m etres I n 2 m inutes 3 8 s econds 1 000 m etres i n 5 m inutes 2 6 s econds A verage s peed o ver t he f ull c ourse w as 5 ,96 k nots . T his w as t he l ongest p iece o f c ontinuous r owing r ecorded a t f irm p ressure w ith a ll t he o ars i n o peration ‚ i n t otal j ust u nder s ix m inutes . T he d own-draught f rom t he h elicopter c arrying a B BC f ilm c rew m ade i t i mpossible t o c arry o ut t he D utchman 's l og p rocedure

(s ee a lso A nnex 5 T able 3 ).

T he s hip 's t op s peed , m easured d uring a s hort b urst b y t he D utchman 's l og w as 6 .95 k nots . H igh r atings p roduced t he h ighest s peeds w ith 3 8

s .p .m .

w hich w as t he n orm f or h igh p ressure r uns . T he m aximum r ating r eached w as 4 4 s .p .m . . T he o arcrew c ould s ustain 6 .5 k n . o ver 5 00 i n . a nd 6 .00 k n . o ver 1 000 i n.. m oderate

A n ormal l ight f ollowing w ind

p ressure s peed w as a bout 5 k n . t he s hip r eached 6 kn . . S peeds 48-

a lthough w ith a w ere n oticeably

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

a ffected b y t he w ind , b ut s ince n othing s tronger t han a moderate b reeze w as e xperienced

o n

p erformance c ontinuous m inutes . m inutes ,

t he t rials

u nder r owing

t here

w indy a t

i s

s till

m uch

c onditions .

f irm

p ressure

T he

w as

t o

f ind

o ut a bout

l ongest

r ecorded

6 m inutes ,

a t

O lympias 's p eriod

l ight

o f

p ressure

1 5

O n o uting 2 1 t here w as a p eriod o f c ontinuous r owing o f a bout 2 5 b ut i t w as u nrecorded s ince t he r ecording t eam w ere a t t he o ar .

B allasting p roduced g reater c onvenience f or t he o arsmen b ut h ad n o marked e ffect o n s peed . I f a nything t he s hip w as s lower a fter b allasting . S peeds o btained w ith a ll t he o ars w ere d isappointing .A t op s peed o f 6 ,95 k nots

d uring a s hort

m ight

e xpect

t o

b urst

a chieve

c orresponds

t o what a t rieres

w hile c ruising

f or a ' long

d ay '

i n

o f

a ncient t imes

1 0-12

h ours

a t

t he o ar . H eavy , i ll-balanced o ars a nd r owers who w ere i ll-assorted i n s ize , s trength , e xperience a nd s kill a nd t hus u nable t o g et t he b est o ut o f t he s hip ,

b oth c ontributed

t o a p erformance which b y c omparison w ith a ntiquity

w as u nimpressive . Y et , i ll-assorted t hough t hey w ere , t he o arcrew h as o ne a chievement t o t heir l asting c redit ; t hey d emonstrated b y t heir e nthusiasm a nd i ntelligent d etermination n ot o nly t hat t hat s he c ould b e r owed v ery b eautifully .

O lympias

c ould

b e

r owed ,

b ut

B acking W ater G oing a stern w as a n i mportant manoeuvre i n a ncient n aval w arfare , i n which i t f ollowed , a nd w as t he r eciprocal a ction i n , t he a ction o f r amming . h ad

s elected

a breast a n

w ere

I t a lso e nabled t he h elmsman t o k eep o ut o f t he m elee u ntil h e a s uitable

t arget .

w ithdrawing

a dvancing e nemy

( see

i n

M oreover

g ood

i t

w as

v ital

when

o rder k eeping t heir r ams

H erodotus

8 .84

a nd

s hips p ointed

i n

l ine

t owards

T hucydides 3 .78 a nd 7 .70 ,4 .).

I n

o ared s hips f rom H omer o nwards b acking w ater was t he r outine manoeuvre w hich p receded mooring , w ith a nchors d ropped f rom t he b ows a nd s tern l ines r un a shore , A t P oros i t w as a ccordingly r ecognised a s n ecessary t o p ractise t his m anoeuvre w ith O lympias , a nd s ome d ata w ere c ollected a bout i t ( Annex 5 T able 7 ).

T he

T he o arcrew a s a whole n ever r eally m astered t he a rt o f b acking w ater . t hranites w ere u sed o n t heir o wn r egularly t o b ring t he s hip s tern

f irst t o h er moorings . T he t hranites a nd z ygians a lso w ere a ble t o b ack h er q uite s uccessfully ; a nd o n o uting 1 3 r eached a s peed o f 2 .59 k n .into a F orce 1 w ind g oing a stern . H owever when t he whole c rew a ttempted t his m anoeuvre , t he b lades b egan t o c lash . S ince t here w as n o t ime t o p erfect t he t echnique o f b acking w ater w ith a whole f or i t i n t he t rials a t P ores ,

c rew ,

t hranites

a nd

z ygians

o nly

w ere

u sed

3 .2 .3 .4 . Acceleration A t rieres a ble t o a ccelerate f aster t han h er o pponents would h ave h ad a g reat a dvantage i n b attle . T he a bility t o make r apid u se o f a g ap i n t he e nemy 's

l ine w as

t he e ssence o f t he

d iekplous

(S ee a bove p .9 a nd

AT I ndex

u nder ' B reakthrough '). T riereis s tationed i n t he m iddle o f a d efensive c ircle w ere s o p laced a s t o b e a ble t o move q uickly t o a ny p oint i n t he p erimeter w here a b reakthrough w as b eing e ffected ( Thuc .2 ,83). H istorically t herefore a cceleration w as a n i mportant q uality i n a n o ared s hip b uilt f or r amming a nd m erited I nvestigation i n t he c ase o f t he O lympias . Neasur-e ment O fficers 'School

A s hort a t

P ores

c ourse b y

w as

means

l aid

o f

o ut

a t ape

a long

t he

measure

q uay

a nd

o f

t he

a h and

P etty

b earing

c ompass . I t f ollowed t he l ine o f t he q uay w all a nd was 5 00 f t l ong . T he c ourse w as o n a b earing o f 3 29'Nagnetic . " Coke" c ans w ere p laced a t 0 f t ,50 f t ,100 f t ,150 f t ,200 f t ,300 f t ,400 f t a nd 5 00 f t . T he c ompass w as t hen u sed t o s et u p l ine

o f

b ack

t he

markers

q uay

w all

i n t he s hape m arkers

t o

o f more c ans b ehind ,

p rovide 49-

a s eries

o f

a nd a t 9 0-to t he

t ransits .

E ach

b ack

C HAPTER T HREE marker T hese

w as

T HE S EA T RIALS

a t

a b earing

i mprovised

o f

markers

M agnetic

590

w ere

h ighly

f rom

v isible

f our o f t hem w ere c leared a way a s r ubbish t hem

t o p revent t heir r emoval W hen a n a cceleration r un

was

t o

i ts

q uay

p erhaps

w all t oo

c ounterpart .

v isible ,

s ince

T hereafter a g uard was p laced o n

t ake

p lace

t he

s hip

was

r owed

i nto

P osition 5 0 m , o r s o o ffshore a nd n ot q uite i n l ine w ith t he m arkers a t 0 f t . S he w as t hen l ined u p o n a c ourse p arallel t o t he q uay w all m arkers , t hat I s 3 29' , u sing a c ompass . O ne r ecorder t hen s tood w ith h is h eels t ouching

t he

s tarboard u pper

r udder

b earing

w ith

h is

a rm

r aised .

T he s hip

w as s lowly manoeuvred o n t o t he s tarting p oint o f t he c ourse . When

t he

r udder

0 f t

b earing ,

M aster

t o

s topwatch . d ropped

m arkers h e

s et

d ropped

t he

T he

a ppeared

r ecorder

i t when

h is

c rew

t he 5 0

i n

a rm .

r owing

b y

t he

l ine

t o

T his

a nd

a cted

f or

r udder

t he

a s

s tanding

a s ignal

a nother

b earing

f t markers w ere i n

r ecorder

t o

r ecorder

r aised

h is

b y

t he t o

a rm

t he

R owing

s tart

a gain ,

a

a nd

l ine , a nd s o o n u ntil t he e nd o f

t he c ourse h ad b een r eached , T he s topwatch w as s et t o s tore t he i nterval t imes i n i ts memory w hile c ontinuing t o r un o n . O nce t he r un h ad b een c ompleted

t he

t imes

a t

t he

v arious

d istances

c ould

b e

r ecalled

f rom

t he

w atch 's memory . A cceleration

f rom

a s tanding

s tart

w as

p ractised

a n umber

o f t imes

i n

o pen water t o d iscover t he b est a nd s afest way o f g etting t he s hip moving q uickly . F ive s trokes a t l ight p ressure f ollowed b y t en a t t hree-quarter p ressure , a dopted . t oo

f ifteen V inding

a t

f irm

d own(

d angerous s ince ,

p ressure

a nd

s ee G lossary)

w ith

t hen

a fter

e asy

f irm

r atings r ising t o 4 4

a ll '

was

p ressure s .p .m .

t he

s equence

w as a bandoned

a s

d uring t hese r uns ,

i t

w as e asy t o l ose c ontrol o f t he b lade o n t he w ind d own . T hree r uns were a ttempted o ver t he a cceleration c ourse . T he f irst t wo , o n o uting 1 2 , w ere f utile b ecause s ome o f t he markers h ad b een r emoved . T he t hird r un t ook p lace o n o uting 1 7 . T here was a F orce 3 b eam w ind which m ade t he p assage n ear t he t wo s teel b uoys a nchored o ff t he q uay s omewhat h azardous . O ur H elmsman d eclined t o t ake r esponsibility f or t he s hip u nder t hese c ircumstances a nd h anded c ommand b ack t o t he C aptain . T he s hip was s teered b y t he s econd o fficer d uring t his r un . T he o arcrew r owed f ive s trokes

a t

l ight

p ressure ,

t en

s trokes

s trokes a t f irm p ressure a nd t hen w ent

a t

t hree-quarter

' easy a ll ' .

p ressure

f ifteen

T he r ating s tarted a t 2 6

s .p .m . a nd r ose t o 4 2 s .p .m . : T imes a t t he markers

5 0 1 00 1 50 2 00

f eet f eet f eet f eet

1 5 .5 2 2.5 2 8.4 3 2 .8

s econds s econds s econds s econds

3 00 f eet

4 2.6 s econds

4 00 f eet

5 2 .1 s econds

5 00

6 3.7 s econds

f eet

T he c rew w as a t e asy b etween t he 4 00 a nd 5 00 f t markers . D istance ( in metres) was p lotted a gainst t ime t o g ive a s eries v alues b y d ifferentiation .

T ime

( sees)

V elocity

( m ./sec)

0 1 0

0 1 ,6

1 5

2 .05

2 0 3 0

2 .4 3 .15

4 0

3 .20

5 0

3 .3 50-

o f v elocity

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIAL,

V elocity w as t hen p lotted a gainst t i me t o v alues ( see F ig .28) b y d ifferentiating a gain . T ime

( secs)

g ive

a s eries

A cceleration

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 T he i naccuracy o f t his m ethod t he c ircumstances .

o f

a cceleration

( m ./secs) 0 ,18 0 .12 0 ,11 0 .04 0 .02

5 0 i s r ecognised ,

0 .01 b ut n o o ther w as a vailable i n

T he s hip r eached a s peed o f s ix k nots a fter 3 0 s econds . I t m ight b e p ossible t o p ull h er a way f aster i f t he e arlier s trokes a t l ight p ressure w ere r eplaced b y s trokes a t t hree-quarter p ressure , b ut t his m ight i nvolve r isk o f i njury t o t he r owers . L ighter o ars w ould e nable t he c rew t o a ccelerate t he s hip m ore q uickly . h owever v ery s atisfactory .

p rocedure o f c ourse

T he r ate a chieved w as

T im W atson p lotted t he g raphs a nd c alculated t he v elocity a nd a cceleration v alues . I n A nnex 7 T imothy S haw d erives c onsistent v alues f rom c onsideration o f o ar g eometry , s lip , p ower a nd t he r esistance c urve o f t he s hip . T he l atter ( F ig .37) i s d erived f rom m odel h ull-towing e xperiments b y t he N ational T echnical P rofessor T .Loukakis),

U niversity

o f

A thens

( Report

N o .NAL

0 6-F-1985

b y

3 .2 3 .5 . T urning A lthough t he c hief c haracteristic o f t he t rieres w as s peed , s he a lso n eeded t o b e h ighly m anoeuvrable i n b attle . F ast t urning t owards o r a way f rom a n o pponent e nabled t he c ommander t o c hoose t he b est t actical p osition

i n

a ttack

o r

d efence ,

D ie l iplol

' breakthroughs '

a nd

a nastrophai

' quick t urns ' a re s poken o f (T huc ,2 .89 .8 ) a s t he p roper t actics o f s hips t hat m ove f aster i n t he w ater . U nfortunately l t i s n ot p ossible t o d raw c onclusions a bout t he p recise d egree o f s peed o r s harpness f ifth-century A thenian t rieres w as a ble t o t urn . B ut

w ith t he

w hich a t urning

e ffectiveness o f O lympias w as c learly o ne o f t he c haracteristics w hich h ad t o b e e xplored a s f ully a s p ossible i n t he P oros t rials , S ince u nder n ormal c ircumstances a t rieres w ould h ave h ad t o m ake a ll s orts o f t urns , a t h igh s peed , w hen s tationary , o r e ven w hen g oing a stern , O lympias 's t urning a bility w as t ested i n a v ariety p ossible b attle s ituations .

o f

w ays

t o

a ttempt

Xeasure j nent T urns w ere m easured b y m eans c anopy d eck . A r ecorder w ith a s topwatch s at

t o

s imulate

d ifferent

o f a c ompass p laced o n t he b y t he c ompass a nd s tarted

t he w atch w hen t he h elmsman a pplied t he r udders . I n t he c ase o f t urns e xecuted s olely w ith t he o ars t he w atch w as s tarted w hen t he R owing M aster g ave t he c ommand t o r ow . T he t ime t aken f or t he s hip 's h ead t o s wing b y 9 0 . :

w as n oted a nd t he w atch w as s topped w hen t he s hip 's h ead h ad s wung b y

1 80 4 :, R ating w atches w ere u sed t o r ecord t he n umber o f s .p .m .; a nd t he a mount o f e ffort a sked o f t he r owers w as a lso n oted . W ind s peed a nd d irection w as e stimated b y t he e xperienced s eamen o f t he t eam a nd r ecorded . A v ery r ough e stimate o f t he d istance t he t urn w as a lso m ade a nd n oted .

T he

t ravelled

b y

t he

s hip

while

m aking

I n t he s hip 's c ruises r ound P oros b ay s he w as f requently t o b e t urned . t urn w as m ost e asily a ccomplished b y a pplying t he r udders w hile t he

o arcrew c ontinued t o r ow a t l ight p ressure . T he r hythm o f t he s troke w as t hus c ontinued u ndisturbed . T his o peration c ould b e c alled a c ruising t urn . A t ypical c ruising t urn w as e xecuted a nd r ecorded o n O uting 7 . 51-

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

F igure

2 9

heim hard-over

F igure

Turning

3 0

t o

S tarboard:

S tarboard Oars a t

e asy '

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

T here w as n o w ind . F ull h elm w as a pplied a s t he w hole c rew c ontinued r owing a t l ight p ressure , w ith a r ating o f 2 8 s .p .m . . T he t urn o f 9 0 t ook 3 7 s econds , w hile t he f ull t urn o f 1 80" t ook 1 m inute 1 8 s econds .It w as e stimated t hat t he f irst 9 0" t urn w as e ffected w ithin 2 ½ l engths a nd t he s econd 9 0" t urn i n a f urther 2 l engths . A t ighter t urn w as p ossible b y h olding w ater w ith t he o ars o n t he I nside o f t he t urn , b ut t his c ould o nly s afely b e d one i f t he s hip w as n ot m oving t oo f ast , e .g . , w hen t he c rew h ad o nly t aken t en s trokes a t l ight p ressure f rom a s tanding s tart . T he R owing M aster c onsidered i t t oo d angerous t o a ttempt t o h old w ater o n a ny o f t he f irm p ressure t unis . A nother

m anoeuvre

t ried

w as

a s tationary

t urn

o f

t he

s hip ,

e xactly

a nalogous t o t he ' spinning o f t he b oat ' m anoeuvre p erformed b y e ights a nd f ours e xcept t hat , b ecause o f t he d ifficulties w ith b acking , o nly t he t hranites a nd z ygians w ere u sed . T he s tationary t urn w as o nly t ried o nce , o n o uting 1 0 . T he 90 t ook 5 8 s econds a nd t he 1 80" e xactly t wo m inutes . T he s tationary t urn i s r ather s low a nd i s o nly l ikely t o h ave b een u sed , e .g . , i n m oving f rom t he s tationary l ine a breast f ormation i nto l ine a head o r i n a s mall h arbour . T urning t he s hip w hile s he w as a t m aximum s peed , s imulating t he s ort o f t urn w hich m ight h ave b een c arried o ut i n b attle , p roved t o b e a n e xciting m anoeuvre w hich w as p opular w ith t he o arcrew . A n umber o f t hese b attle t urns w as a ttempted a s w e e xperimented t o f ind o ut w hich w as t he q uickest w ay o f t urning t he s hip . F irst , o n o uting 1 0 , a t urn t o p ort w as t ried w ith a ll o ars a t f irm p ressure a nd a F orce 3 w ind f rom a stern . F ull h elm w as a pplied . T he 901 t urn t ook 3 5 s econds , t he f ull 1 80 '' t urn 1 m inute 7 s econds . T he s hip h eeled a ppreciably t o p ort d uring t his t urn m aking i t d ifficult f or t he p ort s ide o ars t o m aintain t heir r hythm . A ccordingly , w hen s ubsequent b attle t urns w ere e ffected , t he i nside o ars p ulled f ive s trokes o nly a fter t he h elm h ad b een a pplied b efore g oing e asy , o r o n o ccasion w ent e asy a s s oon a s t he h elm w as a pplied . T he f astest 1 80' t urn w as made o n o uting 1 0 w ith a F orce 3 w ind a stern . T he s hip w ent I nto a t urn t o s tarboard w ith a ll o ars a t f irm p ressure . F ull h elm w as a pplied ( Fig .29) a nd t he s tarboard o ars c ontinued t o r ow f or f ive s trokes b efore g oing e asy ( F1g .30). P ort o ars r owed o n a t a r ating o f 3 3½ s .p .m . . T he 90= . t urn t ook 3 0 s econds a nd t he f ull 1 80" t urn 1 m inute 1 s econd . E ach 9 0' w as e ffected i n a bout t wo s hip 's l engths . S everal o ther t urns m atched t he 3 0 s econds f or t he f irst 90:, i ncluding t wo w hen t he i nside o ars w ent t o e asy i mmediately t he h elm w as a pplied . M aking a t urn w hen t he w ind w as p ushing t he b ow r ound w as e asier t han t rying t o t urn u p i nto t he w ind . A 9 0 c, t urn t o p ort i nto a F orce 3 w ind o n o uting 1 0 , w hich t ook o nly 3 0 s econds r epresented a b etter r esult t han a ny o f t he o ther t urns . A s p art o f a s imulated w ithdrawal a fter r amming , t he s hip e xecuted s ome 9 0. t urns w hile g oing a stern . A ll t hese r everse t urns w ere made f rom a s tanding s tart w ith t hranites a nd z ygians o nly . S ince b acking s peeds w ere s low i t w as p ossible f or t he r owers o n t he i nside o f t he t urn t o h old w ater w hile t hose o n t he o utside b acked w ater , T imothy S haw , w ho w as H elmsman f or m ost t hat t he s hip h andled v ery w ell I ndeed , b oth a ct m ost e fficiently t he t wo r udders h ad t o b e p roblem i n a chieving t his . W hen f ull h elm w as a n a ssistant t o t ake o ne o f t he t illers s ince f or o ne man t o o perate b oth .

53-

o f t he P oros t rials , r eports u nder o ar a nd u nder s ail , T o a t t he s ame a ngle . H e h ad n o a pplied t he h elmsman n eeded t hey w ere t hen t oo f ar a part

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA . T F[ALS

4 4

F igure

Ou ton s N o .

3 1

S ailing b efore t he Z ' ind o n the

S a i ls S et

F o rce 4 W Lnc 1 ( Beau or tS ca le )

Ship

a nd D [ ie c t l of l

K no ts

Speed

V .

K .P .H .

l -

w

0 -95

S tarboard Quarter

E st . T rue Sp ed

Wind

V T,

K .P .H .

Sa i l i E J f ic inc

I

Bar e Po l e s

3 F o l Low i .ng

20

3 -6

1 3

0 •2 8

4

Bare P o les

4 F oL low Lf l o

23

4-1

I S

023

1 5

Boat

s a i L

I

S ta rboar d QL LarteD

I0

I8

5

( D36

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

3 .2 .3 .6 . S ailing R ig H andling H oisting t he s mall f orward , b oat , s ail ( see AT F ig .68) w as e asy s ince i t w as l ight . T he m ain y ard a nd s ail w ere e xtremely h eavy f or t he r easons g iven a bove ( 3 .2 .1 .4 ) . B oth s ails w ere h oisted b railed u p . A s lippery h itch w as m ade t o e ach b rail a t t he f airlead s o t hat a s harp p ull w as s ufficient t o u nfurl t he s ail . H auling o n t he t ack a nd s heet h elped t he p rocess . D ouble h alyards ( see AT F ig .68) w ere h auled t ogether b ut n ot m arried . T he g angway a ft o f t he m ainmast w as j ust w ide a nd l ong e nough f or t he t wo h auling g angs . P ositions f or t he s heet a nd t ack l eads w ere f ound a fter a l ittle t rial a nd e rror . T he t ack w as t ied o ff b y a s ingle s lippery h itch c lose u p t o t he l ead . T he s heet w as l ed a ft a cross t he c anopy-deck t o t he p in r ail . B oth m ain b races w ere l ed t o t he s amson p osts ( see G lossary) j ust a head o f t he h elmsman . T his a rrangement p ermitted most o f t he mainsail 's c ontrols t o b e m anaged f rom a n a rea n ear t he h elm . T he b oat s ail 's c ontrols w ere j ust a ft o f t he b oat mast ; a nd a s mall d eck c rew u nder a p etty o fficer t rimmed t he s ail a s o rdered . I n t he l igh t ; w inds e xperienced d uring t he t rials o ne m an w as s ufficient f or e ach b rail , b ut i n a b reeze t wo o r t hree m en w ill b e n eeded f or e ach . T he m ost p ractical w ay o f f urling p roved t o b e t o b rail f rom t he m iddle o f t he f oot o f t he s ail o utwards a s t he s heet a nd t ack w ere g radually e ased . F irst S ailing P eriod

T he s ails w ere h oisted b railed b efore c asting o ff

f rom t he q uay a nd p roceeding c lear u nder o ars . A bout a d ozen r owers j oined t he d eck p arty f or t his a nd s ubsequent s ailing p eriods . A ll c laimed s ome s ailing e xperience , a nd t hose w ith t he most s oon s howed a n i ncreasing u nderstanding o f t he l ost a rt o f h andling t he a ncient M editerranean s quare s ail r ig . T he w ind w as o n t he s tarboard q uarter a nd f rom t he s ea c onditions w as j udged t o b e F orce 1 ( f rom 1 .6 t o 4 .8 k .p .h .). A ll o arsmen w ere w arned n ot t o d rop t heir b lades i nto t he w ater o n t his a nd l ater o ccasions w hen u nder s ail b ecause o f t he r eal d anger o f o ars b eing s wept a ft . T he b oat s ail w as u nfurled a nd t rimmed . S teerage

w as

m aintained

p ositively e ven i n s uch l ight a irs , i ndicating h ow e ffective t he b oat s ail w ould h ave b een , u sed b y i tself , i n a ncient t imes . I t w as e stimated t hat t he s hip

m ade

1 k not

u nder

t his

r ig

i n

t hese

c onditions .

H ow

m uch

t he

h ull ,

w ith i ts h igh u pcurving s tern , c ontributed t o t his s peed w as n ot m easured . T he m ainsail w as u nfurled a nd t rimmed . I n t he a lmost f ollowing w ind t he b oat s ail i mmediately w ent l imp a nd e ven b acked s lightly . T his e ffect w as c aused b y t he t urbulent a rea o n t he l ee s ide o f t he m ainsail l arge e nough t o i nclude t he b oat s ail . F rom t he b ehaviour o f t he b oat s ail i t a ppeared t hat t he a ir f lowing o ver t he m ain y ard b ecame a d own d raught o ver i t . T his u nwanted e ffect w as r emedied b y b railing u p t he m iddle p art o f t he m ainsail a bout 4 f t .(1 .3 m .). T he b oat s ail t hen f illed c orrectly . W ith b oth s ails d rawing t he s hip m ade 2 .34 k nots t hrough t he w ater ( Dutchman 's l og). I n t hese l ight a irs s uch p rogress s howed h ow f ast t he s hip w as l ikely t o b e u nder s ail . S econd S ailing P eriod T his o uting f ollowed t he s ame r outine a s t he f irst , S lightly b etter s ailing c onditions w ere e xperienced . T he w ind w as o n t he s tarboard q uarter ( Fig .31). F rom s ea c onditions i t w as J udged t o b e F orce 2 e dging i nto F orce 3 , , i .e ., a bout 1 3 k .p .h . , a nd d escribed a s a l ight b reeze

T he

k nots .

T hese

m44 1

p

e peed

o f

r esults

t 48 .

t he w ere

s hip ,

a s

m easured ,

e xcellent

A tp t

w as

5 ,12

i n

t he

l ight

1 y

gv

tt i B . bt

p ushed o ut t he t acks o f t he m ainsail a s h ad b een h oped .

55-

k nots

a nd

c onditions . 1 l

l ater

5 .88

B railing

t he

c lear air -

b ut

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

A lthough t he t rial a rea w as g enerous f or r owing i t w as t oo r estricted f or u ncertain m anoeuvring o f a s trange v essel w ith a n u ntrained c rew . T o p roceed f rom r unning d own t he l ength o f t he a rea t o c oming o n t o a r each a nd t hen a c lose r each b efore a ttempting t o t ack w ould h ave p ut t he s hip t oo c lose t o t he s hore . A t f ive k nots t here w ould h ave b een l ess t han t welve m inutes t o c omplete t his m anoeuvre . G iven a k nowledge o f t he s hip 's s ailing c apabilities a nd a n e xperienced d eck c rew i t w ould h ave b een p ossible t o b eat b ack t o t he q uay . A s i t w as t he d ecision w as t aken t o f url s ail a nd r eturn u nder o ars a gainst t he w ind . T hird S ailing P eriod

T he s hip w as s ailed f or p art o f t he r eturn f rom a

b each o n t he n orth e ast s ide o f t he i sland . T he s hip w as r owed c lear o f t he l and a nd t hen s ails w ere s et a nd b raced r ound t o a b reeze f rom t he p ort b eam . F rom I nfrequently

s ea c onditions , s een , t he w ind

i .e . , l arge w as j udged

w avelets w ith b reaking c rests t o b e F orce 3 (8-12 k nots ,15-20

a g entle b reeze . T he b oat s ail d rew w ell w ith n o b acking . T he h eel w as e stimated t o b e n ot m ore t han 5 ', a nd t he s hip f elt r eassuringly s tiff . L eeway c ould n ot b e j udged f rom t he t win t racks o f t he r udders . B y t aking b earings i t w as f ound t o b e l ess t han 7 f rom t he s hip 's h eading . G radually t he w ind d rew t o j ust a head o f t he b eam a nd t he y ards w ere b raced o ver . T he s hip c ontinued t o s teer w ell a nd m ake a l ong ,stralght w ake , b ut t he c hance w as t aken t o b rail u p t he a fter p art o f t he m ainsail . I n t he g entle b reeze t he c hange s eemed t o m ake n o d ifference t o t he h ull/sail b alance . T he l eeway a ngle i ncreased m arginally t o 7 : w hile t he t iller r emained i n t he s lightly l ee-helm p osition . F rom t he t ips o f t he r udder b lades t wo t railing v ortices h ad d eveloped a nd t hese s naked b eneath t he w ake a s f ar a s c ould b e s een . S ince t hese h ad n ot b een s een b efore t hey i ndicate t hat t he s ailing s peeds a ttained t hat a fternoon e xceeded t he f astest r owing s peeds a ttained u p t o t hat d ate . T hey s upported t he g eneral a wareness a mong t he r owers t hat t he s hip w as i ndeed s lipping a long f aster t han s he h ad u nder o ar a nd w ith v ery l ittle s train o n t he s lim h ull . T he s ails

w ere

b ralled

a s

t he

s hip

r eached

t he

c hannel

b etween

i sland a nd t he m ainland a nd t he w ind w as c ontrary . F or t he r ow y ards w ere l owered t o r educe w indage f or t he r owers ' b enefit .

h ome

t he t he

C onclusion T he s hip w as s ailed f or a t otal o f 1 ½ h ours d uring w hich d ata w ere c ollected w hich a re d isplayed i n F Ig .32 . T he f inal c olumn i ndicates t hat h er s ailing e fficiency r atio ( see G lossary) I s l ikely t o e xceed 0 .8 i n a ll c ailable c onditions w here t here i s a f ree w ind . I t s uggests t hat t he e stimated 7 k nots s peed o n t he l ast s ailing t rial may b e a l ittle c onservative . T he s hip h as t he p otential t o s ail h er t heoretical m aximum s peed o f a bout 1 2 k nots ( 2 1.7 k .p .h .). A t a s ailing e fficiency r atio o f 0 .8 ,then , a f ree w ind s uffice f or s uch p erformance .

o f

n early

2 7

k .p .h . ,

u pper

F orce

4 ,

s hould

T he s hip 's a bility t o p roduce u seful s peed i n l ight b reezes i s n ot t o b e I gnored i n t he a nalysis o f s uch f ast v oyages a s a re o n r ecord I n c lassical t imes . T he l ightening o f t he y ards a nd t he r emoval o f t he s hrouds w ill f acilitate t he r e-discovery o f t he p otential o f t he s quare r ig u sed b y t he t rieres . H andling o f t his a ncient M editerranean r ig i s a t echnique t o b e l earnt a nd e njoyed . I ts u se o n O lympias d raws b ack t he c urtain f or n autical a rchaeologists o n a m ethod o f h andling s ails d eveloped o ver c .3000 y ears a nd o ut o f t antalisingly

u se f or c .1500 y ears , a nd s hould l ead t o a n i nsight , p artial , i nto t he p roblem w hich b rought f irst r efinement a nd

t hen u ltimate a bandonment i n f avour o f m ore e fficient r igs .

56-

C HAPTER T HREE

T HE S EA T RIALS

P oDt

5 taibor rd G REEN

BO W

RED

T h

%

I . . . . , Z

kZ

4 5 6

0

I I

1 q 1 0

L

I I 2

3 ‚ 4 i s

0

I

I '

1 7 ‚ q

' 7 1 9 I q

2 0

2 0

2 1

2 1

2

2

2 3

2 3

2 4 2 5

2 4 2 5

2

2 t

2 7 2

2 7 2 9

2

z q

I S

3 '

F / ; // P F igure

F igure 3 4

W O/A / , -

3 0

STERN

3 3

Crew P lan

Crew d rawn u p,

r eady t o

e mbark

C HAPTER T HREE : T HE S EA T RIALS 3 .2 . 4. Embarkation Xooring a nd Ken o n D eck ( Epihatai) E mbarkation S wift a nd d isciplined e mbarkation , i n t he f ace o f a s urprise e nemy m ove ( cf .Thuc .2 .89 .9), w as a s n ecessary t o t he c rew o f a t rieres a s ' scrambllng 'is t o t he p ilots o f m odern f ighter a ircraft . D isembarkation w as l ess i mportant e xcept t o t he c rews o f t riereis b eachedin d efeat . Emergency e mbarkations a nd d isembarkations w ere n ot a ttempted a t P ores s ince e ven w ith n ormal u sage t he s hip 's i nternal f urniture o ften b roke l oose a nd f urther d amage w as f eared . N evertheless , i t s eemed w orthwhile f or t he b enefit o f f uture c rews t o r ecord t he r outine p rocedures w hich t he c rew o bserved w hen g oing a board a nd a shore . F irst a c rew p lan w as c halked o ut o n t he q uay i n t he f orm o f a g rid ( Fig33), l arge e nough f or r owers t o s tand i n t he v arious b oxes w hich r epresented t he o ar p ositions ( Fig ,34). W hen t he c rew w as m ustered o n t he g rid t he t eam l eaders s huffled t heir t eam members a round i nto a s atisfactory a rrangement , w hen a ll t he b oxes w ere f illed . T hen t he r owers l ed o ff , t he b ow s ections l eading . P ort a nd s tarboard t hranites m oved u p t he s ingle p lank b row a lternately o n t o t he p ort q uarter . O nce a board t hey d escended t he s teps i n t he s tern o n t o t he g angway w hich r an d own t he m iddle o f t he . ship ,

a nd m ade t heir w ay a long

i t t o t heir s eats

w here t hey

r an o ut t heir o ars . T hranites e mbarked f irst b ecause t heir o ars w hen s hipped n ot o nly h ampered t he p assage o f r owers a long t he g angway b ut a lso p assed

o ver

t he z ygian

s eats .

O nce t he t hranite o ars h ad b een r un o ut a nd

w ere o ut o f t he w ay , t he z ygians w hose o ars w hen s hipped a lso o bstructed t he g angway , w ere a ble t o f ollow o n . F inally t he t halamlans , t he f ile c losest t o t he g angway , b oarded , t ook t heir s eats a nd r an o ut t heir o ars . O n o uting 1 e mbarkation t ook 2 1

m inutes , b ut b y

o uting 3 t he t ime h ad d ropped

t o 1 2 m inutes , a nd d id n ot a lter s ignificantly a fter t hat . P rovision o f t he s econd b row l eading o ver t he s tarboard h ave

s peeded

u p

t he

e mbarkation

a g ood

d eal ,

a nd

l adder b rows , a re a mong t he g ear f or t riereis i nventories , i t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat b oth a ntiquity . T he s ystem d escribed r emained t he s ame

s ince

q uarter w ould

t wo

k il i nakides ,

l isted i n t he n aval w ere n ormally u sed i n t hroughout t he t rials .

G raeme F ife , w ho w as o ne o f O ly z npias 's c rew a t t he C ommissioning C eremony , r eports t hat a d ifferent p rocedure w as e mployed b y t hat c rew . R owers t ook t heir s eats I n b ow a nd s tern f irst . H is i mpression w as t hat t hey w ere a ble t o

b oard

t he

s hip

f aster

t han

t he

B ritish

c rew .

A t

t he

c eremony

t hey

e mbarked a t t he d ouble . O n c ampaign , t riereis moored s tern t o o n s uitable b eaches , a nd d isembarked t heir c rew d own t wo l adder b rows p ut o ut o ver t he s tern . O n o uting 2 0 , w hen t he s hip m ade a d ay v oyage a nd w as moored s tern t o a b each f or t he m idday m eal , t here w as a n o pportunity t o t ry t his p rocedure . O nce O lympias h ad b een moored t o t he b each , p ort a nd s tarboard l adders w ere p ut o ut a nd t he c rew w as s uccessfully d isembarked a nd r e-embarked . R ee mbarkation t ook 1 5 m inutes . T here i s n o d oubt t hat i n a n e mergency a t rained a nd a gile c rew s hould b e a ble t o e mbark i n a m uch s horter t ime . E mbarkation a nd d isembarkation c aused t he c rew n o p roblem a t P oros . T here I s h owever p lenty o f r oom f or f urther e xperiment . W ith t wo l adders r igged a nd t he s hip 's i nternal f urniture f astened more s ecurely , i t w ould b e i nteresting t o t ry e x nergenmcy e mbarkation f rom b eaches b y a v ariety o f d ifferent p rocedures . Mooring H omer p rovides a d etailed d escription o f t he o peration o f m ooring s tern f irst t o t he s hore i n I liad 1 .435-6 : ' And r owing f orward w ith t he o ars ' ,

i .e . , p ushing i nstead o f p ulling t he o ar ,

t hey t hrew o ut t he a nchor s tones

' from

'

i nto a mooring p lace ,

t he b ows 'and m ade t he s tern f ast 'to

t he s hore . P art o f t he r eason f or t he u p-curving s tern o f a ncient o ared s hips m ay h ave b een t his p ractice ,now k nown a s t he M editerranean moor . T he t rieres w as m oored a fter e ach o uting i n a s imilar H omeric w ay . 58-

C HAPTER T HREE

:

T HE S EA T RIALb

-

/

‚ -I

I. I S

-

-

I ' 3 .

. '

—

S

I

0 00

0 0

9

0—

U

c i ) I .

C I C I

•.

C ,

C .,

0

4 ) ‚

S

1

0

C h a r t o f P o r o E

/

1 -

I

*.

.:

C I ( 3

ob

'1

. . .: -

: /

C O I J _

5