Agriculture Management Approaches 1774694069, 9781774694060

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Agriculture Management Approaches

AGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

Pankaj Kumar Saraswat, Khushboo Chaudhary and Meraj Alam Ansari

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Agriculture Management Approaches Pankaj Kumar Saraswat, Khushboo Chaudhary and Meraj Alam Ansari Delve Publishing 224 Shoreacres Road Burlington, ON L7L 2H2 Canada www.delvepublishing.com Email: [email protected] e-book Edition 2023 ISBN: 978-1-77469-550-0 (e-book)

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DEDICATION Dedicated to My Parents Mr. Rakesh Chaudhary Mrs. Ajesh Chaudhary

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Pankaj Kumar Saraswat graduated from R.B.S. College Bichpuri (Agra University) Agra in 1996, completed post-graduate and Ph.D. in Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry from Banaras Hindu University Varanasi in 1999 and 2004, respectively. Dr. Saraswat started his career at H.N.B.G. University Srinagar Garhwal Uttrakhand in 2005 as a lecturer in Soil Science and moved as Subject Matter Specialist (Soil Science) to KVK Banasthali Vidyapith Tonk Rajasthan. In October 2015, Dr. Saraswat joined ICAR-RC for N.E.H Region Umiam as Sr. Scientist & Head at KVK Tamenglong Manipur. Dr. Saraswat as P.I. completed two research projects externally funded from SERC-DST Govt. of India New Delhi and DST-Govt. of Rajasthan Jaipur. At the same time, he also conducted four INSPIRE-Internship Science Camps under the SEAT program of DST for 10th pass top 1% students of Rajasthan. Presently Dr. Saraswat has been working on agricultural technology assessment and demonstrations for its wider application at farmers’ fields along with capacity development programs for farmers, farm women, rural youth, line departments and other stakeholders and also as P.I. in an NEC Shillong funded demonstration based projects in Tamenglong district Manipur.

Dr. Khushboo Chaudhary is presently working as a Research Associate in NRCE, Hisar Haryana, India and has 1 year of teaching experience. Previously, she worked on “Improvement of Phytoremediation efficiency of Fluoride”. She has published several research papers in international and national journals. She has published three international textbooks. She has got seven best paper and poster presentation awards from the Indian Society of Genetics and Biotechnology Research and Development and received the president appreciation awards also at the International Conference. She has got the best poster award from ISSGPU Central Institute Research on Goats, Makhdoom. She has published several gene banks in NCBI Pubmed. She has also published a research article in a virology journal. She is likely to be a co-author in several publications and coauthor in J. Virological Methods.

Dr. Meraj Alam Ansari is presently working as a Scientist under the Agronomy Division from ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre Imphal. Dr. Ansari M.Sc. (Agriculture) Agronomy from CSA University of Agril & Technology Kanpur and Ph.D. from IARI New Delhi joined Agricultural Research. He is a Scientist, Agronomy at ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre Imphal, he has been engaged in farming system research including soil management crop production and the development of integrated farming system (IFS) model suitable and profitable for Jhumland hill farming.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Glossary.....................................................................................................xv Acknowledgment................................................................................................ xix Preface............................................................................................................ ....xxi Chapter 1

Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality...................................... 1 Introduction................................................................................................ 2 Survey of the Area and Groundwater Sampling .......................................... 5 Groundwater Quality Analysis.................................................................... 5 Principal Component Analysis and Geospatial Characterization of Groundwater................................................................................. 6 Chemical Characteristics of Banasthali Block Groundwater........................ 9 Chemical Characteristics of Newai Block Groundwater............................ 10 Geospatial Characteristics of Groundwater Quality................................... 11 Principal Component Analysis of Individual Layers................................... 12 Spatial Dependence of Groundwater Quality Parameter........................... 14 Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality Parameters........................... 16 Conclusion............................................................................................... 18 References................................................................................................ 19

Chapter 2

Effect of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigation on Profile Characteristics, Macro and Micronutrients in Soils at Farmer’s Field....... 23 Introduction.............................................................................................. 24 Irrigation Quality of Treated Sewage Water............................................... 27 Effect of TSW Irrigation on Basic Soil Properties........................................ 28 Effect of TSW Irrigation on Available NPK................................................. 30 Effect of TSW Irrigation on Available Micronutrients................................. 31 Correlation Matrix.................................................................................... 33 Conclusion............................................................................................... 34 References................................................................................................ 35

Chapter 3

Effect of Gypsum and Green Manuring Interventions on Mustard Productivity and Sodic Soil Quality under on Farm Testing (OFT) at Farmer’s Field....................................................................................... 37 Introduction.............................................................................................. 38 Nutrient Potential of Green Manure Crops................................................ 41 Effect of Technological Interventions on Mustard Yield.............................. 42 Effect of Green Manuring on Soil Properties.............................................. 43 References ............................................................................................... 46

Chapter 4

Characterization of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigated Soils..... 49 Introduction.............................................................................................. 50 Irrigation Quality of Treated Sewage Water............................................... 53 Basic Soil Properties................................................................................. 53 Available NPK.......................................................................................... 58 Available Micronutrients........................................................................... 59 Conclusion............................................................................................... 60 References................................................................................................ 61

Chapter 5

Integrated use of Fertilizers, Manures and Amendments for Improving Soil Quality, Input use Efficiency and Crop Productivity........ 65 Introduction.............................................................................................. 66 Soil Quality.............................................................................................. 69 Transfer of Technology for Improving Soil Quality..................................... 71 Integrated Nutrient Management.............................................................. 75 Importance of Integrated Nutrient Management........................................ 77 Strategies Adopted to Promote Soil Health and Crop Production .............. 79 Nutrient Potential of Summer Green Manures........................................... 81 Rice-Wheat Grain Yield............................................................................ 82 Macronutrient Content in Rice-Wheat and Their Uptake By Grain ........... 83 Soil Parameters......................................................................................... 85 Effect of Formulated Compost Application on Soil and Wheat Yield ......... 87 Steps Involved in the Preparation of Formulated Compost......................... 89 Nutrient Content in Different Organic Wastes and Formulated Compost... 89 Response of Wheat to Different Formulations........................................... 90 Practical Utility of The Findings and Summary.......................................... 92 Use of Soil Amendments Through INM Approach..................................... 93 Fly Ash Properties and Crop Response...................................................... 95 x

Studies on Soil Response to Flyash Application....................................... 100 Soil Physical Properties........................................................................... 105 Effect on Soil Biological and Biochemical Quality.................................. 119 Integrated Use of FA With Amendments in Soil....................................... 121 Recycling of FA in the Soil Through Production and Use of Biomanures.124 Summary................................................................................................ 132 Conclusion............................................................................................. 135 References ............................................................................................. 139 Chapter 6

Plant Microbe-Interactions..................................................................... 153 Introduction............................................................................................ 154 Phytoremediation................................................................................... 155 Rhizosphere Activity............................................................................... 157 PGPR (Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria) ...................................... 159 Microbial Activity .................................................................................. 160 Plant-Organism Interactions in the Rhizosphere ..................................... 161 Molecular Mechanism Activity in Hyperaccumulation Plants................. 162 Conclusion............................................................................................. 166 References.............................................................................................. 168

Chapter 7

Phytoremediation Approaches Technique for Improving Agriculture Land.................................................................................... 175 Introduction............................................................................................ 176 Phytoremediation Technique Involving Trace Different Elements............. 177 Cadmium Pollution ................................................................................ 178 Cadmium Accumulation By Phytoextraction Process.............................. 179 Chromium Pollution Through Industries ................................................. 180 Chromium Hyperaggregation Through Phytoextraction .......................... 180 Impact of Arsenic on Environment.......................................................... 182 Arsenic Hyperaccumulation Through Phytoextraction ............................ 182 Arsenic Stress- Tolerant Gene Participates In Phytoextraction ................. 184 Copper In Marine Water ........................................................................ 185 Clean Up of Copper by Phytoextraction Process..................................... 185 Nickel Hyper Accumulate Quantification Efficiency............................... 187 Zinc Translocation Through Phytoextraction Technology ........................ 188 Molecular Mechanism Efficiency of Heavy Metal Tolerant Plants............ 188 xi

Role of Arabidopsis Genes ..................................................................... 189 Conclusion............................................................................................. 195 References.............................................................................................. 196 Chapter 8

Plant Growth-promoting Rhizosphere Role for Improving Soil Fertility........................................................................... 211 Introduction............................................................................................ 212 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizosphere .................................................... 213 Mechanisms By Which Microbes Influence Heavy Metal Accumulation.216 Molecular Mechanisms .......................................................................... 218 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 220 References.............................................................................................. 221

Chapter 9

Fluoride and its Effect on Environment.................................................. 225 Introduction............................................................................................ 226 Fluoride Accumulation Pathway in Plants .............................................. 228 Effect of Fluoride on Single Cell Microorganisms.................................... 229 Fluoride Pathway Through Hyperaccumulator on Plants.......................... 232 Visible Symptoms of F Wound ............................................................... 234 Technologies Used for the Removal of Fluoride from Water.................... 235 Fluoride Removal from the Soil............................................................... 235 Conclusion............................................................................................. 238 References.............................................................................................. 239

Chapter 10 Role of Pseudomonas Fluorescence and Pseudomonas Aeuroginosa on Antioxidant Parameters, Polyphenols and Total Flavonoids of Flouride (F) Hyperaccumulator Plant Prosopis Juliflora and Improving Crop Productivity.................................................................. 247 Introduction............................................................................................ 248 Soil Characteristics Before Harvesting ................................................... 249 Pot Experimental Design......................................................................... 250 Antioxidant Activity................................................................................ 250 Determination of Polyphenols................................................................ 250 Estimation of Total Flavonoids................................................................. 251 Soil Analysis........................................................................................... 251 Growth Parameters Under Given Treatments........................................... 252 Antioxidant Enzyme Mechanism............................................................. 252 xii

Total Polyphenols Estimation.................................................................. 252 Total Flavonoids Analysis........................................................................ 253 Conclusion............................................................................................. 253 References.............................................................................................. 254 Chapter 11 Effect of Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) on Plant Growth and Flouride Uptake by Prosopis Juliflora........................ 257 Introduction............................................................................................ 258 Pot Experiment....................................................................................... 259 Antioxidant Activity................................................................................ 260 Determination of F.................................................................................. 260 Growth Parameters................................................................................. 261 Antioxidant Enzyme Mechanism............................................................. 261 Organ-Wise F Uptake............................................................................. 263 Conclusion............................................................................................. 266 References.............................................................................................. 267 Chapter 12 Bioremediation....................................................................................... 271 Introduction............................................................................................ 272 Hyperaccumulator Plants........................................................................ 273 Role of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria............................................... 276 Conclusion............................................................................................. 279 References.............................................................................................. 280 Chapter 13 Impact of Phytochelatins (PCs), Metallothionines (MTs) and Heavy metal ATPase (HMA) Genes to Activate Plant Signaling.............. 287 Introduction............................................................................................ 288 Phytoremediation Techniques: An Overview........................................... 290 Hyperaccumulator Plants: A Base for Phytoremediation Technology....... 292 Heavy Metals Toxicity Mechanism.......................................................... 293 Heavy Metal Transportation Pathway ...................................................... 294 Types of Genes Used in Phytoremediation.............................................. 295 Future Possibilities ................................................................................. 300 Conclusion............................................................................................. 300 References.............................................................................................. 302 Index...................................................................................................... 315 xiii

LIST OF GLOSSARY

Bio Compost: Bio-compost is manufactured by composting press mud received from cane juice filtration and spent wash received from distilleries. Bio Manure: Bio Manure is rich in micro-organs and micronutrients that are the most essential constituents required to improve the soil structure. Compost: Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Composting: Composting is a natural process that turns organic material into a dark rich substance. This substance, called compost or humus, is a wonderful conditioner for soil Crop: A crop is a volunteered or cultivated plant (any plant) whose product is harvested by a human at some point in its growth stage. Fertilizers: Fertilizer(or fertilizer) is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to soil to supply one or more. Flushing: Washing away the surface accumulated salts by flushing water over the surface is sometimes used to desalinize soils having surface salt crusts. Because the amount of salts that can be flushed from soil is rather small, this method does not have much practical significance. Fly ash: Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues generated in combustion and comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. Functional Nutrients: Nicholas (1961)proposed the term functional nutrient for any mineral nutrient that functions in plant metabolism whether or not its action is specific e.g Na, Co and Si. Green Manure: In agriculture, green manure refers to crops that have already been uprooted (and have often already been stuffed under the soil). The then dying plants are of a type of cover crop often grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period of time, and then plowed under and incorporated into the soil while green or shortly after flowering. Green manure crops are commonly associated with organic farming and are considered essential for annual cropping systems that wish to be sustainable. Integrated Nutrient Management: Integrated Nutrient Management refers to the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.

Integrated Water Resources Management: Integrated water resources management has been defined by the global water partnership (GWP) as “a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Integrated Water Shed management: Integrated watershed management provides a system to integrate natural resource management with community livelihoods in a sustainable way. This action area (AA) addresses the issues of degradation of natural resources, soil erosion, landslides, floods, frequent droughts and desertification, low agricultural productivity, poor water quantity and quality and poor access to land and related resources from an integrated watershed management perspective. Integrated Weed Management: Integrated weed management (IWM) is the combination of multiple management tools to reduce a pest population to an acceptable level while preserving the quality of existing habitat, water, and other natural resources. Combinations of biological, mechanical, and chemical management practices are utilized in IPM programs to efficiently suppress a pest population at the most effective/ desirable points during the pest’s lifecycle or growing season. Manure: Manure is an organic matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients. Nutrient: A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism’s metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. Plant nutrition: Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds that are necessary for plant growth, and also of their external supply and internal metabolism. In 1972, E. Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth: its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle; or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite. Saline Soil: Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salination. Salt is a natural element of soils and water. Scraping: Removing the salts that have accumulated on the soil surface by mechanical means has had only limited success although many farmers have resorted to this procedure. Although this method might temporarily improve crop growth, the ultimate disposal of salts still poses a major problem. Sodic Soil: Sodic soils are characterized by a disproportionately high concentration of sodium (Na) in their cation exchange complex. They are usually defined as consisting of an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15%. These soils tend to occur within arid to semiarid regions and are innately unstable, exhibiting poor physical and chemical properties, which impede water infiltration, water availability, and ultimately plant growth. Soil Amendments: A chemical substance used to improve the structure of the soil and increase its porosity; gypsum can be used as a soil conditioner.

xvi

Soil Conservation: Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for the prevention of soil being eroded from the Earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse,  Soil Fertility: The ability of soil to supply plant nutrients that support plant growth. The capacity of soil to provide plants with enough assailable nutrients and moisture to produce crops. Soil Moisture: Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood. Water content is used in a wide range of scientific and technical areas and is expressed as a ratio, which can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials’ porosity at saturation. It can be given on a volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis. Soil organic matter: Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil, consisting of plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, and substances synthesized by soil organisms. SOM exerts numerous positive effects on soil physical and chemical properties, as well as the soil’s capacity to provide regulatory ecosystem services. Particularly, the presence of SOM is regarded as being critical for soil function and soil quality. Soil Quality: Soil quality is the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation. Soil: Soil is considered the “skin of the earth” with interfaces between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Soil consists of a solid phase (minerals & organic matter) as well as a porous phase that holds gases and water. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three-state system. Soil: Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and a myriad of micro- and macro- organisms that can support plant life. It is a natural body that exists as part of the pedosphere and it performs four important functions: a medium for plant growth; water storage, supply and purification; modifier of the atmosphere; a habitat for organisms that take part in decomposition and habitat for other organisms. Sustainable Agriculture: Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. It has been defined as “an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT This thanksgiving has to begin with the thanks to Department of Science& Technology (Government of Rajasthan). I convey earnest thanks to Madam Smt Dr. Amita Gil Director Department of Science & Technology (Government of Rajasthan), Bani Park, and Jaipur for guidance and support in releasing funds timely for the smooth running of the project. The author expresses sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to the ViceChancellor Banasthali Vidyapith for providing facilities and environment and moral encouragement through his speech on various occasions. His highly enlightened vision and affection acted as a constant source of inspiration to me for working in projects and completion of work with great ease. The author expresses sincere thanks to Dr. Sushil Kumar Sharma Programme Coordinator and Dr. Vinay Shankar Prasad Sinha (Department of Remote Sensing) for their constant guidance and help rendered in the statistical analysis without which it would have been an impossible task. It’s a matter of great pleasure to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to my former Programme Coordinator Smt. Dr. Sharda and my esteemed senior colleagues Dr. Mahendra Singh, Dr. Ram Charan Yadav and Mr. Banshidhar Chaudhary and my faculty colleagues Dr. Ragini Mishra, Dr. Geetam Singh, Mr. Udai Pratap Singh, Mr. Vineet Kumar Dwivedi, Mr. Mithileshwar Nath Upadhyay, Mr. Ashu Singh Bhati and Mr. Banshee Lal Kumawat who have always rendered their all kind of support during the course of investigation. Words of appreciation are also due to my office supporting staff Mr. Shravan Lal Sharma, Mr. Om Prakash and Gaurav Singh Negi for their additional efforts and all kind of support during the project period. I also feel great pleasure to place on record deep sense of gratitude to my husband Mr. Manoj Chaudhary for his relentless cooperation and lovely son Lavyansh Chaudhary who always and eagerly waited for me on my late coming to his daycare and I am really the luckiest mother who has a son like Lavyansh. Dr. Pankaj Kumar Saraswat Dr. Khushboo Chaudhary Dr. Meraj Alam Ansari 

PREFACE

The present book entitled “Agriculture Management Approaches” is aimed at presenting precise information for undergraduate, postgraduate students and research scholars. This book has updated information on agricultural land management by using organic waste or recycling organic waste, heavy metal contaminated groundwater, using gypsum and integrated management of soil for improving crop productivity. It will be a milestone in the current scenario of environmental research on heavy metal pollution in groundwater, soil and its management. This book is an updated document on current research and the latest and cost-effective green technology. Plants are valuable resources for all living organisms that provide food, medicine, produce oxygen and regulate the water cycle. Heavy metal stresses have a negative impact on the environment and destroy our nature. Its direct and indirect effect on human beings and drastic effect on crop yield and movement in the food chain. This book describes the development of cost-effective, sustainable and user-friendly technology for the farmers by using organic waste and gypsum for improving soil fertility. While the main emphasis is given to increasing the proper and balanced use of mineral fertilizers, the role of organic manure, biofertilizers, and green manuring and recycling of organic wastes should be considered supplementary and not substitutable. On one hand, there is a vast scope for increasing plant nutrient supply through the use of fly ash and organic fertilizers, but there is, on the other hand, no scope for reducing the consumption of mineral fertilizers since the present level of crop productivity has to be increased in the coming years. All chapters are an overview on the spatial characterization of groundwater quality, treated sewage water irrigation on profile characteristics, macro and micronutrients in soils in a farmer’s field, gypsum and green manuring interventions on mustard productivity and sodic soil quality on-farm testing, long term treated sewage water irrigated soils, use of fertilizers, manures and amendments for improving soil quality, use efficiency and crop productivity, plant-microbe interactions, phytoremediation approaches technique improving agriculture land, role of plant growth-promoting rhizosphere to improve soil fertility, fluoride effects on the environment and using different amendments for improving crop productivity. Heavy metals are released into the environment as a result of human activities such as mining, smelting, electroplating, energy and fuel production, power transmission, intensive agriculture, sludge dumping, and melting operations. Studies on detailed characterization and potential application of wastes from new technologies like co-firing ash, oxy fuel combustion ash, biomass ash, co-gasification residue, MSW ash, etc. Utilization of microbes like vermicomposting

can be a novel, economically viable and eco-friendly strategy that can reduce toxic chemicals in the conventional protocol.  Remediation is the only way to clean up the contaminants in soils and groundwater. Remediation refers to the process of environmental cleanup of contaminated sites and the techniques to reduce or eliminate contamination from soil or groundwater. In the preparation of this book, I have been greatly helped by several books which I express my acknowledgment in the references and if I have forgotten any references in my notice, please ignore these mistakes. This book is a compilation of maximum information regarding the management of agricultural land after our best efforts. Dr. Pankaj Kumar Saraswat Dr. Khushboo Chaudhary Dr. Meraj Alam Ansari 

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CHAPTER

1

Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality

Contents Introduction................................................................................................ 2 Survey of the Area and Groundwater Sampling .......................................... 5 Groundwater Quality Analysis.................................................................... 5 Principal Component Analysis and Geospatial Characterization of Groundwater................................................................................. 6 Chemical Characteristics of Banasthali Block Groundwater........................ 9 Chemical Characteristics of Newai Block Groundwater............................ 10 Geospatial Characteristics of Groundwater Quality................................... 11 Principal Component Analysis of Individual Layers................................... 12 Spatial Dependence of Groundwater Quality Parameter........................... 14 Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality Parameters........................... 16 Conclusion............................................................................................... 18 References................................................................................................ 19

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Agriculture Management Approaches

INTRODUCTION Geo-statistical analysis of groundwater quality in Newai Tehsil has been done in order to identify the possible spatial structure of water quality parameters and to assess the spatial dependence of water properties with the help of principal component analysis (PCA). Two types of maps (Spatial map and Principal component map) of groundwater quality have been developed. Studies revealed that HCO3 and RSC were found to be positively and highly correlated with principal component 1. Manganese, electrical conductivity and Chlorine are correlated in second-order whereas iron (Fe) and carbonate (CO3) showed poor correlation with principal component 1. Ca+2+Mg+2, Cu, Zn and pH had a negative correlation with principal component 1. The spatial map developed for PC2 showed a highly positive correlation only with chloride, whereas, Ca+2+Mg+2 and EC were in the second-order of correlation with PC2. Mn, Fe, Zn and CO3 showed a very poor correlation with PC2. Cu, HCO3,pH and RSC were negatively correlated with PC2. PC3 had a highly positive correlation with EC of groundwater, whereas Fe, Mn, Cl and CO3 showed a negative correlation with PC3. Ca+2+Mg+2, Cu, Zn, HCO3, pH and RSC were normally correlated with PC3. PC4 was found to be positively and highly correlated with Ca+2+Mg+2 and copper and highly and negatively correlated with Mn, Fe, Zn, CO3, EC, and RSC. Cl, HCO3 and pH showed a normal correlation with PC4. The PC 5 showed a highly positive correlation with Mn, Fe, and copper, the highest possible score of any principal component of the groundwater quality parameter under study. Cl, HCO3 and EC had a negative correlation with PC5 and Zn, CO3, pH and RSC showed a very poor correlation with PC5. PC6 maintained a very poor correlation with Ca+2+Mg+2, Mn, Fe, Zn and HCO3 and all the remaining parameters were negatively correlated. PC7 showed a high and positive correlation with Fe whereas that of PC8 is highly negative with CO3. Among PC9 and PC10, CO3 and pH were found to be highly and positively correlated respectively and the rest all parameters under PC9 and PC10 either showed a poor or negative correlation with groundwater quality parameters. PC11 showed a highly positive correlation with Zn and a negative correlation with Mn, Cu, CO3, HCO3 EC whereas the remaining parameters were poorly correlated with PC11. Groundwater is one of the most critical inputs required for the survival of humans, plants and animals on this planet. Soils are the primary source of elements found in groundwater. The extent of elements found in groundwater directly affects the quality. Groundwater quality decides the extent to which

Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality

3

it can be used for the purpose. Irrigation is one of the prime sectors in India where one-third of land surface falls under arid and semi-arid climates and rainfall is seasonal and erratic. The semi-arid climate prevailing in Tonk district necessitates the characterization of groundwater quality for optimizing its use in irrigation as well as in domestic consumption. The majority of the underground water contains a high concentration of salts and their continuous use affects soil, animal and plant health, thereby crop production (Shahid et al. 2008). Groundwater resources in the country are dwindling very fast due to poor water harvesting leading to excess runoff and poor recharging of the groundwater. This is accompanied by excessive withdrawal/exploitation to meet the household and irrigation requirements in agriculture (Sarkar, 2011). Technically sound, economically viable, environmentally non-degradable and socially acceptable use of a country’s natural resources like land, water and genetic endowment to promote sustainable development of agriculture has been accepted as the ultimate goal. Geo-informatics technologies will help in achieving some of the defined goals (Marwah, 2003). Geoinformatics is a fast-emerging science encompassing the modern tools of Remote Sensing (RS) Geographic information system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and simulation models. A combination of these technologies provides cost-effective means of acquiring high-resolution real-time data through remote sense, data management and analysis through GIS and geo-referencing the ground truth data with GPS, putting all the data in an information system and utilization of the information for a specific purpose. The key element that differentiates Geo-informatics from other areas of information technology (IT) is that all input data is being geo-coded i.e. has an address in 3-D space and is linked to some locality on the earth surface. In India, GIS has been introduced in various fields like optimizing land use plans, characterization of groundwater quality, and development of degraded and wasteland and management of salt-affected soils. Spatial variation in groundwater quality occurs due to variation in underlying rock strata. Groundwater quality is an essential parameter to be studied for the sustainable development of agriculture and human life. The advent of information technology has developed tools like GPS and GIS which help in the spatial characterization of groundwater quality. The maps generated through GPS and GIS delineate homogenous units to decide on the size and collecting a systematic set geo-referenced samples and generating spatial data about groundwater quality (Sood et al. 2004 and Sharma, 2004). A

4

Agriculture Management Approaches

comprehensive understanding of spatial variability in groundwater quality has become essential in precision agriculture. Groundwater quality varies spatially from the field to a large regional scale and is influenced by geology, topography, climate as well as soil use (Quine and Zhang, 2002). Variability can also occur as a result of land use and management strategies (Wang et al. 2009). In recent years, geo-statistics has proved to be effective in assessing the variability in soil and groundwater quality (Webster and Oliver, 2001). Geo-statistics is a technology for the appraisal of soil and groundwater quality in non-sampled areas or areas with sparse sampling (Yao et al. 2004). Geostatistics provides a set of statistical tools for a description of spatial patterns, quantitative modeling of spatial continuity, spatial predictions and uncertainty assessment (Goovaerts, 1999). Geostatistical techniques incorporating spatial information into predictions can improve estimation and enhance map quality (Muellar and Pierce, 2003). Quantitative evaluation of groundwater parameters to obtain quality indices classification using principal component analysis (PCA) has immense utility (Norris, 1971). PCA also is known as factor analysis is a statistical device to reduce the number of variables to a smaller number of indices. The transformation of raw data using PCA can result in new values that are often more interpretable than the original data (Norris, 1972). Principal factors are, in fact, the Eigenvectors or characteristics/proper vectors of the covariance (or correlation) matrix and the variance of the principal factors are corresponding Eigenvalues. Principal factor analysis compares the information content of the number of quality parameters into a few transformed factors. Such a reduction in dimensionality is an important economic consideration, especially if the potential information is recoverable from transformed data, is just as good as the original data (Anderson and Furley, 1975). Prasad (2000), Rao and Jose (2003), Geissen et al. (2009) also reported that principal component analysis is a meaning full tool for relating quantitative factors into quality parameters in case of a crop field and natural resource management. Means and ways have been devised for use of poor-quality water in irrigation (Minhas and Gupta, 1993 Tiwari et al, 2003, Chauhan et al, 2007,), but the spatial characterization of groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking purpose is virtually lacking in arid and semi-arid regions. Keeping these things in mind and in view of such advantages of Geo-informatics, GPS and GIS technologies, a study was undertaken to assess the groundwater quality potential and classify them by using principal component analysis in Newai Tehsil of Tonk district during 2011-14.

Spatial Characterization of Groundwater Quality

5

SURVEY OF THE AREA AND GROUNDWATER SAMPLING For the study purpose, 28 villages under Banasthali and Newai blocks in Newai Tehsil were selected for spatial characterization of groundwater quality using the GPS (Trimble R3) technique of survey and sampling. 16 villages namely Palai, Jugulpura, Bidauli, Aliyabad, Radhakishanpura, Govindpura, Jagmohanpura, Subhashpura, Sunara, Bhanakpura, Lodeda, Jagatpura, Surajkheda, Chhauriya, Banasthali and Haripura come under Banasthali block. Whereas 12 villages namely Bhanwati, Bhanwata, Saindariya, Kishorpura, Dahlod, Lalwadi, Sirohi, Jhilay, Sangrampura, Bhanwarsagar and Bhagwanpura are under the Newai block. Taking all protocols into account, a total number of 140 groundwater samples of tube well, bore well and hand pump origin from 28 villages (5 from each) were collected in properly labeled in neutral plastic bottles and brought to the Soil and Water testing laboratory for further chemical analysis. GPS points were taken keeping in view that five water sample locations are representing a single village. GPS survey helped to plot the latitudinal and longitudinal information in the real-world coordinate system. The GPS-enabled data containing the positional location of the source of sample collection was further utilized to analyze the groundwater quality parameters in geospatial distribution patterns using geostatistical tools.

GROUNDWATER QUALITY ANALYSIS Collected water samples were employed for the characterization of drinking and irrigation quality analysis. Groundwater samples were analyzed for pH, EC, cations (Ca+2+Mg+2), anions (Cl-, CO3 and HCO3), residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and trace elements (Fe, Cu, Mn, & Zn) using standard methods and procedures as outlined by Richards (1954), Tandon (2009) and Trivedy and Goel (1993). The pH and soluble salts in water samples were estimated by using pH and EC Meter. Cations and anions were analyzed by titration method and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) was calculated using the formula as RSC (meq L-1) = (CO3+HCO3) - (Ca+2 + Mg+2). The presence of trace elements in groundwater was estimated by employing processed water samples on the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS Model No. 4129). The outcome of the analysis of quality parameters of the samples was found (range and mean form).

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PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS AND GEOSPATIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF GROUNDWATER Principal component analysis (PCA) is one of the multivariate analyses used as a method of data compression or removing data redundancy. It allows redundant data to be compacted into fewer bands i.e. dimensionality of the data is reduced. Here the components of the variables are considered as spatial data set i.e. in the form of a geospatial image. The image/bands of PCA data are non-correlated and independent and are often more interpretable than the quality parameters data. The process is easily explained graphically with an example of data in two quality parameters image/ bands. The two quality parameters are shown by the scatter plot, which shows the relationships of both the quality parameters in two axis bands. The values of one band are plotted against those of the other. If both bands have normal distributions, it forms an ellipse shape.

The length and direction of the widest transect of the ellipse are calculated using matrix algebra, which corresponds to the major (longest) axis of the ellipse, called the first principal component of the processed data. The direction of the first principal component is the first Eigenvector and its length is the first Eigenvalue. A new axis of the spectral space is defined by this first principal component. The points in the scatter plot are now given new coordinates, which corresponds to this new axis and a new origin will be described. Since in spectral space, the coordinates of the points are the data file values. A new data file value is derived from this process. These values are stored in the first principal component image/band of a new data file.

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The first principal component shows the direction and length of the widest transect of the ellipse. Therefore, as an axis in spectral space, it measures the highest variation within the data.

It is easy to see that the first Eigenvalue is always greater than the range of the input quality bands. Just as the hypotenuse of the right triangle must always be longer than the legs, the second principal component is the widest transect of the ellipse that is orthogonal (perpendicular) or non-correlated to the first principal component. As such the second principal component describes the largest amount of variance in the data which is not already described by the first principal component. In a two-dimensional analysis, the second principal component corresponds to the minor excess of the ellipse. Although there is an output in a PCA, the first few bands account for a high proportion of the variance in data in some cases almost 100%. Therefore, PCA is useful for compressing data into fewer bands. In other applications, useful information is gathered from the principal component bands with the least variance. These bands show subtle detail in the image that was obscured by higher contrast in the original input image. To compute the principal component image/band it is necessary to analyze all water quality parameters in the geospatial model. In the present investigation, there are 11 quality parameters of 140 geographical locations of the study area tested in the laboratory. The outcome of all the quality results is considered as non-spatial attributes of the water sample sources like tube well, bore well and hand pump. In the Arc-GIS environment the non-spatial data is attached to the spatial coordinate locations of all 140 sampling sites using GIS. Using spatial interpolation tools with a local model, these non- spatial attributes of water qualities were interpolated to generate 11 quality surfaces of the study area.

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As mentioned in the PCA concept it requires a relationship among individual quality parameters. Using spatial interpolation each quality parameter converted into 11 water quality images /bands in the spatial domain. Now it is necessary to perform a spatial correlation among the parameters. Further using matrix algebra these 11 images of quality parameters were considered as row (m) and column (n) with quality bands (k) of images. All quality parameters considered as 11 bands and covariance and variance matrix were generated. With the help of these matrix spatial correlations between these quality parameters were identified. Further using the transpose matrix and input of 11 quality parameters bands the 11 principal components were generated. The Eigenvalue and Eigenvector of all components were also calculated. Finally, the relationship between component and quality parameters was also spatially evaluated using the spatial correlation between component and quality parameter. With the help of Indian/WHO standards, all the quality parameters were explained in the form of spatial pattern and distribution of potable zone or threat zone. The raw data were interpolated to generate spatial surface maps under principal factor analysis. Quantitative evaluation of groundwater quality indices using PCA has immense utility (Norris, 1971). PCA also is known as factor analysis is a statistical device to reduce the number of variables to a smaller number of indices. The transformation of raw chemical analysis data using PCA can result in new values that are often more interpretable than the original data. Principal factors are, infact the Eigenvectors or characteristics /proper vectors of the covariance (or correlation) matrix and the variance of the principal factors are the corresponding Eigenvalue. PCA compares the information content of a number of fertility/quality parameters into a few transformed factors. Such a reduction in dimensionality is an important economic consideration, especially if the potential information recoverable from the transformed data is just as good as the original data (Anderson and Furley, 1975). An attempt has been made to evaluate the groundwater quality of the Banasthali and Newai Block area so as to make interpretation of groundwater quality by the use of principal component analysis. Principal factor analysis is a method or technique that provides a means of identifying or measuring the relationship basic pattern in a data set. This technique greatly facilitates in reducing a large number of interdependent variables to a smaller set of more meaningful and nearly uncorrelated new variables or components known as principal components. The principal component analysis of raw data of groundwater provided important statistical parameters viz. (i) correlation

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matrix (ii) variance-covariance matrix (iii) Eigenvalues and corresponding Eigenvalues. Eigenvalues explained the amount of variance contributed by each component. Eigenvectors are the coefficient of the transformed equation of each component. The water quality of 28 village areas has been analyzed with respect to the above-mentioned quality parameters and further interpretation and inference have been drawn through spatial distribution considering their variability through GPS spatial map for all eleven parameters. For the general discussion of groundwater quality parameters, the range and mean of each five water samples collected from every village have been discussed in detail. Further, the values of groundwater quality parameters have been put under factor analysis for making correlation estimation.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BANASTHALI BLOCK GROUNDWATER A perusal of the data reveals that irrespective of water sampling area in Banasthali block, the mean values of groundwater reaction (pH) varied from 8.2-8.5 being lowest in Aliyabad and Jagmohanpura villages and highest in Govindpura village, but all water samples showed slightly alkaline taste with respect to its pH. Water samples of the Govindpura village area showed the lowest electrical conductivity (3.46 dS m-1) whereas the Jagmohanpura area was higher (14.8 dS m-1) on the basis of its mean values. The Ca+2+Mg+2 contents (1.08 meq L-1) were found to be lowest in Surajkheda water samples whereas Banasthali water samples contained 3.76 meq L-1 (Ca+2+Mg+2) being highest compared to the rest of the water samples. Jagatpura water samples registered the lowest chloride (4.60 meq L-1) and that of Radhakishanpura and Govindpura samples contained the highest (19.80 meq L-1) amount of chloride ions (table 2a). Carbonate (0.80 meq L-1) and bicarbonate (5.42 meq L-1) contents were of the lowest magnitude in Surajpura and Jagatpura samples respectively, whereas Jagmohanpura and Palai village water samples registered the highest amount of carbonate and bicarbonate contents being 3.0 and 17.3 meq L-1 respectively. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) showed a positive correlation with CO3+HCO3 andCa+2+Mg+2cations in water. RSC value was highest in the Palai area (14.46) being lowest (5.56 meq L-1) in Surajkheda village water samples. Although RSC showed a positive correlation with EC during the study, but in the Banasthali block the RSC of groundwater was found to be low in water samples having higher

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EC. These findings are in line with the work of Gupta (1981) who also found and reported that RSC of groundwater decreases with an increase in EC. Data pertaining to trace elements in groundwater, reveals that iron and manganese contents were comparatively higher than copper and zinc in groundwater irrespective of the area under study. Bhanakpura area water samples registered a higher amount of iron on the basis of mean values. Manganese contents in water samples were lowest in Palai water and the highest content of the same element was recorded in Bidauli and Chhauriya village water samples. Among copper and zinc, the copper contents were in general higher in Bidauli village (2.42 mg L-1) and lowest in the Jagmohanpura area. Whereas Zn content in groundwater was the highest in Jagmohanpura and the lowest in Bidauli village water samples.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWAI BLOCK GROUNDWATER The chemical analysis of groundwater samples of 12 village areas has been furnished. A critical perusal of the data given in the table shows that irrespective of the groundwater sampling area, the contents of chloride, carbonate and zinc were lowest in Bhagwanpura water samples whereas Cl (14.60 meq L-1), CO3 (1.40 meq L-1) and Zn (1.24 mg L-1) were of higher magnitude in Saindariya and Dahlod area respectively (table 2b). Data further revealed that the lowest values of HCO3 (5.0) and RSC (1.72) were found in Saindariya and Dahlod respectively whereas the Bhagwanpura area showed the highest values of HCO3 (9.60 meq L-1) and RSC (9.36 meq L-1) respectively. Many shreds of evidence have been put forward for dominance of Cl, CO3 and HCO3 ions in the groundwater of arid and semi-arid regions (Paliwal and Yadav, 1976; Minhas and Gupta 1992, and Sharma, 1999). High depth of aquifers also contributes more cations thereby increasing salinity and hardness in groundwater (Singhal et al. 2014). Deeper aquifers also show low resistivity in terms of longitudinal conductance than upper aquifers. Maurya et al. (2014) also reported that in semi-arid regions groundwater contains more salinity and the presence of carbonate and bicarbonates which affect the irrigation and drinking quality of water. A critical perusal of the data with respect to trace elements (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) reveals that the highest value of Fe (8.94 mg/l) and Mn (4.20 mg/l) were found in Kishorpura village whereas Sangrampura and Bhanwarasagar contained the lowest quantity of Fe (5.30 mg L-1) and Mn (0.68 mg L-1) among all the area under study. Data further reveals that Newai and Dahlod showed the highest

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contents of copper and Zinc respectively whereas Dahlod and Bhagwanpura water samples area showed the lowest Cu and Zn contents in them.

GEOSPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY General Geo-statistics of Individual Component Groundwater sampling area covering (28 villages) was divided into Banasthali block (16 villages) and Newai block (12 villages). Collected water samples were analyzed for eleven parameters (pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), calcium magnesium (Ca+2+Mg+2), carbonate (CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3), chloride(Cl-), residual sodium carbonate (RSC)and trace elements including iron (Fe), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn). These eleven parameters were subjected to factor and principal component analysis to assess the correlation between these parameters. General statistics of individual water quality parameter is furnished. Data reveal that standard deviation values of all 11 layers are lower than the mean values, which indicates that the effect of abnormal data on sampling values was not great. Desirable or acceptable limits of these parameters have also been found. The covariance matrix of individual quality parameters reveals that in I layers manganese (-0.125), iron (-0.013), carbonate (-0.035), bicarbonate (-0.383) and residual sodium carbonate (-0.827) were found to be negatively correlated with Ca+2+Mg+2 whereas the rest of the layers showed a positive correlation with the presence of Ca+2+Mg+2 in groundwater samples. Manganese in the second layer showed a negative correlation (Mn -0.125) with Ca+2+Mg+2, copper (-0.185) and pH (-0.050) and the rest were found to be positively correlated. In the third layer, iron showed a negative correlation leaving only Mn, Cl, CO3 and EC of groundwater. Leaving aside Ca+ Mg, Zn and pH, the Cu had a negative correlation with the rest of all. The presence of Zn with Fe, Cl, HCO3, pH and RSC showed a negative correlation whereas the rest of all parameters were found to be positively correlated with Zn. Chlorine showed a positive correlation with most of the parameters barring Cu (-0.580), Zn (-0.030) and pH (-0.182). The presence of CO3 in groundwater was found to be negatively correlated with Ca+ Mg, copper and pH whereas HCO3 had a negative correlation with Ca+ Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn and pH. Water reaction (pH) itself showed a negative correlation leaving Ca+ Mg, Cu, pH and EC of groundwater. Further, EC was positively correlated with almost all layers

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barring only Cu whereas RSC showed a positive association only with Mn, Cl, CO3, HCO3, EC and RSC of groundwater and the remaining parameters were highly positively correlated. The correlation matrix of these eleven layers has also been worked out and is given in Table 3C. Data reveals that RSC showed a highly negative correlation among all the layers of groundwater quality parameter having negative value (-0.552) whereas manganese was highly positively correlated with chlorine (0.422), carbonate (0.558)and RSC (0.422). CO3and HCO3also showed a strong connection with the RSC layer. The presence of Zn and Fe did not show any strong correlation with any of the layers under study. Ca+2+Mg+2 in groundwater were found to be highly and negatively correlated with RSC showing the presence of CO3and HCO3thereby higher pH in groundwater. Chloride showed a highly positive correlation with Ca+2+Mg+2. Many saline sodic soils contain soluble carbonates besides the excess of soluble salts (Gupta and Abrol, 1990). In such soils, the topography, soil depth and amount of rainfall might have caused an increase in sodicity and salinity of groundwater. Singh et al. 2008 also reported higher pH and EC of groundwater due to low recharging of wells and soils leaving soluble salts accumulated in the subsurface layer. Higher EC in groundwater might be due to the fact that salts reach the groundwater quickly in shallow soils. The declining water table in certain parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat has also been reported to be responsible for fluctuations in sodicity and salinity in groundwater (Sharma, 2002).

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL LAYERS The results principal component analysis of groundwater quality parameters in the form of communalities and total variance is explained by the component of quality parameters. Eigenvalues with percent of Eigenvalue and cumulative for each component are also found. Data reveals that Eigenvalues correspond to the first four components are 44.925, 28.402, 18.594, and 3.136 in decreasing order and nearly 95.057 % of the variation is explained. Data further shows that Eigenvalues corresponding to the first four components are 10.084, 6.375, 4.174 and 0.704, respectively. The principal component analysis results of groundwater quality parameters reveal the relationship between these variables and the intensity of their affinity with the significant tests. In addition, the contribution of the factors more to explaining the variations of the results are also studied by a toposheet graph of each principal component.

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Figure 1.1: Principal component analysis scatter plot of two quality parameters image/bands and scatter plot of new coordinates Eigenvalues.

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Figure 1.2: Spatial principal component map of groundwater quality parameters with Bicarbonate, carbonate, Residual sodium carbonate, chloride, EC, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper.

SPATIAL DEPENDENCE OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY PARAMETER Geo-statistical analysis of groundwater sample village area has been done in order to identify the possible spatial structure of water quality parameters and to assess the spatial dependence of water properties with the help of principal component analysis (PCA). On the basis of principal component analysis, two types of maps (Spatial map and Principal component map) of groundwater quality have been developed. The groundwater quality parameters such as (HCO3 and RSC) are positively and highly correlated with

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principal component 1 (Figure PC1). Manganese, electrical conductivity and Chlorine are correlated in second-order whereas iron (Fe) and carbonate (CO3) showed poor correlation with principal component 1. Data further revealed that calcium + magnesium (Ca+2+Mg+2), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and pH had a negative correlation with principal component 1. Data again shows that the spatial map developed for PC2 shows a highly positive correlation only with chloride ion amongst all eleven water quality parameters (Figure PC2) whereas, Ca+2+Mg+2 and EC were in the second order of correlation with PC2. Mn, Fe, Zn and CO3 showed a very poor correlation with PC2. A critical review of data further reveals that copper bicarbonate (HCO3), pH and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were negatively correlated with PC2. The relationship of PC3 with all eleven parameters shows that PC3 has a highly positive correlation with the electrical conductivity (EC) of groundwater, whereas iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), chlorine (Cl) and carbonate (CO3) showed a negative correlation with PC3. Ca+2+Mg+2, Cu, Zn, HCO3, pH and RSC were normally correlated with PC3 (Figure PC 3). The spatial relationship of PC4 with all eleven parameters reveals that PC4 is positively and highly correlated with Ca+2+Mg+2 and copper. Mn, Fe, Zn, CO3, EC, and RSC were highly and negatively correlated with PC4 (Figure PC4). Chloride, bicarbonate and pH of groundwater showed a normal correlation with PC4 under study. Data are given in table 3D and figure PC 5 reveal the outstanding and highly positive correlation of PC5 with Mn, Fe, and copper, the highest possible score of any principal component of groundwater quality parameter under study. Further data showed that PC5 had a negative correlation only with 3 quality parameters (i.e. chlorine bicarbonate and electrical conductivity). Rest quality parameters (Zn, CO3, pH and RSC) showed a very poor correlation with PC5. The correction of PC6 with all eleven quality parameters reveals that Ca+2+Mg+2, Mn, Fe, Zn and bicarbonate maintained a very poor correlation and the remaining parameters were negatively correlated (Figure PC6). The relationship of the water quality parameter with PC6 had a highly negative correlation with copper amongst all the parameters and the remaining parameters were poorly correlated with PC6. Map developed for PC7 and PC8 shows that PC7 is highly and positively correlated with iron (Fe) whereas PC8 is highly and negatively correlated with CO3. PC7 was also found to be negatively correlated with Ca+2+Mg+2, Mn, Cu, Zn, CO3 and HCO3 whereas PC8 showed a negative correlation only with Ca+2+Mg+2, Zn and RSC parameters (Figure PC8). Among PC9 and PC10. CO3 and pH were found to be highly and positively correlated respectively and the

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remaining parameters under PC9 and PC10 either showed a poor or negative correlation with groundwater quality parameters (Figure PC9 and PC10). Data further revealed that PC11 showed a highly positive correlation with Zn and a negative correlation with manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), carbonate CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3) and electrical conductivity (EC) whereas the remaining parameters were poorly correlated with PC11.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY PARAMETERS The spatial distribution of all eleven groundwater parameters has been studied in water sample village areas of Newai Tehsil. The groundwater quality parameters were used to carve out spatial distribution maps of all water quality parameters of the study area covering 28 villages in Newai Tehsil. Proper legends have also been developed over each spatial map to describe the relative distribution of each quality parameter/water property. Low and high values (with their acceptable limit) have also been displayed over each spatial map. The spatial distribution of all eleven parameters with respect to their quality reveals that spatial distribution of Ca+2+Mg+2 was found to be within the range in all 28 water sample village areas under study, but as far as their distribution is concerned the dark brick red colored areas mostly confined towards north zone showed their maximum concentration in groundwater (spatial map1). Similarly, the legend showing the spatial distribution of Manganese (Mn) reveals its highest occurrence in the western part of the whole map whereas the appearance of some contour lines over the map shows Mn occurrence within the permissible limit (spatial map 2). The spatial distribution of iron (Fe) depicted in spatial map No. 3 clearly reveals that regions showing higher content of iron (Fe) in groundwater are maximum in the eastern part of spatial map No. 3. Legends further show barring these regions all other areas are having their normal distribution in sample village areas. Spatial distribution of copper through spatial map No. 4 shows the higher occurrence of copper in some middle and central part and the appearance of contour lines express the copper distribution in groundwater within the safe limit (spatial map No.4). Spatial map (No. 5) showing the spatial distribution of zinc (Zn) reveals that points showing contour lines are having Zn within the permissible limits in the area under study, whereas the dark-red colored area shows the highest concentration of Zn in groundwater (spatial map No. 5). Chloride distribution shown on spatial map No. 6 shows a higher

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concentration of chloride in the western part of the study area on the map, whereas the south and eastern parts contain chloride in the normal range. The spatial distribution of carbonate (CO3) ions in groundwater also followed a similar pattern indicating higher concentration in the western part of the Newai Tehsil study area (spatial map No.7). In the case of bicarbonate, the central and western part of the study area had higher bicarbonate (spatial map No. 8). The spatial map carved out for pH distribution in sample village area reveals that most of the study area having continuous contour lines shows normal pH, whereas some northern and southern parts indicated higher pH in groundwater (spatial map No. 8). Spatial distribution of electrical conductivity (EC) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) carved out on maps No. 10 and 11 reveals that higher EC values in groundwater were observed in the eastern and southern parts on the spatial map. No.10. Whereas RSC showed its normal distribution through contour lines in the eastern part of the map. Higher RSC values were observed in the western part through the boundary wall of spatial map No. 11.

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Figure 1.3: Spatial distribution maps of Bicarbonate, carbonate, Residual sodium carbonate, chloride, Electrical conductivity, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper and fluoride.

CONCLUSION Spatial characterization of groundwater quality was studied in Newai Tehsil. The groundwater quality parameters were used to carve out spatial distribution maps of all water quality parameters of the study area covering 28 villages in Newai Tehsil. Proper legends have also been developed over each spatial map to describe the relative distribution of each quality parameter/water property. Low and high values (with their acceptable limit) have also been displayed over each spatial map.

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REFERENCES 1.

Giessen, V., Sanchez-Hernandeza, R., Kampichlerb,C., RamosReyesa,R. and Sepulveda-Lozadaa, A. (2009).Effect of land use on some properties of tropical soils. An example from south east Mexico. Geoderma, 151, 87-97. 2. Goovaerts, P. (1999). Geostatistics in Soil Science: state of art and perspectives, Geoderma, 89,145. 3. Gupta, I.C. (1981). Use of saline water in agriculture: A study of arid and semi-arid zones of India. Oxford & IBH publication Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, p308. 4. Marwah, B.R. (2003). GIS applications for soil resources and its importance for country. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 51,466-472. 5. Minhas, P.S. and Gupta, R.K. (1992). Quality of irrigation water: Assessment and Management. Information and Publication division, ICAR, New Delhi, p123. 6. Mueller, T.G., Pierce, F.J. (2003). Soil carbon map: Enhancing spatial estimates with simple terrain attributes at multiple scale. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 67, 258-267. 7. Norris, J.N. (1971). The application of multivariate analysis to soil studies. I. Grouping of soils using different properties. Journal of Soil Science, 22, 69-80. 8. Norris, J.N. (1972). The application of multivariate analysis to soil studies. II. Soil Variation. Journal of Soil Science, 23, 62-75. 9. Paliwal, K.V., Yadav, B.R. (1976). Irrigation water quality and crop production management in Union territory of Delhi. Research Bulletin I.A.R.I. New Delhi, P166. 10. Prasad, J. (2000). Application of fertility capability classification system in soils of watershed in semi-arid tropics. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science,48, 329-338. 11. Quine, T.A., Zhang, Y. (2002). An investigation of spatial variation in soil erosion, soil properties and crop production within an agricultural field in Devon U.K. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 57, 50-60. 12. Rao, D.V.K.N., Jose, A.I. (2003). Fertility capability classification of some soils under rubber in Kerela. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science,51, 183-188.

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13. Richard, L.A. (1954).Diagnosis and Improvements of Saline Alkali Soils. Hand Book No. 60, USDA. 14. Samra, J.S. (2002). Participatory watershed management in India. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science,50, 345-351. 15. Sarkar, Dipak. (2011). Geo-information for appraisal and management of land resources towards optimizing agricultural productivity in the country-I Issues and Strategies. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 59 (supplement), pp s35-s48. 16. Shahid, M., Singh, A.P., Bhandari, D.K. Intjar A. (2008).Groundwater quality appraisal and categorization in Julana block of Jind district, Haryana. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science,1, 1232-125. 17. Sharma, D.R. (1998). Assessment of nature and extent of poor quality of under groundwater resources. National Seminar on Strategies for the Management of Poor Quality Water in Agriculture, held at CSSRI, Karnal, pp4-5. 18. Sharma, P.K. (2004). Emerging technologies of remote sensing and GIS for the development of spatial data in fracture. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 52,384-406. 19. Shaw, E., Dean L.A. (1952). Use of dithiozone as an extractant to estimate Zn status in soils. Soil Science, 73, 341-347. 20. Singh, A.K., Singh, R.S., Shyampura, R. (2008). Soil and water resources of changeri watershed- Udaipur, Rajasthan. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 56,106-108. 21. Sood, Anil, Setia, R.K., Bansal, R.L., Sharma, P.K. and Nayyar, V.K. (2004). Spatial distribution of micronutrients in soils of Amritsar district using frontier technologies. Proceedings of 7th Punjab Science Congress (Abstract vol.) held at Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. Feb. 7-9, 2004. Pp A. IV-4. 22. Tandon, H.L.S. (2009).Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Waters and Fertilizers. Fertilizer Development and Consultation Organization, 10 Shaheed Jit Singh Marg, New Delhi-110048. 23. Trivedy, R.K., Goel, P.K. (1984) Chemical and biological methods for waste water studies. Environmental Publisher, Karad India. p104. 24. Wang, Y., Xhang, X., Huang, C. (2009). Spatial variability in soil total N and soil total phosphorus under different land use in small water shed on the loess plateau China. Geoderma, 150,141-149.

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25. Webster, R., Oliver, M.A. (2001). Geostatistics for environmental scientists. John Wiley Chichster, U.K. 26. Yao, L.X., Xhau, X.C., Cai, Y.F., Chen, W.Z. (2004). Spatial variability of soil properties at different sampling intensities and accuracy of their estimation. Soils, 36, 538-542.

CHAPTER

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Effect of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigation on Profile Characteristics, Macro and Micronutrients in Soils at Farmer’s Field

Contents Introduction.............................................................................................. 24 Irrigation Quality of Treated Sewage Water............................................... 27 Effect of TSW Irrigation on Basic Soil Properties........................................ 28 Effect of TSW Irrigation on Available NPK................................................. 30 Effect of TSW Irrigation on Available Micronutrients................................. 31 Correlation Matrix.................................................................................... 33 Conclusion............................................................................................... 34 References................................................................................................ 35

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INTRODUCTION There are certain myths and realities in the use of raw sewage water containing industrial effluents in irrigation. Peri-urban agriculture is predominantly facing a threat of environmental pollution in the agro-ecosystem wherein soils and crops are on the verge of pollution and need some policy interventions for possible gains and lacking in the use of wastewater resources. The present investigation exclusively has assessed the influence of TSW irrigation on profile behavior of pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, macro and micronutrients in sewage irrigated soils in the Banasthali region of Tonk district. The surface layer of TSW irrigated areas contained higher organic carbon. Available N in top (0-20 cm) layer varied from 215.6-360.0 kg ha-1, available Phosphorus from 18.6- 27.5 kg ha-1. Surface and subsurface (020 and 20-40 cm) layers of TSW irrigated area contained a significantly higher amount of K than average (226.1 kg ha-1) and TW irrigated field. The correlation study of different soil parameters with available macro and micronutrients at farmer’s field revealed that at 0-20 cm layer OC with available N; at 20-40 cm pH with Cu and EC with Fe and Zn; at 40-60 cm OC with pH and Mn; at 80-100 cm EC with Fe and K with Zn were found highly and positively correlated. Whereas, available N was found to be highly negatively correlated with potassium and pH had a highly negative correlation at 80-100 cm depth. The outstanding finding of the study reveals that the correlation matrix of EC and pH in the top layer (0-20 cm) of all the profiles showed a positive correlation and it is for this reason that the soils of the investigation area be categorized as sodic soils rather than saline sodic. Crop production in semi-arid regions like Tonk (Rajasthan) is severely affected due to a shortage of fresh as well as good quality water. Although rainwater harvesting, storage and their use in irrigation have paved the way for sustaining crop production in such areas. In most parts of the country (like Rajasthan) water resources are limited and rather are insufficient to meet the requirement in agriculture therefore, a huge gap exists between available water supply and the amount required due to the limited supply of freshwater recourses. In such situations, the use of sewage water has been advocated to be utilized in irrigation thereby meeting the existing demand for water and nutrient, the most limiting factor in agriculture production. Irrigation with treated effluents provides water and nutrients to crop on one hand paves the convenient ways for sewage water to be utilized in irrigation because of higher metabolic rates of the soil system than water (Tiwari et al, 2003; Saraswat et al, 2005; Jeyabaskaran and Sreeramulu, 1996, Velayutham and Bhardwaj, 1994).

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Sewage water is a potential source of irrigation water and plant nutrient. Application of treated sewage effluent at 7.5 cm/ha would provide 36.0, 5.0 and 50.0 kg ha-1 N, P and K respectively and a considerable amount of secondary and micronutrients to soil (Bhatia et al. 2001). Further results showed that treated sewage effluent increased crop yield, N, P, K, organic carbon and reduced bulk density. More than 600 metro and non-metro cities, townships and institutional areas in India generate more than 17 x 106 m3 of raw sewage per day (Bijay-singh, 2002). Only a part of raw sewage gets treatment (physical filtration) due to a lack of sewage treatment plants (STPs). During the treatment process, raw sewage gets separated into digested sludge (solid) and treated sewage water (TSW). With the escalating cost of inorganic fertilizers and limited availability of good quality water, the use of TSW has been utilized in irrigation in those areas where STPs are functional (Nyamanagara and Mzezew,a 2001; Tiwari et al, 2003).The use of sewage water in irrigation is expected to carry a substantial amount of macro (NPK) and micro (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) nutrients to soils, thereby controlling crop production and the Fertility level of soils (Meena et al, 2006). Therefore, TSW of domestic origin could be considered as a nutrient source as it contributes to macro and micronutrients to the soil (Brady and Weil, 2002). Although soil acts as a physical filter due to its porous nature, a chemical filter being adsorbent and a biological filter due to decomposing the organic compounds (Kharche et al, 2001) but, continuous use of raw sewage or TSW may lead to the buildup of metals and organic residue in soils depending upon the pH, textural composition of soils, cropping practices and frequency of irrigation. Prolonged use of sewage and industrial effluents may ultimately cause pollution of soils and groundwater (Saraswat et al, 2005). This needs regular exercise for the characterization and monitoring of such soils with respect to health for sustainable productivity of soil resources to mitigate these effects. Moreover, studies conducted on characterization and build-up of metals have been confined to surface soils of peri-urban areas and in Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP). But profile behavior of basic soil properties, distribution and accumulation of macro and micronutrients in raw sewage/TSW irrigated areas is virtually lacking in saline-sodic soils of semi-arid regions and hence present investigation was carried out during 2011-2014 in TSW irrigated soils with respect to its influence on basic soil chemical properties (like pH, EC and organic carbon) in profile and thereby, distribution of macro and micronutrients at farmer’s field in Banasthali block of Tonk district (Rajasthan).

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Banasthali block with the Banasthali Vidyapith campus comes under Newai Tehsil of Tonk District. The study area is located in Tonk and lies between upper left 26025’10.21” N latitude to 75051’8.55” E longitude at a mean elevation ranging from 304 m above mean sea level. The soils of the area are sandy loam being saline or sodic in nature. Banasthali Vidyapith a residential campus situated 65 km away from Jaipur on Jaipur-Kota highway is spreading in about a 9 square kilometer area having about 15 thousand students and staff population. Banasthali Vidyapith has its own Sewage Treatment plant (SPT) of about 1million liter per day (MLD) capacity in Haripura village, where raw sewage of campus is treated physically in STP. After treatment, part of treated sewage water (TSW) goes to Banasthali Vidyapith KVK Farm for irrigation purposes through an underground pipeline and remaining flows in open Nalah from where it is used in irrigation by farmers of the vicinity area of Haripura village. The prevailing cropping system in the area is vegetables and fodder crops in summer (Zaid), Pearl millet, Sorghum, Black gram and Green gram in Kharif (Rainy) and Mustard, Chickpea, Wheat and Barley in Rabi (winter) season. Due to a shortage of irrigation water TSW is being used in irrigation at KVK Farm as well as farmers’ fields in the vicinity of the STP area for the last 10 years. Treated sewage water and groundwater samples were collected in neutral plastic bottles from the area and brought to the laboratory for further analysis. Collected water samples were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, BOD, COD, Ca, Mg, K, Na, CO3, HCO3 and RSC by using standard procedures and methods as described by Trivedy and Goel (1984), APHA (1975) and trace metals/ micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) in water sapless were also estimated in Di-acid digest (Tandon,2003) using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS Model 4129). Treated sewage water of Banasthali Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) flows in open Nalah is used for irrigation in crops by the local farmers of Haripura village. Farmer’s fields were selected for characterization of basic soil properties like pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), Organic carbon (OC) and quantification of macro (NPK) and micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) in soil profiles of TSW irrigated areas. Five soil profiles in TSW irrigated area at farmers field of Haripura village (including one Tube well-irrigated field) were dug in 2011 and soil profile number s were named as SPN-7, SPN-8, SPN-9, SPN-10 all in TSW irrigated area and SPN-11 in Tube well (TW) irrigated area.

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Horizon wise five samples according to Soil Survey Division Staff (2000) using GPS from each core layer i.e. 0-20 cm (Layer-I), 20-40 cm (Layer –II), 40-60 cm (Layer-III), 60-80 cm (Layer-IV) and 80-100 cm (Layer-V) were collected with the help of a core cutter, stored in polythene bags and marked properly. Collected soil samples were brought to the Soil and Water Testing Laboratory for further analysis. Standard methods and procedures were adopted for analysis of pH, EC, Organic carbon, available NPK and DTPA extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) in soil samples as described by Black C.A. (1965), Jackson M.L. (1973) and Lindsay and Norvell (1978). The recorded data for each soil parameter (i.e. pH. EC, OC, Available NPK, Fe, Cu, Mn & Zn) was further statistically analyzed and made unit less using Z score for a graphical representation (in origin 8 versions). Correlation between soil parameters in profile has been calculated to visualize the behavior of each soil parameter in all soil profiles at different depths.

IRRIGATION QUALITY OF TREATED SEWAGE WATER The irrigation quality of TSW has been assessed with respect to pH, EC salinity, sodicity, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), Ammonical and Nitrate Nitrogen, total phosphorus, cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K), anions (CO3 and HCO3), residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and trace elements (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn). Quality characteristics of TSW on the basis of mean values reveal that it possesses pH 8.0, EC 1.5 dS m-1, NH+4 and NO-3 (34.0 and 15 mg L-1 respectively) Total phosphorus 9.6 mg L-1, TDS 805 mg L-1, BOD 30 mg L-1, COD 100 mg L-1, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium 6.9, 4.7, 3.2, and 6.3 me L-1 respectively. Carbonates, Bicarbonates and RSC were 9.6, 8.8 and 6.8 meq L-1 , respectively. Trace element analysis of TSW also shows the presence of Fe (2.4), Cu (4) Mn (3.0) and Zn (0.9) mg L-1 respectively in Di-acid digest and absence of Cr, Cd and Ni. The concentrations of Ca, Mg and Na indicate no salinity hazards but the presence of a higher RSC value indicates sodicity hazards in this water (Richards, 1954). Macronutrient contents were suitable to meet irrigation quality standards in TSW. The presence of BOD (30), COD (100), and TDS (805) in TSW was somewhat lower than the prescribed limits barring TDS for effluents to be discharged into/on land or utilized in irrigation (EPR1993). Results of chemical analysis showed a higher

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range of TDS and RSC in TSW but, on the basis of other irrigation quality parameters, the TSW of municipal origin proved to be a good source of irrigation.

EFFECT OF TSW IRRIGATION ON BASIC SOIL PROPERTIES Effect of long-term TSW irrigation at farmer’s field has been monitored with respect to its influence on basic soil chemical properties (like pH, EC and organic carbon) and thereby profile distribution of macro and micronutrients. Four soil profiles (SPN-7, SPN-8, SPN-9, and SPN-10) in TSW irrigated area and one (SPN-11 for comparison) in Tube well (TW) irrigated area, each of 0-100 cm depth were dug at farmer’s field in Haripura village during 2010-11. Data pertaining to behavior of basic soil characteristics (i.e. pH, EC and OC), available macro (NPK) and micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) in TSW and TW irrigated profiles has been described with the help of graph and correlation matrix. Data pertaining to the surface as well as profile behavior of pH, EC and organic carbon (OC) reveals that TSW irrigated soils at farmer’s field showed relatively higher pH which varied from 8.48.9 being lowest in TW irrigated (control field SPN-11) area and highest in SPN-7 at the surface. Data further reveals that pH went on decreasing with increasing depth down the profile, barring the SPN-9 at II layer. This could be attributed to the presence of higher base saturation resulting in elevated pH at the same depth. Graphical representation of the pH given in figure 1 shows that all the soil profiles had higher pH than the average value (7.91) in the top two layers in the study area at the farmer’s field. Further SPN-9 also showed higher pH than average. Working experience of groundwater quality analysis in the study area (data not given) reveals the higher presence of carbonates and bicarbonates thereby; higher RSC values might have resulted in higher pH in surface and subsurface soils in the study area. Soils generally have high pH values owing to buffering by high base saturation and CaCO3. A critical perusal of the pH and EC values in TSW and TW irrigated soil profiles reveals that these soils have inherently higher pH and it is for this reason that these soils qualify to be categorized more as sodic soils. According to Gupta and Abrol (1990), neutral soluble salts (Cl- and SO4of Na+) which are invariably present in soil solution might have attributed to higher pH and lower EC in the present investigation. Saline sodic soils may also contain soluble CO3— of Na+ besides the excess of neutral soluble

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salts (Cl- & SO4— of Ca++ & Mg++). The buildup of soluble salts reduces the pH of saline soils, but in the case of sodic soils, pH increases with an increase in salinity due to the presence of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3. Further pH and EC were found to be negatively correlated down the profile. The leaching of excess soluble carbonates due to the sandy nature of soils might be attributed to such a relationship. Data pertaining to the concentration of soluble salts (EC) reveals that SPN-7 had higher electrical conductivity than average in the 0-60 cm layer. Similarly, SPN-9 also had higher EC in the 0-60 cm layer. Whereas SPN-8 and 10 in TSW irrigated area and SPN11 of TW irrigated area showed relatively higher EC in only 0-40 cm layer. The Saline sodic nature of irrigation water and high evaporation rates might have been attributed to a higher level of electrical conductivity. Because groundwater is also intermittently used in irrigation when the availability of TSW becomes scarce. The correlation matrix of EC and pH in the top layer (0-20 cm) of all the profiles at the farmer’s field showed a positive correlation and hence signifies the presence of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 ions in the solution phase which might have resulted in higher EC with higher pH and established a positive correlation between EC and pH. It is for this reason that the soils of the investigation area be categorized as sodic soils rather than saline-sodic. Data pertaining to organic carbon (OC) in soil profiles showed a wide variation down the profile. The distribution pattern shown in figure 13 shows that SPN-7 and 8 contained higher OC than average (2.79 gm kg-1) in the top two layers whereas SPN-11 (TW irrigated area) contained higher OC in only the top (0-20 cm) layer. Data further reveals that SPN9 and 10 contained OC than average up to 60 cm depth down the profile. Further SPN-10 showed very minute variation in organic throughout the profile. Among the basic soil properties (pH, EC and OC) presence of OC at the soil surface as well as profile significantly influence the soil chemical reaction (pH). All soils contain organic matter, although type and amount may vary considerably, depending upon the type of cropping system being followed. The presence of higher organic carbon in the surface layer might be attributed to the use of TSW in irrigation by the farmers in the area. Patel et al. (2004) also reported higher organic carbon in surface and subsurface soils receiving sewage water irrigation as compared to those of tube well irrigation. In the present investigation surface layer of TSW irrigated areas contained higher organic carbon (Being highest in SPN-9 and 10) than those of TW irrigated one at farmer’s field. This is evident due to the presence of

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suspended solid matter in TSW. These results find the support of conformity with Baddesha et al. (1997).

EFFECT OF TSW IRRIGATION ON AVAILABLE NPK Data pertaining to distribution of available NPK in profiles of TSW and TW irrigated area at farmer’s field given in table 2 and figure 4, 5 and 6 reveals that available N in top (0-20 cm) layer varied from 215.6-360.0 kg ha-1irrespective of soil profiles under study. Graphical representation of available N (Fig. 4) shows that SPN-7 and 8 contained low N as compared to average (225.6 kg ha-1) under study area whereas SPN-9 (up to a depth of 0-60 cm), SPN-10 (up to 0-40 cm) and SPN-11 (up to a depth of 0-80 cm) contained relatively higher available nitrogen. Distribution of available Phosphorus in soil profiles varied from 18.6- 27.5 kg ha-1 being lowest in SPN-11 (TW irrigated) and highest in SPN-9. Data further reveals that SPN7, SPN-9 and SPN-11 registered higher available phosphorus in the top three (0-20, 20-40&40-60 cm) layers as compared to the average of phosphorus level (17.5 kg ha-1) in the study area. Whereas SPN-8 contained relatively higher available phosphorus than average in the top two (0-20 & 20-40 cm) layers and SPN-10 only in the surface layer respectively. Raina et al. (2011) while working on profile distribution of available NPK in soil ascribed this to restricted movement of available P along with the soil depth due to high absorptivity of available phosphorus in surface and subsurface layers. Data pertaining to available potassium status of TSW and TW irrigated soil profiles reveals that surface and subsurface (0-20 and 20-40 cm) layers of TSW irrigated area contained a significantly higher amount than average (226.1 kg ha-1) and also as compared to TW irrigated profile. Further movement of potassium in lower layers (40-60 cm) as in the case of SPN--9 and SPN--10 may be possibly due to the movement of potassium to deeper layers. Baddesha et al. (1997) and Saraswat et al. (2007) also reported higher available potassium in surface and subsurface layers in sewage water and treated sewage water irrigated areas as compared to those of TW irrigated one. In lower layers down the profiles, the K content went on decreasing. Sawarkar et al. (2013) while working on the distribution of available Potassium in profile also noticed the decreasing trend of potassium with increasing soil depth. A similar finding was also reported by Sethia and Sharma (2004). Correlation matrix of basic soil characteristics (pH, EC and OC) with available NPK in profiles of study area given in table 3 reveals that

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pH had a negative correlation with phosphorus in surface and subsurface (020 and 20-40 cm) layers. Saline sodic soils have been reported to contain a sufficient amount of available phosphorus (Singh and Nijhawan1943; Chhabra et al. 1981) and it is for this reason that soil profiles of the study area being sandy and sodic in nature contained a sufficient amount of available phosphorus. During the present study pH and available N were found to be negatively correlated in the surface layer (0-20 cm) layer whereas in lower layers (barring 80-100 cm depth) pH and available N showed + ve correlation. This might be attributed to the higher volatilization losses due to the presence of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 in the solution phase resulting in higher pH. In sodic soils, Jewitt (1942) reported soil N losses as high as 80% depending upon the level of soil moisture and nitrogen sources. In lower layers down the profiles, decreasing pH showed a positive correlation with available N. Generally, potassium availability in sodic soils has been reported adequate, because of the predominance of micaceous minerals in soils of arid and semi- arid regions (Gupta and Abrol, 1990). In the present investigation, pH was found to be positively correlated with potassium in profiles at all depths barring 20-40 cm in the subsoil. The presence of organic carbon showed a positive correlation with available potassium except down the profile.

EFFECT OF TSW IRRIGATION ON AVAILABLE MICRONUTRIENTS The distribution of DTPA extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) in profiles of TSW and TW irrigated soils at farmer’s fields is given in table 2 and depicted in figures 6, 7, 8 and 9. Data reveals that Fe content in the surface (0-20 cm) layer ranged from 3.69-6.51 mg kg-1 irrespective of profiles under study. Data further reveals that Fe content at lower depth down the profile varied and further increase in Fe concentration irrespective of their surface contents was noticed at 20-40 cm (SPN-7), 40-60 cm (SPN8) and 60-80 cm (SPN-9) whereas in rest of the profiles Fe content went on decreasing with increasing depth down the profile. Similarly, copper also showed a variable pattern of distribution in the profiles. SPN-8 and SPN-9 retained relatively higher copper content than average (0.8 mg kg-1) in the top four layers of the profiles under study whereas SPN-7 showed relatively higher copper content than average only

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in upper three (0-20,20-40,40-60cm) layers and in SPN-10 and 11 relatively lower copper concentration as compared to the average of the study area was noticed. Data pertaining to Mn distribution in soil profiles reveals that SPN9 and 10 contained relatively and significantly higher Mn throughout the profile barring the lowest layer (i.e. 80-100 cm). SPN-7 showed relatively higher Mn than average (11.6 mg kg-1) only in the top two layers (0-20 and 20-40 cm) whereas SPN-11 (TW irrigated) showed a relatively lower content of Mn throughout the profile. Variation in Mn distribution in the profile was in SPN-8 being higher than average in the deepest (80-100 cm) layer in the area under study. Distribution pattern of DTPA extractable Zn in soil profiles given in table 2 and depicted reveals that SPN-7 contained relatively higher Zn than their average (0.49 mg kg-1) in the study area, whereas SPN-8 showed significantly lower Zn concentration with fluctuation down the profile. Many soil factors such as pH, EC, soil organic carbon (SOC), temperature and moisture affect the availability and distribution of micronutrients in surface and subsurface layers of soil. Soil pH influences solubility, concentration in soil solution, ionic form and mobility of micronutrients in surface and subsurface layer thereby acquisition of these elements to plant (Fageria et al, 1997). As a general rule availability of Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn and B decreases and Mo increases with an increase in pH. In the present investigation, pH was found to be highly and negatively correlated with Fe in three (020,20-40,40-60 cm) layers of the soil profiles at the farmer’s field, whereas available copper in the same layer showed a highly positive correlation with pH (20-40 cm) and in rest of the layers, it was negatively correlated with pH. Data further reveals that in the surface layer only organic carbon was found to be highly and positively correlated with Mn, whereas, in the subsurface (20-40 cm) layer EC had a highly positive correlation with Fe, Cu and Zn. Further, down the profile (40-60 cm) OC maintained a highly positive correlation with Mn whereas in lower layers OC did not show any positive correlation. Further data reveals that Fe and Zn at subsurface (20-40 cm) layer and K and Zn at 80-100 cm depth in profile had a positive correlation. A variable increase in micronutrient contents at different depths in profiles was also noticed. This variable increase and decrease might be attributed to the process of “cheluviation” describing the occurrence of metal-organic complexes in soils wherein minerals would be decomposed by chelation in solution as an organo-metal complex of mostly metal/ polyvalent ions (Fe, Mn, etc.) and would migrate downward in soil (Swindale and Jackson, 1956).

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CORRELATION MATRIX The correlation matrix of EC and pH in the top layer (0-20 cm) of all the profiles at farmer’s field showed a positive correlation and hence signifies the presence of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 ions as soluble salts in the solution phase which might have resulted in higher EC with higher pH and established a positive correlation between EC and pH. It is for this reason that the soils of the investigation area be categorized as sodic soils rather than salinesodic. Organic carbon in profiles at farmer’s fields showed a wide variation down the profile. The surface layer of TSW irrigated areas contained higher organic carbon (being highest in SPN-9 and 10) than those of TW irrigated one at the farmer’s field. Distribution of available NPK in profiles of TSW and TW irrigated area at farmer’s field reveals that available N in top (0-20 cm) layer varied from 215.6-360.0 kg ha-1 irrespective of soil profiles under study. SPN-7 and 8 contained low N as compared to average (225.6 kg ha1 ) under study area whereas SPN-9 (up to a depth of 0-60 cm), SPN-10 (up to 0-40 cm) and SPN-11 (up to a depth of 0-80 cm) contained relatively higher available nitrogen. Available phosphorus in soil profiles varied from 18.6 - 27.5 kg ha-1 being lowest in SPN-11 (TW irrigated) and highest in SPN-9. Available phosphorus was of higher magnitude in the top three (020, 20-40 and 40-60 cm) layers of SPN-7, SPN-9 and SPN-11as compared to the average of phosphorus level (17.5 kg ha-1) in the study area. SPN--8 contained relatively higher available Phosphorus than average in the top two (0-20 & 20-40 cm) layers and SPN-10 only in the surface layer respectively. Surface and subsurface (0-20 and 20-40 cm) layers of TSW irrigated area contained a significantly higher amount of K than average (226.1 kg ha-1) and also as compared to TW irrigated profile. Further movement of potassium in lower layers (40-60 cm) as in the case of SPN-9 and SPN-10 has been observed possibly due to the movement of potassium to deeper layers. In lower layers down the profiles, the K content went on decreasing. Correlation matrix of basic soil characteristics (pH, EC and OC) with available NPK in profiles of study area reveals that pH had a negative correlation with phosphorus in surface and subsurface (0-20 and 20-40 cm) layers. And it is for this reason that soil profiles of the study area being sandy and sodic in nature contained a sufficient amount of available phosphorus. Soil pH and available N were found to be negatively correlated in the surface layer (0-20 cm) layer whereas in lower layers (barring 80-100 cm depth) pH and available N showed a positive correlation. This might be attributed to the presence of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 in the solution phase resulting in higher pH. In lower layers down the profiles, decreasing pH showed a positive

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correlation with available N. In the present investigation pH was found to be positively correlated with potassium in profiles at all depths barring 2040 cm in the subsoil. The presence of organic carbon showed a positive correlation with available potassium except down the profile. Soil pH was found to be highly and negatively correlated with Fe in three (0-20,2040,40-60 cm) layers of the soil profiles at farmer’s field, whereas available copper in the same layer showed a highly positive correlation with pH (2040 cm) and in rest of the layers, it was negatively correlated with pH. Data further reveals that in a surface layer only organic carbon was found to be highly and positively correlated with Mn, whereas, in the subsurface (20-40 cm) layer EC had a highly positive correlation with Fe, Cu and Zn. Further, down the profile (40-60 cm) OC maintained a highly positive correlation with Mn, whereas in lower layers OC did not show any positive correlation. Fe and Zn at subsurface (20-40 cm) layer and K and Zn at 80-100 cm depth in profile had a positive correlation.

CONCLUSION Long-term use of treated sewage water in irrigation has improved organic carbon as well as available macro and micronutrients in surface and subsurface layers of soils. Down the profile variable increase in available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at different depths have been observed due to the sandy nature of the soil. Further in a variable increase in micronutrients at different depths in profile was noticed and well correlated with the process of cheluviation. It is concluded that TSW instead of raw sewage water could be a substitute for the nutrient requirement and reduce the cost of production which is an important factor in the agricultural economy.

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REFERENCES 1.

Baddesha, H.S., Chhabra, R., Ghuman, B.S. (1997). Changes in soil chemical properties and plant nutrients under Eucalyptus irrigated with sewage water. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 45, 158162. 2. Bhatia, Arti, Pathak, H., Joshi, H.C. (2001). Use of sewage as a source of plant nutrients. Fertilizer News, 46, 55-58. 3. Brady, N. C., Weil, R. R. (2002). Practical Nutrient Management. IN: The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th Edison. Passion Education (Singapore), 699. 4. E.P.R. (1993). In the Gazette of Indian: Extra ordinary (Part II sec.3) Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, New Delhi. 5. Gupta, R.K., Abrol, I.P. (1990). Salt Affected Soils: Their reclamation and management for crop production. In: Advances in Soil Science (Edited) R. Lal and B.A. Stewart. 11, 224-261. 6. Jackson, M.L. (1973).Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 7. Jewitt, T.N. (1942). Losses of ammonia from Ammonium sulphate applied in alkali soils. Journal of Soil Science, 132, 319-324 8. Jeyabaskaran, K.J., Sreeramulu, U.S. (1996). Distribution of heavy metals in soils of various sewage farms in Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 44,401-4005. 9. Kharche, V.K., Desai,V.N., Parande, A.I. (2011). Effect of sewage irrigation on soil properties, essential nutrient and pollutant element status of soils and plants in vegetable growing area around Ahmednagar city in Maharashtra.Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 491, 77-184. 10. Lindsay, W.H., Norvell, W.A. (1978). Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 42, 421-428. 11. Meena HB; Sharma R.P., Rawat U. S. (2006). Status of macro and micronutrients in soils of Tonk district of Rajasthan. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 54, 506-512. 12. Nyamangara. J., Mzezewa, J. (2001). Effect of long term application of selvage sludge to a grazed grass pasture on organic carbon and nutrients of clay soil in Zimbabwe, Nutrient Cycling in Agro-ecosystems, 50, 13-18.

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13. Patal, K. P., Pandya, R.R., Maliwal, G.L., Patel, K.C., Ramani, V.P., George, V. (2004). heavy metal contents of different effluents and their relative availability is soils irrigated with effluent water around major industrial cities of Gujrat. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science,52,89-94. 14. Raina, J.N., Tarika, S., Shashi S. (2011). Effect of drip fertigation on nutrient distribution in soil, leaf nutrient content and yield of Apricot (Prunus aremeniaca L.). Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 59, 268-277. 15. Richard, L.A. (1954).Diagnosis and Improvements of Saline Alkali Soils. Hand Book No. 60, USDA. 16. Saraswat, P.K., Sanjay, K., Tiwari, R.C. (2007). Effect of treated sewage water irrigation on soil quality and composition of vegetable crops. Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research, 7(1&2), 10-15. 17. Sawarkar, S.D., Khanparia, N.K., Thakur, Rishikesh, Dewada, M.S., Singh M. (2013). Effect of long term application of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures on yield potassium uptake and Profile distribution of Potassium fruitions in vertisols under soybean wheat cropping system, Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 61, 94-98. 18. Sethia, R., Sharma, K. (2004). Influence of fertilizers and manures application on uptake of potassium and distribution in soil profile under pulse wheat cropping system, Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 54, (2). 35-38. 19. Tandon, H.L.S. (2003). Methods of Soil, Plant, Water and Fertilizer Analysis (Ed). Fertilizer Development and Consultation Organization, 10 Shaheed Jeet Singh Marg, New Delhi.pp70-78. 20. Tiwari, R. C., Saraswat, P. K., Agrawal, H. P. (2003). Changes in macronutrient status of soils irrigated with treated sewage water and tube well water.Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 51, 150155. 21. Trivedy, R.K., Goel, P.K. (1984). Chemical and biological methods for waste water studies. Environmental Publisher, Karad India. P104. 22. Velayutham, M., Bhardwaj, K.K.R. (1994). Soil and agricultural waste disposal. Indian Farming, December 1994, 39-41.

CHAPTER

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Effect of Gypsum and Green Manuring Interventions on Mustard Productivity and Sodic Soil Quality under On Farm Testing (OFT) at Farmer’s Field

Contents Introduction.............................................................................................. 38 Nutrient Potential of Green Manure Crops................................................ 41 Effect of Technological Interventions on Mustard Yield.............................. 42 Effect of Green Manuring on Soil Properties.............................................. 43 References ............................................................................................... 46

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INTRODUCTION Three OFTs on green manuring for introduction and assessment of their effects on mustard production and sodic soil quality were conducted at farmers’ fields during 2011-2014 in selected villages of Newai and Todaraisingh Tehsil of Tonk district. OFT treatments comprised as T1: farmer’s practice-FP, T2: Recommended POP for mustard (Gypsum 50% GR + FYM+ RDF), T3: Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Green gram, T4: Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Sesbania and T5: Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Crotolaria as technological interventions. Three years of results of OFT revealed that technological interventions T4 and T5 registered significantly higher mustard yield even over FP and POP treatments whereas T3 (Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Green gram) could register significantly higher yield only over T1. Higher monetary gains in terms of benefit-cost ratio (B: C ratio) were also achieved in T4 and T5 treatments. Inclusion of green manuring (GM) particularly Sesbania and Crotolaria along with Gypsum use resulted in marked reduction in pH, EC and BD and improvements in organic carbon, available NPK and micronutrients in sodic soils in Tonk district of Rajasthan. The study further revealed that the introduction of green manuring in Kharif fallow fields reserved for mustard sowing in Rabi season got fitted in the prevailing cropping system. Results of three years of OFT have paved means and ways for improving sodic soil quality, input use efficiency and mustard productivity in salt-affected areas at farmer’s fields.

Rajasthan is one of the major oilseeds producing states in India covering an area of about 485751 hectares under Mustard and Groundnut respectively (DRMR 2011). In Tonk district, mustard-based cropping system is spreading in about 8800 ha area alone in Rabi season with a productivity of 16 Qha-1. About 40% of soils of the total cropped area are salt-affected being dominated by CO3 and HCO3 in the solution phase accompanied with Na saturation in the solid phase (Saraswat 2014) due to which the potential productivity of mustard is not being achieved. The prominent reason is being the nonapplication of amendments, low supply of organic matter and green manures making the soils deficient in macro and micronutrients thereby adversely affecting the crop yield and biological properties of soils. Salt affected soils occupy a vast area in Tonk district and reclamation and management of these can potentially add to the free total stock of land under plow. Texturally these soils are light and more suitable for oilseed in Rabi and pulses in Kharif season provided that they find best- integrated options for

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reclamation and management. Recommended package of practices (POP) in vogue for improving sodic soil quality and mustard productivity is the use of gypsum along with FYM. Gypsum is an excellent soil amendment that also provides sulfur to meet out sulfur requirement of the mustard crop in addition to FYM. Course textured and salt-affected mustard growing areas in semi-arid regions have been reported to be deficient in sulfur and micronutrients particularly Fe and Zn (Patel et al. 1999). Soil pH is one of the principal factors affecting nutrient availability to plants. At high pH, micronutrients cannot effectively promote the high crop yields, but a decrease in soil pH increases the solubility of Al, Fe, Cu and Zn. In sodic soils, the use of gypsum corrects the soil pH (More, 2010). Investigations carried out at research farm and farmers’ fields have revealed that the use of organic matter including FYM and green manuring is helpful not only in enhancing the use efficiency of macronutrients but also in mobilizing micronutrients from native sources. Nayyer and Chhibba (2000) observed that regular green manuring with Sesbania results in improving Fe availability by mobilizing this nutrient from the native source. Conventional measures for reclamation of salt -affected soils like treatment with gypsum had have been practiced but, with limited results. Further, the availability and affordability of gypsum are limited. The impact of schemes supported/subsidized for the reclamation of alkali soils with gypsum supplied at very low rates has also not achieved the desired success in this field. Green manure crops have long been known for their benefits of supplying fixed atmospheric nitrogen and for their overall beneficial effects in improving soil health. CSSRI Karnal has developed Gypsum- Green manure technology for the reclamation of sodic soils. Despite the known benefits, this technology could not be adopted extensively by the farmers except in irrigated areas. The reason was being, non-introduction of green manuring due to lack of awareness. There exists a gap between technology development and its transfer, further, prevailing technology also requires some location-based and needs specific assessment and refinement with an adequate level of intervention to make the farmers more trained and competent for the use. On Farm Testing is a passage of technologies through various stages. The term on-farm research refers to experimentation on farms that range from researcher-directed experiments to farmers conducting experiments completely on their own. On-farm tests have a high level of farmer involvement because the farmers help decide what to test and perform most or all of the work. The goal of on-farm testing

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is to evaluate the performance and potential application of a particular farming practice using a valid experiment. To achieve this goal, adaptive research (On Farm Testing) was conducted to study the performance of Gypsum-green manure technology at farmers’ fields during 2011-2014 in Tonk district. Three green manuring legume crops viz. Green gram (Phaseolus aureus Roxb), Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeatea Poir) and Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea Linn) were grown with gypsum to study the effect of gypsum– green manuring interventions on improving sodic soil quality and mustard productivity at farmers’ field in Newai and Todaraisingh Tehsil of Tonk district during 2011-2014. Three OFT plans were prepared to have three different treatment details. Out of these three OFTs, two treatments i.e. T1: Farmer’s practice, T2: Gypsum (50% GR) + FYM+ RDF as recommended POP for mustard growing areas were common in all three OFTs. Whereas T3, T4 and T5 treatments had additional interventions of green manuring crops i.e. Green gram (Phaseolus aurus Roxb), Dhaincha (Sesbania-aculeata poir) and Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea L) along with 50% of GR. In this way these treatments contained as T3: Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Green gram, T4: Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Sesbania and T5: Gypsum 50% GR + RDF + Crotolaria as technological interventions. These treatment combinations were repeated for three consecutive years in the same field of Bidauli and Natawada (Newai Tehsil) and Bhansu village (Todaraisingh Tehsil) in Tonk district. All the treatments barring T1 were supplied a recommended dose of fertilizers as per POP of mustard crop. Since the whole area reserved for mustard growing in Rabi season remains fallow in Kharif season. Therefore, fallow fields were employed for green manuring using Dhaincha and Sunhemp. Green gram was grown as a pulse crop in the Kharif season. So, the introduction of green manuring got fitted in the Kharif cropping system being followed in the study area at the farmer’s field. Green manuring crops were sown in the month of July at the onset of the monsoon. The recommended dose of gypsum as per GR was applied in the field before the sowing of green manure crops. Green manuring crops were plowed in the field just before initiation of flowering (at the age of 42 days after sowing). The nutrient potential of green manuring crops was also studied for making comparative assessments. Two or three plowing was done for field preparation and in the month of September mustard crop (Var. Maya) was sown in the field by adopting the recommended practices. Measurements on growth and yield attributes were taken during crop period and yield data were recorded after harvest and threshing of the crop in the

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month of February. Composite soil samples were collected from the field before starting of OFT in 2011. Collected soil samples were brought to a soil testing laboratory for further analysis. Processed soil samples were employed for estimation of pH, EC, BD of soil as per procedures outlined by Tandon (2009). Organic carbon (Walkley and Black 1934.), available N (Subbiah and Asija 1956.), P (Olsen et al. 1954), K (Jackson1973) and DTPA extractable micronutrients (Lindsay and Norvell 1978) were also estimated in soil samples. After completion of three years of OFT soil samples were again collected after harvest of the mustard crop in 2014 and analysis of soil samples was repeated for the above-mentioned soil parameters.

NUTRIENT POTENTIAL OF GREEN MANURE CROPS The benefits accruing from green manuring and biomass incorporation after turning in the field can be related to biomass and nutrient availability to the soil. Data pertaining to plant nutrient potential of the Green gram, Sesbania and Crotolaria is given in table 1. Data reveals that amount of green matter added to the soil through Green gram, Sesbania and Crotolaria was 17.30, 34.55- and 30.65-tons ha-1 respectively. Data further reveals that the dry matter addition capacity of these green manuring (GM) crops was found to be 3.80, 5.70- and 5.80-tons ha-1 ,respectively. The nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium gain on the addition of green gram crop to the soil was 79.6, 17.3 and 98.5 kg ha-1 ,respectively, whereas the addition of NPK through Sesbania was 120.5, 31.4 and 137.6 kg ha-1 ,respectively. NPK contribution through Crotolaria added was found to be 126.8, 27.0 and 130.3 kg ha-1 respectively. The C: N ratios of Green gram, Sesbania and Crotolaria were found to be ideal for rapid decomposition. Further study revealed that contribution of nitrogen to soil was higher in Crotolaria supplied field (126.8 kg ha-1) as compared to Sesbania (120.5 kg ha-1) and Green gram (79.5 kg ha-1), whereas P and K contributions were higher under Sesbania field (P: 31.4 & K: 137.6 kg ha-1) as compared to Crotolaria (P: 27.0 & K: 130.3 kg ha-1) and Green gram (P: 17.3 & K : 98.5 kg ha-1) respectively. These results reveal that green manuring of short duration is a potential source of plant nutrients and organic matter which may sustain soil fertility and crop productivity.

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EFFECT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS ON MUSTARD YIELD The application of green manuring significantly influenced the mustard yield. Data reveals that during three years of OFT the mustard yield obtained under farmer’s practice (T1) was 16.97, 17.33 and 17.73 Q ha-1 ,respectively. Whereas the POP treatment (T2) registered mustard yield 20.64, 21.93 and 22.77 Q ha-1 ,respectively and this was significantly higher over T1 throughout three years of experimentation. Data further reveals that intervention of green manuring along with gypsum use and RDF (T3) registered mustard yield 22.51, 23.67 and 24.00 Q ha-1 ,respectively. Mustard yield received under green gram incubated field was significantly higher as compared to farmer’s practice (T1). Yield differences between T2 and T3 were non- significant throughout the three years of study. Kumar and Prasad (2008) while working on summer green manuring through Green gram in rice-wheat cropping system reported that the addition of Green gram is a good source of nutrients and gives dual benefits. Green gram has the potential of substituting around 30-60 kg fertilizer N ha-1 in soil (Chhibba, 2010). Data further revealed that Sesbania-supplied treatment (T4) registered mustard yield 25.82, 27.22 and 27.87 Q ha-1 respectively, whereas Crotolaria-supplied intervention registered mustard yield 26.00, 28.17 and 28.40 Q ha-1 respectively during I, IInd and IIIrd year of OFT. The three years data as well as pool data clearly reveals that mustard production received under T3 and T4 treatments which in turn had received Sesbania and Crotolaria along with gypsum and RDF registered significantly higher mustard yields even over farmer’s practice (T1) and recommended POP (T2). Optimum C: N ratio of Crotolaria (16.1) and Sesbania (16.4) might have decomposed at a faster rate thereby releasing nutrients quickly for a longer time might have resulted in a higher yield of mustard in Crotolaria and Sesbania incubated plot under OFT. These findings are in conformity with that of Saraswat et al. (2010). Data pertaining to the effect of GM on plant height reveals that non -significant differences were observed in plant height at all the three OFT sites during the study. Whereas numbers of seliqua were significantly influenced by treatments receiving POP (T2) and technological interventions (T3, T4, T5). Application of Crotolaria along with gypsum use and RDF (T5) registered higher numbers of seliqua per plant over T4, T3, T2 and T1 treatments thereby resulting in higher mustard yield as compared to other treatments. Data further reveals that numbers of seeds per seliqua also followed the same trend as observed

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with numbers of seliqua per plant. The results indicated that mustard yield attributes have resulted in improvement in crop yield under study. Among the technological interventions (T3, T4, T5) green manuring with Sesbania along with gypsum and RDF (T4) showed more favorable effects in increasing mustard yield followed by T4> T3> T2. These results are in conformity of Meena et al. (2006). Data further reveals that T2 receiving recommended POP and T3, T4, & T5 involving green manuring interventions along with Gypsum and RDF produced significantly higher mustard yield over farmer’s practice (T1). Technological interventions (T3, T4& T5) resulted in significantly higher yield over T2, although, yield differences per se were non- significant. Sharma and Subehia (2014) confirmed that rice yield was 16.8 % higher in GM incubated plot over 100% NPK added treatment. Further Green manuring also improved soil properties he added. A critical perusal of the pool data reveals that T2 treatment receiving POP produced significantly higher mustard yield over T1 but the inclusion of Green gram as GM crop did not achieve a significant increment in mustard yield. Nevertheless, mustard yield received under T4 and T5 (28.34 &28.0 Qha-1) respectively was significant over the rest of all treatments under study. Benefit: cost analysis revealed that farmers practice registered B: C ratio 2.20 whereas T2, T3, T4 and T5 registered 2.55, 2.89, 3.72 and 3.66 respectively and indicated higher monitory benefits in Sesbania (T4) and Crotolaria (T5) receiving treatments.

EFFECT OF GREEN MANURING ON SOIL PROPERTIES Data pertaining to the effect of green manuring on soil properties under OFT at farmer’s field given in table 4 reveals that after three years of consecutive trials there was a slight reduction in soil pH. Although soil pH is a resistant and buffered character but Sesbania supplied treatment with gypsum + RDF showed a higher capacity of bringing down soil pH as compared to other technological interventions. The use of gypsum as a soil amendment has been found to be more beneficial in bringing down soil pH and increasing the availability of nutrients in the soil (Dhane, 2001). A decrease in soil pH in GM receiving plots might be attributed to an increase in the partial pressure of CO2 and the production of organic acids during the decomposition of organic matter (Sadana and Bajwa, 1985). Data pertaining to the electrical conductivity of soil also reveals

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that the highest reduction in EC of soil was occurred in T4 treatment having Sesbania with gypsum and RDF followed by T5> T3> T1>T2. A perusal of the three years data of organic carbon reveals that previously all three sites of OFT were low in organic carbon status but after three years of OFT trials, there was a slight increase in organic carbon status of soil wherein T4 and T5 treatments receiving Sesbania and Crotolaria brought the organic carbon at medium levels (T4: 5.5 & T5: 5.4 gm kg-1) respectively as compared to other treatments under study. The higher contribution of organic carbon through Sesbania (T4) and Crotolaria (T5) receiving plots indicated that the addition of GM to salt- affected soils could reduce the pH and maintain organic carbon at a higher level. Ghuman and Sur (2006) also found a significant reduction in soil pH and BD with green manuring and a higher level of organic carbon (OC) in soil over FYM and/or control plots. An increase in OC may also help in reducing crusting problems in the soil. Data further reveals that the inclusion of GM crops also resulted in decreased BD of soil as compared to the previous level. Application of Sesbania (T4) and Crotolaria (T5) registered a higher reduction in BD (T4: 1.60) & T5: 1.62) as compared to other treatments. Data pertaining to the effect of gypsum and green manures on available macro and micronutrients after harvest of mustard reveals that treatment wise contribution of available N to soil was higher (290) in T4 followed by T5 (280) > T3 (265) >T2 (260) >T1 (235) kg ha-1 ,respectively. Similarly, phosphorus addition to soil also followed the same trend during the course of the study. But potassium addition did not follow the trend as observed in the case of N and P. Data reveals that K contribution by T4 (210) and T5 (205) kg ha-1were of higher magnitude as compared to farmer’s practices (185) and POP treatment T2 (200) and Green gram incubated (T3) treatment, although K addition to the soil by T3 and T3 were of similar magnitude. Status of available micronutrients after harvest of mustard in soil reveals that micronutrients addition was found to be Fe: 32, Cu: 11, Mn: 18, Zn: 14 mg kg-1 respectively being highest in T4 (Sesbania plot) followed by Crotolaria and Green gram treated plots. Micronutrient addition to the soil in POP and farmer’s practice plots were of lower magnitude as compared to OFT interventions. Results of the study indicated that higher micronutrient availability was observed in GM incubated plots irrespective of type GM crop. Most of the micronutrients occur in their oxidized states (Eh) and their comparative availability is less in the oxidized state even under acidic conditions. Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn deficiencies in salt- affected soils are

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frequently observed. But in the present investigation, three years of OFT using green manuring interventions along with gypsum have markedly improved the micronutrient status of soils under study. The use of gypsum as a soil amendment and green manuring has been beneficial in bringing down the soil pH and increasing the availability of micronutrients in the soil. The study has proved that faster improvements in sodic soils could be achieved when gypsum accompanied green manuring crop, particularly Sesbania is followed. Data further revealed that available Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn contents were conspicuously higher in green manured treatments (T3, T4& T5) as compared to POP (T2) and farmer’s practice (T1) wherein Sesbania treated plot registered comparatively higher contents of micronutrients followed by Crotolaria and Green gram treated plots. Green manuring crops per se do not constitute an important source of micronutrients and also do not differ from non-leguminous crops in accumulating micronutrients. But the transformation of these nutrients in the soil is conspicuously influenced by green manuring through changes in the redox regime of soil bringing a more favorable range suitable for higher solubility and availability of Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn. Increasing chelating capacity also augments the availability of micronutrients in soil (Sharma et al. 2001). Since transformations of Fe and Mn (closely related to redox regime) in the soil are more influenced by green manuring resulting in greater availability. Microbial decomposition of organic matter added in the soil in the form of green manuring in addition to affecting redox regime also function as a chelating agent for water-soluble Fe+2 and Mn+2 resulting in increased availability of these to plant and soil. These findings are in agreement with those observed by Swarup (1991) and Hedge (1998). The results of three years of OFT have confirmed that the introduction of green manuring as technological interventions in addition to the recommended package of practices for mustard crops could improve the sodic soil quality, input use efficiency and mustard productivity and may result in better utilization of sodic soil resource of the country.

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REFERENCES 1.

Benbi, D.K., Biswas, D.R., Bawa, S.S. and Kumar, K. (1988). Influence of FYM, inorganic fertilizers and weed control practices on some soil physical properties in a long term experiment. Soil Use and Management, 14, 52-54. 2. Chhibba, I.M. (2010). Rice-wheat production system: soil and water related issues and options. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 58 (1), 53-63. 3. Dhande, S.S. (2001). Scenario of micronutrients in agriculture and retrospectives. Journal of the Indian Society of soil Science 58 (S), S81-86. 4. Ghuman, B.S., Sur, H.S. (2006). Effect of manuring on soil properties and yield of rainfed wheat. Journal of the Indian Society of soil Science 54 (1), 6-11. 5. Jackson, M.L.,(1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 6. Lindsay, W.L., Norvell, W.A.(1978). Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42, 421-428. 7. Meena, M.C., Patel, K.P., Rathod, D.D. (2006). Effect of Zn and Fe enriched FYM on mustard yield and micronutrient availability in loamy sand soils (Typic Haplustept) of Anand. Journal of the Indian Society of soil Science, 54 (4), 496-499. 8. More, S.D. (2010). Soil quality indicators for sustainable crop productivity. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 5 (1), 5-11. 9. Nayyer, V.K., Chhibba, I.M. (2000). Effect of green manuring on micronutrient availability in rice-wheat cropping pattern in NorthWest India. In: Rice-Wheat Consortium Paper series 6. New Delhi India, pp68-72. Rice-Wheat Consortium for Indo-Gangetic plains. 10. Patel, K.P., George, V., Patel, J.A., Ramani, V.P., Patel, K.C. (1999). Three decades of AICRP on Micronutrient Research (Bulletin), Micronutrient Project (ICAR). G.A.U. Anad Campus Anad Gujarat pp.1-20. 11. Sadana, U.S., Bajwa, M.S. (1985). manganese equilibrium in submerged sodic soils as influenced by application of Gypsum and green manuring. Journal of Agricultural Sciences (Cambridge) 104, 257-261.

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12. Saraswat, P.K. (2014). Final Technical Report of Research Project Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Banasthali Vidyapith, Submitted to Government of India Ministry of Science and Technology Department of Science and Technology (SERB Division) Technology Bhawan, New Mehrauli Road New Delhi – 110016. Pp 18-34. 13. Saraswat, P.K., Kumar Sanjay, Tiwari, R.C., Singh V.K. (2010). Influence of different summer green manures on rice-wheat yield, nutrient uptake and soil properties. Journal of Hill Agriculture, 1 (1), 23-29. 14. Sharma, H., Hajabbasi, M.A., Afuni, M., Hemant, A. (2002). Effect of FYM and tillage system on soil physical properties and corn yield in central Iran. Soil and Tillage Research, 68, 101-108. 15. Sharma, U., Subhia, S.K. (2014). Effect of long term integrated nutrient management on (Oriza sativa L)-wheat (Triticum aestivum) productivity and soil properties in North western Himalaya. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 62, 3, 248-254. 16. Subbiah, B.V, Asija, G.L.(1956). A rapid procedure for the determination of available nitrogen in soil. Current Science25, 259 - 260. 17. Walkley, A., Black, C.A.(1934). Estimation of organic carbon by chromic acid and rapid titration method. Soil Science 37, 29-38.

CHAPTER

4

Characterization of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigated Soils

Contents Introduction.............................................................................................. 50 Irrigation Quality of Treated Sewage Water............................................... 53 Basic Soil Properties................................................................................. 53 Available NPK.......................................................................................... 58 Available Micronutrients........................................................................... 59 Conclusion............................................................................................... 60 References................................................................................................ 61

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INTRODUCTION The present investigation has assessed the influence of TSW irrigation on soil characteristics of the Banasthali region of Tonk district. The surface layer of TSW irrigated soils contained higher organic carbon. Available N and phosphorus in top (0-20 cm) layer varied from 215.6-360.0 kg ha-1 and 18.6- 27.5 kg ha-1 respectively. Surface and subsurface (0-20 and 20-40 cm) layers of TSW irrigated area contained a higher amount of K than average (226.1 kg ha-1) and TW irrigated field. The correlation study of different soil parameters with available macro and micronutrients at farmers’ field revealed that at 0-20 cm layer OC with available N; at 20-40 cm pH with Cu and EC with Fe and Zn; at 40-60 cm OC with pH and Mn; at 80-100 cm EC with Fe and K with Zn were found highly and positively correlated. Whereas, available N was found to be highly negatively correlated with potassium and pH had a highly negative correlation at 80-100 cm depth. The outstanding finding of the study reveals that the correlation matrix of EC and pH in the top layer (0-20 cm) of all the profiles showed a positive correlation. Crop Production in semi-arid regions like Tonk (Rajasthan) is severely affected due to a shortage of fresh as well as good quality water. Although rainwater harvesting, storage and their précised use in irrigation have paved the way for sustaining crop production in such areas. In most parts of the country (like Rajasthan) water resources are limited and rather are insufficient to meet the requirement in agriculture therefore, a huge gap exists between available water supply and the amount required due to the limited reservoirs of freshwater recourses. In such situations, using sewage water has been advocated to be utilized in irrigation thereby meeting the existing demand for water and nutrient, the most limiting factor in agriculture production. Irrigation with treated effluents provides water and nutrients to crop paves the convenient ways for sewage water to be utilized in irrigation because the soil system has higher metabolic rates than water (Tiwari et al, 2003; Saraswat et al, 2007; Jeyabaskaran and Sreeramulu, 1996; Velayutham and Bhardwaj, 1994). Sewage water is a potential source of irrigation water and plant nutrient. Application of treated sewage effluent at 7.5 cm/ha would provide 36.0, 5.0 and 50.0 kg ha-1 N, P and K, respectively and a considerable amount of secondary and micronutrients to soil (Bhatia et al, 2001). Further results showed that treated sewage effluent increased crop yield, N, P, K, organic carbon and reduced bulk density. Due to the escalating cost of inorganic

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Fertilizers and the limited availability of good quality water, TSW has been utilized in irrigation in those areas where STPs are functional (Nyamanagara and Mzezewa, 2001). The use of sewage water in irrigation is expected to carry a substantial amount of macro (NPK) and micro (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) nutrients to soils, thereby controlling crop production and fertility level of soils (Meena et.a, 2006). Therefore, TSW of domestic origin could be considered as a nutrient source as it contributes to macro and micronutrients to the soil (Brady and Weil, 2002). Although soil acts as a physical filter due to its porous nature, a chemical filter being adsorbent and a biological filter due to decomposing the organic compounds (Kharche et a,. 2001) but, continuous use of raw sewage or TSW may lead to the buildup of metals and organic residue in soils depending upon the pH, textural composition of soils, cropping practices and frequency of irrigation. Prolonged use of sewage and industrial effluents may ultimately cause pollution of soils and groundwater. This needs regular exercise for the characterization and monitoring of such soils with respect to health for sustainable productivity of soil resources to mitigate these effects. Moreover, studies conducted on characterization and build-up of metals have been confined to surface soils of peri-urban areas and in Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP). But profile study of soil properties, distribution and accumulation of macro and micronutrients in raw sewage/TSW irrigated areas is virtually lacking in saline-sodic soils of semi -arid regions and hence the present investigation was carried out during 2011-2014 in TSW irrigated soils with respect to its influence on chemical properties (like pH, EC and organic carbon) in profile and thereby, distribution of macro and micronutrients in the Banasthali block of Tonk district (Rajasthan). The study area is located in Tonk and lies between upper left 26025’10.21” N latitude to 75051’8.55” E longitude at a mean elevation ranging from 304 m above mean sea level. Banasthali Vidyapith a residential campus situated 65 km away from Jaipur on Jaipur-Kota highway is spreading in about a 9 square kilometer area with about 15 thousand students and staff. Banasthali Vidyapith has its own Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) of about 1million liter per day (MLD) capacity in Haripura village, where raw sewage of the campus is treated physically in STP. After treatment, part of treated sewage water (TSW) goes to Banasthali Vidyapith KVK Farm for irrigation purposes through an underground pipeline and the remaining flows in open Nalah from where it is used in irrigation by farmers of vicinity area of Haripura village. The prevailing cropping system in the area is vegetables and fodder

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crops in summer (Zaid), Pearl millet, Sorghum, Black gram and Green gram in Rainy (Kharif) and Mustard, Chickpea, Wheat and Barley in Rabi (winter) season. Due to a shortage of irrigation water, TSW is being used in irrigation at KVK Farm as well as farmers’ fields in the vicinity of the STP area for the last 10 years. Treated sewage water and groundwater samples were collected in neutral plastic bottles from the area and brought to the laboratory for further analysis. Collected water samples were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, BOD, COD, Ca, Mg, K, Na, CO3, HCO3 and RSC by using standard procedures and methods as described by Trivedy and Goel (1984), and trace elements / micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) in water samples were also estimated in di-acid digest (Tandon 2003) using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS Model 4129). The chemical characteristics of TSW and TW were found. Treated sewage water of the Banasthali Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) flows in an open Nalah and is used for irrigation in crops by the local farmers of Haripura village. Farmer’s fields were selected for characterization of basic soil properties like pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), Organic carbon (OC) and quantification of macro (NPK) and micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) in soil profiles of TSW irrigated areas (Figure 4.1, 4.2). Five soil profiles in TSW irrigated area at farmers field of Haripura village (including one Tube well irrigated field) were dug in 2011 and soil profile numbers were named as SPN--7, SPN--8, SPN--9, SPN--10 all in TSW irrigated area and SPN-11 in Tube well (TW) irrigated area. Horizon wise five samples using GPS from each core layer i.e. 0-20 cm, 20-40 cm, 40-60 cm, 60-80 cm and 80-100 cm were collected with the help of a core cutter, stored in polythene bags and marked properly. Collected soil samples were brought to the Soil and Water Testing Laboratory for further analysis. Standard methods and procedures were adopted for analysis of pH, EC, Organic carbon, available NPK and DTPA extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) in soil samples as described by Jackson (1973) and Lindsay and Norvell (1978). The recorded data for each soil parameter (i.e. pH. EC, OC, Available NPK, Fe, Cu, Mn & Zn) was further statistically analyzed and made unit less using Z score for a graphical representation (in origin 8 versions). Correlation between soil parameters in the profile has been calculated to visualize the behavior of each soil parameter in all soil profiles at different depths (Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6).

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IRRIGATION QUALITY OF TREATED SEWAGE WATER The irrigation quality of TSW has been assessed with respect to pH, EC salinity, sodicity, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), ammoniacal and Nitrate Nitrogen, total phosphorus, cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K), anions (CO3 and HCO3), residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and trace elements (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn). Quality characteristics of TSW on the basis of mean values reveal that it possesses pH 8.0, EC 1.5 dSm-1, NH+4 and NO-3 (34.0 and 15 mg L-1 respectively) Total phosphorus 9.6 mg L-1, TDS 805 mg L-1, BOD 30 mg L-1, COD 100 mg L-1, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium 6.9, 4.7, 3.2, and 6.3 me L-1 , respectively. Carbonates, Bicarbonates and RSC were 9.6, 8.8 and 6.8 meq L-1 , respectively. Trace element analysis of TSW also shows the presence of Fe (2.4), Cu (4) Mn (3.0) and Zn (0.9) mg L-1 respectively in di-acid digest and absence of Cr, Cd and Ni. The concentration of Ca, Mg and Na indicate no salinity hazards but the presence of a higher RSC value indicates sodicity hazards in this water (Richards 1954). Macronutrient contents were suitable to meet irrigation quality standards in TSW. The presence of BOD (30), COD (100), and TDS (805) in TSW was somewhat lower than the prescribed limits barring TDS for effluents to be discharged into/on land or utilized in irrigation (EPR 1993). Results of chemical analysis showed a higher range of TDS and RSC in TSW but, on the basis of other irrigation quality parameters, the TSW of municipal origin proved to be a good source of irrigation.

BASIC SOIL PROPERTIES Data pertaining to the surface as well as profile behavior of pH, EC and organic carbon (OC) reveals that TSW irrigated soils at farmer’s field showed relatively higher pH which varied from 8.4-8.9 being lowest in TW irrigated (control field SPN-11) area and highest in SPN-7 at the surface. Data further reveals that pH went on decreasing with increasing depth down the profile, barring the SPN-9 at the II layer. This could be attributed to the presence of higher base saturation resulting in elevated pH at the same depth. Graphical representation of the pH given in figure 1 shows that all the soil profiles had higher pH than the average value (7.91) in the top two

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layers in the study area at the farmer’s field. Further SPN-9 also showed higher pH than average. A critical perusal of the pH and EC values in TSW and TW irrigated soil profiles reveals that these soils have inherently higher pH. According to Gupta and Abrol (1990), neutral soluble salts (Cl- and SO4of Na+) which are invariably present in soil solution might have attributed to higher pH and lower EC in the present investigation. Further pH and EC were found to be negatively correlated down the profile. Data pertaining to the concentration of soluble salts (EC) reveals that SPN-7 had higher electrical conductivity than average in the 0-60 cm layer. Similarly, SPN-9 also had higher EC in the 0-60 cm layer. Whereas SPN-8 and 10 in TSW irrigated area and SPN-11 of TW irrigated area showed relatively higher EC in only 0-40 cm layer. The correlation matrix of EC and pH in the top layer (0-20 cm) of all the profiles at farmer’s fields showed a positive correlation.

Figure 4.1: Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn Contents in RSW and TW Irrigated Vegitables.

Characterization of Long Term Treated Sewage Water Irrigated Soils

Figure 4.2: Cr and Cd Contents in RSW and TW Irrigated Vegetables.

Figure 4.3: Cu, Cd, Cr Contents in RSW and TSW and TW irrigated soils.

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Figure 4.4: Fe, Mn and Zn Contents in RSW and TSW and TW Irrigated Soils.

Figure 4.5: NPK (kg ha-1) Contents in RSW, TSW and TW Irrigated Soils.

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Figure 4.6: pH, EC and OC Contents in RSW, TSW and TW Irrigated Soils.

Data pertaining to organic carbon (OC) in soil profiles showed a wide variation down the profile. The distribution pattern shows that SPN-7 and 8 contained higher OC than average (2.79 gm kg-1) in the top two layers whereas SPN-11 (TW irrigated area) contained higher OC in only the top (0-20 cm) layer. Data further reveals that SPN-9 and 10 contained OC than average up to 60 cm depth down the profile. Further SPN-10 showed very minute variation in organic throughout the profile (Figure 3). Among the basic soil properties (pH, EC and OC) presence of OC at the soil surface as well as profile significantly influence the soil chemical reaction (pH). All soils contain organic matter, although type and amount may vary considerably, depending upon the type of cropping system being followed. The presence of higher organic carbon in the surface layer might be attributed to the use of TSW in irrigation by the farmers in the area. Patel et al. (2004) also reported higher organic carbon in surface and subsurface soils receiving sewage water irrigation as compared to those of tube well irrigation. In the present investigation surface layer of TSW irrigated areas contained higher organic carbon (being the highest in SPN-9 and 10) than those of TW irrigated one at farmer’s field. This is evident due to the presence of suspended solid matter in TSW. These results find the support of conformity with Baddesha et al. (1997).

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AVAILABLE NPK Data pertaining to distribution of available NPK in profiles of TSW and TW irrigated area at farmer’s field (figure 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6) reveals that available N in top (0-20 cm) layer varied from 215.6-360.0 kg ha-1 at all sites under study. Graphical representation of Z score values of available N (Figure 4.5) shows that SPN-7 and 8 contained low N as compared to average (225.6 kg ha-1) under study area whereas SPN-9 (up to a depth of 0-60 cm), SPN-10 (up to 0-40 cm) and SPN-11 (up to a depth of 0-80 cm) contained relatively higher available nitrogen. Distribution of available Phosphorus in soil profiles varied from 18.6- 27.5 kg ha-1 being lowest in SPN-11 (TW irrigated) and highest in SPN-9. Data further reveals that SPN-7, SPN-9 and SPN-11 registered higher available phosphorus in the top three (0-20, 20-40&40-60 cm) layers as compared to an average of phosphorus level (17.5 kg ha-1) in the study area (Fig. 5). Whereas SPN-8 contained relatively higher available phosphorus than average in the top two (0-20 & 20-40 cm) layers and SPN-10 only in the surface layer, respectively. Raina et al. (2011) while working on profile distribution of available NPK in soil ascribed to restricted movement of available P along with the soil depth due to high absorptivity of available phosphorus in surface and subsurface layers. Data pertaining to available potassium status of TSW and TW irrigated soil profiles reveals that surface and subsurface (0-20 and 20-40 cm) layers of TSW irrigated area contained a significantly higher amount than average (226.1 kg ha-1) and also as compared to TW irrigated profile (Figure 4.6). Further movement of potassium in lower layers (40-60 cm) as in the case of SPN-9 and SPN-10 may be possibly due to the movement of potassium into deeper layers. Baddesha et al. (1997) and Saraswat et al. (2007) also reported higher available potassium in surface and subsurface layers in sewage water and treated sewage water irrigated areas as compared to those of TW irrigated one. In lower layers down the profiles, the K content went on decreasing. Sawarkar et al. (2013) while working on the distribution of available Potassium in profile also noticed the decreasing trend of potassium with increasing soil depth. A similar finding was also reported by Sethia and Sharma (2004). Correlation matrix of basic soil characteristics (pH, EC and OC) with available NPK in profiles of study area given in table 3 reveals that pH had a negative correlation with phosphorus in surface and subsurface (0-20 and 20-40 cm) layers. During the present study, pH and available N were found to be negatively correlated in the surface layer (0-20 cm) layer whereas in lower layers

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(barring 80-100 cm depth) pH and available N showed + ve correlation. This might be attributed to the higher volatilization losses due to the presence of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 in the solution phase resulting in higher pH. In sodic soils, N losses are as high as 80% depending upon the level of soil moisture and nitrogen sources (Jewitt, 1942). In lower layers down the profiles, decreasing pH showed a positive correlation with available N. Generally, potassium availability in sodic soils has been reported adequate, because of the predominance of micaceous minerals in soils of arid and semi- arid regions (Gupta and Abrol, 1990). In the present investigation, pH was found to be positively correlated with potassium in profiles at all depths barring 20-40 cm in the subsoil. The presence of organic carbon showed a positive correlation with available potassium except down the profile.

AVAILABLE MICRONUTRIENTS Distribution of DTPA extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) in profiles of TSW and TW irrigated soils at farmer’s field (Figure 4.6) reveals that Fe content in surface (0-20 cm) layer ranged from 3.69-6.51 mg kg-1 irrespective of profiles under study. Data further reveals that Fe content at lower depth down the profile varied and further increase in Fe concentration irrespective of their surface contents was noticed at 20-40 cm (SPN-7), 4060 cm (SPN-8) and 60-80 cm (SPN-9) whereas in rest of the profiles Fe content went on decreasing with increasing depth down the profile. Similarly, copper also showed a variable pattern of distribution in the profiles. SPN8 and SPN-9 retained relatively higher copper content than average (0.8 mg kg-1) in the top four layers of the profiles under study whereas SPN-7 showed relatively higher copper content than average only in upper three (0-20,20-40,40-60cm) layers and in SPN-10 and 11 relatively lower copper concentration as compared to the average of the study area were noticed (Figure 4.6). Data pertaining to Mn distribution in soil profiles given in table 2 and figure 9 reveals that SPN-9 and 10 contained relatively higher Mn throughout the profile barring the lowest layer (i.e. 80-100 cm). SPN-7 showed relatively higher Mn than average (11.6 mg kg-1) only in the top two layers (0-20 and 20-40 cm) whereas SPN-11 (TW irrigated) showed a relatively lower content of Mn throughout the profile. Variation in Mn distribution in the profile was in SPN-8 being higher than average in the deepest (80-100 cm) layer in the area under study. The distribution pattern of DTPA extractable Zn in soil profiles given in table 2 and depicted in figure 10 reveals that

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SPN-7 contained relatively higher Zn than their average (0.49 mg kg-1) in the study area, whereas SPN-8 showed significantly lower Zn concentration with fluctuation down the profile. In the present investigation, pH was found to be highly and negatively correlated with Fe in three (0-20,20-40,40-60 cm) layers of the soil profiles at farmer’s fields, whereas available copper in the same layer showed a highly positive correlation with pH (20-40 cm) and in rest of the layers, it was negatively correlated with pH. Data further reveals that in the surface layer only organic carbon was found to be highly and positively correlated with Mn (Table 4), whereas, in the subsurface (2040 cm) layer EC had a highly positive correlation with Fe and Zn. Further, down the profile (40-60 cm) OC maintained a highly positive correlation with Mn whereas in lower layers OC did not show any positive correlation. Further data reveals that Fe and Zn at subsurface (20-40 cm) layer and K and Zn at 80-100 cm depth in profile had a positive correlation. A variable increase in micronutrient contents at different depths in profiles was also noticed.

CONCLUSION Long-term use of treated sewage water in irrigation has improved organic carbon as well as available macro and micronutrients in surface and subsurface layers of soils. Down the profile variable increase in available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at different depths have been observed due to the sandy nature of the soil. It is concluded that TSW instead of raw sewage water could be used in irrigation without adverse effects on soil fertility that is an important factor in the agricultural economy.

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REFERENCES 1.

APHA. (1975). Standard Methods for the Estimation of Water and Waste Water. American Public Health Association, Washington, USA. 2. Alloway, W.H. (1968). Agronomic control over the environmental cycling of trace elements. Advances in Agronomy 20, 235-241. 3. Baddesha, H.S., Chhabra, R., Ghuman, B.S. (1997). Changes in soil chemical properties and plant nutrients under Eucalyptus irrigated with sewage water. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 45, 158162. 4. Bhartia, Arti, Pathak, H., Joshi, H.C. (2001). Use of sewage as a source of plant nutrients. Fertilizer News 46, 55-58. 5. Bhattacharyya, Ranjan. Prakash, Ved kundu. S. Ghosh, BN. and Gupta H.S. (2008). Potassium availability as influenced by farm yard manure application under continuous soybean wheat cropping system in Typic Haplaquept. J. of the Indian Society of Soil science 56, 182-185. 6. Bijay, S. (2002). Soil pollution and its control. In: Fundamentals of Soil Science. Indian society of soil science publication. Indian agricultural research institute, New Delhi-110012, 499-514. 7. Black, C.A. (1965).Methods of Soil Analysis Part II. American Society of Agronomy Madison Wisconsin. 8. Brady, N.C., Weil, R. R. (2002). Practical nutrient management. IN: The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th Edison. Passion Education (Singapore), 699. 9. Bullock, P., Burtion, R.G.O. (1996). Organic matter levels and trends in the soils of England and Whales, Soil Use Management 12, 103-104. 10. Bullock,P., Burton, R.G.O. (1996). Organic matter levels and trends in soils of England and Wales. Soil Use Management 12, 103-104. 11. Chaudhary, S. K. and Raina, J.N. (2008). Zinc transformations and its critical limits in Apple orchards of Himachal Pradesh. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 56, 430-435. 12. Dutta, S.P., Biswas, D.R., Saharan,N. Ghosh, S.K., Rattan, R.K. (2000). Effect of long term application of sewage effluents on organic carbon, bioavailable phosphorus, potassium and heavy metal status of soils and content of heavy metals in crops grown there on. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 48, 836-839.

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13. E.P.R. (1993).In the Gazette of Indian: Extra ordinary (Part II sec.3) Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, New Delhi. 14. Fageria, N.K., Baligar, V.C., Clark, R.B. (1997). Micronutrients in crop production. In: Advances in Agronomy 77, 185-211. 15. Gupta, R.K., Abrol, I.P. (1990). Salt Affected Soils: Their reclamation and management for crop production. In: Advances in Soil Science (Edited) R. Lal and B.A. Stewart 11, 224-261. 16. Jackson, M.L. (1973).Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 17. Jewitt, T.N. (1942). Losses of ammonia from Ammonium sulphate applied in alkali soils. Journal of Soil Science 132, 319-324. 18. Jeyabaskaran, K.J., Sreeramulu, U.S. (1996). Distribution of heavy metals in soils of various sewage farms in Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 44, 401-4005. 19. Kharche, V.K., Desai,V.N., Parande, A.I. (2011). Effect of sewage irrigation on soil properties, essential nutrient and pollutant element status of soils and plants in vegetable growing area around Ahmednagar city in Maharashtra. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 491, 77-184. 20. Lindsay, W.H., Norvell, W.A. (1978). Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42,421-428. 21. Meena, H.B, Sharma, R.P., Rawat U. S. (2006). Status of macro and micronutrients in soils of Tonk district of Rajasthan. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 54,506-512. 22. Mitchell, R. L. (1964). In: Chemistry of soils, II Education Bear, F.E.Reinhold, New York pp. 320-368. 23. Nyamangara. J., Mzezewa, J. (2001). Effect of long term application of sewage sludge to a grazed grass pasture on organic carbon and nutrients of clay soil in Zimbabwe, Nutrient Cycling in Agro-ecosystems 50, 1318. 24. Patal, K. P., Pandya, R. R. Maliwal G. L., Patel K. C., Ramani V. P., George, V. (2004). heavy metal contents of different effluents and their relative availability is soils irrigated with effluent water around major industrial cities of Gujrat. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 52, 89-94.

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25. Raina, J.N., Tarika S., Shashi S. (2011). Effect of drip fertigation on nutrient distribution in soil, leaf nutrient content and yield of Apricot (Prunus aremeniaca L.). Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 59, 268-277. 26. Ratan, R. K., Dutta S. P. Singh A. K. Chhonkar, P. K., Suribabu K. (2001). Effect of long term application of sewage effluents on available nutrients and available water status in soils under Keshopur effluent irrigation scheme in Delhi. Journal of Water Management 9, 21-26. 27. Richard, L.A. (1954). Diagnosis and Improvements of Saline Alkali Soils. Hand Book No. 60, USDA. 28. Saraswat, P.K., Tiwari, R.C., Agrawal, H.P., Sanjay K. (2005). Micronutrient status of soils and vegetable crops irrigated with treated sewage water. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 53, 111115. 29. Sawarkar, S.D., Khanparia, N.K., Thakur, Rishikesh, Dewada, M.S., Singh M. (2013). Effect of long term application of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures on yield potassium uptake and Profile distribution of Potassium fruitions in vertisols under soybean wheat cropping system, Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 61, 94-98. 30. Singh, O., Nijhawan, S.D. (1949). Availability of Phosphates in alkali and calcareous soils. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 130, 131141. 31. Singh, R. N., Singh, Surendra, Prasad, S. S., Singh, V.K., Kumar P. (2011). Effect of integrated nutrient management on soil fertility, nutrient uptake and yield of rice-pea cropping system on upland acid soils of Jharkhand. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 58, 159-163. 32. Soil Survey Division Staff (2000). Soil survey manual (Indian dint). USDA Handbook No. 18, US Government Printing Office, Washington. 33. Swindale, L.D., Jackson, W.L. (1956). Genetic processes in some residual podzolized soils of New Zealand” Trans Institutional Congress of Soil Science, 6th Congress Paris E. 233-239. 34. Tayawadi, S.S., Prasad, J. (2008). Characterization of sewage water irrigated soils and non irrigated soils in Nag river eco-system of Nagpur Maharashtra, Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 58, 247-253.

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35. Tiwari, R. C., Saraswat, P. K., Agrawal, H. P. (2003). Changes in macronutrient status of soils irrigated with treated sewage water and tube well water, Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science51, 150155. 36. Trivedy, R.K., Goel, P.K. (1984). Chemical and biological methods for waste water studies. Environmental Publisher, Karad India. p104. 37. Tandon, H.L.S. (2009).Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Waters and Fertilizers. Fertilizer Development and Consultation Organization, 10 Shaheed Jit Singh Marg, New Delhi-110048. 38. U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement in saline and Alkali Soils. Hand Book No. 60. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington DC. 39. Velayutham, M., Bhardwaj, K.K.R. (1994). Soil and agricultural waste disposal. Indian Farming, December 1994, pp39-41. 40. Woomer, P. L., Martin, A., Albrechi, A., Resck, D.V.S., Scharoenseel, H.W. (1994). The importance and management of soil organic matter in the Tropics, In Woomer P. L. and Swift M. J. (Eds) The Biological. Management of Tropical Soil Fertility 47-80 New York: Johan Wiley and Sons. 41. Nayyer, V.K., Sadana, U.S., Takkar, P.N. (1985). Methods and rates of application of Mn and its critical levels for wheat following rice on coarse textured soils. Fertilizer Research, 8, 35-50. 42. Takkar, P.N., Mann, M.S. (1975). Evaluation of analytical methods of estimation of available zinc and response of applied zinc in major soil series of Ludhiana Punjab. Agrochemica, 19, 420-430.

CHAPTER

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Integrated use of Fertilizers, Manures and Amendments for Improving Soil Quality, Input use Efficiency and Crop Productivity

Contents Introduction.............................................................................................. 66 Soil Quality.............................................................................................. 69 Transfer of Technology for Improving Soil Quality..................................... 71 Integrated Nutrient Management.............................................................. 75 Importance of Integrated Nutrient Management........................................ 77 Strategies Adopted to Promote Soil Health and Crop Production .............. 79 Nutrient Potential of Summer Green Manures........................................... 81 Rice-Wheat Grain Yield............................................................................ 82 Macronutrient Content in Rice-Wheat and Their Uptake By Grain ........... 83 Soil Parameters......................................................................................... 85 Effect of Formulated Compost Application on Soil and Wheat Yield ......... 87 Steps Involved in the Preparation of Formulated Compost......................... 89 Nutrient Content in Different Organic Wastes and Formulated Compost... 89 Response of Wheat to Different Formulations........................................... 90 Practical Utility of The Findings and Summary.......................................... 92 Use of Soil Amendments Through INM Approach..................................... 93 Fly Ash Properties and Crop Response...................................................... 95 Studies on Soil Response to Flyash Application....................................... 100 Soil Physical Properties........................................................................... 105 Effect on Soil Biological and Biochemical Quality.................................. 119 Integrated Use of Fa With Amendments in Soil........................................ 121 Recycling of FA in the Soil Through Production and Use of Biomanures.124 Summary................................................................................................ 132 Conclusion............................................................................................. 135 References ............................................................................................. 139

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INTRODUCTION Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) refers to the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner. In a study conducted at farmer’s fields for three leguminous crops viz. Green gram (Phaseolus aurus-Roxb), Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea Lin) and Dhaincha (Sesbania-aculeata poir) that were grown in the summer season the response of rice-wheat and soil in relation to grain yield, nutrient content in plant and their uptake by grains were assessed. The study explained that the fresh weight of organic matter added by Sunhemp, Dhaincha and green gram was 32.65, 35.55 and 17.30 t ha-1, respectively. The N supplying capacity of Sunhemp, Dhaincha and Green gram was recorded to be 126.8, 120.5 and 79.6 kg ha-1 respectively, that of P supplying capacity 27.0, 31.4 and 17.3 kg ha-1 and that of K 130.3, 137.6 and 98.5 kg ha-1 , respectively. Sun hemp and Dhaincha supplied treatments along with 120 kg nitrogen registered maximum yields of rice and wheat. Further, summer green manuring along with inorganic fertilizer decreased bulk density and pH of soil whereas, electrical conductivity, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity of soil increased. Nutrient contents in rice-wheat plants at different stages and their translocation to rice and wheat grain also increased. Conclusively it emerged that the summer green manuring practice has appeared as the best third alternative for sustaining rice-wheat yield and soil health in Indo- Gangetic plains therefore, seasonal summer fallow fields may be used for growing summer green manures and higher yields of rice and wheat could be obtained. Studies conducted on the utilization of FA as an ameliorant for improving soil quality have received a great deal of attention over the past four decades. The silt-sized particles, low bulk density (BD), higher water holding capacity (WHC), favorable pH, and significant presence of plant nutrients in FA, make it a potential amendment for soils. The studies suggest an enormous potential for the use of FA to improve cultivable, degraded/ wasteland, mine soil, landfills, and also to reclaim abandoned ash ponds, for agriculture and forestry. FA application improves the physical, chemical and biological qualities of soils to which it is applied. However, in some cases, depending on the characteristics of FA, the release of trace elements and soluble salts from FA to a soil–plant–human system could be a constraint. The effect is minimal in the case of weathered

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FA. The findings reflected the heterogeneity of ash characteristics, soil types, and agro-climatic conditions, thus a generalized conclusion on the impact of FA on plant species and soil quality is difficult. It is very important that the application of FA to soil must be very specific depending on the properties of the FA and soil. A considerable amount of research has been carried out to blend FA with varieties of organic and inorganic materials, like lime, gypsum, red mud, animal manure, poultry manure, sewage sludge, composts, press mud, vermicompost, biochar, bioinoculants, etc. Co-application of FA with these materials has many advantages: enhanced nutrient availability, decreased bioavailability of toxic metals, pH buffering, organic matter addition, microbial stimulation, overall improvement in the general health of the soil, etc. The performance of FA blending with organic and inorganic materials is better than FA alone treatments. Farm manure was found to be the most promising amendment used along with FA. While using FA in agriculture as a soil ameliorant, it is better to seek the locally available fitting blend materials for exploiting the benefits from their synergistic interaction. However, continuous research in parallel for long durations to dispel apprehension, if any, is desirable under well-defined regulatory measures. Soil is a thin layer of the earth’s crust and is a living media, which is one of the important factors of crop production and serves as a natural nutrient source for the growth of plants. The components of the soils are mineral material, organic matter, water and air, the proportions of which vary and which together form a system for plant growth. The soils are studied and classified according to their use, which is termed as “land capability classification”. In this classification, inherent soil characteristics, external land features and environmental factors are given prominence. For this purpose, a soil survey is carried out to record the crop limiting factors such as soil depth, topography, texture and structure, water holding capacity, drainage features followed by evaluation of soil fertility based on soil testing /soil analysis. According to their use, the soils are classified into 8 classes, four of which are considered suitable for agriculture purposes and the remaining are non-arable lands and can be used for silviculture and forest and need strong conservation measures. An effective linkage between soil testing and soil survey is useful to ensure the formulation of a sound soil fertility evaluation program. In the administrative setup, soil survey is generally kept under the discipline of natural resource management while soil testing remains a part

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of the discipline of fertilizer use and management. Proper maintenance of soil health, which is necessary from an agricultural point of view, refers to the capacity of the soil to ensure proper physical, chemical and biological activities/processes for sustaining higher crop productivity. A productive soil would ensure proper retention and release of water and nutrients, promote and sustain root growth, maintain soil biotic habitat, respond to management and resist degradation. Intensive agriculture, while increasing food production, has caused second-generation problems in respect of nutrient imbalance including greater mining of soil nutrients to the extent of 10 million tons every year depleting soil fertility, emerging deficiencies of secondary and micronutrients, the decline of the water table and its quality of water, decreasing organic carbon content, and an overall deterioration in soil health. Indian soils not only show a deficiency of primary nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium) but also of secondary nutrients (Sulfur, Calcium and Magnesium) and micronutrients (Boron, Zinc, Copper and Iron, etc.) in most parts of the country. Besides the three primary nutrients (N, P, K), deficiency of Sulfur and micronutrients like Zinc and Boron in many States, and also of Iron, Manganese and Molybdenum in some States, has become a limiting factor in increasing food productivity. In a comprehensive study carried out by ICAR through their Coordinated Research Project on Micronutrients, Toxic and Heavy Metals, based on analysis of 2,51,547 soil samples from different States, it was found that 48% of these samples were deficient in Zinc, 33% in boron, 13% in Molybdenum, 12% in Iron, 5% in Manganese and 3% in Copper. The deficiency of micronutrients needs to be corrected through the application of micronutrient carrying fertilizers. With regard to the response of crops to the application of micronutrients, under large-scale agronomic trials conducted by ICAR, it has been observed that the additional yield is obtained in cereals in the range of 0.3 to 0.6 tons per hectare. The response of micronutrients in food crops and vegetables is highly pronounced. Under micronutrient deficient situations, the application of major nutrients alone does not give expected results. Generally, the NPK consumption ratio of 4:2:1 is considered as desirable based on the recommendation of 120:60:30 NPK kg/ha dose (4:2:1) for wheat/rice. However, the fertilizer dose has to be worked out based on a soil analysis to find out (i) available nutrient status of the soils and (ii) the crop requirement of the nutrients; the difference of the two (ii – i) is the required fertilizer dose for a given crop. Other factors affecting fertilizer use efficiency have to be

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built into the computation of fertilizer dose. Studies conducted countrywide under AICRP on macro and micronutrients reveal that there is a wide NPK use ratio in the Northern Zone (13.5: 4.3:1), while it is narrower in the Southern Zone (2.9: 1.6: 1). It is 5.6: 3.3: 1 in the Western Zone and 5.0: 2.4: 1 in the Eastern Zone. The NPK ratio also shows wide variations from State to State (FAI, 2010). Though chemical fertilizers are a major source of nutrients to crops, the use of chemical fertilizers alone for a long period of time leaves unfavorable effects on soil physical, chemical and biological property and environment. A better approach is to integrate chemical fertilizers with organic manures to avoid ill effects on soil and the environment. The integration of nutrients results in improved efficiency of chemical fertilizers and better cost-benefit relationships. Organic manures through low nutrient carrying material, leave a favorable effect on soil properties. Studies carried out with cereal-based cropping systems under the Cropping Systems Research project of ICAR have established that 25-50% fertilizer NPK dose to Kharif crops can be curtailed with the use of FYM, Sesbania green manure and crop residues under different situations. Experiments conducted on cultivators’ fields during 1990-91 to 1994-95 under Cropping Systems Research Network (ICAR) further reveal the beneficial effect of integration of chemical fertilizers with green-manuring or FYM, as the total productivity of the systems involving cereals, oilseeds and cotton increased by 7 to 45% over farmers’ practice in different agro-ecological zones. In a sugarcane-based cropping system, integrated use of sulphitation, press mud, cane trash and biofertilizers each with inorganic fertilizers and green-leaf manuring brought 20-50% economy in fertilizer N applied to sugarcane by improving the use efficiency of N, P and other nutrients.

SOIL QUALITY Issues and Strategies The concept of soil quality is a major linkage between soil conservation management practices and the achievement of major goals of sustainable crop production (Acton and Gregorich, 1995; Parr et al, 1992). Soil quality indicates “the capacity of soil to function within natural or managed eco system boundaries to sustain plant and animal productivity or enhance water and air quality and promote plant and animal health (Haberern, 1992). Thus, the management of land and soil quality becomes of great significance for sustaining crop production in a fragile environment. Land

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degradation and deterioration in soil quality are some of the several reasons for hunger and malnutrition of human beings and are the major threat to food and environmental security. The predominant reason for poor soil quality (natural and management linked) are (i) washing away of topsoil and organic matter associated fine fractions due to water erosion resulting in a loss in inherent soil fertility; (ii) excessive removal of plant nutrients through intensive cropping without adequate addition of organic manures; (iii) low use of organic manures such as FYM, vermicompost and composts coupled with no recycling back of farm-based crop residues because of complete removal of crop residues from fields for animal fodder and also burning of stubbles for clean cultivation in next year. Soil quality parameters (physical, chemical and biological) directly reflect their bearing on the sustainability of crop production by making a bridge between quantity and intensity (QI) factor of soil fertility. Sustainable agriculture refers to the ability of an agricultural system to remain productive efficiently and indefinitely. There are several factors influencing crop production in hills, better soil quality seems one of them playing an important role in sustaining crop production. At the same time management practices which do not deteriorate soil quality are also important. Assessment of soil quality for sustainable crop production is an important practice bridging utilization and protection aspects of soil resources. There exists a strong linkage between soil quality and crop production. Soil quality characterization and assessment is an important tool for measuring the changes in soil properties over time that helps to define the effective management strategies for sustainable soil management. Under a high input production system soil quality is being given due recognition for agricultural sustainability and environmental ecology (Smith et al,. 1994). Owing to improper land use and management, soil erosion, nutrient depletion and other natural resource -related problems have been damaging the soil resource and these calls for improving soil quality and maintaining sustainability in crop production with sound land use and management practices (Rozanov, 1990). The soil quality, soil health and soil conditions are synonymous to each as all these terms describe soil’s ability to support crop growth without becoming degraded or otherwise harming the environment. The term soil quality has been gaining popularity in the present context of high input agricultural systems especially “as farmers are striving hard to sustain the crop production and maintenance of soil health (More, 2010). In the modern agricultural system farmers prefers to percept the term soil health because it reflects the judgment of their soil as either a robust or ailing resource

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which is a holistic way to refer to soil. However, soil quality is defined by the interaction of measurable physical, chemical and microbiological properties of a particular soil. Therefore, soil quality is distinguished from inherent characteristics of soil that are not measurable and are acquired and determined by natural factors such as climate, vegetation, parent material and time. From the productivity point of view, all soils have an innate capacity to function under a definite set of edaphic conditions. In view of ever- increasing population and shrinking of an agricultural area due to urbanization and industrialization in peri- urban areas soil health /quality has to be managed /improved for increasing cropping intensity. Maintenance and improving the level of soil organic matter seems a prerequisite for ensuring good soil quality (Singh 2008). In post green revolution era fertilizer consumption rates of the country have been doubled without adequate attention towards soil health management and moreover the nutrition of crops rather than soil has been given more emphasis resulting in declining fertilizer response, crop productivity and soil health (Sharma et al, 2008). Maintenance of soil quality is of utmost importance to ensure sustainable agricultural production for providing food and nutritional security to the people of the country. The inadequate and imbalance fertilizer use coupled with a low supply of organic matter to soil has resulted in the deterioration of soil quality.

TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY FOR IMPROVING SOIL QUALITY Deterioration in physical, chemical and biological conditions of soil and declining factor productivity causing stagnation in crop yield are of major concerns of modern agriculture. Rehabilitation of chemically degraded soils for raising food crops demands additional technical know-how and demonstration. Unless the farmers are exposed to proper training and demonstration for the adoption of location- specific and need- based technology, the task seems tough. The best prolific knowledge in agriculture needs to be percolated down to the farmers’ farm through a participatory mode of research. Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) have been promoting agriculture through assessment, refinement, and dissemination of agriculture technologies and products at the district level. Effective extension mechanisms require the togetherness of scientists and farmers at the district level and in this connection, our

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KVKs will play a crucial role in the form of a knowledge resource center; see Figure 5.1. Now a day’s the government has also emphasized Farmers as “FIRST” in the country where FIRST stands for Farmer, Innovations, Resources, Science and Technology. Therefore, concentrated efforts are to be made for the interest, aspiration and expectations of farmers. Intensive cultivation, growing exhaustive crops, use of unbalanced and inadequate fertilizers accompanied with restricted organic matter recycling (FYM, biofertilizers and green manures) back in soil have made soils deficient not only in nutrients but also deteriorated soil quality, resulting in to decline in crop response to recommended doses of fertilizer. Increasing population load and degrading environmental conditions have been influencing the long-term sustainability of the soil resource. All agricultural activities are directly or indirectly affected by how the “soil is handled”, managing soils is a formidable challenge to ensure productivity, profitability and national food security. The United Nations Millennium Development Task Force on hunger made “soil health enhancement” as one of the five recommendations for increasing agricultural productivity and fighting hunger in India as a component of millennium development goals (MDGs). Major issues of soil health in the Indian context include physical degradation, caused by compaction, chemical degradation due to wide multi-nutrient deficiency, higher nutrient turnover in soil-plant systems coupled with low and imbalanced fertilizer use and insufficient input of organic sources resulting in poor nutrient use efficiency, biological degradation due to organic matter depletion and loss in soil flora and fauna. The inadequate and imbalanced fertilizer use has created widespread nutrient deficiency and deterioration in soil health. Microbial culture with indigenous sources of organic matter can help in increasing nutrient use efficiency and crop productivity along with improvement in soil quality. The knowledge of soil biology can be used for developing bio-remediation techniques through the mobilization of the native nutrient reserve to improve soil health and crop production on a sustainable basis. For ensuring long-term soil sustainability and crop productivity, the return of organic matter to the soil along with fertilizer and soil biotechnology needs to be considered in research and extension programs. Soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) can be considered as an important biological tool for improving soil health. It is important to realize the concept of soil health which includes ecological attributes of soil. Soil biodiversity itself may not be a soil property that is critical for

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the production of a given crop, but it is a property that may be vital for the continued capacity of soil to produce crops.

Figure 5.1: Training programs conducted at KVK Banasthali Vidyapith.

Visit of vermicompost production by Production of formulated compost at extension functionaries (KVK Banast- KVK farm hali) (KVK Banasthali)

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Soil testing in the laboratory(KVK Farmers’ training on vermicompost Banasthali) production technology (KVK Banasthali)

Farmers during hands-on practices in Organic matter for composting the laboratory

Vermicompost: a boon for soil

Training to farmers on green manuring (KVK Banasthali)

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OFT on gypsum and green manuring (A OFT on gypsum and green manuring farmer’s field in Todaraisingh) (A farmer’s field in Bidauli, Newai)

Performance of mustard OFT at a farmPerformance of wheat OFT at a farmer’s field er’s field

INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Among all the concerns related to stagnation in food production, degradation of soil quality due to excessive use of fertilizers is burgeoning. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) refers to the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner. Integrated Nutrient Management improves soil health in the long run and reduces the demand for chemical fertilizers. It ensures the concept of sustainability in agriculture. The benefits of the Integrated Nutrient Management approaches need to be fully harnessed keeping in view the demand for food for the increasing population, dwindling supplies and

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increasing the cost of fossil fuels. Integrated Nutrient Management is a flexible approach to minimize the use of chemicals and maximize the efficiency of production. The concept is for optimization of the effects of all available sources of plant nutrients to improve soil fertility. The gap in nutrient removal and addition can be bridged only by practicing Integrated Nutrient Management. The efficient utilization of soil resources is crucial to agricultural production for meeting the feeding challenges of the ever- increasing population of the country. An increase in productivity has triggered nutrient mining and fertilizer requirements both, which resulted in damaging the quality of soil resources and the environment. Soil health management is the fundamental aspect of sustainable agricultural production. Soil organic carbon in the form of organic matter acts as the backbone of soil health. Under a high input production system (Green revolution technology) limited attention has been paid to soil health management. Only macronutrient supply with high cropping intensity has exhausted the soil due to the negative return of plant nutrients to the soil. In traditional agriculture farm manure and cow dung had been used to supplement the nutrient requirements. Crop production has to be increased accompanied by the maintenance of soil health. To sustain soil health in terms of fertility and productivity, supplementary and indigenous nutrient sources have to be explored and need to be recycled. Integrated nutrient management is based on three basic principles: • • • • • • • • • • •

Assessment of soil fertility and climate Nature of crops not in isolation but as a part of the cropping system and yield target. At least 30% of total nutrient levels of NPK to be in organic form. These principles help in estimating the fertilizer level, form and time of application to the crop. Principle components of Integrated Nutrient Management are as below: Intensified cropping. Vermicomposting/ Value added vermicomposting Green Manuring Use of Biomanures Soil test based chemical fertilizers application Use of Bio-fertilizers for seed treatment.

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IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Integrated nutrient management is the maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level to sustain the desired crop productivity. This is done through the optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. In other words, integrated nutrient management is the use of different sources of plant nutrients integrated to check nutrient depletion and maintain soil health and crop productivity. Integrated Nutrient Management is a practice where all sources of nutrients namely organic, inorganic (chemical fertilizer), Biofertilizercan be combined and applied to soils so that crop growth is enhanced and we can get good yield with a quality product. Besides, it keeps the soil in a healthy condition. In INM it integrates/combines the objectives of production with ecology and environment, that is, optimum crop nutrition, optimum functioning of the soil health, and minimum nutrient losses or other adverse effects on the environment. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has to be considered an integral part of any sustainable agricultural system. Why is INM needed: The increasing use of chemical fertilizers to increase the production of food and fiber is causing concern for the following reasons: •

Soils that receive plant nutrients only through chemical fertilizers are showing declining productivity despite being supplied with sufficient nutrients. – The decline in productivity can be attributed to the appearance of deficiency in Secondary and micronutrients. – The physical condition of the soil is deteriorated as a result of the long-term use of chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogenous ones. While fertilizer misuse can contribute to environmental contamination; it is often an indispensable source of the nutrients required for plant growth and food production. Unless all the soil nutrients removed with the harvested crops are replaced in proper amounts from both organic and sustained; soil fertility will decline. If in the past, the emphasis was on the increased use of fertilizer; the current approach should aim at educating farmers to optimize the use of organic, inorganic and biological fertilizer in an integrated way.

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Plant nutrition today requires judicious and integrated management of all sources of nutrients for sustainable agriculture. The Goals of Nutrient Management are to optimize plant production – Yield/ quality – Profit, Conserve resources, Enhance soil quality and productivity: How does INM differ from conventional farming? Integrated nutrient management differs from conventional nutrient management in that it considers nutrients from different sources. In conventional farming, people gave more emphasis on grain yield through the use of chemical fertilizers, use of high yielding varieties and chemical pesticides along with irrigation facilities. In INM it integrates/combines the objectives of production with ecology and environment, that is, optimum crop nutrition, optimum functioning of the soil health, and minimum nutrient losses or other adverse effects on the environment. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has to be considered an integral part of any sustainable agricultural system. Background owing to the growing demand for more agricultural yields/ products and the scarcity of land resources, attention is placed more on the intensification of farming systems in the country. The national research institutes, including universities in close cooperation with the Department of Agricultural extension, private enterprise and NGOs have to play a vital role in the promotion of INM practices to farmers. The farmers are to be educated to practically think about the nutrient-providing capacity of organic manures, crop residues, composts and biofertilizers. Farmers have to be trained for efficient use of locally available organic manures and Biofertilizers most suitable to the needs of the area and the cropping system as a whole. There is an urgent need to adopt an integrated nutrient supply and management system for promoting efficient and balanced use of plant nutrients. While the main emphasis was given on increasing the proper and balanced use of mineral fertilizers, the role of organic manure, biofertilizers, green manuring and recycling of organic wastes should be considered supplementary and not substitutable. On the one hand, there is a vast scope for increasing plant nutrient supply through the use of organic fertilizers, but there is, on the other hand, no scope for reducing the consumption of mineral fertilizers since the present level of crop productivity has to be increased in the coming years. This will not be possible without the use of mineral fertilizer, as long as no other practical low input technology has become available for higher productivity. Effective implementation of such improved agricultural practices, using a combined approach requires skilled management and

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addictiveness by farmers who need to be educated and trained, assisted by national research and extension services. The time has come to effectively coordinate the efforts of all agencies/institutions to benefit agriculture. The recent energy crisis, high fertilizer cost and low purchasing power of the farming community have made it necessary to rethink alternatives. Unlike chemical fertilizer, organic manure and biofertilizers are available locally at cheaper rates. They enhance crop yield per unit of applied nutrients by providing better physical, chemical and microbial environment. This ultimately improves crop yield. The available quantity of animal excreta and crop residues cannot meet the country’s requirements for crop production. Therefore, maximizing the usage of organic waste and combining it with chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers in the form of integrated manure appears to be the best alternative. Sources of organic manure for INM Sources of organic manure for INM: There are various sources of organic manure to be used for INM. Some of these are mentioned below • • • • • •

Compost/ vermicompost Farm Yard Manure (FYM) Poultry Manure Piggery manure Urban and rural solid and liquid waste Wastes from agro- based industries vii) Crop wastes

STRATEGIES ADOPTED TO PROMOTE SOIL HEALTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Effect of Green Manuring on Rice-Wheat Yield, Nutrient Uptake and Soil Characteristics Dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) a green manure crop has long been known for its benefits of supplying fixed atmospheric nitrogen and for its overall beneficial effects in improving soil health. Despite known benefits, the practice of green manuring could not be adopted extensively by the farmers. The main reason for this is the non- introduction of dhaincha as green manure in the previous time, lack of awareness of green manuring, emphasis on major crop production rather than the nutrition of soils particularly in Tonk district of Rajasthan in Kharif season. More so, a farmer may not be able to practice

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green manuring in the traditional manner at the cost of the main crop in the Kharif season. Our experiences in Tonk district reveal that farmers are reluctant in the adoption of green manuring practice at the cost of the main crop in Kharif season because they have a lack of knowledge and techniques of green manuring. And more so, the growing period of both the crops overlap and require the same season for growing at the same time. To overcome this, constrain a new concept of “Brown Manuring” has emerged in which Dhaincha crop is grown in rainy season as a secondary crop in the main crop and after 30 days a spray of 2,4-D herbicide (@0.5kg a.i./ha) is made in the field. This practice retards the growth of Dhaincha and helps in decaying and thereby adding organic matter in growing crops and soil. Experiments on farmers’ fields have shown saving of 25-30 kg N/ha, control of broad leavedweeds and enhance yields to the extent of 40-50 kg/ha. This practice does not require additional water, the green manure acts as surface mulch, checks evaporations lines and acts as a source of nutrients upon decomposition. To improve the productivity and better uptake of nutrients by grain, a balanced supply of plant nutrients through the inclusion of summer green manuring in rice-wheat sequence seems more fruitful rather than options available. Further, the introduction of summer green manuring having an exact match with the time frame available between harvest of wheat crop and transplanting of rice is supposed to be the third alternative for improving soil health of rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) in Indo-Gangetic plains under assured irrigated conditions. Keeping these facts in mind, the three summer green manure crops viz. Green gram (Phaseolus aureus Roxb), Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea Linn) and Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeatea Poir) were grown to study their effect on grain yield, nutrient content in plant and their uptake by grain during 2003 to 2006 and pooled data from the results have discussed and summarized here. Field experiments were conducted at the research farm of the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for two years during 2006-2008. The soil was sandy loam in texture (54.4%), sand ,26.28% silt and 19.32 % clay), low in organic carbon (0.40%), available N (211.7 Kg ha-1) and available Sulfur(21.9 kg ha-1). The available Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn in experimental soil were 22.0, 3.6, 17.6 and 3.2 mg kg-1 respectively. Cation exchange capacity (CEC), electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of soil were 17.3 [cmol (p+) kg1 ] 0.22 dS m-1and 7.8 respectively. Twenty treatment combinations having three legume crops viz. Green gram (Phaseolus aureus Roxb), Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea Linn), Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate Poir) and one fallow

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with N levels (00, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1)with three replications in splitplot designs were planned and executed. Summer Green gram in mid of April and Sun hemp and Dhaincha in mid of May were sown in the field. The green manure crops were fertilized with 40 kg P2O5 and incorporated into the field at a suitable time. Rice crop was transplanted at 20x10 cm spacing and basal application of 60 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O ha-1 through single super phosphate and potassium chloride was done. Further, the rice crop received N doses as per treatments through urea at the rate of 50% at transplanting 25% at tillering and 25% at the panicle initiation stage. The soil samples were taken before transplanting and after the harvest of rice crops. Standard methods and procedures were followed for analysis of soil and plant materials as described by Black CA (1965), Jackson ML (1973) and Lindsay and Norvell (1978).

NUTRIENT POTENTIAL OF SUMMER GREEN MANURES The amount of green matter added to soil through Green gram, Sun hemp and Dhaincha was 17.30, 32.65 and 35.55 t ha-1 , respectively (Table 5.1). The dry matter addition capacity of these summer green manure (SGM) crops was found to be 3.94, 5.87 and 5.71 t ha-1 , respectively. The N, P and K gain to the soil through these SGM crops was 79.6, 126.8 and 120.5 kg ha-1 , respectively. The C: N ratio of these SGM Crops was also found to be ideal for rapid decomposition in soil. Table 5.1: N, P and K contribution through different green manures* Parameters

Green Gram

Sun hemp

Dhaincha

Green matter (t ha )

17.30

32.65

35.55

Dry matter (t ha )

3.94

5.87

5.71

N (g kg-1 dry weight basis)

20.2

21.6

21.0

P (g kg dry weight basis)

4.4

4.6

4.5

K (g kg-1 dry weight basis)

25.2

22.2

24.2

-1

-1

-1

N P K Contribution through green manures (kg ha-1) Nitrogen (N)

79.6

126.8

120.5

Phosphorus (P)

17.3

27.0

31.4

Potassium (K)

98.5

130.3

137.6

Note: *Above ground portion (Mean of two years)

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Green Gram Dhaincha

Sun hemp

Plowing of Dhaincha at the optimum stage

RICE-WHEAT GRAIN YIELD Data pertaining to rice and wheat grain yield revealed that maximum yield was harvested from the plot receiving green manning along with a recommended dose of N (i.e.120 kg ha-1) followed by 90, 60 and 30 kg N ha-1 during both the years of cropping. Sun hemp incubated treatment produced the highest yield of rice followed by Dhaincha and Green gram during the course of study, while in the case of wheat, Dhaincha treated plot registered the highest grain yield followed by Sun hemp and Green gram respectively. Narrow C: N ratio of Sun hemp (16.1) as compared to Dhaincha (16.4) leading to quick mineralization might have released nutrients at a faster rate resulting in a higher yield of rice in Sun hemp incubated plot than Dhaincha

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incubated field. Further, a higher number of tillers and test weight resulted in a higher grain yield of rice and wheat due to significant improvement in wet soil NH4-N and oxidized soil NO3-N at the different growth stages of the crop. Goswami et al. (1988) while working on the effects of green manuring also observed a significant favorable effect on the crop.

MACRONUTRIENT CONTENT IN RICE-WHEAT AND THEIR UPTAKE BY GRAIN The data pertaining to NPK content in rice-wheat plant and their uptake by grain. Data reveals that NPK contents at the tillering stage were significantly higher with the incorporation of green manuring in all treatments than that under fellow treatment in both the year of experimentation. The reason may be the quick release of NH4 +-N due to microbial decomposition of organic matter results in a good response of rice to added organic matter. Increased supply of N further enhanced the concentration of NPK in plants at the tillering stage and their uptake in grain at maturity. The mean concentration of these nutrients in plants at different stages and their uptake in grain were highest with the highest levels of N applied and lowest in control. Maximum NPK content was observed at an early stage of crop growth and then it went on decreasing gradually with the advancement of crop growth. These findings are in line with those reported by Tiwari et al. (1980) who reported that import and export of mineral nutrients occur simultaneously during the life of plant organs such as leaves. As a rule aging (senescence) is associated with a higher rate of export of mineral nutrients than the rate of organs such as a leaf. Thus, a decrease in net content is important during the autogenesis of a plant at the following stage of seed germination period of insufficient supply of the root during vegetative growth, reproductive growth and in perennial the period before leaf drop (Marschener, 1992). The increase in uptake of nutrients may be due to better availability of these nutrients through additional supply and because of prolific root system development by balance nutrients application, resulting in better absorption of water and nutrients. Integrated use of inorganic and organics through green manuring was beneficial in enhancing the uptake of NPK by rice and wheat grain. Moreover, organic matter after decomposition releases both macro and micronutrients that become available to the plant and thus increase the uptake of NPK. Sharma et al. (2001) also had the opinion that the incorporation of green manures to soil encourages the proliferation of roots resulting in more

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absorption of water and nutrients from more area in the depth of soil. The uptake NPK by rice and wheat was highest due to the incorporation of green manures along with 120 kg N ha-1 followed by the application of 90 kg N ha-1 as urea. These findings are similar to the result of Goswami et al. (1988), Mahapatra et al. (1997) and Mahapatra and Jee (1993). Data further reveals that in the case of rice higher uptake of NPK was in sun hemp incorporated plot along with 120 kg N ha-1 followed by 90 kg N ha-1, while in the case of wheat grain uptake recorded in Dhaincha green manures incorporated plots along with a similar dose of rice crop. Micronutrients content and their uptake: The cycling of micronutrients through the soil-plant-animal system is a generalized dynamic. The organic chelates, soil colloids, soil organic matter and soil minerals all contributes to micronutrients in soil solutions and in turn their availability to growing plants. Organic matter is also an important secondary source of some of the trace elements. Soil pH is the most important factor governing micronutrient availability to plants in soil. The decomposition of green manures in submerged condition release organic acid and green manures sap is acidic in nature that reduces soil pH during decomposition and enhances the availability of micronutrients to growing crops. The green manure crop is comparatively deep- rooted and has more mining capacity for nutrients especially micronutrients that after decomposition leave micronutrients in the plow layer depth. The finding of the present study indicates that the copper, zinc, iron and manganese content at different stages of crop and grain increased due to green manuring as the plot accumulated a higher number of micronutrients as compared to fallow plots. The copper and zinc content in rice were higher in sun hemp incorporated plot followed by Dhaincha-fed plots while iron and manganese contents were maximum in the Dhaincha-grown field followed by sun hemp treated plot. In the case of the wheat crop, copper, zinc, iron and manganese were found to be higher in Dhaincha grown field followed by sun hemp manured plots with N applied through urea. Green manures resulted in marked improvement in nutrient concentration in rice and wheat crops especially of NPK, Fe, Mn, and Zn over other plots. The findings of Swarup (1991) also supported these results. The green manures after decomposition release both macro and micronutrients which become available to plots and thus increase the content and their uptake by crops. These findings are also supported by Sharma et al. (2001). The production of certain organic compounds during decomposition might have been related to chelates formation with metal micronutrients and consequently higher

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uptake of these chelated forms by plants. Organic matter itself also acts as an important secondary source of micronutrients. Micronutrients made complex with organic sections and resulted in more uptake of them by crops. Overall, the results of the study revealed that the inclusion of summer green manures in rice-wheat cropping sequence has been beneficial in improving soil properties, nutrient uptake by grain and crop yield.

SOIL PARAMETERS Bulk Density (BD) Bulk density is the most likely property to be affected by the level of organic matter in soil because, an added material has a lower density than the soil matrix therefore, the relationship between improved aggregate conditions and a reduction in bulk density is well established. Data reveal that BD of soil got decreased significantly in Sun hemp supplied plot followed by Dhaincha and Green gram after harvest of rice, but in case of wheat, a significant reduction in BD occurred in Dhaincha fed plot followed by Sun hemp and Green gram either alone or in combination with fertilizers after harvest. The variation in C: N ratio of sun hemp (16.1) and Dhaincha (16.4) might have affected the rate of decomposition of green manures in soil. Sun hemp having a narrow C:N ratio (16.1) might have decomposed faster thereby decreasing the BD of soil whereas, the wider C: N ratio of Dhaincha (16.4) than Sun hemp consumed more time and showed the reduction in BD of soil after harvest of wheat. During the decomposition process of organic matter various polysaccharides, polyuronides and humus are produced which may be responsible for binding the soil participles resulting in more stable aggregates and causing the reduction in bulk density. A significant reduction in bulk density is closely related to increased cumulative infiltration. Further, reduction in bulk density also occurs due to relatively higher organic matter content in the soil, which would have improved the porosity of such soil. Mac Rae and Mehuys (1985) explained that a decrease in BD may occur directly by dilution of soil matrix with less dense material or indirectly by improving aggregate stability. De Haan (1977) had reported that green manures added to sandy soil decreased the bulk density. Jamison (1960) emphasized it as an indirect improvement in BD through the improvement in aggregate distribution and stability. These observations are also in agreement with the finding of Thakur et al. (1995) and Sharma et al. (2001).

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Changes in pH and EC The properties of soil most likely to be affected by organic matter in the form of green manners are pH, redox potential, and electrical conductivity, the partial pressure of CO2 and surface properties of soils. Nutrient transformations brought about by green manning are direct consequences of changes in these properties. After the harvest of rice and wheat crop addition of green manure along with fertilizer, N reduced pH and increased electrical conductivity (EC) of soil as compared to the control plot. The decrease in pH was greater in treatment receiving Dhaincha as summer green manure followed by Sunhemp and Green gram respectively. Green manuring affects soil pH in two ways by producing organic acids and CO, during decomposition which can furnish protons to soil inducing a decrease in pH. Green manure crops produce sap acid during decomposition consequently reducing soil pH. These findings are in line with that of Swarup (1991) and Bellakki and Badanur (1997). Generally, it is noticed that little or no change in EC occurs by applying organic manures because even with fertilizers (which are soluble salts) the increase in EC has been short- lived. Under water- logged conditions, the EC of soil solution increases with time, reaches a peak and then decreases. The addition of green manure would accelerate the decrease in Eh and accumulation of CO2 thereby, release a large amount of ions (Fe+2, Mn+2, CO3, etc.) in soil solution and increase in EC. Data pertaining to EC showed that EC of the soil was significantly higher in green mannered plus fertilizer supplied plots. Similar results have also been reported by Dekamedhi and Datta (1995). CO2 evolution study conducted at field capacity up to one month of incubation at 30°C showed that summer green manure treated soil had higher respiration rates than that of fertilizer supplied indicating higher carbon status in green manured soil after harvest of the crop. Bellakki and Badanur (1997) have also reported that the organic carbon content of surface and subsurface soil increased significantly with the recommended dose of fertilizer application. The increase in organic carbon could be attributed to the addition of organic matter through green manures. These findings are in the line of results reported by Bhandari et al. (1992).

Changes in Organic Carbon and CEC of Soil Organic carbon and cation exchange capacity status of soil after harvest of rice and wheat shows that summer green manuring along with fertilizer N through urea increased organic carbon and cation exchange capacity of

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soil as compared to the control plot. Generally, it is accepted that green manures maintain or increase organic matter or increase soil N levels but not both simultaneously. In the present study addition of summer green manure along with fertilizer, N increased organic carbon significantly over control. The highest addition occurred in the Sun hemp treated plot followed by Dhaincha and Green gram. The maintenance or accumulation of organic matter in the soil is dependent on a number of factors e.g. chemical natures of added material, soil and climatic factors affecting microbial and cultural practices. Generally, the CEC of soil is governed by the kind and nature of organic colloids, humus, iron and aluminum oxides. The CEC of soil increased due to improvement in organic matter content of the soil. The addition of organics along with fertilizer increased the CEC of soil over the control followed by the application of a full recommended dose of fertilizer. These findings are in agreement with the results reported by Sharma et al. (2001).

EFFECT OF FORMULATED COMPOST APPLICATION ON SOIL AND WHEAT YIELD Problem Assessed In our quest for rapid green revolution and food security, we have completely ignored the soil health, sustainable food production and mining of the micronutrients- so vital for plant growth and human health, as a result, crops started showing declining trends in yield. Nutrition of crops has been given more emphasis rather than “nutrition of soils” and this practice has vastly exhausted the soil carbon level below the critical limit. To sustain the crop production level, a constant supply of organic matter to soil through different organic wastes/farm wastes is essential. Increasing rates of fertilizer applications have created an imbalance in plant nutrient use by crops and a threat to the soil environment. In certain cases, the input use pattern reflects an increase in plant nutrient demand. This indicates that input use efficiency is decreasing with the increasing cost of production. To maintain high response of crops to applied fertilizer, equal importance has to be given to soil health management practices and efforts have to be made to create awareness of soil health among the farmers’ community so that soils (natural resource) in good condition could be transferred to the next generation.

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Long fertility experiments have shown that integrated use of organic manures and fertilizers sustains high crop productivity but there is a need to intensify research on relatively non- conventional forms of IPNS. For this purpose, characterization of fertility restorer inputs like available FYM, city waste and agro-industrial waste, crop residue and their inventory at least at block level have to be worked out for developing IPNS modules with local perspectives. Indigenously available nutrient sources need to be explored and utilized to reduce the dependence on fertilizers. The non-availability of organic manures in sufficient quantity limits the adoption of IPNS on a large scale. However, the supply could be augmented to some extent by recycling of urban, animal and agro-industrial waste. About 57 MT tons of urban solid organic waste is generated per annum. Besides, a variety of agro-industrial and municipal organic waste like pressmud, poultry manure, fruit, vegetable waste and digested sludge could be recycled and converted into valuable manures. There is an urgent need to develop technologies for the production of cheap and quality manures. Technology has to be developed for the standardization of quality and quantity in the form of doses and sources of compost for ensuring their safe use in agriculture. The basic concept of integrated plant nutrient management is to promote and maintain soil fertility for sustainable crop production through optimizing all possible sources of plant nutrients. The principal aim of IPNM is an efficient and judicious use of all major sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner to get maximum yield of the crop without deleterious effects on soil health and this is possible when a constant rather than instant supply of organic matter in terms of organic manures to the soil is maintained. Otherwise, in times to come crops will not respond to applied fertilizer due to acute deficiency of organic matter and micronutrients in the soil. Experiences of organic matter recycling in soil have revealed that there is huge plant nutrient potential in locally available biodegradable organic wastes such as digested sludge, carpet waste, pressmud and poultry manure, etc. Nevertheless, detailed information related to the formulation and standardization of doses and sources of different organics has been lacking and needs to be studied urgently, so that recycling of the same could be made more accessible to maintain carbon and nutrient level in the soil. In the present study different formulations (i.e. suitable combination of different organic wastes to contain at least 120 kg N in them) of locally available biodegradable organic wastes were prepared and composted and applied in wheat crop keeping in view that each formulation would supply about 120

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kg nitrogen and other nutrients during crop growth and development period. Encouraging results with respect to crop yield and soil health have been obtained and summarized here.

STEPS INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF FORMULATED COMPOST Various organic wastes viz. digested city sludge, pressmud, carpet waste, poultry manure (cage system) cow dung, tree leaves and city garbage were collected and analyzed. Ten (10) pits of 2’x2’x2’ size were dug and calculated and weighed amounts of different organic wastes combinations were filled in the pits as per treatment details and thorough mixing of materials was done before filling and proper moisture in organic wastes was maintained. Three months later half portion of each composted material in the pit was, separated carefully and the remaining half was mixed with biofertilizers viz. Azotobacter, Phosphate solubilizing microbes and Trichoderma and left further for one month. The representative samples of these two types of bio-converted compost materials were collected for nutrient analysis in the laboratory. The composition of the same is given in table3. The microbial population was also counted in the formulated compost. Two experiments on wheat crops on farmer’s fields at ‘Sato Mahua’ Village near Varanasi Airport (Babatpur) were conducted to study the “Response of wheat to biodegraded and formulated organic wastes”. Soil characteristics before and after the harvest of the wheat crop were also assessed with the wheat grain yield data.

NUTRIENT CONTENT IN DIFFERENT ORGANIC WASTES AND FORMULATED COMPOST Different locally available organics were used for formulations. Data regarding plant nutrient contents reveal that among all organic wastes, woolen carpet waste contained the highest amount of nitrogen (12.5%) while phosphorus and potassium contents were the highest in poultry manure. As far as the micronutrients are concerned, digested sludge, (DS) showed higher content than the other organic wastes. The common characteristics and plant nutrient contents in different biodegradable formulations. The electrical conductivity of different formulations ranged from 0.03 to 0.27 d Sm-1. It is noticeable that where Pressmud (PM), digested sludge (DS) and Carpet wastes (CW) were added in higher amounts (T1, T2& T3) their EC was somewhat higher than the other composted formulations.

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The pH of different treatments showed a slightly acidic to neutral range. Slight acidity may be due to the addition of DS in these treatments. Water holding capacity (WHC) of formulated compost ranged from 60.9 to 94.0 percent irrespective of treatments. Among different formulations, higher WHC may be due to the addition of PM and DS. The use of CW has improved nitrogen content significantly in treatments as it contains 12.5 percent nitrogen. Phosphorus, Potassium and Sulfur were also present in appreciable amounts. In different formulations, the ratio of constituent organics has influenced their nutrient composition. Therefore, the formulated compost materials are expected to fulfill macro and micronutrient needs for crop plants. Overall, these formulations are expected to affect the carbon budget of soil by influencing the microbial population and plant nutrient content of soils. The microbial population of different formulations was also determined by the dilution plate technique. In all formulations, Actinomycetes population was higher than Fungi and Bacteria. Fungal and bacterial counts were almost similar in all treatments. There are many variables affecting the microbial population. Among them, pH, moisture content and organic matter fractions are most important. Treatment 1, 2 and 3 showed acidic reactions that resulted in higher fungal counts since fungi are acid-loving in nature. In decreasing order, the fungal population may be summarized as T2> T4>T10>T1=T5>T9>T7=T8>T3>T6. The pH of the different formulations also influenced the Bacterial and Actinomycetes population, which may be summarized as follows: Actinomycetes: T5>T3>T8>T10>T4>T9>T2>T7=T1>T6

Bacteria:

T8>T9> T6=T3.T7=T10>T1>T5>T2>T4

RESPONSE OF WHEAT TO DIFFERENT FORMULATIONS The wheat grain yield data of two consecutive years (2005 and 2006) reveals that the nitrogen content of all formulations of compost has influenced wheat grain yield. Data shows that grain yield varied from 36.25 to 58.20 Q ha-1 irrespective of treatment in both the years of experimentation at the farmer’s field. T1 Formulation having 2 tons ha-1 each of carpet waste (CW), pressmud (PM) and digested sludge (DS) produced significantly higher grain yield over fertilizer applied treatment (i.e. T0) in both the years. The inclusion of carpet waste (CW) might have resulted in higher grain yield as

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it contains about 12.5% nitrogen. Two formulations (i.e. T2 andT3) having variable doses of their constituents produced equal or somewhat higher grain as compared to yield obtained from fertilizer application in the first year of the experiment and the same trend of yield was also observed in the next year of the experiment (2006). The reason is that carpet waste is the richest source of nitrogen among all organic agro-industrial waste available for formulation. Data further show that nutrient content in all organic wastes has its direct bearing on total nutrient content in formulations. Although the yield obtained from the rest of the formulations was very low compared to T0, T1, T2, andT3 but the integration of organic wastes in the form of formulations proved their nutrient potential by producing the yield. Data further show that T3 has produced the same yield of wheat as obtained from T2 because DS quantity has been doubled with CW excluding the pressmud. T1, T2& T3 produced significantly higher grain yields than other treatments. Data further reveals that the N content of formulated compost has played a significant role in increasing yield. T1, T2& T3 formulations have performed best among all formulations. Although all the formulations were low for analysis of nitrogen materials but they were able to release plant nutrients slowly to meet crop requirements. A perusal of the data regarding the influence of formulated compost on soil characteristics is furnished in table 6. The surface soil of experimental site was characterized by pH 7.7 having a slightly saline reaction, electrical conductivity 0.28 d Sm-1, bulk density 1.49 Mg m-3, cation exchange capacity 17.9 [cmol(P+)kg-1], organic carbon 4.6 g kg-1, alkaline KMNO4 nitrogen 240, Olsen’s phosphorus 18.9, NH4OAC potassium 238.0 and available sulfur content 20.0 kg ha-1 respectively. Available status of Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn were 20.4, 4.7, 19.0 and 3.5 mg kg-1, respectively. The analysis of composite soil samples after the harvest of wheat crop revealed that soil reaction (i.e. pH) remained unchanged whereas EC and BD of soil got slightly decreased. CEC and organic carbon status of soil showed slight improvement, indicating a favorable effect of formulated compost. Data further revealed that a slight increase also occurred in the contents of available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur after two years of experiment. The application of formulated and composted organics also increased available micronutrient contents in soil. The results of the study further showed that formulation 1 (T1) having 2 tons of each of carpet waste, pressmud and digested sludge proved best among all formulations. As far as the toxicity of micronutrients in plant and soil is concerned, our soils have

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become inherently deficient in several macro and micronutrients. Moreover, the availability of these in the soil is governed by several factors among them soil pH, plant species, the form of metal in sludge and application rates are important. Further, plant roots also act as a detoxifying agent by immobilizing and holding back elements that would be toxic to aboveground parts. Many studies also have confirmed that the addition of sewage sludge results in lower uptake of metal than the fertilizer supplied crop in spite of higher metal contents in sludge, indicating that operation of some inhibitory mechanism in roots of plants and higher metabolic rates in soil.

PRACTICAL UTILITY OF THE FINDINGS AND SUMMARY As organic farming is the need of the current time, this research work has been projected to explore the possibilities and feasibility of organic matter recycling and enrichment of soil using cheap non-traditional organic wastes available around Varanasi. Findings of the experiment at the farmer’s field showed encouraging results from the beginning of the experiment on wheat crops and are expected to pave the way which will help in: •

Organic farming using wastes available in huge amounts for recycling. • The recycling of organic wastes for remunerative and eco-friendly agriculture. Modern agricultural practices have been exhausting the nutrient supplying capacity of soil on one hand and the disposal of huge amounts of various biodegradable organic wastes due to modernization posing a major threat to the environmental eco-system on another hand. Among the alternatives available, disposal into the soil through recycling is more fruitful rather than other options as the soils have high metabolic rates.

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Composting process of different organic waste

Wheat crop at farmer’s field with different organic waste formulations.

Bumper crop of wheat grown with Farmers and agricultural officers observdifferent organic waste formulations. ing the crop at maturity

USE OF SOIL AMENDMENTS THROUGH INM APPROACH Agriculture holds the key to the future of our country. In recent decades, the yield of most of the crops either declined or reached a plateau with the soil productivity showing signs of fatigue. Therefore, it is a major challenge to improve soil quality, input use efficiency and crop productivity of salt- affected soils adopting all possible methods. Manipulation of soil physical environment along with soil fertility has a profound significance for enhancing the productivity of salt- affected soils. Reclamation and management of salt- affected soils can potentially add to the free total stock of land under plow. There are heavy deposits of different industrial wastes like Fly Ash (FA) (about 140 Mt.) and Phospho-gypsum in our country and large quantities of these industrial wastes are being disposed of either in the soil or in the sea. A very few amounts would be recycled in useful products. Their high potential as a soil amendment is yet not being utilized at a large scale. Among all these industrial wastes, FA constitutes a major portion.

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The annual generation of FA is projected to exceed 175 m t. per annum by 2012. This large volume of FA occupies a large area of land and possesses a threat to the environment. As such, there is an urgent and imperative need to explore the possible technological means and ways with an adequate level of intervention for gainful utilization and safe management of FA on a sustainable basis. There are several products other than gypsum available as waste material for amending sodic soils. Among them, fly ash (FA) is one such amendment that has potential in agriculture whose potential is yet to be harnessed. Kota Super Thermal Power Station Rajasthan (KSTPS) produces millions of tons of FA annually. Studies conducted on FA reveal that it has great potential to act as an amendment in salt- affected soils if applied in standard quantities. Physically FA occurs a very fine particle, low to medium BD, high surface and very light texture. Chemically the composition of FA varies depending on the quality of coal use and operation conditions of Thermal Power Stations. Approximately 95-99% FA consists of Al, Si, Fe and Ca and about 0.5-3.5% consists of P, K and S with some trace elements. The rich content of calcium (12-18%) in Fly ash undergoes dissolution in soil solution and replaces Na+ ions from clay complex. The ameliorative influence of fly ash could also be attributed to the enhanced availability of plant nutrients by bringing down the soil reaction. In fact, FA consists of practically all essential plant nutrient elements present in soil except carbon and nitrogen. Thus, it is expected that instead of gypsum this material could be used as an additive amendment in salt -affected soils. Indian farmers are now getting aware of the benefits of FA application in soil. The application of FA as a soil ameliorant is a potential area from the considerations of utilizing its huge amount, solving its environmental concerns, and tapping economic potentials. Numerous studies point to the wider potential of FAs to increase soil productivity and ameliorate degraded land and soils for agriculture or re-vegetation The use of FA for soil amelioration, because of its favorable physicochemical properties including appreciable amounts of K, Ca, Mg, S and P, has been advocated for three decades (Ram and Masto, 2010). FA contains most of the essential plant nutrients, except N, which is attributable to the oxidation of C and N during coal combustion. The deficient C and N have to be amended along with FA application to soils. The addition of other amendments along with FA will support supply C and N, besides enhancing the efficiency of FA. A wide variety of amendments have been tried. Some locally available non-conventional sources of soil conditioners like industrial wastes, low-

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grade ores, agricultural wastes, sewage sludge (SS), green manures, and bio-fertilizers can facilitate improvement in the environment and ecology through enhancing the yield and solving the disposal problem of wastes (TIFAC, 2001). The use of FA as an agricultural amendment can be enhanced by blending it with potentially acid-forming organic by-products such as sewage sludge, poultry and cattle manure which are significantly rich in N and P (Adriano et al., 1980). Sewage sludge, biosolids, farmyard manure (FYM), press mud (a sugarcane industrial waste), biofertilizers, biochar, lime, gypsum, red mud, etc. have been used as amendments. The addition of biosolids, animal manures or composts into the surface layers of ash could increase the success of reclamation/ re-vegetation efforts. There are few studies on the reclamation of FA dumps using plant species, recently Pandey (2013) found that Ricinus communis L. can be used as a commercial crop for phytostabilization and revegetation of FA disposal sites. Further Thelypteris dentata fern was found suitable for revegetation/stabilization of FA landfills (Kumari et al., 2013). These environmental concerns of FA could also be effectively managed by the selection of appropriate amendments (Ram and Masto, 2010). Though there are reviews on FA utilization for soil amelioration, the roles of these organic and inorganic amendments are not addressed fully. Thus, this work is aimed to critically examine the agronomic and environmental potentials of co-application of FA with these amendments

FLY ASH PROPERTIES AND CROP RESPONSE The ash generated in TPPs is of two types i.e. FA and bottom ash (BA). The FA (constituting 80% of the total ash produced in a coal combustion power plant), being the lighter fraction, is carried away by flue gasses up into the chimney and collected through mechanical processes, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters. The color of FA varies from tan to gray and to black, depending on the content of unburned carbon in the ash (Kassim and Williams, 2005). The FA fraction is chemically reactive and finer in texture (0.01–100 μm) than the BA fraction. BA is the heavy, coarse fraction (N100 μm) that falls through the airflow to the bottom of the furnace. BA particles are usually angular, unevenly shaped, and sand- to gravel-sized (Meawad et al., 2010). A mixture of both FA and BA, commonly referred to as pond ash (PA), is disposed of as slurry through pipelines to ash ponds, when not used for industrial applications.

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FA is also collected dry. In the dry system, the FA is transported pneumatically to a dry ash storage container, where it falls onto screw conveyors and is moistened to some extent. Then the material is collected in trucks and transported to dumping or utilization sites. FAs are classified as class C (high CaO content, as found in sub bituminous coal or lignite) or class F (low CaO content, as found in bituminous coal). According to ASTM standards (ASTMC618), bituminous and sub-bituminous coal produces class F ash, and lignite produces class C ash with a high degree of self-hardening capacity. Classifications have also been based on the contents of Si, Fe, Ca, and Mg oxides, and the reactive water-soluble and amorphous phases in FA, to determine logical uses for FA (Dewey et al., 1996). In the recent past, a new approach based on the origin, phase-mineral, chemical composition, and other properties/ behaviors of FA has been presented (Vassilev and Vassileva, 2006). Comparative characteristics of FA produced from different types of coal are presented. The characteristics of FA, in general, vary with the coal source and quality, combustion process, extent of weathering, particle size, and age of the ash. Chemically, FA mainly consists of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), magnesium oxide (MgO), sodium oxide (Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), unburned carbon, and sulfate (SO42−). Lignite ash has high SiO2, CaO, MgO, Al2O3, and SO3. Refuse ash has high SiO2, Fe2O3 but low SO3. Anthracite ash has high SiO2, Al2O3, with a considerable amount of K2O. Coal gasification ash is composed of SiO2 N Al2O3 N CaO N Fe2O3 N K2O N MgO N SO3 N TiO2 N P2O5 and its composition is comparable with that of other ashes, however, the coarse size of this ash may inhibit its potential application for soil amelioration, particularly for sandy soils. However, it could be of immense use for the reclamation of clay-rich soil. Few studies have been carried out on the use of gasification ash for soil/mine spoil reclamation in combination with lime, sludge, etc. FA is a heterogeneous mixture of both the amorphous and the crystalline phase having a higher specific surface area, and lower bulk density (BD); higher moisture retention capacity and electrical conductivity (EC); and lower cation exchange capacity (CEC) than normal soil. The pH of FAs is linearly associated with the content of CaO or the CaO/ SO4 ratio (Mattigod et al., 1990) and varies from 4.5 to 12.0; however, the majority of the FAs produced globally, including those in India, are alkaline.

From an agricultural point of view, FA contains many of the plant nutrients (like P, B, Cu, Zn, and Mn). FA contains predominantly amorphous aluminosilicate glassy spheres and is comparable to soil particles. FA being

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non-expanding works well as an amendment for clay soil (Adriano et al., 1980). The Ca-rich, alkaline type of FA has proven to be useful in agriculture for neutralizing acidic soils, and for facilitating the revegetation of degraded lands. FA is devoid of humus and N and can be supplemented with organic amendments. Some FAs also contain elements of environmental concern (like Cd, As, Se, Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr, Co, Mo, and Be), and naturally occurring radionuclides (from U and Th series, and 40 K). The content of these elements in FAs depends on the type of fuel feed and its source, the occurrence of significant elements and their association with the inorganic and organic components of the coal, the combustion conditions, volatilization– condensation mechanisms, and the particle size of the ash. Disposal of FA on land is likely to contaminate soils and water resources due to the presence of potentially toxic elements, most of those in water- soluble forms. This may affect the decision to dispose of it in the ash ponds or apply it in the soil (Niewiadomski et al., 1986; Bem et al., 2002). Some metals can be immobilized and rendered non-bioavailable by a range of inorganic compounds, such as lime, phosphate and organic materials, including crop residues, and manure. The blending of organic and inorganic amendments helps with FA in controlling the availability of metals by chelation, adsorption, precipitation, etc. Effect of FA amendment on plant growth FA application has significantly increased the yield of agricultural and forest tree species. Earlier studies and reviews showed significant increases in crop yield due to FA amendment for a variety of crops: Lettuce (Lau and Wong, 2001); Zea mays, Medicago sativa, Lotus corniculatus, and Phaseolus vulgaris; Brassica parachinensis and Brassica chinensis species; Hordeum vulgare; clover; forage crops; Brassica oleracea; Brassica campestris; cotton; Cyanodon dactylon. The agronomic benefits of FA applications are primarily associated with improved physicochemical and biological characteristics of the soil. Because of the presence of Ca-Si minerals with a pozzolanic nature, along with the soil moisture, FA promotes improvements in soil BD, porosity, WHC and available water. The essential plant nutrients found in FA also encourage plant growth and increase crop yields. The general apprehension for FA use for the cultivation of edible crops is the carryover of heavy metals from FA amended soils to crop produce. The soil–plant transfer of heavy metals is a very complex process, which is governed by several natural and anthropogenic factors (Rodriguez et al., 2011). The availability and carryover of toxic trace and heavy metals from

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soil to plants may vary from plant to plant and soil to soil. Soil properties like pH, organic carbon (OC), CEC, microorganisms around the root zone (Kisku et al., 2000), concentration and form of occurrence of metals, and depth of soil, may influence the metal uptake. The metal translocation is further affected by the stage of growth of the plants, mobility of such elements to the root, their transport from the root surface to root interior, and their translocation from root to shoot (Chaney and Giardono, 1977). The nature of the FAs has also an impact on the carryover of heavy metals to crop produce especially as higher uptake is expected for acidic FAs than alkaline FAs (Ram and Masto, 2010). In an FA (pH 5.2) dump, accumulation of Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, and Cd in plant species was found within the plant tolerance limit (Jambhulkar and Juwarkar, 2009). The concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cr) in different parts of Beta vulgaris plants increased with increasing concentrations of FA (pH 8.09); however, the concentrations were below the safe limits. Accumulation of heavy metals in B. vulgaris plants grown on FA (20%) amended soil did not pose any risk to human health (Singh et al., 2008). FA application to the agricultural soils increased Ni plant uptake but reduced that of Cr and Cu contents in Vicia faba, found FA (pH 9.1) application up to 25% is safe for Cajanus cajan cultivation, which not only enhanced the yield of C. cajan L. significantly but also ensured the translocation of Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, B, Al, Mo, and Ni to edible parts within the critical limits. In a rice–mustard cropping system, Rautaray et al. (2003) found that the Cd and Ni in rice grain and straw were decreased under the direct effect of FA (pH 8.28) due to increases in soil pH. Slight increases in the Cd content of mustard seeds were noted under the residual influence of FA. The content of heavy metals, including Cd, Pb, and Ni in the crop produce (cabbage, soybean, and rice) from FA treated plots was not significantly different from that of the produce from control (Kim et al., 1994, 1997). Amendment of sandy soil with varying doses of FA showed no metal toxicity in the tissue of B. parachinensis and B. chinensis species. On direct soil amendment with FA (at 200 t/ha), plant tissues showed normal uptake of nutrients, and trace element uptake from FA was within the acceptability level (Buck et al., 1990). In sandy soils amended with FA, a significant increase in Cd and Hg, but within range of natural variation levels was reported (Summers et al., 1998). The effect of a decrease in Zn, Cd, Ni, and Cu concentrations of chicory due to FA application was more evident when highly alkaline FA (pH 12) was used rather than an FA with pH 8 (Yong et al., 2002). Amendment with FA

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(0, 40, 80, and 120 Mg ha-1) of silt loam and loamy sand soils for growing paddy showed an increase in Si, P, and K uptake by plants but no excessive uptake of heavy metals in submerged paddy soil. Trace and heavy metal contents in the rice samples evinced no difference in the rice from FA treated (200 t/ha) and control soils (Bhattacharya et al., 2012). Forage crops during field experiments on FA amended soil showed an increase of B, Se, and Mo in legumes, grasses, and cuttings of all crops, respectively, apart from the increase, as in the first cutting of crops. Z. mays, M. sativa, L. corniculatus, P. vulgaris and dry beans, grown on low-Se soils amended with FA at varying doses (0–112 t/ha), evinced an increase in Se levels (range=0.08–0.14 mg/kg) in corn grains, stover, and dry bean seeds on the highest dose of FA (Mgagwu, 1983). But this level was well within the normal limit. A greenhouse study on the growth response of barley grown on clay loam topsoil amended with FA (0 to 100%, v/v) evinced B toxicity symptoms at N 6.25% FA. Also, a favorable increase in the contents of Se in grain, straw, and silage at 25% FA and enhancement in the plant Mo concentration level to alter Cu/Mo a concern for ruminant diets were inferred. An increase in B, K, Na, and a decrease in Mn levels in cotton leaves and petioles with FA treatment rates were observed (Dunn and Stevens, 2000). Greenhouse and field studies on the potential of FA (at 0–80Mg ha−1) in acidic clay and sandy soils for corn and soybean crops showed no effect on hot water-soluble boron. Accumulation of Se and B in the plants in quantities is of no concern for plant health or animal and human consumption (Cline et al., 2000). The pattern of uptake and accumulation of heavy metals in edible produce due to FA application could not be generalized, as it depends on the FA–soil–crop interactions. The same FA may have a different effect on another soil. Amidst these vagaries, most of the studies showed that FA has significantly increased plant growth and yield without enhancing the uptake of metals beyond the permissible limits. The central point is the heavy metal stocks present in FA and it is directly dependent on the nature of the coal used. On combustion in TPPs, low ash coals are likely to produce a metal -enriched FA. Fortunately, most of the coals used in TPPs in India contain higher amounts of ash. Further FA addition to soil helps in the formation of iron oxy-hydroxide (goethite) by ash– water interactions. The oxy-hydroxide scavenges trace metals, primarily through the formation of flocs, immobilizing them and reducing their bioavailability (Leekie et al., 1980).

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STUDIES ON SOIL RESPONSE TO FLYASH APPLICATION Problematic soils (saline- sodic soils) have a potential for crop production if they are reclaimed or ameliorated. So, besides common amendments (like Gypsum), the role of industrial wastes like FA, Phospho-gypsum and molasses have been recognized as valuable amendments as they not only play a pivotal role in reclaiming the alkali and acid soils, but also supply major and micronutrients when they are applied to soils. So far only very limited industrial wastes have been tried and used for amelioration, but there is a variety of waste materials that need to be tried to exploit their ameliorative value. FA is one of theseee wastes. Therefore, the present work has been undertaken with a view to give it more / wide publicity among the farmers’ community for using it as a source of plant nutrients as well as amendments. Because, when fly ash is dumped in soil for natural recycling, it becomes an energy resource to soil macro organism, a nutrient source for plants and also serves as amendments for problematic soils. A critical review of the work done so far reveals that FA supplies a considerable amount of plant nutrients in the readily available form to plants. The ameliorative influence of fly ash could also be attributed to the enhanced availability of plant nutrients by bringing down the soil pH. The rich content of calcium (Ca) in Fly ash undergoes dissolution in soil solution and replaces Na+ ions from clay complex. Fly ash when mixed with NPK fertilizer and lime has proved as an effective substitute for dung in increasing the humus level of the soil and improving the structure and moisture content of the soil, thus encountering the adverse effects of high alkalinity (Chandy, 2012). Tiwari et al. (1992) worked on the use of fly ash in sodic soils and reported that coal fly ash has been effective in improving physico-chemical properties of sodic soils that in turn resulted in a significant increase in rice and wheat yields. When fly ash is used either in conjunction with biological material or alone, it can improve soil quality and crop productivity under a variety of climatic conditions, plant species and soil type. Fly ash improves the nutrient status of soil by changing pH, influencing CEC and supplying trace materials (Krugev and Surridge, 2009). Fly ash has the potential for agricultural use. Physically fly ash occurs as a very fine particle having low bulk density and high surface area and very light texture. Chemically the composition of fly ash varies depending on the quality of coal. In fact, fly ash consists of practically all the elements present in soil expect organic carbon and nitrogen. Thus, it has been found that this material could be used

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as an additive amendment material in agricultural application. The potential of fly ash as an amendment in agriculture is being established. The major attributes which make fly ash suitable for agriculture are its texture and the fact that it contains almost all essential plant nutrients except organic carbon and N. Although fly ash has many benefits as an input material for agricultural application, further confirmative studies at ICAR centers would be helpful in bringing out recommendations in this field. Meanwhile, there appears to be sufficient ground now for the cautions and judicious use of this useful material which otherwise is being wasted/ underutilized. Kishore et al., (2010) in their study reported that fly ash can be used as a soil ameliorate that may improve physical-chemical and biological properties of degraded soils and as a source of readily available plant macro and micronutrients. The practical value of FA use in agriculture as eco-friendly and economical soil amendment can be established after repeated experiments for each type of soil to confirm its quality and safety. Fly ash has great potentiality in agriculture due to its efficiency in the modification of soil health and crop performance. The high concentration of elements (K, Zn, Ca, Mg and Fe) in FA increases the yield of many agricultural crops. But the use of FA in agriculture is limited as compared to other sectors which further needs to be explored at the farmer’s fields. Materials having the potential for gainful utilization remain in the category of waste till it is understood and is put to the right use. FA is one such example that has been treated as waste material in India until a decade back and has now emerged not only as resource material but also as an environmental savior. The potential that is yet to be tapped is multifold of the current level. Conservation of mineral resources also reduces mining activity and the resultant degradation of the environment. Other important areas where FA could be recycled are the reclamation of degraded soils and lowing areas (Kumar et al., 2005). The application of FA in agriculture and forestry as a soil ameliorant is significant from its disposal and gainful utilization point of view. At present FA utilization has reached the level of 46 % but is still far below the utilization level achieved by some countries abroad. FA application based on its typical characteristics as a soil amendment for agriculture and forestry is the potential area and hence, the global attempt. Indian FA has low BD, high water holding capacity (WHC) and porosity, rich silt- sized particles and reasonable plant nutrients. Findings of demonstrations at farmers’ fields for more than two decades have been developed as fly ash

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soil application technology. The performance of different crops in cultivable and problematic soil is encouraging eco-friendly systems being adopted by farmers. FA application includes ash alone and in combination with inorganic and organic amendments; combination treatment including biosolid performance is better than FA alone. Optimum doses are up to 100 t ha-1 for cultivable land and up to or above/ 200 t ha-1 of FA for waste/ degraded lands depending on the characteristics of ash and soil. The elemental toxicity in Indian FA is usually not of much concern owing to alkaline ash, oxide forms of elements and elemental concentration within the threshold limit for soil application. Combating toxicity is possible through a combination of treatments with organic materials and phytoremediation. Government systems through extension programs involving farmers and ash generating organizations need to be accelerated (Ram et al., 2010). Soil and water conservation is essential for food and fiber production. The judicious application of soil amendments to the soil can contribute to enhanced aggregate stability and prevent clay dispersion. Graber et al. (2006) worked on four types of soil amendments namely gypsum, organic polymer, organic waste matter and fly ash and reported that the addition of gypsum to the soil can limit clay swelling and dispersion and thus improves structural stability. Synthetic organic polymer addition to soil surface leads to their stabilization. Organic matter also used for promoting aggregate stabilization, enhances soil microbial activity that transforms the newly added organic matter to polysaccharides and long- chain aliphatic compounds capable of binding and stabilizing aggregates. FA additives are usually capable of improving soil physical structure and chemical properties including texture, WHC, hydraulic conductivity, soil reaction and nutrient availability to plants. Physical and chemical composition varies widely therefore, the mode of use in agriculture is different and depends on the characteristics of the soil. A review by Sharma and Kalra (2006) reveals that when FA is used for reclamation of problematic soils, it improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of problematic soils and enhances the availability of macro and micronutrients to plants. The high concentration of plant nutrients in FA increases the yield of agricultural crops. However, the application of FA particularly the unweathered type shows a tendency of accumulating elements like B, Mo, Se and Al. The accumulation of these elements to toxic levels is responsible for reducing crop yield and consequently influences animal and human health. All

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these situations need to be carefully assessed for making recommendations of FA for the reclamation of problematic soils. Sudha Jala and Dinesh Goyal (2006) reviewed the available information on various attributes of FA to exploit agronomic advances and reported that the conventional disposal methods for FA lead to degradation of arable land and contamination of groundwater. However, FA is a useful amendment that may improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of problematic soils and is a source of readily available macro and micronutrients. In conjunction with organic manure and microbial inoculants, FA can enhance plant biomass production from degraded soil. Kumar and Sinha (2003) worked on the use of coal FA for reclamation water- logged sodic soils and its resultant effects on plant growth in paddy- wheat rotation. Experimental soil had pH 9.07, EC 3.87 dSm-1 , ESP 26.0 and SAR 4.77 meq100-1gm of soil at the initial stage while FA had pH 5.8, EC 0.88 dSm1 . The treatment comprised of FA levels of 0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 6.0 and 7.5 percent, used alone and in combination with 100, 80, 60, 40, 20 and 10 percent GR of soil respectively. There was a slight reduction in soil pH while EC of soil decreased significantly with FA as measured after Paddywheat rotation. The SAR of soil decreased with increasing FA levels, while gypsum treatment considerably added to its favorable effects. FA application increased available N, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, B, Mo, Al, Pb, Ni, Co but decreased Na, P and Zn in soil. Barring Na, P and Zn, the concentration of elements was also higher in seed and plant parts. Available and elemental concentrations in plants were maximum in 0 % FA+ 100 % GR treatment except Na and heavy metal like Ni, Co, Cr. The treatments were greater in FA+GR combinations compared to FA alone. Saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil water retention generally improved with the addition of FA while BD decreased. Application of FA up to 4.5% level increased the grain and straw yield of paddy and wheat in both years. These results conspicuously indicated that gypsum could possibly be substituted up to 40 % GR with 3% acidic FA. Ram et al. (2007) conducted long-term field trials on groundnut (GN), maize and sunhemp to study the effect of lignite FA (LFA) on the growth and yield of these crops. LFA was applied with and without pressmud at various doses before the sowing of GN. LFA with and without pressmud was also applied before the sowing of maize and Sunhemp. Chemical fertility along with gypsum, humic acid and biofertilizers were applied as per treatment details in all treatments including control. With one time and repeated application of LFA (with and

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without pressmud) yield increased significantly (3.0-15.0 %) with different LFA applications. The highest yield of LFA doses was 200 t ha-1 for one time and repeated application, the maximum yield being with crop Sunhemp. One time and repeated application of LFA (alone and in combination with pressmud) improved soil quality and nutrient content in crop production. The highest doses of LFA (200 t ha-1) with and without pressmud showed the best residual effect (eco-friendly increase in yield of the succeeding crop). Some increase in trace and heavy metal but well within permissible limit was also observed. Thus, it is concluded that LFA can be used on large scale to boost soil fertility and crop productivity without adverse effects on soil and crop, which may solve the problem of bulk disposal of FA in an ecological manner. Gupta et al. (2012) have the opinion that the potential of FA as a resource material is due to its specific physical properties such as texture, BD, WHC and pH. Moreover, FA contains almost all essential plant nutrients. FA can be used as an amendment in soil. FA application improves the physical and chemical properties of soil, reduces pest dominance on crops and increases crop yield. The amount and method of FA application to soil depend on the type of soil, the crop grown and FA characteristics. Besides, positive effects, FA may contain also toxic metals and radionuclides. Therefore, the use of FA should be done with care, notably by taking in to account the uptake of metal by plants. Kenneth S. Sajwan et al (2006) assessed the potential of FA organic waste co disposal to enhance crop production in a greenhouse experiment. Two pot experiments, one using Sorghum sudangrass (Sorghum vulgaris) and others using Collard greens (Brassica oleraraceae) were conducted. In addition, a leaching experiment was also conducted to assess the leaching potential of selected heavy metals from FA-sewage sludge (SS) amended soil. The results indicated that biomass production of sorghum was significantly increased up to 250 mg ha1 . FA SS mixture amendment, regardless of various ratios of FA: SS mixed amendment. Similarly, the collard grass biomass significantly increased up to 50 mg ha-1. The elemental uptake showed a similar pattern for both Sorghum Sudan grass and Collard greens. The leaching study indicated that the increased application of amendments (either alone or as a mixture) resulted in increased leaching of metals. Therefore, low to moderate rates of FA: SS mixture (1:1 ratio) could be successfully used as a soil ameliorant.

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SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES The influence of FA on the physical characteristics of soil is primarily attributable to the changes in the texture of the soil. Alteration in the soil texture is correlated with bulk density (BD), porosity, hydraulic conductivity, void ratio, and water holding capacity (WHC), which have a direct impact on plant growth and on the nutrient retention and biological activity of the soil. 10% fly ash amended sand is a suitable rooting media for vegetative propagation of Leucaena leucocephala (Pandey and Kumar, 2013). Direct amendment with FA/BA modified the texture of soils from sandy loam to silt loam and sandy clay to loamy, apart from improving their physicochemical properties. The hollow spheres of FA replace bigger soil particles and make it possible for small silt particles to accumulate in voids, which modifies the texture (Khan and Khan, 1996; Ram et al., 2007b) and pore structure (Yunusa et al., 2006), of the soil. FAs with high soluble Ca content and appropriate particle size distribution, especially a high percentage of particles in the range of 2–200 μm may help to improve the structural properties of soil (Yunusa et al., 2006). FA addition also reduces surface encrustation and enhances soil aeration and the germination of plants. Acid clay soils treated even with a high dose (600 t/ha) of dry FA improved their physico-chemical properties (Fulekar, 1993), with significant lowering of clayey properties and a positive change in the workability of soil. The BD of the FA was found to be lower than that of normal cultivable soil (Sikka and Kansal, 1994). A wide variation in the BD of FAs (0.81–1.16Mg/m3) (Chatterjee et al., 1988; Sarkar et al., 2005) was observed. A marked decrease in the BD of a variety of agricultural soils (1.25– 1.65 Mg/m3) after FA addition (Page et al., 1979), and improvement in soil porosity, workability, WHC, and permeability of different soil types after reduction in their BD on FA amendment are well documented. The application of ash (10 to 30%) to coarse-textured soils improved the WHC manifold depending on the dose of the ash and texture of the soils. Soil moisture is a key variable of the climate system which has impacts on water, energy, and biogeochemical cycles. FA helps to conserve soil moisture (Seneviratne et al., 2010). On the addition of 200–400 t/ha of FA to sandy loam soil, a significant improvement in the permeability, field moistureholding capacity, total exchangeable bases, as well a reduction in BD and acidity, to the benefit of crop production was inferred (Gracia et al., 1995).

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Soil pH The liming property of FA has been investigated by several authors. FA can either be acidic or alkaline, depending on the source of the coal used for combustion, especially the S content of the parent coal, and the operating condition of the plant (Ram and Masto, 2010). Most of the FAs produced worldwide are alkaline. The degree of soil pH change on FA application is dependent on the factors like the difference between the pH of FA and soil, the buffering capacity of the soil, and the FA neutralizing capacity as determined by the amount of CaO, MgO, and Al2SiO5 present (Truter et al., 2005). The vast majority of FAs in Australia and India belong to class F and have less than 10% CaO, whereas FAs from lignite belong to class C which has up to 15% CaO. FAs may contain sizeable amounts of silicate minerals such as mullet (Ram, 1992; Ram et al., 1995a, b), which in principle can take up H+, leading to neutralization through the formation of silicic acid. Thus, dissolving even a small amount of silicate minerals with FA application would significantly increase the soil pH (Jankowski et al., 2006). Although lime and dolomite could be used for reclamation of acidic soils, they are expensive (owing to the high temperature [900°C] calcination for their production), scarce and take a longer time to substantially improve soil structural and physical characteristics. Further, an enormous amount of CO2 is released during the production of lime from calcite. Without proper management, most acidic soils are not suitable for profitable cultivation. The optimum pH for the availability of nutrients for most crops is 6.5-7.5. Soil fertility is impaired at very low pH (below 5.0), as the solubility of toxic elements (like Mn and Al) increases, which damages roots and hinders plant growth. The availability of essential plant nutrients like P, Ca, and Mg is negatively affected at low pH values (Mengel and Kirkby, 1987). Alkaline FAs, particularly those with high Ca, can be substituted for lime to reduce soil acidity to a level suitable for agriculture. Alkaline FA was found chemically equivalent to approximately 20% reagent-grade CaCO3 for increasing soil pH and supplying Ca to plants. Alkalization of soils in the vicinity of TPPs has occurred as a result of the presence of alkali and alkaline earth metals (Patel and Pandey, 1986). The application of FAs to acidic sand and acidic clay soils optimized their pH. Use of FA instead of lime in agriculture can reduce net CO2 emission, and thus reduce global warming also. All the carbon in agricultural lime is finally released as CO2 to the atmosphere (Basu et al., 2009). Liming during the application of coal and lignite FAs, in combination with other

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amendments like FYM, sewage sludge, paper mill sludge, and lime mud at different doses has enhanced the pH of a variety of acidic soils. FA has a high pH value and can substitute lime in reducing sewage sludge acidity when applied for eco-remediation at mining areas. An increase in the pH of mine spoil after lignite FA amendments during field study has been reported (Ram et al., 2006a). Besides being a feasible alternative to lime for ameliorating acidic soil and acidic mine spoils, FA may improve the nutrient content of the soil, with a corresponding impact on the growth and yield of plants. FA has also been used for the reclamation of sodic soils. There was a slight reduction in soil pH while the electrical conductivity of the soil decreased significantly with FA. The sodium adsorption ratio of the soil decreased with increasing FA levels. FA application increased the available elemental status of N, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, B, Mo, Al, Pb, Ni, and Co, but decreased Na, P and Zn in the soil. For reclaiming sodic soils, gypsum was suggested to be substituted by up to 40% of its requirement with relatively very less acidic FA (Kumar and Singh, 2003). FA was effective for improving the physicochemical properties of sodic soil, which in turn resulted in a significant increase in yields for rice and wheat. The initial soil pH of 10.0 was reduced to 8.3 and the Na percent saturation dropped from 64.5 to 24.0 after application of FA and pyrite amendment (Tiwari et al., 1992). Thus, the amelioration of soil pH by FA has a tremendous role in bringing vast tracts of soils, including non- productive, wastelands, mine spoils, etc. for agriculture and forestry purposes. The corrected pH has several other benefits for plant growth like nutrient availability, reducing metal toxicity, etc. Effect on soil salinity the most limiting factors for use of FA as a soil amendment are the excessive concentrations of soluble salts and B. The ions present in ash influence salinity, alkalinity and total dissolved solids (TDS) and may, if sufficiently elevated, inhibit re-vegetation. High soluble salt concentrations (electrical conductivity (EC) N 13 dS/m) in un-weathered dry FA (collected directly from power plant rather than the pond ash) may limit the use of fresh FA (Haynes, 2009). The principal ions in water extracts of FA are Ca, Na, F, Cl, SO4, OH, and CO3. The application of un-weathered FA to soil may cause an increase in soil and groundwater salinities (Malik and Thaplial, 2009). The higher concentration of total dissolved solids, total hardness, and cations and anions in FA leachates may lead to an increase in soil salinity. Vageesh and Siddaramappa (2002) reported that leachate, collected from FA-amended soil columns, was highly saline with a B concentration that exceeded safe limits, and elevated SO4 and Ca levels. Fluoride occurs in ash as a relatively

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insoluble salt embedded in the surfaces of glass particles; it becomes much more soluble under strongly acidic conditions. A number of researchers have reported that F leaching is not of great concern in FA. Unlike F, chloride is common in FA and occurs as readily soluble salts which complex with some heavy metals, thereby enhancing their mobility (Reardon et al., 1995). In general, the main limitation of FA salinity effects is manifested from the high availability of B. Un-weathered FA releases high levels of soluble B and salts initially, but decreases over time. Long-term phytotoxicity can result from the slow release of B from the aluminosilicate matrices of FA. Like other elements, B availability is linked to soil pH. More B is soluble and therefore bio-available when FA is applied to acidic soils rather than in alkaline soils. At pH 6, nearly 500% more B is solubilized from FA, than occurs at pH 9.5 (Mishra and Shukla, 1986b). Though salinity and associated B toxicity are major limitations to FA use, weathering leads to a decrease in soluble salt concentrations as ions are leached away. Haynes (2009) reported that, after 2-3 years of weathering in an ash pond, soluble salt concentrations in FA dropped substantially and may no longer represent a limitation to using ash for soil treatment. Therefore, for soil amelioration, it is preferable to go for FA collected from ash ponds than fresh un-weathered FA.

Effect on Soil Fertility FA has been used as a source of essential plant nutrients. Ash application greatly increased the soil contents of P, K, B, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, carbonates, bicarbonates, and sulfates (Khan and Singh, 2001). The addition of coal combustion ashes showed positive results in acidic and neutral soils in terms of an increase in P adsorption and enhanced the P retention capacity of the soil, whereas alkaline soils showed the least response (Seshadri et al., 2013a). Greenhouse and field studies indicate that many chemical constituents of FA may benefit plant growth and improve the agronomic properties of the soil (Adriano et al., 1980). An increase in the Mg, B, P, and K contents of soil after FA application (at 5-10% of soil, w/w) was observed (Lai et al., 1999). Soil N, P, K contents and their uptake by rice at all the growth stages on 20% FA (w/w) application were recorded (Wong and Lai, 1996). A significant increase in the plant root biomass and nutrient content upon FA addition to soil (Taylor and Schuman, 1988), and higher nutrient concentrations (K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, and B) in Brassica grown on soils treated with FA-amended compost as compared

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to control values were inferred. A significant increase in the nutrient uptake of oilseed crops and improvement in the fertility status of soil after the FA application were noticed. FA application improved the Si content of rice plants (Lee et al., 2006). FA applications have been observed to correct plant nutritional deficiencies of P and Mn, B, Mg, Mo, S and Zn. While studying P adsorption, fixation and fractions in fluidized bed combustion (FBC)-FA and FBC-FA-amended acidic soil, FA and acidic soils were found to have high P-fixation capacities and mixing of the two was found to resolve the P-fixation problem to a great extent (Mahato et al., 2005). Nutrient deficiencies were ameliorated either by direct addition from FA or by increasing the availability in the soil through pH corrections. In addition to increasing the availability of plant nutrients, FA has also been used for reducing the solubility of excessive P in soil water (Stout et al., 1999). FA can decrease water-extractable soil P without appreciably decreasing plant-available P, where this reduction is accomplished by the conversion of soluble inorganic P to more tightly bound Fe and Al and, to a lesser extent, Ca-bound soil inorganic P as amorphous precipitates, and is not released to water (Stout et al., 2000). The concentration of water-soluble P decreased, and the phosphates of Al, Fe, and Ca solubilized and ultimately converted in the form of loosely bound P.

Location Map of KVK, Banasthali Vidyapith

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Laboratory of KVK, Banasthali Vidyapith

Treatment details of the formulated Compost production site at compost KVK, Farm,

Carpet waste Poultry manure

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Farmyard manure

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Crop residue & Animal waste

Prepared compost

In-side view of vermicompost production unit Different types of materials for formulated compost production

Layout plan for wheat sowing

Treatment wise application of formulated compost in the field

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Treatment wise application of formu- Treatment wise application of formulated compost in the field lated compost in the field

Treatment wise sowing of wheat in the Treatment wise sowing of wheat in the field field Different steps of the layout plan, treatment wise application and sowing of formulated compost and wheat, respectively

Wheat crop after CRI stage Treatment details of layout plan & Wheat crop

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Observation in the wheat crop during Soil & water testing laboratory the maturity stage

Kel-Plus nitrogen analyzer Analytical work in the laboratory View of the wheat crop at different stages of growth in the field and analytical work in the laboratory

AAS facility in the laboratory

Double distillation unit in the laboratory

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Visit of soil & water testing laboratory and keen discussion about the research and extension work by Prof. V.S. Chahal, Vice-Chancellor, MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan)

Visit of soil & water testing laboratory and keen discussion about the research and extension work by Prof. M.L. Chaudhary, Vice-Chancellor, BAU, Sabour (Bihar)

Training to farmers on formulated Training to farmers on formulated compost production technology compost production technology

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The residual effect of the formulated compost on mungbean crop at KVK Farm

Effect Heavy Metals on Soil Soil is not only considered as a source of nutrients for plants but also a sink for the removal of contaminants from industrial wastes including FA, which may include many of the toxic metals like As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, Zn, etc. These elements are found either on the surface of the ash particles, in the aluminosilicate matrix phase, or in both (Smith, 1987). Even though the major constituents of FA are similar to those of natural soils, FA tends to be enriched in some of the potential contaminants including salts and trace elements. The application of ash may pose a contamination risk to soil, plants, surface and groundwater due to elevated concentrations of potentially toxic heavy metals and radionuclides. The toxic elements of concern in Indian FAs are generally present in lower concentrations than those found in ash from other parts of the world, and well within the limits prescribed for soil application of waste materials. Trace metals (e.g., As, B, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, V, Zn, U, Th, and Cs) in FA are considered as potential elements of environmental concern; their concentration level and mobility decide their concern, safe disposal, and utilization. If this accumulation of elements in the soil becomes excessively available, it will lead to their accumulation in the plant tissues, and the corresponding impacts on the health of human beings and animals. There are several attempts to evaluate the suitability of specific FAs for soil application, by predicting the mobility of toxic elements from FAs through leaching tests. A detailed discussion on different leaching tests attempted globally can be referred to elsewhere. Of these, pH has been reported as the most influential parameter for the leaching of many of the trace elements. Elements on the surface of the FA spheres may release faster than those contained in the glass, magnetite and crystalline fractions (Ramesh and Kozinski, 2001). Generally, the glass phase and the magnetic fractions in combustion residues contain most of the potentially toxic elements (Zevenbergen et al., 1994; Kukier et al., 2003). The ratio between Ca and S determines the pH of the FA–water system and as such dictates the leachability of most of the elements in the FA; whilst the alkalinity decreases the leachability of Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sn, Zn, etc., but enhances the release of ox anionic species such as As, B, Cr, Mo, Sb, Se, V and W (Izquierdo and Querol,

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2012). Additionally, in the case of high pH, dominant constituents like SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and SO42−in FA may form various secondary minerals like calcium silicate hydrate gel, calcium aluminosilicate hydrate, and ettringite, which may reduce mobility either by physically reducing the porosity of the ash or by chemically binding the element. At higher levels of FA application to soil, some toxic elements might become more active and hinder soil microbial activity (Adriano et al., 1978). Application of ash to soil may result in increased soil concentrations of extractable Ca, Ba, Pb, Mo, Se, S, B, Sr, and other elements depending on the rate of application, type and composition of the soil and properties of the FA.

pH behavior in soil profiles

Electric al conductivity in soil profiles

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Organic carbon in soil profiles

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Available nitrogen in soil profiles

Available Phosphorus in soil profiles

Available Potassium in soil profiles

Available Fe in soil profiles

Available Cu in soil profiles

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Available Mn in soil profiles Available Zn in soil profiles Profile behavior of soil characteristics and available nutrient distribution at farmers’ fields In a long-term field trial, the application of FA as high as 560 t/ha/year had no detectable deterioration in soil or groundwater quality (Sajwan et al., 2003). In another eight-year field study, Lopareva-Pohu et al. (2011) found that silico-aluminous and sulfocalcic fly ashes buffered natural soil acidification due to vegetation development and limited trace element mobility and thus could limit their bioavailability. Cu, Pb, and Ni increased in soil due to ash application but were well within the normal range (Tripathi et al., 2009). The main modification in soil amended with sulfo-calcic FA is an increase in pH (12) of soil water. This alkaline pH caused higher mobility of Co, Ni and V on the contrary to Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn, which are less mobile and more strongly retained by soil (Riehl et al., 2010). FA amendment to sewage sludge significantly reduced the availability of heavy metals by chemical modification of their chemical speciation into less available forms (Su and Wong, 2003). In a metal-contaminated soil, the addition of FA substantially decreased the availability of heavy metals, and the results demonstrated that the application of fly ash at 20 g/kg might be an effective strategy to decrease rice metal uptake and remediate heavy metal contaminated acidic soil (Gu et al., 2013). In acid soil FA addition caused a decrease of Zn, Cu, Cd and Ni concentrations for all treatments; for neutral soil, this was true for Zn (Scotti et al., 1999). The application of FA increased Si, P and K uptake by the rice plants, but did not result in

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excessive uptake of heavy metals in the submerged paddy soil (Lee et al., 2006). Soil DTPA extractable metals were found to be decreased with an increase in the FA amendment ratio from 10% FA to 50% FA (Sinha and Gupta, 2005). In general, the total soil heavy metals increased with FA addition, but the extractable heavy metal decreased. After soil application, the presence of alkaline earth oxides in FA during initial weathering generally causes a rise in pH by reaction with oxide components. Further pH reduction and stabilization due to atmospheric carbonation and microbial respiration may lead to a decrease in Al and Si solubility (Schramke, 1992) through precipitation of non-crystalline aluminosilicates or clays with a relatively low Al/Si molar ratio. These non-crystalline aluminosilicates are a major repository of heavy metals (Zevenbergen et al., 1999). Heavy metals and other toxic species that are mobilized through weathering are efficiently immobilized by this non-crystalline clay and other secondary compounds like ferrihydrite.

EFFECT ON SOIL BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL QUALITY Soil and its biota are fundamental components of the earth’s living skin that most directly sustains life (Wilkinson et al., 2009). The study on the effect of FA on soil microbiology is not as extensive as on soil physicochemical characteristics. The practical value of FA for soil amelioration can be ascertained only after critically evaluating the soil bioindicators like microbial biomass, respiration, soil enzymes, earthworms, etc. Though FA in itself is not a source of soil microbes, its beneficial effect on the physicochemical properties of soils improves microbiological activity. An enhancement in the microbial activity after the addition of FA up to 5% in the soil–ash admixtures and inhibitory effects at a higher dose of FA were inferred (Kalra et al., 1997). Application of an acidic FA at 100 t/ha in agricultural soil had no noticeable impact on heterotrophic microbial activity, but higher levels (at 400-7000 t/ ha) adversely affected the soil microorganisms (Arthur et al., 1984). In the same pattern, the application of FA at up to 100 t/ha was concluded to be safe for microbial characteristics of tropical red laterite soil (Roy and Joy, 2011). The populations of Rhyzobium spp. and P-solubilizing bacteria have increased under the soil amended with either FYM or FA individually or in combination (Sen, 1997). In contrast, Karpagavalli and Ramabadran (1997)

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reported that the application of lignite FA reduced the growth of soil-borne pathogens. The population of soil arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Gramnegative bacteria increased by the FA incorporation (505 t/ha). Pati and Sahu (2004) studied the CO2 evolution and enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, protease, and amylase) and found little or no inhibition of soil respiration and enzyme activities from up to 2.5% FA amendment. Lal et al. (1996) reported that FA added to soil at 16% (w/w) increased urease and cellulose activities. However, acid phosphatase activity was depressed with the FA application. In an exhaustive study (Vincini et al., 1994), alkaline FA did not inhibit microbial activity and respiration when 10% and 20% FA-amended swine manure was added. A field study by Sarangi et al. (2001) using FA at 20 t/ha showed higher amylase, invertase, dehydrogenase, and protease activities over the control. Amending soil with adequate amounts of FAfiltered mud mixture (1:1, w/w) increased soil bacteria and soil urease, phosphates and cellulase activities. Additionally, an increase in bacterial and Actinomycetes counts in clayey and sandy soils amended with cocomposted FA together with no effect on fungi was concluded. An improvement in microbial community numbers in degraded subsoil amended with FA was observed. Muir et al. (2007) reported that adult populations of a species of the megascolecid worm (a native species) and Aporrectodea trapezoids (an exotic species) were not adversely affected when an acidic loamy soil was treated with FA up to 25 t/ha. Kumpiene et al. (2009) showed that the FA amendment increased microbial biomass and respiration, reduced microbial stress and increased key soil enzyme activities, in Cu-Pb contaminated soil. Application of FA to soils can also inhibit microbial respiration, enzyme (invertase, amylase, dehydrogenase, and protease) activity, and soil nitrification and N mineralization. The inhibition of microbial activity was attributed to high pH, high concentration of soluble salts, trace elements, and to some extent to extremely high alkalinity associated with FA, and restricted occurrence of organic matter in amended soils found that native earthworms were particularly sensitive to FA addition (N5 t/ha), but even the more resilient exotic species showed signs of stress at high rates of FA. Overall, the impact of FA on microbial activity is thus inconsistent, but in the majority of FA applications at lower doses or in the presence of other organic amendments, the effect is positive, and at higher doses, the activity is reduced, particularly with high-pH ashes.

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INTEGRATED USE OF FA WITH AMENDMENTS IN SOIL Inorganic Amendments Acidic FA (pH 5.89) alone and in combination with gypsum improved the physicochemical properties of sodic soil (pH 9.07) and yield of paddy and wheat crops (Kumar and Singh, 2003). Lee et al. (2005) prepared a mixture of FA and gypsum (50:50, wt/wt) to study the Si and Ca requirements of rice and achieved positive effects by improving soil fertility and stimulating rice growth. FA–gypsum mixtures (at 25 t/ha) increased the grain yield of paddy crops by 8%, besides increasing the N and the Si uptake of rice. FA and lime application resulted in significantly greater plant production (Taylor and Schuman, 1988). Fly ash-based granular synthetic aggregates using waste coal FA, paper waste, lime, and gypsum were developed by Jayasinghe et al. (2009) and examined their potential for utilization as a soil ameliorant. The physical and chemical properties of the soil were favorably improved by the FA-based aggregate, and the heavy metal contents of the soil mixtures were below the acceptable limits. Daniels and Das (2006) found that the addition of lime to FA reduced the leachability of Cd, Se, and to some extent As. Higher uptake of heavy metals by rice in submerged silt loam paddy soil and increased in the available B with increasing FA dose (both alone and mixed with gypsum), but not beyond toxicity levels, were attributed to the dilution and leaching effects under submerged growing conditions (Yong et al., 2002). Higher Se in onions grown on 50% FA media containing vermiculite– sphagnum peat moss was observed by Gutenmann and Lisk (1996). No heavy metal uptake to toxicity level was observed in radishes grown in soil amended with adequate amounts of FA–filtered mud mixture (1:1, w/w). This FA–gypsum mixture is a good soil amendment to restore the nutrient balance in paddy soils and to reduce the nitrogen application rate of rice (Lee et al., 2003). The results from a pot experiment indicated that the application of FA (20 and 40 g/kg) and steel slag (3 and 6 g/kg) increased soil pH from 4.0 to 5.0–6.4, decreased the phytoavailability of heavy metals by at least 60%, and further suppressed metal uptake by rice. FA was used along with quicklime (CaO) to immobilize lead, trivalent and hexavalent chromium present in artificially contaminated clayey sand soils. The addition of quicklime and FA to the contaminated soils effectively reduced heavy metal leachability well below the nonhazardous regulatory

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limits. The controlling mechanism for both lead and hexavalent chromium immobilization is surface adsorption, whereas for trivalent chromium it is hydroxide precipitation.

Farmyard Manure and Other Animal/Bird Waste Farmyard manure (FYM) is one of the oldest manures used by farmers for growing crops owing to its easy availability and the presence of all the nutrients required by the plants. FYM is the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with the litter and leftover material from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. Many reports showed that the addition of FA in conjunction with organic manure enhanced the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. Bulk density was greatly reduced in the FA+FYM treated plot demonstrating that the application of FA along with FYM significantly reduced the soil BD in field experiments and enhanced the yield of mung beans (Vigna radiata L.). The increases in crop yield due to FA blending with farm manure are presented. Based on the results from the FA field experiments, the incremental benefit on crop yield due to the FYM application is 5-40%. The maximum effect was for black soil (Yeledhalli et al., 2008), wherein FA was applied at the rate of 30 t/ha along with 20 t/ha FYM, for sunflower crop. The least effect was noticed for lateritic soil for paddy crops. Longterm application of FA with FYM to red and black soil increased the yield of sunflower (Helianthus annus), groundnut (Arachis hypogea), and maize (Z. mays) crops, despite significant residual effects on succeeding crops i.e. up to a 38% increase in the yield over that of the control. Further, strong synergistic effects on the microbial population and the oxidoreductase and hydrolases enzyme activities were observed. Mixing FYM with FA at 25% has significantly decreased stress parameters, and malondialdehyde, and cysteine content in Prosopis as compared to the control, showing the ameliorating effect of FYM (Sinha et al., 2005). In a recent study (Singh et al., 2011b) on the amendment of a dry-land paddy agricultural field with coal FA and FYM, a combination treatment (FA+FYM, each 50 t/ha) was the most effective to increase (92%) the paddy (O. sativa) grain yield. Further, they inferred that FA and FYM amendments influenced soil N-mineralization and nitrification rates, which changed the soil N availability to paddy crop. Laboratory studies showed that up to 100 t/ ha FA and 10% FYM are apparently safe to the microbial characteristics of tropical red laterite soil (Roy and Joy, 2011).

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A pot experiment with acid soil on the amendment with FA (at 50 t/ ha) and FYM has evinced a significant increase in the yield (up to 62%) of different root crops like radish, garlic, onion, carrot, potato, turnip, and beet-root. The carryover of trace and heavy metals from FA in crop produce was significant as compared to that in the control, particularly due to the alkaline nature of the ash and the associated impact of its application with cow dung manure, which helps in the measured carryover of these elements, besides the accompanying dilution of these elements due to enhancement in the yield of crop produce (Tripathi et al., 2010). When FA was treated with FYM at different concentrations, the P-solubilizing bacteria were active and solubilized P from FA to a major extent. The application of FYM along with FA helps in the improvement of the overall quality of the soil, thereby enhancing crop productivity. A greenhouse study on the revegetation of waste FA landfills in semi-arid environments through amendment with fine sand and FYM showed an ample increase in plant nutrient content. Also, the water holding capacity of fine sand significantly changed through FA or manure amendment (Pierzynski et al., 2004). Laboratory studies showed that up to 100 t/ha FA and 10% FYM is apparently safe to microbial characteristics of tropical red laterite soil (Roy and Joy, 2011). An enhancement in the nutrient uptake by crops after ash application with FYM was attributed to the improvement in soil conditions, direct addition of nutrients from the FA and FYM, and increased solubility of nutrients due to the formation of stable complexes with organic ligands. Juwarkar and Jambhulkar (2008) demonstrated that the inoculation of biofertilizer and application of FYM helped in reducing the toxicity of heavy metals of FA dump, where Cr, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Cd were reduced in the range 25-48%. This was attributed to an increase in organic matter content in the FA which complexes the heavy metals and decreases their toxicity. The combined addition of FA, FYM, and microbial inoculants was inferred as a useful potting mixture for improving the survival rates and plant growth of the forestry nurseries (Aggarwal and Goyal, 2009). Field experiments with sunflower and mustard showed high relative agronomic effectiveness (up to 462% over control) for FBC-FA+ poultry manure combined treatments, apart from an increase in the P bioavailability in the soil. Coal ashes containing significant levels of Al, Fe, and Ca oxides and other metals were found to reduce water-soluble P in poultry manure and manure-amended soils. A higher increase in the plant biomass (26%) at the highest dose of FA and poultry bio-solids and also in plant tissue concentrations of Mn, As, Se and B was observed (Phunshon et al. 2002).

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The dry matter yield of Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) grown on poultry manure amended FA increased significantly. The addition of poultry manure along with FA improved soil physical properties, nutrient availability, and the size and activity of the soil microbial community as well, apart from improvement in the mesoporosity and water holding capacity.

RECYCLING OF FA IN THE SOIL THROUGH PRODUCTION AND USE OF BIOMANURES Value- added Composts Vermicompost production technology also has emerged as one of the outstanding methods of managing crop residue. Enrichment of compost with flyash is one of the possible means to improve the nutrient of finished compost. Huge amounts of fly ash originate from KSTPS Kota presenting several problems, the most important ones being environmental pollution and occupation of large storage areas. Hence, the urgent needs to overcome these problems arise not only through safe disposal but also through the gainful use of these materials (Chattopadhyay and Bhattacharya, 2000). Therefore, there is a pressing need to find cost- effective alternative methods of shorter duration. In this regard, Vermicomposting has been reported to be a viable, cost -effective and rapid technique for the efficient management of solid wastes. Vermicomposting is a suitable technology for the decomposition of different types of organic waste (domestic as well as industrial) into valve-added material (Payal et al. 2006). Earthworms utilize the waste substrate and enhance the rate of decomposition of the organic matter, leading to a composting effect through which unstabilized organic matter becomes stabilized. The biological activity of earthworms provides nutrients rich vermicomposting for plant growth thus facilitating the transfer of nutrients to plants. Co-composting of crop residue and fly ash has been an effective way to transform the fly ash into nutrient -rich products (Fang et al. 1999). Inoculation of Azotobacter chroococcum to the compost heap enhances the N content by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus polymixa; Pseudomojnas striata and fungi- Aspergillus awamori) improve the composting mass along with nutrient content. Inoculation of microorganisms also helps in solubilizing the low-grade and less reactive inorganic phosphate present in the soil. So, besides common amendments (like Gypsum) the role of industrial wastes like FA has been recognized as

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valuable amendments as they not only play a pivotal role in reclaiming the alkali soils but also supply major and micronutrients when they are applied to soils. The value addition of Biomanures (Vermicompost and NADEP compost) will definitely pave the means and ways to achieve the desired goal of endeavors. A greater understanding of soil microbial ecology is essential for making informed decisions on soil biological quality to improve input use efficiency and crop productivity with an adequate level of interventions. The use of earthworms and other microbial cultures has been an effective means of increasing the bioavailability of nutrients through converting different industrial wastes (like Flyash) and other organic wastes thereby, making them available to crops, but this has not gained large- scaled industrial application. Compost is an organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material. Mukhtar et al. (2008) found that blends of alkaline and acidic FAs with dairy manure compost may be used as soil amendment materials. The addition of FAs to green waste up to 25% greatly increased the available water holding capacity of the manufactured soil product (Belyaeva and Haynes, 2009). Organic composts with high organic carbon and micronutrient content on their application in combination with nitrogen fertilizer and FA improved soil properties and slowly released nutrients in accordance with the demand of the growing crops. These blended materials in the form of organic– metal complexes reduced the bioavailability of metals applied through FA. Mukhtar et al. (2003) found that an increased rate of composted FYM addition to FA enhanced the availability of N, P, K, NO3−, NH4+, and trace metals. Amendment of soil with FA (50%) evinced an improvement in the morphometric, biochemical, and yield data of mustard crops over those of the control, besides compatibility of the amendment with chemical fertilizer and compost. Improvement in the major, secondary, and micro-nutrient content of soil amended with FA and compost, together with the luxuriant growth and higher yield of tomato (Solanum tuberosum) over those of the control was observed (Khan and Singh, 2001). The availability of trace elements and NH4 decreased when manure compost was amended with FA. The fresh weight of the rosebush stems grown in the FA and composted hardwood bark exceeded that of roses grown in the control medium. FA when composted with wheat straw and 2% rock phosphate (w/w) for 90

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days enhanced the chemical and microbiological properties of the compost (Gaind and Gaur, 2004). Field trials utilizing FA/organic waste mixtures as fertilizers for maize (Z. mays L.) showed comparable yields to conventional fertilization techniques.

Value-added Vermicompost FA has been composed of various organic wastes to improve the nutrient release from FA as well as for the effective recycling of the waste materials. The support of earthworms has also been employed for increasing the efficiency of compost. Vermicomposting is a potential methodology for obtaining fertilizer material from wastes that can be used as a soil amendment (Sinha et al. 2010). It involves the bio-oxidation and stabilization of organic materials depending on the combined effect of earthworms and microorganisms, wherein the earthworms maintain aerobic conditions, ingest solids, convert a portion of the organics to worm biomass and respiration products and remove partially stabilized matter as vermicompost. In a recent review, Eijsackers (2010) inferred earthworms as one of the first colonizers in FA dumps. The application of FA during vermicomposting was beneficial for releasing more P from FA and increasing the bioavailability of nutrients including N, Mn, and B (Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay, 2002). The benign influence of FA on the survival and growth of worms was owing to the beneficial influence of FA on soil pH. A high occurrence of nitrogenfixing bacteria in the vermicomposted FA has been observed (Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay, 2004). The feasibility of utilization of vermiculture technology for large-scale production of vermicompost from FA mixed with press mud, cow dung and crop residue employing earthworms Eudrilus eugeniae and Lampito mauritii has been recently studied under laboratory conditions (Bhattacharya et al. 2012). The growth and reproduction of earthworms in terms of biomass gain, and cocoon and hatchling production revealed the inability of earthworms to survive in a 100% FA treatment. Among different treatments, the maximum earthworm biomass, and cocoon and hatchling production were observed in FA amended with press mud and cow dung (1:1:1 ratio). Further, this combination had no adverse effect on the growth and reproduction of earthworms. It was concluded that vermicomposting enhanced nutrient availability in FA together with the reduced solubility of Pb, Cr and Cd. Vermicomposting of FA with sewage sludge and rock phosphate showed that there was a significant decrease in metal bioavailability (Wang et al.

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2013). Vermicomposted FA improved the fertility status of laterite soil and substituted chemical fertilizer to a considerable extent. In the same pattern, the performance of different species of earthworms during vermicomposting of a number of other organic wastes such as sludge and horse manure, the mixture of animal and vegetable wastes, sludge from paper and pulp industries, press mud, paper waste and kitchen wastes (Adi and Noor, 2009) with FA can be advantageous. FA and vinasse could be recycled through vermicomposting to produce a nutrient-rich plant amendment. Microbial biomass of organic substrates was increased due to vermicomposting and a higher metabolic quotient suggested the rejuvenation of microbial spores in vermicompost (Pramanik and Chung, 2011). Vermicompost has also been used for re-vegetation of ash pond, plant species like eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora), casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia), and cashew (Anacardium occidentale) gained higher biomass, besides successful growth of various vegetables (Manivannan, 2005). Manivannan et al. (2012) have recently concluded vermicomposting as an alternative technology for the management of coal FA and press mud (PM) if mixed with cow dung in appropriate ratios.

Use of FA with Urban Sewage Sludge Sewage sludge (SS) is one of the major solid organic wastes from wastewater treatment plants in cities around the globe. Land application of SS is the most commonly used economical method of sludge disposal globally. This is because SS is a freely and easily available source of slowrelease essential nutrients (like N, P, S, and Mg), micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mo, B, and Fe), organic matter, and microorganisms, which are beneficial to forestry, vegetation, and landscaping (Abbott et al, 2001). Sewage sludge can improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. The application of sewage sludge to the soil is known to improve soil physical properties such as aggregate stability, total porosity, and saturated hydraulic conductivity. Heavy metals introduced to the soil by SS can lead to their higher uptake by plants, which may cause damage to plants and affect human health upon consumption of crops grown on the soil. The combined use of FA and SS, however, may help to reduce this pollution potential. Since alkaline coal FA contained a large amount of CaO, it can be used as a stabilization agent for SS to reduce heavy metal availability and pathogen load. Based on the physical–chemical parameters of FA–SS, the addition of FA to SS may be considered as an alternative sludge stabilizing agent. Due to the contrasting physical and chemical properties and nutrient contents, land

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application of both FA and SS, as a mixture, can improve the soil quality and turf production. FA–SS can be even used as artificial soil media. FA improves the physical workability of SS. The quality of sandy soils can be improved by adding FA–SS. FA treated with sulfuric acid had significant potential for enhancing the dewatering of SS. FA aids in flock formation through charge neutralization and adsorption, bridging and providing the water transmitting passages by a skeleton builder (Chen et al., 2010). FA–SS is very promising for use in landfill liners as they meet the hydraulic conductivity limits for non-hazardous waste landfills. Sahin et al. (2008) concluded that mixing saline–sodic soils with FA–SS may improve the wet aggregate stability, bulk density, permeability coefficient of soils, and reduce the destroying effects of the freeze–thaw process. Mixtures of FA and SS have been used for soil amelioration and experiments have evinced that the physical quality of barren red, black, sodium-rich, and sandy soils can be improved by adding FA–SS. The soil water regimes using sewage sludge–FA mixtures have been reported to be improved. The combined effect of FA and SS on soil improved the structure and overall stability of soil aggregates. Soil aggregation reflects soil health, as it depends on chemical, physical and biological factors. FA has a high pH value and can substitute lime in reducing sewage sludge acidity when applied for eco-remediation at mining areas (Zhang et al, 2008a). Occasionally, FA–SS mixtures had higher pH values than the optimal values for the appropriate growth of plant species. (Fang et al, 1999) evaluated the effect of the co-composting of SS with FA and found that FA raised the pH of the sludge compost throughout the composting period, but significant inhibition of decomposition activity occurred only at the 35% ash amendment level. The nutrient content of the artificial soil composed of FA and SS was up to a high fertilizer level with available contents of K at 762 mg/kg, P at 375 mg/kg, and N at 109 mg/kg. The application of coal ash and sludge has led to well-balanced nutrient contents. Studies suggested that after mixing FA with SS, a short incubation period is needed for the stabilization of SS. An incubation period of 21 days following the application of the FA–SS mixture was necessary to reduce the adverse effects of soluble NH+, Cu and Zn, and to provide sufficient time for the buildup of NO3 in the soil. The activity of soil microorganisms, and N and P nutrient cycling was found to be optimal at 10% FA to SS. The co-application of FAs (from FBC of washery rejects and PFC of lignite) and SS on the biological and biochemical qualities of soil was

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recently studied by Masto et al. (2012). SS was amended with 0–100% of FA, and the resultant FA–SS mixtures were incubated with red soil at a 1:1 (v/v) ratio. Enzyme activities like dehydrogenase (DHA), urease (URE), and catalase (CAT), and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) were evaluated at 20, 30, and 60 days of incubation. DHA and URE increased with 10% lignite FA application, thereafter it decreased, but URE increased up to 30% of FBC-FA. CAT and MBC increased with both FA amendments, even up to 50% FA. The addition of FA to SS significantly reduced the total coliform population of the sludge, and in most cases, the reduction of total coliforms was around 100%, apart from minimized metal leaching from the sludge. Alkaline stabilization of SS sludge with 10% FA and a minimum of 8.5% lime (dry weight basis) for at least 2 h resulted in acceptable levels of Salmonella and coliforms and was attributable to the increase in pH (Wong et al., 2001). Increasing pH is the major factor in devitalizing the pathogens in sewage sludge alkaline stabilization with lime. Sewage sludge significantly increased the yield of sorghum (26.5%), and sunflower (64.11%), where the incremental benefit of FA was 8.7% and 18.8%, respectively. FA–SS had a positive effect on the growth of Manila grass; pots with 14% SS and 6% FA mixture had the highest yield and nutrient concentrations. The results of potting plants showed that coal ash, reservoir sediments, and sewage sludge mixed in proper proportions can greatly promote plant growth (Li et al., 2001). FA–SS amendment to loamy soil increased the growth of Agropyron. No nutrient deficiency or heavy-metal toxicity was noted, except that B toxicity was noticed at the leaf margin. The maize yield of pots comprising of 1:5 ash sludge: soil mixture (v/v) was significantly higher than that of pots with a 1:1 soil-mixing ratio. The highest yields were obtained at 5 and 10% ash– sludge mixture amended soils at a 1:5 soil mixing ratio (Su and Wong, 2002). Further, the FA amendment up to 35% in the FA–SS mixture did not have any adverse effects on plant production even at a high soil mixing volume of 1:1 (v/v). In another study, Huapeng et al. (2012) concluded that FA and SS at a rational rate of application to calcific soil would pose no danger to both soil and the food chain. The optimum dose of FA application with SS was found to be 20% for better growth of Agropyron elongatum and B.chinensis. An increase in uptake of silicate by rice on the amendment of silty clay loam soil (rich in B) with alkaline FA and sludge was inferred. FA stabilized sludge showed a beneficial role to plant production, where no deleterious effects on plant growth or plant composition were observed (Ghuman et al. 1994). The FA and sewage sludge mixture were beneficial for biomass

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production, without contributing significant metal uptake/ leaching. Application of the FA and sludge mixture in appropriate ratios enhanced the growth of plant root systems. Phytotoxicity studies with Z. maize showed optimum performance at 30% FA addition to SS. In an exhaustive study, Sajwan et al. (2003) concluded that FA-SS (1:1) as a soil amendment could provide benefits in terms of soil fertility without any significant risk of soil, water or plant contamination. The ash/sludge mixture exhibited different toxic effects to the species tested: Sorghum saccharatur seed germination was most affected, Lepidium sativum and Alba sinapis had substantial germination of seeds; however, the root length was inhibited significantly. The addition of FA–SS to soil significantly increased the dry mass of corn. The concentrations of Zn and Cu in the shoot tissues of corn decreased significantly with the FA amendment, but Cd and Ni did not change significantly (Su and Wong, 2003). FA–SS had a positive effect on the growth of Manila grass. The concentrations of Ni, Zn, Mn, Sb, and Cu in Manila grass decreased significantly, while Pb, V, and Ti increased. FA and rock phosphate application to SS significantly decreased the bioavailability of heavy metals, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, and As (Wang et al., 2013). Bio-available Zn, Cu, and Co contents decreased with the addition of FA to SS; pH was the most influential factor in decreasing the metal availability (Masto et al. 2012). The Zn content in ash–sludge amended soil significantly increased compared to that of the control, especially in the case of the LFA amendment. Cr content was not affected by ash–sludge amendment. Cd content increased significantly in ash–sludge amended soil compared to that of the control, whereas Co and Cu decreased. Though there were changes in metal content after ash–sludge amendment, all the metal contents in ash–sludge amended soil were less than their respective content in the original sludge. The increase in pH after the ash amendment might cause the precipitation of heavy metals in the ash–sludge mixture, which caused the reduction in DTPA-extractable Zn, Co, and Cu (Masto et al. 2012). Similarly, decreased metal uptake (e.g. Zn, Cd, and Cu) in plants grown in sandy soils amended with FA–SS over the control was attributed to an increase in the pH of the soil. Water-soluble Zn, Mn and Cu contents were decreased by the addition of FA to SS. Soil solution Cd and Pb concentrations were reduced by mixing SS with alkaline FA, and this FA–SS mixture could be used for ecological reconstruction in mining areas. The application of FA–SS to mine tailing notably decreased trace metal (Cr, Ni, and Cu) solubility (Hongling et al. 2008). FA was very useful as a low-cost adsorbent for Cd and Pb and could be used as an ameliorant for SS amended acidic soils. Soils amended with

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FA and SS may change their ability to adsorb heavy metals due to either an increase of soil pH or decomposition of sludge-borne organic matter. An increasing FA amendment rate significantly reduced DTPA-extractable Cu, Zn, Ni and Cd concentrations. Applying FA with SS has been proposed as a means of reducing the bioavailability of heavy metals and augmenting ambient levels of B, Ca, K and S. There was no excessive uptake of heavy metals by rice on the amendment of silty clay loam soil (rich in B) with FA–SS. The FA– SS mixture along with lime in soil showed less leaching of B and hazardous trace elements; a decrease in leaching was attributable to the addition of FA, which acts as an adsorbent of heavy metals. Another advantage of using FA with sludge can be considered from the fact that the hydration products from FA as adsorbents in the effluent sludge can restrict the long-term prevention of organics dissolution from sludge (Kuchar et al. 2006). The SO42− and Cl− concentrations of the FA–SS mixture were significantly decreased compared to the only SS treatment. 5.6. Press mud and other organic industrial waste Press mud (PM), a lightweight abundantly available waste product from the sugar industry contains crude wax (5–14%), fiber (15–30%), crude protein (5–15%), sugar (5–15%), SiO4 (4–10%), CaO (1–4%), PO4 (1–3%), MgO (0.5–1.5%) and total ash (9–10%). PM can be used as a rich source of organic matter, organic carbon, sugar, protein, enzymes, micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, etc.), macronutrients (N, P, and K) and higher microbial organisms. This solid residue obtained in the sugarcane juice clarification process has been used by many researchers, especially from India to amend FA as a source of organic matter and plant nutrients to improve the texture and fertility of the soil/ash dump. Gupta et al. (2000) reported enhanced growth rates, chlorophyll and protein contents, and in vivo nitrate reductase activity in L. leucocephala grown on a PM +FA treatment, as compared to an FA alone treatment (control). Amendment of FA with PM enhanced the amount of soluble protein and amino acids in Cicerarithenium and was found to be superior among all tested ameliorants. Gupta et al. (2007) observed a 5–10-time increase in the biomass yield of C. arithenium when FA was amended with PM as compared to FA control. Press mud was found to be the most suitable amendment for revegetation of FA dumps for growing Cassia siameia. Mixing PM with FA at 25% significantly decreased the contents of stress proteins, malondialdehyde, and cysteine in Prosopis as compared to the control, thereby showing the ameliorating effect of PM. The addition of press mud to FA increased the growth and yield of onion plants. The

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biomass and cocoon of earthworm (E. foetida) increased significantly with increasing doses of PM addition to FA (Table 5.1).

Comparison of Different Amendments A comparison of the effect of different amendments to FA revealed that the organic and inorganic materials added with FA have different degrees of ameliorative effects. Gypsum and lime are basically used for pH correction and for controlling the release of heavy metals from the soil–FA system. The addition of farm manure increased the crop yields from 3.9% (sandy soil) to 1350% (alkali soil). Composted manure and other composts prepared from farm wastes and crop residues have been used with FA, but there are only limited studies. The use of earthworms for composting (vermicompost) further enhanced nutrient availability from FA and crop yields. Sugarcane industry waste like press mud and distillery effluents have been used with FA. The combined application of FA and press mud increased the crop yield by up to 600%. Though the results of the combined use of press mud and FA are encouraging, the availability of the press mud is limited to the areas near the sugar cane industry. Biochar application along with FA has increased the crop yield (28.1%) and improved the soil properties. Biofertilizers like Rhizobium, Azospirillum,Mycorrhiza, blue-green algae, plant growthpromoting bacteria, etc., have been used along with FA, especially for reclamation of FA dumps. These organisms have specific benefits in enhancing soil nutrient availability and imparting resistance to plant species against metal toxicity. FA has been used to ameliorate sewage sludge. The addition of FA with sewage sludge significantly increased crop yields up to 570%. Industrial (paper mill sludge, tannery sludge, etc.) and farm (crop stubbles, oil cakes, wood peelings, etc.) wastes have been used along with FA. Overall, farm manure was found to be a more efficient amendment with FA. The beneficial effect of farm manure could be further enhanced by using it with biofertilizers; farm manure being easily availed could be more practically feasible.

SUMMARY The development of agriculture and the protection of ecology has been realized for achieving food security and conservation of soil resources. Since efficient utilization of soil resources is crucial to agricultural production for feeding the ever- increasing population of the country. As long as humankind, as part of this system worked in harmony with nature and used the resources

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for its normal sustenance damage to the system was minimal. In traditional agricultural practices, organic sources of plant nutrients had been used to partially supplement the nutrient requirement of soil. But, due to advanced progress in human civilization and over- exploitation of natural resources like soil, the productivity potential of the same is getting reduced. Now a day’s Indian agriculture is facing triple challenges of (i) doubling the crop production,(ii) improving soil quality and restoring degraded soils and (iii) alleviating rural poverty by value addition and diverting population to other professions (e.g. agro -based industries). The high- intensity cropping system under the modern agriculture era has triggered nutrient mining and fertilizer requirements both of which resulted in damaging soil quality of agro-ecosystems. Soil health management is a fundamental aspect of sustainable agricultural production. Soil organic carbon (SOC) in the form of organic matter acts as the backbone of soil health. The declining organic fertility of the soil is rather more serious. Organic matter present in soil being the food stock of microorganisms indirectly also mediates various bio-chemical reactions in soil and creates a favorable environment. Under a high input production system, limited attention has been paid to soil health management. Only macronutrient supply with high cropping intensity has exhausted the nutrient reserve of soils due to the negative return of plant nutrients to the soil. The decreasing level of organic carbon in soil has been a limiting factor due to which crops do not respond to the applied fertilizers in the soil. Crop production has to be increased accompanied by the maintenance of soil health and quality. The process of soil formation and development, in turn, is influenced by several natural factors such as climate and vegetation, etc., simultaneously management practices also affect their production potential. To sustain soil quality in terms of its fertility and productivity organic matter recycling needs to be taken as priority. An overview of the work done so far on the evaluation of soil quality indicators in different parts of the world reveals that soil quality assessment with regards to chemical soil quality has been in prime concentration . In the process of soil quality monitoring, all the pillars of soil quality (physical, chemical and biological) did not get a holistic deal and more so research system did not get adequate get feedback to plan and conduct demand -driven research and also there exist a huge gap in quality of research output required at the farmers level and that being developed. It has also been perceived that the extension system should play a pro-active role in reaching the farmers for getting first- hand information, farmers’ perception, feedback and

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develop more new appropriate methodologies for divers’ farm environment. Further, refined technology needs to be demonstrated at the farmers’ fields through farmers’ participatory adaptive research and training to farmers for fine-tune these to match local conditions and resources. Reorientation of training and demonstration strategies through reenergized extension services will definitely play a crucial role to tackle multifaceted problems of inland soil salinity and sodicity. Therefore, technology development and dissemination through a strong extension network are required to exploit the potential of marginal salt- affected lands and areas underlain with poor quality groundwater. The conservation agriculture process in the form of organic farming and integrated intensive farming system has a direct bearing on soil quality. The quantum of impact may be dependent on diversity in soil type, climate and vegetation. Intensive agricultural activities have made soil resources deficient in their inherent productivity. Proper nutrition of soils rather than crops is of utmost importance in preset time and there is an urgent need to develop soil health status cards covering various important visible and understandable indicators of soil health. Table 5.1: Chemical composition of different organic wastes used for formulated compost Constituents

Carpet Waste

FYM

Poultry Manure

Organic %

56.5

92.0

25.0

Nitrogen %

12.0

0.80

3.5

Phosphorus %

0.05

0.50

2.8

Potassium %

0.05

0.50

1.5

0.34

0.15

Sulfur (ppm) 0.20 Iron (ppm)

120

0.20

13.5

Copper (ppm)

120

0.14

13.0

Manganese (ppm)

180

0.16

10.0

Zinc (ppm)

190

0.50

13.2

Nickle (ppm)

10

0.40

0.20

Cadmium (ppm)

NA

NA

NA

Chromium (ppm)

NA

NA

NA

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CONCLUSION There is an urgent need to adopt an integrated nutrient supply and management system for promoting efficient and balanced use of plant nutrients. While the main emphasis is given to increasing the proper and balanced use of mineral fertilizers, the role of organic manure, biofertilizers, and green manuring and recycling of organic wastes should be considered supplementary and not substitutable. On the one hand, there is a vast scope for increasing plant nutrient supply through the use of FA and organic fertilizers, but there is, on the other hand, no scope for reducing the consumption of mineral fertilizers since the present level of crop productivity has to be increased in the coming years. Wide varieties of other amendments like lime, gypsum, red mud, animal manure, poultry manure, sewage sludge, composts, press mud, vermicompost, biochar, bio inoculants, etc. have been used along with FA. Locally available amendment materials could be added along with FA for soil ameliorant, and accordingly, the benefits from their synergistic interaction could be exploited. Among the different organic and inorganic amendments used along with FA, farm manure was found to be comparatively better in terms of enhancing crop yield. While several studies suggest a significant potential for the use of FA in amending soils, a collective recommendation from these investigations is difficult due to heterogeneity in FA characteristics, soil types, and agro-climatic conditions. To develop and promote the FA blending technology, greater understandings of all the following research topics are important. •

• •

•

•

Studies on detailed characterization and potential application of wastes from new technologies like co-firing ash, oxy-fuel combustion ash, biomass ash, co-gasification residue, MSW ash, etc. Exploration of new materials like agricultural and industrial wastes, biosolids, etc. for blending with fly ash. Development and scale-up of composting technologies for gainful use of FA in combination with organic wastes and plant growthpromoting organisms (earthworm, biofertilizers, Mycorrhiza, etc. Field studies with different types of soil on the impact of FA on soil properties, clay mineralogy, microbial activity, diversity, and bio-indicators. Isolation and screening of tolerant microorganisms capable of N fixation, plant growth promotion, P solubilization, etc., from FA lagoons, and their exploitation for preparation of biofertilizers.

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• • • • •

Impact of FA and other amendments on soil carbon sequestration and associated potential to mitigate climate change. Long-term, continuous monitoring of potential contaminants both on and offsite. Laboratory and field-scale leaching studies involving fly ash and its blend with other organic and inorganic amendments. Detailed life cycle assessment of FA-blend systems involving economics, logistics, material flow, exposure risks, etc. Policy interventions for enhancing FA utilization.

Field Photograph View of Problematic soil fields

Diagnostic visit of sodic soils at farmDiagnostic visit of sodic soils at er’s fields farmer’s fields

Diagnostic visit of sodic soils at farm- Diagnostic visit of sodic soils at farmer’s fields er’s fields

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Crop growth in patches in saline fields

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View of water-logged sodic soils

Different types of Amendments for Soil Health Improvements Different sources of soil amendments

Soil ammendment (Flyash)

Fly ash (Scanned Image)

Green manure crop (Diancha: CSD – 137)

Soil ammendment (Gypsum)

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Vermicompost production Farmyard manure

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CHAPTER

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Plant Microbe-Interactions

Contents Introduction............................................................................................ 154 Phytoremediation................................................................................... 155 Rhizosphere Activity............................................................................... 157 Pgpr (Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria) ........................................ 159 Microbial Activity .................................................................................. 160 Plant-Organism Interactions in the Rhizosphere ..................................... 161 Molecular Mechanism Activity in Hyperaccumulation Plants................. 162 Conclusion............................................................................................. 166 References.............................................................................................. 168

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INTRODUCTION Bioremediation is a technique for the remediation of heavy metal-defiled sites. The developing utilization of sub-molecular genetic advancements has prompted increased comprehension of mechanisms of heavy metal resistance collection in plants and, along these lines, numerous transgenic plants with increased heavy metal resistance, just as increased take-up of heavy metals, have been produced with the end goal of phytoremediation. Heavy metals are the most significant inorganic toxins, which are not altered and continuously amass in the earth. Albeit various plant species are fit for hyper-collection of heavy metals, be that as it may, this methodology isn’t material for remediating places with different contaminants. The biogeochemical limits of microorganisms appear to be practically boundless and they can adsorb and aggregate metals in their cells and are being utilized in microbial filtering and furthermore as operators of cleaning. To address the metal pressure, many systems have been advanced by microorganisms of agronomic significance by which they endure and advance the take-up of heavy metal particles. The best approach is consolidating the benefits of plant-microorganism cooperations inside the plant rhizosphere into a viable cleanup innovation. This section looks at the potential role of plant-microbe communications in heavy metal-polluted soils towards phyto-bioremediation. In the present investigation, our significant target is to intently assess the advancement made so far in understanding the subatomic systems and genetic basis that control the take-up and detoxification of metals by plants. Heavy metals contamination influences the generation and nature of yields, the nature of climate and water bodies and in this manner compromises the human and creature wellbeing (Narula et, 2011). The metal species usually found in the soilbecause of human influences are, copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As) and so on. A portion of these goes about as micronutrients at little fixations for living beings for their typical metabolism, however, their storage is dangerous to most living things (Khan et al. 2005). The most widely recognized human activities bringing about passage of heavy metal into land are the transfer of industrial effluents, transfer of waste, for example, sewage muck, waste from mechanical activities, mining activities, residential and mechanical wastes, landfill activities and utilization of agrochemicals. The arrival of heavy metals from different mechanical sources, agrochemicals and sewage slop present

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a significant risk to the soil condition. For the most part, heavy metals are not degraded naturally and continue in the earth uncertainly (Walker et al. 2003). The lethal heavy metals conversely influence the microbial arrangements, including plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in the rhizosphere, and their metabolic activities. Likewise, the raised level of metals in soils and their take-up by plants unfavorably influence the development, beneficial interaction and thus the yields of harvests (Wani et al, 2008a) by crumbling cell organelles, and disturbing the membranes (Sresty and Madhava Rao, 1999), going about as genotoxic substance upsetting physiology, for example, photosynthesis (Wani et al, 2007b) or by inactivating respiration, protein amalgamation and starch digestion (Shakolnik 1984). The remediation of metal-polluted soils along these lines gets significant, as these are rendered unsatisfactory for supportable farming. This survey gives a short outline of plant-organism collaborations towards phyto-and bio-remediation. In this way, a comprehension of the molecules and hereditary premise is a significant part of creating plants as operators for the phytoremediation of polluted areas (Cobbett, 2000). Utilizing molecular methods, some high-biomass non- collectors that are quickly developing can be designed to accomplish a portion of the properties of the hyperaccumulators. Unequivocal the molecular component of the metal accumulation will be a key point in accomplishing this target.

PHYTOREMEDIATION Phytoremediation is a plant-based system that utilization either normally happening or genetically designed plants to clean polluted situations and it is a financially savvy innovation (Wei et al. 2004). Customary techniques utilized for recovery of polluted soils to be specific concoction, physical and microbiological strategies are expensive to introduce and work (Danh et al. 2009). The phytoremediation approach includes the development of metal collecting higher plants to remove contaminants from metal contaminated soils (Brooks, 1998). In this methodology, plants equipped for aggregating significant levels of metals are developed in polluted soils. At advancement metal improved over the ground, biomass is reaped and soil metal pollution is withdrawn. Fruitful plant-based clean up of even tolerably polluted soils would have need of harvests ready to amass metals more than 1-2%. Amassing such elevated levels of heavy metals is exceptionally dangerous

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and would absolutely kill the regular non -accumulating plant. Be that as it may, in hyper-accumulating species, such concentrations are feasible. All things considered, the degree of metal removal is at last constrained by the plant’s capacity to remove and endure just a limited measure of metals. On a dry weight premise, this edge is around 3% for Zn and Ni, and impressively less for increasingly lethal metals, for example, Cd and Pb. The other organic parameter that restricts the potential for metal phytoextraction is biomass creation. With exceptionally beneficial species, the potential for biomass creation is around 100 tons of new weight/hectare. The estimations of these parameters limit the yearly evacuation potential to a limit of 400 kg metal/ha/yr. It ought to be referenced, in any case, that most metal hyperaccumulatings are moderately developing and produce little biomass. These qualities seriously limit the utilization of hyper-accumulating plants for condition cleanup. Practices have been private to expand the capability of basic non -accumulating plants for Pb phytoextraction. Especially, the take-up prompting properties of manufactured chelates open the probability of utilizing high biomass-creating crops for Pb phytoextraction. Under chelate-initiated conditions, maize (Huang and Cunningham, 1996) and Indian mustard (Blaylock et al. 1997) have been effectively used to remove Pb from culture and polluted soil, respectively. Physical attributes of soil defilement are additionally significant for the determination of remediating plants. For instance, for the remediation of surface-polluted soils, shallow established species would be proper to utilize, though profound established plants would be the decision for all the more profound damage. The recognizable proof of metal hyperaccumulators, plants fit for amassing high metal levels, exhibit that a few plants can possibly clean up metal- polluted soils. When all is said in done the level of metals in hyperaccumulators is around 10-100 overlap higher than most different plants developing on metal polluted soils. It has been conceivable through bioengineering to create plants (Raskin, 1996) fit for removeing methyl mercury from the polluted soil. To detoxify this compound, such bioengineered plants express altered bacterial qualities merB and merA that convert methyl mercury to basic mercury. Around 400 plant species have been distinguished as hyper-aggregator accumulation. The Indian mustard plant (Brassica juncea) can separate both heavy metals and radionuclides from the soil. Panwar et al. (2002) revealed that B. juncea can possibly be hyper-aggregator of Ni. Research uncovers that the pace of metal evacuation

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relies on the plant species, soil polluting heavy metal(s) and crop reaped and metal concentration in collected biomass as abridged in Table 6.1. Table 6.1: Plants capable of hyperaccumulating metals Plant species

Metal accumulated

Accumulated concentration mg/kg dry matter

Thlaspi caerulescens (Brassicaceae)

Zn, Pb, and Cd

10,000

Seberatia acuminate (Sapotaceae)

Ni

10,000

Alyssum lesbiacum (Brassicaceae)

Ni

20,000

Arbidopsis halleri (Brassicaceae)

Cd

1,000

Thlaspi rotundifolium

Pb

8,200

Astralagus sp.(leguminosae)

Se

1,000

Pteris vittata (Fern)

As,Cu,Zn and Ni

22,630

Brassica juncea

Cu, Ni and Se

3,916

Brassica napus

Cd

7,800

Psychatria dauarrei

Ni

3,700

Pelargonium sp.

Cd

1,288

Lemnagibba

As

2666

Spartina plants

Hg

1,000

Rorippa globosa

Cd

2,189

Crotalaria juncea

Ni and Cr

1,000

RHIZOSPHERE ACTIVITY Rhizosphere is the zone of soil encompassing a plant root wherein soil is affected by the roots, rather it is a region of exceptional movement (natural, artificial and physical) impacted by mixes spread by roots and by small scale living beings benefiting from these mixes (Kumar et al. 2007). For the most part, the soil contains bacterial numbers in the scope of 10 7 to 10 cells for every gm dry soil. Be that as it may, microbiological action in the rhizosphere is a lot more noteworthy (10 8) than in soil away from plant roots (10 5) and furthermore, microorganisms give or make available nutrients to the plants (Walker et al. 2003). A large number of these organisms live there as a part of a particular network encompassing plant roots. Heterotrophic microscopic organisms can utilize natural mixes discharged in root exudates,

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though their metabolites can be utilized by different organisms, which at last makes a system of intently related microorganisms. This marvel of profoundly dynamic microbes in root-related soil is known as the “rhizosphere impact”. Hence this microbial populace is one of the basic pieces of the rhizosphere that influence the rhizosphere soil by its different activities, for example, water and supplement take-up, exudation, and all the organic changes. Among the quickly developing and early colonizing microorganisms pulled in by the plant exudates are members from genera Bacillus and Pseudomonas other than N-fixing microbes Azospirillum and Rhizobium. Research techniques show that the Pseudomonas spp are commonly more in the rhizosphere than in the mass soil. Be that as it may, the number of related clones to Pseudomonas is higher in the rhizosphere of ryegrass and white clover. Based on 16s rRNA quality clones, plant roots have additionally been appeared to have a specific impact towards r-proteobacteria prompting lion’s share of Pseudomonas spp in the rhizosphere as contrasted with mass soil. Free- living and cooperative diazotrophs are richer in the rhizosphere than in mass soils, showing their reliance on natural mixes secreted by roots in the rhizosphere. Different nitrogen- fixing microbes have been seen as present in the rhizosphere of farming plants, yet the level of fixed nitrogen to plant nourishment is disputable (Lima et al. 2006). Diazotrophs found in the soil or related with roots incorporate Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum brasilense and Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus (once Acetobacter diazotrophicus) and the positive reactions of plants to inoculation with these microscopic organisms are credited to nitrogen (N2) fixation also, a few different elements like phytohormone or potentially ammonium generation, and so forth. (Okon, 1985). Plant-related rhizobacteria and mycorrhizae may fundamentally expand the bioavailability of different heavy metal particles for their take-up by plants. Additionally, they are known to catalyze redox changes prompting changes in heavy metal bioavailability (Yang et al. 2005). Plant relationships with diazotrophs or any colonizer show a high level of adjustment between the host plant and diazotrophs. The smaller scale territory given by the host plant appears to produce a choice weight for the microbes, which thus best advantage the host. Nutrients and metals are normally present in the soil arrangement at low levels and will in general be sparingly solvent minerals (aside from nitrogen, sulfur, and boron), or might be adsorbed to a strong stage through ion exchange, hydrogen bonding, or

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complexation (White, 2003). The degree to which they are moved from the soil to the biota (i.e., organisms or plants) is reliant on the biogeochemical associations (N, P, S) and additionally forms among the soil, plant roots, and microorganisms in the rhizosphere (Abbot and Murphy, 2003). The root exudates impact microbial activities. Notwithstanding the adsorption and conduction, roots additionally produce hormones and different substances that help to manage the plant’s improvement and structure, help in adjusting the biochemical and physical properties of the rhizosphere (Abbot and Murphy, 2003) and add to root development and plant endurance.

PGPR (PLANT GROWTH-PROMOTING RHIZOBACTERIA) Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are fit for advancing plant development by colonizing and setting up around the plant root (Narula et al. 2006). Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have been found to assume a potential role in creating economical systems in crop generation (Shoebitz et al. 2009). Soil microscopic organisms have been utilized as biofertilizer for improving the soil fertility and upgrading crop generation for a considerable length of time. The fundamental elements of these microscopic organisms are (1) to supply nutrients to crops; (2) to animate plant development, e.g., through the creation of plant hormones; (3) to control or repress the movement of plant pathogens; (4) to improve soil structure; and (5) to go about as bio-aggregator in microbial filtering of inorganics (Ehrlich, 1990). All the more as of late, microbes have likewise been utilized in the soil for the mineralization of natural toxins, for example, bioremediation of polluted soils (Zaidi et al. 2008). For the most part, PGPRs work in three distinct ways (Glick 1995, 2001): a) combining specific mixes for the plants (Dobbelaere et al. 2003), b) encouraging the take-up of specific nutrients from the soil (Çakmakçi et al. 2006) and c) reducing or keeping the plants from infections. Other than their role in shielding the plants from metals’ poisonous qualities, the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria are additionally known for their role in upgrading the soil fertility and advancing crop efficiency by giving basic nutrients (Zaidi and Khan 2006) and plant development regulators (Kumar et al. 2007). Glick et al. (2002) revealed that these PGPRs additionally advance the development of plants by reducing the pressure instigated by ethyleneinterceded effect on plants by integrating 1-aminocyclopropane-1carboxylate (ACC) deaminase (Belimov et al. 2005). As indicated by their

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association with the plants, PGPR can be isolated into two gatherings (Khan 2005). The first group is “Mutualistic microscopic organisms” with types of (Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium, Allorhizobium and Sinorhizobium) have been effectively utilized worldwide to allow a successful foundation of the nitrogen-fixing beneficial interaction with leguminous harvest plants (Bottomley and Maggard, 1990; Lynch, 1990). The second group is “Free-living rhizobacteria” with nitrogen- fixing microscopic organisms, for example, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus and Klebsiella sp. are additionally used to inoculate a huge zone of arable land on the planet with the point of upgrading plant yield (Lynch 1983).

MICROBIAL ACTIVITY The systems have been advanced by microorganisms of agronomic significance by which they endure and advance the take-up of heavy metal particles. Such mechanisms incorporate (1) the transport of metal particles outside to the cell (2) amassing and sequestration of the metal particles inside the cell (3) change of toxic metal to less poisonous structures (Wani et al. 2008b) and adsorption/desorption of metals (Mamaril et al. 1997). Because of these properties, when plant growth-promotingrhizobacteria including nitrogen fixers, utilized as seed inoculants (Narula et al. 2005a, 2005b), were applied to soil, either treated/revised purposefully with metals or effectively polluted, have demonstrated a significant decrease in the harm of metals and correspondingly improved the general development and yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) (Gupta et al. 2004), green gram (Vigna radiata L. wilczek) and pea (Pisum sativum) (Wani et al. 2007a, 2007c). An investigation on the impact of rhizobial inoculation on the metal amassing capability of the chickpea plant was assayed by Gupta et al. (2004). The chickpea plants were collected and accumulation of the metal was seen in roots and shoots of the plant. Collection of Cu, Zn, Cr and Cd were more in the shoot while Fe was more in root some portion of the plant. These investigations are critical while utilizing the plant for metal cleanup of fly ash landfills. The utilization of such microorganisms having various properties like plasmid-borne (Saitia et al. 1989) metal resistance/decrease (Saitia and Narula 1989, Narula et al. 2011) and their capacity to advance plant development through various mechanisms in metal-polluted soils are picked as an appropriate decision for bioremediation.

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PLANT-ORGANISM INTERACTIONS IN THE RHIZOSPHERE The maintainable yield creation, the plant-microorganism cooperations in the rhizosphere assume a significant role in change, preparation, solubilization, and so on of nutrients from a constrained supplement pool, and in this way take-up of fundamental nutrients by plants to understand their full hereditary potential. A comprehension of the systems, which is significant for the inception and foundation of the relationship between a host and bacterium, can come from the investigations of impacts applied by every collaboration . What’s more, there is a need to know how diazotrophs may profit from the plant. Examinations on the generation of phytohormones and the activity of siderophores delivered by Azotobacter strains may help comprehend this part of communications (Narula et al. 2006). Plant-microorganism cooperations are significant for both the accomplices i.e., large scale as higher plants and miniaturized scale accomplices as the plant-related microscopic organisms (Somers et al. 2004). Microbial partners can actuate adversarial (in the event of phytopathogens) or cooperative collaborations. Various kinds of connections including plant associations in the rhizosphere have been assessed by Bais et al. (2004, 2006). These incorporate root-root, root-insect, and root-organism associations. The rhizosphere speaks to a profoundly powerful front to think about association among roots and pathogenic just as useful soil microorganisms, invertebrates, and root systems of contenders (Bais et al. 2004). As of late, a few plant researchers have perceived the significance of root exudates in intervening in these natural connections. Be that as it may, on the grounds that plant roots are constantly covered up below, a considerable lot of the fascinating wonders, their attractions, love and hate relationship in which they are included have remained to a great extent unnoticed. The role of associations and the molecules involved frequently originate from the roots. Root exudates can repel one species while attracting another with varying intensities. The exact molecules and mechanisms remain to be understood. Nonetheless, studies throughout the years propose that root exudates are the deciding element to recognize associations in the rhizosphere and, eventually, plant and soil network elements (Narula et al. 2009).

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MOLECULAR MECHANISM ACTIVITY IN HYPERACCUMULATION PLANTS Metal Transporters Metal is fundamental for plant sustenance and protection from dangerous heavy metals. Hence, a heavy metal transporter is an exceptionally invigorating field in plant science. In spite of the fact that there is no immediate proof for a role for plasma membrane efflux transporters in heavy metal resistance in plants, ongoing examination has uncovered that plants have a few classes of metal transporters that must be associated with metal take-up and homeostasis and, subsequently, could assume a key role in resistance. Hyperaccumulators establish a gathering of remarkable plant species and they have gentically acquired attributes of metals hyperaccumulation and resistance. The comprehension of metal hyperaccumulation physiology has as of late improved because of the advancement of sub-molecular devices (Verbruggen et al. 2009). The improved synthesis of chemicals of sulfur digestion and generation of metal-detoxifying chelators metallothioneins and phytochelatins (Kotrba and Najmanova, 2009). These incorporate heavy metal (or CPx-type) ATPases that are engaged with the general metal particle homeostasis and resistance in plants, the characteristic resistance related macrophage protein (Nramp) group of proteins, cation dispersion facilitator (CDF) family proteins (Williams 2000), and the zinc-iron permease (ZIP) family (Guerinot 2000). Obviously, many plant metal transporters stay to be distinguished at the sub-molecular level. The CPx-type heavy metal ATPases have been recognized in a wide scope of life forms and have been involved in the transport of basic, just as possibly lethal, metals like Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb crosswise over cell layers (Williams 2000). Receptive to-opponent 1 (RNA1), a utilitarian CPxATPase, assumes a key role in the activity of the ethylene flagging pathway in plants. Hirayama et al. (1999) distinguished an Arabidopsis mutant RNA1 that shows ethylene phenotypes in light of treatment with trans-cyclooctene, a strong receptor opponent. Hereditary epistasis concentrates uncovered an early prerequisite for RAN1 in the ethylene pathway. Utilitarian proof from yeast complementation studies recommended that RAN1 transports copper and it was suggested that this CPx-ATPase may have a role in transporting copper to the secretory system, which is required in the creation of functional hormone receptors. The CPx-ATPases are believed to be significant not just in getting adequate measures of heavy

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metal particles for fundamental cell capacities, yet in addition to avoiding the accumulation of these particles to lethal levels. The Nramp family characterizes a novel group of related proteins that have been implicated in the transport of divalent metal particles. Thomine et al. (2000) detailed that Nramp proteins assume a role in Fe and Cd take-up; strikingly, interruption of an AtNramps3 somewhat increased Cd obstruction, though overexpression brought about Cd extreme sensitivity in Arabidopsis. The CDF proteins are a group of heavy metal transporters implicated in the transport of Zn, Cd, and Co that have been recognized in certain plants. Certain members from the CDF family are thought to work in heavy metal take-up, while others catalyze efflux, and some are found in plasma layers though others are situated in intracellular layers. An investigation by van der Zaal et al. (1999) proposes that the protein zinc transporter of Arabidopsis thaliana (ZAT1) may have a role in zinc sequestration. Improved zinc barrier was seen in transgenic plants overexpressing ZAT1 and these plants indicated expansion in zinc of the root under states of introduction to high levels of zinc. Notwithstanding, this transporter isn’t kept to root tissue; northern blotting examination demonstrated that ZAT1 was constitutively expressed all through the plant and was not initiated by the introduction to the levels of zinc. Up to this point, 15 individuals from the ZIP quality family have been distinguished in the A. thaliana genome. Different individuals from the ZIP family are known to have the option to transport iron, zinc, manganese, and cadmium. Pence et al. (2000) cloned the transporter ZNT1, a ZIP quality homolog, in the Zn/Cd hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens. They found that ZNT1 intervenes high-proclivity Zn take-up just as low-fondness Cd take-up. Northern blot examination demonstrated that upgraded Zn in T. caerulescens results from a constitutively high expression of ZNT1 in the roots and shoots. Investigation of ZNT1 demonstrated that it is individual from an as of late found micronutrient transport quality family, which incorporates the Arabidopsis Fe transporter IRT1 and the ZIP Zn transporters (Pence et al. 2000). Working with T. caerulescens from an alternate source, Assuncao et al. (2001) have additionally cloned two ZIP cDNA (ZNT1 and ZNT2) and, likewise, have seen them as profoundly expressed in root tissue. The way that downregulation of transcript levels was not seen in the light of high levels of zinc recommends that a constitutively elevated level of expression of these transporters might be a particular component of

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hyperaccumulator plants. Lombi et al. (2002) have additionally cloned an ortholog of the A. thaliana iron transporter IRT1 from T. caerulescens that additionally has a place with the ZIP quality family. Obviously, many plant metal transporters stay to be recognized at the sub-molecular level and the transporter.

Metallothioneins Detoxification of metals by forming complexes is utilized by a large portion of the eukaryotes. Metallothioneins (MTs) are low sub-molecular weight (6-7 kDa), cysteine-rich proteins found in higher plants, eukaryotic microorganisms, and a few prokaryotes (Kägi 1991). They are grouped into three unique classes based on their cysteine and structure. The Cys-Cys, Cys-X-Cys and Cys-X-X-Cys themes (in which X means any amino acid) are trademark and invariant for metallothioneins. MTs found in a couple of higher plants are likewise low molecular weight proteins with a high cysteine content, yet the cysteines appropriate uniquely in contrast to they do in mammalian MTs; subsequently, these proteins are assigned class II (mammalian MTs include class I). The biosynthesis of MTs is managed at the transcriptional level and is initiated by a few components, for example, hormones, cytotoxic specialists, and metals, including Cd, Zn, Hg, Cu, Au, Ag, Co, Ni, and Bi (Kägi, 1991). In spite of the fact that it is accepted that MTs could assume a role in metal digestion, the role of MTs in plants stays to be resolved attributable to an absence of data and their exact capacity isn’t clear (Hall, 2002).

Heat Shock Proteins Heat shock proteins (HSPs) typically show increased expression in light of the development of an assortment of living beings at temperatures over their ideal development temperature. They are found in all living beings, can be characterized by sub-molecular size, and are presently known to be expressed in light of an assortment of stress conditions, including heavy metal burdens (Lewis, 1999). HSPs go about as molecular chaperones in typical protein degradation and get together, yet may likewise work in the security and fix of proteins under pressure conditions. Today, there have been several reports of increased HSP expression in plants in light of heavy metal pressure. Neumann et al. (1995) saw that HSP17 is expressed in the roots of Armeria sea plants developed on Cu-rich soils. It was likewise revealed that a short heat stress offered preceding heavy metal pressure

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initiates a resistance impact by anticipating membrane damage. Obviously, increasingly molecular proof is required to help such a significant fix or defensive job.

Other Metal-binding Proteins Metal-binding proteins and peptides in plants can improve metal resistance/ aggregation. These metal-binding peptides or proteins ought to be especially metal specific with the end goal that sequester the poisonous metals (for example Disc, Hg, and Pb) are sequestered instead of basic metals, for example, Zn and Cu. Ryu et al. (2003) segregated and described a novel Curestricting protein (BP) in the Asian periwinkle Littorina brevicula, which is exceptionally impervious to a wide scope of heavy metal fixations and has its metal-restricting protein(s) instigated within the sight of Cd and An. In their examination, following refinement by Sephacryl S-100 chromatography, Ryu et al. (2003) found that Cu-BP contained an equivalent measure of Zn in physiological conditions. Be that as it may, Zn is supplanted by Cu at the coupling site upon the increase of Cu (100 μmol/L CuCl2) to the cytosol or after an extensive stretch (60 d) of presentation of the periwinkles to the metal particle (150 μg/L CuCl2). Ryu et al. (2003) likewise decided the sub-molecular load of the detoxified protein as 11.38 kDa utilizing MALDITOF MS investigations. This Cu-BP is particular from basic mollusk MT in that it contains an altogether lower number of Cys (eight buildups) and significant levels of the aromaticamino acids Tyr and Phe. Furthermore, the protein contains His and Met, which are missing in the MT-like Cd-BP of L. brevicula. The CuBP of L. brevicula works in the guideline of Zn just as Cu, which is a basic part of hemocyanin under physiological conditions. This protein is perhaps engaged with the detoxification component against a heavy weight of Cu.

Isolation of the Genes that Contribute to Heavy Metal Resistance in Plants Today, the two essential techniques used to isolate and distinguish qualities that add to substantial metal obstruction in plants have been practical complementation of yeast mutants faulty in metal particle transport with plant cDNA expression libraries and the ID of putative transporters by the excellence of succession similitudes with databases of plant cDNA and genomic arrangements that have decided. Up to this point, a couple of

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qualities that add to Cd resistance in plants have been distinguished. Thomine et al. (2000) segregated AtNramp cDNAs from Arabidopsis and saw that these qualities supplement the phenotype of the metal take-up insufficient yeast strain smf1. The AtNramps demonstrate homology to the Nramp quality family in microorganisms, yeast, plants, and creatures. Expression of AtNramp cDNAs expands Cd2+ affectability and Cd2+ amassing in yeast. In Arabidopsis, AtNramps are expressed in the two roots and flying parts under metal-replete conditions. The aftereffects of Thomine et al. (2000) show that Nramp qualities in plants encode metal transporters and that AtNramps transport both the supplement metal Fe and the harmful metal Cd. Louie et al. (2003) made a library improved in Cd-instigated cDNAs from Cd-tolerant Datura innoxia utilizing suppressive subtractive hybridization. Two differential screening steps were utilized to screen the Cd-instigated library, bringing about eight putative Cd-specific cDNAs of a pool of 94 clones. Invert translation polymerase chain response (RTPCR) was utilized to affirm that four of these eight clones were Cd specific. One of the four Cd-specific cDNAs had homology to a sulfur transferase family protein in Arabidopsis. Melody et al. (2004) screened an Arabidopsis cDNA library utilizing a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) expression system utilizing the Cd(II)sensitive yeast mutant YCF1 and afterward yielded a little Cys-rich layer protein (Arabidopsis plant cadmium resistance; AtPcrs). Database searches uncovered that there are nine close homologs in Arabidopsis. Homologs were additionally found in different plants. Four of the five homologs that were tried additionally increased protection from Cd (II) when expressed in YCF1. It was discovered that AtPcr1 restricts the plasma membrane in both yeast and Arabidopsis. Arabidopsis plants overexpressing AtPcr1 displayed increased Cd (II) obstruction, though antisense plants that demonstrated decreased AtPcr1 expression were progressively sensitive to Cd(II). The overexpression of AtPcr1 diminished Cd take-up by yeast cells and furthermore decreased the Cd substance of both yeast and Arabidopsis protoplasts treated with Cd. In this manner, apparently, the PCR system may assume a significant role in the Cd resistance of plants (Moffat 1999).

CONCLUSION The organism preparation of heavy metals and radionucleotide are inadequately comprehended procedures Microorganisms may, on a fundamental level, be invaluable and biotechnologically advantageous

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when happening in the rhizosphere of metal-tolerant plants (exceptional hyperaccumulator plants), in this manner encouraging phytoremediation forms. Communication of metal particles with the natural issue is basically just as significant for different natural procedures for all living beings and in related fields (biogeochemistry, bioremediation and phytoremediation, biomining, biotechnology of metal extraction, sorption and recovery , and so on.). It can scarcely be over underscored that the absence of comprehension of mechanisms of the impacts of soil microorganisms and plant-root exudates on the condition of metal mixes in the rhizosphere is a genuine obstruction being used of phyto-bioremediation innovation for cleaning soils polluted with heavy metals. It very well may be overwhelmed by generally utilizing an assortment of present-day amazing physicochemical systems in ecological and life sciences. Then again, knowing the mechanisms and courses of metal changes may open ways for an assortment of useful applications. It would be most basic to genetically or potentially biotechnologically tailor-made plants for being hyper-collectors , organisms to have more prominent potential to change over the harmful type of heavy metals to less or nonlethal sorts and to bridle the collaboration of the two accomplices to accomplish better efficiencies for phyto-bioremediation of contaminated soils through good plant-microorganism associations. These limitations are overwhelmed by accomplishing a decent comprehension of the components of metal hyperaccumulation in different plants. In the previous years, most investigations concentrating on the physiological mechanisms of hyperaccumulation have gained extraordinary ground; notwithstanding, comprehension of the scope of molecular mechanisms will absolutely change our idea of metal procurement and homeostasis in higher plants. With the culmination of the Arabidopsis genome project, in the end, pursued by genome successions for different plants, the full scope of qualities that are conceivably engaged with heavy metal homeostasis and resistance will be distinguished.

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Phytoremediation Approaches Technique for Improving Agriculture Land

Contents Introduction............................................................................................ 176 Phytoremediation Technique Involving Trace Different Elements............. 177 Cadmium Pollution ................................................................................ 178 Cadmium Accumulation By Phytoextraction Process.............................. 179 Chromium Pollution Through Industries ................................................. 180 Chromium Hyperaggregation Through Phytoextraction .......................... 180 Impact of Arsenic on Environment.......................................................... 182 Arsenic Hyperaccumulation Through Phytoextraction ............................ 182 Arsenic Stress- Tolerant Gene Participates In Phytoextraction ................. 184 Copper In Marine Water ........................................................................ 185 Clean Up of Copper by Phytoextraction Process..................................... 185 Nickel Hyper Accumulate Quantification Efficiency............................... 187 Zinc Translocation Through Phytoextraction Technology ........................ 188 Molecular Mechanism Efficiency of Heavy Metal Tolerant Plants............ 188 Role of Arabidopsis Genes ..................................................................... 189 Conclusion............................................................................................. 195 References.............................................................................................. 196

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INTRODUCTION Phytoremediation is a green and ecofriendly innovation that is used for the polluted land. The distinctive level of heavy metals, for example, Cr, Cu, Zn, As, Ni, Cd, Pb and non-metal like Fluoride that has expanding tainting of soil because of contamination impact on water and is the significant pathway of human exposure to the hierarchical system. This survey presents the discoveries about the sub-molecular mechanism engaged with heavy metals resistance by the significant apparatuses of the phytoremediation. The heavy metal-related resistanceresistance qualities need to be comprehended for hyperaccumulation. This brings in the receptor tyrosine kinase transcriptional signal when they are experiencing natural and inorganic compounds. This is as per proof showing that transcriptional control system to help for resistance of the plant under abiotic stress. The procedures of phytoremediation incorporate many systems i.e, phytodegradation, phytoaccumulation, phytostabilization, phytovolatilization and rhizofiltration. An extraordinary potential as a practical option in contrast to customary polluted land remediation techniques, phytoremediation is as of now an energizing zone of dynamic look into now to clean up the earth. A promising way to deal with minimal effort remediation advancements is phytoextraction, the utilization of plants to clean up contaminated soils. The premise of the metal hyper accumulation in woody species is to a great extent still obscure, the molecular systems hidden the adjustment to metals in little model plants, for example, A. halleri or A. thlaspi, Noccaea spp. are very much contemplated (Becher et al. 2004; Dräger et al. 2004). A system of transporters firmly controls for the take-up into roots, xylem stacking and vacuolar way (Broadley et al. 2007). Genome succession and microarrays are not yet available for some plants. The use of subtractive hybridization (SSH) investigation permits the concurrent ID of a huge number of qualities in unsequenced species (Diatchenko et al. 1996). Through this strategy (SSH) we likewise effectively have thought about the heavy metal pressure tolerant quality. These heavy metals may cause metabolic issues and development inhibitionissues for the entirety of the plant species and frequently to cause mortality (Hall, 2002). Plants have been built up a few components to take up the heavy metals from the polluted soils that incorporate sequestration, compartmentalization, chelation or avoidance (Clemens 2006). In this chapter, the mechanisms with the take an interest of various organisms and chelating molecules, additionally, gather little data on the systems of heavy metals in plants are discussed.

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PHYTOREMEDIATION TECHNIQUE INVOLVING TRACE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS The developing of eco-accommodating green designing innovation that uses of the normal properties of plants to remediate polluted soils, water and sludge. The soil pollution by different inorganic and natural mixes has been an overall concern issue, and phytoremediation has been gotten to expanding the consideration for remediation of these contaminants. The developing plants in the polluted locales, contaminants in soils will be removeled, immobilized, or altered, and the expense is substantially less costly than other customary techniques (Koh et al. 2013). The plants utilized in phytoremediation are for the most part proposed based on their development rate and biomass and their capacity to endure the contaminants to their root zone, and their potential to be present in groundwater (Koh et al. 2013). The plants utilized in phytoremediation ought not just to collect, alter or volatilize the contaminants, yet additionally ought to be developed fastly in a wild scope of various conditions and the earth. Successful phytoremediation could diminish the development of toxins towards the groundwater, support soil structure, and improve the soil quality and furthermore profitability of the plants. Soils pursued phytoremediation is still or increasingly appropriate for its unique application way to deal with an especially for farming application, therefore averting the loss of soil assets (Wang et al. 2003). The majority of the vitality for phytoremediation is provided by the sun, and phytoremediation shouldn’t be evacuating the soil out of the spot, the cost in contrast with current other physical or synthetic strategies for the removal of toxic metals. Plants capable of phytoremediation of the different metals, metalloids, non-metals, nutrients, and natural contaminants were checked on and recorded by Pivetz (Ahmadpour et al. 2012), among which Indian mustards, willow, half breed poplars, duckweed, corn, horse feed, and ryegrass Prosopis juliflora are prevalently used to remediate the earth. Phytoremediation has seen much progress in the remediation of heavy metals and non-metal like F, and the methods for improved phytoremediation procedures. Upgrading phytoremediation effectiveness is done by advancing plant development and microbial activities with reasonable treatment, carbon source expansion, or development systems (Huang et al. 2005).

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The rhizosphere is effectively constructed with a new microorganism that is more viable in targeting the contaminant than the nearby microflora. A great plant-microbe grouping can advance the action of the viable microorganisms for plant development. It is likewise revealed has been inoculation of mycorrhizae to certain plants may advance the take-up, translocation and accumulation of soil metals (Khan et al. 2012). Compelling aftereffects of phytoremediation requires initially making an appraisal to the site, effectively choosing plant species, and executing a reasonable plant or yield control. Maybe soil changes ought to be added to upgrade plant development and biomass or contaminant take-up or spoiling. Phytoextraction: assimilated pollutes and store in above shoots and parts of roots. Phytostabilization: immobilize pollution through adsorption and anticipating the spreading of contaminants in plants Photodegradation: enzymatic degradation of natural pollution through the discharged compounds Phytostimulation: soil microbial networks separate the contaminants Phytovolatilization: unpredictable through the stomata when gas exchange happens

CADMIUM POLLUTION The contamination of farming grounds by Cd is a profound concern since Cd is substantially more versatile than heavy metals, for example, copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) in soil and can be effectively taken up by harvests even at low levels, is available (Renella et al. 2004). Here now the current issue is recognizing an appropriate remediation strategy for Cd polluted horticultural soils. Late research has demonstrated that few clones of Populus species have higher Cd removal potential at various Cd levels (Laureysens et al. 2004), however, the phytoextraction capability of prominent along with a soil Cd is generally still obscure (Robinson et al. 2000 and Wu et al. 2010). As deciduous plants, the heavy metal concentrations in woody plants will in general change with stand age, as opposed to herbaceous hyperaccumulators (Mertens et al. 2006;Komarek et al. 2008) the adsorption of Cd by CaCO3 and the low desorption rate brought about by high pH prompts a moderately low Cd bioavailability (Sanchez-Camazano, Sanchez-Martin, and Lorenzo, 1998; Yanai, Zhao, and McGrath, 2006). In this way, generally low Cd take-up levels by plants are constantly noted in calcareous soils

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contrasted and corrosive soils with equivalent soil Cd fixations (Adriano 2001). Lamentably, far fewer plants have been likewise available for the phytoextraction of Cd polluted calcareous soils. In this way, screening for new clones with a higher Cd removal potential in calcareous soils is as yet a key piece of phytoextraction, as the phytoextraction potential is known to contrast both between and inside the tree species (Pulford and Watson 2003; Vandecasteele et al. 2003).

CADMIUM ACCUMULATION BY PHYTOEXTRACTION PROCESS The biomass reactions from the fixation angle test indicated that P. pyramidalis has high resistance to soil Cd, as plant development was just altogether restrained when 100 mg kg–1 Cd was added to the soil. Be that as it may, Robinson et al. (2000) found that poplar development (Populus deltoides × P. yunnanensis NZ 5006) was altogether restrained on soils containing in excess of 20 mg Cd kg–1. Wu et al. (2010) The most noteworthy Cd fixation estimated in P. pyramidalis leaves (35 mg kg–1) was not exactly the 100 mg kg–1 that would be normal from a Cd hyperaccumulator (Baker et al. 2000). Some discoveries recommended that the P. pyramidalis is increasingly reasonable for remediating somewhat Cd-contaminated calcareous soils. Cadmium pollution in the soil is a potential natural issue as it is effectively taken up by crops, gathered in food stuff and unsafe for human wellbeing. Cadmium can restrain plant development and cause indications like leaf spoiling (Solis-Dominguez et al. 2007). Cadmium contamination can likewise impact the soil movement, respiration rates and microbial biomass of carbon (Khan et al. 2010). The increase of cadmium levels surpassing 8 mg kg-1 is dangerous to most plants. The unfavorable investigation impact of cadmium on soil organic activities and the relationship between the cadmium content and soil natural movement. Zhang et al. (2010) found that soil microbial carbon biomass, sucrose action, urease action, phosphatase action and basal respiratory action were all together (P 1000 mg kg–1) in view of the lower measure of Cu translocation factor (leaves>fruit>shoot. The Higher exchange rate is found in green leaves than fruiting, tuber vegetables just as seed crops (Gupta et al. 2011). The bioaccumulation of F in wheat plants treated with 20 mg/L NaF was seen as most elevated in roots (4.24 mg/g) and least in leaves (1.45 mg/g) (Bhargava and Bhardwaj, 2011). Studies were recommended by Telesinik et al. (2011) to confirm the connection between various F levels and the capacity of various clones of crate willow (Salix viminalis L.: “Bjor”, “Jorr”, and “Tora”) for take-up of F. The outcomes propose that each of the three clones have huge F take-up capacity, essentially in roots and seedlings, most productively at the least F fixation. Most species take up little F from the soil however some are extraordinary, aggregating a few hundred F mg/g from soils. Individuals from the tea family (Theacea) are the best-known models (Davison 1982). Tea plants (Camellia sinensis) gather a lot of F in developing leaves from the soil of typical F levels (Ruan et al. 2003), yet the mechanism of F retention by this plant species isn’t surely known. The F taken up by tea plants was to a great extent and promptly moved, specifically to the leaves. The F in leaves increased straightly with its concentrations in

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the take-up arrangement or in the soil, while those in roots and stem were just imperceptibly impacted. F collection in leaves is predominantly in the type of free F anions or regarding aluminum (Al), Ca, and magnesium (Mg) (Weinstein 2004). Studies have uncovered that there is a solid association between F and Al when contrasted with different components. On the off chance that both are available in the medium, their take-up and translocation are better (Weinstein et al. 1982). Solvent fluorides are likewise aggregated by some sea-going biota. Amphibian plants and creatures when exposed to 50 mg/ kg F arrangement detailed bioconcentration factor >10 (Sloof et. 1989). An assortment of microbes and other minuscule species when exposed to high F concentrations once in a while exhibited poisonous impacts. Prokaryotes have no interior compartmentalization like in eukaryotes (other than thylakoid plates) along these lines they require a higher passageway level for activity (Bhatnagar et al. 2000). Among marine creatures, redgreen algae are known to amass the most elevated levels of F (Rao and Indusekhar, 2000). At higher concentrations (>10 ppm), water hyacinth productively retained F however the tendency for this collection diminished at lower levels (Rao et al. 1973). Studies directed on the bioconcentration of F in two submerse (submerged) plant species viz. Milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) and Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum L.) demonstrated that raised F levels in water influenced the F substance of the submerged plants (Pinskwar et al. 2006).

VISIBLE SYMPTOMS OF F WOUND McNulty and Newman, (1957) recommended chlorosis and rot have for some time been perceived as the primary noticeable side effects of F damage to plants. These manifestations happen when unseemly dissolvable F levels are brought into the soil of either the roots or the leaves with very obvious signs of toxicity. The monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants show the development of chlorosis at the tips and edges of lengthening leaves, which later broadened downwards along the edges and landed toward the midrib. This chlorosis turned out to be progressively exceptional and broad with delayed presentation until the midrib and a few veins showed up as a green arborescent example on a chlorotic foundation. Proceeded with introduction may prompt the tip getting necrotic and tumbling off, leaving the leaf scored

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(plate 2.1) (McNulty and Newman, 1961; Weinstein and McCune, 1971; Weinstein and Davison, 2003). Introduction to a high level of F caused spoiling of part or even entire of the leaf. The underlying stages differ with species and both the speed of advancement of the indications and their structure relies upon the atmosphere. Hitchcock et al. (1962) detailed necrotic leaf tips in (Gladiolus sp.) cultivars exposed to 0.17 μg F.m-3 for 9 days.

TECHNOLOGIES USED FOR THE REMOVAL OF FLUORIDE FROM WATER The removal of the F from drinking water (Mohapatra et al. 2009) generally utilizes reverse osmosis (Nadiaye et al. 2005), nanofiltration (Tahaikt et al. 2007), electrodialysis (Sahli et al. 2007), adsorption methods employing the use of adsorbents like activated alumina, silica, actuated soil, bone and fly ash, carbonaceous material, chitosan, waste carbon slurry, biosorbent, and so on. (Das et al. 2003). This utilization the systems of precipitation, co-precipitation, coagulation, and flocculation. Not many methodologies have been accounted for and researched for F removal from the soil, as it is extremely hard to remediate F from the soil. Traditional techniques, for example, opening and landfill and electrokinetic systems, which utilize the utilization of electrical fields to prepare and remove contaminants in soil, are likewise detailed for F removal (Zhu et al. 2009). On account of these inhibitions, phytoremediation is being considered as a protected, financially apt innovation for F expulsion from the water just like soil.

FLUORIDE REMOVAL FROM THE SOIL Phytoremediation is the utilization of green plants to evacuate toxicants both natural and inorganic toxins from soil, water, and air (Greipsson et al. 2011). A quest for F hyperaccumulators is a fundamental procedure for phytoremediation in F-endemic zones. Four significant characters utilized in characterizing a plant as a hyperaccumulator maybe (I) translocation factor that is the proportion of contaminant concentration in plant shoot to root, (ii) bioconcentration factor or bioaccumulation factor, that is the proportion of contaminant fixation in plant roots to soil, (iii) resistance which is obvious by irrelevant or no decrease in the shoot biomass of plants developed in polluted places (Yoon et al. 2006), and (iv) advancement factor meaning

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the proportion of contaminant concentration in the plant shoot to the soil (Lorestani et al. 2011). A point by point learning about hyperaccumulator species that can amass F in huge sum is rapidly developing high biomass crop with a broad root system but then demonstrating least toxicity would be a protected, simple, and modest approach. Such species can be raised to remediate F from the soil. Likewise, the marine plant species can be effectively used to remove F from soilied water bodies. Jha, S.K. et al. (2012) recommend the bio-aggregation of fluoride (F) regarding the bio-concentration factor (BCF) in the Lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus) when developed in sodium F (NaF) polluted soluble soil. Toxicological introduction hazard on people as far as evaluated day by day admission was surveyed. It was discovered that the maximal F collection occurred in roots (16.64–106.2 mg kg-1), while in the eatable part (organic product), it fluctuated between 39.3 to 48.51mg kg_1 in the treatment scope of 0–600 mg NaF kg-1 soil. The request for F amassing in plant tissues followed root>leaf>fruit>shoot. As of late, Baunthiyal and Sharma research the capability of eight tree types of semi-dry district for a hyperaccumulation of F. Their outcome recommended potential utilization of Prosopis juliflora in F removal from groundwater and soil. Mezaghani et al. reported that vegetation near a phosphate compost manufacturing plant situated in the seaside zone of the fax area of Tunisia gathered an enormous amount of F. Plants tolerant and impervious to F are great contenders for remediating F from water and soil as they have natural molecular components in their cellsto decrease or retard the lethal impacts of F. In such manner, Saini et al. proposed the F resistance capability of P. juliflora. F aggregation in the human body happens through F-contaminated drinking water, stable measures of F can likewise be ingested through harvests and vegetables flooded with F-polluted water (Gupta and Banerjee, 2011). Fluoride take-up by plants is constrained by numerous components including soil pH and natural mixes in the soil medium. Gupta et al. (2009) detailed noteworthy aggregation of fluoride in paddy yields inundated with fluoride polluted water from a town in West Bengal, India. The larger part of F influenced countries lies in the tropical belts where paddy is the significant harvest and rice is the staple nourishment. Admission of fluoride through nourishment can be of importance regarding human wellbeing, especially in zones where fluoride level in drinking water is as of now raised. The elevated level of fluoride in leaves or paddy straws can likewise influence

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the cows benefiting from them and increment the fluoride content in the milk that is consumed by a human. Along these lines, it is critical to comprehend the collection and translocation of fluoride in the paddy plants. Like the heavy metal takesup, fluoride take-up by plants is species and tissues specific. There are not many field-put together perceptions with respect to fluoride take-up by paddy, little data is available on the example of take-up and move of fluoride in the paddy plant parts in a controlled condition. Fluoride removal from effluents was considered by (Ndiaye et al. 2005) with RO membrane and a dismissal higher than 98% of fluorides were acquired. The maintenance of fluoride procedures utilizing both NF and RO membranes are inadequately comprehended with single factor impacts. F accumulation in soil and vegetation in the region of block fields was recently announced (Jha et al. 2008). F take-up by various types of plants contrasts fundamentally dependent on their nonexclusive highlights and morphologically. In this way, the antagonistic impacts of F in various harvests may likewise change altogether in various structures. F in soil or all the more specifically the phyto-accessibility of F is dominatingly administered by the kinds of soil where the yield has become low the contaminants. The impact of F on photosynthesis in various plants is variable and depends on species as well as on type in an investigation done by Kumar and Rao (2008). Late research showed the fluoride collection in the paddy plants pursues the roots>leaves>seeds. An alternate type of paddy is distinctive in translocation productivity. Among the two types of paddy considered, Oryza sativa L. var. Swarno displayed more noteworthy take-up and was less tolerant of fluoride than Oryza sativa L. var. IR-36. Fluoride take-up by the paddy seedlings is numerous folds higher than by the developed plants (Chakrabarti et al. 2013). The high rate of fluorosis in Rajasthan might be credited fundamentally because of the utilization of F−1 rich water, vegetables, and yields just as standard admission of creatures raised as wellsprings of meat. Among verdant vegetables and yields, the previous have higher F-1 content and thus, individuals dodge utilization of exceptionally F−1 containing water for water systems (Saini et al. 2013). Organ-wise accumulation of F, bioaccumulation factor, translocation factor, development proportion, and F resistance file were inspected for P. juliflora plants developed in F improved soil (Saini et al. 2013). In another investigation, the course of Jerbi type of grapes to adjust F collection by parallel Ca aggregation in its leaf edges was examined. It recommended the isolation of F as CaF2. At the point, F can’t disturb the plant digestion

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(Kumar et al. 2008). There isn’t significantly more data available on phytoremediation of F. Studies have been done on the removal of F particles from modern waste water plants around Cairo (Abdel-Halim et al. 2003). The looking at two types of mulberry towards F affectability. Mulberry type, Kanva (M4) indicated lesser restraint in all of the photosynthetic parameters like leaf territory, chlorophyll-a and b when contrasted with Mulberry type (S54), reflecting resistance nature of M4 type.

CONCLUSION This chapter has focused on the impact of fluoride on plant development, fluoride has been accounted with the minerals by adsorption or synthetic association. These changes superficially are attributes of solubility. At the point when fluoride is available in bioleaching, it interferes with the systems of bacterial activities. Fluoride present can shape HF, which is dangerous to the microscopic organisms that encourage draining, making the procedure inadequate. The various changes in approaches used to counter the negative impacts of fluoride and their restricted adequacy plainly demonstrated that fluoride pollution is a progressing issue in various procedures of business significance. The plant-based phytoremediation way to deal with improves the nature of water and soil has become an area of significance. A point by point learning of hyperaccumulators, which can collect F in significant levels but then show least toxicity to the plant, would be a sheltered, simple, and modest approach towards removing F from F-rich soils and water. Accordingly, a large number of the distinctive plant species have been recognized up until now, which are hyperaggregating F. So we need to presume that, progressively mindful about F heavy non-metal and spotlight on the examination work going on phytoremediation, discover the data that is not available yet.

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Role of Pseudomonas fluorescence and Pseudomonas aeuroginosa on antioxidant parameters, polyphenols and total flavonoids of Flouride (F) hyperaccumulator Plant Prosopis juliflora and Improving Crop Productivity

Contents Introduction............................................................................................ 248 Soil Characteristics Before Harvesting ................................................... 249 Pot Experimental Design......................................................................... 250 Antioxidant Activity................................................................................ 250 Determination of Polyphenols................................................................ 250 Estimation of Total Flavonoids................................................................. 251 Soil Analysis........................................................................................... 251 Growth Parameters Under Given Treatments........................................... 252 Antioxidant Enzyme Mechanism............................................................. 252 Total Polyphenols Estimation.................................................................. 252 Total Flavonoids Analysis........................................................................ 253 Conclusion............................................................................................. 253 References.............................................................................................. 254

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INTRODUCTION Fluoride (F) contamination is an overall issue. The nearness of the poisonous F is critically hurtful effects on human wellbeing and furthermore nature. Among existing procedures to remediate F pollution in soils, the phytoremediation approach utilizing F aggregating plants is a lot of persuading regarding F removal productivity, yet it has numerous impediments on account of moderate plant development and diminished biomass under F-initiated pressure. Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) assume a significant role in farming systems, particularly as biofertilizers. Along these lines, two rhizobacterial strains Pseudomonas fluorescence and P. aeuroginosa were utilized to decide the impacts of inoculation on the development and antioxidant action of Prosopis juliflora plants under F stress. These two strains build development and take-up of F. Further, an increment of superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase action was additionally recorded. P. fluorescence altogether builds the biomass in contrast with P. aeuroginosa. The present study recommends that the two PGPR strains might be utilized to improve the soil nature of F polluted soil. Fluoride is the most phytotoxic of the basic air toxins and is thought as unsafe topeople and plants (Fornasiero, 2001). A few reports recommend that F is a fundamental component for the development of plants and in higher concentration it is lethal for plants (Weinstein and Davison, 2004). Seed germination and early seedling development are significant stages for the effective development and endurance of plants and these physiological parameters of plants are influenced by F stress (Weinstein and Davison 2004). A few physiological and biochemical procedures are known to be influenced by F, for example, chlorosis and spoiling of leaf, low supplement take-up, a decrease of plant biomass, and enzymatic activities (Gupta et al. 2009; Chakrabarti and Patra, 2013). Flavonoids substance is most significant in a plant (Haslam 1989; Rhodes 1994). Flavonoids are a different accumulation of exacerbates that are delivered by various biochemical pathways and have a wide assortment of organic activities. These are exceptionally compelling as a result of their contribution in the reactions of the plant to natural diverse pressure including (1) insufficiency in nutrients or (2) adjustments credited to bright (UV) beams or (3) alteration via air contaminations (Robles et al. 2003). As indicated by Winkel-Shirley (2001), it was discovered that flavonoids may assume up ‘til now uncharacterized roles in the UV stress reaction.

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Flavonoids are useful for the plant itself as physiological dynamic mixes, as (1) stress mediators, (2) attractants or (3) encouraging inhibitions, and, when all is said in done, by their basic role in plant resistance (Treutter, 2006). F has for quite some time been acknowledged as an intense metabolic inhibitor, which interferes with the digestion of proteins, lipids, and starches. In spite of the fact that the distinctive system engaged with the inhibition isn’t totally comprehended, F inhibited catalysts that require such cofactors as Ca2+, Mg2+, and Mn2+ particles (Wilde and Yu. 1998). Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) impact on plants by improving development and upgrading root improvement, or expanding plant resistance to different ecological stresses known to soil microscopic organisms (Ahemad and Khan. 2011; Bhattacharyya and Jha. 2012). Metal phytoremediation is frequently encouraged by soil microorganisms living in close relationship with plant roots (Shilev et al. 2001). This commitment of the rhizomicrobial members to phytoremediation of a metal is normally alluded to as rhizoremediation (Kuiper et al. 2004). In a hyperaccumulator, PGPR can expand the assimilation of heavy metals through expanding plant biomass and P. fluorescens and P. aeuroginosa are soil rhizosphere inhabitants that can endure high levels of heavy metals in polluted waters (Wasi et al. 2010). These examinations are considered for the F-tolerant microorganisms that will have the option to multiply and advance plant development within a significant level of harmful F. In the present investigations leguminous species (P. juliflora) hyperaccumulator plant elevated us to survey the potential utilization of the F polluted soil. It has been led on the impact of plant growth-promoting microorganisms on biochemical parameters and antioxidant impact of F hyperaccumulator plant P. juliflora.

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS BEFORE HARVESTING The soil sample was taken for C, N, P, K, available Ca, Mg, DTPA extractable Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu. The natural carbon was assessed by following Walkley and Black’s technique (1934). Available N was assessed by the soluble permanganate technique (Subbiah and Asija, 1956). Available phosphorus was extricated by utilizing Olsen’s reagent and assessed through a spectrophotometer subsequent to building up the blue color by ascorbic acid. Available Potassium was removed with neutral ammonium acetic acid and evaluated by a flame photometer (Schollenberger, 1945). The available calcium and magnesium were assessed by utilizing a spectrophotometer

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after extraction with typical ammonium acetic acid–based protocols. The DTPA extractable Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu were assessed by utilizing a relevant spectrophotometer (Lindsay, 1978).

POT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Prosopis juliflora seeds were collected from Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur (Rajasthan) India. Seeds were surface sterilized with 20% H2SO4 for 15 min and were rinsed with deionized sterile Millipore water. Seeds were germinated in plastic pots (7-cm diameter and 12-cm height) with 1 kg of the testing soils. Each pot received six seeds that were placed at 4-cm depth. Pots were rearranged in the greenhouse chamber. Treatment with F concentrations, 0, 25, 50, and 75 and 100 mg kg-1 was done. Every treatment was exposed to an alternate kind of inoculation: control (no microscopic organisms and no F conc.), PF (P. fluoresence), and PA (P. aeuroginosa) strains. Three duplicates were utilized for each treatment. Bacterial strain suspension (108 CFU mL−1) in supplement was utilized for the inoculation, by showering soil surfaces (Marques et al. 2010), 10 days after germination. To the control pots, 10 mL of sterile distilled Millipore water was added. Plants were collected following four monthsthe roots and shoots were collected and washed with tap water and deionized sterile water. Shoot and root length were measured by measuring scales.

ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY Extraction of cell wall proteins superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD), 1 g of plant tissue were homogenized with 3 ml of 0.1 M of sodium phosphate (NaPO4) cradle (pH 7) in a pre-chilled mortar and pestle. The homogenate was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 min at 4 °C to collect the supernatant for estimation of SOD, CAT, and POD. The activity was estimated at 560 nm absorbance of SOD (Beauchamp and Fridivich, 1971), CAT was dictated by estimating the difference in absorbance at 240 nm (Luck et al. 1974) and POD action was measured by H2O2 at 420 nm absorbance with a spectrophotometer (Putter et al. 1974).

DETERMINATION OF POLYPHENOLS The accompanying reagents were utilized: half methanol 1 M Sodium carbonate Folin-Ciocalteau’s reagent (1:10 diluted with double distilled water). The quality of polyphenols was done utilizing the strategy for Mc

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Donald et al. 2001. The polyphenol substance was resolved at 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after inoculation of Prosopis juliflora plants with fluoride stress and given microorganisms treatment. One gm tissue for example leaf of the plants were homogenized in 10 ml of half methanol. The supernatant was separated and centrifuged at 5000 rpm in a cooling axis (Remi cooling compufuge, CPR24) for 25 min at 4°C. The pellet was disposed of and the supernatant was utilized for further examination, 0.5 ml of the plant concentrate was mixed in with 5 ml of Folin’s reagent and 4 ml of 1 M sodium carbonate. The mix was incubated 15 min and the absolute phenols were measured by colorimetry at 765 nm (UV-2450 twofold bar spectrophotometer). The standard was readied utilizing 0, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mg.l-1 gallic acid in methanol: water (50:50, v/v). Polyphenol was expressed as gallic acid reciprocals (mg.g-1fw), which is a typical reference compound.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL FLAVONOIDS The absolute flavonoids estimation by following reagents/supports were utilized: 95 % ethanol, 10 % aluminum chloride, 1M Potassium acetic acid. It was done utilizing the strategy for Chang et al., 2002. The flavonoid substance was resolved at 30, 60, 90 and 120 days. 1 gm leaves were homogenized in 25 ml of 95% ethanol and centrifuged in a cooling axis (Remi cooling compufuge, CPR 24) at 5000 rpm for 25 min at 4˚C. The pellet was disposed of and the supernatant was utilized for further measure. The flavonoid substance was dictated by the aluminum chloride colorimetric strategy. 0.5 ml of concentrate was blended in with 1.5 ml of 95% ethanol, 0.1 ml of 10% aluminum chloride, 0.1 ml of 1M potassium acetic acid derivation and 2.8 ml of distilled water. After incubation at room temperature for 30 min, the absorbance was perused at 415 nm with a twofold bar UV-2450 spectrophotometer. Quercetin was utilized to make the standard. Flavonoid differs and is instigated by some biological factors, for example, contamination, by biotic stressors (Treutter, 2006). Ryan et al. (2002) demonstrated that photoprotection assumes an important role for flavonoids, which was confirmed by a high quercetin/kaempferol proportion in Prosopis juliflora leaves.

SOIL ANALYSIS The soil had relatively micronutrients were low levels. Concentrations of other metals were also low: Fe (4.96 mg kg−1), Mn (4.22 mg kg−1), Cu (0.53

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mg kg-1) and Zn (0.12 mg kg−1). Meanwhile, the Concentrations of macronutrients were also low: N (167 mg ha-1) P (9.12 mg kg−1), K (16.4 mg kg−1), and Ca (123 mg kg−1), Mg (16.9 mg kg−1), organic carbon (0.65 kg ha-1), E.C (2.36 ohms) and pH (8.8) that was highly salinity.

GROWTH PARAMETERS UNDER GIVEN TREATMENTS The plants grown on differently treated with P.F showed the best growth, the values were even greater than the control as compared to P.A. Fluoride caused reduction in root length (12.7 cm) at 100 mg kg-1 NaF soil and shoot length (10.4 cm) at 100mgkg-1 NaF soil due to unbalanced nutrient uptake by seedlings in the presence of F in soil (Sabal et al., 2006). P. fluoresecnce increased as the rate of (30.86-24.96 cm at control to 25 mg kg-1 NaF) root and shoot, respectively and the largest reduction was observed in plants treated with 100 mg kg-1 NaF. Root dry weight and shoot dry weight increased at (0.165 to 0.293 gm) at 25 to 100 mg kg-1 NaF and (0.187 to 0.296 gm) at 25 to 50 mg kg-1 NaF respectively and total chlorophyll largest reduction at also 100 mg kg-1 NaF.

ANTIOXIDANT ENZYME MECHANISM The antioxidants’effect on P. juliflora treated plants to different rhizobacteria (both with and without treatment) led to an increase in the activity of CAT, POD and SOD. The activity of enzymes increased with an increase in the duration of F stress as well as doses of rhizobacteria (P.F and P.A). Significant relation was observed between the given microbial treatment in the leaves of P.juliflora and activity of CAT, POD and SOD. The oxidative stress induced by F in plants appears to be an indirect effect of fluoride toxicity to plant (Kumar et al. 2009). Similar results are obtained in plants stressed by the same metal, Cu (Demirevska- Kepova et al. 2004), or other metals such as Mn, Pb, Ni and Cd (Gomes-Junior et al. 2006).

TOTAL POLYPHENOLS ESTIMATION Total polyphenol content in the samples used in this study ranged from 56.45 to 156.78 mg kg-1 (Fig. 1). Highest total polyphenol content was 156.78 mg kg-1 and the lowest total polyphenol content was 78.9 mg kg-1.The average total polyphenol content was 119.70 mg kg-1 leaves. However, there was

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no significant difference between the polyphenol content in the plant. This decrease in polyphenol content is not considered beneficial.

TOTAL FLAVONOIDS ANALYSIS Total flavonoids contents were in the sample range 55.34 mg kg-1 at 100 mg kg-1 NaF to 76.14 mg kg-1 (Fig. 2) in control as of P.F and 67.87 mg kg-1 in P.A to 56.44 mg kg-1. Coberly and Rausher (2003) indicated that flavonoids are considered to function in plant stress responses but not all, species. Some investigators postulated that antioxidant flavonoids exert protective functions during droughts. Flavonoids also help plants to live on soils that are rich in toxic metals such as Aluminum (Barcelo and Poschenrieder, 2002). Reddy and Kaur (2008) showed higher concentrations of sodium fluoride decreased photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids) content in Salicornia brachiata while, anthocyanin content increased significantly. It is suggested that F compounds inhibit or activate some important enzymes for flavonoid synthesis. In this study, it is clear that variation in leaf flavonoid profiles in polluted plants is a response to F pollutants and may have a protecting defensive position against F pollution.

CONCLUSION The abilities of P. fluorescence and P. aeuroginosa to support plant growth were shown in the present study, and thus, these heavy metal resistant bacteria improve F accumulation abilities by P. juliflora. P. juliflora pant can become stable in the soil during its growth cycle, as metals are mainly retained with F in the root area. The increase in shoot and root biomass observed for inoculated plants grown in the F contaminated soils potentiates the application of the produced biomass for energy purposes after the harvest of the above-ground tissues. The roots will remain in the soil, adding organic matter and nutrients to it, which can help further increase the immobilizing activity of the F. At the same time, with high translocation to the shoots, may be large amounts of the F would be extracted from the soil, and this soil is less polluted.

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REFERENCES 1.

Beauchamp, C. and Fridivich, I. (1971). Superoxide dismutase improved assay and an assay applicable to acrylamide gels. Analytical Biochemistry, 44(1):267-87. 2. Barcelo, J. and Poschenrieder, C. (2002). Fast root growth responses, root exudates, and internal detoxification as clues to the mechanism of aluminium toxicity and resistance, a review. Environmental and Experimental Botany 48:75-92. 3. Chakrabarti, S. and Patra, P.K. (2013). Effect of fluoride on superoxide dismutase activity in four common crop plants. Fluoride, 46(2):59-2. 4. Demirevska-Kepova, K., Simova-Stoilova, L., Stoyanova, Z., Hölzer, R. and Feller, U. (2004). Biochemical changes in barley plants after excessive supply of copper and manganese. Environment Exp Botanical. 52:253-266. 5. Fornasiero, R.B. (2001). Phytotoxic effects of fluorides. Plant Science 161:979-85. 6. Glick, B.R. (2010). Using soil bacteria to facilitate phytoremediation Biotechnology Advance, 28:367-374. 7. Gomes-Juniora, R.A., Moldesa, C.A., Delitea, F.S., Gratãoa, P.L., Mazzaferab, P., Leac, P.J. and Azevedoa, R.A. (2006). Nickel elicits a fast antioxidant response in Coffea arabica cells. Plant Physiology Biochemistry. 44:420-429. 8. Gupta, S. and Banerjee, S. (2009). Fluoride accumulation in paddy (Oryza sativa) irrigated with fluoride contaminated groundwater in an endemic area of the Birbhum District, West Bengal, 42:224-227. 9. Gupta, S., Banerjee, S. and Mondal, S. (2009). Phytotoxicity of fluoride in the germination of paddy (Oryza sativa) and its effect on the physiology and biochemistry of germinated seedlings. Fluoride,42(2):142-6. 10. Jha, S.K., Nayak, A.K. and Sharma, Y.K. (2009). Fluoride toxicity effect in onion (Allium cepa L) grown in contaminated soils. Chemosphere, 60:1493-1496. 11. Kuiper, I., Lagendijk, E.L., Bloemberg, G.V. and Lugtenberg, T.J.J. (2004). ‘Rhizoremediation: a beneficial plant-microbe interaction’ Molecular Plant Microbiology Interact, 17:6-15. 12. Kumar, K.A., Varaprasad, P., Rao, A.V.B. (2009). Effect of fluoride on catalase, guiacol peroxidase and ascorbate oxidase activities in

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two varieties of mulberry leaves (Morus alba L.)’ Res. Journal Earth Science, 1, 69-73. Lindsay, W.L., Norvell, W.A. (1978). Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Science American Journal,42, 421-428. Luck, H. (1974). In: Methods in Enzymatic Analysis 2 nd Ed. Bergmeyer Academic Press New York, pp.885. Marques, A.P.G.C., Pires, C., Moreira, H., Rangel, A.O.S.S. and Castro, P.M.L. (2010). ‘Assessment of the plant growth promotion abilities of six bacterial species using Zea mays as indicator plant’ Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 42, 1229-1235. Putter, J. (1974). In: Methods of Enzymatic Analysis 2 nd Ed. Bergmeyer Academic Press New York, pp. 685. Rhodes, M.J.C. (1994). Physical role for secondary metabolites in plants: Some progress, many outstanding problems. Plant Molecular Biology, 24, 1-20. Robles, C., Greff, S., Pasqualini, V., Garzino, S., Bousquet-Melou, A., Fernandez, C., Korboulewsky, N. and Bonin, G. (2003). Phenols and flavonoids in Aleppo pine needles as bioindicators of air pollution. Journal of Environmental Quality 32, 2265-71. Sabal, D., Khan, T.I., and Saxena, R. (2006). Efeect of fluoride on cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) seed germination and seedling growth Fluoride, 39, 228-230. Schollenberger, C.J. and Simon, R.H. (1945). Determination of exchange capacity and exchangeable bases in soil-ammonium acetate method. Soil Science, 59, 13-24. Shilev, S.I., Ruso, J., Puig, A., Benlloch, M., Jorrin, J. and Sancho, E. (2001). ‘Rhizospheric bacteria promote sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) plant growth and tolerance to heavy metals’ Minerva Biotechnology, 13, 37-39. Subbiah, B.V. and Bajaj, J.C. (1962). A soil test procedure for assessment of available nitrogen in rice soils. Current. Science, 31, 196. Walkley, A. and Black, C.A. (1934). An examination of different methods for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science, 37, 29-38. Wasi, S., Tabrez, S. and Ahmad, M. (2010). Suitability of immobilized Pseudomonas fluorescens SM1 strain for remediation of phenols,

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heavy metals, and pesticides from water. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 220, 89-99. 25. Weinstein, L.H. and Davison, A.W. (2004). Fluorides in the environment: effects on plants and animals Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing. 26. Winkel-Shirley, B. (2001). Flavonoid biosynthesis: A colorful model for genetics, biochemistry, cell biology and biotechnology. Plant Physiology, 126, 485-93. 27. Wilde, L.G., Yu, M. (1998). Effect of fluoride on superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in germinating mung bean seedling. Fluoride, 31, 81-8.

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Effect of Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) on Plant Growth and Flouride Uptake by Prosopis Juliflora

Contents Introduction............................................................................................ 258 Pot Experiment....................................................................................... 259 Antioxidant Activity................................................................................ 260 Determination of F.................................................................................. 260 Growth Parameters................................................................................. 261 Antioxidant Enzyme Mechanism............................................................. 261 Organ-Wise F Uptake............................................................................. 263 Conclusion............................................................................................. 266 References.............................................................................................. 267

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INTRODUCTION Fluoride (F) pollution is a worldwide problem, as there is no cure for fluorosis available yet. The strategies to remediate F contaminants in soils, phytoremediation approach using F accumulating plants is much convincing in terms of F removal efficiency. Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) enhances the efficiency of phytoremediation. Two rhizobacterial strains Pseudomonas fluorescence (P.F) and P. aeuroginosa (P.A) were used to determine the effects of inoculation on growth, antioxidant activity and the tolerance potential of Prosopis juliflora plants to accumulate F. These two strains increased the bioaccumulation factor (BF) 2.513-27.06 and translocation factor (TF) 0.661-1.104 in plants accumulating high amounts of F in the root. The organ-wise accumulation showed an accumulation (15.93 mg/kg dw and 23.5 mg/kg dw) in shoot and root, respectively. Further, the increase of superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase activity was also recorded. P. fluorescence significantly increases the biomass and high bioaccumulation, translocation factor efficiency in comparison to P. aeuroginosa. The present study suggests that the two PGPR strains could be used to improve the soil quality of F-contaminated soil. Further enhancing the efficiency of F hyperaccumulator plant P.juliflora for agriculture purposes is interesting. Soil pollution by F non-metal is one of the main worldwide problems. Several reports suggest that F is an essential element for the normal growth of plants and in higher concentrations, it is toxic for plants (Weinstein and Davison, 2004). Seed germination and early seedling growth are important phases for the successful growth and survival of plants and these physiological parameters of plants are affected by F stress (Sabal et al. 2006). Several physiological and biochemical processes are known to be affected by F such as chlorosis and necrosis of leaf, low nutrient uptake, reduction of plant biomass, and enzymatic activities (Gupta et al. 2009; Chakrabarti and Patra, 2013). Several states are F endemic (Choubisa, 2012) including Rajasthan where groundwater contains a high amount of F in all the 33 districts (Choubisa et al. 2001). In Rajasthan, due to irregular and low rainfall and drought, groundwater is the main water source for irrigation for agricultural purposes (Chaudhary et al. 2009). Higher soil salinity increases the catalase, peroxidase and superoxidase activity among tolerant and sensitive varieties of plants (Vaidyanathan et al., 2003). The relationship between antioxidants and salinity indicates that O-2 radical and H2O2 could play an important role in the mechanisms (Chookhampaeng, 2011).

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Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) effect on plants by improving growth and enhancing root development, or increasing plant tolerance to various environmental stresses (Ahemad and Khan, 2011; Bhattacharyya and Jha, 2012). Plant growth-promoting bacteria can enhance plant biomass by a wide variety of mechanisms including phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, phytohormone production, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase for root elongation (Ahemad and Khan, 2011; Bhattacharyya and Jha, 2012). Metal phytoremediation is often facilitated by soil microorganisms living in close association with plant roots (Shilev et al. 2001). The contribution of the rhizomicrobial population to phytoremediation of contaminated sites is usually referred to as rhizoremediation (Kuiper et al. 2004). In hyperaccumulators, PGPRs can increase the absorption of heavy metals by increasing plant biomass. P. fluorescens and P. aeuroginosa, that can tolerate high concentrations of heavy metals in polluted waters (Wasi et al. 2010). Pseudomonas spp. may, therefore, result in strains with enhanced biodegradative activities and potential for bioremediation applications in metal-polluted sites (Valls et al. 2000). The present investigation employs P. fluorescence enhancing the availability of heavy metals in the rhizosphere (Petriccione et al. 2013). The bacteria that have been used for these studies are often first selected for resistance to the (F) and tested for the presence of one or several plantgrowth-promoting (PGP) properties. These studies are considered for the F-resistant bacteria, which will be able to proliferate and promote plant growth in the presence of a high level of toxic F. In the present study, leguminous species (P. juliflora) hyperaccumulator plant promoted us to assess the potential use of this plant in the reclamation of F contaminated soils. This is also naturally grown in F widespread areas of Rajasthan (India) without showing any morphological distortion. It is tolerant of very high temperatures (like 48ºC). The tree can grow in different areas, and the roots enter large depths in the soil. The objective was to investigate (a) the effect of plant growth-promoting bacteria on biochemical parameters, antioxidant enzyme activity (b) and improvement of accumulation by F hyperaccumulator plant P. juliflora.

POT EXPERIMENT Prosopis juliflora seeds were collected from Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur (Rajasthan) India. Seeds were surface sterilized with 20% H2SO4 for 15 min and were rinsed with deionized sterile Millipore

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water. Seeds were germinated in plastic pots (7-cm diameter and 12-cm height) with 1 kg of the testing soils. Each pot received six seeds that were placed at 4-cm depth. Pots were rearranged in the greenhouse chamber. Treatment with F at 5 concentrations, 0, 25, 50, and 75 and 100 mg kg-1. Each treatment was subjected to a different type of inoculation: PF1 8904 (P. fluorescence 1), and PA2 1934 (P. aeuroginosa 2) strains obtained from (MTCC) Chandigarh. Three replicates were used for each F level inoculation type treatment. Bacterial strain suspension (108 CFU mL−1) in nutrient broth was used for the inoculation, by spraying soil surfaces (Marques et al., 2010), 10 days after germination. To the control pots, 10 mL of sterile distilled Millipore water was added. Plants were harvested after 120 days, roots and shoots were harvested and washed with tap water and deionized sterile water. Shoot and root length were determined by measuring scale.

ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY Extraction of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD), 1 g of plant tissue was homogenized with 3 ml of 0.1 M of sodium phosphate (NaPO4) buffer (pH 7) in a pre-chilled mortar and pestle. The homogenate was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 min at 4 °C to collect supernatant for estimation of SOD, CAT, and POD. The activity was measured at 560 nm absorbance of SOD (Beauchamp and Fridivich, 1971), CAT was determined by measuring the change of absorbance at 240 nm (Luck et al. 1974) and POD activity was determined by H2O2 at 420 nm absorbance through a spectrophotometer (Putter et al. 1974).

DETERMINATION OF F After 120 days of treatment, root/ shoots were harvested for studying the bioaccumulation and translocation factors were measured by Niu et al. (2007). A total F content in the plant sample and remaining soil was calculated by the alkali fusion-ion selective technique (McQuaker and Gurney, 1977). BF = {F concentration in shoot}/ {F concentration in soil} TF = {F concentration in shoot}/ {F concentration in root}

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GROWTH PARAMETERS The effects of microbial treatment on the biochemical reaction of P. juliflora. The plants grown on differently treated with P.F1 showed the best growth, (figure 2) the values were even greater than the control as compared to P.A2. Fluoride cause a reduction in root length (12.76 cm) at 100mg/kg NaF soil and shoot length (10.43) cm at 100mg/kg NaF soil due to unbalanced nutrient uptake by seedlings in the presence of F in soil (Sabal et al. 2006). The increasing concentration of NaF showed phytotoxic effects on physiology and growth parameters. P. fluoresecnce increased as the rate of (34.3- 24.96 cm at 25 mg/kg NaF) root and shoot respectively and the largest reduction was observed in plants treated with 100 mg/kg F.

ANTIOXIDANT ENZYME MECHANISM The antioxidant activities effect on P. juliflora treated plants to different rhizobacteria (both with and without treatment) led to an increase in the activity of CAT, POD and SOD. Hydrogen peroxide is toxic for plants but it behaves both as an oxidant and reductant. The hyperactivity of POD under metal stress indicated the scavenging activity of H2O2 generated through the activity of photorespiration in plant cells. Therefore, an increase in POD activity prevents plants from toxic effects (Ali et al. 2003). Catalase activity scavenges H2O2 by breaking it directly to form water and oxygen. Similar trends increases in CAT activity were also obtained with an increase in salinity amount in Triticum aestivum (Heidari, 2009). Although H2O2 takes part in several important functions in plant cells such as signal transduction, protein cross- linking and cell wall lignifications (Low and Merida, 1996). The activity of enzymes increased with an increase in the duration of F stress as well as doses of rhizobacteria. Among these enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) is the first line of defense against ROS, dismutating O-2 to an oxygen molecule and H2O2 (Gill et al. 2011).

There was a direct significant correlation between F concentration and peroxidase activity, catalase activity and superoxidase activity (r = 0.99, p