American Collegiate Populations: A Test of the Traditional View 9780814725054

Citation preview

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y SERIE S IN EDUCATION AN D SOCIALIZATIO N I N AMERICAN HISTOR Y General Editor : Paul H . Mattingl y

THE CLASSLESS PROFESSIO N American Schoolme n i n th e Nineteent h Centur y Paul H . Mattingl y THE REVOLUTIONARY COLLEG E American Presbyteria n Highe r Education , 1707-183 7 Howard Mille r COLLEGIATE WOME N Domesticity an d Carree r i n Turn-of-the-Centur y Americ a Roberta Frankfor t SCHOOLED LAWYER S A Stud y i n th e Clas h o f Professional Culture s William R . Johnso n THE ORGANIZATIO N O F AMERICA N CULTURE , 1700-1900 : Private Institutions, Elites, and the Origins of American Nationalit y Peter Dobki n Hal l AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S A Tes t o f th e Traditiona l Vie w Colin B . Burk e OLD DARTMOUT H O N TRIA L The Transformatio n o f th e Academi c Communit y i n Nineteenth-Century Americ a Marilyn Tobia s

American Collegiat e Populations: A Test o f th e Traditiona l Vie w

Colin B . Burke

New York and London NE W YORK UNIVERSIT Y PRES S 198 2

Copyright © 198 2 b y Ne w Yor k Universit y Library o f Congres s Catalogin g i n Publicatio n Dat a Burke, Coli n B. , 1936 American collegiat e populations . (New Yor k Universit y serie s i n educatio n an d socializatio n i n American history ) Bibliography: p . Includes index . 1. Education, Higher—Unite d States—History . 2. Colleg e attendance—Unite d States—History . I. Title. II . Serie s LA226.B85 378.7 3 81-1684 6 ISBN 0-8147-1038- 7 AACR 2

Manufactured i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a

Clothbound edition s o f Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s Book s are Smyth-sew n an d printe d o n permanen t an d durabl e acid-fre e paper.

To m y wif e Rose , wh o gav e m e Andy , m y so n an d very specia l gif t i n life . And, to Car l an d Mari e who d o s o muc h fo r us .

I a m a farmers' s boy , an d hav e bee n on e sinc e Augus t 25 , 1837 . I am credite d wit h havin g som e Pilgri m bloo d i n m y veins ; indeed , further claim s ar e no w bein g mad e carryin g m y pedigre e historicall y back t o tim e no t fa r fro m th e Norma n conquest . I wa s brough t u p t o loo k forwar d t o som e humbl e succes s i n fou r things: work , school , th e idea l embodie d i n th e Ne w Englan d townmeeting, an d th e democrac y o f th e Congregationa l churches . Hence growin g lif e too k m e alon g throug h th e Publi c schoo l t o Williston Seminary , t o Amhers t College , an d t o Andove r Theologi cal Seminary , teachin g schoo l bot h fro m a liking fo r i t an d th e mon ey i t brough t me . I n th e churc h i n m y nativ e tow n I was ordaine d to th e ministr y fo r hom e missionar y servic e o n Septembe r 14 , 1865. For nearl y 5 0 year s I have bee n credite d wit h standin g fo r th e bes t in thi s age , te n year s a s a pionee r a t th e foo t o f th e Rock y Moun tains i n Boulder , Colorado , a s pasto r an d churc h builder , o n th e school an d universit y boards , establishin g th e presen t syste m o f schools an d th e stat e university . Fo r fiv e year s I wa s pasto r i n Boxborough, Massachusetts , startin g a tow n library ; fo r fiv e year s principal o f Lawrenc e Academ y a t Groton , Massachusetts , an d als o four year s i n Elgi n Academy , Elgin , Illionis . Sinc e 189 0 I have bee n in Marylan d doin g preparator y an d colleg e work introductor y t o th e Women's Colleg e o f Baltimore , the n i n charg e o f Lati n an d Gree k i n Morgan College , o f Baltimore , superintenden t o f th e Enoc h Refor matory fo r negr o boys , fo r year s th e onl y institutio n o f th e kin d fo r them i n th e world . Then , i n th e main, t o privat e lif e i n Laurel , Maryland, stil l continuin g m y interes t i n th e churche s an d th e schools. While i n Boulder , Colorado , I was marrie d t o Mar y E . Dart, January 1, 1870 . Ou r tw o daughter s wer e bor n there , Januar y 3 , 187 3 an d March 9 , 1875 . Nathan Thompso n Amherst Colleg e Class o f 186 1

The followin g not e i s al l tha t w e hav e bee n abl e t o dra w fro m Mr . Wharton: Boston, 12 7 Beaco n St. , Dec. 17 , 1878 . Dear Sir— I di d receiv e you r lette r o f Nov . 27t h ult. , bu t canno t per suade mysel f t o answe r it s requirements... . I hav e don e otherwise : bus y withou t usefulness , occupie d withou t progress, I remember n o lifewor k suitabl e fo r suc h a recor d a s yo u pro pose, fo r us e an d th e informatio n o f other s interested . Therefore , th e les s the futur e o f thi s worl d shal l kno w o f m e th e bette r I remain, dea r sir , very cordially yours , William Crai g Wharton . Class o f 183 2 Yale College .

Contents Introduction Th e Traditiona l Vie w Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

1

Th e Institution s Enrollment s Studen t Background s Studen t Career s Th e College s i n Perspectiv e

11 53 90 137 212

Notes Appendix A Institution s i n Operation , 1800-186 0 Appendix B NonCollegiat e Institution s Index

263 299 343 369

IX

Introduction

The Traditiona l Vie w The earl y nineteenth-centur y America n college s hav e bee n th e targe t of a s muc h criticis m a s ha s an y segmen t o f America n educatio n and , t o a significant degree , "good " educationa l practic e an d polic y fo r moder n times ha s bee n define d a s th e opposit e o f th e suppose d characteristic s o f the antebellu m highe r educationa l system . Almos t ever y aspec t o f th e early college s ha s bee n use d t o sho w wha t no t t o d o t o achiev e a demo cratic, equitabl e an d efficien t bas e fo r America n lif e and , fro m a t leas t the 1830s , reformer s hav e denounce d th e earl y institution s a s example s of elitis t an d dysfunctiona l education . Richard Hofstadter , representin g th e viewpoint s o f professiona l intel lectuals an d researc h oriente d educators , dre w a relativel y temperat e summary o f th e traditiona l interpretatio n o f antebellu m highe r educatio n in hi s book , Academic Freedom in the Age of the College, a n interpretatio n tha t remains dominan t despit e th e emergenc e o f a ne w literatur e o n th e earl y colleges.1 Hofstadter calle d th e perio d betwee n 180 0 an d 186 0 th e "Grea t Retrogression" becaus e h e though t tha t th e college s retreate d fro m th e promise o f th e America n enlightenmen t t o becom e bastion s o f educa tional, political , an d ideologica l conservatism . Th e colleges , h e felt , sup pressed freedo m o f though t an d prevente d bot h facult y an d student s from pursuin g thei r tru e functio n o f producin g ne w knowledge . Eve n worse, th e establishe d colleg e leader s blocke d educationa l reform s tha t would hav e brough t educatio n i n Americ a t o a n intellectua l leve l equa l to tha t o f th e leadin g system s o f Europe . T o Hofstadter , th e college s o f the period , especiall y i n th e Jacksonia n era , wer e irrationall y planned , unattractive, illiberal , an d self-defeating . Becaus e colleg e founding s an d policies wer e determine d b y loca l an d denominationa l leader s rathe r than b y a professiona l educationa l elite , th e countr y wa s fille d wit h small, inefficient , an d inflexibl e institution s whic h reflecte d th e premodern attitude s an d value s o f thei r sponsors . Th e onl y thin g tha t distinguished on e o f thes e college s fro m anothe r wa s th e particula r reli gious dogm a tha t wa s th e focu s o f it s educationa l efforts . Ther e wa s n o support fo r scholarl y activit y an d littl e recognitio n tha t college s shoul d 1

2

INTRODUCTION

engage i n mor e tha n th e teachin g o f classica l language s an d a smatterin g of basi c scienc e an d mathematic s throug h recitatio n an d memorization . The college s lacke d bot h th e typ e o f leader s an d th e institutiona l re sources t o kee p pac e wit h th e change s i n Wester n though t an d wit h th e new development s i n th e science s an d arts . And , b y design , th e college s were th e defenders o f a village mentalit y rathe r tha n th e advanc e agent s of intellectua l an d artisti c change . To Hofstadte r an d Whi g historians , othe r consequence s o f th e over supply o f suc h intellectuall y retrogressiv e institution s wer e predictable . A syste m controlle d b y anti-intellectual s an d a laissez-fair e philosoph y and motivate d b y denominationa l competitio n an d loca l boosteris m could onl y lea d t o institutiona l inadequac y an d instability , a lowering o f educational standards , an d t o th e slowin g o f th e natura l evolutio n o f th e scholarly profession s i n America . Hofstadter state d tha t college s faile d a t a n alarmin g rate , especiall y i n the Sout h an d West, a s the y compete d wit h eac h othe r fo r th e diminish ing numbe r o f student s wh o wer e willin g t o subjec t themselve s t o un necessary disciplin e an d simplisti c mora l teachings . Th e college s admit ted an d retaine d youn g an d ill-prepare d boy s wh o ha d littl e interes t i n academic excellenc e an d whos e attitude s an d behavio r frustrate d th e fe w faculty member s wh o maintaine d an y scholarl y goals ; th e typ e o f stu dents attracte d t o th e college s mean t tha t th e facult y ha d t o ac t a s surrogate parent s rathe r tha n a s researcher s an d teacher s o f specialize d knowledge. Th e oppressiv e rol e tha t wa s force d upo n th e faculty , com bined wit h institutiona l instabilit y an d a demand fo r religiou s conformi ty, discourage d th e developmen t o f professiona l scholars . Th e brightes t young me n o f Americ a wer e no t attracte d t o academi a becaus e o f th e low salarie s provide d b y institution s whic h survive d o n th e whim s o f sponsors wh o ha d littl e interes t i n th e developmen t o f a new libera l an d cosmopolitan cultur e i n America . An d eve n i f a young ma n di d desir e t o enter th e insecur e worl d o f a n academi c career , th e presenc e o f s o man y small college s whic h waste d educationa l resource s mean t tha t h e face d the difficult y tha t ther e wer e n o adequat e program s fo r advance d aca demic o r professional stud y i n America . The dozen s o f othe r interpretiv e work s o n th e earl y college s tel l th e same sor t o f story , bu t wit h mor e vehemenc e an d self-assurance . Whil e Hofstadter focuse d upo n th e intellectua l qualitie s o f th e college s an d stressed th e rol e o f th e attitude s o f educator s an d sponsors , Earl e D . Ross, a leadin g historia n o f th e stat e colleges , emphasize d democrac y and th e interrelatio n o f educatio n an d th e socia l an d economi c systems . With a firm commitmen t t o equality , h e underscore d th e clas s biase s an d elitist natur e o f antebellu m highe r educatio n an d h e explaine d th e stabil ity an d enrollmen t problem s o f th e college s i n th e contex t o f economi c determinism.2

Introduction

3

To Ross , th e classica l curricul a o f th e college s ha d littl e functiona l re lationship t o th e need s o f th e commo n ma n o r t o th e ne w economi c or der o f th e country . Educator s coul d hav e easil y replace d th e ol d curricul a with ne w subject s tha t woul d hav e mad e th e college s an d thei r student s compatible wit h th e ne w ag e o f industr y an d technology . I f educators ' attitudes ha d bee n different , student s fro m al l classe s an d ethni c back grounds woul d hav e flocke d t o th e college s becaus e al l th e socia l an d economic condition s fo r a new educationa l orde r were established . Enrollments wer e kep t low , no t b y financia l o r social restriction s bu t instead b y a narro w subjec t matter-usuall y presente d i n a highl y formal manner-tha t wholl y faile d t o connec t wit h th e dynami c passing scene . Th e ol d classicis m seeme d t o hav e nothin g t o con tribute t o a n er a o f transformatio n i n production , distributio n an d communication wit h al l th e attendin g socia l change. 3 Ross's an d Hofstadter' s criticism s d o no t exhaus t th e complaint s abou t the earl y system . Walte r P . Roger s asserte d tha t th e colleges , becaus e o f their sponsors ' ideologies , wer e producin g conservativ e me n wh o blocked al l social , religiou s an d economi c progress . An d educators ' atti tudes prevente d th e college s fro m performin g thei r natura l functio n o f providing technica l service s t o governmen t an d th e privat e secto r o f th e economy.4 Freemen Butt s an d Lawrenc e Cremi n elaborate d o n thi s them e in thei r influentia l tex t o n th e histor y o f America n educatio n b y citin g the conservativ e forc e o f th e faculty-psycholog y use d b y th e colleges. 5 And Frederic k Rudolp h claime d tha t th e antebellu m college s wer e exploiting thei r instructors . Th e college s attracte d s o fe w student s tha t they coul d no t pa y adequat e salarie s t o thei r professors . I n hi s view , th e colleges wer e underpricin g educatio n becaus e lo w tuition s wer e thei r only attractiv e feature. 6 And criti c afte r criti c complaine d abou t th e lac k of vocationa l an d technica l trainin g i n th e inflexibl e colleges. 7 All o f th e criticis m o f th e earl y college s make s som e contributio n t o an understandin g o f th e developmen t o f educatio n i n th e Unite d States , but becaus e the y ar e base d upo n set s o f questionabl e assumption s abou t the stat e o f America n societ y an d it s econom y befor e th e Civi l Wa r an d because the y rel y upo n interpretiv e an d evaluativ e framework s derive d from implici t an d ofte n muddle d theorie s o f th e natur e an d rol e o f higher educatio n i n modernization , th e criticism s distor t th e historica l picture o f th e possibilitie s an d contribution s o f highe r educatio n i n th e antebellum period . Fo r example , determinist s suc h a s Ros s no t onl y as sumed tha t th e America n socia l an d economi c orde r befor e th e Civi l War wa s read y t o suppor t a highl y differentiate d an d specialize d educa tional system , bu t tha t technica l educatio n wa s th e on e typ e tha t coul d make a significan t contributio n t o bot h democrac y an d modernization .

4

INTRODUCTION

Hofstadter assume d tha t th e allocation s o f educationa l resource s an d th e types o f educationa l structure s an d value s necessar y t o suppor t special ized intellectual s wer e compatibl e wit h othe r democrati c goals . An d th e critics o f trainin g fo r th e profession s assume d tha t highl y intensiv e edu cation wit h a n emphasi s upo n th e productio n o f a fe w specialist s woul d not imping e upo n th e goal s o f th e widesprea d distributio n o f basi c ser vices a t lo w cos t t o th e society . Because almos t al l o f th e critic s assume d tha t socia l an d economi c conditions o f th e earl y nineteent h centur y matche d thos e o f th e twenti eth century , littl e attentio n wa s give n t o th e ver y significan t constraint s imposed upo n educators . A s a result, th e histor y o f highe r educatio n wa s abstracted fro m it s historica l context . Rarel y wa s th e colleg e movemen t tied t o th e eve n broade r educationa l revolutio n o f th e antebellu m era . The level s an d distribution s o f wealt h durin g th e perio d an d thei r im portance t o th e accessibilit y o f highe r educatio n wer e ignored . Th e com parative rate s o f retur n o n investmen t i n forma l versu s informa l trainin g were no t integrate d wit h th e stud y o f th e developmen t o f professiona l and technica l training . An d al l th e critic s assume d tha t ther e wa s a n in tellectually an d financiall y rewardin g bod y o f specialize d knowledg e i n the humanitie s an d science s read y t o b e assimilate d b y th e college s tha t would mak e the m inherentl y attractive . Add t o thes e assumption s th e ide a tha t technica l trainin g wa s th e ma jor sourc e o f modernizatio n an d i t i s eas y t o understan d wh y th e critic s developed a n image o f highe r educatio n a s fre e fro m restrainin g outsid e forces an d wh y the y al l condemne d th e earl y colleges . Th e suppose d problems o f th e syste m wer e see n a s th e outcom e o f th e attitude s an d values o f denominationa l an d loca l elites , no t o f socia l an d economi c factors. And whe n th e commo n historica l imag e o f th e eas e an d pac e o f edu cational chang e afte r th e Civi l Wa r i s integrate d wit h th e othe r assump tions o f th e historica l writers , a negativ e evaluatio n o f th e antebellu m colleges an d thei r leaders seem s inescapable . The critic s faile d t o se e tha t the y wer e condemnin g th e lac k o f con sensus i n an d th e actua l characte r o f th e America n econom y an d society . They assume d a s alread y establishe d th e typ e o f socia l an d economi c or der tha t coul d develo p onl y afte r economi c modernizatio n ha d take n place, afte r significan t socia l an d politica l problem s ha d bee n solve d an d after a n accepte d an d usefu l moder n scienc e an d technolog y ha d emerged. The y faile d t o se e tha t thei r ahistorica l treatmen t o f th e col leges ha d le d the m t o assum e tha t highe r educatio n wa s th e primar y an d autonomous caus e o f socia l an d economi c change , when , a t most , i t ha d a reciprocal relationshi p t o modernization . Furthermore, th e bia s o f th e critic s prevente d the m fro m recognizin g the contribution s tha t th e earl y syste m mad e an d th e underlyin g reason s

Introduction

5

why i t develope d a s i t did . Fe w o f th e critic s sa w tha t th e college s wer e distributors o f basi c knowledge , skill s an d values , wer e servicin g stu dents fro m cultural , economi c an d socia l background s wh o migh t no t have attende d th e "better " schools , an d tha t th e smal l rura l college s ha d arisen partl y becaus e o f th e exclusiv e natur e an d th e hig h cost s o f th e more acceptabl e institutions . Eve n th e extrem e flexibilit y o f man y o f th e early school s wa s overlooke d becaus e o f th e bia s o f th e critics . Th e ter m "low-quality" wa s use d t o interpre t th e fac t tha t th e smal l college s wer e multi-level, multi-purpos e institution s tha t compensate d fo r th e absenc e of a democrati c an d efficien t primar y an d secondar y educationa l syste m in th e rura l an d less economicall y affluen t area s o f th e country . The critics ' focus upo n wha t the y di d no t wan t highe r educatio n t o b e in thei r ow n tim e als o le d the m awa y fro m recognizin g th e socia l an d economic contribution s o f th e alumn i o f th e colleges . Th e traditiona l histories emphasize d th e grea t numbe r o f minister s an d teacher s pro duced b y th e smal l colleges , bu t treate d thi s simpl y a s a n indicatio n o f the irrelevanc e o f earl y highe r education . Th e critic s coul d no t recogniz e that minister s performe d man y positiv e socia l function s i n a n er a befor e social service s becam e th e domai n o f th e bureaucrats . An d despit e th e great valu e the y place d upo n education , th e critic s coul d no t se e th e contributions th e college-bre d me n mad e t o th e developmen t o f th e ed ucational system . The impac t o f th e model s o f highe r educatio n use d b y th e critic s wa s so grea t that , althoug h the y demande d efficienc y an d socia l relevanc e o n the par t o f th e colleges , the y dismisse d an y bu t th e professiona l an d technical contribution s o f educatio n a s aberrations . The y assume d tha t the paternalisti c regime n o f man y o f th e college s wa s a bree d o f premodern illiberalis m an d coul d no t trea t i t a s a perhap s necessar y means t o develo p an d encourag e moder n disciplin e an d behavio r amon g their students . Th e orientatio n o f facultie s t o thei r institution s an d local ities rathe r tha n t o th e abstraction , thei r profession , wa s neve r interpreted a s a facto r leadin g t o studen t centered , flexibl e an d highl y personal education . An d th e involvemen t o f man y o f th e college s i n th e struggle fo r tw o o f th e mos t importan t step s i n th e histor y o f th e mod ernization o f th e Unite d States , abolitio n an d women' s rights , wa s pic tured a s a n exampl e o f ho w th e antebellu m college s deviate d fro m th e new moder n norm s fo r educatio n b y bein g concerne d wit h politics , rath er than wit h th e developmen t o f objectiv e knowledge . The consideratio n o f th e college s ou t o f thei r historica l contex t an d the bia s cause d b y th e us e o f th e variou s interpretiv e framework s ar e th e result o f a more fundamenta l deficiency . Historian s hav e bee n explainin g and interpretin g man y "facts " abou t th e antebellu m syste m tha t ar e no t true o r tha t ar e s o incomplet e tha t the y ar e misleading . And , eve n th e historical imag e o f th e educationa l syste m afte r th e Civi l War , vita l t o

6

INTRODUCTION

the argument s o f th e traditiona l critics , ha s bee n s o simplisti c tha t i t serves n o usefu l historica l purpose . The histor y o f th e earl y libera l art s college s an d professiona l educatio n rests upo n a se t o f unverifie d generalization s abou t th e numbe r an d sta bility o f th e colleges , th e enrollmen t levels , th e geographi c distributio n of college s an d professiona l schools , an d th e background s an d occupa tional destination s o f th e student s o f th e colleges . I n fact , mos t o f th e general historie s o f libera l educatio n res t upo n thre e empirica l sources : Donald Tewksbury' s wor k o n th e numbe r an d stabilit y o f libera l art s colleges; Henry Barnard' s serie s o n enrollmen t levels ; and Baile y Burritt' s study o f th e occupationa l distributio n o f th e alumn i o f th e majo r col leges o f th e antebellu m period. 8 The pictur e o f th e exten t an d th e natur e of chang e afte r th e Civi l Wa r seem s t o hav e a similarl y weak empirica l if no t conceptua l foundation . The purpos e o f thi s monograp h i s t o presen t th e result s o f a ten-yea r search fo r statistic s concernin g th e earl y educationa l system . Thi s wor k focuses upo n th e presentatio n o f th e ne w fact s i n compariso n t o th e se ries use d i n th e establishe d historiography an d doe s no t attemp t t o con struct a typical historica l narrative . Becaus e o f th e natur e o f th e evi dence, th e controversia l characte r o f th e findings , an d th e desir e t o present a s man y fact s a s possibl e i n orde r tha t othe r scholar s wil l no t have t o repea t th e time-consumin g an d expensiv e dat a search , muc h de tail i s included . Th e las t sectio n o f th e wor k attempt s t o plac e th e ante bellum experienc e an d it s interpretatio n i n perspectiv e b y reexaminin g post-Civil Wa r American highe r education . The result s o f th e analysi s o f th e mor e detaile d an d comprehensiv e data o n th e earl y syste m an d it s student s ar e quit e differen t fro m th e conclusions an d evaluation s give n i n th e traditiona l literature . Th e dif ferences rang e fro m th e findin g tha t th e construct , "th e antebellu m col lege," is o f ver y limite d valu e t o th e mor e mundan e conclusio n tha t th e founding an d instabilit y rate s o f th e college s wer e muc h lowe r tha n thought. An d b y abandonin g th e strateg y o f studyin g th e antebellu m colleges a s a n idea l type , th e opposit e o f wha t highe r educatio n shoul d be, th e earl y college s appea r a s fa r mor e dynami c tha n the y wer e de scribed t o be . Viewing th e college s i n th e contex t o f a longe r tim e spa n an d i n th e social an d economi c condition s o f th e antebellu m perio d lead s t o a n un derstanding o f th e constraint s o n educationa l chang e an d th e evolution ary rathe r tha n revolutionar y characte r o f educatio n afte r th e Civi l War . The earl y colleges , despit e th e constraint s impose d upo n the m b y th e so cial an d economi c system s o f th e country , wer e muc h mor e flexibl e an d dynamic tha n woul d see m t o b e th e cas e fro m th e inherite d histories . Curricula wa s expanding , th e college s attempte d t o kee p abreas t o f th e

Introduction

7

developments i n scienc e an d the y adjuste d t o ne w type s o f students . The college s wer e no t onl y developin g ne w approache s t o highe r educa tion bu t wer e becomin g differentiate d fro m eac h other , i n par t du e t o changes i n th e America n socioeconomi c order . Movin g fro m relativ e similarity i n th e firs t decad e o f th e century , th e college s bega n t o serv e different type s o f students , wit h th e studen t characteristic s rathe r tha n curricula differentiatin g th e colleges . And , a s th e syste m adjuste d t o de mands fo r highe r educatio n b y student s fro m ne w socia l an d clas s back grounds, i t becam e mor e democratic . Th e ne w college s o f th e perio d were oriente d t o educatin g student s wh o wer e muc h les s likel y t o hav e come fro m a n elit e backgroun d an d wh o ha d differen t occupationa l goals tha n thos e wh o entere d th e establishe d colleges . Th e characte r o f the institution s wa s shape d b y th e background s an d objective s o f thei r students. The college s wer e no t remove d fro m th e cours e o f modernizatio n o f the country . Th e career s o f thei r student s indicat e tha t th e college s wer e enrolling youn g me n wh o wer e aggressive , mobil e an d involve d i n th e development o f th e America n societ y an d economy . Th e students , i f they di d for m a n elite , forme d a workin g elite . The y entere d science , business, an d th e profession s an d mad e significan t contribution s i n al l o f those fields . The y wer e involve d i n politic s an d governmen t a t level s fa r above expectatio n an d the y contribute d leadershi p an d expertis e t o th e growth o f America n industry . The college s wer e shape d b y force s beyon d th e contro l o f eve n th e most progressiv e educators , however . Th e structur e o f th e professions , the availabilit y o f differen t occupation s t o youn g me n fro m lowe r socia l and economi c origins , an d eve n socia l norm s fo r th e timin g o f lif e pro gressions influence d th e college s an d thei r students . Th e impac t o f th e cultures an d economie s o f th e variou s region s wa s extremel y important ; regional an d socioeconomi c rathe r tha n denominationa l influence s wer e the decidin g factor s i n shapin g bot h th e college s an d th e live s o f thei r students. As th e underlyin g determinant s o f educatio n changed , th e college s al tered an d differentiated . Th e universit y di d no t develo p simpl y becaus e of th e emergenc e o f a fe w ne w leader s wh o mad e sudde n change s i n college curricul a an d organization . Th e emergenc e o f th e universit y depended upo n alteration s i n th e natur e an d orientatio n o f students , a restructuring o f th e professions , an d change s i n th e America n economy . Many o f th e underlyin g support s fo r th e universit y mode l an d th e tech nical schoo l di d begi n t o emerg e befor e th e Civi l Wa r i n severa l area s o f the country , bu t th e developmen t o f th e socia l an d economi c prerequisites fo r th e universit y idea l di d no t mea n a n increas e i n eithe r democracy o r equality . Th e institution s whic h too k th e lea d i n th e de -

8

INTRODUCTION

velopment an d implementatio n o f th e research-technica l universit y models were , eve n befor e th e Civi l War , th e mos t sociall y elit e institu tions an d the y service d a uniqu e studen t population . An d th e examina tion o f th e post-Civi l Wa r er a indicate s tha t neithe r o f thes e educationa l models fulfille d th e role s i n educationa l "progress " implied i n th e tradi tional historiography—bot h olde r educationa l form s an d new institution s besides th e universit y an d technica l school , suc h a s th e norma l schoo l and th e store-fron t trad e school , dominate d th e era . An d th e ol d prob lems an d contribution s o f th e antebellu m college s continue d becaus e o f the intransigenc e o f th e socioeconomi c order s which , eve n i n th e ag e o f industry, woul d no t confor m t o th e ideal s o f th e traditiona l historians. Because thi s investigatio n wa s premise d upo n th e logi c o f hypothesi s generation an d testin g (a s fa r a s ca n b e employe d i n historica l research ) it doe s no t contai n a ful l an d positiv e reinterpretatio n o f th e histor y o f the nineteenth-centur y college s an d th e collegiat e populations . I t wil l take man y mor e year s o f researc h befor e a n interpretatio n whic h meet s the criteri a o f "scientific " histor y ca n b e built . Bu t th e destructiv e natur e of thi s boo k doe s hav e it s peculia r positiv e aspect . Hopefully , th e dat a and conclusion s i t contain s wil l pu t t o res t som e o f th e mos t primar y ways o f "seeing " America n educationa l histor y and , perhaps , th e con temporary educationa l scene . Futur e scholar s ma y thu s fin d i t easie r t o make a fres h star t a t th e histor y o f highe r educatio n becaus e the y wil l not hav e t o fac e th e tormen t o f throwin g ou t ver y cherishe d way s o f or ganizing informatio n abou t ou r educational past . What futur e scholar s wil l hav e t o explor e an d tes t i s th e hypothesi s that th e patter n o f chang e i n th e nineteent h centur y wa s almos t th e op posite o f wha t w e hav e imagine d an d tha t th e cause s o f chang e wer e much mor e comple x tha n thos e pu t forwar d i n th e literatur e generate d by scholar s committe d t o publi c highe r educatio n an d th e researc h ideal . And th e patter n o f chang e wa s no t a simpl e progression , a s Whiggis h historians hav e pictured , o f th e expansio n o f opportunitie s an d alterna tives fo r America' s youth . No t onl y d o idea s suc h as , th e ris e o f th e nor mal schoo l wa s a direct threa t t o establishe d institutions , hav e littl e em pirical basis , bu t the y ar e conceptuall y naive . Suc h institution s wer e th e partners o f ne w socia l an d institutiona l parameter s whic h "forced " many students int o the m becaus e o f th e change s o f rule s fo r entr y an d renumeration i n th e professions . A s well , th e histor y o f othe r type s o f state-sponsored institution s ha s t o b e examine d an d a ne w politica l economy o f publi c highe r educatio n ha s t o b e buil t askin g wh y th e stat e institutions faile d t o respon d t o s o man y need s an d why , eve n withi n a state, resource s wer e s o unevenl y distributed . Th e rol e o f th e "shadow " institutions o f th e era , th e proprietar y trad e an d busines s colleges , ha s t o be examine d an d th e reason s fo r thei r popularity , despit e th e ris e o f th e

Introduction

9

public college , hav e t o b e identified . Th e continue d attractivenes s an d health o f th e libera l art s colleg e afte r th e Civi l Wa r als o ha s t o b e con fronted, no t jus t dismissed . Th e smal l colleg e ca n no t b e viewe d a s a re treat fo r thos e fearfu l o f th e ne w socia l worl d whic h wa s emergin g o r a s a have n fo r th e rich . Th e romanti c treatmen t o f th e universit y wil l hav e to b e replace d wit h a mor e realisti c examinatio n o f it s interna l working s and it s socia l role . Th e relativel y wea k recor d o f th e technica l school s during th e lat e nineteent h centur y wil l hav e t o b e explained , a s well . All o f thes e question s wil l hav e t o b e answere d withi n a mor e sophis ticated an d unbiase d framewor k tha n a n implici t advocac y mode l o r th e assumption tha t highe r educatio n ha s alway s ha d a n unlimite d i f no t ef fective deman d t o maximize . Non e o f thes e question s ca n b e resolve d i f we continu e t o assum e tha t th e change s i n America n highe r educatio n after th e Civi l Wa r establishe d timeles s institutiona l an d attitudina l models, a n assumptio n tha t ha s le d historian s an d th e publi c int o a com placency concernin g th e natur e an d conditio n o f highe r educatio n i n ou r own time .

Chapter 1

The Institution s In 1923, Donald G . Tewksbur y publishe d wha t ha s becom e a classic i n the histor y o f America n highe r educatio n an d th e majo r sourc e fo r thos e interested i n th e rationalit y an d stabilit y o f antebellu m America n col -

leges. The Founding of American Colleges and Universities in the United States wa s

completed a t Teacher s College , Columbi a University , a n institutio n de voted t o th e applicatio n o f scienc e t o ever y leve l an d aspec t o f educa tion.1 Teachers Colleg e wa s committe d t o th e modernizatio n o f educatio n through th e us e o f th e tool s o f researc h an d rationa l plannin g an d i t wa s a leade r i n th e establishmen t o f efficiency , centralizatio n an d a value free scientifi c curricul a a s goal s fo r America' s schools . It s professors , n o matter wha t particula r versio n o f Progressivis m the y advocated , searche d for a science-base d metacultur e tha t woul d provid e th e countr y wit h professional educator s wh o coul d remov e th e educationa l syste m fro m the troublesom e realm s o f loca l an d cultura l politics . T o investigator s with suc h view s an d goals , th e decentralized , denominational , ethnicall y divided antebellu m colleg e syste m seeme d t o b e th e antithesi s o f soun d educational policy. 2 Although Tewksbury' s wor k wa s writte n i n a highly objectiv e tone , i t reflected th e Teachers Colleg e perspective . Rejectin g previou s estimate s by Cubberley , West , an d Dexte r o f th e numbe r o f college s tha t wer e founded, h e wen t t o sessio n law s o f variou s state s t o identif y bot h foundings an d failures . Th e resul t o f hi s stud y wa s a story o f education al chaos, chao s cause d b y a n exces s o f democrac y o n th e frontie r an d th e irrationality o f denominationa l competition . Instea d o f discoverin g som e two hundre d founding s befor e th e Civi l War , a s estimate d b y Cubberle y and Dexter , h e foun d fiv e hundre d sixtee n i n jus t sixtee n states , an d hinted tha t simila r foundin g rate s occurre d throughou t th e remainde r o f the country . H e neve r specifie d th e tota l numbe r o f founding s befor e the Civi l War , bu t i f hi s averag e fo r th e sixtee n (mostl y Southern ) state s are projecte d t o th e remainin g non-Ne w Englan d states , th e resul t i s over nin e hundre d colleges , o r on e fo r ever y on e thousan d whit e male s age fiftee n t o twent y i n th e Unite d State s i n 1850. 3 Tewksbury conclud 11

12 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

ed tha t 8 1 percen t o r ove r seve n hundre d o f thes e college s failed , an d h e explained th e failure s a s th e outcom e o f legislatures , withou t an y thought t o th e need s fo r stability , allowin g poorl y funded , unattractive , and low-qualit y institution s t o obtai n charters . Th e result s o f politica l control o f highe r educatio n wer e a n overabundanc e o f pretentiou s an d unstable school s whic h prevente d th e ris e o f efficient , large-scal e insti tutions. (Tabl e 1.1 ) Only i n Ne w England , Tewksbur y stated , wa s suc h chao s an d irratio nality avoided . H e di d no t mentio n th e problem s o f elitis m an d religiou s Table 1. 1 Tewksbury1s Table of Mortality of Colleges Founded Before the Civil War in Sixteen States of the Union

Name of State

Total 1 Colleges

Dead [

Living1 Colleges

Colleges 1

Mortality Rate

Pennsylvania

31

16

15

48#

New York

36

15

21

58

Ohio

^3

17

26

60

Virginia

32

10

22

69

North Carolina

26

7

19

73

Maryland

23

5

18

78

Alabama

23

4

19

83

Tennessee

46

7

39

84

Georgia

51

7

44

86

Louisiana

26

3

23

88

Missouri

85

8

77

90

Mississippi

29

2

2 7

93

Texas

40

2

38

95

Kansas

20

1

19

95

Florida

2

nO

2

100

3

0

3

100

516

104

412

Arkansas Total for 16 states

•Average mortalit y rate for 16 states.

1

8l#*

The Institution s

13

prejudice i n th e region , an d h e di d no t poin t ou t tha t Ne w England' s colleges ha d benefite d fro m th e typ e o f stat e economi c suppor t withhel d from th e college s i n th e ne w states. 4 Tewksbury's work i s stil l valuable , bu t i t ha s severa l significan t fault s which cal l fo r th e rejectio n o f hi s estimate s o f founding s an d failure s and fo r a modification o f hi s interpretatio n o f th e cause s underlyin g th e development o f antebellu m highe r education . Fo r a t leas t thre e states , Ohio, Missouri , an d Texas , officia l list s o f colleg e chartering s d o no t match hi s findings. 5 Bu t mor e importantly , hi s choic e o f th e issuanc e o f college charter s a s th e indicato r o f founding s i s ver y questionable . Th e issuance o f a charte r di d no t mea n tha t a colleg e wa s established . An d even i f a n institutio n wa s founde d unde r th e legislativ e grant , i t ma y no t have operate d a s a college o r compete d fo r colleg e students . I t ma y hav e confined itsel f t o wha t ar e now calle d primar y an d secondar y education. 6 Tewksbury mad e severa l ver y stron g assumption s t o arriv e a t hi s in terpretation o f th e cause s o f th e suppose d colleg e explosion . H e assume d that college s wer e founde d t o compet e wit h othe r demonination s rathe r than t o serv e intra-denominationa l needs , an d h e assume d tha t an y de gree o f denominationa l affiliatio n reflecte d dominatio n o f a colleg e b y the religiou s body . H e implie d tha t an y ideologica l difference s amon g the college s wer e insignificant , irrational , an d premodern , an d h e overlooked th e possibilit y tha t denominationa l line s coincide d wit h ver y significant class , ethnic , an d politica l differences . Tewksbury's us e o f surviva l int o th e twentiet h centur y a s th e criteri a for succes s o f th e college s wa s ahistorica l i n concept , maske d th e timin g of failure s an d lef t hi s reader s wit h littl e indicatio n a s t o whe n an d wh y particular college s failed . Furthermore , h e deemphasize d th e numbe r o f foundings an d failure s befor e th e lat e 1830 s an d th e instabilit y o f stat e institutions.7 Only tw o page s o f th e Founding of American Colleges wer e concerne d wit h the presentatio n o f evidenc e o n founding s an d failures . Th e remainde r o f the boo k wa s devote d t o detail s o n th e institution s tha t survive d int o the 1920 s an d wit h interpretativ e comment s o n th e instabilit y an d irra tionality o f th e earl y system . Tewksbur y include d onl y on e shor t table listing th e number s o f founding s an d failure s b y stat e an d thi s wa s fo r sixteen state s only . Twelv e o f th e state s i n th e table wer e i n th e South , although muc h o f hi s discussio n o f th e reason s fo r failure s seeme d t o b e directed t o th e Midwest. 8 (Table 1.1 ) Tewksbury referre d reader s seekin g mor e detai l t o a file h e ha d place d in th e Teacher s Colleg e library . Bu t thi s fil e canno t b e locate d an d i t ha s not bee n cite d i n a publishe d wor k sinc e th e appearanc e o f hi s book . The los s o f th e fil e ha s lef t investigator s wit h littl e specifi c informatio n —the detai l neede d t o verif y Tewksbury' s estimates , t o chec k hi s as -

14 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

sumptions, an d t o us e hi s origina l effort s i n othe r investigations. 9 Be cause Tewksbury' s wor k i s questionabl e an d becaus e th e estimate s b y investigators suc h a s Cubberle y wer e no t accompanie d b y detaile d anal yses, a ne w searc h fo r bot h founding s an d failure s wa s conducte d fo r this study . Instea d o f usin g charter s a s a n unambiguou s indicato r o f foundings, contemporar y an d historica l source s likel y t o mentio n operat ing college s wer e searche d t o identif y college s activ e i n th e perio d be tween 180 0 an d th e outbrea k o f th e Civi l War . Pos t Offic e directories , atlases, national , stat e an d loca l almanac s an d registers , denominationa l publications, collection s o f colleg e catalogs , an d historie s o f th e state s and educatio n withi n the m wer e surveye d fo r an y mentio n o f a colleg e in operation . Onc e a mentio n wa s noted , attempt s wer e mad e t o verif y that th e mal e o r coeducationa l institutio n actuall y taugh t student s i n a n educational trac k leadin g t o a college degre e an d tha t contemporarie s re garded th e institutio n a s a college. 10 The resul t o f th e search , whic h include d th e hundred s o f source s ex amined i n a tracin g o f th e live s o f twenty-fou r thousan d colleg e an d professional schoo l student s o f th e period , give s a differen t pictur e o f the stabilit y o f antebellu m highe r educatio n fro m tha t pu t forwar d i n

The Founding of American Colleges and Universities. T w o hundre d an d forty -

one institutions , includin g som e sevent y suspecte d o f academ y o r prepa ratory operatio n only , wer e identifie d a s operatin g durin g th e period . (Tables 1.2 , 1.3 ) Seventy percen t o f th e tota l survive d int o th e twentiet h centur y an d 80 percen t survive d unti l th e Civi l War . I f Catholic college s ar e remove d from consideration , th e failur e rat e befor e th e Civi l Wa r wa s 1 4 percen t and i f nondenominationa l college s ar e als o deleted , th e sixty-yea r failur e percentage wa s 1 0 percent . I f stat e institution s ar e als o excluded , th e es timate drop s t o les s tha n 8 percent . The timin g o f th e foundin g o f college s di d no t follo w th e patter n Tewksbury implied . Althoug h h e neve r attempte d t o construc t a decadeby-decade serie s fo r al l colleg e foundings , h e pointe d t o th e 1830s , th e Jacksonian years , a s th e beginning s o f th e irrationa l growt h o f th e num ber o f college s i n th e country . Bu t th e increas e i n th e numbe r o f school s began muc h earlie r tha n h e though t an d th e expansio n wa s no t i n isola tion fro m othe r change s i n th e America n educationa l system . Approximately twent y college s wer e i n operatio n i n th e Unite d State s in 1800 . B y th e 1850s , tw o hundre d seventee n wer e open . Thi s tenfol d increase bega n i n th e firs t decad e o f th e centur y whe n twelv e additiona l institutions eithe r firs t bega n o r resume d operation— a 6 0 percen t in crease ove r th e firs t yea r o f th e century . Perhap s du e t o th e turmoi l o f the year s o f conflic t wit h England , th e 1810 s adde d onl y eigh t colleges . The 1820 s bega n th e accelerate d growt h o f institution s wit h a 50 percen t

15

2

0

I

Maine 1

Maryland 2

0

0

Louisiana 1

Massachusetts 1

1 3

0

Iowa 0

Kentucky 3

0

Indiana 0

0

0

1

20

2

1

3

!

0

0 0

0 3

0 20

2

3

0 0

0

: 06 0

* 5 [

1

I

0

4

2

0

20 3

0

0

0

1

° 0 5

I

0

I ^

0 9 50

2

0

3

3

0

7

3

0

0

0

6

1

0

1

° 2

20

3

X

p2

0

\

0. 1 4

U75

91

0 O

92

9

1

2I0 2

1

8 l

°

7 11

7

51

° 3

20

0

7

O F*

% Failure s fTotal 1800-186 0

30

1

30 0

1 1 3 0 DA 1

1

0

1

3

1 6

F

s 1850'

I F I 0

s 1840'

3j 0 I 3

2

0

0 4 2

0

5

0

0 6

0 5

0

1

0

0

0 4

4

2

0 9

0

1

21

51 8

0 4

0

3

2

0

0

8 1830'

1 2 04

F

00 4

0

0

0

2°

0

x

1

0 00

0

3

0

1

0

0

0

0

F

s 1820*

0

10

0

10

Georgia 1

Illinois 0

0

0

1

0

0

District o f Columbi a 1

0

0

Connecticut 1 0

0

California 0

Delaware 0

0

Alabama 0

lo F 0

1800*8 I8l0»

Distribution of Liberal Arts Colleges I n Operation by State and Number of Failures By Decade.

Table 1. 2

16

O i II I

Tennessee 1

1

I

1

0

3 °

°

0

South Carolin a 3

Rhode Islan d 1

5 0

0

Oregon 0

0

O M

Pennsylvania 4

2

1

0

0

0

0

3 0

1

Ohio 0

North Carolin a 1

0

0

New Jerse y 2

°

0

New Hampshir e 1

New Yor k 2

0

Missouri 0

0

0

Minnesota 0

Mississippi 0

0

Michigan 0

lo F 0

0

1

1

6

l° I

0

°

3 ° I I

0

1

0

1

0

-

0

31

0

11

1

0

0

\

3° 0

1

°

0

°

2

15

°

0

10

6

3

3

17

7

0

20 0

74

7

*°

10

61 \1

0

2

95

2

1

2

1

23

^ °

41

-

0

I 1 5 I 1 11 5 1 I tI

5

0

I 16 1

71

^ °

1

3 °

1

1 11

4

00

33 2

1

3

s l850'

6 2

71 1

1 0

4 0

F *

s l840'

0

1

30

3 °

3 °

9 11 3 °

1

0

2°

1

7

00

8 21

5 I 0 9 J I I J I

3

r

0

0

0

1

f

F0 31

s l830

F0

f

5 °

0

1

6 0

4 °

0

0

33

°

1°

6

2

3 I X I

0

7 0

0

-°

0

00

0

0

F0

s l820

1

10

4 0

0

0

0

0

0

F0

1800's 1810'

Table 1.2 - Continued

% Failure s Tota l 1800-186 0

17

1

F: Failures

0

0

0 0

0 F

3

1

0

0

0

3

5*

OF

l 11

0 50 5

I

0

F

s 1830'

32 1 3 7 1 5 7 4 106 6 142 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 01 1

*0: i n operation

Wisconsin

2

2

0 F

0 00 0

0 F

s 1820'

° 30 40 70 9 Oi

0

Vermont 2

Virginia 3

0

Texas 0

0F

1800*8 I8l0'

0

9

3

2

3 pi7 1

1 1

0

51

*

s l840'

Table 1.2 - Continued

0

3

7

p Failur e s [Total 1800-186 0

O0

f

5 24l 4o 1

0

s l850

18 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1. 3 Liberal Arts Colleges In Operation and Founded, 1800-1860

l800»s

1810

1820

1830

1840

l850»s

In Operation

32

37

67

106

142

217

Founded

12

8

23

56

42

88

increase i n th e numbe r o f college s i n operation . Th e 1830 s ha d a nea r doubling o f th e numbe r o f institution s i n operation , bu t th e economi c pressures o f th e 1840 s resulte d i n a slowdow n o f th e growt h rate . Th e 1850s experience d a 50 percen t expansio n wit h eighty-eigh t ne w college s being founded . (Table s 1.2 , 1.3 ) The growt h i n th e numbe r o f college s coincide d wit h a shif t i n thei r geographic distribution . Th e college s followe d th e movemen t o f th e American populatio n t o th e West . Ne w England' s shar e o f th e college s dropped fro m 2 5 percen t t o 7 percen t i n th e sixt y years , whil e th e com bined shar e o f th e Southwes t an d Midwes t increase d fro m 1 6 t o 6 0 per cent. Th e ne w area s o f th e countr y acquire d college s earl y i n thei r devel opment, an d eve n th e thre e state s withou t college s b y th e 1850s , Arkansas, Florida , an d Kansas , ha d mad e attempt s t o foun d some . Ar kansas chartere d ove r thirt y college s an d universities , Florid a attempte d to foun d a stat e system , an d Kansa s chartere d eightee n universitie s an d ten college s i n jus t th e fiv e year s betwee n 185 5 an d I860. 11 (Tables 1.4 , 1.5, 1.6 , 1.7 ) Table 1. 4 Number of States With Liberal Arts Colleges And Average and Standard Deviation of Number of Colleges by State

l800»s Number of States

l8lO»s

l820»s

l830»s

l840's

l850»s

18

21

21

26

29

32

X

2

2

3

4

5

7

Q

1

1

2

3

4

5

The Institution s

19

Table 1. 5 Colleges in Operation by Region and Decade as a Percent o f All Colleges in Operation

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

New England

25

22

20

13

10

7

Middle Atlanti c

25

27

20

20

17

15

South Atlantic

34

32

23

23

10

17

Southwest

16

16

20

26

28

28

Midwest

0

5

16

20

2k

31

West

0

0

0

0

0

2

1850

But th e growt h o f college s wa s no t a simpl e matte r o f th e additio n o f new states . Ove r th e si x decade s a muc h mor e comple x proces s wa s a t work leadin g t o increasingl y divers e educationa l profiles amon g th e vari ous state s an d regions . College s sprea d fro m eightee n t o thirty-tw o states i n th e si x decades , wit h th e averag e numbe r o f college s pe r stat e increasing fro m tw o t o seven . A t th e sam e time , th e state s an d region s became differentiate d i n respec t t o th e numbe r o f college s the y maintained, reflectin g stat e policies , denominationa l differences , an d th e degree o f elitis m i n th e states . The relativ e shif t o f colleg e locatio n an d th e differentiatio n o f th e states an d region s cam e i n uneve n steps . Ne w England' s shar e o f th e in Table 1. 6 Colleges in Operation by Region and Decade

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1850

New England

8

8

11

13

Ik

15

Middle Atlantic

8

10

13

21

25

32

South Atlantic

11

11

13

2k

28

37

Southwest

5

6

11

27

40

61

Midwest

0

2

9

21

35

67

20 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1. 7

Average Number o f Colleges in Operation Per State in the Regions and Coefficient o f Variation

l850»s Average

Coefficient of Variation

New England

2-5

.55

Middle Atlantic

8.8

.67

South Atlantic

3-5

.55

Southwest

8.7

.36

Midwest

9.6

.76

stitutions showe d onl y a sligh t declin e unti l th e 1830 s becaus e o f th e relatively slo w growt h o f college s acros s th e countr y an d becaus e thre e new college s wer e opene d i n Ne w Englan d i n th e 1820s . Afte r th e 1820s , New Englan d woul d ad d onl y fou r colleges , despit e it s populatio n growth an d it s ethni c diversification ; an d on e o f th e fou r ha d t o wai t until afte r th e Civi l Wa r t o receiv e a n officia l charte r becaus e o f th e bia s in Ne w Englan d agains t Catholicism. 12 By th e 1850s , th e smal l numbe r o f college founding s i n Ne w Englan d le d t o it s averag e numbe r o f college s per stat e bein g les s tha n one-hal f th e nationa l average ; th e frontie r stat e of Orego n ha d mor e operatin g "colleges " tha n thre e o f th e Ne w Englan d states. The olde r Souther n state s an d th e Middl e Atlanti c regio n di d no t fac e such drasti c decline s i n th e percentag e o f college s i n operation . Th e South Atlanti c shar e droppe d fro m th e country' s larges t i n 180 0 t o th e third larges t i n th e 1850s , althoug h th e numbe r o f college s i n th e regio n increased threefold . Th e experienc e o f th e Sout h Atlanti c state s illus trates tha t th e expansio n o f th e 1830 s wa s no t confine d t o th e West . I n that decad e th e numbe r o f college s i n th e ol d Sout h nearl y doubled , an d only th e Distric t o f Columbi a maintaine d th e sam e numbe r o f college s that i t ha d i n th e 1820s . I n th e Middl e Atlanti c state s ther e wa s a greate r increase i n th e numbe r o f college s i n th e sixt y years . Althoug h thei r share droppe d b y 4 0 percent , tw o o f th e region' s thre e states , Ne w Yor k and Pennsylvania , eac h ha d a s man y o r mor e college s tha n an y othe r state excep t Ohio , Tennessee , an d Illinoi s i n th e 1850s . Pennsylvani a ha d more college s tha n an y stat e excep t Ohio .

The Institution s

21

The change s i n th e relativ e standin g o f th e region s wa s accompanie d by a n increas e i n diversit y amon g them , reflectin g difference s i n charter ing policies , denominationa l interest , an d th e abilit y t o muste r economi c support fo r education . Th e Midwester n state s ha d th e highes t variance , primarily du e t o polic y decision s b y th e stat e governments . Ohio , fo r ex ample, ha d twenty-fiv e operatin g college s i n th e 1850 s whil e Michiga n had four . On e o f th e reason s fo r thi s differenc e wa s tha t Michiga n pur sued a very restrictiv e charterin g polic y unti l th e Republican s too k pow er in th e 1850s . Ohi o ha d alway s maintaine d a liberal policy , althoug h i t offered almos t n o economi c support t o it s colleges. 13 But acros s th e coun try, politica l preferenc e i n nationa l politic s di d no t determin e th e char tering policie s o f th e states . There wa s n o statisticall y significan t rela tionship betwee n percen t Democrati c o r percen t Republica n vot e fo r president an d th e numbe r o f college s pe r stat e fro m th e 1830 s t o th e Civil War. 14 Th e suppor t o f college s b y th e ne w denomination s o f th e country somewha t conform s t o th e pictur e draw n b y Tewksbury , bu t few college s wer e controlle d b y a singl e denomination , an d i t wa s ex tremely difficul t t o classif y college s b y denominationa l affiliatio n be cause o f th e mixtur e o f loca l an d denominationa l support. 15 Ne w an d lower-status denomination s an d denominationa l subgroup s bega n t o sponsor college s i n th e 1830s , wit h th e Baptist s an d Methodist s increas ing th e numbe r o f college s the y aide d fourfold . Th e smalle r denomina tions di d no t begi n t o ente r th e colleg e marke t unti l th e 1840 s an d 1850s, however . (Table s 1.8 , 1.9 , 1.10 , 1.11 ) The resul t o f th e entr y o f th e ne w denominations , includin g th e con certed effor t o f th e Catholic s t o foun d institution s abov e th e primar y level, wa s a significan t chang e i n th e source s o f suppor t an d contro l o f higher education . I n th e 1800 s an d 1810s , th e thre e olde r denomination s were connecte d wit h almos t 7 0 percen t o f al l colleges , bu t i n th e 1830 s Table 1. 8 Liberal Arts Colleges by Denominational Affiliatio n as Percentage o f Colleges in Operation, Each Decade

Denominational State and NonDenominational

1800

1810

1820

1830

l84o

1850

84

82

83

85

85

86

16

18

17

15

15

Ik

22 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1. 9

Denominational College s as Percentage o f all Liberal Arts Colleges in Operation by Decade

1840's

l800's

l8l0's

1820's

1830's

Congregational

21

20

17

10

9

8

Presbyterian

33

37

33

28

22

21

Methodist

3

3

6

11

10

16

Baptist

3

3

6

13

13

Ik

12

11

13

8

10

7

Catholic

9

6

k

9

13

10

Lutheran

0

0

2

3

3

3

Disciples

0

0

0

1

1

3

United Brethren

0

0

0

0

1

1

Quaker

0

0

0

1

1

1

Universalist

0

0

0

0

0

1

Dutch Reformed

3

2

2

1

1

1

German Reformed

0

0

0

1

1

1

8^

82

~83

86*

85

87*

Episcopal

Totals

1850's

•Percentage difference s du e to rounding.

the shar e supporte d b y Congregationalists , Episcopalians , an d Presbyteri ans decline d t o 5 0 percent . B y th e Civi l War , th e olde r denomination s (including th e man y ethni c an d theologica l variant s o f Presbyterianism ) were associate d wit h one-thir d o f th e schools . Th e Methodist s an d Bap tists wer e allie d wit h anothe r thir d o f th e colleges , an d th e smalle r de nominations, suc h a s th e Disciples , Lutherans , Unite d Bretherans , an d Universalists, accounte d fo r n o mor e tha n 1 0 percent. The denomination s followe d th e geographi c migratio n o f th e Ameri can population , bu t th e denominationa l college s wer e no t evenl y distrib uted acros s th e country . Ne w Englan d remaine d dominate d b y Congre gational an d Unitaria n colleges . Congregational , Lutheran , Quaker , an d Disciples college s wer e concentrate d i n a fe w regions , bu t th e othe r de nominations tende d t o locat e thei r institution s rathe r evenl y acros s th e areas outside o f Ne w England .

The Institution s

23

Table 1.1 0 Percent of a Denomination's Colleges in Each Region

New England

Middle Atlantic

47

0

0

0

47

6

Presbyterian

0

26

15

40

22

0

Baptist

3

18

15

39

12

0

Methodist

3

13

15

28

38

5

18

22

33

18

22

0

Catholic

3

10

28

38

14

7

Disciples

0

0

17

33

0

Lutheran

0

1 °

1 5°

20

0

80

1 °

33

33

0

0

33

0

0

67

0

0

33

0

Congregational

Episcopalian

Universalist Quaker

South South- MidAtlantic west West

West

The timin g o f failure s followe d th e genera l trend s stated b y Tewksbury, bu t th e absolut e numbe r wa s muc h smalle r tha n h e asserte d and th e distributio n an d cause s o f th e failure s wer e mor e complex . Th e highest percentag e o f failure s cam e i n th e 1840s , bu t th e highes t abso lute numbe r wa s i n th e 1850s . Eighteen state s ha d a t leas t on e failur e i n th e sixt y years , bu t 4 0 per cent o f th e failure s occurre d i n thre e state s an d 5 0 percen t i n four . Clos e to 6 0 percen t o f al l th e failure s wer e i n th e Souther n states , wit h anothe r Table 1.1 1 Liberal Arts College Failures By Percent of Colleges in Operation and Absolute Number of Failures By Decade

1800's

1810*3

l820»s

1830»s

1840's

1850's

Percent

3

3

7

6

9

7

Absolute Number

1

1

4

6

13

15

24 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

25 percen t i n th e Midwest . Older state s i n th e Eas t an d Sout h di d hav e some failures . Ther e wa s a los s o f one-thir d o f Maryland' s school s an d Pennsylvania sa w 2 6 percen t o f it s college s disappear . Onl y Ne w En gland ha d n o failures . (Tabl e 1.12 ) The antebellu m colleges , especiall y th e denominationa l institutions , were mor e stabl e tha n indicate d b y eithe r Tewksbury' s estimate s o r th e evidence presente d above . Baptists , fo r example , di d hav e tw o failure s i n the sixt y years , bu t on e o f thes e wa s a Pennsylvani a schoo l tha t proba bly di d no t operat e a s a colleg e an d th e othe r wa s a Virgini a institutio n destroyed b y a fire. Th e fiv e Methodis t failure s wer e concentrate d i n th e Southwest. Th e on e Methodis t failur e i n th e Nort h wa s a Pennsylvani a institution, founde d i n th e 1830s , tha t i s suspecte d o f havin g operate d on th e academ y level . Th e si x Presbyteria n failure s wer e mor e wide spread, wit h on e eac h i n Pennsylvania , Michiga n an d Iowa . Althoug h Presbyterian failure s di d occu r outsid e o f th e South , th e thre e Norther n failures, again , wer e institution s tha t disappeare d withi n a fe w year s o f their founding . Ther e wa s onl y on e failur e amon g th e school s o f th e mi nor denominations , a Disciple s closin g i n Kentucky , an d thi s ha d th e character o f a merge r rathe r tha n a clear-cu t failure. 16 (Tables 1.13 , 1.14 , 1.15) There wa s n o certai n failur e o f a Protestan t denominationa l colleg e i n the Midwest , an d th e highes t failur e rate s occurre d amon g th e college s associated wit h supposedl y mor e secur e source s o f suppor t an d rationa l control. Th e patter n o f failure s doe s no t full y agre e wit h th e denomina Table 1.1 2 Failures of Liberal Arts Colleges as Percent of Total Failures by Decade and Region

1800

l8l0

1820

1830

1840

1850

New England

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Middle Atlantic

0

0

0

50

15

7

15

South Atlantic

0

0

25

17

8

20

15

100

100

50

0

46

53

45

0

0

25

33

31

20

25

o

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

6

13

15

40

Southwest Midwest West Totals

1 1

ix

1800-1860

The Institution s

25

Table 1.1 3 Poundings and Failures by Denominatio n or Other Affiliation of Liberal Arts Colleges

Foundings

Failures

%

Failures

Baptist |

35

2

6

Congregational

17

0

0

7

1

17

18

3

17

Catholic

27

8

30

Methodist

ko

5

13

Presbyterian

46

6

13

United BrethrenDisciples

2

0

0

Lutheran

5

0

0

Dutch Reformed

1

0

0

German Reformed

3

0

0

State

19

5

26

Non-Denominational

16

10

63

Universalist

3

0

0

Swe denborgian

1

0

0

241

40

Disciples Episcopalian

tional-competition thesis . Nondenominational , stat e an d Catholi c col leges ha d mor e failure s tha n th e school s supporte d b y th e denomination s that hav e bee n considere d th e aggressiv e leader s i n th e evangelica l movement. Episcopa l colleges , fo r example , ha d a greate r percentag e o f failures tha n th e college s associate d wit h th e lower-statu s denomina tions. An d th e policie s o f state s suc h a s Maryland , Louisiana , an d Indi ana le d t o grea t instabilit y amon g thei r colleges. 17 But th e failur e o f college s i s onl y on e indicato r o f instability . Man y institutions ha d t o suspen d operation s becaus e o f economi c difficulties , internal squabbles , politica l problems , o r natural disaster s suc h a s fire s o r epidemics. Thirt y temporar y closure s wer e identifie d i n th e antebellu m period. Thes e suspension s occurre d i n sixtee n state s an d involve d seve n

26 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1.1 4

Active Colleges by Denominational Association Membership In Denomination and Membership per College

Denomination

Colleges

Membership

Membership/ Colleges

Baptist

35

982,693

28,077

Congregational

17

227,196

13,364

Episcopalian

18

67,550

3,753

Catholic

27

586,580*

Methodist

40

1,179,526

29,488

Presbyterian

46

485,386

10,552

United Brethren

2

136,000

68,000

Lutheran

5

163,000

32,600

Dutch Reformed

1

32,849

32,849

German Reformed

3

69,750

23,250

3

60,000

20,000 30,000

400,000

57,000

Universalist Unitarian* Disciples

11

21,735

*0ne-half reported Catholic membership .

denominations an d bot h stat e an d nondenominationa l colleges . Th e sus pensions happene d i n ever y are a o f th e country ; th e Sout h ha d th e highest frequency , bu t eve n Ne w Englan d ha d the m i n th e 1810 s an d 1850s. An d stat e institution s an d th e comparativel y wealth y Congrega tional college s ha d som e suspensions . A t leas t seve n stat e college s wer e temporarily closed . However, th e patter n o f suspension s doe s no t paralle l th e patter n o f failures. Baptis t an d Methodis t college s ha d mor e suspension s an d fewe r failures tha n di d nondenominationa l institutions . I n compariso n t o th e Baptist an d Methodis t abilit y t o rescu e thei r institutions , Catholic, Epis copal, an d nondenominationa l college s eithe r ha d a smoot h histor y o r faced complet e failure . I t i s als o significan t that , excep t fo r th e Quaker s with thei r on e know n suspension , th e mino r denomination s wer e fre e o f temporary closure s a s wel l a s failures .

The Institution s

27

Table I.I5 Actual an d Expected Numbe r o f College s by Denominationa l Membershi p

Deno tnina t i on

%

Membership

1 Actual Colleges

2 Expected Colleges

Baptist

29

35

52

Methodist

35

40

62

Presbyterian

Ik

k6

25

Episcopal

2

18

k

Congregational

7

17

13

Dutch Reforme d

5

5

9

92

178

165

Totals

The revise d estimate s o f failure s an d suspension s indicat e tha t th e system wa s more stabl e tha n Tewksbur y stated , an d a consideration o f college founding s suggest s tha t th e syste m wa s more rationa l tha n h e concluded. First , conside r th e distribution o f institutions compare d t o th e number o f college s i n the state Tewksbur y hel d t o be the most rational , Massachusetts.18 There wa s a great differenc e i n the concentration o f population amon g regions an d states ; the new states naturall y ha d fewe r person s pe r square mile. I f Massachusetts, becaus e o f the stability o f its colleges, i s taken as the nor m fo r th e numbe r o f colleges , bot h b y youn g mal e populatio n and b y the degree o f population concentration , the n th e high numbe r of colleges i n the other area s of the country see m muc h les s irrational . (Tables 1.16 , 1.17, 1.18, 1.19) The results fo r 1860 b y this roug h projectio n of th e expected numbe r o f colleges indicat e tha t onl y th e District o f Co lumbia, Maryland , an d Delaware ha d more tha n th e number o f predict ed college s (approximatel y on e too many each ) an d tha t eve n Ohio , wit h a colleg e a t "everyone' s doorstep" , ha d many to o few institutions . B y the Massachusett s mode l o f number s an d geographic concentration , the Midwest neede d clos e t o 25 0 more colleges ; th e Middle Atlanti c states , 50; the Southwest, 300 ; and the South Atlantic , 75. 19 The colleg e founding s als o matche d th e distribution s o f denomina tional resource s an d memberships, an d the denominations aide d th e es tablishment an d maintenance o f college s i n area s wher e thei r member s

28 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table l.l 6 Distribution o f Colleges by Church Accommodations and Property

1860–%

of $ Value 1850*s of Church % of Property Colleges Adventist Baptist, all

% Col -

$ per 1 leges

Accommo-I all dations 1 Decades 0

0.06

0

0.09

5-91

12.34

17

21.14

5-21

-75

1.41

33

3.56

3.70

0.46

10.29

8

5-72 31-39

.46

Christian Congregational and Unitarian

""jT'of" I Church Accommodations

Unitarian 2.60

1

1.10

21.10

.46

12.53

9

4.38

25-64

7-87

Friends

1.48

1

1.41

9-43

1-39

German Reformed

1.41

1

1.43

B.85

1-39

Jewish

0.66

0.18

33-09

0

Dutch Reformed Episcopalian

!0

Methodist

19.31

19

32.72

5-20

14.35

Moravian

0.13

1

0.11

11-19

0

Presbyterian, all

15-31

22

13-41

10.47

17,59

Catholic

15.20

13

7-3^

19-81

10.3.8

Universalist

I.67

1

1-23

12.14

1-39

other

2.46

Lutheran

3-14

2

3-96

0.93

1

7-08

Table 1.17 White Males Age 15-20 per Colleges in Operatio n By Base Year and Decades

1800

1800»s

11,000 9,000

1810's

l820fs

l830»s

l840»s

1850*s

i860

10,000

10,000

7,000

7,600

6,500

7,000

2.78

The Institution s

29

Table 1.1 8 Thousands of White Males Age 15-20 Per College By Region and Decade and Base Years (By States with Colleges)

1800

1810

New England

5.8

6.8

Middle Atlantic

6.7

9-7

12

2.7

5-9 4

8 6

Midwest

-

-

West

-

-

Region

South Atlantic Southwest

5.2

l820»s

1830's

9.8

1840's

I850»s

i860

8.6

10

11

11

7.7 4.4

13

11

11

4.4

5

4.6

5-7

4.6

4.9

4

-

4.2

7.8

9

6.7

-

-

-

-

7

had located . Th e denomination s supporte d college s i n proportio n t o thei r memberships, an d th e one s tha t founde d college s beyon d th e number s expected o n th e basi s o f thei r membershi p wer e no t th e ne w an d lower status denominations , bu t th e establishe d ones . (Table s 1.14 , 1.15 , 1.16 ) If th e Unitarians , th e sponsor s o f th e ver y successfu l Harvar d Univer sity, ar e take n a s th e nor m fo r th e numbe r o f member s neede d fo r th e support o f a college , th e majorit y o f th e denomination s mad e fairl y ra tional choice s a s t o th e numbe r o f institution s t o aid . Tabl e 1.1 5 indi cates tha t th e wors t offender s i n respec t t o th e foundin g o f college s o n the basi s o f insufficien t number s o f potentia l supporter s an d student s were, i n order , th e Episcopalians , th e Presbyterians , an d th e Congrega tionalists. Baptists , Methodist s an d th e othe r lower-statu s denomination s had a college-to-membershi p rati o b y th e 1850 s tha t approache d o r exceeded th e Unitarians . Onl y th e Universalists , amon g th e newe r de nominations, see m t o hav e founde d to o man y college s accordin g t o thi s criteria. An d thi s denomination , whic h wa s no t note d fo r it s evangelica l efforts, ha d fewe r member s pe r colleg e tha n th e expansiv e Catholic s whose members-per-colleg e figur e i s base d upo n a hal f o f it s reporte d members.20 The relationshi p betwee n membershi p an d th e numbe r o f college s i s highlighted b y th e reallocatio n o f college s t o th e variou s denomination s based upo n a denomination' s percen t o f tota l Protestan t membership . I f the college s wer e redistribute d amon g th e denomination s accordin g t o membership, th e Methodists , Baptists , an d Lutheran s woul d receiv e more institution s whil e th e olde r denomination s woul d hav e significan t numbers take n fro m them .

30 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

Despite th e non-centralize d natur e o f bot h th e denomination s an d th e educational system , colleg e location s fi t a rationa l pattern . I n th e 1850 s the percen t o f al l operatin g college s correlated , b y state , i n th e mid eighties wit h th e percentag e o f al l churc h accommodations . An d amon g the denominations , th e shar e o f thei r college s i n eac h stat e matche d th e geographic distributio n o f thei r churc h accommodations. 21 (Table 1.16 ) Although th e relationshi p betwee n a denomination' s shar e o f tota l church propert y wa s highl y correlate d wit h it s shar e o f th e colleges , an other economi c relationshi p indicate s tha t th e lower-statu s denomina tions acte d irrationally . Becaus e th e economi c resource s availabl e t o th e newer denomination s wer e muc h les s tha n thos e o f th e establishe d ones , they too k greate r risk s o f failur e whe n the y decide d t o suppor t a college. Table 1.1 9 Ratio of Colleges in Operation During a Decade to the Population of White Males Age 15-20 in Succeeding Census Decade. For States with Colleges. In Thousands.

1800 1810's l820»s l830»s 1840»s 1850's l860's New England: Connecticut

9

10

13

9

6

6

7

Massachusetts

8

1 9

11

11

12

12

11

Maine

5

8

14

12

14

17

18

New Hampshire

7

7

11

16

16

17

17

Rhode Island

3

3

4

5

6

7

8

Vermont

3

4

6

8

6

6

6

X

5.8

6.8

9-8

10.2

10

11

11.2

Q

2.4

2.5

3.6

3-4

4

4

6

9

10

8

11

10

17

20

27

22

17

12

6

8

10

11

7

8

9

6.7

9.7

12.7

16

13

11

4.2

4.8

4.8

Middle Atlantic: New JerseyNew York Pennsylvania X Q

5.4

2.5 •1

5-9

8.1

6.5

4.2

10.7 1.2

The Institution s

31

For example , Methodist s an d Baptist s face d a greate r organizationa l tas k to muste r economi c support fo r thei r college s tha n di d th e Unitarians . The averag e churc h accommodatio n o f th e Unitarian s wa s wort h thirt y dollars compare d t o th e fiv e dolla r valu e o f th e Baptist' s an d Methodist' s facilities. A s Tabl e 1.1 6 shows , th e denomination s ha d ver y differen t levels o f resource s availabl e t o them . However , th e averag e valu e o f church accommodation s doe s no t see m t o explai n failur e rates. 22 Table 1.1 9 - Continue d

1800 l8l0»s l820»s 1830's 1840*s l850«s l860»s South Atlantic: District of Columbia

.6

.2

1

.7

1

1

1

Delaware

-

-

-

-

3

1 4

3

Georgia

4

6

8

17

5

6

6

Maryland

5

5

7

8

4

4

3

North Carolina

13

14

19

28

8

10

9

South Carolina

!

2

3

4

5

5

5

3

7

7

9

10

5

5

5

X

5.2

5.9

8

11.5

4.4

5

4.6

Q

^•1

4.16

5.6

8.9

2.0

2.5

2.7

Kentucky-

2

4

3

6

4

5

6

Louisiana

3

4

4

2

3

3

2

Alabama

-

-

-

-

8

6

5

-

2

4

3

3

3

-

-

-

3

4

5

11

Virginia

Southwest:

Mississippi

-

Missouri

-

1

Tennessee

3

4

15

7

5

3

Texas

-

[ _

_

«.

_

8

4

4

6

5.8

4.6

4.9

4

0

5-2

1.3

2.1 1

1.6

1.3

X Q

2.7 • 5

32 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1.1 9 - Continue d

1800 1810»s I820»s I830«s 1840»s 1850»s I860»s Midwest: Indiana

-

Illinois

–

– –

Iowa

-

–

– – – –

Michigan Minnesota Ohio Wisconsin

-

– – –

X

—

Q

–

7

7

7

8

8

6

8

8

–

9

4

– – – –

– – – –

2

7

10

–

–

6

28

9

7

6

6

–

15

7

–

–

–

17.5

8.0

5.5

8.8

7.0

-

14.8

1.4

2.4

3.2

1.9

5

West: California Oregon X Q

-

-

-

-

-

-

–

–

–

–

~

—

*"

–

– –

– –

–

-

–

-

*

•

–

1 3 2.8

As wel l a s th e relationshi p betwee n colleg e founding s an d th e indica tor o f disposabl e wealt h availabl e t o th e denominations , th e relationshi p between th e foundin g o f college s an d th e numbe r o f potentia l student s might indicat e tha t th e earl y syste m wa s irrationa l an d inefficient . Tewksbury an d man y other s stresse d th e poin t tha t th e explosio n i n th e number o f college s le d t o to o man y institution s competin g fo r to o fe w students. Bu t th e emphasi s upo n student-to-colleg e ratio s i n th e histori ography an d th e interpretatio n o f thei r cause s an d consequence s flowe d from a particular mode l o f wha t a college shoul d be . The us e o f th e nor mative concep t distorte d th e motivation s an d contribution s o f th e col lege-founding movement . No matte r wha t populatio n bas e i s used , i t i s clea r tha t th e rat e o f col lege founding s di d excee d th e growt h rat e o f th e America n population . Using whit e male s ag e fiftee n t o twent y a s th e base , th e numbe r o f po tential student s pe r colleg e droppe d b y fou r thousan d i n th e sixt y years .

The Institution s

33

The rati o o f college s i n operatio n t o th e whit e males , b y decade , de creased fro m on e t o eleve n thousan d t o on e t o seve n thousan d i n th e si x decades. Th e decreas e wa s no t steady . Th e 1810 s an d 1820 s ha d a n in crease ove r th e firs t decad e o f th e century , then , th e 1830 s ha d a shar p drop i n th e numbe r o f youn g male s pe r college . Bu t th e rati o remaine d relatively constan t fro m th e earl y Jacksonia n year s t o th e Civi l War. 23 (Table 1.19 ) The nationa l figures , however , d o no t reflec t th e grea t difference s i n college-to-youth ratio s whic h develope d amon g th e area s o f th e coun try. Th e majo r region s ha d importan t difference s i n respec t t o th e demo graphic contex t i n whic h thei r college s operated . Thi s wa s compounde d by th e stat e o f developmen t o f thei r educationa l an d socia l systems . Th e majority o f th e ne w college s o f th e perio d wer e founde d i n th e South west an d Midwest , leadin g t o th e lowes t college-to-yout h ratio s bein g in area s wher e bot h th e lowe r educationa l system s an d th e level s an d distributions o f incom e an d wealt h wer e unlikel y t o suppor t highe r edu cation. I n contrast , th e fewes t founding s occurre d i n th e area s mos t abl e to support highe r education . (Table s 1.18 , 1.19 ) The invers e relationshi p betwee n number s o f college s an d th e numbe r of potentia l student s an d th e socia l an d educationa l resource s t o suppor t colleges i s muc h mor e tha n a n indicato r o f th e irrationalit y o f th e earl y college system . Whe n th e normativ e model s o f highe r educatio n use d b y the traditiona l historian s ar e replace d wit h a mor e empirica l approach , these relationship s becom e on e o f th e mos t importan t key s neede d t o understand th e antebellu m colleg e movement. 24 New Englan d followe d a polic y o f increasin g th e populatio n ratio s b y restricting th e foundin g o f colleges . Th e resul t wa s tha t th e numbe r o f its availabl e youn g me n pe r colleg e increase d b y almos t 10 0 percen t i n the si x decades . I n th e Middl e Atlanti c region , mor e libera l policie s an d subsequent growt h i n th e numbe r o f college s wer e offse t b y a popula tion boom ; consequentl y th e Middl e Atlanti c ratio s remaine d ver y clos e to Ne w England' s throughou t th e period . Bu t becaus e s o man y ne w col leges wer e founde d i n th e Sout h Atlanti c an d Sout h Wester n states , th e Southern ratio s becam e les s tha n hal f thos e o f th e North . Althoug h th e Southern seaboar d are a ha d tw o state s wit h ratio s clos e t o Ne w En gland's, th e Southwes t wa s uniforml y lo w i n it s suppor t potential . Th e Midwest an d Wes t ende d th e perio d wit h college-to-yout h ratio s whic h approximated th e East' s level s o f fift y year s befor e th e outbrea k o f th e Civil War . The numbe r o f youn g me n pe r colleg e doe s provid e som e indicatio n of th e difference s amon g th e regions , bu t i t overstate s th e number s o f possible student s availabl e t o th e college s an d underestimate s th e differ ences amon g th e regions . Basi c educatio n wa s no t universa l an d a larg e

34 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

percentage o f th e college-ag e populatio n ha d no t receive d adequat e pre paratory o r eve n primar y education . Thus , significan t percentage s o f th e young wer e incapabl e o f doin g colleg e leve l work . Thi s reduce d th e numbers fro m whic h th e college s coul d dra w an d greatl y magnifie d th e regional differences . In th e 1840s , Ne w Englan d wa s sendin g mor e tha n three-quarter s o f its childre n t o primar y school s an d 2 0 percen t t o academie s an d gramma r schools. I n contrast , th e Midwes t sen t les s tha n 4 percen t t o academie s and 2 0 percen t t o it s primar y institutions . Th e Souther n state s pursue d more explicitl y elitis t policie s wit h 2 0 percen t o f thei r youn g enrolle d i n academies an d gramma r school s an d les s tha n 2 0 percen t i n primar y in stitutions. Suppor t o f publi c educatio n i n th e Sout h wa s s o skewe d tha t Virginia an d Sout h Carolin a wer e spendin g mor e publi c mone y o n thei r state universitie s tha n o n th e entir e publi c schoo l syste m i n th e 1850s. 25 By 1860 , th e educationa l profil e o f th e Midwes t ha d change d s o tha t its primar y schoo l attendanc e wa s abou t tha t o f Ne w Englan d an d it s academy an d gramma r schoo l atendanc e rat e ha d increase d t o 6 0 percen t of Ne w England's . Th e Middl e Atlanti c regio n maintaine d it s academ y enrollment leve l mid-wa y betwee n Ne w Englan d an d th e West , bu t in creased it s primar y attendanc e b y 1860 . The South , however , di d no t de vote mor e attentio n t o widesprea d basi c education. 26 Taking th e statu s o f primar y an d secondar y educatio n int o accoun t in flates th e collegiat e populatio n regiona l differences . Base d upo n academ y and gramma r schoo l enrollmen t level s i n th e 1850s , th e estimate s o f re gional suppor t indicat e tha t Ne w Englan d ha d mor e tha n twic e th e available student s pe r colleg e tha n th e Midwest ; th e Ne w Englan d ad vantage wa s probabl y fou r t o one . A simila r reductio n i n th e estimat e o f the numbe r o f possibl e student s relativ e t o Ne w Englan d i s applicabl e t o the Middl e Atlanti c region , an d th e enrollmen t level s i n th e Sout h sug gest tha t i t ha d a n eve n les s favorabl e ratio . The difference s i n th e number s o f potentia l student s wer e compounded b y th e distribution s an d level s o f wealt h an d propert y within th e regions . Ne w England , fo r example , ha d th e highes t wealt h and propert y leve l an d a relatively equa l distribution , whil e th e Wester n and Souther n state s ha d eithe r lo w level s o r highly skewe d distributions , both o f whic h mad e highe r educatio n inaccessibl e t o muc h o f th e popu lation.27 Although difference s i n th e number s o f possibl e student s an d eco nomic condition s create d differen t educationa l environment s i n th e re gions, the y d o no t see m t o explai n failur e rates . Th e linea r correlatio n between youn g whit e male s pe r colleg e fo r th e state s an d th e percent ages o f failure s o f college s withi n th e state s wa s neve r greate r tha n -.20 , a 4 percen t explanator y factor . Th e correlatio n betwee n mal e academ y

The Institution s

35

and hig h schoo l student s pe r stat e fo r th e 1870 s (th e firs t decad e wit h census report s o n hig h schools ) an d failur e rate s i n th e 1850 s als o explained les s tha n 5 percen t o f th e variance . No r d o pe r capit a propert y values b y stat e explai n eithe r founding s o r failures. 28 Colleges ma y hav e survive d i n unlikel y settings , bu t th e regiona l dif ferences an d foundin g pattern s mean t tha t afte r th e 1820 s America n col leges wer e locate d i n area s which , accordin g t o th e theorie s o f historian s such a s Tewksbur y an d Hofstadter , shoul d no t hav e ha d institution s fo r higher education . Fro m th e perspectiv e o f th e Progressiv e era , wit h it s devotion t o large-scal e an d stabl e institution s whic h coul d suppor t a professionalized facult y an d research , th e locatio n patter n wa s inefficien t and coul d onl y b e explaine d b y irrationa l an d antimoder n forces . Th e distribution o f college s ha d t o b e explaine d an d implicitl y evaluate d through suc h factor s a s denominationa l competitio n an d tow n booster ism, neithe r o f whic h coul d possibl y hav e mad e a positiv e contributio n to th e developmen t o f education . Bu t i t i s exactl y thi s suppose d irratio nality o f locatio n whic h make s sens e o f th e antebellu m colleg e move ment an d whic h point s t o th e positiv e contribution s o f th e earl y system , especially whe n th e college s ar e considere d withi n th e contex t o f thei r own tim e period . The increas e i n th e numbe r o f college s i n th e countr y occurre d withi n the contex t o f a widesprea d expansio n an d upgradin g o f al l level s o f American education . Th e developmen t o f th e antebellu m college s canno t be understoo d unles s i t i s viewe d a s a n integra l par t o f th e struggle s an d successes o f th e genera l expansio n an d alteratio n o f America n education . And th e colleg e movemen t canno t b e explaine d o r evaluate d i f i t i s as sumed tha t th e othe r educationa l institution s o f th e antebellu m perio d had achieve d a twentieth centur y leve l o f sophisticatio n an d security . The numbe r o f primar y school s i n Americ a double d betwee n 184 0 an d 1860 an d bot h th e resource s devote d t o the m an d th e numbe r o f day s students attende d increased . Althoug h th e citie s too k th e lea d i n devel oping primar y education , th e smal l town s an d rura l area s o f th e country , despite thei r economi c handicaps , joine d i n th e movemen t t o brin g mor e and bette r basi c educatio n t o thei r young. 29 The expansio n o f educatio n wa s no t confine d t o th e teachin g o f basi c reading skills . I n the Jacksonia n year s mor e attentio n bega n t o b e pai d t o the educatio n o f olde r students . Th e numbe r o f academie s an d gramma r schools, th e earl y nineteent h centur y versio n o f "secondary " education , jumped fro m thirty-tw o hundre d i n 184 0 t o ove r sixty-seve n hundre d in 1860 , a n increas e onl y slightl y belo w tha t fo r th e primar y schools. 30 (Table 1.20 ) The change s i n post-primar y educatio n di d no t mean , however , tha t a fully articulate d an d hierarchica l syste m develope d o r tha t th e economi c

36 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1.2 0

Number of Academies and Other Schools by Region and Census Year

Census Year Region

18^0

1850

i860

New England

630

985

988

Middle Atlantic

861

1,626

1,648

South Atlantic

969

1,366

1,515

Southwest

560

1,371

1,361

Midwest

184

550

903

and administrativ e problem s o f secondar y educatio n ha d bee n resolved . Nor ha d a new an d meaningfu l se t o f name s fo r variou s type s o f institu tions evolved . Ther e wer e fe w concept s an d resource s t o guid e th e defi nition an d rationalizatio n o f thi s ne w an d expande d highe r education . And, especiall y i n th e smal l town s an d rura l area s of th e country , th e re lationship betwee n governmen t an d secondar y educatio n remaine d undefined. The moder n concep t o f a hig h schoo l wa s unknow n a t th e tim e an d would b e evolve d slowly . Th e ter m colleg e ha d bee n use d traditionall y to indicat e ar t institution teachin g a formalized curricul a t o student s wit h preparation abov e th e primar y leve l i n th e classica l language s an d math ematics, an d ver y fe w kne w wha t th e ter m universit y mean t asid e fro m referring t o a collectio n o f libera l art s an d professiona l schools . (Profes sional school s wer e vocationa l an d di d no t deman d colleg e preparation. ) Even ag e grouping s di d no t confor m t o moder n notions . Colleges , acade mies and , i n som e cases , primar y schools , taugh t student s whos e age s nearly spanne d a generation . A s lat e a s th e 1850s , an d i n th e mos t de veloped region s o f th e country , reputabl e sponsor s founde d institution s with th e nam e hig h schoo l tha t grante d degree s an d admitte d student s below fiftee n year s o f age. 31 The difficult y o f definin g an d financin g th e ne w educatio n i n Americ a is illustrate d b y th e popula r an d ubiquitou s academie s o f th e period . These all-purpos e institution s (abou t whic h relativel y littl e i s known ) were bein g sprea d acros s th e country , bu t thei r organizatio n an d orienta tions wer e s o varie d tha t thei r existenc e i s mor e o f a n indicatio n o f edu -

The Institution s

37

cational difficultie s tha n a solution . Teacher s ma y hav e bee n turnin g academies int o formalize d preparator y school s i n som e areas, 32 bu t i n most case s the y remained a s ill-funded , private , an d general-purpos e schools tha t taugh t a variet y o f subject s an d divers e ag e groups . B y th e 1850s, however , th e ter m bega n t o connotat e a n institutio n wit h less formalized curricul a tha n a college an d on e tha t di d provid e som e prepa ration fo r thos e wh o aspire d t o a higher education. 33 The privat e an d semi-publi c academie s wer e no t th e resul t o f an y centrally directe d plan , no r wer e th e emergin g hig h schools . An d neithe r the nationa l o r th e stat e government s too k th e lea d i n th e expansio n o f education beyon d th e primar y level . Th e expansio n o f wha t w e migh t now cal l th e secondar y syste m a s wel l a s highe r education , especiall y i n the smal l town s an d rura l areas , wa s th e produc t o f th e usua l source s o f social chang e i n nineteenth-centur y America : th e voluntar y associatio n and loca l government . Perhap s receivin g minima l ai d fro m stat e govern ments, an d a n averag e o f $12 0 a year fro m al l governmenta l source s i n 1860, th e academie s an d gramma r school s relie d upo n loca l support an d direction.34 The academie s wer e th e dominan t for m o f highe r educatio n in th e period , outnumberin g hig h school s (whic h wer e concentrate d i n a few state s an d wer e usuall y locate d i n urba n areas ) b y a factor o f seven teen t o on e i n I860. 35 Thus, althoug h ther e wa s a grea t increas e i n gov ernment suppor t fo r "secondary " educatio n i n th e 1850s , th e syste m re mained underfunde d an d dependen t upo n loca l sources . Th e development o f thi s versio n o f secondar y educatio n wa s uneve n acros s the country . Th e result s o f th e increase d governmenta l interes t wer e concentrated i n Ne w Englan d an d a fe w Midwester n states . Ne w En gland, whic h ha d virtuall y halte d th e growt h o f academie s durin g th e 1850s, wa s spendin g fiv e time s th e amoun t o f publi c fund s pe r studen t as wer e th e state s i n th e Midwes t an d Middl e Atlanti c region s an d twic e what wa s bein g spen t pe r studen t b y government s i n th e South . Bu t even i n Ne w Englan d th e leve l o f suppor t wa s s o lo w tha t i t too k th e expenditures fo r tw o hundre d pupil s jus t t o matc h th e salar y o f a n ade quately pai d principal. 36 (Table 1.20 ) The proliferatio n o f college s wa s par t o f th e growt h o f privat e an d semi-public educatio n tha t swep t acros s th e country . Lik e academie s an d grammar schools , college s wer e founde d i n th e area s wit h th e leas t pub lic suppor t an d mos t poorl y develope d secondar y systems . I n a very rea l sense, th e antebellu m college s wer e leader s i n bringin g educatio n t o areas wit h th e greates t nee d fo r educationa l upgrading . Almos t ever y an tebellum colleg e i n th e Wes t an d Sout h bega n a s one o f thos e ill-define d institutions, a n academy . A n academ y wa s turne d int o a colleg e whe n there wer e sign s tha t a deman d fo r mor e forma l an d regula r educatio n had arise n i n th e are a an d whe n loca l sponsor s coul d muste r enoug h

38 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

economic suppor t t o rais e endowment s abov e th e averag e tw o thousan d six hundre d dollar s o f th e academie s an d gramma r schools. 37 The denomination s an d loca l boosteris m were , i n th e mos t direc t way , helping t o brin g educatio n t o area s an d group s tha t ha d no t bee n wel l served b y th e publi c sector . The y wer e bringin g upgrade d educatio n t o the smal l town s an d rura l area s o f th e countr y an d t o group s o f peopl e who ha d no t benefite d fro m th e ol d stat e colleg e an d universit y systems . The denomination s wer e subsidizin g th e educatio n o f a ne w segmen t o f the American population , th e emergen t middl e classe s o f rura l and small town Americ a whos e economi c positio n ha d improve d enoug h t o enabl e them t o envisio n "higher " education fo r thei r son s an d daughters . The ne w colleges , especiall y i n th e Wes t an d ne w South , wer e no t th e simple resul t o f a denomination's desir e t o creat e a ministerial factory . I n almost ever y case, th e ne w college s wer e th e produc t o f a n interactio n between a local denominationa l organization' s willingnes s t o hel p subsi dize a colleg e an d a town' s desir e fo r educatio n fo r it s son s an d daugh ters. Althoug h th e denomination s wer e badl y i n nee d o f traine d minis ters i n th e West , productio n o f minister s wa s onl y on e motivatio n fo r founding an d supportin g colleges . Denominationa l leader s als o desire d t o support educatio n i n general , a s evidence d b y thei r ai d t o academies , an d knew tha t onl y a fe w institution s coul d surviv e o r prospe r withou t en rolling thos e wh o woul d ente r th e secula r world . Because o f thei r base-of-suppor t an d b y philosophy , th e ne w colleges , especially thos e i n th e smal l towns , wer e extremel y flexibl e (give n th e resources availabl e t o them ) an d responde d t o thei r environments . Al most al l wer e multi-level , multi-purpos e institution s whic h maintaine d preparatory (academic ) department s t o compensat e fo r th e fe w ade quately traine d student s fo r th e colleg e courses . An d the y supporte d pri mary department s whic h wer e advance s o n th e haphazar d olde r schools . Oberlin College , fo r example , wa s a hug e educationa l comple x wit h hundreds o f student s bein g taugh t i n department s rangin g fro m th e pri mary throug h a norma l schoo l t o th e regula r colleg e an d a theologica l department. Mos t othe r institution s wer e a scaled-dow n versio n o f Oberlin, and many associated themselves with law and medical schools. 38 The varie d natur e o f th e institution s no t onl y me t th e need s o f th e lo cal areas , bu t als o economi c necessity . Th e incom e fro m th e primar y schools an d academie s helpe d t o suppor t th e colleg e operation s unti l en dowments an d othe r source s o f fund s coul d b e foun d t o sustai n a mor e specialized institution. 39 The antebellu m college s wer e als o responsiv e t o changin g demand s b y their students . Withi n th e colleg e progra m man y adjustment s wer e mad e to relat e t o th e economi c an d socia l condition s o f th e times . Teacher training program s wer e develope d an d curricul a wer e initiate d fo r thos e

The Institution s

39

who di d no t desir e t o lear n th e classica l languages . "Partial " an d "En glish" courses emphasize d practic e i n th e vernacula r instea d o f th e stud y of th e ol d languages . Classe s i n moder n foreig n language s wer e starte d (usually a t som e extr a cost ) i f studen t deman d wa s hig h an d a traine d teacher wa s available , an d eve n classe s i n busines s an d clerica l skill s were offere d i n som e schools . Agricultura l trainin g wa s attempte d i n many o f th e colleges , an d a majorit y seeme d t o hav e offere d civi l engi neering classes . Especiall y i n th e newe r area s o f th e country , thi s flexi bility wa s assume d b y al l denominations . Catholic s taugh t busines s courses i n St . Loui s an d Washington , D.C. ; Disciple s firs t calle d thei r Kentucky colleg e a n agricultura l an d civi l engineerin g institute ; an d Methodists an d Baptist s frequentl y bega n thei r school s a s earl y version s of work-stud y institute s i n whic h th e student s earne d par t o f thei r tu ition throug h manua l labor , t o lowe r cost s an d becaus e o f a n ideologica l commitment t o maintai n tie s wit h rura l life . Physica l educatio n perhap s began i n a Disciples ' institution , electiv e program s wer e trie d i n th e West, an d mos t schools , afte r the y ha d adequat e enrollments , allowe d and eve n supporte d th e existenc e o f debatin g club s an d fraternitie s which engage d student s i n importan t contemporar y questions. 40 And in terest i n th e science s wa s no t confine d t o th e mor e affluen t institution s of th e Eas t no r t o th e stat e universities . Mos t school s taugh t som e sor t of genera l cours e i n scienc e an d many , b y th e 1850s , wer e teachin g chemistry an d som e geolog y an d astronomy . Howar d Colleg e i n Ala bama, a Souther n Baptis t Institution , hire d a professo r o f chemistr y an d agriculture befor e th e Civi l Wa r an d constructe d a separat e buildin g fo r chemistry demonstration s an d laborator y work . Baptist , Methodis t an d even th e Disciples ' institution s i n al l th e region s taugh t som e typ e o f chemistry an d th e college s representin g ethni c groups , suc h a s German Wallace i n Ohio , pai d a s muc h attentio n t o scienc e a s thei r budget s would allow . I n fact , th e evidenc e gathere d fro m a readin g o f th e histo ries o f al l th e college s indicate s tha t al l o f th e denomination s wer e recep tive t o th e existin g sciences. 41 They woul d hav e offere d mor e scienc e i n their schools , bu t th e hig h cost s o f teachin g th e subject , th e lac k o f stu dent demand , an d th e scarcit y o f adequatel y traine d instructor s hindere d many o f th e institutions . Advance d scientifi c trainin g wa s mor e fre quently offere d i n th e Eas t an d i n som e o f th e stat e institution s becaus e they ha d th e necessar y economi c surplus . Studen t deman d wa s sufficien t because o f employmen t opportunitie s i n th e economie s o f th e develope d areas, an d th e youn g America n teacher s wh o ha d receive d specialize d training i n Europ e desire d salarie s tha t onl y th e Easter n an d stat e insti tutions coul d pay. 42 The ne w college s wer e no t onl y flexibl e an d receptiv e t o science , bu t were oriente d t o a broader spectru m o f th e populatio n tha n man y o f th e

40

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

established an d prestigiou s institutions . The y wer e th e onl y institution s many o f th e youn g me n o f thei r region s coul d affor d t o attend , especial ly i n th e Sout h an d West . Man y o f th e olde r an d affluen t institutions , including stat e universitie s i n th e Sout h an d West , wer e creature s o f th e regional elite s an d di d no t mak e themselve s attractiv e t o man y possibl e students fro m th e emergin g middl e class . The Souther n stat e universities , including th e Universit y o f Virginia , wer e ver y expensive , an d man y o f the school s wer e perceive d t o b e hostil e t o member s o f th e ne w an d lower-status denominations . Throughou t th e Sout h th e stat e institution s charged tuitio n an d fee s tha t wer e a s hig h o r highe r tha n thos e a t th e denominational colleges . I n Virginia , Jefferson' s universit y aske d ninety five dollar s fo r tuitio n durin g th e 1850 s whil e a Luthera n institutio n charged thirty-fiv e an d a Baptist schoo l fifty-fiv e dollars . I n Sout h Car olina, it s universit y wa s mor e expensiv e tha n th e denominationa l col leges, a pattern followe d i n al l th e othe r Souther n states. 43 High charge s an d reputation s o f bia s als o marke d th e North' s presti gious institutions . I n th e Midwes t th e Universit y o f Michiga n wa s th e only well-establishe d stat e institutio n whic h pursue d a low-tuition poli cy, bu t i t wa s considere d b y man y t o b e a n urban , Presbyteria n colleg e and a hotbe d o f elitis m an d antiabolitionism . Th e large r college s i n th e East aske d student s t o pa y u p t o thre e time s th e tuitio n require d b y th e new denominationa l colleges , an d ther e i s n o evidenc e tha t th e scholar ship program s o f thes e institution s wer e use d fo r purpose s o f compensa tory socia l mobility. 44 The newe r college s activel y pursue d a polic y o f subsidizin g students . They price d thei r educatio n s o tha t i t wa s economicall y accessibl e t o more o f th e populatio n tha n tha t o f th e large r schools . No t onl y di d they provid e fre e tuitio n fo r futur e ministers , an d i n som e case s th e son s of ministers , bu t the y consciousl y kep t thei r state d tuitio n an d fee s a t low level s compare d t o th e prestigiou s institutions . Fo r example , i n th e 1850s, Harvar d University , whic h wa s payin g ver y hig h salarie s t o it s professors, receive d a yearly retur n fro m it s endowment s tha t wa s great er tha n th e tota l valu e o f man y o f th e Wester n an d Souther n colleges . However, Harvar d se t it s tuitio n s o tha t eac h studen t pai d 4 percen t o f an averag e professor' s salary . Mos t o f th e smal l colleges , i n contrast , expected eac h o f thei r student s t o pa y n o mor e tha n 2. 5 percen t o f th e salary o f thei r averag e professor , o r 1 percen t o f th e salar y o f a Harvard faculty member. 45 And , compare d t o moder n times , th e burden s place d upon th e student s o f th e earl y smal l college s wer e slight . I n th e mid 1970s, th e tuition s fro m twenty-seve n student s wer e neede d t o pa y th e salary o f on e professor , bu t i n th e antebellu m period' s smal l college s for ty full-tuitio n student s wer e neede d t o suppor t on e facult y member. 46

The Institution s

41

While th e smalle r institution s wer e usin g availabl e resource s t o lowe r student costs , th e renowne d college s mad e investment s i n facilities—bu t not necessaril y one s relate d t o research . Th e larg e institution s use d thei r relatively larg e endowment s t o construc t monumenta l building s an d t o maintain hig h facult y salarie s rathe r tha n t o mak e highe r educatio n mor e economically accessible . Harvar d an d Columbi a ar e the mos t outstandin g example o f thi s pattern , bu t eve n som e smal l denominationa l institution s began t o devot e thei r fund s t o th e constructio n o f attractiv e campuses . And Tappa n o f Michiga n decide d t o shif t fund s t o facilitie s rathe r tha n to maintai n th e auxiliar y campuse s (hig h schools ) o f hi s universit y o r t o provide mor e subsidie s t o hi s students. 47 While certai n institutiona l lead ers pursue d th e polic y o f devotin g resource s t o upgradin g facilities , th e majority o f th e smal l college s attempte d t o attrac t student s throug h lo w tuition an d charges . But , especiall y i n th e Midwest , th e studen t subsidi zation policie s wer e followe d withou t governmen t aid . I n th e Colonia l and post-Revolutionar y period s i t wa s commo n fo r "denominational " institutions t o receiv e substantia l economi c ai d fro m stat e funds . An d even durin g th e nineteent h century , severa l Easter n college s receive d government support . Harvar d University , fo r example , ha d bee n grante d over a hal f millio n dollar s fro m th e stat e o f Massachusett s durin g th e Colonial perio d (plu s anothe r hal f millio n fro m privat e sources ) an d wa s given approximatel y thre e time s th e tota l endowmen t o f a typica l West ern colleg e fo r a scientifi c collectio n i n th e 1850s . Th e Universit y o f Pennsylvania, Bowdoin , Amherst , Dartmouth , Yale , Colby , an d Colum bia, t o mentio n onl y a fe w o f th e othe r denominationa l institutions , re ceived significan t stat e ai d durin g th e earl y nineteent h century , an d Wil liams Colleg e continue d t o receiv e stat e suppor t throughou t th e period , totaling ove r on e hundre d thousan d dollar s b y I860. 48 But suc h governmenta l ai d wa s becomin g rar e i n th e nineteent h cen tury. Pennsylvania , unti l th e 1830s , an d Ne w York , fo r a longe r time , did provid e smal l grant s fo r th e initiatio n o f program s a t man y institu tions bu t th e amount s wer e smal l compare d t o thos e o f th e Colonia l pe riod. I n th e Wes t an d Southwes t i t wa s ver y unusua l i f a school receive d adequate lan d grants . Mos t o f th e ne w college s o f th e country , especiall y those o f th e mino r an d lower-statu s denominations , aros e whe n a tradi tion o f suppor t wa s dying , forcin g the m t o tur n t o othe r source s o f bad ly neede d funds. 49 The absenc e o f unifor m stat e o r nationa l suppor t fo r th e ne w college s made the m dependen t upo n unpredictable , insecur e an d inadequat e sources o f economi c aid . Colleg e administrator s ha d t o tur n t o loca l an d denominational sponsors , an d onl y th e mos t fortunat e institution s foun d a wealth y benefacto r wh o woul d provid e a larg e endowmen t an d wh o

42 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

would guid e it s investmen t int o saf e an d profitabl e channels . Th e type s of availabl e sponsor s fo r highe r educatio n an d th e level s o f economi c support shape d th e policie s an d potential s o f th e college s a s muc h a s did philosophies o f educatio n becaus e educator s ha d t o confor m t o th e wishes o f contributor s an d the y ha d t o wor k withi n th e constraint s im posed b y th e fund s availabl e t o them . Most college s wer e dependen t upo n loca l suppor t i n thei r firs t year s of operation . Locatio n o f a colleg e wa s decide d o n th e basis o f whic h town i n a genera l are a woul d offe r th e mos t economi c support , an d some college s relocate d whe n anothe r tow n seeme d willin g t o provid e more funds . Th e Universit y o f Michigan , fo r example , move d fro m De troit t o An n Arbo r becaus e o f th e attractiv e offe r mad e b y th e town' s representatives, rathe r tha n becaus e th e ne w sit e wa s geographicall y ide al.50 For prospectiv e institution s withou t stat e suppor t th e offer s fro m towns o f fre e lan d an d pledge s o f financia l ai d wer e mor e importan t than wa s th e consideratio n o f a theoreticall y optima l location . Onc e established i n a n area , th e colleg e o r th e academ y seekin g t o improv e it s financial conditio n an d it s imag e b y renamin g itsel f a college , scoure d the are a fo r additiona l funds . Colleg e president s an d th e financia l agent s of th e college s canvasse d th e surroundin g area s i n searc h o f donation s and conducte d pledg e drive s whic h yielde d promise s o f contribution s ranging fro m hand-mad e blankets , homemad e furniture , an d buildin g supplies t o cas h an d credi t a t loca l banks . Man y time s th e pledge s coul d not b e redeemed , especiall y whe n economi c recession s hi t th e country , as i n th e lat e 1830 s an d th e 1850s . Whe n pledg e drive s prove d inade quate, th e college s appeale d t o privat e organizations , suc h a s Masoni c lodges, fo r fund s o r sol d perpetua l scholarships. Th e holder s o f thes e scholarships wer e allowe d t o sen d a designate d studen t t o th e colleg e free o f tuition . Unfortunately , ther e wer e n o tim e limit s o n thei r us e an d several institution s becam e financiall y embarrasse d whe n larg e number s of student s appeare d claimin g right s unde r th e instrument s whic h ha d originally bee n see n a s on e o f th e mos t expedien t way s t o sav e a n insti tution.51 Just a s i n th e Colonia l period , whe n college s turne d t o Englan d fo r contributions, mos t institution s i n th e nineteent h centur y ha d t o see k support outsid e thei r immediat e area . Colleg e representative s travele d through thei r state s an d region s givin g lecture s an d sermon s i n ever y possible churc h an d meeting . Usuall y stressin g th e ungodl y natur e o f their are a an d th e nee d fo r mor e minister s becaus e o f th e natur e o f th e audience the y addressed , the y pleade d fo r fund s fo r thei r institutions . Some wer e successfu l an d wer e abl e t o rais e significan t amount s throug h

The Institution s

43

donations tha t a t time s average d les s tha n on e dolla r each . Bu t mos t col leges foun d tha t suc h appeal s di d no t yiel d enoug h t o cove r th e ex penses o f thei r agents . Severa l institution s applie d t o stat e government s and receive d permissio n t o hol d a lotter y i n orde r t o rais e money . Th e University o f Delawar e an d Unio n Colleg e i n Ne w Yor k wer e rescue d by thi s for m o f legalize d gambling , bu t mos t othe r attempt s wer e fail ures.52 The inadequacie s o f loca l an d stat e suppor t sen t th e college s i n searc h of othe r source s o f funds . I f a n institutio n wa s fortunate , i t receive d more regula r ai d fro m th e controllin g stat e o r regiona l bod y o f it s de nomination, bu t eve n thes e contribution s wer e relativel y small . Al l o f the institution s searche d fo r a wealth y benefacto r o r fo r th e recognitio n necessary t o receiv e ai d fro m organization s tha t wer e capabl e o f redis tributing wealt h fro m th e riche r t o th e poore r region s o f th e country . Midwestern colleges , especially , sen t representative s t o th e area s tha t had bot h th e wealt h an d organization s capabl e o f providin g significan t support. Th e olde r Protestan t denomination s wen t i n searc h o f fund s from thei r nationa l organization s an d thos e wealth y Ne w Englander s who wer e associate d wit h th e evangelica l an d refor m movement s o f th e period. A fe w institution s foun d ric h benefactor s suc h a s Amo s Law rence, an d other s receive d ai d fro m th e Protestan t denominationa l orga nizations mos t concerne d wit h college s an d th e educatio n o f ministers. 53 But mos t college s cam e awa y wit h ver y littl e othe r tha n th e realizatio n that ther e wa s no t a n efficien t o r equitable mean s t o transfe r educationa l funds fro m on e regio n t o another . A s lat e a s I860 , Massachusett s ha d a per capit a valu e o f persona l propert y tha t wa s thre e time s tha t o f Iowa' s and twic e tha t o f Michigan's , bu t relativel y littl e o f thi s wealt h wa s transferred t o th e Wes t fo r education . Prio r t o th e Civi l Wa r th e SPCTW, th e interdenominationa l organizatio n fo r th e suppor t o f college s in th e West , raise d les s tha n one-thir d o f Harvard' s 186 0 endowmen t and dispense d wha t i t di d collec t i n smal l amount s t o a few selecte d col leges. Th e America n Educatio n Society , designe d t o suppor t ministeria l students, wa s no t onl y moribun d afte r th e 1840s , bu t ha d use d mos t o f its fund s fo r th e suppor t o f candidate s i n college s i n th e East. 54 The source s an d level s o f fundin g fo r th e college s ha d man y signifi cant consequence s fo r th e system . Becaus e ther e wer e fe w i f an y nondenominational organization s willin g an d abl e t o fil l th e ol d rol e o f the state s i n th e financin g o f college s th e leader s o f th e ne w college s ha d to orien t thei r rhetori c t o th e religiou s aspect s o f thei r institutions . Th e economic dependenc y o n loca l area s le d t o th e uniqu e America n syste m of college s bein g a t leas t formall y controlle d b y bodie s o f laymen , rathe r than b y faculties . Th e decentralize d natur e o f financia l suppor t ha d th e

44 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

consequence o f grea t inequalitie s amon g th e institutions , includin g stat e colleges an d universities . Thes e inequalities , a s migh t b e expected , wer e always i n favo r o f th e olde r denominations an d regions . Other tha n tuition , endowment s wer e th e majo r sourc e o f incom e fo r all bu t a fe w favore d stat e institutions . Th e incom e o f th e stat e college s and universitie s wa s no t alway s secur e becaus e n o colleg e befor e th e Civil Wa r wa s tie d t o a fixe d an d adequat e ta x base . Stat e subsidie s meant involvemen t i n ongoin g politica l battle s t o maintai n fundin g i n Table 1.21 Known Endowments, 1850* s. Range in Thousand Dollars. By Denomination and State (? = poor data recovery )

By Denomination: Baptist

0-300

Methodist

0-150

Presbyterian

0-700

Episcopal

0-700

Catholic

0-120

Lutheran

0- 53

State 1

?-900

Disciples

0- 50

Non-Denominat ional

0-100

Congregational

17

Quaker

?- 35

By State: Alabama

0-3^3

California

0-?

Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Georgia

10-380

i 5° 0?-75 25-120

Illinois

0?-100

Indiana

0?-1^9

The Institution s

45

Table 1.2 1 - Continue d

Iowa

0-173

Kentucky-

07-80

Louisiana

7

Maine

0-100

Maryland

0-20?

Massachusetts

0-1,000

Michigan

o?-6oo

Minnesota

0?-?

Mississippi

o?-900

Missouri

07-100

New Hampshire

182

New Jersey-

90

New York

07-700

North Carolina

0?-l(b8

Ohio

0-200

Pennsylvania

0-200

Rhode Islan d

193

South Carolina

800

Tennessee

07-200

Texas

10

Vermont

1 ?

Virginia

250

Wisconsin

07-100

every state . Endowment s wer e th e onl y economi c suppor t tha t allowe d colleges t o pursu e policie s fre e fro m outsid e organization s o r very unpre dictable stat e legislatures . (Tabl e 1.21 ) Although th e averag e endowmen t incom e pe r studen t increase d t o a t least thre e time s it s 1800 s siz e b y th e mid-1850s , endowment s remaine d at inadequat e level s an d wer e unequall y distributed . O n th e average , th e colleges o f th e 1850 s receive d les s tha n twenty-fiv e dollar s pe r studen t from endowmen t funds . Fe w institution s ha d endowment s larg e enoug h

46 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

to provid e fo r facult y salarie s o r eve n fo r adequat e libraries , equipment , or buildings . Man y institution s ha d t o us e thei r endowmen t income s t o pay th e interes t o n th e debt s remainin g fro m th e constructio n o f thei r original buildings ; som e ha d t o sel l th e land s donate d t o the m befor e their valu e wa s grea t enoug h t o buil d a cash endowment . Other s ha d al most al l thei r fund s disappea r whe n th e economi c recession s o f th e peri od le d corporation s an d bank s int o insolvency. 55 The fund s tha t ha d bee n accumulate d wer e unequall y distributed . I n the 1850s , endowment s range d fro m nothin g t o over a millio n dollar s and yearl y endowmen t incom e fro m on e hundre d dollar s pe r studen t to , of course , nothing . Ne w Englan d ha d th e greates t endowment s fo r "de nominational" colleges , bu t eve n i n tha t wealth y regio n th e fund s ranged fro m te n thousan d dollar s t o ove r a millio n dollars . I n contrast , the Midwes t ha d onl y on e institutio n wit h a n outsid e incom e equivalen t to fiv e hundre d thousan d dollars , th e Universit y o f Michigan , an d tha t fund wa s subjec t t o manipulatio n b y th e stat e legislature . Th e nex t highest endowmen t i n th e regio n wa s tw o hundre d thousan d dollars , and mos t college s i n th e Midwes t fel t extremel y secur e i f the y ha d a fif ty thousan d dolla r endowmen t which , whe n wel l managed , migh t pa y their president' s salary. 56 The Souther n state s ha d th e greates t inequalitie s i n endowments , o r their equivalents , i n th e for m o f stat e guarantees , rangin g fro m th e Uni versity o f Mississippi' s stat e manage d nin e hundre d thousan d dollar s (frequently mishandled ) t o th e mor e usua l endowment s o f th e denomi national college s o f les s tha n twenty-fiv e thousan d dollars . Th e Middl e Atlantic regio n als o ha d grea t inequalities . Columbi a an d Unio n ha d en dowments o f clos e t o seve n hundre d fift y thousan d dollars , whil e othe r colleges wit h know n endowmen t fund s ha d t o b e satisfie d wit h les s than thos e i n th e Midwest. 57 As wit h othe r indicator s o f institutiona l resource s an d policies , th e variations i n endowment s withi n th e denomination s undermine s con cepts suc h a s "Presbyterian " o r "Methodist " colleges ; withi n eac h majo r denominational categor y th e rang e o f endowment s wa s to o great . Al though th e ne w an d mino r denomination s di d no t acquir e th e grea t en dowments o f som e o f th e olde r denominationa l colleges , a stud y o f th e intereaction betwee n denominationa l resource s i n genera l an d th e re gional locatio n o f a colleg e i s necessar y t o understan d th e variation s i n endowment fund s an d othe r resource s o f th e colleges . The valu e o f building s an d grounds , libraries, and even facult y salaries , were als o unequall y distributed . Th e valu e o f building s an d ground s pe r student increase d over fou r an d one-hal f time s i n th e si x decades , th e average valu e i n th e lat e 1850 s i n constant-dollar s becomin g almos t twelve hundre d dollar s pe r student . Mos t institution s seeme d t o hav e

The Institution s

47

had building s an d ground s wort h a t leas t twenty-fiv e thousan d dollar s after th e firs t fe w year s o f thei r existence , bu t som e o f th e ne w Wester n colleges i n th e 1850 s wer e abl e t o erec t building s onl y becaus e the y re lied o n studen t labo r and chea p loca l lumbe r supplies . Bu t eve n wit h thi s minimal averag e investment , th e disparitie s i n facilitie s remained . A s with endowments , th e olde r denomination s an d thei r Easter n college s had th e mos t amenitie s t o offe r thei r student s an d wit h whic h t o impres s their communities . Harvar d an d Columbi a le d th e wa y wit h value s o f over on e millio n dollars , followe d b y th e large r stat e institutions , suc h a s Michigan an d th e Universit y o f Virginia . Th e numbe r o f librar y book s had a similar distribution , rangin g fro m Harvard' s on e hundre d thousan d volumes t o th e fe w hundre d i n th e Souther n an d Wester n colleges . Sci entific equipmen t wa s probabl y mor e unequall y distribute d becaus e o f the hig h cost s o f suc h collection s an d instruments . Th e cos t o f scientifi c equipment wa s s o grea t tha t minima l "cabinets " and surveyin g tool s cos t more tha n th e entir e librarie s o f man y institutions , an d observatorie s were beyon d th e financia l reac h o f th e majorit y o f th e colleges. 58 Faculty salarie s an d benefit s an d th e siz e o f facultie s wer e als o condi tioned b y th e distributio n o f economi c resources . Salarie s i n th e 1850 s ranged fro m thre e thousan d dollar s a yea r plu s firewoo d an d housin g t o five hundre d dollar s a yea r withou t fre e housing . Th e prestigiou s urba n colleges i n th e Eas t an d a few o f th e stat e institution s i n th e elitis t Sout h paid thei r averag e professor s clos e t o thre e time s wha t wa s pai d t o pro fessors i n th e best-payin g college s i n th e Midwest , suc h a s th e Universi ty o f Michigan . Thes e incom e difference s wer e compounde d b y th e fac t that th e lowes t payin g institution s wer e thos e mos t likel y t o hav e t o suspend payment s t o thei r instructor s o r t o substitut e share s i n th e insti tution fo r cash salaries. 59 (Table 1.22 ) Stated averag e facult y salarie s wer e significantl y differen t amon g th e regions, bu t ther e als o wa s a n importan t differenc e betwee n th e college s supported b y th e variou s denominations . Ne w Englan d college s pai d rel atively hig h salarie s an d th e know n minimu m facult y incom e i n th e re gion wa s a s grea t a s th e highes t salar y i n th e Midwest . Th e Sout h wa s marked b y grea t inequalities . Th e instructor s a t th e elit e stat e institu tions receive d salarie s clos e t o thos e pai d i n Ne w England , bu t professor s in denominationa l college s wer e promise d les s tha n one-fift h o f thei r government-supported colleagues . Th e poore r denomination s tende d t o provide muc h lowe r income s t o thei r facultie s tha n di d th e establishe d denominations. The averag e siz e o f facultie s i n America n college s remained smal l dur ing th e 1850s . Th e fe w larg e facultie s i n th e libera l art s college s con tained abou t twent y member s an d eve n th e Universit y o f Michiga n an d the Universit y o f Virginia, school s dedicate d t o th e ide a o f specialization ,

48 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S Table 1.2 2 Known Salarie s l 8 5 0 ' s , By Denominatio n an d Regio n (? - Poo r dat a recovery )

Salaries High

Low

$1,500

1 80 0

Methodist

1,600

800

Presbyterian

2, 200

500

Congregat ional

3,000

1,000

State

2,500

1,000

750

500

By Denomination: Baptist

Lutheran Episcopalian

?

3,000

Non-Denominational

850

750

German Reformed

500

?

By Region: , New England

3,000

1,200

Middle Atlantic

3,000

750

South Atlantic

2,500

500

Southwest

2,000

500

Midwest

1,200

1

500

did no t excee d thi s limit . Mos t institution s i n th e Wes t an d Sout h ha d between fou r an d si x members , a faculty tha t coul d no t preten d t o teac h more tha n th e essentials . An d mos t o f th e facult y member s wer e minis ters, th e usua l exceptio n bein g th e individua l wh o wa s hire d t o teac h a foreign languag e i f i t wa s offere d b y th e college . Th e ministeria l back ground o f facultie s wa s a natura l outcom e o f tw o condition s i n th e country. First , the y wer e th e larges t grou p o f me n wit h hig h investment s in forma l educatio n and , second , thei r career s a s minister s wer e compati ble wit h colleg e teaching . Minister s coul d transfe r fro m teachin g t o min isterial wor k withou t jeopardizin g thei r futures . Colleg e teachin g was , i n fact, a mean s o f advancemen t t o better-payin g ministeria l posts . An d

The Institution s

49

ministers, especiall y i n th e ne w area s o f th e country , wer e th e onl y me n with th e economi c suppor t an d th e tim e schedule s allowin g participatio n in th e rathe r risk y professio n o f teaching . Fe w college s i n th e countr y could offe r enoug h mone y t o induc e qualifie d professional s i n othe r fields t o foreg o thei r income s whil e indulgin g i n full-tim e teachin g i n a rural area. 60 There wa s no t onl y a smal l numbe r o f faculty , bu t ther e wer e fe w students, a s well . Th e larges t institution s i n th e countr y ha d n o mor e than fou r hundre d student s an d thes e college s wer e concentrate d i n th e East. College s i n th e Midwes t an d Sout h wer e considere d larg e i f the y had on e hundre d students , an d mos t ha d betwee n twenty-fiv e an d eighty. I n thei r earl y years , institution s i n th e newe r region s enrolle d les s than twent y student s i n thei r regula r colleg e program . Thes e smal l stu dent bodie s coul d no t support larg e facultie s an d coul d not , therefore , support specialize d instruction. 61 Despite th e problem s o f suppor t an d th e resultin g crud e an d unstabl e conditions o f th e college s i n th e 1850s , ther e ha d bee n improvement s i n the libera l art s college s over th e sixt y years . Th e valu e o f facilitie s pe r student ha d increase d fourfold ; th e valu e o f endowment s pe r studen t had increase d thre e time s ove r wha t i t ha d bee n i n 1800 ; an d th e established college s ha d maintaine d an d eve n increase d facult y salarie s over th e years . Th e constant-dolla r expenditure s pe r studen t ha d mor e than doubled , a s ha d th e instructiona l cost s pe r student . Th e studen t t o faculty ratio s stabilize d a t approximatel y on e facult y membe r t o twent y students i n th e institution s wit h an y longevity . I n fact, a greater percent age o f th e nationa l expenditure s o n educatio n wer e committe d t o highe r education befor e th e Civi l Wa r tha n afte r it. 62 The college s ha d becom e mor e varie d an d flexible . Th e classica l cur ricula wa s modifie d significantl y an d som e college s bega n t o devot e at tention t o trainin g an d researc h i n th e advance d sciences . Th e supposed ly conservativ e schools , suc h a s Harvard , Yale , Dartmouth , an d Columbia, mad e investment s i n school s o f scienc e an d chemistr y b y th e 1850s. However , eve n thes e college s demande d separat e fundin g fo r th e new department s becaus e o f th e possibl e demand s suc h costl y program s might mak e o n th e budget s o f th e schools. 63 But thes e advances , i n th e contex t o f th e educationa l economic s o f th e period, le d educationa l leader s int o a dilemma . Th e increase d cost s o f modernized educatio n wer e makin g th e college s les s accessibl e t o man y segments o f th e America n population . Advocate s o f mor e change s i n th e system, especiall y thos e wh o wer e s o impresse d b y th e educationa l sys tems o f Europe , wer e demandin g alteration s tha t woul d b e eve n mor e costly. Th e college s wer e alread y subsidizin g student s a t a leve l equa l t o that o f th e ver y libera l Californi a stat e syste m i n th e lat e 1950 s an d

50

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

1960s, an d th e traditiona l source s o f suppor t fo r th e colleges , primaril y the denominations , wer e findin g i t mor e an d mor e difficul t t o provid e support equa l t o risin g expectations . Averag e tuitio n an d fee s i n th e lib eral art s college s durin g th e 1850 s wer e thre e time s wha t the y ha d bee n in 1800 , an d thi s constant-dolla r ris e wa s pricin g educatio n abov e th e level o f wha t man y o f th e poor-but-respectabl e student s coul d bear . Not onl y tuition , bu t th e cost s o f roo m an d boar d wer e risin g faste r tha n the income s o f mos t Americans , makin g i t muc h mor e difficul t fo r self supporting student s t o atten d college . Th e onl y institutio n i n th e coun try tha t ha d bot h a modernized educatio n an d lo w tuitio n wa s th e Uni versity o f Michigan . Th e othe r leadin g modernizin g college s an d thei r departments wer e chargin g a s muc h a s thre e t o fou r time s th e averag e tuition o f th e 1850s. 64 The averag e direc t cost o f goin g t o college , tuition , fee s an d roo m an d board, ros e fro m one-thir d o f a skille d manua l laborer' s incom e i n 180 0 to approximatel y 6 0 percen t i n 1860 . Attendanc e a t on e o f th e bette r modern school s i n th e Eas t wa s preclude d becaus e th e cost s o f educatio n exceeded th e tota l incom e o f suc h a worke r b y th e 1850s . Th e so n o f a farm labore r face d simila r trends . Becaus e o f th e ris e i n livin g expense s and th e leve l o f wage s o f rura l teachers , i t wa s becomin g mor e difficul t for a hard-workin g youn g ma n t o sav e enoug h fro m a combinatio n o f several year s o f full-tim e wor k plu s part-tim e teachin g betwee n semes ters to finance himself throug h the inexpensive institutions of th e 1850s.65 Income fro m som e occupation s wa s increasin g a t a faste r rat e tha n were th e cost s o f highe r education . Bu t a s th e leve l o f wealt h increase d with th e commercializatio n o f agricultur e an d th e sprea d o f commerc e and trade , th e distribution s o f incom e an d wealt h i n Americ a becam e more an d mor e unequal . Th e ne w econom y di d begi n t o creat e a rathe r broadly base d middl e class , bu t i t als o lef t man y wit h fe w chance s t o participate i n th e ne w lifestyle s an d i n th e modernizin g educationa l sys tem. Th e wav e o f protes t concernin g highe r educatio n ma y hav e bee n caused b y th e escalatin g cost s o f moder n highe r schooling , an d th e emergence o f ne w institutions , suc h a s th e norma l school , ma y wel l hav e been motivate d b y th e ne w economi c burden s o f moder n education , rather tha n b y objection s t o classica l learnin g o r other interna l aspect s o f the existin g colleges. 66 The increasin g cost s o f highe r educatio n pose d a seriou s problem . Be cause o f th e lac k o f secure , equitable , an d libera l subsidie s fo r th e col leges, ther e wa s littl e highe r educatio n an d it s leader s coul d d o t o sto p the tren d towards elitis m amon g th e colleges . An d despit e th e advance s of th e period , man y colleges , especiall y thos e i n th e poore r area s o f th e country, remaine d unstabl e an d unabl e t o fulfil l man y o f th e demand s by variou s group s fo r eve n mor e modernize d an d therefor e expensiv e

The Institution s

51

higher education . Th e countr y remaine d withou t a singl e schoo l abl e t o offer a doctoral degree : only a handful o f th e college s coul d suppor t pro fessional scholarship ; an d technica l an d moder n agricultura l educatio n remained bot h t o b e define d an d adequatel y financed. 67 The traditiona l historian s o f highe r education , however , assume d tha t these problem s o f definitio n an d financin g ha d ready-mad e solution s available wel l befor e th e onse t o f th e Civi l War . Bu t thei r assumptio n that twentieth-centur y conditions , structures , an d idea s wer e i n opera tion i n th e antebellu m perio d wa s wron g an d it s continue d us e onl y serves t o mak e th e histor y o f earl y highe r educatio n a n ahistorica l an d normative exercise . Th e us e o f th e assumption s concernin g th e availabil ity an d applicabilit y o f moder n idea s an d institution s wa s on e o f th e reasons wh y scholar s suc h a s Tewksbur y dichotomize d th e histor y o f higher education . Th e assumption s abou t socia l an d educationa l condi tions befor e an d afte r th e Civi l Wa r le d t o insensitivit y t o th e motives , contributions, an d natur e o f th e antebellu m colleg e movement . Although muc h mor e detaile d historica l work mus t b e don e t o docu ment th e histor y o f educatio n afte r th e Civi l War , ther e i s no w ever y reason t o believ e tha t i t wa s post-Civi l Wa r Americ a tha t witnesse d th e great explosio n i n th e numbe r an d instabilit y o f smal l libera l art s col leges an d th e sprea d o f elitis m amon g them . Enoug h studie s hav e bee n accumulated t o sho w tha t th e alternative s t o libera l art s college s too k much longe r t o develo p tha n th e ol d historiograph y intimated . Th e spread o f hig h schools , th e developmen t o f viabl e technica l an d agricul tural colleges , an d th e institutionalizatio n o f th e universit y idea l cam e much late r i n th e nineteent h centur y tha n th e dichotomizatio n o f highe r education suggested. 68 The us e o f th e construct , th e antebellu m college , wit h it s in-buil t as sumptions abou t th e conditio n an d possibilitie s o f America n educatio n before an d afte r th e Civi l War , mad e man y historian s insensitiv e t o th e goals, needs , an d contribution s o f th e antebellu m college s an d thei r sponsors, especiall y thos e i n th e smalle r town s o f America . B y assumin g that ever y educationa l institutio n wit h th e ter m "college " i n it s titl e wa s designed t o compet e wit h wha t th e historian s viewe d a s th e legitimat e higher educationa l institutions , the y misinterprete d th e reason s wh y th e institutions wer e founded . An d th e assumptio n tha t th e educationa l pro file o f antebellu m Americ a coul d hav e matche d th e refor m ideal s i f onl y the antebellu m college s ha d no t bee n founde d le d t o invali d historica l evaluations o f th e colleges . There wer e example s o f pretentiou s institutiona l foundings . Paper-col leges wer e establishe d wit h grandios e title s an d fe w resource s i n area s with s o littl e populatio n tha t th e institution s coul d no t hav e supporte d themselves. Bu t projecte d institution s suc h a s Matagord a Universit y i n

52 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

Texas, Newto n Universit y i n Baltimore , o r th e Protestan t Universit y o f America i n Ohio , wer e example s o f attempt s t o pla n fo r th e futur e an d to establis h th e typ e o f modernize d institutio n demande d b y th e critic s of earl y highe r education . Ther e wa s littl e differenc e betwee n thes e schools an d other s tha t wer e applaude d b y historian s excep t success . The Universit y o f Michiga n wa s begu n base d o n on e o f th e mos t fantas tic educationa l plan s an d philosophie s eve r know n t o America ; th e Uni versity o f Virgini a migh t wel l hav e gon e th e wa y o f Matagord a Univer sity; an d th e Universit y o f Californi a wa s envisione d whe n Californi a was stil l a rugged frontie r area . Bu t mos t o f th e antebellu m college s wer e begun wit h mor e humbl e goals. 69 The founder s o f th e mos t frequentl y condemne d college s wer e fillin g an educationa l voi d i n America . Th e expansio n o f th e colleges , especiall y in th e rura l areas , cam e a t a tim e whe n governmen t wa s no t providin g the typ e o f educatio n desire d b y man y segment s o f th e population . Lo cal an d voluntar y source s sponsore d th e developmen t o f highe r educa tion, educatio n abov e th e primar y level , durin g a n historical perio d whe n few organization s beside s thos e o f th e denomination s coul d organiz e an d distribute th e necessar y support . B y th e tim e Americ a ha d a n education al elit e an d enoug h consensu s an d wealt h t o allo w th e sprea d o f hig h schools an d mor e specialize d "higher " education , th e sponsor s o f th e small college s ha d develope d a veste d interes t i n th e preservatio n o f their institutions . Bu t th e educationa l biase s o f man y historians , espe cially thos e concernin g efficiency , professionalism , an d objectivity , de termined tha t the y trea t thes e veste d interest s a s illegitimate . Suc h judg ments wer e defende d a s purel y objectiv e b y th e argumen t tha t th e threatened positio n o f th e college s wa s th e resul t solel y o f natura l an d determinant forces , rathe r tha n o f polic y decision s whic h wer e base d upon th e concep t tha t th e universit y mode l wa s th e onl y on e whic h fi t the need s o f al l type s o f student s an d institutions . Much o f th e traditiona l histor y o f antebellu m highe r educatio n seem s to b e a justification o f consciou s decision s suc h a s thos e t o withhol d governmental suppor t fro m "denominational " colleges , t o concentrat e funds fo r highe r educatio n i n a fe w institutions , an d t o centraliz e th e administration o f th e colleges . Tewksbury' s tendenc y t o defin e th e earl y nineteenth-century "college " i n twentieth-centur y term s wa s no t onl y an indicatio n o f hi s ahistorica l approach , bu t a means throug h whic h th e deficiencies o f a decentralized syste m coul d b e demonstrated . B y assum ing tha t a charte r indicate d th e intentio n t o foun d wha t w e no w defin e as a colleg e an d t o classif y failure s o n th e basis o f non-recognitio n a s a full-fledged colleg e i n th e twentiet h century , hi s wor k coul d onl y sho w a determine d outcom e o f educationa l chaos. 70

Chapter 2

Enrollments

The thesi s tha t enrollment s wer e declinin g i s critica l t o th e traditiona l interpretations o f th e antebellu m colleges . Bot h th e intellectual-merit ocratic historian s suc h a s Hofstadte r an d egalitaria n critic s cite d studie s by Henr y Barnar d an d Franci s Waylan d t o sho w tha t th e college s wer e not keepin g pac e wit h populatio n growt h an d tha t man y state s an d col leges withi n the m wer e facin g a declin e o f th e absolut e numbe r o f stu dents.1 Althoug h th e estimate s o f enrollment s i n th e earl y an d midnineteenth centur y wer e base d upo n th e experienc e o f Ne w Englan d and althoug h th e critic s o f highe r educatio n complaine d abou t th e growth o f college s i n th e countr y (whic h implie s enrollmen t increases ) Barnard's an d Wayland' s estimate s an d conclusion s wer e accepte d a s ac curate an d a s representativ e o f th e entir e nation. 2 With th e acceptanc e o f th e thesi s o f declinin g enrollments , historian s focused upo n tryin g t o explai n th e failur e o f highe r education . Followin g the logi c o f Franci s Wayland , the y blame d th e suppose d declin e o n th e rigidity o f curricul a an d assume d tha t th e America n societ y an d econo my wer e read y t o generat e larg e number s o f student s i f an d whe n th e colleges turne d t o th e teachin g o f practica l an d professionall y linke d subjects, subject s tha t woul d increas e th e employmen t potentia l o f stu dents i n busines s an d industry. 3 Thu s critic s an d historians , althoug h conceding th e importanc e o f th e increase d number s o f foreign-bor n young me n t o th e declin e o f th e percentag e o f th e populatio n enrolled , focused upo n factor s interna l t o th e colleges . Wayland's logi c dominate d th e historica l approac h t o th e colleges . Hi s reports coincide d wit h a populisti c desir e fo r pur e vocationa l education , and hi s assumption s abou t th e society , th e economy , an d highe r educa tion wer e accepte d b y othe r reformer s an d late r historians . H e assume d a great unfulfille d an d effectiv e deman d fo r highe r education ; h e assume d that th e college s coul d easil y thro w of f th e outdate d component s o f th e traditional curricul a an d replac e the m wit h mor e practica l bu t intellectu ally legitimat e courses ; an d h e assume d tha t Ne w England' s situatio n 53

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

54

was typica l o f th e countr y a s a whol e o r tha t it s advance d stag e o f de velopment predicte d th e futur e o f enrollment s i n th e res t o f th e nation . But mor e importan t wa s hi s assumptio n tha t enrollment s i n th e libera l arts colleges ha d actuall y decline d durin g th e antebellu m period. 4 A ver y carefu l an d conservativ e recoun t o f th e number s o f student s i n the mal e o r coeducationa l libera l art s college s yield s a ver y differen t conclusion abou t enrollments . Th e ne w estimates , whic h include d onl y male student s i n th e regula r program s tha t le d t o a bachelor's degre e an d which exclude d som e thirt y o f th e tw o hundre d forty-on e college s be cause the y wer e suspecte d t o b e academies , indicate s tha t enrollment s were increasin g bot h absolutel y an d relatively . Althoug h som e Ne w En gland college s wer e experiencin g decline s i n enrollment , th e reason s fo r both gain s an d losse s i n th e number s o f student s wer e muc h mor e com plex tha n thos e pu t forwar d b y critic s suc h a s Wayland . Th e ne w esti mates d o no t suppor t th e thesi s tha t th e majo r determinant s o f enroll ment level s i n th e antebellu m perio d wer e curricul a o r entranc e requirements. (Table s 2.1 , 2.2 ) The libera l art s colleges , althoug h narrowin g th e rang e o f age s o f thei r students, experience d a fourteenfol d increas e o f enrollment s i n th e si x decades. And , betwee n 180 0 an d 1860 , th e percentag e o f th e youn g white male s o f th e countr y wh o entere d th e college s mor e tha n doubled . Using th e numbe r o f whit e male s betwee n fiftee n an d twent y year s ol d as th e populatio n bas e (becaus e th e censu s directl y tabulate d tha t grou p in man y years ) lead s t o th e estimat e tha t enrollment s ros e fro m 0. 6 per cent t o 1.1 8 percen t ove r th e sixt y years . Th e us e o f th e ag e grou p be tween fiftee n an d twenty-fiv e a s th e populatio n bas e decrease s th e per centage estimate s bu t doe s no t chang e th e trend s o f enrollment . TABLE 2. 1 Enrollments i n Regula r Program s o f America n Liberal Art s College s fo r Beginnin g Year s of Eac h Decade , 1800-1860 , Enrollment s a s Percent o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 an d Percent Chang e o f Absolut e Numbe r o f Enrollments

1800

18091810

18191820

18291830

18391840

18491850

18591860

n

1156

1939

2566

4647

8328

9931

16600

%

O. 59

0. 69

0. 65

0. 78

1 . 05

0. 91

1.18

%

Change

6 J 3

2 8

1 7

9 1

9 6

7

Enrollments

55

If th e student s o f th e partial , English , scientific , an d othe r irregula r programs ar e adde d t o th e number s w h o chos e th e regula r academi c pro grams i n th e colleges , th e populatio n percentag e fo r 186 0 rise s t o 1.3 3 percent. An d i f a crud e contro l fo r th e foreign-bor n i s use d t o eliminat e those w h o wer e unlikel y t o enrol l i n an y typ e o f highe r educatio n be cause o f language , education , an d economi c difficulties , th e rati o o f col lege student s t o youn g male s i s increase d t o 1. 6 student s fo r ever y on e hundred youn g men . Thus , th e percentag e o f America' s youn g male s w h o chos e t o ente r libera l art s college s increase d a t leas t 20 0 percen t an d perhaps a s muc h a s 25 0 percen t betwee n 180 0 an d 1860 . The n e w estimates , base d upo n a searc h throug h th e record s an d his tories o f al l th e institutions , ar e lowe r tha n thos e previousl y published . Other estimate s o f th e numbe r o f student s i n th e 1850 s hav e range d from twent y t o thirt y thousand . Th e highe r estimate s ar e perhap s th e result o f th e inclusio n o f irregula r students , thos e i n militar y schools , o r all th e student s enrolle d i n a collegiat e institution . Student s w h o wer e i n the primary , female , o r preparator y department s o f th e college s wer e rig orously exclude d i n thi s study. 5 To twentieth-centur y Americans , enrollmen t level s o f les s tha n tw o persons pe r on e hundre d ma y see m extremel y lo w an d migh t b e interpreted a s proo f o f th e failur e o f th e libera l art s colleges . Bu t th e en rollment percentage s wer e hig h i n th e contex t o f th e midnineteent h cen tury. Fo r example , ministers , professors , editors , physicians , an d lawyer s accounted fo r 1.5 8 percen t o f th e America n wor k forc e i n 1860 . I f thi s percentage i s use d t o predic t enrollments , althoug h fe w professional s had t o atten d college , ove r 8 0 percen t o f th e expecte d numbe r o f stu dents wer e enrolle d i n th e regula r program s o f th e libera l art s colleges. 6 In 1900 , afte r wha t ha s bee n describe d a s a majo r an d progressiv e revo lution i n America n highe r education , th e recor d wa s no t an y better ; and , perhaps, i t wa s worse . Enrollmen t i n al l institution s o f highe r education , including female , normal , professional , an d technica l colleges , wa s be tween 3. 6 an d 4. 0 percen t o f th e relevan t ag e group . Professional s com prised 4. 5 percen t o f th e wor k force. 7 An d hig h schoo l graduate s com prised approximatel y 6 percen t o f th e ag e group. 8 The antebellu m enrollmen t level s als o see m hig h w h e n th e distribution o f wealt h i s considered . Th e America n economi c orde r ha d not ye t generate d th e abundanc e tha t woul d mak e comparativ e luxurie s such a s highe r educatio n commonplace . I n 1860 , 4 percen t o f th e adul t males i n th e Unite d State s ha d a tota l estat e larg e enoug h s o tha t i f al l of i t wer e investe d a t 5 percent , th e return s coul d suppor t on e studen t through colleg e wit h n o economi c difficulty . Bu t tota l estat e wa s com prised o f al l assets , mainl y persona l propert y an d rea l estate . Mos t men' s estates wer e thei r home s an d the y ha d littl e liqui d wealth . Therefore , fa r less tha n 4 percen t o f America n familie s coul d hav e gaine d a retur n o n

56

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

their holding s tha t wa s larg e enoug h t o provid e fo r highe r educatio n fo r even on e o f thei r children . A reasone d gues s i s tha t 2 percen t o f Ameri can familie s coul d hav e calle d upo n saving s t o provid e significan t sup port fo r thei r children' s highe r education . This , however , ma y b e a hig h estimate becaus e i t i s no w fel t tha t th e midnineteent h centur y wa s th e highpoint o f th e concentratio n o f wealt h i n America. 9 And fro m wha t i s known abou t th e salarie s o f professional s durin g th e period , ther e wer e few head s o f household s wh o coul d hav e easil y supporte d thei r childre n through colleg e fro m thei r immediat e incomes. 10 The economic s o f th e earl y nineteent h centur y di d impos e sever e con straints o n th e growt h o f enrollments , bu t othe r force s outsid e th e con trol o f educator s conditione d th e histor y o f increas e i n th e numbe r o f students. Th e growt h o f tota l enrollmen t an d th e percentag e o f th e young male s i n colleg e di d no t progres s evenl y ove r th e period . Demo graphic trends , th e patter n an d timin g o f populatio n migratio n an d col lege location , an d th e social , political , an d economi c condition s o f th e country le d t o uneve n growth . Between 180 0 an d 1810 , th e numbe r o f student s increase d 6 8 percent . But th e percentag e o f youn g me n enrolle d gre w b y onl y 1 7 percen t be cause o f th e increas e i n th e ag e group . Th e nex t decade , th e 1810s , wa s critical fo r highe r education . Perhap s becaus e o f th e turmoi l o f th e con flict wit h Englan d an d the n th e westwar d migratio n an d th e economi c boom followe d b y collapse , ther e wa s onl y a 3 2 percen t increas e i n en rollments. Th e continue d growt h o f th e numbe r o f youn g me n i n th e so ciety combine d wit h th e socia l an d economi c problem s o f th e decad e t o lower th e student-to~populatio n ratio , and , i n man y areas , altere d th e nature an d goal s o f th e students . Despite th e pani c o f 181 9 an d th e firs t rumbling s o f Jacksonia n de mocracy, th e 1820 s wer e encouragin g year s fo r th e America n colleges . But th e nea r doublin g o f th e numbe r o f student s di d no t mean tha t al l colleges ende d th e decad e wit h optimis m abou t th e future . Th e expan sion o f college s int o ne w area s o f th e countr y accounte d fo r muc h o f th e growth, and , althoug h Ne w England' s newe r college s ha d adjuste d t o in creased enrollment s i n th e earl y 1820s , th e regio n face d wha t appeare d to man y t o b e a permanen t declin e beginnin g i n th e middl e o f th e de cade. (Tabl e 2.2 ) Fears fo r th e college s o f Ne w Englan d an d perhap s fo r th e college s o f the res t o f th e countr y wer e shor t lived . A nea r doublin g o f th e nation' s students an d a 3 5 percen t increas e i n th e percen t o f th e ag e grou p tha t was enrolle d i n th e school s occurre d i n th e 1830s . And , despit e th e eco nomic debacl e o f th e lat e 1830s , growt h continue d int o th e 1840s . But somethin g happene d i n th e las t year s o f tha t decade . Enrollment s sharply dropped , s o muc h s o tha t th e las t yea r o f th e decad e sa w onl y

Enrollments

57

TABLE 2. 2 Absolute Numbe r o f Student s Enrolle d i n Eac h Region, Enrollment s i n Eac h Regio n a s a Percentage o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 i n th e Region an d Percentag e Increas e o f Absolut e Numbers o f Student s fo r Beginnin g Academi c Year o f Eac h Decade , 1800-186 0

1800 181

New England %

n 54 1.2

0 182

0 183

0 184

0 185

0 186 0

9 96

7 115

0 145

1 203

5 192

6 260

6

2 1.7

9 1.5

1 1.2

9 1.6

8 1.2

8 1.6

7

% Change 7

6 1

n 34 .Middle Atlantic % 0.7

1 231

6 344

6

2 0.6

4 0.5

9 0.5

8 0.7

9 0.7

8 0.9

3

0 6

9 6

0 132

6 189

5 332

4

8 0.7

1 0.6

4 0.6

3 1.1

1 1.2

8 1.9

0

'

n -

-

(

9

0 87

8 2

~

3 4

6 52

0 8

\

1 2

5 40

% Change -

% Change

5

1 188

9 6 1 20

7 5 5 76

0.9

Midwest %

5 3

1 117

% Change 9 n 5

0 -0

0 69

2 5

n 20 South Atlantic % 0.3

6 4

7 46

% Change 3

Southwest %

9 2

"

'

' -

0.3 y

22

2 7

5

2 184

0 227

2 318

4

1 1.5

2 1.2

0 1.2

1

14 29

^

2 4

1 2

3 4

0

3 94

6 152

2 396 1

8 0.6

0 0.5

9 0.9

p 6

1 16

4

0

one thousan d mor e student s enrolle d tha n i n th e las t yea r o f th e 1830s . Again, Ne w Englan d wa s th e hardes t hit . An d a s i n th e 1820s , i t woul d take th e lea d i n bemoanin g th e conditio n an d natur e o f America n highe r education.11 Th e decreas e i n enrollment s durin g th e middl e an d lat e 1840s wa s s o grea t tha t th e percentag e o f youn g male s i n th e college s actually declined , an d th e 1 9 percen t growt h i n th e absolut e numbe r o f

58

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

students i n th e 1840s , compare d t o th e 8 0 percen t increase s o f th e 1820 s and 1830s , seeme d t o foreshado w th e en d o f libera l education . There wa s anothe r outburs t o f pessimis m an d protes t b y educators , especially thos e i n Ne w England . Bu t i n th e 1850 s peopl e becam e opti mistic over th e futur e o f th e libera l art s colleges . Th e growt h o f th e number o f student s returne d t o th e level s o f th e 1820 s an d 1830 s an d the percen t o f th e ag e grou p enrolle d reache d th e period' s highes t level . The growt h rat e o f th e 1850 s wa s s o hig h tha t i f it s 67 percen t increas e had continued , th e earl y twentieth-centur y libera l art s college s o f th e country woul d hav e ha d mor e mal e student s tha n wer e actuall y enrolle d in al l o f th e institution s devote d t o highe r education i n 1900. 12 Enrollments increase d i n al l region s o f th e countr y durin g th e antebel lum years , bu t th e rate s o f growt h an d th e resultin g enrollmen t level s i n the region s varied . Inequalitie s i n enrollment s remaine d despit e th e growth o f bot h highe r an d lowe r educatio n i n th e variou s regions . Som e of th e inequality , however , ma y b e explaine d b y studen t migratio n pat terns. Midwester n an d Middl e Atlanti c students , fo r example , tende d t o migrate t o Ne w Englan d fo r thei r education , lowerin g th e enrollmen t ra tios fo r thei r regions . An d a significant numbe r o f th e remainin g dispari ties i n enrollmen t ratio s ar e explaine d whe n control s fo r wealth , ag e dis tributions, an d th e foreign-bor n ar e used. (Tabl e 2.2 ) New Englan d deserve s specia l attentio n becaus e th e histor y o f it s colleges wa s th e basi s fo r mos t generalization s concernin g enrollmen t trends durin g th e antebellu m perio d an d becaus e th e previou s analyse s of it s enrollmen t histor y wer e use d fo r bot h th e explanatio n an d evalua tion o f earl y libera l education . Th e ne w estimate s o f enrollment s an d th e examination o f th e ol d explanation s d o no t suppor t th e accepte d ide a that curricul a an d entranc e requirement s wer e th e key s t o th e succes s o r failure o f th e variou s Ne w Englan d colleges . Th e analysi s o f th e enroll ment trend s i n th e region , i n fact , raise s mor e question s a s to th e reason s for colleg e selectio n tha n ma y b e answere d b y an y availabl e information . Much mor e researc h wil l hav e t o b e conducte d befor e th e enrollment histories o f th e variou s college s ca n b e explained . New Englan d ha d bee n th e cente r o f America n highe r educatio n an d in 181 0 i t ha d a n enrollmen t rati o highe r tha n th e national averag e o f 1860. I t remaine d a s th e regio n wit h th e greates t gros s enrollmen t ratios , but i t ha d th e lowes t growt h rate s fo r bot h absolut e an d relativ e enroll ments ove r th e sixt y years . And , considerin g th e stag e o f socia l an d eco nomic developmen t o f th e region , i t ha d th e greates t inequalitie s o f en rollments amon g it s states . New Englan d bega n th e nineteent h centur y wit h bot h th e greates t number o f student s an d th e highes t enrollmen t ratios . I t retaine d it s foremost positio n unti l th e 1830 s whe n th e appearanc e o f larg e number s

Enrollments

59

of college s i n th e othe r region s threatene d it s numeri c dominanc e and , perhaps, th e securit y o f it s educators . An d althoug h i t ha d enrollment s of clos e t o 2 percen t i n I860 , i t experience d severa l crisi s whic h cause d alarm an d a n outpourin g o f rhetori c aime d a t politicians , educators , an d the genera l public . (Table s 2.2 , 2.3 ) The 1800 s wer e th e year s o f th e mos t rapi d expansio n o f Ne w En gland's studen t population ; i n te n year s th e numbe r o f student s in creased b y 7 0 percent . Ne w Englan d wa s unabl e t o matc h tha t expansio n in th e remainde r o f th e antebellu m period . Th e 1810 s an d 1820 s wer e decades o f les s tha n moderat e growt h an d o f sever e crise s withi n man y of th e colleges . Apparently , th e regio n wa s hur t b y Jeffersonia n policie s and th e Wa r o f 1812 , an d th e economi c boo m o f th e post-wa r perio d did no t stimulat e a recovery o f enrollments . Th e growt h rat e droppe d t o 20 percen t i n th e 1810s , one-hal f o f wha t i t ha d been , an d th e region' s colleges wer e save d onl y b y a n influ x o f ne w type s o f student s whos e attendance ma y hav e bee n cause d b y th e los s o f opportunitie s fo r youn g men a s a resul t o f th e wa r an d th e ris e o f Wester n economi c competi tion.13 But th e ne w student s coul d no t full y compensat e fo r th e decline , and i n 182 0 Ne w England' s enrollmen t rati o droppe d belo w th e nationa l average o f 1860 . In on e respec t th e 1820 s wer e year s o f astoundin g recover y fo r Ne w England. Durin g th e earl y year s o f th e decad e enrollment s increased . Bu t by th e las t year s o f th e 1820 s a shar p declin e o f attendanc e a t man y o f the establishe d college s i n th e are a resulte d i n a rati o tha t wa s clos e t o what ha d bee n achieve d i n 1800 , 1. 3 percent . Th e furo r tha t le d t o th e Yale Repor t an d th e man y attempt s t o mak e th e college s mor e attractiv e during th e lat e 1820 s wer e th e produc t o f a very rea l threat. 14 TABLE 2. 3 Enrollments i n Ne w England , Enrollment s a s a Percentage o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 an d Percent Chang e o f Absolut e Numbe r o f Enrollments, fo r Beginnin g Year s o f Each Decade , 1800-186 0

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1850

1860

n

549

967

1150

1451

2035

1926

2606

%

1 .22

1 . 79

1 .51

1 .29

1 .68

1 .28

1 . 67

% Change

76 1

1

9 2

6 4 | 1

0 -0 1

5 3 1

5

60 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

But befor e an y radica l change s wer e implemente d b y th e colleges , New England' s enrollment s rebounded . I n spit e o f th e growin g competi tion fro m college s i n othe r region s an d th e flo w o f th e foreign-bor n int o New England , th e numbe r o f student s increase d b y 4 0 percen t an d th e enrollments jumpe d t o 1.6 8 percen t durin g th e 1830s . The y continue d t o climb i n th e earl y 1840s , bu t the n a n inexplicabl e declin e hi t mos t th e colleges i n th e late r year s o f th e decade . Th e enrollmen t rati o plummeted, an d th e regio n experience d a decreas e i n th e absolut e num ber of students . As i n th e crisi s o f th e lat e 1820s , demand s fo r reform , especiall y fo r a reorientation o f th e college s t o th e need s o f futur e businessmen , sprea d throughout th e academi c establishment . But , a s i n th e 1820s , befor e many suc h reform s coul d b e define d an d implemented , enrollment s grew. Tota l number s increase d b y over one-third , and , controllin g fo r the foreign-born , Ne w England' s enrollmen t rati o exceede d tha t o f th e 1810s. I n 1860 , tota l libera l art s enrollment s i n Ne w Englan d reache d al most 2 percent . The threat s t o th e Ne w Englan d college s i n th e lat e 1820 s an d lat e 1840s le d man y o f it s educationa l leader s t o tur n t o a n earl y versio n o f a socioeconomic explanatio n o f thei r enrollmen t problems . Leader s suc h a s Francis Waylan d explaine d wha t h e perceive d a s permanen t decrease s i n enrollment a s th e produc t o f th e irrelevanc e o f highe r educatio n t o th e emerging economi c orde r o f Ne w Englan d an d demanded , amon g othe r reforms, tha t college s becom e tie d t o th e busines s world. 15 Bu t hi s an d similar these s giv e inadequat e explanation s o f Ne w England' s enrollmen t history. Muc h mor e tha n a thesi s o f simpl e economi c chang e i s neede d to accoun t fo r Ne w England' s enrollmen t trends . Institution s directl y connected t o th e occupationa l world , suc h a s technical , medical , an d la w schools, face d simila r enrollmen t problems , indicatin g tha t mor e comple x socioeconomic factor s wer e a t work . The regio n wa s facin g mor e limit s o n th e growt h o f enrollment s tha n a simpl e economi c o r deterministi c argumen t woul d suggest . I t wa s much mor e difficul t tha n th e reformer s though t t o achiev e a direct func tional relationshi p t o busines s an d industry . Th e histor y o f th e attempt s to implemen t th e demand s fo r a n increase d tie t o capitalis m i n Ne w En gland indicat e tha t othe r socia l an d economi c condition s wer e a s o r more immediately importan t tha n reforme d curricul a o r th e lowerin g o f en trance requirements . A lis t o f th e immediat e limit s o n th e increas e o f enrollment s i n Ne w England shoul d begi n wit h th e realizatio n tha t th e region' s nativ e popu lation wa s no t growin g fas t enoug h t o provid e it s college s wit h youn g men t o increas e a n alread y hig h enrollment level . Ne w England' s youn g white mal e populatio n gre w 2 0 percen t betwee n 184 0 an d 1860 , com -

Enrollments

61

pared t o a 77 percen t increas e acros s th e nation . An d ove r 1 4 percen t o f its youn g me n wer e o f foreig n birt h i n 1850 . Th e hig h percentag e o f usually poo r an d ill-educate d yout h combine d wit h th e famou s Ne w England out-migratio n t o reduc e th e absolut e numbe r o f potentia l stu dents i n th e region. 16 The numbe r o f youn g me n enrolle d i n school s o f highe r educatio n i n New England , furthermore , wa s clos e t o th e limit s impose d b y th e leve l and distributio n o f incom e an d wealth . It s approximatel y 2 percen t fig ure fo r libera l art s enrollment s matche s th e reasone d gues s a s t o th e per cent o f familie s wh o coul d suppor t colleg e students . An d Ne w Englan d was th e leadin g regio n i n th e natio n i n th e developmen t o f alternativ e forms o f "higher " education . It s hig h schools , professional , an d norma l schools, a s wel l a s it s rapidl y changin g preparator y schools , no t onl y prepared student s fo r colleg e bu t satisfie d educationa l demand s which , in earlie r years , coul d onl y hav e bee n fulfille d b y th e colleges . A s wel l a s these influences , th e increasin g admissio n standard s o f th e Ne w Englan d colleges le d the m t o narro w th e rang e o f age s o f admittance , reducin g even furthe r th e number s o f possibl e students. 17 Another facto r influence d th e enrollmen t histor y o f th e region , an d i t was extremel y importan t t o th e determinatio n o f curricul a an d orienta tion o f th e Ne w Englan d institutions . It s college s ha d bee n rescue d b y a sudden, a t leas t relative , ris e i n th e deman d fo r ministeria l trainin g i n the 1810s . Bu t th e socia l an d demographi c condition s o f Ne w Englan d and th e appearanc e o f competin g college s i n othe r region s le d t o a de cline i n th e deman d fo r ministeria l candidate s afte r th e 1830s . Whil e th e education o f me n wh o woul d ente r th e ministr y remaine d a s bot h a n opportunity an d pressur e fo r th e colleges , thei r expansio n wa s limite d b y the declinin g regiona l marke t fo r ministers . Between 185 0 an d 1860 , Ne w Englan d adde d fewe r tha n si x hundre d men t o it s numbe r o f minister s an d thi s 1 2 percen t increas e (includin g Catholic priests ) wa s fa r belo w th e nationa l averag e o f 4 0 percent . On e reason fo r th e declin e i n deman d wa s tha t Ne w Englan d ha d becom e saturated wit h ministers . Th e nationa l rati o fo r minister s t o youn g whit e males ag e fiftee n t o twent y i n 186 0 wa s on e t o thirty-eight , bu t Ne w England ha d on e ministe r fo r ever y twenty-fou r youn g men. 18 Many o f th e Ne w Englan d college s ha d bee n dependen t upo n ministe rial candidate s an d th e outsid e economi c suppor t the y generated , an d th e schools ha d accommodate d themselve s t o thei r training . Bu t th e high point o f futur e minister s a s a percentag e o f al l student s wa s reache d i n the 1820 s an d 1830s , a s illustrate d b y Tabl e 2.4. 19 B y th e 1850 s onl y Wesleyan an d Amhers t produce d 4 0 percen t o r mor e ministers , an d fiv e of th e twelv e establishe d Ne w Englan d college s produce d les s tha n 2 0 percent. However , th e earl y declin e i n th e deman d fo r minister s i s als o

62 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S TABLE 2. 4

Mean Percentag e o f Alumn i Enterin g th e Ministry an d Standar d Deviation . New Englan d Colleges . Calculate d Acros s Colleges B y Decad e

1800's

1810's

1820's

1830's

1840's

1850'S

X

24

37

42

34

26

23

Q

6

13

13

11

11

11

an indicatio n tha t man y o f th e college s ha d adjuste d t o trai n student s destined fo r othe r occupations . Th e enrollmen t increase s o f th e 1850 s were accomplishe d i n spit e o f th e declin e i n th e nee d fo r ministeria l can didates. Although genera l force s suc h a s slowe d populatio n growth , out-mi gration, an d shift s i n occupationa l goal s b y student s hel p explai n th e limits o n enrollment s i n Ne w England , the y d o no t explai n othe r aspect s of th e region' s enrollmen t history . Othe r factor s mus t b e considere d i n order t o understan d th e differen t growt h pattern s amon g th e Ne w En gland states , th e timin g o f enrollment crise s an d recoveries , an d th e mi gration o f student s withi n th e region . The Ne w Englan d state s an d thei r college s ha d ver y differen t enroll ment histories . Al l increase d th e numbe r o f student s the y service d ove r the sixt y years , bu t th e growt h i n som e state s wa s negligible . Th e enroll ment ratios , eve n i f th e numbe r enrolle d wh o cam e fro m withi n eac h state i s considered , wer e ver y unequal . Som e o f th e states , i n fact , expe rienced decline s i n ratio s ove r th e period . (Table s 2.5 , 2.6 , 2.7 , 2.8 , 2.9 , 2.10, 2.11 , 2.12 ) Most o f Ne w England' s state s ha d enrollment ratio s abov e th e nation al average , bu t th e rang e withi n th e regio n wa s alway s great . I n th e lat e 1810s, th e ratio s range d fro m 0.1 0 t o 3.7 5 percen t an d i n th e 1850 s fro m 0.39 t o 3. 3 percent , a relativel y constan t spread , bu t som e o f th e state s had importan t reduction s i n th e percen t o f possibl e student s the y en rolled. Rhod e Island , Wayland' s state , neve r regaine d it s hig h ratio s o f the 1810s ; Vermon t hi t it s pea k i n th e sam e decade ; an d Ne w Hamp shire neve r agai n achieve d it s lat e 1800 s enrollmen t level . Maine , despit e valiant attempts , barel y exceede d it s 1839-184 0 rati o i n th e 1850s . Onl y Massachusetts an d Connecticu t wer e abl e t o maintai n o r surpas s earlie r

Enrollments

63

TABLE 2. 5 Students Enrolle d i n Variou s Ne w Englan d States a s Percen t o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 in Stat e fo r Beginning . Year o f Ea.c n Decade, 1800-1860

State

Connecticut Maine

P E R C E N T 1830 1840 1820

1850

1860

3.7

3.1

3 .3

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.4

1800

1810

1 .7

2.0

2.7

2.8

0

0.2

0.1

Massachusetts

1 .4

1 .7

1 .4

1 .6

1 .5

1 .4

1 .8

New Hampshir e

1 .2

2.8

1 .3

0.9

1 .8

1 .1

1 .8

Rhode Islan d

1 .0

3.3

3.8

2.0

3.2

2. 1

2 .3

Vermont

1 .1

1 .6

1 .7

0.8

1 .7

1 .2

1 .5

TABLE 2. 6 Estimate o f Mea n Percen t o f Al l Student s Enrolled i n Ne w Englan d College s Comin g From Withi n Ne w Englan d an d Standar d Deviatio n Across College s B y Decad e

1800's

1810's

1820's

1830•s

1840's

1850'S

X

91

90

79

86

76

70

Q

8

10

17

13

13

17

ratios, an d Connecticut , eve n wit h th e grea t influ x o f students , ma y wel l have ha d a highe r enrollmen t rati o i n th e 1830 s tha n i n th e 1850s . (Ta ble 2.5 ) Much o f th e inequalit y amon g Ne w England' s state s i s accounte d fo r by out-of-regio n an d out-of-stat e enrollment s an d th e number s o f for eign-born i n th e states . Ne w England' s colleges , especiall y th e large r

64 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S TABLE 2. 7

All Student s Enrolle d i n Ne w Englan d College s And Student s Enrolle d i n Ne w Englan d College s from Withi n Ne w Englan d a s Percen t o f Nativ e White Male s i n Respectiv e State s For Academi c Yea r 1859-6 0

%

All S t u d e n t s / Native White Male s Ag e 15-2 0

%

In-Region Students / Native Whit e Male s Age 15-2 0

Connecticut

3. 3

1 .6

Maine

0.4

0.4

Massachusetts

1 .8

1 .0

New Hampshir e

1 .8

1 . 5

Rhode Islan d

2 . 3

1 .7

Vermont

1 . 5

0. 8

TABLE 2. 8 Estimates o f Percen t o f Student s Enrolle d Within Variou s Ne w Englan d State s fro m Outside o f th e Respectiv e Stat e Calculated Acros s College s By Decade s

State

1800's 1810's

P E R C, E N T 1820's 1830's 1840»s

1850's

18

29

38

47

37

53

0

1

3

8

13

6

Massachusetts

12

10

25

27

25

33

New Hampshir e

1

0

1

8

7

18

Rhode Islan d

4

8

6

16

13

26

11

16

30

15

25

21

Connecticut Maine

Vermont

Enrollments

65

ones, becam e dependen t upo n out-of-regio n student s an d th e succes s o f colleges, a s wel l a s thei r size , hinge d upo n attractin g student s fro m be yond thei r immediat e geographi c area . Compensatin g fo r out-of-regio n students reduce s th e rang e o f enrollmen t ratio s an d highlight s th e de pendency o f som e o f th e state s o n inter-regiona l migration. 20 (Tables 2.6 , 2.7, 2.8 ) At midcentury , Ne w Englan d wa s a significan t importe r o f student s and th e particula r state s tha t th e student s chos e affecte d th e enrollmen t ratios. Geograph y seem s t o hav e playe d a significant rol e i n th e determi nation o f th e selectio n pattern s o f th e in-migrants . Vermon t becam e heavily dependen t upo n student s fro m up-stat e Ne w York ; Connecticu t drew fro m Ne w Yor k city ; Massachusetts dre w fro m th e Middl e Atlanti c states; an d Rhod e Islan d attracte d me n fro m th e borde r Sout h an d th e Middle Atlantic . Bu t migratio n t o th e Ne w Englan d college s wa s no t confined t o inter-regiona l movements . There wa s a very importan t intra regional flo w tha t als o affecte d th e enrollmen t ratio s o f th e states . Tabl e 2.11 reflect s th e relativ e attractivenes s o f th e variou s Ne w Englan d state s to thei r ow n potentia l students . (Table s 2.9 , 2.10 , 2.11 ) Becaus e fe w Ne w England student s migrate d fro m thei r hom e regio n fo r libera l art s educa TABLE 2. 9 Estimates o f Enrollment s i n Variou s New Englan d State s a s Percen t o f Whit e Male s Age 15-2 0 i n th e Respectiv e Stat e 186 0 For Al l Student s Enrolle d i n th e Stat e an d For Student s Enrolle d i n th e Stat e Wh o Were fro m Ne w Englan d

% All Enrollments

% Within Ne w Englan d Students

Connecticut

3 .30

1 . 62

Maine

0.39

0.36

Massachusetts

1 . 80

1 .02

New Hampshir e

1 . 81

1 .48

Rhode Islan d

2.28

1 .67

Vermont

1 .50

0.79

66 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S TABLE 2.1 0

Enrollments o f Within-Stat e Student s fo r Various Ne w Englan d State s a s a Percentag e of Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 i n th e Respective States , 1859-6 0

Connecticut

0.79

Maine

0.28

Massachusetts

0. 98

New Hampshir e

0. 83

Rhode Islan d

0.76

Vermont

0.75

tion, Tabl e 2.1 1 suggest s tha t ove r 3 0 percen t o f al l th e region' s student s chose educatio n i n anothe r stat e i n Ne w England . An d Tabl e 2.1 1 indi cates tha t th e geographicall y isolate d states wer e les s abl e t o retai n thei r own students . Th e sample s o f student s als o sugges t tha t th e college s o f the state s tha t wer e unattractiv e t o student s fro m outsid e Ne w Englan d were unattractiv e t o potential student s withi n thei r own borders . The migratio n pattern s o f th e Ne w Englan d student s canno t b e easil y explained. Th e linea r correlatio n betwee n pe r capit a propert y valu e b y state an d th e percen t o f youn g whit e male s enrolle d i n th e variou s Ne w England state s wa s 0.93 , bu t th e lowe r correlation s fo r student s fro m th e region, 0.80 , an d fo r enrollment s fro m withi n th e sam e state , 0.54 , indi cate tha t whil e student s fro m outsid e o f Ne w Englan d wer e attracte d b y the genera l wealt h o f a state , potentia l student s fro m withi n th e regio n and it s variou s state s base d thei r selectio n o f a particula r colleg e upo n more subtl e an d comple x factors . Distanc e fro m hom e t o college , th e de nominational affiliatio n o f a college , an d it s publi c imag e mus t hav e played a significan t rol e i n th e decisio n makin g proces s o f th e loca l stu dents.21 The profil e o f Ne w England' s states provide s som e insigh t int o th e na ture an d cause s o f enrollmen t trend s withi n th e region , bu t i t i s a n anal ysis o f th e individua l college s i n th e contex t o f th e majo r enrollment crises tha t ha s t o serv e a s th e basis fo r challengin g th e simpl e function -

Enrollments

67

alist thesis . Th e explanatio n o f enrollmen t level s b y difference s i n curric ula, entranc e requirements , o r eve n colleg e behaviora l rule s i s unaccept able. An d othe r factor s expecte d t o explai n growt h an d declin e i n Ne w England becaus e o f thei r compatibilit y wit h bot h functionalis t an d pop ulistic theorie s prove d t o hav e littl e explanator y power . Fo r example, tu ition an d fees , an d th e politica l an d socia l orientatio n o f th e college s d o not accoun t fo r Ne w England' s enrollmen t histor y i n th e antebellu m pe riod.22 A negativ e conclusio n i s al l tha t emerge s fro m th e examinatio n o f th e old economic-functionalis t thesi s an d it s implications . Beyon d a genera l state leve l relationshi p betwee n indicator s o f wealt h an d enrollments , the selectio n o f college s b y student s canno t b e explaine d b y availabl e quantified dat a o r by simplisti c model s o f colleg e selection . New Englan d face d thre e crise s becaus e o f enrollmen t decline s i n th e antebellum period . Eac h ha d differen t characteristics , bu t tw o o f th e three generate d seriou s attempt s t o chang e th e colleges . I n th e tw o late r crises, thos e o f th e 1820 s an d th e 1840s , severa l college s institute d fa mous reform s (includin g som e aspect s unnotice d b y historians ) whic h fi t with th e demand s o f th e functionalists . Becaus e o f this , th e tw o late r responses provid e tes t case s fo r th e ol d explanator y thesis . TABLE 2.1 1 Enrollments o f Student s fro m a New Englan d State Enrolle d i n An y Unite d State s Colleg e and Enrolle d I n A Colleg e Withi n Thei r Hom e State as : A) Percen t o f Whit e Male s i n th e Home Stat e and ; B ) Percen t o f Nativ e Whit e Males i n th e Hom e Stat e - 1859-6 0

% I n Any U.S. (College A B

% Fro ni State Enrolled in Stat e A B

Connecticut

1 . 11

1 .96

0.79

1 . 59

Maine

0.59

0. 62

0.28

0. 30

Massachusetts

1 .46

1 .77

0.98

1 . 19

New Hampshir e

1.15

1 .22

0.83

0.88

Rhode Islan d

1 .03

1 .25

0.7 6

0. 93

Vermont

1 .34

1 .48

0.75

0. 82

68

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

The firs t crisi s cam e i n th e secon d hal f o f th e 1810 s an d seem s t o hav e been th e produc t o f th e dislocation s cause d b y th e policie s leadin g t o th e war o f 1812 , th e war , an d it s aftermath . Thi s declin e woul d hav e bee n catastrophic fo r Ne w England' s enrollment s bu t th e newe r an d rura l col leges o f th e region , suc h a s Williams , increase d thei r enrollments , com pensating fo r th e decline s a t th e establishe d colleges . Bu t thi s dislocatio n did no t generat e immediat e crie s fo r reform . I t wa s th e second , i n th e late 1820s , tha t le d t o deman d fo r chang e an d t o th e famou s counter-ar gument t o plea s fo r th e teachin g o f practica l subjects an d liberalizatio n of th e colleges , th e Yal e Report. 23 The 1820 s crisi s i s difficul t t o explai n b y eithe r politica l o r economi c events, bu t th e Pani c o f 181 9 ma y hav e ha d som e delaye d impac t o n de cisions t o inves t i n highe r education . Beginnin g i n th e mid-1820s , th e larger institutions face d serious decline s i n enrollments . Again , i t wa s th e continued growt h o f th e "ministerial " college s tha t save d Ne w Englan d from disaster . I f th e rura l institution s ha d no t prospered , ther e woul d have bee n a n absolut e declin e i n enrollment s becaus e Brown , Yale , Dart mouth, an d Vermon t and , later, Harvard , suffered . In thi s crisi s educator s bega n t o respon d an d demande d tha t th e col leges liberalize . Som e college s di d revis e thei r programs . Harvard , fo r ex ample, attempte d t o encourag e enrollment s b y institutin g a n earl y an d restricted, bu t stil l revolutionary , electiv e system. 24 But th e change s i n th e college s d o no t accoun t fo r th e recover y o f en rollments i n th e 1830s . Harvar d ha d onl y sligh t increase s i n it s numbe r of student s throug h th e 1830s , whil e mor e conservativ e institution s ha d experienced appreciabl e growth . Yal e an d Dartmouth , fo r example , ha d important increase s withou t institutin g majo r reforms . Brown , unde r it s aggressive an d energeti c president , Franci s Wayland , di d institut e som e changes, suc h a s expandin g th e rol e o f partia l courses , bu t increase d en trance requirement s slowe d it s growth . Amherst , wit h it s eve n broade r reforms, ha d t o adjus t t o significan t decrease s i n th e 1830s . A t th e sam e time, th e college s whic h continue d thei r olde r curricul a an d program s grew o r maintained thei r enrollments. 25 (Table 2.12 ) The crisi s of th e 1840 s provide s a better tes t fo r th e functionalis t thesi s because i t le d t o o r coincide d wit h som e o f th e mos t radica l an d well publicized reform s o f th e antebellu m period . Th e declin e o f th e lat e 1840s wa s no t peculia r t o Ne w Englan d o r t o libera l art s colleges . Unlik e the earlie r crises , college s everywher e wer e affected , a s wel l a s man y o f the medica l an d la w schools . Perhap s th e enrollmen t decline s wer e caused b y anothe r delaye d impac t upo n educationa l plans . Th e economi c downturn o f th e lat e 1830 s an d earl y 1840 s ma y hav e cause d familie s t o forego plan s t o sen d thei r youn g t o highe r schools . An d th e turmoi l o f the Mexica n Wa r may hav e ha d mor e o f a direct influence . Bu t whateve r

Enrollments

69

TABLE 2.12 Percent Chang e i n Size of Student Population s of the Various Ne w England College s For th e Period 1830-186 0

College

P E R C E N T 1840-1850 1 1830-1840 1

1850-1860

Amherst

-20

-17

42

Bowdoin

227

11

25

Brown

84

-16

24

Colby

40

9

13

Dartmouth

130

-24

59

Harvard

-08

29

38

Middlebury

-16

-20

42

Trinity

-27

-13

-15

Vermont

206

-21

8

Wesleyan

168

-07

20

Williams

47

19

50

Yale

28

-07

30

the proximat e causes , th e declin e wa s severe . I t left Ne w Englan d wit h a 5 percen t decreas e i n absolut e enrollments , compare d t o 1839 . Th e dam age, however , wa s no t confine d t o Ne w England' s libera l art s colleges ; it affected th e region' s versio n o f a technica l school , Norwich , an d i t slowed th e growth o f it s professiona l schools. 26 The declin e o f th e lat e 1840 s wa s share d b y al l th e state s i n Ne w En gland. Fou r o f th e si x state s i n th e regio n ha d decrease s i n th e numbe r of student s an d al l ha d decline s i n thei r enrollmen t ratios . O f th e twelv e established libera l art s colleges , eigh t ha d absolut e reduction s an d th e other fou r barel y maintaine d thei r enrollments . I n thi s crisi s al l type s o f liberal art s institution s experience d declines . Unlik e th e 1810 s an d 1820s , both ol d an d new , urba n an d rural , an d ministeria l an d secularl y orient ed college s wer e affected . Onl y Williams , Amherst , an d Harvar d di d no t suffer significan t decreases . Even thos e institution s joine d i n a widesprea d reactio n t o wha t wer e considered long-ter m an d universa l trend s endangerin g highe r education . Harvard, Yale , Amherst, an d Dartmout h opene d som e versio n o f a scien-

70 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

tific schoo l an d i n varyin g degree s modifie d thei r undergraduat e pro grams. A H of th e Ne w Englan d college s continue d t o expan d undergrad uate trainin g i n pur e an d practica l science , an d eve n littl e Trinity Colleg e in Connecticut expanded th e courses and programs open to its students. 27 The mos t radica l an d historicall y noteworth y reform s wer e mad e b y Francis Waylan d a t Brow n University . Locate d a t Providence , Rhod e Is land, a n affluen t urba n cente r whic h wa s involve d wit h th e expansio n o f commerce an d industry , Brown' s environmen t mad e i t a logical choice , i t seemed, t o prov e th e nee d fo r liberalizatio n an d modernizatio n o f th e colleges. Wayland institute d reform s mor e revolutionar y tha n thos e tha t ha d been mad e a t Harvar d an d Yale . Th e cost s o f th e ne w scienc e program s at Brow n wer e supporte d b y it s regula r budget , allowin g charge s fo r th e new abstrac t an d applie d course s t o b e a s low a s those fo r th e traditiona l program. Tw o o f th e country' s mos t dynami c an d innovativ e academi c scientists, Joh n A . Porte r an d Willia m Norton , wer e hire d t o foun d th e new departments o f civi l engineerin g an d agriculture , an d loca l expert s were recruite d t o lectur e o n subjects suc h a s metallurgy. A n intens e pro gram wa s begu n t o advertis e th e colleg e an d t o gathe r student s fro m around th e nation. 28 And Waylan d di d eve n mor e t o ope n Brow n t o th e new worl d o f industr y an d t o th e ne w type s o f student s envisione d b y the reformers . Partia l course s wer e expande d an d entranc e requirement s were changed , allowin g thos e withou t thoroug h trainin g i n th e classica l languages t o ente r th e school . Traditiona l course s wer e modifie d t o fi t the need s o f th e idea l ne w student , a s well . Thu s Brown , unde r Way land, seem s t o hav e fulfille d al l th e demand s o f th e reformers , reform s that ha d bee n calle d fo r sinc e a t leas t th e 1820s . It s lo w tuition s an d at tractive campu s wer e th e finishin g touche s an d Brow n stoo d read y t o b e the exampl e tha t woul d sav e libera l educatio n i n Ne w England. 29 But th e reform s failed . Afte r a shor t burs t o f enrollmen t increases , Brown's studen t populatio n returne d t o th e siz e i t ha d bee n i n th e lat e 1840s. An d o f thos e wh o entere d durin g th e shor t perio d whe n enroll ments wer e increasing , a hig h percentag e withdre w fro m th e colleg e within a fe w months . Wit h th e declin e i n enrollments , Brown' s faculty , irked b y wha t the y claime d wa s a dro p i n studen t abilities , demande d that th e reform s b e reversed . Th e hig h cost s o f th e ne w programs , facul ty dissatisfaction , an d decreasin g enrollment s convince d Brown' s leader s to dismantl e Wayland' s ne w libera l art s colleg e an d t o retur n t o older , proved ways . Eve n Norton' s an d Porter' s practica l program s di d no t at tract enoug h students , an d the y soo n lef t th e college. 30 That Brown' s experienc e wa s no t a n isolate d exampl e o r tha t th e fail ure o f th e reform s wa s du e t o facult y attitude s o r administrativ e inepti tude i s show n b y th e histor y o f th e refor m colleg e o f th e earl y

Enrollments

71

postbellum period . Cornel l Universit y wa s founde d i n a stat e tha t ha d a long histor y o f agitatio n fo r scientifi c an d agricultura l colleges . Severa l attempts a t foundin g suc h institution s ha d faile d befor e th e Civi l Wa r because, man y claimed , o f inadequat e financing . Bu t Cornel l bega n a s one o f th e riches t institution s i n th e Unite d State s an d hire d a renowne d and enthusiasti c facult y tha t wa s larg e enoug h t o offe r program s an d specialized course s i n al l th e pur e an d applie d sciences. 31 Cornell offere d student s a n extremel y expensiv e educatio n a t a ver y low cost . I t di d no t deman d preparatio n i n th e classica l language s fo r many o f it s programs , an d i t pride d itsel f o n it s orientatio n toward s th e common man . I t awarde d on e hundre d twenty-eigh t ful l scholarship s i n its firs t year , promise d employmen t t o al l student s wh o neede d extr a in come, an d propose d t o lowe r th e necessar y economi c investmen t i n higher educatio n b y reducin g th e numbe r o f year s neede d fo r gradua tion. Th e colleg e launche d a n intens e recruitmen t campaig n an d eve n advertised i n Europ e an d Australia . Al l th e schoo l district s o f Ne w Yor k participated i n a competitiv e scholarshi p progra m an d Cornell' s profes sors contacte d th e academic s o f Americ a i n orde r t o entic e qualifie d stu dents t o th e ne w campu s i n upstat e Ne w York . In it s firs t year , befor e al l o f it s building s wer e completed , Cornel l en rolled ove r fou r hundre d students , makin g i t on e o f th e larges t college s in th e country . An d i t ha d respectabl e growt h afte r that . However , eve n with th e highl y liberalize d polic y tha t allowe d student s t o structur e thei r own programs , the y di d no t selec t th e expecte d subjects , di d no t sta y the expecte d numbe r o f years , an d di d no t ente r th e expecte d occupa tions afte r the y lef t th e college . Onl y a fractio n o f th e student s decide d to complet e eve n th e shor t programs . Approximatel y 1 0 percen t o f th e school's firs t freshma n clas s graduate d i n eithe r th e three-o r four-yea r programs and , it appears , many o f th e member s o f th e firs t classe s o f th e late 1860 s an d earl y 1870 s lef t th e schoo l befor e completin g a ful l year . Such behavio r seeme d t o continue ; 187 3 ha d th e school' s larges t gradu ating clas s unti l 1888. 32 Cornell's earl y histor y als o indicate s tha t th e reformers ' predictio n o f a larg e an d effectiv e deman d fo r practica l an d scientifi c trainin g i n th e non-trade-school contex t wa s i n error . U p throug h 1873-7 4 ther e wer e only tw o graduate s i n agriculture . O f th e tw o hundre d thirty-fiv e grad uates throug h 1874 , fort y too k degree s i n civi l engineering , thre e i n me chanical engineering , tw o i n veterinar y science , an d on e i n architecture. 33 A sampl e o f th e student s o f th e firs t enterin g class , 1868 , als o suggest s that student s use d th e Cornel l program s fo r ver y shor t stop s i n colleg e and tha t the y entere d th e traditiona l occupation s an d professions , wit h the exceptio n o f th e ministry , i n proportion s simila r t o thos e o f th e an tebellum period. 34

72 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

As a t Brow n an d Cornell , th e change s a t othe r college s di d no t prov e as successfu l a s wa s hoped . Refor m attempt s d o no t explai n th e enroll ments a t th e variou s college s i n Ne w England . The advance d scientifi c programs begu n a t Harvard , Yale , an d Dartmout h i n th e earl y 1850 s di d attract students , bu t no t a s man y a s envisioned , an d Amhers t abandone d its attemp t a t mor e advance d training . Ther e i s n o indicatio n tha t thes e advanced program s increase d undergraduat e enrollments. 35 The histor y o f the reform s mad e i n th e 1850 s i n undergraduat e program s als o point s t o the inadequac y o f th e functionalis t interpretation . Harvard , fo r example , had a n appreciabl e increas e i n undergraduat e enrollment s i n th e 1850s . But thi s followe d a tightenin g o f it s entranc e requirement s an d th e abandonment o f man y o f th e electiv e option s i t ha d allowe d student s since th e 1830s . It s moder n foreig n languag e courses , on e o f th e innova tions demande d b y thos e wh o though t suc h trainin g woul d appea l t o fu ture internationa l businessmen , canno t accoun t fo r it s greate r attractive ness t o student s becaus e suc h instructio n ha d bee n offere d b y th e col lege fo r decades. 36 In contras t t o Harvard' s growth , wa s th e seriou s declin e a t Trinit y College. It s ver y importan t liberalizin g reform s di d no t lea d t o success , but t o a negative growt h rat e i n th e 1850s . An d i n contras t t o bot h Har vard an d Trinity , Williams , Bowdoin , an d Colby , whic h institute d onl y moderate reform s a t most , ha d significan t growt h throughou t th e late r decades o f th e antebellu m period . Perhap s th e mos t puzzlin g cas e wa s the increas e i n enrollment s a t Dartmouth . Withou t grea t reforms , wit h an increas e i n tuition , an d wit h n o chang e i n it s geographi c accessibility , Dartmouth ha d th e greates t enrollmen t growt h o f al l th e Ne w Englan d colleges excep t Amherst , Williams , an d Middlebury. 37 (Table 2.12 ) Along wit h curricula r change , littl e els e seem s t o accoun t fo r th e re covery o f enrollment s i n Ne w Englan d durin g th e 1850s . N o significan t relationship wa s foun d betwee n change s i n th e percen t o f student s wit h homes outsid e th e regio n an d growth . Ther e wer e n o importan t change s in th e ag e distribution s o f student s i n th e variou s colleges , an d recover y rates canno t b e explaine d b y change s i n th e percentage s o f rura l o r ur ban student s i n th e institutions . Fro m wha t littl e informatio n i s avail able o n th e politica l an d denominationa l preference s o f students , growt h and declin e canno t b e accounte d fo r throug h suc h variables . Th e onl y indication o f denominationa l influenc e i s th e lowe r recover y rate s fo r th e non-Congregational college s o f th e region . Th e Baptist , Methodist , an d Episcopalian institution s ha d lowe r growt h durin g th e 1850s , perhap s because o f th e competitio n fro m denominationa l college s i n th e Middl e Atlantic region. 38 The histor y o f futur e occupation s o f Ne w Englan d student s ha d littl e relation t o eithe r curricula r chang e o r th e recover y o f th e 1850s . College s

Enrollments

73

such a s Brown , Yale , an d Harvar d ha d a lon g histor y o f increases i n th e percentage o f student s enterin g business , an d curricula r change s i n th e 1850s see m t o hav e followed , rathe r tha n led , alteration s i n occupationa l destinations. Al l th e college s o f Ne w Englan d ha d bee n movin g toward s the productio n o f student s wh o woul d ente r th e secula r occupation s since th e 1820 s an d 1830s , includin g thos e whic h di d no t radicall y alte r the traditiona l curricula . I f Baile y Burritt' s stud y o f th e occupation s o f New England' s graduate s i s accepted , th e histor y o f th e mos t technica l occupation o f th e period , engineering , indicate s tha t curricula r chang e did no t hav e a significant effect . Brown' s student s chos e engineerin g a s a major occupatio n mor e frequentl y bot h befor e an d afte r th e curricula r reforms, an d tin y Bowdoi n Colleg e ha d a greate r percentag e o f it s stu dents enterin g th e professio n tha n di d Harvard. 39 Even th e relationshi p betwee n th e growt h o f enrollment s an d th e cost s of goin g t o colleg e i n Ne w Englan d doe s no t explai n th e recover y tha t was mad e i n th e 1850s . Th e correlation s betwee n th e increas e i n percen t enrolled an d change s i n tuitio n an d absolut e cost s o f college-goin g wer e in th e correc t direction , bu t the y explai n les s tha n 2 percen t o f th e vari ance i n growth. 40 One tren d di d appea r i n Ne w Englan d i n th e 1850 s whic h ma y b e re lated t o curricula r change . Th e sampl e o f th e student s yielde d estimate s which indicat e tha t Ne w Englan d student s bega n t o remai n i n thei r home state s fo r education . Bu t thi s i s a n ambiguou s indicator . I t ma y support th e thesi s tha t curricula r chang e withi n th e college s le d t o great er studen t satisfactio n wit h loca l schools , o r i t ma y b e interprete d a s a signal tha t th e radica l curricula r reform s a t school s suc h a s Brow n wer e unattractive t o student s withi n th e region. 41 The histor y o f enrollment s i n th e othe r region s o f th e countr y rein forces th e conclusio n tha t simpl e functionalis t premise s an d assumption s about th e result s o f curricula r chang e ar e inadequat e t o explai n differ ences i n enrollments . Th e compariso n o f Ne w Englan d wit h th e othe r regions indicate s tha t ther e wer e force s outsid e o f th e contro l o f educa tors whic h helpe d t o determin e enrollmen t level s an d trends . Eac h o f th e regions ha d uniqu e socia l an d economi c configuration s whic h create d important enrollmen t differences . Especiall y significan t wer e th e differ ences betwee n Nort h an d South . Whil e th e Norther n regions , fo r exam ple, share d commo n relationship s betwee n level s o f wealt h an d atten dance, th e Souther n state s remaine d a separate educationa l region . An analysi s o f th e apparen t difference s i n enrollment s amon g th e regions sugges t tha t th e expansio n o f th e number s o f college s i n th e country ha d a positiv e effect . Th e ris e o f th e antebellu m college s com pensated, i n man y cases , fo r th e lo w attractio n o f th e olde r institution s of th e variou s regions . Th e Middl e Atlanti c states , Ne w York , Ne w Jer -

74 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

sey, an d Pennsylvania , increase d th e numbe r o f regula r libera l art s stu dents tenfold , i n th e sixt y years , bu t thei r gros s enrollment ratio s re mained surprisingl y low . Despit e th e increase d numbe r o f college s i n th e region, th e Civi l Wa r approache d wit h th e Middl e Atlanti c region' s en rollment rati o approximatel y a hal f tha t o f Ne w England's . It s growt h rate fo r number s o f students , althoug h th e region' s populatio n wa s expanding, remaine d belo w Ne w England' s i n th e 1850s . However , th e near 5 0 percen t increas e o f tha t decad e wa s appreciable . (Table s 2.13 , 2.14, 2.15 , 2.16 , 2.17 ) Unlike Ne w England , th e 1800 s wer e no t year s o f grea t expansio n fo r the Middl e Atlanti c states . Th e regio n ha d t o wai t unti l th e 1820 s fo r the typ e o f increas e tha t wa s typical o f Ne w England . Bu t whil e Ne w England wa s sufferin g fro m th e declin e o f th e 1820s , th e Middl e Atlan tic state s increase d thei r numbe r o f student s b y 7 0 percent . However , the increas e i n th e numbe r o f youn g me n i n th e regio n mean t tha t it s ratio continue d t o dro p belo w th e leve l o f 180 0 despit e th e availabilit y o f prestigious an d develope d institution s suc h a s Princeton an d Columbia . Combined wit h a slowin g o f th e growt h o f th e ag e group , th e expan sion o f th e numbe r o f college s i n th e regio n durin g th e 1830 s ha d a sig nificant impact . Betwee n 183 0 an d 1840 , the region' s enrollmen t rati o increased b y over 3 5 percen t an d finall y exceede d it s 180 0 level . Th e Middle Atlanti c states wer e hur t i n th e lat e 1840s , bu t th e dro p i n th e growth o f th e number s o f student s wa s no t a s sever e a s i n Ne w En gland. Tota l enrollment s grew , th e rati o staye d relativel y constant , an d the region' s tota l enrollment s exceede d thos e o f Ne w Englan d fo r th e first time . A s i n Ne w England , th e 1850 s wer e year s o f renewe d growth , but th e regio n continue d wit h wha t appeare d t o b e a n inabilit y t o sup port o r attrac t a significan t proportio n o f it s populatio n int o forma l higher education . (Tabl e 2.13 ) As i n Ne w England , ther e wer e enrollment difference s amon g th e Middle Atlanti c state s bu t th e inequalitie s are , t o a n importan t degree , explained b y studen t migrations , th e percentage s o f foreign-bor n i n eac h state, an d varianc e i n propert y values . Th e apparen t differences amon g the state s ar e reduce d whe n out-of-stat e an d out-of-regio n enrollment s are controlled. Th e majo r caus e o f th e sprea d o f ratio s wa s th e attractio n of Princeto n Universit y t o student s fro m othe r area s o f th e country . Ap plying estimate s o f th e percentage s o f in-stat e student s i n th e variou s colleges t o th e gros s enrollment percentage s reduce s Ne w Jersey' s advan tage, compresse s th e rang e o f enrollmen t scores , an d turn s Pennsylvani a into th e region' s leadin g provide r o f highe r education. 42 (Table s 2.14 , 2.15) The importanc e o f studen t migration s wa s almos t matche d b y th e in fluence o f th e foreign-bor n o n enrollmen t i n th e thre e states . Compen -

Enrollments

75

TABLE 2.1 3 Absolute Numbe r o f Student s Enrolle d i n Middle Atlanti c Colleges , Enrollment s a s Percent o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-20 , an d Percentage Chang e i n Absolut e Enrollments . By Beginnin g Yea r o f Eac h Decade , 1800-1860

1820

1830

1860

1850

1840

1800

1810

n

347

460

691 117

1 188

1 231

6 344

6

%

0.72

0.64

0.59 0.5

8 0.7

9 0.7

8 0.9

3

% Chang e

0.3 2 0.

5 0 0.6

9 0.6

1 0.2

3 0.4

11

1

1

9

TABLE 2.1 4 Enrollments i n Variou s Middl e Atlanti c State s in 186 0 A s Percen t o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 in th e Respectiv e Stat e

New Jersey -

1 .67

New Yor k

0. 82

Pennsylvania

0. 90

sating fo r th e percen t o f th e foreign-bor n i n th e ag e grou p i n eac h stat e highlights th e differen t limit s o n enrollmen t level s fo r eac h o f them . Fo r example, controllin g fo r th e foreign-bor n i n Ne w Yor k raise s it s percent age enrolle d b y 4 0 percen t whil e Pennsylvania' s i s adjuste d b y 1 7 per cent. (Tabl e 2.16 ) Perhap s a s importan t fo r th e histor y o f highe r educa tion i s tha t th e difference s amon g th e Middl e Atlanti c state s an d th e

76 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

Within-State Enrollment s fo r Middl e Atlanti c States Fo r 186 0 a s Percen t o f Whit e Male s Age 15-2 0 i n th e Respectiv e Stat e

New Jerse y

0.67

New Yor k

0. 56

Pennsylvania

0.72

TABLE 2.1 6 Enrollments i n Middl e Atlanti c State s a s Percent o f Nativ e Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 in Respectiv e States , 186 0

New Jerse y

2.04

New Yor k

1 .15

Pennsylvania

1 .05

differences betwee n Ne w Englan d an d it s neighborin g regio n wer e th e product o f economi c forces . Establishin g controls fo r economi c an d na tivity difference s no t onl y reduce s th e variatio n withi n th e regio n bu t reveals th e underlyin g similarit y o f th e tw o areas . Control s fo r wealt h levels sugges t tha t th e increas e i n th e numbe r o f college s i n th e Middl e Atlantic state s ha d a positive effec t upo n enrollments . If, a s i n th e historica l literature , Ne w Englan d i s take n a s th e norm , and it s relationshi p betwee n pe r capit a propert y valu e an d enrollmen t percentages i s projecte d t o th e Middl e Atlanti c states , on e o f th e majo r

Enrollments

77

reasons fo r th e enrollmen t difference s betwee n th e tw o region s i s re vealed. Controllin g fo r th e foreign-bor n an d out-of-stat e students , a s well a s fo r propert y values , significantl y reduce s th e disparitie s o f enroll ment percentages . Instea d o f th e approximatel y 10 0 percen t enrollmen t ratio advantag e o f Ne w England , th e adjuste d expectation s indicat e tha t the Middl e Atlanti c regio n ha d a much bette r attendanc e recor d an d tha t its college s wer e attractiv e an d accessibl e t o it s population. 43 (Table 2.17 ) The redefine d expectation s fo r enrollment s i n th e Middl e Atlanti c states sugges t tha t muc h o f th e criticis m aime d a t it s college s wa s mis placed. A s i n Ne w England , libera l educatio n wa s dependen t upo n socia l and economi c condition s an d limitations . Furthermore , it s enrollment s cannot b e accounte d fo r b y th e curricular-refor m thesis . To o man y o f the college s i n th e Middl e Atlanti c state s ha d practica l course s an d liber al requirements , includin g "ministerial " college s suc h a s Hamilto n i n New York , t o allo w th e increase s o f enrollment s t o b e treate d a s th e re sult o f modernizatio n b y a particula r se t o f institutions . Unio n College , often note d fo r it s secula r orientation , di d hav e hig h growt h durin g th e decade, bu t it s enrollment s hav e bee n explaine d b y highl y respecte d scholars throug h referenc e t o th e college' s toleratio n o f student s rejecte d by othe r institution s rathe r tha n it s scientifi c programs. 44 There wer e othe r difference s amon g th e Middl e Atlanti c state s tha t indicate student s wer e dissatisfie d wit h availabl e college s i n Ne w Yor k TABLE 2.1 7 Actual an d Expecte d Enrollment s i n Middle Atlanti c States , 186 0 Expected Enrollment s Base d Upo n Applicatio n of Regressio n o f Ne w Englan d Attendanc e B y State t o Ne w Englan d Pe r Capit a Propert y Values B y Stat e fo r Categorie s o f Enrollments t o Middl e Atlanti c State s

In-State Student s All Student s Enrolled / Native Whit e Male s i n Enrolled/Native Whit e Males i n Stat e Ag e State Ag e 15-2 0 15-20 Expected Act°ual Expected Actual New Jerse y

2.04

2.65

0.67

0.78

New Yor k

1 . 15

1 .64

0.56

0. 67

Pennsylvania

1 .05

1 .69

0.72

0.68

78 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

and Ne w Jersey . Base d upo n th e estimate s fro m th e biographica l sample , New York , wit h it s relativel y planne d an d centralize d universit y system , was sendin g on e studen t t o Ne w Englan d fo r ever y thre e i t enrolle d within th e state . I n contrast , Pennsylvania , wit h it s rathe r ope n charter ing polic y an d hig h enrollment , wa s sendin g on e t o thirteen . Ne w Jersey , offering Princeto n an d Rutger s t o it s young , sen t student s t o Ne w En gland i n th e sam e proportio n a s Pennsylvania , bu t ha d a lo w adjuste d enrollment ratio. 45 New Englan d benefite d fro m th e disconten t wit h Middl e Atlanti c in stitutions, especiall y i n Ne w York . Ne w Englan d sen t onl y a fe w o f it s students t o th e Middl e Atlanti c states , an d almos t al l o f it s migrant s went t o Unio n College—bu t i t receive d sizabl e numbers . Th e flo w o f students fro m th e Middl e Atlanti c state s doe s no t indicat e tha t modern ized curricul a wa s th e majo r attraction . Rather , geographi c proximit y an d tuitions seeme d t o hav e bee n th e significan t influences . Conservativ e Yale wa s th e mos t popula r Ne w Englan d colleg e an d th e smalle r college s of th e regio n remained , i n th e 1850s , mor e attractiv e t o student s fro m the Middl e Atlanti c state s tha n sophisticate d Harvar d College. 46 Although educationa l profile s i n th e Ne w Englan d an d Middl e Atlan tic region s becom e mor e simila r tha n though t whe n som e o f th e eco nomic an d socia l condition s i n th e region s ar e controlled , th e America n South continue s t o appea r t o b e a separate educationa l region . Fo r example, th e regression s an d correlation s betwee n pe r capit a propert y value s and enrollmen t ratio s wer e ver y simila r fo r Ne w Englan d an d th e Mid dle Atlantic , wit h th e correlation s i n th e lo w nineties , bu t th e correla tions fo r th e Sout h an d it s subregiona l group s o f state s hovere d clos e t o zero.47 (Tables 2.18 , 2.19 , 2.20 ) But eve n mor e startling , give n th e commo n imag e an d fac t o f th e defi cient lowe r educationa l syste m o f th e South , ar e th e hig h enrollmen t levels i n th e region . Whe n th e enrollment s o f student s withi n th e regio n are combine d wit h th e estimate s o f th e number s o f Souther n student s who migrate d t o th e Nort h fo r libera l education , th e result s ar e enroll ment level s highe r tha n i n th e North . Despite Hofstadter' s imag e o f th e America n Enlightenmen t an d it s consequences fo r highe r education , th e Sout h Atlanti c regio n bega n th e nineteenth centur y wit h in-regio n enrollmen t ratio s tha t wer e wel l be low thos e o f th e North . The y wer e a t a leve l tha t matche d thos e o f th e frontier year s i n th e Midwest. 48 The establishe d institution s o f th e regio n were unabl e t o attrac t a large proportio n o f th e youn g me n o f th e South . (Table 2.18 ) Bu t ther e wa s a n increas e i n th e numbe r o f student s i n th e 1800s whic h double d th e enrollment s a s wel l a s it s 180 0 enrollment per centage whic h ha d bee n one-thir d tha t o f Ne w England's . A s i n Ne w England, th e 1810 s wer e year s o f muc h lowe r growt h an d ther e wa s a

Enrollments

79

TABLE 2.1 8 Enrollments i n th e Sout h Atlanti c an d Southwestern Region s Fo r Beginnin g Year s o f Each Decade , 1800-1860 , Absolute Numbers , a s Percent o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-20 , and Percen t Change o f Absolut e Numbe r o f Enrollment s fo r Beginning Yea r o f Eac h Decad e

REGION

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1850

1860

205

406

520

870

1326

1895

3324

0.38

0.71

0. 64

0.63

South Atlanti c n

% % Change

98 2

9 6

7 5

1 . 11 1 .28 2 4

2 7

1 . 90 5

Southwest n

50

81

%

205

762

1840

2272

3184

0.91

1 .52

1 .20

1 .21

14 1 2

% Chang e

~.

3 4

|

decrease i n th e enrollmen t percentage . Th e Sout h Atlanti c rebounde d i n the 1820s , bu t th e 1830 s wer e year s o f onl y moderat e growth . However , because o f onl y a slight increas e i n th e number s o f youn g me n i n th e re gion, th e percentag e o f populatio n enrolle d nearl y doubled . Th e impac t of th e 1840 s wa s no t a s grea t a s i n Ne w Englan d an d increase s o f th e number o f college s le d t o a smal l bu t significan t growt h o f enrollment s and enrollmen t percentages . Th e 1850s , wit h it s continue d additio n o f colleges i n th e region , le d t o a 75 percen t increas e i n th e numbe r o f stu dents i n th e regula r libera l art s programs . B y 1860 , th e Sout h Atlanti c states ha d enrollment s highe r tha n th e gros s percentage s i n th e Norther n regions. The Southwes t wa s a frontie r are a fo r muc h o f th e antebellu m period , but it s enrollment s wer e thos e o f a develope d region . Th e 1830 s expan sion le d th e are a t o a n enrollmen t rati o i n 184 0 tha t wa s on e o f th e highest i n th e nation . Thi s ma y hav e bee n inflate d b y th e lowe r ag e o f admittance i n th e region , bu t th e unadjuste d percentag e i s wel l abov e those o f th e Middl e Atlanti c an d Sout h Atlanti c areas . Th e closur e o f

80 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

colleges i n th e regio n durin g th e 1840 s an d th e genera l declin e o f enroll ments durin g th e decad e harme d educatio n i n th e Southwest . It s enroll ment growt h slowe d an d th e percentag e o f it s youn g i n th e highe r schools decreased . A s i n th e othe r regions , however , th e 1850 s brough t recovery. Despit e th e turmoi l amon g it s colleges , th e Southwes t ende d the antebellu m er a wit h gros s enrollmen t percentage s tha t wer e large r than thos e i n th e Middl e Atlanti c an d Midwester n states an d wit h a n absolute numbe r o f student s greate r tha n Ne w England . Eve n whe n con trols fo r foreign-bor n ar e applie d t o Norther n enrollments , th e Souther n enrollment percentage s remai n highe r tha n al l othe r region s excep t Ne w England. On e resul t o f th e expansio n o f highe r educatio n i n th e Sout h was a declin e i n th e migratio n o f Souther n student s t o th e Nort h fo r their education . Estimate s fro m th e biographica l sampl e sugges t tha t stu dents bega n t o remai n i n th e Sout h well befor e th e sectiona l crisi s o f th e 1850s. However , a major declin e i n th e percentag e o f student s wh o wen t to Norther n school s occurre d i n th e decad e o f th e Missour i Compromis e and it s politica l ramifications. 49 The estimate d declin e mean t tha t approx imately fou r hundre d fift y Souther n student s wer e enrolle d i n Middl e Atlantic an d Ne w Englan d college s i n 1860 . Mor e Souther n student s went t o th e Middl e Atlanti c tha n t o th e Ne w Englan d colleges . And , a s with th e migratio n o f Middl e Atlanti c student s t o Ne w England , th e flow wa s no t i n conformit y wit h th e thesi s tha t modernize d curricul a improved enrollments . Princeto n wa s dependen t upo n Souther n student s throughout th e perio d an d wa s th e larges t recipien t o f Souther n youn g men; an d Dickinson , Gettysburg , an d Washington-Jefferso n i n Pennsyl vania accepte d relativel y hig h proportion s o f Souther n students . Th e mi grants t o Ne w Englan d were , i t appears , mor e likel y t o selec t Yal e rathe r than Harvar d o r the modernize d Brown . Th e regiona l contac t wa s i n on e direction. Eve n th e ric h an d secula r Universit y o f Virgini a coul d no t at tract Northern students . (Tabl e 2.19 ) The migratio n pattern s o f Souther n student s provid e wea k suppor t fo r the curricula r thesis . Student s fro m man y area s o f th e Sout h wer e attracted t o th e Universit y o f Virgini a an d it s specialize d programs , bu t the effec t o f reform s i n th e othe r states o f th e regio n indicat e tha t th e selection o f a colleg e b y Souther n student s wa s th e produc t o f mor e than a college's program . The histor y o f student s fro m Marylan d an d Delawar e illustrat e th e problem o f explainin g colleg e selection . Thes e tw o state s see m t o hav e accounted fo r a s muc h a s one-thir d o f al l th e student s wh o migrate d t o New Englan d an d Middl e Atlanti c college s i n th e 1850s . Thei r hig h mi gration rate s di d follo w th e genera l patter n o f borde r state s sendin g more student s tha n interio r state s t o th e North , bu t thei r rate s wer e ex ceptionally high . Followin g a tren d seemingl y se t wel l befor e th e Civi l

Enrollments

81

TABLE 2.19 Estimates o f Percent o f All Souther n Student s Enrolled i n New Englan d an d Middle Atlantic Colleges b y Beginning Year o f Each Decade

%

1810

1820

1830

16

20

11

1840

8

1850

9

1860

7

War an d whic h continue d int o th e twentieth-century , Marylan d an d Delaware perhap s sen t on e studen t t o th e Nort h fo r ever y thre e the y ed ucated withi n thei r ow n border s a t th e sam e tim e tha t mos t othe r Southern states , i t appears , sen t a s fe w a s on e fo r ever y twent y nativ e students.50 Maryland an d Delawar e wer e state s wit h ver y differen t highe r educa tional system s b y th e 1850s , despit e th e similaritie s i n thei r migratio n percentages. Delawar e ha d it s versio n o f a stat e university , on e whic h had libera l curricul a an d whic h ha d hire d som e o f th e outstandin g young scientifi c scholar s t o establis h engineerin g an d agricultura l pro grams. Maryland , despit e man y attempt s t o foun d comprehensiv e col leges, suc h a s th e ambitiou s Newto n University , ha d man y college s bu t none wa s note d fo r it s modernize d programs . An d Delawar e ha d a re spectable tota l enrollmen t percentag e compare d t o Maryland' s estimate d enrollment rati o o f .7 9 percent . Bu t bot h ha d a grea t numbe r o f youn g men dissatisfie d wit h thei r states ' educationa l offerings , and , i t seems , those wh o lef t thes e state s followe d a simila r logi c i n th e selectio n o f colleges. Bot h flowe d t o college s i n adjacen t state s wit h man y fro m Maryland migratin g t o Delawar e an d th e Distric t o f Columbia , bu t ver y few chos e th e institutio n whic h shoul d hav e bee n thei r logica l choic e under th e modernizatio n thesis , th e Universit y o f Virginia. 51 As wel l a s significan t number s o f student s wh o lef t fro m severa l o f the Souther n states , th e Sout h wa s marke d b y grea t enrollmen t rati o dif ferences. I n 1860 , i t containe d state s wit h th e highes t an d th e lowes t en rollment percentage s i n th e nation . And , ther e see m t o b e fe w read y ex planations fo r man y o f th e differences . I n som e cases , suc h a s Texas , Florida, an d Arkansas , frontie r condition s an d th e competitio n o f established college s i n develope d state s accoun t fo r thei r lo w enrollment s and thei r lac k o f colleges . Migratio n int o state s suc h a s Virginia , Nort h

82 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

Carolina, an d th e Distric t o f Columbi a hel p explai n thei r relativel y hig h ratios. Bu t man y o f th e differences mus t remai n unexplaine d an d som e raise question s abou t th e applicabilit y o f th e functionalis t thesi s t o th e South i n th e antebellu m period . For example , wh y wer e th e ratio s fo r Virgini a an d Nort h Carolina , states wit h modernize d universitie s an d wit h significan t number s o f out of-state students , s o clos e t o thos e o f Tennessee , on e o f th e state s fa mous fo r it s numbe r o f smal l libera l art s colleges ? An d wh y wa s th e ra tio fo r Sout h Carolin a s o high ? But eve n mor e importan t t o a n understandin g o f Souther n highe r edu cation ar e th e adjuste d enrollmen t ratio s i n th e region . Th e reporte d lev els o f propert y value s i n th e Sout h wer e amon g th e highes t i n th e nation, bu t it s unequa l distributio n o f wealt h an d th e natur e o f it s pro fessional an d occupationa l structure s worke d agains t th e regio n matchin g the Ne w Englan d base d expectations. 52 Unlike th e cas e o f th e Norther n regions, th e predictio n o f enrollmen t ratio s throug h th e Ne w Englan d re gression fo r I860 , usin g pe r capit a persona l propert y an d controllin g fo r the percen t black s i n th e Souther n states , lead s t o a predictio n tha t th e Southern states shoul d hav e ha d man y mor e student s tha n the y did . Thus, whil e th e Sout h ha d a n unexpectedl y hig h numbe r o f colleg e stu dents, th e uniqu e characte r o f it s societ y an d econom y mean t tha t i t ha d fewer student s tha n expecte d o n th e basis o f th e wealt h indicator . I n fact, th e Ne w Englan d mode l fi t th e Sout h closel y whe n th e percentag e of black s remaine d uncontrolled . (Tabl e 2.20 ) The Midwes t ha d state s wit h college s tha t wer e stil l i n frontie r area s in I860 , bu t i t ende d th e perio d wit h hig h enrollment s and , unlik e th e South, control s fo r th e foreign-bor n an d indicator s o f economi c well-be ing mak e th e regio n mor e lik e Ne w Englan d an d th e Middl e Atlantic . But, socia l an d politica l influence s an d th e varie d stage s o f developmen t of it s states le d t o significan t difference s i n enrollmen t levels . (Table s 2.21, 2.22 , 2.23 ) Although commentator s picture d th e Midwes t a s a n are a o f educa tional chaos , th e regio n wa s ver y successfu l i n attractin g student s t o it s liberal art s colleges . I n th e thirt y year s befor e th e Civi l War , whic h witnessed India n war s an d a decad e o f disruptiv e conflic t over slavery , the regio n increase d th e number s o f studen t tenfol d an d it s enrollmen t ratio gre w 30 0 percent . Th e Midwes t wa s challenge d b y th e nationa l downturn i n enrollment s i n th e 1840s , an d it s growt h wa s reduce d t o one-third o f wha t i t ha d bee n i n th e 1830s . But , typically , i t rebounde d in th e 1850 s an d double d th e percentag e o f al l youn g male s i n it s col leges despit e th e additio n o f frontie r state s suc h a s Wisconsi n an d Min nesota. And , b y 1860 , th e Midwes t ha d th e greates t numbe r o f libera l arts student s o f th e fiv e majo r region s o f th e nation . However , eve n

Enrollments

83

TABLE 2.2 0 Expected an d Actua l Enrollmen t Percentage s (Enrollments t o Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 i n the State ) fo r Variou s Souther n States , 1859-60.

State

% Expecte d Blac k % Expected % Not Controlle d Actual Black Controlle d 1 .38

2.44

1 .55

Arkansas

0

2.38

1 .51

Delaware

1 .44

1 .69

1 .19

District o f Columbia

5. 86

2.62

1 .67

Florida

0

2.20

1 .58

Georgia

1 .53

2 .95

1 .89

Kentucky

1 . 15

2.47

0.93

Louisiana

0.80

4.20

2 .72

Maryland

0.79

2. 15

1 .67

Mississippi

1 . 80

3.76

2.43

Missouri

1 . 09

1 .24

1 .61

North Carolin a

2 .02

1 .33

1 .02

South Carolin a

3. 11

3.80

2.47

Tennessee

1 . 98

2.04

1 .31

Texas

0.27

2 .91

1 .86

Virginia

2 .03

2 . 81

2 . 03

Alabama

with correction s fo r th e foreign-born , it s enrollmen t percentage s re mained belo w thos e o f th e othe r region s an d fe w o f it s state s achieve d the ratio s o f othe r area s eve n thoug h i t ha d a 5 0 percen t increas e i n th e number o f student s durin g th e 1850s . (Tabl e 2.21 ) Although th e enrollmen t ratio s i n th e Midwes t wer e no t a s divers e a s in Ne w England , ther e wer e importan t difference s withi n th e region . Ohio an d Wisconsi n ha d gros s enrollmen t percentage s highe r tha n Ne w York, bu t thei r 1. 3 student s pe r 10 0 youn g male s wer e onl y slightl y

84 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S TABLE 2.2 1

Enrollments i n Midwes t Colleges , Enrollments a s Percen t o f Whit e Male s Age 15-2 0 an d Percen t Chang e o f Enrollment s For Beginnin g Yea r o f Eac h Decade , 1830-186 0

1830

1840

1850

1860

n

293 94

6 152

2 396

1

%

0.38 0.6

0 0.5

9 0.9

4

% Chang e

222 6

1 16

0

greater tha n th e nationa l average . I n contras t t o thes e tw o states , Illinois , though relativel y developed , ha d on e o f th e lowes t enrollmen t ratio s i n the nation . An d man y o f th e differences amon g th e Midwester n states were i n direction s opposit e t o thos e implie d b y th e functionalis t thesi s and interpretation s b y scholar s suc h a s Tewksbury . Ohio , on e o f th e most condemne d state s becaus e o f it s libera l charterin g policy , ha d a higher enrollment rati o tha n Michiga n wit h it s specialized , fre e tuition , and apparentl y successfu l stat e university . Student s i n Ohi o were , i t seems, takin g advantag e o f a "colleg e a t everyone' s doorstep. " I n con trast, Illinoi s an d Indiana , thoug h attractin g man y Souther n students , re mained wit h enrollmen t ratio s lowe r tha n th e frontie r state s o f Iow a an d Minnesota, possibl y becaus e politica l problem s over slaver y hindere d th e founding an d suppor t o f bot h privat e an d stat e institutions. 53 (Tabl e 2.22) Despite th e ver y poo r record s o f Illinoi s an d Indiana , th e Midwester n achievements wer e significant . An d th e region' s enrollmen t histor y i s more impressiv e whe n controls fo r wealt h an d migratin g student s ar e established. I n 1860 , th e Ne w Englan d enrollment rati o wa s twic e tha t o f the unadjuste d rati o o f th e Midwest . Bu t applyin g a n adjustmen t fo r pe r capita propert y valu e reduce s th e differenc e b y two-thirds . Whe n th e out-of-region student s i n Ne w Englan d ar e eliminated , th e Midwester n states' gros s enrollmen t ratio s excee d th e expectation s base d upo n th e projection o f th e Ne w Englan d relatio n betwee n pe r capit a propert y val ue an d enrollments. 54 (Table 2.23 )

Enrollments

85

TABLE 2.2 2 Enrollments i n Midwester n States , 1860 , as Percen t o f Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 an d as Percen t Nativ e Whit e Male s Ag e 15-2 0 in Respectiv e State s

En r o l l m e n t s / Wh i t e M a l e s Age 15-2 0

Enrollments/ Native Whit e Male s Age 15-2 0

Illinois

0. 54

0. 67

Indiana

0.75

0. 82

Iowa

0. 69

0.82

Michigan

0. 87

1 .09

Minnesota

0.56

0. 84

Ohio

1 . 12

1 .30

Wisconsin

0. 81

1 .26

Knowledge o f th e economi c an d demographi c condition s i n th e Mid west reinforc e th e conclusion s fro m th e us e o f th e Ne w Englan d model . Soltow pointe d ou t tha t Midwester n persona l estate s wer e fro m one third t o one-hal f th e dolla r valu e o f thos e i n Ne w Englan d jus t befor e the Civi l Wa r an d tha t th e averag e ag e o f male s i n th e Midwes t wa s te n years younge r tha n i n Ne w England . Th e lowe r valu e o f estate s suggest s that fe w i n th e Midwes t wer e abl e t o suppor t thei r childre n throug h col lege wit h ease . An d th e lowe r averag e ag e o f male s als o suggest s tha t there wer e fewe r me n i n th e Midwes t wh o ha d reache d th e stag e i n lif e where th e accumulatio n o f fund s allowe d th e suppor t o f student s through th e increase d numbe r o f year s o f education—eve n i n citie s where th e wealt h potentia l migh t hav e bee n a s grea t a s i n th e East. 55 But a s i n th e Sout h an d th e Middl e Atlanti c states , Midwester n stu dents showe d som e dissatisfactio n wit h th e region' s schools . Althoug h Midwestern student s wer e offere d a n increasin g rang e o f option s i n thei r region, ther e appear s t o hav e bee n a growin g migratio n t o th e Eas t fo r higher education . Ne w Englan d attracte d many , th e estimat e fo r 186 0 being slightl y ove r on e hundred , bu t th e smalle r college s o f th e Middl e Atlantic state s ma y hav e bee n mor e popular . Perhap s 8 percen t o f th e Midwest's student s chos e college s i n th e tw o othe r region s an d ther e

86 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S TABLE 2.2 3

Actual an d Expecte d Enrollment s i n Midwester n States, 1860 , Expected Enrollment s Base d Upo n Projection o f Regressio n o f Ne w Englan d Attendance B y Stat e t o Ne w Englan d Pe r Capit a Property Value s B y Stat e fo r Categorie s o f Enrollments t o Midwester n State s

Midwestern States

%

Enrollments/ White Males Aee 15-20

%

Enrollments/ Native White Males Aee 15-20

%

%

Within-State (New England) Enrollments/ Native White Males Age 15-20

%

%

Expected

Actual

Expected

0.67

1.79

0.67

0.92

1.28

0.82

1.26

0.82

0.84

0.69

0.48

0.82

0.42

0.82

0.79

Michigan

0.87

0.96

1.09

1.03

1.09

0.81

Minnesota

0.56

0.82

0.84

0.85

0.84

0.78

Ohio

1.12

1.54

1.30

1.79

1.30

0.92

Wisconsin

0.81

0.9£

1.26

1.08

1.26

0.81

Actual

Expected

Illinois

0.54

1.54

Indiana

0.75

Iowa

Actual '

may hav e bee n a tendenc y fo r the m t o enrol l i n th e large r college s i n greater number s i n th e 1850s , with Yal e th e mos t popula r institutio n an d Harvard beginnin g t o b e attractiv e i n th e las t decad e o f th e period . (Ta ble 2.24 ) The successe s o f th e region s usuall y picture d a s backward s educationa l areas, suc h a s th e Midwes t an d South , wer e matche d b y th e recor d o f the ne w denomination s i n America . A n importan t resul t o f th e expan sion o f college s i n th e countr y wa s th e displacemen t o f th e olde r an d established denomination s a s th e dominan t force s i n America n highe r education. I n 1800 , Congregationa l an d Presbyteria n colleges , wit h som e help fro m Episcopalians , attracte d almos t al l o f th e country' s students . By 186 0 th e Congregational-Presbyteria n shar e o f student s wa s reduce d to 3 5 percent . (Tabl e 2.25 ) Stat e institution s barel y kep t pac e wit h th e changes i n enrollments . The y accounte d fo r 1 1 percen t i n 183 0 bu t wer e only abl e t o increas e thei r shar e t o 1 3 percen t i n 1860 . Thi s wa s jus t twice th e percentag e o f student s enrolle d i n th e school s supporte d b y o r associated wit h Episcopalians .

Enrollments

87

TABLE 2.24 Estimate o f Percen t o f Al l Midwester n Student s Enrolled i n Ne w Englan d an d th e Middl e Atlanti c By Representativ e Yearl y Figur e fo r Decade s

Percent t o New Englan d

Percent t o Middle Atlanti c

1830

1

2

1840

3

8

1850

3

4

Year

Table 2,2 5 Percent o f Tota l Enrollmen t in College s o f Majo r Denomination s an d State Colleges , 1810-186 0

1810 Baptist Methodist Presbyterian Congregational Episcopalian Catholic Lutheran State Non-Denominational an d Other Denomi nations Total Enrollmen t

1820

1830

1840

1850

1860 14

6

7

4

7

11

0

0

4

14

11

12

29

22

29

23

23

20

46

37

31

19

16

15

11

7

10

7

9

6

1

2

2

8

11

6

0

0

1

1

2

2

6

14

11

14

10

13

1

11

8

7

7

13

1939

2566

4647

8328

9931

16600

88

AMERICAN COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

The share s o f enrollment s hel d b y th e variou s denomination s disguis e the growt h i n absolut e number s an d thu s on e importan t aspec t o f th e challenges facin g th e denominations . Betwee n 181 0 an d I860 , Baptist s increased th e numbe r o f student s thei r associate d college s wer e servicin g twenty-twofold; Methodist s b y te n times ; Presbyterian s b y si x times ; and, Congregationalist s b y les s tha n threefold . Episcopalian s managed , despite th e problem s o f thei r associate d colleges , t o increas e thei r enroll ments 50 0 percen t bu t th e Catholic s ha d th e mos t amazin g record , wit h a 52 0 percen t increas e betwee n 181 0 an d 1850 . The 1830 s mus t hav e bee n a decade o f challeng e t o th e securit y o f th e educators wh o represente d th e interest s an d viewpoint s o f th e olde r de nominations. I n th e Jacksonia n years , th e Methodist s ha d a 50 0 percen t increase i n enrollment s an d th e Catholic' s studen t populatio n jumpe d b y close t o 80 0 percent . Bu t th e Presbyterian s an d especiall y th e Congrega tionalists ha d increase s fa r belo w thos e o f th e othe r denominations . Th e Congregationalists ha d les s tha n a 1 0 percent increas e an d al l th e variou s Presbyterian denomination s wer e abl e t o increas e thei r studen t popula tion b y les s tha n 5 0 percent . The olde r an d establishe d denomination s wer e th e one s mos t threat ened b y th e variou s enrollmen t crise s o f th e antebellu m era . Thei r expe riences ma y hav e conditione d th e histor y o f highe r educatio n becaus e the educationa l leader s o f th e perio d wer e likel y t o hav e bee n member s of thes e denomination s a s wel l a s bein g associate d wit h Ne w England . The newe r denomination s ha d continue d growt h i n thei r smal l enroll ments i n th e 1810 s bu t th e thre e majo r denomination s faced , a t best , stagnation. Th e Presbyterian s an d Congregationalist s di d hav e significan t growth i n th e 1820 s bu t experienced , a s di d stat e institutions , seriou s problems i n th e lat e 1840s . Th e recover y o f th e 1850 s wa s share d b y al l the denominations , bu t somewha t unequally . Th e Presbyterian s an d Congregationalists ha d appreciabl e growth , abou t a 5 0 percen t increase , but whil e thi s wa s clos e t o tha t o f th e Methodist's , i t wa s les s tha n one half th e growt h o f Baptis t enrollments . Enrollments b y denominatio n wer e highl y correlate d wit h th e distri bution o f th e denominationa l churc h accommodations . I n th e 1850s , th e correlations betwee n percen t o f student s b y stat e an d percen t o f al l church accommodation s range d fro m 0.6 7 fo r th e Baptist s t o 0.9 9 fo r Congregationalists. An d ther e ar e som e indication s tha t th e migratio n patterns o f student s followe d denominationa l line s becaus e o f th e matc h between churc h center s an d th e distributio n o f thei r highe r educationa l facilities. Student s fro m th e Middl e Atlanti c states , wher e 1 2 percen t o f the Congregationa l accommodation s wer e located , ha d t o g o t o Ne w En gland becaus e ther e wer e n o Congregationa l college s i n th e middl e state s and man y student s ma y hav e migrate d fro m Ne w Englan d t o Unio n

Enrollments

89

College becaus e o f th e absenc e o f a Presbyteria n colleg e i n Ne w En gland.56 As wit h th e denominationa l distributio n o f colleges , ther e seem s t o have bee n a bond betwee n denominationa l wealt h an d enrollments . Th e statistical relationshi p betwee n averag e dolla r valu e o f denominationa l accommodations an d th e rati o o f th e percen t o f enrollment s t o th e per cent o f al l accommodation s i n 186 0 fo r th e fou r leadin g Protestan t de nominations wa s .944 . Although th e denomination s varie d a s t o ho w the y calculate d thei r membership (som e include d ver y youn g children ) th e numbe r o f report ed denominationa l member s t o eac h studen t i n a denomination' s associ ated college s doe s indicat e tha t th e newe r an d lower-statu s denomina tions wer e actin g rationally . Fo r example , i n 186 0 th e Congregationalist Unitarians ha d on e studen t fo r ever y ninety-tw o member s whil e th e Methodists ha d on e fo r ever y fiv e hundre d eighty-two . Th e Baptist s had fou r hundre d eightee n reporte d member s fo r eac h student , bu t Epis copalians ha d sixty-thre e member s fo r eac h studen t i n thei r colleges. 57 The histor y o f th e denominationa l suppor t o f student s a s wel l a s th e general histor y o f enrollment s indicate s a mor e rationa l patter n tha n suggested i n th e traditiona l interpretation s o f antebellu m highe r educa tion. Enrollmen t wa s growing , no t stagnating , an d th e growt h mean t that more , no t less , o f America' s youn g me n wer e goin g t o colleg e i n al l regions o f th e country . I f enrollment s ar e indicator s o f th e succes s o f th e educational effort s i n th e variou s regions , th e Middl e Atlanti c state s an d the Midwes t were , whe n socia l an d economi c condition s ar e controlled , doing well . Further , th e differentia l growt h o f enrollment s i n th e libera l arts colleg e canno t b e explaine d b y th e simpl e economic-functionalis t argument becaus e som e o f th e college s wit h th e moder n curricul a an d orientations wer e unabl e t o kee p pac e wit h th e growt h o f othe r institu tions which , thoug h no t educationall y backwards , di d no t institut e suc h radical reforms . Broade r socia l an d economi c force s wer e a t wor k i n de termining level s o f enrollment s an d th e selectio n o f particula r colleges . But enrollmen t histor y i s onl y on e par t o f th e traditiona l argumen t concerning antebellu m highe r education . Th e olde r interpretatio n wa s also base d upo n a n imag e o f wh o student s wer e an d wha t the y did . An d essential t o th e simpl e functionalis t argumen t wa s th e ide a tha t th e ante bellum college s wer e unabl e t o attrac t o r produc e th e ne w aggressiv e man o f busines s an d industr y neede d b y th e evolvin g economi c orde r o r the me n wh o woul d b e capabl e o f modernizin g th e intellectua l an d cul tural lif e o f America .

Chapter 3

Student Background s The critic s o f th e earl y college s applie d th e sam e set s o f values , con cepts, an d assumption s t o th e stud y o f th e student s o f th e antebellu m period tha t the y use d t o interpre t th e institution s an d th e enrollment patterns. Th e resul t wa s a pictur e o f a unifor m antebellu m studen t wh o was th e antithesi s o f wha t th e historian s desire d fo r thei r ow n time . Just as th e college s wer e turne d int o a n idea l an d pola r type , th e thousand s of student s o f th e hundred s o f college s i n differen t region s an d time s were froze n int o a n imag e o f th e "antebellu m student". 1 The back grounds an d career s o f th e student s wer e pushe d int o a stereotyp e tha t paralleled th e image o f th e college s an d thei r effec t o n America n society . The college s wer e viewe d a s conservativ e an d irrelevant , s o th e student s were see n a s timi d an d ineffective . Becaus e th e college s supposedl y di d not adop t scienc e an d technica l training , th e student s coul d hav e mad e few contribution s t o th e modernizatio n an d democratizatio n o f America . And becaus e th e college s wer e s o backward , th e student s wh o wer e attracted t o the m wer e eithe r fro m ol d elit e familie s wit h outmode d views o f th e worl d o r wer e fro m rura l background s tha t mad e thei r bes t possible contributio n t o America t o b e reactionar y villag e leaders . Combined wit h a lac k o f systemati c informatio n o n th e background s and career s o f th e antebellu m students , th e assumption s use d b y th e tra ditional historian s coul d onl y lea d t o tha t typ e o f descriptio n an d t o th e pervasive negativ e evaluatio n o f students ' achievements. Th e assumptio n that socia l an d economi c condition s wer e th e sam e befor e an d afte r th e Civil Wa r le d historian s t o believ e tha t th e countr y wa s fille d wit h po tential student s wh o possesse d al l th e characteristic s o f th e idea l moder n student. Therefore , th e actua l antebellu m student s an d thei r back grounds an d live s appeare d t o b e unnecessaril y premodern . Th e assump tion tha t onl y scientific , vocational , an d specialize d course s coul d attrac t the desire d typ e o f student s an d allo w the m t o mak e late r contribution s also le d traditiona l historian s t o assum e tha t th e antebellu m student s were remove d fro m business , th e developmen t o f science , an d th e indus trialization o f America . 90

Student Background s

91

The combinatio n o f th e us e o f a n idea l typ e an d th e assumptio n tha t higher educatio n coul d hav e easil y change d itsel f le d t o bot h th e stu dents an d th e college s bein g abstracte d fro m thei r socia l an d economi c contexts. Students ' ages , thei r behavior , an d thei r background s an d ca reers wer e treate d i n a n ahistorica l manner . Thi s wa s compounde d b y the assumptio n tha t highe r educatio n coul d determin e th e career s o f stu dents. Jus t a s th e college s wer e essentiall y treate d a s autonomous , th e future o f thei r student s wa s no t see n a s th e produc t o f regiona l econo mies, th e structur e o f thei r profession s an d occupations , o r th e influenc e of students ' socia l backgrounds . Th e imag e o f th e antebellu m student , usually arrive d a t throug h deductio n fro m th e premise s concernin g th e state o f highe r educatio n an d th e socia l an d economi c orders , condi tioned th e historica l vie w o f th e colleges . Th e idea l antebellu m studen t came t o b e use d a s mor e evidenc e t o sho w th e backwardnes s o f th e ol d colleges an d th e revolutionar y natur e o f th e change s i n highe r educatio n after th e Civi l War . On e o f th e majo r reason s wh y th e traditiona l histo ry o f th e antebellu m college s ha s continue d t o b e accepte d i s th e persua siveness o f th e stereotyp e o f th e antebellu m student . The imag e o f th e ineffectua l antebellu m alumnu s ha s bee n accepte d because, unti l ver y recently , ther e hav e bee n fe w systemati c an d com prehensive studie s o f th e background s an d career s o f th e student s o f th e early college s an d becaus e ther e ha s bee n littl e empirica l an d objectiv e work o n th e natur e o f th e occupationa l an d socia l world s o f th e antebel lum period . Th e on e majo r investigatio n o f th e career s o f th e student s that wa s availabl e t o historian s i s no t onl y marke d b y flaw s o f desig n and samplin g bu t ha s rarel y bee n carefull y analyze d an d interpreted . Bailey Burritt' s earl y study , publishe d i n 1912 , wa s concerne d wit h onl y the singl e majo r occupatio n o f th e alumn i o f th e colleges , wa s focuse d on th e larg e institution s o f th e Northeast , an d ha s bee n th e sourc e o f conflicting interpretation s becaus e o f th e occupationa l categorie s h e used. Othe r studies , suc h a s The Vital Statistics of College Graduates had eve n more pronounce d problem s o f desig n an d dat a recovery. 2 Until th e las t decad e ther e ha s bee n littl e scholarl y wor k o n th e natur e of th e socia l an d occupationa l worl d o f th e earl y nineteent h century . Only wit h th e emergenc e o f th e recen t historie s o f th e professions , youth, families , an d socia l mobilit y ha s i t becom e clea r tha t man y o f th e assumptions o f th e critic s o f th e college s abou t America n lif e wer e nor mative judgment s rathe r tha n correc t description s o f th e socioeconomi c context o f earl y highe r education . Work s rangin g fro m Thernstrom' s studies o f economi c an d geographi c mobility , throug h th e ne w investiga tions o f th e natur e an d rol e o f famil y an d kin , t o Kett' s wor k o n yout h have highlighte d th e difference s betwee n th e nineteenth-century' s socio economic syste m an d th e idealisti c imag e impose d upo n i t b y Progres -

92 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

sive historians . Th e ne w investigation s o f th e profession s an d wor k i n America hav e outline d th e grea t difference s betwee n twentieth-centur y patterns an d th e mor e flui d an d unstructure d nineteent h centur y whic h was characterize d b y th e absenc e o f formalize d certificatio n procedures , imprecise definition s o f professiona l boundaries , an d a grea t dea l o f ca reer instability. 3 Because th e historie s o f highe r educatio n wer e base d upo n a biased view o f America n socia l life , eve n correc t "facts " abou t th e antebellu m students wer e fundamentall y misinterpreted . Th e wid e ag e distributio n of student s wa s treate d a s a faul t o f th e college s instea d o f somethin g imposed upo n the m b y th e economi c an d educationa l system s o f th e pe riod. Th e occupation s o f th e alumn i wer e see n simpl y a s th e resul t o f college policie s an d curricul a instea d o f bein g th e produc t o f th e interac tion o f th e earl y socializatio n o f th e students , th e socia l structure , an d the natur e o f th e professions . Studen t rebellion s wer e no t onl y overemphasized b y historian s bu t consistentl y interprete d a s i f the y were th e resul t o f irrationa l colleg e policie s rathe r tha n o f child-rearin g patterns, genera l socia l antagonisms , a societa l ben t toward s suc h pro tests, o r specifi c politica l problem s o f th e country . An d whe n historian s did mentio n th e lowe r socioeconomi c background s o f som e students , th e social origi n o f thes e me n wa s interprete d a s a n indicatio n tha t th e col leges coul d no t attrac t qualifie d students , rathe r than a s a sign tha t man y of th e college s wer e providin g a n opportunity fo r socia l mobility. 4 But fe w correc t fact s abou t th e student s ar e foun d i n th e traditiona l histories o f th e colleges . An d th e consequence s o f th e scarcit y o f infor mation o n th e student s an d th e us e o f th e assumption s concernin g th e social an d economi c order s g o fa r beyon d a distorte d pictur e o f antebel lum highe r education . Th e interpretatio n o f th e college s an d thei r stu dents ha s bee n importan t t o th e historica l vie w o f highe r educatio n sinc e the Civi l War , especiall y th e treatmen t o f th e ris e o f th e universit y an d technical training . Partiall y becaus e th e antebellu m libera l art s college s were assume d t o b e incapabl e o f attractin g o r producin g aggressiv e young men , th e concentratio n o f Morril l Ac t funds , th e firs t large-scal e Federal ai d t o educatio n fo r al l section s o f th e nation , i n a fe w institu tions wa s interprete d a s th e onl y possibl e rationa l decision . Bu t i f th e colleges an d thei r student s wer e mor e flexibl e an d modernize d tha n thought, a n effectiv e polic y t o achiev e th e goa l o f widesprea d knowl edge o f scienc e an d relate d skill s woul d hav e bee n t o subsidiz e suc h training i n al l th e colleges . Th e stati c natur e o f th e image o f th e antebel lum studen t le d historian s t o trea t th e ris e o f th e universit y afte r th e Civil Wa r a s a sudde n an d revolutionar y chang e cause d b y th e action s of a fe w educationa l reformers , rathe r tha n a s a gradua l evolutio n tha t came i n respons e t o alteration s i n America n societ y an d t o th e demand s of a n alread y change d studen t population . An d becaus e th e antebellu m

Student Background s

93

student wa s th e antithesi s o f wha t a moder n studen t shoul d be , th e achievements o f th e late r college s an d thei r students , b y comparison , seemed beyon d criticism. 5 Such view s wer e base d upo n littl e systemati c evidenc e abou t th e stu dents o f eithe r th e ante-o r postbellu m periods . T o correc t thi s basi c problem an d t o tes t man y o f th e assertion s abou t th e colleges , a searc h for informatio n o n th e student s i n al l college s an d i n al l region s o f th e country betwee n 180 0 an d 186 0 wa s conducted . Th e firs t ste p i n thi s ten-year projec t wa s t o locat e complet e list s o f th e student s o f th e vari ous institution s an d the n t o tak e a 1 0 percen t rando m sampl e fro m them. A complet e lis t o f students , whethe r i t wa s fo r a single yea r o r th e full period , wa s insiste d upo n i n orde r t o avoi d th e biase s tha t woul d b e created throug h usin g list s o f eminen t alumn i o r onl y thos e wh o man aged t o sta y i n direc t contac t wit h thei r colleges. 6 All th e material s hel d b y th e Librar y o f Congres s an d al l th e work s listed i n th e variou s catalog s i t sponsore d a s wel l a s th e holding s o f th e old Burea u o f Education , th e Nationa l Librar y o f Medicine , th e librarie s of almos t al l college s an d universities , an d man y state , local , an d profes sional historica l societ y librarie s wer e surveye d t o fin d th e list s o f stu dents. Whe n i t wa s decide d tha t thes e source s wer e exhausted , th e alumni register s (usuall y al l edition s includin g thos e containe d i n annua l catalogs o f th e college s dow n t o th e twentiet h century) , clas s books , an d alumni an d archiva l file s o f th e college s wer e use d t o trac e th e live s o f the students . A t th e sam e time , th e sampl e wa s followe d throug h al l na tional, regional , state , an d larg e cit y biographica l register s an d throug h professional rolls , loca l histories , an d biographica l volumes . Governmen tal register s an d fraternit y material s wer e als o surveyed. 7 The goa l o f th e searc h wa s t o fin d an d cod e fo r compute r usag e a complete lif e histor y o f th e student s o f th e colleges . Th e profil e fo r eac h student include d th e followin g items : 1. th e cod e numbe r an d geographi c locatio n o f th e college s an d profes sional school s attended ; 2. th e plac e o f birt h an d th e plac e wher e th e studen t wa s locate d a t the tim e h e firs t entere d college ; 3. th e birt h date , deat h date , an d dat e o f completio n o f highe r educa tion; 4. th e tota l numbe r o f year s o f highe r education ; 5. fou r occupation s o f th e studen t an d his/he r father' s occupation ; 6. fou r place s wher e th e studen t reside d durin g hi s postcolleg e caree r and th e decade s whe n th e studen t wa s i n eac h location ; 7. th e student' s denominationa l affiliation s (two ) an d hi s politica l af filiations (two) ; 8. th e student' s recognitio n b y editor s o f biographica l volume s suc h a s

94 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

national, state , o r regional biographica l register s o r fraternity an d profes sional biographies ; 9. th e type s o f politica l office s hel d b y th e studen t durin g hi s postcollege career ; 10. th e student' s membershi p i n scientifi c organization s an d fraterni ties; 11. th e typ e o f professiona l practic e pursue d b y th e studen t i f h e wa s a physician suc h a s botanic , eclectic , etc. ; 12. th e participatio n b y th e studen t i n th e militar y durin g th e Civi l War. It was foun d ver y earl y i n th e histor y o f th e projec t tha t certai n infor mation wa s s o irregularl y reporte d tha t a n attemp t t o includ e i t directl y in th e stud y woul d b e fruitless . Therefore , suc h importan t informatio n as ho w an d wher e a studen t prepare d fo r colleg e wa s no t code d o n th e computer biographica l files . Caus e o f death , whethe r o r no t th e studen t married, an d hi s numbe r o f childre n an d thei r historie s wer e als o foun d to b e s o irregularl y cite d i n bot h colleg e an d biographica l report s tha t they wer e no t coded . The resul t o f th e searc h fo r list s o f student s an d thei r historie s wa s a sample o f som e twelv e thousan d student s o f th e libera l art s college s (with a sampl e o f simila r siz e fo r student s o f professiona l an d scientifi c schools whic h wil l b e analyze d i n a future study) . Th e sampl e appear s t o be a s clos e a s w e ca n com e t o a rando m selectio n o f earl y colleg e stu dents unles s list s fo r mor e o f th e earl y school s i n th e Sout h an d smal l colleges i n frontie r area s ar e located . Th e profile s fo r th e student s ar e a s complete a s possibl e unti l fund s ar e obtaine d t o searc h county , town , and censu s records. 8 Complet e informatio n o n al l student s wa s no t re covered. Biographica l volumes , professiona l registers , an d th e archiva l materials wer e biase d towards th e larg e institution s o f th e Nort h an d there wa s a highe r recover y rat e fo r th e large r an d famou s institutions . However, mor e informatio n wa s obtaine d fo r mor e student s tha n i n an y other study , an d a careful consideratio n o f th e biase s i n bot h th e origina l samples an d th e supplementa l informatio n allow s man y inference s t o b e made concernin g th e area s an d college s wit h relativel y wea k coverage. 9 Besides th e biase s i n dat a recovery , inference s fro m eve n perfec t sam ples impos e restraint s upo n a n investigator . Sampl e size s mus t b e larg e enough t o ensur e tha t th e result s o f th e samplin g ar e representativ e o f the populatio n unde r study . Th e estimatio n o f exac t percentages , fo r ex ample, demands , i n traditiona l statistica l theory , a pur e rando m sampl e of over on e thousan d case s whe n a hig h degre e o f statistica l confidenc e is t o b e place d o n th e estimate . Test s o f statistica l differenc e betwee n es timates deman d fewe r cases , bu t a n investigato r stil l face s th e proble m

Student Background s

95

of no t bein g absolutel y sur e tha t statisticall y significan t difference s ar e substantively important. 10 In situation s wher e sampl e size s wer e to o smal l o r know n t o b e bi ased, generalization s i n thi s an d th e followin g chapte r ar e qualifie d b y such term s as , "th e dat a suggests " o r "th e dat a give s u s reaso n t o be lieve." The mos t frequen t us e o f suc h qualifie d generalization s i s i n situ ations wher e sampl e sizes , relativ e t o th e rang e o f scores , ar e s o smal l that th e result s o f test s o f significanc e o r estimatio n see m t o b e i n con flict wit h historica l pattern s i n th e dat a o r wit h finding s fo r college s with similaritie s o n predicto r variables . I n a few cases , estimate s tha t ar e not statisticall y vali d ar e include d wit h qualification s whe n th e obtaine d scores appea r t o b e a relatively precis e estimat e o f th e tru e scor e becaus e of dat a pattern s ove r time . However , i n suc h case s th e characte r o f th e inference i s mad e clear. 11 But th e inferentia l proble m i s no t a s blea k a s pictured above . Th e ma jor generalization s containe d i n thes e chapter s ar e base d upo n enoug h evidence t o fulfil l th e mandate s o f statistica l tests. 12 Furthermore, whe n several estimate s fro m thi s stud y wer e checke d agains t complet e series , such a s Burritt' s stud y o f occupation s an d Allmendinger' s surve y o f age s in Ne w England , bot h series prove d quit e compatible. 13 As wit h man y o f the finding s o n th e institution s an d enrollmen t levels , th e statistica l pro files o f th e student s rais e a s man y question s a s the y provid e explana tions fo r bot h ol d an d ne w fact s abou t ante-an d postbellu m highe r edu cation. And , a s wit h th e finding s concernin g institution s an d enrollments, a consciou s attemp t ha s bee n mad e t o avoi d th e us e o f merely plausibl e explanation s fo r man y o f th e surprisin g fact s abou t th e students. I n man y instance s ther e i s no t enoug h informatio n o r accept able generalization s an d theoretica l framework s t o provid e well grounded explanations . Hopefully , th e unexplaine d fact s wil l generat e further research . The substantiv e result s o f th e searc h fo r informatio n o n th e antebel lum libera l art s student s lea d t o a much mor e comple x an d dynami c pic ture of earl y highe r educatio n tha n ca n b e foun d i n th e traditiona l litera ture. Th e profiles o f th e student s sugges t fe w simpl e generalizations , bu t they dictat e a n interpretatio n marke d b y a very comple x evolutio n o f a n increasingly differentiate d colleg e system , th e characte r o f whic h wa s determined t o a grea t degree, b y force s outsid e th e contro l o f educators . The evolutio n o f th e college s wa s guide d b y influence s rangin g fro m re gionalism, change s i n th e profession s an d th e emergenc e o f institutional ized religio n i n America , t o th e ne w wealt h an d economi c condition s o f the Jacksonia n er a an d a mor e sophisticate d an d regularize d lowe r edu cational system . Several majo r trend s emerge d fro m th e biographical profiles . An d thes e

96 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

trends challeng e man y firml y hel d view s concernin g antebellu m highe r education. Th e college s wer e movin g fro m attractin g student s fro m a n urban elite with relativel y homogeneou s background s an d careers, to providing educatio n fo r a muc h broade r segmen t o f th e America n popula tion. Th e libera l art s colleges, becaus e o f change s i n th e occupationa l an d economic structures , wer e actin g t o provid e socia l mobilit y t o a degree a s great a s in an y perio d o f America n histor y befor e th e post-Worl d Wa r II era. An d th e college s wer e muc h mor e ope n t o student s fro m non-elit e backgrounds tha n th e supposedly meritocrati c institution s o f Europe. 14 As college s becam e mor e democractic , the y face d problem s o f adjust ing t o ne w type s o f students . Bu t the y wer e responsive , an d the y altere d curricula, schedules , an d eve n rule s o f behavio r t o satisf y a t leas t som e of th e growin g numbe r o f demand s b y thei r increasingl y divers e stu dents. Perhap s i t wa s thes e adjustment s t o th e need s an d pressure s o f the ne w student s tha t cause d historian s suc h a s Hofstatdte r t o judg e th e antebellum perio d s o harshly . Hi s reactio n ma y wel l hav e bee n t o th e democratization o f th e college s an d th e change s tha t th e democratizatio n made necessary. 15 Because th e relativ e democratizatio n wa s uneve n acros s region s an d colleges, a second tren d emerge d i n th e earl y nineteent h century , th e dif ferentiation o f th e colleges . Studen t background s an d career s bega n t o differ amon g region s an d amon g individua l school s i n th e regions . On e of th e sures t way s t o classif y th e college s o f th e perio d i s b y thei r stu dent profiles . Distinction s gre w betwee n ol d an d ne w colleges , college s of th e variou s regions , an d rura l an d urba n institutions . Th e reason s fo r the diversit y amon g th e college s wer e complex , to o comple x t o allo w th e continued relianc e upo n th e concep t o f th e "denominationa l college" . There wa s a continuou s reciproca l interactio n betwee n colleg e an d stu dent tha t shape d th e "personality " o f institutions . Rura l o r urba n loca tion an d th e characteristic s o f regiona l economie s wer e importan t t o th e types o f student s attracte d t o a college, a s were tuitio n policies , econom ic suppor t fo r students , an d th e availabilit y o f preparator y training . A student's famil y backgroun d an d th e socia l an d occupationa l connection s of th e facult y an d alumn i wer e importan t t o th e career s o f students , which, i n turn , reflecte d o n thei r college . Bu t mor e importan t tha n thes e influences o n th e live s o f th e student s wa s th e interactio n amon g thei r pre-college educationa l goal s an d aspirations , conditione d b y thei r earl y experiences, th e profession s the y entered , th e level s an d area s i n whic h the student s bega n thei r careers, and th e region s i n whic h the y worked . The uniqu e pattern s o f thes e causa l factor s le d th e earl y college s t o have studen t population s whic h wer e significantl y differen t fro m eac h other. Stronge r tha n denominatio n an d curricula , regiona l an d historica l

Student Background s

97

conditions le d t o th e differentiatio n o f th e antebellu m colleges . An d thi s process create d a n anomaly . Th e college s whic h see m t o hav e bee n th e most parochia l an d leas t involve d i n th e democratizatio n o f antebellu m higher educatio n becam e th e leader s o f th e universit y movemen t i n America. Harvard , Columbia , an d Pennsylvani a ha d th e leas t experienc e in dealin g wit h diversity , wit h inadequatel y prepare d student s wh o ha d to spen d man y o f thei r colleg e year s working , an d wit h student s wh o came fro m famil y background s no t full y congruen t wit h eithe r academi c or elit e cultures . Bu t thes e college s becam e th e model s fo r muc h o f American highe r educatio n i n late r year s whe n th e syste m supposedl y adjusted t o th e comma n man. The late r succes s o f th e elit e institution s o f th e antebellu m er a ma y b e partially explaine d b y trend s i n th e occupation s o f students . Th e empha sis o n th e number s o f minister s produce d b y th e earl y college s ha s masked th e long-ter m tren d toward s th e secula r occupations . Onl y a few college s remaine d ministeria l factorie s a t th e comin g o f th e Civi l War becaus e th e sudde n upsurg e i n th e selectio n o f th e ministr y i n th e 1810s wa s countere d b y increasin g number s o f student s o f al l th e col leges enterin g business , law , education , an d eve n science . Th e 1830 s were a turnin g poin t fo r man y college s i n th e countr y bu t institution s such a s Harvar d an d Columbi a ha d lon g befor e bee n accustome d t o stu dents wh o entere d th e world s o f financ e an d commerce . Thes e college s had a lon g histor y o f enrollin g student s fro m th e larg e citie s o f th e country wh o woul d buil d thei r career s i n th e center s o f economi c power . Although othe r college s ha d a bia s toward s urba n student s an d sen t in creasing number s o f the m t o th e cities , institution s suc h a s Harvar d ha d always attracte d unexpectedl y hig h percentage s o f urba n me n wh o wer e able t o retur n t o thei r home s t o pursu e successfu l careers. 16 At th e sam e tim e tha t th e college s whic h becam e th e universit y mod els focuse d upo n America' s urba n world , othe r college s becam e th e cen ters fo r anothe r se t o f functions . Dependin g upo n th e region , th e othe r institutions provide d educatio n fo r rura l students . Combine d wit h th e influence o f th e occupation s chose n b y students , thes e college s pushe d them int o th e citie s acros s th e nation . I t wa s th e smal l institution s that , in conjunctio n wit h contemporar y professiona l forces , move d student s from ol d t o ne w culture s an d environments . The smal l colleges , wit h fe w resources , fulfille d othe r function s be sides aidin g th e transfe r o f youn g me n fro m rura l t o urba n life . Thes e colleges provide d leader s fo r th e smal l town s an d rura l area s o f America . They helpe d bridg e a gap betwee n tw o cultures , th e rura l an d th e urban . They di d trai n loca l leaders , bu t no t necessaril y reactionar y ones , fo r they educated , a t leas t i n th e North , a mobil e elit e fo r America' s smal l

98 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

towns an d agricultura l communities . Becaus e o f th e natur e o f profes sions durin g th e period , especiall y th e ministry , th e student s move d t o and fro m urba n an d rura l area s throughou t thei r careers. 17 The geographi c mobilit y o f th e student s wa s high , an d the y acte d a s agents o f cultura l transfer . Onl y th e Sout h an d th e elit e institution s pro duced student s wh o wer e les s tha n man y time s mor e mobil e tha n th e general population . Thi s mobilit y wa s no t jus t th e resul t o f highe r edu cation o r regiona l influence . Th e ministr y wa s especiall y importan t t o the dispersio n o f th e student s acros s th e countr y an d t o th e migratio n o f ideas an d knowledge . Interactin g wit h th e highe r probabilit y tha t a young ma n wh o entere d th e ministr y ha d com e fro m a n are a tha t wa s unable t o suppor t al l o f it s youn g i n high-statu s position s an d wit h th e greater likelihoo d tha t a ministe r cam e fro m a lower-statu s family , th e new demand s o f th e professio n pushe d th e minister s awa y fro m thei r home areas . Ironically , i t wa s no t th e student s wh o becam e businessme n who stoo d ou t a s th e example s o f geographi c o r socia l mobilit y durin g the period , bu t thos e wh o entere d th e professio n whic h le d man y critic s to condem n th e college s an d thei r student s a s elitis t an d dysfunctional , the clergy. 18 Not onl y di d th e bia s o f th e traditiona l historian s preven t the m fro m seeing th e importanc e o f th e ministry , an d thu s th e colleges , t o Ameri can society , bu t fro m discoverin g direc t indicator s o f th e influenc e o f th e antebellum student s o n th e nation . Althoug h th e college s wer e educatin g more youn g me n withou t th e elit e famil y profile s tha t woul d hav e con tributed t o successfu l an d influentia l careers , th e college s continue d t o produce a hig h percentag e o f alumn i wh o receive d national attention . The student s wer e importan t t o national an d loca l government , industry , and finance , an d eve n scienc e an d inventio n i n America . Th e alumn i ha d a highe r participatio n rat e i n government , includin g Congress , tha n th e non-college population , an d the y wer e muc h mor e likel y tha n other s t o be remembere d i n biographica l volume s an d t o b e member s o f th e scien tific societie s o f thei r time . Although th e detaile d evidenc e o n th e succes s o f th e antebellu m stu dents wa s no t readil y availabl e t o th e critic s o f th e colleges , ther e wa s enough evidenc e o n th e natur e o f th e earl y studen t populatio n t o sho w that th e mos t highl y condemne d "denominational " college s wer e achiev ing man y o f th e goal s demande d b y egalitarian-minde d historian s an d functionalists. Perhap s som e historians ' involvemen t wit h educationa l questions i n thei r ow n tim e prevente d the m fro m perceivin g th e contri butions, a s well a s the limits , o f th e antebellu m colleges . In 1800 , th e America n libera l art s college s wer e relativel y simila r an d primarily wer e servin g th e urba n elit e o f th e natio n an d th e son s o f th e agricultural leader s o f th e South . Bu t change s i n th e natur e o f th e Amer -

Student Background s

99

ican socioeconomi c order , th e influenc e o f th e institutionalizatio n o f de nominationalism, th e openin g o f variou s professions , an d th e fluidit y o f the America n institutiona l structur e le d t o th e developmen t o f a n in creasingly divers e an d stratifie d highe r educationa l system . B y 186 0 th e schools clearl y reflecte d th e increas e i n th e economi c well-bein g o f th e country, th e ne w opportunitie s fo r youth , an d th e force d dislocation s caused b y rapi d socia l an d economi c change . Bu t th e pac e o f chang e an d its incidenc e di d no t affec t th e region s o r socia l an d economi c group s evenly. Significan t regiona l an d subregional differences , interactin g wit h the origina l statu s o f colleges , le d t o importan t regiona l variation s i n higher education , an d t o difference s amon g college s i n th e sam e genera l areas. The impac t o f socia l an d economi c force s upo n th e developmen t o f the increasingl y divers e syste m i s mos t eviden t i n Ne w Englan d becaus e of th e mor e complet e histor y tha t i s availabl e concernin g it s student s and colleges . Althoug h simila r trend s ar e discernabl e i n al l th e othe r areas o f th e country , the y see m t o hav e firs t appeare d i n Ne w Englan d and i n th e mos t obviou s ways . Bu t cautio n mus t b e exercise d whe n w e consider th e histor y o f Ne w England' s students . Ne w Englan d wa s dif ferent fro m othe r region s o f th e country , eve n thos e whic h ha d bee n populated b y it s alumni. 19 New Englan d ha d uniqu e pattern s o f studen t backgrounds, shift s i n occupationa l opportunitie s an d choice , an d th e achievements o f students . David Allmendinger' s sensitiv e an d detaile d stud y o f th e student s o f the Ne w Englan d college s focuse d upo n th e change s force d upo n thos e schools b y a n influ x o f ne w type s o f student s i n th e firs t tw o decade s o f the nineteent h century . Throug h a compilatio n an d analysi s o f th e age s of student s a t graduatio n an d th e tracin g o f th e background s o f som e o f those wh o h e cam e t o cal l "paupers, " h e conclude d tha t significan t changes occurre d i n man y o f th e college s becaus e o f th e need s an d de mands o f th e ne w students. 20 (Tabl e 3.1 ) Allmendinge r foun d tha t th e interaction o f economic , demographic , an d denominationa l force s cause d a chang e i n th e studen t bodie s o f man y o f th e Ne w Englan d colleges . The rura l an d recentl y founde d college s i n Ne w Englan d bega n t o cate r to a grou p o f me n fro m relativel y humbl e rura l background s wh o en tered colleg e a t o r wel l afte r th e ag e o f majority . Th e inabilit y o f thei r fathers t o pas s alon g farm s o r businesse s t o thei r son s cause d youn g me n to see k entr y int o th e professions . O f specia l importanc e t o the m an d the college s wa s th e ministry. 21 The ministr y wa s th e on e professio n o f th e perio d whic h allowe d sta tus mobilit y an d maintenance , wa s ope n t o thos e fro m relativel y humbl e backgrounds, wa s directl y linke d t o libera l education , an d whic h provid ed economi c support fo r student s o n a n institutionalize d basis . An d th e

100

5 9. 9 26.

6 17.

1801-1810 12.

1851-1860 5.

e Ne

1 33. 3 24.

2 18.

Harvard Yal 4 6

w College s Te

n College s

David Allmendinger' s Result s fro m a Stud y o f th e Ag e at Graduatio n o f Student s a t Ne w Englan d Colleges , 1801-1810 an d 1851-186 0 - Percen t o f Student s Graduating a t o r Abov e Ag e 2 5

Table 3.1

Student Background s

101

ministry wa s th e professio n wit h a widel y distribute d recruitmen t sys tem. Th e establishe d loca l ministr y ha d contac t wit h potentia l entrant s and wit h th e educationa l an d benevolen t institution s tha t coul d provid e economic suppor t t o worth y youn g men . Fo r many me n feelin g th e pres sures whic h le d t o Ne w England' s famou s out-migration , th e ministr y was a readil y availabl e solutio n t o th e frustration s cause d b y spendin g so man y year s providin g suppor t fo r thei r families , onl y t o face , i n thei r early an d mid-twenties , eithe r th e inheritanc e o f a n unprofitabl e smal l farm o r th e prospect s o f n o inheritanc e a t al l an d littl e o r n o trainin g i n a respectabl e occupatio n o r profession . Thus, whil e man y youn g me n fro m simila r socioeconomi c back grounds entere d othe r professions , th e ministr y wa s o f specia l impor tance t o th e colleges . La w an d medicin e ha d mor e fragil e link s wit h lib eral educatio n tha n di d th e ministr y an d di d no t hav e institutionalize d subsidization systems . Th e othe r profession s coul d no t provid e th e guar antees o f employmen t whic h resulte d fro m th e ris e i n deman d fo r trained minister s i n th e firs t decade s o f th e century . Th e tw o othe r tra ditional profession s ma y als o hav e becom e close d t o thos e o f lowe r so cial statu s becaus e o f relativ e overcrowdin g i n Ne w Englan d resulting , perhaps, fro m th e rus h int o th e lega l professio n b y youn g me n afte r th e Revolution.22 But th e impac t o f th e force s dislocatin g th e rura l Ne w Englan d popu lation wer e unevenl y sprea d ove r th e colleges . Th e ne w institution s lo cated outsid e o f th e majo r cities , suc h a s Middlebur y an d Amherst , fel t the influenc e o f th e ne w students . Th e establishe d colleges , especiall y Harvard an d Yale , remaine d relativel y aloo f fro m th e dominan t trend s i n New England. 23 The dat a fro m th e surve y o f student s fo r thi s stud y rein forces Allmendinger' s conclusions . Bu t i t als o embelllishe s the m an d in dicates ramification s o f th e change s i n th e natur e o f th e background s and career s o f student s no t give n emphasi s i n Allmendinger' s study . Fo r example, althoug h findin g ag e distribution s simila r t o thos e i n Allmendinger's complet e surve y o f graduates , th e sprea d o f age s rathe r than thei r concentratio n a t o r above th e ag e o f maturit y i s stresse d i n or der t o highligh t th e comple x demand s an d condition s impose d upo n th e colleges. (Tabl e 3.2 ) Because th e ministr y wa s especiall y attractiv e t o Ne w England' s displaced youn g men , man y o f th e region' s college s ha d t o accommodat e themselves t o a studen t bod y ver y differen t fro m tha t o f th e establishe d colleges. Th e ne w student s appea r t o hav e com e fro m socioeconomi c backgrounds lowe r tha n th e olde r student s o f th e eighteent h century . They ha d les s standardize d preparatio n an d brough t ne w perspective s and demand s t o th e colleges . Accordin g t o Allmendinger , th e resul t wa s a significan t chang e i n th e conduc t an d conten t o f highe r education . An d

102

2 4 6 7

7 8 17.6

8 4 2 9

Harvard 17.2

Yale 17.4 7 3 8 5

Other Colleges 17.9

11 7 19.3

5 3 9 9

5 9 19.0

3 - - -

8 1 8 2 2 10

2

5 3 6 1 1 5

3 -- -

3 19.1

6 - - -

2 3 19.6

14

8 2 2 2 3 44

I n

3 19.9 0 1 8 2

7 48 2 119.9

6 1 6 1

6 15 0 18.3

4 14 6 19.4

8 18.7 6 3 3 1

2 18.5 1 1 9 2

3 4 8 8

4 3 1 1 9 14

6 17.5

1800's 1810' s 1820' s 1830' s 1840' s 1850' s x % I X I h x \ % j % I n x \ % I % I n x \% I % | n x \% I % I n x \ % | % 7 >2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 cases

5 18.6 9 2 1 1

0 19.8 2 2 0 2

6 3 2 2 0 6

4 6 1 1

5 18.6

15.3

16.8

3 2 2 2 8 8

1

! 1800's 1810' s _ 1820 s 1830' s _ 1840' s 1850' s x I% j X I n x % I % nI x I % I % I n x I % I % I n x I% I % In x I21 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s 2 1 case s l ^

Mean Ag e A t Entry , Percen t Enterin g Colleg e Belo w Ag e Seventeen an d Abov e Ag e 2 1 fo r Middl e Atlanti c College s By Decad e o f Entry , 1800-1860

Table 3.5

117

i cI o A

1800's 1810'

n cases 2

4

A | B |

2 8 4 0 72 16

6 13 8 13 8 13 8 12 0 12 1 12 1 121

5 75 77 1 1 2 4 6 7 74 5

2 32 5 32 6 32 4 42

1 42 8 42 6 42 8 69 1 71 2 71 6 71 4

0 57 20 1 8 2 4 6 3 73 2

1 18 1 18 3 18 1 13 4 13 3 13 6 133

9 90 90 8 5 9 3 9 3 95 91

7 6 5 77 24 2

5 10 2 10 6 10 2 18

0 8 6 91 72 8

4 2 3 2 4 2 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 44

3 9 1 10 0 7 8 8 9 8 9 9 3 8 0

1 14 1 14 1 14 1 13

7 5 4 66 14 2 3 15 3 15 3 15 2 32

J 2 8 I 57 I 7

A | B | C | D

6 7 4 80 13 2

15 1 5 1 5 1 5 2

4 3 3 3 4 3 4 10

31

C I D |

10 8 1108110 8 10 8 93 9 4 9 4 9 4 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

53 8 7 9 3 8 7 6

8 9 7 94 85 9

-

-

2 11 1 11 2 11 1 14

4 6 1 7 1 1 3 2

s

2 3 2 63 9

C I D 1

0 4 0 40 40 J

2 65 68 21 1

4 7 5 7 5 7 5 15

8 57 65 1 6 2

9 30 31 3 1 7

Other Colleges % 2

3 14 14 1 4 2

I BI

s 1850'

0 5 8 73 8

9 1 8 1 9 1 8 ---

4 24 25 25 3

-1

8 84 89 83 ---

0 8 0 8 0 8 0 11

3 70 75 13 2

4 44 44 44 4

n cases 1

-

s 1840' B I C I D A

7 63 76 52 8

-

-5

B j cI DA

s 1820' s 1830'

tt 6 3 66 H 4

j

University of 69 7 9 8 6 5 7 6 Pennsylvania *

n cases -

-

5 46 46 4 6 8

n cases 4

-

2 83 85 2 4 3

Union % 4

Columbia %

6 46 46 4 6 4

n cases 4

-

Princeton % 3 3 4 1 6 1 1 7

AB

Geographic Backgroun d Characteristic s o f Student s at Middle Atlanti c College s b y Decad e o f Entry , 1800-1860 A) Percen t o f Student s fro m Larg e Cities B) Percen t o f Student s fro m Within th e Stat e o f Eac h College C ) Percen t o f Student s fro m Withi n th e Middle Atlantic D ) Percen t o f Student s fro m Withi n 10 0 Zi p Codes o f Eac h College

Table 3.6

118 AMERICA

N COLLEGIAT E POPULATION S

estimate o f muc h mor e tha n a majority o f it s student s enterin g a t sixtee n or below durin g th e 1850 s an d non e enrollin g abov e th e ag e twenty . Th e weak sample s fo r Columbi a sugges t a similar profil e bu t wit h a few ma ture students . The difference s betwee n Ne w Englan d an d th e Middl e Atlanti c wer e not confine d t o age s o f students . Althoug h th e genera l populatio n o f th e Middle Atlanti c state s wa s mor e rura l tha n Ne w England's , it s student s were alway s mor e likel y t o hav e com e fro m a large cit y tha n thos e wh o entered Ne w England' s smalle r institutions . Th e percentag e difference s between th e smalle r institution s o f th e tw o region s decrease d over time , but th e large r college s o f th e Middl e Atlantic , especiall y Columbi a an d the Universit y o f Pennsylvania , becam e institution s fo r student s fro m major cities . Lik e Harvard , thes e tw o school s followe d a tren d o f attracting student s fro m withi n thei r immediate , urban , areas . Th e sam ples fo r Columbi a an d Pennsylvani a sugges t tha t 9 0 percen t o f thei r stu dents cam e fro m larg e urba n centers . However , Unio n an d Princeto n ha d student population s tha t le d the m awa y fro m th e geographi c localis m o f Columbia an d Pennsylvani a a t th e sam e tim e tha t the y becam e "urban " institutions. Pennsylvani a an d Columbi a becam e mor e parochica l ove r the perio d an d b y th e 1850 s ha d almos t al l o f thei r student s fro m withi n Philadelphia an d Ne w Yor k Cit y respectively . Th e othe r college s ha d significantly fewe r student s fro m withi n thei r states , immediat e areas , or the region . An d Princeton' s sampl e indicate s tha t i t ha d a greate r rang e of geographi c attractio n tha n th e smalle r college s o r eve n Unio n Colleg e which wa s s o popula r amon g Ne w Englanders . Just a s in Ne w England , th e origin s o f student s fro m outsid e o f th e region differe d amon g th e college s i n th e Middl e Atlanti c states . Possibil y because o f th e proximit y o f Pennsylvani a t o th e Sout h an d Ne w Yor k t o the West , thei r ne w college s wer e mor e attractiv e t o student s fro m thos e regions tha n Ne w England' s smal l colleges . Th e estimate s fo r th e 1850 s suggest tha t th e Middl e Atlanti c college s probabl y ha d a greate r dra w than Harvar d o r Yale. Althoug h th e percentage s varied , i t seem s tha t th e estimates fro m th e groupe d sample s appl y t o man y Middl e Atlanti c col leges, bu t school s suc h a s Dickinso n an d Gettysbur g wer e college s fo r those fro m th e borde r South . Th e regio n was , however , isolate d fro m New England . Middl e Atlanti c student s enrolle d i n Ne w England' s col leges, bu t onl y Unio n attracte d importan t percentage s fro m th e Easter n area. Unio n wa s th e singl e colleg e i n th e Middl e Atlanti c state s t o accep t as muc h a s 4 o r 5 percent o f it s student s fro m Ne w England . Despit e th e absence o f a Presbyterian colleg e i n th e olde r region , Princeto n attracte d few Ne w Englan d students . Princeton an d Columbia , a s wel l a s Pennsylvania , wer e als o differen t from th e region' s smal l college s becaus e o f th e occupation s o f th e par ents o f thei r students . A s i n Ne w England , reporte d parenta l occupation s

Student Background s

119

revealed hig h percentage s o f professional s i n al l th e school s wit h a pre dominance o f minister s i n th e smalle r colleges . An d th e increas e i n fa thers involve d i n busines s parallele d Ne w Englan d wit h th e Middl e At lantic's olde r urba n institution s enrollin g increasingl y hig h number s o f students fro m commercia l backgrounds . Bu t i n th e Middl e Atlanti c states, th e Souther n migrant s di d no t see m t o com e exclusivel y fro m th e planter class . Th e smalle r college s enrolle d a broader sampl e o f Souther n society tha n Ne w England' s school s o r th e larg e college s i n thei r region , possibly becaus e o f thei r borde r locations . The olde r an d riche r institution s o f th e Sout h followe d th e pattern s o f the larg e Norther n colleges . The y serve d a studen t populatio n differen t from tha t o f th e South' s smalle r college s becaus e the y catere d t o th e re gion's elites . Bu t eve n i n it s larg e colleges , th e peculia r societ y o f th e South create d studen t bodie s ver y differen t fro m thos e o f th e North . And it s experienc e o f movin g toward s democrac y an d differentiatio n was mor e comple x an d divers e tha n tha t o f Ne w England. 42 (Tables 3.7 , 3.8, 3.9 , 3.10 ) As i n th e othe r regions , th e broadenin g o f Souther n libera l art s col leges wa s du e t o th e action s o f th e smal l denominationa l colleges , rathe r than t o it s larg e an d supposedl y secula r institutions . Th e crucia l rol e i n the relativ e democratizatio n o f th e syste m wa s no t performe d b y th e fa mous stat e universities ; eve n th e Universit y o f Virginia , th e grea t refor m institution o f th e South , attracte d a differen t typ e o f studen t tha n di d the smal l denominationa l colleges . Th e developin g differentiatio n o f Southern college s wa s mor e comple x tha n tha t o f th e North . An d al though th e studen t population s i n th e regio n share d man y characteristic s among themselve s an d wit h th e North , th e specia l natur e o f Souther n society an d it s economy , th e variation s i n it s subregions , an d it s lowe r educational syste m mad e Souther n highe r educatio n uniqu e eve n befor e the devastatin g impac t o f th e Civi l Wa r an d Reconstruction . The mos t apparen t differenc e betwee n Nort h an d Sout h (bu t not e th e relatively poo r sample s fo r th e region ) wa s tha t Souther n student s wer e always younge r tha n Ne w England's . I n it s rura l colleges , th e averag e age a t entr y wa s mor e lik e tha t a t th e larg e urba n school s o f th e North , such a s Pennsylvani a an d Harvard , tha n th e smal l college s o f Ne w En gland. A s i n th e Norther n urba n institutions , fe w matur e student s wer e pushed o r attracte d t o th e Souther n colleges . Bu t afte r th e 1830s , th e small college s o f th e regio n di d begi n t o enrol l som e olde r men . An d th e older college s o f th e Sout h wer e "younger " tha n th e denominationa l schools. Th e mea n ag e o f th e student s o f th e larg e stat e universitie s wa s not onl y lower , bu t th e secula r college s ha d a more homogeneou s popu lation. Thus , i f ag e i s accepte d a s a n indicato r o f socia l status , th e stat e universities o f th e Sout h hav e t o b e see n a s enclave s fo r th e elite s o f th e region.

120

sI

95 562 07 12 87 —

University o f Nort h Carolin a 16.8

University o f Sout h Carolin a 18.0

Other Sout h Atlanti c College s 17.5

1 4 81 4 2

0 17.8

"*""""

"1

1 18.6

4

7 1 9 1 2 28 4

7 2 3 91 0 7

08 02 05

3 18.8

8 2 6 02

16.4

s case s

8 2 9 98

% % 7 >2 1

1850*

1 17.9

9 18.0 6 4 7 1 4 4

9 16.7 5 4 5 0 2

sx

51 1 2 5 8

9 17.1 7 4 1 2 4

6 4 4 5 10 1 19.2

University o f Georgi a 17.05 4 2 5 1

sI

\ % \ % case 7 >2 1 2 1 case s

24 83 9 4

%n x % %n x % %n 2 1 case s 2 1 case s