'Ain el-Gedida: 2006-2008 Excavations of a Late Antique Site in Egypt's Western Desert (Amheida IV) 9781479848034

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Amheida IV

Ἁin el-Gedida 2006–2008 Excavations of a Late Antique Site in Egypt’s Western Desert

Amheida IV

Ἁin el-Gedida 2006–2008 Excavations of a Late Antique Site in Egypt’s Western Desert

Nicola Aravecchia with contributions by Roger S. Bagnall, Douglas V. Campana, Pamela J. Crabtree, Delphine Dixneuf, Dorota Dzierzbicka, and David M. Ratzan

INSTITUTE FOR THE STUDY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK 2018

© 2018 Institute for the Study of the Ancient World New York University Press ISBN 978-1-4798-0301-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Aravecchia, Nicola, author. Title: Ἁin el-Gedida : 2006 - 2008 excavations of a late antique site in Egypt’s western desert / Nicola Aravecchia ; with contributions by Roger S. Bagnall, Douglas V. Campana, Pamela J. Crabtree, Delphine Dixneuf, Dorota Dzierzbicka, and David M. Ratzan. Other titles: Amheida (Series) ; 4. Description: New York : Institute for the Study of the Ancient World and New York University Press, 2018. Series: Amheida ; IV | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018045274 | ISBN 9781479803019 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781479813575 (institutional) Subjects: LCSH: Western Desert (Egypt)--Antiquities. | Excavations (Archaeology)--Egypt--Western Desert. Classification: LCC DT137.W4 A73 2018 | DDC 932/.1--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018045274

Design by Andrew Reinhard Printed in the United States

Contents List of Plates

ix

Foreword

xvii

Preface

xix

Chapter 1: Introduction

1

1.1. Ἁin el-Gedida and the Dakhla Oasis

1

1.2. Early Christianity in Dakhla

7

1.2.1. Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab

9

1.2.2. Deir el-Molouk

11

1.2.3. Deir Abu Matta

13

1.2.4. Ἁin es-Sabil

15

1.2.5. Trimithis/Amheida

15

1.3. Topography of the Site

23

1.4. History of the Ἁin el-Gedida Project

26

1.5. Methodology of Excavation and Documentation

31

1.6. Conservation Strategies of Structures in Situ

34

Chapter 2: Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

37

2.1. Mound I

37

2.1.1. Area A

37

2.1.2. Area B

59

2.2. Mounds II-V

63

2.3. Test Trenches on Mound I

68

2.3.1. Rooms B1–B3

68

2.3.2. Room B4

77

Chapter 3: Mound I – The Church Complex 3.1. The Excavation of the Church Complex

81 81

3.1.1. Room B5

86

3.1.2. Room A46

110

3.1.3. Room B6

116

3.1.4. Room B7

124

3.1.5. Room B8

131

3.1.6. Room B9

136

Chapter 4: Excavations Outside the Church Complex

143

4.1. Room B10

143

4.2. Space B11

151

4.3. Space B12

156

4.4. Space B13

167

4.5. Rooms B14–B15

174

Chapter 5: The Church Complex and Surrounding Structures – Discussion

187

5.1. The Development of the Church Complex

187

5.2. Patterns of Movement Inside the Church Complex and Access from Outside

195

5.3. Ἁin el-Gedida and Early Christian Architecture in Egypt

200

5.3.1. Small East Church at Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab

200

5.3.2. Kharga

205

5.3.3. Beyond the Great Oasis

208

Chapter 6: The West Complex on Mound I

211

6.1. Room B17

212

6.2. Room B18

219

6.3. Room B19

226

6.4. Rooms B20–B21

243

6.5. Rooms B22–B23

251

6.6. Room B24

257

6.7. Discussion

262

Chapter 7: Conclusions

269

7.1. Issues of Chronology

269

7.2. Monastery or Epoikion? The Monastic Connection and Alternative Readings

275

7.3. Epilogue

283

Chapter 8: La ceramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida (Delphine Dixneuf) 8.1. Introduction

285 285

8.1.1. Problématique et état de la recherche

285

8.1.2. Les secteurs et contextes de découverte

286

8.1.3. Approche méthodologique

286

8.1.4. Présentation générale des fabriques

287

8.1.5. Les techniques de façonnage

287

8.1.6. Les techniques de cuisson

288

8.1.7. Nature et qualité des décor

289

8.2. Classification des ceramiques

289

8.2.1. Répartition des principales catégories de céramiques et présentation du catalogue

289

8.2.2. Les importations d’Afrique du Nord

291

8.2.3. Les importations de la vallée du Nil

291

8.2.4. Les importations de l’Oasis de Kharga

293

8.2.5. Les céramiques rouges à engobe rouge

295

8.2.6. Les céramiques en pâte calcaire

301

8.2.7. Les céramiques en pâte réfractaire

302

8.2.8. Les céramiques de l’Oasis de Dakhla

308

8.2.9. Les céramiques d’usage domestique

332

8.2.10. Les céramiques non cuites

333

8.3. Les assemblages

339

8.3.1. Le secteur 1: Une unité domestique d’habitation

339

8.3.2. Le secteur 2: La pièce B4

339

8.3.3. Le secteur 3: L’église et ses dépendances

340

8.3.4. Le secteur 4: L’atelier de potier

348

8.4. Conclusion Chapter 9: Coins from the 2006-2008 Excavations (David M. Ratzan)

351 447

9.1. Introduction

447

9.2. Periods

448

9.3. Mints

453

9.4. Imitations

456

9.5. Archaeological Observations

458

9.6. Catalogue

464

Chapter 10: Ostraka and Graffiti (Roger S. Bagnall and Dorota Dzierzbicka)

507

10.1. Introduction

507

10.2. Technical Remarks

510

10.3. Ostraka

511

10.4. Inscriptions

529

10.5. Figural Dipinti and Graffiti

533

Chapter 11: Small Finds from Ἁin el-Gedida: Other Categories (Dorota Dzierzbicka) 11.1. Textiles

539 539

11.1.1. Introduction

539

11.1.2. Catalogue

541

11.2. Glass Vessels

545

11.2.1. Introduction

545

11.2.2. Catalogue

549

11.3. Personal Adornment

559

11.3.1. Introduction

559

11.3.2. Catalogue

562

11.4. Miscellaneous Objects

575

11.4.1. Introduction

575

11.4.2. Catalogue

578

Chapter 12: Animal Bone Remains from Ἁin el-Gedida (Pamela J. Crabtree and Douglas V. Campana)

593

12.1. Materials and Methods

593

12.2. Results

593

12.3. Conclusions

596

Bibliography

601

Index

625

List of Plates Chapter 1 Pl. 1.1: Satellite map of Egypt (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov). Pl. 1.2: Map of Dakhla and Kharga Oases (elaborated by Bruno Bazzani). Pl. 1.3: Map of Dakhla’s roads and caravan routes (after Vivian 2008: 174). Pl. 1.4: Plan of the West Church complex at Kellis (after Bowen 2002a: 76, Fig. 8). Pl. 1.5: Plan of the East Churches complex at Kellis (after Bowen 2002a: 66, Fig. 2). Pl. 1.6: Plan of the church of Deir el-Molouk (after Mills 1981: Pl. X). Pl. 1.7: Deir Abu Matta, external walls of the church (view to W). Pl. 1.8: Plan of the church at Amheida. Pl. 1.9: Aerial view of the remains of the church (to SE). Pl. 1.10: Large fragments of painted plaster from the (collapsed) ceiling of the church. Pl. 1.11: Intact burials inside the crypt of the church. Pl. 1.12: Map of Dakhla Oasis (source: Google Earth; elaborated by Bruno Bazzani). Pl. 1.13: Ἁin el-Gedida, Google site view (to NW), with superimposed archaeological plan (elaborated by Bruno Bazzani). Pl. 1.14: Satellite image of Ἁin el-Gedida (source: Google Earth). Pl. 1.15: View of Ἁin el-Gedida (to S). Pl. 1.16: Site plan. Chapter 2 Pl. 2.1: Plan of buildings on mound I. Pl. 2.2: View of mound I (to S). Pl. 2.3: Plan of area A in the southern half of mound I. Pl. 2.4: Aerial view of mound I-area A (to NE). Pl. 2.5: View of storage rooms at the south end of mound I (to E). Pl. 2.6: Plan of room A2. Pl. 2.7: View of room A2 (to NE). Pl. 2.8: Plan of room A5. Pl. 2.9: View of room A5 (to E). Pl. 2.10: Remains of drain set in the west wall of room A5. Pl. 2.11: Plan of room A9. Pl. 2.12: East wall of room A9. Pl. 2.13: Aerial view of rooms A14-A15 (to W). Pl. 2.14: Plan of rooms A14–A15. Pl. 2.15: West wall of room A14. Pl. 2.16: Traces of inscription on the east wall of room A14. Pl. 2.17: Plan of room A25. Pl. 2.18: Bricked-in doorway on the east wall of room A25. Pl. 2.19: View of room A25 from above (to SE), with traces of earlier walls below floor level. Pl. 2.20: View of rooms A6–A7 (to E). Pl. 2.21: Plan of rooms A6–A7. Pl. 2.22: Staircase in room A6. Pl. 2.23: Aerial view of rooms A6–A7 (to SW); arrows point to the remains of ovens. Pl. 2.24: Plan of rooms A6–A7. Pl. 2.25: View of mound I-area B (to NW) before excavation. Pl. 2.26: Plan of area B in the northern half of mound I.

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Pl. 2.27: View of large square structure—likely a pigeon tower—(to NW). Pl. 2.28: Plan of mounds II–IV. Pl. 2.29: View of mound II (to SW). Pl. 2.30: View of mound III (to SW). Pl. 2.31: View of mound IV (to SW). Pl. 2.32: Traces of architectural features on mound V. Pl. 2.33: View of mound V (to NW). Pl. 2.34: Plan of rooms B1–B3. Pl. 2.35: Aerial view of rooms B1-B3 (to NW). Pl. 2.36: View of room B1 after excavation (to W). Pl. 2.37: Matrix of room B1. Pl. 2.38: Collapse unit (DSU14) in room B1 (view to W). Pl. 2.39: Matrix of room B2. Pl. 2.40: White band in the NE corner or room B3. Pl. 2.41: Matrix of room B3. Pl. 2.42: Detail of DSU10 in room B3. Pl. 2.43: Plan of room B4. Pl. 2.44: Aerial view of room B4 (to NW). Pl. 2.45: Remains of earlier wall (BF34) below floor level in room B4. Pl. 2.46: Matrix of room B4. Pl. 2.47: View of DSU15 in room B4 (to W). Chapter 3 Pl. 3.1: The church complex at the end of the 2007 campaign (view to SW). Pl. 3.2: Plan of the church complex. Pl. 3.3: Mosaic of photogrammetric images of the church complex. Pl. 3.4: North–south section cut across rooms B5, A46, and B7 (showing east side). Pl. 3.5: Plan of room B5. Pl. 3.6: View of the church (room B5) before excavation (to W). Pl. 3.7: Aerial view of rooms B5 and A46 (to NW). Pl. 3.8: Photogrammetric images of the walls of room B5. Pl. 3.9: Aerial view of rooms B5 and A46 (to W). The yellow line marks the uneven south wall of the church. Pl. 3.10: Mosaic of photogrammetric images of the west walls of rooms B5, A46, and B6. Pl. 3.11: Aerial view of the apsidal area of room B5 (to W). Pl. 3.12: View of the apse of room B5 (to E). Pl. 3.13: Semicolumn BF41 and wall BF40 in room B5 (view to E). Pl. 3.14: Semicolumn BF36 and wall BF35 in room B5 (view to NE). Pl. 3.15: Pit BF63 dug in antiquity inside the apse of the church (view to E). Pl. 3.16: Niche of room B5 (east end of north wall), with traces of defaced painting above. Pl. 3.17: Apse and l-shaped pastophorion of room B5 (view from above). Pl. 3.18: View of apse and opening of pastophorion (to SE). Pl. 3.19: Detail of the east end of the pastophorion, with traces of burnt oil (view to E). Pl. 3.20: Section of walls from a test trench outside the apse’s south wall. Pl. 3.21: View of the church with visible remains of mud-brick podium (to NW). Pl. 3.22: View of the blocking wall and stepped podium in room B5 (to N). Pl. 3.23: View of the stepped podium from room A46 (to S). Pl. 3.24: Mastaba (bench) along the south wall of room B5 (view to SE). Pl. 3.25: Graffiti on the north wall (west half) of room B5.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

xi

Pl. 3.26: Aerial view of rooms A46 (left) and B5 (right) (to E). The arrows point to earlier walls below floor level. Pl. 3.27: Matrix of room B5. Pl. 3.28: View of DSU22 inside room B5 at the end of the 2006 season (to NW). Pl. 3.29: View of DSU22 (to E). Pl. 3.30: View of DSU26 (filling of a pit in the apse) (to E). Pl. 3.31: View of DSU32 (below North arrow) to the west of the sanctuary (to E). Pl. 3.32: View of pit BF69 along the western edge of the sanctuary (to E). Pl. 3.33: Partial view of pit BF69 (to S). Pl. 3.34: View of DSU35 in the east half of room B5 (to W). Pl. 3.35: Complete bowl found within the floor of room B5 (inv. 637). Pl. 3.36: Plan of rooms B5 and A46 (partial) with the location of test trenches. Pl. 3.37: Test trenches in room B5. Pl. 3.38: View of room A46 (to SW). Pl. 3.39: Plan of room A46. Pl. 3.40: Photogrammetric images of the walls of room A46. Pl. 3.41: View of room A46 (to NE), with mastabas AF66–AF67. Pl. 3.42: Aerial view of room A46 (to SW), mith mastaba AF68. Pl. 3.43: Test trenches in room A46. Pl. 3.44: Aerial view of room B6 (to W). Pl. 3.45: Plan of room B6. Pl. 3.46: View of the passageway from room B6 to rooms A46 and B5 (to S). Pl. 3.47: View of the northeast corner of room B6 (with door leading to staircase B8). Pl. 3.48: Photogrammetric images of the walls of room B6. Pl. 3.49: Imprints of vessels on the floor of room B6 (left of white line). Pl. 3.50: Coptic inscription and graffiti on the north wall of room B6. Pl. 3.51: Greek inscription on the west wall of room B6. Pl. 3.52: Matrix of room B6. Pl. 3.53: Vault collapse (DSU40) inside room B6 (view to E). Pl. 3.54: Aerial view of corridor B7 (to NW). Pl. 3.55: View of corridor B7 (to E). Pl. 3.56: Plan of corridor B7. Pl. 3.57: Large patch of floor (BF108) in corridor B7 (view to W). Pl. 3.58: Test trench excavated at the east end of corridor B7. Pl. 3.59: Detail of BF150 in corridor B7 (view to SE). Pl. 3.60: Matrix of corridor B7. Pl. 3.61: View of staircase B8 (to SW). Pl. 3.62: Plan of staircase B8. Pl. 3.63: Aerial view of the northwest sector of the church complex (to W). Pl. 3.64: East–west section showing part of east side of staircase B8 (including south face of walls BF92 and BF 121). Pl. 3.65: Matrix of staircase B8. Pl. 3.66: View of collapse DSU50 in staircase B8 (to W). Pl. 3.67: Aerial view of room B9 in the foreground (to S). Pl. 3.68: Plan of room B9. Pl. 3.69: Profile of walls (north face) above doorway of room B9. Pl. 3.70: View of the southeast corner of room B9. Pl. 3.71: Mud-brick cupboard in room B9 (view to S). Pl. 3.72: Matrix of room B9. Pl. 3.73: View of vault and wall collapse DSU75 in room B9 (to E).

xii

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Chapter 4 Pl. 4.1: Aerial view of room B10 (to SE). Pl. 4.2: Plan of room B10. Pl. 4.3: View of retaining wall along the east side of room B10. Pl. 4.4: View of BF96 (clay basin) and imprint of circular feature on the roof of room B10 (to SE). Pl. 4.5: Detail of clay basin (hawasel) above the east vault spring of room B10. Pl. 4.6: Matrix of room B10. Pl. 4.7: View of occupational level (DSU80) in room B10 (to N). Pl. 4.8: View of passageway B11 (to E). Pl. 4.9: View of passageway B11 (to W). Pl. 4.10: Plan of passageway B11. Pl. 4.11: Photogrammetric images of the walls of passageway B11. Pl. 4.12: Matrix of passageway B11. Pl. 4.13: Detail of DSU97 in passageway B11 (view to W). Pl. 4.14: Aerial view of street B12 (to SE). Pl. 4.15: View of street B12 (to N). Pl. 4.16: Plan of street B12. Pl. 4.17: Opening between rooms B12 and B15 (aerial view to NW). Pl. 4.18: Aerial view of street B12 (to SW). Pl. 4.19: Plan of the central and southern sectors of street B12 with the location of test trenches. Pl. 4.20: Patches of floor BF134 in the central sector of street B12 (aerial view to SE). Pl. 4.21: Matrix of street B12. Pl. 4.22: View of collapse DSU88 in the central sector of street B12 (to SW). Pl. 4.23: Stratigraphical section of street B12 (near the entrance of the church complex). Pl. 4.24: View of DSU107 (=DSU85) in the northern sector of street B12. Pl. 4.25: Aerial view of courtyard B13 (to SW). Pl. 4.26: Plan of courtyard B13. Pl. 4.27: Drawing of the mud-brick basins along the south wall of courtyard B13. Pl. 4.28: Mud-brick basin FSU147 inside courtyard B13 (view to S). Pl. 4.29: Mud-brick basin FSU148 inside courtyard B13 (view to SW). Pl. 4.30: Matrix of courtyard B13. Pl. 4.31: Aerial view of rooms B14–B15 (to SW). Pl. 4.32: Plan of rooms B14–B15. Pl. 4.33: Remains of substructures for ceramic ovens (western half of room B15). Pl. 4.34: View of western half of room B15 (to S). Pl. 4.35: Partial view of wall BF128 and substructures of ovens in room B15 (to SW). Pl. 4.36: Southeast wall of room B15 (view to E). Pl. 4.37: Matrix of room B14. Pl. 4.38: Matrix of room B15. Pl. 4.39: View of collapse DSU86 in rooms B14–B15 (to SE). Pl. 4.40: Test trench excavated between street B12 and room B15. Pl. 4.41: View of DSU132 (and clay bin BF162) in room B15 (to NW). Pl. 4.42: Aerial view of DSU127 in room B14 (to WSW). Pl. 4.43: Preparation layer DSU131 against the southwestern corner of room B14 (view to SW). Chapter 5 Pl. 5.1: Early structures in the area of the church complex. Pl. 5.2: Main (red) and secondary (green) axes of movement within the church complex.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations Pl. 5.3: Streets and passageways surveyed on mound I. Pl. 5.4: Plan of the Small East Church at Kellis (after Bowen 2003a: 154). Pl. 5.5: Plan of the church of Douch (after Reddé 2004: 83). Pl. 5.6: Plan of the church of Shams ed-Din (after Bonnet 2004: 84). Chapter 6 Pl. 6.1: Complex of rooms along the west edge of mound I before excavation. Pl. 6.2: Plan of the west complex. Pl. 6.3: Aerial view of rooms B17–B24 (to N). Pl. 6.4: Aerial view of rooms B17–B18. Pl. 6.5: View (to NE) of room B17 (in rhe foreground). Pl. 6.6: Plan of room B17. Pl. 6.7: Matrix of room B17. Pl. 6.8: View of room B18 (to SE). Pl. 6.9: Plan of room B18. Pl. 6.10: Threshold of the doorway between rooms B18 and B19. Pl. 6.11: Mud-brick staircase in the southeast corner of room B18. Pl. 6.12: N–S profile (and view from above) of mud-brick staircase in room B18. Pl. 6.13: Mud-brick platform in the northeast corner of room B18. Pl. 6.14: N–S and E–W profiles (and view from above) of mud-brick platform in room B18. Pl. 6.15: Matrix of room B18. Pl. 6.16: View (to N) of vault collapse DSU155 protruding into room B18. Pl. 6.17: Aerial view of room B19 (to E). Pl. 6.18: Plan of room B19. Pl. 6.19: View (to N) of west walls of room B19 (the rod lies in the gap between the floor of the room and wall BF200 shifted to the west). Pl. 6.20: Hearth BF213 in the northwest sector of room B19 (view to SE). Pl. 6.21: Remains of clay bin BF223 embedded in the upper floor or room B19. Pl. 6.22: Basin BF214 against the east wall of room B19 during excavation (view to SE). Pl. 6.23: View of basin BF214 after excavation (to N). Pl. 6.24: Fragment of a turning-wheel embedded in the floor of room B19. Pl. 6.25: View of basin BF225 in the southeast corner of room B19 (to S). Pl. 6.26: Walls of basin BF225. Pl. 6.27: Clay bin (BF221) along the east wall of room B19 (view to SE). Pl. 6.28: Clay bin BF209 found (not in situ) in the southern half of room B19. Pl. 6.29: Matrix of room B19. Pl. 6.30: Matrix of room B19-SE corner. Pl. 6.31: View of DSU146 and DSU165 (to NW). Pl. 6.32: View of DSU148 (fill of pit BF181) (to SW). Pl. 6.33: View of vault collapse DSU168 in room B19 (to SE). Pl. 6.34: View of vault collapse DSU173 inside basin BF214 (to SE). Pl. 6.35: View of collapsed wall DSU175 (to SE). Pl. 6.36: View of DSU193 (to SSE). Pl. 6.37: Plan of rooms B20–B23. Pl. 6.38: Aerial view of rooms B20–B23 (to SW). Pl. 6.39: View of entrance from courtyard B19 into rooms B20–B21 (to N). Pl. 6.40: View of doorway between rooms B19–B20 (to S). Pl. 6.41: View of doorway between rooms B20–B21 (to N). Pl. 6.42: Remains of west wall of room B21 (view to W).

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Pl. 6.43: Mud-brick feature (BF189) against the north wall of room B21. Pl. 6.44: Matrix of room B20. Pl. 6.45: Matrix of room B21. Pl. 6.46: View of DSU142 and DSU143 in room B20 (to NE). Pl. 6.47: View of DSU139 and DSU141 in room B21 (to SE). Pl. 6.48: Remains of floor BF179 in room B22 (view to SE). Pl. 6.49: View of west wall (BF192) of room B23 (to SW). Pl. 6.50: View of doorway connecting rooms B23 and B19 (to S). Pl. 6.51: Matrix of room B22. Pl. 6.52: Matrix of room B23. Pl. 6.53: View (to S) of wall collapse (DSU140) and sand deposit (DSU144) in room B23. Pl. 6.54: Small globular pot found against the west wall of room B23 (inv. 1103). Pl. 6.55: Plan of room B24. Pl. 6.56: View of room B24 (to W). Pl. 6.57: Test trench excavated in room B24 (view to W). Pl. 6.58: Matrix of room B24. Pl. 6.59: View of collapse DSU169 between rooms B19 and B24 (to W). Pl. 6.60: Close-up of lumps of partially worked clay found at the entrance of room B24. Pl. 6.61: Aerial view of the west complex (to S). Pl. 6.62: Plan of the west complex before its conversion into a ceramic workshop (later features are in lighter gray). Pl. 6.63: Plan of the temple of El-Qusur (after Kaper 1997: 8). Pl. 6.64: View of the temple of El-Qusur (to ESE). Pl. 6.65: Niches along the south wall of the temple of El-Qusur (view to W). Chapter 8 Pl. 8.1: Céramiques de: Afrique du Nord; Vallée du Nil; Oasis de Kharga. Pl. 8.2-4: Céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW). Pl. 8.5: Céramiques en pâte calcaire B10; céramiques en pâte A11. Pl. 8.6-7: Céramiques en pâte A11. Pl. 8.8: Céramiques en pâte A11; céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28. Pl. 8.9-20: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28. Pl. 8.21: Céramiques en pâtes A4. Pl. 8.22-23: Céramiques non cuites. Pl. 8.24: Pièce B1, US 14. Pl. 8.25: Pièce B1, US 14; pièce B3, US 10; pièce B4, US 4. Pl. 8.26: Pièce B4, US 8; pièce B4, US 11. Pl. 8.27-31: Pièce B4, US 15. Pl. 8.32: Pièce B4, US 15; pièce B6, US 39; pièce B6, US 42; pièce B6, US 55. Pl. 8.33: Pièce B6, US 59; pièce B6, US 61; pièces B6/B8, US 58. Pl. 8.34: Pièce B7, US 37; pièce B7, US 38; pièce B7, US 45; pièce B9, US 69; pièce B9, US 72. Pl. 8.35: Pièce B9, US 68. Pl. 8.36: Pièce B9, US 68; pièce B9, US 79. Pl. 8.37: Pièce B9, US 79; pièce B9, US 75. Pl. 8.38: Pièce B9, US 75. Pl. 8.39: Pièce B9, US 75; pièce B9, US 82. Pl. 8.40: Pièce B10, US 62; pièce B10, US 65. Pl. 8.41: Pièce B10, US 65; pièce B10, US 73. Pl. 8.42: Pièce B10, US 73; pièce B10, US 74; pièce B10, US 78; pièce B10, US 76.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations Pl. 8.43: Pièce B10, US 76; pièce B10, US 80. Pl. 8.44: Pièce B10, US 80. Pl. 8.45: Pièce B10, US 80; pièce B11, US 90. Pl. 8.46: Pièce B11, US 90; pièce B11, US 92. Pl. 8.47: Pièce B11, US 94; pièce B11, US 97; pièce B11, US 100. Pl. 8.48: Pièce B11, US 108; pièce B12, US 91; pièce B12, US 93. Pl. 8.49: Pièce B12, US 107; pièce B12, US 120; pièce B12, US 121; pièce B13, US 104. Pl. 8.50: Pièce B15, US 86; pièce B15, US 129; pièce B15, US 132. Pl. 8.51: Pièce B15, US 132; pièce B15, US 136; pièce B15, US 137. Pl. 8.52: Pièce B14, US 122. Pl. 8.53-57: Pièce B15, US 127. Pl. 8.58: Pièce B15, US 127; pièce B15, US 130; secteur 4, US 138. Pl. 8.59: Secteur 4, US 138; pièce B17, US 150; pièce B17, US 152; pièce B18, US 149. Pl. 8.60: Pièce B18, US 155; pièce B18, US 161; pièce B18, US 156; pièce B18, US 157; pièce B18, US 158. Pl. 8.61: Pièce B19, US 146. Pl. 8.62: Pièce B19, US 154; pièce B19, US 165. Pl. 8.63-64: Pièce B19, US165. Pl. 8.65: Pièce B19, US 165; pièce B19, US 148. Pl. 8.66: Pièce B19, US 171; pièce B19, US 173; pièce B19, US 185; pièce B19, US 177; pièce B19, US 188. Pl. 8.67: Pièce B21, US 141; pièce B23, US 140; pièce B23, US 144; pièce B23, US 147. Pl. 8.68: Pièce B23, US 147. Pl. 8.69: Pièce B24, US 169; pièce B24, US 174. Chapter 9 Pl. 9.1a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 507. Pl. 9.2a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 509. Pl. 9.3a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 510. Pl. 9.4a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 512. Pl. 9.5a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 513. Pl. 9.6a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 514. Pl. 9.7a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 516. Pl. 9.8a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 518. Pl. 9.9a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 550. Pl. 9.10a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 566. Pl. 9.11a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 561. Pl. 9.12a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 563. Pl. 9.13a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 667. Pl. 9.14a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 684. Pl. 9.15a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 670. Pl. 9.16a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 840. Pl. 9.17a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 688. Pl. 9.18a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 690. Pl. 9.19a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 827. Pl. 9.20a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1049. Pl. 9.21a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 805. Pl. 9.22a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 687. Pl. 9.23a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1091. Pl. 9.24a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1095. Pl. 9.25a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1041.

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Pl. 9.26a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1038. Pl. 9.27a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1044. Chapter 10 Pl. 10.1: Coptic ostrakon (inv. 4) from room B4. Pl. 10.2a: Greek ostrakon (inv. 7) from room B3. Convex side. Pl. 10.2b: Greek ostrakon (inv. 7) from room B3. Concave side. Pl. 10.3: Greek ostrakon (inv. 10) from the clearance of room A25. Pl. 10.4: Greek ostrakon (inv. 1007) from room B19. Pl. 10.5: Greek ostrakon (inv. 9) from room B4. Pl. 10.6: Greek ostrakon (inv. 28) from room B1. Pl. 10.7: Greek ostrakon (inv. 25) from room B1. Pl. 10.8: Greek ostrakon (inv. 660) from room B11. Pl. 10. 9: Greek ostrakon (inv. 830) from room B23. Pl. 10.10: Detail of Greek ostrakon (inv. 8) from the clearance of room A25. Pl. 10.11: Greek ostrakon (inv. 529) from room B5. Pl. 10.12: Coptic ostrakon (inv. 17) from the clearance of room A25. Pl. 10.13: Upper part of niche on the north wall of room B6, with dipinti and graffito. Pl. 10.14: Drawing of dipinti and graffiti on the north wall of room B6. Pl. 10.15: Drawing of Coptic inscription on the north wall of room B6. Pl. 10.16: Infrared image of Coptic inscription on the north wall of room B6. Pl. 10.17: Infrared image of Greek inscription on the west wall of room B6. Pl. 10.18: Infrared image of graffito on the north wall of room B5. Pl. 10.19: Dipinto of a boat on the north wall of room B6. Pl. 10.20: Drawing of a dipinto of a boat (north wall of room B6). Pl. 10.21: Drawing of a dipinto of a boat (north wall of room B6). Pl. 10.22: Dipinto of a bird on the north wall of room B6. Pl. 10.23: Drawing of a dipinto of a bird (north wall of room B6). Pl. 10.24: Drawing of a graffito of a boat (north wall of room B6). Pl. 10.25: Drawing of a graffito of a rosette (south wall of room B6). Chapter 11 Pl. 11.1: A selection of textile fragments from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.2: Glass fragments (bowls and plates) from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.3: Glass fragments (lamps/beakers and closed forms) from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.4: Glass bracelets from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.5: Various objects of personal adornment from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.6: Wooden objects from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.7: Miscellaneous objects from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.8: Terracottas from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.9: Stone and plaster objects from Ἁin el-Gedida. Pl. 11.10: Gypsum and cartonnage fragments from Ἁin el-Gedida. Chapter 12 Pl. 12.1a–b: Two views of the dog skull recovered from room B19 at Ἁin el-Gedida.

Foreword As Nicola Aravecchia shows, the fieldwork at and publication of the site of Ἁin el-Gedida have brought to light a type of settlement that existed in large numbers in late antique Egypt, the rural hamlet dependent on and supporting a larger settlement. The Ἁin el-Gedida project took place as a subsidiary operation of the excavations at Amheida, at the time of the excavations sponsored by Columbia University, where I was then a faculty member. The work was supported by a Distinguished Achievement Award made to me by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and I take this opportunity to renew my thanks to the Foundation for this support. I am also grateful to the entire Amheida team for their moral and logistical support, particularly to my assistant Ashraf Barakat and to our house manager Gaber Murad. They solved problems at every stage and made this work possible. The results of this excavation are being published as part of the Amheida series, even though they concern another site, both because this work was part of the Amheida project and, more importantly, because Amheida, Roman Trimithis, was made possible by a network of such rural settlements in its surroundings. Not only do the finds from Ἁin el-Gedida have many points of intersection with those at Amheida, but they help show how an urban settlement of the Roman period like Trimithis functioned in the oasis ecological and economic zone. Roger Bagnall

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Preface This archaeological report is the first comprehensive study on the excavations carried out at the site of Ἁin el-Gedida, in the Dakhla Oasis of Upper Egypt, between 2006 and 2008, followed by two study seasons conducted in 2009 and 2010. The project was directed by Roger S. Bagnall, with Nicola Aravecchia as the archaeological field director.1 During the five seasons, the project team also recorded areas of the site previously excavated, between 1993 and 1995, by the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt2 and briefly described in an article by Mr. Kamel Bayoumi, who conducted these excavations.3 Parts of the work included in the present report have been presented briefly in an earlier article and book chapter by the principal author.4 The project was sponsored by Columbia University during the entire excavation period, with management passing to New York University starting with the 2009 study season. Two primary goals drove the writing of this report. One was to offer a comprehensive presentation and discussion of the archaeological (including documentary) evidence retrieved at the site during the three years of excavations and the two study seasons that followed. I have tried both to make this evidence available in the form needed by scholars and to keep the study accessible to others interested in the site, particularly in its church complex. A second goal was 1. The other members of the 2006–2008 missions were: Kamel Ahmad Bayumi, cooperating archaeologist (2006–2007); Anna Boozer (2006), Roberta Casagrande (2007), Dorota Dzierzbicka (2007–2008), Maria Guadalupe Espinosa Rodriguez (2008), Francesco Meo (2006), archaeologists; Gillian Pyke (2006), Delphine Dixneuf (2007–2008), ceramicists; Angela Cervi, registrar (2006–2008); Marina Nuovo, assistant registrar (2006–2008); Fabio Congedo (2006), Valentino de Santis (2006), Silvia Maggioni (2008), Simone Occhi (2007), Fabrizio Pavia (2007–2008), topographers; Johannes Walter, archaeobotanist (2006); Silviu Angel, photographer (2006); Bruno Bazzani, IT and photographer (2006–2008). The inspectors, from the local Coptic and Islamic Inspectorate of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, were: Sahar Habeb Farid (2006–2007); Mahmoud Mohamed Massoud (2006); Adli Abdallah Zawal (2008). 2. Renamed in recent years as the Ministry of State for Antiquities. 3. See Bayoumi 1998. 4. See Aravecchia 2012 and 2015c. The excavations of the church of Ἁin el-Gedida were also the subject of the author’s Ph.D. dissertation: see Aravecchia 2009b. The preliminary reports of all excavation and study seasons at the site are available on-line: see Aravecchia 2006–2009a; 2010.

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to use the discussion of the material evidence to approach and try to find answers to broad questions that led, in the first place, to the development of the research project and constantly inspired and drove our research activity, both in and outside the field. Among these were issues of relative and absolute chronology; questions about the origins and the abandonment of the settlement, about polytheism and the spread of Christianity at the site (and in the oasis) during the fourth century; highly-debated issues concerning the nature of the site and its place within the physical, administrative, and economic landscape of the Dakhla Oasis in Late Antiquity; and a necessity (and desire) to learn more about the ancient inhabitants of Ἁin el-Gedida, their social structure and the patterns of their daily life. As this volume intends to show, the picture that emerged from these inquiries is that of a small but so far unique site. In particular, its investigation made important new data available for the study of early Egyptian Christianity, as well as archaeological evidence of a type of rural settlement that was previously known only from written sources. The report is structured into twelve chapters. Chapter 1 is an introduction to the Dakhla Oasis and to the site of Ἁin el-Gedida. The evidence for the spread of Christianity throughout the oasis, particularly in the fourth century when Ἁin el-Gedida flourished, is presented here. The chapter includes a brief history of the research project, from its inception to the work carried out on site each season, and information about the methodology of excavation and documentation that was adopted. Chapters 2–6 discuss the data collected during the survey and excavations carried out at Ἁin el-Gedida. The evidence is divided by topographical area (i.e., the five mounds of the site), by building, and by room, with a thorough analysis of the architectural features, their stratigraphy, finds, and the contribution that their study may give to a better understanding of the site’s history. Chapter 7 touches upon broad issues—just mentioned above—concerning the identification of the site’s nature, its development, and its relation to the broader context of the Dakhla Oasis in the fourth century. There then follow five chapters, written by specialists of the Ἁin el-Gedida research team, cataloguing and presenting the ceramics (Delphine Dixneuf), the coins (David M. Ratzan), the documentary evidence—mostly ostraka—(Roger S. Bagnall and Dorota Dzierzbicka), other categories of small finds (Dorota Dzierzbicka), and the zooarchaeological remains (Pamela J. Crabtree and Douglas Campana) that were retrieved at the site. I am profoundly indebted to Prof. Roger Bagnall, who invited me to join the excavations at Ἁin el-Gedida as the archaeological field director since the very beginning of the project. Throughout the years, he has provided me with constant and invaluable guidance, at both professional and personal levels. I am also grateful to the faculty of the Department of Art History at the University of Minnesota and, in particular, Prof. Rick Asher for having supported, when I was still a doctoral student, my participation in the Ἁin el-Gedida mission. I would like to acknowledge Prof. Paola Davoli for having shared with me her vast knowledge and expertise in archaeological fieldwork in Egypt. I also feel deeply grateful for the invaluable contribution given to the project by each and every member of the Ἁin el-Gedida team

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and, in particular, by my colleague Prof. Dorota Dzierzbicka. Their skills and their dedication to the project, both in and outside the field, made the three seasons of excavations—as well as the two study seasons—at Ἁin el-Gedida an extremely successful and rewarding experience. All contributors and I are very grateful to the referees of this volume for providing valuable comments and suggestions. I would also like to acknowledge Kristen DeMondo and Bruno Bazzani for their expert collaboration. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their unfailing belief in the value of my research project and their support throughout these years.

1 Introduction 1.1. Ἁin el-Gedida and the Dakhla Oasis The Dakhla Oasis lies in the Western Desert of Upper Egypt, ca. 800 km southwest of Cairo, 280 km southwest of Asyut, and about 300 km west of Luxor (Pls. 1.1–2). It is one of the five major oases that lie west of the Nile Valley, including Siwa, Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, and Kharga. Dakhla is oriented northwest–southeast and has an extension of ca. 80 km from east to west and ca. 30 km from north to south, covering a green area of ca. 410 km2. It lies to the south of an escarpment, 300 to 400 m high, which separates the depression of the oasis from the northern Libyan plateau.1 In fact, the oasis does not consist of a continuum of fertile, irrigated land, but rather of a set of smaller oases, divided by the desert. To the west of Dakhla are the dunes of the Great Sand Sea, and to the south is a vast desert expanse leading to Sudan. About 190 km east of Dakhla, and separated from it by desert land, is the Kharga Oasis. Apart from the escarpment, the only mountain of the depression is Gebel Edmondstone, located toward the northwest end of the oasis. Smaller outcrops and spring mounds dot the relatively flat landscape, which is at a height of 92–140 m above sea level.2 The natural environment of Dakhla is harsh. The average temperatures are high, soaring to 40° and beyond during the summer months.3 Also, significant temperature differences exist between day and night, especially in the winter. Precipitation is a very rare occurrence, while 1. Kleindienst et al. 1999: 1. 2. Detailed information on the geology and geomorphology, but also on the palaeobotany and palaeozoology of the Dakhla Oasis, is available in Kleindienst et al. 1999. See also Mills 1999: 171. 3. Kleindienst et al. 1999: 3; see also Giddy 1987: 3.

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Pl. 1.1: Satellite map of Egypt (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov).

Introduction

3

Pl. 1.2: Map of Dakhla and Kharga Oases (elaborated by Bruno Bazzani).

northern winds hit the oasis with fierce intensity, causing sandstorms that halt any human activity.4 The oasis lies in a region that is the result of geological phenomena occurring since the Early Cretaceous.5 Surveys carried out in Dakhla gathered evidence, datable from the Late Cretaceous to the Quaternary Eras, proving that large parts of the oasis were covered with water.6 Afterwards, dramatic environmental changes led to a progressive desertification process of the entire region, which obliterated the rich prehistoric fauna and flora and the first human settlements of the oasis, while wind erosion progressively cancelled their traces. In antiquity, several roads and caravan routes connected Dakhla with the neighboring oases, the Nile Valley, and farther regions, mostly through the northern escarpment or via Kharga (Pl. 1.3).7 The northern escarpment is dotted with passes, which allow access from the oasis onto the plateau and further north.8 The Darb el-Tawil is a desert track linking Dakhla to Manfalut, near Asyut in the Nile Valley, and was one of the two main routes used in antiquity to 4. Especially in the months from March to June: see Kleindienst et al. 1999: 3. 5. Idem: 2. 6. Idem: 6. 7. Vivian 2008: 180–81. See also Giddy 1987: 10–11. 8. From west to east: Bab el-Qasmund, Naqb Asmant, Naqb Balat, Naqb Tineida, Naqb Rumi, Naqb Shyshini: see Vivian 2008: 180.

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Pl. 1.3: Map of Dakhla’s roads and caravan routes (after Vivian 2008: 174).

reach the oasis. Another route, only partially known, heading to Asyut is the Darb el-Khashabi; it sets off at the village of Ismant and heads straight north onto the escarpment via the Naqb Ismant. The main alternative route to the Nile Valley is via Kharga, which is connected to Dakhla through the Darb Ἁin Amour, a road crossing the Abu Tartur Plateau. A longer, but easier, path from Dakhla to Kharga is the Darb el-Ghubari, which runs further south and bypasses the Abu Tartar Plateau. The Darb el-Farafra leaves from El-Qasr in the western part of the oasis and after crossing the escarpment at Bab el-Qasmund runs northwest to the Farafra Oasis, continuing thereafter to Bahariya and further north. The Darb Abu Minqar is the modern roadway, leaving from El-Qasr and passing by the Gebel Edmondstone in a northwest direction (toward Farafra and beyond). The only route heading south of Dakhla is the Darb al-Tarfawi, crossing the inhospitable southwestern desert. Life in Dakhla has been made possible since antiquity by easy access to water, located in aquifers under the sandstone bed of the oasis.9 The low elevation of the depression makes it relatively easy to reach subterranean water, which is rich in sulfur and iron. Hundreds of wells are spread throughout the oasis, many of which date to the Roman period, and several 9. The particular type of sandstone found in Dakhla is described in detail in Schild and Wendorf 1977: 10. On the underground water and its possible sources, see Giddy 1987: 29–31.

Introduction

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springs can also be found.10 An extensive network of irrigation canals brings the water from the wells, which nowadays are often operated with mechanical pumps, to the cultivated fields.11 A few traces of what may have been ancient qanats12 (irrigation systems based on a series of vertical shafts connected through a sloping underground channel and transporting water from its source to destination), have been detected, although not yet excavated, in the oasis.13 This paucity of archaeological evidence seems to contrast with the abundance of remains found in the neighboring Kharga Oasis, raising questions about the possible reasons.14 Evidence of human activity in Dakhla can be traced back to ca. 400,000 BCE, in the Lower Palaeolithic.15 The Neolithic is also represented, with remains that are datable to the first half of the ninth millennium BCE.16 The oasis lies far from the Nile Valley but, notwithstanding its location that favored a relatively high degree of isolation, it held regular contacts with the people of the Valley throughout its history. In the Pharaonic period, Dakhla (together with its neighboring oases) was a strategic outpost on the way to Nubia and an economically significant site.17 According to A. J. Mills, the oasis experienced the arrival of a substantial number of migrants/settlers from the Valley starting around 2300 BCE, likely employed in the agricultural exploitation of the fertile land.18 Archaeological evidence of settlements from the Old to the New Kingdom and into the Persian Period was found, although the number of Old Kingdom sites vastly outnumbers those from the Middle and New Kingdom.19 The oasis was continuously inhabited under the Ptolemies (although the evidence for this period is only now becoming substantial as a result of excavations at Mut)20 and, after 30 BCE, under the Romans, when intensive agricultural development took place.21 At an administrative level, Dakhla became part of the “Great Oasis”, which included Kharga, and was then divided into the Mothite and Trimithite nomes in later Roman times.22 It was under the administration of Rome that the oasis reached its highest population density until modern times and its economy thrived.23 Water and fertile land were not the only reasons that attracted the interest of the Romans in the Great Oasis. Indeed, the region was strategically located at the periphery of the empire and along major caravan routes. These factors were likely the rationale for the establishment,

10. Wells are considered a source of considerable wealth in the oasis: see Mills 1999: 177. On phreatic layers beneath the Western Desert, see Ball 1927a–b, Hellström 1949, and Murray 1952. 11. On the irrigation systems used in Dakhla in antiquity and modern times, see Mills 1999: 173. 12. Arabic plural: qanawat. 13. Youssef 2012. These investigations were carried out under the auspices of the Egyptian Ministry of State for Antiquities. 14. Possibly linked to the different geomorphology of the two oases and Dakhla’s more abundant water resources: cf. Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 262. On qanats in Kharga, see, among others, Grimal 1995: 572–74 and Wuttmann 2001. 15. Thanks to the work of R. Schild and F. Wendorf (see their 1977 volume). 16. McDonald 1999: 130. 17. Giddy 1987: 51–52. 18. Mills 1999: 174. 19. Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 262. 20. See Gill 2012. 21. Dates, olives, and wine were among the specialized products of Dakhla and the other oases of the Western Desert in Roman times: see Kaper and Wendrich 1998: 2. According to Giddy 1987: 5, it is possible that the Romans were also interested in the extraction of alum. 22. Cf. P Kellis IV 73. 23. As testified to by the available archaeological and documentary evidence: see Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 249; 262.

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throughout the region and especially in Kharga, of military outposts and fortresses, with the aim to protect the roads and the empire’s commercial interests.24 Dakhla was populated also in the Byzantine period, although with evidence for economic decline and the abandonment, between the end of the fourth and the fifth century, of some areas of the oasis,25 and from the Arab conquest until modern times. Its “re-discovery” began in the early nineteenth century, with the exploration of several European travelers who wrote about the oasis, its people, and its significant archaeological remains.26 The first European traveler to leave a written record of his trip to Dakhla was Sir Archibald Edmondstone, in whose honor the gebel at the west end of Dakhla was later named.27 His arrival in the oasis in 1819 was immediately followed by that of Bernardino Drovetti, a French diplomat of Italian origin, and then by several other Europeans, including Frédéric Cailliaud (1819), Frederic Muller (1824), and John G. Wilkinson (1824). In 1874, Dakhla was reached by the scientific expedition organized by the German Gerhard Rohlfs, who carefully recorded the topography of the oasis.28 In 1894, Captain H. G. Lyons went to Dakhla, followed in 1898 by Hugh Beadnell, who surveyed the oasis for the Geological Survey of Egypt, which had been founded in 1896.29 In 1908, H. E. Winlock and Arthur M. Jones traveled to Dakhla, and Winlock published a detailed account of his trip in 1936.30 Still today, his diary is a source of significant information on the oasis before the modernization process of the mid-twentieth century. W. J. Harding King followed in 1909, on a mission for the Royal Geographical Society.31 The relative geographical isolation experienced by Dakhla, the natural environment, and the dry climate have favored, in contrast to what often happens in the Nile Valley, the excellent preservation of archaeological sites and artifacts. Nonetheless, it was only from the middle of the twentieth century, with the work of Ahmed Fakhry, that the oasis attracted significant scholarly attention.32 In 1977, the Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale (IFAO) began its scientific activity in Dakhla. In 1978, an international, multidisciplinary research venture—the Dakhleh Oasis Project (D.O.P.) —was created, with the aim to investigate all aspects of the oasis environment, its changes, and their effect on the development of human presence and activity in the oasis.33 Research under the D.O.P. umbrella spans the period from Prehistory to the modern era; it is independently carried out by different teams and institutions, but always in a collaborative fashion, which promotes the exchange of knowledge and data among the various disciplines.34 24. Boozer 2007: 65–66. On military outposts in Kharga, see, among others, Reddé 1999 and Rossi 2012. On the remains of the Roman castrum in El-Qasr (Dakhla), see Kucera 2012. 25. Bagnall et al. 2015: 7. See Hope 2001b on the occupational history of Kellis. There is no consensus among scholars on the reasons for the decline in the local population and the abandonment of sites in Dakhla (and neighboring oases) during the fifth century. Diminished access to water may have likely caused (or contributed to) the abandonment of parts of sites in the region: cf. Kaper 2012: 718. 26. See Starkey 2001 and Kleindienst et al. 1999: 7–8. 27. See Edmondstone 1822. 28. See Rohlfs 1875. 29. See Beadnell 1901; Vivian 2008: 429 (and more extensively in the 2000 edition of the same volume: 39–42). 30. See Winlock 1936. 31. See Harding King 1912. 32. See Fakhry 1982 and Mills 1985. 33. Thurston 2003: 17–22. 34. See the D.O.P website: http://dakhlehoasisproject.com.

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1.2. Early Christianity in Dakhla35

Because Ἁin el-Gedida will appear in what follows to have been part of a fourth-century Christian environment,36 some preliminary remarks on the evidence for early Christianity in the oasis may be helpful. It is during the fourth century that Christianity seems to have spread and developed dramatically in the region of the Western Desert, the evidence for earlier centuries being negligible.37 The particularly rich heritage of Early Christian monuments from the Kharga oasis, to the east of Dakhla, points to the flourishing of Christian communities in the region long before the Arab conquest.38 Churches, monasteries, and cemeteries excavated or surveyed at Kharga are witnesses of the profound influence Christian art and architecture had on the natural and urban environment of that oasis.39 Although the archaeological evidence for Christian monuments is more abundant, and is relatively better known, with regard to Kharga, the Dakhla Oasis also proved to be a suitable location for thriving Christian communities already at an early stage. In 1908, H. Winlock commented on the scarcity of Christian antiquities throughout the oasis, especially in comparison (as mentioned above) with the abundant and visible evidence from the nearby Kharga Oasis. As a possible cause, he blamed the relative distance of Dakhla from the Nile Valley and its Roman garrisons, which exposed the oasis to the dangers of invasion and destruction by neighboring nomadic tribes, which might have caused the abandonment of most settlements during the late Roman period.40 The Dakhleh Oasis Project survey, carried out from 1977 to 1987, recorded well over one hundred archaeological sites with phases of occupation assigned (on the basis of ceramic evidence) to the Byzantine Period (ca. 300–700 CE).41 For most of the sites listed as “Byzantine”,42 however, no remains were found pointing to their use by a specifically “Christian” community. The information that was collected allowed a preliminary dating of these sites, including large settlements but also smaller loci such as caves and cemeteries, to Late Antiquity.43 Substantial data gathered during the excavation of cemeteries at Kellis and, quite recently, at Deir Abu Matta and near Muzawwaka, provide evidence on Christian burial customs in Dakhla, which are consistent with those found at other Christian sites in Egypt: bodies lying supine with their head to the west and almost no goods associated with them.44 Yet, for most sites listed by the D.O.P., no precise conclusions can be drawn on the religious affiliation of the people living at those settlements. Literary, documentary, and archaeological evidence has shown that Egypt 35. The discussion, included in this section, on the churches of Kellis, Deir Abu Matta, Deir el-Molouk, Ἁin es-Sabil, and Amheida/Trimithis appeared in an earlier version in Bagnall 2015: see Aravecchia 2015 a–b. 36. Such a connection will be established in the following sections, particularly chapters 3, 5, and 7. 37. On the beginnings of Christianity in Egypt, see, among others, Bowman 1996: 190–202, Wipszycka 1996, and Davis 2004. On Early Christianity and ecclesiastical institutions in Egypt, see Wipszycka 1997 and 2007. 38. For an introduction to Kharga, see Vivian 2008: 117–72 and Bagnall 2004: 249–61. 39. Among the most significant monuments of the Christian era in Kharga (and with the most dramatic visual impact on the natural landscape) are the cemetery of Bagawat (Fakhry 1951; Cipriano 2008) and Deir Mustafa Kashef (Müller-Wiener 1963). 40. Winlock 1936: 60–61. 41. 119 “Byzantine” sites are listed in Churcher and Mills 1999: 263–64. 42. Although not necessarily occupied only in that period. 43. “Late Antique” is intended here as broadly overlapping, in chronological terms, with “Byzantine” (as used in the D.O.P. survey). 44. Bowen 2003b: 168–71; see also Bowen 2008–2009.

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Pl. 1.4: Plan of the West Church complex at Kellis (after Bowen 2002a: 76, Fig. 8).

became a profoundly Christianized country already in the fourth century.45 This might lead one to assume that Christian communities (including Manichaeans, whose existence is attested to in the oasis46) were somehow linked to most or all of the “Byzantine” sites identified in Dakhla, and indeed that is very likely by the later fourth century; however, any generalization is prevented by the fact that people from different ethnic, cultural, and religious backgrounds co-existed in Egypt in Late Antiquity. At least some Egyptian temples were still operating in the third century and perhaps even the first quarter of the fourth.47 Only an in-depth archaeological investigation could shed light on such matters in relation to those sites.

45. While the evidence for earlier times is somewhat scantier: see Bagnall 1993: 278–80. 46. Cf. Gardner 1997a–b, 2000. 47. Bagnall 1993: 261–68.

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Pl. 1.5: Plan of the East Churches complex at Kellis (after Bowen 2002a: 66, Fig. 2).

1.2.1. Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab

Significant evidence of a Christian presence in Dakhla during Late Antiquity comes from the site of Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab, thanks largely to the work of Colin Hope and Gillian Bowen.48 The D.O.P. survey of 1981–82 found evidence of three churches, one located along the west edge of the village, and two, part of an extensive, multi-roomed complex, at the south end of the settlement.49 The western church, excavated in 1992–93, is oriented to the east (Pl. 1.4). It measures ca. 15 m east–west by 7 m north–south and consists of two rooms, one to the west, possibly used as a narthex, and one to the east, with a passageway centrally placed within the shared wall. An apse with a raised floor, accessed via a step, is located along the east wall. The conch is flanked by engaged semi-columns and in front of it is a raised platform, accessible from the west through a couple of steps. Two doorways, placed to the north and south of the apse, open onto small side-rooms. Mastabas (low benches) run along the walls of the two rooms of the church, the only access to which is through a doorway located in the south wall of the narthex.50 This opens onto a cluster of seven rooms forming an architectural complex together with the church. The area covered by these spaces, whose function is unclear, roughly equals 48. The following discussion of the churches of Kellis is based on Bowen 2002a and 2003a. 49. Knudstad and Frey 1999: 189; 201; 205. 50. There is a second door in this wall, opening onto a long, narrow room possibly used as a magazine: see Bowen 2002a: 77.

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the church in size.51 The only entrance to the complex is located in the southwest corner; it opens onto a large rectangular room with mastabas, possibly functioning as an anteroom. Two Christian burials were found against the east wall of the church and others in its proximity. These discoveries led the excavators to identify the complex as funerary.52 According to the numismatic evidence, the foundation of the complex occurred around the mid-fourth century CE.53 The ostraka found in the building are largely dated to the third quarter of the fourth century, with links that can be established with similar material from the nearby site of Ἁin es-Sabil.54 The two churches built in the southeast periphery of Kellis once belonged to a rather large complex (Pl. 1.5).55 The so-called Small East Church is located near the southeast corner of its enclosure, built against the east wall. It was partially investigated in 1981–82 by J. E. Knudstad and R. A. Frey and fully excavated in 2000 by Gillian Bowen.56 The church, the overall dimensions of which are ca. 10.5 m north–south and 9.5 m east–west, consists of two rectangular, interconnected rooms oriented east–west. To the north is a large hall, once barrelvaulted, that was originally accessible through a doorway placed in the middle of the north wall (bricked in at some point in antiquity), and another door in the south half of the west wall. From this room one accessed the church to the south via two doors, one (larger) located in the middle of the walls separating the two rooms and one (narrower—and the result of later modifications) at the west end of the same wall.57 Bowen found ample evidence that the room had not been built originally as a church, and its conversion into an ecclesiastical building entailed several alterations. The most significant was the addition of a raised, tripartite sanctuary set against (and partially into) the east wall, with a central apse, delimited by two pilasters and richly decorated, and two side rooms. According to ceramic and numismatic evidence, the Small East Church, which shares several and significant similarities with the church of Ἁin el-Gedida, was in use during the first half of the fourth century.58 Bowen argues that the Small East Church is to be considered a domus ecclesiae, a “community house” used by a group of Christians as a place for worship and altered to suit their specific needs.59 Therefore, it would slightly predate the construction of the Large East Church, which was, instead, the result of careful planning and possibly served a fast-growing Christian population at Kellis.60 The church, built against the southeast enclosure wall of the complex, is a rectangular building oriented east–west and measures ca. 17 m north–south by 20 m 51. The archaeologists found the remains of mud-brick bins, donkey hooves, and straw in one of the rooms, which might have been used to keep animals: see idem: 78. 52. For a different view on the nature of the complex as administrative, see idem: 78. On another church, recently discovered at Amheida/Trimithis, that was used as a funerary complex, see further below in this section; see also Aravecchia 2015a and Aravecchia et al. 2015. 53. No ceramics with diagnostic value were retrieved in the fill of the complex; see Bowen 2002a: 83. 54. Roger Bagnall (personal communication, February 2011). See also Aravecchia 2015b: 138. 55. Whose exact shape and size are unknown. 56. See Knudstad and Frey 1999: 205–6 and Bowen 2003a. 57. Bowen 2003a: 158. According to her report, the west doorway was created by removing part of the original wall, and the central one was narrowed. 58. For a detailed discussion of the church of Ἁin el-Gedida in relation to the Small East Church at Kellis, see section 5.3.1 in this volume. 59. Bowen 2003a: 162. 60. Idem: 164.

Introduction

11

east–west.61 The remains of the building are in fairly good condition, with some of the walls standing to a considerable height. Access was originally through three doorways located along the western wall and connecting the church with the larger ecclesiastical complex. The material used for the construction is mud brick, and most of the features were once covered with mud plaster and then whitewashed. The main body of the church is divided into a central nave and two side aisles by two rows of six columns. The bases of the two columns at the west end of both colonnades show that they originally had a trefoil shape. A west return aisle (a common feature of Upper Egyptian Christian architecture) was created by adding an additional column between the north and south colonnades, against which is a mud-brick stepped platform.62 To the east, a transverse aisle with four columns completes the ambulatory, which runs along the four walls of the church and surrounds a central area paved with flagstones. Mastabas are built against the north, west, and south walls. The north and south intercolumniations were originally sealed with wooden screens, as well as the northwest intercolumniation of the return aisle.63 A raised apse is centrally placed against the east wall and framed by two engaged pilasters; the floor of the sanctuary consists of triangular mud bricks. A rectangular bema, accessed by two steps at its north and south ends, is located in front of the apse and protrudes into the transverse aisle.64 The apse is flanked by two small pastophoria, accessible from the transverse aisle; the south room is also directly connected with the apse via two steps. A set of four rooms is located to the south of the church, accessed through the south aisle. The function of three of these spaces is unknown; a staircase and two ovens were found in the westernmost room, which likely served as a kitchen for the baking of bread used in the liturgy.65 The archaeological investigation revealed the existence of substructures predating the construction of the church, which, on the basis of numismatic analysis of the coins found in it, occurred under the reign of Constantine I.66 Therefore, the archaeological evidence points to a dating, for the foundation of the Large East Church and of the other churches of Kellis, within a relatively short time range, i.e., the first half of the fourth century. This was undoubtedly a period of intense growth for Christianity in the oasis, as confirmed by the discovery of the ecclesiastical complex of Ἁin el-Gedida, which shares the same early chronology.67 1.2.2. Deir el-Molouk

In addition to Kellis’ rich archaeological evidence, other sites in Dakhla testify to the existence of Christian communities in the oasis throughout Late Antiquity.68 The 1977–1987 D.O.P. survey 61. Bowen 2002a: 65–75. According to the report of the excavator, the church possibly had a flat roof. 62. Grossmann identified the feature as an ambo (Bowen 2002a: 73). On the west return aisle in Upper Egyptian churches, see Grossmann 2007: 104–7. 63. Bowen 2002a: 67. 64. The bema of Kellis’ Large East Church is very similar to that of the recently excavated church of Amheida/Trimithis, also in Dakhla and sharing a similar chronology. 65. Bowen 2002a: 71. 66. Idem: 81–83. The ceramic evidence found between the floor and the foundation level was dated to the first to third centuries CE. 67. For a discussion on the chronology of the church of Ἁin el-Gedida, see sections 5.1 and 7.1 in this volume. 68. In addition to the churches discussed in this section, Bowen recently reported on findings related to an Early Christian church at the site of Mut, the largest city of Dakhla in antiquity: see Bowen 2012a and 2012b: 434, n. 4.

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Pl. 1.6: Plan of the church of Deir el-Molouk (after Mills 1981: Pl. X).

listed two churches whose substantial remains are still visible above ground level. One is found at the site of Deir el-Molouk,69 located a few kilometers northwest of Masara, and consists of a cruciform building made of mud bricks (Pl. 1.6).70 It had a domed roof at its center and an entrance located, according to the D.O.P. surveyors, along the poorly preserved north wall.71 It was internally divided into nine square spaces by four cruciform pillars centrally placed. Three apses with small niches were built against the east wall and three additional conches were located at the center of the north, west, and south walls, visually emphasizing the cruciform shape of the building. To the south of the church, and built against it, was a square room ending with a semicircular apse along its east side. This space was not interconnected with the main building and was accessible through a narrow room built outside the south apse of the church. The south 69. D.O.P. number 31/405-M6-1. 70. The information about the church is drawn mostly from Mills 1981: 184–85; pls. X–XI and Grossmann 2002a: 566–67; plan 181. 71. Although its exact placement is not marked on the available plans.

Introduction

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Pl. 1.7: Deir Abu Matta, external walls of the church (view to W).

room, which carried traces of painted plaster, was possibly built shortly after the construction of the church and functioned as part of the same complex. Subsequent architectural alterations affected the structure, as proved by the addition of later walls near the southwest corner of the church and the entrance to the south room. The dimensions of the complex, including the church and the south room, are ca. 17.5 m north–south by 15.5 m east–west. Its chronology is unclear, lacking almost any relevant dating material. However, the little evidence gathered from the test trenching points to a considerably later period for its construction than for the other churches currently known in the oasis. 1.2.3. Deir Abu Matta

The archaeological remains of Deir Abu Matta,72 located ca. eight km southeast of the town of El-Qasr and ca. six km southeast of the archaeological site of Amheida (ancient Trimithis), had already been noticed in 1908 by H. E. Winlock.73 The area of the visible archaeological remains is fairly limited and is surrounded to the north, west, and east by some desertic land, habitations, and cultivated fields, and to the southeast by a paved road. In 1980, D.O.P. members surveyed the mound atop which a church is located and carried out test trenching inside the basilica.74 An archaeological project involving the investigation and documentation of the church and adjacent structures began at the end of 2007, under the direction of Gillian Bowen. Full excavation started in 2008 and continued in the following years.75 72. D.O.P. number 32/405-A7-1. 73. Winlock 1936: 24; pls. 12–13. 74. Mills 1981: 185. 75. See Bowen 2008a–b; 2009; 2012.

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Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

The remains of the church are the most impressive architectural features on site (Pl. 1.7). The building is oriented east–west and is rectangular in shape, measuring ca. 24 m east–west by 10.35 m north–south. The mud-brick walls, which were built in sections, are over 1 m thick and are still standing several meters above ground level. They once supported a beamed roof, as suggested by holes piercing the south wall. A triconch is set inside the church along its east wall, with an entrance framed by two engaged pillars. To the sides of the lateral conches, against the northeast and southeast corners of the building, are L-shaped pastophoria. According to Peter Grossmann, the church was originally divided into a nave and two side aisles by two rows of six square pillars, with an additional L-shaped pillar at the west end.76 A return aisle along the west side of the building joined the two colonnades by means of two square pillars, forming an ambulatory around the central nave. A mastaba is still visible against the northern section of the west wall. Another bench—no longer preserved—was once located against the south wall. Evidence of a relatively narrow door—possibly a secondary entrance into the church—was detected toward the west end of the north wall.77 Test trenches were dug along the north wall of the church between 1979 and 1980 and since 2008. These revealed numerous Early Christian burials, although some of them, at least those excavated more recently, were found to have been disturbed. Bowen documented considerable evidence of different construction phases in the area of the church.78 Architectural features predating the construction of the basilica are visible to the north of the church and underneath it to the east. A wide, tower-like building was also excavated to the west of the basilica, in addition to the remains of other architectural features. Some of these structures seem to predate the basilica, while others were built possibly in phase with it; evidence of later alterations was also detected. It is possible that at least some of the structures excavated in the proximity of the church were associated with a small-scale monastic establishment,79 whose existence in Late Antiquity is suggested by the modern name of the site.80 However, Bowen has recently argued that no conclusive evidence is available to corroborate the identification of the excavated complex as part of a monastery.81 According to the D.O.P. report, fifth-century coins and ceramics datable from the fifth to the seventh century were collected during the survey and the test excavation.82 The finds collected during the 2008–2011 seasons, which include mostly ceramics, coins, and a few ostraka, were all dated to the fourth–sixth century CE, with very little evidence from earlier or later centuries.83 According to Bowen, the construction of the basilica took place during the fifth century, thus earlier than previously thought.84 76. Grossmann 2002a: plan 180. Little archaeological evidence of the two east–west colonnades is available, and only in the western section of the church. 77. Bowen (2008a: 11) noted how this doorway, ca. 84 cm wide, might have been too narrow to function as the main entrance. The latter may have been placed along the west wall. 78. Bowen 2012b: 448–49. 79. Bowen 2008a: 8. 80. According to Vivian 2008: 199, the site is also known as Deir al-Saba Banat (“Monastery of the Seven Virgins”). 81. Bowen 2012b: 449. 82. Mills 1981: 185. 83. Bowen 2012b: 449. 84. See Grossmann 2002a: 566, according to whom the church was built right before the Arab conquest.

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1.2.4. Ἁin es-Sabil

The well-preserved remains of another church came to light in Dakhla in 2009. Kamel Bayoumi, of Dakhla’s Islamic and Coptic Inspectorate, found the complex at the site of Ἁin es-Sabil, near the village of Masara. The church is oriented to the east and shows a basilical plan, with a central nave, two side aisles defined by two rows of four mud-brick columns each, and a west return aisle.85 The apse is rectangular and is framed by two semi-columns. An arched niche is set into the sanctuary’s north and south walls, which open onto side pastophoria via small doorways.86 The results of the excavations at Ἁin es-Sabil have yet to be published. Although the dating of the church is unknown at the moment, the building seems to share some typological similarities with the Church of Trimithis and the Large East Church at Kellis, both datable to the mid-fourth century.87 1.2.5. Trimithis/Amheida

In 2012–2013, excavations carried out at Amheida (ancient Trimithis) unearthed a church complex located on a hill at the east end of the site, in a position that once granted a high degree of visibility over large portions of the city.88 The church itself,89 which is very poorly preserved due to wind erosion and/or human destruction, is oriented to the east and measures approximately 12 m north–south by 13.65 m east–west (Pls. 1.8–9). It is of a standard basilical type, with a central nave and two side aisles defined by two rows of columns. The colonnades’ foundation walls were bonded at their east and west ends with north–south oriented foundation walls, forming a rectangle. The two colonnades were seemingly joined at their west end with a return aisle, which created a sort of ambulatory along the inner perimeter of the church. The excavation revealed only the foundation walls of the colonnades and the square bases and lowest courses of a few columns, including two heart-shaped pillars at the east end of the north and south colonnades. Access to the church was via a large doorway located in the middle of the west wall. Two additional doorways were found in the southeast corner of the church. One of them led to the southernmost of three small spaces to the east, while the other opened onto a staircase ascending towards the south and, via the landing of the staircase, to a set of seven spaces to the south of the church.90 Some of these spaces, whose nature and functional relationship to the church are difficult to determine due to their poor condition and the lack of evidence, show signs of post-abandonment reuse. 85. The church’s measurements are ca. 9.4 m north–south by 10.6 m east–west. The entire complex measures roughly 17 by 26 m. 86. Information based on a personal visit to the site (before a full excavation of the church was carried out). Additional information was provided by Roger Bagnall (personal communication, 2014). 87. Some ostraka, found in a complex adjoining the church, were analyzed by Roger Bagnall and Rodney Ast and dated to the 360s, possibly the last occupational phase of the building (Ast and Bagnall 2016). 88. The excavations, under the author’s field direction, were part of a larger project directed by Roger Bagnall and under the field direction of Paola Davoli. For a recent introduction to the finds from these excavations, see Bagnall et al. 2015. 89. Room 1 on the plan (Pl. 1.7). 90. A similar layout, with rooms lined along the south wall of a church, is attested elsewhere in Egypt; one geographically close parallel is that of the Large East Church at Kellis (Bowen 2002a: 66; 71).

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Pl. 1.8: Plan of the church at Amheida.

Pl. 1.9: Aerial view of the remains of the church (to SE).

Introduction

17

Pl. 1.10: Large fragments of painted plaster from the (collapsed) ceiling of the church.

Substantial traces of a mastaba are visible along the south wall of the church. It is likely that a similar bench ran also along the north wall of the church, although no traces are visible nowadays, due to the poor preservation of that section. Against the east wall of the church, and in line with the west entrance along the main axis, is a well-preserved mud-brick platform, which once gave access to a raised apse (now destroyed). The apse was originally flanked by two side-chambers (also disappeared). One of the most remarkable features recovered during the excavation of the church consists of thousands of fragments—and several large patches—of a flat ceiling, decorated with a wide array of colors and interlocked geometrical shapes forming a coffer design, which had a long history in Egypt (Pl. 1.10).91 91. An earlier example of this coffer design is attested in Dakhla, where Colin Hope excavated a Roman villa, dated to the second century CE, at Kellis. The investigation revealed extensive traces of a collapsed ceiling with a very similar decoration (Hope and Whitehouse 2006: 321). A chronologically closer parallel was found in a family chapel at the Christian necropolis of Bagawat, in the neighboring Kharga Oasis: see Fakhry 1951: 83 (pl. VI: reconstruction). For more recent illustrations, see Zibawi 2003: 24 (fig. 14); Zibawi 2005: 25; 30–31.

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Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 1.11: Intact burials inside the crypt of the church.

Other significant discoveries made inside the church complex included eight human burials.92 Three of them were excavated in the eastern half of the church, while a fourth tomb, located immediately outside the church along its south wall, was left unexcavated. A skeleton was also found in situ near the northwest corner of the church, although most of the burial pit had disappeared due to either human disturbances or erosion. All the other pits were intact. No funerary goods were found associated with the excavated tombs. The orientation of the bodies was always with the heads to the west (facing east), which is quite standard for Christian burials, on the basis of comparative evidence from Christian cemeteries in the oasis; this is attested, for example, at Kellis, Deir Abu Matta, and at a site northeast of Muzawwaqa.93 Three of the eight burials were not were found inside (or alongside) the church’s main body but in what turned out to be one of the most exciting findings about this building. Excavations in the area under the now-disappeared northern side-room (presumably a pastophorion) led to the discovery of an underground funerary crypt (Pl. 1.11).94 It is a very well preserved space, 92. On the analysis carried out on four bodies from the church by physical anthropologists Tosha Dupras and Lana Williams, see Aravecchia et al. 2015. 93. See Bowen 2003b; 2008–2009. 94. Aravecchia et al. 2015: 24–26.

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19

paved with a mud floor and with only the uppermost part of the vault no longer in place. Inside it are three sealed tombs with mud-brick superstructures. The crypt opened, through a doorway in the south wall, onto a yet unexcavated space below the apse that may have been part of the same crypt. The church had features (basilica plan with a central nave, side aisles and west return aisle, sanctuary accessible through a raised platform and flanked by service rooms) that were fairly standard in Christian architecture of late antique Egypt. Other churches in the region of the Great Oasis, such as the Large East Church at Kellis (Dakhla Oasis) and the church of Shams ed-Din (Kharga Oasis), show significant similarities to the church of Amheida.95 Clearly, the church of Amheida fits with the architectural standards that were widely adopted in the region of the Western Desert and throughout Upper Egypt in the fourth century. As regards the nature of the liturgical practices once carried out inside the church, the evidence is scanty at best. However, what is undeniable is that the presence of burials in the church and in the crypt suggests that this building served from the very beginning (as the very existence of the crypt itself suggests), as a funerary church. The association of a church with funerary practices in the fourth century is well attested in Dakhla, for example at Deir Abu Matta and in the West Church of Kellis. The available evidence, including ceramics, coins, and ostraka, points to an early to middle fourth-century dating for the church of Amheida/Trimithis, in line with the chronology of most other churches discovered in Dakhla thus far. The Christian community that lived in fourth-century Trimithis was undoubtedly large and thriving, with the means to choose a prime location for the construction of churches (it is expected that this church is just one of many more to be found at Amheida, particularly in light of its size and importance in Late Antiquity). Documentary evidence on fourth-century Christianity was also gathered during the excavations at Amheida.96 Among the findings are ostraka (and a graffito) that mention typically Christian names and, in some cases, standard titles of clergymen. The most striking discovery was, however, that of a block bearing a Greek inscription and the Coptic word for “God” (pnoute) carved at a later time, possibly to replace the name Ammon that was the subject of the original inscription.97 Together with the available archaeological evidence for the existence of a church at Amheida, this written material testifies to the presence of a thriving Christian community at the site in Late Antiquity. A fair amount of documentary material on fourth-century Christianity was found also at the site of Kellis.98 One example is a Coptic letter on papyrus fragments (P. Kell. Copt. 12), discovered during the excavation of House 2 at the site.99 Within lines 6–7, the document contains a specific reference to an individual named Titoue in relation to his trip to “the monastery to be with father Pebok.”100 This letter is quite significant, as it suggests either the presence of 95. See Bowen 2002a: 65–75 on the Large East Church at Kellis and Bonnet 2004 on the church of Shams ed-Din. 96. See Bagnall and Cribiore 2012 and 2015. 97. Bagnall and Cribiore 2015: 131–33. 98. Not all of them were, in fact, Orthodox Christian. Indeed, written sources exist that testify to a strong Manichaean presence in the region during the fourth century. On Manichaeism in Dakhla, see three essays by I. Gardner (1997a–b; 2000). 99. Gardner, Alcock, and Funk 1999: 131–34. 100. Idem: 133.

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fourth-century monastic communities in Dakhla or links with such communities elsewhere. At the moment, no incontrovertible archaeological evidence has been found for monasteries in Dakhla, despite the survival of modern toponyms that might be related to ancient monastic establishments.101 Another letter from House 4 at Kellis (P. Kellis Copt. 123), also dated to the fourth century, contains a reference to “Father Shoei of Thaneta” (lines 16–17).102 It might be an additional reference to a monastery in Dakhla, although the reading of “Thaneta” as a Coptic word for “monastery” is not beyond doubt.103 Additional evidence on Early Christianity in Dakhla might be linked with the old mosque of El-Qasr, a Medieval town located along the northwest edge of the oasis. According to Fred Leemhuis, who leads a project for the study and preservation at the site, the tripartite structure and the east–west orientation of the mosque closely resemble the typology of the Christian basilica. Leemhuis noticed that the mihrab is not aligned with the main axis of the building, but slants awkwardly to the southeast. This might suggest that the mihrab, which had to be built facing Mecca, was a later addition to an east–west oriented building, possibly a church, that was turned into a mosque under the Ayyubids.104 A test trench was dug inside the old mosque in 2010, but it did not reveal information about the use of the building as a church.105 Nevertheless, the preliminary conclusions drawn by Leemhuis are cogent and worthy of careful consideration by scholars of Egyptian Christianity. On the whole, the documentary and archaeological evidence for the growth and expansion of Christianity in the oasis is quite extensive and gaining an ever-increasing scholarly interest. In particular, the work carried out at Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab added significant information on several aspects regarding the early developments of Christian architecture in the Western Desert and, more broadly, in Egypt. Above all, it showed how Dakhla had embraced Christianity, together with its artistic and architectural expressions, from an early stage, which went back to at least the early fourth century CE. The discovery of the church complex of Ἁin el-Gedida brings additional, significant evidence on the development of Christianity in the oasis, testifying to the fact that churches had become, by the fourth century, a familiar feature of not only the urban but also the rural landscape of Dakhla. Therefore, the new data will help shed light on the process of far-reaching transformations that the society of the oasis experienced, at all levels, possibly beginning under Licinius and certainly since the advent of Constantine’s rule in Egypt in late 324.106 101. Such as Deir el-Molouk and Deir Abu Matta. Winlock (1936: 24) mentions other toponyms (recorded by earlier visitors to the oasis, such as Beadnell and Drovetti) as evidence for the existence of Christian communities in the oasis during Late Antiquity: a well to the south of Qalamun, called Ἁin el-Nasrani (“the Christian’s spring”), and two other sites in the same area, called El-Selib (“The Cross”) and Buyut el-Nasara (“Houses of the Christians”). G. Wagner argued that the village of Tineida, located at the east end of the oasis, derived its name from the Coptic word for “monastery”: see Wagner 1987: 196. 102. Gardner, Alcock, and Funk 2014: 272–75. 103. According to Gardner, Alcock, and Funk, the word could either be a reference to a monastery in the proximity of Kellis or to a village whose name had the same etymology: see idem: 274–75). 104. Leemhuis, personal communication (February 2008). 105. See the 2010 Qasr Dakhleh report by F. Leemhuis available online at http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/ancient-cultures/ files/2013/04/qdp-report-2010.pdf, particularly pp. 5–22. 106. Bagnall 1993: 279–80.

Pl. 1.12: Map of Dakhla Oasis (source: Google Earth; elaborated by Bruno Bazzani).

Introduction 21

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Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 1.13: Ἁin el-Gedida, Google site view (to NW), with superimposed archaeological plan (elaborated by Bruno Bazzani).

Pl. 1.14: Satellite image of Ἁin el-Gedida (source: Google Earth).

Introduction

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Pl. 1.15: View of Ἁin el-Gedida (to S).

1.3. Topography of the Site

Ἁin el-Gedida is located three kilometers north of the village of Masara and a short distance to the northwest of the ancient site of Kellis (Ismant el-Kharab) (Pl. 1.12). The whole site is delimited to the north by the escarpment, which dramatically divides the Dakhla Oasis from the desert plateau (Pl. 1.13). A narrow strip of desert land, with two rocky mounds as its most striking topographical features, lies to the south of the escarpment. The desert is followed to the south by cultivated fields, which border with the northern edge of the settlement. To the south, east, and west sides of the site today are mostly cultivated fields. The area is reachable through a very rough, unpaved track that leaves west of the main road leading from Dakhla to Kharga and crosses desert areas and arable land (Pl. 1.14). The area is spotted with fairly numerous trees, bushes, and palm trees, which grow thanks to the easy accessibility of water (Pl. 1.15). One source lies in a sunken depression a few meters to the east of mound I;107 water is also mechanically pumped out of a modern well dug to the northwest of the site and channeled for the irrigation of the surrounding cultivated fields. A network of narrow water canals runs north–south along the west and southeastern edges of the site, but also extends—quite dangerously—into the southern sector of the archaeological area. 107. The depression is, at least in part, man-made and fairly modern. No evidence was found for the existence of a water spring in the same location in antiquity.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 1.16: Site plan.

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Introduction

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The toponym Ἁin el-Gedida, which means “the new spring”, points to the relative wealth of water in the area as the reason for its exploitation as cultivated land. There is a strong likelihood, although not a certainty yet, that the modern name coincides with the ancient toponym, at least on the basis of a Greek ostrakon that was found during the 2008 excavation season.108 This inscription, of a rather utilitarian content, mentions a toponym (Pmoun Berri) that is the precise Coptic correspondent of the modern name “Ἁin el-Gedida”.109 Therefore, the abundance of a precious resource like water is the key to understand why a settlement developed at Ἁin el-Gedida in antiquity and the source of its name. The site consists of five mounds of different sizes and heights (Pl. 1.16): four of them (mounds I–IV) are relatively close to each other, while one (mound V) lies at a certain distance from the other hills. Archaeological remains were identified on all of them, but excavation was carried out only on mound I, which lies at the center of the site at a maximum height of ca. 116 m above sea level. It is the largest of the five hills identified as part of the same settlement and the one with the largest amount of visible archaeological remains. The mound extends for about 85 m from north to south and 70 m from east to west and covers an area of about one-half hectare.110 A track runs northwest to southeast along the north edge of the hill, which borders another north–south track to the west, parallel to a low water canal and thick vegetation. A hut, used by the ghafir (guard) of the site, was built near the southeast corner of the hill. Mound II lies about 23 m south of the main hill and is separated from it by a low east–west oriented wall, 44.2 m long, which was built by the Egyptian team in the 1990s.111 It measures 42 m from north to south and 21 m from east to west and the area of the archaeological remains is approximately 725 m2. About 48 m south of the main hill and 13 m southwest of mound II is mound III. Relatively few archaeological remains were identified above ground level, extending about 33 m north– south, 12 m east–west, and covering an area of ca. 300 m2. Mound IV lies 106 m to the southwest of the main hill of Ἁin el-Gedida. It rises about 113 m above sea level, at a slightly lower elevation than mound I. The main cluster of visible structures on the hill measures about 48.5 m from north to south and 27.8 m from east to west; it extends over an area of about 1500 m2. At a far greater distance from mound I than the three small hills to the south is mound V, which lies about 230 m to the northeast of area B, in a very disturbed context. It measures about 16 m from east to west and 11 m from north to south. The few surveyed archaeological remains extend over an area of ca. 130 m2; however, this measure is particularly approximate because of the rather poor state of preservation of the features. 108. Inv. 830; see section 10.3 (cat. no. 9) in this volume. 109. See section 7.2 below, especially p. 281. If the correspondence were confirmed, the ostrakon would be the first known piece of written/documentary evidence directly attesting Ἁin el-Gedida. 110. The length and width were taken at their maximum extent. 111. The area between mound I and mound II, south of the modern east–west wall, and that to the southeast of mound I were seemingly used by the Egyptian mission to dump the sand from the excavation of area A on mound I.

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Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

It is difficult to establish the overall dimensions of the site, including the five mounds. As said above, the cultivated fields, especially to the east and west of mound I and to the south of mounds II–IV likely encroached upon a sizable portion of the ancient archaeological remains. It is therefore possible to assume that the process of agricultural exploitation of the land heavily modified the original morphology of the local environment.112 This makes it hard to assess whether the areas between and around the mounds were also zones of dense construction, forming a continuum with the five mounds, or, vice versa, if the site consisted of separate clusters of buildings on each mound. Also, the heavily disturbed context of mound V complicates the situation, making it impossible, in the absence of further archaeological investigation, to establish its outline with any degree of precision. According to the survey carried out by the Dakhleh Oasis Project in 1980, the overall extension of the settlement is three hectares.113 The CAD topographical map, which was generated using the data from the 2006–2008 survey, allowed us to calculate an overall extension of ca. 0.8 ha; since it was not possible to determine the original physical extent of the five mounds, the calculation took into account only the areas covered by the archaeological remains visible above ground.114

1.4. History of the Ἁin el-Gedida Project

In 1980, members of the Dakhleh Oasis Project carried out a preliminary survey of Ἁin elGedida, as part of their third season of investigation.115 The focus was on the central part of Dakhla and covered the area including the villages of Budkhulu, Rashda, Hindau, Mut, Sheikh Wali, Masara, and Ismant.116 116 sites were recorded in an area of approximately 161 square kilometres, dotted with numerous wells, springs, and water channels, the latter undated but no longer in use at the time of the survey. The archaeologists of the D.O.P. identified several ancient sites that, on the basis of a preliminary analysis of the ceramic specimens collected on the ground and from test trenches, were assigned to a rather broad chronological range called “Roman/Christian”.117 Among them was Ἁin el-Gedida, then unknown from documentary or literary sources.118 Ἁin el-Gedida appeared to the surveyors as a group of low mounds lying in the proximity of each other. Extensive archaeological remains, visible above ground, were identified on all mounds, especially on the largest hill, where 145 rooms, clustered in several complexes, were noticed. A test excavation was carried out in a sample room; this space was

112. A problem that is common to several other sites in the Dakhla Oasis: see Zielinski 1999: 186. 113. The calculation is presumably based on the overall extension of the five mounds grouped together, with no specific reference to the archaeological remains surveyed at that time: see Churcher and Mills 1999: 263. 114. The original extent of the settlement, at least in its latest phase of occupation, might have been significantly larger than the figure calculated for the visible archaeological remains at the time of the topographical survey, as also suggested by aerial imagery. 115. A brief report of the work carried out during the 1980 season, including a few notes on each surveyed site, is Mills 1981. 116. Idem: 176. 117. Idem: 182. 118. The toponym “el Ἁin el-Gedīd” is found in Winlock 1936: 17; 19. However, according to the words of the explorer, it refers to a site near Tineida, in the east part of Dakhla.

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cleared of the windblown sand that had accumulated in it and excavated down to 2.80 m from ground level.119 The D.O.P. members assigned the site of Ἁin el-Gedida index number 31/405-N3-1, based on the site’s location within the map that included all the surveyed sites.120 No further information about the 1980 survey at Ἁin el-Gedida is available as published material, except for a brief mention of the settlement in an updated list of the archaeological sites surveyed by the D.O.P., which was published in 1999.121 In 1993, the Coptic and Islamic Inspectorate of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Dakhla began excavation at Ἁin el-Gedida, under the direction of Mr. Ahmad Salem and Mr. Kamel Bayoumi.122 The Egyptian investigations focused on the southern half of the largest mound (area A of mound I, Pl. 2.3), where several mud-brick structures were cleared of the windblown sand and excavated, completely or in part. A very intricate complex of rooms was revealed, surrounding a large, open-air kitchen, centrally placed (A6 on the plan), and showing a multi-phased development, with the addition of clusters of rooms built against earlier ones and extending to the outer edges of the mound. The SCA mission resumed excavation in 1994 and 1995, carrying out more investigation on the southern half of mound I and expanding the excavated area further north, where a large rectangular room (A46) was completely cleared of wind-blown sand. In order to distinguish the work carried out by the SCA mission from later excavations, all the rooms investigated by the Egyptian team on mound I between 1993 and 1995 were in our work referred to by numbers preceded by the letter A, while the rooms investigated later on mound I were given the letter prefix B. A topographical survey, carried out eleven years after the 1995 excavation season, revealed that the SCA conducted brief, additional investigation on mound IV (area E), located to the southwest of mound I. A small rectangular room was cleared of windblown sand at the center of the low mound, but due to the lack of information and to the fact that the room is, at present, partially filled with sand, it is not known if the excavation was carried out partially or to floor level. An intense restoration effort was carried out in the mid-1990s on several architectural features, such as walls and especially doorways, which were in danger of collapse due to their exposure to the elements and to the lack of protection provided by the sand.123 No written documentation of the work carried out at Ἁin el-Gedida in the 1990s was available to our team. Most of the architectural features excavated at that time are still extant, although filled, in large part, with wind-blown sand that accumulated in the last decade. Nine 119. The room is described by the surveyors as a “lower room.” Traces of white plaster were found on the walls, but, apparently, no side entrances; see Mills 1981: 185. The large mound can be identified with mound I (areas A–B) as identified and recorded by the 2006–2008 archaeological mission. 120. The maps used by the D.O.P. surveyors were elaborated on the basis of the “Egypt 1:25,000” maps, considered the most reliable ones at the time of the survey (and still in use today); see Churcher and Mills 1999: 251. 121. Churcher and Mills 1999: 263. 122. I would like to take this opportunity to thank Mr. Salem and Mr. Bayoumi for allowing our team to continue their work at Ἁin el-Gedida and for their cooperation throughout our work. 123. Several signs of this restoration activity are easily recognizable nowadays.

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items, including five lamps, two complete clay pots, and two dull glass bracelets, were registered at the time of their discovery and then brought to the Kharga Museum.124 As mentioned above, one brief essay by Mr. Bayoumi appeared in 1998, conveying some information on the work he carried out at Ἁin el-Gedida from 1993 to 1995 and focusing on preliminary conclusions concerning the nature of the settlement, which were put forth by scholars who visited the site.125 After Bayoumi’s essay, a brief mention and description of Ἁin el-Gedida were included in Bagnall and Rathbone’s archaeological guide of Egypt published in 2004.126 In 2005, a short, preliminary visit to Ἁin el-Gedida was conducted by Olaf Kaper, Mr. Bayoumi, and the author, in order to assess the condition of the site ten years after the last SCAled excavation season. After a few meetings, a collaborative project between the local Coptic and Islamic Inspectorate and a group of international specialists was developed, thanks to the funding provided by Columbia University and Roger Bagnall. Archaeological investigation was resumed in the second half of January 2006 and lasted for fifteen days.127 Before scientific work started, an absolute elevation for the site was taken using a differential GPS system.128 This allowed a precise calculation of the elevations for all of the different features that were uncovered.129 A general, surface clearance of mound I was conducted in order to expose the tops of the mud-brick walls that were visible at ground level throughout the hill. The topographers recorded, with the help of a total station, all of the visible features, including the rooms excavated by the Egyptian mission in the 1990s in the southern half of the mound. More topographical work was carried out on the four smaller mounds (II–V) lying adjacent or in close proximity to mound I. The data were downloaded in Autocad and their elaboration brought to the creation of the first detailed map of the site. Furthermore, the five mounds were surveyed with a magnetometer, which revealed six anomalies in the ground in the area south of mound I.130 Two more anomalies were identified, one north of mound I and one on mound IV. These were possibly related to the presence of features like kilns or ovens.131 Excavation was conducted in the north part of mound I in three different sectors, where the layout of several rooms, various in size and often interconnected, was clearly visible above ground. Three rooms (B1–B3) were excavated to floor level (B1) and gebel (B2–B3) in the northwest sector. The layout of rooms B1–B3 (and of the two unexcavated rooms along the north side of B1) suggests that they possibly belonged to a domestic unit. Another room (B4) was excavated to gebel southwest of rooms B1–B3. At least in its latest phase of occupation, 124. These objects were analyzed and documented in 2007 and included in the catalogues of ceramics and small finds. 125. Bayoumi 1998: 57–62. 126. Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 264–65. 127. See Aravecchia 2006. 128. With the technical support of Jennifer Smith of Washington University in St. Louis. 129. All elevations indicated in this volume are above mean sea level. 130. The magnetometric survey was carried out by Tatyana Smekalova, at that time affiliated with St. Petersburg State University, Russia. 131. Tatyana Smekalova (personal communication, February 2006).

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the room was used as a dump, as suggested by the large quantity of ash, charcoal,132 organic material, broken objects, and pottery sherds found during the excavation. After work was completed in rooms B1–B4, excavation focused on room B5, a long, rectangular space with a semicircular apse along the east short side and after investigation identified as a church. Windblown sand was removed, and a roof and wall collapse were revealed. Because of time constraints, it was decided to leave the collapse in place in order to protect the floor level until the following field season. In addition, intensive documentation took place in area A, excavated by the Supreme Council of Antiquities in the mid-1990s. The goal was to document as many rooms as possible within that sector. The collection of information about the features uncovered in area A provided more complete knowledge about the urban topography of Ἁin el-Gedida and enabled comparative architectural analysis with the buildings newly excavated. In addition to the large hall A46, six rooms were selected for their particular architectural interest, in order to create a representative sample.133 These rooms were easily cleared of the windblown sand that had been deposited in the last ten years, and all their architectural features were fully photographed and recorded, using standardized feature forms already adopted at Amheida. Furthermore, an architectural survey was conducted in thirteen additional rooms in area A.134 Windblown sand was removed from all of them and detailed notes and photographs were taken.135 Most of these rooms, as well as the six mentioned above, seemed to be largely utilitarian in nature, such as magazines for the storage of food. Before the beginning of the 2007 excavation season, two rooms previously excavated by the SCA (A6, identifiable as a large kitchen, and A7 to the northeast of A6), were fully documented and photographed. The poor conditions of preservation of the walls and of the features located inside, such as two ovens in the northwest corner of A6, required the complete backfilling of these two rooms, together with the adjacent spaces to the west and the corridor to the north. The excavation of room A25, begun in the 1990s, was completed and the documentation of its features updated. The investigation of the fourth-century church (room B5), begun in 2006, was completed in 2007, and evidence was found of earlier phases of occupation of the site. The nave and the large hall to the north were fully documented. Further north, a complex of rooms, interconnected and spatially related to the church, was uncovered (Pl. 3.2). A narrow corridor (B7), which served as the only entrance to the church complex, led from the east into a rectangular room (B6) used, at least in its latest phase of occupation, as a kitchen and as the anteroom to the large hall and to the church to the south. Graffiti were found on the west, north, and south walls of this room, including inscriptions in Greek and in Coptic and drawings. An almost complete 132. With no trace of smoke on the walls. 133. Rooms A2, A5, A9, A14, A15, A25. 134. Rooms A1, A3, A4, A6, A24, A26, A27, A28, A34, A38–A40, A46. 135. In three instances (rooms A24, A27, and A40), the clearance was interrupted before reaching floor level; the reason was that unexcavated archaeological deposits were detected.

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staircase (B8) was uncovered to the north of the anteroom, leading to a roof; its upper part was supported by a narrow vaulted passageway, which led from the anteroom into a poorly preserved room (B9) to the north, possibly used as a pantry. Another large room (B10), not connected to the church complex and presumably functioning as a kitchen, was excavated west of the anteroom, showing clear traces of ancient damage and later repairs. The topographers updated the 2006 overall site plan by adding the plans of the rooms that were excavated in 2007. Scalable photographs of the walls and floors of rooms B5–B9 and A46 were taken and then elaborated for photogrammetrical analysis. Sections and profiles of the church were also drawn. A microrelief of the area covering the five mounds of Ἁin el-Gedida was created, with the goal of collecting precise information about the geomorphology of the site. In addition to the fixed point created in 2006, two more survey triangulation points were set in the ground on the west and north edges of mound I. These allowed subsequent recording of topographical data to be carried out in a fashion coherent with the work done in 2007. Permission was granted to study the nine objects that had been collected during the SCA excavations of the 1990s. A group of specialists had access to these objects in the Kharga Museum, where they were drawn, recorded, and photographed. In 2008, excavation was resumed and focused in the area immediately to the south and to the east of the church complex.136 The main goal was to ascertain the topographical relationship of the complex with the surrounding buildings, within the topographical framework of the main hill of Ἁin el-Gedida. A long, east–west oriented passageway (B11) was excavated to the south of the church, along the north edge of area A (the zone excavated by the SCA in the 1990s). To the east of the church, a long north–south oriented street (B12), with a rather irregular layout, was investigated. It crossed another east–west passageway (B16) to the north, which formed the northern boundary of B12 and was excavated only in part in 2008. To the south, street B12 led to space B13, which was the crossroads where B11 and B12 (and another unexcavated street to the south) met. This space opened onto an unexcavated area to the east and on a room along its south side. After the area including streets B11–B12 and space B13 was completely excavated and documented, another set of two rooms was investigated further east, i.e., rooms B14–B15, respectively identified as a storage facility and a kitchen. Following the excavation of the area to the south and east of the church complex, further archaeological investigation was carried out along the west edge of mound I, where a large complex of eight rooms (B17–B24) was uncovered (Pl. 6.2). Its preliminary analysis pointed to different construction phases that dramatically altered the inner layout of the complex, and presumably its function(s). The topographers surveyed the excavated rooms and updated the two plans of the archaeological site, the first showing the plan of the walls at ground level and the second depicting the overall architecture of each room. The methodological standards and graphic 136. See Aravecchia 2008.

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conventions that were set in 2007 were followed. Scalable photographs of the outer face of the eastern and southern walls of the church complex were taken and then elaborated for photogrammetric analysis. Furthermore, the planimetric and photogrammetric data of the church complex, collected in 2007 and 2008, were processed, and plates for most rooms of the complex were created. Each of them included a CAD plan of mound I, a simplified plan of the church complex, and the photogrammetric images pertaining to each room. Several ceramic objects, complete or fragmentary, were found during the 2006–2008 excavations, as well as hundreds of small finds of different kinds and materials, among which were over one hundred fifty bronze and billon coins. All small finds were cleaned, numbered, and photographed. Written records were created for each of them and their systematic study carried out by specialists.137

1.5. Methodology of Excavation and Documentation

The archaeological excavations carried out at Ἁin el-Gedida between 2006 and 2008 were rigorously stratigraphic, based on the well-known methodologies developed by A. Carandini, E. C. Harris, and the Museum of London.138 The system followed very closely the one used at the site of Amheida and developed in its details by Paola Davoli of the Università del Salento, Italy, the archaeological director of the Amheida Project.139 Roger Bagnall held, as the project director, the scientific leadership of the entire mission and the overall responsibility for its organization and management. The author, working as the archaeological field director, was responsible for the establishment of excavation priorities and strategies, in agreement with the project director. Moreover, he was in charge of leading the archaeological operations on site each day and coordinating the processing of the data at the excavation house. A team of archaeologists was assigned the supervision of different areas (usually rooms) to be excavated. Local workmen were allocated to each area and the archaeologists ensured that their work was carried out according to the established scientific standards. The supervisors were also in charge of the documentation of the area for which they were responsible, helped by assistant supervisors. The entire site was mapped by the topographers and divided into five mounds and areas (A to F) (Pl. 1.16). As said above, the subdivision into areas was originally created in order to distinguish, within the largest mound of the site, between the sector excavated by the Egyptian archaeologists in the 1990s and the one (roughly corresponding to the north half of the hill) that was excavated ten years later by the Columbia/NYU mission. The four smaller mounds of Ἁin el-Gedida were not subdivided into more than one area each, since they had not been the object of archaeological excavation. The area including the five mounds of Ἁin el-Gedida was divided, in the Autocad map, into a grid of 10 by 10 m squares. Due to the presence of architectural features throughout the main hill, with walls that a preliminary surface clearance had made partly visible above ground 137. For a systematic treatment of the small finds, including coins and ceramics, see chapters 8–12 at the end of this volume. 138. See Spence 1994; Harris 1989; Carandini 2000. 139. Davoli developed a site manual for the Amheida project and updated it each year.

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level,140 it was decided that the best way to proceed was to carry out excavation by room and not by square. Furthermore, it would have been extremely difficult, due to the very irregular morphology of the ground, in which mounds of different heights were clustered in a relatively small area, to lay out a physical grid for excavation. The stratigraphic method adopted at Ἁin el-Gedida was based on the distinction between “Deposition Stratigraphic Units” (DSU) and “Feature Stratigraphic Units” (FSU). DSUs are three-dimensional units such as layers of sand, soil, or fillings of pits or hearths. Their borders can be natural or arbitrary on the basis of the peculiar context in which each unit was excavated. FSUs are, instead, architectural features such as walls, floors, vaults, etc.141 They can also be “negative” features, derived from the removal of DSUs, as is the case of pits or foundation trenches. All excavated DSUs and FSUs were assigned numbers, measured, photographed, and described in detail, following common standards, on pre-printed forms; elevations were taken for all units. Several DSUs, especially artificial, man-made units, and all FSUs were drawn. As mentioned above, a survey of the whole archaeological area was conducted with a total station, and a digital plan of the entire site of Ἁin el-Gedida was generated from the data that were collected, downloaded, and elaborated in CAD. All the archaeological remains, excavated or already visible on the five mounds, were included, as well as more recent features such as the guards’ house and contemporary tracks and irrigation canals. Additional data about the geomorphology of Ἁin el-Gedida were added with the creation of a microrelief of the area, overlapping the archaeological map. Furthermore, photogrammetric images of archaeological features, mostly of walls, were regularly taken during the excavation and then processed, in order to obtain precise and scalable plates in a relatively short amount of time.142 Some sections and profiles of walls were also drawn partly by hand, especially in cases where the archaeological features could not be photographed at an angle that would allow photogrammetric analysis. Each day, field drawings on millimeter paper were made, at 1:50 scale, of the excavated areas. The DSUs and FSUs under investigation and the precise location of the most relevant small finds were marked on the plans, including the elevations taken by the archaeologists. In some instances, where a higher level of detail was needed, a 1:20 scale was adopted. In addition to the drawings, the archaeologists filled day notes forms, in which they recorded at length everything that occurred during each day of work on site, including basic information about DSUs, FSUs, small finds, samples, and elevations. As mentioned above, several small finds were discovered and collected in all the rooms that were the object of archaeological investigation between 2006 and 2008. Among them were lamps, pieces of coroplastic, dull glass bracelets, beads, animal bones, and many other incomplete objects made of metal, wood, or vegetal fibers. To ensure that all finds, particularly those of a small size, were collected from each stratum, the soil and sand units were always 140. Many of the features were already recognizable before the clearance, as was the case for most rooms of area A, previously investigated by the Egyptian mission. 141. In this volume, FSUs are indicated as AF (+ number) or BF (+ number) in order to distinguish the features of area A from those investigated and documented in area B. 142. Photometric and Meridiana were the main software used by the topographers to process photogrammetric images.

Introduction

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sieved after their removal from their original context. The surface layer, contaminated and therefore lacking significant diagnostic value, was not sieved. Depending on their state of preservation, the finds received preliminary conservation in situ before collection. The small finds were gathered in buckets labeled according to the stratigraphic unit in which they were found. Objects of special significance143 were assigned field numbers, photographed in their archaeological context, and then put in separate tagged bags. All small finds were cleaned and numbered by specialists, and the photographer took final pictures of them. Written records were created for each of the special finds. The ceramic objects that were uncovered, in complete or fragmentary condition, during the excavation were also photographed in situ and assigned field numbers, then brought to the ceramics laboratory for cleaning, restoration, further photography, and recording. The pottery sherds, found in large quantities at Ἁin el-Gedida, were also collected in tagged bags or buckets according to their archaeological contexts (DSU or FSU) and analyzed by the ceramicists. All the fragments were scanned and quantitative analysis on forms and fabrics performed.144 After this initial gross quantification of the excavated contexts, the body sherds were normally discarded, while the diagnostic fragments were selected for drawing, photography, and further examination. The goal was to build an exhaustive paper and digital catalogue of all forms and fabrics found at Ἁin el-Gedida during the 2006–2008 excavations.145 Among the pottery sherds that were collected during the excavation of area B and the clearance of area A on mound I were twelve ostraka, ten Greek and two Coptic. They were assigned field numbers and photographed in situ; then, they were cleaned, recorded, and photographed. Their analysis was carried out by Roger Bagnall and Dorota Dzierzbicka.146 Over one hundred fifty coins were found on mound I at Ἁin el-Gedida between 2006 and 2008.147 Unfortunately, several were in a very poor state of preservation. Most of them were assigned field numbers and photographed in situ.148 They were cleaned in the small finds laboratory by experts, then weighed, photographed, and recorded. Even after cleaning, many remained illegible. A small finds form was filled out for each coin. The detailed analysis of all numismatic evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida was carried out by David Ratzan, who compiled a catalogue and report.149 Several of the objects (ceramic vessels, lamps, and coins among others) uncovered during the 2006–2008 excavations were registered by representatives of the local Coptic and Islamic Inspectorate of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. They are currently in SCA storage facilities in Dakhla150 and accessible by permit. 143. For example, complete ceramic vessels, coins, and ostraka. 144. SUQ (Stratigraphic Unit Quantification) forms were used for quantitative analysis of pottery sherds, as well as other kinds of small finds, such as fragments of plaster, charcoal, etc. 145. The catalogue, created by Delphine Dixneuf, is included in chapter 8 of this volume. 146. See chapter 10 of this volume. 147. More than one hundred just in the 2008 excavation season. 148. Unless they had been found while sieving, therefore out of their original archaeological context. 149. See chapter 9 of this volume. 150. Except for the nine objects that were uncovered in the 1990s and kept in the Kharga Museum.

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Soil samples, including ash and sand rich in organic material, were collected from secure contexts for archaeobotanical analysis.151 Some materials, such as fragments of unfired pottery and plaster, were also kept for technical analysis, and forms with basic information for each sample were filled. The goal behind the collection of the samples was to obtain, from their analysis, additional information on patterns of food consumption at the site in Late Antiquity.152 Three seasons of excavation, carried out largely in the northern half of mound I, and also the survey of several rooms in area A, excavated in the 1990s but at that time left undocumented, led to a substantial amount of data, consisting of written forms, plans, drawings, and photographs. It was decided to leave the documentation in hard format in Egypt until the completion of all excavation and documentation work on site. However, it was necessary to find a way for all specialists involved in the project to make use of the data also outside of Egypt. Furthermore, the large bulk of information had to be organized in a fashion so that it would be of easy access to them and facilitate searches and comparisons at different levels. Therefore, a database was developed by Bruno Bazzani using Microsoft Access software, mirroring the one already in use at the site of Amheida. Digital forms were created using the same fields included in all paper forms, which were filled during the excavation and documentation process on site. To reduce the possibility of loss of information or mistakes in the data-entering process, all paper forms were scanned and linked to the corresponding digital forms. All photographs, already in digital format, were added to the database and linked to the digital forms associated with each specific image. Also, all lists, day drawings, and day-notes were scanned and included in the database, together with all the digital plans, the microrelief of the site, the photogrammetric images, and all excavation reports. As a result, the database allowed for fast and straightforward access to the documentation and for effective cross-reference searches of information according to diverse parameters. For example, tools were created to search the archaeological data either by year, or area, or room, etc, therefore contributing substantially to an effective processing of the data by the specialists. To further facilitate access to the documentation by all members of the Ἁin el-Gedida mission, and eventually by the general public, it was decided to make the database available on-line as an open-access resource, which will facilitate the reader’s in-depth study of the site and supplement the inevitably limited detail presented in this report.153

1.6. Conservation Strategies for Structures in Situ

The poor condition of many rooms excavated and surveyed from 2006 to 2008 raised the question of conservation at Ἁin el-Gedida. Several problems must be faced when dealing with fragile materials such as mud bricks and mud or gypsum plaster. Once the archaeological remains are completely exposed, no longer protected by windblown sand, they become subject to the dangers of the harsh natural environment (including strong winds, sunlight, sand dunes, 151. A preliminary analysis on the 2006 samples was carried out by Johannes Walter. 152. Additional information about food consumption at Ἁin el-Gedida was provided by the analysis of several animal bones found at the site. The study was carried out by Pam Crabtree and Douglas Campana: see chapter 12 of this volume. 153. The Ἁin el-Gedida database is available at www.amheida.com, along with the database of the Amheida project.

Introduction

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and salinization) and face physical, chemical, and biological deterioration.154 New chemicals and techniques are regularly developed and tested, but they are often very expensive and not always effective under any conditions. In light of the specific conservation issues faced at Ἁin el-Gedida, backfill following complete documentation was selected as the most suitable and cost-effective option.155 Particular attention was paid to features that were more in danger of collapse or damage,156 such as, within the church complex, the staircase (B8) and doorways without lintels in rooms B6, B9, and B10. Furthermore, the graffiti on the west and north walls of room B6 were protected with mud-brick screens placed at a short distance in front of them, with the space in between filled with clean sand. In 2008, the church (rooms B5), the large hall (room A46), and rooms B9–B10 were completely backfilled with clean sand, and partial backfilling was carried out in all other excavated rooms. In area A, several architectural features were the object of partial restoration by the Egyptian mission in the mid-1990s. The rooms whose full documentation was carried out in 2006 and 2007 were either partially or completely backfilled.

154. Zielinski 1999: 185. 155. I am thankful to the architect Nicholas Warner for his expertise and help. The conservation approach adopted at Ἁin elGedida reflects the choice made by several archaeologists working at other sites in the Dakhla Oasis, for example at Amheida and Kellis (Ismant el-Kharab). 156. Which might have arisen from a prolonged exposure to the elements.

2 Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V 2.1. Mound I Mound I, where both the Egyptian and the international missions conducted intensive archaeological investigation, was, for the sake of clarity in the documentation, artificially divided into two separate areas: area A, corresponding to the southern part of the hill investigated by the SCA in the mid-1990s, and area B, to the north of area A and roughly occupying two thirds of the whole mound (Pls. 2.1–2).

2.1.1. Area A Although no documentation survives from the original investigation of area A, the topographical and architectural survey that was carried out by our team resulted in a significant amount of information on the buildings located in the southern half of mound I (Pls. 2.3–4). In this sector, the settlement gives the impression of having developed from a smaller, centrally located core of buildings into a larger complex extending toward the edges of the mound. The highly irregular layout shows that several rooms were not built following a systematic plan. It seems, instead, that they were constructed at different times, with mud bricks often laid out in a very poor construction technique and with the walls of the later structures abutting the outer walls of the earlier buildings.1 Unambiguous archaeological evidence was 1. As previously noted by the Egyptian excavators: see Bayoumi 1998: 58. On mud-brick architecture in Dakhla, see Schijns 2003.

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Pl. 2.1: Plan of buildings on mound I.

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

Pl. 2.2: View of mound I (to S).

Pl. 2.3: Plan of area A in the southern half of mound I.

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Pl. 2.4: Aerial view of mound I-area A (to NE).

found for this addition of architectural features to earlier structures, which were often subject themselves to heavy alterations (as, for example, in room A6, discussed below). It is not possible to say if area B to the north reflects a similar situation and comparable patterns of development and expansion, as it remains largely unexcavated. Instead, area A, in which most rooms had been the object of complete or partial excavation in the 1990s, allows a more comprehensive picture of the topography of mound I in its southern part. Further evidence for the existence of a multi-phased process of renovation and alteration of architectural features at the site is offered by the discovery, in a few rooms of area A (more extensively in rooms A9 and A25), of foundation trenches belonging to earlier walls.2 The trenches were hidden below compacted mud floors, which were laid out as the last stage of architectural alterations taking place in those rooms. These changes seemingly entailed not minimal restorations of walls, but rather drastic variations in the layout and, possibly, in the dimensions of the rooms, involving the destruction of earlier walls and the building of new, and often differently oriented, ones. No easily identifiable domestic units were recognized in area A. Two sets of partially excavated rooms (A35–A37 and A38–A40), located along the southeastern edge of mound I, have a particular layout, consisting of two roughly square rooms built next to each other and opening onto a larger rectangular space. This spatial arrangement is quite similar to that 2. See the discussion of the two rooms below. Evidence of earlier walls razed down or partially reused was found also in area B, for example in the church (room B5) and the large gathering hall to the north of it (room A46). See the analysis carried out in chapter 3.

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of another set of rooms identified during the excavation of a test trench in the northern half of the hill (rooms B1–B3, cf. below). In the latter case, the large rectangular courtyard opens onto an additional set of two square rooms, but it is not possible to know if this was also the case for rooms A35–A37 and A38–A40, since the area occupied by these spaces was excavated only in part. Rooms B1–B3, and the two unexcavated rooms to the north, were identified as a relatively small and compact building of a domestic, residential nature, even though its overall arrangement of rooms does not seem to reflect standard types of domestic architecture in Greco-Roman Egypt generally or in the Dakhla Oasis in particular. In most instances, the rooms surveyed in area A do not belong to small, separate buildings, but are rather interconnected to form a complex network, which extends throughout the southern part of the hill. More in detail, the topographical map of mound I reveals the existence of a large cluster of interconnected spaces in the northwestern part of area A and including rooms A5–A7, A9, A10–A11, A13 (and possibly A14–A15 to the east of passage 8). This very large set of spaces is, in fact, connected, through a very narrow corridor (A29, located in the southeast corner of room A6) and space A30, to rooms A25 and A31–A32 in the middle of area A (with evidence of staircases leading to roofs or an upper story). From the same narrow space A30, one could also enter room A27 and from there reach rooms A28, A26 (which seems to have been the main entrance into the latter set of rooms), and A24 (opening also onto A22 and A23) in the southern part of the mound. The only building that seems to have been, at least in its latest occupational phase, physically separated from the surrounding spaces of this packed built-in environment, is located just south of the church (room B5) and consists of rooms A17–A21 (and possibly A16 and A33, although these are completely filled with sand and their relationship with the surrounding spaces could not be ascertained). The building was accessible only through a doorway set in the north wall of room A19 and opening onto the area in the proximity of the church complex. Three main passageways defined access to and movement within this sector: one vaulted corridor (B11), running from east to west and dividing area A from the church complex and area B; a narrower north–south corridor (A8) leading from a large, centrally located kitchen (A6) to the vaulted passageway (B11) and therefore to the area of the church complex and the rest of mound I; finally, a long north–south street (A34) in the southeastern part of mound I, separating the main cluster of buildings of area A from the smaller sets of rooms located toward the southeastern edge of the mound (rooms A35–A37 and A38–A40 mentioned above).3 More firmly identifiable as magazines are a set of three rooms (A2–A4) (Pl. 2.5).4 The existence of these (and presumably other) fairly large storage areas, their proximity to a wide kitchen centrally located (A6), and the general arrangement of most rooms of area A, forming a network of interconnected spaces, point to their overall utilitarian function and to their use by a community, instead of belonging to separate family households. As mentioned above, among the several rooms excavated by the Egyptian mission between 1993 and 1995 in area A, a few were selected for their particular architectural interest, in order to create a representative sample. During the 2006 excavation season, they were cleared of 3. Seemingly built at a later time than the original, central core of structures in area A. 4. See section 2.1.1 below.

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Pl. 2.5: View of storage rooms at the south end of mound I (to E).

the windblown sand that had partially re-filled them and all their architectural features were documented. A discussion of these rooms follows. Room A2 Room A2 is located in the southwest corner of mound I. It measures approximately 5.6 m north–south by 3.3 m east–west, with walls that are preserved to a maximum height of 1.42 m (north wall AF1) (Pls. 2.3; 2.5–7). This space was accessed from a small courtyard through a doorway (AF5; width between the jambs: 0.7 m) placed in the south wall (AF4) toward its east end; remains of a rectangular niche are visible in the middle of the north wall at about 80 cm above gebel. A large basin of unfired clay (AF9), of about 1 m in diameter, is set at floor level in the same corner of the room, surrounded by scanty remains of a beaten clay floor (AF8) (Pls. 2.6–7).5 The basin was probably used as a storage bin, as no traces of firing activities were found within or outside this feature, arguing against its identification as an oven or hearth. Room A2 was originally barrel-vaulted, with the vault springing at a rather low height (about 1.4 m) from the floor, which made the room quite unsuitable for living purposes.6 Indeed, this space is the westernmost of three narrow, rectangular rooms (A2–A4) that may have functioned as small storage areas. These were later additions to the adjacent rooms to the 5. Upper elevation: 111.581 m. 6. Remains of vault springs are visible particularly along the west side (AF7), in addition to very few traces (AF3) above the east wall.

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

Pl. 2.6: Plan of room A2.

Pl. 2.7: View of room A2 (to NE).

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Pl. 2.8: Plan of room A5.

Pl. 2.9: View of room A5 (to E).

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45

north, as pointed to by the east and west walls (AF2 and AF6 respectively) of room A2 (as well as the east and west walls of room A4) abutting an east–west oriented wall (including AF1 as its westernmost segment) to the north, against which the south wall (AF15) of room A5 was built. Room A5 Room A5 is located to the north of storage spaces A2–A3 (Pl. 2.3). It is a rectangular room, measuring about 3.2 m north–south by 6.5 m east–west, and has mud-brick walls preserved to a maximum height of about 2 m (east wall AF13) (Pls. 2.8–9). Originally, two doorways gave access to this space. One doorway (AF14), originally arched, is located at the south end of the east wall and opens onto a large kitchen centrally placed (A6 on the plan of area A). Remains of a stub (AF21) protruding into the room and of the threshold, which has a width of ca. 0.65 m, are still visible, although heavily weathered. The second doorway (AF11), which shows evidence of a stone lintel supported by two protruding jambs, is set at the east end of the north wall (AF10) and leads into room A9 (width between the preserved jambs: ca. 0.6 m). Vault springs are still partially visible on the long and fairly low (approximate height of 1.4 m) north and south walls.7 Three rectangular niches are inserted in the south wall, set at about 80 cm above ground level. Their width varies between 53 and 59 cm and their average depth is ca. 70 cm. The back wall of the niches is, in fact, wall AF1, running east–west to the south of room A5 and forming the north boundary of room A2.8 The floor of room A5 (AF19),9 quite uneven as it slopes toward the door on the north wall, was found in very poor condition, with only few visible traces of a leveled layer of gray-brown clay. A drain, made with a large fragment of a ceramic vessel (possibly an amphora or a keg), is still partially in situ in the west wall (AF17) of the room, at floor level, set within a north and south facing consisting of stone cobbles (Pl. 2.10). Room A9 Room A9 is a large rectangular space located to the northeast of room A5 (Pl. 2.3). It measures 5.25 m north–south by 3.5 m east–west and has mud-brick walls that are preserved to the considerable height of 2.6 m (east end of north wall AF53) (Pl. 2.11). Four doorways open onto this room: one (AF54; width between the jambs: 90 cm) is set at the west end of the north wall and leads into room A13; another (AF101; width: 68 cm) is located at the north end of the west wall (AF58) and was once the only access into square room A11; along the same wall, but further south, is a third doorway (AF102; width: ca. 70 cm), which opens onto room A10; the fourth opening (AF11) is set at the west end of the south wall 7. Vault springs AF12 and AF16 respectively. 8. As mentioned above, the same wall extends eastwards, forming the north boundary of rooms A3–A4. It is possible that the three niches were built taking advantage of preexisting wall AF1; another possibility is that in fact AF1 postdates the construction of AF15, in which case the three openings had been originally conceived as windows and not niches. However, no comparative evidence was found for windows set at such a low height from ground level anywhere at the site, which makes this identification less likely. 9. Upper elevation: 111.879 m.

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Pl. 2.10: Remains of drain set in the west wall of room A5.

Pl. 2.11: Plan of room A9.

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

47

Pl. 2.12: East wall of room A9.

(AF57) and leads, as seen above, into room A5. The north and south doorways, both defined by side jambs built within, and part of, the same walls, show a higher degree of complexity and craftsmanship than the two doors along the west wall. The latter were, in fact, built within a double wall, consisting of the west wall of room A9 and the east wall of rooms A10–A11, which were seemingly built at a later time than A9. The room was originally covered by a barrel-vaulted roof. The vault was oriented north– south and is now preserved only in the lowest courses of the vault springs above the east and west walls.10 East wall AF55 rises to a considerable height above the east vault-spring, pointing to the existence, in antiquity, of an upper story.11 The presence of a stairway in room A6, to the southeast of A9, further supports this possibility. Two roughly square niches, measuring ca. 50 by 50 cm and 37 cm deep, are set into the east wall, at about 1 m above ground level (Pl. 2.12). Both are framed by a thick band of white gypsum, as customary in the oasis. The northern niche has a stone lintel still in situ, while the upper part of the southern niche shows signs of heavy damage. Another niche, sharing similar width and depth as the other two but with a recessed round top, is inserted in the north wall, at a distance of about 72 cm from the wall’s east end. It is also framed by a roughly square band of white gypsum. The original floor (AF61)12 of beaten clay, laid on gebel, is largely missing, with most visible remains located to the north of the doorway opening onto room A5. An L-shaped foundation trench (AF62), filled with a course of mud bricks (AF63), is still visible at ground level in the northeast corner of the room. This feature is presumably associated with an earlier structure, the walls of which were leveled when the compacted mud floor of A9 was laid. 10. AF56 above the east wall (northern end) and AF59 above the west wall. 11. Nicholas Warner, who visited the site, confirmed this possibility (personal communication to Gillian Pyke, February 2006). 12. Upper elevation: 112.016 m.

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Pl. 2.13: Aerial view of rooms A14-A15 (to W).

Pl. 2.14: Plan of rooms A14-A15.

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

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Pl. 2.15: West wall of room A14.

Rooms A14 –A15 Two interconnected rooms were cleared in the north part of area A, that is, rooms A14 and A15 (Pl. 2.3). A14 is a rectangular space, larger than room A15 and located to the north of it. A14 measures 4 m north–south by 3.5 m east–west, with walls standing up to 2.6 m (east wall AF32) (Pl. 2.13). A15 is a roughly square space that measures 2.6 m north–south by 3 m east–west, with walls preserved to the maximum height of about 2.45 m (east wall AF25) (Pl. 2.14). Room A14 is located immediately to the southwest of church B5 and is accessed via a north–south oriented passageway (A8) that connects the area of the church complex to the core of area A, particularly a large kitchen centrally placed in the southern half of mound I (i.e., rooms A6–A7). From A8, one could enter room A14 through a doorway (AF36; width: 74 cm) set in the middle of the room’s west wall (AF35) (Pl. 2.15). The remains of the doorway consist of a mud-brick threshold and one protruding jamb built on the south side, which also shows evidence for the placement of a door in antiquity. The sill was found at a considerably higher level than the floor, suggesting that at least a couple of steps once led into the room. Another doorway (AF23; width between the two preserved jambs: 75 cm), located at the west end of the south wall (AF33), allowed passage into room A15. No other door exists in this space, which was therefore accessible only through room A14. The two spaces were originally barrel-vaulted, with both vaults oriented east–west. Their remains, as well as traces of the mud bricks and potsherds filling the space between the two vaults, are still visible.13 The floors of both rooms (AF3914 in room A14 and AF2915 in room A15), now largely destroyed, consisted of levelled clay, with inclusions of iron pan, laid out 13. In room A14: AF31 above north wall AF30 and AF34 above south wall AF33. In room A15: AF24 above north wall AF33 and AF27 above south wall AF26. 14. Upper elevation: 112.259 m. 15. Upper elevation: 112.224 m.

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Pl. 2.16: Traces of inscription on the east wall of room A14.

on gebel. The cleaning of room A14 revealed a few traces of mud bricks at floor level, placed just south of the west doorway. It was not possible to verify if these mud bricks belonged to an earlier wall that was razed when the floor of room A14 was laid out, although it seems likely. Room A14 has two arched niches set into the west wall, to the north and south of the doorway, at about 1.3 m above ground. The north niche (width: ca. 55 cm; depth: ca. 45 cm) is framed by a square band of whitewash above mud plaster, while the niche to the south (width: ca. 45 cm; depth: ca. 40 cm) was only covered with mud plaster. The arch framing the top of this niche is slightly recessed into the wall. Another niche (width: ca. 60 cm; depth: ca. 25 cm) is located in the south wall of room A15 at ca. 1 m above ground level. It is architecturally more complex than the other two niches of room A15. It has a roughly round top, but it is set within a slightly recessed square frame, plastered with mud, which has horizontal slots set within its upper and lower edge (possibly for now-disappeared stone or wood elements). Room A15 has only one niche (width: ca. 60 cm; depth: ca. 40 cm). It is placed in the middle of the west wall (AF28), at ca. 1.3 m above ground level. It has a recessed round top and is framed by a thick (about 30 cm) band of white gypsum plaster (now largely disappeared) on top of mud plaster. Two horizontal recesses, each more than 1 m long and ca. 20 cm deep, run above the two niches in the west wall of room A14, at a height of about 2.40 m above ground level (Pl. 2.14). They were both coated with mud plaster. The west wall of room A15 seems to reflect a similar situation, although the two segments of the recess are in poorer condition. The considerable height of these features, which makes them difficult to reach, and their shallow depth make their original function particularly difficult to identify. Traces of white plaster with three uncial Greek letters [ΗΠΑ], written in dark red ink, were

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Pl. 2.17: Plan of room A25.

found on the east wall of room A14;16 however, it was impossible to discern the meaning of the inscription or its original extent; even the language (Greek or Coptic) is uncertain (Pl. 2.16). The north and south walls of rooms A14–A15 (i.e., AF30, AF33, and AF26) abut walls to the east (AF32 and AF25) that seem to belong to older buildings and therefore testify to earlier construction phases. Reflecting the pattern of topographical development that was noticed in several other instances in area A, both rooms A14 and A15 reveal the growth of the built environment (more obvious in the southern half of mound I) from a central core of buildings to a larger and more complex network of structures, which reached the outer edges of the mound. Room A25 Another room, A25, was cleared of sand and recorded in the central part of area A, more to the east (Pls. 2.3; 2.17).17 It measures ca. 3.90 m north–south by 3.60 m east–west and the maximum height of its walls is 2.48 m (south wall AF44). The room was once covered by a barrel-vaulted roof oriented north–south; scanty remains of the vault were detected on both the east and west walls.18 The east face of the east wall is substantially higher than the vault spring of room A25, pointing to the existence of a now-lost upper story. In its latest occupational phase, room A25 was accessed through two doorways. One (AF45), ca. 90 cm wide and still bearing traces of a mud-brick threshold and holes (possibly 16. The plaster fragment (maximum width: ca. 12 cm; maximum height: ca. 8 cm) is located 1.19 m above floor level and 1.4 m from the south end of room 14’s east wall. 17. The clearance of the sand revealed that part of the room, against the SE corner, had been left unexcavated in the 1990s. The full investigation of the room, begun in 2006, was completed, due to time constraints, only during the 2007 season. 18. AF42 above the east wall and AF48 above the west wall.

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Pl. 2.18: Bricked-in doorway on the east wall of room A25.

Pl. 2.19: View of room A25 from above (to SE), with traces of earlier walls below floor level.

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door sockets), is set at the west end of the south wall and opens onto room A27 to the south. The second opening (AF47; width between the jambs: 60 cm) is placed at the south end of the west wall and leads into room A31. This doorway was heavily restored and rebuilt as an arched passageway in the mid-1990s. Originally, a third doorway (AF43) was set into the east wall at its north end and opened onto room A24 to the east. At some point in antiquity, the opening, which had a considerable width (ca. 1.15 m), was sealed through the construction of a poorly made mud-brick partition wall (AF43), which is recessed by ca. 20 cm compared to the east wall of the room (Pl. 2.18). A niche is set into the east wall, to the south of the bricked-in opening. It has a rectangular shape, with a width of 58 cm and a depth of ca. 25 cm. The niche, whose stone lintel is still in situ, is framed by a poorly preserved rectangular band of whitewash. A ledge, built at about 1.15 m above floor level, runs along the entire width of the south wall. Both the wall and the sill are part of the same construction episode; the function of the latter feature, however, is not known beyond doubt. Consistent traces of a compacted mud floor (AF49)19 are still visible in the northwest corner of the room; more to the east, the excavation revealed the foundation trench (AF50) and the first course of a wall (AF51, with a maximum preserved length of 2.35 m) precisely oriented north–south, at an angle compared with the northeast–southwest orientation of room A25 and belonging to an earlier building (Pl. 2.19). Other remains of early walls (AF96 and AF97) were found in the southeast corner. They partly run under the east and south walls of the room, following the same orientation, and partly protrude into the room itself, covered by the preparatory layer (DSU1)20 of later floor AF49 (contemporary to the last occupational phase of room A25). One complete oval lamp (inv. 615), several pottery sherds, as well as complete and almost complete vessels (including a small globular flask—inv. 609—and a bowl—inv. 612), were found below this floor level. Their analysis led to a fourth-century dating for the entire assemblage. It is possible that these vessels and sherds had been deposited there to flatten the uneven geological surface (including the remains of earlier architectural features) before the floor was laid out. Two heavily worn bronze coins were also brought to light within this fill: one (inv. 503) is dated to 313, while the other (inv. 504) was minted between 315 and 318. The general surface clearance of the room revealed two additional bronze coins (inv. 501, dated to 324, and inv. 502, minted in 326), as well as three ostraka (one in Coptic and two in Greek). One (inv. 10) is an account of donkeyloads in four lines, while the other two (inv. 8 and 17) are incomplete and of unclear content.21 Based on palaeographic evidence, the three ostraka are dated to the fourth century, in line with the information provided by coins and ceramics.

19. Upper elevation: 111.669 m. 20. Upper elevation: 111.730 m; lower elevation: 111.360 m; max. thickness: 37 cm. 21. For a detailed analysis of the three ostraka, see chapter 10 in this volume.

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Pl. 2.20: View of rooms A6–A7 (to E).

Pl. 2.21: Plan of rooms A6–A7.

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Rooms A6 –A7 A significant effort was made, in 2006 and 2007, to fully document room A6 and the adjacent space A7, centrally placed in the southern half of mound I—slightly to the west—and to the northeast of the three narrow rooms (A2–A4) preliminarily identified as magazines (Pls. 2.3; 2.20). The location of rooms A6–A7, their dimensions, and their wealth of architectural features and installations make these spaces a meaningful case-study. Room A6 was partially excavated by the Egyptian team in the 1990s and is identifiable beyond doubt as a kitchen.22 It is a rectangular space, measuring about 4 m north–south by 7 m east–west, and has walls preserved to a maximum height of ca. 2.20 m (in its northeast corner, wall AF91) (Pl. 2. 21). The room was once accessible through two main doorways. One opening, ca. 1.05 m wide, is set between the northwest and the northeast walls (AF57 and AF26 respectively) and opens on a long, narrow passage oriented north–south (A8), which in turns leads to a passageway (B11) running northwest–southeast to the area of the church complex.23 The other doorway (AF14) is located at the south end of the west wall (AF13) and, as discussed above, gives access to room A5. A third, narrow passage exists at the east end of the south wall (AF86). It is 58 cm wide and opens onto a very narrow space (A29), against whose walls numerous traces of ash were detected. This space might have been used, perhaps, as a dump for the ash cleared from at least some of the ovens found in room A6. At the time of its investigation, the floor level was not identified within the room, as it seemed to have suffered heavy disturbances.24 The scanty remains of a low mud-brick wall (AF87), running north–south and parallel to the west wall of the room, cut A6 roughly in half. Its original function is unknown. Among the visible courses of this wall, which was laid out in English bond, a bricked-in section was noticed, about 140 cm wide, which seems to have belonged to an earlier opening that was sealed at some point in antiquity. This wall once abutted the south wall of room A6, although today the latter is slightly slanted toward the south and thus detached from the former. A staircase (AF95) is set against the northeast wall. It was originally built above a stratified deposit of many thin layers rich in ceramic and organic inclusions (Pl. 2.22). The upper section of the stairway is oriented north–south and is supported by a north–south wall and a vault built with mud bricks laid out as stretchers on edge. Above the vault are four stone steps embedded in mud mortar. The staircase continues with a lower section that is oriented east–west and consists of three (remaining) steps. The available archaeological evidence suggests that originally the staircase was built just as one flight of steps oriented north–south. Indeed, to the south of the deposit supporting the upper section of the staircase, and projecting from it, is a mud-brick rectangular feature that may be the poorly preserved remains of the lowest part of the original stairway. A second construction episode involved the addition of the east–west flight of steps, whose lowest end is 22. The clearing of sand from this space was not completed because of the extremely precarious condition of some of its features; unfortunately, several other structures throughout the site share similar conditions. 23. The doorway opening onto corridor A8 was not excavated; therefore the existence of a threshold or other features could not be ascertained. 24. As there is no documentation of the investigation of the room in the 1990s, it is difficult to determine whether such disturbances occurred exclusively in antiquity or also in modern times.

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Pl. 2.22: Staircase in room A6.

almost completely missing. The result was a staircase running, in its upper section, north–south and then turning clockwise, obstructing almost completely the passage into corridor A8. This testifies to the fact that, during at least the latest phase of occupation of room A6, the doorway/ passage into A8 was no longer in use. To the east of the stairway, two partition walls were constructed with a very poor construction technique: one (AF92) running east–west from the staircase and the other (AF93) set against the north sector of the kitchen’s east wall (AF90, with the southern end of AF91 in the northeast corner). A secondary room (A7, measuring ca. 1.60 m north–south by 2.10 m east–west) was thus created against the northeast corner of A6, separate from the kitchen and accessible only through the vault supporting the highest ramp of steps (and built in phase with the staircase).25 The high walls of room A6, all showing rather poor and hurried craftsmanship, bear no trace of vault springs or sockets for the placement of beams supporting a flat roof. Either the roof and the highest courses of the walls collapsed, leaving no sign of its original existence, or this space was actually an open courtyard, as one might surmise from the very poor craftsmanship of many of its walls and the rather central placement of the staircase. The possible absence of a roof is also suggested by the existence of at least three ovens built at some point here (Pls. 2.23–24). Two circular bread ovens (AF83 and AF84) are located in the northwest sector of the kitchen; one is still partially in situ, while the other lies to the south of its original location; it fell in 2005, 25. As proved by the fact that the wall forming the east face of the staircase is bonded with the south wall of room A7.

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

Pl. 2.23: Aerial view of rooms A6-A7 (to SW); arrows point to the remains of ovens.

Pl. 2.24: Plan of rooms A6-A7.

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Pl. 2.25: View of mound I-area B (to NW) before excavation.

Pl. 2.26: Plan of area B in the northern half of mound I.

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probably as a result of the collapse of part of the staircase to the east.26 The former appears to belong to the “Later Type” of ovens, following S. Yeivin’s classification, or “Type II-Subtype a”, according to D. D. E. Depraetere: that is to say, a circular ceramic oven, built on a raised earth platform and surrounded by mud-brick partition walls.27 Parts of another round oven (AF88) were found in situ in the southeast sector of the kitchen. Behind AF88 are the remains of a long rectangular installation (AF89), which consists of a wall and part of a vault. A circular opening, measuring ca. 55 cm in width, cuts through the wall from north to south. The original shape and function of this installation is unknown.28 The archaeological evidence shows that room A6 went through several construction phases, which involved most walls of the room and the staircase. As mentioned above, room A6 was located in a rather central position and led, through a narrow passageway (A8)—at least before the latter was blocked by the lower end of the staircase—to an area in the proximity of the church. The dimensions of the kitchen and the presence of at least three ovens suggest that the facility served a fairly large group of people, although they do not shed light on who these people were.

2.1.2. Area B Before the beginning of excavations in 2006, a systematic surface clearance of mound I revealed a network of several buildings, various in size and often interconnected, extending throughout most of area B (Pl. 2.25). Although the layout of area B gives the impression of a rather confused arrangement of space, traces of more regular planning can be easily identified (Pl. 2.26). A network of perpendicular streets, dividing the northernmost part of the hill into quadrants, can be detected to a certain extent. Sets of interconnected rooms (unexcavated), sometimes opening onto spaces that seem to have been inner courtyards, were built against each other to form larger, roughly rectangular blocks divided by the streets. Rooms B1–B3, investigated as a test trench in 2006, reflect a similar spatial arrangement, although with additional rooms. The results of archaeological investigation in this area (concerning, in particular, rooms B1– B3) point to its identification as a possible residential area, with the smaller groups of roomsplus-courtyard as domestic units. The southern part of area B, especially the sector occupied by the church complex and the spaces adjacent to it, reflects a more irregular layout. However, this might be due, at least in part, to the substantial and multi-phased rearrangement of space that involved the area of the church complex, as proved by its archaeological investigation. A remarkably large structure, rectangular in shape, lies toward the northern edge of mound I (Pl. 2.27). Although it was not excavated, its outline was partially visible above ground level. It consists of two rectangular rooms measuring ca. 3 m north–south by 4 m east–west and sharing one of the longer walls. It was not possible to determine, without excavation, if they 26. Photographic evidence exists of its original location in situ. 27. Yeivin 1934: 114–15, and Depraetere 2002: 123–25. 28. Several traces of ash and burning marks were detected in the proximity of this feature, especially against the east wall of room A6. This fact led Mr. Bayoumi to identify the feature as part of a rectangular oven, also on the basis of a comparison with modern examples still in use in the oasis (personal communication, January 2006). The available evidence is not conclusive on this identification.

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Pl. 2.27: View of large square structure—likely a pigeon tower—(to NW).

were originally interconnected. The two rooms are located at the center of a wide, rectangular structure measuring ca. 16 m north–south by 12 m east–west. The state of preservation of these walls seems to be rather poor, and parts of their outline could not be mapped during the survey. This does not imply that the missing wall segments (especially in the middle of the south side and toward the northern end of the west side) indicate the precise location of doorways into the complex; indeed, the walls might simply be preserved at a lower level in those points. Only a thorough archaeological investigation could shed light on the building’s outline, the interrelationship of its architectural features, and the precise location of its entrance/entrances. A preliminary analysis of the available evidence suggests an identification of the complex as a pigeon tower, surrounded by a large rectangular courtyard.29 Pigeon towers were a typical feature of the oasis landscape in Roman times and during Late Antiquity, as shown by the D.O.P. survey of ancient farmhouses and villages of Dakhla.30 In particular, the remains of a columbarium were discovered and investigated in recent years by Colin Hope at the site of Kellis, not far from Ἁin el-Gedida.31 Located within an open area in the northern part of the site, and possibly associated with a group of three large residences to the east and southeast, this pigeon tower consists of two adjoining structures of rectangular shape and similar dimensions, each of them further divided into two roughly equal rooms. Considerable ceramic evidence was collected of pigeon nesting jars, once set into the upper walls of the tower. The overall layout of the Kellis columbarium closely resembles that from Ἁin el-Gedida, although the former is of a substantially bigger size.32 Ten meters west of the pigeon tower, three rooms (B1–B3) were identified as part of a larger 29. As preliminarily proposed by R. Bagnall, C. Hope, and A. Mills (personal communications). 30. Churcher and Mills 1999: 251–65. A published farmhouse from Dakhla is in Mills 1993. 31. Hope 2007b: 16–22. A plan of the columbarium is published in Hope and Whitehouse 2006: 315. 32. Several pigeon towers were also found at the site of Karanis, in the Fayyum, resembling the typology of the columbarium from Kellis: see Davoli 1998: 85.

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structure that included two additional rooms and that was possibily identified as a residential unit. Test trenches were conducted in this area and involved the excavation of rooms B1–B3. Another room (B4) was chosen and excavated, as part of preliminary test trenching, to the southwest of rooms B1–B3. During the investigation, remains of earlier walls were brought to light, suggesting that the room, as well as the building of which it was part, underwent substantial modifications. The room was used as a domestic midden in its latest phase.33 To the west of room B4, a large complex of eight rooms (B17–B24), uncovered in 2008, lies along the western edge of the mound, only a few meters away from the cultivated fields. An examination of the walls and their relative chronology points to different construction phases for the complex. The archaeological evidence allowed the identification of the complex as a ceramic workshop, built reusing features that comparative analysis allowed us to recognize as part of an earlier mud-brick temple.34 About twenty-five meters to the southeast of rooms B17–B24, and immediately to the north of area A, lies the complex excavated between 2006 and 2007.35 It consists of a church (B5), a large gathering hall (A46), two rooms (B6, B9), an entrance/passageway (B7), and a staircase (B8), all developing to the north of the church. An additional room (B10), identified as a kitchen, was excavated immediately to the west of room A46, although not connected directly with the church complex. Two more sectors, along the southern and eastern ends of the church complex, were investigated in 2008. They include an east–west passageway (B11), a north–south street (B12), a crossroad (B13), a kitchen and a pantry (rooms B14–B15). The discussion of the archaeological remains pertaining to the church and its neighboring rooms will be the subject of chapters 3–5. Notwithstanding the intense work carried out between 2006 and 2008, especially in the area of the church complex, a large number of buildings remain unexcavated in area B. Therefore, discerning the general architectural layout of this part of the site and identifying the possible phases of its development are a very complex matter. The site plan, created with the data obtained during the topographical survey, offers several pieces of information. However, a simple reading of walls that are visible only at their higher end, without their proper and complete excavation, can be misleading in terms of the interpretation of their architectural relationship with each other. In fact, the depth of preservation of most features often makes doorways difficult, if not impossible, to identify, because the walls above their lintels are not readily distinguishable from other parts of the walls. As a consequence, it is not sufficient to shed light on the construction process of the buildings surveyed at ground level. Nonetheless, a great deal of information was collected during the excavation of large sectors of this part of mound I, considerably adding to the understanding of Ἁin el-Gedida’s typology of buildings, construction techniques, phases of expansion, and overall development of the site.

33. On the preliminary test trenching carried out in rooms B1–B3 and B4, see section 2.3 below. 34. For a discussion of the archaeological evidence of the complex, see chapter 6 in this volume. 35. Apart from room A46, first excavated by the Egyptian team in the mid-1990s.

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Pl. 2.28: Plan of mounds II-IV.

Pl. 2.29: View of mound II (to SW).

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2.2. Mounds II-V Excavations were not carried out on mounds II-IV, located to the south of the main hill, or on mound V, a few hundred meters to the northeast of mound I, where the visible remains of architectural features are rather limited. Nonetheless, a topographical survey was carried out on all mounds in 2006–2007 and, once again, in 2010, when additional surface clearance allowed for the gathering of further architectural details (Pl. 2.28). The survey of mound II revealed the existence of several mud-brick buildings and of a street oriented northwest–southeast. The visible remains of this street consist (from north to south) of a long (about 30 m) passage running northwest–southeast, joined to the south to a segment running to the east for ca. 8 m; then the street continues with a third sector following, for about 10 m, the same northwest–southeast orientation as the northern segment, until it gets lost under the sand (Pl. 2.29). All structures, in most cases completely filled with windblown sand, are built along this passageway and show a rather compact and complex organization of space, following a pattern already identified on mound I. In particular, a set of three rectangular rooms parallel and built next to each other, with the long side oriented north–south, were noticed in the southwest sector of the mound; these spaces show an arrangement that is reminiscent of that of rooms A2–A4 in the southern part of mound I, identified as storage rooms. Two clusters of rooms were found to the northeast of the above-mentioned street. They consist of two, roughly square rooms flanking (with at least one of them opening onto) a larger rectangular space. This building (or part of it) has a shape that is suggestive of rooms B1–B3 investigated in the north half of mound I and of rooms A35–A37 (and possibly A38–A40) partially excavated in the southern half of mound I in the mid-1990s. The construction technique and the material of the architectural features surveyed on mound II (mostly walls laid in English bond, with gray-brown mud bricks of standard size and rich in organic inclusions), seems to be quite similar to those investigated on the main hill. At the time of the topographical survey, only a few remains of mud-brick buildings were identified on mound III above ground level (Pls. 2.28; 2.30). They consist of two clusters of interconnected rooms, the larger only a few meters to the west of mound II and the smaller located further to the southwest. Most of the visible architectural features follow the same north–south orientation as found on mound II and share the same materials and construction techniques. In light of the close proximity of the two mounds and of their archaeological remains, it seems that the buildings on both hills were, in fact, one large built-up area. Mound IV, like mounds II-III, is closely surrounded by cultivated fields, which have been encroaching upon the archaeological remains. The topographical survey revealed how several architectural features had already disappeared due to the extensive crop growing, while others were in danger of being permanently erased by the seemingly expanding agricultural exploitation of the area. Notwithstanding, several structures were mapped on this mound (Pls. 2.28; 2.31).

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Pl. 2.30: View of mound III (to SW).

Pl. 2.31: View of mound IV (to SW).

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

Pl. 2.32: Traces of architectural features on mound V.

Pl. 2.33: View of mound V (to NW).

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As was the case for all the rooms surveyed on neighboring mounds II-III, most spaces were found almost completely filled with sand.36 However, the preserved tops of their often mudplastered walls revealed a tight and complex network of rooms, in a few instances clustered around, or opening onto, larger rectangular spaces. A set of three narrow rooms, oriented north–south and with well-preserved remains of barrel-vaulted roofs, is located in the northeast part of the mound. These rooms reflect an arrangement that is similar to other sets of spaces located on mounds I (area A) and II; they possibly were used in antiquity as magazines for crops. No buildings with a complete and clearly defined layout could be discerned on mound IV; thus, any typological study of its architectural remains is not possible without further, indepth archaeological investigation. The topographical survey did not reveal significant traces of the streets or passageways once running on the mound. However, it showed that the orientation of the rooms is, once again, similar to that followed by most buildings on mounds II and III. It is not known, although is certainly possible, if the buildings located on mound IV were once part of the same built-in area extending throughout mounds II-IV and perhaps also continuing to the north onto mound I. Mound V lies to the northeast of the main hill of Ἁin el-Gedida, outside the protected archaeological area (Pls. 2.28; 2.32–33). Heavy disturbances, connected with the agricultural exploitation of the surrounding land, have occurred (and continue to take place) on this mound. As a consequence, the very few remains of architectural features that are visible above ground are in extremely poor condition. The survey identified and recorded scanty traces of mud-brick walls that likely belong to two rectangular structures, roughly oriented east–west. The southernmost of these two rooms has its long south wall preserved to a length of about 8.5 m and bears traces of a smaller space built inside, presumably placed against the east wall (now missing or standing at a lower elevation beneath the sand). The smaller room seems to have been built at the east end of the main axis of the rectangular space and once opened onto it through a doorway (width between the jambs: ca. 1.15 m) placed along its west wall. It was impossible to map the full outline of this structure, or that of the other room to the northeast, due to their extremely poor state of preservation. No serious attempt in reconstructing the original layout of these spaces, as well as identifying their function, can be carried out without their full archaeological investigation. It should be added that, according to Kamel Bayoumi, who led the Egyptian mission at Ἁin el-Gedida in the mid-1990s, local farmers found several human bones while digging in the area of mound V in recent years. This fact led him to tentatively identify this mound as a cemetery in connection with the main site.37 No human bones were found during the topographical survey of the area;38 however, only in-depth excavations would allow us to gather more information regarding the relation of mound V to the site and its use in Late Antiquity.

36. Apart from a rectangular room, with plastered walls and a rounded niche, that was found partially empty in the middle of the mound. 37. Bayoumi (personal communication, February 2005). 38. Peter Sheldrick briefly visited the area in 2012 and noticed fragments of what may be human bones (personal communication, January 2012).

Topographical and Architectural Survey of Mounds I–V

Pl. 2.34: Plan of rooms B1–B3.

Pl. 2.35: Aerial view of rooms B1–B3 (to NW).

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2.3. Test Trenches on Mound I In 2006, the topographical survey of Ἁin el-Gedida was paired with preliminary excavation activity in the northern half of mound I. In order to gather additional data on the underexcavated (by 2006) area B, two small areas were selected for archaeological investigation, one in the northwest sector of the hill (rooms B1–B3) and another a few meters to the southwest (room B4), in the proximity of the western complex excavated two years later. 2.3.1. Rooms B1–B3 Rooms B1–B3 are located a few meters to the west of the large structure identified (preliminarily) as a pigeon tower and discussed earlier (Pls. 2.26; 2.34–35). The excavation of these rooms to floor level (or gebel), paired with an accurate surface clearance of the surrounding area, allowed the identification of the three rooms as part of a larger building extending further to the north. The overall layout reveals a regular and well-planned arrangement of space, with a large rectangular room (B1, oriented east–west) that opens, to the north and to the south, onto two sets of roughly square rooms symmetrically placed; B2–B3 are the two rooms built to the south of room B1. Due to time constraints, it was not possible to investigate the two spaces to the north. The size of the three investigated spaces is ca. 42 m2, while the entire area of the building, including the two rooms to the north, is about 64 m2. B1 is a rectangular room measuring 3.15 m north–south by 6.45 m east–west. The mudbrick walls, which are preserved to a maximum height of ca. 1.80 m (west half of the north wall BF6), were originally coated with mud plaster. The room, and the rest of the building to which it belongs, was once accessible from the outside through a doorway (BF11; width: 109 cm) located at the northwestern corner. Bonded walls BF4 and BF5 form the western boundary of room B1, while BF1 is its east wall. The north side is defined by three different walls (BF6–BF8, the last abutting BF1) and two doorways (BF10 and BF9).39 The lower rectangular half of a niche (56 cm wide and 37 cm deep) is preserved in the east half of the room’s north side (BF8).40 The remains of the niche show evidence of alterations carried out in antiquity, such as a low, narrow barrier poorly built to partially seal the bottom of the niche. The south boundary of the room reflects an arrangement similar to that of the north side and consists of three walls (BF2, BF3, and BF17 in between) separated by two doorways (BF12 and BF13).41 A clay floor (BF14)42 was uncovered in rather good condition throughout most of the room (Pl. 2.36).43 A roughly circular hearth (BF32; diameter: ca. 90 cm) was found, in very good 39. BF10 (the doorway to the west of BF7) has a width between the jambs of 67 cm, while BF9, to the east of the same wall, has a width of 68 cm. 40. Ca. 90 cm above ground level. 41. Their width is given below in the discussion of rooms B2–B3. 42. Upper elevation: 113.646 m. 43. Only patches of a floor were found in room B3 and almost none in room B2.

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Pl. 2.36: View of room B1 after excavation (to W).

condition, in the southwestern corner of the room, set into the floor and surrounded by low edges of clay. A high quantity of ash, charcoal, and seeds were found inside the fireplace, whose presence points to the use of room B1 as a courtyard with utilitarian functions, such as the preparation of food. The excavation of this space led to the identification of three main depositional units, all extending throughout the room (Pl. 2.37).44 The surface layer (DSU1)45 consisted of windblown sand and a few ceramic inclusions (0.50 kg) and covered a unit of sand (DSU5),46 which was very similar to the unit above but cleaner and less disturbed. A large quantity of ceramic sherds (70.09 kg) was found, although in a relatively low concentration when considering the average thickness of the unit (91 cm). Underneath this unit was DSU14,47 an occupational level mixed with wall and roof debris (Pl. 2.38). DSU14 consisted of a thick layer of brown soil, with lenses of yellow sand (particularly in the middle of the room), and rich in organic inclusions, mudbrick debris (from wall collapse), and mud plaster with imprints of palm ribs (likely from a flat roof once covering the room). A high concentration of pottery sherds (51.56 kg) was gathered during the excavation of this unit. Among the vessels that could be reconstructed, partially or almost completely, were a sieve, a keg, storage jars, and several bowls, representing a valuable example of a fourth-century ceramic assemblage of a domestic, utilitarian nature.48 The fourthcentury chronological range provided by ceramics for this context is supported by a Greek 44. Matching the stratigraphy of both rooms B2 and B3. 45. Upper elevation: 114.904 m; lower elevation: 114.439 m; max. thickness: 47 cm. 46. Upper elevation: 114.439 m; lower elevation: 113.524 m; max. thickness: 91 cm. 47. Upper elevation: 113.894 m; lower elevation: 113.436 m; max. thickness: 46 cm. 48. See section 8.3.1 in this volume.

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Pl. 2.37: Matrix of room B1.

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Pl. 2.38: Collapse unit (DSU14) in room B1 (view to W).

ostrakon in four lines (a receipt for chickens) found within the same unit (inv. 25). Based on palaeography and the indictional date mentioned in the text, the ostrakon was securely dated to the fourth century. The sand filling the niche that was set in the east half of the north wall was excavated as a separate unit (DSU21).49 It consisted of windblown sand with some mudbrick debris (possibly from the collapsed top of the niche) and contained a few pieces of white gypsum plaster and only two pottery sherds (0.08 kg). A fourth-century Greek ostrakon (inv. 28), a receipt, probably for wheat, in seven lines, was embedded in the preserved lower half of the niche. The hearth (BF32) placed in the southwest corner of room B1 had a filling (DSU17,50 below DSU14) of moderately compact gray ash, with charcoal and ceramic inclusions (0.24 kg). Room B1 opens, along the west half of its south side, onto room B2, which measures ca. 2.50 by 2.50 m. The mud-brick walls, preserved to a maximum height of 1.35 m (north wall BF3), are coated with mud plaster. Access to this room was through a doorway (BF12; width between the jambs: 70 cm) located at the eastern end of the north wall. The two jambs and a stub (BF20, perpendicular to the north wall and protruding into the room) are still partially visible. As 49. Upper elevation: 114.849 m; lower elevation: 114.634 m; max. thickness: 22 cm. 50. Upper elevation: 113.491 m; lower elevation: 113.271 m; max. thickness: 22 cm.

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Pl. 2.39: Matrix of room B2.

Pl. 2.40: White band in the NE corner or room B3.

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Pl. 2.41: Matrix of room B3.

seen above, the north and the east walls of room B2 abut respectively BF4 (forming the west boundary of rooms B1–B2) and BF16 (the south wall of the complex). A niche (width: 73 cm; depth: 38 cm) was inserted in the east wall;51 today it is only partially visible in its bottom end, due to the collapse of the roof and of the upper courses of the wall and to wind erosion. Overall, B2 is the most poorly preserved room of the building. Very scanty remains of a highly decayed floor (BF22)52 were found in association with the surrounding walls. The simple stratigraphy of room B2 (Pl. 2.39) consisted of a surface layer of windblown sand (DSU2),53 with a low density of inclusions, mostly pottery fragments (0.1 kg), covering a 51. Ca. 90 cm above ground level. 52. Upper elevation: 113.551 m. 53. Upper elevation: 114.744 m; lower elevation: 114.154 m; max. thickness: 59 cm.

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Pl. 2.42: Detail of DSU10 in room B3.

sub-surface level (DSU6)54 that was quite similar in nature to the previous one but with slightly less inclusions. The removal of this unit revealed a dark brown context (DSU9)55 at the level of a largely deteriorated clay floor (BF22). This layer, which was very rich in organic inclusions (including bones)56 and ceramic sherds (2.04 kg) and lay directly on top of gebel, was identified as occupational debris mixed with the decayed floor. The only small find that was gathered within room B2 came from this occupational layer; it is a fragmentary base of a vessel of yellow blown glass (inv. 6). To the east of room B2, and also opening onto the rectangular court (B1), is room B3; it measures ca. 2.60 m north–south by 2.75 m east–west, and the maximum height of its preserved walls is 1.32 m (west wall BF17). The room still shows a few traces of a beaten earth floor (BF23),57 laid out on gebel. Reflecting the symmetrical arrangement of room B2, the north wall of room B3 (BF2) abuts, at its east end, BF1, which forms the eastern boundary of the building. To the west of BF2 is a doorway (BF13; width between the jambs: 62 cm) that is the only entrance into the room from courtyard B1. Remains of the mud-brick threshold, of two jambs and a stub (BF21), bonded with the north wall and protruding into the room, are still visible. The lower part of a niche, 44 cm wide and 37 cm deep, is set toward the north end of the east wall.58 Of particular interest, although of yet unclear function, is the white gypsum band that decorates the northeast corner of this room. This band partially frames the niche on the 54. Upper elevation: 114.154 m; lower elevation: 113.634 m; max. thickness: 52 cm. 55. Upper elevation: 113.759 m; lower elevation: 113.479 m; max. thickness: 28 cm. 56. On bone remains found at the site, see chapter 12 of this volume. 57. Upper elevation: 113.601 m. 58. 91 cm above bedrock.

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east wall and continues on the north wall, following an irregularly stepped pattern and ending against the stub of the doorway (Pl. 2.40).59 The surface layer (DSU3)60 removed from room B3 (Pl. 2.41) consisted of windblown sand with a low concentration of ceramic sherds (1.15 kg), plaster, and very few fragments of mud brick. Another depositional unit of sand (DSU7)61 was found underneath, which contained more fragments of mud bricks and ceramic sherds (30 kg). Two fragments of ropes, of light yellow-brown vegetal fibers (inv. 14–15), were also found in this deposit. DSU7 extended throughout the room and covered the lowest, and most significant, archaeological context (DSU10),62 which consisted of decayed mud-brick debris (from a wall collapse) and brown sediment (from an occupational level and a deteriorated clay floor) (Pl. 2.42). Several traces of palm rib impressions and straw matting were found on the mud plaster and bricks in this layer, suggesting that originally the room had a flat roof. This context, which contained a higher percentage of ceramics than the units above (10.45 kg), lay on gebel and on the scanty remains of a beaten clay floor. The few objects that were retrieved during the excavation of DSU10 consist of a fragmentary rope of light brown vegetal fibers (inv. 16) and a Greek ostrakon (inv. 7), which is an account of wheat and must written on both the convex and concave sides of the body sherd. Based on information written in the text, the ostrakon is dated to the second half of the fourth century. The layout of rooms B1–B3 (and of the two unexcavated rooms along the north side of B1) suggests that they belonged to a residential unit, consisting of a roofed courtyard, with a hearth for food preparation, and smaller spaces opening onto it. The overall design shows a rather simplified spatial arrangement, compared with that of other houses found at Kellis or Amheida, also in the Dakhla Oasis.63 Quite peculiar is also the symmetrical layout of spaces in the building of Ἁin el Gedida and the fact that rooms B2–B3 (and the two unexcavated rooms to the north of B1) roughly share—quite unusually in a domestic context—the same dimensions. At any rate, the identification of this building as a house still stands as a reasonable possibility. The relatively small dimensions and seemingly private character of the building; the spatial arrangement of rooms opening onto a central, rectangular courtyard with a hearth placed in one corner;64 and the discovery, within the occupational level of the courtyard, of a ceramic assemblage of a clearly domestic nature, point towards the identification of this building as a residential unit. It is not clear, however, if a family inhabited this building. The symmetry of the spaces and their roughly equal dimensions (apart from the court) also suggest a structure 59. P. Davoli pointed out that similar bands were also found at the site of Amheida (personal communication, 2006). 60. Upper elevation: 114.624 m; lower elevation: 114.309 m; max. thickness: 32 cm. 61. Upper elevation: 114.309 m; lower elevation: 113.514 m; max. thickness: 80 cm. 62. Upper elevation: 113.654 m; lower elevation: 113.394 m; max. thickness: 26 cm. 63. On a recently published house at Amheida, see Boozer 2015: Part III. Evidence of first–fourth c. Roman houses was found at several sites throughout Egypt, including Kellis in the Dakhla Oasis (Hope 1991; 2003; 2007a; Hope and Whitehouse 2006; Hope et al. 1989; 2006); Douch/Kysis in Kharga Oasis (Reddé 2004); Karanis (Boak and Peterson 1931; Boak 1933; Husselman 1979); Soknopaiou Nesos (Davoli 1998: 39–71); Hawara (Uytterhoeven 2010); Tebtynis (Davoli 1998: 179–210; Hadji-Minaglou 2007; 1995); Oxyrhynchus (Bowman et al. 2007); Elephantine (Arnold, Haeny and Schaten 2003); Alexandria (Rodziewicz 1984; 1976); Marina el-Alamein (Medeksza and Czerner 2003). 64. Two structures reflecting a partially similar layout, with two smaller rooms of roughly equal dimensions opening onto a larger rectangular space, were excavated by the SCA in the mid-1990s along the southeast end of mound I, although their identification as domestic residential units is not proved beyond doubt.

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Pl. 2.43: Plan of room B4.

Pl. 2.44: Aerial view of room B4 (to NW).

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Pl. 2.45: Remains of earlier wall (BF34) below floor level in room B4.

occupied by individuals occupying same-size rooms and sharing only the central court as a communal space. The available evidence does not confirm, nor does it rule out, this hypothesis. Certainly, this would fit quite well with the possible reading of the site as an agriculturallyoriented settlement, in which people might have resided, with or without families, on a seasonal basis.65 2.3.2. Room B4 Still in 2006, a second area was selected for test trenching to the southwest of room B1–B3, where one roughly rectangular space (B4) was excavated to gebel (Pls. 2.26; 2.43). Room B4 is located immediately to the east of the complex of rooms B17–B24 that was investigated in 2008.66 In fact, the west wall of B4 is part of the east wall (BF31, oriented north–south) of that complex and predates the construction of room B4 (certainly in its latest stage). This space measures ca. 2.70 m north–south by 4.90 m east–west, with mud-brick walls that are preserved to a maximum height of about 2.30 m near the southeast corner. The north side of room B4 consists of different segments, including two east–west oriented partition walls (BF24 and BF26) abutting earlier ones. In particular, BF24 abuts BF31 to the west (belonging to the western complex, as mentioned above) and BF25 to the east. BF25 is a north–south oriented wall that was partly razed down in the section that once continued into 65. See the discussion in chapter 7 of this volume. 66. See chapter 6 below.

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Pl. 2.46: Matrix of room B4.

room B4. Originally, this wall was bonded with another wall (BF33) running perpendicularly to the former and that was also razed at some point, possibly when room B4 was constructed (Pl. 2.44). Consistent remains of BF33 are still visible well above gebel level inside B4, suggesting that the room did not have a floor (indeed, no traces of it were identified), but was built with the specific function of serving as a dump. BF25 is abutted to the east by the second partition wall (BF26), which ends to the east abutting BF27, another north–south oriented wall (parallel to BF25). BF27 serves also as the northern sector of the east wall of room B4. The southern part (BF29) is divided from BF27 by a doorway (BF28), which was the only access into room B4 (although it is not clear if this passage was indeed in use in the room’s last phase of use).67 67. BF27 and BF29 may in fact be considered sectors of the same wall; however, they were preliminarily assigned different

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Pl. 2.47: View of DSU15 in room B4 (to W).

The remains of the doorway, consisting of two protruding side jambs and a threshold, were found in very poor condition and could not be fully excavated to gebel. BF27 abuts the south wall of the room (BF30), which is considerably narrower than the other sectors and runs along an unexcavated wall to the south. All walls are built in a very poor construction technique in English bond, which is particularly irregular in the case of south wall BF30; indeed, four of the visible courses of bricks are headers placed on edge. During the excavation of the midden (B4), remains of another wall (BF34, Pl. 2.45) were uncovered at foundation level along the south wall, clearly predating the latest phase of use of the room. BF34, as well as the above-mentioned evidence of earlier walls, testify to the substantial alterations to which pre-existing architectural features underwent in the area subsequently occupied by room B4, with the razing of older walls and the addition of new ones. Unarguably, the investigation of the rooms and buildings to the north, east, and south of the dump would allow us to shed light on the occupational history not only of room B4, but of the entire area. The highest depositional level (DSU4),68 removed from the entire area of room B4 (Pl. 2.46), consisted of windblown sand and fragments of mud bricks and ceramics (4.40 kg). Among the small finds that were retrieved in the surface layer are fragments of undecorated textile (inv. 3, 11, 12) and a Coptic ostrakon (inv. 4) of nine lines; the latter is a letter that mentions individuals belonging to a monastic community. Based on palaeography, the ostrakon was dated to the fourth century (possibly the second half). Below DSU4 was another layer of sand (DSU8),69 still covering the whole room and sharing similar characteristics with the previous unit, except for a higher density of mud-brick fragments (likely from the collapse or dismantling of the numbers, as further excavations are needed in order to discern the full length of these walls and the relationships with their neighboring features. 68. Upper elevation: 114.879 m; lower elevation: 113.874 m; max. thickness: 100 cm. 69. Upper elevation: 113.984 m; lower elevation: 113.184 m; max. thickness: 80 cm.

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surrounding walls) and pottery inclusions (204.5 kg). Four fragments of textile (inv. 21) and a headless Bes amulet of blue faience with yellow glaze (inv. 5)70 were collected during the excavation of DSU8. The removal of this depositional unit revealed a layer (DSU11)71 of sand of a darker color, likely due to its mixture with mud-brick dust. It contained a few pebbles, charcoal, bones, ceramic sherds (22.26 kg), and a fragment of a rope made of light brown vegetal fibers (inv. 13). Underneath, and filling the entire room down to gebel, was a thick, dark gray/ brown layer of ash mixed with mud-brick dust (DSU15; Pl. 2.47).72 This unit, which was thicker along the perimeter of the room than in the center,73 contained fragments of glass and glass slag, a high percentage of charcoal, pottery sherds (219.08 kg), and organic inclusions, such as wood, fruit seeds, and bones. The small finds that were uncovered in DSU15 consist of two bracelet fragments made of black dull glass (inv. 23, 24), two complete cylindrical beads (inv. 19, of gold leaf between two layers of transparent glass, and inv. 20, of blue dull glass), an incomplete sandal sole of vegetal fibers (inv. 22), an elongated conical shell (inv. 101) with a perforation at the broad end (likely used as a pendant), and an enigmatic piece of coroplastic (an incomplete head molded around a pit, inv. 27). The excavation of DSU15 brought to light also a complete Greek ostrakon of nine lines (a receipt for annona of horse archers) that is dated to the fourth century (inv. 9). A coin (inv. 548) was found while cleaning the features of room B4. Due to its very poor condition, no dating could be established. There is a high probability that room B4 was not the primary context for several of the objects found during its investigation (especially within DSU11 and DSU15), as they were likely thrown into the room together with the ash refuse. Indeed, the presence of a thick layer of ash, charcoal (with no traces of burning along the walls), and fragmentary material—organic and not—filling the entire room up to sub-surface points to the use of room B4, at least in its latest phase, as a domestic midden.

70. See section 11.3.2 (cat. no. 26) in this volume. 71. Upper elevation: 113.214 m; lower elevation: 112.929 m; max. thickness: 29 cm. 72. Upper elevation: 113.199 m; lower elevation: 112.414 m; max. thickness: 79 cm. 73. Possibly due to the pattern of refuse-dumping, which occurred from outside the room and along its walls.

3 Mound I: The Church Complex 3.1. The Excavation of the Church Complex The church complex was first excavated in 2006, and its investigation was completed in 2007 (Pl. 3.1). Room A46, a large gathering hall located to the north of the church, had already been excavated in 1994 by the Supreme Council of Antiquities;1 however, due to the lack of documentation, the room was once again cleared of the windblown sand and fully recorded in 2007. Room B5 was discovered and identified as a church in 2006. Windblown sand was removed and a roof and wall collapse was revealed. Because of time constraints, it was decided to leave the collapse in place in order to protect the floor level until the following year, when the excavation of the room was completed. Still in 2007, further investigation was carried out to the north of the church and of the gathering hall, leading to the discovery of four other rooms, including a corridor/entrance and a staircase, that belonged to the same complex. A room (B10), built against the northwest corner of room A46, was also excavated; although it was not directly connected with the complex, its vaulted roof was accessible from it via the above-mentioned staircase. In 2008, the area to the south and east of the church complex was excavated. Evidence was collected that shed light on the topographical context in which the church and its adjoining rooms were located. Also, significant information was gathered on their construction and development history. The church complex is centrally located on mound I, slightly toward the south, and covers an area of approximately 164 m2 (Pls. 3.2–3). The church (room B5) is the southernmost space 1. Bayoumi 1998: 57.

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Pl. 3.1: The church complex at the end of the 2007 campaign (view to SW).

of the complex and, including its apse, is its second largest room (ca. 35.5 m2), surpassed only by the large rectangular room (A46) immediately to the north of the church (ca. 36.5 m2). Room A46, which leads into the church to the south, also opens to the north onto room B6, a smaller rectangular space (ca. 10 m2) built against the west half of the north wall of A46. Room B6 is accessed from a long corridor (B7) running east–west along the outer face of the north wall (east half) of room A46 (Pl. 3.4). Corridor B7 (ca. 7 m2) ends to the east with a doorway that is the only entrance into the church complex from the outside. Room B6 also leads into room B9 to the north, a fairly large space (almost 19 m2) whose outer walls form the northwest boundary of the complex. A doorway located in the northeast corner of room B6 opens onto a staircase (B8, about 3 m2), which leads to the remains of vaulted roofs belonging to rooms B9 and B10. A long street (B12) runs from north to south along the east side of the church complex, joining the north and south halves. A small open-air industrial area (rooms B14–B15) opens onto B12 near the main entrance of the complex. To the southeast of the church, street B12 intersects another passageway (B11) that runs east–west along the south wall of the church, ending in an open courtyard (B13). All rooms of the church complex, like all other buildings excavated or surveyed at Ἁin elGedida, had walls built of sun-dried mud bricks, rich in organic inclusions. Their dimensions (ca. 34 x 17 x 9 cm) fit the standard measures of Roman samples, which were generally adopted

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Pl. 3.2: Plan of the church complex.

in Late Antiquity.2 The bricks used to build the vaulted ceilings were of a considerably larger size (ca. 43–45 x 21–23 x 8–10 cm). Stone was rarely used at Ἁin el-Gedida, mostly for the lintels of doorways. No wooden feature was found in situ within any of the excavated rooms, but wood was certainly a common building material, employed for the construction of items such as doorways and shelves. Below is a discussion of the rooms of the church complex, based on the results of the 2006– 2008 seasons of archaeological fieldwork and on their subsequent analysis.

2. The bricks used at Ἁin el-Gedida are slightly longer (an average of 2 cm) than those given as standard samples by Badawy (on the basis of bricks from Djeme and Tell Edfu): see Badawy 1978: 109–11. On mud bricks used in a Roman house at Amheida (also in Dakhla), see chapter 5 in Boozer 2015. General resources on mud bricks and mud-brick architecture in ancient Egypt are Spencer 1979 and, more recently, Emery 2011.

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Pl. 3.3: Mosaic of photogrammetric images of the church complex.

Pl. 3.4: North–south section cut across rooms B5, A46, and B7 (showing east side).

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.5: Plan of room B5.

Pl. 3.6: View of the church (room B5) before excavation (to W).

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Pl. 3.7: Aerial view of rooms B5 and A46 (to NW).

3.1.1. Room B5 Features Room B5 is a rectangular space oriented to the east (Pls. 3.5–7). It measures ca. 3.65 m north– south by 11.35 m east–west. It has walls preserved to a maximum height of 2.64 m (west half of the north wall BF52), and was once barrel-vaulted.3 Room B5 was originally connected, through two doorways, to another large rectangular room to the north (A46). The larger door, about 2 m wide by 0.85 m deep, was located in the middle of the north wall, slightly to the east. Its sides were plastered with mud and whitewashed, but no other details are visible. Indeed, this doorway is now almost completely obscured by an ancient mud-brick plug (BF55), which testifies to the process of architectural (and possibly functional) alterations involving both rooms B5 and A46. The second doorway (BF78), functioning as the only entrance to the church in its latest phase, is located at the west end of the north wall. It is ca. 80 cm wide and 70 cm deep and is preserved to a maximum height of about 2.20 m. The door has a well-preserved threshold, which is the continuation of the church’s north wall and is also bonded with the west wall of room B5 (BF47). Two holes, visible at about 180 cm above the threshold on each side of the doorway, originally supported a lintel. A small relic of a barrel vault, located on top of the north 3. Traces of the vault are visible along the north side (from west to east: BF64, BF53, and BF59) and along the south side (from west to east: BF46 and BF43).

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.8: Photogrammetric images of the walls of room B5.

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Pl. 3.9: Aerial view of rooms B5 and A46 (to W). The yellow line marks the uneven south wall of the church.

Pl. 3.10: Mosaic of photogrammetric images of the west walls of rooms B5, A46, and B6.

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wall of the doorway, suggests that the passage might have been originally vaulted. Mud plaster and a white gypsum coat cover the sides of the door and a few traces of mud plaster were also identified on the top surface of the threshold. The north and south mud-brick walls of room B5 are uniformly coated with mud plaster and whitewashed (with the exception of the bricked-in doorway in the north wall) (Pl. 3.8). Nonetheless, they consist of several sections belonging to features that were built at different stages. This is particularly noticeable within the south wall, made of three partitions that are not perfectly aligned (Pl. 3.9).4 Their different orientations generate an overall outline that is very irregular but with a specific rationale. Indeed, it seems to address specific needs concerning the use of space to the south of the church complex at the stage of its expansion westwards. The north wall consists of three sections, including a short north–south wall (BF57) that abuts the northeast wall of the room at its west end, built to provide additional support for the doorway and the vaulted roof.5 The remains of two different vaults, supported by the north and south walls of room B5, are further evidence of the multi-phased construction process that involved the church and affected the surrounding area. The west boundary of room B5 (BF47 mentioned above) seems to be, in fact, a very thin facing that abuts an earlier north–south wall (Pl. 3.10).6 At a height of about 1.80 m above floor level, it forms a recessed sill 16–17 cm deep, which extends for about 2.60 m from the southwestern corner of the room. The ledge is covered with mud plaster, as is the rest of the wall, and a thin layer of whitewash.7 The facing becomes progressively wider toward the north, where it forms also the western boundary of room A46; it was built in order to create a straight and uniform west wall for the church and its gathering hall to the north, as part of the expansion of the church complex to the west. A semicircular apse (BF37) occupies the middle of the east side of room B5 (Pls. 3.11–12). The conch, whose diameter is ca. 1.75 m, is defined by two engaged semi-columns (BF36 to the north and BF41 to the south, Pls. 3.13–14), with a diameter of 34 cm and preserved to a height of 138 cm (north) and 148 cm (south). The semi-columns are bonded with screen walls BF35 and BF40, oriented north–south; BF40 seems to abut the south wall of the church (BF42), while BF35 is bonded with the easternmost segment of the nave’s north wall (BF58). Both semi-columns consist of a shaft resting on a low, moulded base, which is supported by a rectangular stylobate measuring ca. 45 x 25 x 20 cm. The floor of the apse (BF61)8 is raised by approximately 40 cm above the original floor of the nave, although a pit (BF63) dug in the sanctuary in antiquity destroyed the platform almost in its entirety (Pl. 3.15). No traces of steps leading to the raised sanctuary were found, as the area in front of the apse was the object of 4. From east to west, not including the apse: BF42; BF44; BF45. 5. In fact, the sectors of the north wall become four with the construction of the mud-brick plug sealing the central doorway. These features are (from east to west): BF58; BF57; BF55; BF52. 6. In order to clarify the building history of the west wall of both rooms B5 and A46, further investigation is needed to the west of the church complex. 7. A similar ledge is in the east wall of room A46 to the north. High horizontal sills were noticed in several other buildings of area A (mound I). They do not seem to have had a structural function within the wall and they may have been used as shelves, although some of the sills are at a considerable height and not easily accessible. In the Large East Church at Kellis, niches were set into the north wall (possibly also in the south wall, now less well preserved) at the height of 2.7 m above floor level, raising questions on their function considering their difficult accessibility: see Bowen 2002a: 67–70. 8. Upper elevation: 113.434 m.

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Pl. 3.11: Aerial view of the apsidal area of room B5 (to W).

Pl. 3.12: View of the apse of room B5 (to E).

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.13: Semicolumn BF41 and wall BF40 in room B5 (view to E).

Pl. 3.14: Semicolumn BF36 and wall BF35 in room B5 (view to NE).

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Pl. 3.15: Pit BF63 dug in antiquity inside the apse of the church (view to E).

Pl. 3.16: Niche of room B5 (east end of north wall), with traces of defaced painting above.

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heavy disturbance in antiquity. The apse, including its original raised surface, and the semicolumns are covered by a thick layer of mud plaster and a coat of white gypsum. A large hole is carved into the northern sector of the east side (BF35), to the left of the northern semi-column (facing the apse) (Pl. 3.14). It is ca. 60 cm wide, 44 cm high, and 30 cm deep; the thickness of the hole corresponds to the full width of the wall. The opening is poorly executed and left unplastered, but it has a roughly arched top and flat bottom. Therefore, it seems to be the result of an intentional effort to create a niche, although its original purpose is unknown. Not far from this hole is another niche, built within the eastern section of the church’s north wall (BF58; Pl. 3.16). It seems to have been constructed at the same time as the wall, not carved out of it at a later stage. This niche, of a better craftsmanship than the one in the east wall, is rectangular in shape and stands 40 cm above the preserved floor level. It measures 40 cm (width), 77 cm (depth), and 43 cm (height). A band of white gypsum plaster, about 34 cm thick, seems to have originally framed the niche, although it is not clearly discernible on all sides, as it is obscured by the later whitewashing of the entire section of the wall. The flat bottom of the niche is incomplete, with one brick missing in the western half. The inner space is not rectangular but L-shaped, with a smaller recess beginning 18 cm inside the wall and extending to the east for about 33 cm. The eastern edge consists of a screen of mud bricks set as stretchers on edge and plastered with mud. Traces of painted decoration, possibly two feet of a standing figure, were found above the opening.9 The apse of the church opens to the south onto an L-shaped pastophorion (Pls. 3.17–18). It consists of a square recess measuring ca. 70 cm on each side and raised above the original floor level of the apse by 40 cm. A hole in the northeast corner of the recess, ca. 50 cm above its floor level, points to the existence of a door sealing off the pastophorion from the church in antiquity. A poorly preserved step of mud bricks, about 20 cm high, protrudes from the south wall of the pastophorion by ca. 15 cm. The recess opens eastward into a small niche measuring 41 x 39 cm, with walls preserved to a maximum height of 43 cm. All sides and the floor of the pastophorion were originally covered with mud plaster, but it was not possible to ascertain whether a white gypsum coat had been laid on top of it. Traces of burnt oil are still visible against the southeast corner of the niche, likely due to a lamp (Pl. 3.19). The apse and the pastophorion belong to the same construction episode and are part of a later addition to room B5. Indeed, their walls are not bonded but clearly abut the north and south walls of the church, as a test trench dug outside the apse, down to foundation level, has proved (Pl. 3.20). Further evidence comes from the discovery of the remains of a north–south wall (BF65), forming the western boundary of the circular apse and belonging to the original east wall of room B5, which predates the construction of the sanctuary (Pl. 3.5). Built against the east jamb of the central passageway is a stepped rectangular platform, visible also from room A46 but protruding only into room B5 (BF66: Pl. 3.21). The podium was partially obscured when the central doorway was bricked in. Within room B5, the feature measures ca. 93 cm north–south by 135 cm east–west and has a height of ca. 60 cm (Pl. 3.22). Considering that it originally extended into the central doorway, its maximum length (north– south) is about 1.80 m. 9. The decoration is almost completely missing, possibly the result of defacing.

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Pl. 3.17: Apse and l-shaped pastophorion of room B5 (view from above).

Pl. 3.18: View of apse and opening of pastophorion (to SE).

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.19: Detail of the east end of the pastophorion, with traces of burnt oil (view to E).

Pl. 3.20: Section of walls from a test trench outside the apse’s south wall.

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Pl. 3.21: View of the church with visible remains of mud-brick podium (to NW).

Pl. 3.22: View of the blocking wall and stepped podium in room B5 (to N).

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Pl. 3.23: View of the stepped podium from room A46 (to S).

The platform consists of three steps. The bottom one has a roughly square shape and measures ca. 35 x 35 cm and rises by ca. 25 cm above floor level. It is built against the southeast end of the central step, a large, rectangular block measuring ca. 135 cm east–west and protruding into room B5 by 65 cm; its height above floor level is ca. 40 cm. The highest step is built against the southeast stub of the central doorway and rises on top of the middle step by ca. 20 cm. It runs against the north wall of the church for 80 cm and along the above-mentioned stub for 12 cm. A rectangular protrusion is visible at the west end of the south side, increasing the visible width of the step to about 20 cm. The three steps are made of mud bricks and covered by a thick layer of hard mud-plaster, which obscures the architectural relationships among the platform’s components. It is possible that the stepped platform was used as a podium by a preacher to read the Scripture or deliver a sermon; by standing in a higher position in the large, central passageway, he would have been easily seen and heard by the people sitting both in room B5 and in the adjoining space (A46). The podium surely lost its function when the doorway was sealed off with mud bricks (AF75/BF55), becoming completely obscured within room A46 (Pl. 3.23).10 Olaf Kaper suggested the similarity of the stepped podium to a structure uncovered by Gillian Bowen in the Large Eastern Church at Kellis and identified by Peter Grossmann as an ambo.11 This included two other elements, a semicircular feature and a small platform to the east of the stepped structure, which have not been identified so far at Ἁin el-Gedida. While the 10. As podium BF66 is also visible (although partially) in room A46, which was investigated as part of area A, the feature was also assigned a matching number for area A (i.e., AF76, for reasons concerning compatibility with database standards). 11. Kaper (personal communication, February 2006). See Grossmann 2002b: 153.

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Pl. 3.24: Mastaba (bench) along the south wall of room B5 (view to SE).

identification of the stepped feature at Ἁin el-Gedida seems quite certain, the structure found at Kellis is of more difficult interpretation, especially regarding its components.12 Along the north, south, and west walls of room B5 are low mud-brick mastabas (benches) (Pl. 3.5). The substantial remains found along the south wall originally formed a single feature with those against the west wall, notwithstanding the break near the southwest corner due to ancient damage. The long bench begins ca. 80 cm south of the west doorway and runs along the west wall for about 2.20 m (BF60); at the southwest corner of the church, it turns east for ca. 8.90 m, ending at approximately 70 cm from the apse (BF51; Pl. 3.24).13 Along the south wall, the mastaba takes a curvilinear shape to follow the very irregular course of the wall itself. Another bench (BF48) lies against the north wall of the church; it begins ca. 14 cm east of the west doorway of the room and runs for 4.30 m, ending at about 1 m from the stepped podium. It is in rather poor condition, especially in its western half; it was probably damaged by the extensive collapse of vaults and walls found along the north side of the church. All mastabas are about 30 cm wide and rise by 28–30 cm above floor level. They are made of mud bricks and covered by a thick layer of mud plaster; they were found with several encrustations, probably due to presence of water and moisture. The benches abut the walls of the church and lie on top of the preparation layer of the floor, while the floor itself (BF67)14 was laid against the benches 12. Bowen 2002a: 73. The foundations of a feature that is suggestive of a podium/pulpit, because of its proximity to the area of the apse and its placement against a column, were found in a recently excavated church at Amheida: see Aravecchia 2015a: 122. Possible similarities were established between the feature in the Amheida church and the pulpit in the church of Shams ed-Din, located in the Kharga Oasis. For a plan of the latter church, see. Bonnet 2004: 84 (fig. 69). 13. Except for a small missing portion near the southwestern corner of the church. 14. Upper elevation of BF67: 113.110 m.

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Pl. 3.25: Graffiti on the north wall (west half) of room B5.

themselves. Therefore, the relative chronology for the construction of these features is: walls– floor preparation layer–mastabas–floor. A two-line graffito (max. width: 12.5 cm; max. height: 3.5 cm) was carved on the west half of the north wall (BF52), 220 cm from the west extremity and 126 cm above the top of mastaba BF48 (Pl. 3.25). According to Bagnall and Dzierzbicka’s reading, the graffito mentions the Greek name Ὠρικενι (Horigenes) and the Egyptian male name Ἰμουτε (with a possible spelling variant).15 Three foundation courses of a north–south oriented wall (BF68) were found below floor level, cutting the nave of the church in two parts. The wall, resting on gebel and a leveling layer of compact soil, seems to be the continuation of the north–south wall identified in room A46, to the north of B5 (Pl. 3.26). Parts of this feature are still standing, incorporated in the north and south walls of the church and of the gathering hall. It seems that the wall belongs to an earlier construction phase, before the expansion of rooms B5 and A46 to the west. stratigraphy (Pl. 3.27) The stratigraphy of the deposits excavated in room B5 is quite complex and includes several deposits of windblown sand, wall- and vault-collapse contexts, and soil from pits dug out in antiquity. The surface layer (DSU19),16 which consisted of windblown sand, limited ceramic 15. See section 10.4 of this volume (pp. 532–33). 16. Upper elevation: 114.699 m; lower elevation: 114.289 m; max. thickness: 41 cm.

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Pl. 3.26: Aerial view of rooms A46 (left) and B5 (right) (to E). The arrows point to earlier walls below floor level.

inclusions (2.83 kg), some pebbles, a moderate quantity of plaster, and a few animal bones, extended throughout the room down to an average depth of 40 cm. Below it, and covering the entire area of the church, was a thick sub-surface layer (DSU20)17 of windblown sand and lenses of grayish sand, with potsherds (7.52 kg), a large amount of plaster, some mud-brick fragments, and a few bones. Two joining fragments of a yellow glass beaker (inv. 35), as well as the lower part of a grinding stone (inv. 26) and a bronze coin (inv. 33, broadly assigned to the fourth century), were collected within this unit. After the removal of DSU20, a substantial context of vault and wall collapse (DSU22), with pockets of sand, was found in the center of the room (Pls. 3.28–29). The highest elevation of the unit (114.489 m asl) was against the north wall of room B5, from which the collapse sloped to the south.18 The layer included whole mud bricks, mud-brick debris, potsherds (1.76 kg), bones, two fragments of glass vessels, and one bronze coin (inv. 32), which was dated to 324. Additional evidence of wall and vault collapse, with a very low density of ceramic inclusions (0.91 kg), bones, and plaster, was detected within the area of the apse (DSU23).19 One bronze coin (inv. 29), minted between 351 and 361, was found in this context. It seems that two collapse units were in fact the result of the same episode, but they were kept separated because of the physical boundaries in which they were first identified. In the west half of the nave, a very small unit of mud-brick debris, lying below both DSU20 and DSU22 at ground level, was identified and removed as DSU25,20 revealing fragments of cotton textile (inv. 37), very poorly preserved. These consisted of pieces of two different textures and colours, sewn together with a thick string. 17. Upper elevation: 114.574 m; lower elevation: 112.964 m; max. thickness: 161 cm. 18. Lower elevation: 113.330 m; max. thickness: ca. 50 cm. 19. Upper elevation: 113.629 m; lower elevation: 113.354 m; max. thickness: 28 cm. 20. Upper elevation: 113.024 m; lower elevation: 112.964 m; average height: 6 cm. DSU25 was originally distinguished as a separate unit, but its removal revealed that it was in fact a lens of material belonging to DSU20.

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Pl. 3.27: Matrix of room B5.

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Pl. 3.28: View of DSU22 inside room B5 at the end of the 2006 season (to NW).

Pl. 3.29: View of DSU22 (to E).

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Pl. 3.30: View of DSU26 (filling of a pit in the apse) (to E).

Pl. 3.31: View of DSU32 (below North arrow) to the west of the sanctuary (to E).

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Within the apse, a unit of hardened mud-brick melt (DSU24),21 mixed with mud-brick debris, a few potsherds, charcoal, and ash, lay on top of the original raised floor (BF61), now largely destroyed. Four bronze coins were gathered; one (inv. 31) was dated between 341 and 364, while two other specimens (inv. 34 and 522) were broadly dated to the fourth century (on the basis of size and weight); the fourth coin (inv. 30) could not be dated. In the center of the sanctuary, the fill of a pit (BF63), dug in antiquity down through the original floor, was removed as DSU26 (Pl. 3.30).22 It consisted of mud-brick debris, mixed with sand and mud dust, and contained a few pockets of ash, potsherds (0.41 kg), small pebbles, one fragment of (possibly) a terracotta figurine (inv. 568), and four bronze coins (inv. 520 and 521, dated to 351–361; inv. 523, dated to 335–341; and inv. 562, dated to 347–348). The excavation of the area immediately to the west of the apse revealed the existence of a low mound of debris (DSU32),23 which was likely the displaced material from the original pit dug inside the sanctuary (Pl. 3.31). The unit consisted of mud-brick debris, mixed with sandy soil, a few fragments of sandstone blocks, potsherds (1.32 kg), three joining fragments of a beaker of white glass (inv. 535), and some organic material (like wood, charcoal, and bones). The removal of this deposit brought to light five bronze coins datable to the fourth century (inv. 511, dated to 351–361; inv. 512, minted in Rome in 318; inv. 516, dated to 333–335; inv. 515, broadly assigned to the late fourth– fifth century; and inv. 517, which could not be dated). Five billon tetradrachms, minted in Alexandria, were also found within the same disturbed context (inv. 509, dated to 270–271 or 285–286; inv. 510 and 514, assigned to 284–285; inv. 513, dated to 286–287; inv. 518, minted between 279 and 280). These third-century coins, which represent a rather small percentage compared to the fourth-century specimens found at Ἁin el-Gedida, are possibly to be associated with the original context of this unit below the floor of the apse.24 Below DSU32 was another pit (BF69, earlier than the one dug in the apse, i.e., BF63), which extended inside the nave along the west side of the apse (Pls. 3.32–33). Its fill, excavated as DSU43,25 consisted of mud-brick fragments, pebbles, ceramic sherds (4.52 kg), organics (including wood, bones, charcoal), and plaster (presumably from the south engaged semicolumn of the apse and from the ledge adjacent to it). Only one coin (inv. 566), an Alexandrian bronze nummus dated between 335 and 337, was found within DSU43. The peculiar shape of the pit, running along the western edge of the sanctuary, is suggestive of the existence of some type of barrier or screen (separating the apse from the nave) made of wood, a material that was considered of some value in the oasis and therefore presumably removed for reuse after the church was abandoned.26 21. Upper elevation 113.354 m. Because of the extreme, cement-like hardness of the unit, only the visible objects found within it were carefully detached, but the unit was not fully removed. 22. Upper elevation: 113.380 m; lower elevation: 112.810 m; max. thickness: 57 cm. 23. Upper elevation: 113.330 m; lower elevation: 113.020 m; max. thickness: 31 cm. 24. Based on this, it is not impossible that some of the rooms, whose relics were incorporated into the apsidal church in the fourth century, were originally built in the third century. However, comparative evidence from the churches of Kellis suggests the possibility of an alternative explanation for the presence of third-century coins within the stratigraphy of a fourth-century church: cf. section 7.1 below. 25. Upper elevation: 113.060 m; lower elevation: 112.700 m; max. thickness: 36 cm. 26. It is true, however, that comparative evidence for wooden screens (cancelli) in early fourth-century churches is lacking at the moment. On screens in Egyptian churches and their significance, see Bolman 2006.

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Pl. 3.32: View of pit BF69 along the western edge of the sanctuary (to E).

Pl. 3.33: Partial view of pit BF69 (to S).

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The removal of the large collapse in the central part of the room revealed that the unit rested on a layer of windblown sand mixed with mud dust, particularly in the lower strata (DSU28).27 This context, which had accumulated in the middle of the nave, contained fragments of mud bricks, ceramic sherds (38.90 kg), remains of white plaster, ash, charcoal, and other organic material (including wood and bones). The excavation of DSU28 brought to light several complete and fragmentary objects. These include: three fragments of bracelets, all of dull black glass (inv. 530–532); a small piece of a bronze object, possibly a hook (inv. 533); two diagnostic fragments of glass beakers, one light green (inv. 534) and the other light yellow (inv. 582); five fragments of a rope made of dark brown fibers (inv. 540); six pieces of tight-weave textile (inv. 536–539, 541–542); an incomplete iron nail (inv. 574); and three bronze coins (inv. 526, dated to 351–361; inv. 527, fragmentary and undatable; and inv. 528, dated to 351–361). Below DSU28, two smaller collapses were identified and removed. One (DSU29)28 lay against the south wall of the nave and consisted of mud-brick debris mixed with mud dust, sand, fragments of gypsum plaster, organic material (wood, charcoal, bones), and some potsherds (3.25 kg). Four bronze coins were discovered while excavating this context: one specimen (inv. 505) was dated to 351–361 and another (inv. 506) tentatively to 340–347. A third specimen (inv. 507) was minted in London in 322–323, while the fourth coin (inv. 508) could not be dated. DSU29 (possibly resulting from the collapse of the ceiling) rested above a layer of windblown sand (DSU30)29 containing ceramic sherds (0.24 kg), fragments of plaster, bones, and a few fragments of tight weave textile (inv. 543–544). It was a later episode than the other small collapse, which was excavated along the north wall of the room (DSU31).30 This layer contained complete wall and vault bricks (some of which were still bound together with mud mortar), mud-brick debris, mud dust, plaster, potsherds (1.55 kg), cobbles, and organic inclusions (like vegetal fibers, charcoal, and few bones). DSU31 also lay on top of a deposit of relatively clean windblown sand (DSU36),31 mixed with few organic particles (including charcoal) and potsherds (1.44 kg). The removal of this unit revealed a complete Greek ostrakon dated to the second half of the fourth century (inv. 529) and possibly consisting of a tag of one line.32 DSU28, the layer of sand detected below the more extensive collapse (DSU22), continued uninterruptedly in the middle of the room, down to a unit of brown sand mixed with mud dust (DSU33).33 This context contained plaster fragments, mud-brick debris, and potsherds (1.51 kg) and was rich in organic inclusions (straw, seeds, charcoal, and bones, some of them charred). Two bronze coins were found in this deposit; one specimen (inv. 525) was undatable, while the other (inv. 524) was broadly assigned to the late fourth–fifth century based on size and weight. DSU33 extended to the south below DSU30, where it was removed as DSU34.34 The same range of materials was found in the latter unit, including potsherds (0.86 kg). The 27. Upper elevation: 114.280 m; lower elevation: 113.350 m; max. thickness: 50 cm. 28. Upper elevation: 113.740 m; lower elevation: 113.030 m; thickness in the middle of the room: 20 cm. 29. Upper elevation: 113.530 m; lower elevation: 113.120 m; max. thickness: 41 cm. 30. Upper elevation: 113.560 m; lower elevation: 113.180 m; max. thickness: 38 cm. 31. Upper elevation: 113.400 m; lower elevation: 113.180 m; max. thickness: 22 cm. 32. See section 10.3 below (cat. no. 11). 33. Upper elevation: 113.540 m; lower elevation: 113.000 m; max. thickness: 10 cm. 34. Upper elevation: 113.120 m; lower elevation: 113.050 m; max. thickness: 10 cm.

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Pl. 3.34: View of DSU35 in the east half of room B5 (to W).

excavation of DSU33 and DSU34 revealed, in the east part of the room, a layer of packed dirt and mud dust (DSU35),35 mixed with mud-brick debris, pebbles, and potsherds (2.20 kg) (Pl. 3.34). A fragment of a bronze ring (inv. 551) and one bronze coin (inv. 550), dated to 317, were also gathered within this unit. DSU35 lay directly on top of the remains of the original clay floor and on DSU41,36 a layer of brownish-gray soil, mixed with several small potsherds (1.07 kg), some pebbles, and mud-brick fragments. The unit contained also wood, two small pieces of glass vessels, two ceramic lamps (inv. 577, complete, and inv. 636, with a broken handle), a complete bowl (inv. 637; Pl. 3.35), painted with a motif of red waves inside and with red circular dots around the rim, and a bronze coin (inv. 519), poorly preserved and undatable. DSU41, which was also identified in the western half of the room (where it covered part of the north–south razed wall below floor level), seems to have belonged to a preparation layer for the church’s floor. The cleaning of excavated architectural features brought to light three additional bronze coins (inv. 545–547); they were found in poor condition and only one (inv. 545) was dated, to 351–361. 35. Upper elevation: 113.200 m; lower elevation: 113.050 m; average thickness: 15 cm. 36. Upper elevation: 113.050 m; lower elevation: 112.400 m; max. thickness: 32 cm.

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Pl. 3.35: Complete bowl found within the floor of room B5 (inv. 637).

Pl. 3.36: Plan of rooms B5 and A46 (partial) with the location of test trenches.

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Pl. 3.37: Test trenches in room B5.

The preparation layer (DSU41) was removed in three test trenches that were excavated inside the church down to gebel (Pls. 3.36–37).37 One trench, measuring ca. 1 m north–south by 50 cm east–west, was excavated against the south mastaba (BF51) of the church and along the east face of the early wall running north–south below floor level (BF68).38 A second trench was dug on the south side of the western entrance into the church, extending throughout the entire length of the passageway’s mud-brick threshold (i.e., ca. 80 cm east–west) and ca. 40 cm from north to south.39 The third trench occupied the irregular space left between mastaba BF60 and mastaba BF51, near the southwest corner of the church.40 The aim of this test trenching inside room B5 was to look at the foundation courses of some architectural features and identify their relationships, with the ultimate goal of elucidating questions concerning the construction phases of the building.41 37. In 2007, surface sand (DSU38) was removed from two small test trenches excavated in passageway B11 against the south wall of the church, in order to clarify the relationship of different architectural features. In 2008, the passageway was fully investigated. 38. Upper elevation: 112.890 m; lower elevation: 112.400 m. 39. Upper elevation: 112.900 m; lower elevation: 112.670 m. 40. Upper elevation: 112.940 m; lower elevation: 112.840 m (width between the benches: ca. 30 cm). 41. This will be the subject of section 5.1 below.

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3.1.2. Room A46 Features Room A46, excavated by the SCA in 1994, is a large gathering hall located to the north of the church (Pls. 3.38–39).42 It is rectangular in shape and measures ca. 4 m north–south by 9.5 m east–west; its walls are preserved to a maximum height of 2.84 m (north end of the west wall AF79). The room is accessed from the anteroom B6 to the north through a doorway (AF100) located in the northwest corner. The opening is 95 cm wide, 73 cm deep, and has a maximum preserved height of 1.97 m. A mud-brick threshold is still in situ. Two holes (diameter: 7 and 10 cm) pierce the east wall, 89 and 111 cm above the threshold and a 6 cm groove is visible on the west wall; these features point to the existence, in antiquity, of a wooden door closing the entrance. The sides of the doorway were originally plastered in mud and then covered with a thin layer of white gypsum plaster, of which only few traces are visible. As seen above, two doorways open from room A46 into the church; the larger of the two, placed in the middle of the south wall, was sealed off in antiquity, leaving the doorway at the west end of the south wall as the only entrance (AF99)43 into the church. All walls are made of mud bricks laid out in English bond and are plastered with mud, above which is a thin layer of white gypsum plaster (Pl. 3.40). The north wall (AF69) supports, at about 1.45 m from ground level, substantial remains (AF70) of a north–south oriented vaulted roof, which form a lipped overhang protruding into the room (Pl. 3.40/B).44 Two square niches are set within the wall; one is located at ca. 3.80 m from the west end, 80 cm above the floor, and measures 51 cm (width) x 51 cm (height) x 38 cm (depth). The second niche is built ca. 1.60 m to the east of the previous one, at the same height above floor level. Its dimensions roughly match those of the western niche: 51 cm (width) x 51 cm (height) x 37 cm (depth). Both niches are completely whitewashed inside; also, they are framed by a square band of white gypsum plaster, 35–36 cm in thickness, which partly extends on top of the vault springs and predates the later whitewash coating that covers the rest of the wall. A graffito with concentric circles is carved in the upper part of the white band framing the east niche. It might have been part of a decorative motif, but the evidence is too scanty to draw any conclusion about its nature. No niches are set within the short east wall (AF71), which has a pronounced sill, one brick (header) wide,45 built at ca. 1.45 m above floor level (Pl. 3.40/C). Scattered remains of white gypsum plaster are still visible. As already mentioned with reference to room B5, the south wall consists of partitions (AF77;46 AF74;47 AF7248) linked to different construction episodes, including the mud-brick 42. No information on the stratigraphy or the finds of the room is available. 43. = BF78 (room B5). 44. Other remains of the original vaulted roof (i.e., AF73 and AF78) were found along the south boundary of the room (walls AF71, AF72, and AF77). 45. 17 cm. 46. = BF52 (room B5). 47. = BF57 (room B5). 48. = BF58 (room B5).

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.38: View of room A46 (to SW).

Pl. 3.39: Plan of room A46.

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Pl. 3.40: Photogrammetric images of the walls of room A46.

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plug (AF75)49 that seals off the central doorway between rooms A46 and B5 (Pl. 3.40/D). With the exception of the latter, covered only with mud plaster, the rest of the south wall bears substantial traces of a white gypsum coating above the mud plaster. An arched niche is set within wall AF77 at about 1.35 m east of the open doorway and 85 cm above ground. It measures 51 cm in width, 55 cm in height, and 38 cm in depth. Three holes vertically placed (at equal distances) on both the west and east sides of the niche point to the existence, in antiquity, of a lintel on top and two shelves inside. The bottom is not flat but slightly concave; this seems to be the result of later alterations, which involved the removal of the original floor. Also, a short mud-brick partition was built along the lower-front edge. A rectangular band of white gypsum plaster, 34 cm thick on each side, frames the niche, which is also whitewashed inside.50 It has already been mentioned that the west wall (AF79)51 consists of a facing common to both rooms B5 and A46 and partially built against an earlier north–south wall.52 A large rectangular niche is inserted in the west wall of A46, 153 cm south of the north end of the wall and ca. 80 cm above floor level (Pl. 3.40/A). It is 53 cm wide, 85 cm high, and 56 cm deep. All inner faces of the niche are covered with mud plaster; traces of a white gypsum coating are also visible. The outer edges of the cupboard are framed by a well-preserved whitewash band (ca. 34 cm thick), which predates the coating of white gypsum plaster that covers the entire wall. Traces of superimposed layers of white gypsum plaster (on top of the mud plaster) were identified also on the north and south walls of room A46 and bring additional evidence testifying to the different construction episodes involving the church and the gathering hall to the north. Mud-brick mastabas are built against the entire north and east walls of room A46, as well as along the south wall, to the east of the central doorway. The bench along the north wall (AF66) is in rather good condition, while the south end of the east mastaba (AF67) is missing (Pl. 3.41). The sector along the east half of the south wall (AF68) is preserved in its entire length, but is poorly preserved, especially at its east end (Pl. 3.42). The mud-brick structure is coated with a thick layer of mud plaster, on which several incrustations, probably due to moisture, can be observed. The height of the mastabas is ca. 34 cm and their width ranges, in their best preserved portions, from 26–31 cm. The benches run around the walls of room A46 for more than 13 m and must have accommodated a fairly large number of people.53 Therefore, it is possible to argue that room A46 held a public function as a gathering hall, in close association with the church that was originally accessible via two doorways. The bricking-in of the central doorway and of a large part of the podium (AF76),54 once visible from both rooms B5 and A46, might be related to a re-functionalization of the gathering hall, which, however, does not seem to have ever lost its essentially public nature. Large patches of a compacted mud floor (AF80)55 are scattered throughout the room, especially in its western half and abutting the mastabas along the north, east, and south walls. 49. = BF55 (room B5). 50. With the exception of its bottom. 51. = BF47 (room B5). See footnote 5 in this section. 52. The part of the facing corresponding to the west wall of room A46 is preserved to a considerable height, but was found in a poor state of conservation, with a large crack running vertically throughout its height and threatening the stability of the feature. To avoid further damage, the room was completely backfilled with clean sand after full documentation. 53. Up to ca. thirty-five: see section 5.2 below. 54. = BF66 (room B5). 55. Upper elevation: 112.869 m.

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Pl. 3.41: View of room A46 (to NE), with mastabas AF66–AF67.

Pl. 3.42: Aerial view of room A46 (to SW), mith mastaba AF68.

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Pl. 3.43: Test trenches in room A46.

The foundation trench and the first courses of a wall (AF98), running from north to south, were found below floor level. As already mentioned, they seem to belong to the same wall identified below the floor of the church (room B5) and partly incorporated in the north and south wall of that room and, possibly, also within the north wall of room A46. In room A46, AF98 is bonded with the scanty remains (two courses) of an east–west oriented wall (AF103), which runs below the east half of the wall separating the western and the central doorways opening into room B5. Evidence of the same feature was identified also under the mud-brick plug of the central doorway and the stepped podium, therefore predating its construction. The information about the walls below floor level in room A46 was gathered within three small test trenches, excavated with the aim of studying the architectural relationships among some of the mud-brick features at foundation level (Pls. 3.36; 3.43).56 One trench, measuring about 70 by 70 cm, was dug along 56. The fill of these three units, consisting of loamy sand with rare inclusions of mud-brick debris, lime spots, ash, and pebbles, was removed as DSU2 (area A).

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part of the western doorway and the adjacent wall to the east (AF99 + AF77).57 Another trench was dug further east along the same east–west wall (for about 1 m), extending north (for ca. 70 cm) along the early wall (AF98) below the original floor of the room.58 The third trench, measuring ca. 70 cm north–south by 50 cm east–west, was excavated against the east face of wall AF98, at the intersection between the latter and wall AF77.59

3.1.3. Room B6 Features Room A46 opens to the north, through a doorway (AF100/BF88) by its northwest corner, onto room B6 (Pls. 3.2; 3.44–46). It is a rectangular space, measuring 2.77 m from north to south and 3.78 m from east to west, and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 3.20 m (north end of the east wall BF75). The room was once covered by a barrel-vaulted roof (oriented from east to west), of which only parts of the north and south vault springs (BF74 and BF71, respectively) are still in situ. Another doorway, placed near the southeastern corner (BF89; width: ca. 90 cm), separates room B6 from a long corridor to the east (B7); unclear evidence for the existence of a door was detected.60 A third doorway (BF84), ca. 70 cm wide, 155 cm high, and with a mud-brick threshold 27 cm high above floor level, is built at the eastern end of the north wall (BF73). It opens onto a well-preserved staircase (B8), which originally led up to a roof (Pl. 3.47). A fourth opening (BF86; width: ca. 80 cm and height: 178 cm) leads into room B9 to the north through a vaulted passageway (ca. 1 m long) that runs under staircase B8. The mud-brick walls were first plastered in mud and then covered with a thin layer of white gypsum (Pl. 3.48). Two arched niches are set in the west wall (BF72), at a height of ca. 90 cm above floor level (Pl. 3.48/D); the southern one measures 49 cm (width) by 50 cm (height) by 60 cm (depth) and the northern one 48 cm (width) by 49 cm (height) by 56 cm (depth). Both niches have a semicircular, recessed band on top and are completely whitewashed inside; traces of a rectangular band of white gypsum are visible around each niche down to floor level. Another arched niche, with a recessed band on top, is built within the east wall, about 50 cm above the mud-brick platform built against that wall (Pl. 3.48/B); it is 49 cm wide, 68 cm high, and 36 cm deep. At the center of its bottom is a depression, but it is unclear if it is the result of ancient damage or if it was intentional and served some unknown function. The niche is painted with white gypsum inside. A fourth rectangular niche, measuring 48 cm (width) by 35 cm (height) by 57 cm (depth), pierces the north wall of room B6, at a height of ca. 66 cm above the platform running along the same wall (Pl. 3.48/A). A rectangular band, about 35 cm thick, of white gypsum frames the niche, although now it is hardly distinguishable from the whitewash layer of the entire wall. 57. Upper elevation: 112.870 m; lower elevation: 112.590 m. 58. Upper elevation: 112.750 m; lower elevation: 112.610 m. 59. Upper elevation: 112.970 m; lower elevation: 112.650 m. 60. A hole was found (diameter: ca. 25 cm), at ground level, at the west end of BF77 (the south wall of corridor B7), but its exact function and relation to the placement of a wooden doorway is uncertain.

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Pl. 3.44: Aerial view of room B6 (to W).

Pl. 3.45: Plan of room B6.

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Pl. 3.46: View of the passageway from room B6 to rooms A46 and B5 (to S).

Pl. 3.47: View of the northeast corner of room B6 (with door leading to staircase B8).

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.48: Photogrammetric images of the walls of room B6.

Pl. 3.49: Imprints of vessels on the floor of room B6 (left of white line).

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Pl. 3.50: Coptic inscription and graffiti on the north wall of room B6.

Pl. 3.51: Greek inscription on the west wall of room B6.

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The floor of the room (BF83),61 of which only scanty traces remain, is of compacted mud, with several organic and ceramic inclusions. Along the south wall, eight circular impressions, with a diameter varying from 10 to 17 cm, are visible at ground level (Pl. 3.49); they testify to the existence of storage vessels lined against the wall, probably when the room was used as a kitchen. Other imprints of cooking and/or storage vessels were found on the poorly preserved mud-brick platform (BF85), measuring 146 cm (length) by 40 cm (width) by 10 cm (height), built against the east wall. Another raised platform or mastaba (BF82), measuring 219 cm (length) by 36 cm (width) by 23 cm (height) is located against the north wall; a hearth (BF81; diameter: ca. 85 cm), cutting through the floor, was found in front of it, filled with ash and charcoal. Graffiti can be seen on three walls of room B6, either drawn with black ink or carved in the plaster (Pls. 3.50–51; 10.13–17; 10.19–25). On the north wall are a Coptic inscription (written in black), a sketch of what seems to be a bird (in black), and three boats (two drawn in black and one carved in the plaster); a Greek inscription, consisting of a rather commonly attested invocation to God, is written in black on the west wall, near the northwest niche.62 A six-petal rosette, inscribed in a circle, is carved in the south wall (Pl. 10.25). Room B6 is the anteroom of the church complex, the first place one would cross after entering through corridor B7. The analysis of its architectural features suggests the existence of a multi-phased history for its construction. Originally, the room was much larger and oriented from north to south, including the area later occupied by the staircase (Pl. 5.1). Corridor B7 had not been built, yet, and the eastern wall was originally bonded with the southern one. There is no evidence of the exact location of the original entrance into room B6. At some point in antiquity, the space was heavily modified, with the addition of a staircase in the northern half of the room, abutting the west wall, and the opening of a vaulted passageway into room B9, also a later addition to the complex. The doorway leading from room B6 into this passageway cuts the northern end of the northwest niche, providing additional evidence that the northern side of the room was originally further north. Possibly at the same time, although the evidence is not conclusive on this point, the room was used also as a kitchen, as testified to by the hearth and the imprints of vessels on the floor and on one platform.63 stratigraphy (Pl. 3.52) Several stratigraphical contexts were identified and removed during the excavation of room B6. The surface layer (DSU39)64 consisted of windblown sand, mixed with a very few potsherds (0.99 kg) and fragments of mud plaster. A fragment of a leather bracelet or belt (inv. 564) was found within this level, which extended uniformly throughout the room, apart from its southern end where evidence of a vault collapse episode (DSU40)65 was found (Pl. 3.53). This unit consisted of large vault bricks and chinking sherds (0.66 kg) mixed within the mud mortar. 61. Upper elevation: 112.980 m. 62. See section 10.4 of this volume (pp. 531–32). 63. For a more extensive discussion, see section 5.1 below. 64. Upper elevation: 115.150 m; lower elevation: 114.210 m; max. thickness: 94 cm. 65. Upper elevation: 115.410 m; lower elevation: 114.130 m; max. thickness: 128 cm.

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Pl. 3.52: Matrix of room B6.

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Another deposit of windblown sand (DSU42),66 containing very few ceramic sherds (0.38 kg), plaster fragments, and bones, lay underneath the two previous contexts and above two collapse layers. One (DSU46)67 was located near the doorway in the southeast corner of the room and probably resulted from the disintegration of part of the room’s east wall. Very few potsherds and some fragments of white gypsum and mud plaster were found within the loose mud bricks and brownish sand. The other unit (DSU54)68 consisted of part of a wall collapse that occurred within staircase B8 (excavated there as DSU52) and partly leaked into room B6 through the doorway connecting the two spaces. Whole and fragmentary mud bricks, a stone slab not in situ, and some potsherds were found in this unit. A layer of windblown sand (DSU55),69 with very few ceramic inclusions (0.06 kg) and containing one fragment of glass, was revealed below the two collapses DSU46 and DSU54, spreading throughout the room above DSU59,70 identified as an occupational level. It lay directly above floor level and consisted of mud dust and sand, with a considerable amount of organic inclusions (mostly straw, seeds, charcoal), numerous potsherds (1.84 kg), a few loose stone slabs, once used as stone lintels, and two fragments of glass (one of which is part of the rim and wall of a bowl of light aquamarine glass: inv. 583). The excavation of this unit revealed also a bronze coin of Constantius II (inv. 561), dated to the years 351–361. Another bronze coin (inv. 563), minted between 361 and 363, was found within a patch of the original floor of compacted mud (hence from a more reliable context than the other specimen). The hearth (BF81) set into the floor near the north wall was filled with charcoal, ash, organic material, and a few small potsherds (0.08 kg); this fill was excavated as a separate unit (DSU60).71 Evidence of a preparatory layer below floor level (DSU61)72 was also identified and partly excavated to gebel in a small area to the west of the hearth. It consisted of dark brown sand mixed with organic particles (including straw and wood fragments and seeds), lime spots, ash pockets, some mud-brick debris, and a few pottery sherds (0.14 kg). The excavation of this unit revealed also two joining pieces of an incomplete bronze ring (or earring) (inv. 567). The vaulted passageway located at the northwest corner of room B6, running below staircase B8 and opening into room B9 to the north, was excavated separately from the rest of room B6, due to the particularly delicate condition of its architectural features. A vertical section was removed from the part of the passageway that is closer to room B6. The deposit consisted of windblown sand (DSU58)73 mixed with pottery sherds and, in its higher half, some fragmentary mud bricks, possibly resulting from the collapse of walls in room B9. An incomplete wood bolt with a rounded head (inv. 572) was found during the removal of this unit.

66. Upper elevation: 114.830 m; lower elevation: 113.590 m; max. thickness: 124 cm. 67. Upper elevation: 114.110 m; lower elevation: 113.260 m; max. thickness: 85 cm. 68. Upper elevation: 114.300 m; lower elevation: 113.600 m; max. thickness: 70 cm. 69. Upper elevation: 113.600 m; lower elevation: 113.020 m; max. thickness: 58 cm. 70. Upper elevation: 113.020 m; lower elevation: 112.810 m; max. thickness: 21 cm. 71. Upper elevation: 113.130 m; lower elevation: 112.830 m; max. thickness: 30 cm. 72. Upper elevation: 112.900 m; lower elevation: 112.460 m; max. thickness: 44 cm. 73. Upper elevation: 114.740 m; lower elevation: 112.970 m; max. thickness: 177 cm.

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Pl. 3.53: Vault collapse (DSU40) inside room B6 (view to E).

3.1.4. Room B7 Features B7 is a long corridor located along the outer face of the north wall of room A46 (Pls. 3.2; 3.54– 55). It measures 1.13 by 5.22 m and is oriented from east to west. Its north and south mud-brick walls, laid out in English bond, are preserved to the considerable height of 2.92 m (west half of north wall BF76) and are in a fairly good state of conservation. B7 opens onto room B6 through a now badly damaged doorway (BF89) and functioned as the only entrance to the church complex (Pl. 3.56). The north wall (BF76) abuts the east wall of room B6 (BF75) and is therefore later. The south wall of the corridor (BF77) is shared with the gathering room (A46) as the latter’s north wall (AF69). The north face of this wall, facing the corridor, shows that the wall was constructed in two phases, although it is not clear how distant in time. The lower sixteen courses consist of gray mud bricks with very few organic inclusions. A large quantity of mortar was used and the pressure caused by the higher courses led to the formation of caps of excess mortar. The upper courses, in contrast, were laid using brownish mud bricks with several inclusions and more limited quantities of mortar. Four holes can be seen piercing the wall toward its west end, between the fourth and fifth course from ground level, blocked from the mastaba built against the south face in room A46. The nature of these holes is unknown.

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Pl. 3.54: Aerial view of corridor B7 (to NW).

Pl. 3.55: View of corridor B7 (to E).

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The north and south walls bear no traces of vault springs. No beam holes were detected either, but the walls are not preserved to their original height. Therefore, it is possible that the corridor/entrance either was an open-air space or had a flat roof. The latter seems more plausible, especially in light of the discovery of a thick layer of organic material above floor level, which might be the result of a decayed light roof made of palm ribs and mud. Scattered patches were found of the original floor (BF108),74 which consisted of a layer of compacted mud (Pl. 3.57). A test trench excavated at the east end, where the corridor opens onto street B12 with a passage ca. 1.2 m wide,75 revealed two thresholds: BF132, possibly associated with floor BF108 (not, however, preserved in the area of the threshold), and BF150, in phase with an earlier (and now completely missing) floor (Pls. 3.58–59). The south wall of corridor B7 was originally bonded with the east wall of room B6, before a doorway between the two rooms was created. It is also bonded with the north–south wall (AF98), traces of which are visible in room A46 below floor level.76 As previously said, the south wall of the corridor was built in two different phases. The upper mud-brick courses (those above the sixteenth course from the ground) continue to the west and bond with the west wall of room B6. The southern face of the south wall of the corridor, as well as the lower sixteen courses of its north face, seem instead to belong to an earlier phase. The upper courses of the north face were laid out as part of a remodeling episode, during which it is possible that a vault, springing from the north face of the wall, was razed and a partially new south wall built for corridor B7. At that time, the doorway between rooms B7 and B6 was created by tearing down part of an earlier wall; also, the north wall of the corridor was built, abutting the east wall of room B6. stratigraphy (Pl. 3.60) The stratigraphy of the depositional units in corridor B7 was rather simple, as compared to that of other rooms of the complex (such as the church) and revealed an almost complete lack of evidence of wall collapse. The room was filled with a thick surface layer (DSU37,77 ca. 35 cm deep) of windblown sand, mixed with ceramic sherds (3.8 kg), small pebbles, and plaster fragments. After the removal of this unit, another layer (DSU38)78 was found consisting of clean windblown sand, including some pottery sherds (0.48 kg) and bones, which filled the entire space down to floor level for over 2.2 m. Only a few mud bricks were discovered at the eastern end of the corridor, but they seem to be associated with collapse episodes occurring in street B12. Above the remains of the floor (and partly directly above bedrock) was a unit (DSU45)79 consisting of loamy sand, ceramic sherds (0.24 kg), fragmentary mud bricks, mud plaster, and organic material, often found packed in layers. As mentioned in the previous 74. Upper elevation: 113.170 m. 75. Width of the trench: ca. 40 cm; upper elevation: 113.400 m; lower elevation: 113.080 m. 76. And continuing across room B5, still below floor level, as BF68. 77. Upper elevation: 115.510 m; lower elevation: 114.840 m. 78. Upper elevation: 115.370 m; lower elevation: 113.160 m. 79. Upper elevation: 113.370 m; lower elevation (taken above bedrock in a trench, 50 by 50 cm, excavated in the northwest corner of the corridor): 112.600 m; max. thickness: 40 cm.

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Pl. 3.56: Plan of corridor B7.

Pl. 3.57: Large patch of floor (BF108) in corridor B7 (view to W).

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Pl. 3.58: Test trench excavated at the east end of corridor B7.

Pl. 3.59: Detail of BF150 in corridor B7 (view to SE).

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Pl. 3.60: Matrix of corridor B7.

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Pl. 3.61: View of staircase B8 (to SW).

Pl. 3.62: Plan of staircase B8.

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section, this layer is perhaps to be associated with the decaying of a flat roof that collapsed into the room. Within the same organic-rich unit, consistent traces of burning activity (ash and small pieces of charcoal) were detected toward the west end of room B7, probably linked to the use of the neighboring room B6 as a kitchen. To the east of the corridor, the unit seems to continue and mix with an occupational layer extending throughout large part of street B12. Within the stratigraphy of corridor B7, DSU45 was the only context in which small finds were retrieved. These included a fragmentary iron nail (inv. 581), a small piece of a vessel of white blown glass (inv. 584), and an incomplete oval lamp (inv. 1005). No numismatic evidence was gathered in any of the contexts of room B7; this is quite surprising, since large numbers of coins were found in functionally similar spaces near the church, such as the vaulted passageway to the south (B11) or the street to the east (B12), which were also built to direct movement on mound I.

3.1.5. Room B8 Features B8 is a staircase located along the outer side of the north wall of room B6 (Pls. 3.2; 3.61–62). B8 measures 0.72 m from north to south and 3.80 m from east to west. Its walls are preserved to a maximum height of ca. 2.80 m (east wall BF75). As mentioned above, access to the staircase is via space B6 through a doorway (BF84) located near the northeast corner of that room. The stairway is complete and in good condition and appears to have worn down, because of usage, only in its central part. The staircase ascends from east to west and consists of thirteen mud-brick steps (BF79), each built with a row of four headers80 lying on top of a row of stretchers. The visible surface of each step measures approximately 71 cm north–south by 25 cm east–west, and its height corresponds to that of two rows of bricks (with only a few exceptions). The walking surface of the staircase bears evidence of a coating of mud plaster (mixed with straw), which lips down on the lower courses of stretchers. The lowest step is embedded within a mud-brick platform/floor (BF80),81 at a distance of ca. 1.24 m from the east wall. The staircase currently leads to the scanty remains of the roof of room B10, where small industrial installations were found,82 and possibly on the south vault spring of room B9 (Pl. 3.63).83 The upper part of the stairway, which is almost completely preserved and was not originally roofed, is supported by a narrow vaulted passageway opening from room B6 into B9; its measurements are ca. 1.4 m from north to south by 0.75 m from east to west and its height is 1.78 m. The lower part of the staircase, consisting of the above-mentioned mud-brick floor laid out at the bottom of the staircase, might have had a flat palm-leaf roof, as suggested by a layer of decayed organic material found right above floor level. However, it is not possible to 80. Except for the two highest steps, which are larger and consist of five headers. 81. Upper elevation: 113.450 m. 82. See section 4.1. 83. Discussed at length below (section 3.1.6).

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Pl. 3.63: Aerial view of the northwest sector of the church complex (to W).

Pl. 3.64: East–west section showing part of east side of staircase B8 (including south face of walls BF92 and BF 121).

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ascertain this possibility beyond doubt. The stairway is supported to the north by sections of different walls: from west to east, a stub belonging to the doorway into room B9, an east–west wall (BF92, built above an earlier feature—BF121—that is visible below it within room B8) (Pl. 3.64), the south end of a north–south wall (BF102, the east wall of room B9), and a sector of another wall (BF91) shared with an unexcavated room to the northeast. A ledge, 85 cm long, is visible in the west part of this wall, at about 1.02 m above floor level. To the east of the ledge, an arched niche (100 cm high, 57 cm wide, and 30 cm deep) is built within the same wall, 44 cm above floor level. Traces of hacking in the back of the niche suggest that it was not part of the original plan, but was created at a later stage, possibly using an already existing ledge as its bottom. BF75 (the east wall of the staircase) continues south into room B6. The south wall (BF73) is also shared with room B6 and seems to have been built in one phase. All architectural features forming staircase B8 seem to have been built as the result of one construction episode, which also involved the creation of room B9 in its latest phase.84 stratigraphy (Pl. 3.65) A surface layer (DSU44)85 consisting of windblown sand and including mud-brick fragments, pottery sherds (4.54 kg), and small pebbles, extended throughout the room. Only one small find was retrieved during the excavation of staircase B8; it came from this depositional unit. It is a poorly preserved bronze coin (inv. 549) that was minted between 364 and 378. Unfortunately, due to the highly unreliable context in which it was found, the coin is of little diagnostic significance for the dating of the room. The removal of the surface layer revealed a unit of mud bricks (DSU49),86 likely collapsed from the north and south walls into the center of room B8. This unit, as well as DSU44, covered a layer of windblown sand (DSU48)87 that filled the western half of the staircase. The unit contained only a few bones and ceramic sherds (1.74 kg). The excavation of the surface layer (DSU44) led to the identification of a second unit (DSU50),88 which consisted of another mud-brick collapse and extended eastward from the second upper step (Pl. 3.66). It was soon discovered that this unit was, in fact, the uppermost part of a more extensive wall collapse episode (likely originating from the north, south, and east walls of the staircase) that was investigated, and then removed, as DSU52.89 The latter covered the entire area of the staircase and continued, through doorway BF84, into room B6 (where it was excavated as DSU54). DSU50 and DSU52 were partly divided by DSU51,90 a layer of loose sand, with inclusions of mud-brick debris and small pebbles, which was later identified as a lens within the same collapse episode.91 Directly underneath DSU52 was DSU53,92 a context of clean sand mixed with mud-brick dust, organic particles, very few pottery sherds, and small 84. See section 3.1.6 below. 85. Upper elevation: 116.160 m; lower elevation: 115.470 m; max. thickness: 69 cm. 86. Upper elevation: 115.840 m; lower elevation: 115.720 m; max. thickness: 12 cm. 87. Upper elevation: 115.720 m; lower elevation: 115.410 m; max. thickness: 31 cm. 88. Upper elevation: 115.610 m; lower elevation: 115.010 m; max. thickness: 60 cm. 89. Upper elevation: 115.280 m; lower elevation: 113.480 m; max. thickness: 150 cm (in the east part of the room). 90. Upper elevation: 115.280 m; lower elevation: 114.950 m; max. thickness: 33 cm. 91. DSU51 roughly shares the same composition as DSU44. 92. Upper elevation: 114.730 m; lower elevation: 113.740 m; max. thickness: ca. 100 cm.

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Pl. 3.65: Matrix of staircase B8.

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Pl. 3.66: View of collapse DSU50 in staircase B8 (to W).

pebbles. The unit sloped down, with increasing thickness, from west to east, ending near the west jamb of the doorway opening into room B6. A deposit of mud-brick dust mixed with sand, organic particles, and very few pottery sherds (DSU57)93 was excavated below DSU52, at the east end of room B8, and DSU53, in the area above the staircase itself. DSU57 lay above a context of mud-brick debris (DSU56),94 sloping down from west to east, that was also found in part under DSU52 and DSU53. Evidence of mud plaster with imprints of palm ribs, as well as an actual fragment of palm rib, were found within DSU56, suggesting the possibility that staircase B8 had a flat roof, at least at its bottom end near the doorway (where most traces were retrieved). The unit also contained a few pottery sherds (1.82 kg).

93. Upper elevation: 113.710 m; lower elevation: 113.370 m; max. thickness: 20 cm. 94. Upper elevation: 114.840 m; lower elevation: 113.570 m; max. thickness: 55 cm.

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3.1.6. Room B9 Features Room B9 is located at the north end of the church complex (Pls. 3.2; 3.67–68). It is roughly rectangular in shape and measures ca. 3.70 m from north to south and 5.30 m from east to west, with walls reaching a maximum height of ca. 2.90 m (west half of the south side–BF106). This space is not accessible from any room other than the anteroom/kitchen of the church complex (B6), through a vaulted passageway below the upper part of staircase B8. The doorway (BF115), preserved to a height of about 1.55 m, has a well-preserved mud-brick threshold, measuring 46 cm north–south by 74 cm east–west, and is defined to the east by a partition wall protruding northward into the room.95 Space B9 was originally covered by an east–west oriented barrel vault, which was found still largely in situ except for its central part.96 A short, east–west oriented wall (BF92) is partly preserved above the south vault spring, functioning as the upper west end of the north wall of staircase B8 (Pl. 3.69). To the west, another short partition wall (BF99), oriented from north to south, divided the space above the same vault spring in two halves.97 The original subdivision of space above the southern vault spring of room B9 is not clear, due to its very poor state of conservation. As excavations carried out in the room showed, the walls were built directly on gebel, and the very uneven ground was leveled with a compact mud floor (BF116).98 Scanty remains of mud-brick features, covered with mud plaster, were uncovered along the north and west walls, possibly comparable to those found in room B6 and serving as platforms for the storage and/ or preparation of food. A rectangular mud-brick feature, plastered with mud, is built in the south wall of the room, to the east of the doorway opening into room B6 (Pls. 3.70–71). It is ca. 1 m wide and 44 cm deep and is set at 48 cm above floor level.99 Its original height cannot be determined, as the upper part of the room in the southeast corner was found heavily damaged.100 The recess might have been used as a cupboard for the storage of vessels and/or food. The features associated with staircase B8 and room B9 seem to be part of the same construction episode. Below the vault supporting the staircase, two thresholds were found, one to the south, near room B6, and another to the north, at the entrance of room B9. In fact, the latter seems to be the soldier course of an earlier east–west oriented wall that was torn down when the staircase and room B9 were built. The razed wall formed part of the original north wall of room B6, which was therefore much larger before the construction of the staircase in its northern half.101 The northeast wall of staircase B8 (BF91) seems to be the only preserved 95. And seemingly functioning as a thick stub. 96. The remains of the vault are BF93 above north wall BF98 and BF94 above south wall BF106. 97. The feature, which was found partially disconnected from the vault spring on which it rested, was removed for safety reasons. 98. Upper elevation: 113.300 m. 99. The lower part of this feature consists of wall BF95. 100. The lintel of this feature, as visible in plates 3.70–71, is the result of modern restoration and consolidation of room 9’s south boundary. 101. However, it was not possible to verify the architectural relationship between the razed wall and the west wall of room B6.

Mound I: The Church Complex

Pl. 3.67: Aerial view of room B9 in the foreground (to S).

Pl. 3.68: Plan of room B9.

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Pl. 3.69: Profile of walls (north face) above doorway of room B9.

Pl. 3.70: View of the southeast corner of room B9.

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Pl. 3.71: Mud-brick cupboard in room B9 (view to S).

section of the north wall of room B6 in its earlier phase; it was in fact a separate wall, not bonded but abutting the razed one. Quite clearly, the data gathered in the field show that room B9 is not contemporary to room B6 in its first phase, but was built after the staircase and the vaulted passageway below it were added within room B6. The latter was, therefore, considerably sized down and its refunctionalization as a kitchen likely occurred when the staircase was built, leading to an upper floor where installations related to food production and storage were found. This process also involved the construction of room B9, accessible only from room B6 and possibly used as a storage room/pantry in association with the latest occupational phase of the kitchen. stratigraphy (Pl. 3.72) The deposits that filled room B9 consisted of windblown sand and a series of wall and vault collapses, which accumulated, in large part, in the southeast corner and sloped down over the north and central parts of the room (and partly into the vaulted passageway to the south). Two units were removed as the surface layer: one (DSU63),102 consisting of sand mixed with pebbles, pottery sherds (0.71 kg), bones, and traces of ash and charcoal resulting from a modern fire, covered the west half of the room; the second unit (DSU69)103 was a mud102. Upper elevation: 115.690 m; lower elevation: 115.290 m; max. thickness: 20 cm. 103. Upper elevation: 116.010 m; lower elevation: 115.450 m; max. thickness: 50 cm.

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brick collapse layer, possibly originating from the eastern and south (east segment) walls and extending through the eastern part of room B9. This context contained a large quantity of pottery sherds (12.53 kg) and was mixed with sand, especially below the uppermost level. A series of vault and wall collapses was then revealed; the uppermost was DSU72,104 located in the southeast sector of the room (below DSU69) and consisting of a vault collapse (as testified to by the several vault bricks found in it) mixed with several ceramic inclusions (4.38 kg). Below DSU72 was DSU75 (Pl. 3.73),105 a vault and wall collapse that sloped from the southeast corner of room B9 northwards and that contained lenses of yellow sand and several inclusions, like pebbles, plaster, glass, bones, bronze fragments, lime spots, and several potsherds (58.91 kg). The excavation of this context revealed also a complete wooden peg (inv. 575) and three fragments of transparent green glass, one of which (inv. 596) belonged to a bowl, while the remaining two (inv. 597–598) were once part of lamps. DSU75 was partially covered by DSU68,106 a context of windblown sand and mud-brick dust, with a few bones and several ceramic inclusions (9.22 kg) filling the entire room. In its lower part, some lenses of ash and charcoal were identified. This layer, excavated under surface (both units DSU63 and DSU69), lay directly on top of the lowermost depositional unit (DSU79)107 in the western half of the room. DSU79 was an occupational level of packed mudbrick dust mixed with some pebbles, numerous potsherds (21.51 kg), rare glass slag, and organic inclusions. It covered the remains of the clay floor and was considerably thicker near the walls of the room than at its center. The small finds that were gathered within this unit include a stone weight (inv. 590), two fragments of black dull glass bracelets (inv. 565 and 595), a piece of a gypsum stopper (inv. 593), an incomplete rope (inv. 592), and two fragmentary wooden objects, probably used as pegs (inv. 585–586). One bronze coin (inv. 580) was found associated with this stratigraphical context; it was broadly assigned to the fourth century. In the eastern half of room B9, DSU79 lay underneath wall and vault collapse (DSU75) and a lens of windblown sand, mixed with a few mud-brick fragments, some cobbles, potsherds (1.53 kg), bones, and traces of ash and charcoal (DSU82).108 Two joining fragments of a bowl of green glass (inv. 591) were also retrieved within this unit, which lay in part below DSU75 and possibly included some of its debris. Three depositional units were excavated in the wedge created by the south wall and the vault springing from it. These were DSU66,109 a surface layer of windblown sand, and, below it, DSU67,110 consisting of sand mixed with mud-brick dust, a few pebbles (in DSU66), and pottery sherds (0.63 kg in each unit). The lowest level, above the debris that formed the original filling of the wedge, was DSU70,111 a layer of mud dust with some sand, mud-brick fragments, and ceramic inclusions (0.1 kg). As for the wedge along the north wall, two units were identified, that is to say, DSU 71,112 a unit of windblown sand mixed with pottery sherds (3.84 kg), pebbles, 104. Upper elevation: 115.450 m; lower elevation: 114.610 m; max. thickness: 35 cm. 105. Upper elevation: 115.060 m; lower elevation: 113.150 m; max. thickness: 165 cm. 106. Upper elevation: 115.600 m; lower elevation: 113.160 m; max. thickness: 213 cm. 107. Upper elevation: 113.860 m; lower elevation: 113.050 m; average thickness: 5 cm. 108. Upper elevation: 113.400 m; lower elevation: 113.170 m; max. thickness: 15 cm. 109. Upper elevation: 115.480 m; lower elevation: 115.360 m; max. thickness: 10 cm. 110. Upper elevation: 115.360 m; lower elevation: 114.910 m; max. thickness: 45 cm. 111. Upper elevation: 115.070 m; lower elevation: 114.840 m; max. thickness: 23 cm. 112. Upper elevation: 115.780 m; lower elevation: 115.390 m; max. thickness: 15 cm.

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Pl. 3.72: Matrix of room B9.

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Pl. 3.73: View of vault and wall collapse DSU75 in room B9 (to E)

ash and charcoal from a modern fire, and DSU77,113 consisting of mud-brick debris, mud-brick dust, a few bones, cobbles, and numerous potsherds (31.02 kg), which was found to be part of the original fill and, therefore, was not excavated further.

113. Upper elevation: 115.640 m; lower elevation: 115.090 m; max. thickness (of the excavated part): 35 cm.

4 Excavations Outside the Church Complex In 2007, and especially in 2008, in-depth archaeological investigation was carried out in the area immediately to the west, south, and east of the church complex. The main goal was to ascertain the topographical relationship of the church complex with the surrounding buildings, within the urban fabric of the main mound of Ἁin el-Gedida.

4.1. Room B10 Features Room B10 is a rectangular mud-brick room, located to the west of rooms B6 and B8 and to the south of B9 (Pls. 3.2; 4.1–2). It is built against the outer west wall of the church complex, but is not connected to it. Room B10 measures ca. 5.70 m from north to south and 3.80 m from east to west and is preserved to a maximum height of ca. 4.50 m along the east wall (BF103). A north–south oriented barrel vault originally covered the room; substantial remains of both vault springs (BF101 and BF97) are still visible on the east and west walls. All walls are mud-plastered, as was the vault; their upper part is of a dark gray color, probably caused by cooking activities carried out inside the room. Four doorways originally opened onto room B10. One (BF120; width: 74 cm) was located near the west end of north wall BF106, but was later bricked in and plastered over (BF120). Two other doorways (BF113 and BF114), with an average width of 70 cm, are set along the west wall of the room and once led into spaces that 143

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Pl. 4.1: Aerial view of room B10 (to SE).

Pl. 4.2: Plan of room B10.

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Pl. 4.3: View of retaining wall along the east side of room B10.

were not objects of investigation. Both openings were found in extremely poor condition and modern wood lintels had to be placed in order to avoid the collapse of features. A fourth and larger (1.2 m wide) doorway (BF112), framed along its east side by a thick mud-brick stub, is located at the west end of south wall BF104 and opens onto an unexcavated area. None of the four doorways has preserved lintels (or clear sockets where these would have once been placed), so that their original height is very difficult to reconstruct. Considerable traces of ancient damage are visible especially along the east wall. Indeed, a roughly trapezoidal mud-brick buttress (BF107), measuring 3.03 m north–south by 0.35 m east–west, and standing to a maximum height of 1.40 m, was uncovered against it, likely built to support the wall after a rather poor restoration (Pl. 4.3). Two rectangular niches were originally set into the east wall. The southern one was bricked in at some point and almost completely hidden by the mud-brick buttress, apart from the stone lintel. The northern niche is still visible, at a height of ca. 80 cm above ground level.1 It is 52 cm wide, 57 cm high, and its depth is 48 cm; its bottom part was subject to heavy damage in antiquity and later restoration. The niche, as well as the wall, is covered by a thick layer of mud plaster; traces of a white gypsum band, ca. 30 cm thick, can be seen on both sides of the niche, although it is likely that it originally marked the upper and lower edges, too. 1. The niche pierces the east wall ca. 1.40 m south of room 10’s north wall.

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Pl. 4.4: View of BF96 (clay basin) and imprint of circular feature on the roof of room B10 (to SE).

Pl. 4.5: Detail of clay basin (hawasel) above the east vault spring of room B10.

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Evidence of at least three different floors2 of compacted mud was found above gebel, together with remains of a north–south wall at foundation level (BF119) running along the northern end of the west wall. A hearth (BF109; diameter: ca. 45 cm) lies in good condition in the southern half of the room, to the southwest of a circular, shallow pit (BF110) with a diameter of about 60 cm.3 The large amount of pottery fragments, the few complete or almost complete vessels collected above floor level throughout the room, and the evidence of the hearth allowed the identification of this room as a kitchen. Above the east vault spring of room B10, but accessible only from room B6 in the church complex via staircase B8, lies a rectangular storage bin (BF96) made of clay (called hawasel in Arabic), measuring 66 by 49 by 126 cm (Pls. 4.4–5). Another clay feature, of a circular shape and measuring 55 cm in diameter, was once attached to the north side of the hawasel.4 As mentioned above, the function of the rectangular bin, and possibly of the circular feature, is likely related to the storage of food. Therefore, the roof of room B10 is not only architecturally connected to the anteroom/kitchen of the church complex (room B6), but also seems functionally linked to it. The fact that people inside the church complex were allowed to freely access and use the vaulted roof of room B10 suggests that the latter was not owned by a private villager or a family.5 Indeed, it seems likely that no private or family property rights were associated with this particular space. Room B10 went through several construction phases. The razed wall running from north to south was found below the earliest floor level and is therefore to be linked to an earlier building. The middle floor seems to have been used when the northern doorway was still open; after it was blocked, a third floor was laid, in phase with the three other doorways but preceding the damage that occurred to the east wall of the room and its restoration. stratigraphy (Pl. 4.6) Room B10 was filled with a surface layer of windblown sand that was excavated in two different units, one (DSU62)6 above the remains of the vault springing from the east wall, and the other (DSU65)7 in the area to the west of these remains. Both units contained mud-brick debris, mud dust, pebbles, cobbles, and potsherds (3.75 kg in DSU62 and 0.47 kg in DSU65), with a decreasing density of inclusions in the lower levels. The clay rectangular bin that was revealed above the east half of the vault by the removal of DSU62 had a fill (DSU64)8 of sand mixed with organic inclusions (seeds, charcoal) and including some potsherds (0.6 kg) and a limited amount of mud-brick debris. The wedge between the east wall of the room and the eastern half of the vault, which had collapsed, was filled with a unit (DSU73)9 of mud-brick debris, mud-dust, potsherds 2. Evidence for the three floors consists of: a large section of an early floor level (BF118—upper elevation: 112.430 m) at the center of the room; scattered patches of a middle level (BF117—upper elevation: 112.500 m); and finally, the latest floor level of room B10 (BF111—upper elevation: 112.550 m), identified in the northern half and in the middle of the room. 3. No incontrovertible evidence was found pointing to its use as a hearth. 4. Only the negative circular imprint remains. 5. Unless the use of the roof had been granted by its owner/s to those in charge of the church complex. 6. Upper elevation: 115.490 m; lower elevation: 113.420 m; max. thickness: 207 cm. 7. Upper elevation: 115.540 m; lower elevation: 115.080 m; max. thickness: 46 cm. 8. Upper elevation: 115.360 m; lower elevation: 114.970 m; max. thickness: 39 cm. 9. Upper elevation: 115.320 m; lower elevation: 114.760 m. DSU73 was not excavated fully once it was established that it was likely part of the original fill of the wedge (max. thickness of the excavated part: 56 cm).

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Pl. 4.6: Matrix of room B10.

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Pl. 4.7: View of occupational level (DSU80) in room B10 (to N).

(5.01 kg), and organic material. The investigation of this layer brought to light a complete bowl (inv. 570), whose surface is completely burnt, suggesting that it was used as a cooking pot. Underneath the surface layer of windblown sand, two isolated collapse episodes were identified. One (DSU74)10 was located in the middle of the room and originated from the collapse of the central part of the vault. It consisted for the most part of decayed mud bricks, mud dust, organic particles, and some ceramic fragments (1.18 kg). The second collapse unit (DSU78)11 was found against the northwestern corner. It included two large clusters of mud bricks, which rested on a thin layer of compact mud dust, several potsherds (4.74 kg), occasional wood, and some animal bones. The deposit was possibly the result of the collapse of part of the north wall. The removal of these two units and of the surface layer (DSU62), in the areas not covered by wall or vault collapse, revealed a deposit of relatively clean sand (DSU76)12 with ceramic inclusions (5.11 kg), especially at its lower end. A bronze coin of Constantius II (inv. 589), dated to the years 351–361, was gathered within this unit. Furthermore, three matching pieces of a globular cooking pot (inv. 569), with traces of burning along the rim and in the lower half of its body, were found in the middle of the room. Underneath DSU76, the occupational level of the kitchen was identified above the latest floor (and directly above bedrock—cutting through earlier floor levels—along the north and east walls) (DSU80; Pl. 4.7).13 This unit consisted of packed soil and sand mixed with organic material (wood and bones), a few mud bricks (especially toward its northern end), rare glass 10. Upper elevation: 113.850 m; lower elevation: 113.420 m; max. thickness: 43 cm. 11. Upper elevation: 113.430 m; lower elevation: 112.950 m; max. thickness: 48 cm. 12. Upper elevation: 113.850 m; lower elevation: 112.590 m; max. thickness: 126 cm. 13. Upper elevation: 112.590 m; lower elevation: 112.250 m; max. thickness: 34 cm.

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Pl. 4.8: View of passageway B11 (to E).

Pl. 4.9: View of passageway B11 (to W).

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Pl. 4.10: Plan of passageway B11.

and iron slag, a rather large amount of potsherds (10.07 kg), and fragmentary or complete ceramic vessels, including a complete globular flask (inv. 576), three matching fragments of an open-mouth jar (inv. 579), and an incomplete bowl with a flat-foot base, a restricted rim, and a body with scattered burning spots (inv. 571). Among the other objects that were brought to light within this unit were three wooden items, i.e., a complete spindle (inv. 573), a broken knob (inv. 588), and a fragmentary stopper (inv. 587); a complete oval lamp (inv. 578), with decorations molded on the top; a gypsum stopper (inv. 599); and a fragment of a bracelet made of black dull glass (inv. 594). Below DSU80 was the fill (DSU81)14 of the circular clay hearth (BF109) set near the southeastern corner of the room. It consisted of ash, a few lime spots, and a limited amount of potsherds (0.05 kg).

4.2. Space B11 Features B11 is a long, east–west oriented passageway that runs along the south wall of the church (B5) and the north edge of area A (Pls. 3.2; 4.8–10). It measures approximately 2.15 m north–south by 10.75 m east–west and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 2.09 m (at the western end of the south wall BF138). The corridor is in a fairly good state of preservation, although bearing traces of damage caused by termites. Mud bricks were used for the construction of the walls, laid out in English bond with just a few anomalies in some courses. Three small holes were noticed along the east sector of the north wall and two along the east sector of the south wall; their origin and/or possible function was not ascertained beyond doubt. Signs of wear are visible along the north 14. Upper elevation: 112.490 m; lower elevation: 112.290 m; max. thickness: 20 cm.

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wall, due either to natural erosion or to the friction caused by the passage of small carts. A floor (BF141)15 made of compacted mud, with several organic inclusions and small pottery fragments, was found in a fairly good state of conservation below layers of sand, organic deposits, and ash. It gently slopes down from west to east, where it intersects street B12 and courtyard B13. The presence of animal coprolites and signs of wear along corner walls suggest that the passageway was accessible not only to people but also to animals and carts.16 The corridor was originally barrel-vaulted, as remains of vault springs are still extant.17 Although the remains of the actual vaults are scanty, the excavation of the corridor did not lead to the discovery of any substantial traces of vault collapse. It is possible that the vaults either collapsed or were removed in antiquity and that, at least in its latest phase, the corridor was used as an open-air passageway. Deposits of ash, broken pottery vessels, animal bones, and also animal coprolites suggest a continuity of usage for this space by men and animals, even after the removal/collapse of the vaulted roof. The north wall of passageway B11 (BF42 + BF44 + BF45) is shared by the church (room B5) as its south wall. The construction episodes of the corridor are, therefore, closely linked to the architectural development of the church to the north. A deep examination of the walls, their foundations, and their mutual relations allowed the recognition of at least two different phases of construction (Pl. 4.11). At a first stage, the corridor was of a shorter length, corresponding to the eastern sector of the entire passageway, i.e., it followed the north wall from its eastern end to the point where it suddenly regresses into the church (BF42 + BF44). This first corridor was covered with a barrel vault, which seems to have been built in phase with the vault springing over the eastern half of the church. When the area of the church was expanded to the west, by tearing down the west wall (BF68, which equals BF44) and adding a large section to the original space, the passageway to the south was also the object of extensive alterations. In particular, another section was added to the west (with BF45 as its north wall) and connected to the earlier corridor. It had a barrelvaulted roof as well, but its orientation was not perfectly on axis with the vault covering the east half. The north wall of unexcavated room A16 (BF138) was incorporated into the passageway at this stage (as the western end of its southern side) and the doorway previously leading into that space was bricked in (BF126), shortly before the construction of the west vault.18 The western addition is considerably wider than the original passageway at its western end and creates a rather irregular layout. This may result from the fact that the north and south walls of the earlier corridor are not parallel to each other, but slightly converging to the west. As a result, the passageway substantially narrows down westwards, so that a later addition would have created, if following the exact orientation of both the north and south walls, an excessively narrow space, not allowing the passage of animals and small carts. Therefore, the discontinuity and irregularity found in the layout of the corridor in its second phase, especially in the western half of the north wall, likely answered specific functional needs. 15. Upper elevation: 112.590 m. 16. The discovery, in nearby room B13, of two mud-brick rectangular bins, possibly used for the feeding of animals, further supports the possibility of corridor B11 being used by animals as well as humans; see section 4.4 below. 17. North side: BF124 (above wall BF42) and BF125 (above wall BF45). South side: BF123 (above wall BF137) and BF136 (above walls BF126 and BF138). 18. BF126 and BF138 were added as a western extension to BF137, the original south wall of the corridor.

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Pl. 4.11: Photogrammetric images of the walls of passageway B11.

stratigraphy (Pl. 4.12) The stratigraphy of room B11 revealed evidence of the collapse of architectural features associated with the passageway, like walls and the vaulted ceiling. Most deposits, however, consisted of refuse layers, rich in ash and organic materials, that were thrown and unevenly piled into the corridor, apparently not flattened prior to the creation of a new surface. It is possible that B11, as well as several other spaces in the area, like B12, B14, and B15, were used as domestic dumps in their latest occupational phases. With regard to room B11, the discovery, within these contexts, of several coins (possibly dropped at least in part by people walking through this space) and also animal coprolites suggests that this space continued to serve also as a passageway for humans and their animals. The surface layer (DSU83)19 consisted of windblown sand, about 40 cm thick, and contained some potsherds (2.78 kg) and pebbles. Underneath, a sub-surface unit of soft brownish sand was revealed (DSU89),20 which covered the entire area of the corridor. The sand was mixed with some pottery sherds (2.07 kg), the majority of which were retrieved along the eastern half of the north wall, and contained one fragment of a glass vessel and a few animal bones. A few mud bricks were found in the southeastern corner of the room, right below surface. The removal of this deposit revealed DSU90,21 a context of soft brown sand containing a particulary 19. Upper elevation: 114.750 m; lower elevation: 113.980 m; max. thickness: 44 cm. 20. Upper elevation: 113.890 m; lower elevation: 112.980 m; max. thickness: 91 cm. 21. Upper elevation: 113.540 m; lower elevation: 112.790 m; max. thickness: 65 cm.

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Pl. 4.12: Matrix of passageway B11.

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large number of small, medium, and large ceramic fragments (125.87 kg), a few mud bricks (in the central part of the room), ash pockets, fragments of plaster and of glass vessels, glass slag, and a considerable amount and variety of organic inclusions, such as charcoal, wood fragments, animal hair, coprolites, and shells. Among the finds that were retrieved within this context are three dull glass beads, one light blue (inv. 662), one light green (inv. 664), and one turquoise, white, and red (inv. 1090); one piece of a bracelet made of black dull glass (inv. 649); one diagnostic fragment of a glass jug (inv. 1204); two joining fragments of a bent bronze wire (inv. 1089); and one fragment of a circular ceramic lamp (inv. 1006). Ten bronze coins (inv. 667, 674–77, 679, 682, 692, 694–95) were also found, mostly in poor condition; three of them could be dated to a short time range (inv. 667, dated to 383–392, inv. 676, dated to 364–378, and inv. 692, dated to 330–335), while one (inv. 694) was broadly assigned to the fourth century on the basis of size and weight. The remaining specimens could not be dated. In the area between vaulted passageway B11 and courtyard B13, the removal of the subsurface layer revealed a wall collapse unit (DSU92),22 consisting of a larger mound against the eastern end of the north wall and a smaller pile to the south. The collapse included mud-brick debris, mud dust mixed with sand, several potsherds (4.02 kg), rare plaster, glass slag, and bones. DSU92 rested above a layer of ash (DSU94),23 which contained several potsherds (26.37 kg), organic inclusions (mostly wood and bones), a few pieces of bronze, glass slag, a lenticular bead of dull blue glass (inv. 661), part of an iron nail (inv. 1088), and fragments of glass vessels (two diagnostic fragments of glass bowls were assigned inventory numbers 663 and 817). The deposit abutted the eastern end of the north wall of the passageway and also extended eastwards into courtyard B13. Within it, the unit was particularly rich in organic material, potsherds, and small finds. Three superimposed units of ash and soil were removed in the central part of the passageway, against its south wall. The upper layer (DSU97; Pl. 4.13),24 found below sub-surface, consisted of soft but compact ash, mixed with soil and containing potsherds (20.99 kg), rare glass slag, three fragments of glass vessels, one small piece of iron, and abundant organic material (charcoal, vegetable fibers, few animal bones, animal hair). The excavation of this unit brought to light also one fragment of a bracelet made of dull black glass (inv. 833), three incomplete ropes of vegetal fibers (inv. 836–838), and two poorly preserved bronze coins; one (inv. 673) was broadly assigned to the fourth century, on the basis of size and weight, while the other (inv. 671) could not be dated. Furthermore, three matching fragments of an almost complete Greek ostrakon (inv. 660) were found, consisting of an order or receipt for wheat and dated to ca. 330–390. The chronology is in line with the tentative dating of the (rather limited) numismatic evidence gathered within this context. Underneath DSU97 was a layer of brown soil (DSU100)25 with pockets of ash, especially in the area along the south wall. This deposit contained fragments of glass vessels (one of which had a diagnostic value and was assigned inventory number 818), several potsherds (12.12 kg), and organic inclusions; among the latter were date pits, vegetable fibers, charcoal, wood, and coprolites. 22. Upper elevation: 113.350 m; lower elevation: 112.860 m; max. thickness: 49 cm. 23. Upper elevation: 113.120 m; lower elevation: 112.720 m; max. thickness: 30 cm. 24. Upper elevation: 113.260 m; lower elevation: 112.950 m; max. thickness: 31 cm. 25. Upper elevation: 113.060 m; lower elevation: 112.780 m; max. thickness: 28 cm.

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Pl. 4.13: Detail of DSU97 in passageway B11 (view to W).

The lowest of the three units was DSU108,26 a layer of compact brown soil and ash mixed with a very large amount of organic material (such as charcoal, plant fibers, coprolites, wood, seeds, bones), potsherds (19.97 kg), fragments of glass vessels (with one diagnostic piece, inv. 1209), one small piece of iron, two small fragments of bracelets of dull black glass (inv. 842 and 843), and four fragments of sandstone blocks. Two poorly preserved coins (inv. 680 and 803) were also gathered during the excavation of this context but could not be dated. DSU108, as well as DSU90 mentioned above, rested on the scanty remains of a compacted clay floor (BF141) in which a bronze coin, inv. 684, dated to 320–321, was found; where the floor was missing, the two units lay directly on bedrock.

4.3. Space B12 Features B12 is a long north–south oriented street, running to the east of the church complex (Pls. 3.2; 4.14–16). It measures approximately 14.75 m north–south by 2.00 m east–west (max. width) and has walls preserved to a maximum height of ca. 1.90 m (west wall of the middle segment). The street has an irregular layout that results from the different construction phases of the buildings whose walls define its outline. Indeed, three different sectors, all running north–south and joined among them, can be identified. The northernmost measures ca. 4.80 m north–south 26. Upper elevation: 112.870 m; lower elevation: 112.610 m; max. thickness: 26 cm.

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Pl. 4.14: Aerial view of street B12 (to SE).

Pl. 4.15: View of street B12 (to N).

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Pl. 4.16: Plan of street B12.

by 1.80 m east–west and stretches from the eastern end of corridor B7 to another east–west passageway (B16) to the north. The west and east walls, relatively well preserved, separate this sector from unexcavated rooms, so that only their sides facing street B12 are known. The east wall consists in fact of a longer segment to the south (BF129) and a smaller addition (BF160) toward the north end, which rests on two foundation courses running also beneath the longer segment to the south. While the latter does not bear traces of mud plaster, the addition to the north is almost completely obscured by a thick layer. The west wall of the street’s north sector is BF146; it runs north–south and is perpendicular to BF76, the north boundary of room B7 (the corridor leading into the church complex).

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Pl. 4.17: Opening between rooms B12 and B15 (aerial view to NW).

The central sector of the street measures ca. 6.80 m north–south by 2.00 m east–west; it lies to the east of the entrance to the church complex (corridor B7) and of room A46, extending southward to the north side of the apse of room B5. The west wall is also the east wall of room A46 (BF127 = AF71); to the east, a poorly preserved north–south wall (BF128) is bonded, at its south end, with a much shorter partition (BF130), running from northwest to southeast and roughly following the line of the apse. Both the north and south segments of the east wall were seemingly built at the same time or after the addition of the apse to room B5 and are closely linked to the construction of room B15, of which they form the west side.27 A narrow doorway opens from room B15 onto street B12 across from the entrance into the church complex (Pl. 4.17). It was originally closed with a door, as testified to by the presence of a socket in room B15. However, at a later stage the door was no longer in place; it is not clear if the opening was still used at that time, although without a door, or if it became inaccessible. The third sector, whose dimensions are ca. 3.20 m north–south by 1.15 m east–west, runs along the east side of the church and ends to the south into room B13 (Pl. 4.18). The west wall is shared with the apse of room B5 (BF37), of which it forms the east face; the east wall (BF131), abutted by the north wall of room B13 (BF142), is later than the construction of the apse, as its foundations cut through two floors abutting the apse itself. The excavation of street B12 revealed substantial traces of different floor levels. Two test trenches were excavated in the central sector of the street, one (ca. 100 cm north–south by 50 27. See the discussion of rooms B14–B15 below.

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Pl. 4.18: Aerial view of street B12 (to SW).

cm east–west) against the west wall of room B15 and another (ca. 100 by 100 cm) against the north wall of the apse (Pl. 4.19). These trenches exposed the relationships between the different floor levels of street B12 and the surrounding walls. In the north sector of the street (and parts of the central sector), the highest floor level (BF134)28 was identified (Pl. 4.20). Two other floor levels were identified in the central sector of B12: BF13929 and BF135.30 Excavations in the southern sector of the street revealed patches of two floor levels: BF14331 and BF155.32 All these levels consist of packed silty mud rich in organic material and small potsherds. The poor condition of the evidence and its scattered nature make the assignment of each patch to a particular street level very difficult. The use of absolute elevations to correlate them is limited by the fact that the street gently slants down from north to south, following the natural slope of gebel underneath.

28. Upper elevation: 113.650 m. 29. Upper elevation: 113.470 m. 30. Upper elevation: 113.130 m. 31. Upper elevation: 113.220 m. 32. Upper elevation: 112.860 m.

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Pl. 4.19: Plan of the central and southern sectors of street B12 with the location of test trenches.

Pl. 4.20: Patches of floor BF134 in the central sector of street B12 (aerial view to SE).

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Pl. 4.21: Matrix of street B12.

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stratigraphy (Pl. 4.21) The surface of street B12 was covered by a thick layer of windblown sand mixed with mud dust (DSU84),33 which was also removed from rooms B14 and B15. This unit contained several pebbles, mud-brick debris, mud dust, lime spots, small potsherds (0.66 kg),34 and, within street B12, a diagnostic fragment of a green glass beaker (inv. 814). The excavation of this context revealed the full extent of a wall collapse unit (DSU85),35 whose remains were partly visible above ground level in the north part of the street. The mud bricks and mud-brick debris were mixed with some fragments of plaster and potsherds (1.21 kg). Underneath it, a deposit of windblown sand (DSU87)36 was identified, covering the entire area occupied by B12.37 Among the few inclusions were pebbles, charcoal, lime spots, some mud dust, and potsherds (0.99 kg). In the middle sector of the street, DSU87 rested on top of a collapse (DSU88)38 located along the west edge and that probably resulted from the partial crumbling of the east wall of room A46 (Pl. 4.22).39 Within this layer, which consisted of whole and fragmentary mud bricks, were pebbles, charcoal, rare glass slag, organic material (bones and date pits), and ceramic fragments (2.27 kg). This collapse lay over a unit (DSU91)40 of occupational debris, ash and other disposed organic material (like charcoal, bones, date pits), fragments of glass, glass slag, and numerous potsherds (16.34 kg). The unit extended into room B7, where it was excavated as DSU45. The excavation of DSU91 brought to light two fragments of bracelets of black dull glass (inv. 650 and 651), two glass beads (one white, inv. 811, and the other light green, inv. 1214), one fragment of a vessel made of aquamarine glass (inv. 813), and eight bronze coins minted in the fourth century. Of these, two (inv. 656 and 659) were dated to 364–378, one (inv. 653) to 351–361, and another (inv. 655) was dated to 355–403. A fifth coin (inv. 657) was broadly assigned to the fourth century, on the basis of size and weight. The remaining specimens (inv. 652, 654, and 658) could not be dated due to their poor condition. As mentioned further above, several street levels, visible only in scattered patches, were identified within B12. They were all made of packed mud, with several potsherds and organic inclusions, and gently sloped from north to south. The highest street level (BF134) was investigated in the middle of the room. Its preparation layer (DSU93),41 consisting of packed mud dust, lenses of ash, pebbles, copious organic material (including palm fibers, hair, bones, charcoal), fragments of glass vessels, and potsherds (5.86 kg), was likely a refuse unit, which was leveled before the floor above was laid. Five bronze coins were found in this context, two of which (inv. 670 and 699) were dated to 364–378. The three remaing specimens (inv. 666, 672, and 696) could not be dated. DSU93 rested on the lower street level BF139, which had been laid out on top of a leveled unit (DSU95)42 very similar, in its content and inclusions, 33. Upper elevation: 114.790 m; lower elevation: 113.800 m; max. thickness: 32 cm. 34. The amount includes also the fragments collected in all rooms where this DSU was removed. 35. Upper elevation: 114.710 m; lower elevation: 113.940 m; max. thickness: 77 cm. 36. Upper elevation: 114.730 m; lower elevation: 113.820 m; max. thickness: 91 cm. 37. And partially the area occupied by room B15. 38. Upper elevation: 114.470 m; lower elevation: 113.060 m; max. thickness: 81 cm. 39. This DSU slightly extended onto the east end of room B7. 40. Upper elevation: 114.030 m; lower elevation: 113.480 m; max. thickness: 46 cm. 41. Upper elevation: 113.580 m; lower elevation: 113.170 m; max. thickness: 20 cm. 42. Upper elevation: 113.290 m; lower elevation: 113.070 m; max. thickness: 18 cm.

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Pl. 4.22: View of collapse DSU88 in the central sector of street B12 (to SW).

to DSU93 above. The removal of this context revealed a number of ceramic sherds (9.03 kg) as well as three bronze coins, one of which (inv. 668) was dated to 364–378, while another (inv. 669) was broadly assigned to the fourth century. The third coin (inv. 801) could not be dated. A particularly thick lens of ash (DSU98),43 also resting between floors BF134 and BF139, was isolated in the corner between the north wall of room B5’s apse and the north–south wall forming the east boundary of the church complex. The ash was mixed with several small pieces of charcoal and pottery sherds (1.43 kg). Excavations carried out in the central sector of the street revealed the remains of floor level BF135 (the lowest in this area), which partly covered the foundations of the east wall of room A46. A coin (inv. 678) was found set into this floor, thus in a significant archaeological context; unfortunately, it was in very poor condition and could not be dated. BF135 rested on a thin layer of packed mud dust (DSU99),44 with lenses of ash, organic inclusions, and a few ceramic fragments (0.24 kg). The unit lay directly on bedrock. Two street levels were identified in the southern sector of B12 and assigned different feature numbers, since it was not possible to determine their relationship with the patches of street levels found further north. The upper floor (BF143) and its preparation layer (DSU102),45 consisting of mud dust, small pebbles, lime spots, organic particles, one glass fragment, and several potsherds (10.53 kg), were partially excavated outside the eastern face of the apse, to reveal the lower floor (BF155). 43. Upper elevation: 113.350 m; lower elevation: 113.170 m; max. thickness: 10 cm. 44. Upper elevation: 113.100 m; lower elevation: 112.750 m; max. thickness (excavated part): 6 cm. 45. Upper elevation: 113.190 m; lower elevation: 112.880 m; max. thickness: 16 cm.

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Pl. 4.23: Stratigraphical section of street B12 (near the entrance of the church complex).

Pl. 4.24: View of DSU107 (= DSU85) in the northern sector of street B12.

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A deposit of loose sand and mud dust (DSU96),46 with several organic inclusions (such as charcoal, fruit pits, bones, wood), pebbles, three fragments of glass vessels (one of which was diagnostic, inv. 1208), and numerous small fragments of pottery (7.45 kg), filled the foundation trench of the west and southwest walls of room B15. Three bronze coins were found in this unit; one (inv. 665) was dated to 351–361, another (inv. 697) to 361–363, while the third specimen (inv. 698) could not be dated. The foundation trench cut through earlier deposits and was covered by floor BF139. DSU96 was identified and removed also along the southeast wall of the street, where it filled the wall’s foundation trench. The latter had cut, in part, through DSU101,47 a layer (seemingly equal to DSU99) of soil and ash with ceramic fragments (1.75 kg) and organic inclusions, on which both the southeastern wall of the street and floor BF155 had been built. A fragmentary wooden object (inv. 1047, possibly part of a round decorative element for furniture) and a bronze coin (inv. 840) dated to 363–364 were found in this context. In the northern sector, which was excavated separately from the central and southern parts, some of the units were assigned different numbers, but relations of equality were established with other units previously excavated further south. The surface layer (DSU10648 = DSU84) consisted of windblown sand mixed with mud dust and some mud-brick debris, pebbles, a little organic material, and potsherds (0.12 kg). Partly below and partly abutted by DSU106 was an episode of wall collapse (DSU10749 = DSU85; Pls. 4.23–24), which consisted of a thick and compact layer of whole and fragmentary mud bricks, mud dust, pottery sherds (8.75 kg), one small piece of faience, and one glass fragment. Among the finds were also a bead of dark green glass (inv. 819), a fragment of a rope of vegetal fibers (inv. 820), one complete ceramic object—a wine bottle with two handles (inv. 1110)—and three bronze coins: one specimen (inv. 688) was dated to 330–335 and another (inv. 690) to 355–361. The dating of the third coin (inv. 821) could not be established. The removal of DSU106 and DSU107 revealed several units: a layer of clean windblown sand without inclusions (DSU111)50 in the southeast corner of the street’s northern sector; a layer of sand (DSU121)51 throughout a large part of the same sector, mixed with fragments of white plaster, a few bones, fragments of glass vessels (including a diagnostic piece that was part of a green glass beaker, inv. 1029), and several ceramic sherds (0.88 kg); a deposit of sand (DSU120,52 partly above DSU121) mixed with mud-brick debris and potsherds (0.53 kg), located near the intersection with corridor B7 (leading into the church complex) and possibly associated with collapse DSU107 above. Still in the proximity of room B7 was a small wall collapse (DSU125,53 below DSU121), with whole and fragmentary mud-bricks and a few ceramic sherds, which lay above a deposit of windblown sand (DSU126)54 with some organic material (including vegetal fibers and coprolites) and a few potsherds (0.20 kg). Underneath it, and extending throughout 46. Upper elevation: 113.450 m; lower elevation: 112.760 m; max. thickness: 53 cm. 47. Upper elevation: 112.970 m; lower elevation: 112.790 m; max. thickness (of the excavated part): 15 cm. 48. Upper elevation: 115.060 m; lower elevation: 114.590 m; max. thickness: 40 cm. 49. Upper elevation: 115.460 m; lower elevation: 113.920 m; max. thickness: 114 cm. 50. Upper elevation: 114.805 m; lower elevation: 113.850 m; max. thickness: 95 cm. 51. Upper elevation: 114.390 m; lower elevation: 113.770 m; max. thickness: 45 cm. 52. Upper elevation: 114.120 m; lower elevation: 113.860 m; max. thickness: 26 cm. 53. Upper elevation: 113.930 m; lower elevation: 113.700 m; max. thickness: 12 cm. 54. Upper elevation: 113.810 m; lower elevation: 113.600 m; max. thickness: 15 cm.

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the northern part of the street, was an occupational level (DSU124)55 consisting of mud dust mixed with scattered mud bricks, mud-brick debris, pebbles, cobbles, glass slag, one small piece of bronze, organic material (including animal bones), and a large quantity of potsherds (21.87 kg). Several objects were collected during the excavation of this context. They include three fragments of dull glass bracelets (inv. 845–847), two beads of dark blue glass (inv. 1010 and 1015), diagnostic fragments of glass vessels (inv. 1067, 1069, 1080, 1206, 1207, in addition to non-diagnostic pieces), one fragment of a glass lamp (inv. 1037), and nine bronze coins. Of these, two specimens (inv. 824 and 828) were dated between 364 and 395, one (inv. 822) to 364–378, and two (inv. 827 and 1049) between 351 and 361. One coin (inv. 1099) could only be assigned broadly to the fourth century on the basis of size and weight, while, with regard to three other specimens (inv. 1042, 1046, and 1076), not enough data were available to establish any chronology. The removal of DSU124 revealed a unit (DSU128)56 of packed brown sand, with a few pebbles and rare organic inclusions (mostly charcoal and vegetal fibers), on which street level BF134 had once been laid. The only registered find from this unit was a bead of dark green glass (inv. 1013).

4.4. Space B13 Features To the south, street B12 leads to space B13, which is a courtyard at the intersection of streets B11 and B12 (Pls. 3.2; 4.25–26). B13 is roughly rectangular and measures ca. 3.40 m north–south by 4.45 m east–west, with walls preserved to a maximum height of 2.10 m (southwest wall BF145). No evidence of a flat or vaulted roof was found, and it seems most plausible that B13 was conceived as an open space. A doorway placed at the northern end of the east wall (BF144; width between the protruding jambs: ca. 90 cm) leads to an unexcavated area to the east of the church complex. Another opening in the southeast corner of the courtyard, about 2.25 m wide, originally allowed passage into a north–south street (A34) partially excavated in the mid-1990s, which seems to have been the continuation of street B12 discussed above. At the opposite end of the south wall, a doorway (width: 1 m) opens onto an unexcavated room (A19) to the south. Two roughly rectangular basins were found at floor level to the sides of this doorway (Pls. 4.27– 29). To the east is the largest bin (BF147), measuring 0.93 m north–south by 2.03 m east–west and with an average height of 30 cm. The feature consists of an east–west partition wall of mud bricks and dressed stones, which is bonded, at its eastern end, with a shorter wall of mud bricks that runs north–south and abuts the south wall of B13, leaving the west side of the bin open. Both partition walls lie on top of a foundation layer of compacted mud dust and debris. Inside the bin are scanty traces of a floor of mud plaster, mixed with small potsherds and pebbles. The other bin (BF148), located 1.2 m to the west, is considerably smaller (52 cm north–south by 72 cm east–west). It was built by placing a low east–west partition wall, standing 20 cm above ground level, against the southeast corner of the south wall of corridor B11. The bin was open along its east side, where it faced the other bin. 55. Upper elevation: 113.810 m; lower elevation: 113.330 m; max. thickness: 48 cm. 56. Upper elevation: 113.500 m (DSU not removed).

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Pl. 4.25: Aerial view of courtyard B13 (to SW).

Pl. 4.26: Plan of courtyard B13.

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Pl. 4.27: Drawing of the mud-brick basins along the south wall of courtyard B13.

Pl. 4.28: Mud-brick basin FSU147 inside courtyard B13 (view to S).

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Pl. 4.29: Mud-brick basin FSU148 inside courtyard B13 (view to SW).

The precise function of the two clay bins has not yet been ascertained beyond doubt. However, several examples of flat rectangular bins, comparable to the two examples from Ἁin el-Gedida, were found at the site of Douch in the Kharga Oasis, excavated by the Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale.57 Also at Douch, the bins were located against the outer walls of buildings along the streets. One of the more likely interpretations that were brought forth by the French team, and which might be applicable to Ἁin el-Gedida as well, is that these features were used for the feeding of animals.58 Patches of floors belonging to at least three different phases were identified throughout the room.59 A test trench, excavated along the southeast corner of the apse of the church, allowed us to determine that the earliest of the three levels is the same as the floor of east–west passageway B11 (BF141). 57. Reddé 2004: 25; 207. 58. However, this explanation raises several questions on the nature and management (public or private?) of the bins: i.e., if the forage were used to feed only the animals belonging to the owners of the nearby houses or if, instead, it were accessible also to any animal passing along those streets. If Ἁin el-Gedida were, in fact, a small agricultural center under wealthy ownership, as suggested in section 7.2 below, its situation may have been substantially different from that of the village of Douch, where one would have had to deal with private or family property rights. 59. The uppermost floor (BF152; upper elevation: 112.930 m) was identified only in the northeast corner of the room and sloped from north to south. Below is BF153 (upper elevation: 112.660 m), a compacted mud floor whose remains extend over the entire eastern and central part of room B13.

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stratigraphy (Pl. 4.30) The fill of courtyard B13 consisted, for the most part, of small collapse episodes and refuse deposits accumulated above the remains of the ancient floors. The surface layer (DSU103,60 about 30 cm thick) consisted of windblown sand mixed with some mud-brick debris, pebbles, glass slag, potsherds (2.57 kg), and organic material. Along the doorway set in the northeast corner was a small wall collapse unit (DSU112),61 lying below surface. It consisted of a cluster of whole mud bricks, mud-brick debris, mud dust, and sand with organic inclusions and some ceramic sherds (0.41 kg). In the rest of the room, DSU103 rested on a sub-surface layer of soft windblown sand (DSU104)62 with very few, and small, inclusions of organic material, fragments of glass vessels, pebbles, numerous potsherds (19.25 kg), and one illegible bronze coin (inv. 681). A sandstone block (38 by 15 by 8 cm) was found, not in situ, toward the lower end of the unit. Underneath the collapse in the northeast corner, and partially under the sub-surface layer, was DSU109,63 a thin deposit of sand mixed with mud dust, potsherds (6.55 kg), pebbles, fragments of glass vessels, organic material (including bones and shells), and three bronze coins, of which two (inv. 683 and 804) could not be dated, while a third specimen (inv. 805) was identified as an imitation datable to the late fourth–fifth century. DSU109 extended throughout the courtyard and rested above the lower strata of an extensive collapse (DSU105),64 which covered the southeastern sector of B13 and sloped, narrowing down considerably, toward the northwest. The collapse consisted of several mud bricks, fragments of mortar, and mud-brick debris with lime spots, potsherds (1.43 kg), pebbles, and organic inclusions (charcoal, date pits, bones). The small finds that were retrieved in this context are one diagnostic fragment of a glass vessel (inv. 1024) and two illegible (and undatable) bronze coins (inv. 691 and 802). DSU105, seemingly the first collapse episode that occurred within the courtyard after its abandonment, originated, at least in part, from the disintegration of the upper courses of the east wall. DSU109 covered several other deposits. One of these was DSU11065 (possibly a refuse layer), consisting of mud dust and several pockets of ash, mixed with organic material (date pits, charcoal, bones, animal hair), pebbles, fragments of glass vessels (two of which were diagnostic, inv. 1079 and 1213), and a large amount of pottery fragments (15.67 kg), which extended into the northeast part of the room and abutted its north and east walls. The small objects that were gathered within this context include two beads (one rhomboidal and of transparent green glass, inv. 810, and the other globular and made of black and yellow dull glass, inv. 812) and four poorly preserved bronze coins; one specimen (inv. 687) was dated between 355 and 363, while the date of the remaining three (inv. 686, 689 and 826) could not be established. DSU94 was another refuse unit below DSU109 and covered the southwest part of the room, continuing into corridor B11.66 As mentioned in the discussion of the stratigraphy of B11, DSU94 was made of ash mixed with organic material (including vegetal fibers, wood frag60. Upper elevation: 113.720 m; lower elevation: 113.140 m. 61. Upper elevation: 113.600 m; lower elevation: 113.170 m; max. thickness: 43 cm. 62. Upper elevation: 113.500 m; lower elevation: 112.820 m; max. thickness: 68 cm. 63. Upper elevation: 113.320 m; lower elevation: 112.870 m; max. thickness: 24 cm. 64. Upper elevation: 113.170 m; lower elevation: 112.710 m; max. thickness: 46 cm. 65. Upper elevation: 113.220 m; lower elevation: 112.780 m; max. thickness: 18 cm. 66. In room B13, the unit extended ca. 220 cm eastwards from the entrance into passageway B11.

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Pl. 4.30: Matrix of courtyard B13.

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ments, bones, charcoal, and a few fragments of textile), glass slag, fragments of glass vessels (including three diagnostic pieces, inv. 815, 816, and 1212), very small fragments of bronze, and several potsherds. Among the small objects that were retrieved during the excavation of DSU94 (within room B13) were three beads, two cylindrical and of blue dull glass (inv. 807 and 808) and one globular and made of transparent green glass (inv. 809), one fragment of a bracelet of black dull glass (inv. 806), and two bronze coins (inv. 685, assigned to 341–348, and inv. 700, which could not be dated). DSU11367 was below DSU109 and consisted of fine sand, pebbles, potsherds (ca. 5 kg), one of which had worn-out edges and was possibly reused as a tool (inv. 1082), one fragment of a glass vessel, and some organic inclusions, which filled the upper part of the large clay bin (BF147) along the south wall. DSU109 lay also above DSU114,68 a small cluster of loose mud bricks, mixed with sand, fragments of white plaster, wood, and several potsherds, which lay above the filling (DSU116)69 of the small clay bin (BF148) in the southwest corner of the courtyard. DSU116 consisted of fine sand mixed with abundant organic material (including date pits, bones, and wood fragments), pebbles, and several potsherds (5.77 kg) and was quite similar to the lower fill (DSU117) of the larger bin (BF147),70 which contained a higher quantity of ceramic fragments (15.80 kg). As mentioned above, the removal of the collapse units and ash deposits within the courtyard revealed the scattered patches of three different floor levels. These were covered by an occupational level (DSU115)71 consisting of brown sand and soil with ash pockets and mixed with abundant organic material (straw, bones, and charred pits), numerous potsherds (23.37 kg), and other categories of finds, such as glass slag, fragments of glass vessels, small pieces of textile, one bronze collet with a bezel of dark blue dull glass (probably a finger ring, inv. 1050), and three largely illegible bronze coins: one (inv. 839) was dated to the fourth century, while the two remaining specimens (inv. 823 and 825) could not be dated because of their poor condition. A deposit (DSU118)72 of brown sand, mixed with potsherds (0.73 kg), fragments of glass vessels, rare glass slag, some organic material (including straw and bones), and containing one fragment of a bracelet of dull black glass (inv. 834), was identified and partially excavated between the uppermost and the middle floor (BF152 and BF153 respectively) and likely served as a leveling layer underneath the former. Two objects were found set in the middle floor, i.e., a lenticular bead, made of gold leaf between two layers of transparent white glass (inv. 1016), and an unfortunately illegible bronze coin (inv. 829).

67. Upper elevation: 112.840 m; lower elevation: 112.750 m; max. thickness: 9 cm. 68. Upper elevation: 112.910 m; lower elevation: 112.760 m; max. thickness: 15 cm. 69. Upper elevation: 112.760 m; lower elevation: 112.490 m; max. thickness: 27 cm. 70. Upper elevation: 112.760 m; lower elevation: 112.420 m; max. thickness: 34 cm. 71. Upper elevation: 112.960 m; lower elevation: 112.530 m; max. thickness: 18 cm. 72. Upper elevation: 112.880 m; lower elevation: 112.720 m; max. thickness: 11 cm.

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4.5. Rooms B14–B15 Features B14–B15 are a set of two interconnected spaces investigated to the east of street B12, in the vicinity of the entrance to the church complex (Pls. 3.2; 4.31–32). They are identifiable as a small open-air working area, possibly a kitchen/bakery (B15), furnished with a small storage area (B14). A small opening located at the northwest corner of B15, mentioned above, allowed passage from this room into street B12 and corridor B7. B15 is an L-shaped room, measuring approximately 4.55 m north–south by 4.80 m east–west and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 1.97 m (BF158, south wall of room B14). It consists of a longer rectangular section, oriented from north to south, and a smaller, roughly square area to the south of room B14. The west and the southwest walls (BF128 and BF130 respectively) are poorly constructed and seem to be the result of an enlargement of room B15 protruding into street B12, which possibly happened at the same time or after the apse was added to room B5. The removal of a large collapse in the western part of B15 revealed significant remains of substructures related to the presence of ovens, together with consistent traces of burning on the west and north walls (Pls. 4.33–35). Possibly, three ovens were once located against the west wall and a fourth (BF176) against the west end of the north wall. The lack of almost any fragments of the pot chambers below the mud-brick rubble suggests that the ovens had already been largely dismantled when the west wall collapsed. The western sector of room B15 is physically separated from the southeast area of the same room by the scanty remains of a long north–south oriented wall (BF212), contemporary with the lowest floor (BF177) identified in this space. In fact, the southeastern sector might have originally been a separate space, but the presence of a floor level at a considerably higher elevation than the lowest floor (and less than 50 cm below the preserved top of BF212) suggests that this was not the case, at least in the latest occupational phase of this area. Toward its northern end, wall BF212 abuts the south wall of room B14 and forms part of the west boundary of that room. Within room B15, it seems to have been utilized, at least at a later stage, to define the eastern edge of the platform where the ovens were located. The wall continues southward into an unexcavated area and is possibly the remainder of an earlier feature that was partially reused when the platform with the ovens was built. The southeast part of room B15 does not bear any traces of ovens. Only a clay stove was found, not in situ, against the south face of the south wall of room B14; this discovery further supports the identification of the room as a kitchen/bakery. Three niches are cut within the east wall of room B15 (BF170), which seems to have been built as a thick facing, covered with a thick layer of mud plaster, against an earlier north–south wall; a small niche, about the size of an oil lamp, is placed in the center, with two larger ones, of very irregular dimensions, to the sides (Pl. 4.36). These two side niches are connected inside and form one storage space. Another niche is located within the south face of the east–west wall (BF158) dividing room B15 from room B14, about 45 cm from its east end. The niche is 44 cm wide, 24 cm high, and 38 cm deep. Originally,

Excavations Outside the Church Complex

Pl. 4.31: Aerial view of rooms B14–B15 (to SW).

Pl. 4.32: Plan of rooms B14–B15.

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Pl. 4.33: Remains of substructures for ceramic ovens (western half of room B15).

it had a curved ceiling and was higher; at some stage, the niche was partially bricked in, in order to raise its floor. The substantial remains of gypsum found in the area suggest that the wall in which the niche was inserted was once whitewashed. Besides the narrow doorway in the northwest corner of room B15, opening onto street B12, two other doorways once led onto an unexcavated space to the south.73 No evidence of any roof was found in situ or inside room B15; also, the presence of ovens suggests that it was an open-air space. Three floor levels (the highest, BF174;74 the middle, BF175, in phase with the doorway in the southeast corner of the room;75 and the lowest floor level, BF17776) are evidence of different occupational phases. The stratigraphical contexts identified within room B15 suggest that at some point the ovens were no longer in use (and for the most part dismantled, as mentioned above) and that this space was used as a domestic midden. Room B14, located to the northeast of room B15, measures ca. 2.30 m from north to south by 2.70 m from east to west and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 1.97 m (south wall BF158). It was originally plastered in mud, traces of which are still visible. B14 is connected with B15 through a doorway (BF168; width of the opening: about 70 cm) set into the west wall. 73. The two doorways were divided by wall BF172. No architectural features were found associated with the north opening (width: ca. 90 cm), while the southern doorway (BF171; width: ca. 80 cm) had two jambs, east and west stubs, and a threshold. 74. Upper elevation: 113.280 m. 75. Upper elevation: 112.910 m. 76. Upper elevation: 112.680 m.

Excavations Outside the Church Complex

Pl. 4.34: View of western half of room B15 (to S).

Pl. 4.35: Partial view of wall BF128 and substructures of ovens in room B15 (to SW).

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It consisted of a short north–south screen, abutting a protruding stub, to the north and a stub abutting wall BF158 to the south (located on top of relic wall BF212).77 Along the east side of the threshold, a mud-brick step was found below the higher of the two mud floor levels identified during the excavation.78 The narrow space between the north end of the doorway and a stub protruding from the west end of the north wall was filled with mud-bricks that were found in highly deteriorated condition. Archaeological investigation revealed that the oven originally located against the north wall of B15 also lay against the outer face of the west side of B14. The east wall is the oldest feature of the room, as the north and south walls, which supported an east–west oriented vault,79 abut it. In fact, the east boundary consists of two separate walls (BF167 to the north and BF169 to the south). The latter bears scanty remains of a vault (BF173) that was no longer in situ when B14 was built. The vaulted roof of room B14 seems to have collapsed, or to have been intentionally dismantled, soon after the complete abandonment of the room, as no traces of it were found inside. An arched niche is built within the south wall of the room, about 60 cm from its west end. It is 44 cm wide, 44 cm high, and 40 cm deep and has a semicircular band on top, recessed by ca. 4 cm. No traces of white gypsum plaster were found inside or around the niche, whose bottom part is heavily damaged and was likely the object of alterations already in antiquity. Another rectangular opening, ca. 80 cm wide and 70 cm high, was once set into the north wall of the room toward its eastern end, four courses above the latest floor level. At some point in antiquity, it lost its purpose and was completely bricked up (BF165). Room B14 possibly served, at least when it was roofed, as a storage facility for kitchen B15, before it was used, as mentioned above, as a domestic midden in its latest phase. stratigraphy (Pls. 4.37–38) The uppermost unit (DSU84)80 removed from both rooms B14 and B1581 consisted of windblown sand mixed with mud dust, a limited amount of mud-brick debris, lime spots, small pebbles, and potsherds. This layer rested, in the southeastern part of the room, above a deposit (DSU87)82 of windblown sand mixed with pebbles, mud dust, charcoal, lime spots, and potsherds (0.99 kg), and, in the western half, on an extensive wall collapse (DSU86; Pl. 4.39).83 This context likely resulted from the disintegration of the upper courses of the west and southwest walls of room B15 and also from the collapse of the doorway once opening onto room B14. DSU86 consisted of whole mud bricks, mud-brick debris, and plaster (the latter clustered largely in the northeastern part of the unit) and included organic material (wood and charcoal, bones, and date pits), and a quantity of potsherds (15.65 kg). The excavation of this 77. The doorway was found in a very poor condition and partially shifted from its original location. 78. BF161 (upper elevation: 112.920 m) is the higher floor level, slightly sloping down eastwards. BF163 (upper elevation: 112.750 m) was exposed in a test trench dug in the western half of the room, along the east side of the doorway. 79. Of which some remains are still visible on BF164 (north wall) and BF158 (south wall): these are BF166 and BF159 respectively. 80. Upper elevation: 114.790 m; lower elevation: 114.020 m (room B15). Upper elevation: 114.450 m; lower elevation: 113.170 m (room B14). 81. The unit was removed also from street B12: see section 4.3 above for upper and lower elevations. 82. Idem. 83. Upper elevation: 114.530 m; lower elevation: 113.250 m; max. thickness: 128 cm.

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Pl. 4.36: Southeast wall of room B15 (view to E).

unit revealed also a fragment of a vessel of honey-yellow glass (inv. 1018), a cylindrical bead of dark blue glass (inv. 1017), and three bronze coins, of which two (inv. 1073 and 1075) are illegible and a third (inv. 1095) is dated between 335 and 341. Underneath the collapse, in the southwestern quadrant of the room, was a refuse layer (DSU129)84 of brown sand mixed with ash, some pebbles, organic material, glass, and numerous pottery sherds (33.11 kg). The small finds that were retrieved within this unit include a bead of dark blue glass (inv. 1014); a shell (perforated and used as a bead, inv. 1036); the wooden head of a spindle (inv. 1048); two bronze wires (bent and twisted to form two interlocked rings, inv. 1051); a flat elongated object of corroded iron (possibly a small blade, inv. 1084); the globular head of a hair-pin made of bone (inv. 1021); a diagnostic fragment of a vessel of dark violet glass (inv. 1031); and an unusual piece of coroplastic representing a donkey or a horse, possibly used as a toy (inv. 1003).85 Six bronze coins were also found: three of them (inv. 1033, 1060, and 1077) were illegible; one specimen (inv. 1061) was broadly dated to the fourth century; another (inv. 1008), although incomplete, could be dated between 364 and 375; the sixth coin (inv. 1041) was tentatively identified as an imitation and dated to the late fourth–fifth century. DSU129 rested in part above the remains of substructures, visible along the western and northern walls of the room, that once hosted clay ovens. A few traces of the original pot chambers were found scattered throughout this area. Within the remains of an oven placed against the north wall, the removal of a deposit of soft brown sand (DSU134),86 with a few pebbles and 84. Upper elevation: 113.420 m; lower elevation: 113.260 m; max. thickness: 16 cm. 85. On the piece of coroplastic, see section 11.4.2 below (cat. no. 35). 86. Upper elevation: 113.250 m; lower elevation: 113.150 m; max. thickness: 10 cm.

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Pl. 4.37: Matrix of room B14.

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Pl. 4.38: Matrix of room B15.

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Pl. 4.39: View of collapse DSU86 in rooms B14-B15 (to SE).

limited organic inclusions, revealed a lower layer of dark brown/grayish ash (DSU135),87 which contained pockets of soil of different colors (dark brown soil with organic inclusions; fine, light gray ash; reddish brown clay, likely debris from the oven). DSU129 was identified also in the southeastern part of room B15, beyond the mud-brick platform and thus in an area that seems to have differed, from a functional point of view, from the rest of room B15. A test trench excavated in the northwest corner, where an opening once gave way into street B12, revealed, below the extensive wall collapse, a thin layer (DSU119)88 of brownish sand mixed with ash, charcoal, potsherds (0.043 kg), some of which were burnt, and burnt organic inclusions (Pl. 4.40).89 The removal of the layer of brown sand and ash (DSU129) showed patches of the uppermost clay floor (BF174) in the southeast sector of the room. A broken and overturned bin of clay (BF162) was found, although not in situ.90 Floor BF174 lay above thick and heterogeneous deposits. The uppermost was DSU132 (Pl. 4.41),91 which consisted of soft brown sand mixed with several inclusions, such as wood fragments, charcoal, bones, date pits, fragments of glass vessels (including two diagnostic pieces, inv. 1027 and 1205), glass slag, fragments of textile, pebbles, and numerous potsherds (51.22 kg). The excavation of this unit brought to light also a complete oval lamp, with a polished slip on its external surface (inv. 848); a segmented bead of dark blue glass (inv. 1011); and two fragmentary iron objects (possibly blades, inv. 1085 and 1087). Four bronze coins were found in DSU132: two of them (inv. 1063 and 1065) were illegible, while one specimen (inv. 1093) could be broadly assigned to the fourth century (on 87. Upper elevation 113.150 m; lower elevation: 112.870 m; max thickness: 28 cm. 88. Upper elevation: 113.680 m; lower elevation: 113.560 m; max. thickness: 8 cm. 89. The test trench measured ca. 140 cm north–south by 70 cm east–west and was excavated to the north and south of the opening between room B15 and street B12. 90. The bin (see Pl. 4.41 below) had an elongated shape with round corners and measured approximately 64 by 44 by 20 cm. 91. Upper elevation: 113.340 m; lower elevation: 113.000 m; max. thickness: 16 cm.

Excavations Outside the Church Complex

Pl. 4.40: Test trench excavated between street B12 and room B15.

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Pl. 4.41: View of DSU132 (and clay bin BF162) in room B15 (to NW).

Pl. 4.42: Aerial view of DSU127 in room B14 (to WSW).

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the basis of size and weight) and another coin (inv. 1064) was assigned to the late fourth–fifth century. Below DSU132 was a compact layer (DSU136)92 of brown sand and mud-brick debris that contained pebbles, vegetal fibers, bones, and fragmentary ceramic material (4.2 kg). The lowermost context was DSU137,93 consisting of yellowish/brown sand with some lime spots and mixed with pebbles, organic material (mostly wood, vegetal fibers, and bones), fragments of glass vessels (including a diagnostic piece, inv. 1211), glass slag, and potsherds (26.24 kg). The other finds include two tubular beads, one of dark green glass (inv. 831) and the other of dull blue glass (inv. 832), and three bronze coins: one (inv. 1096) was tentatively dated to the late fourth century; another (inv. 1097) to 348–355, and the third (inv. 1066) to 383–403. DSU 137 rested on the remains, visible in the southeastern quadrant of the room, of two earlier floor levels. The mixed nature of DSU132, 136, and 137 suggests that they were refuse layers, deposited into the room and then compacted when the uppermost floor was laid out. As mentioned above, DSU84 (the thick surface level of windblown sand removed from room B15 and street B12) covered also room B14. Within the latter, one bronze coin (inv. 1009) was found, datable between 317 and 320. This unit lay above a sub-surface deposit (DSU122)94 consisting of sand mixed with mud dust and containing organic inclusions (including wood and bones), fragments of white plaster, charcoal, several potsherds (10.08 kg), and a globular bead of green glass (inv. 835). Beneath the sub-surface, a thick refuse layer of brownish sand (DSU127)95 extended throughout the room (Pl. 4.42). It contained lenses of ash, mud-brick debris, mud dust, bones, hair, fragments of wood, iron, and bronze, and a remarkably large quantity of potsherds (92.96 kg). The small finds that were retrieved within this context include four pieces of glass vessels (bowls: inv. 1030 and 1032; a jug: inv. 1058; an unidentified closed form: inv. 1059), a complete and well-preserved oval lamp (inv. 1001), the bottom of a lamp of green glass (inv. 1210), and an inscription (ligatured AN) scratched on a body sherd of a juglet (inv. 1216). Five bronze coins were also found: one specimen (inv. 1091) was securely dated between 367 and 375; two others (inv. 1072 and 1200) were tentatively dated to the late fourth–early fifth century. The two remaining specimens (inv. 1035 and 1071) could not be dated because of their poor condition. DSU127 covered a deposit of compact brown sand and mud dust (DSU130),96 rich in organic inclusions (mostly wood and bones), glass slag, and potsherds (38.60 kg), that rested on the later of the two floors identified within the room. The excavation of this unit brought to light also two fragments of dull glass bracelets (inv. 844 and 1020) and a fragment of a lamp of green glass (inv. 1019). A test trench was dug along the original doorway into room B1497 and revealed DSU131,98 the preparation layer of the upper floor. DSU131, which consisted of sand and mud dust and included bones, other organic material, and pottery sherds (2.73 kg), rested on top of the earlier 92. Upper elevation: 113.290 m; lower elevation: 113.000 m; max. thickness: 13 cm. 93. Upper elevation: 113.160 m; lower elevation: 112.680 m; max. thickness: 48 cm. 94. Upper elevation: 114.300 m; lower elevation: 113.070 m; max. thickness: 123 cm. 95. Upper elevation: 113.270 m; lower elevation: 112.950 m; max. thickness: 32 cm. 96. Upper elevation: 113.270 m; lower elevation: 112.940 m; max. thickness: 9 cm. 97. The width of the trench was ca. 50 cm against the south wall of the room and extended to ca. 75 cm against the north wall. 98. Upper elevation: 112.940 m; lower elevation: 112.750 m; max. thickness: 9 cm.

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Pl. 4.43: Preparation layer DSU131 against the southwestern corner of room B14 (view to SW).

floor (Pl. 4.43). This lay in turn on preparation layer DSU133,99 which was made of sand and mud dust and mixed with several inclusions, among which were pebbles, lime spots, organic material, bronze fragments, and potsherds (0.73 kg). DSU133 lay directly above bedrock.

99. Upper elevation: 112.730 m; lower elevation: 112.560 m; max. thickness: 12 cm.

5 The Church Complex and Surrounding Structures

5.1. The Development of the Church Complex

The excavation of the church complex of Ἁin el-Gedida uncovered several features that predate its latest construction phase. Ample evidence was collected about the reuse of earlier walls in the construction and alteration of the church and its adjoining rooms. The most noticeable example, already mentioned in the discussion of the archaeological remains, is the north–south wall (BF68 + AF98) found below floor level in rooms B5 and A46. The wall was partially razed down to foundation level to open space for the expansion of the two rooms to the west. It was also partly incorporated within the north and south walls of room B5 and possibly within the north wall of room A46. Another feature that clearly testifies to the multi-phased construction process of the church complex is the mud-brick plug (AF76/BF66) built to seal the central doorway between rooms B5 and A46. The reasons for its construction could not be clarified beyond doubt during its archaeological investigation, but they might be related to a re-functionalization of room A46 and to the ensuing need of a higher degree of privacy and separation of room B5 from A46. These are just two examples of the architectural features that provide incontrovertible evidence for the multifaceted history of the complex and, more in general, of the area on which it developed. The data they offer are significant but cannot be used as the only source of evidence for an in-depth discussion of the complex and its architectural development. Indeed, close attention must be paid to the structural relationships existing between each wall and its neighboring ones, in the attempt to reconstruct their relative chronology. In order to achieve this, the investigation of the complex included the excavation, along the walls of each room, 187

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Pl. 5.1: Early structures in the area of the church complex.

of test trenches down to foundation level. These were an invaluable source of information and contributed, together with the more noticeable features mentioned above, to the identification of different construction phases within the area of the church complex. The results were partially presented above, included in the analysis of each room, but will be brought together and further discussed here, in order to gain a complete picture of the overall architectural development of the complex. Evidence was collected that testifies to the existence of buildings pre-dating the church and the set of interconnected rooms to the north. The walls of these structures were, as mentioned above, either razed or incorporated within the walls of the church complex. According to the available data, it was possible to identify at least three rooms in the area later occupied by rooms B5, B6, and A46 (Pl. 5.1).1 To the north was room α, whose west wall was also the west wall of room B6 (BF72). The north side is preserved only in the foundations included in the threshold of the doorway leading into room B9 and in the east end of the north wall of staircase B8 (BF91). The latter wall was bonded with the east wall of room α, incorporated as the east side of rooms B8 and B6 (BF75). This wall originally continued south and formed a corner with the north wall (east half) of 1. For the location of FSUs discussed in this section, see Pl. 3.45 (α), Pl. 3.39 (β), Pl. 3.5 (γ), and Pl. 4.2 (B10).

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room A46, which supported two different vaults springing from its north and south faces. The south wall of room α is not preserved. To the southeast of α, room β occupied the eastern half of later room A46. Its north wall was the eastern half of the north wall of A46 (AF69) and two niches were symmetrically built within its south face. The west wall of β was the north–south razed wall (AF98) identified below floor level in room A46. It was possible to ascertain that its foundation courses are bonded with the remains of an east–west wall (AF103) running below the partition dividing room B5 from A46; therefore, the latter wall originally formed the south boundary of room β. It was not possible to identify the remains of its east wall.2 To the south of room β, and sharing with it the east–west wall found at foundation level, was room γ, extending through the eastern half of the later room B5. Its west side was delimited by the north–south wall (BF68) found at foundation level under the floor of the church. Traces of its east boundary (BF65) were identified below the sanctuary along the east side of the church, supporting the screen walls and the two semi-columns to the north and south of the apse. This foundation wall is bonded with the east–west partition (BF42) forming the south boundary (east half) of room B5; the two walls are, therefore, contemporary and part of an early construction episode, with the east–west wall originally built as the south edge of room γ. The same wall is also bonded, at its west end, with a stub (BF44) that was used, when room B5 was created, to join the east and west halves of the room’s south boundary. As already mentioned above, it is likely that this stub was originally part of the razed north–south wall that formed the west edge of room γ (as well as β). Both rooms β and γ were covered with barrel-vaulted roofs, in which the vaults had an east–west orientation. Room B10, excavated to the northwest of the church complex, was built to the west of room α. The east wall of B10 (BF103) abuts the west wall of α (and later room B6) (BF72) and, in its south half, the scanty remains of another wall against which the west wall of the later room A46 was built. On the basis of architectural evidence and of the ceramic findings collected during its excavation, it is possible to argue that room B10 predates the expansion of the church complex to the west. Rooms α, β, and γ were substantially altered when the church complex was created in its full extent, involving the enlargement of rooms β and γ to the west and the addition of rooms B6–B9 to the north. The east wall of room α, bonded with the north wall of β, was partially demolished and a doorway (BF89) opened onto corridor B7.3 The latter was created through the addition of an east–west wall (BF76) parallel to the north wall of room β, which was also subject to substantial alterations in its north face at this stage. Room α was divided into two spaces, anteroom B6 and staircase B8, separated by an east– west oriented wall (BF73) that abutted both the east and west walls of room α. The south wall of room B6 (BF70) was built at this stage, abutting the north wall (west face) of β. A new barrel roof, with the vault oriented east–west, covered room B6. A doorway (AF100/BF88) was opened along the south wall (leading to later room A46); it was part of the same construction 2. Based on room β’s parallels with room γ to the south, it is likely that room β’s east wall was incorporated within feature AF71 (the east wall of room A46). 3. See Pl. 3.56.

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episode, as the threshold was bonded with the rest of the structure. Two additional doorways were set along the north boundary of anteroom B6: one (BF84), located near the east end, led to staircase B8; the other (BF86), placed against the northwest corner of the room, opened into a short vaulted passageway, which ran below the staircase and led into room B9. The construction of B9 belongs to the same phase of B6–B8, as testified to by its access only through room B6 and its southeast wall (BF115 + BF121), which was built as part of staircase B8. To the southeast of B6, rooms B5 and A46 were created by extending rooms β and γ to the west. To do so, the west wall of both spaces was razed, as well as the wall dividing the two rooms. A new east–west partition (AF72/BF58 + AF74/BF57 + AF75/BF55 + AF77/BF52) was built on top of the foundations of the earlier wall separating β from γ and two doorways were created; as already mentioned above, the larger opening, located in the middle of the wall, was bricked up at some point in antiquity (AF75/BF55). The south wall of room B6 functioned as the west section of the north wall of room A46; the south wall of room B5 was created by extending the original south wall of room γ to the west; in fact, the new section (BF45) was not built in line with the earlier wall, but slightly recessed into the room and the two sections were joined with a short diagonal partition (BF44); the latter might have incorporated a relic of the razed north– south wall that formed the west boundary of rooms β and γ. It has already been mentioned, in the discussion of corridor B11, that the reason for this irregular layout could lie in the complex rearrangement of space to the south of the church. During this process, involving the expansion of passageway B11 to the west, it was necessary to face the challenge of maintaining a sufficient width within the western addition to the corridor, which, due to its non-parallel north and south walls, substantially narrowed westwards. The existence of earlier structures to the south of the corridor’s western extension may have necessitated creating a recess within the southwest part of room B5. As said above, the west wall of the church was created by building a thin facing against an earlier north–south wall (BF47).4 The facing widened to the north, where it formed also the western boundary of the gathering hall. The west wall of rooms B5 and A46 is undoubtedly contemporary with the enlargement of the complex to the west, as the threshold of the western doorway (AF99/BF78) is bonded with it. New vaults were built on the west sectors of both the church and the gathering hall to the north, paralleling the situation in the eastern half of both rooms. Originally, the vault springing from the south wall (east half) of the church was probably supported to the north by the east– west wall once separating rooms β and γ (and later razed). The later east–west wall between the two doorways had to support not only the new vaults covering the western halves of rooms B5 and A46, but also the northwest part of the (new) vaulted roof covering the eastern half of B5. Indeed, unequivocal traces of two rather different vault springs can be noticed on the south face of that wall. Substantial alterations were also carried out at the eastern end of room γ/B5, with the razing of the east wall, except for its foundation courses, and the construction of the sanctuary. The north sector of the east wall, built to the north of the apse, continues further north and forms the east boundary of room A46 (AF71/BF127); its construction is therefore contemporary with 4. The facing itself was very difficult to recognize. It could be identified and roughly measured only by looking at the very complex situation on the tops of the walls located along the west end of rooms B5 and A46.

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the addition of the sanctuary to the church. Furthermore, the same north–south wall is bonded with the eastern sector of the wall dividing rooms B5 and A46 and is, consequently, part of the same episode as the creation of the apse. During the archaeological investigation of the complex, data were collected suggesting that the walls of rooms β and γ were originally covered with a coat of mud plaster, with only the niches framed by rectangular bands of white gypsum.5 This decorative pattern was customarily adopted in domestic architecture of Roman and Byzantine times in the Dakhla Oasis, as testified to by the examples found at several sites. After the enlargement of both rooms β and γ to the west (and the creation of B5 and A46), all walls and the vaulted roofs were completely whitewashed. Indeed, the layer of white gypsum plaster covering the walls was found to partially overlap the white frame around the niches in the north wall (south face) of room A46, which was also the north wall of β. Also the west wall of room α (and later room B6) testifies to the existence of a decorative pattern of niches framed with white gypsum bands predating the whitewash coating of the entire room. It seems likely that the alterations involving the eastern halves of rooms B5 and A46 were carried out at the same time when both spaces were enlarged to the west, as the result of an overall, well-planned project. However, no conclusive archaeological evidence was found proving this hypothesis. Neither was it possible to determine their relative chronology, that is to say, to establish if the expansion of both rooms to the west pre- or post-dates the changes in the eastern half, which involved the construction of new vaulted roofs (as they were partly supported by a wall bonded with a feature that belonged to the sanctuary). No evidence was found to associate the closing of the central doorway between the church and the gathering hall with any specific rearrangement carried out in the church complex. Unquestionably, however, the enlargement of rooms B5 and A46 to the west, with the overall whitewashing of their walls, represents a terminus post quem for the construction of the mudbrick plug. Indeed, the east and west inner faces of the doorway show partial but unambiguous traces of the same layer of white gypsum plaster, which was only later obscured by the brickedin wall. Furthermore, the sealing of the passageway certainly meant that the stepped podium, built against its east face, was no longer in use. The location of the podium itself suggests that its original function was to promote the ability of a single speaker to address people sitting in both rooms. The platform could be accessed only from the church, where the steps were placed, and, as said above, it was likely used by a celebrant to read the Scriptures and/or preach from a vantage point that allowed him to be easily seen and heard by everyone in either room. The fact that the people sitting in the gathering hall could participate, at least to some extent, in the liturgies celebrated in the church suggests the possible identification of room A46 as a hall for catechumens, who were allowed only partial participation to the Eucharist.6 When the main opening between the two rooms was bricked in and the podium was sealed off, the need for easy accessibility (apart from the small doorway to the west) and interaction was no longer extant, pointing to a re-functionalization of hall A46. It was mentioned above that a higher 5. And, at least in some cases, with also their inner sides painted in white. 6. For an introduction to the ancient sources and modern scholarship on this topic, cf, among others, Mitchell 1981; Johnson 1999 (particularly 50–60 and 116–21 with regard to Egypt) and 2006; Baldovin 2006.

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degree of separation may have led to the construction of the mud-brick plug. Certainly, the public nature of the room does not seem to have ever been abandoned, as testified to by its unaltered dimensions and by the fact that the long mastabas, built along the north, south, and east walls for a relatively large number of people, were never dismantled. The presence of a kitchen in room B6,7 immediately to the north of A46 and accessible from it through a doorway at the north wall’s west end, suggests the possible use of room A46, at least at this stage, as a hall for the eating of common meals. This interpretation is further supported by the discovery, across the street from the entrance into the church complex and fairly close to room A46, of another kitchen (B15) with several ovens, which undoubtedly served not the needs of a single family but rather those of a large group of people. Room A46 could have been used by such a community, whose nature remains unknown, as a refectory, for the consumption of the bread baked in the large kitchen and also the food prepared in room B6 and stored in pantry B9 (and above staircase B8). The use of room A46 as a refectory, rather than or in addition to liturgical purposes, might also explain the higher degree of separation needed from the church.8 Even if of a different nature, a close association of the gathering hall with the church was maintained also at this stage through the western doorway. Indeed, there are numerous examples in Egypt, mostly (but not all) coming from monastic contexts,9 of large refectories not only built in the proximity of churches, but also functionally related to them.10 An intriguing question concerns the nature of rooms β and γ before their alteration into rooms B5 and A46, i.e., if they functioned as a church before their expansion to the west and the addition of an apsidal sanctuary. In the first centuries of Christianity, the common worship and the liturgies were carried out in buildings of a domestic nature, with the basilica form being adopted in Christian architecture around the time of Constantine.11 There is evidence for the existence of such domus ecclesiae in the ancient world, with the best known example coming from Dura Europos.12 The possibility that religious ceremonies were carried out in rooms β and γ prior to their enlargement and/or the construction of the apse cannot be ruled out, but there are no available archaeological data to support it. The architectural changes and additions that led to the creation of the church complex were substantial, deeply affecting the surrounding context. Indeed, the early structures that were incorporated into the complex lay within a densely constructed environment, as pointed to by consistent archaeological evidence. It was noticed, for example, how the irregular layout of the church in its south wall was likely dependent on space limitations to the south, possibly due to the existence of earlier buildings in the area. Therefore, the construction of the church and its adjoining rooms generated profound changes in the topography of the mound, especially around the complex. The archaeological investigation to the south and east of rooms B5 and A46 shed some light on these transformations, which must have involved also the unexcavated area to the north and west of the complex. 7. Possibly not the original function of this space, which served primarily as an anteroom. 8. See Bowen 2003a: 162 for comparative evidence from the similarly laid out Small East Church at Kellis. 9. For example at the Kellia in Lower Egypt: see Grossmann 2002a: plan 108. 10. No traces of tables, which are common features in refectories at several other sites, were detected at Ἁin el-Gedida. 11. Krautheimer 1986: 43. 12. MacDonald 1986: 45–68; Bowen 2003a: 162–64.

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The floor identified in vaulted passageway B11 and the lower of the two levels (BF153) found in courtyard B13 (to the southeast of the church) seem to predate the construction of the church complex; indeed, they abut only the east half of room B5’s south wall, which was also the original south wall of room γ. Of the three floor levels found in street B12, running north–south to the east of the complex, the lowest (BF135) seems to be contemporary with the alterations carried out in the eastern halves of rooms B5 and A46. The two higher floors (BF134 and BF143) are to be associated, instead, with the buildings to the east of B12, in particular rooms B14–B15. The south segment (BF131) of B12’s east boundary predates the construction of the central partition (BF130 + BF128) of the same boundary. Indeed, BF130 abuts BF131 at the latter’s north end and is, in turn, abutted by BF128 (Pl. 4.16). BF130 + BF128 are clearly shifted westwards compared to the street’s southeast and northeast walls (BF131 and BF129 respectively), which are instead aligned. The central partition was built to enclose the area of the ovens in room B15, which was partly built within the original north–south street B12. When this occurred, the route was modified with the creation of a slight turn eastwards, between the southwest corner of room B15 to the east and the church’s apse to the west. The substantial alterations that affected street B12, inside which both the apse and part of room B15 were built, caused the street to narrow down considerably to the east of the church. Indeed, the visible signs of weathering in the northeast corner of the apse’s outer wall, eight courses above ground level, are likely due to the passage and turning of carts and animals, for which the passage at that point might have been particularly difficult. The west and south (west end) walls of room B15 (BF128 and BF130 respectively) postdate the addition of the apse to room B5.13 Indeed, the foundation trenches of the two walls cut through a floor of street B12 in phase with the apse. When room B15 was built, another smaller space was added to the northeast, i.e., B14; as mentioned above, it once opened onto the former through a small doorway (now collapsed) and possibly served as a small storage room. As mentioned above, room B15 once hosted ovens in its western half, which protruded into street B12 and gave access to it through a narrow opening set in the northwest corner. An intriguing fact is that the passage is precisely located across the street from the entrance into corridor B7 (and the church complex). One could suppose that room B15 (a bakery serving the needs of a large group of people) was built in relation to the church complex, particularly the anteroom/kitchen (B6) and the large gathering hall (A46). This is a fascinating possibility, supported, among other things, by the established relative chronology, but incontrovertible evidence is lacking. The two higher floor levels of street B12 postdate the establishment of the small industrial installation in room B15, as they abut its western wall. In fact, the middle floor was laid out against the foundation courses of this wall and seems to be in phase with it. On top of the same level, substantial lenses of ash were found, particularly in the central part of the street and against the corner between the east wall of room A46 and the north wall of the apse; these units are likely to be correlated with the activities carried out in room B15 when the ovens were still in use. The highest floor of street B12 partially extended into room B15 through the narrow passageway located in the northwest corner of this room. Quite significantly, the floor obscured 13. For a discussion of rooms B14–B15, see section 4.5 above.

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Pl. 5.2: Main (red) and secondary (green) axes of movement within the church complex.

a stone with a socket placed on the ground at the west end of the north wall of B15. The socket likely held one of the hinges of a doorway once closing the passageway and blocked on the opposite side by a mud-brick jamb.14 The analysis of the archaeological data suggests that when the latest floor of street B12 was laid out and extended into room B15, the passageway between the two spaces was no longer closed off. Indeed, no evidence for the placement of other doors was found. At a broader level, the changes that occurred in the northwest corner of B15 may be put in relation to the partial abandonment of the room, which took place in its latest phase. Indeed, the oven chambers were almost completely dismantled, leaving only traces of their mud-brick substructures, and room B14 was turned into a refuse dump. Substantial evidence points to the fact that the small industrial area including rooms B14 and B15 went out of use well before it was eclipsed under extensive wall collapses.

14. Whose remains were identified against the north end of the west wall of room B15.

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5.2. Patterns of Movement Inside the Complex and Access from Outside Movement within the church complex seems to have followed two main axes, roughly perpendicular to each other (indicated as red arrows in Pl. 5.2). The first starts at the only entrance, located at the northeast end of the complex and once controlling the entire flow of people entering the building. It runs from east to west and leads from street B12, outside the building, into anteroom B6 via corridor B7, crossing the doorway between the two rooms. B6 is indeed the place with the highest degree of accessibility and where the strongest form of control and selection of access could be carried out. From there, a second axis of movement leads to the church at the south end of the complex. As said above, it is perpendicular to the former and begins at the entrance from anteroom B6 into gathering hall A46. It runs from north to south and crosses the open doorway in the southwest corner of A46, ending in room B5. This spatial arrangement was created to channel the flow of people from outside into the complex, leading them into the church, which was their most likely destination. The two axes cross four out of the seven rooms of the building, covering more than three quarters of the entire area. Furthermore, they once organized the access into the two largest and functionally most significant spaces of the complex, that is to say, rooms B5 and A46. Access to the rooms at the northwest end of the church complex was, instead, regulated by minor axes, all starting from anteroom B6 and therefore secondary to the main east–west axis crossing corridor B7. One runs perpendicular to the latter, along the east wall of the anteroom, and crosses the doorway into staircase B8. From there, the staircase follows a line perpendicular to the preceding axis, leading to the roof of the complex and, in particular, to the small-scale industrial installations on the vaulted roof of kitchen B10. A third minor axis starts at the southwest corner of room B6, where the two main axes meet near the doorway into the gathering hall. It is oriented north–south and runs below the narrow vaulted passageway below the staircase, ending in pantry B9 at the northwest edge of the complex. This axis is, in fact, in line with the north–south one that leads from anteroom B6 to the church at the south end of the building, via room A46. Indeed, these two axes form one major pathway running from the north to the south end of the church complex, crossing three boundaries and four rooms plus the vaulted passageway below room B8. Therefore, it must have held a key role within the overall spatial configuration of the complex, shaping the movement of anyone entering the building. A previous study discussed methods of spatial analysis in relation to the church complex at Ἁin el-Gedida. The goal was to shed light on the arrangement of particular configurations, by identifying ways in which human interaction can be affected by space.15 The analysis provided some useful information on the degree of privacy or permeability of any given space, and on how access could be controlled to increase or limit the chances for encounters among people 15. See Aravecchia 2009b (particularly chapter 5), which includes relevant bibliography, including, among others, Hillier and Hanson 1984. References on space syntax analysis applied to Roman architecture are Laurence 1994, especially chs. 5–8; Laurence and Wallace-Hadrill 1997, which includes a relevant essay by M. Grahame; Grahame 2000; McIntosh 2003, a Ph.D. dissertation on the Roman domus. On space syntax analysis and Christian archaeology, see Aravecchia 2001 (with a focus on Egyptian monastic cells) and Clarke 2007. Access analysis was applied to houses from Roman Egypt by R. Alston (2002; see especially chapter 3).

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inside the church and adjacent rooms. However, it could not be used to estimate, to any degree of approximation, how many persons were in the church complex at any given time. The nature of some rooms is not clear beyond doubt, and other spaces, such as room B6, held multiple functions, making the identification of the people once accessing and using these rooms even more complex. Furthermore, the information that is available on the size of the settlement or the density of its population is currently too limited to provide any significant contribution. Nonetheless, the archaeological evidence that is available for some rooms of the complex allows us to gather some data of a quantitative nature. The church and the neighboring hall to the north have walls lined with benches that were built to host a considerable number of people. Room B5 bears well-preserved evidence of a mastaba built along the south wall for a length of ca. 9.8 m, including a small sector near the southeast corner where the bench is now missing. The mastaba continues along the west wall for about 2.2 m and another bench lines part of the north wall, between the northwest entrance and the central passageway, which was later bricked in, for about 4.3 m. The overall length of the mastabas within room B5 is ca. 16.3 m, pointing to a number of about forty people who might have been seated on the benches within the church at any given time.16 To the north of B5, the gathering hall has benches built along the north wall for ca. 8.3 m and the east wall for ca. 3.9 m. The east mastaba is joined with another bench that lines the south wall of the hall for a length of about 1.9 m, giving a total length of ca. 14.1 m for the benches of room A46. Therefore, the hall was capable of seating at least thirtyfive people at the same time.17 Two features very similar to mud-brick mastabas were uncovered in anteroom B6, against the north and east wall.18 Although the circular imprints found on top of them suggest their use as platforms for jars and other ceramic vessels, it is possible that they had been built as benches before the room functioned also as a kitchen. The feature lining the north wall is, at least in its preserved part, about 2 m long, while the remains of the platform along the east wall measure ca. 1.5 m in length. All together, they might have seated, if in fact they had been in use as benches, about eight/nine people. The seating capacity of the church complex, with regard to the church and the gathering hall, that is to say, those spaces for which there is consistent archaeological evidence, was about seventy-five people, or more than eighty including the anteroom. This amount does not take into consideration those who were in charge of cooking in room B6, who would have also accessed the pantry (B9), the staircase (B8), and the vaulted roof of room B10. On the other hand, there is no substantial evidence on the identity of those who gathered and worshipped in the church complex. Therefore, it is not possible to be sure of a clear-cut distinction between the people who entered the complex just to attend a religious service and those who carried out more practical tasks. At any rate, considering not only the small-to-average size of the church and of the entire complex, but also the seemingly limited extent of the settlement, especially compared to nearby sites such as Kellis, this is a considerable number of people, testifying to the existence of a relatively large and well-established Christian community at Ἁin el-Gedida. 16. Once again, not counting the people standing. The calculation is based on an average of 40 cm per person. 17. And, undoubtedly, of hosting several more besides those who were seated. The rough parity of the numbers provided by the church (room B5) and the gathering hall (room A46) raises the question of male/female as a possible organizing principle. 18. The latter in very poor condition.

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Once again, it must be emphasized that these numbers give an approximate idea of how many people could have sat inside the church and the gathering hall (and possibly in the anteroom) at any given time, but do not provide an estimate of the maximum capacity of these two rooms. Indeed, it cannot be excluded that people, even a considerable number of them due to the relatively large size of both spaces, gathered for meetings and liturgies standing in the middle of rooms B5 and A46, while others were seated on the mastabas. Unfortunately, not only is our knowledge about the people living at Ἁin el-Gedida extremely limited, but very little is also known about the exact size and ancient topography of the settlement in which they lived. The church complex is centrally located on top of the main hill. It is surrounded by a compact layout of buildings of different shapes, sizes, and functions, and a network of streets and passageways that has been partially surveyed and excavated. The four other mounds that are part of the site, three to the south and one to the northeast of the main hill, bear archaeological evidence that is comparable, in many respects, to that of mound I. Due to its planned central setting, it seems likely that the church complex was meant to be accessed not only by the inhabitants of the main hill, but also those living on the other mounds. The mounds to the south, and possibly the one to the northeast, must have been connected by streets and/ or passageways leading to mound I and to the area of the church complex. Unfortunately, very little is known at present about the topography of mounds II-IV and nothing about the network of streets running on top of each mound and interconnecting them, to allow easy movement from one end to the other of the settlement.19 Large sand dumps, from the excavations of the 1990s, lie to the south of mound I, between the main excavated area and mounds II-IV, which were the object of survey but not excavation. Therefore, a considerable effort would be required to clear the area from the sand and properly investigate it; however, such an endeavor would be well rewarded with a deeper knowledge of the overall village layout. Concerning mound V, located a few hundred meters to the northeast of the main hill, the archaeological data are even scantier. While it is reasonable to assume, on the basis of the available evidence, that mounds II-IV belonged in antiquity to the same site as mound I, this can be hypothesized with a much lower degree of certainty with regard to mound V. Indeed, the mud-brick features that are visible above ground are very meager and do not provide any clue about the nature of the buildings of which they were once part. Therefore, it is hard to carry out any sort of comparative analysis with the evidence on the other mounds, besides the establishment of obvious similarities in construction materials and techniques. Moreover, mound V lies at a considerably greater distance from the main hill than mounds II-IV, in an area that was and still is the object of heavy disturbances in modern times. The study of the topography of Ἁin el-Gedida, and of ancient patterns of movement within it, is further limited by the lack of any data about the surrounding roads and, in general, of how access to the site from outside was shaped in the fourth century CE. No evidence is available to support the identification of the modern unpaved track as the main road leading to Ἁin elGedida in antiquity. However, it is reasonable to assume that a path must have existed roughly following the same southeast direction, connecting the village of Ἁin el-Gedida with the contemporary, and significantly larger, site of Kellis. The latter had at least three churches, one 19. Except for part of a street, running northwest–southeast, that was detected on mound II during a 2009 survey.

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Pl. 5.3: Streets and passageways surveyed on mound I.

of which was of considerable size, which were built approximately in the same time frame as the church of Ἁin el-Gedida.20 A large Christian community must therefore have existed at that site in the fourth century, with several places available for congregation, prayer, and the celebration of the Eucharist. It thus seems unlikely that Christians from Kellis would have needed to walk the (few) miles separating the two settlements to attend services at Ἁin el-Gedida with any regularity. This does not rule out the possibility that some of them could have done so, also due to the limited distance between the two sites; however, there is no evidence on this matter. 20. See section 1.2 in this volume for a discussion of the evidence for fourth-century Christianity at Kellis.

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Apart from Kellis, no other known Late Antique settlements lie in close proximity to Ἁin el-Gedida.21 The agricultural exploitation of the region, with the fields encroaching upon the archaeological remains and extending in all directions, makes any investigation of the area surrounding the site a very complex, if not impossible, task. At any rate, it cannot be excluded that the church complex was accessed also by people who did not live at Ἁin el-Gedida, but somewhere else in its vicinity.22 More information is available concerning the main hill, where surveys and excavations revealed some of the axes regulating the movement of people, animals, and things in antiquity (Pl. 5.3). The data are incomplete, due to the fact that the mound has not yet been the object of full archaeological investigation. However, what is known allows identification, even if partial, of the network of streets and passageways built around the church complex. The study of this arrangement helped shed light on how people moved on mound I and approached the complex strategically located at its center. In the north part of the hill, a street (a) runs from east to west and connects the two edges of the mound, although the eastern end is less clearly identifiable than the western and central segments. The street lines the south side of the very large rectangular building (unexcavated), which was earlier identified, on the basis of comparative evidence from other sites of the oasis, as a pigeon tower. A shorter lane (b) runs parallel to the west wall of the tower and perpendicular to the east–west oriented street. Its northern edge is connected with another street (c) running westward and perpendicular to the former. To the east of the pigeon-house is a north–south oriented street (d) that in its southern part crosses the east end of another road (e), running from northwest to southeast and partially investigated as space B16. The latter is parallel to the vaulted passageway (g) largely excavated as space B11 and lining the south side of the church (room B5). It is not clear if the passageway once continued further east as an open-air street, connecting the west and the east edges of the hill like street (a), although with a slightly different orientation. B16/e and B11/g are joined through a north–south oriented street (f) that is, in fact, space B12 running to the east of the church complex and leading to its entrance. The east end of vaulted passageway B11/g is connected with a street (i) partially investigated by the SCA in the 1990s. It runs perpendicular to B11/g in a southward direction and joins the area of the church complex with the southern end of the mound. Another narrow passageway (h), also excavated by the Egyptian mission and newly surveyed in 2006 (then named A8), runs north–south in the southwest part of mound I and connects the large kitchen found there (rooms A6–A7) with vaulted passageway B11/g and, through street B12/f, with the church complex. The available archaeological evidence allows us to identify a major axis crossing mound I from north to south, consisting of streets (d), (f), and (i), which are in fact segments, although slightly shifted from each other, of the same north–south oriented street. This axis is matched by another street running from east to west and crossing the former near the southeast corner of the pigeon-house, located in the north half of the hill. All other paths surveyed or excavated on mound I, that is to say, (b), (c), (e), (g), and (h), are connected, directly or indirectly, with 21. Some uninvestigated ruins were detected to the south of Ἁin el-Gedida, toward the main modern road leading to Mut, the oasis capital (D.O.P. survey number: 31/405-N3-2). 22. However, as mentioned above, there is no evidence pointing to the existence and precise location of ancient roads or tracks that once led to mound I from outside the settlement.

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the main north–south or east–west axes. They once channeled the flow of people in and from all edges to the mound and through its dense topographical layout. The plan of mound I shows a somewhat different orientation of buildings, streets, and passageways in the south area of the hill from that exhibited in the central and northern parts. Indeed, the horizontal (i.e., east–west) axes in the south are shifted more to the southeast than the streets further north, likely testifying to the different phases of architectural development that occurred on the main hill in antiquity. Nonetheless, all streets identified there appear as part of a carefully designed and unified network, whose spatial focus is on the center of mound I and, more specifically, on the area of the church complex. The overall spatial arrangement of mound I and in particular of its streets, passageways, and alleys must have been quite effective, although not necessarily created for that purpose, in bringing people from all corners of the mound—and outside it—toward the center of the hill and, quite significantly, in channeling their flow into the area of the church complex. Once again, the archaeological evidence for mound I is incomplete and does not allow categorical conclusions. However, what is known— and it is not a little—undoubtedly points to the spatial centrality of the ecclesiastical complex, which, although built in a densely constructed environment, was granted a rather high degree of accessibility by an efficient network of streets.

5.3. Ἁin el-Gedida and Early Christian Architecture in Egypt The current resurgence of interest in the study of Egyptian Christianity has generated a process of intensive investigation of Egyptian churches and monasteries, which offer a significant contribution to the study of Christian architecture in Late Antiquity. No substantial information has been retrieved thus far on pre-Constantinian churches in Egypt. However, early fourthcentury Christianity is becoming much better known thanks to the data provided by the growing archaeological evidence. In particular, the investigations carried out in the Dakhla Oasis have brought to light a wealth of data about Early Christian architecture.23 Fourth-century churches excavated at Kellis, Ἁin el-Gedida, and other sites witness to the early circulation of architectural forms and types, such as the basilica, not only in the more accessible and populated regions of the Delta and the Nile Valley, but also in the more remote areas of the Western Desert.

5.3.1. Small East Church at Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab Within the Dakhla Oasis, the Small East Church at Kellis stands out as the closest typological parallel to the church complex of Ἁin el-Gedida, in particular the set of rooms consisting of the church (B5) and the gathering hall (A46). The Small East Church was partially cleared in 1981-82, with the investigation focusing especially on the area of the sanctuary.24 Gillian Bowen conducted extensive excavations of the church in 2000 and published the building in 2003 (Pl. 5.4).25 23. On early Christianity in Dakhla, see section 1.2 of this volume. 24. Mills 1982: 99–100; Knudstad and Frey 1999: 205. 25. See Bowen 2003a.

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Pl. 5.4: Plan of the Small East Church at Kellis (after Bowen 2003a: 154).

The Small East Church of Kellis and the church of Ἁin el-Gedida have similar dimensions; they share the same length (ca. 9.5 m) from east to west, but the Small East Church is two meters wider (ca. 10.5 m) than rooms B5 and A46 at Ἁin el-Gedida. Almost identical is the layout of the two churches, with a large rectangular space to the north opening to the south into an apsidal room. Both buildings were built using mud bricks, which were the main construction material in the oasis. All walls were plastered in mud and then covered with a coating of white gypsum. Consistent traces of polychrome painted decoration were found inside the apse of the Small East Church, including two columns on the back wall and panels with geometric forms and wavy lines. An engaged semi-column was also built within the wall of the apse, a little off the main axis of the building. The church of Ἁin el-Gedida is empty of any painted ornamentation, with the exception of scanty fragments of a fresco identified above the niche in the north wall.26 26. Some graffiti were identified in both churches but do not seem to have been part of any original decorative program.

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At Ἁin el-Gedida, both room B5 and room A46 were once covered by a barrel-vaulted roof. At Kellis, evidence for a barrel-vaulted ceiling was found only for the meeting hall to the north (room 2), while room 1 had, at least before its conversion into a church, a flat roof.27 The Small East Church had two windows letting light in, one set in the west wall of the meeting hall, high above floor level, and the other placed at the north end of room 1’s west wall, close to the west doorway into room 2. No traces of windows or small holes, opening onto the exterior of the complex, were found in either the church or the gathering hall at Ἁin el-Gedida. The west walls of both rooms are preserved to a considerable height, but do not carry any sign of having been pierced by windows; the same applies to their other walls.28 In the Small East Church, access into the complex was only via a doorway (ca. 1.10 m wide) located at the south end of room 2’s west wall; no door led directly into the church (room 1) from the outside. The church of Ἁin el-Gedida reflects a similar arrangement, with the entrance located at the west end of room A46’s north wall and no direct access from the exterior into room B5. Another significant parallel, in relation to the organization of space, is the existence, in both buildings, of two doorways connecting the northern hall with the nave and the sanctuary to the south, i.e., a smaller one to the west and a wider passage in the middle.29 A mud-brick podium was built against the east side of the central doorway at Ἁin el-Gedida, visible from both rooms. No such feature was found in the Small East Church. However, at Ἁin el-Gedida the central opening was bricked in at a later stage, leaving the west doorway as the only entrance into the church from the gathering hall. Room A46 at Ἁin el-Gedida has mastabas lining the north, east, and part of the south walls, while the comparable meeting hall (room 2) of Kellis does not show evidence of benches. On the other hand, mastabas coated in white gypsum are built in the Kellis church proper (room 1), to the south of room 2, running along the north, west, and, except for a small gap, south walls. Before the construction of the apse and its side rooms against the east wall of the church, the south bench turned north along the east wall for about 2.85 m; however, this sector of the mastaba was concealed following the architectural alterations that were carried out in the room. According to Bowen, room 1 might have been used, before the addition of the sanctuary, as a meeting hall. The presence of benches along the four walls of the room, undoubtedly part of the first construction episode, suggests that this space could host a large group of people gathering in it at the same time. Nevertheless, it is not clear if this room, as well as room 2, belonged, before the more substantial alterations carried on them, to a building with civic or religious functions.30 Similarly to the Small East Church, room B5 at Ἁin el-Gedida has benches built against the north, west, and south walls. Due to the heavily disturbed context of the area in front of the sanctuary, it is not possible to say if benches once lined the east wall, too. Nonetheless, the overall evidence for the architectural development of the complex suggests that the mastabas in room B5 were in phase with the apse and the overall use of this space as a church. 27. Bowen 2003a: 158. 28. It is not to be excluded, however, that openings for light and air might have been set at a very high level. 29. Although at Kellis the west doorway was built only at a later stage, when the building was converted into a church. 30. Bowen (2003a: 158) suggests that the hall was part of a complex that did not belong to a domestic context, but rather might have held a civic function. C. Hope believes (same essay, footnote 3) that the room was spatially focused on the middle of the south side. Following Hope’s observation, it is worth remarking how the addition of the sanctuary against the east wall entailed the shifting of the focal point of the room by 90°.

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The absence of mastabas in room 2 at Kellis is remarkable, considering not only its similarities with room A46 at Ἁin el-Gedida, but also its large dimensions and the function as a congregational hall associated with it.31 Another difference between rooms 2 and A46 is the absence of any niche/cupboard in the former, while several niches pierce the walls of the latter: one is set into the west half of the south wall, two within the north wall, and a fourth niche in the west wall, near the doorway into anteroom B6. Although lacking in room 2, niches are a common feature of buildings at Kellis and throughout the oasis. Indeed, the nave of the Small East Church, to the south of the meeting hall, has four cupboards built into its walls; two are set along the north wall, symmetrically placed to the sides of the central doorway, one at the center of the west wall, and a fourth at the west end of the south wall. Within the same room, two other cupboards pierce the north and south sides of the inner wall of the apse. To the north of the sanctuary, a small side room has a rectangular shelf built within the north wall. The situation at Ἁin el-Gedida is almost reversed; unlike room 1 at Kellis (but also the gathering hall, room A46, at Ἁin el-Gedida), only one niche is built inside the main nave (room B5), toward the east end of the north wall, in addition to the L-shaped pastophorion associated with the east apse. Both the church of Ἁin el-Gedida (including rooms B5 and A46) and the Small East Church at Kellis (rooms 1–2) are the result of substantial alterations that were carried out on earlier buildings, in order to convert them into Christian places of cult that conformed to certain specified requirements.32 What must be emphasized here is that there are no data allowing us to identify, in a conclusive manner, the function performed by the buildings that were involved in such transformations. With regard to Kellis, the excavator believes, as mentioned above, that both rooms 1 and 2 served as gathering halls for relatively large groups of people.33 A large doorway, set in the middle of the north wall of room 2, was completely sealed off with a mudbrick plug, which remained un-plastered. The door once opened onto a passageway oriented east–west and, through another doorway located further north, into the area of the Large East Church. In room 1, the northwest doorway was opened, which made it necessary to remove part of the north bench, and the central doorway was substantially narrowed. Also, the window set in the west wall was sealed off and the mastaba lining the south wall was extended to fill an original gap. Yet the most significant new feature was the tripartite sanctuary constructed against the east wall. A semicircular apse was built in a central location, partially cut into the wall, and its inner wall was, as mentioned above, painted with frescoes. To the north and south of the apse two small side-chambers were built.34 The floor of the sanctuary was raised above the level of the main nave and the central apse was made accessible through a set of two steps. In the south-side chamber, the raised floor allowed the preservation of the bench originally set in the southeast corner, with the remaining gap filled with debris and brought to the level of the mastaba. A domed roof covered the central apse, while the two side rooms had barrel-vault ceilings. A tripartite architectural frame, consisting of three arches and two engaged pilasters, one at each side of the apse, outlined the entire sanctuary. 31. Idem: 162. 32. The archaeological evidence available for Ἁin el-Gedida, concerning in particular the development of the church complex, was discussed in the previous chapter. 33. Idem: 158. 34. Which were, used, at least in their final stage, as storage rooms: see idem: 161.

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Few similarities and substantial differences exist between the apse of the Small East Church and that of the church of Ἁin el-Gedida. Both of them are later additions to pre-existing structures, substantially raised above floor level. Also, the focus is, in both cases, on a semicircular apse, centrally placed and framed by engaged half-pilasters (half columns in the case of Ἁin el-Gedida). However, the conch of room B5 at Ἁin el-Gedida is not flanked by two side chambers accessible from the nave, as in the Small East Church. Instead, it is directly connected with a small L-shaped pastophorion built to the south, which cannot be reached from the main nave. Another significant difference is that, while the sanctuary of the Small East Church was built within the perimeter of the original structure, the apse and the pastophorion of the church of Ἁin el-Gedida were added against the outer face of the nave’s east wall. Thus, the construction of the sanctuary did not entail a reduction of the space occupied by the nave, to the contrary of what occurred at Kellis. In general, there is no substantial evidence to argue that, in Christian architecture, the addition of an external apse represents a later development than the construction of a sanctuary within the original perimeter of an earlier structure.35 Notwithstanding the above-mentioned differences, it is undeniable that the similarities between the Small East Church of Kellis and the church of Ἁin el-Gedida are quite striking. Even the interpretation of rooms 1 and 2, proposed by Bowen in relation to the Small East Church, closely matches the analysis of the available evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida. In particular, both room 2 at Kellis and room A46 at Ἁin el-Gedida have been identified as meeting halls, used either for the consumption of meals by the community of the faithful or as rooms for catechumens, who had only partial access to the Eucharist, which was celebrated in the adjoining church.36 The numismatic evidence collected from both churches grants additional parallels. A few third-century specimens were found in the church of Ἁin el-Gedida (five) and in the Small East Church at Kellis (four), but the dating of most coins suggests that the two churches were in use in the first half of the fourth century. The chronological range provided by the numismatic analysis is supported by the ceramic evidence coming from both buildings, with the dating of the pottery from the Small East Church only slightly earlier than the span assigned to the evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida (i.e., third–fourth century vs. fourth–early fifth century). In fact, substantial differences cannot be established, with regard to forms and materials, between the ceramic evidence of the late fourth and that of the early fifth century in Dakhla. Therefore, the chronological ranges proposed for the church of Ἁin el-Gedida and the Small East Church at Kellis cannot be considered as significantly dissimilar. The Small East Church of Kellis has been interpreted by Bowen as a fitting example of domus ecclesiae, comparable to the earlier Syrian domus of Dura Europos.37 The archaeological evidence clearly points to the construction of the church as the result of substantial alterations carried out on an older building, in order to suit the needs of a Christian community. The building in its later phase shared, as emphasized by Bowen, strong similarities with the basilicatype church, such as the existence of a nave oriented to the east and the presence of a raised 35. See Hamilton 1956: 151, concerning Early Christian churches from Umm el-Jimal, in modern Jordan. The church of Ἁin el-Gedida is a fitting example of an early fourth-century building with an external apsidal sanctuary. On the excavations carried out at Umm el-Jimal, see Butler 1900 and Butler and Littmann 1905. 36. Bowen 2003a: 162. On catechumens, and their physical separation from the rest of the congregation during the liturgy, see Stalley 1999: 23–24. Cf. also p. 191, footnote 6 in this volume. 37. Bowen 2003a: 162–64.

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sanctuary defined by a semi-circular apse and side rooms. The identification of the Small East Church of Kellis as a domus ecclesiae is certainly compelling, as it pertains to the re-use and transformation of an earlier structure into the “house of the church”.38 It must be remarked that the conversion of the early building into a basilical-plan church considerably altered the layout of the former, especially in room 1, which, as just mentioned above, came to resemble a standard type of religious architecture. However, it is not known, with regard to the Small East Church, if the original structure had actually been in use as a Christian domus ecclesiae. In fact, nothing prevents the early building from having been a place of cult even before these alterations, nor compels it to have been. The issue related to the use of the term domus ecclesiae also involves the church of Ἁin el-Gedida, due to its construction history and the similarities with the Small East Church of Kellis. The former also developed into a basilica-type church from pre-existing structures, which might well, but need not, have served as a Christian place of cult before their enlargement to the west and the addition of an apse along the east side of room B5. However, as mentioned above, the available archaeological evidence is not conclusive on this issue.

5.3.2. Kharga Apart from the Small East Church at Kellis, the archaeological evidence for early fourthcentury churches in the Dakhla Oasis does not provide for close parallels with the church of Ἁin el-Gedida or the whole architectural complex. However, it testifies, quite significantly, to the existence of thriving Christian communities in this relatively isolated region of the Western Desert since an early time. A wealth of information on Early Christian buildings, both from monastic and nonmonastic contexts, comes from the nearby Kharga Oasis, which shares several historical ties with Dakhla.39 Churches and church complexes, dated to the fourth and fifth century CE, were excavated or recorded at numerous sites in Kharga, although not all of them have been extensively published.40 The extensive remains of the town of Douch (ancient Kysis), located in the south half of the oasis and investigated by a French mission (IFAO), include archaeological evidence of Christian places of cult.41 Alterations were carried out in antiquity within the temple of Isis and Serapis, which may have been connected with its possible reuse as a church. To the east of the temple, another church was found, which seems to have been built within an earlier set of buildings (Pl. 5.5). The church, whose religious function was lost during its last occupational phase (when it was turned into a series of stables), is dated to the fourth century, a chronological framework shared by the church of Ἁin el-Gedida. The building, which is divided into a nave and two side aisles by two rows of columns, has a return aisle along the northwest side and ends, to the southeast, in a long, rectangular presbyterium.42 A small doorway by the northwest corner provided direct access into the church, which was originally connected to a set of 38. Idem: 158; 161–62. 39. For an introduction to the evidence of Early Christian churches in Kharga, see Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 251–61. 40. The publication, by Nicholas Warner, of substantial new information on Early Christianity in North Kharga, including previously unpublished churches, is forthcoming. 41. Bonnet 2004: 75–86; Reddé 2004: 56–68. 42. Bonnet 2004: 82–83.

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Pl. 5.5: Plan of the church of Douch (after Reddé 2004: 83).

additional rooms to the northeast and southwest.43 The overall layout of the church of Douch does not share significant similarities with the ecclesiastical complex of Ἁin el-Gedida. It is noteworthy, however, that both churches, which are roughly contemporary, were built not as isolated structures, but as part of larger, multifunctional complexes, although with their rooms differently arranged. Furthermore, there is substantial evidence, in both instances, pointing to the re-use of earlier structures, possibly of a domestic nature, for the construction of the church and the set of interconnected rooms. The fourth-century church of Shams ed-Din, located a few kilometers from Douch and considered one of the earliest known examples of Christian architecture in Egypt, is typologically closer to the church of Douch than to the one at Ἁin el-Gedida (Pl. 5.6).44 Indeed, it shows the elongated rectangular sanctuary and the partition into central nave and side aisle, plus the west return aisle that is a typical feature of several Upper Egyptian churches.45 Like the ecclesiastical 43. A second doorway led into the church via a small anteroom and a larger hall to the southwest. 44. Wagner 1987: 182–83; Bonnet 2004: 84 (fig. 69). 45. Grossmann 2007: 107.

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Pl. 5.6: Plan of the church of Shams ed-Din (after Bonnet 2004: 84).

complex from Douch and that of Ἁin el-Gedida, the church of Shams ed-Din opens onto a set of interconnected rooms.46 Several features of this complex are also attested to at Ἁin el-Gedida, including mastabas along the north, west, and south walls of the church and a nearby staircase leading to an upper floor or a roof. Also, a mud-brick stepped podium can still be noticed in both churches, although the one of Shams ed-Din, located against the northeast column, did not have to satisfy the same needs for visibility from two different rooms as at Ἁin el-Gedida. Further remains of fourth–fifth century churches and ecclesiastical complexes have been identified in the Kharga Oasis. Particularly impressive are the monastic settlements of Deir Mustafa Kashef and of Ἁin Zaaf, located in the proximity of the necropolis of Bagawat.47 The complex at Deir Mustafa Kashef, located on the side of a hill, consists of a church and several rooms arranged on different floors and surrounded by high and thick walls. In the plain to the west is another complex of rooms (sometimes referred to as Deir Bagawat), of which one was identified as a chapel, adjacent to which is a large waiting room for visitors. At Ἁin Zaaf, one kilometer to the north of Deir Mustafa Kashef, is another possibly monastic complex, located at the foot of a hill dotted with tombs. The two complexes of Deir Mustafa Kashef and that of Ἁin Zaaf show layouts that are substantially larger and more developed than the church complex of Ἁin el-Gedida, with a host of small and large rooms, some of which are lined with mastabas 46. The rooms line the south wall of the church and follow a less-articulated arrangement than at Ἁin el-Gedida. 47. See Müller-Wiener 1963; Vivian 2008: 141; Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 253–54.

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(partly reminding one of gathering hall A46 at Ἁin el-Gedida) and all interconnected. Their construction did not occur as the result of a single episode; indeed, the archaeological evidence testifies to a multi-phased construction history for all of them.48 The remains of partition walls built inside the church of Ἁin Zaaf, originally of a basilical, tripartite plan, show that, at least in its latest occupational phase, the building was subdivided into a cluster of smaller rooms and presumably lost its original function.49

5.3.3. Beyond the Great Oasis The evidence for churches consisting of one nave without side aisles, such as room B5 at Ἁin elGedida, is not very abundant, but far from nonexistent; it spans the fourth to at least the seventh century CE. Several examples of churches with one nave attest to the fact that the church of Ἁin el-Gedida and the Small East Church at Kellis are not a type restricted to the geographical context of the Dakhla Oasis. It is important to note that most of the evidence for one-nave basilical churches is from a later date than the two examples from Dakhla; nonetheless, they are worthy of consideration, as they attest to the popularity of the type also in later centuries. Churches consisting of one nave and oriented to the east were found at the monastic site of Kellia, in Lower Egypt. One structure, built within hermitage no. 16 in the area of Qusur alIzayla, has a rectangular sanctuary connected with a side room to the south. The church is dated to the seventh century.50 Still at Qusur al-Izayla, the chapel from hermitage no. 31 consists of one nave divided into two bays and oriented to the west.51 A semicircular apse is built at the west end, while a side room was once accessible through a doorway set into the east wall. Two other churches consisting of one nave were found in the area of Antinoopolis. One, dated to the sixth century, is located in the west part of the city’s ruins and shows a more developed type than the church of Ἁin el-Gedida, including a narthex along the west side and a choir near the sanctuary, which consists of a central square apse flanked by two side rooms.52 The other one-nave church (or, in fact, its fifth-century construction phase) lies at the center of the village of Deir Abu Hinnis, south of Antinoopolis.53 A semi-circular apse is placed at the east end of the building, with two elongated rectangular rooms to the north and south of it. A narthex is at the opposite (western) end of the church.54 Additional evidence comes from the presumably monastic site (earlier a Roman military fortress) of Manqabad, to the northwest of Asyut.55 A sixth-century church, located in the western part of the site, consists of one nave, with a choir and a semi-circular apse at the east end.56 Like the above-mentioned churches, it bears a basic typological resemblance to the church of Ἁin el-Gedida, although their layout is less simple, including more architectural features such as (in some cases) a narthex and a choir. 48. As reflected also at Ἁin el-Gedida. 49. A rearrangement of space, involving the loss of its original religious function, occurred also in the church of Douch/Kysis discussed above. 50. Kasser et al. 1983: 128 ff.; pl. 16; Capuani 2002: 80. 51. Kasser et al. 1983: 417; pl. 29. See also Grossmann 2002a: 265; 283; plan 117. 52. Grossmann 2002a: 101; plan 138; Capuani 2002: 177–79. 53. Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 171–72; Capuani 2002: 179. 54. Another example is the church of the Monastery of St. Antony in the Eastern desert (Grossmann 1995). 55. Grossmann 2002a: 270–71. 56. Idem: plan 145. Capuani (2002: 198) mentions three churches as consisting of one nave only.

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The seminal volume by P. Grossmann on Christian architecture in Egypt lists other examples of churches with a simple basilica plan, consisting of one nave and a semi-circular apse placed at the east end, sometimes with side rooms to the north and south of the sanctuary. Some were found in funerary contexts, such as tomb-chapel 42 from the necropolis of Oxyrhynchos and the chapel from a cemetery in Antaeopolis.57 Others are located within monastic settlements, such as construction phase I of the Lower Church at Deir Abu Fana.58 Church A at Deir elNaqlun, in the Fayyum, is divided into a nave and two side aisles by two rows of columns, with a return aisle along the west side. However, signs of an early construction phase point to a smaller and simpler layout, with a single, undivided nave and eastern apse.59 The available evidence for one-nave churches, with semi-circular or square sanctuaries, testifies to the adoption of this type since an early stage and its use beyond the fourth century. This is not to suggest that the type with a tripartite body and, especially in Upper Egypt, a western return aisle was chronologically later than the one-nave model. Examples such as the fourth-century Large East Church at Kellis prevent us from making such an assertion. Indeed, the predominant type in Early Christian architecture, in Egypt as well as other regions of the ancient world, was the basilica with a central nave and two (or four) side aisles.60 With regard to the arrangement of large rectangular halls adjoining churches (as shown at Ἁin el-Gedida and Kellis), there are several other examples, within Egypt and especially in monastic contexts, that reflect a similar spatial organization, even though they do not share other close similarities with the complex of Ἁin el-Gedida. Two of the best known examples are the church complexes of the White and Red monasteries at Sohag, in Middle Egypt.61 Their dimensions are considerably wider and their layouts more elaborate when compared with the church of Ἁin el-Gedida, but they all include a rectangular hall, extending along almost the entire length of each church and interconnected with it.62 Other examples of large rectangular halls that are interconnected with churches can be seen at the Monastery of Saint Antony near the Red Sea and in several monastic settlements of the Wadi Natrun, in Lower Egypt: among them are the monasteries of Deir Anba Bishoi, Deir el-Suryani, and Deir el-Baramus.63 At these sites, the rectangular halls, identified as refectories, were built much later than the fourth–fifth century, but, according to C. C. Walters, since they are part of the oldest nucleus of each monastery, it is not unreasonable to assume that they are adaptations of earlier structures, similar in shape and function.64 If this is true, the gathering hall (room A46) at Ἁin el-Gedida, directly opening onto the church (room B5), would represent a significant fourth-century precedent of this church– rectangular hall arrangement. This is, however, far from being indisputable evidence for the 57. Grossmann 2002a: 317; 338; plans 61–62. 58. Idem: 62: plan 134. 59. Idem: plan 131. On the excavations at Deir el-Naqlun, see Godlewski 2005. 60. Grossmann 2007: 104. 61. See Grossmann 1991d–e; 1998. 62. The hall is located along the outer face of the south wall in the churches of the White and Red monasteries, while it opens onto the church of Ἁin el-Gedida from the north. 63. See Grossmann 1995 (St. Antony); Grossmann 1991c (Deir Anba Bishoi); Innemée 1999 and Grossmann 1991a (Deir el-Baramus); Monneret deVillard 1928 and Grossmann 1991b (Deir el-Suryani). 64. Although the evidence for this is not conclusive: see Walters 1974: 39; 99–102.

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identification of the church complex of Ἁin el-Gedida (and of the settlement in which it is nestled) as monastic either in origin or in character.65 A smaller church, whose layout is very similar to that of rooms B5 and A46 at Ἁin el-Gedida, was found in recent years at the site of Bakchias, in the Fayyum.66 It is built of mud bricks and consists of a one-nave church oriented to the east, ending with an inner apse.67 To the north is another rectangular space, possibly of the same length. According to its excavators, it seems to have once opened onto the church, although the available evidence is not conclusive.68 Further investigation in the area surrounding the church might reveal if the two spaces formed an isolated building or were part of a larger complex, as at Ἁin el-Gedida.

65. According to Walters, evidence for monastic architecture in general points to a progressive loss of importance, in monastic environments, of the habit of communal eating, leading to less strict arrangements: see idem: 102. On Egypt’s monastic landscape during Late Antiquity, cf. Brooks Hedstrom 2017. 66. The church was excavated by a team of the University of Bologna directed by Sergio Pernigotti: see Buzi 2007a–b and Tassinari and Buzi 2007. On Christian Bakchias, see Buzi 2014. 67. Not built against the outer face of the east wall, as at Ἁin el-Gedida. 68. Tassinari and Buzi 2007: 38–39.

6 The West Complex on Mound I In 2008, a large complex of eight rooms was uncovered along the western edge of mound I, only a few meters away from the cultivated fields (Pls. 6.1–3). The complex measures 18.50 m north– south by 7.10 m east–west and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 2.19 m (along the east wall). The north and west parts of the complex were subject to a severe process of erosion and destruction; indeed, all mud-brick features are preserved only to a very low height above gebel or are completely missing, as in the northwest corner. The rooms of the complex are built along a main axis running north–south and were originally accessed from the south (room B18). This space opens onto a side room to the west (B17) and onto a large courtyard to the north (B19), which hosts several industrial installations. Episodes of extensive vault collapse suggest that at least the area of the courtyard was once barrel-vaulted. A small room (B24) is located against the southwestern corner of B19; the latter opens, through a doorway centrally placed along its northern boundary, onto a set of two interconnected rooms (B20–B21). These are flanked by two rectangular rooms, symmetrically built in the northwest and northeast corners of the complex (B22–B23). Considerable evidence was gathered that proves that the complex went through at least two construction phases. As will be discussed more extensively at the end of this chapter, the alterations that were carried out on the original structure substantially affected its internal layout, revealing the profound functional changes that the complex underwent. A discussion of the features, stratigraphy, and finds associated with the rooms of the west complex follows below.

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Pl. 6.1: Complex of rooms along the west edge of mound I before excavation.

6.1. Room B17 Features B17 is a rectangular room located in the southwestern part of the complex (Pls. 6.2; 6.4–6). It measures 3.73 m north–south by 1.76 m east–west and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 1.04 m (east wall BF206). The west wall of the room is part of the same wall (BF199) that formed the western boundary of the complex in its oldest stage. The north side of B17 is in common with room B24 and consists of a wall (BF203) built on top of a mud-brick platform (partially exposed in room B24) and of the southern end of wall BF200. The south wall of B17 (BF207) abuts west wall BF199 and is, in turn, abutted by east wall BF206. The latter also abuts the features, mentioned above, forming the north boundary of this space. No evidence was gathered on what kind of roof (if any) covered the room, which was accessible through a doorway (BF205; width: 72 cm) located at the northern end of the east wall. A mud-brick threshold is set between jambs, which are preserved to a height of about 40 cm. The threshold, which stands 19 cm above four foundation courses that are a continuation of the east wall, is in phase with both the floor of room B17 (BF186)1 and the uppermost (BF184) of the two floors of room B18 to the east. Thus, it seems that the lower floor level of room B18 (BF216) had been laid out when the east wall of room B17, and the doorway between B17 and B18, had not yet been built. The archaeological investigation of room B17 revealed that the north and south walls of this space, as well as its stratigraphical deposits, were subject to substantial shifting, as pointed to by large cracks running north–south. 1. Upper elevation: 112.710 m.

The West Complex on Mound I

Pl. 6.2: Plan of the west complex.

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Pl. 6.3: Aerial view of rooms B17–B24 (to N).

Pl. 6.4: Aerial view of rooms B17–B18.

The West Complex on Mound I

Pl. 6.5: View (to NE) of room B17 (in rhe foreground).

Pl. 6.6: Plan of room B17.

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stratigraphy (Pl. 6.7) The fill of room B17 consisted of a surface layer of wind-blown sand (DSU138),2 which covered also the other rooms of the complex. The inclusions consisted mostly of pebbles and potsherds (10.04 kg from the surface of rooms B17–B24). Underneath DSU138 was a sub-surface level (DSU150)3 extending throughout room B17 and consisting of soft yellow sand, mud-brick debris, a few ceramic fragments (1.73 kg), pebbles, and rare organic inclusions (mostly wood). DSU150 rested on top of a thick deposit of soft brown sand (DSU152),4 which covered the entire area of room B17. This deposit was mixed with potsherds (1.79 kg), pebbles, mud-brick debris, and rare organic inclusions, and contained a large fragment of limestone. Three bronze coins were found during the excavation of this unit; two (inv. 1034 and 1078) were badly corroded and unreadable, while a third one (inv. 1203) was a votive coin of Constans dated to 347–348. DSU152 covered another deposit (DSU160)5 of yellowish/brown sand with lenses of mud dust, extending along the east wall and in the central and southern parts of room B17. It also filled a cavity below the eastern wall of the room. DSU160 was mixed with potsherds (5.54 kg), mud-brick debris, a small piece of limestone, and organic material, such as vegetal fibers, wood fragments, and animal bones. A globular ribbed bead of blue dull glass (inv. 1023) was also found while excavating this unit, which lay, as well as sub-surface (DSU150) and DSU152, on the scanty remains (visible in the north half of the room) of a floor made of packed silt and mixed with lime spots and small potsherds. DSU160 seems to have filled part of the room shortly after the formation of the north–south oriented cracks that are visible, within the stratigraphy of B17 and in its north and south walls, down to bedrock. DSU160 lay on top of what appeared to be two structural layers. One was DSU164,6 a levelling layer of compacted grayish/brown soil containing a few pottery sherds and pebbles.7 It was found in the western half of the room and seems to have been an upper preparation layer for the room’s floor. Underneath DSU164 (and partly under DSU160) was a second leveling layer of packed brown soil, mixed with a large amount of potsherds, pebbles, and rare organic material (DSU162).8 This deposit, which had been laid directly above the geological surface, was visible, in relatively good condition, in the central part of the room, while it was completely absent in the southern part of the room (where the geological layer appeared to be at a higher elevation).9 A small hole near the northeast corner of the room was filled with yellowish/brown sand (DSU159),10 which contained very few ceramic fragments, pebbles, and rare mud-brick debris. The unit, which was rather similar to DSU152, lay under sub-surface and above bedrock. In proximity to the doorway, a small wall collapse (DSU151)11 was found immediately below the 2. Upper elevation: 114.090 m; lower elevation: 112.980 m; max. thickness: 22 cm. 3. Upper elevation: 112.890 m; lower elevation: 112.580 m; max. thickness: 22 cm. 4. Upper elevation: 112.780 m; lower elevation: 112.510 m; max. thickness: 27 cm. 5. Upper elevation: 112.630 m; lower elevation: 112.150 m; max. thickness: 28 cm. 6. Upper elevation: 112.630 m; lower elevation: 112.470 m; max. thickness: 16 cm. 7. The unit was not excavated. 8. Upper elevation: 112.340 m; lower elevation: 112.250 m; max. thickness: 9 cm. 9. DSU164 was left in situ. 10. Upper elevation: 112.720 m; lower elevation: 112.240 m; max. thickness: 48 cm. 11. Upper elevation: 113.060 m; lower elevation: 112.690 m; max. thickness: 10 cm.

The West Complex on Mound I

Pl. 6.7: Matrix of room B17.

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Pl. 6.8: View of room B18 (to SE).

Pl. 6.9: Plan of room B18.

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surface and resting above DSU150. It consisted of fragmentary mud bricks and mud-brick debris and also included a roughly worked stone.

6.2. Room B18 Features To the east of B17 (and connected with it through doorway BF205) is room B18, a rectangular space measuring 3.65 m north–south by 3.21 m east–west (Pls. 6.2; 6.4; 6.8–9). Its walls are preserved to a maximum height of 2.19 m (in the northeast corner). The east boundary of this space is in fact the north–south niched wall (BF31) belonging to the earliest construction phase of the complex, thus predating the creation of room B18.12 Indeed, the north wall (BF180) abuts the crenellated feature to the east and the west wall (BF206), which is shared with room B17, was built, as seen above, at a later stage, abutting the mud-brick features forming the south boundary of room B24. The south wall of room B18 is missing.13 Patches of two clay floor levels were discovered within the room, with the uppermost (BF184)14 in phase with the floor discovered in room B17 to the west (BF186).15 As was the case for the latter space, also in room B18 no information is available on the kind of roof that once covered this space, if indeed any did. The vault bricks found near the doorway between rooms B18 and B19 may have belonged to the ceiling of the courtyard, for which there is considerably more evidence. B18 seems to have provided the only access to the whole complex of rooms B17–B24, either through a doorway set into the now-missing south wall or a staircase (BF187) placed in the southeast corner. Access from room B18 into courtyard B19 was through a large doorway (BF204; width: 1.15 m), whose remains consist of two mud-brick jambs and a limestone threshold (Pl. 6.10). The latter, which was not made of a single block but of several pieces, rested on two foundation courses of mud bricks. As seen above, another doorway, set at the north end of the west wall, connected room B18 with room B17 to the west. The staircase set against the southeast corner of the room abuts the southern end of the east wall and descends from south to north (Pls. 6.11–12). It measures ca. 120 cm north–south by 85 cm east–west and its maximum height is 70 cm. The western side of the feature shows ten courses of mud bricks uniformly laid out in English bond and without traces of plastering. Five steps, each made of two courses of mud bricks, form the staircase; they were found in rather poor condition, with only one mud brick remaining of the highest preserved step. The stairway once gave access to an unexcavated area to the south. As already pointed out, no wall was found against the south side of the staircase, and no traces of a south wall for room B18 were identified. It is not clear if the staircase was used to enter the complex from an area that was at a higher elevation or if it led to an upper floor or a roof; if this was the case, then an upper flight of stairs is missing. 12. See section 6.7 below. 13. During the excavation of room B18, a mud-brick wall was built to prevent the sand in the unexcavated area to the south from falling into the room. 14. Upper elevation: 112.750 m. 15. The lower floor (BF216; upper elevation: 112.410 m) was exposed in the northwest corner of the room, where the upper floor was missing.

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Pl. 6.10: Threshold of the doorway between rooms B18 and B19.

Pl. 6.11: Mud-brick staircase in the southeast corner of room B18.

The West Complex on Mound I

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Pl. 6.12: N–S profile (and view from above) of mud-brick staircase in room B18.

To the north of the staircase is a puzzling rectangular feature of mud brick (BF185: Pls. 6.13–14). It is located in the northeast corner of the room, abutting both the east and north walls. The structure measures 1.50 m north–south by 1.07 m east–west, and its highest point, set against the east wall, is ca. 1.20 m. It was built in phase with the room’s upper floor, which abuts its west and south sides. The platform is made of mud bricks, whose bond is largely obscured by a thick layer of mud plaster, very rich in organic material and containing lime spots and several potsherds. Part of the plaster bears traces of ash, possibly due to the presence of a thick layer of ash and charcoal deposited against the central part of the east wall (between the platform and the staircase to the south). The east and south sides of this features are higher than the others and partially enclose, together with the north wall of the room against which the platform is set, an uneven upper surface, which is open only along its west side. Two channels run east–west on top of this surface, along its north and south sides. Both are plastered with several layers of beige and pinkish plaster and seem to end where they meet the west edge of the platform. The north gutter is 80 cm long and 40 cm wide, while the south channel is 72 cm long and 20 cm wide. Between the two gutters, in the western half of the platform, is a rectangular space measuring 45 cm north–south by 22 cm east–west. To the east of it, and 16 cm above its level, is a stone slab laid horizontally and measuring 67 by 38 by 6 cm. The stone has a worked upper surface, which bears traces of circular marks that, because of a lack of space, could hardly have been created above the platform. This suggests that the stone had been reused.

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Pl. 6.13: Mud-brick platform in the northeast corner of room B18.

It is possible that the two plastered channels were used to drain ground substances (or liquid?) off from the platform, but the identification of the feature as a press of some sort lacks indisputable evidence.16 stratigraphy (Pl. 6.15) The fill of room B18 consisted of the same surface layer of windblown sand (DSU138), mixed with a few potsherds and several pebbles, that covered the entire west complex. Within B18, this layer rested on a thick sub-surface deposit of yellow sand (DSU149),17 which included a few ceramic fragments (1.38 kg), pebbles, mud-brick debris and, in the northeast part of the room, a cluster of three mud bricks. This unit contained also a limited quantity of bones, glass (one fragment), and glass slag. The only other find consists of ten fragments of leather, some of which joined together (inv. 1083). 16. No similar features could be found for comparative purposes. 17. Upper elevation: 113.300 m; lower elevation: 112.580 m; max. thickness: 59 cm.

The West Complex on Mound I

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Pl. 6.14: N–S and E–W profiles (and view from above) of mud-brick platform in room B18.

A vault collapse, consisting of fragmentary vault bricks and mud-brick debris mixed with pebbles and some pottery sherds (1.23 kg), likely used as chinking sherds, covered the area in the proximity of the doorway between rooms B18 and B19 (DSU155; Pl. 6.16).18 It sloped down from northwest to southeast, with its highest point against the doorway opening from courtyard B19 into room B24. The collapse rested on a deposit of yellow soft sand (DSU161),19 mixed with mud-brick debris, rare potsherds (0.81 kg) and some pebbles. The unit sloped from northwest, into room B19, to southeast, crossing the doorway into room B18. The sub-surface layer, the collapse in the doorway between rooms B18 and B19, and the underlying sand deposit rested on an occupational level (DSU156)20 consisting of yellowish/ brown sand. The unit, which extended throughout the room above the upper floor level, contained potsherds (4.59 kg, including five fragments of faience), pebbles, mud-brick debris, and rare organic inclusions. Two bronze coins (inv. 1074 and 1202) were brought to light during the excavation of this deposit. They could not be read or dated due to their very poor condition. In the north part of the room, where the upper floor was missing, DSU156 lay on top of a deposit of yellowish/brown sand (DSU179)21 with rare potsherds (0.46 kg) and pebbles and 18. Upper elevation: 113.390 m (in room B19); lower elevation: 112.590 m (in room B18); max. thickness: 16 cm. 19. Upper elevation: 113.230 m (in room B19); lower elevation: 112.560 m (in room B18); max. thickness: 33 cm. 20. Upper elevation: 112.800 m; lower elevation: 112.550 m; max. thickness: ca. 15 cm. 21. Upper elevation: 112.500 m; lower elevation: 112.400 m; max. thickness: 10 cm.

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Pl. 6.15: Matrix of room B18.

The West Complex on Mound I

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Pl. 6.16: View (to N) of vault collapse DSU155 protruding into room B18.

rich in organic inclusions. This unit, which rested on the remains of a lower floor, may have been part of a preparation layer for the upper floor. A deposit of ash (DSU157),22 with abundant charcoal, other organic inclusions, ceramic fragments (2.03 kg), and rare pebbles was excavated along the central part of room B18’s east wall, filling the space between the mud-brick platform to the north and the staircase to the south. It lay beneath DSU156 and on top of DSU172,23 which was removed in a small test trench excavated against the central part of the east wall, where the floor was missing.24 DSU172 was a deposit of soft brown sand resting above bedrock. It was very rich in organic inclusions (such as plant fibers, wood, and animal bones) and contained a few pottery sherds (0.22 kg) and small lenses of ash and charcoal. Above the mud-brick platform in the northeast corner of the room, a deposit (DSU158)25 of mud-brick debris, a few pottery sherds (0.11 kg), three pieces of limestone, and rare organic inclusions was excavated below sub-surface. It possibly originated from the partial disintegration of the upper courses of the platform or of the walls against which the platform itself had been built. 22. Upper elevation: 112.730 m; lower elevation: 112.580 m; max. thickness: 15 cm. 23. Upper elevation: 112.410 m; lower elevation: 112.250 m; max. thickness: 16 cm. 24. The trench measured ca. 67 cm north–south by 83 cm east–west. 25. Upper elevation: 113.520 m; lower elevation: 112.940 m; max. thickness: 15 cm.

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6.3. Room B19 Features Room B19 is the largest space of the complex (Pls. 6.2; 6.17–18). It is rectangular and measures about 9.10 m north–south by 4.75 m east–west, with walls preserved to a maximum height of 1.91 m (south end of east wall BF31). Square room B24 was built inside this courtyard, against its southwest corner. Five doorways open onto room B19. The larger one (BF204) is set in the middle of the room’s south side and was once the main access from the outside through room B18. In the southwest corner, a small door (BF202) leads from the courtyard into room B24, while three doors set along the north side of B19 connect the room with a small square space in the middle (B20) and two rectangular rooms (B22–B23) symmetrically built to the sides of the latter.26 The northern boundary of room B19 consists of the two segments forming the south wall of square room B20 (BF195), while the southern edge is defined by the south wall of room B24/ north wall of room B17 (BF203) and the north wall of room B18 (BF180). Both the east and west sides of B19 consist of inner partitions (BF210 to the east and BF200 to the west) built against earlier walls, which are considerably thicker and were once pierced by several niches. The west wall (BF199) is preserved at a lower elevation than the height at which the niches would have been set, but the east wall (BF31) still shows the lower half of seven niches (plus three in room B18), about 50 cm wide and 30 cm deep. These outer walls continue further south to form the boundaries of rooms B17 and B18 and likely belonged to the earliest construction phase of the complex. By contrast, the east and west inner walls of room B19 were built at a later stage, as part of a general partition of the space later occupied by rooms B17–B19. The discovery of collapses, consisting for the most part of vault bricks, throughout room B19 is evidence for the fact that such a large space was originally covered by a barrel-vaulted roof. The compacted mud floor (BF211),27 quite well preserved above an earlier floor level (BF222, identified in the northwest corner of the room),28 slopes down from north to south and shows considerable evidence of restorations. In particular, a large gap between the floor and the inner west wall of the room, possibly caused by the wall’s shifting toward the west, was filled with rubble, mud-brick debris and pebbles and topped by a thin layer of mud rich in organic inclusions (Pl. 6.19). Another restoration was carried out in the southern half of the room, where an area of about 75 by 60 cm was filled with rubble and covered with a layer of mud mixed with organic material. Three circular marks were detected on the floor, possibly the imprints of ceramic vessels. In the northwest corner of the room, a hearth (BF213) is set at floor level, cutting through it to bedrock and still bearing traces of firing activity (Pl. 6.20). The feature has a circular shape, with a diameter of 58 cm, and its upper edge is defined by special mud bricks with a semi-circular section, of which only two are lacking. A small pot was found 26. The doorway opening onto room B21 is completely missing. Doorway BF196 opened onto room B20 and doorway BF197 onto room B23. 27. Upper elevation: 112.870 m. 28. Upper elevation: 112.850 m.

The West Complex on Mound I

Pl. 6.17: Aerial view of room B19 (to E).

Pl. 6.18: Plan of room B19.

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Pl. 6.19: View (to N) of west walls of room B19 (the rod lies in the gap between the floor of the room and wall BF200 shifted to the west).

Pl. 6.20: Hearth BF213 in the northwest sector of room B19 (view to SE).

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Pl. 6.21: Remains of clay bin BF223 embedded in the upper floor or room B19.

set into the wall of the hearth, right below one of the missing bricks. The hearth cuts an earlier circular fireplace (BF226) located slightly to the north, whose remains were partially obscured by the upper floor of the room. In the northeast corner of room B19, traces of a roughly rectangular clay basin (BF223), built against the east wall, were detected at ground level (Pl. 6.21). The visible remains consist of the upper edge of the east wall (106 cm long) and of a segment (45 cm long) of the south boundary. It seems that the basin was filled with a preparation layer of debris and pottery when the upper floor was laid out, almost completely obliterating the feature. To the south, a large rectangular basin (BF214) is placed against the east wall of the room, at a lower level than the late floor in its northern half (Pls. 6.22–23). The feature consists of two walls, forming its north and west boundaries, and a clay floor laid on bedrock. The north wall, preserved only in its eastern half, stands to a maximum of 66 cm above the bottom of the basin and rises above the room’s floor only by a few centimeters. It is made of iron-rich mud bricks, set on end to form a uniform facing, and small pebbles. The west wall, about 35 cm high above the basin’s floor, was found in poorer condition, with only three remaining fragments. It mostly consists of clay molded on top of roughly hewn sandstone slabs, which are embedded in the floor of the basin. A large piece of a turning-wheel of baked clay,29 with an original diameter of 22 cm, was also found embedded in the floor, together with several large potsherds and a few pebbles (Pl. 6.24). Traces of thick plaster are visible on the floor and against the east wall of the room, in common with the basin. The latter is open along its southern side, apart from its southeast corner, which is bounded by the irregular mud-brick feature set against the east wall. 29. Inv. 1613.

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Pl. 6.22: Basin BF214 against the east wall of room B19 during excavation (view to SE).

Pl. 6.23: View of basin BF214 after excavation (to N).

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Pl. 6.24: Fragment of a turning-wheel embedded in the floor of room B19.

The floor of the basin forms a uniform surface with the floor of room B19 in its southern part, thus allowing easy access into the feature. A smaller but deeper stone and clay basin (BF225), of a roughly rectangular shape, was found in the southeast corner of the room (Pls. 6.25–26). It measures 202 cm north–south by 77 cm east–west and is about 70 cm deep. It consists of four walls covered with a facing of stone slabs, large pieces of pottery, and plaster and a floor of packed clay, which was once fully plastered with mud mortar. The four walls abut earlier mud-brick features along the east, south, and west (south end) sides.30 To the north, the basin is abutted by a large and irregularly shaped mud-brick structure (BF224) that lies, in very poor condition, against the inner east wall of room B19. To the south of the basin is a rectangular ledge that fills the space between the basin itself and the east segment of room B19’s south wall. The ledge, which rises ca. 65 cm above the top level of the floor’s basin, has a horizontal surface of mud brick fully plastered with mortar, in which a large fragment of a turning wheel of baked clay was embedded. The existence of stone slabs and plaster facing the walls of the basin suggests that this feature was used to store liquids, for instance water that may have been used in the process of clay kneading. A well-preserved bin of baked clay (BF221) was identified along the east wall of room B19, between the larger and the smaller basins (Pl. 6.27). It has an ovoidal shape, with a small diameter of 41 cm (north–south) and a large diameter of 53.5 cm (east–west). The depth of the bin, which is attached to the floor, is 24 cm. The excavation of its fill revealed a lump of partially worked clay, which points to the use of this feature in the context of ceramic production. Another clay storage bin (BF209), with very thick walls, was found, not in situ and in a very poor state of preservation, while excavating the deposits in the southern half of the room (Pl. 30. BF210, BF180 + BF218, and BF208 + BF217 respectively.

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Pl. 6.25: View of basin BF225 in the southeast corner of room B19 (to S).

Pl. 6.26: Walls of basin BF225.

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Pl. 6.27: Clay bin (BF221) along the east wall of room B19 (view to SE).

6.28). It has a roughly oval shape, with a maximum width of 68 cm and a height of 33 cm. It may have fallen from above the vaulted roof when this collapsed into the room. The presence of bins and large basins, one of which was plastered and fitted to contain liquids, as well as the discovery of partially worked clay and several sherds of unbaked pots, led to the preliminary identification of the complex, at least in its late occupational phase, as a small-scale industrial establishment, more specifically a workshop for the production of ceramic vessels.31 stratigraphy (Pls. 6.29–30) The stratigraphy of room B19 consisted largely of units of wall and vault collapse alternating with deposits of sand, in addition to the contexts excavated at and beneath floor level and those contained into features such as the clay basins. A thin surface layer of windblown sand (DSU138) covered the entire area of the courtyard (as well as all other rooms of the western complex). It contained several pebbles and pottery sherds and, within room B19, a few bones and wood fragments. Underneath DSU138, two large collapse units were revealed, although already partially visible above ground. One was a vault collapse (DSU146)32 and extended throughout most of room B19 (Pl. 6.31). It consisted of four clusters, joined together, of whole and fragmentary vault mud bricks and mud-brick debris and contained a few bones, rare glass slag, two fragments of glass vessels, and potsherds (34.62 kg). Three piles lay in the eastern half of the room, sloping gently from northwest to 31. For additional evidence, see sections 6.7 and 8.3.4 below. 32. Upper elevation: 113.330 m; lower elevation: 113.030 m; max. thickness: 30 cm.

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Pl. 6.28: Clay bin BF209 found (not in situ) in the southern half of room B19.

southeast, while the fourth cluster was located in the western part of the room. The removal of this context brought to light an incomplete oval lamp (inv. 1002), a bead of dark blue glass, (inv. 1012), and a terracotta figurine of a woman holding a round object, possibly a tambourine (inv. 1004).33 The second collapse unit of wall and vault mud bricks (DSU165),34 including mud-brick debris, many potsherds (36.76 kg), organic material (bones and textiles), and lenses of sand, was removed from the southeastern corner of B19. One diagnostic fragment of a green glass beaker (inv. 1068) was found in this context, as well as a complete Greek ostrakon (inv. 1007) consisting of a list of names; these recur on ostraka from the West Church of Kellis, which is dated after 350 CE.35 The lower reaches of DSU165 were found under DSU154,36 a layer of windblown sand mixed with potsherds (17.05 kg), mud-brick debris, a few pebbles, rare wood and bones, and containing a diagnostic fragment of a white glass beaker (inv. 1057). This unit extended throughout most of the courtyard, and also beneath DSU166,37 another deposit of sand mixed with mud-brick debris and containing potsherds (5.27 kg), bones, glass slag, and one fragment of a glass vessel. This unit sloped down from northeast to southwest toward the central part of the room. In turn, DSU154 lay under the more extensive collapse (DSU146) and above DSU167,38 a cluster of about twenty vault mud bricks and mud-brick debris, containing potsherds (1 kg) and glass slag, located in the southwest part of the courtyard. The latter unit 33. See section 11.4.2 below (cat. no. 36). 34. Upper elevation: 113.840 m; lower elevation: 112.780 m; max. thickness: 58 cm. 35. See chapter 10 of this volume, pp. 518–19. 36. Upper elevation: 113.260 m; lower elevation: 113.020 m; max. thickness: 20 cm. 37. Upper elevation: 113.350 m; lower elevation: 112.750 m; max. thickness: 26 cm. 38. Upper elevation: 113.340 m; lower elevation: 113.170 m; max. thickness: 17 cm.

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Pl. 6.29: Matrix of room B19.

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Pl. 6.30: Matrix of room B19-SE corner.

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Pl. 6.31: View of DSU146 and DSU165 (to NW).

Pl. 6.32: View of DSU148 (fill of pit BF181) (to SW).

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Pl. 6.33: View of vault collapse DSU168 in room B19 (to SE).

Pl. 6.34: View of vault collapse DSU173 inside basin BF214 (to SE).

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Pl. 6.35: View of collapsed wall DSU175 (to SE).

covered the above-mentioned DSU166, therefore providing indisputable evidence for the fact that collapse DSU165 was an earlier episode than the more extensive collapse DSU146.39 A roughly circular pit (BF181) was found below the surface in the southern half of the room. It cut through several units of collapse and sand and was filled by DSU148 (Pl. 6.32),40 a layer of windblown sand with a few potsherds (1.66 kg), pebbles, and rare mud-brick debris. A thin section of the large collapse DSU146 covered the area of the doorway into room B24, resting above DSU154 and a sequence of wall and/or vault collapses and sand deposits. Under DSU154 was a vault collapse (DSU155), which sloped down from northwest to southeast to fill also the area of the doorway between rooms B18 and B19 (Pl. 6.16).41 Underneath DSU155 was a deposit of windblown sand, mixed with mud-brick debris, a few potsherds (0.81 kg), and pebbles (DSU161).42 This unit rested on top of a small wall collapse (DSU163),43 located immediately to the north of the doorway onto room B18 and sloping down, from northwest to southeast, to end above its threshold. The unit, which consisted of small fragments of mud bricks, burnt bricks, and mud-brick debris and contained rare potsherds (0.57 kg) and pebbles, partially lay above DSU166, mentioned above. Beneath the latter was an episode of wall collapse (DSU169), which filled room B24 entirely and extended through the doorway into room B19.44 The removal of the extensive collapse below the surface (DSU146) revealed, in the central and northeastern parts of the courtyard, the remains of the room’s upper floor and 39. At first glance, the two collapse units had seemed to be part of the same episode. 40. Upper elevation: 113.430 m; lower elevation: 112.850 m; max. thickness: 58 cm. 41. See the section on the stratigraphy of room B18 for information about this unit. 42. Idem. 43. Upper elevation: 113.230 m; lower elevation: 112.880 m; max. thickness: 16 cm. 44. See the section on the stratigraphy of room B24 for information about this unit.

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Pl. 6.36: View of DSU193 (to SSE).

the large rectangular basin (BF214) placed against the east wall. The basin was filled with a dense sequence of vault collapses alternating with units of windblown sand. The uppermost layer, right below DSU146 (and partially under DSU166), was DSU168,45 which sloped down westwards and consisted of large fragments of vault mud bricks, mud-brick debris, and a few pottery sherds (1.31 kg) (Pl. 6.33). It partly covered a layer of light brown sand (DSU171),46 mixed with mud-brick debris, some large fragments of mud bricks, potsherds (1.32 kg), and containing one glass fragment. The removal of this deposit revealed an incomplete circular stopper of light brown clay (inv. 1052), with a pottery sherd embedded on its convex surface (almost certainly for a label), and two bronze coins (inv. 1081, dated to 364–378, and inv. 1201, dated to 383–393). Beneath DSU171 was another collapse episode (DSU173; Pl. 6.34),47 which contained fragmentary vault mud bricks clustered in small piles, mud-brick debris, numerous fragments of mortar, potsherds (3.45 kg), one glass fragment, rare glass slag, bones, and one iron fragment. The few small objects that were retrieved during the excavation of this unit consist of a bead of dark blue glass (inv. 1054) and four bronze coins. One of them (inv. 1086) was dated to 337–340, while another (inv. 1062) was broadly assigned to the fourth–early fifth century on the basis of size and weight. The third specimen (inv. 1094) was assigned to the fourth century, while the remaining coin (inv. 693) could not be dated due to its poor condition. DSU173 rested on top of a wall facing (DSU175)48 consisting of mud plaster with brick impressions, which had collapsed into the basin, possibly from a feature abutting the east wall of the room (and part of the basin itself) (Pl. 6.35). The removal of the collapsed facing, which was made of mud plaster 45. Upper elevation: 113.000 m; lower elevation: 112.710 m; max. thickness: 29 cm. 46. Upper elevation: 112.960 m; lower elevation: 112.720 m; max. thickness: 24 cm. 47. Upper elevation: 112.920 m; lower elevation: 112.620 m; max. thickness: 30 cm. 48. Upper elevation: 112.790 m; lower elevation: 112.670 m; max. thickness: 6 cm.

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and still bore the impressions of bricks, revealed a layer of soft brown sand (DSU176),49 mixed with mud-brick debris, fragmentary mud bricks, and a few potsherds (0.07 kg), resting directly above the floor of the basin. In the southeast corner of the courtyard, a sequence of sand units and wall and vault collapses, possibly associated with the partial destruction of the inner and outer east walls, filled the deep basin dug into the ground (BF225). Right below DSU165 was DSU184,50 a wall and vault collapse below the surface, consisting of two clusters of wall mud bricks, mud-brick debris, pottery sherds (1.97 kg), and very few bones. DSU184, which originated from the partial collapse of the outer east wall, partly lay above another collapse (DSU185),51 this time from the inner east wall. The unit, which rested also under DSU165, included whole and fragmentary bricks, mud-brick debris, and some pottery sherds of small and medium dimensions (0.6 kg). DSU165 lay also above a unit of light brown sand (DSU187)52 mixed with mud-brick debris, potsherds (0.92 kg), a few pebbles, and abundant organic inclusions (such as charcoal, wood, bones, and vegetal fibers). This deposit surrounded a circular patch of ash (DSU190),53 mixed with charcoal and pottery sherds (0.96 kg), that was located against the room’s inner east wall. Both units lay on top of a wall collapse (DSU189)54 that sloped from south to north and consisted of complete mud bricks, mud-brick debris, and small to medium ceramic sherds (0.82 kg). Underneath it was a deposit of light brown sand (DSU191),55 ca. 20 cm thick, that contained mud-brick debris, a few potsherds (0.78 kg), and a limited quantity of charcoal and bones. Its removal brought to light two additional units; one, located in the northwestern corner of the basin, was a context of soft olive brown sand (DSU192),56 mixed with mud-brick debris, several pebbles, a few pottery sherds (0.19 kg), and some charcoal. The second layer was a limited wall and vault collapse (DSU193)57 made of complete and fragmentary mud bricks and several small-to-medium potsherds (3.27 kg), and rare bones (Pl. 6.36). This unit, which was covered also by DSU191, lay on top of DSU196,58 a deposit of brown sand with mud-brick debris, a few pebbles, small ceramic fragments (0.93 kg), and some organic material (mostly bones and charcoal). Beneath it was a vault and wall collapse (DSU197),59 consisting of whole wall and vault bricks, mud-brick debris, a few bones, and a few pottery sherds (0.42 kg). Finally, the bottom of the basin was covered by a layer of brown sand (DSU199)60 mixed with a few ceramic sherds (0.53 kg), pebbles, fragments of mud bricks, and charcoal. Several holes were revealed and investigated within the upper floor of room B19. In the northwest corner, where the floor was missing, a layer of mud-brick debris (DSU178)61 49. Upper elevation: 112.730 m; lower elevation: 112.620 m; max. thickness: 7 cm. 50. Upper elevation: 113.420 m; lower elevation: 113.070 m; max. thickness: 21 cm. 51. Upper elevation: 113.250 m; lower elevation: 113.010 m; max. thickness: 18 cm. 52. Upper elevation: 112.950 m; lower elevation: 112.630 m; max. thickness: 5 cm. 53. Upper elevation: 112.830 m; lower elevation: 112.580 m; max. thickness: 25 cm. 54. Upper elevation: 112.970 m; lower elevation: 112.520 m; max. thickness: 28 cm. 55. Upper elevation: 112.800 m; lower elevation: 112.550 m; max. thickness: 23 cm. 56. Upper elevation: 112.550 m; lower elevation: 112.360 m; max. thickness: 5 cm. 57. Upper elevation: 112.730 m; lower elevation: 112.400 m; max. thickness: 13 cm. 58. Upper elevation: 112.480 m; lower elevation: 112.210 m; max. thickness: 13 cm. 59. Upper elevation: 112.430 m; lower elevation: 112.210 m; max. thickness: 12 cm. 60. Upper elevation: 112.310 m; lower elevation: 112.120 m; max. thickness: 6 cm. 61. Upper elevation: 113.080 m; lower elevation: 112.770 m; max. thickness: 31 cm.

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containing potsherds (0.30 kg), pebbles, abundant organic inclusions (mostly vegetal fibers) and two roughly worked fragments of limestone blocks, was removed above the remains of a lower floor. Another unit of mud-brick debris and mud dust (DSU177),62 containing several potsherds (1.16 kg) and one complete bowl with white plaster inside and red dots along the rim (inv. 1111), was cleared in the northeast corner of the courtyard below collapse DSU146, to reveal the remains of the clay basin embedded in the upper floor. The preparatory layer of this floor (DSU200),63 consisting of packed mud with several potsherds, small pebbles, and numerous fragments of charcoal, was exposed in several parts of the room. Along the northern half of the inner west wall, a unit of yellowish/brown sand was excavated below surface (DSU194).64 It contained a few potsherds (0.15 kg), pebbles, some lenses of ash, charcoal, and numerous vegetal fibers. Underneath it was a layer of yellow sand (DSU195)65 mixed with several potsherds (0.3 kg, most of which were unfired), a few pebbles, burnt mud bricks, and small quantities of wood and charcoal. It was possibly laid out intentionally, in order to fill the gap caused by the shifting of the inner and outer west walls. The clay storage bin (BF221), placed along the east side of the room, was filled by a unit (DSU186) 66 of brown sand containing two potsherds (0.01 kg), pebbles, mud-brick debris, and a lump of clay. DSU17067 was the fill of the circular hearth (BF213) set in the northwest part of room B19. It consisted of grayish/brown sand with pockets of ash, charcoal, date and olive pits, plant fibers, two almost complete vessels, a few potsherds (0.52 kg), pebbles, one small piece of iron, and rare coprolites (possibly for fuel). The remains of the earlier hearth to the north, cut by the later one, were filled by a layer of ash mixed with sand, fragments of charcoal, pebbles, a few ceramic sherds (0.13 kg), and vegetal fibers (DSU198).68 Two other units were removed below collapse DSU165, resulting from the cleaning of the upper floor level. One was DSU183,69 a context of mud-brick debris, with some potsherds (2.12 kg) and organic inclusions (such as wood fragments, charcoal, and burnt date pits), that lay in the eastern half of the room. The second unit was DSU188,70 located in the southwestern part of the room and consisting of light brown sand, mixed with potsherds (4.04 kg, some of them unfired), fragments of glass vessels, organic material (including rare wood, bones, and plant fibers), a few pebbles, and, to the east of room B24, mud-brick debris. One bead of faience with blue glaze (inv. 1028) was the only registered object found in this context. In addition to the coins gathered within the stratigraphical deposits of room B19, a bronze specimen (inv. 1045) was found embedded in the wall (F180) that divides rooms B19 from room B18 to the south. Unfortunately, it was badly corroded and could be only broadly assigned to the fourth century. 62. Upper elevation: 113.200 m; lower elevation: 112.800 m; max. thickness: 15 cm. 63. Upper elevation: 112.990 m; lower elevation: 112.510 m; not removed. 64. Upper elevation: 113.020 m; lower elevation: 112.800 m; max. thickness: 11 cm. 65. Upper elevation: 112.800 m; lower elevation: 112.680 m; max. thickness: 12 cm. 66. Upper elevation: 112.970 m; lower elevation: 112.680 m; max. thickness: 29 cm. 67. Upper elevation: 112.950 m; lower elevation: 112.720 m; max. thickness: 23 cm. 68. Upper elevation: 112.910 m; lower elevation: 112.820 m; max. thickness: 9 cm. 69. Upper elevation: 112.950 m; lower elevation: 112.600 m; max. thickness: 30 cm. 70. Upper elevation: 112.930 m; lower elevation: 112.720 m; max. thickness: 5 cm.

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6.4. Rooms B20–B21 Features Rooms B20–B21 are located at the north end of the complex, along its main axis running north– south (Pls. 6.2; 6.37–39). The two spaces seemingly belong to the earliest construction phase of the building, as no evidence was detected that points to the alteration of older features or addition of new ones, as was the case in the central and southern parts of the complex. Rooms B20–B21 are interconnected and could once be accessed only through courtyard B19. B20 is a very small rectangular room, which measures 1.73 m north–south by 1.85 m east–west. Its walls are poorly preserved to a maximum height of 0.93 m (south end of east wall BF192). The south wall (BF195) abuts the east wall, which is shared with room B21 to the north and, in turn, is bonded with the north wall of room B20 (BF191). In the middle of the east wall are the scanty remains of a gap, which may have been either a niche or a window opening onto room B23 to the east. It is set 34 cm from the room’s north wall and three courses of mud bricks from the bottom of the wall. Its width is ca. 45 cm. The west boundary of room B20 (BF194) abuts the north wall (BF191) and is abutted by the south one (BF195). Access into room B20 was through a doorway (BF196; width: 62 cm) placed in the middle of the south wall (Pl. 6.40). Remains of two jambs, covered with mud plaster, and of a mudbrick threshold are still visible. A floor (BF182)71 of compacted mud, with organic inclusions and small pottery sherds, had been laid out directly on gebel. It hid the foundations of the surrounding walls, which consist of soldier courses (two rows of headers on edge) set directly on bedrock and protruding by ca. 10 cm from each face of the walls. To the north, room B20 opens onto B21, a small space located at the north end of the complex, through a doorway (BF193) placed in the middle of the north wall (Pl. 6.41). The opening (width: 54 cm) lies along the same north–south axis of the complex, in line with the doorway opening from the large courtyard into room B20. It consists of two side jambs and a poorly preserved mud-brick threshold. Room B21 measures 1.55 m north–south by 1.83 m east–west and has walls preserved to a maximum height of 0.65 m (east end of south wall BF191).72 In the middle of the west wall (BF190) is an opening (30 to 37 cm wide), possibly unintentional, as it is too low above the foundations to be a window or a niche and unusually narrow to be a doorway (Pl. 6.42). A narrow facing (BF189), measuring 100 by 20 by 24 cm and fully plastered with mud, was built inside the room, abutting the south face of the north wall (BF188; Pl. 6.43); its precise function is unknown. The floor (BF178),73 made of compacted mud mixed with pebbles and organic particles, is better preserved than that of room B20, although it is partially missing in the western part of the room and along the east wall. No evidence is available concerning the ceiling of rooms B20–B21, or for that of side rooms B22–B23.

71. Upper elevation: 113.070 m. 72. Both the east and west walls (BF192 and BF190 respectively) abut north wall BF188. 73. Upper elevation: 113.060 m.

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Pl. 6.37: Plan of rooms B20–B23.

Pl. 6.38: Aerial view of rooms B20–B23 (to SW).

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Pl. 6.39: View of entrance from courtyard B19 into rooms B20–B21 (to N).

Pl. 6.40: View of doorway between rooms B19–B20 (to S).

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Pl. 6.41: View of doorway between rooms B20–B21 (to N).

Pl. 6.42: Remains of west wall of room B21 (view to W).

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Pl. 6.43: Mud-brick feature (BF189) against the north wall of room B21.

stratigraphy (Pls. 6.44–45) Rooms B20–B21, like B22–B23, were found in considerably poorer condition than the remaining rooms of the west complex; this was likely due to natural erosion and, in part, human activity. As mentioned above, their walls are either preserved to a rather modest height or fully lacking, as in the northwest corner of the complex. Thus, the archaeological deposits within these spaces are not only limited in their extent, but also of little to no reliability with regard to the information that one could gather from their investigation. Room B20 was covered by the same surface layer of windblown sand, containing pebbles and a few potsherds, that covered the western complex in its entirety (DSU138). Within B20, this layer rested above a wall collapse (DSU142)74 consisting of two clusters of mud bricks and mud-brick debris, one located in the northwest corner and a bigger one against the northeast corner of the room. The removal of both the surface layer and the collapse revealed an occupational level (DSU143)75 consisting of brown sand mixed with traces of mud-brick debris, ceramic sherds (6.53 kg), pebbles, and organic material (vegetal fibers, wood, and bones) (Pl. 6.46). This unit extended throughout the room on top of a mud floor and, where this was missing, on bedrock. The few objects that were found during the investigation of room B20 came all from DSU143. They consist of a badly corroded (and undatable) bronze coin (inv. 1092); a fragment of a blue glass vessel (inv. 1026); a complete circular lamp (inv. 850); and a small object of plaster representing a bunch of grapes, which was possibly used as a miniaturistic capital (inv. 1043). Several fragments of a funerary mask of painted cartonnage were gathered within the 74. Upper elevation: 113.440 m; lower elevation: 113.180 m; max. thickness: 26 cm. 75. Upper elevation: 113.310 m; lower elevation: 112.860 m; max. thickness: 45 cm.

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Pl. 6.44: Matrix of room B20.

same unit, in addition to a few fragments scattered in adjacent rooms B21 and B23 (inv. 1053).76 Because of the unreliable nature of the layer, close to the surface, and the fact that a few fragments were retrieved also in other rooms, it is not possible to establish any association between the funerary mask and the architectural context in which its remains were found. The fill of room B21 mirrored the stratigraphy recorded within adjacent room B20. The surface was covered by sand layer DSU138, from which two objects were retrieved, i.e., one bronze coin (inv. 1056), dated to 328, and a small bowl (inv. 1623). The removal of DSU138 revealed a wall collapse in the eastern half of the room (DSU139),77 sloping from northeast to 76. See section 11.4.2 below (cat. no. 45). These fragments were the object of conservation by Laurence Blondaux: see Blondaux 2008. A comparison was established with third–fourth century funerary masks found at Kellis: see Schweitzer 2002. On Egyptian funerary practices in Late Antiquity, see Dunand 2007. 77. Upper elevation: 113.470 m; lower elevation: 113.210 m; max. thickness: 26 cm.

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Pl. 6.45: Matrix of room B21.

southwest. It consisted of large fragments of mud bricks, mud-brick debris, very few potsherds (0.03 kg), and pebbles. Underneath both the surface layer and the collapse was a unit of soft yellowish/brown sand (DSU141),78 containing potsherds (3.96 kg), pebbles, and organic inclusions (mostly vegetal fibers and bones), which covered the remains of the floor and, where this was lacking, gebel (Pl. 6.47). The objects that were brought to light while removing this context include one complete oval lamp (inv. 849) of Oasis Red Slip ware, with a polished surface, and a few fragments of molded gypsum: one of the pieces is a hand clenched into a fist (inv. 1039), while four joining fragments belong to the back of a human head (inv. 1040).

78. Upper elevation: 113.390 m; lower elevation: 113.060 m; max. thickness: 33 cm.

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Pl. 6.46: View of DSU142 and DSU143 in room B20 (to NE).

Pl. 6.47: View of DSU139 and DSU141 in room B21 (to SE).

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Pl. 6.48: Remains of floor BF179 in room B22 (view to SE).

6.5. Rooms B22–B23 Features Rooms B22–B23 are two rectangular spaces oriented north–south and symmetrically placed to the west and east of rooms B20–B21 (Pls. 6.2; 6.37–38). They were found in poor condition, due to natural erosion and the shifting of the ground. Room B22 measures ca. 4.30 m north–south by 1.65 m east–west. The dimensions are approximate, as the north and west walls, as well as most of the south wall with the doorway into courtyard B19, are almost completely missing. The remaining walls are preserved to a limited degree, with a maximum height of 0.60 m at the south end of the east wall (BF190 + BF194), which is shared with rooms B20–B21. Very limited traces of a floor (BF179)79 were uncovered in the southern part of the room (Pl. 6.48). It consists of compacted gray mud, with a few organic inclusions, and lies directly above bedrock. Room B23 measures 3.54 m north–south by 1.57 m east–west; its walls are, by comparison, slightly better preserved than those of room B22, with a maximum height of 1.06 m (south end of east wall BF198). The west wall (BF192) abuts north wall BF188 and separates B23 from rooms B20–B21 (Pl. 6.49). B23’s east wall abuts, to the south, the niched east wall of the complex (BF31). A doorway (BF197), set in the middle of the room’s south side, was the only access to B23 from courtyard B19 (Pl. 6.50). It consists of two jambs and the scanty remains of what may have been a mud-brick threshold (width between the jambs: 94 cm). The east jamb is 79. Upper elevation: 113.070 m.

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Pl. 6.49: View of west wall (BF192) of room B23 (to SW).

Pl. 6.50: View of doorway connecting rooms B23 and B19 (to S).

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bonded with the long east wall of the complex (BF31),80 suggesting that room B23, along with the other spaces to the west of it, were part of the same early construction phase.81 Large patches of a floor (BF183)82 of compacted mud, with organic inclusions and lime spots, were preserved below the stratigraphical units in the north and central part of the room. stratigraphy (Pls. 6.51–52) Due to the extremely poor condition of room B22, partially preserved only in its southeastern part, the stratigraphy of its archaeological contexts was very limited to no reliability. Room B22, like the entire complex, was covered by a surface layer of windblown sand, with potsherds and many pebbles (DSU138). Underneath it, and resting directly above bedrock and the scanty remains of the floor, was DSU145,83 a sub-surface deposit of soft yellowish/brown sand, which contained rare pebbles, pottery sherds (0.18 kg), and some pockets of mud-brick debris, particularly near the southeastern corner of the room. No objects were found during the removal of the scanty fill of room B22. Within room B23, the same surface layer of windblown sand (DSU138) rested on top of a wall collapse (DSU140),84 of which three clusters were found: the biggest one was located in the middle of the room, while the other two were removed from the northwest corner and the southern part. The collapse consisted of fragmentary mud bricks, mud-brick debris, pebbles, and ceramic sherds (1.22 kg); also, it contained a large sandstone block (within the southern cluster) that bore traces of a socket hole on one flat side. Both the collapse and the surface layer rested above DSU144,85 a sub-surface deposit of soft light brown sand, mixed with some potsherds (2.91 kg), several pebbles, rare mud-brick debris, and organic inclusions (mostly vegetal fibers and bones) (Pl. 6.53). It extended throughout the room except for its northeastern corner, where the windblown sand of the surface lay directly above DSU147.86 This was an occupational context of soft light brown sand, mixed with several potsherds (18.37 kg), pebbles, abundant mud-brick debris, one limestone fragment, two small pieces of glass, and rare organic inclusions (mostly animal bones, wood fragments, and charcoal). This unit lay on the remains of the compacted mud floor and, where this was missing, on bedrock. All objects found during the excavation of room B23 came from this context above floor level. They include a fragment of black dull glass bracelet (inv. 1055); one complete Greek ostrakon (a receipt for money dated to the third century: inv. 830); and two bronze coins (inv. 1038, dated to 314–315, and inv. 1044, dated to 316). Furthermore, three complete ceramic objects were discovered within this unit, a ceramic lid (inv. 1100), a small bowl (inv. 1102), and a small globular pot (inv. 1103; Pl. 6.54), all consistent with a fourth-century dating as pointed to by the numismatic evidence. Interestingly, the three ceramic objects were retrieved within a hole underneath the foundations of the 80. The west jamb of the doorway abuts wall BF195. 81. When BF210 was built alongside BF31, it abutted the south and west sides of the doorway’s east jamb. 82. Upper elevation: 113.030 m. 83. Upper elevation: 113.270 m; lower elevation: 113.070 m; max. thickness: 20 cm. 84. Upper elevation: 113.600 m; lower elevation: 113.280 m; max. thickness: 32 cm. 85. Upper elevation: 113.440 m; lower elevation: 113.130 m; max. thickness: 31 cm. 86. Upper elevation: 113.320 m; lower elevation: 112.830 m; max. thickness: 32 cm.

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Pl. 6.51: Matrix of room B22.

room’s west wall, right below the bottom part of the opening that was interpreted as a window or a niche. Unfortunately, the hole was unsealed and filled with the same deposit of sand as the rest of the room at floor level; therefore, it is impossible to prove beyond doubt that the three objects had been intentionally placed in that hollow space.

The West Complex on Mound I

Pl. 6.52: Matrix of room B23.

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Pl. 6.53: View (to S) of wall collapse (DSU140) and sand deposit (DSU144) in room B23.

Pl. 6.54: Small globular pot found against the west wall of room B23 (inv. 1103).

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6.6. Room B24 Features Room B24 is a very small space located in the southwest corner of room B19 (Pls. 6.2; 6.55). It measures 1.07 m north–south by 1.40 m east–west, with walls preserved to a maximum height of 0.75 m (east end of south wall BF203). No evidence exists to suggest the original height of the walls and what kind of roof (if any) once covered this space. The room was built against the east side of BF200 at its southern end. BF200 is the north–south wall running along the east face of BF199, a considerably longer wall that was the original western boundary of the complex. The north and south walls of room B24 (BF201 and BF203 respectively) abut BF200 to the west; on the east, they end with short stubs oriented north–south that create a doorway (BF202) opening into the room from courtyard B19. Puzzlingly, the north wall ends with a protruding stub also at its west end, which once abutted the west wall of the room (part of BF200).87 Different floor levels were identified inside room B24. The upper floor (BF215; Pl. 6.56)88 consists of a layer of compacted clay, with several organic inclusions, small potsherds, and pebbles, while the lower one (BF220),89 was brought to light in the southern half of the room, where a test trench measuring 23 cm north–south by 53 cm east–west was excavated (Pl. 6.57).90 The lower floor is in fact a mud-brick platform covered by a layer of mud mortar. Excavations in the area of the doorway revealed the existence of two superimposed thresholds, an upper one consisting of a large brown/gray mud brick with a rough surface, which may once have been covered with mud plaster, and a lower platform (BF219,91 visible only from inside the room against its southeast corner) built of mud bricks and covered by the latest floor level. This feature seems to have been built in phase with the lower mud-brick platform and may have been used as a step to enter the room, before the upper clay floor was laid concealing the features at a lower level. The function of room B24 is unknown, although the discovery of lumps of unbaked clay on the threshold,92 together with the fact that the room is contemporary with the general rearrangement of the complex into a ceramic workshop, suggest that its use was associated with the storage of clay, which was then processed and shaped into vessels in courtyard B19.

87. The stub no longer abuts the west wall, likely due to the shifting of the latter westwards. 88. Upper elevation: 112.810 m. 89. Upper elevation: 112.530 m. 90. Upper elevation: 112.760 m; lower elevation: 112.530 m. 91. Upper elevation: 112.670 m. 92. See the section on room B24’s stratigraphy below.

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Pl. 6.55: Plan of room B24.

Pl. 6.56: View of room B24 (to W).

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Pl. 6.57: Test trench excavated in room B24 (view to W).

stratigraphy (Pl. 6.58) Room B24, like the other rooms of the western complex, was covered by a thin surface layer (DSU138) of windblown sand, which contained a few pebbles and potsherds. The unit rested on a wall collapse (DSU169)93 that extended throughout the room (Pl. 6.59). It sloped from west to east, blocking the doorway between rooms B24 and B19 and partially covering the area near the opening from room B19 onto room B18. The collapse consisted largely of mud-brick debris, complete or fragmentary mud bricks (some of them burnt), and small-to-medium ceramic sherds (1.86 kg). When the collapse was removed, a layer of soft brown sand, mixed with several organic inclusions, mud-brick debris, potsherds (1.85 kg), pebbles, and rare glass slag, was revealed (DSU174).94 This unit contained a badly corroded bronze coin (inv. 1098), dated to 364–378. DSU 174 rested directly on the uppermost of the two floor levels identified in the room or, where the upper floor was missing, on its preparation layer (DSU180).95 This consisted of soft light brown sand containing mud-brick debris, a few pebbles, rare glass slag, and a few potsherds (1.1 kg). A lens of dark gray ash, with some charcoal and wood fragments, was 93. Upper elevation: 113.280 m; lower elevation: 112.780 m; max. thickness: 20 cm. 94. Upper elevation: 113.050 m; lower elevation: 112.760 m; max. thickness: 19 cm. 95. Upper elevation: 112.760 m; lower elevation: 112.530 m; max. thickness: 23 cm.

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Pl. 6.58: Matrix of room B24.

identified in proximity to the west wall of the room. A biconical bead of dark blue glass (inv. 1022) was retrieved during the excavation of this unit. In the area near the doorway, wall collapse DSU169 covered two lumps of partially worked clay (DSU181; Pl. 6.60).96 These lay on top of a thin layer of sand (DSU182)97 mixed with vegetal fibers and pottery sherds (0.03 kg) that, in turn, rested above the upper floor of the room. 96. Upper elevation: 113.040 m; lower elevation: 112.870 m; max. thickness: 17 cm. 97. Upper elevation: 112.870 m; lower elevation: 112.850 m; max. thickness: 2 cm.

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Pl. 6.59: View of collapse DSU169 between rooms B19 and B24 (to W).

Pl. 6.60: Close-up of lumps of partially worked clay found at the entrance of room B24.

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6.7. Discussion

A preliminary examination of the walls and their relative chronology points to different construction phases for the west complex of Ἁin el-Gedida (Pl. 6.61). It is highly likely that the area occupied by rooms B17–B19 and B24 was originally one large, rectangular space, opening to the north into rooms B20–B23, which also seem to belong to the earliest construction phase of the complex (Pl. 6.62). The central doorway between rooms B18 and B19 (BF204) does not seem to have been the earliest entrance to the original building. Access was likely through a doorway set into the south wall—now missing—of the later room B18, or through the staircase set against its southeast corner. The complex was originally enclosed, to the east and to the west, by two long walls (BF199 and BF31) with niches set at regular intervals. At a later stage, two additional walls (BF200 and BF210), thinner than the earlier ones and of poorer manufacture, were built against the inner faces of BF199 and BF31 in the area south of rooms B20–B23 (Pl. 6.18). Their function was to reinforce and support the earlier walls, as evidence was found of structural problems and of attempts to restore the complex in antiquity. Possibly at the same time, rooms B17, B18, B19, and B24 were created by adding new partition walls and doorways within the area of the large space. Mud-brick platform BF220 and step BF219 were built in the area occupied by room B24; wall BF203 (the western half of room B19’s southern boundary) was laid partially above them. Abutting BF203 is doorway BF204, which gives access into B19 from room B18 to the south. The threshold of the doorway is bonded, to the east, with BF180, which is the northern wall of B18 and abuts both walls BF210 and BF31. Room B17, in the southwestern part of the complex, was built by adding south wall BF207, abutting BF199 and in turn abutted by a new mud-brick partition, i.e., BF206, which is room B17’s eastern boundary and ends with a doorway (BF205) set against the northeast corner of the room (Pl. 6.6). To the east is space B18, where the rectangular mud-brick installation (BF185) is certainly part of this later construction phase, as it is built against the north wall of the room (BF180 mentioned above) (Pl. 6.9). To the north of B17, and against the southwestern corner of courtyard B19, a new small room (B24) was created by adding an east–west oriented wall (BF201, abutting BF200 to the west) as its northern boundary. The space was made accessible through a doorway (BF202) set along the east side and defined by two thick jambs. It was at this stage that industrial installations, such as two large basins for clay kneading, were built within room B19, set against the inner east wall of the complex. These alterations seem to have been carried out as part of the same episode, responding to a plan of re-functionalization of the complex that entailed a completely new spatial arrangement. With regard to the function performed by the west complex, substantial evidence was gathered pointing to its use, at least in its latest occupational phase, as a pottery workshop. Basins used for the kneading of clay were found in a relatively good state of preservation in the large courtyard of the complex. Other evidence pointing to this identification includes lumps of partially worked clay found inside a well-preserved clay bin against the east wall of courtyard B19, as well as in front of a small storage space (B24), fragments of turning wheels (one embedded in the floor of the larger basin and another set onto the edge of the southernmost basin), and several fragments of molded but unfired vessels.98 98. See sections 8.2.10 and 8.3.4 in this volume.

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Pl. 6.61: Aerial view of the west complex (to S).

No remains of kilns, where the vessels would have been fired, were found within the west complex, but they might well have existed in its vicinity. No excavations have yet been carried out to the north, south, or east of the workshop (apart from the test trench in room B4). Furthermore, the area to the west of the complex is now occupied by cultivated fields and thus not available for archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, in 2006 several magnetic anomalies were detected to the northwest and to the south of mound I, which, according to the specialist who recorded them, might be associated with remains of either ovens or kilns.99 The discovery of a building with installations for the production of pottery is undoubtedly significant. Indeed, it offers precious, and relatively rare, evidence on the processes of clay kneading and manufacture of vessels in rural Egypt during the fourth century. Ateliers for the production of pottery have been found and investigated in Egypt, dated from the Old Kingdom to the Islamic period. An increasing body of evidence is available, in particular, for the GraecoRoman and late antique periods; it is in this context that the data from the workshop at Ἁin 99. Tatyana Smekalova (personal communication, February 2006).

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Pl. 6.62: Plan of the west complex before its conversion into a ceramic workshop (later features are in lighter gray).

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el-Gedida, with its well-preserved installations, partially worked clay, and unfired pottery, can contribute considerably to the study of ceramic production in late antique Egypt.100 Nevertheless, the available evidence points toward the identification of the complex in its earlier occupational phase as a public building of considerable relevance. More specifically, the original layout of the building, which did not include the partition walls inside the courtyard (nor most of the installations found in rooms B18–B19), resembles the plan of a small-scale temple. The large rectangular space in the central and southern parts of the building (occupied by rooms B17–B19 and B24) may have been the temple’s main courtyard. In turn, this opened to the north onto a sequence of two square spaces (B20–B21), with two rectangular rooms (B22–B23) symmetrically arranged to the west and east of B20–B21. The rather small size of the square rooms B20–B21, their location at the north end of the main axis of the complex, and the fact that the northernmost of the two was accessible only through the twin space to the south, points to their original identification as a pronaos and a naos, flanked by service rooms. The preliminary results of comparative analysis with other similar buildings from Dakhla support the identification of the west complex of Ἁin el-Gedida as a mud-brick temple.101 Within the oasis, the temples that seem to resemble more closely the plan of the west complex are those that A. J. Mills grouped as “type 1” (among the temples surveyed by the Dakhleh Oasis Project), which are characterized by an elongated linear plan.102 Particularly worthy of mention is the unpublished temple of El-Qusur, located at the east end of Dakhla and visited in 1908 by Herbert Winlock (Pls. 6.63–64).103 This structure, surveyed in the 1980s by the Dakhleh Oasis Project,104 is characterized by a fairly similar layout, with a large courtyard opening, through its short west side, onto a set of three small interconnected rooms (instead of the two at Ἁin el-Gedida, which are flanked by rectangular side rooms that do not exist at El-Qusur). Quite strikingly, the temple of El-Qusur is also characterized by the same series of niches set into the long walls of its courtyard (Pl. 6.65).105 Another mud-brick temple, identified in the vicinity of El-Qusur and still unpublished, also shares considerable similarities with the temple of Ἁin elGedida, although the former lacks the row of niches set into the side walls of the courtyard.106 What is particularly significant in this context is that the possible discovery of a temple at Ἁin el-Gedida, later converted into a small industrial establishment, suggests a longer history of occupation of the site, which must have begun at a time when paganism was a very visible, if not preponderant, component of local society and temples were still being built in the oasis. If in fact there was a temple at Ἁin el-Gedida, it must obviously have been built sometime before its abandonment and then its functional conversion, which seems to be dated to the same time 100. For a study of the ceramics from the west complex, as well as other excavated areas of Ἁin el-Gedida, and their significance, see chapter 8 of this volume. See also Dixneuf 2012 and, for a recent catalogue of ancient sites of ceramic production in Egypt, Marchand 2014. 101. Although the best known temples in Dakhla are of stone, originally most pagan cultic buildings in the oasis were of mud brick: see Mills 1981: 181–82 and Mills 1983: 129–38. See also Kaper 1997: 7–9 and, more recently, Gill 2016: 101–04. Mudbrick temples are also known from Kharga: one of them, in rather good condition, is at the site of Douch (Reddé 2004: 179–84). On the stone temple of Douch, which bears evidence of an earlier phase consisting of a mud-brick temple, see idem: 104–20. 102. Eight temples from Dakhla were included in this group: see Mills 1983: 129–38. 103. Winlock 1936: 17; pls. IX–X. J. Gill (2016: 103) found evidence of a Ptolemaic phase of use in relation to the temple of El-Qusur. 104. Recorded as 31/435-M4-1: see Mills 1983: 136–38. El-Qusur is catalogued as site 65 in Gill 2016. 105. Kaper 1997: 7–8. 106. Winlock 1936: 17; pls. IX–X.

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Pl. 6.63: Plan of the temple of El-Qusur (after Kaper 1997: 8).

Pl. 6.64: View of the temple of El-Qusur (to ESE).

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Pl. 6.65: Niches along the south wall of the temple of El-Qusur (view to W).

as the church complex, that is to say, the first half of the fourth century.107 Most such temples in the oasis have been dated to the Roman period, more precisely to the second century CE or at the latest the early third century.108 However, recent scholarship, particularly the work by J. Gill, argues in favor of an earlier dating for the construction of some of the temples in Dakhla, namely to the Ptolemaic period.109 At any rate, the absolute chronology of Ἁin el-Gedida would appear substantially longer and more complex than the rest of the archaeological evidence that was gathered would indicate at first. 110 The west complex of Ἁin el-Gedida also provides, with its multi-functional history, new insight to the much-heated discourse concerning the transformation of temples in Late Antiquity, particularly with regard to Egypt.111 Indeed, the conversion of the mud-brick temple of Ἁin el-Gedida into a ceramic workshop further attests to what has already been proved by evidence gathered throughout Egypt, i.e., that the “sacredness” of a cultic place, such as a temple, was not uniformly a key factor in its re-adaptation and re-use in Late Antiquity. Undoubtedly, considerations of different natures were at stake in this process, which entailed, in some later 107. No information was gathered that might answer the question if any substantial temporal hiatus occurred between the abandonment of the temple and its conversion into a ceramic workshop. 108. Kaper 1998: 151; Kaper 2012: 722–23. 109. Gill 2016: 101–04. 110. For a lengthy discussion of chronological issues pertaining to Ἁin el-Gedida, see section 7.1 below. 111. See Dijkstra 2011; Hahn, Emmel, and Gotter 2008 and, in particular, Bagnall 2008.

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cases, the conversion of temples into churches but also, when needed, their transformation into buildings characterized by considerably more mundane functions.

7 Conclusions 7.1. Issues of Chronology The chronology of Ἁin el-Gedida was established on the basis of a study of the architectural and material evidence gathered during the excavations carried out at the site. Although of significant value in many respects, the analysis of the architectural features investigated on the main hill, and also of those surveyed on the other mounds, does not provide particularly relevant information to establish, with any degree of precision, an absolute chronology of the site. Construction materials used at the site (mostly mud bricks and a few stones used as lintels), the construction techniques employed (often mixed and of rather poor quality), and the dimensions of wall and vault bricks (of standard Roman size with little variation) cannot be identified as proper to any specific geographic and chronological range within Late Antique Egypt. Both the materials and the techniques employed at Ἁin el-Gedida are, in fact, the same used for centuries at innumerable other sites in Dakhla, the nearby oases, the larger region of the Western Desert, and throughout Egypt. That noted, the spatial arrangement discerned at Ἁin el-Gedida, on mound I and partially on the smaller hills, is very complex and unusual, not resembling too closely the layout of other known village or monastery-like settlements. The study of the architectural evidence has allowed us to discover the existence not only of limited alterations and/or restorations, involving features such as walls and doorways, but also of substantially different construction phases, identified in several rooms of mound I below floor level.1 The discovery, in 2008, of a large building near the west edge of the hill provided further 1. Sometimes as a result of the excavation of test trenches throughout the mound.

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information testifying to the multi-phased construction history for the site. As discussed above, the underlying layout of this structure, which served, at least in its latest occupational phase, as an industrial workshop for the production of pottery, seems to reflect that of a small-scale pagan temple made of mud bricks.2 Overall, the archaeological record about Ἁin el-Gedida, especially the temple and the church complex, points to a layered history that seems to extend back in time further than the chronological range, established through the study of the material evidence from occupational levels, would suggest. In particular, the identification of the west complex as a temple would support the existence of the settlement since probably at least the second century CE, certainly by the middle of the third century, when most building activity concerning pagan temples seems to end in Egypt.3 The absolute chronology of each phase is very difficult to reconstruct, however. The older architectural features were, in several instances, razed to the lowest courses of bricks. These were often laid directly on gebel without any foundation trenches, whose fill might have provided useful dating information. Furthermore, the material evidence that was gathered during the excavations at the site is rather homogeneous, not allowing us to distinguish among the different construction phases more precisely. The numismatic evidence plays a valuable role in the establishment of the general chronology of Ἁin el-Gedida. Indeed, the coins retrieved in several contexts within the church complex and throughout all areas investigated on mound I, especially along the streets running to the east and south of rooms B5 and A46 (i.e., the church and the gathering hall) have allowed us to gather a considerable amount of information on the chronological framework of the settlement. Nonetheless, some limitations exist on the use of this numismatic evidence. As emphasized by G. Bowen in relation to the site of Kellis, one cannot rely exclusively upon coins found at any archaeological site to reconstruct its chronology.4 Indeed, a very large number of specimens retrieved at Ἁin el-Gedida come from contexts that are unreliable or of dubious reliability, although it is worthy of note that the chronological distribution of these does not substantially differ from the coins found in more secure contexts.5 Another limitation is caused by the relatively high percentage of coins whose state of preservation was so poor as to forbid any secure identification and/or dating. A rather broad chronological range could be assigned to several unreadable specimens, on the basis of their dimensions and weight, although corrosion caused, in many instances, substantial loss of thickness and weight. At any rate, the overall pattern of coin loss at Ἁin el-Gedida testifies to an occupational period that undoubtedly covered the fourth century CE. The small number of coins dated to the second half of the previous century, found in highly disturbed contexts in the proximity of the church’s apse, are not necessarily evidence of an earlier construction phase of the rooms predating the complex (and incorporated into it).6 In fact, older issues could still be in circulation, 2. See section 6.7 above. 3. Bagnall 1993: 264. About a possible Ptolemaic date for some similar mud-brick temples in Dakhla, see the discussion in section 6.7 of this volume, in particular pp. 265–67. 4. Bowen 2007: 263. 5. Which, in fact, reinforces the dating established for the site through the numismatic evidence. Also, the lack of later material in disturbed contexts, for example following the excavation of pits, suggests a relatively short time span for the occurrence of these ancient disturbances. 6. Although, as mentioned earlier on, this possibility cannot be ruled out.

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or kept in hoards by private citizens, long after they had been withdrawn from the official pool, particularly following the currency reform of 296 carried out by Diocletian.7 Furthermore, it should be noted that the numismatic evidence from the church complex (matching that from the other excavated areas), fits with that from the Small East Church at Kellis, which is also typologically very similar to the church of Ἁin el-Gedida.8 Nevertheless, some degree of caution is in order, at least with regard to Ἁin el-Gedida, since, as already mentioned above, a significant number of coins found inside the church complex (and in the surrounding rooms) are either unreadable or only broadly datable to the fourth century CE. The information gathered from the analysis of coins from Ἁin el-Gedida suggests that the site ceased to be inhabited sometime towards the end of the fourth century. There are several coins that have been assigned by D. Ratzan to the second half of the fourth century; most of them are datable up to the third quarter of the fourth century, with only a few specimens dated to the very end of that century, or more broadly assigned to the late fourth–fifth century.9 However, there is a degree of uncertainty in the readings of at least a few of these specimens; therefore, in the absence of more secure identifications, these cannot be used to prove a longer life-span, with regard to the whole settlement, extending beyond the late fourth century. Ceramics are another highly significant category of evidence for the establishment of the site’s chronology. The analysis and classification of pottery finds was started by Gillian Pyke and carried to completion by Delphine Dixneuf.10 A catalogue of forms and fabrics from the site was created on the basis of the repertoire from the nearby site of Kellis, with which the material from Ἁin el-Gedida is very consistent.11 The pottery assemblages from Kellis were extensively studied by C. Hope and A. Dunsmore, whose work has become a standard reference source for the study of Late Roman pottery in Dakhla.12 Strong parallels, with regard to fourth-century types and materials, can be established with the evidence from several other sites in Dakhla, including Amheida, and also from Kharga.13 The range of the ceramic repertoire from the church complex and its neighboring rooms (B10–B15) is consistent with the evidence gathered in the northern half of mound I, in particular within rooms B1–B4, where two significant ceramic deposits were unearthed.14 Indeed, the complete vessels and the diagnostic sherds found in the northern and central part of mound I, particularly in the two assemblages from rooms B1 and B4, include many of the types that were collected in area A, i.e., in the southern part of the hill, during the 2006–2007 survey.15 Among them are jars, flasks, cooking-pots, craters, plates, and several bowls, often painted with white slip on the outer surface and red dots along the rim. 7. Bowen 2002a: 81. 8. Bowen 2003a: 164. 9. See chapter 9 of this volume. 10. See Dixneuf 2012 and chapter 8 of this volume. 11. This is significant, since Kellis seems to have been abandoned by about 400, and many contexts at Kellis have their last material from the 360s, suggesting that the last few decades of the century may have been vestigial. Indeed, according to R. Bagnall, only two consular dates in P.Kellis 1 are securely dated after 369, with the possible addition of a third one (personal communication, February 2011). 12. See Hope 1999b and Dunsmore 2002. 13. See Rodziewicz 1987. 14. See chapter 8 of this volume. 15. Particularly in room A25, whose disturbed floor context had been left partially unexcavated in the mid-1990s.

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Overall, the ceramic repertoire from Ἁin el-Gedida is rather limited in its number of fabrics, with a large majority of polished ware, made with iron- or calcium-rich clay and mostly of local production, while imports from the Kharga Oasis and the Nile Valley are rare.16 The treatment of the surfaces is generally poor and their decoration is simple and quite standard, often limited, as mentioned above, to red dots painted along the rim. There is also a prevalence of small objects, such as cups, bowls, and plates, over larger containers, although the latter are represented within most units. Although they were found in different contexts and rooms, all these vessels, forming the corpus of Ἁin el-Gedida, share a character that is consistent with a domestic assemblage and a fairly poor rural environment.17 The complete vessels and the large quantity of pottery sherds largely confirm the chronological range established by the numismatic analysis, that is to say, an occupational phase extending to the third quarter of the fourth century CE.18 Limited evidence of Early Roman forms was found in one room (kitchen B10), besides some third-century pieces likely used as chinking sherds for the construction of vaults. The Early Roman vessels from room B10 and the third-century coins from the church allow for the possibility that the site might have gone through occupational phases dating back to the third century or even earlier. It is true that the coins come from unreliable units and the Early Roman pottery was found in contexts mixed with fourth century material. Furthermore, no ceramic or numismatic evidence earlier than the fourth century CE was found in any other excavated room. However, it is unlikely that the pottery sherds datable to the third century came from another site or that third-century vessels were still in use during the fourth century. Therefore, they are valid indicators of earlier phases of occupation at the site. Providing similar information to the pottery and coins are the ceramic lamps uncovered in several rooms of mound I. They can be generally dated to the Late Roman/Byzantine period and are commonly found in other fourth and fifth-century contexts in Dakhla.19 Another type of material evidence that is used to date archaeological deposits consists of ostraka. Twelve of them were found at Ἁin el-Gedida, two in Coptic and the rest in Greek. Roger Bagnall and Dorota Dzierzbicka dated the creation of eleven of them to the fourth-century, largely on the basis of content and palaeography. One ostrakon was dated, instead, to the third century based on content.20 Those with more precise information come from after 350; some have connections to Kellis documents from the period 350–370. This analysis confirms and supplements the data provided by the other categories of material evidence listed above. Aside from ceramics (including ostraka and lamps) and coins, other categories of small finds collected at Ἁin el-Gedida do not provide significant information that can be used to establish (or confirm beyond doubt) the site’s chronology.21 They can hardly be assigned to a specific time frame, and only their association with otherwise datable contexts allows their tentative dating. Although of a limited chronological value, these objects offer valuable data for the study of material culture at Ἁin el-Gedida and at other sites in the oasis. Indeed, the typology of the 16. No evidence was found of imports from the Mediterranean region; see Dixneuf 2012: 469. 17. See Dixneuf 2012. See also chapter 8 in this volume. 18. Although some of the ceramic types chronologically extend into the fifth c. CE. 19. See chapter 8 of this volume. 20. See chapter 10 of this volume: for the third-century ostrakon, cf. cat. no. 9 (pp. 524–26). 21. See chapter 11 of this volume.

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evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida is consistent with the range found at several other sites in Dakhla, such as nearby Kellis, both from domestic and public contexts, and also Amheida, in particular from the excavation of large domestic units.22 A puzzling question, directly related to the issue of chronology of Ἁin el-Gedida, concerns the abandonment of the site. The archaeological record, gathered during the 2006–2008 excavation seasons and the survey of the structures investigated in the mid-1990s, has not provided, thus far, any evidence suggesting episodes of violent destruction, which might have led the inhabitants to leave the site abruptly. Indeed, no clue pointing to extensive fires was detected in any of the excavated rooms, either on their walls or floors or in their stratigraphy. The numerous layers consisting of vault and/or wall collapses seem to have formed at various times and resulted from natural factors, such as prolonged exposure to the elements after their abandonment, rather than human action. Deposits of ash, charcoal, and smoke on the walls were identified in several contexts. However, these were all related to cooking activities and indeed were found, for the most part, in kitchens, domestic middens, and rooms with hearths (such as anteroom B6 in the church complex and courtyard B1 in the partially excavated unit in the northern half of mound I). Another piece of information allows us to assume that the abandonment of the site did not occur abruptly but was carefully planned. This was mentioned in the discussion of the archaeological evidence from the church complex, but it applies to the entire area that was the object of investigation at Ἁin el-Gedida. Indeed, no objects of significant value were found in the rooms that were excavated. Overall, very few complete items were retrieved, and most of the material evidence consists of fragmentary objects, such as pieces of textile, bracelets, and ceramics. A few vessels were found in good condition, such as those unearthed in courtyard B1, but they must have not held a considerable value in antiquity, as they included cooking vessels for everyday use, which could be easily replaced once broken. The only finds from Ἁin el-Gedida with a monetary value (in the fourth century) are coins. The specimens gathered during the excavations had not been hidden in hoards; rather, they were found scattered within the stratigraphy of each room. Most likely, the coins collected on the streets leading to the church complex had been accidentally lost by people passing by. At any rate, none of the coins was of a precious metal, and their value individually was very low. In general, the archaeological record suggests that the buildings of Ἁin el-Gedida, at least those investigated on mound I, had been emptied of any valuable object by their owners. Although it is not impossible, it seems unlikely that they were pillaged after their abandonment. If the whole site had been in fact the target of looters, the latter must have acted in antiquity, before the ancient deposits of wall and vault collapse and the windblown sand filled the rooms. Indeed, even the earliest stratigraphical layers, including the occupational contexts at floor level, did not include precious items, or many items at all. Possibly, the abandonment of the site was not the outcome of a sudden incident of unknown nature, but was a planned event, taking place in a restricted time span, but not so short that the villagers could not sort their possessions and take with them anything they wanted before leaving. 22. For Kellis, see Bowen 2002a and Hope 2003. Concerning Amheida, see Boozer 2007; 2015 and the excavation reports available on-line at: http://www.nyu.edu/isaw/amheida/index.php?content=reports.

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Similar circumstances apply to other archaeological sites throughout the oasis. Particularly relevant in this context, due to its proximity to Ἁin el-Gedida, is the ancient settlement of Kellis (modern-day Ismant el-Kharab). Its excavators did not find any significant evidence pointing to violent destruction, such as extensive fires, which might have caused the abandonment of the large village toward the end of the fourth century CE.23 It seems, however, that what happened at Ἁin el-Gedida, that is to say, the more-or-less simultaneous abandonment of the entire site by its inhabitants was, in fact, part of a phenomenon involving large parts of the region.24 The scholars working in the area share the same concern about the necessity of shedding light on the possible causes. The discussion has focused on several key issues, such as climate change, economic depression, or political unrest. A phenomenon of increasing “ruralization” was detected, during the fourth century, at several sites of the region, such as Douch in the Kharga Oasis. The archaeologists who worked at this large and once prosperous village recognized traces of this trend in the partition and re-use of earlier buildings as stables. These alterations were combined with the construction of loculi, or low rectangular features at the corner or along the walls of these rooms, likely to feed animals that were employed in agricultural activities.25 Abundant organic material was found that demonstrated the existence of numerous animals inside older houses turned into stables. The archaeological evidence assigns these changes to the latest occupational phase of the site, not long before its abandonment, which was complete by the fifth century. At Kellis, too, some larger buildings were turned, in the site’s later phases, into masses of small rooms and stables.26 This phenomenon is attested also at Trimiths/Amheida, where a school was transformed, around the mid-fourth century, into a stable that became part of the so-called House of Serenos.27 At first glance, one could imagine a similar scenario, at least in part, with regard to Ἁin elGedida. Indeed, fairly abundant amounts of organic material, including coprolites and straw, were found in some parts of the site, especially along the passageway to the south of the church complex. Also, two features very closely resembling the loculi of Douch were discovered along the south side of courtyard B13, at the intersection of street B12 with vaulted passageway B11. The fourth-century range of the evidence from Douch also fits the record from Ἁin el-Gedida. However, the relatively limited area that was the object of investigation at the latter site prevents us from drawing conclusions on a generalized phenomenon of ruralization, which would have occurred on all mounds toward the end of their occupational life. Indeed, such a trend, although deserving investigation, is not supported by enough data at the moment. Also, if Ἁin el-Gedida had been, in fact, an agricultural site, it would be difficult to apply the concept of “ruralization” to it and recognize its traces. Animals must have always been a ubiquitous presence at Ἁin elGedida, as well as throughout the oasis. At any rate, notwithstanding economic and social changes possibly taking place at Ἁin el-Gedida during the fourth century, the reasons that led all its inhabitants, as well as those 23. Bowen 2007: 260. On the numismatic evidence dating the abandonment of Kellis, see Bowen 2001a: 63–64. 24. However, there is evidence that some sites of the oasis, such as Deir Abu Matta and El-Qasr, continued to be occupied after the end of the fourth century. 25. Reddé 2004: 56. 26. Hope 2002: 173; 186. 27. Bagnall et al. 2015: 89.

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of other sites like Kellis, to abandon their houses and move somewhere else (where, it is not known) have not found a fully satisfying answer thus far.

7.2. Monastery or Epoikion? The Monastic Connection and Alternative Readings Since the Egyptian excavations, which were carried out in the mid-1990s, started uncovering archaeological features in the southern half of mound I, the possibility that Ἁin el-Gedida might have been a monastic settlement was raised.28 Scholars visiting the site at that time noticed a highly peculiar layout of the excavated structures, clustered around a large kitchen with several ovens, and consisting of an intricate network of interconnected spaces, several of which had certainly been in use as storage rooms.29 Indeed, it is not possible to recognize, within the complex spatial configuration of area A, separate buildings showing the distinctive characters of domestic units. The only exception is represented by some rooms located at the southeast end of the hill (rooms A35–A37 and A38–A40). They seem to have been built as separate clusters of at least three rooms each, with the biggest one likely serving as a rectangular courtyard. Unfortunately, this sector was only partially excavated, and the data that are currently available are very limited, not allowing us to draw significant conclusions on the nature of these spaces. Nor, in any case, do the visible layouts resemble in any significant way those of other domestic structures known from this period in the oases. As previously seen, the survey of the southern part of mound I revealed different construction phases and evidence of restoration and/or re-use of earlier features in later structures. This part of the settlement, more extensively excavated than its northern half, seems to have developed from a central core of buildings, to which other rooms were progressively added, lying against or incorporating the outer walls of the earlier structures. The rooms identified along the south, southwest, and southeast edges of mound I were built with a very poor technique and did not follow any systematic plan. Their hasty construction history suggests, as argued in K. Bayoumi’s report, that these structures were built to satisfy a rapidly increasing population at the site.30 However, no significant information is available to identify who these people were, and the lack of excavation records of area A is particularly unfortunate in this respect. The existence of a large kitchen, centrally placed and connected with the northern/central half of the mound, and of several magazines, containing clay bins for the storage of cereals or other crops, assigns the whole area mostly utilitarian functions. The absence, once again, of clearly recognizable domestic units and the overall spatial configuration, with most rooms built against and interconnected with each other, points to a social structure based on communal living rather than separate family households. 28. Bayoumi 1998: 57–62. The excavations also extended, although partially, to the central sector of the hill, leading to the discovery of the gathering hall (room A46); its connection with a larger complex, however, remained unnoticed at that time. See Brooks Hedstrom 2017 on the archaeology of Late Antique monasteries in Egypt. On the phenomenon of early Egyptian monasticism, see, among others, Wipszycka 2009. 29. Such as rooms A2–A4 in the southwest corner of mound I. On room A2, see section 2.1.1 in this volume, particularly pp. 42– 45, pls. 2.5–7. 30. Bayoumi 1998: 58.

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The discovery of the church (room B5) in 2006 and the investigation of the annexed complex between 2007 and 2008 provided additional data, which shed light on the highly Christianized society living at the site in the fourth century. The complex, capable of hosting a considerable number of people at any given time, was centrally placed on the main hill of the site and, one can assume, easily reachable from all other mounds (if they were in fact discrete units in that period). The excavation of the area to the east and south of the church confirmed the strategic location of the complex along a north–south axis, which connected the two ends of mound I. Furthermore, the network of streets lining the complex allowed for easy access to the latter from area A to the south and, in particular, from its large kitchen through a north–south oriented passageway. An additional bakery (room B15), also bearing evidence of several ovens, was found in 2008 right across the street from the entrance into the complex. The presence of two wide kitchens, undoubtedly not belonging to private, domestic contexts but rather used to answer the needs of a significant number of people; their proximity to the complex and, in particular, to the large gathering hall, capable of seating a considerable number of guests: these elements are, in fact, suggestive of a spatial arrangement entailing the existence, on site, of a large community of people not organized in the manner of a family, whether nuclear or extended. The considerable size of the hall and the existence of mastabas, or benches, that could seat a large number of people at any given time only emphasize the possibility that many individuals could access the church complex together. It does not provide information on who these people were or where they came from. On one hand, evidence of large halls opening directly onto churches is abundant in Egyptian monastic contexts.31 On the other hand, similar spatial arrangements are attested at sites that have not been identified as monastic, like Kellis and its Small East Church. The lack of incontrovertible data on the function carried out by room A46 (which might be identified either as a hall for catechumens, a refectory, or a space for laity) and the shifting, at least to some degree, of its purpose, as pointed to by architectural alterations that occurred before the abandonment of the site, leave the question open. Overall, the presence of the church complex on mound I is not, per se, evidence for a monastic identification of the site, nor is its proximity to large kitchens and the unusual layout of the south half of the hill. Neither the Egyptian nor the 2006–2008 excavations uncovered any sizable structures at Ἁin el-Gedida that could be identified as large dormitories or houses for a monastic community, nor buildings divided into a series of cells, as were found at monastic sites throughout Egypt. At the same time, no comprehensive data are available on domestic arrangements for family units at Ἁin el-Gedida. A few buildings surveyed on mound I, particularly near the northwest or southeast ends of the hill, and also excavated rooms B1–B3 (plus the two unexcavated rooms to the north of B1) are characterized by a compact, self-contained layout of small rooms opening onto a larger room, possibly functioning as a courtyard, which may suggest their identification as residential units for relatively small groups of people. However, the lack of documentation does not allow us to know beyond doubt if these spaces once belonged to private dwellings or served a different function. The paucity of remains of identifiably domestic architecture found thus far at the site could be explained by the relatively limited area that was the object of archaeological investigation, compared to the overall extent of the ancient settlement. Indeed, it 31. See the discussion in section 5.1 of this volume, particularly pp. 209–10. On the issue of food consumption in a monastic environment, based on written sources, see Harlow and Smith 2001 and Layton 2002.

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is not to be excluded that most people resided on the other mounds, while the main hill hosted, although not exclusively, buildings of a more communal nature, such as the church complex, or small-scale industrial installations, including the large kitchens/bakeries, the storage rooms, and even a ceramic workshop at the west edge of the hill. If any monks lived at the site in the fourth century, they might have used or re-used forms that were well-established and common in Egyptian domestic architecture, in light of the lack of standardized types for monastic architecture at such an early time. It is possible that early Egyptian ascetics lived in dwellings that would have been indistinguishable from those of the lay inhabitants,32 who would have shared, if Christian, the same church complex as their ascetic fellow villagers. The possibility that these hypothetical early apotactics (“renouncers”) might have adopted standard domestic arrangements, instead of living in buildings with a larger and more complex spatial configuration, might be related, in some instances, to the re-use, by the members of newly formed communities, of older, abandoned structures in villages or cities. According to his Life, the first community founded by Pachomius was in the abandoned village of Tabennesi in the Nile Valley, not deep in the desert.33 As J. Goehring points out, how “deserted” this village was remains unclear.34 At any rate, the other monasteries that came to be part of the Pachomian koinonia seem to have followed a similar pattern, although there is not enough archaeological or textual evidence to allow their precise identification: that is to say, if they were all located within or near villages of the fertile band of the Nile Valley or if any of them lay on the fringes of the desert.35 Surely, some of the reasons for such a proximity to the Nile had to do with easy access to water, markets, and transportation.36 With regard to the oases of the Western Desert, hundreds of miles away from the Nile Valley, communities (of any kind, not necessarily monastic) had to rely upon the availability of water from natural springs or wells dug deep into the ground. The site of Ἁin el-Gedida, with its ease of access to water and its proximity to a considerably bigger town such as Kellis, was an ideal location for any kind of settlement, including a monastery. One must acknowledge, however, that most of these arguments simply leave the possibility open that monks settled at Ἁin el-Gedida, rather than providing evidence for their presence on site at any given time. The material evidence does not provide significant information in this regard, either. The ostraka that were collected during the excavations are not particularly enlightening on this issue, focused as they are for the most part on economic matters. One of them, though, is worthy of mention here. It was found in 2006, during the excavation of a midden filling room B4, located in the western half of mound I.37 It is a complete ostrakon, made of a ceramic body sherd and of irregular shape, measuring approximately 10.3 by 9.8 cm. Nine lines of Coptic, parallel to the wheel marks, are written with black ink on its convex surface and were dated by Roger Bagnall and Dorota Dzierzbicka to the late fourth century CE, on the basis of palaeographic 32. Making it particularly difficult to recognize the nature of any of these buildings as “monastic”. 33. Veilleux 1980: 17. 34. Possibly it was only partially abandoned and the monks settled in the buildings that had been left empty by their previous owners: see Goehring 1999: 97. On the overall economic situation of Egyptian villages and the reasons for their possible abandonment, see Bagnall 1993: 144. 35. Goehring (1999: 108) believes the first possibility to be more plausible. 36. Idem: 95, on the bearing of efficient communication means among the communities of the Pachomian koinonia. 37. See section 10.3 below (cat. no. 1).

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evidence and context. The ostrakon is a letter written by a certain Apa Alexandros, mentioned at the beginning of the first line, to another man concerning a third man (called Pesente) and his pakton (agreement or rent) and also naming a fourth man, i.e., Apa Kyros. Apart from its utilitarian content, this object is significant as the term apa, often used in a monastic context, might be suggestive of Alexandros and Kyros’ identification as monks. As stated by Bagnall and Dzierzbicka in their analysis of the ostrakon, although the term apa was also used for members of the regular clergy, the late fourth-century dating suggests that a monastic context is more probable.38 At any rate, the significance of this ostrakon in the discussion on the possibly monastic nature of Ἁin el-Gedida is rather limited. The ostrakon was found in a domestic dump, within a deeply unreliable context, and we cannot be sure whether it was written at Ἁin el-Gedida, sent to someone there, or neither. No secure information exists on the identity of either Alexandros or Kyros or ether of the two other men mentioned in the text. Also, it is not possible to know, on the basis of the available data, who among the four men, if any, actually resided at Ἁin el-Gedida. The natural assumption would be that Alexandros lived somewhere else. Therefore, the ostrakon, although a suggestive piece of documentary evidence, cannot be used as proof of the existence of monks at the site in the fourth century. On the other hand, it is worth observing that an ostrakon from Kellis (O. Kell. 121) mentions in an account both an Alexandros and another man described as a monk (monachos, misspelled monochos).39 Other material evidence, more closely associated with the church complex, and this time undoubtedly in situ, consists of the graffiti drawn with black charcoal on the west and north walls of anteroom B6.40 As mentioned in a previous chapter, they include a Greek inscription—a commonplace invocation to God—on the west wall and a Coptic one above several drawings on the north wall. The latter consist of a bird and three boats, motifs that can be found in Christian contexts at several sites in Egypt, including the Dakhla Oasis.41 However, with particular reference to boats, it must be noted that their representation in graffiti is not evidence per se of a Christian environment. In fact, drawings of boats can be seen at several sites throughout the ancient world also in pre-Christian times.42 Nonetheless, at least the Greek inscription on the west wall can be safely assigned to a Christian environment. At the same time, the contexts in which this typical formula is found do not always pertain to monasteries. Therefore, the graffiti of room B6, as well as the Coptic ostrakon from room B4, can hardly be used as evidence for the identification of Ἁin el-Gedida as a monastic site. It is true that the bulk of the Coptic texts from the fourth century found so far come from monastic communities, but Coptic was also in use in non-monastic contexts at Kellis: therefore, language is also not a decisive criterion. On the whole, the available archaeological and documentary data do not point to an identification of Ἁin el-Gedida as a monastic settlement, built anew or developed on the remains of an earlier, non-monastic site. But it is fair to add that we lack indisputably monastic sites of the same period to which we could compare it. One could instead suggest, based on the current state of research, that the site was in fact a fourth-century settlement with an economy based 38. Idem 512. 39. Worp 2004: 111. 40. See section 3.1.3 above and sections 10.4–5 in this volume. 41. Winlock 1936: 17–8; pls. IX–X. 42. See section 10.5 below, in particular pp. 533–37.

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mainly on the agricultural exploitation of the surrounding fields.43 Evidence for Late Antique villages is not very abundant from the point of view of their archaeological investigation. Indeed, a considerable amount of data comes from the excavation of sites located mostly in the Fayyum. The village of Karanis is, in particular, a copious source of information about Egyptian villages up to Late Antiquity. Peasant settlements were less the object of investigation in other regions of Egypt, although a renewed interest in domestic architecture is slowly changing this balance.44 On the other hand, documentary evidence abounds on fourth-century villages, shedding light on their economy, society, daily life, and their ties with the rest of the country, especially larger towns and cities.45 R. Bagnall effectively analyzed the many facets of life in Egyptian villages of the fourth century, based on the information provided by written sources such as documents written on ostraka or papyrus, especially the archives of people involved in the management of land.46 Indeed, the picture that emerges from the documentary and, in part, the archaeological evidence is that of a dynamic world, deeply engaged in the economic, social, political affairs of the time, but also involved in religious matters. The link between asceticism and Egyptian villages, mentioned above, is only one example of the not-so-secondary role that the latter held in the overall organization of the country. Sources, both archaeological and documentary, testify to a large number of villages spread throughout Egypt in the fourth century, with estimates of their numbers ranging between 2,000 and 2,500.47 The size could vary considerably, but most of the rural settlements seem to have been smaller than 80 ha, which is the area calculated for Karanis, the most thoroughly investigated village.48 An average of more than 1,200 people lived in these communities according to Bagnall, who emphasized how the differences could in fact be substantial.49 It is impossible to make an estimate of the inhabitants of Ἁin el-Gedida in the fourth century, due to the lack of documentary or archaeological data on the full size of the settlement and especially because the residential area (or areas) have not yet been identified and excavated. It is attested that villages had small industrial areas functionally related to agricultural activities, which played a primary role in the economy of Egyptian rural settlements.50 One could usually find among the various buildings in a village granaries, pigeon houses, bakeries, and spaces to manufacture objects of daily use, for example pottery workshops, all located within a usually irregular spatial arrangement.51 With regard to the archaeological evidence for Ἁin el-Gedida, all these features have been identified, although some of them only tentatively, on mound I: i.e., two large rooms with several bread ovens (rooms A6 and B15), a pigeon 43. On Egyptian villages of the Byzantine period, see Keenan 2007, which considers a large amount of relevant documentary evidence. 44. For information about archaeological work on Graeco-Roman Egypt in recent decades, see Bagnall 2001 and Bagnall and Davoli 2011. Cf. also p. 75, footnote 63 in this volume. 45. On Egyptian villages and cities, see Bagnall 2005. 46. See Bagnall 1993: 110–47. 47. Bagnall 1993: 110. See also Bowman 2013. 48. Idem. 49. Bagnall 1985a: 291–96. 50. On agriculture in Egypt since the Pharaonic period, see Bowman and Rogan 1999, in particular pp. 139–216 on the Roman and Byzantine periods. 51. Bagnall 1993: 113. Cf. also the evidence from the accounts of the Apiones’ pronoetai (overseers) in Mazza 2001: 87–88.

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tower (the large rectangular room at the north end of the main hill), granaries (such as rooms A2–A4 in the southwest part), and a pottery workshop (the complex of rooms B17–B24 along the west edge of mound I).52 Also, the spatial configuration of this area is noticeably irregular, mirroring a seemingly common standard of Egyptian rural settlements.53 Furthermore, most of the ostraka gathered at Ἁin el-Gedida concern matters that reveal a world deeply linked to the agricultural exploitation of the land, a feature that is also distinctive, as just mentioned above, of a village-based economy. On the other hand, the fact that small-scale industrial installations, so typical of village life according to the sources, are present at the site does not necessarily confirm the identification of Ἁin el-Gedida as a standard rural settlement. Indeed, the archaeological evidence is not so abundant to allow comparative analysis to find what a “standard” village might have looked like. Furthermore, spaces destined to activities such as bread-baking or pottery-making were not exclusive features of villages, but could be found associated with other types of settlements, including those of a monastic nature. At any rate, the similarities shared by the archaeological data from Ἁin el-Gedida and the documentary sources about Egyptian villages deserve serious investigation, although it is worth pointing out again a glaring difference, namely that all village sites have readily identifiable houses, which is not the case at Ἁin el-Gedida, at least within the excavated and surveyed areas. A strong female component was identified with regard to Ἁin el-Gedida, largely on the basis of material evidence, for example numerous fragments of bracelets found in almost all excavated contexts. Women were very visible in Egyptian villages of the fourth century, in some instances playing a considerable role in the social and economic life of that period.54 This is another point of contact between what the documentary sources say about rural communities in Late Antique Egypt and what the archaeological evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida allows us to decipher about its society. However, not even a sizable female presence on site can be used to prove beyond doubt that Ἁin el-Gedida was an ordinary village, consisting of family units living in the proximity of a central industrial and religious center that was mound I. In fact, rural settlements in fourth-century Egypt were not all villages. An alternative type consists of epoikia: that is to say, small rural centers associated with the management of large agricultural estates and often dependent on larger villages nearby.55 The work-force could be employed, sometimes on a seasonal basis, to work the land under the direction of overseers, but tenancy could also be used to help supply the necessary labor. It is possible to suppose that the workers moved to the estate and lived there for the duration of their contract. The spatial arrangement of these epoikia is unknown, because none has ever been identified and excavated. On the basis of documentary evidence (P.Mich. 11.620), D. Rathbone reconstructed the possible appearance of an epoikion, which consisted of a complex of buildings functionally associated 52. For a recent bibliography on pottery production centers in Late Antiquity, see Putzeys 2007: 63–65. With regard specifically to Egypt, see Marchand 2014. 53. Bagnall 1993: 111; 114 on the irregular spatial articulation of Egyptian villages. 54. On women and their role in the economic and social life of Late Antique Egyptian villages, see Bagnall 1993: 130–33. See also Wilfong 1999: 117–49, and 2007: 318 ff. On documentary evidence pertaining to women, see Bagnall and Cribiore 2006. 55. Konstantinidis 2015; Hickey 2012: 25–26; Banaji 2007: 11–12; Mazza 2001: 79; Bagnall 1993: 151; Lewuillon-Blume 1979. On landholding and its role within the economy of Late Antique Egypt, see Bagnall 1992; Banaji 1999 and 2007 (especially chapters 5 and 7); Hickey 2007.

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with the agricultural activities carried out in the farmstead.56 It seems that Egyptian epoikia were created either as isolated entities, later developing in some cases into regular villages, or they were integrated, since their very beginnings, into pre-existing villages.57 A fully communal life-style should not be necessarily implied for the people involved within the system of the epoikia. In fact, it cannot be ruled out that the wage-workers moved to these rural settlements with their families, occupying houses that may well not have differed substantially from those found in other types of settlements. At Ἁin el-Gedida, the south half of mound I might reflect the spatial arrangement of part of an epoikion, consisting not of its residential area but rather of a sector where the buildings more closely associated with agricultural activities were concentrated, including installations, such as bakeries, built to satisfy the needs of a relatively large community. The ceramic workshop, located along the western edge of the hill, would also fit within the context of a farmstead.58 The existence of a church at the center of mound I, largely consisting of public spaces of a utilitarian nature, is not surprising in association with an epoikion. Indeed, written sources attest to the possibility that churches were associated with this type of rural settlement.59 An ostrakon (inv. 830) found at the site acknowledges the payment of money by someone described as ἀπὸ γεωργ(ίου) Πμουν Βερρι, “from the georgion of Pmoun Berri,” the latter being (we may suppose) the likely name of Ἁin el-Gedida in the third century.60 Here georgion should refer to a farmstead or agricultural settlement and, if indeed it refers to Ἁin el-Gedida, establish that as the basic nature of the place.61 Although not conclusively, the archaeological and documentary evidence points to a likely identification of Ἁin el-Gedida as an epoikion. Quite significantly, small rural hamlets of this type (i.e., depending on large agricultural estates) have been known in Egypt, until now, only from documentary sources. Thus, if Ἁin el-Gedida is to be interpreted as an epoikion, it may offer the first archaeological evidence for this type of settlement, as well as more broadly shedding new light on the study of rural economy in Late Antique Egypt. In 2006, the discovery of a Greek ostrakon (inv. 9) from mound I opened the discussion about the nature of the site to another possible interpretation. The sherd, found during the excavation of the domestic dump in room B4, is a receipt, dated to the fourth century, for the payment of eight artabas of barley.62 It is significant in this context because it mentions that the amount was paid for the annona of mounted archers, who formed a military corps of the Roman army, on duty at Mothis, the capital of the oasis since the fourth century. Further information came from another Greek ostrakon (inv. 660) found in 2008.63 The sherd, broken 56. Rathbone 1991: 22–43. There seem to be, however, significant differences between his reconstruction and the layout of the buildings on mound I at Ἁin el-Gedida. Similarities have been established between ancient epoikia and modern Egyptian ezab (sing. ezbeh): cf. in particular Lewuillon-Blume 1979: 185 and Grenfell and Hunt 1907: 356. On the ezbeh, see, among others, Lozach and Hug 1930: 156–60; Binder 1978: 106–08; 216–55; Springborg 1982: 90; Alleaume 1999: 331–35. 57. Idem: 31. 58. Installations for the production of pottery, and associated with agricultural centers, were found at other Egyptian sites, such as at Marea (Bagnall and Rathbone 2004: 76). On the Polish excavations at Marea, see Szymańska and Babraj 2006 and 2007. On centers of ceramic production in ancient Egypt, see the recent survey by S. Marchand (2014). 59. Sarris 2004: 284. 60. See section 10.3 below (cat. no. 9). 61. On the translation of the term and parallels, cf. in particular p. 526 below. 62. See section 10.3 below (cat. no. 5). 63. See section 10.3 below (cat. no. 8).

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into three pieces and incomplete, was found within an ash layer filling room B11, the vaulted passageway running along the south wall of the church. The ostrakon, which consists of three lines written in black ink, is datable to the mid-to-late fourth century, based on handwriting and context. The inscription records a certain Joseph as the signatory of a receipt for two artabas of wheat and includes the mention, in the genitive case, of a praepositus. According to Bagnall and Dzierzbicka, the term praepositus could refer to the governor of a rural district, a subdivision of a nome (the praepositus pagi), or, more likely in this case, the leader of the ala (military unit) stationed in Dakhla. Archaeological and documentary evidence from Dakhla testifies to a number of military settlements in the oasis during Late Antiquity.64 In particular, archaeological investigations carried out, in recent years, at the site of El-Qasr, to the northwest of Ἁin el-Gedida, added new and significant data in this regard. Researchers found, under the remains of the Islamic settlement and partially incorporated into them, consistent traces of a Roman castrum, or fort, whose excavation began in recent years.65 Written sources attest that besides the castra, built in towns, villages, and other strategically relevant areas, the country was dotted with smaller military outposts depending on the main forts.66 Smaller military units were detached there, allowing military control over large areas.67 But no substantial archaeological evidence exists to support the identification of Ἁin el-Gedida as one of these outposts. The ostrakon mentioning the military praepositus might be originally from a context that is not directly associated with Ἁin el-Gedida or refer only to a visit. No traces of outer walls or any sort of fortifications, which one can assume might have existed to secure a military station, were detected during the 2006– 2008 excavations and survey of the entire area. The rectangular building located in the north half of mound I, measuring roughly 16 m north–south by 12 m east–west, probably was not a military fortification that could have been used for the defense of the outpost and as a vantage point to inspect the surrounding area. Indeed, as discussed above, it seems more likely that it was, in fact, a columbarium or pigeon tower, whose presence in villages of Late Antique Egypt is attested to by substantial evidence, including within the Dakhla Oasis. The existence of a church would not go, per se, against the identification of Ἁin el-Gedida as a military settlement. Indeed, the Christian affiliation of Roman soldiers is attested to not only in Egypt, but also in other regions of the ancient Mediterranean world, even before the fourth century.68 However, the possibility that Ἁin el-Gedida was associated with installations of a military nature and function seems remote. Indeed, the irregular arrangement of most buildings on mound I strongly differs from the carefully planned layout of military camps. Furthermore, the mentioned lack of evidence of fortifications would be puzzling, as it is hard to believe that they would have completely disappeared. 64. See Kucera 2012; Gardner 2012; Ast and Bagnall 2015. 65. Kucera 2012. 66. See Rémondon 1955 and 1965; Schwartz et al. 1969: 1–26; Carrié 1974; 1977; 1986; Bagnall 1993: 174–75. Palme 2007 deals with the Roman government and army in Egypt during Late Antiquity. On Egyptian geography based on the Notitia Dignitatum, see Worp 1994. 67. On the presence of the army in Egyptian villages, see Aubert 1995. 68. One example is the Early Christian building recently found at Megiddo, in present-day Israel. There is solid evidence attesting that the domus ecclesiae was used by members of the Roman army since the second half of the third century CE: cf. Tepper 2006; Tepper and Di Segni 2006; Adams 2008.

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Although not providing evidence that a military detachment resided permanently at Ἁin el-Gedida (indeed, one of the two ostraka mentioned earlier, inv. 9, states that the mounted archers were stationed at Mothis), the content of the two ostraka is, nonetheless, suggestive of, at least, some form of interaction between the army and individuals at Ἁin el-Gedida, if only in the payment of taxes.

7.3. Epilogue The aim of the excavation project of Ἁin el-Gedida was, from its early conception, to carry out a scientifically rigorous and comprehensive investigation of the site, which had raised, since the Egyptian excavations of the mid-1990s, stimulating questions pertaining to the singularity of its layout and architectural features. The peculiar nature of this venture, which enjoyed the productive collaboration of Egyptian and foreign members and specialists, allowed a particularly intense and rich process of study and interpretation. Different hypotheses were shared and tested in the field, against all the available evidence, in order to try to provide suitable answers to all the issues at stake. Indeed, three seasons of archaeological investigation at Ἁin el-Gedida provided a wealth of archaeological evidence that went beyond any expectation, shedding light on several aspects of life at the site in the fourth century. Highly exciting was the discovery of a ceramic workshop that had been built within the remains of an earlier temple, whose identification is fairly secure. Not only did this find generate new data on local ceramic-production processes; it also added significantly to our knowledge of the profound changes that the adoption of Christianity brought to the physical, social, and religious landscape of rural Egypt in Late Antiquity. Quite significantly in this respect, another highlight of the project was the discovery of the church and the complex of rooms associated with it. Not only did the church, along with the gathering hall to the north, prove to be one of the earliest examples of Christian architecture discovered thus far anywhere in Egypt. It also testified to an original layout, which partially borrowed standard forms but, at the same time, elaborated them in an uncharacteristic way, closely paralleled only by the Small East Church at the nearby site of Kellis. The study of its construction process led to the identification of different phases, which involved the reuse of earlier structures into the new building. It also revealed the alterations brought to the church complex after its completion, affecting not only its spatial arrangement but also the function of some rooms. The discovery of the church complex raised considerable interest among scholars for other reasons, which extended beyond its early date and unusual plan. First, it provided significant additional evidence for the flourishing of Christianity in the Dakhla Oasis since at least the early part of the fourth century CE. Although geographically isolated and far from the Nile Valley, the oasis proved to be the location of vibrant communities, exposed to a variety of new ideas, and associated life-styles, that were dramatically changing the ancient world. The archaeological remains of Ἁin el-Gedida testify to a profoundly Christianized society, whose public life centered around the church complex, built in a key spot on the main hill of the site. The evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida supplements that from other settlements in the oasis and,

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in particular, from Kellis, with which, due to their proximity and similar chronology, strong economic and administrative links certainly existed. Both sites, which did not experience later phases of occupation than the late fourth century CE, have provided substantial information on the earliest known types adopted by Christian architecture, not only in the region of the Western Desert but, at least until now, throughout Egypt. Furthermore, the evidence from Kellis and Ἁin el-Gedida is significant because it allows the possibility of establishing comparative analysis between Christian archaeology in Egypt and the early evidence from other regions of the Mediterranean world. The value of this investigation lies in the opportunity of reconstructing how architectural forms and types travelled with people and were adopted, sometimes rearranged in peculiar ways, in provinces that were geographically distant from each other, although not so at other levels. As discussed above, several questions about Ἁin el-Gedida, in primis about its nature, have yet to receive a conclusive and unequivocal answer, although the archaeological and documentary evidence seems to point more strongly toward an identification of the site as an epoikion. Also, issues of the origins and, at the opposite end of the chronological spectrum, of the abandonment of the site are still debated. Undoubtedly, the full archaeological investigation of the site, including the unexcavated sectors of mound I and the surrounding hills, would provide much needed information on the original extent of the settlement and its overall spatial configuration, especially on the location of the domestic quarters. Hoping for a full-scale and comprehensive investigation of the site of Ἁin el-Gedida is, particularly during this period of political instability for the region, close to wishful thinking. Nevertheless, the information that was gathered is far from being inconclusive. It testifies to a vibrant rural community that settled at Ἁin el-Gedida and was certainly very active in the fourth century. It had well adapted itself to the local environment, exploiting what the surrounding land had to offer and storing the products on site. The small industrial establishments investigated on mound I shed light on a society whose involvement in the local economy extended beyond working in the fields. People crafted pottery, raised pigeons, and baked bread in large open-air spaces. Most likely, other productive activities were carried out on site, whose evidence lies beneath the sand of the desert and waits to be discovered. Like their fellow neighbors at Kellis, these people were also a profoundly Christianized society. This is testified to, for the most part, by the church complex, strategically built at the center of the main hill and, undoubtedly, a preeminent landmark of the local physical environment. The existence of villagers still practicing paganism at the site cannot be ruled out. However, the fact that the temple of Ἁin el-Gedida, located near the church, had been turned into a ceramic workshop by (at the latest) the early fourth century suggests that, if pagans lived at at the site at that time, certainly their numbers must no longer have been substantial. If the inhabitants of Ἁin el-Gedida, both Christians and pagans, were in fact villagers or wage-workers and tenants of an epoikion, and if they included ascetics living as a community in a rural environment, this is yet to be known beyond doubt.

8 La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida Delphine Dixneuf1

8.1. Introduction 8.1.1. Problématique et état de la recherche Bien que la céramique permette dans un premier temps de donner des indices chronologiques quant à la datation des sites et des différents niveaux archéologiques, son étude fournit également un certain nombre d’éléments pour la compréhension des activités liées à la vie quotidienne, qu’elle soit domestique, artisanale, agricole ou cultuelle, et permet de mieux appréhender les réseaux commerciaux reliant divers sites et régions entre eux. L’exemple de l’oasis de Dakhla montre l’intérêt de cette démarche; en effet, quelques sites archéologiques ont livré un nombre considérable de documents écrits, qu’il s’agisse d’ostraca ou de papyri, traitant notamment des activités agricoles de l’oasis. Nous verrons alors comment et s’il est possible de relier ces 1. Céramologue, Ingénieur de Recherche (Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LA3M UMR 7298, 13094, Aix-en-Provence, France). Qu’il me soit permis d’exprimer ma profonde gratitude au Professeur Roger Bagnall ainsi qu’au Docteur Nicola Aravecchia qui m’ont offert la possibilité d’étudier la céramique découverte sur le site d’ Ἁin el-Gedida, m’ayant ainsi permis de me familiariser avec les productions oasiennes de l’Antiquité tardive. Je remercie également pour leur aide dans la réalisation des dessins ainsi que leur vectorisation Ashraf Senoussi (SCA), Caroline Edwar (CNRS, CEAlex, Alexandrie), Mahiteb Fathy (CNRS, CEAlex) et Julie Marchand (CNRS, HiSoMA, France). J’ai une pensée particulière pour Clementina Caputo (Universität Heidelberg, Allemagne) et Andrea Myers Achi, ainsi qu’Emmeline Hailey et Amy Vela, qui m’ont aidé et ont collaboré à la réalisation du catalogue et des comptages. L’étude de la céramique d’ Ἁin el-Gedida avait été commencée par Gillian Pike en 2006, puis à partir de 2007, elle a été poursuivie par nos soins. Voir Pike 2006.

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sources à la culture matérielle que représentent pour une bonne part les céramiques. Nous verrons également qu’elles offrent des indices importants quant à la nature du site ainsi que sur sa chronologie, notamment la période de son abandon. Les recherches céramologiques, pour l’Antiquité tardive, conduites dans l’oasis de Dakhla doivent pour beaucoup aux travaux effectués par Colin Hope dans le cadre des prospections archéologiques systématiques réalisées par le Dakhleh Oasis Project et dans le cadre des fouilles menées depuis plusieurs années sur le site d’Ismant el-Kharab, l’ancienne Kellis. Au cours de ces pages, nous pourrons constater que ce site offre les principaux parallèles à la céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida qui se situe par ailleurs non loin de Kellis abandonné vers la fin du ive siècle. Il faut de plus préciser que les groupes de pâtes présentés sont issus du Dakhleh Oasis Fabric System mis en place et complété par C. Hope.2 L’analyse des pâtes et des formes des céramiques nous a permis d’émettre l’hypothèse de céramiques provenant de la vallée du Nil et de l’oasis de Kharga; les travaux de P. Ballet sur le site de Douch offriront des éléments importants de comparaison.3

8.1.2. Les secteurs et contextes de découverte La céramique présentée dans cet ouvrage provient des nettoyages effectués au cours de deux campagnes entre 2009 et 2010 sur le secteur fouillé par Mr. Kamel Bayoumi, (CSA) entre 1993 et 19954 et dénommé secteur A (partie sud du kôm 1) et des fouilles archéologiques menées sous la direction de N. Aravecchia entre 2006 et 2008. Ces fouilles archéologiques ont été conduites sur le secteur B et, plus exactement, le kôm 1 où a notamment été découverte une petite église (pièce B5). Une communication au colloque du DOP à Lecce en 2009 a permis de présenter une étude préliminaire du matériel provenant du secteur de l’église et d’un bâtiment vraisemblablement réoccupé par un atelier de potiers.5

8.1.3. Approche méthodologique En raison de la nature du matériel et du terrain égyptien auxquels nous avons été confrontée, il a été choisi de mettre en place une méthode d’étude relativement simple mais efficace permettant de traiter des quantités assez considérables de tessons. Nous nous sommes également conformée et adaptée dans la mesure du possible aux méthodes élaborées par la mission américaine. Bien que nous l’ayons déjà présentée dans le cadre de l’ouvrage traitant du bâtiment B2 d’Amheida, nous en rappelons ici les principaux traits.6 Un premier tri est effectué afin d’éliminer les fragments de panse – sauf quand une restauration est envisageable – qui ont été comptés et pesés par contextes (unités stratigraphiques) et suivant les principaux groupes de pâtes. Après les habituelles étapes de lavage et de recollage, un second 2. Qu’il nous soit permis ici de remercier le Professeur C. Hope pour le temps qu’il a consacré à nous montrer les différents groupes de pâtes en usage dans l’oasis de Dakhla pour la période romaine et l’Antiquité tardive. 3. Ballet 2004. 4. Bayoumi 1998. Quelques céramiques conservées au musée de Kharga ont pu être étudiées et ont donc été intégrées dans cette étude. 5. Dixneuf 2012. 6. Dixneuf 2015: 201–02. Pour les méthodes de comptages des céramiques, on renverra à Arcelin et Tuffreau-Libre 1998.

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tri est réalisé. L’ensemble des tessons est évalué selon les critères de la forme, de la fonction et de la pâte, afin de déterminer le NMI – Nombre Minimum d’Individus – par contexte puis pour l’ensemble du secteur ou du site. Sont ainsi comptés les éléments les plus significatifs, à savoir, les fragments de bords, les anses et les fonds. Le NMI minimum ou global correspond au nombre le plus élevé parmi ces différents éléments morphologiques. Une étude macroscopique des pâtes de tous les fragments de céramiques dessinés a également été réalisée; cette description s’appuie essentiellement sur des critères qualificatifs et quantificatifs: – la nature de l’argile; – la couleur des surfaces et de la cassure; – la texture et l’aspect général de la pâte; – les inclusions: la couleur, l’aspect, la taille, la forme, la fréquence et parfois la mention hypothétique de leur nature; – le façonnage final (lissage, peignage, raclage…) et le traitement de surface (présence d’un engobe et/ou d’un décor peint). L’ensemble des données relatives à la fonction, à la forme et à la pâte, nous a permis d’établir un classement typologique et de dresser le catalogue de la céramique découverte sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida pour la fin de la période romaine et l’Antiquité tardive. Quelques contextes et ensembles clos, présentés dans la seconde partie de cette étude, ont également permis de déterminer le faciès des assemblages, bases de la classification. La datation de ces contextes s’appuie outre sur le croisement des données stratigraphiques et de l’étude des ostraca et des monnaies que sur les comparaisons bibliographiques.

8.1.4. Présentation générale des fabriques L’identification et la numérotation des pâtes des céramiques se fondent sur le Dakhleh Oasis Fabric System, classification établie par C. Hope qui a beaucoup travaillé sur la caractérisation des céramiques produites dans l’oasis de Dakhla, toutes périodes confondues.7 Les productions supposées, sinon d’origine locale, du moins de la région englobant l’oasis de Dakhla, voire celui de Kharga, se répartissent suivant trois grandes familles de pâtes: les pâtes riches en oxydes ferrugineux (A1/A2, A5 et A28), les pâtes réfractaires (A11) et les pâtes dites “à plaquettes” (B16 et A27).8

8.1.5. Les techniques de façonnage La grande majorité des céramiques a été façonnée au tour ce dont témoignent les traces de tournage encore visibles sur ces céramiques.9 Seules deux catégories de céramiques ont été moulées: les lampes dont les traces attestent l’usage de deux valves fixées au moyen de barbotine 7. Hope 1999b; Hope 2000: 195–197. 8. Ayant choisi une présentation du catalogue suivant les différentes productions observées sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida, les pâtes seront décrites en début de catalogue pour chaque groupe de production. 9. Concernant le tournage des sigas, on renverra à Patten 1991: 38.

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et les céramiques à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW). Enfin, les céramiques du type dokkas, larges bassines et/ou mangeoires ont été façonnées à la main et probablement montées au moyen de la technique du colombin.

8.1.6. Les techniques de cuisson Un examen attentif de l’aspect et de la couleur des pâtes des céramiques ainsi que de leur surface nous permet d’émettre l’hypothèse de l’emploi de deux modes de cuisson.10 La cuisson des céramiques comprend deux grandes phases, séparées par un palier durant lequel la température atteinte est maintenue suivant un certain laps de temps: la cuisson proprement dite (montée en température) et le refroidissement; le potier cesse alors d’alimenter le four en combustible. La majorité des céramiques a été cuite selon le mode A vraisemblablement dans un four dit “à flamme nue” comprenant une chambre de chauffe où se trouve le foyer et une chambre de cuisson ou laboratoire dans laquelle sont entreposées les céramiques. Ces deux chambres sont séparées par une sole percée de plusieurs trous permettant à la chaleur de circuler. Le mode A comprend une cuisson en atmosphère réductrice qui se produit de manière spontanée dans le four et qui donne aux céramiques une couleur sombre grise à noir; le refroidissement se fait dans une atmosphère oxydante qui confère alors aux céramiques une couleur claire. Si le vernis qui recouvre la surface des céramiques est grésé à haute température, il a tendance à prendre une couleur noire.11 On peut supposer que ce mode a été employé pour la cuisson d’un pourcentage important de céramiques correspondant aux groupes de pâtes A1a, A2a, A11, B10, B16 et ORSW. Le mode B comprend une cuisson et une post-cuisson en atmosphère réductrice – le potier ferme hermétiquement toutes les ouvertures du four durant la totalité de la cuisson. La céramique garde alors sa couleur sombre. Ce mode de cuisson a probablement été employé pour les céramiques des groupes A1b et A2b. Cependant, la présence de cassure zonée (rouge à cœur noir ou noire à cœur rouge) laisse entrevoir la possibilité d’accidents lors de cuissons mal maîtrisées. Les recherches archéologiques entreprises par le Dakhleh Oasis Project au cours des années 70 et 80 et, en particulier, un programme de prospections à l’échelle de l’oasis, ont permis de reconnaître, grâce aux vestiges encore en place de structures de cuisson, plusieurs sites liés à la production de céramiques.12 La majorité de ces fours date de l’époque romaine et de l’Antiquité tardive; ils se rattachent aux groupes des fours dits à “flamme nue”, comprenant une chambre de chauffe, une chambre de cuisson et un alandier. En ce qui concerne l’oasis de Kharga, les prospections conduites en 1992 par P.  Ballet, Maurice Picon et Michèle Vichy attestent l’existence d’au moins six secteurs d’ateliers sur le site de Kysis, l’ancienne Douch, avec des structures de cuisson partiellement conservées. Leur datation concerne avant tout l’époque romaine jusqu’au début du ive siècle.13 10. Concernant les différents modes de cuisson des céramiques et leur influence sur l’aspect et la couleur des pâtes et des couvertes, on renverra à l’article de synthèse: Picon 2002: 139–63. 11. Picon 2002: 146. 12. Hope 1993: 121–27. Voir notamment l’atelier découvert sur le site d’Amheida. 13. Ballet, Vichy 1993: 116–19; Ballet 2004: 210–11, note 3.

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8.1.7. Nature et qualité des décors Cinq types de traitement de surface et/ou de décor ont été observés sur les céramiques d’Ἁin el-Gedida: – simple lissage des surfaces; la présence d’une fine pellicule blanche sur certaines céramiques peut être due au lissage ou à l’utilisation d’eau salée lors de la préparation de l’argile avant le façonnage;14 – surface recouverte d’un engobe rouge; dans le cas des céramiques du groupe A11, l’engobe rouge grèse partiellement et prend la couleur grise; – une grande part des céramiques découvertes sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida présente un décor simple qui se compose d’un rehaut blanc et de larges points rouges; il est uniquement localisé sur le bord interne et/ou externe des vases. Comme nous pourrons le constater au cours des pages suivantes, c’est un décor simple mais très commun et qui concerne la majorité des formes du répertoire; – surface recouverte d’un engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge; ce décor concerne deux productions spécifiques: les jarres de stockage à bord mouluré et les bols à décor assez élaboré du groupe A11; – surface recouverte d’un engobe crème à orangé et décor rouge; ce type de décor se rattache aux céramiques du groupe B16 et comprend des coupelles à fond plat et parois obliques ainsi que des amphores de table.

8.2. Classification des céramiques 8.2.1. Répartition des principales catégories de céramiques et présentation du catalogue Les comptages effectués sur la totalité de la céramique recueillie au cours de la fouille du secteur B a permis de mettre au jour 11 715 tessons de formes (bords, anses et fonds), soit 8 135 individus identifiables15 (NMI pour l’ensemble du site). Ces comptages permettent d’entrevoir l’importance écrasante des céramiques, selon toute vraisemblance, de production locale et la faiblesse des importations supposées provenir de l’oasis de Kharga et des ateliers de la vallée du Nil (fig. 8.1); de plus, on signalera la quasi absence de produits importés de Méditerranée et d’Afrique du Nord ainsi que l’absence des vaisselles de table de la région d’Assouan.16 Enfin, les céramiques non cuites, témoins d’une production de vaisselles et de récipients sur le site même d’Ἁin el-Gedida, représentent 3,9 % de l’ensemble.

14. Bonifay 2004: 41 et 44. 15. Seuls les comptages du secteur B seront présentés ici; en effet, sur le secteur A, les ramassages des céramiques et les fouilles ont été effectuées au cours de deux campagnes éloignées dans le temps. Ont été écartés des comptages les fragments de petite taille ne permettant pas de reconnaître un individu. 16. A ce propos, soulignons que les céramiques en provenance d’Assouan ne seraient attestées à Dakhla que dans des contextes du ve siècle (Hope 1999b: 236).

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290

70 60

% NMI

50 40 30 20

Pâte indéterminée

Céramiques non cuites

Pâte A4

Pâtes A1-A2-A28-A5

Pâte A11

Pâte calcaire B10

ORSW

Oasis de Kharga

Vallée du Nil

0

Afrique du Nord

10

Fig. 8.1: Répartition des céramiques découvertes sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida (secteur B) suivant les principaux groupes de production.

Le classement des céramiques découvertes sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida ne suit pas les principes adoptés pour la présentation des céramiques découvertes sur le site d’Amheida (bâtiment B2);17 ce catalogue suivait alors un schéma chronologique et fonctionnel. En effet, le matériel découvert à Ἁin el-Gedida permet une approche différente en raison de l’homogénéité chronologique et typologique de l’ensemble et par la présence d’un groupe clairement de production locale. Ainsi, le répertoire morphologique s’organisera de la façon suivante:18 – une importation d’Afrique du Nord (0,01 % du NMI par site); – les importations de la vallée du Nil en pâte alluviale et en pâte calcaire (principalement des amphores, des vases à liquide et des récipients culinaires; 0,27 % du NMI par site); – les importations supposées de l’oasis de Kharga (bols et amphores de table, groupe B16; 1,37 % du NMI par site); – la vaisselle de table ou céramique qualifiée de fine et le luminaire à pâte rouge et engobe rouge, plus connus sous l’appellation d’Oasis Red Slip Wares originaires de l’oasis de Dakhla ou de Kharga (1,09 % du NMI par site); – les céramiques en pâte calcaire (groupe B10) dont le lieu d’origine n’est pas défini; ce groupe recouvre principalement des gargoulettes (2,57 % du NMI par site); – les céramiques en pâte réfractaires (groupe A11) qui comprennent principalement des 17. Dixneuf 2015. 18. Il est à signaler que 0,83 % du NMI par site représente les céramiques n’ayant pu être associées à aucune des catégories de céramiques le plus souvent en raison de leur aspect fortement noirci aussi bien en surface qu’en cassure.

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récipients culinaires (marmites et casseroles) ainsi que des coupelles et des bols (24,64 % du NMI par site); – la grande famille des céramiques supposées, en toute légitimité, originaires de l’oasis de Dakhla; il s’agit des groupes A1/A2, A28 et A5 (64,90 % du NMI par site); – les céramiques d’usage domestique ou liées à des activités d’élevage d’animaux en pâte grossière A4 (dokkas, bassines, pithoi, mangeoires…; 0,42 % du NMI par site); – enfin, la dernière partie sera consacrée aux céramiques non cuites produites localement, sur le site même d’Ἁin el-Gedida (3,9 % du NMI par site).

8.2.2. Les importations d’Afrique du Nord Les importations originaires d’Afrique du Nord sont très limitées et se résument à un seul individu, à savoir la forme Hayes 50A dont la diffusion en Égypte concerne avant tout la période comprise entre le milieu du iiie et le début du ive siècle19 (Planche 8.1). 1. AG08/B/127/1310 Ø emb. 28,4 cm. Assiette à paroi fine oblique. Pâte orangée de texture fine et dense. Bibliographie: Forme Hayes 50A (AA1: 65, pl. 28, n. 9–14).

8.2.3. Les importations de la vallée du Nil Les céramiques provenant des ateliers implantés le long de la Vallée du Nil se divisent en deux groupes principaux et distincts suivant la nature de la pâte (Planche 8.1). Le premier groupe concerne principalement les amphores LRA 7-AE 7 qui apparaissent vers le milieu du ive siècle ;20 ces dernières, peu représentées sur le site, possèdent une pâte alluviale ou siliceuse, généralement de couleur marron, de texture moyennement fine et renfermant principalement des particules végétales et des petits micas dorés (groupe A3b). Les amphores LRA 7 ont auparavant été reconnues sur quelques sites des oasis du désert occidental, ainsi à Amheida à partir du milieu du ive siècle,21 à Ismant el-Kharab/Kellis22 et à Kysis23 dans des niveaux de la fin du ive et du début du ve siècle. Ces amphores sont également attestées sur la route du Darb el-Ghubari, reliant les oasis de Dakhla et de Kharga.24 Le second groupe est celui des vases à liquide, en particulier des gargoulettes produites en pâte calcaire;25 ces pâtes calcaires possèdent une texture fine et généralement une cassure beige à rosée; les inclusions consistent en petits grains de quartz, quelques nodules blancs et rouges. 19. Ballet, Bonifay et Marchand 2012: 90–92, fig. 1, no. 1. 20. Dixneuf 2012: 459. 21. Caputo, Marchand, Soto 2017. 22. Hope 1999b: 235. 23. Ballet 2004: 225–26, fig. 221, no. 55. 24. Winlock 1936: 14. 25. Deux gargoulettes en pâte alluviale ont également été comptabilisées.

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Ces gargoulettes ont, selon toute vraisemblance, étaient produites en Moyenne-Égypte et, plus précisément, dans la zone d’El-Ashmounein (Hermopolis Magna).26 2. AG07/B/68/891 Amphore LRA 7-AE 7. Ht. 7 cm. Fond cylindrique pourvu d’un très léger renflement. A3b: pâte alluviale, de texture fine et de cassure marron à noire. La surface externe est noircie. 3. AG06/B/14/222 Amphore LRA 7-AE 7. Ht cons. 8,7 cm. Fond conique remployé comme polissoir. A3b: pâte alluviale, de texture moyennement fine et de cassure marron à cœur rouge, renfermant quelques particules végétales et petits micas. 4. AG07/B/33/602 Fond de vase à liquide. A3b: pâte alluviale, de texture moyennement fine et de cassure zonée: marron à rouge et cœur gris-bleu; les inclusions consistent en fines particules végétales et en grains de quartz de taille moyenne. Surface externe brune et lissée. 5. AG08/B/156/1698 Ø emb. 4,8 cm. Gargoulette à col cylindrique et bord évasé à ressaut interne. Les anses sont fixées sous le bord. Pâte calcaire de texture fine et de cassure blanche; quelques nodules rouges et blancs de petite et moyenne tailles. Parallèles: El-Ashmounein, datation comprise entre 390–460 (Bailey 1996: 63 et pl. 8, fig. 15.3; Bailey 1998: pl. 48, n. I22). Voir également Ballet et al. 1991: 137, fig. 13. 6. AG08/B/F141/1457 Ø fond 7,4 cm. Fond annulaire de gargoulette. Pâte calcaire de texture fine, rosâtre en cassure. 7. AG08/B/127/1323 Ø emb. 5 cm. Pichet, vraisemblablement à panse ovoïde annelée, col cylindrique et bord évasé; une anse est fixée sur le haut de la panse et à mi-hauteur du col. Pâte calcaire de texture fine et dense, beige à marron clair en cassure; quelques nodules blancs et rouges de grande taille et plusieurs petits grains de quartz. Engobe externe blanc. 26. Ballet et al. 1991: 137; Bailey 1996: 63.

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8. AG08/B/127/1369 Ø max. 17,6 cm; ht. 5,7 cm. Plat de cuisson à fond convexe et bord formant un marli incliné vers l’intérieur du plat. Pâte alluviale, dure, de texture fine et de cassure zonée: marron à mauve et cœur bleu sombre. Plusieurs particules de micas de petite et moyenne tailles et quelques particules végétales de tailles diverses. Surface externe noircie à l’exception du fond et surface interne légèrement noircie. Parallèle: El-Ashmounein, forme apparentée (Bailey 1998: pl. 44, n. F10–F15). 9. AG08/B/127/1367 Ø emb. 13,4 cm. Marmite à col court évasé et ressaut interne; la jonction entre le col et la panse est souligné par un ressaut. A3b. Pâte alluviale de texture moyennement fine et de cassure marron. Parallèle: El-Ashmounein, datation comprise entre 390–460 (Bailey 1996: 66 et pl. 9, fig. 17.16).

8.2.4. Les importations de l’Oasis de Kharga Le troisième groupe rassemble les céramiques issues, selon toute probabilité, de l’oasis de Kharga (groupe B16/B3b), et qui se rattachent à la grande famille des pâtes renfermant des plaquettes d’argile silicifiée et plusieurs grains de quartz. Les pâtes, d’aspect grumeleux, possèdent une texture moyennement fine, parfois légèrement grossière, généralement rouge à orangée en cassure.27 Caractéristiques de l’époque romaine et de l’Antiquité tardive, on les trouve, cependant, dès la Basse Époque.28 Le répertoire morphologique lié à ce groupe comprend deux formes principales présentant généralement un décor peint.29 (Planche 8.1). La première forme est celle des amphores de table à panse cylindrique, fond annulaire et pourvues de deux anses; la panse est fréquemment ornée d’un riche décor peint sur un engobe jaune. La seconde forme est celle des écuelles à fond plat et parois obliques dont l’intérieur présente un décor d’entrelacs rouges également peint sur un engobe blanc à jaune. On signalera que les bouteilles étaient sans doute réservées au transport et au conditionnement de vin, ce dont pourraient témoigner les résidus de poix encore visibles sur les parois de certains exemplaires. Selon P. Ballet, ce groupe serait plutôt originaire de l’oasis de Kharga, éventuellement de la partie nord de cette oasis et notamment de l’atelier de Ta ‘un al-Hawa situé au nord de l’actuelle ville de Kharga.30 Il est intéressant de constater que le même duo, bouteilles et écuelles, se rencontrent sur d’autres sites tel Kysis.31 Enfin, une bouteille oasite ou une imitation a été 27. Hope 1999b: 235. 28. Hope et al. 2000: 195–97. 29. Ballet 1990: 299 et 301, fig. 8–9; Patten 1999: 83–84, fig. 1, n. 5; Hope 1999b: 235. 30. Reddé et al. 1990: 301 et fig. 8 pour le groupe des bols; Ballet 2004: 211. 31. Ballet 2004: 222 (pour les bouteilles) et 224, fig. 220, n° 50 (pour les écuelles).

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découverte sur le site de l’Agora d’Athènes,32 attestant soit de la valeur des vins de Kharga ou du voyage d’un oasite en Grèce.33 10. AG08/B/107/1110 Ht totale 27,2 cm; ø max. 14,5 cm; ø ouv. 2,4 cm; ø fond 8,5 cm. Amphore à panse ovoïde, fond annulaire et col étroit marqué à sa base par un large ressaut; les anses sont fixées sur le ressaut et sur l’épaule. Engobe externe blanc et résidus noirs sur la paroi interne, probablement de poix. 11. AG08/B/130/1817 Ø emb. 2,6 cm. Col étroit, renflé à mi-hauteur; deux anses sont fixées sur le bord. Engobe jaune-orangé externe. Vestiges d’un bouchon en plâtre blanc sur la partie supérieure du col et résidus noirs sur la paroi interne, probablement de poix. Parallèles: Kellis (Patten 1999: 84, fig. 1, n. 5); Amheida, ive siècle (Caputo, Marchand et Soto 2017: fig. 7.o). 12. AG08/B/127/1864 Ø max. 21,8 cm. Fragment de panse d’une bouteille. Décor peint en rouge et prune sur un engobe rouge-orangé; résidus noirs sur la paroi interne, probablement de poix. 13. AG08/B/137/1553 Ø fond. 7,9 cm. Fond annulaire; panse carénée. Engobe jaune-orangé externe et résidus noirs sur la paroi interne, probablement de poix. 14. AG 07/B/58/740 Ø emb. 8 cm. Jarre ou vase à liquide à col tronconique marqué de trois bourrelets; lèvre rubanée et moulurée, déversée. 15. AG08/B/132/1811 Ø emb. 18,4 cm; ht. 6,3 cm. Bol à fond plat et paroi oblique. Engobe blanc à jaune interne/externe et décor peint en rouge sur la paroi interne. 16. AG08/B/132/1761 Ø emb. 19,25 cm; ht. 6,5 cm. Bol à fond plat et paroi oblique. Décor peint en rouge sombre sur la paroi interne. Surface noircie; bol probablement remployé en plat de cuisson. 32. Robinson 1959: 104, pl. 40, n° P12935 ou M214. 33. Ballet 2004: 224, note 93.

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17. AG08/B/166/1412 Ø emb. 19 cm. Bol à fond plat et paroi oblique. Engobe blanc interne et décor peint en rouge; surface externe érodée. 18. AG08/B/100/1782 Ø emb. 16,3 cm. Bol à fond plat et paroi oblique. Engobe blanc interne et décor peint en rouge; surface externe légèrement érodée et noircie, bol probablement remployé en plat de cuisson. 19. AG08/B/137/1550 Ø de pose 11 cm. Bol à fond plat et paroi oblique. Engobe blanc interne et décor peint en rouge; surface externe partiellement noircie, bol probablement remployé en plat de cuisson. 20. AG08/B/86/1438 Ø emb. 20,2 cm. Bol à fond plat et paroi oblique. Engobe blanc interne et décor peint en rouge.

8.2.5. Les céramiques rouges à engobe rouge Le groupe Oasis Red Slip Wares, connus sous l’appellation A27 d’après le Dakhleh fabric system, rassemble des céramiques fines et plusieurs lampes dont les parois sont recouvertes d’un engobe rouge-orangé soigneusement lissé et brillant.34 La pâte possède également une couleur rougeorangé en cassure et une texture relativement fine. Les inclusions consistent en plusieurs grains de quartz sableux et en plaquettes d’argile sicilifiée qui ont parfois tendance à se confondre avec le fond de pâte. Il semblerait que les céramiques aient été façonnées dans un moule; les traces observées sur les surfaces confirment l’hypothèse de la technique du moulage.35 En ce qui concerne l’origine de ce groupe, P. Ballet signale que les prospections menées en 1992 dans l’oasis de Kharga n’ont pas permis de confirmer une production locale.36 Il semble donc plus juste, dans l’état actuel des recherches, de suivre l’opinion émise par C. Hope d’une production plutôt caractéristique de l’oasis de Dakhla37 même si aucun indice ne permet de le confirmer. Les occurrences de céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge sont assez importantes à Ἁin el-Gedida en raison de la datation tardive du site. Le répertoire morphologique de ce groupe rassemble trois formes principales: les assiettes à parois obliques et fond plat ou convexe, les coupelles ou coupes convexes à fond annulaire bas et épais marli dont l’extrémité est parfois excisée et les lampes ovoïdes à canal central (Planches 8.2–4). Ce répertoire s’inspire largement des céramiques d’Afrique du Nord, en particulier de 34. La majorité des lampes provient des nettoyages effectués sur le secteur A; elles n’apparaissent donc pas dans les comptages. 35. Hope 1986: 87. 36. Ballet 2004: 211. Hypothèse d’une production locale émise par Mieczyslaw Rodziewicz (Rodziewicz 1987: 123). 37. Ballet 2004: 211, note 8.

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Tunisie; le processus d’imitation semble débuter assez tôt, vraisemblablement vers la fin du iiie siècle.38 Ainsi, l’assiette à parois obliques (forme 1 dans la classification préliminaire de M. Rodziewicz39) imite la forme Hayes 50A;40 les formes à parois fines apparaissent au début de la production alors que celles à parois plus épaisses seraient de datation plus récente41 (forme Hayes 50B42). L’assiette à marli pourrait s’inspirer des types Hayes 58–59, en particulier du type 58B.43 Enfin, la coupelle convexe à marli épais, bien qu’elle présente quelques différences dans le traitement du marli, pourrait avoir été influencée par les formes Hayes 44 et 52 ou Salomonson C5;44 sur le site de Kysis, elle apparait dans les niveaux de la phase Iii finale datée entre le milieu ou la fin du ive et le ve siècle.45 La forme générale des lampes oasites ORSW semble dériver des prototypes en sigillée africaine, en particulier des lampes circulaires, à bec très court et canal central reliant le bec au médaillon central; le tenon de préhension plein émerge à peine du corps de la lampe.46 On rapprochera donc les exemplaires d’Ἁin el-Gedida des formes Atlante iv (type 38, seconde moitié du iiie et première moitié du ive siècle47), Atlante VI (type 40, début ive siècle–450/7048) ou Atlante 8 B (type 43, seconde moitié/fin ive à la première moitié du ve siècle49). Il est intéressant de signaler qu’en ce qui concerne la forme Atlante 8 B, Michel Bonifay établit une distinction entre les lampes à anses forées de datation antérieure (seconde moitié–fin ive siècle) à celle des anses pleines (première moitié du ve siècle).50 Cependant, les lampes ORSW sont également très proches des “lampes-grenouilles” égyptiennes, caractéristiques de la période romaine et de l’Antiquité tardive,51 produites aussi bien en pâte calcaire qu’en pâte alluviale et largement répandues en Égypte. Les lampes d’Ἁin el-Gedida se caractérisent par un corps ovoïde, massif et lourd, à fond plat ou très légèrement concave (planches 8.3–4). Le tenon de préhension, foré ou non, se détache à peine du corps de la lampe de même que le bec dont l’extrémité est arrondie. Un canal relie le bec au médaillon central qui comprend un ou deux trous de remplissage; le médaillon est d’un diamètre minime alors que le bandeau est largement développé. On peut supposer que le décor du bandeau devait, à l’origine, imiter les palmes représentées sur les lampes africaines; cette hypothèse est confirmée par la découverte dans l’US 143, d’un fragment de lampe rouge à engobe rouge dont le bandeau est orné d’une palme.

38. Rodziewicz 1987: 130; Ballet, Bonifay et Marchand 2012: 108–09. 39. Rodziewicz 1987: pl. 38. 40. AA1: 65, pl. 28, n° 9–14. 41. Ballet 2004: 222, note 83. 42. AA1: 87, pl. 37, n° 3–4. 43. AA1 : 81, pl. 32, n° 4–5. 44. AA1: 70, pl. 30, n° 9. 45. Ballet 2004: 224. 46. Bailey 1998: pl. 17, en particulier Q 1736. 47. AA1: 190; Bonifay 2004: 353–54, fig. 199, type 38, n° 3. 48. AA1: 191–92; Bonifay 2004: 355 et 357, fig. 200, type 40, n°4. 49. Bonifay 2004: 356 et 358, fig. 201, type 43, n° 1. 50. Bonifay 2004: 358. 51. Hope 2004a: 21 et 36, fig. 3.c.

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21. AG08/B177/1805 Ø emb. 8 cm. Vase de service à col évasé et petite lèvre de section triangulaire. Parallèles: Rodziewicz 1987: pl. 45, forme 42; Kellis, forme apparentée dont le bord est traité différemment (Hope 1986: fig. 9.ee et ff). 22. AG06/A/-/186 Ø emb. 28 cm. Assiette à paroi oblique, légèrement convexe. Parallèles: Imitation de la forme Hayes 50A (AA1: 65, pl. 28, n. 9-14); Rodziewicz 1987: 130, pl. 38, forme 1a/b; Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 8.n–o); Amheida, ive siècle (Caputo, Marchand et Soto 2017: 1017, fig. 6.f); Kysis-Douch, milieu ou seconde moitié du ive siècle (Ballet 2004: fig. 219, n. 41 phase Iii précoce). 23. AG06/A/-/50 Ø ext. 20 cm. Assiette à paroi oblique et fond concave. Parallèles: idem au nº. 22. 24. AG08/B/127/1309 Ø emb. 23,1 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. Assiette à paroi oblique, épaisse et fond concave. Parallèles: Imitation de la forme Hayes 50B (AA1: 87, pl. 37, n° 3–4); Rodziewicz 1987: 130, pl. 38, forme 1f. 25. AG08/B/121/1511-1510 Ø emb. 13 cm; ht. 5,2 cm. Coupelle convexe, à fond annulaire bas et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 9.u); Rodziewicz 1987: 132, pl. 42, forme 20b. 26. AG08/B/148/1499 Ø emb. 12,6 cm. Coupelle convexe et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 27. AG08/B/90/1421 Ø emb. 15,4 cm. Coupelle convexe et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: idem au n° 25. 28. AG07/B/76/907 Ø emb. 18 cm.

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Coupelle convexe et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 29. AG08/B/90/1670 Ø emb. 19 cm. Coupelle convexe et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 30. AG08/B/132/1734 Ø emb. 11 cm. Coupelle convexe et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 31. AG08/B/127/1308 Ø emb. 12,6 cm. Coupelle convexe et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire, dont l’extrémité est excisée. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 32. AG08/B/122/1743 Ø emb. 10,5 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. Coupelle convexe, à fond annulaire bas et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire, dont l’extrémité est excisée. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 33. AG06/B/14/110 Ø emb. 10,5 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. Coupelle convexe, à fond annulaire bas et lèvre en marli épais, de section quadrangulaire, dont l’extrémité est excisée. Parallèles: idem au nº. 25. 34. AG08/B/136/1554 Ø emb. 10,8 cm. Coupelle hémisphérique à lèvre en marli, de section quadrangulaire. Parallèles: Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 9.p–t); Rodziewicz 1987: 133, pl. 42, forme 22. 35. AG08/B/127/1305 Ø max. 26,1 cm; ht. 4,8 cm. Assiette hémisphérique à lèvre en marli plat. Parallèle: Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 9.m). 36. AG08/B/94/1880 Ø emb. 17 cm; Ø max. 20,7 cm; ht. 7 cm.

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Coupelle hémisphérique à lèvre en marli, de section triangulaire. Parallèles: Rodziewicz 1987: 133, pl. 42, forme 22; Ballet 2004: fig. 220, n. 45 (phase Iii finale). 37. AG08/B/154/1690 Ø emb. 14,5 cm. Coupelle hémisphérique à lèvre en marli, de section triangulaire. Parallèles: idem au nº. 36. 38. AG08/B/165/1105 Ø emb. 16,5 cm; ht. 5,1 cm. Coupelle hémisphérique à fond annulaire bas et lèvre en marli concave. Parallèles: Apparentée à la forme Hayes 78 de la sigillée africaine (AA1: 108, pl. 50, n. 4). Rodziewicz 1987: 130, pl. 42, forme 21c: forme qui s’apparente, selon l’auteur, aux types Hayes 44 et 52. 39. AG06/A/-/49 Ø emb. 14 cm; ht. 5,4 cm. Coupelle hémisphérique à fond annulaire bas et à lèvre en marli concave. Parallèles: idem au nº. 38. 40. AG08/B/129/1878 Ø emb. 24,2 cm. Assiette convexe, à lèvre de section quadrangulaire. 41. AG08/B/96/1877 Ø emb. 12,8 cm. Assiette convexe, à lèvre épaisse. Parallèle: forme apparentée, Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 9.g). 42. AG06/B/14/121 Ø emb. 14,2 cm; ht. 3 cm. Assiette convexe, à fond annulaire bas et lèvre en marli aminci. Parallèle: Imitation de la forme Hayes 58B (AA1: 81, pl. 32, n. 4–5). 43. AG04/A/-/557 Ø emb. 9,6 cm; ht. 3,7 cm. Bol à paroi droite, fond plat et lèvre en marli, pourvu d’un bec verseur (forme attestée dans le groupe de pâte A11, nº. 65). 44. AG94/A/-/552 L. 10,5 cm; l. 8,5 cm; ht. cons. 4,7 cm. Lampe ovale à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; on note deux

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trous de remplissage dans le médaillon et dans le canal; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, est forée. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon. 45. AG94/A/-/553 L. 11,3 cm; l. 8,8 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. Lampe ovale à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, est forée. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon. 46. AG94/A/-/554 L. 9,5 cm; l. 7,4 cm; ht. 4,8 cm. Lampe ovale à fond légèrement concave et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, n’est pas forée. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon. 47. AG94/A/-/555 L. 7,9 cm; l. 5,8 cm; ht. 3,6 cm. Petite lampe ovale et ovoïde, à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, n’est pas forée. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon. 48. AG07/B/41/577 L. 10,2 cm; l. 8,2 cm; ht. 5,2 cm. Épaisse lampe ovale à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, n’est pas forée. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon, qui rappelle les palmettes des lampes à canal africaines. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 464, pl. 2. 49. AG08/B/141/849 L. 8,3 cm; l. 6,4 cm; ht. 4,3 cm. Lampe ovale à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, est forée et comprend deux volutes à sa base. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon, probablement des palmettes. 50. AG08/B/127/1001 L. 10,5 cm; l. 8,6 cm; ht. 4,9 cm. Lampe ovale à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; on note deux trous de remplissage dans le médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, est forée. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon, probablement des palmettes.

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51. AG08/B/132/848 L. 9,2 cm; l. 6,9 cm; ht. 4,8 cm. Lampe ovale à fond plat et canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au médaillon; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, est forée et semble comprendre deux volutes à sa base. Le bandeau comprend une protubérance de chaque côté du médaillon, probablement des palmettes qui se terminent par deux larges points. 52. AG07/A/-/615 L. 10,2 cm; l. 8,3 cm; ht. 4,1 cm. Lampe circulaire à fond plat et médaillon central qui comprend deux trous de remplissage; l’anse, qui se détache à peine du corps, ne semble pas forée.

8.2.6. Les céramiques en pâte calcaire La famille des pâtes calcaires est illustrée par le groupe B10 qui rassemble des céramiques à pâte poreuse, légère, de texture moyennement grossière et aérée. Grises à verdâtres en cassure, elles renferment plusieurs grains de quartz, des nodules rouges et noirs de tailles diverses.52 Ce type d’argile a été employé presque exclusivement pour la confection de formes fermées et, plus précisément, de vases à eau de type gargoulette aussi bien durant l’époque romaine que durant l’Antiquité tardive (Planche 8.5). En effet, cette forme de gargoulette, confectionnée à partir d’argiles locales, est attestée dès la phase 1 d’occupation du site de Kysis.53 Ces céramiques présentent une panse ovoïde, un fond annulaire et un col cylindrique terminé par une petite lèvre arrondie, évasée ou rentrante. Une anse, de section ovale, est fixée sur le bord et le haut de la panse. Outre ce type de gargoulettes pourvues d’un filtre, le répertoire comprend également des vases à liquide sans filtre. L’utilisation d’une pâte poreuse calcaire est une pratique bien connue en Égypte et plus largement en Méditerranée orientale; comme le rappelle Danièle Alexandre-Bidon, “régulièrement en Terre Sainte, croisés et pèlerins ont observé l’usage que faisaient les Égyptiens de céramiques qui procuraient au consommateur une eau fraîche à souhait malgré (ou plutôt en raison de) la chaleur écrasante du climat: la porosité d’une terre cuite assure, par évaporation, le rafraîchissement de l’eau contenue dans des céramiques exposées au soleil”.54 53. AG07/B/80/991 Ht. 34,7 cm; Ø max. 22,8 cm; Ø emb. 3,5 cm; Ø de pose 9,2 cm. Gargoulette, pourvue d’un filtre, à panse ovoïde, fond annulaire et col cylindrique étroit qui se termine par une lèvre rentrante; une anse est fixée sur le bord et l’épaule. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 54. AG07/B/68/881 Ø emb. 3,5 cm. 52. Hope 1999b: 235. 53. Ballet 2004: 217 et 234, fig. 217 n° 27. 54. Alexandre-Bidon 2005: 104.

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Gargoulette, pourvue d’un filtre, à col cylindrique légèrement renflé et petite lèvre arrondie; une anse est fixée sur la lèvre. 55. AG08/B/165/1154 Ø emb. 3,3 cm. Gargoulette à col cylindrique légèrement renflé, et petite lèvre rentrante; une anse est fixée sur la lèvre et le haut de la panse. 56. AG06/B/15/204 Ø emb. 3,2 cm. Gargoulette, pourvue d’un filtre, à col cylindrique légèrement concave, et lèvre en forme de C; une anse est fixée sur la lèvre et sur le haut de la panse. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 57. AG07/A/-/466 Ø emb. 3,6 cm. Vase de service à col marqué d’un renflement, terminé par une lèvre évasée; deux anses sont fixées à mi-hauteur du col. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse.

8.2.7. Les céramiques en pâte réfractaire La famille suivante (A11) rassemble des pâtes aisément reconnaissables, dures et sonores, de texture fine (Christian Brittle Wares) qui apparaissent durant le iiie siècle de notre ère.55 La cassure est généralement zonée: rose à cœur bleu, parfois de couleur uniforme rose. Les inclusions consistent en plusieurs nodules noirs et rouges de tailles diverses, en grains de quartz et en quelques petites particules blanches, vraisemblablement des calcites. Il est assez fréquent d’observer la présence sur la surface externe d’un engobe rouge qui vire au gris après cuisson de la céramique56 (céramiques cuites en mode A; pour que l’engobe vire au gris, la température de cuisson dans le four devait être assez élevée). Il s’agit, selon toute vraisemblance, d’une argile kaolinitique, réfractaire apte à résister aux chocs thermiques et mécaniques, pouvant subir des cuissons à températures élevées répétées. L’usage de cette fabrique concerne donc principalement les céramiques culinaires: bouilloires, marmites, pots et casseroles; plusieurs bols et petits cratères semblent avoir également été employés pour la cuisson des aliments (Planches 8.5–8). Cependant, le répertoire morphologique comprend également des pichets, des flacons à parfum (Planche 8.5) et une série de coupelles à parois fines dont la surface interne est ornée d’un décor peint en rouge sur un fond blanc (Planche 8.6). Parmi les bols ou casseroles, on notera la présence d’une forme rappelant les marmites à bord coupé produites en Égypte et, plus largement, en Méditerranée

55. Hope 1999b: 235; Dunsmore 2002: 131. 56. Hope 1999b: 235.

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orientale (Planche 8.7). Cette forme relève d’une technique de fabrication spécifique.57 La marmite ou casserole et son couvercle sont tournés ensemble, à partir d’une même balle d’argile. Après façonnage et séchage, le potier sépare, au moyen d’un couteau, le couvercle de la marmite. Les deux éléments seront toutefois mis à cuire ensemble, non séparés; c’est l’acheteur, au moment de la vente, qui détachera la casserole de son couvercle et constatera ainsi que la marmite et le couvercle sont parfaitement ajustables. Si la morphologie des casseroles semble attester l’usage de cette technique de fabrication, il convient de signaler qu’aucun couvercle ne se rattache clairement à aucune casserole. 58. AG07/B/58/744 Ø emb. 12,6 cm. Jarre à bord de section triangulaire et col très court; un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. Rehaut blanc sur la lèvre. 59. AG07/B/77/720 Ø emb. 8 cm; Ø max. 15,5 cm. Pichet à panse ovoïde et col large, légèrement renflé, terminé par une lèvre en bandeau rubané et inclinée vers l’intérieur du vase. Engobe rouge devenu gris sur la paroi externe; décor peint en rouge. Résidus noirs sur la paroi interne, probablement de poix. 60. AG08/B/100/1781 Ø emb. 4,8 cm. Pichet à col légèrement renflé et lèvre inclinée vers l’intérieur du récipient. L’anse est fixée sur le bord et le haut de la panse. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 61. AG07/B/45/873 Ø emb. 5 cm. Pichet à col cylindrique et lèvre épaissie du côté interne. 62. AG07/B/80/576 Ø emb. 2,5 cm; Ø max. 12 cm; ht. 11,3 cm. Flacon globulaire à fond convexe, col court et lèvre à épais ressaut interne. Résidus de couleur marron sur la paroi externe. Parallèles: Kellis, époques hellénistique et romaine (Patten 2000: 192–93 et pl. 60, forme 77 R–F); Amheida, flacon en pâte A1a, fin iiie-ive siècle (Caputo 2014: 176, fig. 3, n. 10). 63. AG08/B/122/1382 Ø emb. 2 cm; Ø max. 8,5 cm. Flacon à panse carénée et fond probablement plat; col cylindrique court, terminé par une petite lèvre de section triangulaire. Surface externe noircie. 57. Voir l’exemplaire encore “attaché” découvert sur l’épave d’Iskandil Burnu et la description de la technique de fabrication dans Lloyd 1984: 49–51, fig. 16.

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64. AG07/B/80/794 Ø emb. 13,8 cm; ht. 12,3 cm. Bol à paroi droite, légèrement inclinée et fond annulaire bas; une anse est fixée sur la partie supérieure du bol et à son opposé, un bec verseur. Surface externe grise. Parallèle: Amheida (Dixneuf 2015: 228 et 250, pl. 8.8, nº. 113). 65. AG07/B/80/795 Ø emb. 15,5 cm. Bol à paroi oblique, pourvu d’un bec verseur et lèvre en méplat. 66. AG07/B/36/604 Ø emb. 12,5 cm. Bol hémisphérique à lèvre en marli. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur le marli. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 464, fig. 10, nº. 2. 67. AG07/B/79/753 Ø emb. 9,5 cm. Bol à paroi oblique et lèvre en méplat. Engobe rouge devenu gris et points rouges sur le marli. 68. AG07/B/58/745 Ø emb. 14,5 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. Bol hémisphérique à fond annulaire bas et lèvre simplement arrondie. Points rouges sur la lèvre. 69. AG07/B/80/820 Ø emb. 13 cm; ht. 5 cm. Bol hémisphérique à fond plat et lèvre simplement arrondie. Décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc sur la paroi interne. 70. AG07/B/80/864 Ø emb. 12 cm; ht. 5,3 cm. Bol hémisphérique à fond bombé et dépression centrale. Engobe interne blanc et décor peint en rouge. 71. AG08/B/174/1678 Ø emb. 15,5 cm. Bol à paroi oblique et carénée, petite lèvre à ressaut interne. Décor peint en rouge sur la paroi interne. 72. AG08/B/132/1759 Ø emb. 17,5 cm. Bol hémisphère à lèvre pourvue d’un épais ressaut interne. Surface recouverte par un engobe blanc.

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73. AG07/B/80/819 Ø emb. 16 cm. Bol à paroi oblique et carénée, lèvre dans le prolongement de la paroi. 74. AG08/B/127/1360 Ø emb. 6,3 cm. Bouilloire à col tronconique et lèvre arrondie; une anse est fixée sur la lèvre. 75. AG08/B/F141/1458 Ø emb. 10,3 cm. Marmite à parois annelée et lèvre en bandeau mouluré. 76. AG06/B/15/403 Ø emb. 16,8 cm. Marmite à col court mouluré, pourvue de deux anses verticales. Surface externe noircie. 77. AG08/B/F162/1675 Ø emb. 13,2 cm; Ø max. 18,5 cm. Marmite, à panse vraisemblablement ovoïde, col court et petite lèvre arrondie, pourvue d’un ressaut interne. Surface externe totalement noircie. 78. AG08/B/165/1149 Ø emb. 12 cm. Marmite à col court, en C, pourvue de deux anses verticales. Surface externe grise et noircie. 79. AG08/B/127/1352 Ø emb. 13 cm. Marmite à lèvre formant un C. Surface externe noircie; rehaut ou coulure d’un engobe rouge sur la paroi interne supérieure. 80. AG08/B/132/1754 Ø emb. 13,5 cm. Marmite globulaire à lèvre formant un C. 81. AG08/B/185/1834 Ø emb. 11,5 cm. Marmite globulaire à lèvre courte et évasée. 82. AG08/B/154/1381 Ø emb. 12 cm; Ø max. 20,6 cm; ht. 26,1 cm. Marmite à panse ovoïde, fond convexe et petite lèvre de section triangulaire. Surface externe grise à rouge. Parallèle: forme apparentée, Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 6.f).

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83. AG07/B/62/923 Ø emb. 14 cm. Marmite à lèvre de section triangulaire soulignée par une rainure interne. 84. AG08/B/169/1546 Ø emb. 11,3 cm. Marmite de forme ovoïde à panse striée et lèvre de section triangulaire pourvue d’un léger ressaut interne. 85. AG08/B/165/1147 Ø emb. 13 cm. Marmite à paroi annelée et lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 86. AG07/B/65/970 Ø emb. 10 cm. Marmite à lèvre évasée en méplat. Surface externe grise et noircie. 87. AG08/B/166/1408 Ø emb. 11,8 cm. Marmite à paroi annelée et lèvre fortement évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 88. AG06/B/14/109 Ø emb. 10,5 cm. Marmite vraisemblablement de forme globulaire, à lèvre arrondie. 89. AG06/B/15/390 Ø emb. 14 cm. Marmite à col cylindrique annelé et bord en bandeau pourvu d’un large ressaut interne. 90. AG07/B/80/817 Ø emb. 14,5 cm; Ø max. 20,1 cm; ht. 23 cm. Marmite de forme ovoïde, carénée dans sa partie supérieure et dans sa partie inférieure, à fond convexe et à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 91. AG08/B149/1394 Ø emb. 18,5 cm; Ø max. 22,5 cm. Marmite de forme ovoïde, carénée dans sa partie supérieure et partiellement annelée, à embouchure large et lèvre évasée à ressaut interne. Rehaut blanc et points rouge sur le rebord interne. 92. AG08/B/165/1153 Ø emb. 11,2 cm. Marmite ovoïde à petite lèvre de section triangulaire.

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93. AG08/B/127/1365 Ø emb. 12,4 cm. Pot globulaire à panse annelée et petite lèvre évasée arrondie. 94. AG08/B/122/1385 Ø emb. 17,7 cm; Ø max. 21 cm. Pot globulaire – la partie supérieure est régulièrement annelée – à lèvre évasée. Points rouges à l’intérieur de la lèvre. 95. AG08/B/165/1157 Ø emb. 17,7 cm. Pot globulaire caréné dans sa partie inférieure; lèvre évasée et pincée. Points rouges à l’intérieur de la lèvre. 96. AG08/B/165/1158 Ø emb. 18,5 cm. Pot globulaire, dont la partie supérieure est annelée, à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. Points rouges à l’intérieur de la lèvre. 97. AG07/B/94/975 + AG07/B/69/962 Ø emb. 22 cm. Cratère à carène haute, col cylindrique court et petite lèvre arrondie pourvue d’un ressaut interne. Points rouges à l’intérieur de la lèvre. Parallèle: Kellis (Hope 1986: fig. 6.b). 98. AG07/B/73/895 Ø emb. 15,6 cm. Casserole globulaire à lèvre coupée, inclinée vers l’intérieur et formant un crochet; deux petits tenons sont fixés à mi-hauteur de la panse. 99. AG08/B/165/1138 Ø emb. 15,7 cm. Casserole globulaire à lèvre coupée, inclinée vers l’intérieur et formant un crochet; deux petits tenons sont fixés à mi-hauteur de la panse. 100. AG06/A/-/344 Ø emb. 19 cm. Casserole globulaire à bord coupé, en biseau incliné vers l’intérieur. 101. AG08/B/107/1784 Ø emb. 15,8 cm. Casserole globulaire à bord coupé, en biseau incliné vers l’intérieur. La surface externe est noircie.

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102. AG07/B/71/748 Ø emb. 19 cm. Casserole, vraisemblablement de forme globulaire, à paroi annelée et lèvre en biseau, inclinée vers l’intérieur. 103. AG07/B/80/812 Ø emb. 11,5 cm; Ø max. 13,8 cm; ht. 7.5 cm. Casserole globulaire à fond plat et lèvre plate; deux petits tenons sont fixés sous le bord. 104. AG08/B/165/1141 Ø emb. 15,6 cm. Casserole, vraisemblablement de forme globulaire, à lèvre simple, soulignée par deux fines incisions. Points rouges sur la lèvre. 105. AG07/B/77/722 Ø emb. 15,8 cm. Couvercle à bord simple et paroi annelée. 106. AG06/A/-/38 Ø emb. 15 cm; ht. 5,7 cm. Couvercle à bord en biseau et tenon plein “triangulaire”. 107. AG06/A/-/196 Ø emb. 12,7 cm. Couvercle à bord en biseau et paroi annelée; surface externe grise à noire. 108. AG06/B/20/340 Ø emb. 11,8 cm; ht. 2,8 cm. Couvercle à bord retourné et souligné par une fine incision interne. Tenon creux peu saillant. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 461, fig. 1, n. 13. 109. AG08/B/127/1865 Ø max. 8,3 cm; ht. 5 cm. Lampe de forme circulaire, dépourvue d’anse et dont le décor consiste en petites “gouttes” incisées sur le bandeau et autour du médaillon central.

8.2.8. Les céramiques de l’Oasis de Dakhla Ce groupe, numériquement le plus important, rassemble des argiles riches en oxydes ferrugineux (iron-rich clays) dont la couleur varie généralement du rouge-orangé (A1a/A2a) au gris-noir (A1b/A2b).58 La distinction entre les groupes A1 et A2 repose principalement sur 58. Hope 1999b: 235.

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la texture, plus fine et dure en ce qui concerne les pâtes du groupe A2. Les inclusions consistent essentiellement en grains de quartz sableux assez nombreux, en plusieurs nodules blancs et quelques particules rouges. Il est intéressant de noter que la description de ces deux groupes rappelle celle des pâtes d’’Ayn Ἁsil, pâtes obtenues à partir des argiles rouges du Crétacée.59 On observe parfois des marques de défectuosités, telle la déformation des parois, ou des accidents de cuisson, le plus souvent des variations de couleur dûes à la position, à l’empilement des céramiques ou à des variations importantes des températures à l’intérieur du four. La différence entre les sous-groupes a et b repose, quant à elle, sur les modes de cuisson employés. En effet, la couleur claire et rouge du sous-groupe a est due à une cuisson en mode A alors que la couleur grise et noire du second est due à une cuisson en mode B. Une première variante de ces groupes est représentée par la fabrique A5 qui comprend des pâtes de nature similaire mais de texture plus grossière, poreuses et renfermant une quantité plus importante de particules de calcites qui pourraient constituer des dégraissants ajoutés de manière intentionnelle par le potier. Cette pâte caractérise notamment des vases à liquide, en particulier des gargoulettes, quelques sigas et jarres de stockage. De datation antérieure au ive siècle, le groupe A28 concerne un ensemble relativement peu important de céramiques; il regroupe des pâtes tendres, sableuses, de texture fine à moyennement fine et de cassure homogène marron. Ces pâtes renferment plusieurs grains de quartz sableux, des nodules blancs et quelques particules rouges de taille diverse. De plus, comme le souligne C.A. Hope “… many of the traditions of the Roman Period continued into the Byzantine Period. This is particularly evident in the use of the quartz-tempered fabrics and in the shapes of the large necked storage jars (…), water kegs (…), some of the cooking pots (…) and, of course, the bowls. Both grey-or black-fired and brown-fired versions of these fabrics continued to be produced and they were still the dominant domestic fabrics.”60 Ce large groupe caractérise une grande majorité du matériel et concerne la quasi-totalité des formes rencontrées sur le site: conteneurs de stockage et de transport, récipients culinaires, céramiques communes, vaisselles de service et de table, luminaire. Parmi les céramiques de forme fermée et plus précisément des sigas, (Planche 8.8), une forme principale prédomine; il s’agit de la siga à col tronconique et bord à face externe moulurée, parfois fortement incisée.61 La datation de ces conteneurs est assez difficile et les formes ne permettent pas d’émettre de datation précise. Les vases de stockage se répartissent suivant deux grandes familles. Le premier groupe comprend des jarres à panse ovoïde, fond annulaire et bord replié sur l’extérieur, dont la face externe est moulurée62 (Planche 8.9). Un épais ressaut, pouvant être digité, souligne la jonction entre le col et la panse. On observe quelques variantes où le bord forme un bandeau ou est plus arrondi. La caractéristique principale de ce premier groupe est la présence d’un décor peint en rouge sur l’engobe blanc. Ce décor est assez sommaire et trahit une exécution rapide et peu soignée; il demeure souvent assez difficile à identifier. Il s’agit principalement de feuillages et d’une série de lignes ondulées, en particulier sur le col.63 Ces jarres ont été 59. Ballet et Picon 1990: 90–92. 60. Hope 1999b: 235. 61. Voir Amheida (Caputo, Marchand, Soto 2017: fig. 7.l). 62. Patten 1999: 84, fig. 1, no. 10. 63. Voir en particulier les exemplaires découverts à Kellis (Dunsmore 2002: 137–41, fig. 7) dont certains datés de la fin du iiie et du ive siècle. Hope 2004b: 211–12, fig. 3.c et fig. 4.a et p. 215 et 217.

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produites principalement en pâte A1/A2, mais pas uniquement puisque quelques exemplaires se rattachent au groupe A5. Le second groupe de vases liés au conditionnement des denrées est celui des jarres de grande taille, à panse ovoïde et bord généralement de section triangulaire ou en bandeau (Planches 8.10–11). Là encore, on observe la présence d’un ressaut soulignant la jonction entre le col et la panse. De rares exemplaires présentent un décor peint en rouge, en particulier une ligne ondulée sur le col, sur un engobe blanc. Outre les jarres de stockage, on soulignera, parmi les formes fermées, la présence de pots de stockage à décor peint, de flacons à parfum et de plusieurs gargoulettes proches des exemplaires en pâte calcaire B10 (Planches 8.11–12). Le répertoire morphologique des céramiques communes destinées à la préparation des aliments comprend principalement des bassines, larges et profondes coupes généralement pourvues d’un fond annulaire, de parois convexes ou droites (Planches 8.12–14). On distingue plusieurs variantes suivant la forme de la lèvre, de section quadrangulaire, triangulaire ou moulurée. Il semblerait que les formes à lèvre plate soient plutôt caractéristiques de la période romaine, les variantes à lèvre haute étant plus fréquentes durant l’Antiquité tardive.64 Parmi cet ensemble, on mentionnera la présence d’une large bassine qui se caractérise par la présence d’un bec verseur fixé sous le bord et qui rappelle des formes plus anciennes.65 En outre, ont également été identifiés 2 entonnoirs et 34 passoires ou faisselles dont la fonction demeure encore méconnue (Planche 8.15). Les céramiques de forme ouverte destinées au service et à la consommation des aliments rassemblent plusieurs formes, parfois difficilement classables. Cet ensemble comprend: – les cratères: larges coupes convexes carénées à lèvre évasée (Planches 8.15–16). On observe assez souvent la présence d’un rehaut blanc et d’un décor peint en rouge – lignes ondulées ou croisées, cercles – sur la partie supérieure interne du vase et parfois également sur la paroi externe; – les coupes profondes et les assiettes à parois obliques (Planche 8.17); – les bols dont trois formes ont été reconnues: bol à paroi oblique, bol convexe à bord simple66 ou bol convexe à bord mouluré67 (Planches 8.17–18). On soulignera à ce propos que 29 % de ces bols présentait lors de leur découverte des traces noircies attestant de leur utilisation comme petit vase de cuisson pour des portions individuelles; – les pots globulaires à lèvre évasée68 (Planche 8.18) dont 25 % porte des traces noircies attestant un usage culinaire; cette forme est caractéristiques plus précisément de la période comprise entre la fin du iiie et le ive siècle.69 Les céramiques culinaires représentent 7,9 % de l’ensemble des céramiques en pâtes A164. Voir le matériel publié par S. Patten et en particulier la forme 62/1 et 2 datable du ier et du iie siècle (Patten 2000: 177–78, pl. 51–53). 65. Forme également attestée à Kellis (Patten 1996: 54, fig. 6 et Patten 1999: 85, fig. 2, n0. 15.). 66. Kellis iie–iiie siècles, (Hope 1987: 171, fig. 5.j; Patten 1996: 54, fig. 5 et Hope 2004a: 24 et 40, fig. 7.a–f); cependant, à l’instar d’Amheida, ces bols sont encore en usage au ive siècle (Caputo, Marchand, Soto 2017). 67. Forme également attestée à Kellis en particulier dans les contextes datés du ive siècle (Hope 2004b: 211, fig. 3.g et i). 68. Kellis, Hope 1986: fig. 6.c. 69. Hope 2004a: 25–26.

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A2-A5-A28 (Planches 8.18–19). Il s’agit essentiellement de marmites même si on observe la présence de quelques bouilloires et encore plus rarement de casseroles. Sigas 110. AG08/B/127/1312 Ø emb. 4,7 cm. A2b. Siga à col cylindrique et bord à face externe arrondie. 111. AG08/B/90/1420 Ø emb. 5,4 cm. A1b/A5. La surface externe est recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Siga à col cylindrique et bord à face externe arrondie. 112. AG07/B/75/759 Ø emb. 5 cm. A2b. Siga à col cylindrique et bord en bandeau. 113. AG07/B/26/984 Ø emb. 5,8 cm. A1b. La surface externe est recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Siga à col cylindrique et bord en bandeau. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 462, fig. 3, n. 1. 114. AG07/B/75/774 Ø emb. 4,5 cm. A1b. Siga à col cylindrique court et bord mouluré. 115. AG07/B/37/618 Ø emb. 4,2 cm. A1/2. Siga à col tronconique et bord en bandeau mouluré. 116. AG07/B/68/858 Ø emb. 4,6 cm. A1b. Siga à col tronconique et bord en bandeau mouluré. 117. AG08/B/132/1741 Ø emb. 3,4 cm. A1a. Siga à col cylindrique court et lèvre en bandeau haut mouluré. Résidus noirs sur la paroi interne, probablement de poix.

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118. AG08/B/146/1594 Ø emb. 5,8 cm. A2b. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: Amheida, ive siècle (Caputo, Marchand et Soto 2017: fig. 7.l). 119. AG07/B/78/934 Ø emb. 5 cm. A1a. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 120. AG07/B/80/793 Ø emb. 5 cm. A1a/b. La surface externe est recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 121. AG08/B/127/1311 Ø emb. 5,5 cm. A2b. Surface interne noircie et surface externe vraisemblablement recouverte par un engobe blanc. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 122. AG08/B/F181/1679 Ø emb. 5,6 cm. A1b/A5. La surface externe est recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 123. AG08/B/132/1736 Ø emb. 4,8 cm. A2b. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 124. AG08/B/127/1313 Ø emb. 4,8 cm. A5. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. On note quelques résidus de couleur marron à rouge et jaune sur la paroi interne. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 125. AG08/B/137/1548 Ø emb. 5,7 cm. A1a/b. Cassure zonée: rouge-orange à gris-brun. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en

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bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 126. AG07/B/82/724 Ø emb. 6,2 cm. A1b. La surface externe est recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Siga à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 127. AG08/B/165/1109 Ø emb. 6 cm. A1b. Siga à col cylindrique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Surface interne couverte de résidus noirs, vraisemblablement de poix. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 128. AG06/B/14/107 Ø max. 15,6 cm - Ø emb. 3,8 cm - ht. 15,8 cm. A1b. Siga à surface annelée, col cylindrique court et bord en bandeau mouluré. Parallèle: idem au nº. 118. 129. AG08/B/86/1824 Ø emb. 3,8 cm, irrégulier. A1/2a. Siga à col court et évasé. Jarres de stockage à décor peint 130. AG06/B/15/85 Ø emb. 20,4 cm. A1b. Surface externe recouverte d›un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint un décor, assez sommaire, de couleur brun-rouge. Jarre à col court et bord mouluré; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. Parallèles: forme apparentée, Kellis (Patten 1999: 84, fig. 1, n. 10; Dunsmore 2002: 141, fig. 7; Hope 2004b : 211–12, fig. 3.c et 4.a). 131. AG07/B/F67/903 Ø emb. 16,7 cm. A5. Surface externe recouverte d‘un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint un décor, assez sommaire, de couleur brun-rouge. Jarre à col court et bord mouluré; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. Parallèles: idem au n. 130. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 466, fig. 11.

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132. AG07/B/78/935 Ø emb. 23,2 cm. A1b. Surface externe recouverte (en partie supérieure) d‘un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint un décor, assez sommaire, de couleur brun-rouge. Jarre à col court et bord mouluré. Parallèles: idem au nº. 130. 133. AG06/B/15/358 Ø emb. 22 cm. A1b. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Jarre à col court et bord mouluré. Parallèles: idem au nº. 130. 134. AG06/B/15/426 Ø emb. 23,2 cm. A2b. Surface recouverte d’un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. Jarre à col court et bord mouluré. 135. AG06/B/14/210 Ø emb. 19,2 cm. A1b. Surface recouverte d’un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. Jarre à col court et bord en bandeau mouluré. 136. AG06/A/-/192 Ø emb. 22,5 cm. A1b/A5. Surface recouverte d’un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. Jarre à col court, bord évasé et mouluré. 137. AG07/B/73/913 A1b. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. 138. AG07/B/80/978 A1b. Surface recouverte d’un engobe blanc sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. Jarres de stockage 139. AG07/B/73/901 Ø emb. 12,8 cm. A1b, assez dure. Jarre à bord de section quadrangulaire. 140. AG08/B/127/1763 Ø emb. 7,3 cm. A1b/A2b. On note quelques traces noires sur la paroi externe: noir de fumée et/ou résidus de poix. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord arrondi. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse.

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141. AG07/B/65/954 Ø emb. 14,5 cm. A1b. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc à rosé-violet sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord épaissi. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 142. AG08/B/104/1584 Ø emb. 11,6 cm. A1b/A2b. Pseudo-engobe blanc sur le col. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord épaissi. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 143. AG08/B/127/1318 Ø emb. 11 cm. A1b. Jarre à col tronconique court et lèvre épaissie. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 144. AG08/B/122/1383 + AG08/B/127/1322 Ø emb. 10,5 cm. A2b. Surface externe fortement noircie. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord de section triangulaire. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. Parallèle: Kellis, ier–iie siècles (Patten 2000: 226–27 et pl. 75, forme 136). 145. AG06/B/14/459 Ø max. 37,7 cm; Ø emb. 10 cm. A1a. Jarre à panse ovoïde de grande taille, col tronconique court et bord de section triangulaire. Parallèle: idem au nº. 144. 146. AG07/B/77/721 Ø emb. 9,5 cm. A1a/b. Jarre à col tronconique court et lèvre de section triangulaire haute et moulurée sur sa face externe. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 147. AG08/B/86/1450 Ø emb. 5,6 cm. A1b. Jarre à col cylindrique court et lèvre de section triangulaire. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 148. AG07/B/71/749 Ø emb. 11 cm. A2b. Jarre à col cylindrique court, annelé et lèvre de section triangulaire. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse.

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149. AG07/B/62/871 Ø emb. 6,3 cm. A2b. Surface externe vraisemblablement recouverte d’un engobe blanc à gris. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau dont la face externe est marquée d’une incision en partie supérieure. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 150. AG08/B/127/1315 Ø emb. 6,5 cm. A1b de texture fine, sonore. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau court. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. Parallèle: Kellis, ier–iie siècles jusqu’au ive siècle (Patten 2000: 227–28 et pl. 76, forme 137). 151. AG06/B/14/215 Ø emb. 7,8 cm. A1b. Jarre à col tronconique court et lèvre en bandeau inclinée vers l’intérieur du vase. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 152. AG07/B/75/711 Ø emb. 11 cm. A2b. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau court et arrondi. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. Parallèles: Kellis, ier–iie siècles jusqu’au ive siècle (Patten 2000: 227–28 et pl. 76, forme 137); Kellis, fin iiie–ive siècles (Bowen et al. 2007: 44, fig. 7.h); Amheida, 335–350 (Bagnall et al. 2017: 209, fig. 9.e). On observe plusieurs parallèles parmi les céramiques non cuites (infra). 153. AG07/B/94/938 Ø emb. 6,3 cm. A2b. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bandeau (face externe concave). 154. AG06/A/-/635 Ø emb. 6,4 cm. A1b. Jarre à col tronconique court, presque inexistant, et bord en bandeau incliné vers l’intérieur du vase et marqué d’un petit ressaut interne. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 155. AG08/B/90/1667 Ø emb. 8 cm. A5. Surface externe vraisemblablement recouverte d’un engobe blanc-jaune sur lequel est peint le décor en rouge. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord arrondi, épais. 156. AG08/B/93/1519 Ø emb. 12,5 cm. A1a. Jarre à large ouverture et bord court, épaissi.

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157. AG08/B/90/1668 Ø emb. 10,8 cm. A2b. Jarre au bord en bandeau et rebord supérieur de section triangulaire. 158. AG07/B/75/714 Ø emb. 5,5 cm. A1b. Jarre à col tronconique et bord en bandeau court (incision sur la face interne). Pots de stockage 159. AG07/B/68/927 Ø emb. 8,3 cm. A1a. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Pot de stockage à bord en bandeau concave. Parallèle: Kellis, époque hellénistique (Patten 2000: 229 et pl. 78, forme 142). 160. AG08/B/141/1446 Ø emb. 8,5 cm. A1b. Peut-être rehaut blanc sur la lèvre. Pot de stockage à bord en bandeau concave. Parallèle: idem au nº. 159. 161. AG07/B/75/779 Ø emb. 8,6 cm. A28. Pot de stockage à bord en bandeau fin. 162. AG08/B/148/1502 Ø emb. 3,7 cm. A5. Décor peint en rouge. Pot à col court et bord en bandeau court. 163. AG06/A/-/558 Ø max. 11,7 cm; Ø emb. 9,5 cm; ht. 12,8 cm. A1b. Rehaut blanc sur la lèvre et décor peint en rouge sur la surface externe. Pot aux dimensions irrégulières, à panse globulaire, fond annulaire et lèvre épaisse et moulurée. Parallèle: Kellis (Hope 2004b: 213, fig. 5.g). 164. AG07/B/59/791 Ø max. 12,8 cm; Ø emb. 9,4 cm; ht. 15,3 cm. A1b. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Panse globulaire, fond annulaire et col tronconique terminé par une lèvre évasée; un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 165. AG08/B/147/1380 Ø max. 13 cm; Ø emb. 10,5 cm. A1b. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Panse globulaire et col marqué d’un bourrelet, petite lèvre évasée; un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse.

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166. AG08/B/127/1329 Ø max. 11 cm; Ø emb. 8,8 cm. A1a. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Panse vraisemblablement globulaire et col tronconique terminé par une lèvre évasée; un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 167. AG06/A/-/295 Ø ext. 9 cm. A2b. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Pot à col évasé et lèvre plate. Flacons 168. AG06/B/15/306 Ø emb. 5 cm. A1b. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge sur le col. Flacon à col cylindrique terminé par une lèvre pincée; carène à la jonction entre le col et la panse. 169. AG07/B/80/805 Ø max. 7,3 cm. A1. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Flacon à panse globulaire et col cylindrique. 170. AG08/B/165/1162 Ø max. 9,7 cm. A1. Engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Flacon à panse globulaire. 171. AG08/B/147/1103 Ø max. 7 cm; Ø emb. 4,4 cm; ht. 9,2 cm. Probablement A1b ou A5. Flacon à panse globulaire, haut col étroit et fond découpé à la ficelle; petite lèvre évasée. Parallèles: Kellis, ier–iie siècles, voire plus ancien (Patten 2000: 213–14 et pl. 65, forme 110 R–F); Kellis, milieu du iiie siècle (Dunsmore 2002: 140, fig. 6.z); Kellis, fin ier–iie siècles (Bowen et al. 2007: 44, fig. 7.c). 172. AG06/A/-/112 Ø max. 8 cm; Ø emb. 4,3 cm; ht. 10,6 cm. A5. Flacon à panse globulaire irrégulière, haut col étroit et fond découpé à la ficelle. Parallèles: idem au nº. 171. 173. AG08/B/F41/1459 Ø emb. 3 cm. A1a. Surface érodée, probablement couverte à l’origine par un engobe rouge. Flacon à col cylindrique et bord arrondi souligné par un bourrelet. Une anse est fixée sur le bord.

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174. AG08/B/147/1672 Ø emb. 2,2 cm. A1b. Flacon à col cylindrique court et lèvre de section triangulaire; un ressaut souligne la jonction entre le col et la panse. 175. AG06/B/15/91 Ø emb. 1,3 cm. A1b. Flacon à col cylindrique court et lèvre moulurée pourvue d’un ressaut interne; un ressaut souligne la jonction entre le col et la panse. Forme attestée en pâte A11 (nº. AG07/B/80/576). Bouteille et gargoulettes 176. AG08/B/127/1326 Ø max. 12,5 cm; Ø emb. 3 cm. A1b. Engobe blanc et décor peint en noir sur la panse et le col. Bouteille à panse globulaire, col cylindrique court et lèvre en bandeau (rebord supérieur incliné vers l’intérieur). 177. AG06/B/15/201 Ø emb. 3 cm. A1a/A5. Gargoulette à col cylindrique pourvu d’un filtre et lèvre dans le prolongement du col. 178. AG06/A/-/39 Ø emb. 4,8 cm. A1b. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Gargoulette à col vraisemblablement cylindrique et lèvre légèrement rentrante; une anse est fixée sur le bord. 179. AG07/B/58/742 Ø emb. 3,3 cm. A2b. Gargoulette à col cylindrique pourvu d’un filtre et petite lèvre arrondie, rentrante; une anse est fixée sur le bord. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 180. AG08/B/165/1302 Ø emb. 4 cm. A1b. Gargoulette à col cylindrique pourvu d’un filtre et lèvre en biseau, inclinée vers l’intérieur; une anse est fixée sur le bord. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. 181. AG08/B/165/1121 Ø max. 18,2 cm. A2b. Gargoulette à panse globulaire, fond annulaire et col pourvu d’un filtre; l’anse est fixée sur la partie supérieure de la panse. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse.

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182. AG08/B/127/1332 Ø max. 10,5 cm; Ø fond 5,6 cm. A1a. Vase à panse globulaire et fond annulaire. Résidus noirs vraisemblablement de poix sur la paroi interne. Bassines 183. AG07/B/80/792 Ø ext. 28,5 cm. A2b. Bassine à lèvre épaissie et bec verseur. Traces de résidus blancs sur la paroi interne. Parallèles: Kellis, début de la période romaine, ier–iie siècles (Patten 1999: 85, fig. 2.25; Patten 2000: pl. 62, forme 92). 184. AG07/B/15/77 Ø emb. 20,3 cm. A1b. Bassine à lèvre rentrante. 185. AG07/B/15/78 Ø emb. 31 cm. A1b. Bassine à lèvre arrondie et rentrante. 186. AG08/B/165/1114 Ø ext. 35,3 cm. A1b. Bassine à lèvre plate, légèrement saillante. 187. AG07/A/-/627 Ø ext. 23 cm. A1b. Bassine à lèvre de section quadrangulaire. Parallèle: Kellis, ier–iie siècles (Patten 2000: 177–78, forme 62/2, CS13–14a). 188. AG06/B/15/164 Ø emb. 35,5 cm. A1a à cœur gris. Bassine à lèvre épaissie. Parallèle: Kellis, ier–iie siècles (Patten 2000: forme 62/2, SS19v). 189. AG07/B/29/484 Ø emb. 20 cm. A28. Bassine à lèvre de section quadrangulaire. 190. AG08/B/144/1646 Ø emb. 14 cm. A1a. Bassine à lèvre plane.

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191. AG07/B/68/856 Ø ext. 25,5 cm. A1a. Bassine à lèvre de section quadrangulaire, concave en partie supérieure. 192. AG06/B/11/100 Ø emb. 41,5 cm; Ø fond 13,8 cm; ht. 30,1 cm. A1a. Bassine profonde à paroi oblique, lèvre de section triangulaire rentrante et fond annulaire en crochet. 193. AG06/B/15/79 Ø emb. 20 cm. A1a grise à rouge. Bassine à paroi presque droite et lèvre de section triangulaire rentrante. 194. AG07/B/42/638 Ø emb. 32,2 cm. A1. Décor peint en rouge sur la paroi interne. Bassine à paroi oblique et lèvre rentrante. 195. AG08/B/127/1339 Ø emb. 36,5 cm. A1a. Bassine à paroi oblique et lèvre rentrante. 196. AG06/B/11/104 Ø emb. 37 cm. A1a. Bassine à paroi oblique, lèvre rentrante et extrémité arrondie. 197. AG06/B/11/101 Ø emb. 33,5 cm. A1a. Bassine à paroi oblique et lèvre convexe, rentrante. 198. AG06/B/15/142 Ø emb. 38,5 cm. A1b. Bassine à paroi presque droite, lèvre arrondie et rentrante. 199. AG08/B/127/1495 Ø emb. 41,5 cm. Bassine à paroi oblique et lèvre rentrante. Parallèle: Kellis (Patten 2000: pl. 51, forme 62/2, CS13-1c). 200. AG07/A/0/625 Ø emb. 28,3 cm. A1b. Bassine à paroi presque droite et lèvre rentrante, de section triangulaire aplatie.

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201. AG08/B/132/1758 Ø emb. 23,5 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc sur la partie supérieure du bord. Bassine à bord en bandeau. 202. AG06/B/15/140 Ø emb. 23,2 cm. A1b. Bassine à lèvre épaissie formant une collerette. 203. AG06/B/3/332 Ø emb. 20 cm. A2b. Bassine à paroi convexe et lèvre épaissie dont l’extrémité est pincée. 204. AG06/B/14/209 Ø ext. 17,5 cm. A1b. Bassine à lèvre épaissie et extrémité en crochet. Parallèle: Kellis, ive siècle (Bowen et al. 2007: 44, fig. 7.g). Entonnoirs 205. AG08/B/150/1843 Ø emb. 17,2 cm; ht. 11,9 cm. A28. Entonnoir de forme globulaire, à lèvre évasée et fond creux. 206. AG08/B/141/1442 Ø emb. 2,5 cm. A1a/A28. Fond cylindrique creux. Passoires/faisselles 207. AG07/B/39/641 Ø ext. 21,5 cm. A28. Passoire à panse hémisphérique et lèvre évasée. 208. AG06/B/14/108 Ø ext. 21,5 cm. A1a. Passoire à panse hémisphérique, fond ombiliqué convexe et lèvre évasée. 209. AG07/B/75/772 Ø ext. 19,8 cm. A2a. Passoire à carène haute et bord évasé. 210. AG08/B/127/1374 Ø ext. 23,2 cm.

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A2b. Légèrement noircie. Passoire à carène haute et bord en marli. 211. AG07/B/42/808 Ø ext. 18,8 cm. A1a. Passoire à bord en marli. 212. AG06/A/-/40 Ø ext. 21 cm. A28. Passoire à paroi droite et bord en marli concave. Cratères 213. AG08/B/F225/1407 Ø emb. 33,7 cm. A1a. Décor peint en rouge sur rehaut blanc interne. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée. 214. AG07/B/75/755 Ø emb. 35 cm. A1/2a. Décor peint en rouge et engobe externe rouge partiel. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée. 215. AG08/B/86/1602 Ø emb. 37 cm. Décor peint en rouge sur rehaut blanc interne. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée. 216. AG07/B/76/905 Ø emb. 35 cm. A1b. Décor peint en rouge sur rehaut blanc interne. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée, en biseau. 217. AG07/B/75/702 Ø emb. 24,8 cm. A1b. Décor peint en rouge sur rehaut blanc interne. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée. 218. AG08/B/146/1592 Ø emb. 20,5 cm. A2a/b. Décor peint en rouge sur rehaut blanc interne. Cratère à carène arrondie et lèvre évasée. 219. AG08/B/97/1573 Ø emb. 24 cm. A1/2b. Rehaut rose et décor rouge sur le rebord externe. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre déversée, formant une section triangulaire.

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220. AG08/B/165/1119 Ø emb. 20,5 cm. A1b. Rehaut blanc et décor rouge sur la panse. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre déversée. 221. AG06/B/3/333 Ø emb. 25,5 cm. A2a. Rehaut blanc et décor rouge. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 222. AG07/B/80/866 Ø ext. 19 cm. A1/2a. Rehaut blanc sur le bord interne. Surface externe noircie. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée. 223. AG07/B/75/769 Ø emb. 27,6 cm. A1a. Surface externe légèrement noircie. Cratère à carène haute, paroi droite et petite lèvre arrondie. 224. AG07/B/38/647 Ø emb. 26,5 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et décor rouge. Cratère à carène arrondie et lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 225. AG08/B/127/1492 Ø emb. 41,5 cm. A2b. Rehaut blanc et décor rouge. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre de section triangulaire évasée. 226. AG08/B/136/1564 Ø emb. 30,5 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et décor rouge. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée et arrondie soulignée par une incision sur sa face interne. Coupes et assiettes 227. AG06/B/15/244 Ø ext. 30 cm. A28. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Coupe à lèvre en marli mouluré. 228. AG06/B/15/62 Ø ext. 22 cm. A1b. Coupe convexe à lèvre évasée.

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229. AG07/B/78/933 Ø ext. 16,3 cm. A1a. Engobe rouge sur la paroi interne et la lèvre. Coupe à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 230. AG08/B/127/1351 Ø ext. 29,5 cm. A1a ? Totalement noirci. Coupe à paroi oblique, fond plat et lèvre formant un marli. 231. AG07/B/73/911 Ø ext. 25 cm. A1a. Décor peint en rouge sur rehaut blanc. Surface externe noircie. Coupe à paroi annelée et lèvre fortement évasée formant un marli. 232. AG08/B/133/1532 Ø ext. 25 cm; ht. 4,4 cm. A1b. Surface externe noircie; surface interne partiellement noircie. Assiette à paroi oblique, fond plat et lèvre évasée. 232. AG07/B/80/989 Ø ext. 25,5 cm. A1a. Surface noircie. Assiette à paroi convexe et lèvre en méplat. 233. AG07/B/80/987 Ø ext. 25,8 cm. A1a. Surface noircie; décor peint en rouge. Assiette à paroi convexe et lèvre en biseau. 234. AG08/B/165/1133 Ø ext. 21,5 cm. A1b. Surface noircie à l’exception du fond; rehaut blanc, peut-être points rouges. Assiette à paroi oblique, fond arrondi et plat et petite lèvre arrondie. 235. AG06/B/15/404 Ø ext. 26,8 cm. A1a. Surface noircie. Assiette à paroi oblique et lèvre dans le simple prolongement de la paroi; fond annulaire surbaissé. 236. AG06/B/15/218 Ø ext. 20 cm; ht. 4 cm. A2a. Surface interne recouverte d’un engobe rouge. Surface externe et fond noircis. Assiette à paroi oblique, fond plat légèrement concave et lèvre dans le simple prolongement de la paroi.

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237. AG06/B/4/122 Ø emb. 25,8 cm. A28. Surface recouverte d’un engobe rouge, bien lissé sur la paroi interne. Coupe légèrement carénée à lèvre de section triangulaire et pourvue d’une fine incision interne. Série de guillochis sur la paroi externe, sous le bord. Bols, coupelles 238. AG08/B/165/1858 Ø emb. 14 cm; ht. 5,6 cm. A1b. Résidus interne blancs, peut-être de plâtre. Emploi comme bouchon probable. Bol à paroi droite, légèrement évasée, lèvre simple et fond annulaire bas. Parallèle: Kellis, datation antérieure au ive siècle (Dunsmore 2002: 136, fig. 4.r). 239. AG06/B/15/63 Ø ext. 12 cm. A1b. Bol à paroi légèrement évasée, lèvre simple et fond plat. 240. AG06/A/-/56 Ø ext. 13 cm; ht. 5,4 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur le bord. Bol à paroi légèrement évasée, fond plat et lèvre en méplat, inclinée vers l’intérieur. 241. AG08/B/127/1370 Ø ext. 14,7 cm; ht. 7,3 cm. A1b. Surface partiellement noircie. Peut-être rehaut blanc et points rouges sur le bord. Bol à paroi oblique, lèvre de section quadrangulaire et fond convexe à ombilic concave. 242. AG08/B/166/1411 Ø emb. 20 cm; ht. 6,7 cm. A1a à cœur gris. Engobe rouge interne, partiel sur la paroi externe et points de couleur rouge sombre sur le bord. Bol à paroi oblique annelé, bord simple à ressaut interne et fond annulaire bas. Parallèles: Forme similaire mais absence de décor peint, Amheida, fin iiie–début du ive siècle (Bagnall et al. 2017: 208, fig. 8, n. 9–11). 243. AG06/A/-/45 Ø emb. 18 cm; ht. 5,6 cm. A1b. Rehaut blanc sur le bord. Bol à paroi oblique et lèvre rentrante, fond annulaire bas. 244. AG07/B/80/571 Ø emb. 9,7 cm; Ø max. 10,5 cm; ht. 5,9 cm.

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A1. Traces noircies. Probablement remployé comme plat de cuisson. Bol convexe à bord rentrant et fond plat découpé à la ficelle. Parallèles: Kellis iie–iiie siècles, ces petits bols convexes sont généralement employés comme bouchons de jarres (cf. supra n. 270–271; Hope 1987: 171, fig. 5.j; Patten 1996: 54, fig. 5 et Hope 2004a: 24 et 40, fig. 7.a–f; Dunsmore 2002: 136, fig. 4.n); Amheida, iie–iiie siècles (Caputo 2014, fig. 3, nº. 1) et ive siècle (Caputo, Marchand et Soto 2017: 1017, fig. 6.c), Amheida, fin iiie–début ive siècles (Bagnall et al. 2017: 208, fig. 8, nº. 5). 245. AG07/A/1/612 Ø emb. 11 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. A1a grise à cœur rouge. Bol à paroi oblique, bord droit souligné par une incision sur la face interne et fond plat. 246. AG06/B/15/384 Ø emb. 11,8 cm; ht. 5,3 cm. A2b. Bol convexe à lèvre rentrante soulignée par une incision sur la paroi externe et fond annulaire bas. 247. AG08/B/177/1111 Ø emb. irrégulier 12,7 cm; ht. 4,8 cm. A1. Points rouges sur le bord externe. Résidus blancs, probablement d’un bouchon en plâtre. Bol convexe à lèvre arrondie et fond plat. 248. AG07/B/32/493 Ø emb. 11,5 cm. A1/2a. Surface noircie. Bol globulaire à petite lèvre arrondie et fond annulaire bas. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 463, fig. 7, nº. 2. 249. AG08/B/148/1503 Ø emb. 16,3 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. A28. Points rouges sur le rebord externe. Bol convexe à lèvre moulurée (face externe) et en biseau, fond annulaire bas. Parallèle: Kellis, forme caractéristique du bord généralement datée avant le ive siècle (Dunsmore 2002, p. 130, fig. 1.i). 250. AG08/B/165/1863 Ø emb. 20 cm; ht. 6,1 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur la lèvre. Bol convexe à fond annulaire bas et lèvre rentrante et moulurée sur sa face externe. Parallèles: Kellis, fin iiie–ive siècles (Hope 2004a: 37, fig. 4.c et 40, fig. 8.b).

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251. AG08/B/146/1598 Ø emb. 19,5 cm. A1a/b. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur la lèvre. Bol convexe pourvu d’un tenon et bord mouluré sur sa face externe; fond annulaire et convexe. Parallèles: Kellis, fin iiie–ive siècles (Hope 2004a: 37, fig. 4.c et 40, fig. 8.b; Hope 2004b: 211, fig. 3.g et i). Pots à lèvre évasé 252. AG07/B/80/867 Ø emb. 18,3 cm. A1/2a. Pot globulaire à lèvre évasée, formant un C. 253. AG07/B/80/868 Ø emb. 15,8 cm; Ø max. 17 cm; 9,4 cm. A1b. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur la lèvre. Pot globulaire à lèvre évasée. 254. AG08/B/165/1856 Ø emb. 20 cm. A1b. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur la lèvre. Pot caréné à lèvre évasée. 255. AG08/B/148/1507 Ø emb. 14,7 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur la lèvre. Surface noircie. Pot globulaire à lèvre évasé, pourvue d’un tenon de préhension. 256. AG08/B/185/1682 Ø emb. 19,5 cm. A1b. Pot globulaire à carène haute et lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 257. AG06/B/15/408 Ø emb. 12,5 cm. A2a. Décor peint en rouge. Pot globulaire à lèvre évasée. 258. AG08/B/146/1589 Ø emb. 13,7 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et décor peint en rouge. Surface externe noircie. Pot globulaire à lèvre courte, légèrement évasée.

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Bouilloire 259. AG08/B/158/1497 Ø emb. 7,8 cm. A2b. Surface externe rouge à noire. Bouilloire à panse annelée, col cylindrique et bord en bourrelet. L’anse est fixée sur le bord et sur le haut de la panse. Un ressaut souligne la jonction du col avec la panse. Casserole 260. AG06/A/-/41 Ø emb. 14 cm; ht. 5,4 cm. A1a. Surface noircie. Casserole à paroi convexe, bord coupé en biseau et fond annulaire bas. Marmites et pots de cuisson 261. AG07/B/80/865 Ø emb. 20 cm. A1a. Cratère à carène haute et lèvre évasée et épaissie. 262. AG08/B/94/1874 Ø max. 23,7 cm; ht. 17,8 cm. A1a. Rehaut blanc et points rouges sur la lèvre interne. Cratère à carène haute, lèvre évasée et fond convexe. 263. AG08/B/155/1686 Ø emb. irrégulier 10,5 cm. A1b. Surface externe et partie supérieure interne noircies. Marmite à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 264. AG08/B/127/1361 Ø emb. 13,5 cm. A1a. Surface noircie. Marmite à col court et horizontal et lèvre plate. 265. AG07/B/80/816 Ø emb. 15,3 cm. A1a. Surface externe noircie. Marmite à petite lèvre de section triangulaire. 266. AG08/B/165/1144 Ø emb. 13,2 cm. A1a. Marmite à col court et lèvre évasée de section triangulaire; les anses sont fixées à la base du col et sur la partie supérieure de la panse.

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267. AG08/B/127/1378 Ø emb. 18,5 cm. A1a grise à cœur rouge. Surface externe recouverte d’un engobe blanc et décor peint en rouge. Marmite à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un petit ressaut interne. 268. AG07/B/80/948 Ø emb. 13,4 cm. A1a. Marmite globulaire à lèvre évasée de section triangulaire et fond convexe. 269. AG07/B/76/569 Ø emb. 16,5 cm; Ø max. 19,1 cm; ht. 15 cm. A1/2b. Marmite globulaire à lèvre évasée, formant un C. Couvercles 270. AG06/A/-/161 Ø emb. 8 cm; ht. 3 cm. A1a. Coupelle convexe à fond plat découpé à la ficelle. Voir nº. 244. 271. AG08/B/147/1102 Ø emb. 7,7 cm; ht. 3,3 cm. Probablement A1a. Coupelle convexe à fond plat découpé à la ficelle. Voir nº. 244. 272. AG06/B/15/82 Ø emb. 12,5 cm. A2a. Couvercle à bord biseauté. Supports 273. AG08/B/97/1527 Ø emb. 17,5 cm. A1/2b. La surface externe est peut-être recouverte par un engobe blanc. Support à paroi épaisse et lèvre évasée. 274. AG08/B/90/1514 Ø emb. 16,8 cm. A1/2b. Support à lèvre en bourrelet, moulurée. 275. AG07/B/75/764 Ø emb. 16,7 cm. A2a. Traces d’un engobe blanc. Support à lèvre évasée, en bourrelet.

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276. AG08/B/92/1456 Ø emb. 22 cm; Ø fond. 17,8 cm. A1b. Support en forme d’anneau concave. 277. AG07/B/55/824 Ø fond 15,8 cm. A1b. Support à fond évasé et rebord de section triangulaire. Présence d’un ressaut digité sur le tiers inférieur de la panse. Pots à pigeon 278. AG08/B/90/1804 Ø ext. fond 5,4 cm. A1b. Fond de pot à pigeon. Parallèle: Kellis (Bowen et al. 2007: 44, fig. 7.a). 279. AG06/B/15/428 Ø ext. fond 7,8 cm. A1a. Fond de pot à pigeon. Parallèle: idem au nº. 278. Formes spécifiques 280. AG08/B/169/1544 Ø emb. 20,7 cm. A1b. Rehaut rouge interne et décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc qui recouvre partiellement la surface externe. Forme générale proche du cratère à carène haute soulignée par deux cordons digités et lèvre évasée. Plusieurs “ouvertures” sur la panse. 281. AG07/B/80/579 Ø emb. 26,7 cm; Ø max. 28,3; ht. 31,8 cm. A1a. Vase cylindrique à fond convexe et large embouchure, petite lèvre légèrement épaissie. 282. AG08/B/150/1844 Ø emb. 10,9 cm. A1a. Louche comprenant un godet et une anse de section ovale, largement développée. Lampes 283. AG07/B/41/636 L.: 11,9 cm; lg. 7,9 cm; ht. 4,5 cm. A1b. Lampe circulaire à bec en bras d’ancre et fond annulaire; un canal relie le bec au trou de remplissage.

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Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 464, pl. 1. 284. AG08/B/143/850 L.: 8,5 cm; lg. 6,6 cm; ht. 3,4 cm. A1a. Lampe circulaire à bec arrondi et tenon de préhension plein. 285. AG07/B/80/578 L.: 6,6 cm; lg. 5 cm; ht. 2,9 cm. A1. Lampe ovale à bec arrondi, dépourvue de tenon. Le bandeau comprend deux branches de feuillage et l’espace entre le médaillon et le bec est orné d’un point et de deux volutes. 286. AG08/B/146/1002 L.: 7,4 cm; lg. 5,1 cm; ht. 3,1 cm. A1a. Lampe ovale à bec arrondi, dépourvue de tenon. Le bandeau comprend vraisemblablement deux branches de feuillage ou de simples rainures parallèles.

8.2.9. Les céramiques d’usage domestique La famille des céramiques destinées à un usage purement domestique ou liées à l’élevage des animaux rassemblent des pithoi et des bassines qui pourraient correspondre, selon toute vraisemblance, à des mangeoires (Planche 8.21); ces céramiques possèdent une pâte de texture assez grossière (A4) dont la caractéristique principale est la présence de particules végétales en quantité assez importante, selon toute probabilité ajoutées de manière intentionnelle par le potier et que l’on observe également sous forme de négatifs en surface. La cassure est zonée, généralement rouge à marron et large cœur noir. Assez courante dans l’oasis de Dakhla, cette fabrique est attestée dès l’Ancien Empire.70 287. AG07/B/75/782 Ø ext. 27,8 cm. Pithos à bord épaissi, de section triangulaire. 288. AG08/B/90/1867 Couvercle plat pourvu d’une anse de section ronde. 289. AG08/B/122/1779 Ø ext. 30,8 cm. Surface externe partiellement noircie et peut-être recouverte d’un engobe blanc. Bassine ou mangeoire à paroi droite, épaisse et lèvre plate saillante. 290. AG08/B/87/1490 Ø ext. 24,5 cm. 70. Hope 2004a: 103.

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Bassine ou mangeoire à paroi légèrement inclinée vers l’intérieur du récipient et lèvre de section triangulaire peu marquée. 291. AG06/B/8/462 Ø ext. min. 40,9 cm; Ø fond 43,8 cm; ht. 18,4 cm. Bassine ou mangeoire de forme ovale à fond plat, paroi droite et bord arrondi.

8.2.10. Les céramiques non cuites Durant la campagne archéologique de l’année 2008, un complexe architectural de huit pièces a été fouillé. Parmi le matériel découvert sur ce secteur, 2 301 tessons de céramiques non cuites, ont été recensés. Deux groupes de pâtes ont été distingués; le premier groupe comprend des céramiques à pâte de texture moyennement fine à moyennement grossière, chamois à gris clair en cassure. Les inclusions consistent principalement en plusieurs grains de quartz de petite taille, quelques nodules blancs et de rares nodules rouges de taille diverse. Le répertoire morphologique comprend toutes les catégories de céramiques rencontrées sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida: jarres de stockage, bassines, cratères, jattes, assiettes, bols et marmites (Planches 8.22–23). Le second groupe rassemble des pâtes de texture fine et contenant de rares inclusions, principalement des nodules blancs et rouges. Cette fabrique est illustrée uniquement par une jarre, un cratère, un bol et quelques marmites. On serait alors tenté de rapprocher le premier groupe des pâtes de texture moyennement fine et sableuses A1 et A2 et le second groupe des pâtes plus fines et épurée A11; il ne s’agit cependant que d’une hypothèse de travail qui mériterait d’être vérifiée au moyen d’analyses pétrographiques et physico-chimiques. 292. AG08/B/146/1107 Ø emb. 7 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 1. 293. AG08/B/146/1108 Ø emb. 6,5 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 3. 294. AG08/B/147/1112 Ø emb. 7 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 4.

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295. AG08/B/174/1643 Ø emb. 6,8 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet. 296. AG08/B/146/1649 Ø emb. 8,5 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. 297. AG08/B/147/1618 Ø emb. 7 cm. Groupe 1. Larges gouttes blanches à l’intérieur du récipient. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. 298. AG08/B/147/1617 Ø emb. 8,5 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut. 299. AG08/B/138/1625 Ø emb. 10,8 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet. 300. AG08/B/154/1647 Ø emb. 7,5 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet. 301. AG08/B/147/1619 Ø emb. 14,7 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord épaissi. 302. AG08/B/141/1653 Ø emb. 8 cm. Groupe 2. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet dont la partie supérieure est soulignée par une incision. 303. AG08/B/171/1615 Ø emb. 5,8 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à col tronconique court et bord en bourrelet incisé sur sa partie supérieure; la jonction entre le col et la panse est soulignée par un ressaut.

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304. AG08/B/147/1641 Ø emb. 11,5 cm. Groupe 1. Jarre à bord épaissi et incliné vers l’intérieur du récipient. 305. AG08/B/147/1639 Ø emb. 13,7 cm. Groupe 1. Larges gouttes blanches à l’intérieur du récipient. Jarre à bord épaissi et incliné vers l’intérieur du récipient et pourvu d’un ressaut interne. 306. AG08/B/169/1657 Ø fond 8,7 cm. Groupe 1. Fond annulaire d’une forme fermée. 307. AG08/B/138/1614 Ø emb. 32,8 cm. Groupe 1. Bassine à bord mouluré. 308. AG08/B/147/1113 Ø emb. 37,5 cm. Groupe 1. Cratère à lèvre évasée et épaissie du côté externe. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 8. 309. AG08/B/173/1636 Ø ext. 30,1 cm. Groupe 1. Cratère à lèvre évasée en méplat. 310. AG08/B/146/1106 Ø ext. 30,6 cm. Groupe 1. Quelques traces d’un engobe blanc sur la surface externe. Cratère à lèvre évasée en méplat. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 10. 311. AG08/B/146/1105 Ø ext. 34,8 cm. Groupe 1. Quelques gouttes d’un engobe blanc sur la surface interne. Cratère à lèvre évasée en méplat. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 9. 312. AG08/B/138/1628 Ø emb. 26,4 cm. Groupe 2. Cratère à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne.

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313. AG08/B/147/1640 Ø emb. 22,2 cm. Groupe 1. Quelques gouttes d’un engobe blanc sur la surface interne. Cratère à lèvre évasée. 314. AG08/B/144/1616 Ø emb. 14,5 cm. Groupe 1. Jatte à lèvre en bourrelet. 315. AG08/B/147/1630 Ø emb. 16 cm. Groupe 1. Jatte à lèvre en bourrelet. 316. AG08/B/147/1632 Ø emb. 17,3 cm. Groupe 1, argile mêlée à des gouttes d’engobe blanc. Jatte à lèvre en bourrelet. 317. AG08/B/147/1633 Ø emb. 15,7 cm. Groupe 1. Jatte à lèvre en bourrelet et inclinée vers l’intérieur. 318. AG08/B/147/1635 Ø emb. 18 cm. Groupe 1. Gouttes d’engobe blanc sur la surface interne et externe. Jatte à lèvre en bourrelet. 319. AG08/B/144/1646 Ø emb. 15,5 cm. Groupe 1. Une large goutte blanche sur la paroi interne. Jatte à lèvre épaissie et aplatie. 320. AG08/B/147/1634 Ø ext. 26,1 cm. Groupe 1. Assiette à paroi évasée et lèvre arrondie. 321. AG08/B/141/1655 Ø ext. 26,2 cm. Groupe 1. Larges gouttes d’un engobe blanc sur la paroi interne et externe. Assiette à paroi évasée et lèvre arrondie. 322. AG08/B/141/1656 Ø ext. 24 cm. Groupe 1. Assiette à paroi évasée et lèvre arrondie.

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323. AG08/B/147/1642 Ø emb. 23,8 cm. Groupe 1. Assiette à paroi évasée et lèvre pincée. 324. AG08/B/147/1631 Ø ext. 28,2 cm. Groupe 1. Quelques gouttes d’un engobe blanc. Assiette à paroi évasée et lèvre pincée. 325. AG08/B/188/1125 Ø ext. 24,9 cm. Groupe 1. Traces d’un engobe blanc sur la surface externe. Assiette à paroi évasée et lèvre pincée. Bibliographie: Dixneuf 2012: 468, fig. 13, nº. 11. 326. AG08/B/173/1638 Ø ext. 14,9 cm; ht. 8,7 cm. Groupe 1. Bol à paroi oblique et lèvre arrondie, fond annulaire bas. 327. AG08/B/138/1623 Ø emb. 26,1 cm. Groupe 1. Quelques gouttes d’un engobe blanc sur la paroi interne et externe. Bol convexe à lèvre arrondie soulignée par une incision. 328. AG08/B/138/1627 Ø emb. 25,7 cm. Groupe 1. Bol convexe à lèvre arrondie soulignée par une incision. 329. AG08/B/138/1624 Ø emb. 14,8 cm. Groupe 1. Bol convexe à lèvre arrondie. 330. AG08/B/138/1651 Ø ext. 14,1 cm. Groupe 1. Bol convexe à lèvre plate. 331. AG08/B/157/1644 Ø emb. 12,8 cm. Groupe 2. Bol convexe à lèvre en biseau incliné vers l’intérieur. 332. AG08/B/141/1654 Ø emb. 19,4 cm. Groupe 1. Vraisemblablement pot globulaire à lèvre évasée pourvue d’un ressaut interne.

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333. AG08/B/138/1652 Ø emb. 13,3 cm. Groupe 1. Une goutte d’un engobe blanc sur la paroi interne. Vraisemblablement pot globulaire à lèvre évasée. 334. AG08/B/154/1648 Ø emb. 13,5 cm. Groupe 1. Marmite à lèvre évasée de section triangulaire. 335. AG08/B/147/1620 Ø emb. 13,3 cm. Groupe 2. Marmite à lèvre évasée de section triangulaire et panse annelée. 336. AG08/B/147/1621 Ø emb. 14,4 cm. Groupe 2. Probablement un engobe blanc fin sur la paroi externe. Marmite à lèvre évasée de section triangulaire. 337. AG08/B/147/1622 Ø emb. 14,3 cm. Groupe 2. Marmite à lèvre évasée de section triangulaire. 338. AG08/B/138/1626 Ø emb. 13,3 cm. Groupe 2. Marmite à lèvre évasée de section triangulaire. 339. AG08/B/173/1637 Ø emb. 17,1 cm. Groupe 2. Marmite à lèvre évasée arrondie et pourvue d’un ressaut interne. 340. AG08/B/165/1121 Ø ext. 16,8 cm; ht. 4,3 cm. Groupe 1 ? Couvercle à tenon plein cylindrique et paroi oblique.

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8.3. Les assemblages71 8.3.1. Le secteur 1: Une unité domestique d’habitation Le premier secteur comprend les pièces B1, B2 et B3, localisées sur la partie nord-ouest du kôm 1; il pourrait s’agir d’une unité d’habitation domestique qui se développerait plus largement vers le nord. La pièce B1 correspondrait à un espace à ciel ouvert employé notamment pour la préparation et la cuisson des aliments. La stratigraphie de cet espace est assez simple. Les niveaux de surface (US 1 et US 5) comprenaient un matériel peu abondant parmi lequel nous signalerons juste la présence d’un fond de gargoulette en pâte calcaire rosé originaire, selon toute vraisemblablement, des ateliers implantés le long de la vallée du Nil; le niveau inférieur (US 14) est un niveau d‘effondrement des murs qui comprend, outre plusieurs céramiques (NMI = 63; Tableau 8.1; Planches 8.24–25), des matières organiques et des fragments de briques crues ainsi que les vestiges d’un toit en terrasse. Le répertoire morphologique comprend un fond d’une amphore LRA 7 en pâte alluviale originaire de la vallée du Nil (nº. 222), une siga (nº. 107), plusieurs fragments de jarres de stockage dont une presque complète, de forme ovoïde (nº. 459) et une présentant un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc (nº. 210) ainsi que deux éléments de gargoulettes en pâte calcaire B10. Parmi les formes ouvertes – bassines, cratères, larges coupes, assiettes et autres bols – on soulignera la présence de deux coupelles à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW; nº. 121 et 110) clairement attribuable au ive siècle, datation, par ailleurs, confirmée par un ostracon grec. Cependant, la présence de l’amphore LRA 7-AE 7 nous conduit à dater plutôt du milieu et de la seconde moitié du ive siècle ce niveau.72 La pièce B3 présente une stratigraphie simple, composée d’une couche de surface de sable éolien (US 3) comprenant peu de céramiques dont une bassine, un cratère à décor peint et quelques fragments de marmites puis une couche de sable mêlé à des fragments de briques cuites (US 7). Enfin, l’US 10 représente le dernier niveau d’occupation mélangé à des éléments du sol en argile. Il contenait plusieurs céramiques mais peu d’éléments caractéristiques à l’exception d’une marmite (n. 343; Planche 8.25). On signalera la présence dans ce niveau d’un ostracon daté du troisième quart du ive siècle.

8.3.2. Le secteur 2: La pièce B4 La pièce B4, fouillée en 2006, n’appartient pas à l’unité domestique précédemment décrite mais est localisée à proximité, au sud-ouest des pièces B1–B3, et immédiatement à l’est des pièces B17– B24. Il semblerait que cette pièce ait été utilisée, à un moment donné de son histoire, comme un dépotoir, vraisemblablement de nature domestique. La stratigraphie de cette pièce est assez similaire à celles des pièces B1–B3; une couche de sable éolien (US 4), comprenant également des fragments de briques crues et des céramiques dont une large coupe probablement en pâte 71. Seules les pièces et les US présentant un matériel céramique significatif et suffisamment caractéristique seront présentées dans le cadre de cette contribution. 72. Voir à ce sujet supra, le paragraphe consacré aux amphores LRA 7.

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A28 et recouverte d’un engobe rouge soigneusement lissé en surface interne (nº. 122; planche 8.25), recouvre une autre couche de sable similaire à la précédente (US 8). L’US 8 comprenait huit individus parmi lesquels on note une large bassine ayant pu servir de mangeoire et confectionnée à partir d’une argile riche en particules végétales A4, une bassine, un cratère (nº. 103), un pot globulaire (nº. 102) et un bol convexe (Planche 8.26). Sous cette couche, se trouve l’US 11 composée de sable marron; elle contenait peu de céramiques, à savoir huit bassines (nº. 374, 104, 460), deux bols recouverts de noirci de cuisson (nº. 383), deux bords de marmites (nº. 103) et un fond probablement d’une jarre (Planche 8.26). Sous ces trois US, on trouve un épais niveau constitué de poubelles domestiques (US 15) comprenant de très nombreux fragments de céramiques (940 fragments de formes correspondant à un NMI de 866 individus; Tableau 8.2, Planches 8.27–32) mélangés à des charbons de bois, des éléments de briques crues et un ostracon rédigé en grec et daté du ive siècle. Le répertoire morphologique comprend toutes les catégories de céramiques que l’on peut s’attendre à rencontrer dans un contexte de dépotoir domestique: sigas, larges jarres à décor peint, jarres et pots de stockage, gargoulettes, flacons, bassines, cratères à décor peint, plats et assiettes, bols, pots globulaires et marmites. La présence de trois céramiques rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW), qui consistent en plats à paroi oblique, et d’un fragment d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 7 provenant de la vallée du Nil, nous incite à dater cet épais niveau plutôt du milieu et de la seconde moitié du ive siècle.73

8.3.3. Le secteur 3: L’église et ses dépendances Les campagnes archéologiques des années 2006 et 2007 ont été consacrées principalement à l’étude d’une petite église (pièce B5) et de ses dépendances. Le matériel exhumé dans la pièce B5 au cours de ces recherches a fait l’objet d’une présentation au colloque du DOP à Lecce (Italie) au cours de l’année 2009.74 D’après l’étude céramologique, associée à l’étude des monnaies, il semblerait que l’église ait été construite dans le courant du premier tiers du ive siècle. La fréquentation de l’édifice se serait poursuivie durant tout le ive siècle et on peut situer son abandon au plus tard vers la fin du ive siècle, voir au tout début du ve siècle. Les comptages ont mis en évidence la présence de 167 individus dont 60 % d’entre eux correspond à des formes ouvertes de types bols et coupelles ainsi qu’à des pots globulaires. La famille des céramiques rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW) n’est représentée que par une lampe et deux fragments de coupelles. Les importations de la vallée du Nil se résument à un seul élément de flacon en pâte calcaire. Un examen attentif des traces d’usage permet également d’accroître le nombre de céramiques utilisées pour la cuisson des aliments. Les dépendances associées à l’église sont nombreuses et comprennent plusieurs pièces. La pièce B6 donne sur le couloir B7 qui permettait d’accéder à l’église. Elle fut utilisée, dans son dernier état comme cuisine avec des éléments liés à la conservation et la préparation des aliments. Le niveau de surface US 39 consiste en sable éolien renfermant quelques fragments de céramiques peu caractéristiques; on signalera toutefois la présence d’une passoire/faisselle 73. Voir à ce sujet supra, les paragraphes consacrés aux amphores LRA 7-AE 7 et à la céramique rouge à engobe rouge (ORSW). 74. Dixneuf 2012.

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et d’une large jarre de stockage à décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc (Planche 8.32). Une autre couche de sable éolien (US 42), contenant peu de céramique, repose sur deux couches d’effondrement; elle comprenait, parmi les éléments les plus remarquables, une bassine ornée sur ses deux faces d’un décor peint en rouge et une passoire/faisselle. Une troisième couche de sable (US 55) qui contenait notamment un support haut (Planche 8.32) repose sous deux niveaux d’effondrement des murs (US 46 et US 54) et sur un niveau d’occupation (US 59). Ce dernier a livré deux monnaies, l’une datée de 353–361 et la seconde, issue d’un morceau du sol, datée de 361–363. Le matériel céramique provenant de ce niveau comprenait notamment trois bords de bassines, une jatte, un pot de stockage de petite taille à décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc (nº. 791), une jarre de stockage à bord en bandeau arrondi, un fond annulaire d’une gargoulette en pâte B10, une bassine (nº. 789) et plusieurs céramiques culinaires, dont deux marmites, un bol et deux pots globulaires à lèvre évasée (Planche 8.33). Le niveau de préparation du sol (US 61) ne renfermait que quelques tessons de céramiques dont un cratère et deux bols (Planche 8.33). Le passage situé entre la pièce B6 et la cage d’escalier B8 qui permettait d’accéder aux toits en terrasse était comblé de sable éolien avec des fragments des murs effondrés de la salle B9 (US 58); le matériel céramique est présent en quantité moyenne (142 fragments de formes, soit 115 individus) et le répertoire morphologique comprend des jarres de stockage, une bouteille en pâte B16, des bassines, des cratères, de nombreuses marmites et pots de cuisson, plusieurs bols et couvercles (Tableau 8.3; Planche 8.33). La pièce B7 est un long corridor au nord de la pièce A46; il permettait d’accéder à l’église B5. Cette pièce était recouverte d’une épaisse couche de surface (US 37) composée de sable éolien comprenant plusieurs céramiques dont une siga, un bol, deux marmites, une bassine, un plat à marli et une panse d’une passoire/faisselle (Planche 8.34). Une seconde couche de sable éolien (US 38) lui faisait suite avec un matériel céramique peu abondant et peu significatif à l’exception d’un fragment de cratère (Planche 8.34). Le niveau de sol était recouvert d’une couche sabloargileuse (US 45) mêlée à des éléments du toit effondré, des matières organiques et des briques crues; ce niveau contenait notamment une lampe en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) et plusieurs céramiques (Planche 8.34): une anse d’une forme fermée en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), deux bassines, deux cratères, sept bols, une passoire/faisselle, au moins trois gargoulettes (pâtes B10, A1b et A11), un fond annulaire en pâte A5 supposé d’une bouilloire, une jarre de stockage, six marmites, une casserole à bord coupé et un couvercle. Localisée du côté nord du complexe de l’église, la pièce B9 est accessible par la pièce B6; il semblerait par ailleurs qu’elle ait été construite après l’escalier B8 et qu’elle devait correspondre à une pièce de stockage en lien avec la pièce B6 alors utilisée comme cuisine. L’US 63 qui recouvre la partie ouest de la pièce consistait en sable, quelques tessons de céramiques et comprenait les restes (cendres et charbons de bois) d’une occupation moderne. L’US 69 est un niveau lié à l’effondrement des murs est et sud; ce niveau recouvrait la partie orientale de la pièce B9. Le matériel recueilli est assez modeste en quantité et comprenait notamment deux céramiques rouges à engobe rouges (ORSW), plus précisément une coupelle à lèvre en marli épais et une assiette à paroi oblique (Planche 8.34). L’US 72, sous l’US 69, correspond à l’effondrement d’une partie de la voûte; elle renfermait quelques céramiques, à savoir un bol à décor peint en rouge et remployé pour la cuisson des aliments, deux autres bols, une jarre, une bassine et

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une large bassine en pâte A4 (Planche 8.34). L’US 68, se situe sous les US 63 et 69; composée de sable éolien mêlé à des briques crues, elle recouvrait toute la pièce. Elle a livré une quantité moyenne de céramiques (74 fragments de formes, soit 67 individus) parmi lesquelles on notera la présence d’un fond d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 775 (Planches 8.35–36; Tableau 8.4) ce qui nous incite à dater plutôt ce niveau du milieu et de la seconde moitié du ive siècle.76 Sous l’US 68, l’US 79 correspond à un niveau d’occupation qui contenait 123 individus parmi lesquels on signalera en particulier la présence d’une panse d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 7, une anse de gargoulette en pâte calcaire et plusieurs éléments en pâte B16, en particulier deux fonds de coupelles à décor peint interne, un fond d’une amphore de table et un bord d’un couvercle (Planches 8.36-37; Tableau 8.5). Sous les US 72, 68 et 79, on trouve l’US 75, niveau d’effondrement des murs et de la voûte de la pièce B9. Cette US, riche en matériel, renfermait de nombreux fragments de céramiques correspondant à 237 individus (Tableau 8.6; Planches 8.37-39). Parmi le matériel, on soulignera la présence d’une anse d’amphore LRA 7-AE 7 et du fond d’une gargoulette en pâte calcaire fine originaire, selon toute vraisemblance, des ateliers implantés le long de la vallée du Nil. Les importations supposées de l’oasis de Kharga sont illustrées par trois bols à fond plat et décor rouge interne peint sur un engobe blanc. Ce niveau renfermait également une coupelle à marli à pâte et engobe rouges (ORSW) et huit gargoulettes en pâte calcaire B10. On notera enfin l’importance des marmites en pâte A11 (NMI = 37), des bassines (NMI = 37), des cratères de forme variée (NMI = 34) et des bols ou coupelles (NMI = 25) en pâte A1, A2, A5 et/ou A28. La présence de l’anse d’amphore LRA 7-AE 7 suggère une datation du milieu ou de la seconde moitié du ive siècle. Enfin l’US 82, sous l’US 79 est une lentille de sable éolien qui ne comprenait que quelques tessons dont 1 siga, 1 jarre de stockage, plusieurs marmites et quelques pots globulaires (Planche 8.39). La pièce B10 est construite contre le mur est du complexe ecclésial; il s’agit d’une pièce voûtée qui a probablement abrité des activités de cuisine. Trois niveaux de sols en terre battue ont été identifiés ainsi qu’un foyer circulaire dans la partie sud de la pièce et un silo rectangulaire associé à une structure circulaire. Les niveaux de surface, US 62 et US 65, principalement du sable éolien, renfermaient une quantité moyenne de céramiques (Planches 8.40-41). Le comblement du rein de la partie orientale de la voûte (US 73) contenait plusieurs fragments de céramiques correspondant à 35 individus (Tableau 8.7; Planches 8.41-42). Parmi les formes recensées, on trouve une panse d’une grande jarre de stockage à décor peint en rouge sur fond blanc, plusieurs bols convexes, quelques pots globulaires dont un complet (nº. 570) et une casserole à bord coupé (nº. 895). Le niveau lié à l’effondrement de la partie centrale de la voûte (US 74) renfermait quelques tessons dont une coupe et un petit cratère (Planche 8.42). L’US 78 correspond à l’effondrement du mur nord dans le coin nord-ouest de la pièce (Planche 8.42). Le répertoire morphologique comprend une bassine, une coupe à marli quadrangulaire en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), une jatte dont la paroi interne était recouverte d’un engobe rouge, un fond d’une passoire/faisselle en pâte A2b, un col de siga en pâte A1a, un fond annulaire d’une gargoulette en pâte B10, une jarre de stockage à bord mouluré, généralement 75. Dans le tableau de comptage a été rajouté, afin d’appréhender le plus précisément possible le NMI, 1 filtre en pâte B10 ce qui explique la présence de 3 fragments et d’un NMI de 2 gargoulettes en pâte B10. Nous avons également indiqué la présence d’1 panse d’une grande jarre de stockage à décor peint qui représente 1 individu. 76. Voir supra le paragraphe concernant les amphores LRA 7-AE 7.

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décorée en rouge sur un fond blanc, une casserole à bord coupé et quatre marmites en pâte A11. L’US 76 contenait une quantité moyenne de céramiques (Planche 8.42); on notera toutefois une coupelle à marli quadrangulaire en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), une jarre de stockage à bord mouluré et à engobe blanc et un pot de cuisson globulaire à lèvre évasée en C (nº. 569). On signalera la présence dans cette US d’une monnaie en bronze de Constantin II datée des années 353–361. L’US 80 (sous l’US 76) correspond au dernier niveau d’occupation de la cuisine; elle se trouvait sur le niveau de sol le plus récent. Cette US comprenait 130 individus (Tableau 8.8; Planches 8.43–45) parmi lesquels on note une coupelle à marli en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), quatre gargoulettes en pâte B10 dont une complète et plusieurs bols dont deux en pâte A11 avec un décor peint interne en rouge sur un engobe blanc (nºs. 864 et 820). Si la majorité des céramiques semble plutôt caractéristique du ive siècle, certains récipients pourraient dater de l’époque romaine sans qu’une datation plus précise ne soit possible; il s’agit en particulier de la bassine pourvue d’un large bec verseur (nº. 792), et des deux bols en pâte A11 également munis de becs verseurs (nºs. 794 et 795). La datation de la forme cylindrique à fond convexe (nº. 579) demeure également assez floue en l’absence de parallèle. L’espace B11 est un long passage orienté est-ouest, localisé contre le mur sud de l’église. Il semblerait que ce passage ait été à l’origine voûté. Une fois la voûte effondrée, le passage continuera à être utilisé. La couche de surface (US 83), composée de sable éolien, renfermait quelques tessons, notamment une anse d’amphore LRA 7-AE 7, une siga et un fond d’une bouteille dont la pâte B16 est caractéristique des productions de Kharga. L’US 89 (sous l’US 83) recouvrait la totalité de l’espace; elle contenait une quantité moyenne de céramiques peu caractéristiques. Sous l’US 89, l’US 90 se caractérise par sa richesse en céramiques et en matières organiques; il s’agirait, selon toute vraisemblance, d’un dépotoir dont la formation serait postérieure à l’abandon du passage. Les comptages ont permis d’identifier 834 individus (Tableau 8.9; Planches 8.45–46) parmi lesquels signalons la présence d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 7 illustrée par deux anses, une anse d’une forme fermée, selon toute vraisemblance une gargoulette en pâte alluviale, et un fond d’une coupelle également en pâte alluviale marron à cœur rouge de texture moyennement fine. De la vallée du Nil proviennent également deux formes fermées, vraisemblablement des gargoulettes, en pâte calcaire fine, rosée à blanchâtre et finement sableuse avec quelques nodules rouges. Les importations supposées de l’oasis de Kharga sont représentées par onze bols à fond plats et paroi oblique comprenant un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc; ont également été identifiées trois amphores de table en pâte B16. Les céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW) sont représentées par les deux grandes familles de forme, à savoir les assiettes à paroi oblique et les coupelles à marli de section quadrangulaire. 38 gargoulettes en pâte B10 ont été comptabilisées, elles représentent 4,5 % de l’assemblage; il s’agit principalement de gargoulettes à col cylindrique et anse fixée sur le bord et le haut de la panse. Les productions en pâte A11 sont assez abondantes (NMI = 292; 35 % de l’assemblage), en particulier la catégorie des marmites77 qui rassemble à elle seule 189 individus. Les formes fermées en pâte A11 sont assez rares et aucune jarre n’a été recensée; les formes ouvertes sont également peu communes à l’exception de quelques bols. Les céramiques 77. En ce qui concerne les bols en pâte A11, nous avons choisi d’indiquer 20 individus au lieu des 29 fonds. En effet, ces fonds peu caractéristiques peuvent également être associés aux pots globulaires, éventuellement aux casseroles.

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façonnées dans des argiles riches en oxydes de fer sont de loin les plus abondantes  (NMI = 469; 56,23 % de l’assemblage) et le répertoire morphologique est plus diversifié. On note ainsi sept sigas, une seule jarre à décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc, 64 jarres de stockage, 23 formes fermées, parmi lesquelles on trouve des gargoulettes et des pots de stockage de taille moyenne, et seulement 34 marmites. Les casseroles sont rares et se résument à un seul individu. Les bassines et les cratères sont bien représentés et les bols sont assez nombreux (NMI = 94). Enfin, on soulignera la découverte dans l’US 90 d’une dizaine de monnaies en bronze dont la plus récente est datée de la période 364–375. L’US 92 correspond à l’effondrement des murs dans le passage entre l’espace B11 et l’espace B13. Cette US renfermait plusieurs céramiques dont un fond d’une coupelle en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), un bol originaire de la vallée du Nil en pâte alluviale et un support en pâte A1b (Planche 8.46). L’US 94 (sous l’US 92) est une couche de cendre (Tableau 8.10; Planche 8.47); elle contenait 230 individus céramiques parmi lesquels on soulignera la présence d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 7 originaire de la vallée du Nil, huit bols et une amphore de table en pâte B16 provenant, selon toute vraisemblance, de l’oasis de Kharga. Le reste du matériel consistait notamment en céramiques à pâte et engobe rouges (ORSW), plus précisément deux assiettes à paroi oblique et cinq coupelles à marli. On note également 43 marmites et six petits cratères en pâte A11 employés pour la cuisson des aliments. Les productions en pâtes A1/A2/A5 et A28 sont plus variées; on note trois sigas, 10 jarres de stockage, 17 bassines, 21 cratères et 33 bols. L’US 97 est également une couche de cendres (Planche 8.47); elle est localisée dans la partie centrale du passage B11. Outre la céramique qui est de composition assez similaire aux couches précédentes, elle renfermait deux monnaies en bronze datée du ive siècle et un ostracon grec daté entre le milieu et le troisième quart du ive siècle. L’US 100 (sous l’US 97) est un niveau de terre marron avec des poches de cendres. Elle contenait une quantité moyenne de céramiques parmi lesquelles on signalera une bouilloire en pâte A11 à bec pincé et pourvue d’un filtre (Planche 8.47) et quatre bols en pâte B16 à décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc. Le répertoire morphologique de l’US 108 (sous US 100) ne connaît pas de grand changement (Planche 8.48); ce niveau de terre marron mêlée de cendres contenait une anse d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 7 et un fond, selon toute vraisemblance, d’une gargoulette en pâte calcaire, beige à rosée, de texture moyennement fine et assez sableuse provenant de la vallée du Nil. On signalera également 24 marmites dont la majorité possède une petite lèvre de section triangulaire et était confectionnée en pâte A11 et plusieurs bols dont deux en pâte B16 avec un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc; une bassine en pâte A4 a également été inventoriée. L’US 108 ainsi que la couche 90 reposaient sur un sol en terre battue dans lequel une monnaie en bronze datée de la période 320–321 a été découverte. L’espace B12 correspond également à une rue, orientée nord-sud, longeant et contournant le côté est de l’église. La couche 84 recouvre l’ensemble de la surface de l’espace B12 ainsi que les deux pièces adjacentes B14 et B15. Le matériel est peu abondant, on signalera uniquement la présence d’une coupelle à marli à pâte et engobe rouge (ORSW). L’US 85 (sous US 84) est un niveau d’effondrement des murs; il renfermait quelques tessons dont deux filtres de gargoulettes respectivement en pâte B10 et A5, un bord en biseau d’une casserole, deux bords de marmites en pâte A1a et A1/2b et un fond annulaire bas, vraisemblablement d’un bol, complètement noirci. L’US 87 (sous US 85) est un niveau de sable éolien renfermant quelques céramiques peu

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caractéristiques. L’US 91 (sous US 87) comprend les restes d’un niveau d’occupation; il s’étendait jusque dans le corridor B7 où il apparaît sous l’appellation d’US 45. Le matériel comprend une quantité moyenne de céramiques (NMI = 95) parmi lesquelles on mentionnera trois bols à paroi oblique et fond plat avec un décor peint en rouge sur la surface interne engobée en blanc, deux céramiques à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW): une assiette à paroi oblique et une coupelle à marli (Tableau 8.12, Planche 8.48). Les productions en pâte A11 sont illustrées principalement par des marmites le plus souvent à bord de section triangulaire. Enfin, les productions en pâte A1/A2/A5 et A28 comprennent une siga, une jarre à décor peint représentée par un fragment de panse, cinq jarres de stockage, cinq gargoulettes, douze bassines, sept cratères, six coupes et onze bols. La fouille de cette US a également livré 12 monnaies en bronze datables principalement du ive siècle et plus précisément des périodes 355–361 pour l’une d’entre elle et 364–383 pour une autre. Trois niveaux de sols en terre battue ont ensuite été identifiés. Le sol le plus récent BF134 reposait sur une couche de préparation (US 93; Planche 8.48); il semblerait qu’il s’agisse d’un dépotoir qui aurait été nivelé pour installer le sol BF134. Outre de la céramique en quantité moyenne, ce niveau a livré cinq monnaies en bronze dont l’une d’entre elle est datable de la période 364–375. La céramique est représentée par des formes désormais habituelles et, notamment, provenant de la vallée du Nil, une panse résinée d’une amphore LRA 7-AE 7 et une anse d’une supposée gargoulette en pâte calcaire. De l’oasis de Kharga provient un bol en pâte B16 au décor peint en rouge sur un engobe crème. Les productions oasiennes en pâte calcaire sont illustrées par quelques fragments de gargoulettes en pâte B10. L’US 93 recouvrait un second niveau de sol (BF139) lui-même installé sur un niveau de préparation (US 95) qui comprenait trois monnaies en bronze dont l’une d’entre elle est datée de la période 364–383. La composition de ce niveau de préparation est assez similaire à l’US 93; le matériel comprenait un bord d’une assiette à paroi oblique à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), une amphore de table en pâte B16, quelques fragments de gargoulettes en pâte B10 et un bol à fond plat et paroi oblique également en pâte B16 avec un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc. Le niveau de sol le plus ancien (BF135) recouvrait une fine couche de préparation (US 99) au matériel céramique rare et peu significatif. Dans la partie nord de l’espace B12, sous la couche de surface (US 106 = US 84) reposait sur un niveau d’effondrement des murs l’US 107 (= US 85): ce niveau a livré plusieurs céramiques (Tableau 8.13; Planche 8.49) dont un fragment de gargoulette en pâte alluviale et engobe blanc et quatre amphores de table dont une complète en pâte B16 (nº. 1110). On notera également une coupelle à marli à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW). Trois monnaies en bronze proviennent aussi de ce niveau; l’une d’entre elles est datée de la période 355–361. Les US 120 et 121 contenaient peu de matériel (Planche 8.49). En ce qui concerne l’US 120, on signalera juste un bol globulaire en pâte A11 décoré sur le bord interne de larges points rouges (NMI = 8). L’US 121 a également livré une petite quantité de matériel (NMI = 6) dont une bassine en pâte A2b, une siga en pâte A1/2b, un pot globulaire en pâte A11 et une coupelle à marli en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) (Planche 8.49). L’espace B13 est une cour à l’intersection des rues B11 et B12. La couche de sable éolien en surface (US 103) renfermait peu de matériel; on signalera juste un fond de pot à pigeon, trois bords de bassines, un bol en pâte B16 avec un décor d’entrelacs rouges peint sur un engobe crème et trois bords de marmites en pâte A11 (NMI = 15). L’US 103 repose sur l’US 104, une

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seconde couche de sable éolien qui contenait un peu de matériel (Tableau 8.14; Planche 8.49). Ont ainsi été recensés 128 individus dont quatre bols en pâte B16 avec un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc sur la surface interne, un bord d’un petit vase de service en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) et deux gargoulettes en pâte B10.78 Les productions en pâte A11 sont illustrées principalement par des marmites, le plus souvent à bord de section triangulaire. En ce qui concerne le répertoire morphologique des productions en pâtes A1/A2/A5 et A28, il montre une grande variété de formes: sigas, jarres de stockage, pots de stockages, vases à liquide dont trois gargoulettes, marmites, bassines, cratères, coupes, plats et plusieurs bols. Les pièces B14 et B15 se situent à l’est de la rue B12, à proximité de l’entrée du corridor B7 qui permettait d’accéder au complexe de l’église. La pièce B15 correspondrait selon toute vraisemblance à un espace à ciel ouvert ayant abrité une cuisine ou une boulangerie. En effet, quatre fours avaient été aménagés dans cette pièce. Dans la partie ouest de la pièce B15, sous le niveau de surface (US 84) se trouve un niveau d’effondrement des murs ouest et sud-ouest ainsi que de l’entrée donnant sur la pièce B14 (US 86). L’US 86 renfermait une quantité moyenne de tessons (NMI = 125) parmi lesquels on signalera cinq bols à paroi oblique et fond plat orné d’un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe crème (pâte B16), deux assiettes également à paroi oblique mais en pâte rouge et recouverte d’un engobe rouge (ORSW) et deux gargoulettes en pâte B10 (Tableau 8.15; Planche 8.50). Le répertoire morphologique des productions en pâte A11 est assez restreint et comprend principalement des céramiques culinaires, marmites et pots globulaires. La gamme des productions en pâtes A1/A2/A5 et A28 est plus large et rassemble notamment une siga, deux jarres de stockage au décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc, 11 jarres, 13 bassines et 16 bols ainsi qu’un bord appartenant selon toute vraisemblance à un godet de saqieh. Sous l’US 86, dans la partie sudouest de la pièce B15, apparaît un dépotoir (US 129) pour lequel on signalera seulement la présence d’une assiette à bord de section quadrangulaire en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW; Planche 8.50) et de six monnaies en bronze dont une d’entre elles pourrait être datée du ve siècle. Le dégagement de l’US 129 a laissé apparaître un niveau de sol (BF 174) dans le coin sud-est de la pièce. Ce sol repose sur plusieurs dépôts superposés (US 132, US 136, US 137) qui auraient été compactés lors de l’aménagement du sol BF 174. Un raccord entre l’US 132 et l’US 137 laisse à pense qu’il s’agit d’un seul et même dépôt. Le matériel provenant de ces trois niveaux est assez abondant et totalisait 518 tessons correspondant à 433 individus (Tableau 8.16; Planches 8.5051). Le répertoire morphologique de ces US comprenait notamment une amphore LRA 7-AE 7 importée de la vallée du Nil ainsi qu’une bouteille en pâte alluviale. De la vallée du Nil provient également un fond d’une gargoulette en pâte calcaire fine et rosée. Les productions supposées provenir de l’oasis de Kharga sont illustrées par huit bols à paroi oblique et fond plat et présentant un décor d’entrelacs peint en rouge sur un fond clair, et une amphore de table. Les productions à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) comprennent une assiette à paroi oblique, trois coupelles à marli, un gobelet et une lampe ovale à canal central reliant le trou de la mèche au trou de remplissage. Les productions en pâte A11 sont principalement représentées par des marmites, au nombre de 84, les autres formes sont minoritaires; on signalera tout de même la présence de trois bouilloires et de sept casseroles. La gamme des productions en pâtes riches en oxydes de 78. Le tableau indique un total de 3 tessons ce qui inclue l’anse et deux fragments de cols avec un filtre représentant donc 2 individus.

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fer est assez large; on dénombre notamment quatre sigas, 26 jarres de stockage, 10 gargoulettes, le plus souvent en pâte A1 ou A5 et recouverte d’un engobe blanc, et trois bouilloires. Parmi les formes ouvertes, les bassines (NMI = 39), les cratères (NMI = 60), les assiettes (NMI = 26) et les bols (NMI = 44) sont largement majoritaires. De l’US 132 proviennent 4 monnaies en bronze dont une est datée de la période 364–383; l’US 137 contenait également 3 monnaies en bronze dont une datée de la période 364–395. Ces datations convergent à l’instar de la céramique vers la seconde moitié du ive siècle, plus précisément vers le dernier tiers de ce siècle. Dans la pièce B14, sous le niveau de surface (US 84), on trouve l’US 122 qui contenait une quantité moyenne de céramiques parmi lesquelles on mentionnera en particulier une bassine et un dokka en pâte A4 (Planche 8.52). Sous l’US 122 s’est accumulé un large dépotoir, riche en céramiques, qui s’étendait sur la totalité de la surface de la pièce (US 127). 407 individus ont été dénombrés. Le répertoire morphologique est assez large et recouvre toutes les productions attestées en général sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida (Tableau 8.17; Planches 8.53–58). La seule importation connue à ce jour provient de ce contexte; il s’agit d’une assiette à paroi oblique (n. 1310), à savoir la forme Hayes 50A, originaire d’Afrique du Nord et datée entre le milieu du iiie siècle et le début du ive siècle.79 Ce fragment, selon toute probabilité, résiduel, était associé à quelques céramiques provenant de la vallée du Nil, en particulier une marmite, un plat de cuisson en pâte alluviale et deux flacons en pâte calcaire. Les importations de l’oasis de Kharga sont attestées par trois bols à paroi oblique, fond plat et décor peint en rouge sur un fond blanc et par une panse d’une amphore de table à décor peint en rouge et prune sur un engobe jaune-orangé (n. 1864/B16). Les attestations de céramiques à pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) sont à signaler; quatre formes principales ont été reconnues: l’assiette à paroi oblique, la coupelle à marli plus ou moins épais, le bol à paroi convexe et la lampe ovale à canal reliant le trou de la mèche au trou de remplissage. Les gargoulettes en pâte B10 sont représentées par neuf individus. Le répertoire des productions en pâte A11 est toujours largement dominé par les marmites (60 individus) et les pots globulaires (11 individus) le plus souvent utilisés pour la cuisson des aliments. On signalera également les cinq cratères, de petite taille, employés également pour la cuisson des aliments. La grande famille des pâtes riches en oxydes de fer rassemble plus de la moitié des individus de ce niveau (NMI = 277). La gamme des formes est assez variées; on trouve ainsi des sigas à bord mouluré et à bord en bandeau arrondi (NMI = 6), des jarres de stockage à bord de section triangulaire et à bord en bandeau court (NMI = 35), quelques petits pots de stockage à décor peint en rouge (NMI = 5), quelques gargoulettes (NMI = 14) et flacons (NMI = 2), des marmites (NMI = 20) et des pots globulaires (NMI = 11). Les céramiques de forme ouverte sont dominées par des bassines à bord haut, parfois à bord aplati et rentrant (NMI = 45), de nombreux cratères caractérisés par la présence d’un rehaut blanc interne parfois souligné par la présence d’un décor peint en rouge (NMI = 44), des assiettes parfois pourvues d’un petit marli décoré de larges points peints en rouge (NMI = 27) et des bols de différentes tailles et formes, à paroi oblique, convexes ou à bord mouluré (NMI = 51). Outre ces nombreuses céramiques, l’US 127 a livré cinq monnaies en bronze dont la plus récente est datée de la période comprise entre 367 et 375. L’US 127 couvrait l’US 130 riche en matières organiques et qui reposait sur les deux niveaux de sol identifiés dans la pièce; le matériel 79. Ballet, Bonifay et Marchand 2012: 90–92, fig. 1, n. 1.

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céramique est de composition similaire à celui mis au jour dans l’US 127 et on signalera en particulier une amphore de table en pâte B16, recouverte d’un engobe jaune-orangé, poissée et présentant des restes de son bouchon en plâtre (nº. 1817; Planche 8.58).

8.3.4. Le secteur 4: L’atelier de potier Durant la campagne de 2008, un large secteur a été fouillé le long du côté occidental du kôm 1. Les fouilles ont permis de mettre au jour un vaste complexe composé de huit pièces. L’entrée se faisait du côté sud par la pièce B18 qui donnait accès à la pièce 17 sur son côté ouest et au nord à une large cour B19. Cette cour présentait des traces d’une activité artisanale, en particulier des bassins qui correspondraient, selon toute vraisemblance, à des installations liées à un atelier de potiers.80 La cour B29 comprenait une petite pièce dans son angle sud-ouest (B24) et au nord de cette cour se trouvait quatre autres pièces, B20, B21, B22 et B23. La totalité du secteur était recouverte d’une couche de sable éolien, riche en céramiques (US 138; Planches 8.58–59) parmi lesquelles furent découverts plusieurs fragments de vases non cuits confirmant ainsi l’hypothèse de la présence d’un atelier de potiers lors de la réoccupation de cet espace (nºs. 1625, 1614, 1628, 1623, 1627, 1651, 1624, 1626 et 1652). Dans la pièce B17, l’US 138 repose sur une autre couche de sable mélangé à des fragments de briques crues (US 150) qui comprenait peu de matériel céramique, notamment une louche en pâte A1a et un entonnoir en pâte A1b à la surface orangée (Planche 8.59). L’US 150 reposait sur l’US 152 qui renfermait une quantité moyenne de céramiques dont un entonnoir (Planche 8.59; n. 1393/A28) et un fond d’une coupelle en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW; nº. 1390); 3 monnaies en bronze dont la plus récente date de la période 347–348 ont été inventoriées. La pièce B18 permettait d’accéder à l’ensemble du complexe. Sous le niveau de surface (US 138), on trouve un dépôt de sable jaune (US 149) pauvre en matériel céramique à l’exception notamment d’un vase, probablement une marmite qui ne présente pas de traces de cuisson, en pâte A11, avec un rehaut blanc et des points rouges sur le rebord interne de la lèvre (Planche 8.59). Le reste du matériel comprenait en particulier quatre marmites, une jarre, un bord d’une assiette à paroi oblique en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), quatre bols en pâte B16 avec sur la surface interne un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe crème, un couvercle, une assiette et un bord en biseau de casserole. L’US 155 correspond au niveau d’effondrement de la voûte couvrant l’espace à proximité du passage entre les pièces B18 et B19. Egalement pauvre en matériel, il contenait plus particulièrement sept marmites et cinq bols (Planche 8.60). L’US 155 recouvrait un dépôt de sable jaune (US 161) dont le matériel se résume également à quelques individus: une anse de gargoulette en pâte A5 recouverte d’un engobe blanc, huit marmites (Planche 8.60), un bol, quatre pots globulaires, un cratère et deux fragments de couvercles. Les US 149, 155 et 161 recouvraient un niveau d’occupation de sable brun-jaune (US 156) qui reposait partiellement sur le sol supérieur. Le dégagement de cette US a permis de mettre au jour une petite quantité de matériel; on signalera, en particulier, une gargoulette en pâte calcaire blanchâtre importée, 80. Il convient à ce sujet de signaler qu’une rapide reconnaissance géophysique conduite sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida par Tatyana Smekalova avait permis de mettre en évidence six anomalies circulaires au sud du kôm 1 et une anomalie sur le kôm 4; il pourrait s’agir, selon toute vraisemblance, de structures de cuisson et peut-être de fours de potiers.

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selon toute probabilité, de la vallée du Nil (nº. 1698; Planche 8.60). Cette importation est datée sur le site d’El-Ashmounein de la période comprise entre 390 et 460 apr. J.-C.81 En dehors de ce fragment, on note la présence de plusieurs marmites en pâte A11, de quelques plats dont l’un d’entre eux présente des traces de noirci de cuisine et d’un bol à décor rouge de larges boucles sur sa paroi interne. Le dépôt cendreux riche en charbons de bois (US 157), sous l’US 156 et localisé entre la plateforme en briques crues et les escaliers renfermait quelques céramiques dont un cratère et deux bols dont l’un présente des traces de noirci sur la paroi externe en pâte A1b et l’autre, non figuré ici, en pâte B16 avec un décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc sur la paroi interne. Enfin, l’US 158 qui est un dépôt de fragment de briques crues comprenait 6 tessons dont un col d’une bouilloire en pâte A2b (nº. 1497; Planche 8.60). La pièce B19 correspond à un large espace central de plan rectangulaire. Le niveau de surface (US 138) recouvrait une couche liée à l’effondrement d’une voûte (US 146). Cette dernière renfermait 148 individus céramiques parmi lesquels on note la présence de 33 céramiques non cuites, soit 22,3 % de la totalité des individus de l’assemblage (Tableau 8.18; Planches 8.102–103). Le répertoire des céramiques non cuites rassemble principalement des jarres de stockage (nº. 1649 et 1107), quelques marmites, des cratères (nºs. 1105 et 1106), des assiettes et des bols. Le reste de la céramique comprend notamment un bol et une forme fermée provenant de la vallée du Nil, respectivement en pâte alluviale et en pâte calcaire, un bol à fond plat et paroi oblique et un couvercle en pâte B16, 19 marmites en pâte A11 et une vaste gamme de céramiques en pâtes A1/A2/A5 et A28: sigas, pithos, jarres et pots de stockage, marmites, pots globulaires, bassines, cratères, bols et couvercles. Dans la partie sud-est de la pièce B19, sous un dépôt de sable éolien (US 154) contenant une quantité moyenne de céramiques dont des céramiques non cuites (nº. 1647; Planche 8.62), on trouve un second niveau d’effondrement de la voûte et des murs environnants, niveau qui semble être antérieur à l’US 146. Le matériel de l’US 165 se caractérise tout d’abord par l’absence de céramiques importées de la vallée du Nil et de l’oasis de Kharga. On note une seule coupe à marli en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) et seulement deux gargoulettes en pâte calcaire B10 (Tableau 8.19; Planches 8.62–65). Les productions en pâte A11 sont illustrées principalement par des céramiques culinaires, à savoir 54 marmites et 16 pots globulaires dont l’usage est dévolu presque exclusivement à la cuisson des aliments. Le répertoire des formes en pâte A1/A2/A5 et A28 est plus diversifié même si on note là encore une majorité de formes culinaires: marmites, pots globulaire et bols bien souvent utilisés pour la cuisson des aliments. Parmi les 331 individus rencontrés dans cette US, quatre appartiennent à des céramiques non cuites, une gargoulette, 1 bouchon et 2 éléments d’un support de cuisson du type fire-dog. Le remplissage (US 148) de la fosse circulaire (BF181) creusée dans la partie sud de la pièce B19 contenait quelques céramiques (Planche 8.65) dont une coupe à marli en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), plusieurs bols et pots globulaires et quelques marmites. On note également une bouteille en pâte A5 avec un décor peint en noir sur un engobe blanc (nº. 1502) et un col de gargoulette en pâte B10. Le dégagement de l’US 146 a laissé apparaître l’existence d’un large bassin de plan rectangulaire (BF214) dont la fouille a permis d’entrevoir la stratigraphie. Sous l’US 146, puis sous l’US 168, pauvre en matériel, on trouve une couche de sable marron clair (US 171) comprenant des fragments de briques crues et plusieurs 81. Bailey 1996: 63 et pl. 8, fig. 15.3; Bailey 1998: pl. 48, n° I22.

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tessons correspondant à 21 individus (Planche 8.66) parmi lesquels on signalera la présence de céramiques non cuites: deux jarres de stockage (nº. 1615), une gargoulette, un cratère (nº. 1645), une assiette, deux marmites et deux bols. L’US 171 a, en outre, livré 2 monnaies en bronze datées de la période 342–395 et 379–388, ce qui nous incite à dater plutôt de la seconde moitié, voire de la fin du ive siècle de notre ère la production de céramique à Ἁin el-Gedida. Les céramiques de l’atelier seraient donc contemporaines des céramiques appartenant à la dernière phase d’utilisation puis à l’abandon du complexe de pièces reliées à l’église B5. Sous l’US 171, on trouve un niveau d’effondrement de la voûte (US 173); là encore, le matériel se distingue par la présence unique de céramiques non cuites (Planche 8.66): 195 tessons de panses, douze fragments de bouchons, une anse de gargoulette, trois jarres de stockage, onze formes ouvertes dont trois cratères (n. 1636), sept bols (nº. 1638) et enfin quatre marmites (nº. 1637). Le dégagement de l’US 165 a laissé apparaître un second bassin (BF225) localisé dans le coin sudest de la pièce B19. Sous l’US 165, on trouve un niveau d’effondrement de la voûte et du mur extérieur oriental (US 184); cette US a livré 9 tessons de panses de céramiques non cuites et 23 individus de céramiques cuites parmi lesquels on mentionnera principalement la présence d’un bol à paroi oblique et fond plat en pâte B16. L’US 184 reposait sur l’US 185 qui correspond à l’effondrement de la partie intérieure du mur oriental; ne renfermant pas de céramique non cuite, cette US contenait tout de même 17 individus (Planche 8.66): une gargoulette en pâte B10, une jarre de stockage à décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc en pâte A1b, une passoire en pâte A1a, trois marmites en pâte A11 et une marmite en pâte A1a, six bols dont un en pâte A11, trois pots globulaires et un cratère en pâte riche en oxydes ferriques. Dans le coin nord-est de la cour, sous l’US 146, on trouve une couche de fragments de briques crues (US 177) dont le dégagement a permis la découverte d’un bassin en argile incorporé dans le niveau de sol supérieur. L’US 177 renfermait notamment 72 tessons de panses de céramiques non cuites mais également huit bols, un pot globulaire et une anse appartenant, selon toute probabilité, à une gargoulette. Les céramiques cuites comprenaient une siga, un col d’un vase de service en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW; nº. 1805), une jatte, cinq bols dont dont l’un d’entre eux contenait du plâtre et devait donc, vraisemblablement, être employé comme bouchon (nº. 1111), un bol en pâte B16, un pot globulaire, deux gargoulettes en pâte B10, une forme fermée représentée par un unique fond annulaire, une bassine, un cratère, un couvercle et trois marmites et une large bassine en pâte A4 (Planche 8.66). Sous l’US 165, le nettoyage a laissé apparaître une couche (US 188) qui reposait sur le niveau de sol supérieur dans la partie sud-ouest de la pièce. Son dégagement a livré 109 tessons de panses de céramiques non cuites dont un fragment de filtre d’une gargoulette, deux bords de jarres de stockage, deux bords de couvercles (nº. 1126), deux bords de jattes, un bord d’un bol globulaire, un bord de cratère, deux bords de bols et un bord d’assiette (nº. 1125) (Planche 8.66). Le reste du matériel contenait une coupelle à marli en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW), une bassine en pâte A4, une bassine, une gargoulette, une forme fermée à décor peint en rouge sur un engobe blanc, un cratère, deux marmites, quatre pots globulaires, deux coupes, trois couvercles et quatre bols dont un raccorde avec un fragment de bol provenant de l’US 165 (nº. AG08/B/165/1789). Les pièces B20 et B21 se situent au nord de l’espace B19, dans l’axe central nord-sud de l’ensemble du bâtiment. L’analyse architecturale de ces deux pièces les rattache à la première

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

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phase de construction du bâtiment. Le remplissage de la pièce B21 est assez simple. Sous le niveau de surface (US 138) et sous un niveau d’effondrement des murs (US 139) pauvre en céramiques, on trouve une couche de sable brun-jaune (US 141) sur le niveau de sol ou à même le rocher naturel. L’US 141 (Tableau 8.20; Planche 8.67) rassemblait 61 individus dont 27 céramiques non cuites; il s’agit principalement de bols, et de jattes (nºs. 1655–1656) auxquels s’ajoutent deux jarres de stockage (nº. 1653), trois gargoulettes, une marmite, trois pots globulaires et une bassine. Le reste du matériel comprenait essentiellement des pots globulaires en pâte A11 et en pâte A1/A2/A5 et A28 ainsi que des bols. Les pièces B22 et B23 sont deux pièces de plan rectangulaire, localisées de part et d’autre des petites pièces B20 et B21. Dans la pièce B23, la couche de surface (US 138) reposait sur un niveau d’effondrement des murs (US 140) pauvre en céramiques; seuls un moule à pain, une bassine, une jarre et une jatte ont été recensés (Planche 8.67). Sous l’US 140, on trouve une couche de sable brun-jaune (US 144) qui renfermait une quantité assez faible de céramiques (Tableau 8.21; Planche 8.67) parmi lesquels on signalera seulement la présence de 15 céramiques non cuites (nºs. 1616 et 1646). Dans le coin nord-est de la pièce B23, la couche de surface (US 138) repose directement sur un niveau d’occupation (US 147) qui elle-même recouvrait le niveau de sol ou le rocher naturel. L’US 147 renfermait 334 individus (Tableau 8.22; Planches 8.67–68) dont 86 céramiques non cuites; il s’agit en particulier de jarres de stockage, de jattes, d’asiettes et de marmites. Outre les céramiques, l’US 147 a livré un ostracon rédigé en grec daté du ive siècle et 2 monnaies en bronze datées des périodes 314–315 et 312–319. La pièce B24 avait été aménagée dans l’espace B19. Deux niveaux de sols ont été repérés: un sol supérieur (BF215) et un sol inférieur (BF220). Sous la couche de surface (US 138), se trouve un niveau d’effondrement des murs (US 169) qui s’étendait sur toute la surface de la pièce (Planche 8.69). Ce niveau a livré en particulier une céramique dont la fonction demeure inconnue, forme carénée à lèvre évasée, dont la panse comprend des “ouvertures”. On trouve également un fond de forme fermée en pâte non cuite, une marmite et un bol. Après le démontage de l’US 169, on trouve une couche de sable brun mêlé à des inclusions organiques, des fragments de briques crues et de la céramique, en particulier une jarre de stockage et un bol dont la surface interne était ornée d’un décor peint en rouge (Planche 8.69).

8.4. Conclusion

De l’étude du matériel céramique découvert sur le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida ressortent plusieurs constatations. Associée à l’étude des monnaies et des ostraca, la céramique permet tout d’abord d’émettre une datation sur la période de fonctionnement et sur l’abandon des différents secteurs étudiés. C’est vraisemblablement vers le milieu du ive siècle ou dans le courant de la seconde moitié du ive siècle, que le site d’Ἁin el-Gedida connaît sa plus forte occupation et on peut supposer que la fin de ce siècle voit l’abandon du site. Cette datation repose en particulier sur l’absence de produits importés d’Assouan et sur la comparaison avec les assemblages observés sur le site de Kellis abandonnée également vers la fin du ive siècle. L’étude de la céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida permet donc d’appréhender au plus prêt le faciès céramique de la région de l’oasis de Dakhla durant la seconde moitié du ive siècle. Cependant, il convient de souligner l’importance du caractère rural de l’occupation d’Ἁin el-Gedida, vraisemblement située dans

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352

l’orbitre de Kellis et à l’écart, mais pas totalement, des grandes routes du commerce venant de la vallée et reliant les oasis. Les traits spécifiques du faciès des céramiques sont donc les suivants: – quasi-absence d’importations de Méditerranée, seule une sigillée africaine a été recensée; – faiblesse des importations de la vallée du Nil mais leur présence régulière dans les différents contextes étudiés a tout de même été observée; “les importations un peu plus nombreuses en provenance de la Vallée, celles des amphores brunes Late Roman Amphora 7, traduisent bien un commerce régulier et organisé, qui sans faire concurrence au vin des Oasis, traduit l’importance des grandes régions vinicoles de la Vallée (…)”;82 – faiblesse des importations de céramiques de l’oasis de Kharga mais présence régulière avec la particularité de l’association des bols à décor peint d’entrelacs en rouge sur un engobe crème aux amphores de table ou bouteilles également pourvues d’un riche décor peint; – petit pourcentage des céramiques fines en pâte rouge et engobe rouge  (ORSW) avec prédominence de deux formes: la coupelle convexe à marli concave ou épaissi et l’assiette à paroi oblique; – petit pourcentage de céramiques en pâte B10, poreuse et aérée, utilisée presque exclusivement pour la confection de gargoulettes; – importance des productions en pâte A11 employée principalement pour la confection de récipients culinaires (marmites, bols globulaires, cratères de petite taille et casseroles); cet usage préférentiel pour les récipients culinaires s’explique par les propriétés réfractaires de cette argile et notamment une grande résistance aux chocs thermiques répétés; – abondance des productions en pâtes A1/A2/A5 et A28 avec un répertoire morphologique plus varié: sigas, jarres de stockage, marmites, pots globulaires, bassines, cratères, coupes, plats, assiettes, bols et couvercles. Si ces principaux traits caractérisent le matériel découvert dans les secteurs d’habitations et ceux près de l’église, le matériel céramique provenant de l’atelier de potiers présente un faciès légèrement différent. Les importations en provenance de la vallée du Nil se résument à quelques individus et aucune amphore LRA 7-AE 7 n’a été inventoriée. Les productions supposées de l’oasis de Kharga sont également très faibles et ne sont illustrées que par quelques bols en pâte B16 et par aucune amphore de table. Les céramiques en pâte rouge et engobe rouge (ORSW) sont également peu représentées et la forme principale est celle des coupelles convexes au bord en marli. L’intérêt de ce secteur réside cependant dans la découverte de céramiques non cuites dont le répertoire morphologique ne se rapproche pas complètement des céramiques cuites observées dans les différents secteurs. Il semble bien, toutefois, que la datation de ces ensembles remonte également à la seconde moitié du ive siècle, en partie d’après le témoignage des monnaies même si les datations émises par les monnaies doivent toujours être maniées avec prudence.

82. Ballet 2004: 229.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

353

Tableau 8.1: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 14 Type

B

Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte A27

Coupelles à marli

1

Assiettes à marli

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

Pâtes A1-A2A28-A5

Céramiques indéterminées

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

2 1

Marmites

11

11

11

Pots globulaires

3

3

3

Coupes/Plats/assiettes

2

2

2

Sigas

1

1

1

Jarres à décor peint

1

1

1

Jarres de stockage

6

6

6

Bassines

5

5

5

Cratères

6

6

6

Jattes

2

2

2

Coupes/Plats/assiettes

4

1

5

4

Bols

8

1

9

8

Passoires

1

1

1

Couvercles

3

3

3

Formes indéterminées

1

1

1

Pots globulaires

1

1

1

Bols

1

1

1

Couvercles

1

1

1

66

63

Total

NMI

1

1

3

3

1

1

16

7

1

1

2

1

16

16

59

2

5

Tableau 8.2: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 15 Type Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte A27

Assiettes à parois obliques

B

F

1 3

Indéterminée Pâte B10

A

1

Gargoulettes

5

Formes fermées

1

Bouilloires

1

Marmites

16

4

7

Pâte A11 1

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

354

Pâte A11

Pâtes A1-A2A28-A5

Type

B

Total

NMI

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Casseroles

5

5

5

Coupes/plats/assiettes

1

1

1

Bols

4

4

4

Couvercles

5

5

5

Formes indéterminées

5

5

5

Sigas

5

5

5

Jarres à décor peint

4

4

4

Jarres de stockage

20

20

20

Pots de stockage

4

1

5

4

2

2

1

20

11

2

2

90

90

1

92

91

8

5

2

58

56

Vases à liquide

2

Gargoulettes

11

Flacon

2

Marmites

86

Pots globulaires

91

A

8

F

4

Casseroles

5

Bassines

56

3

Cratères

15

15

15

Jattes

9

9

9

Coupes/plats/assiettes

90

7

97

90

Bols

279

4

286

279

Passoires

2

3

2

2

Couvercles

66

66

66

1

1

2

1

71

39

Pots à pigeon

1

Lampes

1

1

Formes indéterminées

39

12

Pâte A4

Dokkas

2

2

2

Céramiques indéterminées

Jarres de stockage

2

2

2

Flacons

2

2

2

Marmites

4

4

4

Pots globulaires

3

3

3

Coupes/plats/assiettes

4

4

4

Bols

3

3

3

Couvercles

3

3

2

940

866

858

38

20

44

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

355

Tableau 8.3: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 58 Type Pâte B16

B

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

3

2

21

19

2

2

1

1

1

5

7

5

Amphores de table Vases à liquide

Pâte B10

Gargoulette

Pâte A11

Jarres de stockage

1 1 1

Gargoulettes Formes fermées Marmites

19

Pots globulaires

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes

Pâtes A1-A2A28-A5

Bols

2

Couvercles

6

6

6

Sigas

1

1

1

1

1

Jarres à décor peint

1

Jarres de stockage

6

6

6

Pots de stockage

1

1

1

Gargoulettes

1

1

1

6

6

Diverses formes fermées

6

Marmites

1

1

1

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Bassines

9

6

15

9

Cratères

13

2

15

13

Jattes

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

9

7

16

9

Bols

13

7

21

13

1

1

1

6

6

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

44

142

115

1

Passoires Couvercles

6

Pots à pigeon Moules

1 1

Formes indéterminées 95

1

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

356

Tableau 8.4: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 68 Type Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

Pâtes A1-A2-A28A5

B 1

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

3

2

1

1

1

Marmites

14

14

14

Pots globulaires

3

3

3

Casseroles

1

1

1

Bols

3

3

3

Sigas

2

2

2

1

1

3

2

Jarres à décor peint Jarres de stockage

2

Pots de stockage

1

1

1

Diverses formes fermées

4

4

4

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Bassines

4

7

4

Cratères

8

8

8

Jattes

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

5

1

6

5

Bols

3

1

4

3

Couvercles

7

7

7

Pâte A4

Bassines ou mangeoires

1

1

1

Pâte indéterminée

Lampes

1

1

1

74

67

63

1

3

2

7

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

357

Tableau 8.5: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 79 Type Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte calcaire

Gargoulettes

Pâte B16

Bols

B

A 1

3

Amphores de table Couvercles

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

2

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

1

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

4

3

1

1

1

1

1

2

5

2

2

2

2

1

Marmites

23

24

23

Pots globulaires

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

3

3

3

Bols

5

5

10

5

2

2

2

Sigas

3

3

Jarres à décor peint

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

5

Formes indéterminées Pâtes A1-A2A28-A5

F

Jarres de stockage

1

Gargoulettes

1

Flacons Diverses formes fermées

1

5

Marmites

4

4

4

Pots globulaires

4

4

4

Bassines

2

2

2

Cratères

4

5

4

Jattes

1

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

9

2

11

9

Bols

34

10

44

34

3

3

3

8

1

1

1

Formes indéterminées Pâte A4

Forme indéterminée

Pâte indéterminée

Pots globulaires

1

Bols

1

1

1

Formes ouvertes

1

1

1

Indéterminée

1

1

1

39

154

123

99

2

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

358

Tableau 8.6: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 75 Type

B

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

3

4

3

Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte calcaire

Gargoulettes

Pâte B16

Bols

1

Pâte A27

Coupelles à marli

1

1

2

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

5

8

13

8

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

1

3

4

3

Bouilloires

1

1

1

39

37

Pâtes A1-A2A28-A5

1

Marmites

37

1

1

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Casseroles

3

3

3

Cratères

1

1

1

Bols

8

11

8

Couvercles

3

3

3

Sigas

6

6

6

1

1

Jarres de stockage

12

12

12

Pots de stockage

6

9

6

Gargoulettes

2

1

3

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

3

Jarres à décor peint

Flacons

3

Diverses formes fermées

1

Marmites

3

3

3

Pots globulaires

8

8

8

Bassines

37

5

42

37

Cratères

34

1

35

34

Coupes/Plats/assiettes

11

2

13

11

Bols

25

10

35

25

Passoires

3

3

3

Couvercles

6

6

6

2

2

Pots à pigeon

Pâte A4

2

Supports

2

2

2

Tuyau

1

1

1

Pithos

1

1

1

Divers

2

1

4

3

44

274

237

216

12

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

359

Tableau 8.7: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 73 Type

B

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

Pâte B16

Amphores de table

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Marmites

2

2

2

Pots globulaires

3

3

3

Casseroles

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

Formes indéterminées Pâtes A1-A2-A28A5

2

Jarres à décor peint Jarres de stockage

7

7

7

Marmites

1

1

1

Pots globulaires

1

1

1

Bassines

2

1

3

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes

2

1

3

2

Bols

9

2

11

9

Pâte A4

Support

1

1

1

Pâte indéterminée

Coupes/plats/assiettes

1 30

1

7

1

1

39

35

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

360

Tableau 8.8: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 80 Type

B

Pâte B16

Amphores de table

Pâte A27

Coupelles à marli

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

1

Pâte A11

Gargoulettes

A

1

F

4

1

Formes fermées

4

Bouilloires Marmites

23

Pots globulaires

1

Casseroles

1

Bols

12

Couvercles

5

NMI

1

1

1

1

6

4

1

1

4

4

1

1

28

23

1

1

1

1

16

12

2

2

2

1

1

1

Jarres à décor peint

1

1

1

Jarres de stockage

2

4

2

Pots de stockage

2

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

4

2

2

2

Gargoulettes

1

1

1

Flacons

1

1

1

4

6

4

1

1

7

4

6

6

14

13

10

10

Diverses formes fermées

1

Bouilloires

1

Marmites

4

Pots globulaires

6

Bassines

13

Cratères

10

Coupes/plats/assiettes

13

2

15

13

Bols

10

8

18

10

Entonnoirs

1

1

Passoires

2

1

1

4

3

1

1

1

1

1

Couvercles

1

3 1

3

Pots à pigeon Lampe Pâte A4

Total

1

Formes indéterminées

Pâte indéterminée Formes fermées Bols 109

3

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

43

161

130

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

361

Tableau 8.9: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 90 Type Pâte alluviale

B

A

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

2

Gargoulettes

1

F

Total

NMI

2

1

1

1

Vaisselles de table

1

1

1

Pâte calcaire

Gargoulettes

2

2

2

Pâte B16

Bols

4

15

11

1

6

3

11

Amphores de table Pâte A27

5

Assiettes à parois obliques

4

1

5

4

Coupelles à marli

3

3

6

3

2

1

Lampes Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

4

38

20

62

38

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

1

12

8

21

12

Marmites

189

2

5

196

189

Pots globulaires

23

23

23

Cratères

3

3

3

Casseroles

18

19

18

Coupes/Plats/assiettes

1

1

2

2

Bols

20

29

50

20

Couvercles

25

4

1 1

29

25

7

7

7

Jarres à décor peint

1

1

1

Jarres de stockage

64

2

66

64

Diverses formes fermées

14

23

56

23

Marmites

34

6

40

34

Pots globulaires

23

23

23

Casseroles

1

1

1

Bassines

67

77

67

Cratères

65

65

65

Coupes/plats/assiettes

39

6

45

39

Bols

94

60

154

94

1

1

1

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

Entonnoirs

19

10

Passoires

4

4

4

Couvercles

32

32

32

1

1

1

1

10

9

Pots à pigeon Supports

9

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

362

Pâtes A1-A2-A28A5 Pâte A4

Type

B

Louches

2

Formes indéterminées

2

Dokkas

1

Couvercle Pâte indéterminée

Marmites

A

Total

NMI

2

2

4

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

4

2

1

1

2

1

1045

834

2 1

1

Plats/assiettes

Céramiques non cuites

F

Bols

2

Couvercles

1

Formes indéterminées 765

82

194

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

363

Tableau 8.10: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 94 Type Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte B16

Bols

B

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

9

8

1

2

1

1

3

2

5

5

2

4

2

3

3

3

4

4

4

1

1 8

Amphores de table Pâte A27

A

1

Assiettes à parois obliques

2

Coupelles à marli

5

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

1

Pâte A11

Formes fermées Bouilloires

1

Marmites

43

44

43

Pots globulaires

5

5

5

Cratères

6

6

6

2

2

2

7

10

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes Bols

2

Couvercles

5

5

5

3

3

3

2

12

10

2

14

9

3

12

9

6

6

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5 Jarres de stockage

10

Diverses formes fermées

3

Marmites

9

Pots globulaires

6

Casseroles

2

Bassines

17

Cratères

1

9

2

2

19

17

21

21

21

Jattes

4

4

4

Coupes/plats/assiettes

13

10

23

13

Bols

33

24

57

33

6

1

12

12

12

1

1

1

295

230

2

Passoires Couvercles Pâte indéterminée Marmites

211

18

60

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

364

Tableau 8.11: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 108 Type

B

Pâte alluviale

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7

Pâte calcaire

Gargoulettes

Pâte B16

Bols

2

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

1

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

2

4

2

6

5

3

3

3

2

26

24

13

13

6

4

23

16

8

7

4

4

1

6

5

3

5 3

1

Marmites

24

Pots globulaires

13

Casseroles

4

Bols

16

Couvercles

7

Jarres de stockage

F

1

Bouilloires

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

A

2 2 2 7 1

4 5

Gargoulettes

6

3

Pots globulaires

6

3

6

6

Casseroles

2

2

2

Bassines

14

14

14

Cratères

8

8

8

Jattes

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

5

2

7

5

Bols

23

19

42

23

2

2

Passoires

Pâte A4

Couvercles

11

11

11

Supports

1

1

1

Bassines ou mangeoires

1 149

14

40

1

1

205

164

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

365

Tableau 8.12: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 91 Type

B

Pâte B16

Bols

Pâte A27

A

Total

NMI

3

3

3

Assiettes à parois obliques

1

1

1

Coupelles à marli

1

1

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

2

1

4

2

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

1

1

1

1

6

4

1

Bouilloires

1

Marmites

20

20

20

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Casseroles

1

1

1

Cratères

1

1

1

Bols

1

4

3

Couvercles

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

5

5

10

5

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

4

F

1

3

Jarres à décor peint Jarres de stockage

5

Gargoulettes

5

Marmites

2

2

2

Bassines

12

12

12

Cratères

7

7

7

Coupes/plats/assiettes

6

6

12

6

Bols

11

2

13

11

Couvercles

4

4

4

114

95

83

11

20

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

366

Tableau 8.13: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 107 Type

B

Pâte alluviale

Gargoulettes

Pâte B16

Bols

1

Amphores de table

1

Pâte A27

Coupelles à marli

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

4

Pâte A11

Formes fermées Bouilloires

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

4

4

1

1

1

7

4

1

1

1

2

2

15

13

3 2 2

Marmites

13

Pots globulaires

12

12

12

Casseroles

4

4

4

Bols

2

9

2

Couvercles

2

3

2

1

1

7

6

1

1

6

5

1

1

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

2

7 1

1

Jarres de stockage

6

Pots de stockage

1

Gargoulettes

1

1 5

Flacons

Pâte A4

Marmites

2

2

2

Pots globulaires

1

1

1

Bassines

6

8

6

Cratères

11

2

11

11

Jattes

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

7

1

8

7

Bols

11

11

22

11

Couvercles

9

9

9

Supports

1

1

1

1

1

1

35

139

111

Bassines ou mangeoires 98

5

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

367

Tableau 8.14: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 104

Pâte B16

Type

B

Bols

4

A

F

Total

NMI

2

6

4

1

1

1

1

3

2

3

3

1

1

2

25

23

2

2

2

9

7

1

2

2

Jarres de stockage

6

6

6

Pots de stockage

2

2

4

2

Gargoulettes

3

2

5

3

Vases à liquide

1

1

2

1

Marmites

7

1

9

7

Pots globulaires

1

1

1

Casseroles

1

1

1

Bassines

11

16

11

Cratères

10

10

10

Jattes

2

2

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes

10

5

15

10

Bols

22

13

35

22

1

1

Amphores de table Pâte A27

Vases à liquide

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

1 1 3

Bouilloires Marmites

1 23

Bols Couvercles Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

7

2

5

Passoires Couvercles

4

4

4

Supports

1

1

1

165

128

117

4

38

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

368

Tableau 8.15: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 86

Pâte B16 Pâte A27

Type

B

Bols

A

Total

NMI

5

5

5

Couvercles

1

1

1

Assiettes à parois obliques

2

2

2

1

1

Coupelles à marli

F

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

2

2

2

Pâte A11

Bouilloires

1

1

1

13

12

Marmites

12

Pots globulaires

2

1

Coupes/Plats/assiettes

2

2

1

1

1

6

7

6

Bols

1

Couvercles

3

3

3

1

1

1

Jarres à décor peint

2

2

2

Jarres de stockage

11

12

11

Pots de stockage

2

2

2

5

6

5

1

10

9

4

4

15

13

17

17

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

Vases à liquide

1 1

Marmites

9

Pots globulaires

4

Bassines

13

Cratères

17

Coupes/plats/assiettes

5

5

10

5

Bols

16

9

25

16

Couvercles

3

3

3

Godets de saqieh

1

1

1

146

125

110

2

4

32

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

369

Tableau 8.16: Répartition des céramiques des US 132, 136 et 137 Type Pâte alluviale

B

Pâte calcaire

Gargoulettes

Pâte B16

Bols

8 1

Assiette à paroi oblique

1

Coupelles à marli

3

Gobelet

1

Lampe

1

Gargoulettes

9

Flacon Pâte A11

Total

NMI

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

14

8

1

2

1

1

1

5

3

1

1

54

33

1

1

4

4

3

3

86

84

3

3

9

7

2

2

19

10

1

Amphore de table

Pâte B10

F

Amphores LRA 7/AE 7 Bouteille

Pâte A27

A

2

33

12

1

Formes fermées

4

Bouilloires

3

Marmites

84

Pots globulaires

3

Casseroles

7

Cratères

2

Bols

10

Couvercles

3

3

3

4

4

4

2

1

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

2 2 9

Jarres à décor peint Jarres de stockage

26

1

27

26

Pots de stockage

1

9

10

9

Gargoulettes

2

3

15

10

Flacon

1

1

1

Bouilloires

3

4

3

Marmites

10

10

10

Pots globulaires

8

8

8

Bassines

39

49

39

Cratères

60

60

60

10 1

10

Jattes

2

2

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes

26

6

32

26

Bols

44

15

59

44

Passoires

4

4

4

Couvercles

13

13

13

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

370

Type

B

A

F

Total

NMI

2

1

Pâte A4

Formes indéterminées

Pâte indéterminée

Bols

4

4

4

Lampe

1

1

1

518

433

Total

NMI

381

51

81

Tableau 8.17: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 127 Type

B

A

F

Afrique du Nord

Assiette à paroi oblique

1

1

1

Pâte alluviale

Marmite

1

1

1

Plat de cuisson

1

1

1

Pâte calcaire

Flacons

2

2

2

Pâte B16

Bols

3

6

3

1

1

6

6

7

6

3

Amphores de table Pâte A27

Assiettes à parois obliques

6

Coupelles à marli

6

Bols

1

1

1

Lampes

1

1

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

2

12

9

Pâte A11

Jarres de stockage

1

1

1

Bouilloires

2

2

4

2

Marmites

60

1

2

63

60

Pots globulaires

11

2

11

11

Cratères

5

5

5

6

6

6

1

4

1

1

9

Coupes/plats/assiettes

1

Bols

1

Couvercles

4

4

4

Lampes

1

1

1

6

6

6

1

1

1

1

3

38

35

5

5

11

31

14

2

4

2

1

1

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5 Pithos

1

Jarres à décor peint Jarres de stockage

35

Pots de stockage

5

Gargoulettes

6

Flacons

2

Bouilloires

1

14

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

Type Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Marmites A5

Pâte A4

B

A

20

371

F

Total

NMI

3

23

20

11

11

56

45

44

44

Pots globulaires

11

Bassines

45

Cratères

44

Coupes/plats/assiettes

27

6

33

27

Bols

51

19

70

51

11

Passoires

2

2

2

Couvercles

11

11

11

Lampes

1

1

1

Bassines ou mangeoires

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

482

407

Pâte indéterminée Flacons Marmites

1 2

Plats/assiettes Bols

1 2 379

26

75

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

372

Tableau 8.18: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 146 Type

B

Pâte alluviale

Vaisselles de table

Pâte calcaire

Vases à liquide

Pâte B16

Bols Couvercles

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

2

2

2

2

Pâte A11

Bouilloires

1

1

2

1

4

23

19

2

2

2

2

2

2

Marmites

19

Pots globulaires

2

Casseroles

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes

2

Bols

1

1

1

Couvercles

2

2

2

1

1

1

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5 Pithos

1

1

1

Jarres de stockage

4

3

7

4

Pots de stockage

5

1

6

5

Gargoulettes

1

1

2

1

Diverses formes fermées

1

1

1

Marmites

8

2

10

8

Pots globulaires

8

8

8

Bassines

11

1

12

11

Cratères

3

1

4

3

Coupes/plats/assiettes

1

2

3

2

Bols

26

9

35

26

Passoires

Pâte A4 Céramiques non cuites

2

1

Couvercles

3

3

3

Supports

1

1

1

Lampe

1

1

1

Dokkas

2

2

2

Bassines ou mangeoires

1

1

1

Jarres de stockage

13

13

13

1

1

1

1

5

5

Gargoulettes

1

Formes fermées Marmites

1 5

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

Céramiques non cuites

Type

B

Cratères

4

Plats/assiettes Bols Couvercles

A

373

F

Total

NMI

1

5

4

3

3

3

4

4

4

2 138

4

32

2

2

174

148

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

374

Tableau 8.19: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 165 Type

B

Pâte A27

Coupelles à marli

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Formes fermées

A 2 2

F

Total

NMI

1

1

2

4

2

2

2

2

16

Marmites

64

82

64

Pots globulaires

16

16

16

Casseroles

2

2

2

1

1

1

3

6

3

2

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes Bols

3

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

2

2

1

21

14

5

5

3

6

3

4

5

9

5

Marmites

32

7

39

32

Pots globulaires

50

50

50

Bassines

22

22

22

Cratères

8

8

8

Jattes

2

2

2

Coupes/plats/assiettes

11

17

28

17

Bols

65

62

127

65

Couvercles

5

5

5

Supports

1

1

1

Dokkas

2

2

2

Pâte indéterminée Bassine

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

450

331

Pâte A4

Jarres à décor peint

1

Jarres de stockage

14

Pots de stockage

4

Gargoulettes

2

Diverses formes fermées

Forme fermée

1 7 1

Bol Céramiques non cuites

Gargoulettes Bouchon

1 1

Fire-dogs 314

7

125

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

375

Tableau 8.20: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 141

Pâte A11

Type

B

Pots globulaires

5

Bols

2 1

Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Diverses formes ferA5 mées

A

Total

NMI

5

5

2

4

2

1

2

1

Pots globulaires

9

9

9

Coupes/plats/assiettes

1

1

1

Bols

15

6

21

15

1

1

1

2

2

Entonnoirs Céramiques non cuites

F

Jarres de stockage

2

Gargoulettes

3

3

Marmites

1

3

1

1

Pots globulaires

3

3

3

Bassines

1

1

1

Jattes

6

6

6

Bols

10

10

10

1

1

70

61

Bouchon 56

3

10

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

376

Tableau 8.21: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 144 Type Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Bouilloires

B

Marmites

1

Bols

1

Couvercles Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Jarres de stockage A5

A

F

Total

NMI

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

3

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

2

1

Gargoulettes

1

1

2

1

Marmites

2

2

2

Pots globulaires

3

3

3

Casseroles

1

1

1

Bassines

2

2

2

Jattes

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

5

5

5

Bols

8

15

8

1

1

1

1

1

Pâte indéterminée Marmites

2

2

2

Céramiques non cuites

Jarres de stockage

2

2

2

Marmites

1

1

1

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Jattes

4

2

6

4

Bols

4

4

8

4

Couvercles

2

2

2

67

48

F

Total

NMI

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

7

Passoires Couvercles

44

3

18

Tableau 8.22: Répartition des céramiques de l’US 147 Type Pâte A27

B

A

Assiettes à parois obliques Coupelles à marli

1

Pâte B10

Gargoulettes

Pâte A11

Bouilloires

1

1

1

Marmites

16

16

16

Pots globulaires

2

2

2

Casseroles

2

2

2

Bols

2

4

2

2

2

2

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

Couvercles Pâtes A1-A2-A28- Sigas A5

5

377

1

6

5

1

1

1

1

1

3

2

1

7

3

1

Jarres à décor peint Jarres de stockage

2

Gargoulettes

3

Pots de stockage

2

2

2

Flacons

2

2

2

Marmites

11

14

11

Pots globulaires

42

42

42

Bassines

5

5

5

Cratères

1

1

1

Jattes

1

1

1

Coupes/plats/assiettes

19

Bols

118

3

3

1

Entonnoirs

7

26

19

55

174

118

1

1

1

10

1

6

5

1

1

12

7

3

2

1

1

Passoires Couvercles

5

Pâte indéterminée Bols

1

Céramiques non cuites

7

Jarres de stockage Gargoulettes

1 5 1

Formes fermées Marmites

10

10

10

Pots globulaires

1

1

1

Cratères

15

15

15

Plats/assiettes

2

2

2

Jattes

36

36

36

Bols

2

11

9

3

1

1

1

9

Passoires Couvercles

1

Bouchon 316

9

87

9

1

436

334

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

378

Pl. 8.1 Afrique du Nord

AG08/B/127/1310 0

5 cm

Vallée du Nil

AG08/B/156/1698 AG08/B/F141/1457 AG07/B/68/891

AG06/B/14/222

AG07/B/33/602

AG8/B/127/1367 AG08/B/127/1369 AG08/B/127/1323

0

5 cm

0

5 cm

Oasis de Kharga

AG08/B/130/1817

AG08/B/127/1864

AG07/B/58/740 AG08/B/137/1553

AG08/B/107/1110

AG08/B/166/1412

AG08/B/132/1811

AG08/B/100/1782

AG08/B/132/1761

AG08/B/137/1550

AG08/B/86/1438

Pl. 8.1: Céramiques d’ Afrique du Nord; de la Vallée du Nil; de l’Oasis de Kharga.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

379

Pl. 8.2 Céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW)

AG08/B/177/1805

AG06/A/-/186

AG08/B/127/1309

AG06/A/-/50

AG08/B/121/1510-1511

AG08/B/148/1499

AG08/B/90/1421 AG07/B/76/907 AG08/B/90/1670

AG08/B/127/1308

AG08/B/132/1734

AG08/B/122/1743

AG06/B/14/110

AG08/B/136/1554 AG08/B/127/1305 AG08/B/94/1880

AG08/B/154/1690

AG08/B/165/1105

AG06/A/-/49

AG08/B/96/1877

AG06/B/14/121

AG08/B/129/1878

0

AG 04/A/-/557

Pl. 8.2: Céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW).

5 cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

380

Pl. 8.3 Céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW)

AG94/A/-/552

AG94/A/-/553

AG94/A/-/555

AG04/A/-/554

AG07/B/41/577

AG08/B/141/849 0

5 cm

Pl. 8.3: Céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW).

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

381

Pl. 8.4 Ceramiques fines rouges a engobe rouge (ORSW)

/ AG08/B/127/1001

AG0S/B/132/848

5cm

AG07/A/l/615

Pl. 8.4: Céramiques fines rouges à engobe rouge (ORSW).

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

382

Pl. 8.5 Céramiques en pâte calcaire B10

AG07/B/68/881

AG08/B/165/1154

AG06/B/15/204

AG07/A/-/466

0

5 cm

AG07/B/80/991

Céramiques en pâte A11

AG07/B/58/744

AG08/B/100/1781

AG07/B/45/873 AG07/B/77/720 AG07/B/80/576

AG07/B/80/795

AG08/B/122/1382 AG07/B/80/794

AG07/B/36/604

AG07/B/79/753

Pl. 8.5: Céramiques en pâte calcaire B10; céramiques en pâte A11.

0

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

383 Pl. 8.6

Céramiques en pâte A11

AG07/B/58/745

AG08/B/174/1678

AG07/B/80/820

AG08/B/132/1759

AG08/B/F141/1458

AG07/B/80/864

AG07/B/80/819

AG06/B/15/403

AG08/B/127/1360

AG08/B/165/1149

AG08/B/127/1352

AG08/B/F162/1675

AG08/B/132/1754

AG08/B/185/1834

AG08/B/154/1381

AG07/B/62/923

AG08/B/169/1546

Pl. 8.6: Céramiques en pâte A11.

0

5 cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

384

Pl. 8.7 Céramiques en pâte A11

AG08/B/165/1147 AG08/B/166/1408 AG07/B/65/970

AG06/B/15/390

AG06/B/14/109

AG07/B/80/817 AG08/B/149/1394

AG08/B/165/1153

AG08/B/127/1365 AG08/B/122/1385 AG08/B/165/1157

AG07/B/94/975 + AG07/B/69/962

AG08/B/165/1158

AG08/B/165/1138

AG06/A/-/344

AG07/B/73/895 AG07/B/71/748 AG08/B/107/1784 0

Pl. 8.7: Céramiques en pâte A11.

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

385

Pl. 8.8 Céramiques en pâte A11

AG07/B/77/722 AG08/B/165/1141 AG07/B/80/812

AG06/A/-/196

AG06/A/-/38

AG06/B/20/340

0

5 cm

AG08/B/127/1865 0

5 cm

Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28

AG08/B/127/1312 AG08/B/90/1420

AG07/B/75/759

AG07/B/26/984

AG07/B/68/858 AG07/B/37/618 AG07/B/75/774

AG07/B/78/934 AG08/B/132/1741

AG08/B/127/1311

AG08/B/146/1594

AG08/B/F181/1679

AG07/B/80/793

AG08/B/132/1736 0

Pl. 8.8: Céramiques en pâte A11; céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5 cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

386

Pl. 8.9 Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28

AG08/B/127/1313

AG08/B/137/1548

AG07/B/82/724

AG08/B/165/1109

AG08/B/86/1824

AG06/B/14/107

AG07/B/-/903

AG06/B/15/85

AG06/B/15/358

AG07/B/78/935

AG06/B/15/426

AG06/A/-/192 AG06/B/14/210

AG07/B/73/913

AG07/B/80/978 0

Pl. 8.9: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

387 Pl. 8.10

Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28

AG07/B/73/901

AG08/B/127/1763

AG07/B/65/954

AG08/B/127/1318

AG08/B/104/1584

AG08/B/122/1383 + 127/1322

AG07/B/77/721

AG08/B/86/1450

AG07/B/71/749

AG06/B/14/459 1/5

AG07/B/62/871

AG08/B/127/1315 0

Pl. 8.10: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5 cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

388

Pl. 8.11 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AG06/B/14/215 AG07/B/94/938 AG07/B/75/711

(

\

\

AG06/A/-/635 AGOS/B/90/1667

AG0S/B/93/1519

AG0S/B/90/1668 AG07/B/75/714

AGOS/B/141/1446

AG07/B/75/779 AG0S/B/148/1502

AG07/B/68/927

AG 06/A/-/558

r

AG0S/B/147/1380 AG07/B/59/791

)�)�)��� AG06/A/-/295

AGOG/B/ISl306

AG07/B/80/805

AGOS/B/165/1162

AG0S/B/127/1329

AG0S/B/147/1672

AG06/B/15/91

AG08/B/F41/1459

5cm

AG0S/B/147/1103 AG06/A/-/112

Pl. 8.11: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

389

Pl. 8.12 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AG06/A/-/39 AG06/B/15/201

AG07/B/58/742

AG0S/B/165/1302

AG0S/B/165/1121

AGOS/B/127/1332

AG07/B/80/792

AG06/B/l 5/77 AG06/B/15/78

I

AG0S/B/165/1114

AG07/A/0/627

AG06/B/15/164

AG07/B/29/484

AGOS/B/144/1646 0

Pl. 8.12: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5cm

390

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 8.13 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AG07/B/68/856

AG06/B/l l/l 00

AG06/B/15/79

:r:,. '

'

..

/

- - /

-- �'

� 'v

AG07/B/42/638

7

I AG08/B/127/1339

5cm

Pl. 8.13: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

391

Pl. 8.14 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

I

I AG06/B/ll/104

AG06/B/ll/lOI

I

I AG06/B/15/142

AG0S/B/127/1495

I AG07/A/0/625

AG06/B/15/140

AG0S/B/132/1758

AG06/B/3/332

'

\ AG06/B/14/209 5cm

Pl. 8.14: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

392

Pl. 8.15 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AG0S/B/141/1442

AG0S/B/150/1843

4

AG07/B/39/641

AG06/B/14/108

"'====='-( v

" 0

0�

"

AG0S/B/127/1374

0 •

AG07/B/75/772

.. AG07/B/42/808

)

)

/

0 0 0 0 ( '

0

0

0 0

'-1

0

0 0 0

0

o:

� 0

o,

0

0

0 '

7

AG06/A/-/40

AG08/B/F225/1407

5cm

AG07/B/75/755

Pl. 8.15: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

393

Pl. 8.16

f---lr

Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AGOS/B/86/ l 602

AG07/B/76/905

AG0S/B/146/1592

AG0?/B/75/702

AG0S/B/165/1119 AG0S/B/97/1573

AG06/B/3/333

r

AG07/B/80/866

AG0?/B/75/769

AG0S/B/127/1492

Pl. 8.16: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

394

Pl. 8.17 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AGOS/B/!36/1564

J

AG06/B/15/244

)

AG06/B/15/62

AGO?/B/78/933

AG08/B/127/1351 AG07/B/73/911

_

.______�7

_ � _

_

I 7

�====="::=:j/

.7

_ _

AG08/B/133/1532

f---

AG07/B/80/989

-//

- - �7

AG0?/B/80/987

AG08/B/165/l 133

LI

AG06/B/15/404

AG 06/B/15/218

� �

AG06/A/-/56

AG06/B/l 5/63

AG08/B/165/1858

AG06/B/4/122

AG08/B/127/1370

AG08/B/166/14 l l

Pl. 8.17: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

395

Pl. 8.18 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

t

AG06/B/15/384

I

�========-=�) 7 r-- - 7

- ----- ---AG0S/B/148/1503

AG07/B/80/867

AG07/A/l/612

AG0?/B/80/571

AG06/A/-/45

AGOS/B/177/1111

C 143 AG0?/B/32/493

J

�7 AG0S/B/165/1863

AG0S/B/146/1598

AG07/B/80/868

C"1,

AG0S/B/165/1856

AG06/B/l5/408

1

AG0S/B/148/1507

AG0S/B/185/1682

AG06/A/-/41

AG0S/B/146/1589

AGOS/B/158/1497

0

AGO?/B/80/865 0

AGOS/B/94/1874

Pl. 8.18: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

396

Pl. 8.19 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

II

'

J

I

\

I

AG0S/B/155/1686

AG07/B/80/816 AGOS/B/127/1361

AG0S/B/165/1144

AGOS/B/127/1378 AG07/B/80/948

I

AG07/B/76/569

1)

AG0S/B/97/1527

)

\

AG06/B/15/82

AG0S/B/147/1102

AG06/A/ /161

AG0S/B/90/1514

(

)

1 I r �-

)

AG07/B/75/764

/

AG0S/B/90/1804

�d

AGOS/B/92/1456

AG06/B/15/428

AG07/B/55/824

Pl. 8.19: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

397

Pl. 8.20 Ceramiques en pates Al/A2, AS et A28

AG0S/B/169/1544

�--�I:; AG0S/B/150/1844

AG07/B/80/579

AG0S/B/143/850

AG07/B/4 l/636

AG07/B/80/578

5cm

AG08/B/l 46/1002

Pl. 8.20: Céramiques en pâtes A1/A2, A5 et A28.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

398

Pl. 8.21

Ceramiques en pate A4

AG07/B/75/782

AGOS/B/90/1867 /'

AG08/B/122/l 779 AGOS/B/87/1490

AG06/B/8/462 0

Pl. 8.21: Céramiques en pâtes A4.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

399

Pl. 8.22 Ceramiques non cuites

AG0S/B/146/1108

AG0S/B/146/1107

JI\

)Jj

I

AG0S/B/138/1625

\

AGOS/B/147/1112

AG0S/B/174/1643

�

AG0S/B/147/1618

AG0S/B/146/1649

J}

JI

AGOS/B/147/1617

1/

\

AG0S/B/154/1647

AG0S/B/147/1619

AGOS/B/147/1641

AG0S/B/147/1639

\

'bl�� AG0S/B/141/1653

AGOS/B/169/1657

()

AG0S/B/171/1615

AG0S/B/138/1614

AG0S/B/147/1113

AG0S/B/173/1636 AG0S/B/146/1106

1

AG0S/B/146/1105 '\

\

AG0S/B/147/1640

AGOS/B/138/1628

c;] AG0S/B/144/1616

AG0S/B/147/1633

AG0S/B/147/1630

AG0S/B/147/1635

AG0S/B/147/1634

AG0S/B/147/1632

AG0S/B/144/1646

AG0S/B/141/1655 0

Pl. 8.22: Céramiques non cuites.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

400

Pl. 8.23 Ceramiques non cuites

AG0S/B/141/1656 AGOS/B/147/1642

AGOS/B/147/1631

AG0S/B/188/1125

)

AG0S/B/138/1623 AG0S/B/173/1638

AG0S/B/138/1627

)

lI

?

AGOS/B/141/1654

5)

y

\

\

AG0S/B/154/1648

AG0S/B/147/1622

\

) ))

�

AG0S/B/138/1624

AG0S/B/l 57/1644

\ /

)

I7

�

t

AG0S/B/138/1651

I

(

� AGOS/B/138/1652

\

AG0S/B/147/1621

AG0S/B/147/1620

AGOS/B/138/1626

=r AG0S/B/173/1637

0

AGOS/B/165/1121

Pl. 8.23: Céramiques non cuites.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

401

Pl. 8.24

Piece Bl, US 14

222-Pate all.

»

107-Alb

;)jj

�\

210-Alb

;)7 =\

)_

216-A2a

!}_

I

115-A28

I. ,

\

\

\

214-Alb

I

215-Ala

213-Alb

121-ORSW 110-ORSW

209-Alb

224-A2a?

�/ �

220-Ala

459-Ala 1/5

� ---= c_�� ---_-_----= - 7) 225-Alb

5cm

Pl. 8.24: Pièce B1, US 14.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

402

Pl. 8.25

Piece Bl, US 14

7

�

\\.

221-A2a

II!'

)

7 I

7) ==r

�

I

223-All?

"

II

)

l 116-Ala

� -)

�

211-Alb

227-All

418-All

109-All

}

212-All

14

228-All

5cm

113-Ind.

Piece B3, US 10 5cm

343-All

)1-u □

Piece B4, US 4

125-Alb 122-A28

f------.> 129-All

(

J-1

(

128-All

127-Alb 0

Pl. 8.25: Pièce B1, US 14; pièce B3, US 10; pièce B4, US 4.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

403

Pl. 8.26 Piece B4, US 8

103-Ala/b

I

((u

(

102-Alb

0

Piece B4, US l l �

J

J 374-Ala

104-Ala

I �

I

383-A2a

460-Ala

r\

7

0

5cm

)

Pl. 8.26: Pièce B4, US 8; pièce B4, US 11.

103-All

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

404

Pl. 8.27

Piece B4, U�S-;1 5�- - - - -

�=1?=\

----._

81-Alb

)���

204-BI0

91-Alb

387-Ind.

f

f

AG06/B/15/77

134-Alb

Pl. 8.27: Pièce B4, US 15.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

405

Pl. 8.28

Piece B4, US 15

79-Ala

231-Alb

144-Alb

235-Alb

124-A2b

)

FI

.J�

267-A2a

e;(

Pl. 8.28: Pièce B4, US 15.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

406

Pl. 8.29

Piece B4, US 15

247-Alb

420-Ala/b

\

7

I

G G

D

o

61-Ala/b

.

I

62-Alb

233-Alb

7

l---- 7� -

��7

j'

�7

�� I

182-A28

404-Ala

=

�=-,=�_=-�=7/ 7

I�

r-f-����7




386-A2a

�

I

J

379-Alb

217-Alb

341-Ala 389-Ala

382-A2a

:,

[-------'-----_)

416-Alb

64-Alb

63-Alb

65-Alb

��/ �=-
i

Pl. 8.29: Pièce B4, US 15.

260-A28

0

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

407

Pl. 8.30

)

409-Alb

Pl. 8.30: Pièce B4, US 15.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

408

Pl. 8.31

Piece B4, US 15

QR 421-Alb


 Cl,  ' ) 73-All?

«�- I . �- .-.\

75-Ala

452-Ala?

:

�"-Ii(��) 407

. - :- 1

r�n:��;;;;;;_s �=f������) J}' ,. ==�\ 254-Ala

\

))J-=ftV IP/V�I =�=�=�=:;�------":( 396-Al/2a

((l" ..,,."'"" �

r==

\

281-Alb

V




�'

95-Ala/b

94-All

84-All

96-Ala

398-A2a 93-All

412-A2b 5cm

Pl. 8.31: Pièce B4, US 15.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

409

Pl. 8.32 P., 1eceB4, US 15

»

,� 391-A2b

SO-Alb

401-Alb

98-Alb 428-Ala 5cm

P., 1eceB6, US39

641-A28

P., 1eceB6, US42

I'��;�1 \ :

---

'.T'.'�'� --(

,,,

'

/

I . . .-J

638-Al

:

.

808-Ala

5cm

PieceB6, US55

5cm

Pl. 8.32: Pièce B4, US 15; pièce B6, US 39; pièce B6, US 42; pièce B6, US 55.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

410

Pl. 8.33 ., B6 US 59 Piece

752-A2a

751-Al/2a

Pieces B6/B8 ' us 58

� �- I

J=-1 I,

741-A28

862-Ala

))� 740-Bl6

Pl. 8.33: Pièce B6, US 59; pièce B6, US 61; pièces B6/B8, US 58.

I 5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

Pl. 8.34

J

Piece B7, US 37

411

619-All

5cm

618-Ala/b

Piece B7, US 38

5cm 647-Ala

Piece B7, US 45

931-All

)

-�, 872-Ala

873-All

5cm

1005-ORSW 5cm

Piece B9, US 69

961-0RSW

964-All

)

I

7

���

965-All

962-All

5cm

Piece B9, US 72

5cm 983-Ala?

Pl. 8.34: Pièce B7, US 37; pièce B7, US 38; pièce B7, US 45; pièce B9, US 69; pièce B9, US 72.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

412

Pl. 8.35

Piece B9, US 68

5)

893-A2b?

(

858-Alb 927-Alb

lfl 891-Pate all.

884-Al/2b

881-BI0

r

877-Al/2b

�

�\

878-A2a

879-Ala

l

887-Ala

885-Alb 0

Pl. 8.35: Pièce B9, US 68.

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

413

Pl. 8.36

Piece B9, US 68

888-A2b

�
�/ � ��� 856-Ala

7J �� 1, =7==------=��( � �I 1
�

I

889-Ala

•

=

•00 "· :

1 1

SS.'AH

894-All

f

1

((

�

882-Alb

w 853-All

852-All I

�

892-Ind.

0

5 cm

Piece B9, US 79

� "'"" «

\\V\ \(

f

I

982-A2a/b

�

=c31 �

1; ' -

729-Ind. I

7 ��

� ht �SAH

��) 939-Alb

Pl. 8.36: Pièce B9, US 68; pièce B9, US 79.

]79 c-��

806-Al I

t�

�

..

L.

J

0

5 cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

414

Pl. 8.37

Piece B9, US 79

I

�i )

�

/ I 943-Alb

) I (

Ii

945-Ind.

731-All

2 ',,

730-Alb

=5 cm

0

A� lH J ,J,. l I �-« )}

Piece B9, US 75

705-A2b

774-Alb

J 1- (\ 776-Alb

/�

J1

712-Ala/b

J I� t I -\

777-Alb

f)

XU 758-Alb

706-Alb

JTI � I (�"

I

763-A2b

782-A4

l,,

761-Ala

�

Jµ

�

�1 � J�I

711-A2b

;� =r-

762-Ala

JI= I �i "{ �� � � == 7 � r=� �� 713-A2a

=

779-A28

714-Alb

0 765-A2a

I.

I

��I ! 701-Ala/b 0

Pl. 8.37: Pièce B9, US 79; pièce B9, US 75.

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

415

Pl. 8.38

Piece B9, US 75

'

'

769-Ala

707-All

702-Alb

766-Alb

======r

)

767-Alb

Q

c,,c,

C, 0

772-A2a

Pl. 8.38: Pièce B9, US 75.

o 0 0 0

c,

C

0

D

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

416

Pl. 8.39

r�r= �; � f----F--;;1

Piece B9, US 75

946-ORSW

) f�I 758-Alb

771-All

I

718-Alb/AS

\

716-Ala

)

I

) ===�-

\

710-All

�------==r'__g\"\.

783-Alb

I

768-All

) I \ 785-All

\ \

}

�

�

784-All

760-A2b

1

709-All

(

\

\

778-Alb

0

5cm

764-A2a

Piece B9, US 82

)� I \ )G----a 724-Alb

() � �, db �=====::

[71 J

725-Alb

 




jl'll 728-All

726-Alb

0

727-Alb

Pl. 8.39: Pièce B9, US 75; pièce B9, US 82.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

417

Pl. 8.40

Piece B 10, US 65

967-Al/2a

Pl. 8.40: Pièce B10, US 62; pièce B10, US 65.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

418

Pl. 8.41 Piece B 10, US 65

960-All 955-A2a 970-All

O

5 cm

958-Alb

Piece BIO, US 73

)

�

914-A28

\ "

'�-4-------\'1_

I

,�1 1

916-Bl6

913-Alb

920-Al/2a

(

\

1

7

7

7

)

-,

911-Ala

=-'-= 17( � �= ��� =====:::') ) I I 921-A2a

�

:

�

898-A2a

I

i------�/ i---_ _ ___,/

�

7

C�I ? '

899-Ala

919-Ala?

570-A2

)

)

897-All

I

918-All

917-Ala

Pl. 8.41: Pièce B10, US 65; pièce B10, US 73.

O

5 cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

419

Pl. 8.42

902-All

895-All

�� 909-A4?

7

) 5cm

Piece BIO, US 74 876-Alb

Piece BIO, US 78

934-Ala

?

936-A28

935-Alb

:==1 l � 932-ORSW

Piece BIO, US 76

,,

� 17

)

907-ORSW

I

906-A28

905-Alb

/

)

0

Pl. 8.42: Pièce B10, US 73; pièce B10, US 74; pièce B10, US 78; pièce B10, US 76.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

420

Pl. 8.43




., BIO , US 76 Piece

, .J., �)I

908-Ala?

904-All

5cm

569-Al/2b

., BIO , US 80 Piece

D7Jn

v4�\ 950-A2b

805-Ind.

0-

865-Ala

991-Bl0

977-Ala 5cm

Pl. 8.43: Pièce B10, US 76; pièce B10, US 80.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

421

Pl. 8.44 Piece BIO, US 80

799-Alb

' '\ 17 \ I 7 '� / w 976-Ala/b

866-Al/2a

7

988-A28

822-Ala

987-Ala

802-Alb

819-All

820-All

864-All

I

7

�

S7l-Al

985-Al/2a

7)

0795-0RSW

794-All 868-Alb

0

867-Al/2a 948-Ala

Pl. 8.44: Pièce B10, US 80.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

422

Pl. 8.45

I I

Piece BIO, US 80

c

)

-,

\

t

815-All

I

)

\

953-All

)

951-All

'l

)

\

\

813-All 821-All

814-All

) ========t�\ 949-Ala

816-Ala

817-All

579-Ala 0

5 cm

AG07/B/80/578 5cm

Piece Bl 1, US 90

wp.,

h� �==s J� v

1669-Alb

1420-Alb/AS

) 1525-Ala

\

1667-AS

1668-A2b

:q

Pl. 8.45: Pièce B10, US 80; pièce B11, US 90.

Jn 1524

0

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

423

Pl. 8.46

1-1

Piece Bll, US 90




q �

1421-0RSW

1804-Alb/AS

��

1670-ORSW

1769-Ala/b 1470-Ala/A28

��F===

=r

? I �;

�

1477-Alb

0, 1768-All

1766-Ala

1478-All

L I I

""'\

1471-Ind.

�

)

1514-Al/2b 5cm

1867-A4

Piece Bl 1, US 92

�======�) Q t::=����/

1452-A2b

1 1453-Al

/

1455-Piite all.

J/

1451-ORSW

0

1456-Alb

Pl. 8.46: Pièce B11, US 90; pièce B11, US 92.

5 cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

424

Pl. 8.47 Piece Bl 1, US 94 ') 0

973-All

1821-Ala/b

)

1574-Alb

0

}

r

I

975 + 962-All

i )

CJ,1

1874-Ala

r

V

'Iii'

I

"

)

(

1533-All

1536-All

1535-All

?? 5cm

1880-ORSW

Piece Bl 1, US 97

' � � � 1 �

1571-Alb

1572-Alb

1570-Ala

1573-Al/2b 5cm

1527-Al/2b

Piece Bll, US 100

1781-All

Pl. 8.47: Pièce B11, US 94; pièce B11, US 97; pièce B11, US 100.

5cm

........,._ ......

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

425

Pl. 8.48 Piece Bll, US 108

I

1542-Alb

1541-Ala

) �

1540-Alb

1543-Al/2b

J \7 y 1531-All

w 1538-Alb

5cm

0

Piece B12, US 91

� I J

1876-ORSW

I 1578-All

1577-ORSW

\�

1580-All 5cm

=-=�-=

1581-All

Piece B12, US 93

(

\

I

\

1518-Alb

/ 1516-All

1519-Ala

Pl. 8.48: Pièce B11, US 108; pièce B12, US 91; pièce B12, US 93.

)

��-

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

426

Pl. 8.49

Piece Bl2, US 107

01783-ORSW

1784-All

5cm

1110-Bl6

Piece Bl2, US 120

o

1439-All

Piece Bl2, u�s� 1 2� 1 ________ 7=�

5cm

�==�������������;;��;;���� � � � � �� �� ��i ) --1

�

JJ=l 1512-Al/2b

,mt -A2b =-; // = = = -=- -=- -=- ---=- ---=- ----=- =- ==-

�> !511+1510-ORSW

V ;;¥�

�� ________,\ �

1

1509-All

=

5cm

Piece Bl3, US 104

JJ

I \

f I� 1430-Ala

1584-Al/2b

1431-Al/2b

J

1433-Alb

�

�\\

1583-All 1

o

1582-Alb

Pl. 8.49: Pièce B12, US 107; pièce B12, US 120; pièce B12, US 121; pièce B13, US 104.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

Pl. 8.50

»�

PieceB15, US 86

0 �� 1824-Al/2a

7 rB

--- " ' :--..

427

'wl) �\

1435-Ala/b

�

',

1823-ORSW

7

1604-A2b

�

2

-}

1438-B16

)

�

1450-Alb

((

7 I

'�

1436-Alb

1437-All 0

5cm

1449-Alb

PieceB15, US 129

) 5cm

1878-ORSW

PieceB15, US 132

J� �))� ))

1742-Alb

' u 1736-A2b

1741-Ala

\

7

1735-ORSW

1734-ORSW

1811-B16

J

I

---

848-0RSW }

0

)

/

l

7

1733-ORSW

•

0

5cm

1761-B16

Pl. 8.50: Pièce B15, US 86; pièce B15, US 129; pièce B15, US 132.

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

428

iv--

Pl. 8.51

Piece Bl 5, US 132

�

�� �-

;��

1759-All 1758-Ala

I

)

\ 1757-All

��-------i====�I

1754-All

0

5cm

1760-Alb

Piece Bl 5, US 136

��-/ ) 1554-0RSW

1563-Al/2a

f------

S\-=

I

\ 1563-Al/2a

1561-Al/2b

j)

) � 1564-Ala

7

)

7

1560-Alb

�

I

1556-All

I

�

__/

�11 1550-Bl6

1548-Ala/b

( � r

1558-Ala 0

Piece Bl 5, US 137

1552-Alb

1683-Pate all.

Pl. 8.51: Pièce B15, US 132; pièce B15, US 136; pièce B15, US 137.

)

-,---( -

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

429

Pl. 8.52

Piece Bl 4, US 122

1777-A4

1779-A4

1774-Al/2b 1383-Alb

1382-Al I

1387-A28

1386-Alb

1389-Ala

5cm

1388-Ala/b

Pl. 8.52: Pièce B14, US 122.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

430

Pl. 8.53

PieceB15, US 127

1310-Sig. Afric.

] I

1367-Piite all.

(

1369-Piite all. 1323-Piite calc.

(

�I

1324-AS

� I ;�

1305-ORSW

1306-ORSW

q

F�;:3

� "™F� �'-

'

-

1304-ORSW

I

C\-

�1=7

�

7�

�1/ '"'"� l � I ? :=>

1307-ORSW

1879-ORSW

1309-ORSW

d�

1864-Bl6

JJ]:

JI:

/ I \� V "'L t ) I 7\ 1311-A2b

1322-A2b

1318-Alb

�

��� J�

)l� �-

r1 I

1315-Alb

l763-Al/2b

1317-Ind.

i, \

) JA,.

\ 0

Pl. 8.53: Pièce B15, US 127.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

431

Pl. 8.54

Piece Bl 5, US 127

1368-Alb

!R 1325-AS

1329-Ala

1326-Alb

1332-Ala 1360-All

1321-Alb

1342-Alb

1335-Alb

1337-Al/2a

1338-Ala

1333-Ala/b

5cm

Pl. 8.54: Pièce B15, US 127.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

432

Pl. 8.55

Piece Bl 5, US 12?

)

F

�-=====-===--==-=====-=l_J7-7 ====-=-

1340 Al




7

7

7

7 1336-Alb

- � - ����� 1334-Ala

1339-Ala

1495

7

1343-A28

1344-Al/2a 5cm

Pl. 8.55: Pièce B15, US 127.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

433

Pl. 8.56

Piece Bl 5, US 12?

1347-Alb

f==========�/

\

1348-Alb

1374-A2b

1349-Ala

1351-Ala

5cm

Pl. 8.56: Pièce B15, US 127.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

434

Pl. 8.57

Piece Bl 5, US 127 __ 1350-A28

1372-Ala

IL

7

\\

=-----___j\ 1377-Ala

1373-Alb/AS

l

(

�1I

1362-Alb

1358-All

5-All

)�, �I�\ 1352-All

Pl. 8.57: Pièce B15, US 127.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

435

Pl. 8.58

PieceB15, US 127

5cm

/ 1001-ORSW

1865-All

o

PieceB15, US 130

=Jf

w I

Secteur 4, US 138

J}

1625-Groupe I

'\

5cm

0

1817-Bl6

w

�

1422-AS

1426-AS

1424-Alb

()

1614-Groupe I \

\

�

�

I J

1752-0RSW

I

1628-Groupe 2

)

� 1623-Groupe I

1627-Groupe I

)

)

� 1651-Groupe I

I

Pl. 8.58: Pièce B15, US 127; pièce B15, US 130; secteur 4, US 138.

0

5cm

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

436

Secteur 4, US 138

�


� 1 //

r

1624-Groupe I

CB

r

U�J

{r�·

�

1104-All?

-,;_ -�

•

1427-Ala

\Mt-------//

1425-Ala

#---

1423-A2b

Pl. 8.59

1

1626-Groupe 2

7

=r 5cm

1652-Groupe I

-=--� I J

Piece Bl 7, US 150

1844-Ala

0

5 cm

1843-A28

Piece Bl 7, US 152 R

1400-B16

IJ

1390-ORSW

1393-A28

�

( ))==-c...__________, 5cm ���

1401-All

Piece B18, US 149

1394-All

Pl. 8.59: Secteur 4, US 138; pièce B17, US 150; pièce B17, US 152; pièce B18, US 149.

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

437

Pl. 8.60

PieceB18, US 155

1687-All

5cm

1686-Alb

PieceB18, US 161

1830-All

5cm

1829-Ala

PieceB18, US 156

1698-Pate calc.

l 700-Bl6

1696-All

1701-Ala?

1697-All

=============

�

7I

)

7 -�11

5cm

1699-Ind.

5cm

1403-Alb

1404-All

PieceB18, US 158

o

5 cm

1497-A2b?

Pl. 8.60: Pièce B18, US 155; pièce B18, US 161; pièce B18, US 156; pièce B18, US 157; pièce B18, US 158.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

438

Pl. 8.61

JTI

Piece B19, US 146

1--p, 1649-Groupe I

1594-A2b

1586-Ala

1107-Groupe I

1105-Groupe I

II 06-Groupe I

1002-Ala?

1592-A2a/b

5cm

(�y�-

,-� �:;, 1598-Ala/b

1589-Ala

l

)

1596-Ala

1597-All

J I

1593-All

� �\

1591-All

0

1590-Al/2b

Pl. 8.61: Pièce B19, US 146.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

439

Pl. 8.62

Piece B19, US 154

1647-Groupe 1 1690-ORSW

�

,.e

} 1692-Ala ?

�

�

1691-All

) 1

1693-All

1381-All 5cm

1648-Groupe 1

Piece B19, US 165

1109-Alb

1107-Alb

1120-A2b

1113-Ala \

1118-Ala/b

Pl. 8.62: Pièce B19, US 154; pièce B19, US 165.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

440

Pl. 8.63

- - - ' - - - - - ,,

1160-Ala

1119-Alb

-=:I I � � , .. 'C

1117-Alb

1140-Alb

\ -�, ) =��7

:; 7 -

i




Cl� ��I 1122-Ala

1133-Alb

======1, 7,

1863-Ala

, I ,7

CI

1142-Ala/b?

f ��I )

I e1�::, I f /' ��I \:�/ LI / 1135-Alb

7

7

1136-All

1123-Alb

1301-Ala

C I J 1134-Ala

t

1858-Alb

[�J

1128-Alb

Pl. 8.63: Pièce B19, US165.

1131-Alb

0

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

441

Pl. 8.64 Piece Bl 9, US 165

�

1132-Alb

(

)

�

\\IUUIN

� 1137-Alb

1130-All

'

7

1129-Alb

1127-Ala ?

1856-Alb

1158-All

I t

1159-Alb

{

1138-All

f

1157-All

1141-All

r:-��

1139-All

1149-All

1152-Alb

5cm

Pl. 8.64: Pièce B19, US165.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

442

Pl. 8.65

I

Piece B19, US 165

J =-

",' "�

�

\

/r • I

\

1147-All

1150-Alb

\'>

)

"

':::,

1111-Alb

)

1143-All

�

\

I

1156-Alb

�

7 I

\=

I

��

\

, I

\

1145-All

\

�

1144-Ala

1148-Alb

1110-Alb

I

)

(

(

''\

1146-All

\

I

� �,

)

I�

�

1163-Alb

� 1121-b-Groupe I ?

=

0

5cm

1153-All

)a

'

Piece B19, US 148

Q,

1502-AS

,,I

7

?'

1499-ORSW

I

7

7

1500-BI0

�

/ 1503-A28

1505-Ala 1506-All

Pl. 8.65: Pièce B19, US 165; pièce B19, US 148.

0

5 cm

-=

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

1

Piece B19, US 171

443




Pl. 8.66

1615-Groupe I

\�

1428-All

1645-Groupe I

0

Piece B19, US 173

\\

5cm

================

� -r=;

:____ _ _ _ �

1636-Groupe I

5cm

1638-Groupe I 1637-Groupe 2

Piece B19, US 185

1682-Alb o

5cm

1834-All

Piece B19, US 177

� I =l' 1805-ORSW

1111-Ind.

Piece B19, US 188

5cm

�- - - - -/ 17 1125-Groupe I

I

5cm

Pl. 8.66: Pièce B19, US 171; pièce B19, US 173; pièce B19, US 185; pièce B19, US 177; pièce B19, US 188.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

444

Pl. 8.67

Piece B21, US 141

J)

1653-Groupe 2

\

)

1655-Groupe I

)

�

�-

1446-Alb

CJ

7

1656-Groupe I

I

1654-Groupe I

f

I

�

7/

7

1448-Al/2b

849-0RSW 5cm

�

0

5cm

1442-Ala/A28

Piece B23, US 140

) 5cm

1688-Alb

Piece B23, US 144 1616-Groupe I

0

1646-Groupe I

Piece B23, US 147

1618-Groupe I

JI

1112-Groupe I

5cm

\ 1617-Groupe I

1619-Groupe I

1641-Groupe I

I 103-Alb/A5? 1380-Alb

1639-Groupe I 1672-Alb

1480-Al/2b

Pl. 8.67: Pièce B21, US 141; pièce B23, US 140; pièce B23, US 144; pièce B23, US 147.

5cm

La céramique d’Ἁin el-Gedida

445

Pl. 8.68

Piece B23, US 147 � 1113-Groupe 1

1640-Groupe 1

1633-Groupe 1

�

�

1630-Groupe 1

1635-Groupe 1

�

�

1634-Groupe 1

1632-Groupe 1

\\

�

I

1642-Groupe 1

�

\

f

'

1488-Al 'Ill

1486-Ala

{

7

/

1631-Groupe 1

1479-Ala

·t

� II I7

�

�

1483-Alb

/

\ 1620-Groupe 2

1622-Groupe 2

\

»

I

IJ

1485-Ala

I

1621-Groupe 2

0

�

5cm s=

1102-Ala?

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Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

446

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Piece B24, US 169

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5cm

9 Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations David M. Ratzan

9.1. Introduction 152 objects recorded as coins were recovered over three seasons at Ἁin el-Gedida. Six were recovered from area A (1–6), which was excavated by the SCA between 1993 and 1995 (Sec. 1.4). These coins were discovered by Nicola Aravecchia and his team during their survey and mapping of the area in 2006 and 2007. Area B was systematically excavated by Aravecchia from 2006 to 2008, yielding 146 coins from four distinct contexts: B1–B3 (likely domestic); B4 (also domestic); B17–B24 (west complex); B5–B15 (church complex and surrounding area). This chapter consists of a numismatic analysis of the coin finds at Ἁin el-Gedida, followed by a complete catalogue organized by room and stratigraphic unit. My work proceeded largely on the basis of images and field notes from the Ἁin el-Gedida database. It is worth noting from the outset that the analysis and catalogue offered here is necessarily provisional, since a little more than a quarter of the coins have yet to be comprehensively cleaned, while many others would no doubt yield improved readings with autopsy. Also, several coins were photographed at different stages in their cleaning and conservation, and in many cases I have based readings on earlier images or a combination of the two. The coin finds at Ἁin el-Gedida are typical for the Dakhla Oasis, in that they are comprised almost entirely of low-value, late Roman bronzes, with many pieces too worn or corroded to be legible. With the exception of a few variants of minor numismatic interest (6, 27, and 151), their value is entirely archaeological. Beyond the immediate aim of helping to establish the absolute 447

448

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

chronology of the site, the analysis below seeks to characterize the relationship of the coin finds at Ἁin el-Gedida to similar archaeological assemblages in Egypt with respect to the contemporary coin pool, circulation patterns, and patterns of coin use and loss.

9.2. Periods In order to facilitate the analysis and comparison of the numismatic evidence from Ἁin el-Gedida with that published elsewhere, and in particular the excavations of the Centre d’Études Alexandrines by Marie-Christine Marcellesi, I have grouped the finds into conventional periods, adding an initial period of 270–296 (see Fig. 9.1).1 Many coins, however, could not be assigned to a single period. Of these, fourteen could be dated to the fourth century (Periods 2–10) on the basis of the remaining traces; another five should most likely be assigned to the second half of the fourth century (Periods 6–10); and eight on the basis of module and surviving traces to the late fourth or early fifth century (Periods 8–11). While these twenty-seven coins retained some diagnostic traces, fifty-nine others were either so effaced or insufficiently cleaned as to render any dating, other than on the basis of module and material, impossible. There is, of course, no reason to doubt that they are all, or nearly all, bronze coins from the fourth and early fifth centuries; but that is a conclusion based entirely on archaeological inference. Since one of the chief aims of this chapter is to describe the numismatic evidence in service of the archaeology of the site, I have assigned no date or period (ND) to these fifty-nine coins in the catalogue. As the periods correspond to imperial minting patterns, they are not of equal length. It is therefore useful to calculate a relative frequency by taking the average number of coins per year per period (Fig. 9.2). Period 1: 270–296 Coins: 5 Coins per year: 0.2 One of the tetradrachms (29) cannot be securely identified, being either a coin of Aurelian, Year 2 (= 271/2) or Diocletian, Year 2 (285/6). The other coins from this period (30, 33, 34, 38) are tightly grouped from Probus, Year 5 (279/280) to Maximian, Year 2 (286/7). Aurelian’s currency reform is reflected in the hoards, with most either closing with the end of his reign or starting after it.2 This is therefore a useful starting point for this period, with Diocletian’s currency reform in 296 representing a natural end point.3 Period 2: 296–312 No coins recovered at Ἁin el-Gedida could be securely attributed to this period.

1. Marcellesi 2012: 266–77; cf. Bowen 2012c, for some of the underlying hoard evidence. 2. Metcalf 1998. 3. The precise year Diocletian instituted his reform in Egypt is debated. See Metcalf 1987; cf. Christiansen 2004: 133.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

449

Period 3: 312–324 Coins: 13 Coins per year: 1.1 Types: Iovi conservatori (313–324): 1 example: 1 (Thessalonica, Licinius) Soli invicto comiti (312–318): 6 examples: 2, 5, 6, 32, 150, 151 Mints: 1 Lyons; 5 Rome Emperors: 1 Licinius; 5 Constantine Beata tranquillitas (320–324): 1 example: 27 (London, Constantine) D N Constantini (320–324): 3 examples: 3, 12, 63 Mints: 1 Ticinum; 2 Heraclea Emperors: 3 Constantine Providentiae Caess (317–320): 2 examples: 41, 114 (both Heraclea, Constantine) Period 4: 324–330 Coins: 2 Coins per year: 0.3 Types: Providentiae Caess/Augg (324–330): 2 examples: 4, 149 Mints: 2 Thessalonica Emperors: 1 Crispus Caesar; 1 Constantine Period 5: 330–341 Coins: 8 Coins per year: 0.7 Types: Gloria exercitus, two standards (330–335): 3 examples: 36, 56, 84 Mints: 1 Rome, 1 Heraclea or Cyzicus Emperors: 2 Constantine Gloria exercitus, one standard (335–341): 4 examples: 20, 43, 122 (cast), 145 Mints: 1 Constantinople, 1 Alexandria, Heraclea or Nicomedia Emperors: 1 Constantine; 1 Constans Constantinopolis (330–347?)4: 1 example: 26 (Alexandria) Period 6: 341–348 Coins: 3 Coins per year: 0.4 Types: Victoriae DD Auggq NN (341–348): 1 example: 97 Vota of Constantine’s sons (341–348): 2 examples: 21 (Constantius), 138 (Constans) 4. There is some uncertainty as to when this issue came to an end: cf. Marcellesi 2012: 433; Bruun 1966: 535.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

450 60

50

Number of Coins

40

30

20

10

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10

11 2-10 6-10 8-11 ND

Period

Fig. 9.1: Number of coins per period at Ἁin el-Gedida.

Period 7: 348–364 Coins: 20 Coins per year: 1.3 Types: Fel temp reparatio, falling horseman (348–361): 16 examples, of which as many as 10 may be cast or imitations; almost all are AE3: 8, 13, 18, 19, 22, 24, 25, 31, 44, 48, 65, 80, 85, 89, 93, 135 Mints: 2 Antioch, Thessalonica or Alexandria Emperors: 7 Constantius; 1 Gallus or Julian Spes reipublice (355–363): 1 example: 106 (Heraclea, Nicomedia or Cyzicus; cast) Vota of Julian (361–363): 2 examples: 45, 81 (Sirmium; Antioch or Alexandria) Vota of Jovian (363–364): 1 example: 83 (Alexandria) Period 8: 364–378 Coins: 12 Coins per year: 0.9 Types: Securitas reipublicae (364–378): 10 examples: 46, 52, 68, 71, 76, 77, 118, 123, 151, 152, of which as many as 6 may be cast or imitations.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

1.40

Coins Per Annum

1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 7 period 4per annum, 8 9 at10Ἁin11 1 2 of coins 3 5 6 per Fig. 9.2: Average number el-Gedida. Period

Mints: 2 Alexandria Emperors: 1 Valens; 1 Gratian Gloria Romanorum (364–378): 2 examples: 73 (cast?), 87 Period 9: 378–383 No coins recovered at Ἁin el-Gedida could be securely attributed to this period. Period 10: 383–403 Coins: 3 Coins per year: 0.2 Types: Vota of the house of Theodosius (383–393): 1 example: 142 (Alexandria, Arcadius) Salus reipublicae (383–403): 1 example: 133 Gloria reipublice (383–392): 1 example: 49 (Thessalonica, Valentinian II) Period 11: 404–457 No coins recovered at Ἁin el-Gedida could be securely attributed to this period.

451

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

452

Theoretically, changes in frequency will reflect some combination of: changes in space use or loss habits over time, underlying changes in the coin pool itself, and, potentially, differences in excavation technique and recording.5 Moreover, the fact that over half of the coins at Ἁin el-Gedida cannot be assigned to a single period somewhat vitiates the usefulness of this index. This, however, is not an unusual proportion of illegible coins discovered in Egyptian archaeological contexts, including Alexandria, which makes for a useful comparison (Fig. 9.3).6 14.00 12.00

Coins Per Annum

11.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Period CEAlex

Ἁin el-Gedida

Fig. 9.3: Average number of coins per annum, per period at Ἁin el-Gedida and the excavations of Centre d’Études Alexandrines.7

As shown above, the frequency pattern at Ἁin el-Gedida broadly follows that at the Centre d’Études Alexandrines excavations, although at a much lower volume of circulation and loss. This is to be expected, not only because the population (and so amount of coin) was undoubtedly lower at Ἁin el-Gedida, but the total volume excavated was also substantially less. The divergence between the two frequency trends after Period 7 is noteworthy and significant: whereas Period 7 (348–364) is the highpoint at Ἁin el-Gedida, it is Periods 8 (364–378) and 10 5. Casey 1986: 68–113. 6. Marcellesi 2012: 266; cf. Bowen 2010a: 458. 7. Marcellesi 2012: 266–77 and fig. 13, p. 289.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

453

(383–403) in Alexandria.8 Variations on the Alexandrian pattern are seen elsewhere in the Nile Valley and at Abu Mina, yet sites in Dakhla, Bahariya, and parts of the Fayyum all appear to tail off at the end of the fourth century.9 Indeed, no coin from Ἁin el-Gedida could be securely assigned to the fifth century.10 While there is little doubt that minting all over the Eastern Empire, including Egypt, declined in the fifth century,11 the pattern at Ἁin el-Gedida more likely reflects a change in coin use (and loss) there and in the Dakhla Oasis more broadly at the end of the fourth century, perhaps due to abandonment or “ruralization” (or both). This interpretation is supported by the evidence of the ceramics, ostraka, and papyri recovered at Ἁin el-Gedida, Amheida, and Kellis (sections 7.1; 8; 10).

9.3. Mints Thirty of the coins dated or attributable to the fourth century retain traces sufficient to identify the mint to some degree of precision (Fig. 9.4 and Table 9.1). This represents approximately a third of the coins assigned to a period (30/88), or just about half (30/64), if one excludes possible imitations (section 9.4 below). Given the small sample size and the number of illegible coins, one cannot put too much weight on this distribution. Yet the picture is a familiar one from elsewhere in Dakhla and Egypt, with a preponderance of Eastern mints, especially Heraclea and Thessalonica.12 It is somewhat surprising that coins from the mint of Alexandria do not appear early on, much less predominate, as one would expect from finds elsewhere.13 It is also surprising to have no securely identified coins from Antioch, as it was an important mint that contributed substantially to the Egyptian coin pool. That said, several of the coins from the East (“E unc”) may well be from either Alexandria or Antioch. The relatively high number of coins from western mints (including one each from London [27] and Lyons [151]), and particularly Rome, in Period 3 (312–324) is similarly paralleled elsewhere in the Oases, Alexandria, and the East.14 After 330 there is only one coin securely attributed to the West, reflecting again what appears to be a larger trend in the coin pool of Egypt (Fig. 9.5)

8. Cf. Lichocka 2005: 303–4. 9. Bowen 2001a; Bowen 2010a; Van Heesch 2012: 122. Compare Abu Mina (Noeske 2000, I: 167–79; III, plates 33–34), Karanis (Noeske 2000, I: 190–91; III, plates 42, 47), and Oxyrhynchus (Noeske 2000, I: 191–92; III, plates 45). Some early fifthcentury coins were discovered at Douch in the Kharga Oasis, which seems to have been abandoned somewhat later (Noeske 2000, II: 411–14; Bowen 2010a: 479). 10. This is also true of the coins studied thus far at Amheida and for those reported from the excavations at Kellis (Bowen 2010a). Sixth and seventh-century finds have been reported from elsewhere in Dakhla (Noeske 2000, II: 410). 11. Guest 2012. The Alexandrian mint shrunk to two officinae under Arcadius (Kent 1994: 41). 12. Generally: Bagnall 1985b: 51–52; Bowen 2001a; Marcellesi 2012: 277–78; cf. Noeske 2000, III: plates 92–102. 13. Cf. Bowen 2010a: 480–81. 14. Bowen 2010a: 480–81 (Kellis, Dakhla); Bowen 2016 (Ἁin es-Sabil, Dakhla); Van Heesch 2012: 122 and inv. 23–25 (Bahariya); Marcellesi 2012 (Alexandria); and Buttrey et al. 1981 (Sardis).

8 88

5

14

0

TOTAL

404–457

11

3

Late 4–5 c

383–403

10

0

8–11

378–383

9

12

20

4c

364–378

8

Second half of 4 c

348–364

7

3

2–10

341–348

6

8

2

13

0

5

1

1

1

2

Total Ale Coins

6–10

324–330

330–341

4

5

296–312

312–324

2

3

Period Date

0

0

0

Ant Cyz Nic

1

1

Con

3

3

Her

4

1

2

1

The

1

1

Sir

7

3

2

1

1

E unc

0

Sis

0

6

1

5

Aqu Rom

1

1

Tic

0

Arl

1

1

Lyo

0

Tri

1

1

Lon

Table 9.1: Distribution of mints at Ἁin el-Gedida by period, 296–457 (excluding imitations).

0

W unc

21

0

0

0

0

2

0

1

5

2

4

2

5

0

E total

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

8

0

W total

34

5

3

12

0

1

0

5

5

1

2

0

0

0

64

5

3

12

0

3

0

6

10

3

7

2

13

0

Unc TOTAL

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

455

20 15 10 5 0 Ale Ant Cyz Nic Con Her The Sir E Unc Sis Aqu Rom Tic Arl Lyc Tri Lon W Unc E Total W Total Mints

Fig. 9.4. Distribution of coins at Ἁin el-Gedida by mint from 296–457. 14

12

10

8

Number of Coins

Number of Coins

25

6

4

2

0 2

3

Period

4

5

6

7

Western Mints

8

9 10

11

Eastern Mints

Fig. 9.5: Distribution of Eastern and Western mints at Ἁin el-Gedida, by period (296–457).

456

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

9.4. Imitations Despite Roman laws to the contrary, unofficial coinage (i.e., not struck at an imperial mint) circulated freely in fourth- and fifth-century Egypt.15 What precisely qualifies as an imitation or counterfeit is debated, partly because the identification of struck imitations is, at some level, subjective;16 and partly because both struck and cast imitations seem often to have been fabricated with some degree of tolerance, if not the tacit permission, of local authorities, calling into question precisely what it means to be a “forgery” or “counterfeit.”17 Generally speaking, imitations will exhibit poorly executed, erroneous, or stylistically divergent portraits, types, or legends, while cast coins will betray their production method by showing generation loss in the details, imperfections and reductions in the flan, and occasionally sprue stems from the casting process.18 We see evidence of both kinds of imitations at Ἁin el-Gedida. 106, for example, is a coin cast from a mold modeled on an authentic Spes reipublice type and exhibiting the telltale nub of a residual sprue stem. Coins 104 and 125, on the other hand, are small (ca. 9–10 mm, ca. 0.5 g); have crudely executed victories on the reverse, after the fashion of a Securitas reipublicae or Salus reipublicae type; and show obverse portraits that do not comport with official style. The obverse portrait of 104 is particularly noteworthy in this regard, as it is rendered in nearly threequarters profile, turning toward the face of the coin, with very large eyes and an elongated head. The legend on the reverse, and perhaps what is supposed to be the mint mark in the exergue (unless it is the hem of the victory’s dress), would seem to be bars or dots rather than letters.19 In her recent analysis of 1,535 fourth- and fifth-century coins from excavations in Alexandria, Marcellesi found that cast imitations first appear in the coin pool in large numbers after 330. They then grow as a percentage of the coin pool in each successive period until in Period 8 (364–378) they represent nearly 70% of specimens.20 According to her research, nearly 90% of fifth-century coins are cast. High percentages of cast and other irregular coins have also been reported at other late antique and Byzantine sites in Egypt.21 Given that the coins of Kellis and Ἁin el-Gedida show every indication of following the general circulation patterns of Egypt, we should expect to find a substantial number of imitations at late antique sites in Dakhla.22 I identified 25 likely or possible imitations (primarily cast) in the coins from Ἁin el-Gedida (Table 9.2). This represents approximately a quarter of the legible coins, though in fact most were from the second half of the fourth century. The most frequent types imitated were, predictably, the popular Fel temp reparatio, falling horseman (351–361) and Valentinian’s Securitas 15. Grierson 1956; King 1996; Noekse 2000, I: 115. 16. Bastien 1985: 158; cf. the self-assurance (and contempt) of Milne 1926. See Noekse 2000, I: 116–17 for a critique of Milne’s classification. 17. Gara 1978; King 1996; Barakat and Picard 2002; Carrié 2003: 194–95; Andrieux et al. 2005; Barakat 2005; and Noeske 2006: 357–58. 18. Milne 1926: 48–53; Noeske 2000, I: 117. 19. So-called “barbarous” imitations: Milne 1926: 50; cf. Hill 1950; Noeske 2000, I: 116–17. 20. Marcellesi 2012: 278–79 and fig. 12, p. 288. 21. E.g., Karanis and Abu Mina (Noeske 2000, I: 271–77; 2006: 276–78); Oxyrhynchus (Milne 1933: xv); Kom al-Dikka, Alexandria (Lichocka 2005). 22. Published notices of the presence of imitations in the oases: Hope, Kaper, and Bowen 1992: 48 (Kellis); Noeske 2000, II: 410 (Dakhla); Gascou et al. 1980: 336–37: Gautier 1981: 112; Noeske 2000, II: 412–14 (Douch, Kharga).

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

457

Table 9.2: Likely and possible imitations and cast coins recovered from Ἁin el-Gedida. Catalog Period

Emperor

Type

Mint

122

5

NA

GE, 1 standard

Heraclea or Nicomedia

8

7

NA

FTR, FH

NA

13

7

Gallus or Julian

FTR, FH

NA

19

7

NA

FTR, FH

NA

22

7

NA

FTR, FH

NA

44

7

Constantius

FTR, FH

NA

48

7

Constantius

FTR, FH

NA

65

7

Constantius

FTR, FH

NA

80

7

Constantius

FTR, FH

NA

89

7

Constantius

FTR, FH

NA

106

7

Constantius or Julian

Spes Reip

Heraclea, Nicomedia, or Cyzicus

135

7

NA

FTR, FH

NA

68

8

NA

Sec Reip

NA

73

8

Valens or Valentinian I

GR

NA

76

8

NA

Sec Reip

NA

77

8

NA

Sec Reip

NA

118

8

Gratian

Sec Reip

Alexandria

141

8

NA

Sec Reip

NA

57

4c

NA

?

NA

69

4c

NA

?

NA

88

late 4c

NA

Sec Reip

NA

104

late 4c–5c NA

Sec Reip?

NA

125

late 4c–5c NA

Sal Reip?

NA

134

late 4c

Sec Reip?

NA

144

late 4c–5c NA

?

NA

NA

reipublicae (364–378).23 The distribution and types of imitations comports well enough with the general consensus about imitations over the course of the fourth century in Egypt and with Marcellesi’s recent work at Alexandria (Table 9.3). The poor condition of the coins at Ἁin el-Gedida and the need to work from images together render the identification of imitations challenging. As a consequence, one cannot place much weight on the precise percentages in Table 9.3. Indeed, one should suspect that a healthy percentage of the illegible coins at Ἁin el-Gedida were cast. My aim here is merely to note that, in line with expectations, there are a good number of imitation or cast coins at Ἁin el-Gedida and likely elsewhere in Dakhla and Kharga. 23. Cf. Bastien 1982; Lichocka 2005: 304.

458

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Table 9.3: Percentage of imitations per period at Ἁin el-Gedida and the excavations of the Centre d’Études Alexandrines (based on Marcellesi 2012: fig. 12). Period

AG

CEAlex

2

0%

0%

3

0%

3%

4

0%

0%

5

13%

8%

6

0%

20%

7

55%

28%

8

50%

68%

9

0%

59%

10

0%

66%

9.5. Archaeological Observations The six coins from area A (1–6) have no reliable archaeological context. The 146 coins from area B, on the other hand, were recovered through systematic archaeological excavation of strata of varying reliability in eighteen of the 24 rooms investigated (Table 9.4). Eighty-seven of these coins were dated. The coins from area B of Ἁin el-Gedida are interesting from two archaeological perspectives. First, they are objects with a date stamp, and so useful in assigning absolute date points to the relative chronology established by stratigraphic excavation and analysis. Because coins circulate, however, they persist in use well after their initial minting, as demonstrated by the evidence of hoards. The date of minting therefore provides a terminus post quem for subsequent archaeological events or features. Hoards give us a sense of when coins drop out of circulation, and therefore suggest a useful, if fuzzier, terminus ante quem for prior events or features. The facts of circulation and hoarding bring us to the second archaeological perspective, or the archaeology of coins as a distinct class of cultural object. The disposition of coinage in an archaeological site is, from this perspective, a record of coin production and use. More precisely, the coins recovered in an archaeological site are a complex artifact of the phenomenon of coin handling and loss in a specific space during specific periods.24 Table 9.5 shows the distribution of coins in area B by room and DSU or FSU. The table displays the number of dated coins and imitations found in each context. The dated coins establish a terminus post quem for the unit and those above it. I have also calculated an approximate volume for each unit in order to arrive at a coin density, or the number of coins found per cubic meter in a given unit. Just as a frequency facilitates comparison of relative output of coinage from period to period (section 9.2 above), so a density facilitates comparison between stratigraphic units of varying sizes and depths. However, densities (frequencies, or normalized volumes) of coin (per 1000) are most useful when one has a baseline for comparison. For example, the west complex on mound I at the occupational levels has a density of approximately 24. See, in general, for this section: Casey 1986 and Reece 2003, esp. chs. 12 and 13.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

459

Table 9.4: Distributions of coins at Ἁin el-Gedida by room in area B. Room

Total Coins

Dated Coins

4

1

0

5

36

28

6

2

2

8

1

1

9

1

1

10

1

1

11

15

6

12

33

20

13

17

4

14

6

4

15

16

9

17

3

1

18

2

0

19

7

6

20

1

0

21

1

1

23

2

2

24

1

1

Total

146

87

0.9 coins/m3. Is this a lot or a little? Is it typical of this sort of space in late antique Dakhla? Such questions can only be answered once we have a large enough sample of densities and coin lists. All this is by way of saying that the densities here are of limited use. Indeed, one might say that their meaning is latent and will only become clear as more contexts and their coin lists are published. A quick glance at the two tables in this section reveals that coin loss was not evenly distributed across the areas excavated at Ἁin el-Gedida. Rooms B1–B3, which have been interpreted as a likely domestic context, did not yield a single coin in approximately 70–80 m3 of excavated material. To put this into perspective, B5, one of the main rooms of the church, contained a similar volume of material but yielded 36 coins. One coin was recovered in B4, but this was a surface find in a context that seems not to be original to the room, which was used as a midden in its final phase. The ceramic assemblage and ostraca finds in B1–B3 (section 2.3.1) suggest that it had a fourth-century phase, and certainly late antique domestic contexts from Kellis and Amheida have yielded coins. However, the building of which B1–B3 are a part has not been fully excavated; we may therefore draw no conclusions about coin use and loss in this area until that point. The west complex on mound I (B17–B24) has been interpreted as a temple that had been converted into a pottery workshop sometime around the fourth century (section 6.7). The entire complex yielded 17 coins. Eleven, however, come from surface or ancient abandonment

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

460

Table 9.5: Coin distribution in area B by room and DSU/FSU. Room

DSU

Context

TPQ

Approx. SU Vol. (m3)

Density (coins/m3)

4

Surface

surface

1

0

0

7

NA

NA

NA

Surface

surface

3

1

1

8–10

NA

NA

NA

20

windblown sand

1

1

0

11

NA

16.7

0.1

22

wall and ceiling collapse

1

1

0

12

324

6.5

0.2

23

wall and ceiling collapse

1

1

1

13

351

0.9

1.2

24

collapse?

4

3

0

14–17

341

NA

NA

26

pit fill

4

4

1

18–21

351

0.9

4.3

28

windblown sand

3

2

1

22–24

351

3.6

0.8

29

ceiling collapse

4

3

0

25–28

351

0.8

5.2

32

excavation debris from ancient pit

10

9

0

29–38

351

0.4

25.5

33

room fill

2

1

0

39–40

NA

0.4

5.0

35

room fill/ occupational

1

1

0

41

317

2.5

0.4

41

preparation level below floor

1

0

0

42

NA

NA

NA

43

pit fill

1

1

0

43

335

1.1

0.9

59

occupational

1

1

1

44

351

1.8

0.6

F83

floor

1

1

0

45

361

0.2

5.0

8

44

surface

1

1

0

46

364

3.2

0.3

9

79

occupational

1

1

0

47

NA

1.0

1.0

10

76

windblown sand under collapse

1

1

1

48

351

24.6

0.04

11

90

refuse/occupation layer above floor

10

4

1

49–58

383

16.0

0.6

5

6

Coins Dated Imitations Catalog

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

Room

11

12

13

14

15

DSU

Context

Coins Dated Imitations Catalog

461

TPQ

Approx. SU Vol. (m3)

Density (coins/m3)

97

uncertain ash layer

2

1

0

59–60

NA

1.8

1.1

108

uncertain ash layer above floor

2

0

0

61–62

NA

1.6

1.3

F141

floor

1

1

0

63

320

NA

NA

91

occupational

8

5

3

64–71

364

8.6

0.9

93

preparation level below floor

5

2

2

72–76

364

5.6

0.9

95

preparation level below floor

3

2

1

77–79

364

2.2

1.3

96

foundation trench fill

3

2

1

80–82

361

1.2

2.5

101

level beneath F155

1

1

0

83

363

0.5

2.2

107

wall collapse

3

2

0

84–86

355

13.5

0.2

124

occupational

9

6

2

87–95

364

5.1

1.8

F135

floor

1

0

0

96

NA

NA

NA

94

refuse layer

2

1

0

97–98

341

4.9

0.4

104

windblown sand

1

0

0

99

NA

14.1

0.1

105

collapse

2

0

0

100–101

NA

2.4

0.8

109

layer between collapses

3

1

1

102–104

364

5.0

0.6

110

refuse layer

4

1

1

105–108

355

2.9

1.4

115

occupational

3

1

0

109–111

NA

4.7

0.6

F152

floor

1

0

0

112

NA

NA

NA

F153

floor

1

0

0

113

NA

NA

NA

84

surface

1

1

0

114

317

9.2

0.1

127

refuse layer

5

3

1

115–119

367

2.0

2.5

86

wall collapse

3

1

1

120–122

335

28.5

0.1

129

refuse layer

6

3

1

123–128

364

3.7

1.6

132

refuse/preparation level below floor

4

2

0

129–132

NA

1.8

2.2

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

462 Room

DSU

Context

TPQ

Approx. SU Vol. (m3)

Density (coins/m3)

137

refuse/preparation level below floor

3

3

2

133–135

383

NA

NA

17

152

windblown sand

3

1

0

136–138

364

1.7

1.7

18

156

occupational

2

0

0

139–140

NA

2.0

1.0

171

windblown sand

2

2

1

141–142

383

1.5

1.3

173

vault/wall collapse

4

3

1

143–146

337

1.9

2.1

F180

wall

1

1

0

147

NA

NA

NA

20

143

occupational

1

0

0

148

NA

1.5

0.7

21

138

surface

1

1

0

149

328

21.2

0.1

23

147

occupational

2

2

0

150–151

316

2.0

1.0

24

151

windblown sand/occupational

1

1

0

152

364

0.3

3.8

19

Coins Dated Imitations Catalog

or post-abandonment layers (B17: DSU152; B19: DSU171, 173; B21: DSU138; B24: DSU174). Thus four rooms yielded five coins from units associated with the final occupation phase of the west complex (B1: DSU156; B19: BF180; B20: DSU143; and B23: DSU147). Regrettably, coins 139–140 from DSU156 were not fully cleaned. 147 is an odd specimen, curiously heavy for its module. It retains traces that clearly date it to the fourth century, but I have yet to succeed in identifying it more precisely. 148 from DSU143 is illegible. Thankfully, both of the coins in DSU147 and the occupational level just above the floor BF183 in B23, are legible Soli invicto comiti types (150–151). Hoard evidence suggests that these types were no longer circulating by sometime in the 330s, making that decade the latest likely date for the laying of floor BF183.25 The other main excavated area at Ἁin el-Gedida includes a church complex and several surrounding spaces (B5–B15). 128 coins were recovered from this complex of rooms and passageways. Approximately forty percent (51) were discovered in surface, abandonment, or postabandonment layers (B5: surface, DSU20, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 33; B8: DSU44; B10, DSU76; B13: DSU94, 104, 105, 109, 110; B14: DSU84, 127; B15: DSU86, 129). Rooms B14 and B15 postdate the conversion of B5 and A46 into an apsidal church, encroaching upon and transforming the street B12 (section 5.1) in order to accommodate a bakery. The only coins discovered in the pre25. Bowen 2012c: 423.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

463

abandonment layers of this part of the site are 129–132 in DSU132 and 133–135 in DSU137. DSU132 lay below the most recent floor BF174 and while DSU137 was above floor BF175, which belongs to the period in which the ovens were active. None of the coins in DSU132 provide a secure terminus post quem for the floor above, though all are likely from the later half of the fourth century or early fifth century. At least two, and perhaps all three, of the coins in DSU137 are cast imitations of types that circulated in the last three decades of the fourth century. 133 is a Salus reipublicae type, suggesting that the layers above it were deposited after 383. B11–B13 were streets and passageways that predated the conversion of B5 into a church and were subsequently modified in order accommodate the transformation of the church complex (section 5.1). In B12 there were a series of floors, with earlier ones connected to the alteration of B5 and subsequent ones associated with the construction of B14–B15 to the east. Two early strata produced one coin each: BF135, an early floor; and DSU101, a preparation layer for another early floor (BF155). One of these coins was not fully cleaned (96). The other coin (83) is a votive issue of Jovian dated to 363–364. This implies that the subsequent phases of B12 should be dated to after 363. In B11 coin 63, minted in 320–321, was discovered embedded in the lowest floor (BF141). Hoard evidence suggests that this coin was no longer in circulation by 340, again suggesting a rough terminus ante quem for the floor.26 Unfortunately, the coins in the earliest levels of B13 were either not fully cleaned or are otherwise illegible. In the church complex itself (B5–B9) three rooms produced coins: B5, B6, and B9 (the coin find in B8 is post-abandonment). B6–B9 were built simultaneously (section 5.1) and produced only four coins. The coin in B9 is illegible. B6 produced two coins: 44 in DSU59, an occupational layer above floor BF83, in which 45 was embedded. The former is a Fel temp reparatio type (351–361) and the latter a votive coin of Julian (361–363). B5 has two coins in early layers: 41 in DSU35 and 42 in DSU41, the preparation layer for the floor. 42 is illegible; 41 was minted in 317 and was unlikely to be circulating actively by 330.27 B5 also contains numerous pits (section 3.1.1). The fill of one (DSU43) contained a single coin (43), a Gloria exercitus type dated to 335–337 and in the coin pool until sometime in the 360s. DSU32 has also been related to ancient digging activity. This small unit not only produced 10 coins (density 25.5), but also produced the only coins excavated from Ἁin el-Gedida thus far that pre-date Diocletian’s reform (29–30, 33–34, 38). These late third-century tetradrachms were discovered with coins from the fourth century, including a Fel temp reparatio type. It is hard to know what to make of such a deposit. Late third-century tetradrachms have been found in the churches at Kellis, and Bowen has argued that they suggest their continued circulation well after Diocletian’s currency reform.28 We thus have three contexts with three distinct numismatic profiles. B1–B4 yielded no coins in the historical layers. The west complex (B17–B24) produced 17 coins, but an average density of 0.9/m3 for occupation layers.29 Temple sites and churches, on the other hand, are often productive of coins, the result of a combination of intentional donation, commercial activity, and loss (see the discussion of B5 immediately below). The numismatic profile of the west complex would, therefore, seem to be that of its latest phase as a workshop. By way of com26. Idem. 27. Idem. 28. Bowen 2010a; 2012c. 29. I exclude 147, since it was embedded in a wall.

464

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

parison, the admittedly larger temple mound at Amheida has yielded not only far more coins from the fourth century, but also a substantial hoard of first- and second-century tetradrachms, whereas second-century tetradrachms and even money boxes (empty) have been discovered in the temple of Tutu at Kellis.30 While this may reflect a difference in coin use and loss in the west complex, it may also reflect the extent of erosion and deflation in this area, which affected both the strata of the earlier temple and the subsequent workshops.31 Rooms B14–B15 produced 22 coins and had units that ranged in density from 1.6–2.5/m3. Although streets B11–B12 and courtyard/intersection B13 produced 36 coins—double the number from the west complex—the layers with the greatest number of coins, DSU90 and DSU91, in fact had relatively low densities for the site (0.6 and 0.9, respectively). Densities in the refuse and occupational layers ranged from approximately 1.0–2.5, resembling the west complex at one end of the spectrum (if we may take them as diagnostic), and certain layers in B14–B15 at the other. Finally, in the church complex itself, there were several rooms with few or no coins (B6–B9; density equal to or less than 1.0), as contrasted with B5 itself, in which we find the greatest coin densities at the site so far. We might explain the difference with how people may have used and lost or did not lose coins in passageways, access points, pantries, or kitchens, as B6–B9 have been interpreted,32 as opposed to the church itself, where one might expect donations (if not other activities) to lead to various types of loss. However, it will take more excavation and quantifying and mapping of coin loss in order to build up a meaningful typology of coin loss in different contexts in Dakhla.

9.6. Catalogue The catalogue is organized by archaeological area, room, and stratigraphic unit or feature. Restored features are represented in square brackets ([ … ]). “NA” signals when information is not available; “ND” signifies “No Date”. All coins are scaled at 2:1. Abbreviations FTR, FH = Fel temp reparatio, falling horseman series D. = G. Dattari (1901). Monete imperiali greche. Numi Augg. Alexandrini. Cairo. G. = A. Geissen (1974-83). Katalog Alexandrinischer Kaisermünzen der Sammlung des Instituts für Altertumskunde der Universität zu Köln (Papyrologica Coloniensia V). 5 vols. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. (Vol. 4 in collaboration with W. Weiser). L = left M. = J. G. Milne (1933). Catalogue of Alexandrian Coins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reprinted 1971 (London: Spink). R = right RIC = H. G. Mattingly et al., eds. (1923–1944). Roman Imperial Coinage. London: Spink. P. 30. Amheida: Faucher 2015; Kellis: Hope 1991: 47–48, Hope, Kaper, and Bowen 1992: 47–48, Bowen, Hope, and Kaper 1993: 27, Hope 1995: 52–55, Hope 2001a: 42 (money boxes in the shape of Egyptian temples). 31. See chapter 6 in this volume. 32. See sections 3.1.3–6 in this volume.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

465

M. Bruun, VII: Constantine and Licinius: A.D. 313–337 (1996). J. P. C. Kent, VIII: The family of Constantine I: A.D. 337–364 (1981). J. W. E. Pearce, IX: Valentinian I–Theodosius I (1951). Sal Reip = Salus reipublicae Sec Reip = Securitas reipublicae 1 Inventory Number: 1 Context: Area A, room A41, surface clearance (FN1) Material: AE Diam.: 23 mm Weight: 3.0 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate. Legend: IM[P] LIC LICINIUS [P F AU]G Rev.: Jupiter Conservator, standing. L, with globe and victory, leaning on scepter. Eagle with wreath to L on ground. Legend: IOVI CONSE-R[VATORI] AUGG Mint: Thessalonica Mint Mark: -/-//● T S [●] A ● (Final letter may also be B) Date: 313–316 Ref.: RIC VII Thessalonica 2 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0001-AG06--0014; REV: 0001-AG06--0012 2 Inventory Number: 2 Context: Area A, room A41, surface clearance (FN2) Material: AE Diam.: 22 mm Weight: 3.3 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate, cuirassed. Legend: IMP [LICI]NIUS P F AUG Rev.: Sol, radiate, standing L, globe in L, raising R hand, chlamys across L shoulder. Legend: SOLI INV-I-CTO COMITI Mint: Rome Mint Mark: (R on X)/F//RP Date: 314–315 Ref.: RIC VII Rome 30 Image ref. to the database: OBV: 0002-AG06--0011; REV: 0002-AG06--0010 3 Inventory Number: 501 Context: Area A, room A25, surface clearance (FN1) Material: AE Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 1.8 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R. Legend: CONSTA[N-TIN]US AUG Rev.: Votive wreath, inscribed VOT / X X. Legend: D N CONSTANTINI MAX AUG Mint: Heraclea Mint Mark: *//SMHB Date: 324 Ref.: RIC VII Heraclea 60 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0501-AG07--0169; REV: 0501-AG07--0056 4 Inventory Number: 502 Context: Area A, room A25, surface clearance (FN2)

466

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 2.2 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped(?), laureate. Legend: IUL CRIS-PUS NOB C Rev.: Camp gate, no doors, two turrets, star in between. Legend: PROVIDEN-TIAE CAESS Mint: Thessalonica Mint Mark: SMTS . (officina illegible) Date: 326 Ref.: RIC VII Thessalonica 155 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0502-AG10-3059; REV: 0502-AG10-3060 5 Inventory Number: 503 Context: Area A, room A25, DSU1 Material: AE Diam.: 21 mm Weight: NA Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; head only, laureate. Legend: IMP CONSTANTINUS PF AUG Rev.: Sol, radiate, stg. L, facing L, R arm raised, chlamys over L shoulder. Legend: SOL[I IN VI] CTO COM[ITI] (breaks not legible) Mint: Rome Mint Mark: R/[F]//RS Date: 313 Ref.: RIC VII Rome 1 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0503-AG07--0173; REV: 0503-AG07--0174 6 Inventory Number: 504 Context: Area A, room A25, DSU1 (FN7) Material: AE Diam.: 22 mm Weight: NA Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; headdress uncertain: diadem? Legend: [I]M[P] CONSTANTINUS P F A[UG] Rev.: Sol, radiate, standing L, chlamys over L arm; other attributes obscure. Legend: SOLI IN VI - CTO COMITI Mint: Rome Mint Mark: C or (wreath)/?//RT Date: 315–318 Ref.: RIC VII Rome 39-41 or 97 var Note: Variant of RIC 7 Rome 39-41 or 97, depending on the mint mark in the field. Variants of this type with respect to the break of the reverse legend are fairly common. Recorded weight to be checked Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0504-AG07--0058; REV: 0504-AG07--0057 7 Inventory Number: 548 Context: Area B, room B4, surface Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 0.5 g

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

467

8 Inventory Number: 545 Context: Area B, room B5, surface Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.7 g Axis: 2h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. No trace of legend. Portrait seems elongated Rev.: Traces of legend along left. FTR, FH type, but a very tight composition Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 355–361 Ref.: NA Note: Axis is approximately 2h. Likely an imitation Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00545-AG10--3069; REV: 00545-AG10--3070) 9 Inventory Number: 546 Context: Area B, room B5, surface Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 0.7 g

Axis: NA

10 Inventory Number: 547 Context: Area B; room B5 surface Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible, fragmentary Date: ND

Weight: 0.6 g

Axis: NA

11 Inventory Number: 33 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU20 (FN15) Material: AE Diam.: 21 mm Weight: 1.2 g Module/Denom.: AE3 Obv.: Traces of imp. bust, R; diadem. Legend: D [N ... ]? Rev.: Traces of legend and design Condition: Fragmentary Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA 12 Inventory Number: 32 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU22, FN20

Axis: NA

468

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 2.0 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate. Legend: CONSTAN-TINUS AUG Rev.: Votive wreath, inscribed: VOT ● XX. Legend: D N CONSTANTINI MAX AUG Mint: Heraclea Mint Mark: *//SHMA Date: 324 Ref.: RIC VII Heraclea 60 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00032-AG10--3041; REV: 00032-AG10--3042 13 Inventory Number: 29 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU23 (FN17) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 2.3 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: [ ... ] ... CAES Rev.: Traces of FTR, FH design. Legend: [FE]L TEMP R[E – PARATIO] Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Portrait is either Gallus or Julian. Possibly an imitation Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0029-AG06--0031; REV: 0029-AG06--0030 14 Inventory Number: 30 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU24 (FN18) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Module/Denom.: AE3 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 2.2 g

Axis: NA

15 Inventory Number: 31 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU24 (FN19) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 1.5 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Traces of imp. bust, R. Traces of legend Rev.: Votive wreath, number of vota inscribed illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 341–364 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0031-AG06--0020; REV: 0031-AG06--0019 16 Inventory Number: 34 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU24 (FN22)

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Module/Denom.: AE2/AE3 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 3.5 g

17 Inventory Number: 522 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU24 (FN19) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 1.8 g Module/Denom.: AE3 Obv.: Traces of imp. bust, R, cuirassed, draped, and legend Rev.: NA Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA 18 Inventory Number: 520 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU26 (FN17) Material: AE Diam.: 22 mm Weight: NA Module/Denom.: AE2/AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R. Legend: [D N CONS]T[AN] - TIUS P F AUG Rev.: FTR, FH type. Legend: [FEL TEMP REPA]RATIO Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Recorded weight to be checked

469

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

Axis: 6h

19 Inventory Number: 521 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU26 (FN18) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 2.8 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Traces of legend L Rev.: Type uncertain. Legend: [FEL TEMP RE]PARATIO Mint: NA Mint Mark: Illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Perhaps an imitation and/or cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00521-AG10--3064; REV: 00521-AG10--3063 20 Inventory Number: 523 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU26 (FN20) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm

Weight: 0.6 g

Axis: 11h

470

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Module/Denom.: AE4/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Traces of legend Rev.: Two soldiers, with spears, single standard between them. Legend: [GL]OR – [IA EXER] C – ITUS Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 335–341 Ref.: NA 21 Inventory Number: 562 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU26 (FN27) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.8 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE4/Nummus centenionalis Obv.:Imp. bust, R; head only, pearl diadem. Legend: D N CONSTAN – [TIUS P F A]UG Rev.: Votive wreath, inscribed: VOT / X X / MULT / X X X Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 347–348 Ref.: NA Note: Minted by all eastern mints, from Heraclea to Alexandria, with the possible exception of Constantinople Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00562-AG10--3021; REV: 00562-AG10--3022 22 Inventory Number: 526 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU28 (in sand below brick collapse) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 1.6 g Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.:Imp. bust, R; diadem. Legend: [D N] CON[...] Rev.: Traces of FTR, FH type. Legend: FEL TEMP [REPARATIO] Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Possibly an imitation

Axis: 6h

23 Inventory Number: 527 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU28 (from sand layer beneath brick collapse) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 0.8 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 24 Inventory Number: 528 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU28 (from sand layer beneath brick collapse)

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.6 g Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Illegible Rev.: Traces of design and legend consistent with FTR, FH type Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Not fully cleaned

471

Axis: NA

25 Inventory Number: 505 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU29 (FN2) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 3.7 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, no diadem. Legend: D N CONSTANTI - [US ... CAES] Rev.: FTR, FH with traces of legend Mint: Antioch, Thessalonica, or Alexandria Mint Mark: L?//traces Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0505-AG07--0051; REV: 0505-AG07--0052 26 Inventory Number: 506 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU29 (FN3) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 0.9 g Axis: 10h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Bust of Constantinople, L; helmeted, scepter over L shoulder. Legend: CONSTAN – TINOPOLIS Rev.: Victory L; R foot on prow, L hand on shield. No legend Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: -/-//SMALA• Date: 340–347(?) Ref.: RIC VIII Alexandria 27 Note: There is some uncertainty as to when this issue came to an end. Cf. Marcellesi 2012: 433; RIC VII, p. 535 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0506-AG07--0053; REV: 0506-AG07--0180 27 Inventory Number: 507 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU29 (FN4) Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 2.8 g Axis: 12h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, L; radiate, draped, cuirassed. Legend: CONSTANTI - NUS IUN N C Rev.: Altar with globe, inscribed VO / TIS / X X (reverse break usually VOT / IS). Three stars above. Legend: BEAT TRA – NQLITAS Mint: London Mint Mark: F/B//[PLON]

472

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Date: 322–323 Ref.: RIC VII London 255 var Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00507-AG10--3045; REV: 00507-AG10--3046

Pl. 9.1a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 507.

28 Inventory Number: 508 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU29 (FN5) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Weight: 1.0 g

Axis: NA

29 Inventory Number: 509 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN6) Material: Bi Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 7.1 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: Tetradrachm Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate, wreath ties back. Legend: […] IANOC CEB Rev.: Alexandria in mural crown facing L, holding staff or scepter in L hand and head of Serapis in R Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: LB (= Year 2) Date: 271/272 Aurelian, Year 2 Ref.: D. 5435; M. 4355 285/286 Diocletian, Year 2 Ref.: D. 5622; M. 4781; G. 3210 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0509-AG07--0184; REV: 0509-AG07--0185

Pl. 9.2a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 509.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

473

30 Inventory Number: 510 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN7) Material: Bi Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 7.0 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: Tetradrachm Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate. Legend: Α K Γ OΥAΛ ΔIOKΛΗT[IANOC CEΒ] Rev.: Tyche, reclining on a couch; R hand on rudder Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: LA (= Year 1) Date: 284–285 Ref.: D.5766; M.4756; G.3208 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0510-AG07--0149; REV: 0510-AG07--0068

Pl. 9.3a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 510.

31 Inventory Number: 511 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN8) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Illegible Rev.: Traces of FTR, FH Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA

Weight: 1.8 g

Axis: NA

32 Inventory Number: 512 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN9) Material: AE Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 2.9 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem, draped, cuirassed. Legend: IMP CONSTANTINUS P [F AUG] Rev.: Sol, radiate, standing L; chlamys over L arm, R arm upraised with victory, L arm with globe. Legend: SOLI IN - VI - CTO COMITI Mint: Rome Mint Mark: (T in wreath)/-//RQ Date: 318 Ref.: RIC VII Rome 136 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0512-AG07--0188; REV: 0512-AG07--0189

474

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 9.4a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 512.

33 Inventory Number: 513 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN10) Material: Bi Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 8.0 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: Tetradrachm Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate, draped. Legend: A K M A OYA MAΞIMIANOC CEB Rev.: Elpis, standing L; flowers in R hand, L gathering chiton Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: LB (= Year 2) Date: 286–287 Maximian, Year 2 Ref.: M.4814; G.3285 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0513-AG07--0190; REV: 0513-AG07--0191

Pl. 9.5a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 513.

34 Inventory Number: 514 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN11) Material: Bi Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 7.6 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: Tetradrachm Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate, draped. Legend: A K M A KA - PINOC CEB Rev.: Homonoia, double cornucopia in L; raising R hand Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: ETOUC [Γ] Date: 284–285 Carinus, Year 3 Ref.: D.5586; M.4737; G.3185 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0514-AG07--0192; REV: 0514-AG07--0193

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

475

Pl. 9.6a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 514.

35 Inventory Number: 515 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN12) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 1.0 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate or diadem; traces of legend Rev.: Perhaps traces of victory adv. L with wreath Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA

Axis: NA

36 Inventory Number: 516 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN13) Material: AE Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 1.9 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; rosette diadem, draped, cuirassed. Legend: CONSTANTI - NUS MAX AUG Rev.: Two soldiers with shields to ground, two standards between them. Legend: GLOR - IA EXERC -ITUS Mint: Rome Mint Mark: -/-//R(wreath)P Date: 333–335 Ref.: RIC VII Rome 350 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0516-AG07--0194; REV: 0516-AG07--0196

Pl. 9.7a–b: Obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 516.

476

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

37 Inventory Number: 517 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN14) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Weight: 2.1 g

Axis: NA

38 Inventory Number: 518 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU32 (FN15) Material: Bi Diam.: 21 mm Weight: 7.4 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: tetradrachm Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate, cloaked, cuirassed. Legend: AY K M AYP ΠP-OBOC CEB Rev.: Eagle, standing L, head R, with wreath in beak Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: LE (= Year 5) Date: 279–280 Probus, Year 5 Ref.: D.5550; M.4606; G.3144 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00518-AG10--3053; REV: 00518-AG10--3054

Pl. 9.8a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 518.

39 Inventory Number: 524 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU33 Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.7 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Trace of imp. bust, R; diadem, perhaps legend on L Rev.: Illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA 40 Inventory Number: 525 Context: area B, room B5, DSU33

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 0.9 g

477

Axis: NA

41 Inventory Number: 550 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU35 (FN21) Material: AE Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 2.2 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Traces of imp. bust. Legend: D N [ ... ] NOB C or perhaps CAES Rev.: Camp gate, three turrets. Legend: PRO[VIDEN]-TIAE CAES[S] Mint: Heraclea Mint Mark: -/-//MHT . ? Date: 317 Ref.: RIC VII Heraclea 18-27

Pl. 9.9a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 550.

42 Inventory Number: 519 Context: Area B, room B5, DSU41 (FN16) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 1.5 g

Axis: NA

43 Inventory Number: 566 Context: Area B, Room B5, DSU43 (FN28) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 1.1 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; roseate diadem, draped, cuirassed. Legend: CONSTANTI - NUS MAX [AUG] Rev.: GE type with two soldiers with one standard. Legend: [GLOR]-IA E[XE]RC – ITUS Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: -/-//SMALA or -/-//SMALΔ

478

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Date: 335–337 Ref.: RIC VII Alexandria 65 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00566-AG10--3031; REV: 00566-AG10--3032

Pl. 9.10a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 566.

44 Inventory Number: 561 Context: Area B, room B6, DSU59 (FN24) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 2.5 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; pearl diadem, draped, cuirassed. Legend: D N CONSTAN - TIUS P F AU[G] Rev.: Traces of FTR, FH. Legend: [FEL TEMP RE-PAR]ATIO Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0561-AG07--0215; REV: 0561-AG07--0216

Pl. 9.11a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 561.

45 Inventory Number: 563 Context: Area B, room B6, FSU83 (FN26) Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 2.0 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, L; pearl diadem; helmeted, cuirassed, spear in R hand, shield in L hand. Legend: D N FL CL IULI - ANUS P F AUG Rev.: Votive wreath inscribed: VOT / X / MULT / X X Mint: Sirmium Mint Mark: -/-//Α̣SIRM Date: 361–363 Ref.: RIC VIII Sirmium 108 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0563-AG07--0219; REV: 0563-AG07--0221

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

479

Pl. 9.12a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 563.

46 Inventory Number: 549 Context: Area B, room B8, DSU44 Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.7 g Axis: 12h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Legend: … P F AUG Rev.: Victory with wreath, adv. L. Traces of legend, compatible with SecReip Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0549-AG07--0213; REV: 0549-AG07--0214 47 Inventory Number: 580 Context: Area B, room B9, DSU79 (FN40) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina? Obv.: Illegible Rev.: Traces suggestive of FTR, FH Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA

Weight: 2.1 g

Axis: NA

48 Inventory Number: 589 Context: Area B, room B10, DSU76 (FN31) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 2.2 g Axis: 3h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: D N CONSTAN – [TIUS P F AUG] Rev.: FTR, FH. Legend: FEL TEMP [REPARATIO] Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA 49 Inventory Number: 667 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN14) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 1.0 g

Axis: NA

480

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Module/Denom.: AE4/Fraction of a centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, pearl diadem. Legend: D N VALE[NTINIANUS P F] AUG Rev.: Camp gate, two turrets. Legend: GLORIA [REI] - PVBLICE Mint: Thessalonica Mint Mark: A/-//[TES] Date: 383–392 Ref.: RIC IX Thessalonica 62(a).2 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00667-AG10--3019; REV: 00667-AG10--3020

Pl. 9.13a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 667.

50 Inventory Number: 674 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN22) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 0.6 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Interesting but illegible traces Date: ND Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00674-AG10--3012; REV: 00674-AG10--3011 51 Inventory Number: 675 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN23) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.7 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible; fragmentary Date: ND

Axis: NA

52 Inventory Number: 676 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN24) Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 0.9 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Legend: D N VALEN – [S P F AUG] Rev.: Victory adv. L, holding wreath and palm. Legend: [SECURITAS] REIPUBLICAE Condition: fragmentary Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0676-AG08--3664; REV: 0676-AG08--3661

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

481

53 Inventory Number: 677 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN25) Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Weight: 0.5 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Axis: NA

54 Inventory Number: 679 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN27) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 1.8 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

55 Inventory Number: 682 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (FN30) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.8 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

56 Inventory Number: 692 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 1.4 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem or laureate. Traces of legend Rev.: Two soldiers stg. with spears and shields, two standards between them. Traces of Gloria Exercitus legend Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 330–335 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0692-AG08--3336; REV: 0692-AG08--3339 57 Inventory Number: 694 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 2.9 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3 Obv.: Imp. bust, R.; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: [ --- ] P F AUG Rev.: Illegible

482

Mint: NA Date: 4th c.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Mint Mark: illegible Ref.: NA

58 Inventory Number: 695 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU90 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.3 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

59 Inventory Number: 671 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU97 (FN19) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 1.6 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

60 Inventory Number: 673 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU97 (FN21) Material: AE Diam.: NA Weight: 1.2 g Module/Denom.: NA Obv.: Traces of imp. bust with diadem Rev.: Illegible traces Note: Not fully cleaned; two fragments; no reliable diameter Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA 61 Inventory Number: 680 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU108 (FN28) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.7 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND 62 Inventory Number: 803 Context: Area B, room B11, DSU108 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.8 g

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

483

Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 63 Inventory Number: 684 Context: Area B, roomB11, F141 (FN32) Material: AE Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 1.8 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate. Legend: CONSTAN – TINUS AUG Rev.: Votive wreath inscribed VOT / X X. Legend: D N CONSTANTINI MAX AUG Mint: Ticinum Mint Mark: -/-//ST Date: 320–321 Ref.: RIC VII Ticinum 140 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0684-AG08--3203; REV: 0684-AG08--3206

Pl. 9.14a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 684.

64 Inventory Number: 652 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 (FN5) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Module/Denom.: AE3 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 1.9 g

Axis: NA

65 Inventory Number: 653 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 (FN1) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 2.3 g Axis: 11h? Module/Denom.: AE3 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate? Legend: D N CONSTAN – TIUS P F AUG Rev.: Traces of design, compatible with FTR, FH. Legend: FEL TEMP – [REPARATIO] Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA

484

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Note: likely cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0653-AG08--3324; REV: 0653-AG08--3327 66 Inventory Number: 654 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 (FN4) Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary Date: ND

Weight: 0.2 g

Axis: NA

67 Inventory Number: 655 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 (FN2) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.8 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE4/Centenionalis or fraction? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem or laureate. Traces of legend Rev.: Illegible with traces of legend […REI]PUBLICE Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 355–403 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00655-AG10--3074; REV: 00655-AG10--3073 68 Inventory Number: 656 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 (FN7) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 2.1 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate or diadem. Traces of legend at R Rev.: Victory adv. L. with wreath, Sec Reip type Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Note: Likely cast and/or an imitation Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0656-AG08--0855; REV: 0656-AG08--0858 69 Inventory Number: 657 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 (FN6) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Module/Denom.: AE3 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, diadem Rev.: Illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible

Weight: 2.6 g

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

Date: 4th c. Note: Possibly cast

485

Ref.: NA

70 Inventory Number: 658 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Weight: 1.1 g

Axis: NA

71 Inventory Number: 659 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU91 Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 1.8 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, pearl diadem. Traces of legend R Rev.: Victory adv. L with wreath and palm. Traces of legend: […] REI P[UBL]ICAE. Sec Reip type Condition: Fragmentary Mint: NA Mint Mark: traces Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0659-AG08--0843; REV: 0659-AG08--0846 72 Inventory Number: 666 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU93 (FN13) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.8 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

73 Inventory Number: 670 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU93 (FN18) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 4.5 g (see note) Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Legend: D N VALE[N… P F AUG] Rev.: Emperor standing R, looking L with labarum and captive. Legend: GLORIA RO – MANORUM Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA

486

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Note: Valens or Valentinian I. Weight far too heavy. Possibly cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0670-AG08--0849; REV: 0670-AG08--0852

Pl. 9.15a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 670.

74 Inventory Number: 672 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU93 (FN20) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.7 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Axis: NA

75 Inventory Number: 696 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU93 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.6 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Axis: NA

76 Inventory Number: 699 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU93 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 2.4 g Axis: 12h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem Rev.: Victory adv. L, with wreath and palm. Legend: [SECURITAS] REIPUBLICAE Mint: NA Mint Mark: Illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Note: Possibly cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00699-AG10--3009; REV: 00699-AG10--3010 77 Inventory Number: 668 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU95 (FN15)

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

487

Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 2.3 g Axis: 6h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Traces of imp. bust, R. and perhaps legend Rev.: Victory adv. L, with wreath and palm. Legend: [...] RE[IPUBLIC .] Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Note: Possibly cast 78 Inventory Number: 669 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU95 (FN16) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 3.6 g Module/Denom.: AE3 Condition: Illegible; fragmentary; not fully cleaned Date: 4th c.

Axis: NA

79 Inventory Number: 801 Context: Area B, room BR12, DSU95 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.8 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

80 Inventory Number: 665 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU96 (FN10) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 2.3 g Axis: 2h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, pearl diadem. Legend: D N CONSTAN – TIUS P F AUG Rev.: Traces of FTR, FH legend and type Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Possibly cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0665-AG08--0837; REV: 0665-AG08--0840 81 Inventory Number: 697 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU96 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 2.7 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3 Obv.: Imp. bust, L; helmeted. Legend and other attributes effaced, but reverse type guarantees

488

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

that the bust is of Julian Rev.: Votive wreath inscribed: VOT X / MVLT XX Mint: Unknown, but an Eastern mint, most likely Antioch or Alexandria. Mint Mark: Only officina legible: A Date: 362–363 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0697-AG08--3354; REV: 0697-AG08--3357 82 Inventory Number: 698 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU96 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.5 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

83 Inventory Number: 840 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU101 (FN45) Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 2.6 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: DN IOVIAN – US P F AUG Rev.: Votive wreath inscribed: VOT / V Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: -/-//ALEA Date: 363–364 Ref.: RIC VIII Alexandria 92 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0840-AG08--0861; REV: 0840-AG08--0864

Pl. 9.16a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 840.

84 Inventory Number: 688 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU107 (FN38) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 2.6 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, rosette diadem. Legend: CONSTANTI – NVS MAX AVG

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

489

Rev.: Two soldiers standing with spears and shields, two standards between them. Legend: GLOR- IA EXER – CITUS Mint: Heraclea or Cyzicus Mint Mark: -/-//•SMHA or -/-//•SMKA Date: 330–335 Ref.: RIC VII Heraclea 116 or Cyzicus 94 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00688-AG10--0028; REV: 00688-AG10--0029

Pl. 9.17a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 688.

85 Inventory Number: 690 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU107 (FN42) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 1.6 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: D N CONSTAN[ – TIU]S P F AUG Rev.: FTR, FH with legend. Horseman leans forward and clasps horse’s neck Mint: Thessalonica, Heraclea, or Antioch Mint Mark: M/-//traces Date: 355–361 Ref.: RIC VIII Thessalonica 208; Heraclea 96; Antioch 191 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0690-AG08--3372; REV: 0690-AG08--3375

Pl. 9.18a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 690.

86 Inventory Number: 821 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU107 (FN53) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 1.2 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Axis: NA

490

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

87 Inventory Number: 822 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 2.1 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R Rev.: Gloria Romanorum type. Traces of emperor standing or adv. R, looking L with labarum, likely leading a captive Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 00822-AG10--3029; REV: 00822-AG10--3030 88 Inventory Number: 824 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 (FN55) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.9 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Traces, illegible Rev.: Victory with wreath and palm adv. L. Traces of legend R. Likely Sec Reip type Condition: not fully cleaned; oddly shaped flan, perhaps fragmentary or an imitation Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–395 Ref.: NA 89 Inventory Number: 827 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: > 16 mm Weight: 0.7 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R.; cuirassed, draped, rosette-diadem. Legend: [ ... ] P F AUG Rev.: FTR, FH (horseman clasping neck of horse) with legend FEL T[...] at L Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible traces in exergue. Possible trace of mm in L field Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Note: Likely an imitation Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0827-AG08--3360; REV: 0827-AG08—3360

Pl. 9.19a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 827.

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

491

90 Inventory Number: 828 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 (FN56) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 0.8 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem Rev.: Victory adv. L with wreath and palm. Most likely Sec Reip type Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–395 Ref.: NA 91 Inventory Number: 1042 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Weight: 0.5 g

92 Inventory Number: 1046 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 0.8 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible possibly fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

93 Inventory Number: 1049 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 (FN57) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 2.5 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, diadem, pearl diadem. Legend: D N CON[…] P F AUG Rev.: FTR, FH type. Legend: [FEL TEMP RE]PARATIO Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 351–361 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01049-AG10--0032; REV: 01049-AG10--0033

492

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 9.20a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1049.

94 Inventory Number: 1076 Context: B R12 DSU124 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Weight: 0.5 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 95 Inventory Number: 1099 Context: Area B, room B12, DSU124 (FN58) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.1 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Illegible traces of legend Rev.: Illegible Condition: Not fully cleaned Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA 96 Inventory Number: 678 Context: Area B, room B12, F135 (FN26) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 1.8 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible; broken (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

97 Inventory Number: 685 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU94 (FN33) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.2 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, laurel and rosette diadem. Traces of legend Rev.: Two victories, facing each other, each with wreath and palm. Legend: [VICTORI]AE D D [AUG]GQ N N

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

Mint: NA Date: 341–348

493

Mint Mark: illegible Ref.: NA

98 Inventory Number: 700 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU94 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: NA Weight: 0.1 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary Note: Originally recorded as having a diam. of 13 mm, weight of 0.5 g; possibly not a coin 99 Inventory Number: 681 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU104 (FN29) Material: AE Diam.: 9 mm Weight: 0.3 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; possibly fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

100 Inventory Number: 691 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU105 (FN43) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.9 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

101 Inventory Number: 802 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU105 Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Weight: 0.4 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

102 Inventory Number: 683 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU109 (FN31) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.3 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

494

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

103 Inventory Number: 804 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU109 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 2.5 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned); perhaps two coins Date: ND 104 Inventory Number: 805 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU109 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Weight: 0.6 g Axis: 3h Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, pearl diadem. Bust appears to be nearly three-quarters. Traces of legend, although possible that the legend is symbolic (i.e., not actual legend) Rev.: Victory adv. L with palm or trophy and captive? Figure crudely executed. Legend and mint mark appear to be symbolic Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA Note: “Barbarous” imitation. Cf. 125. Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0805-AG08--0873; REV: 0805-AG08--0876

Pl. 9.21a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 805.

105 Inventory Number: 686 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU110 (FN34) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 2.5 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 106 Inventory Number: 687 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU110 (FN37) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.3 g Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis Obv.: Illegible

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

495

Rev.: Emperor helmeted and in military dress stg. L, holding globe and spear. Legend: SPES [REI – P]UBLICE Mint: Heraclea, Nicomedia, or Cyzicus Mint Mark: -/-//SM . . Date: 355–363 Ref.: RIC VIII Heraclea 98-100; Nicomedia 112-114, 116-117; Cyzicus 117-124 Note: Cast (note the sprue stem channel) Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 0687-AG08--0825; REV: 0687-AG08--0828

Pl. 9.22a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 687.

107 Inventory Number: 689 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU110 (FN41) Material: AE Diam.: 9 mm Weight: 0.3 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Axis: NA

108 Inventory Number: 826 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU110 (FN49) Material: AE Diam.: NA Weight: 0.1 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

109 Inventory Number: 823 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU115 (coin from sieving; test trench between rooms B12 and B13) Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Weight: 0.6 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

496

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

110 Inventory Number: 825 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU115 (FN44) (test trench between rooms B12 and B13) Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Weight: 1.0 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 111 Inventory Number: 839 Context: Area B, room B13, DSU115 (coin from sieving; test trench between rooms B12 and B13) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.6 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem Rev.: Illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA 112 Inventory Number: 841 Context: Area B, room B13, F152 (FN50) Material: AE Diam.: NA Weight: 0.7 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

113 Inventory Number: 829 Context: Area B, room B13, F153 (FN52) Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Weight: 0.4 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

114 Inventory Number: 1009 Context: Area B, room B14, DSU84 (FN54) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 2.9 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, L; draped, laureate, globe and scepter in L hand, mappa in R. Legend: [D N FL CL] CONSTANTINUS NOB C

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

497

Rev.: Camp gate with three turrets or two turrets and a star. Traces of legend PROVIDEN – TIAE CAESS Mint: Heraclea? Mint Mark: -/-//MTH . ? Date: 317–320 Ref.: RIC VII Heraclea 16-49? Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01009-AG10--0034; REV: 01009-AG10--0035 115 Inventory Number: 1035 Context: Area B, room B14, DSU127 (FN64) Material: AE Diam.: NA Weight: 1.4 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

116 Inventory Number: 1071 Context: Area B, room B14, DSU127 (FN62) Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Weight: 0.4 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

117 Inventory Number: 1072 Context: Area B, room B14, DSU127 (FN71) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.0 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Illegible Rev.: Possibly victory adv. L Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA

Axis: NA

118 Inventory Number: 1091 Context: Area B, room B14, DSU127 (FN65) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 2.8 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: [D N GRATIA] – NUS P F AUG Rev.: Victory adv. L with palm and wreath. Legend: SECU[RITAS] REIPUBLICAE Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: -/-//ALEA Date: 367–375 Ref.: RIC IX Alexandria 5c Note: Likely cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1091-AG08--3691; REV: 1091-AG08--3694

498

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 9.23a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1091.

119 Inventory Number: 1200 Context:area B, room B14, DSU127 (FN63) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 0.7 g Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Traces of legend Rev.: Possible traces of a victory adv. L. Sec Reip type Condition: Fragmentary Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA

Axis: 9h

120 Inventory Number: 1073 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU86 (FN61) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 2.1 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

121 Inventory Number: 1075 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU86 (FN66) Material: AE Diam.: NA Weight: 0.4 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

122 Inventory Number: 1095 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU86 (FN80) Material: AE Diam.: 17 mm Weight: 1.3 g Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Traces of legend

Axis: 10h?

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

499

Rev.: Two soldiers, standing looking at one another, holding spear and resting hand on shield; between them one standard. Legend: [GLOR] – IA EXER [CITVS] Mint: Most likely Heraclea or Nicomedia Mint Mark: -/-//[S]MHA or -/-//[S]MNA? Date: 335–341 Ref.: NA Note: Possibly cast

Pl. 9.24a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1095.

123 Inventory Number: 1008 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU129 (FN70) Material: AE Diam.: 16 mm Weight: 2.7 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R.; cuirassed, draped, diadem. Legend: [D N VALE]N – S P F AUG Rev.: Victory adv. L with wreath and palm. Legend: SECURITA[S –REI PUBLICAE] Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: -/-//ALEΑ̣ Date: 364–375 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01008-AG10--0024; REV: 01008-AG10--0025 124 Inventory Number: 1033 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU129 (FN74) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.6 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible; broken (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 125 Inventory Number: 1041 Context: Area B; room B15, DSU129 (FN67) Material: AE Diam.: 9 mm Weight: 0.3 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R Rev.: Victory adv. L with wreath and captive? Crudely executed Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

500

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Note: “Barbarous” imitation. Cf. 104 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01041-AG10-0236; REV: 01041-AG10-0235)

Pl. 9.25a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1041.

126 Inventory Number: 1060 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU129 (FN69) Material: AE Diam.: 8 mm Weight: 0.5 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND 127 Inventory Number: 1061 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU129 (FN83) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.0 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Traces of imp. bust, R Rev.: Illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

128 Inventory Number: 1077 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU129 (FN68) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 3.2 g Module/Denom.: AE3 Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

129 Inventory Number: 1063 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU132 (FN78) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 0.3 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

130 Inventory Number: 1064 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU132 (FN79) Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Weight: 0.3 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R.; diadem Rev.: Illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA 131 Inventory Number: 1065 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU132 (FN76) Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Weight: 0.7 g Modul/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND 132 Inventory Number: 1093 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU132 (FN77) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.3 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Obv.: Possible traces of imp. bust, R Rev.: Victory adv. L? Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA

501

Axis: NA

Axis: NA

Axis: 6h

133 Inventory Number: 1066 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU137 (FN82) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.6 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE4/Fraction of centenionalis? Obv.: Illegible Rev.: Victory adv. L with captive. Sal Reip type Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 383–403 Ref.: NA Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1066-AG08--3715; REV: 1066-AG08--3718 134 Inventory Number: 1096 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU137 (FN85)

502

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.1 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3? Obv.: Imp. bust, R.; cuirassed, draped, diadem Rev.: Victory adv. L with wreath, but arm down? SecReip type? Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th c. Ref.: NA Note: Coin seems to have lost a good deal of its circumference; may be cast imitation Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1096-AG08--3754; REV: 1096-AG08--3751 135 Inventory Number: 1097 Context: Area B, room B15, DSU137 (FN84) Material: AE Diam.: 18 mm Weight: 4.6 g Module/Denom.: AE2/Maiorina Obv.: Imp. bust, cuirassed, draped. Traces of legend Rev.: FTR, FH. Legend: [FEL] TEMP ... Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 348–355 Ref.: NA

Axis: 1h?

136 Inventory Number: 1034 Context: Area B, room B17, DSU152 (FN100) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.1 g Module/Denom.: NA Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

137 Inventory Number: 1078 Context: Area B, room B17, DSU152 (FN101) Material: AE Diam.: 11 mm Weight: 0.8 g A Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

xis: NA

138 Inventory Number: 1203 Context: Area B, room B17, DSU152 (FN98) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.7 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE4/Nummus centenionalis Obv.: Imp. bust, R; head only, diadem. Legend most likely: D N CONSTA – NS P F AUG. Rev.: Votive wreath inscribed: VOT / XX / MULT / XXX

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

503

Mint: Heraclea, Constantinople, Nicomedia, Cyzicus, or Antioch Mint Mark: Illegible Date: 347–348 Ref.: NA 139 Inventory Number: 1074 Context: Area B, room B18, DSU156 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.4 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

140 Inventory Number: 1202 Context: Area B, room B18, DSU156 (FN99) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 0.6 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

141 Inventory Number: 1081 Context: Area B, room B19, DSU171 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 13.5 mm Weight: 1.4 g Axis: 10h? Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, diadem Rev.: Victory adv. L with wreath and palm; SecReip type Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA Note: Possibly cast Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1081-AG08--3679; REV: 1081-AG08--3682 142 Inventory Number: 1201 Context: Area B, room B19, DSU171 (FN105) Material: AE Diam.: 13 mm Weight: 1.0 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE4/Fraction of centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, pearl diadem. Legend: [D N AR]CAD – IUS P F AUG Rev.: Votive wreath, inscribed: VOT / X / MVLT / XX Mint: Alexandria Mint Mark: -/-//ALEA or -/-//ALEΔ Date: 383–393 Ref.: RIC IX Alexandria 19d Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01201-AG10--0036; REV: 01201-AG10--0037

504

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

143 Inventory Number: 693 Context: Area B, room B19m DSU173 (FN107) Material: AE Diam.: 12 mm Weight: 1.0 g Module/Denom.: AE4 Condition: Illegible; fragmentary (not fully cleaned) Date: ND

Axis: NA

144 Inventory Number: 1062 Context: Area B, room B19, DSU173 Material: AE Diam.: 10 mm Weight: 0.7 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; wreath or diadem. Traces of legend L Rev.: Illegible traces Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: Late 4th–5th c. Ref.: NA Note: Possibly an imitation, based on the obverse portrait Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1062-AG08--3707; REV: 1062-AG08--3704 145 Inventory Number: 1086 Context: Area B, room B19, DSU173 (FN106) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.4 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; head only, rosette or laurel and rosette diadem. Legend: [D N CO]NSTA – NS P F [AVG] Rev.: Two soldiers, standing looking at one another, holding spear and resting hand on shield; between them one standard. Legend: GLOR - IA EXERC – [ITUS] Mint: Constantinople Mint Mark: -/-//CONS[ . ] Date: 337–340 Ref.: RIC VIII Constantinople 29, 30, 45 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1086-AG08--3697; REV: 1086-AG08--3700 146 Inventory Number: 1094 Context: Area B, room B19, DSU173 (FN108) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 1.4 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem. Traces of legend Rev.: Illegible Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA

Axis: NA

Coins from the 2006–2008 Excavations

505

147 Inventory Number: 1045 Context: Area B, room B19, F180 (FN88) Material: AE Diam.: 14 mm Weight: 2.6 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3? Obv.: Imp. bust, R. Traces of legend Rev.: Traces of stg. or adv. figure and legend Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 4th c. Ref.: NA Note: Weight seems heavy for module Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1045-AG08--3366; REV: 1045-AG08--3369) 148 Inventory Number: 1092 Context: Area B, room B20, DSU143 (FN91) Material: AE Diam.: 15 mm Weight: 1.6 g Module/Denom.: AE3/AE4 Condition: Illegible Date: ND

Axis: NA

149 Inventory Number: 1056 Context: Area B, room B21, DSU138 (FN86) Material: AE Diam.: 19 mm Weight: 3.1 g Axis: NA Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, draped, rosette diadem. Legend: CONSTAN - TINVS AVG Rev.: Camp gate, door, two turrets, star above. Legend: PROVIDEN - TIAE AVGG Mint: Thessalonica Mint Mark: -/A//SMTS Date: 328 Ref.: RIC VII Thessalonica 169 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01056-AG10--0030; REV: 01056-AG10--0031 150 Inventory Number: 1038 Context: Area B, room B23, DSU147 (FN97) Material: AE Diam.: 21 mm Weight: 2.5 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; laureate, cuirassed, draped. Legend: IMP CONSTANTINUS P F AUG Rev.: Sol radiate, stg. L, raising R hand, globe in L, chlamys across L shoulder. Legend: SOLI IN – VI – CTO COMITI Mint: Rome Mint Mark: (R on X)/F//RT Date: 314–315 Ref.: RIC VII Rome 27 Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 01038-AG10--0026; REV: 01038-AG10--0027

506

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 9.26a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1038.

151 Inventory Number: 1044 Context: Area B, room B23, DSU147 (coin from sieving) Material: AE Diam.: 20 mm Weight: 2.2 g Axis: 12h Module/Denom.: AE3/Nummus Obv.: Imp. bust, R; cuirassed, laureate. Legend: IMP CONSTANTINUS AU[G] Rev.: Sol, stg. R, looking L, raising R hand, globe in L, chlamys across L shoulder. Legend: SOLIINVIC – TO [COMI]TI Mint: Lyons Mint Mark: A/S//PLG Date: 316 Ref.: variant of RIC VII Lyons 53 (obv.) and 62 (rev.) Image Ref. to the Database: OBV: 1044-AG08--3348; REV: 1044-AG08--3351

Pl. 9.27a–b: obverse and reverse of coin-inv. 1044.

152 Inventory Number: 1098 Context: Area B, room B24, DSU174 (FN109) Material: AE Diameter: 13 mm Weight: 1.1 g Axis: 6h Module/Denom.: AE3/Centenionalis? Obv.: Imp. bust, R; diadem Rev.: Sec Reip, Victory adv. L with wreath and palm, no extant legend Mint: NA Mint Mark: illegible Date: 364–378 Ref.: NA

10 Ostraka and Graffiti Roger S. Bagnall and Dorota Dzierzbicka 10.1. Introduction The ostraka uncovered at Ἁin el-Gedida in 2006–2008 fall into the common categories represented in this type of texts: a short letter (1), accounts (2–3), lists (4) and receipts (5–9). Texts on three of the ostraka (10–12) were classified as uncertain because of their fragmentary or laconic nature. Ten were written in Greek and two in Coptic. Eleven out of twelve ostraka are dated to the fourth century, either on palaeographic and internal grounds or based on their archaeological context. One ostrakon (9, see comm. l. 1) is assigned to the third century because of the monetary value of rent mentioned in the text. The ostrakon’s early dating is in agreement with the chronology of its context, as it appears to belong to the phase when the building where it was found was a temple, possibly dated to the second–third century (see sections 6.5 and 6.7). Undated ostraka from surface clearance or unreliable contexts (1, 3, 10, 12) were assigned to the fourth century both on palaeographic grounds and because the bulk of the pottery and coins recovered from Ἁin el-Gedida (chapters 8 and 9) indicate that the site was occupied in that century. Moreover, the Coptic texts are very unlikely to date before the fourth century, and there are some reasons to think that 1 might be later. The absence of any other material datable later than the late fourth or early fifth century at the site, however, leads us to prefer an earlier date to that chronological zone, which is also 507

508

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

consistent with the general horizon of the latest ostraka at Kellis and Trimithis. Ostraka from secure contexts were dated more precisely on the basis of numismatic evidence (4, 8, 11) and their chronology is discussed in greater detail below. Four documents (2, 5, 6, 7), three of which come from the same building, carry indiction dates. Given the practice recorded at other sites in the Dakhla Oasis (see discussion in O.Trim. 1, Introduction), it is reasonable to place them in the second half of the fourth century. At nearby Kellis we have no secure evidence for the use of the indiction cycle before the middle of the fourth century. In addition, the apparent continued use of regnal years up to the reign of Constantius in Trimithis ostraka seems to confirm the generally late arrival of indiction reckoning in the Dakhla Oasis. If the impression from the Kellis material is not misleading, and if Ἁin el-Gedida followed Kellis in this practice, then the years mentioned in these four documents fall in the second half of the fourth century. 2, 6, and 7, discovered in two different rooms of one building complex, may be chronologically related to one another. The 12th and 13th indictions (353/4 and 354/5, 368/9 and 369/370, or 383/4 and 384/5) appear in no. 2, found in room B3, and the 11th indiction (352/3, 367/8 or 382/3) is attested in no. 7 from room B1 of the same complex. These two ostraka were found in layers of occupational/ post-occupational debris directly above floor levels (2: room B3, DSU10; 7: room B1, DSU14). 6, in turn, was embedded in the plaster of a niche in room B1, which may be later than the wall this niche was in, but certainly not post-occupation. The second indiction mentioned in this document likely corresponds to 358/9, 373/4 or 388/9. Therefore, given the context and the relatively short life span of this type of document, it is possible that the three ostraka refer to years of the same indiction cycle. The find patterns at Kellis and Trimithis on the whole lead us to think the indiction cycle of 357–372 is the most likely choice. No. 5, found in Room B4, also mentions the 13th indiction (354/5 or 369/370; the earlier possible but less probable dates are 324/5 and 339/40), but it need not be the same year as in 2, since B4 was not part of the same complex. Place names mentioned in the ostraka are few but worthy of note. One toponym that deserves to be discussed is found in 9, a receipt issued to a Paulos son of Mersis from the georgion of Pmoun Berri (for georgion, see comm. ad loc., l. 3). Pmoun Berri, which stems from Coptic ⲃⲣⲣⲉ (new, young), means ‘New Well’. The toponym is attested in P.Kellis 1 G 5.12 (there spelled Βερι), in O.Trim. 114, and in an unpublished ostrakon from Ἁin es-Sabil found in 2009. However, given the meaning of the name and the hydrology of the region, there may well have been more than one locality with this name in the Dakhla Oasis.1 Since the modern Arabic name of the site has essentially the same meaning, one is tempted to identify Ἁin elGedida as the georgion of Pmoun Berri. Nonetheless, it also cannot be entirely excluded that the settlement mentioned in the text was located somewhere else. Therefore, the hypothesis that modern Ἁin el-Gedida is an ancient site called Pmoun Berri is likely to be true, although it awaits confirmation in new evidence. Other topographic references in the Ἁin el-Gedida ostraka concern Mothis. This is not surprising, as it was the main urban center and, from the beginning of the fourth century, the capital of the nome the settlement was part of. In 2, the account of wheat and must, Mothis is the 1. See Bagnall and Ruffini 2012: Introduction; see also Wagner 1987: 279–83.

Ostraka and Graffiti

509

destination of a part of the produce. 5 is a receipt for annona for the imperial estate of Mothis. Kellis, the closest town, is not mentioned directly in the documents but seems to be connected to Ἁin el-Gedida in a number of ways. The wording, formulas and onomastics in accounts and receipts from Ἁin el-Gedida find numerous parallels in the material from Kellis. For instance, 2 resembles the Kellis Account Book in phrasing and composition. The accounting of this text is also very similar to that found in other Kellis documents. The mentions of amounts going “to the house” (εἰς τὴν οἰκίαν) and “to the camp” (εἰς τὰ κάστρα), the appearance of dapanê, payment of salary, and the concept of a balance with the writer (λοιπὲ παρ’ ἐμοί) all point to the likelihood that he was another of the estate managers, pronoêtai, who were responsible for the Kellis Account Book (see KAB pp. 70–72) and many other documents from Kellis and Trimithis. What is more, some individuals mentioned in the ostraka are attested at Kellis (see esp. 4). The Ἁin el-Gedida ostraka are mostly concerned with agricultural and fiscal issues and their subject matter and vocabulary are consistent with that of textual evidence from other sites in the Great Oasis. The foodstuffs mentioned are wheat, barley, and must, commodities are transported on donkeys, and rents are paid in money and chickens. The measures used are consistent with the ones in documentation from other sites in the Dakhla Oasis and discussed most thoroughly in the KAB (pp. 47–51). The documentary evidence shows that Ἁin el-Gedida was a village or hamlet in the Mothite nome that functioned as a satellite of the larger town of Kellis and was associated with it, and likely with other epoikia surrounding it, through ties of land ownership and tenancy, as well as personal relations. The texts show an agricultural community likely tied to a large estate like the one that produced the KAB. However, at this point it is difficult to say if Ἁin el-Gedida was property of a single individual. A less prominent but recurring theme in the ostraka is the Dakhla garrison. In 2, a part of the produce is sent to “the camp,” presumably the principal base of the military unit described in the Notitia Dignitatum (Or. XXXI, 56 [Seeck, p. 65]) as the Ala I Quadorum placed at Trimithis (erroneously assigned to the Small Oasis in the ND). The camp was in fact at El-Qasr, a few kilometers north of Trimithis, as discoveries by Fred Leemhuis since the 2005–2006 season have shown (see also KAB, p. 73, and O.Kellis 102.5n).2 The oldest part of El-Qasr is laid out in a fashion strongly reminiscent of a Roman camp, and the investigation of an old well by the Dakhleh Oasis Project in 1980 led to the discovery of signs of Roman occupation. In addition, investigation of this early phase of the site by F. Leemhuis and by the Supreme Council of Antiquities, conducted since 2005, have revealed standing remains of massive Roman brickwork structures, which are to be associated with this camp.3 The site also yielded Coptic ostraka referring to the imperial kastron that had since become a settlement governed by headmen.4 Further references to the camp and its garrison are found in ostraka from Trimithis. O.Trim. 1.73 refers to an ala (εἴλη) and its decurion (δεκαδάρχης). In the Ἁin el-Gedida material, the 2. See F. Leemhuis on El-Qasr, in Report to the Supreme Council of Antiquities on the 2005–2006 Season Activities of the Dakhleh Oasis Project, pp. 69–70, available online at http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/ancient-cultures/files/2013/04/dakhlehreport-2005-2006.pdf, and subsequent reports of the Qasr Dakhleh Project accessible on the same website. 3. Kucera 2012; see also Ast and Bagnall 2015 4. Gardner 2012: 471–74.

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praepositus attested in 8 is likely an officer of this unit or of another detachment serving in the Oasis. 5, a receipt for annona, indicates that a detachment of the ala was on duty in Mothis. In the same text, the soldiers who are the recipients of the collected barley are referred to for the first time as horse-archers. Lastly, the Coptic letter 1 mentions apa Alexandros and apa Kire, who were most likely members of a monastic community (see comm. l.1). A monastery is mentioned several times in the material from Kellis. The KAB lists a top(os) Mani (KAB ll. 320 and 513), interpreted as a Manichaean monastery,5 as a tenant of the estate and a certain Petros the monachos paying amounts of dates and olives on its behalf (KAB ll. 975-6, 1109, 1433). Another monachos, Timotheos, is an intermediary for a certain Nos paying turnips (ll. 1080). A monastery is mentioned in P.Kellis. 5 C. 12.6 (also see P.Kellis 1 G. 12.18–19) from ca. 360–365 and another monk, Psais, is attested in O.Kellis 121.5. The modern village of Tineida (perhaps derived from Copt. ⲧϩⲉⲛⲉⲉⲧⲉ, “monastery”) is considered a candidate for an ancient monastic site. It has also been suggested that modern el-Hindaw, located to the west of Ἁin el-Gedida, may represent Coptic ⲛⲧⲟⲟⲩ (“the monastery”).6

10.2. Technical Remarks The headers in the catalogue of ostraka below are consistent with those of O.Trim. In addition to characterizing the physical appearance of the sherds, they supply the following contextual information: inventory number (Inv.), area (A or B), room, stratigraphic unit (DSU or FSU), field number (FN), and fabric code. The inventory number is a unique number in a sequence given to all objects found on the site. Inventory numbers 4, 7–10, 17, 25 and 28 were excavated in the 2006 season, number 529 comes from the 2007 season, and 660, 830, and 1007 from 2008. Ostraka found in area A were recovered during surface clearance and did not come from a sound stratigraphy (see section 1.5 in this volume for the division into areas A and B). In area B, ostraka were uncovered in archaeological contexts described in sections 2.3, 3.1.1, 4.2, and 6. The context is discussed in greater detail only where it is relevant to the dating of the texts. The abbreviation DSU stands for Deposition Stratigraphic Unit and FSU is Feature Stratigraphic Unit (see section 1.5); field object numbers (FN) are numbers assigned in the field (starting from 1 each season) in order to document the location of objects in situ. Ostraka discovered in sieving in area B and in surface clearance in area A do not have field object numbers. The fabric codes are explained in chapter 8. The texts are presented according to the standard papyrological practice. The use of symbols is consistent with the Leiden Convention: ( ) [ ] [[ ]]

Resolution of an abbreviation or symbol Lacuna in the text Letters cancelled by the scribe

5. Gardner 2000: 247–57 (esp. 254). 6. Bagnall 1997: 75; 81–82.

Ostraka and Graffiti

α̣β̣γ̣δ̣ε̣ ..... [±5]

511

Letters the reading of which is uncertain Letters of which part or all remain but are illegible Approximate number of letters lost in a lacuna and not restored

Abbreviations are resolved in the text. Line notes indicate the form used in the text and correct non-standard Greek except in the case of personal names. Egyptian proper names without terminations (i.e., undeclined or not hellenized) are not accented. Greek names and words written in a non-standard spelling are accented as if the correct form had been written. In translations, Greek and Egyptian names are transliterated directly, while Roman names are given in Latin form.

10.3. Ostraka 1. A letter concerning pakton.7 Second half of the fourth century? (Pl. 10.1) Inv. 4. Area B, room B4, DSU4 (surface). 10.3 x 9.8 cm; complete but faded in places. Text on convex side. Fabric: coarse A11 with exterior cream slip. The dating of this Coptic letter requires a commentary. Both the onomastics and the mention of pakton point to a date later than the rest of the assemblage. The names Pesente and Kire are not attested until the sixth century (see commentary below) and the term pakton appears for the first time in SB 3.6266 dated to 538 CE. The language of the document also sets it apart, as the great majority of fourth century texts found so far at Ἁin el-Gedida are in Greek. Since the ostrakon is a surface find, it could be later than the abandonment of the site. Nonetheless, given the absence of other much later surface finds, we are reluctant to date it outside the chronological range that we have at the site. The recovered ceramics date from fourth and early fifth century at the latest, which is consistent with the range of hands evidenced by the ostraka. The palaeography of this text can be dated to the late fourth century based on comparanda from Kellis. In addition, both the hand and the opening formula of the letter find parallels in two ostraka found in El-Qasr and dated by Iain Gardner to the late fourth-early fifth century.8

7. The editors are indebted to Grzegorz Ochała for his valuable suggestions on the reading and interpretation of this ostrakon. 8. ⳁ ⲡⲁϩⲁⲙ ⲡⲕⲉⲫⲁⲗ( ) ⲉϥⲥϩⲁⲓ and ⳁ ⲡⲁϩⲁⲙ ⲡⲕⲩⲫ( ) ⲡⲉⲧⲥϩⲁⲓ (Paham the foreman writes...). See Gardner 2012: 471 and 473.

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Pl. 10.1: Coptic ostrakon (inv. 4) from room B4.

4

8

† ⲁⲡⲁ Ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇ̣ⲣ̣[ⲟⲥ] ⲡⲕⲩⲫ(ⲁⲗⲁϊⲟⲧⲏⲥ) ⲡⲉⲧⲥϩⲁϊ ⲛ ̣[ ] ⲗ̣ϊⲗⲟⲥ ϫⲉ ⲉⲥ ⲡⲉⲥⲏⲛ[ⲧⲉ] ⲁϊⲧⲛⲛⲟⲟⲩϥ ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ⲉϣⲱ̣ ⲡ̣ⲉ ⲟⲩⲛⲧⲏϥⲡⲁⲕⲧⲟⲛ ̣ ̣ ϣϊⲛ ⲁⲡⲁ Ⲕϊⲣⲉ ϣϊⲧϥ ⲛ̣ⲏϥ ⲁⲩⲱ ⲙⲡ̣ⲣⲧⲣⲉⲥⲧⲟⲝⲉ̣ ⲛⲏ̣ϥ̣ ⲁⲡⲁⲣⲁⲅⲉ ⲙⲙⲉϥ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ⲟⲩϫⲁϊ †

“It is apa Alexandros the foreman (κεφαλαιωτής) who writes to --lilos (or --ailos): As for Pesente, I sent him away. If he has rent (πάκτον) ... , apa Kire demands/asks for it. And let it not seem appropriate to him to trouble him. Farewell (?).” 1 See Derda and Wipszycka 1994. The title Apa does not in itself help to distinguish between ordinary clergy and monastics, but if the date is indeed the fourth century the latter seems more likely. It is interesting that an Alexandros appears in one of the ostraka from the Kellis West Church (O.Kellis 121.6), one line below a Ψάις μονοχ(ός), which the editor takes to be most likely a misspelling of μοναχ(ός). For references to a monastery in the proximity of Ἁin elGedida, see Introduction.

Ostraka and Graffiti

513

2 ⲡⲕⲩⲫ is presumably the abbreviation of the article plus a Greek word, given the use of phi. No word starting in κυφ- seems plausible, but a small group of ostraka found in excavations by the wall of the Roman fort at El-Qasr by the Supreme Council of Antiquities includes one written by Ⲡⲁϩⲁⲙ ⲡⲕⲩⲫ( ) and another by Ⲡⲁϩⲁⲙ ⲡⲕⲉⲫⲁⲗ( ), showing that upsilon has interchanged with epsilon (see Gardner 2012: 471 and 473). The resolution κεφ(αλαιωτής) thus appears inescapable. The combination of this title with a clerical title, Apa, is remarkable. An Apa Sion is kephalaiotes of dyers in Herakleopolis in SB 16.12717.5, 31-32 (dated 640–650), and an Apa Ol (if it is not the name Apaol) is kephalaiotes in SPP 8.749.4. 2–3 The nu at the end of l.2 is likely the preposition ⲛ- introducing the direct object (see opening formula type II, Biedenkopf-Ziehner 1983: 226). The long vertical stroke may belong to a rho or a kappa. No name ending with -lilos or -ailos can be found in Hasitzka’s Koptische Namenbuch and a TM search yields some improbable -ailos names (Σκαίλος, Καίλος, Ισμαιλος, Δαλάιλος). One would consider Λίλος, a variant of Λιλοῦς (a name attested in Kellis, O.Kellis 270.2, P.Kellis 1 G. 47.1), but its attested Coptic counterparts are ⲗⲓⲗⲟⲩ and ⲗⲉⲗⲟⲩ. Ailos would be an unlikely variant of the Latin name Aelius (all Greek variants retain the iota after the lambda) and it is thus far unattested in Coptic texts. Moreover, it would leave us without an explanation of the last letter (and any lost) in the previous line. It is a natural supposition that the recipient was at Ἁin el-Gedida, but this need not be the case. 3 Pesente appears in many spellings in the ancient texts, including Πεσύνθιος or Πεσύντιος. Τhe name is not attested in securely dated documents as early as the fourth century. Πεσύνθιος is featured in BGU 2.668ro.12 (Western Thebes), broadly dated to the fourth to seventh centuries. The Coptic spellings are attested in documents dated to the sixth-eighth century (Theban texts KSB 3.1332.2; P.Lond. 4.1419 (Greek); O.Medin.HabuCopt 46; O.Theb.Copt. 31), with the exception of ⲡⲉⲥⲛⲧⲉ found in P.Mich.Copt. 6.1, the dating of which spans from the fourth to the sixth centuries. However, a Πεσόνθις is attested on a mummy label dated as early as the second-third centuries (T.Mom.Louvre 973). 5 If, as the context would suggest, this ostrakon is to be dated to the fourth century, it may be the earliest known reference to πάκτον in a Greek or Coptic document. Greek references do not occur until the sixth century (SB 3.6266, of 538; P.Lond. 5.1727, of 583/4). The Coptic references in Förster, Wörterbuch 601-02, do not include any before the seventh century, although many are undated or only approximately dated. For the meaning of the term, see most recently Wegner 2016: 191-2. 6 The first word of the line could be referring to the pakton as genitive or attribute, in which case one would need a nu as the first letter. However, we have not been able to find any appropriate word in the reverse dictionary of Coptic (M-.O. Strasbach, B. Barc, Dictionnaire inversé du copte, Louvain 1983). The only noun ending with ϣⲓⲛ is ⲁⲣϣⲓⲛ, “lentil”, but the letter before shai cannot in any case be a rho. Alternatively, the word could be connected to the following noun phrase as a conjugation base, but we do not know any form ending with ϣⲓⲛ. The name Ⲕⲓⲣⲉ and other Coptic variants are unattested prior to the sixth century, but the Greek name Κῦρος appears over 30 times in fourth-century documents, including several ostraka and inscriptions from the Western Desert (O.Waqfa 66.7; O.Douch 3.222.2 and 346.2;

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SB 20.14799.2 [Shams ed-Din]; SB 20.14850.1 and 20.14853.1 [Bagawat]). Since variants of the name Kyros contain the morpheme “apa” (Derda and Wipszycka 1994: 53), the reading ⲁⲡⲁⲕⲓⲣⲉ is also a possibility. However, Kire’s appearance in the same context as apa Alexandros may indicate that he too represented an ecclesiastical institution. Possibly apa Kire, whom Pesente was not supposed to trouble, was a monastic superior and the letter concerned rent on monastic property. The addressee of the letter may have interceded on behalf of Pesente. 7 ⲛⲏϥ (Sahidic ⲛⲁϥ) should be treated here most probably as a dativus ethicus. The letter mu after ⲁⲩⲱ gives a negative jussive here. ⲧⲟⲝⲉ is the Greek δοκέω, meaning “zweckmässig erscheinen, einsichtig sein”, see Förster, Wörterbuch pp. 206-207, with citations of analogous phrases in P.Lond.Copt. 1.479.v.3 (ⲛⲡⲣⲧⲉⲥⲇⲟⲝⲏ ⲛⲁⲕ) and 1.1175.3 (ⲙⲡⲣⲧⲣⲉⲥⲇⲟⲝⲏ ⲛⲁⲕ ⲉⲧⲓ ⲛⲉϭⲁⲙⲟⲩⲗ ⲛⲕⲉⲗⲁⲁⲩ). 8–9 The text at the start of these lines is extremely faded. 8 ⲁⲡⲁⲣⲁⲅⲉ for the Sahidic ⲉ-ⲡⲁⲣⲁⲅⲉ. ⲙⲙⲉϥ (Sahidic ⲙⲙⲁϥ) introduces a direct object. 9 ⲟⲩϫⲁϊ (literally “health”) seems to be an abbreviated standard epistolary formula ⲟⲩϫⲁⲓ ϩⲙ ⲡϫⲟⲉⲓⲥ, “Farewell”. 2. Account of wheat and must. 354/5, 369/70, or 384/5. (Pls. 10.2a–b) Inv. 7. Area B, room B3, DSU10. 9.5 x 13.2 cm; complete. Text on both sides, oblique to the wheel-marks. Fabric: A1a with exterior cream slip. Convex side ιβS/ ἰνδικτίονος ὑπὲρ λόγου διαφόρου σίτ(ου) κάγ(κελλος) α ιγ/ ἰνδικτίονος μάτ(ια) β 4 σὺν δαπάνης καὶ διαφόρου σίτ(ου) κάγ(κελλοι) ε μάτ(ια) ζ τοπικῷ ὥστ’ εἶναι τῶν δύο 8 ἰνδικτιόν(ων) κάγ(κελλοι) ϊ μάτ(ια) ιζ. (ὧν) εἰς τὴν οἰκίαν σίτ(ου) κάγ(κελλοι) δ 12 ὁμοί(ως) κάγ(κελλοι) β εἰς Μῶθιν κάγ(κελλοι) β

“12th indiction, on account of interest, 1 cancellus (art.) of wheat. 13th indiction, 2 matia
 including expense, and for interest, 5 cancelli of wheat,
 7 matia by the local measure. Total of the two
 indictions, 10 cancelli, 17 matia.
 From which: to the house 4 cancelli of wheat. Likewise, 2 cancelli. To Mothis, 2 cancelli.

Ostraka and Graffiti

Pl. 10.2a: Greek ostrakon (inv. 7) from room B3. Convex side.

515

Pl. 10.2b: Greek ostrakon (inv. 7) from room B3. Concave side.

Concave side 16

20

εἰς τὰ κάστρα κάγ(κελλοι) δ γί(νονται) ὁμοῦ κάγ(κελλοι) ιβ (ὧν) ἔσχεν καγ(κέλλους) ια μάτ(ια) ε λοιπὲ παρ’ ἐμοὶ σίτ(ου) τοπικῷ μάτ(ια) ιθ ὑπὲρ γλεύκ(ους) κερ(άμια) ϛ λοιπὲ γλεύκ(ους) κερ(άμια) ε ει . . . . 2 σιτ καγ’ 8 ινδικτιον καγ’ 15 καγ’ 19 ματ’

3 ματ’ 9 ματ’ 10 Ƨ· 16 γι/ καγ’ 20 γλευκ κερ’

To the camp, 4 cancelli. Total altogether, 12 cancelli.
 Out of which he got 11 canc., 5 matia; left in my hands, of wheat 19 matia by local standard. For must, 6 keramia. Balance of must, 5 keramia. To Mothis (?).”

4 l. δαπάνῃ δ ex δι 11 σιτ καγ’ 17 Ƨ· καγ’ ματ’ ε ex ζ 21 γλευκ κερ’

5 σιτ καγ’ 12 ομοī καγ’ 18 l. λοιπὰ σιτ

6 ματ’ 14 καγ

2, 5 λόγου διαφόρου: See P.Harr. 1.86.5, where it is clearly a monthly interest rate on a loan. The figure presumably represents income to the writer’s employer from a loan in wheat. 4 There may be additional traces at the start, probably washed out. For δαπάνη which refers to expenditures for services by estate staff, see KAB, pp. 32–35. 6 Sc. μέτρῳ. For the “local” measure, see most recently O.Kellis 93.3n. with bibliography.

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

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8 The amounts in lines 1-7 total to only 6 cancelli, 9 matia, not the 10 cancelli, 17 matia given in lines 8–9, let alone the 11 cancelli, 5 matia stated below (see note to line 16). One must apparently suppose another ostrakon on which additional amounts were listed. 15 For “the camp,” see KAB, p. 73, and O.Kellis 102.5n. The reference is presumably to the principal base of the unit at Trimithis (see Ιntroduction). 16 This line is the total of lines 10 to 15. A total of 12 cancelli had been sent to various destinations, even though “he” (as is explained in lines 17–19) received only 11 cancelli, 5 matia, leaving the writer with a balance on hand of 19 matia. The standard used is the expenditure mation, here called the local measure, of 23 or (here) 24 matia per artaba; see KAB, pp. 47–48. The account suggests, however, that the writer was starting with the receipts totalled in lines 8–9, or 10 cancelli, 17 matia, which is 12 matia less than the figure he cites later. 17 The third person singular may refer to the landlord, who got the credit for the amount because of the deliveries. Although it is not impossible that we should correct to ἔσχον (first person singular), the fragmentary character of the account makes such corrections hazardous. 18 The phrase λοιπὲ παρ’ ἐμοί, meaning “in my hands”, seems to imply that the remaining 19 matia still need to be paid or delivered. For the spelling λοιπὲ see, e.g., O.Kellis 143r.5. 22 εἰς̣ Μ̣ῶ̣θ̣(ιν) is possible, but only the faintest traces of the last four letters are preserved. 3. Account of donkeyloads. Fourth century. (Pl. 10.3) Inv. 10. Area A, room A25, clearance. 7.5 x 7.4 cm; complete? Text on convex side. Fabric: B10. Traces of what appears to be ink on the upper edge (above the omicron in Δε̣ίου) may indicate that the text was originally longer and we are left with its last four lines. The beginning of the first two lines and the middle of the fourth line are almost completely faded and only traces are visible. Most of the names are read with doubts. The way the words are spaced out in the lines looks as if the scribe had written the number of donkeyloads in each line prior to putting down the names.

4 1 ψαιτ

Τ̣ι̣θ̣οῆς Ψ̣ά̣ι̣τ̣(ος) Δε̣ίου κτῆ(νος) α Π̣ ̣ ̣ ι̣ς̣ Βησ̣ᾶ̣τ̣(ος) κτῆ(νος) α Ψύρος Πε̣θ̣ε̣ῦ̣τ̣(ος) κτῆ(νος) α Πτολᾶ̣ς ̣ [ ± 4 ] κτῆ(νος) α κτη/

2 βησατ κτη/

3 πεθευτ κτη/

4 l. Πτολλᾶς κτη/

“Tithoes son of Psais, grandson of Deios, 1 donkeyload; P--is son of Besas, 1 donkeyload; Psyros son of Petheus, 1 donkeyload; Ptolas son of --, 1 donkeyload.”

Ostraka and Graffiti

517

Pl. 10.3: Greek ostrakon (inv. 10) from the clearance of room A25.

Each line gives a name and patronymic followed by the abbreviation κτη( ), to be expanded as κτῆ(νος), and the number 1. A somewhat more informative account of donkeyloads can be found in O.Kellis 102 (and cf. 103), where κτῆ(νος) should be rendered as “donkey” throughout. Camels in the ostraka from the Oasis are always specifically designated as such. It seems unlikely that the account refers to the delivery of donkeys themselves, but rather to donkeyloads of some goods known to the writer but not mentioned here. 1 Tithoes son of Psais is a common enough combination of names to justify adding a grandfather’s name. Deios is frequent, but not attested in the Oasis. 2 The name is illegible. 3 Psyros is a rare name found in the Oasis (only P.Kellis 1 G. 33.1, but two letters uncertain). Syros, however, is fairly common. 4 Ptollas, normally spelled with two lambdas, is not uncommon, but thus far absent from the Western Desert.

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4. List of names. Second half of fourth century. (Pl. 10.4) Inv. 1007. Area B, room B19, DSU165. 6.5 x 8.3 cm; complete. Text on convex side. Fabric: A1b.

4

8

Ψάις Λουια Πεκύ(σιος) Πεκῦσις ἀδελφ(ός) Γενα Κόρακος Γενα Τιθοῆτος Βῆς Φιλοτίμου [[Ψά̣ις̣ Ἀ̣ν̣ού̣φι̣ο̣ς̣ ]] Βελλῆς Ληπ̣( ) Χάρης Ζα( )

1 πεκυ/

2 αδελφ/

7 ληπ/

8 ζα/

“Psais son of Louia grandson of Pekysis; Pekysis, brother; Gena son of Korax; Gena son of Tithoes; Bes son of Philotimos; Psais son of Anouphis; Belles son of Lep--; Chares son of Za--.”

Pl. 10.4: Greek ostrakon (inv. 1007) from room B19.

Ostraka and Graffiti

519

There is a striking coincidence between the names in this list and those found in the ostraka excavated in the West Church at Kellis, especially the group of accounts in money and in kind in O.Kellis 109–122. See the following notes for details. Although many of the names are commonplace, this cannot be said of Philotimos (line 5). On the basis of the numbers of talents in some of these texts, this group is certainly to be dated after the Constantian monetary reform of ca. 353 and probably in the third quarter of the century. This dating is consistent with the ostrakon’s archaeological context. The stratigraphic unit is a vault collapse with some dumped material, so it could have been used as a chinking sherd (pre-construction) or (more likely) discarded together with some occupational refuse. It seems to be related to the pottery workshop phase, which is the later of the two phases distinguished in room B19 (see sections 6.3 and 6.7). 1 Ψάις Λουια Πεκύ(σιος): see O.Kellis 113. 2 Πεκῦσις ἀδελφ(ός): cf. possibly KAB 1128.
 3 Γενα Κόρακος: see O.Kellis 114, 282. 5 Βῆς Φιλοτίμου: see O.Kellis 110, 115. 7 Βελλῆς: see O.Kellis 115, 117, 118, and 119.8; Ληπ( ): see Ληπι( ) in O.Kellis 137.7 and ⲗⲉⲡⲟⲣⲓⲟⲥ in P.Kellis 5 C. 43. Λην( ) seems less probable and yields no satisfying parallels. 6 Ψάις Ἀνούφιος is attested in KAB 578, 1100 and 1158. 8 Χάρης O.Kellis 113; Ζα( ): possible abbreviation of Ζακαῶνος: KAB 148–9, 336, 1098; O.Kellis 115.1; 282.1. 5. Receipt for annona. 354/5 or 369/370. (Pl. 10.5) Inv. 9; Area B, room B4, DSU15 (dump layer). 14.1 x 10.2 cm; complete. Text on convex side. Fabric: A1b with exterior cream slip.

4

Ἐμέτρησεν ἀ̣ρ̣τ̣(άβας) η̣ ϊγ (ἰνδικτίονος) Εὐτύχη̣ς̣ ὑπὲρ δεσποτικῆ̣ς̣ φυτϊας Μώ̣θ̣ε̣ω̣ς̣ κριθῆς δημοσί(ῳ) μέτρῳ ἀρτάβας ὀκτώ, (γίνονται) (ἀρτάβαι) η̣ [τ]ῆς̣ ιγ ἰνδικτίονος εἰ̣ς̣ ἀννῶναν τῶ̣ν̣ ἐν̣ Μ̣ώ̣θι ἀ̣γ̣γ̣α̣ρ̣ευόντων ἱπποτοξοτ̣ῶ̣ν̣. ἔ̣γ̣ρ̣α̣ψ̣α τὴν ἀποχὴν Αὐρή̣λιος Λεωνίδ̣α̣ς̣ ἄ̣ρ̣ξ̣(ας) ἐπιμελητής.

1 αρτ ϊγS

2 οὐσϊας

3 δημοσι γι/ ⨪

4 ϊνδικτιονος

5 ϊπποτοξοτων

7 αρξ/

“Eutyches paid 8 art., 13th ind. for the imperial estate of Mothis, eight artabas of barley by public measure, total, 8 art., for the 13th indiction for the annona of the horsearchers on duty at Mothis (?). I, Aurelius Leonidas, ex-magistrate and epimeletes, wrote the receipt.”

520

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Pl. 10.5: Greek ostrakon (inv. 9) from room B4.

1 Εὐτύχης: P.Kellis 1 G. 60.3. 1–2. Mention of imperial land has not been found in other documents from the Oasis. Since the amount and indiction are repeated in the course of the text, this phrase may be more or less synonymous with εἰς ἀννώναν in line 4. 2–3 For artabas of barley by public measure, see O.Trim. 10.3–4 (conjecture). See also O.Douch 1.39 (corr. in O.Douch 2, p. 87), as well as P.Kellis 1 G. 79.8–9, where it also appears in connection with the military (a dromedarius). 4–5 For the garrison in question, see Introduction. The present ostrakon is the first evidence that these troops were horse-mounted archers. For the phrase τῶν ἐν τῇ πόλει ἀγγαρευόντων see P.Cair.Masp. 1.67009; also P.Grenf. 2.95 (Sel. Pap. II 388) has annona for Scythians ἀγγαρεύοντες at a monastery. For the reading and uses of the word, see recently Worp 2012. For ἀγγαρεία as a soldier’s duty or being stationed in a place, see LSJ Revised Suppl., s.v., citing Cod.Just. 12.37.19. 6–7 An Aurelius Leonidas has not occurred before in the documents from the Oasis. The (Doric) form Λεωνίδας is attested several times, but never in the fourth century. Other versions of the name are more common, especially different spelling variants of Λεωνίδης, occurring over 500 times in papyri. Notably, an Αὐρήλιος Λεωνίδης is strategos and exactor of the Great Oasis in 369/70, the precise year to which our ostrakon may be dated, in SB 18.13252 (repr. SB 1.4513). Also in abbreviated form   ̣   ̣   ̣ος Λεωνίδ(ου) occurs in O.Douch 4.399 (Kysis, fourth century).

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6 ἔγραψα τὴν ἀποχὴν: Frequent in the Kellis documents, e.g., O.Kellis 1–3; 53; P.Kellis 1 G. 29.6–7. Other possibilities like ἐξέδωκα τὴν ἀποχήν (O. Strasb. 1.475 (fourth–fifth c., Thebaid)) or ἔδωκεν as in P.Kellis 1 G. 62, ἔδωκεν as in O.Kellis 65.6 or δέδωκεν as in O.Kellis 67.3–4 are less likely. 7 For title of ἄρξας, see Worp 1997a. Ex-archontes signing tax receipts in Kellis: e.g., O.Kellis 1–5, etc. ἐπιμεληταί bringing barley to Mothis are also attested in O.Kellis 102.7–10, an account of transport animals: εἰς Μῶθ(ιν) ὁμοί(ως) Ἀπόλλονι ἐπιμελητ(ῇ) κτῆ(νος) α – to Mothis, likewise, for Apollon the epimeletes, 1 donkey. Barley for the annona is also mentioned in O.Trim. 1.329 (350–370). 6. Receipt for wheat. 358/9, 373/4 or 388/9. (Pl. 10.6) Inv. 28, Area B, room B1, BF8 (embedded in the plaster of a niche), FN 13. 6.5 x 5.4 cm; complete. Text on convex side, perpendicular to the wheel marks. Fabric: A1b.

4

2 ψαι

Ἐ̣̣δεξάμην παρὰ̣ Τ̣ου Ψε̣μπνούθου Ψ̣ά̣ι̣(τος) π̣υ̣ρ̣̣ο̣ῦ̣ ε ἀ̣ρ̣τ̣άβ̣α̣ς̣ καγ(κέλλους) εἴ́κ̣ο̣σ̣ι̣ ὀκτὼ ὑπὲρ τ̣οῦ ἀδελφο̣ῦ̣ Παυσανίου κ̣α̣ὶ̣ β/ ἰνδι̣κ(τίονος). σεσημίωμαι traces? Πεκύ̣σ̣ιος. 3 καγ̅

4 ινδικ

6 l. σεσημείωμαι

Pl. 10.6: Greek ostrakon (inv. 28) from room B1.

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522

“I received from Tou son of Psempnouthes, grandson of Psais, twenty-eight cancelli artabas of wheat for our brother Pausanias, and for the second indiction. I, NN son of Pekysis, have signed.” 1 The proper name Του is well attested in the Dakhla Oasis (P.Kellis 1 G. 34 and KAB 604, O.Kellis 1, 97, 109, 111, 287, O.Trim. 205, 249). We have excluded the genitive article for reasons of syntax. 2 It appears that there was already a defect in the surface at the time of writing. 4-5 The name Pausanias is common at Kellis, cf. O.Kellis 57.5n. with references. The appearance of a Pausanias in O.Kellis 137 and 255, from the West Church, is noteworthy. If καί is indeed a conjunction, it is oddly placed. “Brother” in this instance probably means “colleague,” as often. 7. Receipt for chickens. 352/3, 367/8 or 382/3. (Pl. 10.7) Inv. 25. Area B, room B1, DSU14. 8.6 x 6.9 cm; complete. Text on convex side, parallel to the wheel marks. Fabric: A1a

4

Δέδωκεν Λουκρή̣τ̣ι̣ς̣ ὀρνίθια ἕξ, γί(νεται) ὀρ(νίθια) ϛ ὑπ(ὲρ) ἑνδ̣ε̣κά̣ τ̣η̣ς̣ ἰνδικτίον̣ο̣ς.̣ σ̣εσ̣η̣μί̣ ωμαι Τιμόθεος.

1 l. Λουκρήτιος

2 γι̅ ορ υπ/

3-4 l. σεσημείωμαι

Pl. 10.7: Greek ostrakon (inv. 25) from room B1.

Ostraka and Graffiti

523

“Lucretius gave six chickens, total, 6 chickens, for the eleventh indiction. I, Timotheos, have signed.” 1 The name Λουκρήτιος is unattested in the Oases and rare in the fourth century. 2 Kellis texts use both ὄρνεον and ὀρνίθιον, apparently without particular distinction; the word is sometimes abbreviated, leaving one in doubt about the correct form. For the first of these written in full, cf. O.Kellis 61 and 62; for the second, O.Kellis 64 and 65. The 11th indiction likely corresponds to 352/3, 367/8 or 382/3 (see introduction). 4 Individuals named Timotheos occur in the Kellis documentation with some frequency. The signer here could well be the same as in O.Kellis 79. 8. Receipt or order concerning wheat. Ca. 330–390. (Pl. 10.8) Inv. 660. Area B, room B11, DSU97, FN 11 + 12. 6.1 x 6.6 cm; nearly complete. Text on convex side. Fabric: A11 The text is complete except at left, where a small piece is lost from the upper left corner and probably a narrow piece from the entire left side. The ostrakon was found in an ashy dump layer deposited in corridor B11 after the building of the church complex, when B11 functioned as a street. On the basis of numismatic evidence, the dump layers in this space can be dated to a period from ca. the 330s to ca. the 380s. This small and fragmentary ostrakon is of interest for its mention of a praepositus, presumably of the ala stationed in the Oasis rather than the praepositus pagi. He appears in the genitive, and probably about 8 letters or a little more stood before what we can read and restore. It is not obvious what most suitably fills that lacuna—whether the wheat was received from him, or according to his orders, or was to be delivered to his agent, in particular. [ ± 11 ] . υρ̣ β̣̣ . . . μου πραι]ποσίτου σίτ(ου) (ἀρτάβας) β. ̓]ωσηπ σεσημίωμαι. 2 σιτ ⨪

3 l. σεσημείωμαι

“. . . , praepositus, 2 artabas of wheat. I, Joseph, have signed.” 1 Τhere are too many letters for κυρίου μου, and no name ending in -μου, the most obvious reading at the end of the line, fits the text. 2 This line is the evidence that no more than 4 letters need to be lost at left here, and from this the probable lacuna in line 1 can be estimated. 3 There was probably room for more to have been written. Possibilities are that the amount of grain was given a second time; that the name was preceded with Αὐρ(ήλιος); or that the signature was indented.

524

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Pl. 10.8: Greek ostrakon (inv. 660) from room B11.

9. Receipt for money. 264/5 or 232/3. (Pl. 10.9) Inv. 830. Area B, room B23, DSU147, FN 94. 11.4 x 17 cm; complete. Text on convex side. Fabric: A1b. The document is of interest for its early date and for the mention of Pmoun Berri, a toponym that may be the ancient name of the site (see Introduction). This is the earliest of the Ἁin el-Gedida ostraka. The sinusoidal curve following ιβ in l. 1 is rather the symbol for a year than an indiction, as the 50 drachmas in l. 5 would have been a negligible sum by the mid-fourth century, when the indiction cycle becomes popular in documents from the Oasis. In fourth-century documents a single regnal date omitting the numerals for emperors other than the senior one9 is first attested under the First Tetrarchy and becomes visible from 308 onwards (according to this practice, year 11 could belong to the reign of Constantine I [316/7], or just possibly that of Valentinian I [373/4], although we have no clear examples in the Oasis that late), but once again neither of these is possible in our text given the sum of 50 drachmas for a year’s worth of rent. Therefore, ιβS must be a regnal year in the third century: the 12th year of Gallienus (264/5) or even as early as the 12th year of Severus Alexander (232/3). A date in the reign of Diocletian (295/6) is less likely. For a similar receipt for 40 drachmas for the fourth year, see O.Kellis 53 dated to the third century after 212. The ostrakon was found in DSU147, a deposit immediately above the floor of room B23, which is dated on the basis of numismatic evidence to the early fourth century: coins from 314–315 (inv. 1038) and 316 (inv. 1044), see pp. 505 and 506). The ostrakon may have been 9. See Bagnall and Worp 2004: 44; Gardner, Alcock, and Funk 1999 and 2014.

Ostraka and Graffiti

525

Pl. 10. 9: Greek ostrakon (inv. 830) from room B23.

originally embedded in the floor and therefore attributable to the earlier phase of the room when it still functioned as part of the temple. The coins, on the other hand, might have been deposited on the floor in a later phase, when the temple had already been turned into a pottery workshop (see section 6.7).

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4

ιβ (ἔτους) Φαρμ(οῦθι) κθ̅ ἔσχον Π̣α̣ύ̣λ̣ου υἱο(ῦ) Μέρσιος ἀπὸ γεω̣ργ(ίου) Πμοῦν Βερρ̣ι̣ γενή(ματος) ια (ἔτους) ἀργυρίο̣υ̣ δραχμὰ̣ς̣ πεντήκον[τα] (γίνονται) (δραχμαὶ) ν. αἴ̣γ̣ρ̣α̣(ψα) Α̣ὐ̣ρ̣(ὴλιος) Αμ̣..ν( )

1 ιβS// φαρμ

2 l. Παῦλος υιο

3 γεωργ̅

4 γενη/ ιαṢ//

6 ⌡S l. ἒγρα(ψα)

“12th (year), Pharmouthi 29. I received from Paulos son of Mersis, from the georgion of Pmoun Berri, for the crop of the 11th (year), fifty drachmas of money, total, 50 dr. Aurelius Am-- wrote (the receipt).” 2 For a third-century occurrence of the name Paulos in the Oasis, see O.Kellis 21.1–2. We see no clear traces of any preposition before the name, but the name is slightly indented. 3 γεώργιον is generally taken to mean “field”, but often “farm” or “farmstead” is clearly more appropriate. A georgion can have a name, as in, e.g., P.Ross.Georg. 3.40.7 and SPP 20.86.5. It may well be close to epoikion in meaning here. For the toponym Pmoun Berri, ‘New Well’ (from Coptic ⲃⲣⲣⲉ – new, young) see Introduction to this chapter. The toponym is attested in P.Kellis 1 G. 5.12 (there spelled Βερι), in O.Trim. 114 and in an unpublished ostrakon from Ἁin es-Sabil found in 2009, and means ‘New Well’. For more on wells and well toponyms, see O.Trim., Introduction; see also Wagner 1987: 279–83. 4–5 For cash rents in the third century, see Drexhage 1991, 192–248. The plot was likely planted with crops other than grain, since leases of land planted with wheat or barley consistently require the lessee to pay in kind. 7 Perhaps Ἀμ̣μ̣ώ̣ν(ιος). 10. Uncertain text: fragment of a draft of a contract? Fourth century. (Pl. 10.10) Inv. 8. Area A, room A25, clearance. 9 x 11.5 cm; broken at top left. Text on convex side, oblique to the wheel-marks. Fabric: A1a with external cream slip. Although little survives of this text, “this being invalid” tends to suggest contractual language (possibly related to a divorce contract? See P.Dura 31 and P.Oxy. 6.906). In all likelihood, the beginning of line 1 represents the end of a verb in the perfect, like ἔσχηκα. But exactly what the nature of the original text was, it is impossible to say. It may have been only a draft or a memorandum concerning a contract. ------- ].καπερη̣..[ τ]ῇ γυναικὶ σοῦ τὴν .[ ταύτην ἄκυρον οὖσαν

Ostraka and Graffiti

527

Pl. 10.10: Detail of Greek ostrakon (inv. 8) from the clearance of room A25.

“--- your wife --- this -- being invalid –” 1 One would expect to interpret these traces as περὶ after a verb in the perfect, but the letter after the rho does not resemble an iota. A kappa is also possible, but less likely. One is tempted to read περή, or even supplement περήλυσις (as a spelling variant of περίλυσις, cancellation; see divorce contract P.Cair.Masp. 1.67121.25, though room is scarce). 2 την.[ is rather not the beginning of a feminine name. 11. Uncertain text—a tag? Fourth century. (Pl. 10.11) Inv. 529. Area B, room B5, DSU36. 3.2 x 4.1 cm; complete? Text on convex side, oblique to the wheel-marks. Fabric: A1. ε υἱὸ( ) Γενα / 1 υ ιο

“5, son of Gena /”

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Pl. 10.11: Greek ostrakon (inv. 529) from room B5.

The meaning of ε is obscure. It may simply be a numeral representing the number of objects. Despite the lack of a numeral mark, it may stand for the fifth day of an unknown month. The two marks on either side of the iota resemble u-shaped and circular strokes rather than a dieresis. For the abbreviation of υἱός / υἱοί as υιο (it is impossible to determine whether we are dealing with a singular or a plural in this case), see, e.g., O.Kellis 11.3; 37.2; 41.3. The raised diagonal stroke at the end cannot be an abbreviation, since Gena is written out in full. It may be the left stroke of a supralinear λ from the abbreviation λι for λίτραι, pounds, see O.Kellis 95.4. It may also be a check mark next to the name. 12. Uncertain text. Fourth century. (Pl. 10.12) Inv. 17. Area A, room A25, clearance. 5.8 x 2.1 cm; broken at bottom, left, and right. Text on concave side. ].ⲱ..ⲁ̣ⲓ ⲉ̣ⲧⲃⲏ[ ]ⲕⲛ[ -------1 Probably Coptic (ⲉⲧⲃⲏ = ⲉⲧⲃⲉ, on account of), written in an unpracticed hand. At the start of the line, an alpha, lambda, or rho. 2 Speculation about these letters is probably futile; but they could represent the start of a second-person singular future verb.

Ostraka and Graffiti

529

Pl. 10.12: Coptic ostrakon (inv. 17) from the clearance of room A25.

Pl. 10.13: Upper part of niche on the north wall of room B6, with dipinti and graffito.

10.4. Inscriptions All inscriptions were discovered within the church complex. Two, painted in black ink, were executed on the walls of its anteroom (B6) and one was carved in wall plaster in the church itself (B5). They seem to be contemporary to or later than the last phase of the complex and therefore should be dated to the second half of the fourth century. The north wall of room B6 also carries figural dipinti in black ink: a bird and two fragmentary representations of ships located to the right of and slightly lower than 1 on the whitewash frame surrounding a niche (Pls. 10.13–14). A graffito of a ship scratched into the plaster surface is clearly later than this inscription, as it partly damages some of the letters. Only inscription 2, which refers to “one God”, is clearly religious in character.

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Pl. 10.14: Drawing of dipinti and graffiti on the north wall of room B6.

Pl. 10.15: Drawing of Coptic inscription on the north wall of room B6.

Pl. 10.16: Infrared image of Coptic inscription on the north wall of room B6.

1. Inscription in black ink. (Pls. 10.15–16)10 Letters ± 1.5 cm high; indistinctive majuscules. Area B, room B6, BF73 (north wall). ⲁ̣ⲡ̣ⲟ̣ⲗⲗⲱⲛⲓ̣[ⲟⲥ ϩ]ⲓ̣ⲧⲛ ϫⲉⲙⲛⲟⲩⲧ̣ⲉ̣ ⲕ̣ . . “Apollonios on behalf of Jemnoute” -1 Only traces of letters at the beginning of the name are visible and the end is in lacuna. Kellis documents in Greek mention several individuals named Ἀπολλώνιος (O.Kellis 9.2-3; 68.4-5; 10. See also Plate 3.50 at p. 120.

Ostraka and Graffiti

531

Pl. 10.17: Infrared image of Greek inscription on the west wall of room B6.

P.Kellis 56.8) and Ἀπόλλων (O.Kellis 5.5; 72.5; 102.9; 147.1; P.Kellis 25.4; 61.11) or variants of the latter. ⲡⲟⲗⲗⲱⲛ is attested: P.KellisCopt. 45.7. ϩⲓⲧⲛ takes the meaning of ὑπέρ rather than διά, since Apollonios is much more likely to be acting on behalf of Jemnoute, a female, than the other way round. For a similar meaning of ϩⲓⲧⲛ, see, e.g., P.Mich.Copt. 14 verso, where ϩⲓⲧⲛ ⲡⲉⲛⲉⲓⲱⲧ is translated as “De la part du Père (du monastère)”. ϫⲉⲙⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ, a variant of the feminine name Τσεμνούθης, is not attested in this spelling, but several other variants are found in Coptic documents from Kellis (ϫⲙⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ: P.Kellis 5 C. 25.64,66 and 44.19; ⲧϫⲉⲙⲡⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ: 26.50; ⲧⲥⲉⲙⲛⲟⲩⲑⲏⲥ: 11.5; ⲧϣⲙⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ: 19.53, 62; Τσεμνούθης: 11.address,1. See also P.Kellis 1 G. 71.43). 2 Faint traces of one or two letters are visible after the doubtful kappa. The letters in this line were smaller and more tightly spaced out than in l. 1. 2. Inscription in black ink. (Pl. 10.17)11 Letters ± 2.5 cm high; rounded, indistinctive majuscules, neatly spaced out. Area B, room B6, BF72 (west wall) near northwest niche. εἷς θεὸς ὁ β̣ο̣η̣θ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣[ One God, who helps (?) - For a discussion of the use of the common “one God” formula in different Near Eastern religious contexts, see Peterson and Markschies 2012. The inscriptions are also present in Egypt’s Western Desert (Shams ed-Din: I.Oasis 32,28; 38,50; 39,51; 41,58a; 43,66; and Bagawat: I.Oasis 62,1). The reading of the faint traces after β̣ο̣η̣θ̣ is difficult. The word β̣οηθῶν is likely, considering the presence of the article ὁ after θεός. However, although the traces after theta could be read as a large omega, we do not see a nu. If instead the horizontal stroke is the bottom of a delta, we could be dealing with an abbreviation, β̣ο̣η̣θ̣(ῶν), followed by a different word, possibly 11. See also Plate 3.51 at p. 120.

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Pl. 10.18: Infrared image of graffito on the north wall of room B5.

a name. The traces of the last two letters can be tentatively read as ιδ, in which case Δ̣α̣ο̣υ̣ε̣ι̣δ̣ would be the most plausible reading if indeed the letter that follows the theta is a delta. 3. Graffito. (Pl. 10.18)12 Letters 1–2 cm high. Area B, room B5, BF58 (north wall), western half of wall. Ὠρικενι δ β Ἰμουτε Μα̣χ̣η γ 1 The meaning of the letters delta and beta at the end of the line is obscure. The delta can be an abbreviation of a patronymic, a title (e.g., δεκανός or διάκονος), but it may well be something entirely different. However, there is no abbreviation mark and we have no comparanda to aid in the deciphering of such a short, unusual abbreviation, if indeed this is what we are dealing with. Τhe beta may be a numeral (followed by a gamma in an analogous role in the next line). What these numbers stand for, however, is unknown. Most commonly attested in the Western Desert is the Greek version Ὠριγένης, also found in Kellis ostraka (O.Kellis 30.9 [162]; 51.2 [212-260]; 129.7 [third–fourth c.]) and the KAB (1386; 1407; 1762). This variant is a combination of other Coptic spellings attested in much later documents: ⲱⲣⲓⲅⲉⲛⲏ (P.KRU 93 [770–780]) and ϩⲱⲣⲓⲕⲉⲛ (O.Wadi Sarga 157 [seventh c.]). 2 An alternative reading of this line is Ἰμούτ(ης) Ἐμούχη(ος) Γ, with an eta in place of an epsilon in the patronymic. Greek spelling of the common Egyptian masculine name Ỉy-m-ḥtp (and var.). Ἰμουτ for Ἰμούτης: SB 20.14352.3 (Western Thebes, third–fourth c.); Ἰμουθ--: O.Kellis 222.concave.4. What follows the personal name in line 2 may be a patronymic, possibly in abbreviated form. A Μαχητ is attested in KAB 1687 and a Μαχ-ε is found in O.Kell. 96.5. 12. See Plate 3.25 at p. 99.

Ostraka and Graffiti

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A less likely alternative is Μουχη. Ἐμοῦχις and Μουχις are attested as names, but they are both rare and early. Mouchis as a toponym (several villages of that name are attested in the Nile Valley) is even less likely. The gamma seems to be the numeral 3, but, as in line 1, what it stands for is obscure.

10.5. Figural Dipinti and Graffiti The majority of the figural dipinti and graffiti are found on the north wall (BF73) of room B6, on the whitewashed plaster surface around a niche (Pls. 10.13–14). In addition, one geometrical motif was incised on the south wall of the room (BF70). Wall BF73 bears numerous marks, both painted in black ink and scratched in the plaster surface, but only a few of the drawings are preserved well enough to permit identification. Besides the one inscription discussed above (no. 1), it was possible to identify one dipinto of a bird, two dipinti of ships (one nearly complete and one fragmentary), and one graffito of a ship. Chronological relationships between the dipinti are impossible to determine, but the ship graffito (4) cuts and is therefore later than the inscription and the bird dipinto (3). Like the inscriptions, the figural dipinti seem to be contemporary to or later than the last phase of the church complex and should be dated to the second half of the fourth century. It is difficult to say anything specific about the meaning and purpose of three representations of ships. The presence of ships in an oasis, away from navigable water courses, is somewhat perplexing,13 and one is tempted to seek an explanation in the symbolic meaning of the representations, all the more so that they appear in the context of a church complex. However, ships are not specifically Christian in their symbolism; boat graffiti are ubiquitous in the ancient world and in Egypt they are found on a wide variety of sites from all periods. Among representations of vessels dated to the third and fourth centuries, the story of Jonah is frequent, but so are other motifs, like the voyage of Odysseus and depictions of Nilotic scenery.14 Due to the state of preservation of the dipinti in black ink it is impossible to say whether they were part of a larger, more complex scene15 or, as seems more likely, constituted unrelated drawings executed on different occasions. In any case, no interpretation can be put forward with any degree of certainty. 1. Ship. (Pls. 10.19–20) Dipinto in black ink; 15 cm x 20 cm; Room B6, wall BF73. This dipinto is one of the best-preserved and most complete of the set. It is a relatively detailed representation of a sailed ship with a center mast and rigging. The drawing is faded in places and the plaster is broken in the lower part. As a result of damage and due to the cursory 13. For other ship graffiti in the desert, see, e.g,. Pomey 2012; we are very grateful to Patrice Pomey for his insightful comments on this material; see also Fakhry 1951: figs. 44, 69, 93, 94, and Sidebotham 1990. 14. See the Navis II Project database at www2.rgzm.de/navis2. The main reference works on naval iconography are still Casson 1971 and Basch 1987. For ships’ graffiti, see also Dijkstra 2012: 73–79. 15. For instance, see graffiti depicting multiple ships in Langner 2001: pl. 140–43.

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Pl. 10.19: Dipinto of a boat on the north wall of room B6.

Pl. 10.20: Drawing of a dipinto of a boat (north wall of room B6).

character of the sketch, some elements of the image are ambiguous. We cannot determine the exact type or size of the ship from this depiction, nor its method of construction. However, on the basis of parallels it appears to be a merchant ship rather than a military or fishing vessel.16 The mast stands vertically in the center of the hull. Its spindle is very long and rises high above the horizontal line that represents the yard. Curved lines likely representing the folds of a furled sail are fragmentarily preserved below the yard. There are two lifts connecting the yardarms to the masthead. Four ropes, possibly braces of the yard, trail down from the yardarms towards the base of the mast.17 Short lines extending from the yardarms (visible more clearly on the left-hand side) are enigmatic. They may represent the ropes used to tie up the sail at the ends of the yard.18 The circular element in the place where the yard is attached to the mast may be a block mast (calcet) or another contraption used to facilitate securing lines and standing rigging.19 16. Langner 2001: 118–20. 17. The closest parallel among graffiti comes from Gebel Silsileh; see Langner 2001: pl. 123, no. 1944. Other similar representations in graffiti: Langner 2001: pl. 119, no. 1893 (Pergamon); pl. 122, nos. 1931–33 (Nymphaion), 1938 (Pompeii); pl. 123, nos. 1945–6 (Silsileh); pl. 131, nos. 2026 (Alexandria, Anfouchi), 2035–37 (Delos); pl. 132, nos. 2039 (Delos), 2044 (Ostia), and 2047 (Pompeii). In decorative arts (mosaics, wall paintings), this type of representation is much less common than depictions of standing rigging and braces extending fore and aft from the mast and sail. See, e.g., Pekáry 1999: 258, Rom-Ci67. 18. Possible parallels, though rendered much less schematically, are: Pekáry 1999: 246, Rom-Ci12; Yacoub 1995: figs. 85–86. In graffiti, see Langner 2001: pl. 145, no. 2235 (Delos). The elements at the masthead and yardarms may also be pennants (Casson 1971: 246 and fig. 149). 19. For parallels, see Langner 2001: pl. 132, no. 2044 (Ostia) and Pekáry 1999: 206, I-P10 and 290, Rom-M57; Casson 1971: 232–33.

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The drawing of the hull is damaged at the bottom and in the center. The right-hand end is curved upwards and extends high, ending with what appears to be a massive acroter decorated with an ornament in the form of plumes, rendered as two curved lines. The left-hand end is rounded and terminates in an incurved possibly decorative element. The circular object represented near it is difficult to identify. Towards the left-hand side, there is a set of lines that appear to represent a steering oar with a handle.20 Judging from the location of this element, we can assume that the bow is on the right and the stern on the left. However, if indeed that is the case, the manner of depicting these elements is odd. In the majority of representations of Late Antique ships, it is the stern that is more pronounced and decorated with a plumed acroter (aphlaston), while the bow has a smaller, frequently incurved ornament.21 In this case, either the author of the dipinto confused the front and back of the ship or this is just intended as a decorative pattern.22 2. Ship (fragment). (Pl. 10.21) Dipinto; 30 x 23 cm; Room B6, wall BF73.

Pl. 10.21: Drawing of a dipinto of a boat (north wall of room B6).

A dipinto in black ink located to the right of 1 is a fragmentary representation of a ship. It is large and executed in broad strokes, but the bottom of the image mostly faded or rubbed off, leaving only the mast, yard and rigging. 20. For depictions of steering oars with handles, see Brenk 2000: 453, n. 41; Dougga ship 5 (Yacoub 1995: figs. 85–86). Casson 1971: 232–33 (fitting for the halyard, most likely made of bronze). 21. Langner 2001: pl. 116–144, passim; see also, for example, Pekáry 1999: 286, Rom-M43; Yacoub 1995: fig. 60, 73, 85 and 86; Brenk 2000: 453, n. 41. On merchant galleys that featured an aphlaston, see Casson 1971: 158. 22. Yacoub 1995: fig. 73.

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The masthead is not preserved. Two lines extending fore and aft from the top of the mast towards the bow and stern may represent the forestay and backstay, but their function is uncertain, as their bottom sections are no longer extant. Lines extending outwards from the mast to the yardarms likely represent braces, as it was the case in the more complete ship dipinto (1) described above.23 It is difficult to determine if any part of the series of strokes to the left of the yard was part of the same ship, for instance as an acroter adorning the stern, but this seems unlikely. Also the thick horizontal line above the mast is enigmatic and most probably did not belong to this representation. 3. Bird. (Pls. 10.22–23) Dipinto; 14 x 7 cm; Room B6, wall BF73.

Pl. 10.22: Dipinto of a bird on the north wall of room B6.

Pl. 10.23: Drawing of a dipinto of a bird (north wall of room B6).

The third of the identifiable figural dipinti in black ink is located to the left of the two ships. It represents a bird that escapes more precise identification despite its relatively good state of preservation. The neck and upturned tail are short and the nearly vertical lines on the body may represent distinctive plumage or simply a schematically rendered wing. The short beak extends horizontally from the relatively large head. The large, circular element in the center of the head may be an eye. The two legs are only partly preserved, and therefore their length cannot be assessed beyond doubt. Some distinctive features were included in this representation: a curved line connecting the tip of the beak and front of the head, as well as some strokes on the back of and below the head, but a comparison to other iconographic representations of birds, both in graffiti and other art forms,24 has not yielded parallels. 23. See footnote 17. 24. Langner 2001: pl. 104–11.

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4. Ship. (Pl. 10.24) Graffito; 22 x 17 cm; Room B6, wall BF73.

Pl. 10.24: Drawing of a graffito of a boat (north wall of room B6).

The graffito is cut into the plaster on top of inscription no. 1 and the representation of the bird (3). The scratches are shallow and the lines are not clearly visible on the rough and cracked plaster. Aside from the top of the mast, the representation is complete. The mast is located in the center of a rounded hull and the rigging (possibly the forestay and backstay) extends from a central point above, maybe the lost top of the mast, down towards the bow and stern. The yardarms and sail are not visible, but there are diagonal lines representing shrouds or stays supporting the mast.25 The left-hand end of the hull was likely the stern, since it rises higher than the other end and below it there are two lines that may have represented a steering oar. Above the right-hand end of the hull, most likely the bow, there are a series of intersecting lines that are difficult to interpret but may represent a decorative element.26

25. For similar representations, see Langner 2001: pl. 122, no. 1934 (Nymphaion); pl. 123, no. 1953 (Nymphaion). 26. See Langner 2001: pl. 130, no. 2021 (Benghazi) and 2023 (Rome).

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Pl. 10.25: Drawing of a graffito of a rosette (south wall of room B6).

5. Rosette. (Pl. 10.25) Graffito; diam. 9 cm; Room B6, wall BF70. The rosette was incised into white plaster covering the south wall of room B6 (BF70). The motif consists of a circle and three spindle-shaped petals inscribed into it. A faint line that formed one side of a fourth petal is visible in the lower part. In its complete form, such a rosette had six petals. The design was made by drawing seven identical interlinked circles, one in the center and six with their central points located on its circumference at regular intervals. The motif, usually repeated to form a pattern, is common in contemporary decoration, including wall paintings in houses in the Dakhla Oasis.27 The pattern is also not uncommon in graffiti,28 which show isolated rosettes drawn both with the help of a compass and freehand. In this case the drawing is incomplete, with only the central circle and the sections of circles that formed four of the petals.

27. E.g., the Villa of Serenos at Amheida (personal observation). 28. See Langner 2001: 29–30, pls. 4 and 5. Medamud: Cottevieille-Giraudet 1931: 67, no. 136; Elephantine: Jaritz 1980: 84, no. F20; Syene: Dijkstra 2012: 105, no. 172; as a Christian symbol: Abydos: Piankoff 1960: 149 fig. 16; Esna: Sauneron and Jacquet 1972: 70–71.

11 Small Finds from Ἁin el-Gedida: Other Categories Dorota Dzierzbicka 11.1. Textiles 11.1.1. Introduction Thirteen fragments of textiles were retrieved during the excavations at Ἁin el-Gedida. They comprise mostly scraps of wool and linen of varying quality, including fabrics with simple decoration. During the study of this group of finds attention was given to the raw material, the thickness and direction of the spin, the thread count per centimeter, the type of weave, and the decoration and technical features.1 A handheld digital microscope was used to investigate the fibers. Nevertheless, the study needs to be expanded to include scientific analysis of the materials, dyes, and mordants. It is hoped that further excavation on the site will bring forth more objects in this category and justify a broader and more in-depth study of the material. The assemblage consists of lightweight textiles and thicker tapestry-woven pieces, perhaps wall hangings or blankets, but in all cases the state of preservation of the items makes it impossible to determine their original form and function. No intact garments were found, and only a few structural elements are extant: several pieces are sewn with simple running stitches and one fragment preserves a reinforced selvedge. The textiles may have been locally 1. I am grateful to Barbara Czaja, textile conservator (Museum of King Jan III’s Palace at Wilanów, Poland), for her valuable help in the study of the textile fragments.

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manufactured, possibly even at the site, since spindle whorls and loom weights were recovered at Ἁin el-Gedida (see below). Regardless of the scale and character of textile production in the village, there is ample material evidence of a developed textile industry in nearby Kellis.2 All but two fragments are tabby weaved with thread counts ranging from 6 warp and 18 weft to 10 warp and 37 weft per square centimeter; the weave is always either even or weftfaced, never warp-faced. One of the two remaining pieces (3) is an example of sprang, a netlike fabric made by intertwining groups of threads.3 A large number of Late Antique and Byzantine sprang fabrics, many of them fragments of caps and bags, were found in Egypt, and two unidentified items made using the sprang technique were retrieved in Kellis.4 The piece of sprang fabric from Ἁin el-Gedida is too poorly preserved to reconstruct its appearance and purpose. Similarly, the nature of the one piece made in the basket weave technique (13) defies more detailed description due to the item’s very poor state of preservation. 11 out of 13 textile fragments from Ἁin el-Gedida are made of wool yarn, both natural and dyed. The animal from which the wool was obtained cannot be determined without more sophisticated methods of analysis. The study of faunal remains from Ἁin el-Gedida has indicated the presence of both sheep and goats at the site.5 However, it is noteworthy that samples from Kellis proved to derive from sheep.6 Also documentary evidence indicates that in Kellis sheep were reared to obtain this raw material.7 Three fragments were made of or included linen (Linum sp.) in natural or dyed form. Flax was grown locally in the Dakhla Oasis; botanical remains (flax capsules) were recovered at Kellis,8 and flaxseed is attested, albeit as pigeon feed, in Trimithis (O.Trim. 261.2; 272.2; 276.2). Linen weavers are mentioned in the KAB (P.Kell. 4 G. 96.292) and in a Kellis ostrakon (O.Kell. 102.8), as well as in Trimithis ostraka (O.Trim. 20.2; 21.5; 34.6). According to a conjectural reading of P.Kell. 1 G. 12.19-20 (see comm. ad loc.) the linen-weaving trade was taught at a monastery in the vicinity, possibly at Tineida.9 The fibers for the yarns are invariably s-spun, regardless of the material, and the thicker, 2 ply threads are z-plied. The yarns used for weaving are all 1-ply except for a tapestry-woven fragment with a warp composed of double Z2s threads, possibly because the textile was heavier and its warp needed to withstand greater tensions. Several thicknesses of yarn were identified, ranging from 0.04 to 0.1 cm. All the yarns used for stitching are 2-ply. Both linen and wool are attested in dyed and natural form. The natural fibers ranged in color from off-white to brown, and further analysis is needed to determine if any of these shades were obtained as a result of a dyeing process. Among the dyed fibers, the colors represented are rose pink, red, purple, blue, and black. In two cases (1, 8) only bands of color (red, black) adorned an otherwise undyed piece of textile. Dyed woolen fabrics always consisted of natural warp 2. Bowen 2002b: 87–97. See also Bowen 1999: 7–12 and Bowen 2001b: 18–28. 3. See Collingwood 1974. 4. Bowen 1999: 9. 5. See Crabtree, chapter 12 in this volume. 6. Coombs, Woodhead, and Church 2002: 119. 7. For discussion of the evidence, see Bowen 2002b: 89. Wool is mentioned in several documents from Kellis: P.Kellis 1 G. 66.10; 72.38; 73.30; O.Kellis 95.4—uncertain; P.Kellis 5 C. 12.8; 19.36; 44.6 and 23; 47; 48. 8. Thanheiser 1999: 91. 9. Gardner 2000: 254.

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and colored weft. The attested weft colors in such cases were rose pink, light blue, and purple. The sprang fragment consists of 2-ply threads dyed red with a few intermixed blue and creamcolored (undyed) yarns. One of the two linen fragments is dyed blue. The dyes and mordants could be obtained locally. Analyses of three fabric samples from Kellis have demonstrated that the dyes used on them were vegetable-based and derived from plants that may well have grown in the area. The study also indicated the use of alum, also a locally available resource, as a mordant.10 Furthermore, references to purple dye in Kellis papyri indicate that it was not only available, but possibly manufactured there.11

11.1.2. Catalogue (Pl. 11.1) 1 Inventory Number: 3 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 4 Dimensions: 4 fragments; largest fr. 15 x 11 cm; thickness 0.1 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.05 cm Material: wool; undyed (light brown); one band of weft dyed red Weave: loom made tight weave tabby, density 8 warps/cm, 18 wefts/cm Remarks: the largest fragment has a straight stitch made using a beige 2-ply yarn (Z2s, th. 0.1 cm); the smallest fragment has a red band 0.8 cm wide 2 Inventory Number: 11 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 4 Dimensions: 4 fragments; largest fr. 12 x 9.5 cm, th. 0.05 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.045 cm Material: wool; warp undyed (light brown) / weft rose pink Weave: loom made tight weave tabby, density 9 warps/cm, 19 wefts/cm 3 Inventory Number: 12 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 4 Dimensions: 3 fragments; largest fr. 43 x 2.5 cm; th. 0.1 cm Yarn: 2-ply, s-spun, z-plied (Z2s), red: th. 0.09 cm; blue, yellow: 0.075 cm Material: wool; red, some yarns dyed blue and some undyed (cream-colored) Weave: sprang Remarks: some blue and undyed yarns are interwoven into the largest fragment

10. Coombs, Woodhead, and Church 2002: n. 6. For alum in the Dakhla Oasis, see Lucas and Harris 1999: 258. 11. P.Kellis 1 G. 61; 1 G. 73.29–30; 74; see also Worp 1997b.

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Pl. 11.1: A selection of textile fragments from Ἁin el-Gedida.

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4 Inventory Number: 21 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 8 Dimensions: 4 fragments, largest fr. 5.2 x 3.5 cm; th. 0.05 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.04 cm Material: linen; unbleached (beige) Weave: loom made tight weave tabby, density 18 warps/cm, 19 wefts/cm 5 Inventory Number: 37 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 25 Dimensions: many fragments, very badly preserved; no measurements possible Yarn: s-spun, th. 0.1 cm; stitching: Z2s, 0.125 cm Material: linen; unbleached (yellowish) and blue Weave: loom made tabby, density cannot be determined Remarks: the textile consists of two different-colored pieces sewn together using a thicker yarn 6 Inventory Number: 536 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 9.3 x 3.2 cm; th 0.1 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.04 cm Material: wool; undyed (brown) Weave: loom made tight weave weft-faced tabby, density 11 warps/cm, 24 wefts/cm Remarks: the textile is folded and has perforations forming an oval, possibly from stitching 7 Inventory Number: 537 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 7.6 x 1.7 cm, th. 0.15 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.06 cm Material: wool; undyed (light brown) Weave: loom made tight weave weft-faced tabby, density 10 warps/cm, 37 wefts/cm 8 Inventory Number: 538 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 13.8 x 1.3 cm; th. 0.15 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.05 cm; stitching: 2-ply, s-spun, z-plied (Z2s), th. 0.1 cm Material: wool; undyed (beige)/ black Weave: loom made tight weave weft-faced tabby, density 12 warps/cm, 26 wefts/cm Remarks: a fragment of a reinforced selvedge over two warp bundles (3 threads each). A small

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fragment of the same textile with a black band 0.3 cm wide is attached to the selvedge by means of a straight stitch made using a 2-ply yarn 9 Inventory Number: 539 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 3 x 1.2 cm, th. 0.1 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.045 cm Material: wool; undyed (beige) Weave: loom made weft-faced tapestry weave, density 10 warps/cm, 30 wefts/cm Remarks: textile fragment folded, refolded (4 layers) and sewn together with a running stitch (perforations present, stitching not preserved) 10 Inventory Number: 541 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 3.4 x 2.2 cm; textile th. 0.1 cm Yarn: s-spun; th. 0.05 cm Material: wool; warp: undyed (dark beige), weft: light blue Weave: loom made tight weave weft-faced tabby, density 14 warps/cm, 30 wefts/cm Remarks: the textile is folded and the two layers are sewn together with a yarn that resembles the warp threads 11 Inventory Number: 542 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 4 x 3.6 cm, th 0.15 cm Yarn: warp 2-ply, s-spun, z-plied (Z2s), th. 0.1 cm; weft s-spun, th. ca. 0.05 cm Material: wool; undyed (yellowish beige) Weave: loom made tight weave weft-faced tabby; density: 6 warps/cm, 18 wefts/cm Remarks: possibly fragment of wall hanging or blanket 12 Inventory Number: 543 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 30 Dimensions: 3 fragments, largest fr. 9.3 x 4.2 cm; th. 0.1 cm Yarn: s-spun, th. 0.05 cm Material: wool; undyed (dark beige) Weave: loom made tight weave tabby, density: 13 warps/cm, 17 wefts/cm Remarks: the textile is folded with aligned holes, possibly from stitching

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13 Inventory Number: 544 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 30 Dimensions: 8.2 x 2.1 cm; th 0.1 cm Yarn: textile: s-spun, th. 0.06 cm; stitching: 2-ply yarn, z-plied, s-spun (Z2s), th. 0.25 cm Material: textile: wool; warp undyed (light brown), weft purple (currently reddish-brown), black and off-white (natural?) Stitching: linen; unbleached (cream) Weave: loom made basket (panama) weave, density: 18 warps/cm, 18 wefts/cm Remarks: the textile has a running stitch fixed with a knot. Severe damage prevents a more detailed description

11.2. Glass Vessels 11.2.1. Introduction At Ἁin el-Gedida, fragments of glass vessels were found primarily among street-level debris, as well as in dump layers that accumulated in rooms after their abandonment. The non-diagnostic pieces were counted and weighed prior to discarding.12 Fifty-three fragments of glass vessels— diagnostic and decorated pieces—were selected for study. The terminology used in this paper is mainly derived from Harden’s publication of glass from Karanis.13 Since the material was not subjected to chemical analyses of the composition, the descriptions concern only the observable properties, such as color (as seen against a white background in natural light), weathering, and the presence of bubbles. Thicknesses were measured on wall fragments and diameters at the maximum extent of the rim or base. The forms attested at Ἁin el-Gedida belong to a repertoire typical for Late Antiquity and are not distinguished for their completeness or originality. Nonetheless, because of the relatively narrow chronological span of the site and the secure dating of their contexts to the fourth century CE, they can be useful as parallels for finds from other sites. Analogies to the glass vessels from Ἁin el-Gedida can be found primarily in nearby Kellis and Trimithis, but also on other Egyptian sites, i.e., in Late Antique strata of Karanis and Alexandria. The assemblage consists primarily of vessels for everyday use, represented by a variety of fragments, mostly rims and bases. Among the recovered forms are small bowls and deep plates, as well as other open forms that may have been goblets and beakers or conical lamps typical for this period. The finds also included bottom fragments of the latter. Closed forms are represented by fragments of flasks and other small vessels. Most of the vessels are made of blown glass and bear no traces of decoration. When present, the decorative motifs are limited to applied coils and impressed ribs, or incised lines: wheelmade, as well as straight intersecting cuts. Mosaic glass is represented by several non-diagnostic pieces and one rim fragment. 12. During fieldwork seasons, the finds were processed and recorded by Angela Cervi; the data on non-diagnostic material is found in the project database. Drawings in this section are by Dorota Dzierzbicka and Ashraf Senussi. 13. See Harden 1936.

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The best-represented group consists of footed bowls and deep plates with diameters ranging from 8 to 16 cm. Their rims are either flared or rolled, and the ring bases are plain or bear decorative patterns in the form of oblique or crisscrossing ribs made by impressing a straight edge into the hot glass. Footed vessels of this type are very common in Egypt in the Roman period, and they are considered local products.14 The glass from which these bowls were made is usually light green, olive-green, more rarely colorless, yellow, or honey-yellow. There are also three violet-colored, almost black base fragments.15 A fragment of interest is a rim of a bowl, 16 cm in diameter, made of pressed mosaic glass (20). Other, non-diagnostic mosaic glass fragments found on site most likely belonged to several other vessels of this type. Mosaic glass is not uncommon in the Great Oasis. Similar pieces have been found in contemporary contexts at Kellis, Amheida, Douch, Bagawat, and Ἁin Turba.16 Shallow plates are represented only by a single large fragment of a folded rim (19). The vessel measured 26 cm in diameter and was made of colorless glass. The assemblage includes conical bases of lamps, all of which are made of light-green or nearly colorless glass. They represent a type that was the most common in Late Antiquity: they are conical or U-shaped in section and bear no pontil marks, which renders them classifiable as Type A.2 according to Crowfoot and Harden’s typology for Karanis.17 Conical vessels found in the Eastern Mediterranean were used primarily as lamps, as indicated by soot-covered fragments from Karanis.18 While the bottom fragments can be attributed to the category of conical lamps without any doubt, the rims with diameters ranging from 6 to 10 cm can be identified as parts of lamps, but also as fragments of beakers or goblets. Such vessels, conical or with rounded bases, are attested in Egypt and throughout the Middle East from the midfourth century onwards.19 The rims assigned to the lamps/beakers category have various shapes (turned up, s-shaped, inverted, or flared) and are cut off and ground smooth, sometimes firerounded. Most diagnostic fragments of lamps/beakers were undecorated. One fragment of a rim and body that was most likely part of a lamp (21) has shallow, tightly spaced horizontal lines incised into the surface with the help of a turning wheel. Similar marks seem to be visible on another fragment (26), but the horizontal lines below the rim are faint enough to be signs of wear. Analogous forms found in the auditoria at Kom el-Dikka, Alexandria, bore horizontal scratches in places where the glass presumably had rubbed against metal rings holding the lamps.20 However, also in the case of 26 the intentional character of the lines cannot be ruled out.

14. Marchini 1999: 76. 15. Footed bowls of violet glass also occur in fourth century contexts at Amheida; see Cervi 2015b: 319, n. 2. Marchini (1999: 76) and Nenna (2003a: 94) indicate their relatively common presence in the Great Oasis. 16. For Douch, see Nenna 2003a: 93–94 and references. For Ἁin et-Turba and Bagawat, see Hill and Nenna 2003: 88. For Amheida, see Cervi 2015b: 319, n. 2. For Kellis, see Hope and Whitehouse 2003: 291, n. 2. For other attestations of mosaic glass vessels in Egypt see Nenna 2002. 17. See Crowfoot and Harden 1931. See also type 1 in Mossakowska-Gaubert, 2000: 345–350. 18. Harden 1936: 155 and 163. 19. E.g., at Naqlun: see Mossakowska-Gaubert 2008: 216. 20. Kucharczyk 2007: 46.

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Some non-diagnostic fragments of colorless or light-green glass bear applied cobalt-blue dots. Such decoration is attested in Egypt both on conical lamps and on beakers.21 This simple manner of decorating glass vessels emerged in the mid-third century CE and remained popular in the eastern Mediterranean and in the Black Sea region through the fourth century.22 Among the fragments of closed forms there are rims of three flasks (39, 40, 41). They were made of light-green glass and have coils of glass in the same color attached below the splayed rims. One of the rims (41) was found with fragments of handles. There were also two other handle fragments, decorated with applied glass threads (42 and 43). The rim decoration and shape of handles of the flask no 41 echoes a miniature glass spatheion found in Douch,23 although in the case of the Ἁin el-Gedida find the form of the base is unknown. Several bottom fragments of small vessels may also belong to closed forms. They are a concave base with an applied double thread (45), a flat ringed base (44), and a “toe” base of light-green glass (47). The latter, made by pulling “toes” from the basal part of the vessel, finds parallels in material from Karanis and Alexandria.24 Also worthy of note are several decorated non-diagnostic vessel fragments. One fragment (50) exhibits an incised pattern of straight intersecting lines. This kind of decoration is infrequent in the Great Oasis, but is attested in Douch, where a shallow hemispherical bowl was adorned with an incised pattern and inscription.25 Two fragments with commonly attested ribbed decoration were most likely part of bottles or jars of mold-blown glass (51 and 52). Fragments of glass vessels found at Ἁin el-Gedida represent mostly table wares for everyday use. The assemblage is not rich in luxury items; the forms are rather simple but elegant and well made. The vessels were produced mainly of light-green glass, which was inexpensive but good-quality material, as indicated by the vessels’ thin walls with usually small, rare air bubbles. Occasional specimens of better-quality colorless glass also occur. The presence of decorated “luxury” wares (mosaic glass, incised and mold-blown vessels) at Ἁin el-Gedida supports the notion put forward by Marie-Dominique Nenna that such objects were not uncommon in the Egyptian countryside.26 Their presence on the site should be viewed within the context of the proximity of Kellis, which has yielded fine painted and mold-blown vessels of high quality and artistic value.27 Little can be said about the origin of the glass finds. It would be tempting to suggest an Oasitic origin for most of the vessels. No evidence of glassmaking has been found at Ἁin el-Gedida itself, but several glass ingots have been recovered at Kellis, providing indirect testimony of glassworking on the site.28

21. E.g., in Alexandria (Kucharczyk 2007: 47), Karanis (Harden 1936: 160), and Naqlun (Mossakowska-Gaubert 2000: 346). 22. See, for example, Sazanov 1995. 23. Nenna 2003a: 96; fig. 4.4. 24. Kucharczyk 2010a: 58. 25. Nenna 2003b: 369. 26. Nenna 2003a: 97. 27. See Hope and Whitehouse 2003. 28. Hope and Whitehouse 2003: 304.

548

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 11.2: Glass fragments (bowls and plates) from Ἁin el-Gedida.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

549

11.2.2. Catalogue (Pls. 11.2–3) [All measurements are given in centimeters. Abbreviations: rD – rim diameter; bD – base diameter; h – height; th – thickness. For abbreviated references see bibliography.] Open forms Bowls (Pl. 11.2) 1 – Rim and wall of a bowl/beaker Inventory Number: 1018 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 86 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +1.85; th: 0.25 Material: transparent dark honey-yellow blown glass; bubbles: few small and medium globular and elongated 2 – Rim of a shallow bowl or plate Inventory Number: 1025 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 115 Dimensions: rD: 14; h: +1.1; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light aquamarine blown glass; bubbles: few small and medium elongated 3 – Everted rim of a shallow bowl or plate Inventory Number: 1024 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 105 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +1.15; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: many small globular and elongated and few medium elongated 4 – Everted rim and wall of a deep, possibly footed bowl Inventory Number: 591 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 82 Dimensions: rD: 16; h: +1.1; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light green blown glass, bubbles: few small elongated, rare small and medium globular Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 1f; type Harden III A III (a) 5 – Hollow rim and wall of bowl Inventory Number: 1079 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 110 Dimensions: rD: 15; h: +1.9; th: 0.10; th. of rim: 0.8

550

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small and rare medium globular and elongated. Two medium dark inclusions Type: Harden III A IV (a)? 6 – Outward-folded rim of a small bowl Inventory Number: 1211 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 137 Dimensions: rD: 8; h: +1.25; th: 0.10 Material: transparent aquamarine blown glass; bubbles: many small globular, few medium elongated Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3c; type Harden III A I 7 – Outward-folded rim of a bowl Inventory Number: 1212 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: rD: 9; h: +1.30; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: many small globular and medium elongated, rare big elongated Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3c; type Harden III A I 8 – Outward-folded rim of a small bowl Inventory Number: 1206 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +1.10; th: 0.40 Material: transparent light green blown glass, rare small, globular bubbles 9 – Outward-folded rim of a small bowl Inventory Number: 1208 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 96 Dimensions: rD: 9.50; h: +1.05 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: many small globular, few small elongated Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3c; type Harden III A I 10 – Bottom of a bowl with foot-ring in the shape of a truncated cone Inventory Number: 1032 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 127 Dimensions: bD: 7; h: +1.6; th: 0.25 Material: transparent dark violet blown glass; few small globular bubbles present Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3a 11 – Plain foot-ring of an open form, possibly a small bowl Inventory Number: 1213

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

551

Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 110 Dimensions: bD: 8; h: +1.40; th: n/a Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small globular 12 – Bottom of a bowl with foot in the shape of a truncated cone Inventory Number: 1027 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 132 Dimensions: bD: 7.8; h: 2.75; th: 0.50 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small globular and elongated, rare medium Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 1f; type Harden III A III (a) Decoration: oblique ribs on the inner surface of the foot Remarks: the inside of the base is concave, the underside convex 13 – Bottom of a bowl with a foot-ring Inventory Number: 1030 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 127 Dimensions: bD: 9; h: 2.2; th: 0.40 Material: transparent dark violet blown glass; bubbles: many small, few medium globular Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 1f; type Harden III A III (a) 14 – Plain foot-ring of an open form, probably a small bowl Inventory Number: 1207 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: bD: 8.20; h: +1.40 Material: transparent light green blown glass; few small, rare medium globular bubbles; rare medium elongated bubbles 15 – Base with complete foot-ring in the shape of a truncated cone Inventory Number: 6 Findspot: area B, room B2, DSU 9 Dimensions: rD: 4.60; h: +1.15; th: 0.40 Material: transparent honey-yellow blown glass; bubbles: few small globular; rare fine dark inclusions Remarks: the inside of the base is slightly concave; iridescent patina Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3k; type Harden III A I (a) 16 – Base of a vessel with a foot-ring in the shape of a truncated cone Inventory Number: 1031 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: bD: 4.5; h: +1.9; th: 0.25 Material: transparent dark violet blown glass; bubbles: few small globular

552

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 11.3: Glass fragments (lamps/beakers and closed forms) from Ἁin el-Gedida.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

553

Decoration: oblique ribs on the external surface Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3e; type Harden III A III (b) 17 – Wall and conical ring base of a bowl Inventory Number: 663 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 94 Dimensions: bD: 9; h: +2.2; th: 0.30 Material: transparent yellow blown glass; bubbles: many very small, many small and rare big globular Decoration: oblique ribs on the external surface 18 – Base and foot of a bowl in the shape of a truncated cone Inventory Number: 816 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: bD: 6; h: 1.5; th: 0.40 Material: transparent honey-yellow blown glass; bubbles: few small globular Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 3e; type Harden III A III (b) Decoration: oblique ribs on the external surface 19 – Everted rim of a large plate or shallow bowl Inventory Number: 584 Findspot: area B, room B7, DSU 45 Dimensions: rD: 26; h: +0.8; th: 0.35 Material: transparent colorless blown glass Decoration: under the rim two coils of spiral applied thread on body Remarks: partial white patina and iridescence 20 – Rim and wall of a bowl Inventory Number: 1070 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 115 Material: mosaic glass; transparent dark green with yellow dull glass inclusions Dimensions: rD: 16; h: 2; th: 0.30 Lamps / Beakers (Pl. 11.3) 21 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 35 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 20 Dimensions: rD: 8; h: +5.6; th: 0.25 Material: transparent honey-yellow blown glass, rare small globular and rare small elongated bubbles. Three series of wheel-incisions on the walls Remarks: white patina on the surface

554

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

22 – Slightly s-shaped rim and wall of a thin-walled lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 534 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: rD: 9; h: +2.7; th: 0.30 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: many very small globular, few small and medium Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 2j; type Harden VII A I (a) 23 – S-shaped rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 535 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 32 Dimensions: rD: 6; h: +3.7; th: 0.10 Material: transparent colorless blown glass; bubbles: few very small globular, rare small and medium Remarks: white patina and iridescence 24 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 582 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: rD: 7; h: +2.1; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light yellow blown glass; bubbles: few very small globular 25 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 814 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +3.7; th: 0.25 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small elongated, rare medium 26 – S-shaped rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 1029 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 121 Dimensions: rD: 9; h: +4.3; th: 0.15 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small globular Remarks: wheel-incisions (?) below rim 27 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 1057 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 154 Dimensions: rD: 8; h: +1.3; th: 0.10 Material: transparent colorless blown glass; bubbles: few small globular

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

555

28 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 1067 Findspot: area B, B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +5.5; th: 0.30 Material: transparent green blown glass; bubbles: few very small and rare medium globular 29 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 1068 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 165 Dimensions: rD: 8; h: +2.75; th: 0.25 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: rare small globular Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 4e? 30 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 1069 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: rD: 8; h: +1.15; th: 0.15 Material: transparent green blown glass; bubbles: few very small globular 31 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 583 Findspot: area B, room B6, DSU 59 Dimensions: rD: 12; h: +2; th: 0.15 Material: transparent light aquamarine blown glass; bubbles: many small elongated Remarks: partial white patina and iridescence 32 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 596 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 75 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +3.20; th: 0.20 Material: transparent green blown glass; bubbles: few small, rare medium globular, few small, rare medium and big elongated 33 – Rim and wall of a lamp or beaker Inventory Number: 817 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 94 Dimensions: rD: 10; h: +2; th: 0.30 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small globular, rare elongated 34 – Fragment of wall and bottom of a lamp Inventory Number: 597 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 75

556

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Dimensions: bD: n/a; h: +2.30; th: 0.50 Material: transparent very light green blown glass; bubbles: few very small globular Remarks: white patina Type: Crowfoot, Harden A.2 35 – Wall and bottom of a lamp Inventory Number: 598 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 75 Dimensions: bD: n/a; h: +1.8; th 0.30 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few very small, rare medium globular Type: Crowfoot, Harden A.2 36 – Wall and flat circular base of a lamp Inventory Number: 1019 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 130 Dimensions: bD: n/a; h: +1.50; th: 0.20 Material: transparent green blown glass; bubbles: many small globular, rare medium Type: Crowfoot, Harden A.2 37 – Wall and bottom of a lamp? Inventory Number: 1037 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: bD: 2; h: +2.75; th: 0.25 Material: transparent green blown glass; bubbles: rare small globular 38 – Bottom of a lamp Inventory Number: 1210 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 127 Dimensions: h: +0.80; th: 1.75 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: very rare, very small globular Type: Crowfoot, Harden A.2 Closed forms Flasks (Pl. 11.3) 39 – Profiled rim and neck of a flask Inventory Number: 815 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: rD: 5; h: +1.35; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light green blown glass; few small globular bubbles, rare medium elongated Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 1c; type Harden IX

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

557

40 – Fragment of bolster-shaped rim of a flask Inventory Number: 1204 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 90 Dimensions: rD: 5; h: +1.15; th 0.15 Material: transparent light yellow blown glass; bubbles: rare small globular, few small elongated Remarks: light brown patina on the surfaces and on the breaks Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 1g; type Harden IX 41 – Everted rim and neck of a flask Inventory Number: 1058 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 127 Dimensions: rD: 5; h: +1.3; th: 0.15 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small globular and few medium elongated Decoration: one coil on the under-side of the rim Remarks: found together with detached handles. See 36 42 – Body sherd with incomplete tape-shaped handle Inventory Number: 1080 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: x: 2.50; y: 2.90; th. 1.55 Material: transparent aquamarine blown glass; bubbles: many small and medium globular and elongated; few small and medium dark inclusions Decoration: 3 thick ribs Remarks: handle probably bent at a right angle 43 – Handle Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Material: colorless glass Decoration: ribbed Other Closed Form Vessels (Pl. 11.3) 44 – Fragment of wall and flat pad base of a closed form vessel Inventory Number: 813 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 91 Dimensions: bD: 3.5; h: +1; th: 0.30 Material: transparent light aquamarine blown glass; bubbles: few small globular, many small and elongated in the ring Decoration: ring applied on the external surface Remarks: the inner part of the base is slightly convex Parallels: Harden 1936: pl. XIX, no. 704

558

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

45 – Concave bottom of a closed form vessel with applied base-ring consisting of two threads of glass Inventory Number: 1209 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 108 Dimensions: bD: 2.50; h: +1 Material: transparent green blown glass; bubbles: rare medium globular Parallels: Kucharczyk 2010a: fig. 1.11 46 – Ring base of a vessel Inventory Number: 1205 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 132 Dimensions: bD: 3.50; h: +0.50; th: 0.10 Material: transparent aquamarine blown glass; bubbles: few small globular, and few medium elongated Parallels: Harden 1936: pl. XVIII, no. 641 47 – Wall and “toe” base of vessel (may also be open form) Inventory Number: 818 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 100 Dimensions: bD: 3.5; h: 1.3; th: 0.25 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: few small, rare big globular Decoration: small “toes” pulled down from basal edge Parallels: Kucharczyk 2010a, fig. 1.14-16 48 – Wall and flat base of a small closed form vessel Inventory Number: 1026 Findspot: area B, room B20, DSU 143 Dimensions: bD: n/a h: +1; th: 0.20 Material: transparent light turquoise blown glass; bubbles: rare small globular Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 4f; type Harden III (b) 49 – Wall and bottom of a closed form Inventory Number: 1059 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 127 Dimensions: bD: 7; h: +2.75; th: 0.30 Material: transparent light green blown glass; bubbles: many small and medium globular Remarks: the inside of the base is slightly convex, the under-side slightly concave Parallels: Marchini 1999: fig. 1i; type Harden V (a)

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

559

Decorated Non-Diagnostic Fragments (Pl. 11.3) 50 – Body sherd Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 22 Decoration: incised lines 51 – Body sherd Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 109 Material: mold-blown honey-yellow transparent glass 52 – Body sherd Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 127 Material: mold-blown green transparent glass Decoration: fluted 53 – Body sherd Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Material: transparent light green blown glass Decoration: applied fused-in white dull glass garlands

11.3. Personal Adornment 11.3.1. Introduction Objects of adornment found at Ἁin el-Gedida belong to two main categories: bracelets and beads. They were found among street-level debris, but also in dump layers and room fills.29 An overwhelming majority of these objects are made of glass. They most likely arrived in the Dakhla Oasis from the Nile Valley, and some may be of Alexandrian origin. Oasis production cannot be excluded, but no evidence of such activity has been found on site, nor were there kilns for glass working at nearby Kellis (however, see above, p. 551). The bracelets came in different sizes, their inner diameter ranging from 5 to 8 cm. They were all made of opaque black glass drawn out and wound around a cylinder to set. All have flat, smooth inner surfaces where the glass rested against the cylinder, and on one of the finds (24) it is possible to see where the two ends of the glass rod were joined. Only two intact bracelets have been found at Ἁin el-Gedida (14, 15), while the rest are represented by fragments of different sizes. Roughly half of the bracelets (1–10) were undecorated, with semicircular section and outer surfaces convex and smooth. These plain specimens can be assigned to Type A2a according to Maud Spaer’s typology.30 The rest were wider and ribbed using a straight edge to produce V-shaped indentations or with a rod to 29. During fieldwork seasons, the finds were processed and recorded by Angela Cervi, Marina Nuovo, and Jennifer Thum. 30. Spaer 1988: 54. Numerous parallels are available, e.g., at Karanis (Harden 1936: 282–83, pl. XXI, no. 846) and at Marina el-Alamein (Kucharczyk 2010b: 124–25).

560

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

obtain a wavy pattern (Spaer’s Types B2b and B331). The ribs are either oblique or perpendicular to the band (vertical) and in some specimens the ribbed central zones were additionally flanked by two cordons (14, 15, 19). The latter type, which slightly diverges from Spaer’s typology, finds parallels at Amheida.32 Beads form a large and varied category among the finds from Ἁin el-Gedida. Most were made by winding a glass thread or folding a piece of glass around a mandrel. Among these, the most commonly occurring category consists of wound segmented beads of dark blue transparent glass (42–50). These beads were broken up into individual beads after the glass had cooled or left as clusters of several beads still attached. They may have mimicked drawn segmented beads (54–55), popular in this period and made using a mold.33 Though not commonplace, beads of the wound segmented type find parallels on several Late Antique Egyptian and Nubian sites.34 Some wound specimens were shaped further before removal from the mandrel: rolled (40– 41), ribbed to form a “melon bead” (30) or flattened on two or more sides (33–39). Worthy of attention is a distinctive bead paddled into the shape of a cornerless cuboid (29), representing a type that occurs consistently in Late Antique contexts.35 Several beads were made using more elaborate techniques. Prime examples among them are two gold-in-glass beads (27, 28) produced by inserting gold foil between two layers of colorless glass.36 A trail bead (31) was made by applying yellow thread to form a zig-zag pattern on the bead’s black surface37 and an “eye” bead (32) has three red-and-white “eye” cane sections of glass attached on the sides. Lastly, a Bes amulet (26) in the form of a double-sided faience pendant coated with turquoise and yellow glaze was found on the site. The head and crown are not preserved, but the god’s other characteristic traits make identification unmistakable: the frontally depicted nude figure has bandy legs and a beard that conceals the neck. Amulets of this type occur throughout Egypt; similar objects have been found at the site of Amheida.38

31. Spaer 1988: 55; for parallels from Egypt, see Petrie 1927: 8; pl. VII, 100–101. For Karanis, see Harden 1936: 282–83; pl. XXI, no. 850–51; for the Fayyum, see Tait 1991: 60–61; for Elephantine, see Rodziewicz 2005: 94; pl. 8: 166, 179; for Alexandria, see Kucharczyk 2010a: 65; for Berenike, see Francis 2000: 220; pl. 9-7. 32. Online database of the Amheida project, www.amheida.com, e.g., Inv. nos. 302; 304; 3549. 33. Molds for segmenting tubes of drawn glass have been found in Alexandria: see Kucharczyk 2011: 64–66. 34. Wadi Qitna: see Then-Obłuska 2016: 43–45; fig. 6, no. P 3039, and fig. 7, no. P.3041. Berenike: see Then-Obłuska 2015: 756; figs. 5.7 and 5.9. See also Arveiller-Dulong and Nenna 2011: 175, no. 214; Lankton 2003: fig. 7.0, 636. 35. Amheida: see Cervi 2015a: cat. no. 11.6; fig. 11.2; Ἁin el-Labakha: see Ibrahim et al. 2008: 131; Inv. 3405; Dabashiya: see Dunand, Ibrahim, and Lichtenberg 2012: 74; Inv. 3633; Berenike: see Then-Obłuska 2015: 759; fig. 5.32; Francis 2000: 224. See also Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London, for Lahun: UC 6781 and Qau: UC 26330 and 26347. 36. For manufacturing technique see Spaer 2001: 130–39; for widespread occurrence of gold-in-glass beads see Boon 1977. For a recent discussion and bibliography, see Then-Obłuska and Dussubieux 2016: 86. 37. Spaer 2001: 102–103. 38. Amheida: see Cervi 2015a: cat. no. 11.10; fig. 11.5; Dabashiya: see Dunand, Ibrahim, and Lichtenberg 2012: 71 (Inv. 3585); fig. 139–141; Quseir el-Qadim: see Meyer 1982: 226; pl. 59g (glass); Mons Porphyrites: see Peacock and Maxfield 2007: 301, n. 11; fig. 12.3. See also Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London, UC 52808 and UC 52809.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

Pl. 11.4: Glass bracelets from Ἁin el-Gedida.

561

562

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

11.3.2. Catalogue [Abbreviations: D – diameter (for bracelets, measured on the inner surface); hD – hole diameter; th – thickness. For abbreviated references, see bibliography.] Bracelets (Pl. 11.4) 1 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 24 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: D: 7.5; 6.8 x 0.7 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section, plain. 2 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 531 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: D: 5; th: 0.6; 3.4 x 0.7 Material: black opaque glass; rare small and medium elongated bubbles Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section, plain. 3 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 532 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: D: 5.5; th: 0.5; 4 x 0.6 Material: black opaque glass; few small elongated bubbles, rare medium Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section, plain, weathered. 4 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 565 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: D: ca. 4; th: 0.5; 3.9 x 0.65 Material: black opaque glass; few small elongated bubbles Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section, plain, weathered, iridescent surface. 5 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 649 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 90 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.4; 5.3 x 0.6

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

563

Material: black opaque glass; rare small globular bubbles Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section; weathered. 6 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 843 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 108 Dimensions: D: 6; th: 0.4; 2.8 x 0.5 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section. 7 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 844 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 130 Dimensions: D: 6; th: 0.45; 1.7 x 0.7 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section. 8 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 845 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: D: 4.6; th: 0.4; 5.35 x 0.6 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section; slightly deformed when made (bend in center of fragment). 9 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 846 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: D: 7; th: 0.5; 5.05 x 0.75 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section. 10 – Glass bracelet Inventory Number: 1020 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 130 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.5; 1.7 x 0.8 Material: black opaque glass; few small elongated bubbles Technology: drawn Description: semicircular section; weathered.

564

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

011 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 530 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: D: 5.5; th: 0.5; 3.1 x 0.9 Material: black opaque glass; few very small elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; oblique ribs on external surface. 12 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 18 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.75; 1.9 x 1.15 Material: black opaque glass; rare small globular, rare medium elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, tooled Description: semicircular section; ribs on external surface. 13 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 23 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: D: 7; th: 0.45; 1.75 x 0.9 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn, tooled Description: semicircular section; oblique ribs on external surface. 14 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 559 Findspot: area A, DSU 0 Dimensions: D: 8; 1.3 x 0.6 Material: black opaque glass; many small elongated bubbles, few medium, rare big Technology: drawn, tooled Description: complete; uneven semicircular section; on external surface oblique ribs bordered by two cordons; weathered, reddish-green patina on surface. 15 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 560 Findspot: area A, DSU 0 Dimensions: D: 8; 1.35 x 0.55 Material: black opaque glass; very many small elongated bubbles, few small and medium Technology: drawn, tooled Description: complete; uneven semicircular section; on external surface horizontal and oblique ribs bordered by two cordons; weathered, reddish-green patina on surface.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

565

16 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 594 Findspot: area B, room B10, DSU 80 Dimensions: D: 5; 2.2 x 0.35 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; ribs on external surface. 17 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 595 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: D: 6; th: 0.5; 2.15 x 0.8 Material: black opaque glass; few small elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; oblique ribs on external surface; weathered. 18 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 650 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 91 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.65; 1.9 x 1.3 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; horizontal ribs on external surface. 19 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 551 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 91 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.7; 2.75 x 1.7 Material: black opaque glass; many small, rare medium, rare big globular bubbles; rare medium and rare big elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; on external surface oblique ribs bordered by two cordons; slightly weathered. 20 - Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 806 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: D: ca. 5; th: 0.45; 3.1 x 0.7 Material: black opaque glass; few small elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; on external surface horizontal ribs; weathered.

566

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

21 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 833 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 97 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.6; 1.65 x 1.3 Material: black opaque glass; many small globular, rare small elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, tooled Description: semicircular section; on external surface horizontal ribs; slightly weathered. 22 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 834 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 118 Dimensions: D: ca 5; th: 0.4; 2.1 x 0.8 Material: black opaque glass; few small globular voids Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; on external surface oblique ribs. 23 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 842 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 108 Dimensions: D: ca 7; th: 0.45; 2.6 x 0.9 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; on external surface horizontal ribs. 24 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 847 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: D: 4.5; th: 0.45; 2.5 x 0.8 Material: black opaque glass Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; on external surface horizontal ribs; join visible on inner side. 25 – Glass bracelet, ribbed Inventory Number: 1055 Findspot: area B, room B23, DSU 147 Dimensions: D: n/a; th: 0.8; 1.2 x 1 Material: black opaque glass; many small elongated bubbles, few medium Technology: drawn, tooled Description: uneven semicircular section; on external surface deep horizontal ribs made using a blunt tool or rod; fragmentary, weathered.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

Pl. 11.5: Various objects of personal adornment from Ἁin el-Gedida.

567

568

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Beads and pendants (Pl. 11.5) 26 – Bes amulet Inventory Number: 5 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 8 Dimensions: 2.05 x 2.10; th 0.8; hD: 0.2 Material: faience with light blue and yellow glaze Technology: mold-made; seam visible on sides Description: double-faced pendant (both sides the same); head missing; beard and nose or mouth, hands, penis and feet marked with yellow glaze - circular perforation lengthwise through neck; broken along axis of perforation. Parallels: Cervi 2015a: no. 11.10, fig. 11.5; Amheida inv. nos. 3233; 11260; 11262; 11601 27 – Bead Inventory Number: 19 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: 0.8 x 0.4; hD: 0.1 Material: two layers of transparent colorless glass with gold leaf in between Technology: drawn, segmented; sandwich glass Description: cylindrical with circular perforation; slightly tapered on one end; complete. 28 – Bead Inventory Number: 1016 Findspot: area B, room B13, F153 Dimensions: D: 0.75; l. 0.45; hD: 0.3 Material: two layers of colorless transparent glass with gold leaf inserted in between Technology: wound or folded around mandrel Description: biconical with circular perforation; chipped at ends; cracked; weathered. 29 – Bead Inventory Number: 20 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: 0.5 x 0.3; hD: 0.1 Material: blue opaque glass Technology: drawn, tooled Description: elongated cornerless cuboid with circular perforation; 4 rhomboidal faces; complete. Parallels: Cervi 2015a: 11.6, fig. 11.2; Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3029 30 – Bead Inventory Number: 1023 Findspot: area B, room B17, DSU 160

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

569

Dimensions: D: 1.05; l: 1.1; hD: 0.25 Material: cobalt blue opaque glass Technology: wound, tooled Description: globular, ribbed (“melon” bead) with circular perforation; complete; weathered; white patina and iridescence. 31 – Bead Inventory Number: 812 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 110 Dimensions: D: 1.4; l: 1.3; th: 0.4; hD: 0.4 Material: black and yellow opaque glass Technology: wound and subsequently reworked on rod Description: large, spherical with circular perforation; applied fused-in thread of yellow glass in zig-zag pattern on surface; complete; weathered. 32 – Bead Inventory Number: 1090 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 90 Dimensions: D: 0.85; l. 0.6; hD: 0.3; disk D: 0.3-0.5 Material: turquoise opaque glass with applied red and white opaque glass paste “eyes” Technology: wound with applied decoration Description: globular, slightly flattened at both ends; three disks of red and white glass attached along girth; circular perforation; incomplete; 4 joining fragments; weathered. Parallels: Petrie Museum inv. no. UC22261 33 – Bead Inventory Number: 661 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 94 Dimensions: 0.3 x 0.5; hD: 0.1 Material: light blue opaque glass Technology: folded around rod Description: biconical with circular perforation; complete; one end chipped; weathered, white patina. 34 – Bead Inventory Number: 1022 Findspot: area B, room B24, DSU 180 Dimensions: D: 0.6; l. 0.4; hD: 0.1 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound? Description: biconical with circular perforation; complete; weathered; white patina.

570

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

35 – Bead Inventory Number: 664 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 90 Dimensions: 0.7 x 1.3; hD: 0.2 Material: light green transparent glass Technology: folded around rod; flattened by placing on flat surface before cooling Description: drop-shaped with circular perforation; chipped; complete; weathered; uneven surface. 36 – Bead Inventory Number: 810 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 110 Dimensions: 0.75 x 0.5; th: 0.3; hD: 0.1 Material: green transparent glass Technology: folded around rod, flattened Description: drop-shaped with circular perforation; complete; the extremities are chipped; weathered. 37 – Bead Inventory Number: 811 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 91 Dimensions: 1 x 0.6; th: 0.4; hD: 0.2 Material: colorless transparent glass Technology: folded around rod, flattened by placing against flat surface before cooling Description: drop-shaped with circular perforation; complete; weathered; iridescence in places. 38 – Bead Inventory Number: 819 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 107 Dimensions: 0.8 x 0.5; th: 0.35; hD: 0.1 Material: dark green opaque glass Technology: folded around rod Description: drop-shaped, slightly flattened on two sides, with circular perforation; complete; weathered. 39 – Bead Inventory Number: 1013 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 128 Dimensions: D: 0.5; l. 0.8; hD: 0.1 Material: dark green transparent glass Technology: folded around rod Description: drop-shaped with circular perforation; complete; chipped on ends; weathered.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

571

40 – Bead Inventory Number: 831 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 137 Dimensions: D: 0.5; l: 1.05; hD: 0.25 Material: green transparent glass; many medium elongated bubbles Technology: wound Description: tubular bead with circular perforation; chipped; weathered. Parallels: Amheida inv. no. 16056 41 – Bead Inventory Number: 832 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 137 Dimensions: D: 0.5; l: 0.9; hD: 0.25 Material: blue transparent glass; many small globular bubbles Technology: wound Description: tubular bead with circular perforation; incomplete; 2 fragments; weathered. 42 – Bead Inventory Number: 807 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: D. 0.95; l: 1.2; th. segments: 0.25; hD: 0.5 Material: blue opaque glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: two joining fragments of bead consisting of 5 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered; white patina. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3039 43 – Bead Inventory Number: 808 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: D. 0.8; l: 0.5; th. segments: 0.25; hD: 0.4 Material: blue opaque glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 2 segments; circular perforation. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3039 44 – Bead Inventory Number: 1010 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: D: 0.55; l: 1.5; hD: 0.2 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented

572

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Description: consists of 3 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 45 – Bead Inventory Number: 1011 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 132 Dimensions: D: 0.5; l: 0.95; hD: 0.2 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 2 segments; circular perforation; chipped; incomplete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 46 – Bead Inventory Number: 1012 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 146 Dimensions: D: 0.6; l: 1.3; hD: 0.25 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 3 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 47 – Bead Inventory Number: 1014 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: D: 0.5; l: 0.7; hD: 0.25 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 2 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 48 – Bead Inventory Number: 1015 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 124 Dimensions: D: 0.5; l. 0.9; hD: 0.2 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 3 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 49 – Bead Inventory Number: 1017 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 86 Dimensions: D: 0.6; l: 1.4; hD: 0.2

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

573

Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 3 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 50 – Bead Inventory Number: 1054 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 173 Dimensions: D: 0.55; l: 1.3; hD: 0.25 Material: dark blue transparent glass Technology: wound, segmented Description: consists of 3 segments; circular perforation; complete; weathered. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2016: P 3041 51 – Bead Inventory Number: 809 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 94 Dimensions: D. 0.5; l: 0.3; hD: 0.15 Material: green transparent glass Technology: wound Description: spherical, slightly flattened on both ends; circular perforation; complete; weathered. 52 – Bead Inventory Number: 1028 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 188 Dimensions: D: 1.45; l: 1.25; hD: 0.25 Material: light blue glass Technology: wound Description: spherical, flattened at both ends; complete; weathered; iridescent. 53 – Bead Inventory Number: 1214 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 91 Dimensions: 1.7 x 0.7 x 0.4; hD: 0.15 Material: light green transparent glass; rare medium elongated bubbles Technology: drawn, slumped by reheating? Description: circular, flattened on two sides; circular perforation; complete; weathered. 54 – Bead Inventory Number: 662 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 90 Dimensions: 0.4 x 0.3; hD: 0.1 Material: light blue opaque glass

574

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Technology: drawn, segmented Description: spherical, slightly flattened on both ends with circular perforation; complete; weathered. 55 – Bead Inventory Number: 835 Findspot: area B, room B14, DSU 122 Dimensions: 0.3 x 0.4; hD: 0.1 Material: aquamarine green transparent glass Technology: drawn, segmented Description: flattened spherical bead with circular perforation; complete. 56 – Bead? Inventory Number: 1036 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: 1.5 x 1.1; th: 0.8 Material: shell, Nassarius gibbosulus (L.) Technology: drilled / punctured Description: perforation intentionally made; complete. The species is common in the Eastern Mediterranean. Parallels: Then-Obłuska 2015: 739; fig. 1.17 Other (Pl. 11.5) 57 – Ring or earring Inventory Number: 567 Findspot: area B, room B6, DSU 61 Dimensions: th: 0.2; D: 3; bezel D: 0.8; bezel th: 0.6 Material: copper alloy Technology: hand-wrought Description: two joining fragments of incomplete ring or earring with circular bezel; oxidized; corroded. 58 – Hairpin fragment Inventory Number: 1021 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: D: 1.35 Material: bone Technology: wheel-worked; tooled Description: globular head of a hairpin decorated along girth with 3 incised circles with dot inside, bordered on top and bottom by pairs of parallel incised lines; incised decoration filled with black substance (pitch?); incomplete, shank missing. Parallels: Petrie 1927: pl. XIX

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

575

59 – Ring Inventory Number: 1050 Findspot: area B, room B13, DSU 115 Dimensions: 0.95 x 0.65; th: 0.6; collet D: 0.65 Material: copper alloy Technology: hand-wrought Description: collet with dark blue opaque glass bezel; only a small part of the wire, probably of a finger-ring, remains; oxidized; corroded.

11.4. Miscellaneous Objects 11.4.1. Introduction The finds belonging to categories included in this section, personal belongings and elements of dress, furnishings of houses, tools and accessories, provide important data on several aspects of life in Ἁin el-Gedida. Other pieces may give a glimpse of the community’s funerary customs. Aside from the objects of personal adornment and textiles presented in previous sections, personal effects are few. Worthy of mention is a wooden comb (1), a leather belt decorated with an incised pattern (31),39 and a fragmentary sole of a shoe (20) woven of plant fiber ropes. Such shoes are common at Kellis, where they appear in all sizes in third- and fourth-century contexts.40 Household furnishings include pieces of wooden furniture – decorative finials and knobs (6–8).41 Some iron nails, no doubt used to assemble elements of wooden objects, were also found. Other finds testify to various household activities on site, for instance yarn spinning. Among the wooden objects are two spindle whorls (2–3), and it is in their context that we should perhaps view two pegs (4, 5), similar to finds interpreted as accessories for loom weaving.42 Particularly the evidence for spinning, an activity usually performed by women, provides indication of a female presence at the settlement.43 Other household objects are ropes (11–19), iron blades (24–26), a weight (38) and a grinding stone (37). The terracotta figurines (33–36) from Ἁin el-Gedida are few but worthy of attention, and two objects (35, 36) are especially important owing to their good state of preservation. Kellis provides the closest parallels for all of these artifacts,44 but, since they were mostly handmodelled, no exact parallels can be expected. It seems that the figurines were manufactured locally, within the Great Oasis. Three are formed by hand, though one seems to have been mold-made. 39. Winlock and Crum 1926: 77; fig. 31b; pl. XXVI B. 40. Shoes with a similar sole: Kellis: see Hope 2003: pl. 70 and fig. 24.b; Bowen 2002b: pls. 16–17. Also Douch: see Dunand et al. 1992: T. 8, Inv. 406, pl. 90.2–4; T. 53, Inv. 1408, pl. 91.2. 41. Sankiewicz 2008: fig. 1.3; Winlock and Crum 1926: 55–56; fig. 16–17; pl. XV C, D. 42. Winlock and Crum 1926: 70. 43. Gällnö 2013; Bagnall and Worp 2011. Weaving, in turn is attested for both sexes. For the involvement of women and men in textile production in the Dakhla Oasis, see Gardner 2000 and Gardner et al. 1999: 46. 44. See Stevens 2002.

576

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Late Roman figurines are thought to have had a range of functions, both secular and religious.45 They formed an important part of private religious practices and were donated as votive offerings to temples. Some pieces may have been used as toys or kept for ornamental purposes. The function of figurines from Ἁin el-Gedida is difficult to assess. A well-preserved anthropomorphic figurine (36) represents a standing woman holding a circular object that may be interpreted as a tambourine.46 This figure, clothed in a long robe and showing details of coiffure but devoid of sexual traits, is typical for Late Antiquity.47 It is difficult to determine whether the figurine had religious significance or a purely secular function, but no attributes permit us to associate it with any type of cult. It may be understood also in a Christian context, as similar objects found at Abu Mina seem to have had a votive function.48 Another nearly complete figurine is a representation of a horse (35).49 Traces of attachment on the back indicate that it originally had a saddle or cargo load, but there are no traces of a rider. In this case a religious or votive function cannot be ascribed and the figurine might have simply been a toy. The fragments of mummy cartonnage (45) seem to belong to the chest, with fragments of the wig and collar with geometrical decoration.50 This find should probably be associated with a cemetery at Ἁin el-Gedida, located in a different part of the site and not investigated to date. Their deposition in a subsurface layer of room B20 was likely secondary and may perhaps be attributed to the activity of robbers, who left behind pieces of broken cartonnage after dismantling a burial retrieved from the cemetery.51 Pieces of gypsum plaster from statuary (42–44) representing a head with curly hair, a hand, and a bunch of grapes are difficult to interpret because of their fragmentary nature. However, they may also be viewed in a funerary context. The fragments may have belonged to one object, for instance a funerary stela with a representation of a male figure holding a bunch of grapes, similar to those known, e.g., from Oxyrhynchos and dated to the fourth–fifth century.52 If this interpretation is correct, then in the case of the object from Ἁin el-Gedida the finer details such as the hair, hand, and grapes would have been rendered in a coat of plaster applied on the surface of a stone stela. However, with these small, scattered fragments any attempt at a hypothetical reconstruction is mere speculation.

45. Dunand 1979: 1–161; for domestic cult in general, see Frankfurter 1998: 132–42. 46. Kellis: see Stevens 2002: 283, no 11. For figures holding tambourines, such as Harpocrates, Isis and the so-called servants of Isis, see Dunand 1979: cat. nos. 80–94; Dunand 1990: nos. 59, 251, 404–6; 522–31; Fisher 1994: nos. 1 and 887; Fjeldhagen 1995: no. 105; for figures holding round mirrors, see Fisher 1994: no. 669; Fjeldhagen 1995: no. 137. 47. See Frankfurter 2014. 48. For figurines of standing females holding circular objects, see Kaufmann 1910: pl. 73.1, 3, 5. 49. Stevens 2002: 282; Dunand 1990: nos. 840, 842, 844–59; Fisher 1994: nos. 1001–14; Fjeldhagen 1995: nos. 179–80; Török 1995: nos. 269–74. 50. For parallels, see, e.g., Schweitzer 2002. 51. See section 6.4 in this volume, particularly p. 247. 52. See, e.g., Brooklyn Museum, 71.39.2 (see Parlasca 1978).

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

Pl. 11.6: Wooden objects from Ἁin el-Gedida.

577

578

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

11.4.2. Catalogue (Pls. 11.6–10) [Abbreviations: D – diameter; hD – hole diameter; h: height; l: length; th – thickness. For abbreviated references, see bibliography. All measurements are in centimeters.] Wood (Pls. 11.6–7) 1 – Comb Inventory Number: 36 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: 3.7 x 5; th: 0.7 Material: wood Technology: carved Description: double-sided comb. One side is fine-toothed; the other has larger teeth. One edge is missing. Incomplete. Parallels: Petrie 1927: pl. XX–XXI 2 – Spindle whorl Inventory Number: 573 Findspot: area B, room B10, DSU 80 Dimensions: D: 3.6; hD: 0.6; th: 1.5 Material: soft wood Technology: carved; wheel-worked Description: upper surface slightly convex and decorated with 2 concentric incised lines. Lower surface flat. One deep groove closer to the flat side and two incised lines along the circumference. Complete. Parallels: Hope 2003: 263, fig. 18n 3 – Spindle whorl Inventory Number: 1048 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: D: 3.9; hD: 0.6; h: 1.9 Material: wood Technology: carved; wheel-worked Description: spindle whorl with semicircular section. Circular hole through center. Horizontal parallel lines incised on convex surface. Pale surface finish. Incomplete, weathered, cracked. Parallels: Hope 2003: 263, fig. 18n 4 – Peg Inventory Number: 572 Findspot: area B, room B6, DSU 58 Dimensions: 7.4 x 2.3, th: 1.5; shank: l: 5.1, w: 0.9, th: 1.5

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

579

Material: wood Technology: carved Description: rectangular section; head rounded; point missing. Incomplete, weathered. Parallels: Winlock and Crum 1926: pl. XX, b 5 – Peg Inventory Number: 575 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 75 Dimensions: D: 0.4-0.8; l: 4.3 Material: wood Technology: carved Description: small peg with circular section. Two small parallel grooves around the circumference of the head. Complete, weathered. Parallels: Winlock and Crum 1926: pl. XX, b 6 – Finial Inventory Number: 1047 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 101 Dimensions: 2.7 x 1.55 x 4.15 Material: Wood Technology: carved, wheel-worked Description: fragment of a round decorative element of furniture. Nearly half is preserved with part of a tenon. Incomplete, weathered. Parallels: Winlock and Crum 1926: pl. XV, c 7 – Piece of furniture Inventory Number: 586 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: D: 2; h: 12.4 Material: wood Technology: carved, wheel-worked Description: object in the shape of a cylinder. Almost half is preserved. On both ends incised lines around the circumference. Fragmentary; weathered. 8 – Knob? Inventory Number: 588 Findspot: area B, room B10, DSU 80 Dimensions: D: 3.6; hD: 0.6; h: 4.1 Material: wood Technology: carved; wheel-worked Description: globular object with circular hole, possibly a knob broken where it was attached. Perforated along the axis. Incomplete, weathered.

580

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

9 – Wedge or board Inventory Number: 585 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: 19.5 x 8.5; th: 1.8 Material: wood Technology: carved Description: board, one end carved into a point, probably a wedge. Fragmentary; weathered. 10 – Stopper? Inventory Number: 587 Findspot: area B, room B10, DSU 80 Dimensions: D: 4.8; h: 3.8 Material: wood Technology: carved Description: probably a stopper in the shape of a cylinder slightly tapering to one end. Incomplete. Parallels: Cervi 2015c: cat. no. 18.4 Cordage 11 – Rope Inventory Number: 13 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 11 Dimensions: l: 10; th. 0.4; single strand th: 0.4 Material: light brown vegetal fibers Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Fragmentary, frayed. 12 – Rope Inventory Number: 14 Findspot: area B, room B3, DSU 7 Dimensions: l: 10; th: 0.4; single strand th: 0.3 Material: light brown vegetal fibers Technology: hand rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Fragmentary, frayed. 13 – Rope Inventory Number: 15 Findspot: area B, room B3, DSU 7 Dimensions: l: 23; th: 0.4, single strand th: 0.3 Material: light brown vegetal fibers Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Fragmentary, frayed.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

14 – Rope Inventory Number: 16 Findspot: area B, room B3, DSU 10 Dimensions: l: 15.5; th: 0.4; single strand th: 0.2 Material: light brown vegetal fibers Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Fragmentary, frayed. 15 – Rope Inventory Number: 592 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: l: 6.9, th: 0.65; single strand th: 0.2; slip knot th: 2.1 Material: light brown vegetal fibers Technology: hand-rolled Description: folded, 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Incomplete. 16 – Rope Inventory Number: 820 Findspot: area B, room B12, DSU 95 Dimensions: l: 5.6; th: 0.4; single strand th: 0.2 Material: dark brown plant fiber Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Fragmentary, frayed. 17 – Rope Inventory Number: 836 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 97 Dimensions: l: 16; th. 0.8; single strand th: 0.3 Material: brown plant fiber Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Incomplete, slightly frayed. 18 – Rope Inventory Number: 837 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 97 Dimensions: l: 27, th: 0.5; single strand th: 0.4 Material: brown plant fiber Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Incomplete, one end slightly frayed. 19 – Rope Inventory Number: 838 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 97

581

582

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 11.7: Miscellaneous objects from Ἁin el-Gedida.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

583

Dimensions: l: 8.7; th: 0.6; single strand th: 0.4 Material: brown plant fiber Technology: hand-rolled Description: 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Fragmentary. 20 – Shoe sole (Pl. 11.7) Inventory Number: 22 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: 12.6 x 7.4; th: 0.75; rope th: 0.4; single strand th: 0.2 Material: plant fiber Technology: hand-rolled, woven Description: shoe sole, end missing. Adult size. Warp and weft of 2-ply rope. Comprises 5 warps at the widest point. The rope is 2-ply, z-spun, s-plied (S2z). Incomplete, frayed. Parallels: Bowen 2002b: pls. 16–17 Metal (Pl. 11.7) 21 – Nail Inventory Number: 574 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: l: 4.5, D: 2.1; shank l: 3.3; th: 1.1 x 1 Material: iron Technology: hand wrought Description: nail with circular (?) head and rectangular shank. Head fragmentary, point missing. Incomplete, oxidized, and corroded. 22 – Nail Inventory Number: 581 Findspot: area B, room B7, DSU 45 Dimensions: 2.9 x 1; th: 1 Material: iron Technology: hand wrought Description: shank of a nail with rectangular section. Fragmentary; oxidized, and corroded. 23 – Nail Inventory Number: 1088 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 94 Dimensions: l: 7.1; D: 0.9 Material: iron Technology: hand wrought Description: shank of a nail probably with circular section, tapering to a point. Head missing. Incomplete; oxidized, and corroded.

584

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

24 – Blade Inventory Number: 1084 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: 7 x 2.2; th: 1.3 Material: iron Technology: hand wrought Description: flat elongated object tapering to a point; the other end is fragmentary. Incomplete, oxidized, and corroded. 25 – Blade? Inventory Number: 1085 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 132 Dimensions: 5.4 x 2.2; th: 1 Material: iron Technology: hand wrought Description: flat elongated object tapering to a point; the other end is fragmentary. Incomplete, oxidized, and corroded. 26 – Blade? Inventory Number: 1087 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 132 Dimensions: 5.4 x 2.2; th: 1 Material: iron Technology: hand wrought Description: flat elongated object, both ends fragmentary. Incomplete, oxidized, corroded. 27 – Handle Inventory Number: 551 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 35 Dimensions: 1.75 x 0.7; th: 0.35 Material: copper alloy Technology: smelted Description: handle of a bronze vessel. Incomplete, oxidized, and corroded. 28 – Metal object Inventory Number: 533 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 28 Dimensions: 1.3 x 1; th: 0.2 Material: copper alloy Technology: smelted, hand wrought Description: fragment of a hook or clasp (?). Fragmentary, oxidized, and corroded.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

585

29 – Metal object Inventory Number: 1051 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: 2.7 x 0.9; th: 0.5; wire D: 0.2; rings D: 0.7 Material: copper alloy Technology: hand wrought Description: two wires, bent and twisted, forming two interlocked rings. Incomplete. 30 – Metal object Inventory Number: 1089 Findspot: area B, room B11, DSU 90 Dimensions: 3.5 x 1.3; wire D: 0.3 Material: copper alloy Technology: hand wrought Description: Two joining fragments of wire, bent. Complete? Oxidized. Leather 31 – Belt (Pl. 11.7) Inventory Number: 564 Findspot: area B, room B6, DSU 39 Dimensions: 6.7 x 3.3; th: 0.25 Material: leather Technology: hand-made; incised Description: probably a belt. The external surface is decorated with a series of parallel lines incised crosswise on the surface and bordered by two lengthwise rows of small circles. A single row of small incised circles also runs along both edges of the belt. Fragmentary. Parallels: Winlock and Crum 1926: pl. XXVI, b 32 – Leather object Inventory Number: 1083 Findspot: area B, room B18, DSU 149 Dimensions: largest fragment: 2.3 x 1.7; th: 0.1 Material: leather Technology: hand-made Description: 10 fragments of leather object, some of them joining. Along the preserved edge there is a seam stitched with a leather thong.

586

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 11.8: Terracottas from Ἁin el-Gedida.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

587

Terracottas (Pl. 11.8) 33 – Head of figurine Inventory Number: 27 Findspot: area B, room B4, DSU 15 Dimensions: 2.9 x 2.5; th: 1.6 Material: Beige-gray clay with light brown core Technology: hand made, fired Description: head molded around a pit. Eyes, mouth and hair incised and painted red. Elaborate hairstyle or headdress with tripartite division above forehead. Hair modeled with incised horizontal and vertical lines. A protrusion on forehead. Right eye and part of left eye preserved. Incomplete. 34 – Figurine fragment Inventory Number: 568 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 26 Dimensions: 5.3 x 5.1; th. 2.2 Material: clay, fabric A2b Technology: mold-made, fired Description: Only part of the front is preserved with two raised elongated elements with semicircular section. Vertical grooves on the elements. Fragmentary; weathered. 35 – Horse figurine Inventory Number: 1003 Findspot: area B, room B15, DSU 129 Dimensions: 9.2 x 2.95 x 7.7 Material: fired clay, fabric A2b, remains of beige slip, possibly traces of reddish paint on head and neck Technology: hand modeled, solid; fired Description: the figurine is nearly complete, with only the protruding tip of the head broken off. The front and hind legs are modeled as two solid stumps. The long tail is formed as a projection from the back of the figure, adjoining the hind legs. The ears are marked protrusions at the top of the head. The mane and tail are marked with incised, diagonal grooves. The eyes are impressed dots in the front of the head. Two shallow indentations on the animal’s back indicate that something was attached to it, possibly a saddle or cargo load. The missing element was also of clay and fired together with the horse figurine, but was poorly attached and fell away. There are no such marks on the animal’s flanks, but it cannot be excluded that it carried a rider. Right ear and muzzle broken off. Incomplete, weathered and chipped. Parallels: Stevens 2002: 286–88 (nos. 20–29); figs. 2–5, p. 282

588

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

36 – Woman holding tambourine (?) Inventory Number: 1004 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 146 Dimensions: 3.1 x 2.6 x 8.6 Material: clay, fabric A1b with white and reddish slip Technology: hand modeled, solid; fired Description: standing female figure. The body has the form of a roughly formed cylinder. Traces of paint or slip, red on the head and arms, white on the garment. Rough, uneven surface. The figurine shows a woman wearing an elaborate late Antonine-era hairstyle. Tight curls above the forehead are represented by applying a lump of clay and decorating it with a row of circular impressions. There is a small bun at the top of the head, adorned with further dots. The eyes are two horizontal slits made using a stick. The nose is plastically rendered. The figure is represented dressed in a long robe. The arms are attached in the front at mid-height and folded round a circular object, perhaps a tambourine or possibly a mirror or vessel. The feet are cursorily marked with two indentations. Complete; right foot chipped off, weathered. Parallels: Kaufmann 1910: pl. 73.1, 3, 5 Stone and Plaster (Pls. 11.9–10) 37 – Grinding stone Inventory Number: 26 Findspot: area B, room B5, DSU 20 Dimensions: 40 x 24 x 12 Material: sandstone Technology: hewn, smoothed Description: lower part (passive element) of a grinding stone. The upper surface is concave and smoothed. The lower part is flat and roughly worked. Complete. 38 – Weight Inventory Number: 590 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: 5.5 x 4.3; th: 4; hD: 1.3 Material: sandstone Technology: worked Description: probably weight with uneven cylindrical shape and circular hole drilled lengthwise. Complete; weathered. 39 – Stopper Inventory Number: 593 Findspot: area B, room B9, DSU 79 Dimensions: 3.4 x 3; th: 0.8 Material: gypsum

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

Pl. 11.9: Stone and plaster objects from Ἁin el-Gedida.

589

590

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Pl. 11.10: Gypsum and cartonnage fragments from Ἁin el-Gedida.

Small finds from ‘Ain el-Gedida: Other Categories

591

Technology: hand made Description: R: convex surface with textile impressions and grooves possibly from wrinkles of the textile. V: impression probably of rim and wall of a lid. Fragmentary; weathered. 40 – Stopper? Inventory Number: 599 Findspot: area B, room B10, DSU 80 Dimensions: 10.7 x 10.3 x 3.2; th: 1.2 Material: gypsum mortar Technology: hand made Description: circular object, possibly a stopper to close a spout or hole in the body of a vessel. The upper surface is convex; the bottom surface is concave with the impression of wheel marks of the vessel and in the middle a lump of mortar. Incomplete. 41 – Stopper Inventory Number: 1052 Findspot: area B, room B19, DSU 171 Dimensions: 10.2 x 9.2 x 4.6 Material: light brown clay; medium texture, very many fine and medium vegetal inclusions, few big, many fine sand inclusions, many fine voids, few medium, rare big Technology: hand made Description: circular stopper. Upper surface: slightly convex with pottery sherd embedded (tag?); bottom surface: convex with the impression of the inner rim of the vessel. Incomplete, cracked. Parallels: Davoli 2016: cat. no. 9.3 42 – Statue Inventory Number: 1039 Findspot: area B, room B21, DSU 141 Dimensions: 4.4 x 2.3 x 3.5; th: 0.8 Material: gypsum Technology: mold-made, hollow Description: part of a small statue. Hand clenched into a fist with the index finger extended; thumb and index finger fragmentary; wrist not preserved. The same context yielded other gypsum fragments that may have been part of the same statue. Fragmentary. 43 – Statue Inventory Number: 1040 Findspot: area B, room B21, DSU 141 Dimensions: 7.5 x 4 x 6.5; th: 0.9 Material: gypsum Technology: mold-made, hollow

592

‘Ain el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

Description: part of a small statue, probably of a man. 4 joining fragments of a head with curly hair; only the back of the head is preserved. The same context yielded other gypsum fragments, including curls, that may have been part of the same statue. Fragmentary. 44 – Statue? Inventory Number: 1043 Findspot: area B, room B20, DSU 143 Dimensions: 3.5 x 4.1 x 4.3 Material: gypsum plaster Technology: mold-made Description: a cluster of 7 circular grapes with stem. On the back, possibly in the place of attachment, a textile impression. May have also been an architectural molding, a capital of a small column decorated with a bunch of grapes. Lower part fragmentary. Incomplete. 45– Cartonnage Inventory Number: 1053 Findspot: area B, room B20, DSU 143 Dimensions: largest fragment: 9.5 x 6.2; th: 0.8 Material: gypsum, painted beige, black, red, pink and light blue Technology: hand formed Description: many fragments of cartonnage made of gypsum plaster on textile. Recognizable fragments are part of the wig and chest. The wig is decorated with parallel ribs (black and brown), the collar in Egyptian style with geometric patterns: checkerboard, cornices and feathers, probably from wings. On the back the fragments preserve impressions of textile from wrappings. Fragmentary.

12 Animal Bone Remains from Ἁin el-Gedida Pamela J. Crabtree and Douglas V. Campana 12.1. Materials and Methods Over 1900 animal bones and fragments recovered from the excavations at Ἁin el-Gedida in the Dakhla Oasis in Western Egypt were studied during January of 2011. The following information was recorded for each bone fragment: species, body part, portion, and degree of fragmentation. The condition of the bones, including evidence for weathering, gnawing, and butchery, was also recorded. Ageing data were based on both epiphyseal fusion of the long bones (Silver 1969) and dental eruption and wear (Grant 1982), and bone measurements were recorded following von den Driesch (1976). Measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 mm using a vernier caliper. The data were recorded on a personal computer using FAUNA, a Windows-based update to the ANIMALS program (Crabtree and Campana 1987; Campana 2010).

12.2. Results The animal species identified are listed in Table 12.1, and a complete faunal inventory is available from the authors. Bones that could not be identified to species were assigned to a number of higher-order taxa. These include large mammal or “cattle-sized” fragments and small 593

594

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

artiodactyl or “sheep-sized” fragments. The fowl-sized remains are almost certainly chicken, since no other bird species was identified, and the equid remains are likely to be donkey. The rat-sized rodents are probably rats. As is the case for many other Roman-period sites in Egypt (see, for example, Hamilton-Dyer 2001), the faunal remains were identified without access to a systematic comparative collection. The identifications were based on identification guides (e.g., Cohen and Serjeantson 1996, Schmid 1972) and personal experience. As Table 12.1 shows, the Ἁin el-Gedida faunal collection is dominated by the remains of domestic mammals, including pigs, caprines (sheep and goats), donkeys, and cattle. Small numbers of both sheep and goat bones were identified, following Boessneck et al. (1964), but the vast majority of the remains were indeterminate sheep/goat fragments. All the identified bird bones were those of domestic chickens, and chickens are the most common bird species at the neighboring site of Amheida as well. Chickens would have been an important source of both meat and eggs. Despite the presence of a dovecote, there was no clear evidence for pigeons (Columba livia) at the site. This is not unexpected. While both chickens and pigeons were recovered from the House of Serenos and the adjacent bath complex, chicken bones far outnumbered pigeon bones. Many of the bones from Ἁin el-Gedida show cracking and fragmentation as a result of salt encrustation (see below), and many of the bird bone fragments are small pieces of bone that are difficult to identify to species. If pigeons were raised primarily for their manure, their bones are less likely to end up as domestic rubbish than chicken bones. A small number of gazelle (Gazella dorcas) bones was recovered, indicating that animal husbandry was supplemented by occasional hunting. Although the Ἁin el-Gedida bones were carefully collected, many were in a relatively poor state of preservation. 98 bone fragments were clearly burned or calcined, and burning can often lead to bone fragmentation. Many of the bones were encrusted with salt deposits, and this may also have led to bone fragmentation as well. A number of the bones showed clear evidence for rodent gnawing, but very few had obvious signs of weathering. The species ratios for the large domestic mammals were calculated based on fragment counts or NISP (number of identified specimens per taxon), following Lyman (2008). In these calculations, the equid remains were included with the identified donkey bones. The species ratios are shown in Table 12.2, along with the data from Areas 1 and 2 at Amheida. Area 1 is a third-century middle class household that was involved in property management and/or transportation,1 while Area 2 is a wealthy fourth-century urban villa. The data show that the Ἁin el-Gedida assemblage was dominated by the remains of pigs, followed by caprines and donkeys; cattle bones were relatively rare. When compared to the large assemblage from Area 2 at Amheida, the Ἁin el-Gedida faunal collection includes relatively more caprines and donkeys and somewhat fewer cattle and pigs. Both the Ἁin el-Gedida assemblage and the Area 2 faunal collection are dominated by the remains of pigs. The Area 1 assemblage, on the other hand, includes relatively more cattle and donkeys and absolutely no pigs at all. McKinnon (2010) has shown that increased pork consumption is characteristic of Roman sites throughout the Mediterranean, and we have argued elsewhere (Crabtree and Campana 2016) that the high proportions of both pigs and chickens seen at Amheida Area 2 may reflect a high-status 1. For a full report on the faunal remains from Amheida Area 1, see Crabtree and Campana 2015.

Animal Bone Remains

595

Pl. 12.1a–b: Two views of the dog skull recovered from room B19 at Ἁin el-Gedida.

“Romanized” identity. The high numbers of pigs seen at Ἁin el-Gedida may also be a sign of a strong Roman identity. The higher proportions of donkeys and caprines at Ἁin el-Gedida are probably more typical of rural sites in Egypt. Close examination of the cattle remains from Ἁin el-Gedida suggests that they were primarily working animals. All three first phalanges (Table 12.3) show evidence for lipping on the proximal joint surface. This pathological condition is likely to be the result of traction, i.e., the use of cattle to pull ploughs and carts (Bartosiewicz et al. 1997). Pigs, on the other hand, seem to have made up a substantial part of the diet at Ἁin elGedida, as they did at Amheida Area 2. All parts of the pig skeleton are represented in the faunal assemblage (Table 12.3), although skull fragments, maxillae, and mandibles are particularly well represented. The mandibles provide evidence for the ages at which the pigs were killed (Table 12.4). Mandible wear stages (MWS) were calculated for 22 complete or nearly complete mandibles based on the state or eruption or wear on the first, second, and third molars. The youngest pigs (those with a MWS less than or equal to 6) were barely past the suckling stage. These pigs show limited wear on their deciduous (milk) teeth, and they were less than 6 months old when they were slaughtered. These animals would have provided a relatively small amount of meat, but the meat would have been very succulent. Some of the rent deliveries in the Kellis Agricultural Account Book were specifically of a piglet (see Bagnall 1997). The oldest pigs in the assemblage (MWS of 28 to 38) were slaughtered as the third molar was coming into wear. The pigs would have just reached bodily maturity at this age, approximately 2–3 years. No elderly pigs were recovered from the Ἁin el-Gedida assemblage. Not all the faunal remains recovered from Ἁin el-Gedida were the remains of meals. The remains of commensal species, including a dog, a cat, and rodents, were well represented in the faunal assemblage. A partial cat skeleton was recovered from room B10, and the remains of a dog were recovered in room B19. Two views of the dog’s skull are shown in Pls. 12.1a–b. The dog skeleton included a complete radius with a greatest length (GL) of 160.5 mm. This radius came from a dog with a withers height of about 51.7 cm (using Koudelka’s factors following von den Driesch and Boessneck 1974). Although the Ἁin el-Gedida assemblage produced a

596

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

substantial number of donkey bones, there is no clear butchery evidence to suggest that they were part of the diet.

12.3. Conclusions The faunal assemblage from Ἁin el-Gedida is what might be expected from a Late Roman agrarian site. Donkeys and cattle are likely to have served as working animals, while pigs, caprines, and chickens played a major role in the diet. The site was populated by commensal animals, including cats, dogs, and rodents. The diet was supplemented by occasional gazelle hunting, but most of the meat was derived from domestic sources.

Animal Bone Remains

597

Table 12.1: Animal species identified from the Ἁin el-Gedida faunal assemblage. N Domestic Mammals Donkey (Equus asinus)

58

Cattle (Bos taurus)

32

Sheep (Ovis aries)

2

Goat (Capra hircus)

6

Sheep/goat Pig (Sus scrofa) Dog (Canis familiaris) Cat (Felis catus)

58 240 47 5

Wild Mammals Gazelle (Gazella dorcas)

3

Domestic Birds Chicken (Gallus gallus)

8

Higher order taxa Large mammal “cattle-sized” Small artiodactyl Equid Rodent, cf. Rat (Rattus sp.)

29 118 4 12

Unidentified rodent

8

Small carnivore

2

Small mammal

4

Chicken-sized bird

5

Unidentified mammal Unidentified bird Unidentified Total

1277 22 2 1942

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

598

Table 12.2: Species ratios based on NISP for the large domestic mammals from Ἁin el-Gedida and Amheida Areas 1 and 2. Gedida Gedida Area 1 Area 1 Area 2 Area 2 NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP Cattle

32

4.0

22

48.9

240

17.3

Sheep/goat

66

16.5

20

44.4

90

6.5

Pig

240

60.0

0

0.0

1037

74.7

Donkey

62

15.5

3

6.7

21

1.5

Total

400

45

1388

Table 12.3: Body-part distribution for the large domestic mammal remains from Ἁin el-Gedida. Anatomical Element Skull fragment

Cattle

Caprine

Pig

4

1

27

4

23 42

Horn core Maxilla

1

5

Mandible

3

6

Hyoid

1

Vertebrae

4

Rib

Donkey

1 4

14 5

Innominate

3

1

6

3

Femur

2

2

12

2

Patella

1

Tibia

1

4

11

3

Fibula

3

Scapula

1

Humerus

1

2

4

1

9

1

Radius

6

5

1

Ulna

1

3

1

Astragalus

2

1

2

Calcaneus

3

1

Carpals

1

1

1

3

Tarsals

1

2

5

1

1

1

3

6

4

1

10

2

Metacarpus Metatarsus

3

Metapodial First Phalanx

3

1

8

6

Second Phalanx

1

1

6

4

Third Phalanx

2

1

5

3

Sesamoid

5

Loose teeth

4

17

30

13

Total

32

66

240

62

Animal Bone Remains Table 12.4: Mandible wear stages (MWS) for pig mandibles from Ἁin el-Gedida. MWS

N

1 2

1

3

2

4 5

2

6

1

7 8

1

9

1

10

1

11 12 13

1

14

2

15

1

16 17 18

1

19

1

20

2

21 22 23

1

24 25 26 27 28

1

29

1

30 31 32

1

33 34 35 36 37 38

1

599

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Index abandonment, 6, 7, 15, 171, 178, 194, 265, 267, 273–74, 276–77, 284, 453, 459, 462, 463, 511, 545 abba, see apa Abu Mina, 453, 456, 576 access analysis, 195 agriculture, agricultural, 5, 26, 63, 66, 77, 170, 199, 274, 279–81, 509, 595 Ἁin Amour, 4 Ἁin es-Sabil, 7, 10, 15, 453, 508, 526 aisle, 11, 14–15, 19, 205–06, 208–09 Ala I Quadorum, 509 Alexandria, 75, 104, 449–53, 456–57, 470–74, 476–78, 488, 497, 499, 503, 534, 545–47, 560 altar, 471 Amheida, see Trimithis amulet, 80, 560, 568 animal, 10, 32, 34, 100, 149, 152–53, 155, 167, 170–71, 193, 199, 216, 225, 253, 274, 521, 540, 587, 593–96 annona, 80, 281, 509–10, 519, 520–21 Antioch, 450, 453, 471, 488–89, 503 apa, 278, 510, 512–14

apse, 9–12, 15, 17, 19, 29, 82, 89, 93, 98, 100, 104, 159–60, 164, 170, 174, 189–93, 201–05, 208–10, 270 archer, 80, 281, 283, 510, 519–20 army, 281–83 artaba, 281–82, 516, 519–20, 522–23 Aurelian, 448, 472 Bahariya (Oasis), 1, 4, 453 Bakchias, 210 barley, 281, 509–10, 519–21, 526 basilica, 13–14, 19–20, 192, 200, 204–05, 209 basin (bassine), 42, 167, 229, 231, 233, 240–42, 262, 288, 291, 310, 320–22, 332–33, 335, 339–47, 349–52 bead, 32, 80, 155, 163, 166–67, 171, 173, 179, 182, 185, 216, 234, 240, 242, 260, 559–60, 568–74 bench, 9, 14, 17, 98, 109, 113, 196, 202–03, 276; see also mastaba Bes, 80, 518, 560, 568 bottle (bouteille), 166, 293–94, 319, 341, 343, 346, 349, 352, 547 bowl (bol/coupe), 53, 69, 107, 123, 140, 149, 151, 625

626

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155, 185, 242, 248, 253, 271–72, 289–91, 293– 95, 299, 302, 304–05, 309–10, 324–28, 333, 337, 339–52, 545–47, 549–51, 553 -small bowl (coupelle), 248, 253, 289, 291, 295–99, 302, 326, 330, 339–48, 350, 352, 545, 550–51 bracelet, 28, 32, 80, 106, 121, 140, 151, 155–56, 163, 167, 173, 185, 253, 273, 280, 559, 562–66 bread mould (dokka), 288, 291 bread oven, 56, 279 brick, 10–12, 14–15, 17, 19, 27–28, 34–35, 37, 45, 47, 49–51, 53, 55, 59, 61, 63, 66, 68–69, 71, 74–75, 77, 79–80, 82–83, 86, 89, 93, 97–98, 100, 104, 106–107, 109–10, 113, 115–16, 121, 123–24, 126, 131, 133, 135–36, 140, 142–43, 145, 147, 149, 151–53, 155, 163, 166–67, 171, 173–74, 178, 182, 185, 187, 191–92, 194, 196– 97, 201–03, 207, 210–12, 216, 219, 221–23, 225–26, 229, 231, 233–34, 239–43, 247, 249, 251, 253, 257, 259, 262, 265, 267, 269–70, 470 bronze, 31, 53, 100, 104, 106–07, 123, 133, 140, 149, 155–56, 163–64, 166–67, 171, 173, 179, 182, 185–86, 216, 223, 240, 242, 247–48, 253, 259, 343–48, 350–51, 447–48, 535, 584 burial, 7, 10, 14, 18–19, 576; see also tomb camel, 517 camp (military), 282, 466, 477, 480, 497, 505, 509, 515–16 cancelli, 104, 514–16, 522 caravan route, 3, 5 cartonnage, 247, 576, 592 cat, 25, 80, 106, 179, 234, 248, 272, 277, 281, 560, 576, 580, 591, 595–96 cattle, 593–96 ceiling, 17, 83, 106, 153, 176, 202–03, 219, 243, 460; see also roof cemetery/cemeteries, 7, 18, 66, 209, 576 ceramic/ceramics, 7, 10–11, 14, 19, 26, 28, 31, 33, 45, 53, 55, 59–61, 69, 71, 74–75, 79–80, 99– 100, 104, 106–07, 121, 123, 126, 133, 140, 149, 151, 155, 163–64, 166, 171, 173, 185, 189, 196, 204, 216, 222, 225–26, 231, 233, 241–42, 247, 253, 257, 265, 267, 271–73, 277, 281, 283–84, 453, 459, 511; see also pottery chicken, 71, 509, 522–23, 594, 596

Christian/Christianity, 7–11, 14, 17–20, 26, 192, 195–96, 198, 200, 203–06, 209–10, 276–78, 282–84, 302, 533, 538, 576 church, 7, 9–15, 17–20, 29–31, 35, 40–41, 49, 55, 59, 61, 81–83, 86, 89, 93, 97–100, 104, 107, 109–10, 113, 115, 121, 124, 126, 131, 136, 143, 147, 151–52, 156, 158–59, 164, 166–67, 170, 174, 187–93, 195–210, 234, 267–68, 270–74, 276–78, 281–84, 447, 459, 462–64, 512, 519, 522–23, 529, 533, 540 city, 11, 15, 208, 277, 279 clergy, 278, 512 coin/coins, 11, 14, 19, 31, 33, 53, 80, 100, 104, 106–07, 123, 131, 133, 140, 149, 153, 155–56, 163–64, 166–67, 171, 173, 179, 182, 185, 204, 216, 223, 240, 242, 247–48, 253, 259, 270–73, 342, 346, 350–51, 447–64, 481–82, 486–88, 490, 492–96, 502–03, 506, 507, 524–25 -coin pool, 452–53 -coins, Alexandria, 449–50, 452–53, 456, 458 -coins, cast and casting, 449, 456, 463, 484, 486, 495, 497, 502–03 -coins, circulation, 452, 459 -coins, currency reforms, 448, 463 -coins, density, 458–59, 463–64 -coins, hoards, 448, 458, 462 -coins, imitation, 449, 456–57, 463, 467, 469–70, 484, 490, 494, 499–500, 502–04 -coins, relative frequency, 448–52, 459 -coins, loss patterns, 452, 458–59, 463– 64 -coins, periods and periodization, 448–52 colonnade, 11, 14–15 columbarium, 60; see also pigeon tower column, 9, 11, 15, 89, 93, 98, 104, 189, 201, 204– 05, 207, 209, 592 Constantine, 11, 20, 192, 449, 465, 524 cooking, 121, 143, 149, 196, 271, 273, 309 cooking-pot (marmite), 271, 291, 293, 302–03, 305–06, 311, 329–30, 333, 338–52 coprolite, 152–53, 155–56, 166, 242, 274 Coptic, 15, 19–20, 25, 27–29, 33, 51, 53, 79, 121, 272, 277–78, 507–11, 513, 526, 528, 531–32

Index

crater (cratère), 271, 302, 307, 310, 323–24, 329, 331, 333, 335–36, 339–42, 344–50, 352 crypt, 18–19 cupboard, 113, 136, 203 Dakhla (Oasis), 1, 3–9, 11, 15, 17, 19–20, 23, 26– 27, 33, 35, 37, 41, 60, 75, 83, 191, 200, 204–05, 208, 265, 267, 269–73, 278, 282–83, 285–87, 289–91, 295, 308, 332, 351, 447, 453, 456–57, 459, 464, 508–09, 522, 538, 540–41, 559, 575, 593 Dakhleh Oasis Project (D.O.P.), 6–7, 9, 11–14, 26–27, 60, 199, 265, 286, 288, 509 decoration (geometric), 201, 592 Deir Abu Matta, 7, 13, 18–20, 274 Deir el-Molouk, 7, 11–12, 20 Deir Mustafa Kashef, 7, 207 Diocletian, 271, 448, 463, 472, 524 dipinto, -i, 529, 533, 535–36 dog, 349, 595–96 donkey, 10, 53, 179, 509, 517, 521, 594–96 donkeyload, 53, 516–517 drachma, 524, 526 Douch, see Kysis Dura Europos, 192, 204 economic, 6, 274, 277, 279–80, 284 Edmondstone, A., 1, 4, 6 El-Qasr, 4, 6, 13, 20, 274, 282, 509, 511, 513 El-Qusur, 265 epimeletes, 519, 521 epoikion, -a, 280–81, 284, 526 estate, 280–81, 509–10, 515, 519 ex-magistrate, 519 expenditure, 515–16 Farafra (Oasis), 1, 4 Fayyum, 60, 209–10, 279, 453, 560 fireplace, 69, 229; see also hearth flask (flacon), 53, 151, 271, 302–03, 310, 318–19, 340, 347, 545, 547, 556–57 funnel (entonnoir), 310, 322, 348 furniture, 166, 575, 579 garrison, 7, 509, 520 gazelle, 594, 596

627

georgion, 281, 508, 526 glass, 28, 32, 74, 80, 100, 104, 106–07, 123, 131, 140, 149, 151, 153, 155–56, 163–64, 166–67, 171, 173, 179, 182, 185, 216, 222, 233–34, 240, 242, 247, 253, 259–60, 545–47, 549, 550–51, 553–60, 562–66, 568–75 glassmaking, 547 goat, 540, 594 graffito, -i, 19, 29, 35, 99, 110, 121, 201, 278, 529, 532–34, 536–38 grain, 291–93, 295, 301–02, 309, 333, 523, 526 Great Oasis, 5, 19, 509, 520, 546–47, 575 Greek, 19, 25, 29, 33, 50–51, 53, 69, 71, 75, 80, 99, 106, 121, 155, 234, 253, 272, 278, 281, 507, 511, 513–14, 530, 532 gypsum, 34, 47, 50, 71, 74, 89, 93, 106, 110, 113, 116, 123, 140, 145, 151, 176, 178, 191, 201–02, 249, 576, 588, 591–92 hearth, 32, 42, 68, 71, 75, 121, 123, 147, 151, 226, 229, 242, 273; see also fireplace horse-archers, 510 house, 10, 19–20, 31–32, 75, 83, 170, 195, 199, 205, 274–76, 279–81, 451, 509, 514, 538, 575, 594 household, 41, 275, 575, 594 identity, 196, 278, 595 indiction, 508, 514, 519–20, 522–24 industrial, 82, 131, 193–95, 211, 233, 262, 265, 270, 277, 279–80, 284 inscription, 19, 25, 29, 51, 121, 185, 278, 282, 513, 529–31, 533, 537, 547 Ismant el-Kharab, see Kellis jar (jarre), 60, 69, 151, 196, 271, 289, 294, 303, 309–10, 313–17, 327, 333–35, 339–52, 547 juglet (gargoulette), 185, 290–92, 301–02, 309–10, 319, 339–52 Karanis, 60, 75, 279, 453, 456, 545–47, 559–60 Kellis/Ismant el-Kharab, 5–7, 9–11, 15, 17–20, 23, 35, 60, 75, 89, 97–98, 104, 192, 196–205, 208– 09, 234, 248, 270–78, 283–84, 286, 291, 294, 297–99, 303, 305, 307, 309–10, 313, 315–18, 320–22, 326–28, 331, 351–52, 453, 456, 459,

628

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

463–64, 508–13, 515–17, 519–24, 526, 528, 530–32, 540–41, 545–47, 559, 575–76, 595 Kellis Agricultural Account Book, 595 kephalaiotes, 513 keramia, 515 kettle (bouilloire), 302, 305, 311, 329, 341, 344, 346–47, 349 Kharga (Oasis), 1, 3–7, 17, 19, 23, 28, 30, 33, 75, 98, 170, 205, 207, 265, 271–72, 274, 286–91, 293–95, 342–47, 349, 352, 453, 456–57 kiln, 28, 263, 559 Kysis/Douch, 75, 170, 205–08, 265, 274, 286, 288, 291, 293, 296–97, 301, 453, 456, 520, 546–47, 575 lamp (lampe), 28, 32–33, 53, 93, 107, 131, 140, 151, 155, 167, 174, 182, 185, 234, 247, 249, 272, 287, 295–96, 299–301, 308, 331–32, 340– 341, 346–347, 545–47, 553–556 leather, 121, 222, 575, 585 lid (couvercle), 253, 303, 308, 330, 332, 338, 341– 42, 348–50, 352, 591 linen, 539–41, 543, 545 loan, 515 London, 31, 106, 449, 453, 464, 471–72, 560 loom, 540–41, 543–45, 575 Lyon, 6, 449, 453, 506 Mani, 510 Manichaean/Manichaeism, 8, 19, 510 mastaba, 9–11, 14, 17, 98–99, 109, 113, 121, 124, 192, 196–97, 202–03, 207, 276 matia, 514–16 metal, 32, 273, 546, 583–85 midden, 61, 79–80, 176, 178, 273, 277, 459 military, 6, 208, 281–83, 495, 509, 520, 534 monastery, 7, 14, 19–20, 200, 208–09, 269, 275, 277–78, 510, 512, 520, 540 monasticism, 275 monk, 277–78, 510 mosaic glass, 545–47, 553 Mothis/Mut el-Kharab, 281, 283, 508–10, 514–15, 519, 521 must, 508–09, 514–15 Mut el-Kharab, see Mothis Muzawwaqa, 18

name, personal, 19, 99, 234, 511, 513–14, 516–20, 522–23, 526–28, 530–33 naos, 265 nave, 11, 14–15, 19, 29, 89, 99–100, 104, 106, 202–06, 208–10 necropolis, 17, 207, 209 niche, 12, 15, 42, 45, 47, 50, 53, 66, 68, 71, 73–74, 89, 93, 110, 113, 116, 121, 133, 145, 174, 176, 178, 189, 191, 201, 203, 226, 243, 254, 262, 265, 508, 521, 529, 531, 533 “one god” formula, 529, 531 ostrakon, -a, 10, 14–15, 19, 25, 33, 53, 71, 75, 79–80, 106, 155, 234, 253, 272, 277–83, 453, 507–13, 516–17, 519–20, 523–24, 526, 532, 540 Oxyrhynchus, 75, 453, 456 pakton, 278, 511, 513 palm (palme/palmette), 23, 69, 75, 126, 131, 135, 163, 296, 300–01, 480, 485–87, 490–92, 494, 497, 499, 503, 506 pan (casserole), 49, 291, 302–03, 307–08, 311, 329, 341–44, 346, 348, 352 papyrus, -i, 19, 279, 285, 453, 520, 541 passageway, 9, 30, 41, 49, 53, 55, 59, 61, 63, 66, 82, 93, 97, 109, 116, 121, 123, 131, 136, 139, 151–53, 155, 158, 170–71, 190–91, 193–97, 199–200, 203, 274, 276, 282, 463–64 pastophorion, 18, 93, 203, 204 pendant, 80, 560, 568 pig, 594–96 pigeon tower, 60, 68, 199, 282; see also columbarium pit, 18, 32, 80, 89, 99, 104, 147, 155, 163, 166, 171, 173, 178, 182, 239, 242, 270, 460, 463, 576, 587 pitcher (pichet), 292, 302–03 pithos/pithoi, 291, 332, 349 plate (assiette), 31–32, 136, 271–72, 291, 295–99, 308, 310, 318, 320, 324–25, 329, 332–33, 336–37, 339–41, 343–50, 352, 453, 530–32, 545–46, 549, 553 platform, 9, 11, 17, 19, 59, 89, 93, 97, 116, 121, 131, 136, 174, 182, 191, 196, 212, 221–22, 225, 257, 262 pmoun (well), 25, 281, 508, 524, 526

Index

Pmoun Berri, 25, 281, 508, 524, 526 podium, 93, 97–98, 113, 115, 191, 202, 207 pottery, 29, 33, 34, 53, 69, 71, 73, 80, 123, 126, 133, 135, 139–40, 147, 152–53, 164, 166, 171, 179, 185, 204, 216, 223, 225, 229, 231, 233, 240–41, 243, 253, 260, 262–63, 265, 270–72, 279–81, 284, 459, 507, 519, 525, 591; see also ceramics praepositus, 282, 510, 523 pronaos, 265 Ptolemaic, 265, 267, 270 pulpit, 98 qanat, 5 receipt, 71, 80, 155, 253, 281–82, 507–10, 516, 519, 521–24, 526 road, 3–4, 6, 13, 23, 197, 199 Rohlfs, G., 6 Roman, 4–7, 17, 26, 41, 60, 75, 82–83, 191, 195, 208, 263, 267, 269, 271–72, 279, 281–82, 309, 352, 447, 456, 464, 509, 511, 513, 546, 576, 594–96 Rome, 5, 104, 449, 453, 465–66, 473, 475, 505, 537 roof, 11–12, 14, 29–30, 41, 47, 51, 56, 66, 69, 73, 75, 81–82, 89, 110, 116, 126, 131, 135, 147, 152, 167, 176, 178, 189–91, 195–96, 202–03, 207, 212, 219, 226, 233, 257; see also ceiling rope, 75, 80, 106, 140, 155, 166, 534, 575, 580–81, 583 ruralization, 274, 453 sanctuary, 10–11, 15, 19, 89, 93, 104, 189–92, 200, 202–06, 208–09 sandstone, 4, 104, 156, 171, 229, 253, 588 Shams ed-Din, 19, 98, 206–07, 514, 531 sheep, 540, 594 shoe, 575, 583 sieve (passoire), 69, 310, 322–23, 340–42, 350 siga, 287, 309, 311–13, 339–47, 349–50, 352 skeleton, 18, 595 spindle whorl, 540, 575, 578 spinning, 575 spring, 1, 5, 20, 23, 25–26, 42, 45, 47, 51, 56, 110, 116, 126, 131, 136, 143, 147, 152, 190, 277 stairway/staircase, 11, 15, 30, 35, 41, 47, 55–56, 59, 61, 81–82, 116, 121, 123, 131, 133, 135–36,

629

139, 147, 188–90, 192, 195–96, 207, 219, 221, 225, 262 statue, 591–92 stone, 45, 47, 50, 53, 55, 83, 100, 123, 140, 145, 167, 194, 219, 221, 231, 265, 269, 575–76, 588 stopper, 140, 151, 240, 580, 588, 591 storage, 29–30, 33, 41–42, 45, 63, 69, 121, 136, 139, 147, 174, 178, 193, 203, 231, 242, 257, 262, 275, 277, 309 street, 30, 41, 59, 61, 63, 66, 82, 126, 131, 152, 156, 158–60, 163–64, 166–67, 170, 174, 176, 178, 182, 185, 192–95, 197, 199–200, 270, 273–74, 276, 462–64, 523, 545, 559 tax, 283, 521 temple, 8, 61, 205, 265, 267–68, 270, 283–84, 459, 463–64, 507, 525, 576 terracotta figurine, 104, 234, 575 tetradrachm, 104, 448, 463–64, 472–74, 476 textile, 79–80, 100, 106, 173, 182, 234, 273, 539– 40, 543–45, 575, 591–92 Tineida, 3, 20, 26, 510, 540 tomb, 18–19, 207, 209 trade, 540 transportation, 277, 594 Trimithis/Amheida, 7, 10–11, 13, 15, 19, 29, 31, 34–35, 75, 98, 271, 273–74, 286, 288, 290–91, 294, 297, 303–04, 309–10, 312, 316, 326–27, 453, 459, 464, 508–09, 516, 538, 540, 545–46, 560, 568, 571, 594–95 trough (mangeoire), 288, 291, 332–33, 340 vault/vaulted, 10, 19, 30, 41–42, 45, 47, 49, 51, 55–56, 59, 66, 81–83, 86, 89, 99–100, 106, 110, 116, 121, 123, 126, 131, 136, 139–40, 143, 147, 149, 152–53, 155, 167, 178, 189–91, 193, 195– 96, 199, 202–03, 211, 219, 223, 226, 233–34, 239–41, 269, 273–74, 282, 462, 519 village, 4, 9, 15, 20, 23, 26, 60, 170, 197, 208, 269, 274, 277, 279–82, 509–10, 533, 540 water, 3–6, 23, 25–26, 98, 231, 277, 309, 533 weaving, 540, 575 weight, 104, 106, 140, 155, 163, 167, 185, 240, 270, 453, 457, 540, 575, 588 well, 4–5, 7, 11, 15, 17–20, 23, 26, 29, 31–33, 45, 49, 53, 61, 66, 68, 77–79, 86, 89, 100, 113, 116,

630

Ἁin el-Gedida: 2006–2008 Excavations

126, 133, 135–36, 145, 152–53, 156, 158, 164, 170, 185, 189–91, 194, 196–97, 202, 205, 209, 212, 216, 226, 231, 233–34, 251, 262–63, 265, 274, 277–78, 281, 284, 453, 457–58, 463, 508– 09, 520, 522–23, 526, 532–33, 536, 540–41, 545, 547, 576, 594–95 Western Desert, 1, 5, 7, 19–20, 200, 205, 269, 277, 284, 513, 517, 531–32 wheat, 71, 75, 155, 282, 508–09, 514–15, 521–23, 526 wheel, 229, 231, 262, 277, 514, 521–22, 526–27,

545–46, 553–54, 574, 578–79, 591 window, 45, 202–03, 243, 254, 593 wine, 5, 166 Winlock, H. E., 6–7, 13, 20, 26, 265, 278, 291, 575, 579, 585 woman/women, 234, 280, 575–76, 588 wooden object, 140, 166, 575 wool, 539–41, 543–45 workshop, 61, 233, 257, 262–63, 267, 270, 277, 279–81, 283–84, 459, 463–64, 519, 525