African Schools as Enabling Spaces: A Framework for Building Communities of Care 2022047704, 2022047705, 9780367508128, 9780367508135, 9781003051398

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African Schools as Enabling Spaces

Using African schools as case studies, this book presents an implementation framework that can be used by schools internationally to drive social change and support their role as enabling spaces, allowing learners to thrive. Recognising the increase in demands, violent conflicts, lack of stability, and social strain prevalent within the current African school system, this book covers the challenges that negatively impact children’s development by understanding and presenting a framework that ensures a holistic social and educational support system can be created for students. Featuring contributions from a broad range of leading scholars, the book ultimately addresses the critical need in academic and practice research for the importance of schools in building civil societies. Arguing for the importance of schools as places of stability, social inclusivity, and communities of care, this book will have direct relevance to academics, researchers, and post-graduate students in the field of education policy, international and comparative education, and character education. Those working in school leadership, management and administration environments will also benefit from this volume. Vanessa Scherman is a full professor, Department of Psychology of Education, University of South Africa, South Africa. Linda Liebenberg is a research fellow, Department of Psychology of Education, University of South Africa, South Africa.

Perspectives on Education in Africa

Series Editor- Kerry J. Kennedy Series co-editors- Joseph Divala, Juliet Perumal, Elizabeth Henning, and Linda Gardelle

The African continent is at a crucial moment in its history. Conflicts, political disappointments, developmental difficulties and poverty issues are well disseminated by the international media, but it also has a promising demography and hopeful economic growth. Education is at the heart of the challenges facing the continent, and research into Africa’s 21st century potential is of increasing interest to international scholars and policymakers alike. This series aims to examine institutions regarded as fundamental in helping African countries face major challenges across the Continent. It seeks to offer tools for analysing, understanding and decision-making concerning contemporary issues of education in Africa. Believing that perspectives should not be observed, analysed and strategized from outside, the series draws on local knowledge and experience, promoting interaction between African and non-African scholars in order to explore the implications for the future, and the ways in which education in Africa can be enhanced, influenced, and developed. Books in the series include: COVID-19 and Education in Africa Challenges, Possibilities, and Opportunities Lydia Namatende-Sakwa, Sarah Lewinger, and Catherine Langsford Teaching and Learning with Digital Technologies in Higher Education Institutions in Africa Case Studies from a Pandemic Context Admire Mare, Erisher Woyo & Elina M. Amadhila African Schools as Enabling Spaces A Framework for Building Communities of Care Edited by Vanessa Scherman and Linda Liebenberg

For more information about the series, please visit www.routledge.com/ Perspectives-on-Education-in-Africa/book-series/EDUAFRICA

African Schools as Enabling Spaces

A Framework for Building Communities of Care

Edited by Vanessa Scherman and Linda Liebenberg

First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 selection and editorial matter, Vanessa Scherman and Linda Liebenberg; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Vanessa Scherman and Linda Liebenberg to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Scherman, Vanessa, editor, author. | Liebenberg, Linda, editor, author. Title: African schools as enabling spaces : a framework for building communities of care / edited by Vanessa Scherman and Linda Liebenberg. Other titles: Perspectives on education in Africa. Description: New York : Routledge, 2023. | Series: Perspectives on education in Africa | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022047704 (print) | LCCN 2022047705 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367508128 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367508135 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003051398 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Education—Social aspects—Africa, Sub-Saharan. | Schools—Social aspects—Africa, Sub-Saharan. | Education— Africa, Sub-Saharan—Psychological aspects. | Schools—Africa, Sub-Saharan—Psychological aspects. Classification: LCC LC191.8.A357 A47 2023 (print) | LCC LC191.8.A357 (ebook) | DDC 306.43/20967—dc23/ eng/20220930 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047704 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047705 ISBN: 978-0-367-50812-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-50813-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-05139-8 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398 Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Dedicated to Professor Brigitte Smit Always in our hearts and what you taught us is never far from our minds

Contents

List of contributorsix List of figuresxv List of tablesxvi Series editor’s forewordxvii   1 Thinking in terms of systems and why this is important for understanding nodes of care and support

1

VANESSA SCHERMAN

  2 Schools as nodes of care: Bi-directional thinking on resilience in children and the community

13

LINDA LIEBENBERG

  3 Building schools as enabling spaces through relational leadership and an ethic of care

26

BRIGITTE SMIT

  4 Advancing relational well-being for school success

38

KAMLESHIE MOHANGI

  5 Youth perspective on structural barriers

53

FUNKE OMIDIRE, LIESEL EBERSÖHN, AND DANNY SELLO RAMOLLO

  6 Youth perspectives on academic service learning: courage to fly into our dreams

64

LIESEL EBERSÖHN, FUNKE OMIDIRE, AND SEAGO MAAPOLA

  7 A meta-summary review of enabling school-based interventions in highly challenged schools in a postcolonial, global south space LEAH NABONGWE NKOANA AND LIESEL EBERSÖHN

76

viii Contents

  8 Building learners’ reading literacy for academic resilience in challenging reading literacy development contexts

96

LISA ZIMMERMAN

  9 Creating enabling spaces for adolescents through the development of spiritual intelligence

110

CHERYL CURRIE

10 Resilience resources for children in conflict with the law: The role of socio-ecological care and support

124

LLOYD DANIEL NKOLI TLALE

11 School as a community of care in facilitating resilience among learners with intellectual disability

137

CHANTEL L. WEBER AND HERMIEN OLIVIER

12 Schools to accommodate sport participation of learners with a mobility impairment

150

ALET MOLL

Index170

Contributors

Cheryl Currie University of South Africa Cheryl Currie began her career in working with learners with special needs at the College of Education for Further Training. Her main focus was later on in the adolescent learner. It was then that she realised that the adolescent had a deep-seated need for more than just the curriculum. I  knew that they too pondered on the “bigger questions” and a pursuit for meaning and purpose. A type of intelligence that became recognised as the ultimate intelligence. It was then that I learnt about Spiritual Intelligence. At the time it was ground-breaking and eventually became her niche area. She completed my masters and doctoral degree in the field and was the first researcher than developed strategies to develop Spiritual Intelligence in adolescents. It was a journey that was awe-inspiring to note how they immersed themselves in all the activities. She further had the opportunity to write a module for a post-graduate certificate in the Department of Psychology with the focus on Values education and Spiritual intelligence. It is also the first time that it is offered as a qualification. Liesel Ebersöhn University of Pretoria Liesel Ebersöhn (Director of the Centre for the Study of Resilience and Full Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Pretoria), a registered educational psychologist, is an expert on social dimensions of resilience that support positive health and well-being outcomes in severely challenged Southern African spaces. Through engagement in global education and poverty think tanks, panels, and boards she is influential in Global South education development circles and actively supports education policy reform in the Global South based on evidence of resilience-enabling transformation in Africa. She is a recipient of numerous scientific association, national, and institutional awards. She is the World Education Research Association President Elect.

x Contributors

Linda Liebenberg University of South Africa Linda Liebenberg is a leading researcher and evaluator in the field of youth well-being and community resilience, research fellow in the College of Education, School of Educational Studies, Department of Psychology of Education, Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Dalhousie University, and an International Research Affiliate at the UNESCO Child and Family Research Centre, National University Ireland. She is a researcher and evaluator with a core interest in children and youth with complex needs. Her work explores the promotion of positive youth development and the promotion of mental health, using formal and informal resources, primarily through the development of community resilience and related community resources. To support understanding of these processes, she evaluates service provision and researches youth lived experiences. As a key component of this work, she reflects critically on best ways in which to conduct research and evaluations with children and their communities (including multiple service providers). These approaches include participatory methods; sophisticated longitudinal quantitative designs; and the design of measurement instruments used with children and youth (e.g. the Child and Youth Resilience Measure, CYRM-28). She has developed consulting and collaborative relationships with many international community-based organizations, including Save the Children Denmark, Eskasoni Mental Health Services, Right to Play, the World Bank, the World Health Organization, and the Public Health Association of Canada. Seago Maapola University of Pretoria Seago Maapola is an Educational Psychologist who has worked in diverse settings which have contributed extensively to her knowledge base. She is currently employed at St. Mary’s DSG as an Educational Psychologist. Ms. Maapola has previously worked at primary schools as well as at a special school in Pretoria. She had the opportunity to work closely with district and head office to facilitate the school placement process. Seago previously worked as a consultant for psycho-legal practices, which sparked an interest into the effects of brain injuries on children and adults. She then enrolled and successfully completed the Foundational Course in Neuropsychology under the guidance of Prof. Truter. She was previously a member of the EPASSA Executive Committee and is still involved in the Education and Training Sub-committee. Kamleshie Mohangi University of South Africa Kamleshie Mohangi is a registered Educational Psychologist and a professor in Psychology of Education at the University of South Africa. Her research is primarily situated within a qualitative methodological paradigm. Her

Contributors xi

research and psychological practice niche areas focus on the mental health and well-being of children, adolescents, and families. She has supervised several master’s and doctoral students to completion and published widely in peer-reviewed journals. Over the years, she has collaborated on research projects in child and adolescent mental health and learning processes in diverse contexts. She also serves as an external examiner for national and international theses and dissertations and reviews journal articles. Alet Moll University of South Africa Dr. Alet Moll is a senior lecturer in the College of Education at the University of South Africa. Alet completed her master’s dissertation in the field of accommodating learners with autism in the use of computer technology. Her doctoral thesis focused on the influence of sport participation on the identify formation of learners with a mobility impairment. As a former international player, she spent many hours on the sports field. Here, hard work and perseverance are required, sometimes at the expense of the enjoyment of the game. As a coach and administrator, she spent a lot of time next to the sport field. She hopes that her research will contribute to the passion of learners—especially learners with a mobility impairment—their friends, their parents, and their teachers to engage fully in adaptive sport. Leah Nabongwe Nkoana University of Pretoria Leah Nabongwe Nkoana is a registered educational psychologist at the Gauteng Department of Education, Gauteng North District in Pretoria, South Africa. She has taught in secondary schools and impacted the lives of young people in urban, rural, and socioeconomically deprived settings. She enhanced quality of life as she served and worked as a trauma counsellor. Her focus is on policy implementation, teacher training, caregiver guidance/support, psychoeducation, reinforcing learner support, and intervention programmes that enables learning, and positive outcomes and enhances school learners’ well-being in Grades R to 12. Additional support is provided to learners with special needs and teachers in special schools. Hermien Olivier University of South Africa Hermien Olivier is currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Psychology of Education, College of Education, University of South Africa (UNISA). She lectures on an undergraduate and post-graduate level and she is also involved with short learning programmes. She actively participates in programme development and has supervised a number of master’s and PhD students to successful completion of their studies. She is a registered Educational Psychologist. She completed her PhD at the University of Pretoria in Educational Psychology. Her research interests include teacher and learner

xii

Contributors

support (including learning difficulties), well-being, counselling, life orientation, and career education. Funke Omidire University of Pretoria Funke Omidire is Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Pretoria. Her research interests centre on multiplicity of languages in education and issues of psychological well-being of learners/ teachers/parents affected. Furthermore, Funke is involved in school-based intervention research, learning/learner support, and she is also interested in the reconceptualisation of education in sub-Saharan Africa. Funke is a registered Educational Psychologist with the Health Professions Council of South Africa. She is the programme coordinator of the MEd Educational Psychology and Chair of the Ethics Committee, Faculty of Education. Funke is the 2022 Chairperson of the Education Association of South Africa and a member of the International Association of Multilingualism. She is a National Research Foundation (NRF) rated researcher. Danny Sello Ramollo University of Pretoria Danny Sello Ramollo is an Educational Psychologist, and he is employed as a student development practitioner at the Tshwane University of Technology. His research interest is positioned in the promotion of mental health in men and a creation of open platforms them to express their emotions in a healthy manner. Mr. Danny Sello Ramollo experience in the education sector extend over 19 years both in learner teaching and in university setting as a student advisor at the University of Pretoria, psychologist at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, and a student development practitioner at Tshwane University of Technology. He is currently enrolled for PhD studies with the University of Johannesburg, with his focus centred in the understanding resilience of the young black men raised by single mothers. Vanessa Scherman University of South Africa Vanessa Scherman has been working in the field of mixed methods for a number of years drawing on my expertise in school effectiveness, psychosocial support, and using data to make informed decisions. She has been project leader for several projects focused designing and developing of interventions and instruments in both education and psychology. Previously as part of her work on mixed methods school effectiveness studies, she worked extensively on the adaptation and implementation of monitoring frameworks as well as exploring the influences of relationships within the school context on the achievement of learners. She has worked on several funded projects including The World Bank, The United Nations Children’s Fund, The National Research Foundation, as well as The Nelson Mandela Children’s Fund. She

Contributors xiii

has also collaborated with National and Provincial Departments of Education and have served on national and international committees such as the UMALUSI Accreditation Committee, PSYSSA Research Methodology Division, Chair of Governance and President of the Mixed Methods International Research Association. Brigitte Smit University of Alberta Brigitte Smit (PhD, MEd Cum Laude, BED (HONS), BA(Ed), University of Pretoria) is currently an Assistant Adjunct Professor at the University of Alberta, Canada and a Visiting Professor at the University of Johannesburg. She is a twice National Research Foundation Rated Researcher, a Senior Accredited Professional Trainer of ATLAS.ti, and a former Research Professor in Educational Leadership and Management at the University of South Africa. Her research focuses on qualitative research methodology, female leadership, and relational ethics. She serves as a Co-Editor of the International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches and as Editor (Africa) for the International Journal of Qualitative Methods. Lloyd Daniel Nkoli Tlale University of South Africa Lloyd Daniel Nkoli Tlale is a professor in the Department of Psychology of Education at the University of South Africa. He joined UNISA after being a teacher and a teachers’ college lecturer for several years. He was previously an education specialist for the Department of Basic Education, supporting and training teachers in inclusive education. Currently, his responsibilities include teacher training (tuition), post-graduate supervision, research and community engagement projects. His research interests include gifted child education, orphans and vulnerable children, children in conflict with the law, social justice and qualitative research. He was involved in an international research project that included South Africa, Britain, Finland, China, Lithuania and Slovenia from 2012 to 2016. He is an associate editor of International Journal of Studies in Psychology based at the University of Free State. He has supervised several masters and doctoral students to completion. He has edited a book, published a number of book chapters as well as articles and has presented papers at various local and international conferences. Chantel L. Weber University of South Africa Chantel L. Weber is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology of Education at the University of South Africa. She completed her Bachelor in Education and specialised in Learners with Special Needs during her Honours Degree. She taught at schools for 5 years and completed her PhD in 2012. In her PhD, she focused on resilience in the presence of Fragile X

xiv Contributors

Syndrome which led to her research interest—why and how some children (especially those with intellectual disabilities) adjust well to adversity. Lisa Zimmerman University of South Africa Lisa Zimmerman has been involved in the fields of language and reading literacy for the last 18 years specifically in working with large-scale international studies of educational achievement and in my work with studies in language and literacy curriculum implementation at school level and testing and assessment systems. She teaches at the University of South Africa as an educational psychologist working with undergraduate teacher education students as well as teaching research methodology to post-graduate students.

Figures

1.1 Risk and protective factors in an educational context to foster an enabling space6 4.1 A conceptual framework for promoting teacher–student relations44 12.1 Integration of the ecological approach of Bronfenbrenner and the African perspective approach156 12.2 Role players in the microsystem/micro-cosmo of sport participation162

Tables

7.1 Sampled data81 7.2 PICOC method used during the summary review85 7.3 Example of the coding framework used to analyse publications included in the sample89 7.4 Focus of Southern African school-based interventions90 9.1 Educational strategies to develop SQ119 12.1 Urie Bronfenbrenner integrated with the African ecological perspective155 12.2 The possibility of adapting existing sport to accommodate athletes with a mobility impairment160

Series editor’s foreword

The African continent is in a crucial moment of its history. If conflicts, political disappointments, developmental difficulties, and poverty issues of Africa are well disseminated by the international media, it should not gloss ever the fact that Africa is also a very dynamic continent, with a promising demography and hopeful economic growth. Education could be viewed as at the heart of the challenges facing Africa. Schools could offer the promise to achieve the goals of the development, both in social aspects as well as economic and political. Since independences in the 1960s, the number of schoolchildren has multiplied by 40 in sub-Saharan Africa. Many states in Africa, from North to South, are faced with the emergency of mass-schooling while many problems remain: shortage of basic facilities, infrastructure, lack of teaching and learning materials, shortage of qualified teachers, distance between home and schools in rural areas, hunger and poor nutrition, difficulties for schooling in areas affected by conflicts and schooling for girls. Development and improvement in the higher education and vocational training is also a key challenge for African countries, many of which are witnessing the massive student mobility (with its crucial problematics of “brain drain” but also “brain gain”). Some countries stress the need to privatise education to try to achieve international targets. Many of them rely on international support to reach the goals. All these challenges, however, should not obscure the dynamism of African students, the growth of the quality of education in some African countries, such as Morocco, and other visible examples across the Continent. In focusing on education, the purpose of the proposed Series is to examine an institution that is regarded as fundamental in helping African countries face major challenges across the Continent. “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world” said Nelson Mandela. This Series will seek to offer tools for analysing, for understanding and for decision-making concerning contemporary issues of Education in Africa. A basic assumption of the Series is that the perspectives on education in Africa should not be observed, analysed, and strategised from outside Africa. The Series will primarily draw on local knowledge and experience within

xviii  Series editor’s foreword

Africa with the potential to decolonise African education and provide insights by which indigenous knowledge can be promoted and developed. This does not rule out considering perspectives from outside the Continent, especially in the context of globalisation but these will not dominate. This Series, however, will also promote interactions between African and non-African scholars in order to explore the implication for education in Africa. Yet the focus will always be on education in and for African people, the way such education can be enhanced, the factors that influence it and future directions in which it can develop. The present book on psychosocial environments in African schools could not come at a better time. While COVID-19 has highlighted the importance of this issue, it is not only an issue to be considered in the pandemic and postpandemic contexts. As the book argues, schools need to be spaces that encourage care, well-being, and connectedness. These are qualities for all schools in all times. Developing an ethics of care as the guiding moral principle in schools is a tall order that needs serious consideration. The arguments in this book provide a good starting point so it is a very welcome addition to the Series. Kerry J. Kennedy Series Editor Joseph Divala, Juliet Perumal, & Elizabeth Henning Co-Series Editors

Chapter 1

Thinking in terms of systems and why this is important for understanding nodes of care and support Vanessa Scherman

Introduction Creating supportive social and educational environments is an important function that schools fulfil in fostering the health and well-being of the learners who attend (Kozina, 2015; Rajan et al., 2015). This is perhaps not surprising as learners spend a substantial amount of their day at school, engaging in either learning or extracurricular activities. While the assertion that schools matter is not new and has a long history within the field of school effectiveness research, the manner in which schools foster connectedness for the overall well-being of learners is not always clear (Lieben et al., 2018). This is perhaps not surprising given the emphasis on academic outcomes, but a sense of connection provides the foundation for the development of personal capabilities to engage in society (Bower et al., 2015). Schools are thus uniquely situated as potential sites for targeted interventions that stimulate the overall well-being of the learners who attend. Furthermore, it has been established that if a school and teachers promote a supportive environment, then learners will feel connected to their school and cared for by their peers which is an important protective factor against risk behaviour (Rajan et al., 2015). This connectedness to schools cannot be underestimated in terms of promoting prosocial and academic motivation, self-esteem, conflict resolution, and altruistic behaviour and can be used as a predictor of rates of dropout, and truancy in addition to other negative behaviours (Bradshaw et al., 2014). The need for connectedness is based on the need for relatedness and is met through institutions, such as schools, as well as individuals (Niehaus et  al., 2016). Connectedness can be described as the degree to which individuals feel socially close and share resources (Foster et al., 2017). When considering social connectedness, it is important to take cognisance of relational components or the bond with others together with autonomy components or being valued while being in a relationship (Bower et al., 2015). The idea of connectedness can be directly applied to schools and is defined as learners holding the belief that those in power within the school care about them not only in terms of academic learning but as individuals as well. Here social affiliations, school

DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-1

2  Vanessa Scherman

belonging, attitude towards the school, and a supportive learning environment become important facets to explore and consider (Marraccini & Brier, 2017). The very concept of connectedness is enacted through the systems in which they take place.

Exploring schools as systems within broader systems The world is made up of interconnected systems, and it is important to understand how systems work and interact to produce particular outcomes (Danish & Thompson, 2017). The school system, for example, can be conceived of as a subsystem within a much broader societal and, indeed, global system. Godman (2018) states that thinking in systems means events are observed, and if observed over time, insights into the patterns of behaviour can be noted. Once this is accomplished, the underlying structures that drive the events and patterns can be explored. Additionally, a system’s perspective acknowledges that the relationships between problems and their causes are often complex, indirect, and not immediately obvious. There are, thus, collectively generated patterns of behaviour which are referred to as system dynamics (Rosas, 2017). So how would systems work? A  system is understood as comprising many interconnected components that produce patterns of behaviour intended to meet a core purpose or goal of the system. Through these interconnections and patterns of behaviour, systems are also self-sustaining, utilising various feedback, and reinforcing loops that are inherent to the system (Meadows, 2008). From this perspective, meaningful issues can be addressed by changing or improving the relationships between various parts. This can often occur via one or two coordinated and sustained changes, impacting the larger system (Stroh, 2015). To make meaningful changes, however, we need to uncover elements and relationships, as well as an understanding of how the system functions overall (Meadows, 2008). Therefore, it is important to make sense of the various system structures, and the related interrelationships, as these are essential factors in the system. In understanding how these affect one another, sometimes in obvious but often non-obvious ways, change in the system is more likely (Senge, 2006; Stroh, 2015). It should also be noted that the power of systems thinking lies in the fact that the aim is to simplify, to get to the essence of what is going on (Mathison, 2005). We intuitively know about systems thinking as reflected in popular sayings such as “those who don’t learn history are doomed to repeat it” or “a leopard does not change its spots.” These patterns embedded within structures are referred to as system archetypes. Often these system archetypes hold the key to understanding and learning (Senge, 2006). Furthermore, by understanding the system dynamics the impact of different trade-offs can be anticipated, thus assisting in making informed decisions (Godman, 2018).

Thinking in terms of systems 3

The education system, by its very nature, has an interwoven structure, including social structures, such as the state, families, organised teacher groups, business and industry, and often religious organisations. It is important to acknowledge the embeddedness of the system as it relates to the broader community and the nation. Further, the policies and rules that govern this particular system can be inferred from the relationship patterns as well as the interaction patterns within the system. Essentially reflecting the values and norms within the system as well as the broader community, the school system in itself has unique patterns of change over time. There is, therefore, a need to examine the deeper systemic structures underlying events, an attempt to understand how mental models and “artifacts” like school design and metrics shape structures (Senge et al., 2019).

The disruptive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on school systems The COVID-19 pandemic has had a far-reaching impact on both school and classroom climate. Social distancing became a reality of school life and to meet the strict social distancing measures, schools have been forced to be very creative in the way they accommodate learners. This is especially so within the African context. Some schools have opted for certain grades to be at school in the morning while others are at school in the afternoon. Other schools have opted to accommodate grades on alternating days to ensure that all learners can be at school on certain days of the week. Teachers may also be required to teach half of their learners on certain days and the other half on other days, meaning that double teaching will need to take place (Willie, 2020). Relatedly, the mental health of teachers and learners has become an important concern within the context of COVID-19. Societies have become anxious and this is sustained with the continued worldwide cases of COVID-19 infections as well as deaths. Caregiver exhaustion is a reality given the juggling of multiple roles (van der Berg & Spaul, 2020) with research indicating increased rates of substance abuse, depression, fear, loneliness, domestic violence, and child abuse (Soland et al., 2020). Children are especially at risk as research has indicated the possibility of lasting psychological distress stemming from the pandemic (Radesky, 2020). Furthermore, full school closures and later partial access have meant a lack of access to resources that children would normally have access to, including the normal school routine that could have been a source of comfort for children struggling with mental health issues (Lee, 2020). There is, therefore, a need to reinforce the educational system with schools at the centre, as communities of care, now that the schools have returned to normal functioning. This also means that the connectedness to various community institutions and among individuals will need to be re-established.

4  Vanessa Scherman

Creating nodes of care with schools at the centre Part of the promise held when thinking of schools as nodes of care and enabling spaces lies the global commitment to the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The SDGs take a holistic systems approach to understanding positive outcomes for both people and the environment (Raikes et al., 2017). Bearing in mind that the SDGs draw on three interconnected systems, namely environmental, social, and economic, Meadow (2008) urges us to unpack what each system exemplifies and explore how our values align with this. For our purposes in this edited collection of papers, two SDGs are of vital importance, namely SDG4 that speaks to the quality of education and SDG3 that speaks to ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages. When thinking about enabling environments, and indeed nodes of care, it is important to view the system as a whole. When reflecting on the SDGs and specifically the quality of education, systems models rooted in school effectiveness research come to mind. UNICEF (2022) defines the quality of education as essential to learning and development which is influenced by factors inside and outside schools and classrooms, all of which are captured within school effectiveness literature. There have been a number of conceptual models for school effectiveness that are based on systems thinking and that highlight enabling factors within a school environment. The models selected typically follow a systems model with inputs, processes, and context of schooling; have multilevel structures; and include complex causal structures, where certain components are dynamic and certain components are static (Scherman, 2007). Creemers (1994), for example, developed a model that focused specifically on the classroom-level and includes the essentials of effective instruction elements, as can be seen in his integrated model for educational effectiveness. The integrated model developed by Creemers makes provision for the assumption that higher-level school organisation and context conditions facilitate lower-level conditions. Similarly, Scheerens (2000) theorised a context-inputprocess-output model that originated in systems thinking has been widely used in school effectiveness research. In the model, indicators associated with the inputs into the system, the processes through the system, and the output are central. Key process-level factors at the school level are educational leadership, cooperation among teachers, quality curricula, and orderly environments (Scheerens et al., 2003). Classroom-level factors to note include time on task, opportunity to learn, structured teaching, and reinforcement to name a few. A more recent model, postulated by Creemers and Kyriakides (2008), based on a critical review of literature, highlights the quality of teaching. While these models do focus on primarily on academic outcomes, it has been acknowledged that there is a need for the inclusion of factors related to whole-person development (Scherman, 2007; Howie et al., 2017). Inevitably systems that deal with human interaction are complex, especially when accounting for individual well-being. Within systems thinking, a

Thinking in terms of systems 5

framework is provided in order to examine the parts within the whole and thus provide a holistic perspective in ways that can support our understanding of how best to support well-being (Jokela et al., 2008). Furthermore, when considering contexts of inequality the lens used to support positive outcomes needs to be nuanced (Hoadley & Galant, 2015). This is because ecological constraints need to be acknowledged in addition to risk factors such as unequal opportunities and barriers that disrupt equal progress. Ebersöhn (2016) clearly asserts that protective resources located in contexts buffer risk factors, meaning that the effect is substantially decreased or removed altogether. Thus, both risk and protective factors within a school environment have to be considered in conceptualising enabling system spaces. Ebersöhn’s (2016) argument is reflected in Figure 1.1. Clearly, enabling schools as nodes of care is seen as a means of supporting, alongside learning, the developmental outcomes of subjective and objective health and well-being, as well as social mobility and cohesion. Schools are central to the lives of children and youth. Outside of family, schools remain the developmental asset most widely available to children and youth (Frønes, 2010). Indeed, the potential of schools to be “game changers” in the lives of vulnerable children is widely recognised (Samel et al., 2011) as is the critical role school-based professionals can play in enhancing the resilience of vulnerable youth (Noltemeyer  & Bush, 2013). However, as Toland and Carrigan (2011) argue, schools do not consistently realise this potential. It is, therefore, essential to expand our understanding of the practices that schools and schoolbased professionals can use to help learners improve psychosocial outcomes. The intent of this book is to provide a theoretical and applied framework from which intersectoral stakeholders can work to achieve such ends. The scope of the book covers various components of the school system as encountered in sub-Saharan Africa. Stakeholders outside of the formal education system, but with a vested interest in education, are also included. These conceptual and applied frameworks are necessarily given the current social milieu in which children find themselves. Increased interpersonal and social demands, violent conflicts, lack of stability, and social strain are but a few challenges negatively impacting children’s development. This context has placed extraordinary demands on schools and staff, necessitating a renewed understanding of how to better support children’s developmental needs. Resilience research findings suggest a holistic and integrated community focus (see, for example, Liebenberg, 2020; Liebenberg  & Scherman, 2021). The chapters included in the book speak directly to these challenges. Chapter 2, authored by Liebenberg, highlights the bi-directional thinking of resilience embedded in schools as nodes of care. Educational opportunities, systems and environments, are possibly the most researched contextual resources. Simultaneously, irrespective of context, schools are also the most readily available support resources for children and youth living in adverse contexts. Furthermore, the positioning of schools in the lives of young people, and the capacity

6  Vanessa Scherman

Figure 1.1  R isk and protective factors in an educational context to foster an enabling space Source: Author created from Ebersöhn (2016)

of these educational spaces to support positive psychosocial outcomes in addition to educational outcomes, remains complex. What is clearly highlighted is that collaboration between community-based groups is essential. Integration is required, where community-based resources weave themselves together. This

Thinking in terms of systems 7

approach is more likely to successfully draw on the richness of expertise and experience located throughout communities. Smit, in Chapter 3, speaks to the power of the working environment facilitated by relational leadership that has to be addressed in the developing educational communities of care rather than national education policies. Indeed, the concept of relational leadership brings together the idea of integration from a leadership position. Schools as communities of care can be enabled by relational leadership. As such Smit proposes that effective educational leadership and management for the successful operation of schools is critical for valuable teaching and learning. In addition, managing relationships, preserving harmony in schools, and how teacher empowerment can be optimised are highlighted. The concept of teacher empowerment and relationships between teachers and learners are highlighted in Chapter 4. Chapter 4, authored by Mohangi, speaks to advancing relational well-being for school success. The chapter explores the literature on teacher–student relationships from a relational well-being perspective. Insights into the association between classroom interactions, well-being, and school success illustrate that positive teacher–student interactions contribute to student well-being and underlie academic achievement. It is highlighted that purposeful construction of well-meaning engagements nurtures attachment, trust, care, and connectedness, and a sense of belonging is essential. It is emphasised that future empirical research should examine the implementation of the proposed model to determine its usefulness in practice. The concept of caring interventions is also emphasised in Chapter 5. Omidere and her co-authors highlight youth perspectives on structural barriers in Chapter 5. The authors describe Grade 9 high school learners in a rural school’s expression of risk factors by sampling data from an existing 10-year data set generated by academic service-learning (ASL). From the analysis, it was apparent that young people prioritise risk associated with structural disparity as barriers to their development. These structural barriers include the low socioeconomic status standard of living (poverty, a lack of infrastructure resources, and unemployment), and uneven education structures (the language of learning and teaching, lack of learning resources). The authors argue that from a youth perspective, caring interventions would imply interventions that trouble and change structural barriers. The theme of ASL is continued in Chapter 6, authored by Ebersöhn, where flourishing learning youth (FLY) partnership is described. FLY is a 10-year university-collaboration with a rural high school. One focus of FLY is for educational psychology-students-in-training to provide services to Grade 9 high school learners who would usually not have access to this resource. The study described concludes that from a youth perspective, there is over-time evidence that curricular interventions (such as ASL) by universities (or other higher education institutions) are low threshold pathways to positively impact youth development to build communities in comparable spaces facing extreme adversity and vulnerability to maladaptation and negative outcomes.

8  Vanessa Scherman

From a focus on ASL programmes, the chapters then transition into different aspects of schooling and the school environment, as seen in Chapter 7, where Nkoana and Ebersöhn draw our attention to interventions that enable positive psychological outcomes. Specifically, they explore African school-based interventions aimed at enabling learning, development, and well-being. Their meta-summary addresses fragmented knowledge on interventions that enable educational psychology outcomes. The authors conclude that enabling learning, development, and well-being on an individual (student-level) are favoured rather than systemic (school-community) views on enabling pathways. Against the considerations of the opening chapters, Nkoana and Ebersöhn’s review highlights an important gap in schools functioning as more effective child and youth supports. Recommendations are made for policymakers, health care professionals, and development agencies. In Chapter 8, Zimmerman moves to school-enabling pathways and focuses on the review of school-based practices as part of a community of care for reading literacy development. There is a large corpus of knowledge on effective schools for reading literacy development from developed country contexts but less so from developing contexts such as South Africa. There is a specific paucity of research on the promotion of reading literacy in schooling contexts that are less than optimal due to teaching, learner, context, and resource factors. The chapter explores the school contexts and resources that can promote reading literacy for academic resilience in South African schools, where the majority of learners struggle in their development of reading literacy. Ferreira, in Chapter 9, then draws attention to the importance of spiritual intelligence as part of how schools as nodes of care are conceptualised. Many South African secondary school contexts are seen as sites of social and moral degeneration, alongside socioeconomic disparities and inequalities that are remnants of the apartheid era. Drawing from King’s model of spiritual intelligence (SQ, 2007), Ferreira shows how SQ embodies distinct mental capacities that serve as a multifaceted source of adaptation and coping and problemsolving through abstract existential reasoning. The development of SQ thus becomes a pathway for schools to evolve into communities of care. Moving away from spiritual intelligence to the context of children in conflict with the law, the focus of Tlale’s work is given in Chapter 10. Tlale emphasises children’s right to appropriate education, care, and support, including those who have come into conflict with the law. Tlale is of the opinion that there is a dearth of information when it comes to children in conflict with the law and resilience processes. These children are more likely than nonoffenders to be exposed to trauma at an early age. Therefore, knowing how these children react and adapt to their situations is an important step in understanding what can and needs to be done to help prevent them from becoming and/or continuing to be involved in antisocial behaviour. Tlale notes that existing literature emphasises social-ecological theory, which promotes resilience by having children in conflict with the law display positive behaviour learned from

Thinking in terms of systems 9

observation rather than a predisposition to negative self-belief. From children in conflict with the law, we move to resilience process and nodes of care as related to children that are differently abled. Weber and Olivier, in Chapter 11, state that numerous studies have addressed how school ecologies facilitate resilience in learners made vulnerable by various risks. However, only a limited number of studies focus on understanding how school ecologies can support the resilience of learners with intellectual impairment. Their own findings give insight into the perspectives of the learners and their caregivers on how schools can facilitate resilience. Identifying and understanding the interaction of protective factors at play in the resilience processes supporting learners with intellectual impairments, and how these processes are similar to and different from resilience in other learners, provides knowledge and insight into how school ecologies can promote resilience in children experiencing additional vulnerability as a result of their intellectual impairment. Finally, in Chapter  12, Moll highlights that a person’s environment has a huge impact on the experience of being differently abled. She makes the point that inclusive education is designed to meet the individual needs of every student, including raising awareness of the rights of children living with disabilities. The stigma or superstitions surrounding learners with impairments are often factors that prevent learners from attending school. Moll argues that it is not just about providing accommodations for learners but also about raising awareness of their needs and strengths to others engaged in the school system. Importantly, this requires the involvement of the community. When parents, teachers, learners, and others view one another as partners in education, a caring community that forms around learners builds a cooperative school milieu, as an avenue to improve the well-being of learners who experience learning and developmental challenges.

Conclusion Working in education means understanding the whole system as well as the systems to which the education system is connected. Considered from an SDGs lens, we also need to account for the economic, social, and environmental systems in which schools are embedded. In terms of social systems that effectively support child and youth well-being, including educational spaces, connectedness becomes an essential component. It is here that the notion of schools as nodes of care becomes important. In essence, schools as nodes of care are exemplified in how care and support are provided in a creative manner to efficiently use resources to their disposal as well as leverage resources from the community. Relatedly, a system dynamics framework supports an understanding of the real issues confronting children and youth, and the contexts they are functioning in, as well as how the challenges and limitations of these contexts can be addressed. In terms of quality education, there are several factors that need to be considered. These factors are encapsulated in conceptual models

10  Vanessa Scherman

rooted in school effectiveness research. For a school to be effective, the school has to create an enabling environment. This does mean that when we work with schools, interventions are introduced that some change will occur. However, given system dynamics, this may not always be the case. To address issues related to creating schools as nodes of care, it is important to have a long-term view, to work within the system, and to get the community to realise that they have the power of change agency.

References Bower, J. M., van Kraayenoord, C., & Carroll, A. (2015). Building social connectedness in schools: Australian teachers’ perspectives. International Journal of Educational Research, 70, 101–109. Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., Debnam, K. J., & Lindstrom Johnson, S. (2014). Measuring school climate in high schools: A focus on safety engagement and the environment. Journal of School Health, 84(9), 593–604. Brainin, F., Merrild, K., Rueskov, V., & Skovdal, M. (2020). “You need to know in order to help”: How HIV-related stigma obstructs pastoral care in Kenyan primary schools. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 15(2), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128. 2019.1668582 Burgess, S.,  & Sievertse, H. H. (2020). Schools, skills, and learning: The impact of COVID-19 on education. VOX CEPR Policy Portal. https://voxeu.org/article/impactcovid-19-education Creemers, B. P. M. (1994). Effective instruction: An empirical basis for a theory of educational effectiveness. In D. Reynolds, B. P. M. Creemers, P. S. Nesselrodt, E. C. Schaffer, & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Advances in school effectiveness research and practice (pp. 189–205). Pergamon. Creemers, B. P. M., & Kyriakides, L. (2008). The dynamics of educational effectiveness: A contribution to policy, practice and theory in contemporary schools. Routledge. Danish, J., & Thompson, N. (2017). Systems thinking. In K. Peppler (Ed.), The Sage encyclopaedia of out-of-school learning (pp. 762–766). Sage. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/97814 83385198.n290 Ebersöhn, L. (2016, March 17–18). Resilience, social connectedness and education in challenging contexts [Conference]. Presented at Plenary session of 17th Global Development Network Conference. www.gdn.int/admin/uploads/editor/files/Lies el%20plenary%20session%20 C%202016%2002% 2025.pdf Ebersohn, L. (2019). Flocking together: An indigenous psychology theory of resilience in Southern Africa. Springer. Foster, C. E., Horwitz, A., Thomas, A., Opperman, K., Gipson, P., Burnside, A., Stone, D. M., & King, C. A. (2017). Connectedness to family, school, peers, and community in socially vulnerable adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 81, 321–331. Frønes, I. (2010). Status zero youth in the welfare society. Child Indicators Research, 3(3), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-009-9056-4 Godman, M. (2018). Systems thinking: What, why, when, where, and how? https://thesystemsthinker.com/systems-thinking-what-why-when-where-and-how/ Hoadley, U., & Galant, J. (2015). The organisation of schools that succeed against the odds. Southern African Review of Education, 21(2), 29–52.

Thinking in terms of systems 11 Howie, S. J., Scherman, V., & van Staden, S. (2017). Frameworks for the analysis of monitoring data related to achievement. In V. Scherman, R. J. Bosker, & S. J. Howie (Eds.), Monitoring the quality of education in schools: Examples of feedback into education systems from developed and emerging economies (pp. 161–194). Sense Publishers. Jokela, P., Karlsudd, P., & Östlund, M. (2008). Theory, method and tools for evaluation: Using a systems-based approach. The Electronic Journal Information Systems Evaluation, 11(3), 197–212. King, D. B. (2007). Extracting intelligence from spirituality: A  new model of human ability. AMINSS (Psychology). www.dbking.net/present/thomashb Kozina, A. (2015). Aggressive behavior in primary schools: The predictive power of school and home environments. Educational Studies, 41(1–2), 109–121. Lee, J. (2020). Mental health effects of school closures during COVID-19. Lancet Child Adolescent Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30109-7 Lieben, V. S., Warne, M., Huot, S., Rudman, D. L., & Raasnaas, R. K. (2018). A photovoice study of school belongingness among high school students in Norway. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 77(1), 1421369. https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2017.1421369 Liebenberg, L. (2020). Reconsidering interactive resilience processes in mental health: Implications for child and youth services. Journal of Community Psychology, 1–16. http:// doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22331 Liebenberg, L., & Scherman, V. (2021). Resilience and the sustainable development goals (SDGs): Promoting child and youth resilience and related mental health outcomes. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 31(5), 455–463. http://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2021.1978180 Marraccini, M. E., & Brier, Z. M. F. (2017). School connectedness and suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A systemic meta-analysis. School Psychology Quarterly, 32(1), 5–21. http:// doi.org/10.1037/spq0000192 Mathison, S. (2005). Systems and systems thinking. In  Encyclopedia of evaluation (pp. 406–412). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950558.n537 Meadows, D. H. (2008). Thinking in systems: A primer. Chelsea Green Publishing. Niehaus, K., Irvin, M. J.,  & Rogelberg, S. (2016). School connectedness and valuing as predictors of high school completion and postsecondary attendance among Latino youth. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 44–45, 54–67. Noltemeyer, A. L., & Bush, K. R. (2013). Adversity and resilience: A synthesis of international research. School Psychology International, 34(5), 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0143034312472758 Osher, D., Dwyer, K. P., Jimerson, S. R., & Brown, J. A. 2012. Developing safe, supportive, and effective schools: Facilitating student success to reduce school violence. In S. R. Jimerson, A. B. Nickerson, M. J. Mayer, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety: International research and practice (2nd ed., pp. 27–44). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Radesky, J. (2020). Supporting children’s mental health during COVID-19 school closures. NEIJM Journal Watch. www.jwatch.org/na51491/2020/05/08/supporting-childrensmental-health-during-covid-19-school Raikes, A., Yoshikawa, H., Britto, P. R., & Iruka, I. (2017). Children, youth and developmental science in the 2015–2030 global sustainable development goals. Society for Research in Child Development, Social Policy Report, 30(3), 1–23. Rajan, S., Namdar, R., & Ruggles, K. V. (2015). Aggressive and violent behaviors in the school environment among a nationally representative sample of adolescent youth. Journal of School Health, 85(7), 446–457.

12  Vanessa Scherman Rosas, S. R. (2017). Systems thinking and complexity: Considerations for health promoting schools. Health Promotion International, 32(2), 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/ dav109 Samel, A., Sondergeld, T., Fischer, J., & Patterson, N. (2011). The secondary school pipeline: Longitudinal indicators of resilience and resistance in urban schools under reform. The High School Journal, 94, 95–118. 10.1353/hsj.2011.0005 Scheerens, J. (2000). Improving school effectiveness. UNESCO. Scheerens, J., Glas, C., & Thomas, S. M. (2003). Educational evaluation, assessment and monitoring: A systemic approach. Swets and Zeitlinger Publishers. Scherman, V. (2007). The validity of value-added measures in secondary school (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Pretoria. Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of learning organisations. Currency Publishers. Senge, P. M., Boell, M., Cook, L., Martin, J., Lynn, K., Haygaru, T., Gruen, S., & Urrea, C. (2019). Introduction to the compassionate systems framework. The Center for Systems Awareness. https://jwel.mit.edu/sites/mit-jwel/files/assets/files/intro-compassionatesystemsframe work-march-2019_0.pdf Shepard, D., & Mohohlwane, N. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 in education—more than a year of disruption. 11.-Shepherd-D-_-Mohohlwane-N.-2021.-Changes-in-education-Areflection-on-COVID-19-effects-over-a-year.pdf (cramsurvey.org) Soland, J., Kuhfeld, M., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on student achievement and what it may mean for educators. www.brookings. edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2020/05/27/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-studentachievement-andwhat-it-may-mean-foreducators/?utm_source=feedblitz&utm_medium= FeedBlitzRss&utm_campaign=brookingsrss/topfeeds/brown_center_chalkboard Stroh, D. P. (2015). Systems thinking for social change. Chelsea Green Publishing. Toland, J., & Carrigan, D. (2011). Educational psychology and resilience: New concept, new opportunities. School Psychology International, 32(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0143034310397284 UNICEF. (2022). Quality of education. Quality of education | UNICEF South Asia. van der Berg, S., & Spaull, N. (2020). Counting the cost: COVID-19 school closures in South Africa and its impacts on children. Research on Socioeconomic Policy (RESEP), Stellenbosch University. Willie, A. P. (2020). Are we there yet. The Daily Observer. www.pressreader.com/article/ 281762746490352

Chapter 2

Schools as nodes of care Bi-directional thinking on resilience in children and the community Linda Liebenberg

Introduction In their review of the resilience literature, Tol et  al. (2013) conclude that “research shows that a supportive socio-ecological context is at least as an important—if not more important—determinant of resilience as individual variables” (p.  456). While their review pertains to children and adolescents living in contexts of armed conflict, the importance of contextual resources in supporting both individual assets and relational resources is increasingly apparent. Many longitudinal studies (Hall et al., 2014; Luthar, 1991; Rutter & Quinton, 1984; Sameroff  & Rosenblum, 2006) have made major contributions to our understanding of resilience, identifying the personal assets and contextual resources that predict successful mental health and social adjustment in contexts of adversity. More importantly, these studies have also set the foundations for clarifying and explaining how the interaction of these protective resilience components promotes such adaptation. And, as Tol and colleagues state, context is critical to child and youth outcomes. Educational opportunities, systems and environments, are possibly the most researched contextual resources. Simultaneously, irrespective of context, schools are also the most readily available support resources for children and youth living in adverse contexts. They are also the spaces where many children spend most of their time. As we move towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2018), this will become a reality for ever more numbers of young people. Educational environments can offer opportunities for personal skills development (including but not limited to cognitive skills, problem-solving, and emotional development such as self-efficacy and capacity for empathy) (Herbers et al., 2012; Toland & Carrigan, 2011), neurocognitive development (Baker et al., 2012), and acquisition of relational resources through both peers and teachers (Rutter, 2013; Ferreira, this publication; Mohangi, this publication; Tlale, this publication). As many chapters in this collection show, through relational resources, schools can also serve as a key access point to contextual resources (Moll, this publication; Omidire et al., this publication). However, the potential for educational systems to serve as a key resilience resource for

DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-2

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individuals is not guaranteed. In many ways, schools can also augment existing marginalisation and experiences of inequalities (Frønes, 2010; Sanders et al., 2018). The very real and systemic ways in which educational systems currently support, for example, the so-called “school-to-prison pipeline” (Wald & Losen, 2003) reflect how school climate and educational policies can and do at times amplify young people’s sense of alienation and their resulting engagement in activities such as crime (Sanders & Munford, 2016; Tlale, this publication). Where schools are supporting and welcoming, they stand to promote positive youth development (Mohangi, this publication). Where schools are punitive and exclusionary, however, they augment the challenges learners are managing, facilitating the pathways of vulnerable youth into poorer psychosocial outcomes. Accordingly, the need to explore the functioning of educational spaces in the lives of children as well as their families and the communities in which they are situated is apparent (Nkoana & Ebersöhn, this publication). The positioning of schools in the lives of young people, and the capacity of these educational spaces to support positive psychosocial in addition to educational outcomes, remains complex (Nkoana & Ebersöhn, this publication). As a central and readily available resource in the lives of especially youth at risk of poor outcomes, understanding how actors in educational systems can enhance their support for young people is critical (Moll, this publication; Tlale, this publication; Weber & Olivier, this publication; Zimmerman, this publication). Here, research demonstrating the role of relationships in the resilience processes of youth provides insights. Relationships with teachers can have a powerful impact on personal perceptions—meaning-making—and the related decisions made by learners (Liebenberg, 2020). The ways in which individuals perceive the relevance and availability of relational and contextual resources will impact how they engage with their social and physical environment. This engagement will, in turn, impact subsequent pathways and outcomes. Seen in this way, schools and school staff have the potential to be central resources in the shaping of meaningmaking processes and related choices and behaviours of young people (Ferreira, this publication; Mohangi, this publication). Concomitantly, schools are part of communities, and the interactive support role between educational and other community-based resources is of equal importance in understanding how to best support positive outcomes for children and youth (Smit, this publication). This chapter focuses on these multiple and bi-directional relationships that centre around schools, reviewing resilience theory relating to children and youth, positioning schools and community resilience as core mechanisms related to positive processes and outcomes.

Social-ecological process resilience Egeland et al. (1993) have defined resilience as a transactional process within an organizational framework. From this perspective, developmental outcomes are determined by the interaction of

Schools as nodes of care 15

genetic, biological, psychological and sociological factors in the context of environmental support. According to this view, any constitutional or environmental factors may serve as vulnerability, protective, or risk variables, directly or indirectly influencing behaviour. (p. 517) Their definition continues to be echoed in more recent explanations of the phenomenon (see, for example, Masten, 2014). Most contemporary definitions emphasise the interactive processes between three core elements (individual capacity and relational and physical resources located in the individual’s context), in supporting improved outcomes in the presence of non-normative stressors and adversity (Herbers et al., 2012; Luthar, 2006; Vanderbilt-Adriance & Shaw, 2008). These three broad resilience elements feed into a cycle, where transformations within the individual are shaped and supported by interaction with relational and physical resources. Contextual resources facilitate the development of individual assets. As individual assets are increased, the person gains greater access to external resources which in turn bolster individual assets (Sroufe, 2009; Supkoff et al., 2012). Individual assets include factors such as cognitive abilities (Luthar, 2006; Masten, 2014; Parritz  & Troy, 2010; Sameroff  & Rosenblum, 2006), executive function (Karatoreos  & McEwen, 2013; Masten  & Obradović, 2006); easy temperament (Parritz  & Troy, 2010), a positive outlook (Alessi, 2016; Parritz & Troy, 2010), sense of humour (Kuiper, 2012), effective self-control (Betancourt  & Khan, 2008; Moffitt et  al., 2011), creative thinking (Corley, 2010), agency (Betancourt et  al., 2010), adaptability and competence (Masten & Obradović, 2006). Research has demonstrated, however, the importance of available and accessible contextual resources (Masten, 2014), especially relationships, in fostering and developing these individual capacities (Mohangi, this publication). These findings implicate collective social responsibility in supporting individual capacity (Liebenberg, 2020). Relationships have been identified as especially important to the successful development of individual resilience assets including mastery motivation (Supkoff et  al., 2012), executive function (Sroufe, 2009; Zelazo  & Carlson, 2012), problem-solving skills (Sroufe, 2009; Supkoff et  al., 2012), prosocial attitudes and behaviours (Betancourt et al., 2010; Betancourt & Khan, 2008), and meaning-making frameworks (Liebenberg, 2020; Park, 2010). Adults outside of the family who provide caring and supportive social networks for children and adolescents are key relational resources (Liebenberg et al., 2016; Sanders et al., 2016; Sroufe, 2009). These adults include mentors, role models, teachers, and other community members. A common feature of all these relationships is a stable and trusting environment in which open communication can occur and meaningful support can be provided (Alessi, 2016; Finkenauer & Righetti, 2011). Furthermore, resilience research has demonstrated how relational resources can support key turning points to life trajectories redirecting harmful or maladaptive strategies to healthier prosocial ones (Helgeson &

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Lopez, 2010; Rutter, 2013). These experiences of stability and trust are augmented by broader community acceptance (Betancourt et al., 2010), reflected in interactive experiences with broader peer group (for example school peers and neighbours) which facilitates a sense of belonging. Relational resources serve as a conduit between the development of personal resilience assets, and the interactive processes of individuals with contextual resources. One of the earliest studies to most clearly identify these interactions was that of Werner and Smith (1982, 1992, 2001). Their findings highlighted the role of high-quality caregiving in early childhood, as well as positive and supportive relationships with relatives, teachers, and mentors in supporting the development of these individual assets by providing access to resources (Moll, this publication). Subsequent research has further illuminated the interconnections between various individual assets, such as competence (Masten, 2014; Zimmerman, this publication), executive function (Karatoreos  & McEwen, 2013), and intelligence (Sameroff & Rosenblum, 2006; Weber & Olivier, this publication) with contextual resources (including secure attachments, safe communities, and educational opportunities), emphasising the cyclical nature of resilience processes. While physical resources include aspects such as education and recreation, of relevance to this collection, is the fact that these resources often provide a context within which people can interact. It is through these interactions that transformations linked to resilience processes occur. In schools, for example, it is the interaction with teachers that provides learners the opportunity to enhance personal skills such as self-efficacy, competence, and mastery (Pieloch et al., 2016; Rutter, 2013; Toland & Carrigan, 2011). Specifically, it is through encouragement, practical assistance, constructive criticism, and validation during and following tasks that these assets are nurtured. Similarly, school environments provide an important socialising opportunity, where individual assets such as temperament, self-regulation, and agency can be refined (Rutter, 2013; Toland & Carrigan, 2011). The interpersonal relationships developed in educational spaces also expand the support networks of young people. While peer groups provide the opportunity to develop close and meaningful friendships (Masten  & Obradović, 2006; Toland & Carrigan, 2011), teachers (together with other school personnel) provide critical adult supports, especially in instances where children and adolescents come from highly strained family contexts (Mohangi, this publication; Sanders & Munford, 2016; Sanders et al., 2016; Toland & Carrigan, 2011; Tlale, this publication). These relational resources are key supports to young people, providing mentorship, role models, and access to social capital (Doll, 2013; Ferreira, this publication; Moll, this publication; Theron et al., 2014; Weber & Olivier, this publication), all critical factors in shaping personal resilience capacities including meaning-making, sense of agency, and related capacity for positive engagement with resources (Liebenberg, 2020).

Schools as nodes of care 17

Meaning-making frameworks help individuals make sense of how they are situated in this world, and processes their experiences (Kunnan & Bosma, 2000; Park, 2010). The meaning individuals attach to their social contexts and related experiences (including how they perceive threats and personal needs as well as available resources and ways in which to manage threats and needs) will powerfully shape the choices they make (Liebenberg, 2020). Supkoff et al. (2012) argue that as individuals’ ages develop, the interactive experiences they have had with relational and contextual resources—both good and bad—entrench the strategies people use to manage adversity (see also Mohangi, this publication; Tlale, this publication). Their discussion draws our attention to the importance of understanding the ways in which previous developmental interactions and experiences have shaped individual meaning-making frameworks and processes, together with the ways in which these frameworks shape the enactment of agency. Thought of in this way, an individual’s meaning-making framework and meaning-making processes are at the centre of the resilience process (Betancourt & Khan, 2008; Bottrell, 2009; Lerner, 2005; Liebenberg, 2020). These frameworks and processes shape individual capacity to access and draw on resources, and to act in a given environment. For example, Theron and Theron (2014) show how constructive, positive meaning-making frameworks that are culturally informed and culturally congruent enabled the young black South African participants in their study to proactively navigate the challenges of extreme poverty resulting in positive outcomes (see also Nkoana  & Ebersöhn, this publication; Zimmerman, this publication). These youths were able to constructively draw on both their individual and contextual resources to move towards their perceived positive futures (i.e. completing high school and going to university). Findings such as these highlight the importance of both cultural and social contexts. The young people in Theron and Theron’s study drew heavily on the Africentric principle of collectivity to seek out and effectively use social relationships, in particular with adults, such as teachers, as supports in reappraising their life situations and experiences. Similarly, they drew on the Africentric principle of spirituality to make sense of the difficult experiences they had lived through and moved towards more positive goals and outcomes (see also Ferreira, this publication).

Resilience as a community endeavour Current knowledge of resilience underscores the role of context in supporting positive psychosocial outcomes for children. This knowledge begs the questions of where our attention is situated in terms of supporting these outcomes: children themselves, or the families and larger communities that surround them? Resilience research across disciplines would suggest our attention should be on strengthening the social connections, relationships, and structures that weave together our communities. Such an approach asks of us to rethink the role of schools in our communities as well as the ways in which communities

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support schools (Ebersöhn, 2013). In this way we adopt bi-directional thinking about schools, communities, and resilience. Successful resilience processes appear to be an inherently social endeavour and require engagement in positive social interactions to be activated and developed. Of relevance then to understanding effective school-based resilience promotion are resilience informed understandings of community-based resources (Betancourt  & Khan, 2008; Omidere & Ebersöhn, this publication; Williams & Merten, 2014) made available within a cohesive community that can support positive psychosocial and developmental outcomes (Li et al., 2007; Vanderbilt-Adriance & Shaw, 2008). These findings have important implications for school systems and the communities in which they are situated. Cohesive communities, including school spaces, as a contextual resource can foster a sense of social justice and social engagement—both important in facilitating personal self-belief and a sense of belonging (Williams & Merten, 2014). Opportunities for both cultural and social engagement provide, amongst other aspects, a sense of belonging, personal identification, and a sense of cultural heritage; development of personally congruent coping mechanisms and meaning-making systems; and acquisition of relevant role models and life teachings (Evans et al., 2012; Theron et al., 2014). Simultaneously, social engagement provides young people with opportunities to attain a sense of purpose, develop their capacity to contribute meaningfully, and enact their agency in productive and positive ways (Evans et al., 2012). These factors are central to establishing safe, nurturing, and facilitative environments that can effectively activate and nurture children and youth. Schools as sites of social development can be key in these processes (Ebersöhn, 2019). Within this understanding of resilience, a small but important body of research is demonstrating how in especially resource-strained contexts where children and their families are facing numerous interlinked complex challenges, it is schools and school staff, in particular, that are crucial resilience-promoting resources. Research findings highlight the relationships that teachers have with learners as central to these resources (Ebersöhn, 2008; Henderson, 2012; Mohangi, this publication; Sanders  & Munford, 2016; Theron  & Engelbrecht, 2012; Werner & Smith, 1992). Such research demonstrates how schools can powerfully mediate between personal outcomes and contextual adversity (Noltemeyer & Bush, 2013; Toland & Carrigan, 2011; see also Tlale, this publication; Weber  & Olivier, this publication; Zimmerman, this publication). Sharkey et  al. (2008), for example, argue that it is through strategic use of supportive and collaborative relationships that teachers can offset the negative impact of contextual risks for learners. However, studies also highlight how school staff and educational systems can fail vulnerable learners (Toland & Carrigan, 2011) and the deleterious consequences of this for youth (Sanders  & Munford, 2016; Sanders et  al., 2018). Similarly, Reyes et  al. (2013) found that incongruity between school culture and priorities, and community culture and priorities, can cause increased strain on learners and alienate families from

Schools as nodes of care 19

school engagement (see also Omidire et al., this publication). These findings bring into question not just teacher–learner interaction, but indeed the organisational culture of schools, directing attention to school management and leadership as well as local school policy and policies of the education system as a whole (Smit, this publication). Moreover, while teachers and schools function as a system themselves, we should not lose sight of the fact that they are simultaneously part of larger communal, cultural, and socioeconomic systems. So, while “turn around” teachers (Henderson, 2012) who establish authentic and enduring relationships with their learners (Sanders  & Munford, 2016), actively caring for and engaging with learners (Mohangi, this publication; Theron & Engelbrecht, 2012), and fostering competence in learners (Henderson, 2012) may be central to the resilience resources provided in school spaces, teachers who are successful at this, do so within larger engaged and supportive contexts (Henderson, 2012; Omidire et al., this publication; Sanders & Munford, 2016; Smit, this publication). As Theron and Engelbrecht (2012) found, resilience promoting teachers “had access to ecologically diverse social and material resources and made good use of them” (p. 276). These teachers are supported by engaged school leadership, they draw intentionally on other resources located within the school (e.g. alternative spaces and peer relationships); they engage and collaborate with family members and other informal supports within the community; similarly, they engage and collaborate with other professionals situated within the community, around the school or learner; they advocate for necessary resources that may not be accessible or available to learners and their families. As Bottrell and Armstrong (2012) explain, “Policies, regulations, and governance procedures are central influences on schools and community contexts in which young people’s resilience is constructed. Institutional, systemic, and social processes may thus be understood as mediating mechanisms that intersect with personal agency for resilience” (p. 250). Teachers and related educational systems cannot meaningfully support wholistic learner outcomes alone (Omidire et al., this publication). Rather, there is a need for engagement with other local community sectors, including other service providers and local leadership. Similarly, there is a need for effective governance support through policy revision and allocation of resources from national governments as well as international supports (from agencies such as UNICEF and UNESCO) if schools are to be impactful nodes of community resilience and care. Schools are uniquely situated within communities to facilitate access to the resources and related social processes and opportunities that will enable and constrain children’s agency (Bottrell & Armstrong, 2012) within their developmental processes. Accordingly, finding ways of linking with community and building stronger relationships seem key. Identifying needs in the community that schools can respond to seems a first step (Liebenberg  & HuttMacLeod, 2017; Liebenberg  & Scherman, 2021. Approaches to addressing these needs can be used intentionally to not only address need but strengthen

20  Linda Liebenberg

ties, enhancing access to contextually situated resources that teachers can draw on to better support learners. Accordingly, if we are to consider schools as nodes of resilience, we need to consider the school  community relationship, and the ways in which integrated collaboration between the two. Ways need to be found to initial and amplify collaboration between schools and community-based resources (community-based groups, religious institutions, other services, including child-focused services such as child welfare, mental health, etc., but also services such as day care, support programmes for the elderly, police, libraries, businesses, etc.). Everyone could use the input and contribution young people have to make, and all young people can benefit from the supports and resources their community has to offer. This approach however requires more than collaboration between groups. As Hood (2014) argues, it requires integration, where community-based resources weave themselves together. Rather than working aside one another (in ways that collaboration is more likely to foster), recognising the ways in which each group can be significantly strengthened by the contribution of others, and the ways in which each group can significantly contribute to the strengthening of other groups ensures that community collaboration is solidified via integration. This approach is more likely to successfully draw on the richness of expertise and experience located throughout communities. Greater and richer expertise, better position communities to confront and meaningfully manage risk, and where failures occur (and they will occur), holds all members of the community accountable in the healing and revisioning that follows.

Conclusion Social ecological process resilience as it relates to learners directs our attention to the need for educational policies that support the inclusion of relational and contextual resources for young people. As the chapters in this collection show, there is a need for policies that expand the focus of educational systems beyond a narrow emphasis on academic achievement, to include and indeed promote positive development of young people through the establishment of educational spaces that are inclusive and supportive, especially in the face of disruptive and challenging behaviour. Additionally, there is a need for policies that encourage preservice training and continued professional development that can equip teachers with the necessary relational skills required to effectively support youth (Sanders et al., 2016). Finally, there is a need for collaborative service provision within schools, allowing for increased teacher and learner support via additional service providers such as social services and mental health supports. As with policy, consideration needs to be given to the relational and contextual resources that teachers and school administrators require to support the development and at times re-visioning of individual learners’ meaning making frameworks. Again, attention needs to shift from the individual teacher and classroom to an expanded view of the social and physical environments in

Schools as nodes of care 21

which learners and teachers are living. To this end, space should be created for teachers to engage with learners in ways that generate stable relationships in which individual understanding of events and resources can be explored together accounting for individual meaning-making frameworks. A shift in focus away from the individual to relational and physical contexts also requires that resilience-based school environments target not just learners but also families and communities. Here, formal and informal activities and events aimed at strengthening community-school connections and related social networks are especially important to establishing a sense of belonging and reducing alienation (Liebenberg  & Hutt-MacLeod, 2017). Accordingly, resources need to be positioned around and within schools in ways that account for the complexity of young people’s lives and the related relational supports they require to reshape their lives and work towards good outcomes. And they can only do this in an educational context that acknowledges “schools are living communities of people, young and old, and not merely buildings and infrastructure” (Mandela, 2002).

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Schools as nodes of care 23 Liebenberg, L., & Scherman, V. (2021). Resilience and the sustainable development goals (SDGs): Promoting child and youth resilience and related mental health outcomes. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 31(5), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2021.1978180 Liebenberg, L., Theron, L. C., Sanders, J., Munford, R., Van Rensburg, A., Rothmann, S., & Ungar, M. (2016). Bolstering resilience through teacher-learner interaction: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37(2), 140–154. https://doi. org/10.1177/0143034315614689 Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A  study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62(3), 600–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01555.x Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cohen  & D. Cicchetti (Eds.), Development and psychopathology: Risk disorder and adaptation (pp. 739–795). Wiley & Sons. Mandela, N. (2002). Forward. In K. Asmal & W. James (Eds.), Spirit of the nation: Reflections on South Africa’s educational ethos (pp. ix–x). New Africa Education. Masten, A. S. (2014). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development. The Guilford Press. Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1376.003 Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., . . . Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108 Mohangi, K. (this publication). Advancing relational well-being for school success. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Moll, A. (this publication). Schools to accommodate sport participation of learners with a mobility impairment. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Nkoana, L. N.,  & Ebersöhn, L. (this publication). A  meta-summary review of enabling school-based interventions in highly challenged schools in a postcolonial, global south space. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Noltemeyer, A. L., & Bush, K. R. (2013). Adversity and resilience: A synthesis of international research. School Psychology International, 34(5), 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0143034312472758 Omidire, F., Ebersöhn, L., & Ramollo, D. (this publication). Youth perspective on structural barriers. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: An integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 257–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018301 Parritz, R., & Troy, M. (2010). Disorders of childhood. Wadsworth. Pieloch, K. A., McCullough, M. B., & Marks, A. K. (2016). Resilience of children with refugee statuses: A research review. Special Issue: Immigrants and Refugees/Les Immigrants et Les Refugiees, 57(4), 330–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000073 Reyes, J. A., Elias, M. J., Parker, S. J., & Rosenblatt, J. L. (2013). Promoting educational equity of disadvantaged youth: The role of resilience and social-emotional learning. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (2nd ed., pp. 349– 370). Springer.

24  Linda Liebenberg Rutter, M. (2013). Annual research review: Resilience—clinical implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 54(4), 474–487. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02615.x Rutter, M.,  & Quinton, D. (1984). Long-term follow-up of women institutionalised in childhood: Factors promoting good functioning in adult life. British Journal of Psychology Developmental Psychology, 18, 225–234. Sameroff, A. J., & Rosenblum, K. L. (2006). Psychosocial constraints on the development of resilience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 116–124. https://doi. org/10.1196/annals.1376.010 Sanders, J., Liebenberg, L., & Munford, J. (2018). The impact of school exclusion on later justice system involvement: Investigating the experiences of male and female learners. Educational Review. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2018.1513909 Sanders, J., & Munford, R. (2016). Fostering a sense of belonging at school—five orientations to practice that assist vulnerable youth to create a positive learner identity. School Psychology International, 37(2), 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034315614688 Sanders, J., Munford, R., & Liebenberg, L. (2016). The role of teachers in building resilience of at risk youth. International Journal of Educational Research, 80, 111–123. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2016.10.002 Sharkey, J., You, S., & Schnoebelen, K. (2008). Relations among school assets, individual resilience, and learner engagement for youth grouped by level of family functioning. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 402–418. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20305 Smit, B. (this publication). Building schools as enabling spaces through relational leadership and an ethic of care. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Sroufe, L. A. (2009). The concept of development in developmental psychopathology. Child Development Perspectives, 3(3), 178–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00103.x Supkoff, L. M., Puig, J., & Sroufe, L. A. (2012). Situating resilience in developmental context. In M. Ungar (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 127–142). Springer. Theron, L. C., & Engelbrecht, P. (2012). Caring teachers: Teacher-youth transactions to promote resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 265–280). Springer. Theron, L. C., Liebenberg, L.,  & Malindi, M. (2014). When schooling experiences are respectful of children’s rights: A  pathway to resilience. School Psychology International, 35(3), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723713503254 Theron, L. C.,  & Theron, A. M. C. (2014). Education services and resilience processes: Resilient black South African learners’ experiences. Child and Youth Services Review, 47(3), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.10.003 Tlale, L. D. N. (this publication). Resilience resources for children in conflict with the law: The role of socio-ecological care and support. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Tol, W. A., Song, S., & Jordans, M. J. D. (2013). Annual research review: Resilience and mental health in children and adolescents living in areas of armed conflict—a systematic review of findings in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 54(4), 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12053 Toland, J.,  & Carrigan, D. (2011). Educational psychology and resilience: New concept, new opportunities. School Psychology International, 32(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0143034310397284 United Nations. (2018). Sustainable development knowledge platform. United Nations. https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/

Schools as nodes of care 25 Vanderbilt-Adriance, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2008). Conceptualizing and re-evaluating resilience across levels of risk, time, and domains of competence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(1–2), 30–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0031-2 Wald, J., & Losen, D. J. (2003). Defining and redirecting a school-to-prison pipeline. New Directions for Youth Development, 2003(99), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.51 Weber, C., & Olivier, H. (this publication). School as a community of care in facilitating resilience among learners with intellectual disability. In V. Scherman  & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible. McGraw Hill. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Cornell University Press. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience and recovery. Cornell University Press. Williams, A. L.,  & Merten, M. J. (2014). Linking community, parenting, and depressive symptom trajectories: Testing resilience models of adolescent agency based on race/ ethnicity and gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(9), 1563–1575. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10964-014-0141-8 Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives, 6(4), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00246.x Zimmerman, L. (this publication). Building learners’ reading literacy for academic resilience in challenging reading literacy development contexts. In V. Scherman & L. Liebenberg (Eds.), Schools as enabling spaces: Building communities of care. Routledge.

Chapter 3

 uilding schools as enabling B spaces through relational leadership and an ethic of care Brigitte Smit

Introduction This chapter presents one argument: The power of the working environment, facilitated by relational leadership, is a more potent force in developing the educational communities of care than national education policies. Schools as communities of care can be enabled by relational leadership, which extends beyond the individual’s acts and manifests as a complex interplay of interrelating and shared forces in leadership. Relational leadership, as shared leadership, reveals layered relationships and networked interactions, evolving into the interdependence of relationships. A  relational leadership style speaks to the quality of relationships in schools that principals have with staff, learners, parents, and the community. It also involves relational integrity and responsibility, which means being responsive, responsible, and accountable to others in everyday interactions, and proposes a moral stance of caring relationships and moral responsibility. This is evident in how school principals treat their staff, learners, and the community, recognizing their responsibility to act and relate in ethical and caring ways. School leadership is, therefore, at its core, a social relationship. From this premise, I argue that caring and caring leaders provide a foundation for the school community. Schools as communities of care ideally want learners to be prepared to care for those they encounter directly and care about people’s suffering at a distance, which can be modelled and dialogued, through a relational leadership stance, displaying care and concern for colleagues and learners. Such care is a principle for making ethical choices stemming from the perspective that care is fundamental in human beings’ lives (Clandinin et al., 2017). Moral significance binds caring relationships, and the ethics of care theory strives to uphold relationships by supporting the welfare of the ones giving care and those receiving care. Accordingly, relational leadership and an ethics of care enhance the quality of the educational setting, creating schools as enabling spaces and communities of care.

Why educational leadership matters Most, if not all, would agree that effective educational leadership and management for the successful operation of schools is critical for valuable teaching DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-3

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and learning (Bush, 2011, 2018; Shields, 2016). Put differently, Shields (2016, p. 10) endorsed that “numerous scholars have asserted the importance of educational leadership in assuring the achievement of all learners.” Many argue that without excellent and robust leadership, school reform is unlikely to succeed (Bush, 2018; Eacott, 2015). It would be accurate to add that the numerous leadership theories and reform efforts of the last century have failed to provide quality education for everyone. As Shields (2016) argues, “Leadership does not rely solely on the individual characteristics and attributes of those in formal roles, or in their behaviours, but that it depends on relationships and interactions” (p. 11). This implies that leadership is understood as an influence, guided by values, and driven by vision. Several leadership models have dominated the literature, particularly instructional leadership, transformational leadership, transformative leadership, participative leadership, distributed leadership, and transactional leadership. However, the traditional idea of leadership as being about the solo, single, heroic leader is something of the past. This understanding of leadership is about what leaders do and how they act to influence their followers to achieve specific goals (Clarke, 2018). Such emphasis is on leaders’ characteristics and behaviours, where leadership is seen as a social process that occurs between people, relationships that are dynamic and evolving, shaped and created in context. Accordingly, Clarke (2018) advocates for a “new way of thinking about leadership to address challenges such as achieving greater social responsibility, enhancing leadership capacity and recognizing the importance as affecting how leadership occurs” (p. i). Clarke (2018) also claims that relational leadership offers a new perspective that addresses these challenges, and suggests that leadership be understood as a relational phenomenon. Such relationships are known for trust, respect, and mutuality, embracing empathy and sympathy. Put differently, at the core of relational leadership lies the idea that leaders and followers exist in reciprocal interaction, and it is the relationship itself that constitutes what is referred to as relational leadership. Craps et  al. (2019) noted that a “relational approach to leadership does not look at individual leaders but at how leadership is enacted in relational practices, through qualities of reflexivity and reciprocity in shared activities” (p. 8). Where the literature is silent, is the role of relational leadership in schools (Reitz, 2015; Uhl-Bien, 2006; Uhl-Bien  & Ospina, 2012). Only recently did research by Hallinger and Truong (2016) offer a clear description of relational leadership for “effective leadership in managing relationships, preserving harmony in schools and teacher empowerment, acknowledging that leadership is socially constructed” (p. 677). Relatedly, Smit (2017) and Smit and Mabusela (2019) have inquired into the potential of adopting relational leadership in schools.

Why relational leadership matters for schools By and large, defining leadership is complicated. Leadership extends beyond the acts of the individual; instead, it is a complex interplay of many interacting

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forces. Lambert et al. (2016), for example, frame “shared leadership as a relational leadership process or phenomenon involving teams or groups that mutually influence one another and collectively share duties and responsibilities. This shared leadership manifests as layered relationships and networked interactions” (p. 6). The authors argue that leadership is evolving into the interdependence of relationships. Accordingly, “relational leadership suggests that leadership is about being in relationship with others in a horizontal rather than a hierarchical sense” (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011, p. 6). Additionally, “this horizontal leadership approach stresses the involvement of the many in the activities of an organization” (Grogan  & Shakeshaft, 2011, p.  9) including schools. It extends beyond the leadership team to teachers and the wider community and is a deliberate attempt at partnership building, reflecting the kind of networking approach that contrasts sharply with the idea of command and control. And so, “relational leadership is about facilitating the works of others who share the power and authority to craft direction for the school collaboratively” (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011, p. 10). Such an understanding of relational leadership can strengthen school leadership and capacity. Capacity in this context refers to the school’s ability to work in concert with stakeholders to solve challenging schooling problems, which may constrain an enabling school environment. The school environment can unleash innate, often latent leadership capabilities, not only in principals but also in teachers and learners. This becomes evident in using decision-making strategies that allow leaders to hear others’ views (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011). Such leaders build strong relationships and are described as collaborative, caring, courageous and visionary; they listen from the heart. Starratt (2004) reminds us that humans are essentially relational beings. We do not exist in a void, without people and society. We cannot define or express ourselves unless it is in a relationship with others. We live in the actual or imagined presence of other people all the time. Our existence is perpetually dialogical. (p. 55) Relational leadership for schools is slowly edging its way into the educational leadership literature. Although Grogan and Shakeshaft (2011), Ospina and Uhl-Bien (2012) and, Uhl-Bien (2006, 2007, 2011a, 2011b) have written extensively on relational leadership, few authors have included relational leadership theory in the scholarship of educational leadership. Exceptions include Smit (2014), Smit (2017), Smit and Mabusela (2019), and Smit and Scherman (2016). In this context, Uhl-Bien (2006) has written that “relational leadership theory has been defined as an overarching framework for the study of leadership as a social process of influence, and relational leadership and its practice are socially constructed through relational and social processes” (p. 654). Appropriately, a relational leadership style speaks to the quality of relationships that

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principals have with staff, learners, parents, and the community. Such relationships play an integral part in schools because of their effect on the “critical aspect of leadership, the ability to influence others to get things done” (UhlBien, 2007, p. 1305). Fittingly, Cunliffe and Eriksen (2011) have proposed that relational leadership is a way of being in the world that combines practical wisdom, intersubjectivity, and dialogue. They explain that “relational leadership requires a way of engaging with the world in which leaders hold themselves as always in relation with, and therefore morally accountable to others and engage in relational dialogue” (p. 1427). This assumes an intersubjective view of the world to provide a way of thinking about who the leaders are. It also implies an understanding of how leaders engage with the world. Relational leadership also involves relational integrity and responsibility. This sense of responsibility, to be responsive, responsible, and accountable to others in everyday interactions, proposes a moral stance of caring relationships and moral responsibility, which are embedded within relational integrity. This is evident in how principals treat their staff, learners, and the community, recognising their responsibility to act and relate in ethical ways. School leadership that focuses on such social processes rather than on leader actions and behaviours is relational, a position supported by du Plessis (2017). These social processes are open, contested, negotiated, and relational because they concern the means of “being about others and the larger social system” (Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 664). The moral compass of a school using relational leadership is guided by caring leaders, teachers, and parents. Educational challenges happen in social relationships, and they must be dealt with relationally, initiated by the school principal and adopted by both teachers and learners. Social networks and social connections are relationships with constructive and destructive forces, which need to be handled with knowledge, skills, and care. Uhl-Bien (2006) asserts, however, that educational leadership induction programmes are not adequate. What is needed are programmes that develop leaders with more knowledge about the importance of relationships and the upskilling of the leaders’ abilities, recognising the “relational sensibilities in everyday life of a leader” (Giles et al., 2015, p.  750). Smit and Scherman (2016) and Smit (2017) have similarly argued that relational school leadership focuses on social processes rather than leader actions and behaviours. Therefore, the emphasis is not on the leader per se, but the relationships with staff, learners, parents, and community, who interactively define and negotiate leadership as a process in an educational landscape. It is, therefore, essential that relational leadership becomes a quality of the educational setting. Educational settings can learn from Grogan and Shakeshaft’s (2011) research, who contrast female and male leadership in schools. Men and women generally have different goals when it comes to leadership. Male leadership often emphasises individual relationships, individual achievement, power as a source of controlling events and people, independence, authority, and set procedures.

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However, women tend to emphasise successful relationships, affiliation, and potential as a means to achieve shared goals, connectedness, authenticity, and personal creativity. For most men, achievement has to do with the accomplishment of goals. For women, achievement and performance have to do with the building of connections or relationships between and among people (Sergiovanni, 2013). What is relevant for relational leadership is articulated and explained by Grogan and Shakeshaft (2011), who argue that relationships with others are central to effective leaders’ actions. Women tend to spend more time with people communicating and caring about individual differences. Parents appear more favourable towards schools and districts run by women and thus are far more involved in school life because the focus is on relationships and connections, which echoes Gilligan’s (1982) ethics of care. Female school principals tend to create a school climate that is more conducive to learning, one that is more orderly, safer, and quieter and one that builds community. They demonstrate a more democratic, participatory style that encourages inclusiveness rather than exclusiveness in schools. They involve themselves more with staff and learners and ask for and get higher participation and maintain a more closely knit organisation and school (Sergiovanni, 2013). In discussing the role that feminist philosophers have played in developing care theory, Tomkins (2020) highlights that “Carol Gilligan is generally held to have mobilized contemporary interest in care ethics, portraying care as a feminine moral voice, which is grounded in a commitment to relations (Gilligan, 1982). With Gilligan’s moral voice of care, actions are motivated by a concern for how they will affect other people, rather than a concern for universal justice and impartiality” (p. 16), which is a distinctively masculine voice. This distinction between female and male moral voice put[s] the relationship between care and justice onto the centre stage of social and institutional theory. Gilligan originally developed care ethics explicitly in contrast to justice, highlighting care as a concern for the particular, as opposed to justice as a concern for the universal. Ideally, care should be seen as an overall framework of social morality and maturity, within which justice is also applied. (Tomkins, 2020, p. 17) One of the critical aspects of care speaks to trust, which speaks to honesty and openness, reliability, and competence, all crucial aspects of the leadership of schools that bind the leader to her/his followers and provides the capacity for organisational and leadership success (Mineo, 2014). The importance of trust in building successful and enabling schools cannot be understated. It follows, therefore, that the absence of trust impedes effectiveness and progress. School leaders need to build trust with teachers because although governance structures such as collaborative decision-making and site-based management can facilitate the insights of more people in solving the complex problems of schooling, they do depend on trust. Without trust, communication becomes

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constrained and distorted, thus making problems more difficult to resolve. In teaching and learning, teachers need trust to cope with the stress of changing expectations and the demands of accountability. Learners need trust to engage productively within the school’s learning environment and access the opportunities made available to them. Without trust, learners’ energies are diverted towards self-protection and away from the learning process. Learning to trust the people at school can be a transformative experience for learners whose lives outside of school have perhaps not taught them to trust (Tschannen-Moran, 2013). Schools also need the trust of parents and the wider school community to engage them as more active partners in the educational process. Including parents in school governance requires trust that they will be motivated to work for the common good, not just for their own interests. A school principal sets the tone for a school. The principal’s behaviour has a significant influence on the culture of the school if schools are to reap the rewards of a trusting and caring environment. It is the principal’s responsibility to build and sustain such trusting and caring relationships (Tschannen-Moran, 2013). Even the most trustworthy and caring school leaders will have to deal with betrayal and conflict in the school environment. How they deal with this conflict and repay the trust through mediation can be useful. Members of the community, the learners, teachers, or parents, must have a trusted resource to turn to when they find themselves amid conflict. Trustworthy and caring school leaders are not only skilful themselves in conflict management strategies, but they also create the structures and provide the training for others to improve in this realm. Cultivating more productive ways of dealing with conflict is an integral part of building a school culture of trust and care, enriching schools as enabling places and spaces. Such skills help to restore the trust that has been broken and can prevent the breaking of trust in the first place by supporting disputants with norms and processes that help them negotiate solutions that meet the needs of all parties (Tschannen-Moran, 2013). Trustworthy and caring leaders are at the heart of successful schools enabling everyone to get on the same team, pulling in the same direction. Trusting relationships through trustworthy leadership are fruitful, enabling faculty and staff to care for one another. In a trusting and caring environment, teachers will freely share ideas and resources. Teachers will also respect one another’s expertise and enjoy a strong sense of shared commitment to the mission of the school. Teachers will be less defensive about their classroom performance, and they will welcome one another into their classrooms (Tschannen-Moran, 2013).

Why relational ethics of care matter for enabling schools Closely aligned to relational leadership is the notion of “relational ethics of care,” defined “as the development of an affinity for the world and the people

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in it, translating moral commitment to action on behalf of others” (Regan & Brooks, 1995, p. 27). Relational ethics, which means caring for and attending to participants’ experiences in responsible and responsive ways, was founded in the feminist thought of Carol Gilligan (1982) and Nel Noddings (2010). They argued that relationships are fundamental to the human condition and that moral actions always occur in relationships with others. In the context of social inquiry, Bochner and Ellis (2016, p. 139) write that “relational ethics includes mindful self-reflection about one’s role, motives and feelings” (see also Clandinin et al., 2018). Care ethics shares a relational perspective, which assumes that two parties are involved. Leadership through a relational ethics of caring allows principals to listen attentively to others. Given the emphasis on the relation, both the cared for and the carer are responsive to the act of complete reciprocity (Noddings, 2010). Noddings’ work in the philosophy of moral education is particularly relevant to this position because she situates caring as a way of being in relation to others, occurring between particular individuals within moments of time and place (Cunliffe & Eriksen, 2020). Smith (2016) affirms that “there is a need to effect a shift in the way ‘caring’ is constructed in educational institutions. It is useful to consider care of a relational, allowing men and women to enact care in their roles as a part of their professionalism” (p. 111). Put differently, caring is located in relations that require address and response; however, it depends on the context (Noddings, 2010). Caring is the essence of education, and educational leaders remain in caring relationships over a period of time, nurturing the growth of learners and staff. The relational sense of caring forces us to look at the relation. This does not mean that establishing caring relationships will accomplish everything that must be done in education, but these relations provide the foundation for successful pedagogical activity. Caring connections also provide the best foundation for moral education. Teachers show learners how to care, engage them in dialogue about the moral life, supervise their practice in caring, and confirm them in developing their best selves (Noddings, 2005, 2013). Schools ideally want learners to be “prepared to care-for those they encounter directly and to care-about the suffering of people at a distance” (Noddings, 2010, p. 394). Both can be accomplished through modelling and dialogue, a relational leadership stance, which displays care and concern for colleagues and learners. Noddings (2010) asserts in this context that caring ought to be a principle for making ethical decisions that emanate from the point of view that care is fundamental in the lives of human beings. Moral significance binds caring relationships, and the ethics of care theory strives to maintain relationships by encouraging the welfare of both the ones giving care and those receiving it while networking social relations. Noddings (2010, p. 390) writes, “In care theory, the relation is ontologically basic.” Relational ethics assumes that humans will act out of concern for others. As such, relational ethics is concerned with how humans ought to treat one

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another. Appropriately, relational ethics in educational leadership would consider how school principals interact with the teaching staff and learners in their care in their schools. This includes the broader school community and parents. Attention is therefore given to the moral space or the relationship between the self and others. Moore et al. (2014) explain, “Because this space is where morality is enacted, relational ethics assumes that ethical practice is consistently situated in relations” (p.  32) with teachers, learners, and parents. Relational ethics can thus provide a relevant framework for educational leadership, which can be dovetailed to relational leadership, complementing each other for the academic enhancement in schools. While relational ethics (Bergum & Dossetor, 2005; Clandinin et al., 2017; Ellis, 2017) is mostly used and understood in caring professions, acknowledging and recognising educational leadership from a relational perspective, together with an ethics of care, appears to fit comfortably in the realm of leadership research in schools. The idea of caring leaders assumes that it applies principally to the management of institutions providing healthcare, social care, elder care, and/or childcare; however, it can equally apply to the leadership of caring professions such as education. Relational ethics as espoused by Ellis (2017), who cites Bergum and Dossetor (2005, pp. 3–4), refers to “the ‘way people are with one another’ in their various roles and relationships from moment to moment” (p. 438). Austin (2008) also explains that “relational ethics is a contemporary approach to ethics that situates ethical action explicitly in a relationship” (p. 748), including leadership relationships. These relationships demand attentiveness and responsiveness to one another’s commitments, recognising issues of power and vulnerability. Austin (2008) draws on the work of Bergum and Dossetor (2005), who offer core elements of relational ethics—namely, “mutual respect, trust, engagement, embodied knowledge, attention to the interdependent environment, uncertainty and vulnerability” (p. 3), which are applicable for any educational landscape. These elements or values of relational ethics demand attentiveness and responsiveness to one another’s commitments, recognising issues of power and vulnerability. Such values underpin schools as enabling and supporting educational landscapes. These are schools where genuine interest and appreciation are valued and where teachers and learners are heard and understood with empathy and respect (Cunliffe & Eriksen, 2020). Care in such a context means becoming more vulnerable, speaking up, taking more risks, and being allowed to make mistakes and to learn from failure. Therefore, care is not just about caring for others but also about ensuring that others can respond to that care, that is, the ethics of reciprocity. The connection between the ethics of care relationality and leadership is clear. There are, however, paradoxes in terms of how relational and caring leadership is theorised, practised, and taught. Cunliffe and Eriksen (2020) further suggest that the way we organise knowledge about human beings is fundamental to management education as a moral endeavour. An objectivist approach, seen in discourses of human resources and typologies

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of leadership competencies, means that we categorise, generalise, and measure people in ways that are careless. A  more careful approach that is subjectivist focuses on the human being as a person, not a resource, a role, or a thing. Cunliffe and Eriksen (2020) argue for an intersubjective approach that focuses not only on the human being but also on others’ human nature. Crystallising this as relational leadership, they suggest that care invigorates leaders’ efforts to be attentive to others as they individually are, rather than in terms of their categorisation. They think about caring because it draws attention to the uniqueness and agency as individual human beings while being embedded within a community (Cunliffe & Eriksen, 2020).

Relational leadership for future leadership Little research has been conducted from this relational perspective of educational leadership (Eacott, 2015). More study and rich data, in particular, about diverse school communities with challenging and problematic contexts that insist on transformation and educational change are required. While relational ethics has been understood mostly from the perspective of the care professions, educational leadership, teaching, and learning have secure relational settings, which may benefit from understanding relational ethics and create an ethically sound school environment based on harmony and respect. Given that the language we use creates our reality, perhaps a new “language” for educational leadership could include relational ethics, and an ethics of care, offering supplementary conceptualisations for the practice of relational, educational leadership in schools. This would invite a further discussion of Crawford’s (2016) research, who examined how both scholars and school leaders engage with educational leadership from a relational perspective. Educational leaders may need to ensure that there are adequate opportunities for discussion and opinion sharing within and outside school, creating a caring and enabling environment. Such opportunities are used to gather diverse perspectives where possible, including the views of leaders contrary to their own and to find ways to integrate the ideas that have the potential for positive change and enabling schools. Tomkins (2020) explains that “caring leadership are attractive ideas, because they trigger associations with closeness, belonging and mattering to one another” (p.  2). Research has linked care to increased organisational commitment, enhanced workplace esteem, and improved organisational performance. Focusing on care in organisational relations seems consistent, therefore, with leaders having or developing emotional intelligence and excellent relationship management skills. This tallies with a commonsense view of care as being associated first and foremost with emotions and the good emotions of love, empathy, and compassion, rather than the destructive emotions of disappointment, envy, or hostility. Care is, however, more complicated than simply being kind or sympathetic to people, being personally interested and invested in their affairs. Instead of always being expressed in niceness, care

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can manifest as sorrow, anger, frustration, and anxiety. We need to see the shadow side of care in a common expression such as “take care,” which implies caution and acknowledging threat and danger. Moreover, if we scratch beneath the surface of understanding of care, we find that it challenges some of the things we take for granted about leadership; indeed, about organisational and institutional life in general. Some of the strongest associations with care can be problematic for an institutional world that appears to value success, efficiency, and delivery above all other qualities, and is often suspicious of emotions. When we admire caring leaders, we do not usually suspend our expectation that they can actually do their job. Instead, we may crave warmth and compassion from our leaders during moments of crisis and distress, but care is not usually a proxy for leadership over the longer term.

Final thoughts Care goes to the heart of relationships between those in charge and those in need, with relational ethics of care referring to how people connect in their various roles and relationships (Bochner & Ellis, 2016). Cunliffe and Eriksen (2020) propose that “caring and leadership are not terms that are often equated in the leadership literature or leadership education and when there are, caring is often seen to be instrumental in the sense of improving commitment through creating meaningful work and enabling the work environment” (p.  164). Perhaps the nearest equivalence of care is leadership and ethics, particularly concerning transformational, transformative, servant, spiritual, and authentic leadership where an ethics of care is seen as integral. Educational leaders in the 21st century have numerous challenges (Pitre, 2017). As schools become more bureaucratic, more politicised, and more market-oriented, educational leaders will need the knowledge embedded in relational leadership, and relational ethics of care to create schools as enabling spaces and places, the types of spaces that children in challenging contexts need.

References Austin, W. J. (2008). Relational ethics. In L. Given (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative methods (pp. 748–749). Sage. Bergum, V., & Dossetor, J. D. (2005). Relational ethics: The full meaning of respect. University Publishing Group. Bochner, A.,  & Ellis, C. (2016). Evocative autoethnography: Writing lives and telling stories. Routledge. Bush, T. (2011). Theories of educational leadership and management (4th ed.). Sage. Bush, T. (2018). Research on educational leadership and management: Broadening the base. Educational Management Administration and Leadership, 46(3), 1–3. Clandinin, D. J., Caine, V., & Huber, J. (2017). Ethical considerations entailed by a relational ontology in narrative inquiry. In I. Goodson, A. Antikainen, P. Sikes,  & M. Andrews

36  Brigitte Smit (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook on narrative and life history (pp.  418–430). Routledge. Clandinin, D. J., Caine, V., & Lessard, S. (2018). The relational ethics of narrative inquiry. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Clarke, N. (2018). Relational leadership. Theory, practice and development. Routledge. Craps, M., Vermeesch, I., Dewulf, A., Sips, K., Termeer, K., & Bouwen, R. (2019). A relational approach to leadership for multi-actor governance. Administrative Sciences, 9(12), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci9010012. Crawford, M. (2016). How can both schools and school leaders engage with educational leadership from a relational perspective? Journal of Educational Administration and Foundations, 25(2), 53–57. Cunliffe, A. L.,  & Eriksen, M. (2011). Relational leadership. Human Relations, 64, 1425–1449. Cunliffe, A. L.,  & Eriksen, M. (2020). Educating caring leaders: A  paradox of collective uniqueness. In L. Tomkins (Ed.), Paradox and power in caring leadership (pp. 163–174). Elgar Publishers. Du Plessis, A. E. (2017). Out-of-field teaching practices: What educational leaders need to know. Sense. Eacott, S. (2015). Educational leadership relationally. A  theory and methodology for educational leadership, management and administration. Sense. Ellis, C. (2017). Compassionate research: Interviewing and storytelling from a relational ethics of care. In I. Goodson, A. Antikainen, P. Sikes, & M. Andrews (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook on narrative and life history (pp. 431–445). Routledge. Giles, D. L., Bills, A., & Otero, G. (2015). Pedagogical approaches for developing relational sensibilities in educational leaders. Reflective Practice, 16, 744–752. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Harvard University Press. Grogan, M., & Shakeshaft, C. (2011). Women and educational leadership. Jossey-Bass. Hallinger, P.,  & Truong, T. (2016). “Above must be above, and below must be below”: Enactment of relational school leadership in Vietnam. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17, 677–690. Lambert, L., Zimmerman, D. P., & Gardner, M. E. (2016). Liberating leadership capacity: Pathways to educational wisdom. Teachers College Press. Mineo, D. L. (2014). The importance of trust in leadership. Research Management Review, 20(1), 1–6. Moore, J., Engel, J., & Prentice, D. (2014). Relational ethics in everyday practice. Canadian Oncology Nursing Journal, 24(1), 31–34. Noddings, N. (2005). Caring in education. In The encyclopedia of informal education. https:// infed.org/mobi/caring-in-education/. Noddings, N. (2010). Moral education in an age of globalization. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 42, 390–396. Noddings, N. (2013). Caring. A relational approach to ethics and moral education. University of California Press. Ospina, S. M., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2012). Exploring the competing bases of legitimacy in contemporary leadership studies. In M. Uhl-Bien & S. M. Ospina (Eds.), Advancing relational leadership: A dialogue among perspectives (pp. 1–40). Informational Age. Pitre, A. (2017). Educational leadership and Louis Farrakhan. Rowman & Littlefield.

Building schools as enabling spaces 37 Regan, H. B., & Brooks, G. H. (1995). Out of women’s experience: Creating relational leadership. Corwin. Reitz, M. (2015). Dialogue in organizations: Developing relational leadership. Palgrave Macmillan. Sergiovanni, T. J. (2013). Leadership as stewardship. In M. Grogan (Ed.), The Jossey-Bass on educational leadership (3rd ed., pp. 372–389). Jossey-Bass. Shields, C. (2016). Transformative leadership. Primer. Peter Lang. Smit, B. (2014). An ethnographic narrative of relational leadership. Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 5(2), 117–123. Smit, B. (2017). A narrative inquiry into rural school leadership in South Africa. Qualitative Research in Education, 6(1), 1–21. Smit, B., & Mabusela, M. (2019). Understanding relational and responsible leadership for school leaders. In Oxford research encyclopedia of education. Oxford University Press. https:// dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.521 Smit, B., & Scherman, V. (2016). A case for relational leadership and an ethics of care for countering bullying at school. South African Journal of Education, 36(4), 1–9. Smith, J. (2016). Motherhood and women teachers’ career decisions: A constant battle. In K. Fuller & J. Harford (Eds.), Gender and leadership in education. Women achieving against the odds (pp. 83–114). Peter Lang. Starratt, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership. Jossey-Bass. Tomkins, L. (2020). Leadership, care and (in)justice. In L. Tomkins (Ed.), Paradox and power in caring leadership (pp. 16–27). Elgar Publishers. Tschannen-Moran, M. (2013). Becoming a trustworthy leader. In M. Grogan (Ed.), The Jossey-Bass on educational leadership (3rd ed., pp. 40–54). Jossey-Bass. Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational leadership theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 654–676. Uhl-Bien, M. (2007). Relational leadership approaches. In G. R. Goethals, G. J. Sorenson, & J. M. Burns (Eds.), Encyclopedia of leadership (pp. 1304–1307). Sage. Uhl-Bien, M. (2011a). Relational leadership and gender: From hierarchy to relationality. In P. H. Werhane  & M. Painter-Morland (Eds.), Leadership, gender, and organization (pp. 65–74). Springer. Uhl-Bien, M. (2011b). Relational leadership theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing. In P. H. Werhane & M. Painter-Morland (Eds.), Leadership, gender, and organization. Springer. Uhl-Bien, M.,  & Ospina, S. M. (Eds.). (2012). Advancing relational leadership: A  dialogue among perspectives. Informational Age.

Chapter 4

Advancing relational wellbeing for school success Kamleshie Mohangi

Introduction Positive interpersonal interactions serve as the foundation for achieving overall well-being experiences. A fundamental aspect of a successful classroom is that of positive teacher–learner relationships. Research shows that constructive relationships secure a base of protective resources in resilience processes among youths (Liebenberg et al., 2016; van Breda & Theron, 2018). However, while literature corroborates the integral role of positive relations in learner achievement, literature is reticent about requisite steps to encourage positive bi-directional engagements. A  concern is that teachers and learners are not always well-informed on building positive and encouraging relationships. This conceptual chapter draws on literature to illustrate the intrinsic relevance of healthy and positive teacher–learner connections in fostering relational wellbeing for academic achievement. The premise of this chapter is that for positive interpersonal relationships to be constructed and maintained, intentional action and agency are necessary. Accordingly, deliberate pathways must be created for relationship enhanced learning. Classroom relations, values reflected by care and connectedness, and the ubiquitous nature of well-being are linked to positive classroom relationship practices. A  conceptual framework is thus proposed and supported by notions of action and agency. The chapter concludes with points for reflection and action. Conceptual papers are essential in extending knowledge, offering insights for meaning making and theory building. Jaakkola (2020, p. 18) outlines four types of conceptual papers: theory synthesis, theory adaptation, typology, and model. This chapter follows the model or framework approach.

Classroom relationships Researchers recognise that classrooms are dynamic, interactive learning spaces with multi-layered cultural underpinnings (Donohue  & Bornman, 2014;

DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-4

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West  & Meier, 2020). Within these complex spaces, teachers and learners negotiate their professional relationships. Wubbels et  al. (in Claessens et  al., 2017, p.  364) define teacher–learner relationships as the “generalised interpersonal meaning learners and teachers attach to interactions with each other.” According to Ungar et al. (2014), positive teacher–learner relations are crucial in resilience building. Yet, within difficult classroom conditions, opportunities for meaningful teacher–learner connections are restricted. South African classrooms’ contextual challenges are exacerbated by limited resources, curriculumrelated problems, and overcrowding (Donohue  & Bornman, 2014; West  & Meier, 2020). Hence, teachers are experiencing rising stress levels (Jennings et al., 2013). Without external support, it is unlikely that teachers and learners will be motivated to develop close professional relations in large classrooms. Given these challenges, teachers and learners must co-construct supportive engagements to buffer against disadvantages posed by contextual issues. Research consistently shows the value of support in reducing stress and burnout for teachers (Aldrup et al., 2018) and boosting youth resilience and psychological well-being (Liebenberg, 2020; Liebenberg et al., 2016; Noltemeyer & Bush, 2013). Additionally, supportive relational factors contribute to wellbeing (Rawsthorne et al., 2019), a sense of belonging (Sanders & Munford, 2016), and safety and security that learners gain from contributing to nurturing interactions. This view is well-aligned with Owusu-Ansah and Kyei-Blankson (2016) and Sanders and Munford (2016). They identify that successful educational outcome relies on enduring relations that influence learners’ capacity to manage risks. Pianta (in Roorda et  al., 2011) describes teacher–learner relationships according to closeness, conflict, and dependency levels. A  close relationship depicts warmth and openness, whereas conflict reflects discordant interactions. It becomes clear that closeness typifies positive teacher–learner relationships. In contrast, conflict is the most distinctive feature of negative associations. Conflictual interactions contribute to tension and hinder well-being processes (Prilleltensky et  al., 2016). From an interpersonal theory perspective, Claessens et  al. (2017) found familiar interactional patterns for positive relationships and a negative interaction pattern for problematic ones. For example, a positive interaction pattern or engagement is conveyed by cordiality, whereas avoidance and hostility characterise a negative interaction pattern. In this study, interpersonal teacher behaviour was reflected in the intersections of agency and communion (Wubbels et  al., in Claessens et  al., 2017). In this model, agency denotes deliberate actions of confronting, imposing, and setting tasks, whereas communion refers to connections, support, and understanding. From a teacher’s perspective, the relationship quality is determined by levels of communion (e.g. friendliness, care, and connection) while supported by action and agency (Claessens et al., 2017). The value of agency in relationship building is elaborated on later in this chapter.

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Establishing classroom care and connectedness Care and connectedness describe approaches embraced by supportive teachers (Claessens et al., 2017; Noddings, 2010), especially in high-conflict classrooms. According to Owusu-Ansah and Kyei-Blankson (2016, p.  3), “for the act of caring to persist, there should be a symbiotic relationship or connectedness between teachers and their learners.” Care and connectedness suggest a deeper relationship involving interest, concern, and attentiveness. With four main connectivity domains for youth development: family, school, peers, and community, school-based activities must strengthen learners’ connections and relationships. According to Kitching (2019), relational well-being requires the facilitation of an ethos of kindness, empathy, and care in school communities. Indeed, this is clearly illustrated by Theron (2016, pp. 91–92) in her synthesis of a collection of published research that explored the school’s role in facilitating learner resilience. The author identified critical processes by which teachers could support learners in developing resilience: developing warm, respectful connections, setting expectations for respectful classroom interaction, developing learners as active, capable agents, effective teaching in safe learning environments, and resilience-supporting classroom practices. In this context, it’s easy to understand why cultivating care and connectedness is critical for sustaining teachers’ and learners’ well-being in South Africa’s relationship-challenged classrooms, which are frequently besieged by violence, bullying, and aggressiveness (Moletsane, 2012; Mouton et  al., 2013). Learners with impulse-control problems are disruptive, especially in close physical contact in overcrowded classrooms. Likewise, learners with psychological challenges associated with poverty, abuse, grief, and general negligence display mental health problems. Unconstructive emotional externalisations alienate them from teachers and peers. Bullying is rife in physical and virtual learning spaces, disrupting development adjustment (Mouton et al., 2013; Smit & Scherman, 2016). When learners are bullied, it leads to fear and insecurity (Capone et al., 2018; Karatas et al., 2016), which impedes concentration, creativity, play, and learning. In the process, relationship development is delayed. Without resources, teachers find managing relationships in these situations problematic (West & Meier, 2020). When learners’ formative years are entrenched in hardship (Moletsane, 2012), they find it difficult to trust adults and engage in learning. Similarly, a teacher may be keen or hesitant to engage with a learner perceived as cooperative or uncooperative, depending on their own psychological and relational schema (Claessens et al., 2017). However, research suggests that children who are vulnerable to behavioural challenges but have built positive relationships with teachers are less likely to experience behaviour problems in future (Sanders & Munford, 2016; Sanders et al., 2017). The effects of destructive relationships are far-reaching. Teacher–learner relationships characterised by conflict and mistrust have harmful scholastic

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consequences (Hamre  & Pianta, 2001; Rimm-Kaufman et  al., 2014). For example, learners in conflictual relations tend to perform poorly (RimmKaufman & Sandilos, 2015) and may exhibit disruptive behaviour (Split et al., 2011). Poor peer relationships are likely to lead to peer-group rejection of a learner (Strydom et al., 2012). Exclusion from social groups impacts psychosocial adjustment, leading to loneliness, anxiety, and depression (Baskin et al., 2010; Strydom et al., 2012). In contrast, the view that close relations are resilience enhancing developmental assets and school success precursors figures strongly in literature (Roorda et al., 2011; van Bergen et al., 2019). Masten (2018, p. 16) defines resilience as “the capacity of a dynamic system to adapt successfully to disturbances that threaten the function, viability, or development of the system.” In addition to enhancing academic resilience (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2015), supportive relations curb learner truancy and attrition (Hamre  & Pianta, 2001; van Bergen et al., 2019). Other researchers argue that positive relationships nurture well-adjusted learners and strengthen coping mechanisms (van Breda & Theron, 2018). Furthermore, stable connections are predictive of enhanced learner social skills development (Rimm-Kaufman  & Sandilos, 2015), emotional adjustment (Breeman et al., 2015), and life satisfaction (Jose et al., 2012). Teachers serve as critical role models with a capacity to demonstrate appropriate communication, social behaviours (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2014), and an ethic of care (Owusu-Ansah & Kyei-Blankson, 2016). Therefore, “learners need to see their teachers demonstrating care towards them” (Owusu-Ansah & Kyei-Blankson, 2016, p. 2). When they do, they, in turn, learn to reciprocate care towards others. In this manner, teachers’ positive actions and behaviours may shape learners’ relational values through harmonious interactions that learners can emulate. While learners benefit from constructive interactions, teachers are likely to gain psychologically (Claessens et al., 2017; Milatz et al., 2015; Pianta et al., 2012). Fulfilling relationships may influence teachers’ feelings of efficacy and competence, give meaning to their work, lower stress levels, and reduce burnout (Pianta et al., 2012; van Bergen et al., 2019).

Well-being and relational spaces Social engagement is generally expressed by enquiries about well-being, implying connectedness and dependency, ingrained in ubuntu principles (Letseka, 2012). In schools, the quality of learners’ well-being could be measured by how well they are doing. For example, are learners happy? Do they have friends? Do they socialise? Do teachers know them at a deeper level? The degree to which a learner demonstrates effectiveness in academic, social, and emotional functioning may indicate their level of well-being (Burrows, 2011). Other indicators of relational well-being include respect for diversity, reciprocity, affection, collaboration, and democratic participation in decision-making processes

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(Prilleltensky, 2005; Roffey, 2012). Furthermore, these qualities suggest active engagement and agency. An essential element of an engaged classroom as a relational space is its safety. Safe classrooms are a refuge when learners’ homes no longer provide protection (Moletsane, 2012). In this way, classrooms become bounded systems that affirm, respect, and offer security. Teachers forge relatedness to enhance their roles as agents of change (Split et  al., 2011; Theron, 2016) and fulfil their responsibility to create safe learning environments (Theron, 2016). However, a challenging proposition confronting 21st-century teachers is managing safe classrooms while simultaneously engaging in instruction (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Hence, managing time, space, and resources competently becomes a daily struggle. One way of effectively overseeing this task is to initiate teaching and learning partnerships. Classroom partnerships harness learner interest and engagement and improve communication. Importantly, honesty and trust are requisites for classroom partnerships (Khalfaoui et al., 2020; Lilja, 2013; Sanders et al., 2017). Indeed, research shows that learners may want to develop meaningful relationships in culturally diverse classrooms and establish trust before meaningful learning (Sanders  & Munford, 2016). Physical proximity to the teacher creates communication opportunities through interactions (Pianta et al., 2012). Proximity is described as positioning (Collins, 2003, p. 15) and space (Lilja, 2013, p. 1) and is the distance between people who foster inclusion or exclusionary practices. Hence, McCubbin et al. (2013) propose that post-qualification teacher development should emphasise teaching efficacy in teaching inclusive multicultural classrooms that encourage space and proximity for inclusive practices.

Theoretical perspectives Attachment and school relations

Attachment refers to “emotional bonding between individuals” (Louw & Louw, 2014, p.  132). Bowlby’s seminal work on mother–child attachment (1973) emphasised the need for secure attachment to at least one primary figure and that positive relationships promote security in the child. When infants direct their attachment behaviours to their caregiver (by crying, fixed gaze, or focused attention), they elicit caregiving responses. Over time, children form an internal working model (IWM) based on their attachment relationship perceptions (Kennedy  & Kennedy, 2004). This IWM provides mental representations of close relationships that shape the quality of later attachment relationships (Kennedy  & Kennedy, 2004). The frameworks outlined by attachment theorists have implications for schools’ relationships as individuals are influenced by their IWM and attachment styles. According to attachment theory, a supportive classroom provides a secure relationship development and learning base. In this approach, secure attachments

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act as a moderator, influencing academic achievement, emotion regulation, and social competence (Bergin & Bergin, 2009; Hooper et al., 2021). According to resilience theory, this secure relationship can compensate for absent family relationships or augment existing ones. Positive interactions can also help children with insecure attachment relationships with a primary carer by reducing negative emotions and behaviour (Hooper et al., 2021). Teacher’s self-determination

From a self-determination perspective of motivation, teachers may be driven by intrinsic motivation to establish meaningful relationships, give purpose to their lives, and feel socially connected (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Split et al., 2011). Their relationships with learners may embody generalised expectations and beliefs about themselves as individuals and teachers, self-efficacy beliefs, goals for interactions with learners, and beliefs about how learners should relate to teachers (Split et al., 2011). In their multiple roles and responsibilities across their personal and professional lives, teachers aim to fulfil their own and their learner’s psychological desire for relatedness, competence, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Teachers meet learners’ needs by becoming involved and committed (demonstrating interest and concern), providing structure (setting explicit norms and expectations), and supporting learner autonomy to connect schoolwork to interests (Roorda et al., 2011; Theron, 2016).

Relational well-being intersections It is well established that relational well-being is related to the quality of positive relationships. Engagements are best understood in this context by identifying behavioural manifestations of interpersonal interactions (Pianta et  al., 2012). For example, teachers’ and learners’ behaviour and affect could reflect how they experience their shared relationship. For instance, the teacher’s tone of voice, choice of words, gestures, and body language may convey emotions from warmth and compassion to hostility and aggression. Risks associated with interpersonal conflict may likely be reduced via continuous, affirmative communication, both verbal and non-verbal (Prilleltensky, 2005). Schools seek to strengthen relational competencies in learners identified as having low levels of well-being through social skills training programmes (Burrows, 2011) and mindfulness-based interventions (Kielty et  al., 2017). These programmes expose learners to problem-solving, conflict resolution and relationship development skills, and competencies. South African National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) identifies these competencies as social skills and includes them within the Life Skills curriculum in schools. Sabol and Pianta (2012, p. 222), however, advocate for additional comprehensive relational-based viewpoint for teachers’ continuing professional

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development to complement the development of these competencies in children. A teacher’s preparation should include knowledge, skills, and support to effectively execute social skills training to strengthen relational competencies in different classroom settings.

A conceptual framework for promoting teacher– learner relations Critical concepts were identified from literature and analysed to provide insight into their application to the core objective of enhancing teacher–learner relations that promote mutual well-being and academic achievement. The framework aims to advance a relationship-led approach based on action and agency within diverse contexts. This approach, illustrated in Figure  4.1, draws on insights from classroom positionality, relational and mindful communication, attachment, trust, a sense of belonging, and ubuntu principles.

Figure 4.1  A conceptual framework for promoting teacher–student relations

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Teacher and learner action and agency

Earlier, reference was made to agency as a critical concept in developing and maintaining affirmative relationships. In this case, agency underpins attempts to moderate positive relationships. According to Priestley et al. (2015, p. 22), “agency is not something that people can have or possess; it is rather to be understood as something people do or achieve.” In other words, acting and developing agency involves making sense of, having a voice and being heard (Sanders & Munford, 2016). However, the achievement of agency depends on context, motivation, and drive. In the case of teachers, agency refers to teachers’ capacity to act purposefully and constructively for professional growth (Sang, 2020). For example, it may relate to teachers’ self-position as professional agents, implying teachers’ understanding of obligations and identities within their social position, one of which is caring about learners’ well-being (Sang, 2020, p. 2). While teachers are called change agents (Sang, 2020; Priestley et al., 2012), learners also serve as change agents. Accordingly, Magwa (2018) proposed autonomy-supported classrooms where learners lead in shaping learning experiences. This idea speaks to learner agency. In other words, teachers and learners demonstrate agency capacity when they deliberately exercise choice to enhance relationship behaviours. Classroom positionality

From a social-cultural perspective, Collins (2003, p.  15) explained positionality as the “process through which people are placed into different identities through culturally and historically situated interactions and the way they respond by taking up that identity or by attempting to reposition themselves.” When teachers engage with discourses of positionality and its aligned social-justice tenets (Takacs, 2002), they enable relationship-building. Physical proximity relates to seating and working space arrangements on a practical level. Metaphorically, it is also about the concept of positionality. Who does the teacher place close by, and why? Problem-free and independent workers or troublemakers? Proximity and positionality in classrooms are related to inclusivity, equality, and social-justice debates (Takacs, 2002). The classroom social context cannot be ignored. Teachers could consider classroom capacity and composition when thinking about how and where learners are to be placed and where they set themselves to create opportunities for friendships. Notwithstanding overcrowded classrooms, proximity affords one the ability to communicate verbally, interact, make oneself understood, alleviate misunderstandings, and get to know one another (Raider-Roth, 2011). Unambiguous communication, in turn, contributes to awareness of how you relate.

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Relational and mindful communication

A shift to using relational language as a communication-related resource can be effectively harnessed in the classroom (Linvill, 2014). Relational language encourages affirmation, where members feel appreciated and respected (Raider-Roth, 2011, p. 281). One way to achieve this is by watching, listening, talking to, and working with learners (Noddings, 2010). An awareness of one’s words and actions in communication shows thoughtfulness and can foster compassion, signalling a relational connection (Raider-Roth, 2011). Affection (Prilleltensky, 2005), empathy, and warmth (Roorda et al., 2011) reflected in words and actions are associated with resilient learner outcomes. One’s affect and body languages, such as how one speaks, tone of voice, gestures, and eye contact, also contribute to one’s effort to foster positive relationships. For example, asking a learner, “How can I help you?” or “Let’s do this together,” or “What do you need to make this work for you?” are examples of relationship– promoting interactions that mitigate learners’ feelings of loneliness, isolation, and exclusion and that encourage belongingness (Baskin et al., 2010). With relational language, acts of mindfulness are proposed. A mindfulnessbased approach reflects an acute awareness of one’s choice of words and actions, focusing on internal and external experiences in the present moment and without judgement (Kielty et al., 2017). Hence, relationship-building starts with mutual respect in communication (Prilleltensky, 2005; Raider-Roth, 2011). The message conveyed in relational and mindful language use is respect, calm, readiness to engage, and a sense of, “I am one with you,” highlighting collaboration and togetherness. Cultivate attachment, trust, and a sense of belonging

As mentioned, and in line with attachment theory and its association with classroom connectedness, feeling emotionally secure infers trust and attachment (Sabol & Pianta, 2012). Studies show that school success may be directly influenced by attachment to teachers and schools (Bergin  & Bergin, 2009), as attachment provides feelings of security so that children can explore freely. Furthermore, qualitative measures of child well-being include feelings of safety, trust, inclusion (Louw  & Louw, 2014) and being valued (Bergin  & Bergin, 2009). When schools enable feelings of attachment, trust, and belonging, they become resilience sources (Sanders  & Munford, 2016; Baskin et  al., 2010). Therefore, Bergin and Bergin (2009) recommend that teachers increase sensitivity and warmth and become responsive to learners to enable positive interactions. In addition, researchers suggest that encouraging learners’ prosocial behaviour contributes to attachment and a sense of belonging with schools ( Jennings  & Greenberg, 2009). For example, in this context, teachers can increase prosocial behaviour by modelling kindness, helpfulness, and acceptance of one another (Bergin & Bergin, 2009).

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Draw insights from ubuntu principles

Ubuntu, an African philosophy of humanism, sees human beings as existing in an interdependent and interconnected community (Letseka, 2012; Mbele et  al., 2015). According to ubuntu principles, one’s humanity is expressed through one’s relationship with others (Letseka, 2012). African ways of relating to others emphasise community-relatedness, commonality, and a sense of belonging to a group with shared values (Letseka, 2012). Owusu-Ansah and Kyei-Blankson (2016) and Capone et al. (2018) acknowledge that a sense of community infers connectedness and is a relational resource when concern for others’ welfare leads to common identities. Mbele et al. (2015) established a link between ubuntu partnership qualities and relational well-being. According to the authors, an ubuntu personality fosters collaboration, resulting in increased teamwork, moral support, and a closeknit family-like atmosphere. Researchers support the notion that individual well-being translates into healthy interpersonal relationships when focus shifts to the collective’s well-being. For example, Ebersöhn (2012) refers to flocking, reflecting, coming together, gathering, and standing together in safety and support, demonstrating a sense of belonging and enhanced collective well-being, implying ubuntu. Feeling connected to others strengthens resilience outcomes and makes an adjustment to schooling achievable for many vulnerable learners. As described in the relationship-resourced resilience theory, when individuals use relationships to mobilise resources, an enabling ecology is built to foster positive adjustment (Ebersöhn, 2012).

Reflections on relationships and well-being Reflections on the following questions may facilitate insight and encourage role-players in developing practical measures to enhance teacher–learner relationships. For example, a) b) c) d) e)

How would teachers know about the state of the classroom? How would a learner show that they are doing well in their relationships? What factors could contribute to feelings of well-being in the classroom? How could teachers and learners demonstrate care and connectedness? How do care and connectedness shape relational well-being?

Introspections of this nature create opportunities for constructive dialogue.

Conclusion This chapter examined literature to highlight the value of positive interpersonal interactions in promoting learners’ well-being and academic performance. The premise is that positive relational exchanges enhance well-being experiences,

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which lead to academic success. The literature established that a focused and determined effort is required to strengthen positive connections and that action and agency play vital roles in achieving this objective. Thus, this chapter proposed a guiding framework that links critical concepts such as African modes of interpersonal interaction (ubuntu), psychological concepts, and the use of relational and mindful communication. Deliberate and purposeful action and agency serve as the bedrock of this framework. Future empirical studies should determine this framework’s usefulness and examine how global teachers may leverage relational strengths to mitigate home and school violence, bullying, and trauma.

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Advancing relational well-being for school success 49 https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/32120/Ebersohn_Adding(2012). pdf?sequence=1 Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301 Hooper, L. M., Lee, S. Y., Tomek, S. Jaggers, J. W., Kim, G.,  & Church, W. T. (2021). Attachment to peers and school: Longitudinal moderators of the relation between caregiver psychological distress and adolescent hopelessness. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01375-y Jaakkola, E. (2020). Designing conceptual articles: Four approaches. AMS Review, 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-020-00161-0 Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). Improving classroom learning environments by cultivating awareness and resilience in education (care): Results of a randomised controlled trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 28(4), 374–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000035 Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. Y. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to learner and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693 Jose, P. J., Ryan, N., & Pryor, J. (2012). Does social connectedness promote a greater sense of well-being in adolescence over time? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(2), 235–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00783.x Karatas, Z., Tagay, O., & Cakar, F. S. (2016). School attachment and peer bullying as the predictors of early adolescents’ resilience. Global Journal of Guidance and Counseling in Schools: Current Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.18844/gjgc. v6i1.579 Kennedy, J. H., & Kennedy, C. E. (2004). Attachment theory: Implications for school psychology. Psychology in the Schools, 41(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10153 Khalfaoui, A., García-Carrión, R., & Villardón-Gallego, L. (2020). A systematic review of the literature on aspects affecting positive classroom climate in multicultural early childhood education. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49, 71–81. https:/doi.org/10.1007/ s10643-020-01054-4 Kielty, M. L., Gilligan, T. D., & Staton, A. R. (2017). Whole-school approaches to incorporating mindfulness-based interventions: Supporting the capacity for optimal functioning in school settings. Childhood Education, 93(2), 128–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094 056.2017.1300491 Kitching, A. E. (2019). The development of an integrated, multi-level process to facilitate the promotion of holistic well-being in school communities. In I. Eloff (Ed.), Handbook of quality of life in African societies. International handbooks of quality-of-life. Springer. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15367-0_3 Letseka, M. (2012). In defence of ubuntu. Studies in Philosophy and Education: An International Journal, 31(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-011-9267-2 Liebenberg, L. (2020). Reconsidering interactive resilience processes in mental health: Implications for child and youth services. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(5), 1365–1380. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22331 Liebenberg, L., Theron, L., Sanders, J., Munford, R., Van Rensburg, A., Rothmann, S., & Ungar, M. (2016). Bolstering resilience through teacher-learner interaction: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0143034315614689

50  Kamleshie Mohangi Lilja, A. (2013). Body, space, and time—and their influences on trustful relationships in the classroom. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology, 13(Supp. 1), 1–10. https://doi.org/ 10.2989/IPJP.2013.13.2.5.1179 Linvill, D. (2014). Learner interest and engagement in the classroom: Relationships with learner personality and developmental variables. Southern Communication Journal, 79(3), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2014.884156 Louw, D. A., & Louw, A. E. (2014). Child and adolescent development (2nd ed.). Psychology Publications. Magwa, L. (2018). Exploring the role of learner-teacher relationships in the educational, social, and emotional lives of form 5 students in Masvingo District, Zimbabwe (Unpublished PhD thesis). http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/25001/thesis_ magwa_l.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Masten, A. S. (2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory and Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12255 Mbele, B., Makhaba, L., Nzima, D., Hlongwane, M., Thwala, J., Edwards, D., Sibiya, M., & Edwards, S. (2015). An experiential investigation into the phenomenon of respect in Zulu culture. Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 14(1), 87–102. www. researchgate.net/profile/Stephen_Edwards11/publication/292078610_AN_EXPERI ENTIAL_INVESTIGATION_INTO_THE_PHENOMENON_OF_RESPECT_IN_ ZULU_CULTURE/links/56a8c68908ae0fd8b40017ba.pdf McCubbin, L. D., McCubbin, H. I., Zhang, W., Kehl, L., & Strom, I. (2013). Relational well-being: An indigenous perspective and measure. Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies: Family Relations, 62, 354–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12007 Milatz, A., Lüftenegger, M., & Schober, B. (2015). Teachers’ relationship closeness with students as a resource for teacher well-being: A response surface analytical approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1949. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01949 Moletsane, M. (2012). Children and childhood in South Africa. In J. Hardman (Ed.), Child and adolescent development: A South African socio-cultural perspective. Oxford University Press. Mouton, N., Louw, G. P., & Strydom, G. (2013). Critical challenges of the South African school system. International Business  & Economics Research Journal, 12(1), 31–44. www. cluteinstitute.com/ Noddings, N. (2010). Caring in education. The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www. uvm.edu/~rgriffin/NoddingsCaring.pdf Noltemeyer, A. L., & Bush, K. R. (2013). Adversity and resilience: A synthesis of international research. School Psychology International, 34(5), 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0143034312472758 Owusu-Ansah, A., & Kyei-Blankson, L. (2016). Going back to the basics: Demonstrating care, connectedness, and a pedagogy of relationship in education. World Journal of Education, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v6n3p1 Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K., & Allen, J. P. (2012). Teacher-learner relationships and engagement: Conceptualizing, measuring, and improving the capacity of classroom interactions. In S. L. Christenson et  al. (Eds.), Handbook of research on learner engagement. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_17 Priestley, M., Biesta, G. J. J., & Robinson, S. (2012). Teachers as agents of change: An exploration of the concept of teacher agency. https://doi.org/dspace.stir.ac.uk/handle/1893/9266#. YMeiAfkzbQc Priestley, M., Biesta, G. J. J., & Robinson, S. (2015). Teacher agency: What is it, and why does it matter? In R. Kneyber & J. Evers (Eds.), Flip the system: Changing education from

Advancing relational well-being for school success 51 the bottom up. Routledge. https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/21559/1/Teacher%20 agency%20matters_Flip%20the%20system_final.pdf Prilleltensky, I. (2005). Promoting well-being: Time for a paradigm shift in health and human services. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33(66), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14034950510033381 Prilleltensky, I., Neff, M., & Bessell, A. (2016). Teacher stress: What it is, why it’s important, how it can be alleviated. Theory into Practice, 56(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0040 5841.2016.1148986 Raider-Roth, M. (2011). The place of description in understanding and transforming classroom relationships. The New Educator, 7(3), 274–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/15476 88X.2011.593994 Rawsthorne, M., Kinsela, G., Paxton, K., & Luscombe, G. (2019). Young person’s wellbeing: Exploring material, subjective and relational factors. Children Australia, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/cha.2018.53 Rimm-Kaufman, S., Baroody, A. E., Larsen, A. A., Curby, T. W., & Abry, T. (2014). To what extent do teacher-learner interaction, quality and learner gender contribute to fifth graders’ engagement in mathematics learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 170–185. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0037252 Rimm-Kaufman, S.,  & Sandilos, L. (2015). Improving students’ relationships with teachers to provide essential support for learning. American Psychological Association. www.apa.org/ education/k12/relationships Roffey, S. (2012). Pupil wellbeing-teacher well-being: Two sides of the same coin? Educational and Child Psychology, 29(4), 8–17. www.researchgate.net/publication/2856 31404 Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L.,  & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of affective teacher-learner relationships on learner’s school engagement and achievement: A  meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81(4), 493–529. https://doi. org/10.3102/0034654311421793 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68 Sabol, T. J., & Pianta, R. C. (2012). Recent trends in research on teacher-child relationships. Attachment and Human Development, 14(3), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734 .2012.672262 Sanders, J., & Munford, R. (2016). Fostering a sense of belonging at school-five orientations to practice that assist vulnerable youth to create a positive learner identity. School Psychology International, 37(2), 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034315614688 Sanders, J., Munford, R., & Liebenberg, L. (2017). Positive youth development practices and better outcomes for high-risk youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 201–212. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.04.029 Sang, G. (2020). Teacher agency. In M. A. Peters (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of teacher education. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_271-1 Smit, B., & Scherman, V. (2016). A case for relational leadership and an ethics of care for counteracting bullying at schools. South African Journal of Education, 36(4), 1–9. https:// doi.org/10.15700/saje.v36n4a1312 Split, J. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., & Thijs, J. T. (2011). Teacher well-being: The importance of teacher-learner relationships. Educational Psychology Review, 23, 457–477. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10648-011-9170-y

52  Kamleshie Mohangi Strydom, M., Pretorius, P., & Joubert, G. (2012). Depression and anxiety among Grade 11 and 12 learners attending schools in central Bloemfontein. South African Journal of Psychiatry, 18(3), 84–88. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v18i3.356 Takacs, D. (2002). Positionality, epistemology, and social justice in the classroom. Social Justice. www.jstor.org/stable/29768156 Theron, L. C. (2016). The everyday ways that school ecologies facilitate resilience: Implications for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37(2), 87–103. https://doi. org/10.1177/0143034315615937 Ungar, M., Russell, P., & Connelly, G. (2014). School-based interventions to enhance the resilience of students. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 66–83. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp. v4n1p66 van Bergen, P., McGrath, K. F., & Quin, D. (2019). The benefits of close learner-teacher relationships and how to nurture them. In L. J. Graham (Ed.), Inclusive education for the 21st century: Theory, policy, and practice. Allen  & Unwin. https://doi.org./10.4324/9781003 116073-16 van Breda, A., & Theron, L. (2018). A critical review of South African child and youth resilience studies, 2009–2017. Children and Youth Services Review, 91(C), 237–247. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.022 West, J., & Meier, C. (2020). Overcrowded classrooms—the Achilles heel of South African education? South African Journal of Childhood Education, 10(1), a617. https://doi. org/10.4102/sajce.v10i1.617

Chapter 5

Youth perspective on structural barriers Funke Omidire, Liesel Ebersöhn, and Danny Sello Ramollo

Introduction How can the views of young people in a rural space regarding risks that constrain development inform knowledge of caring interventions that could support youth development in similar settings? With this chapter, we aim to contribute to discourses on different components of the school system across Africa. A context of significant distress to young people places extraordinary demands on schools and staff, necessitating a renewed understanding of how to better support children’s developmental needs. From a resilience stance, knowing how young people themselves signify pertinent challenges contributes to a holistic and integrated community understanding of the current social milieu in which young people find themselves. Such a well-rounded and deep contextual understanding of youth-related risk can assist stakeholders within and outside of the formal education system (with a vested interest in education) to craft supportive strategies to scaffold the attainment of positive youth development outcomes. South Africa is a country with a rich and diverse historical background, and the Apartheid legacy remains one of the descriptive footprints of the country’s history (Van der Berg, 2007). This historical description is characterised by concepts such as adversity (risk factors) and resilience (Ebersöhn  & Ferreira, 2012) as individuals are in a constant battle with multiple socio-economic challenges that they strive to overcome in order to do well. These challenges were expected to be addressed in the wake of regime change in 1994. Some of the expected changes were in the economic, social, political, and educational fields. These changes, however, are yet to be experienced in some parts of the country, particularly the rural areas (Nkambule et al., 2011). Rural areas continue to face challenges that require them to mount sufficient and appropriate responses to survive. People living in rural areas in South Africa are faced with high levels of poverty and illiteracy (Van der Berg, 2007). Infrastructure is underdeveloped, and this is underlined by high levels of unemployment (Ebersöhn & Ferreira, 2012). Added to the challenges mentioned earlier, is the scourge of HIV/ AIDS. The AIDS pandemic continues to leave children orphans (Omidire

DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-5

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et al., 2015), with some of them having to play parental roles. Older children find themselves burdened by the obligation of looking after their younger siblings, and by assuming responsibilities for which they are not emotionally and psychologically prepared (Bojer et al., 2007). In sub-Saharan Africa, 11 million young people below the age of 15 were found to have experienced the death of both parents (Amuzu, 2007) and left orphans. The death of parents predisposes young people to significant challenges. Ebersöhn and Eloff (2002) also express this argument as they indicate that the loss of the provider and primary caregiver of the family extends the depth of poverty. Smit (2007) concurs in asserting that young people experience psychological challenges that include low self-esteem and anxiety, while they might experience aggression that could manifest through antisocial behaviour, all as a result of poverty. Poverty limits possibilities in employment opportunities for the youth, and this may breed a culture of idleness, which could ultimately lead to a life of crime (Balfour, 2014; Smit, 2007). It is therefore imperative that the view of the young people should illuminate both the challenges they face and the abilities they possess to respond to them.

Theory of rurality Risk factors affecting rural youth

Globally young people continue to be confronted with risks that require them to draw on internal resources and their environment to adapt successfully. According to Kruger and Prinsloo (2008), youth in rural South Africa are continually battling the challenges that are exacerbated by the inherent physiological, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that they go through in this stage of their lives. The theory of rurality postulates that understanding the broader context of challenges in rural areas is significant and that this could provide in-depth insight into risk factors that may be identified (Balfour et al., 2008). The rurality theory argues that individuals are capable of making decisions about their responses to experiences that they have in life (Balfour et al., 2008). The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) Youth Survey (Panday et al., 2009) indicates that 61% of youths consider HIV to be a high-risk factor, and this was followed by 31% indicating alcohol as the second-highest risk. Other risk factors gripping rural youth include poverty, lack of access to basic and essential services (Moyo, 2013), poor education (Masinire et al., 2014), unemployment, sexual molestation, and teenage pregnancy (Panday et al., 2009). Ebersöhn and Ferreira (2012) posit that in a setting where significant risk factors present themselves, resource factors to counter them will emerge. Different agencies, such as family, socio-economic background as well as education level, influence the responses by individuals to buffer the risk factors. The ability of individuals to identify and access available and appropriate resources facilitates the mitigation of risks (Ebersöhn & Ferreira, 2012).

Youth perspective on structural barriers 55

Poverty and structural disparity in rural spaces constraining youth development

World-wide poverty in rural areas continues to be rife as a result of a skewed political, economic, and social landscape (Asthana et  al., 2009). Rural areas continue to access limited resources. In South Africa, poverty remains one of the significant challenges that the country grapples with and rural areas find themselves at the receiving end of its adverse effects (Ebersöhn, 2014). Parents in rural areas focus on meeting the basic needs of their children and thus strive to provide food. The provision of food has become the primary goal for parents, thereby relegating other needs such as education support to the bottom of the order of priorities (Mapesela et  al., 2012). Poverty is also the root of the health challenges and educational deficiencies experienced by individuals, families, and communities in rural areas (Perkins et al., 2004). In South Africa, disparities between “the affluent and the poor” continue to widen despite the efforts by the government to introduce poverty alleviation policies (Khumalo, 2013; Moletsane, 2012). Rural areas experience alienation as poverty eradication policies are put in place (Nkambule et al., 2011) and as they are experiencing extreme levels of poverty, they find themselves dependent on governmental relief programmes. Although poverty is a country-wide challenge, it seems to be a risk factor that is more prevalent in rural areas. Barriers to education in rural spaces constraining youth development

Quality rural education has trickle-down effects that manifest in the quality of life of rural youth (Dass-Brailsford, 2005). While education is viewed as the vehicle for transformation worldwide (Barley, 2009), this factor continues to pose daunting challenges in developing countries, particularly in rural areas. In South Africa, rural education remains a social justice matter (Masinire et al., 2014) as high levels of resource scarcity persist specifically in previously disadvantaged communities. Schools in rural areas continue to experience a scarcity of the necessary resources (Moletsane, 2012), such as furnished classrooms, science laboratories, and libraries. Libraries with the necessary resources would provide the youth with an opportunity to be exposed to reading material that would improve their reading abilities and ultimately expand their view of the world (Nassimbeni & Desmond, 2011). The language of learning and teaching in rural schools continues to be English despite all the post-1994 talk about the transformation of education (Balfour et al., 2008). Teachers in rural schools find themselves in a difficult situation as they have to teach in a language in which they are not adequately adept (Lemmer & Manyike, 2012). They are expected to teach in their second language, and in some instances, even in their third language. Language barriers

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often have an impact on the delivery of the lesson, and the quality of education is therefore compromised. Masinire et al. (2014) indicate that shortages in high-quality teachers in rural areas necessitate that teachers should be trained specifically for rural education, which is unique. There is a need to hire and retain qualified teachers in rural schools as these teachers often leave rural schools for urban ones, while others leave to seek alternative employment. Mapesela et al. (2012) argue that teachers in rural areas are faced with geographical isolation, which makes it difficult for them to access support and engage in cooperative planning with fellow professionals. Owing to these challenges, teachers in rural areas elect to take employment in urban areas (Ebersöhn, 2014). Methodology

The study employed a qualitative secondary data analysis drawing on data generated in the Flourishing Learning Youth (FLY) study (2012–2015). FLY included Academic Service Learning (ASL) students who visited a rural school in Mpumalanga province twice a year annually to provide educational psychology services to Grade 9 learners in a rural high school in South Africa. The school student population is predominantly SiSwati-speaking, and the language of teaching and learning is English. Data sources include client files (projective and expressive media), as well as student quadrant maps and reflection notes. Codes were ascribed to each file for archiving and retrieval purposes. Purposive sampling was used to select a stratified sample representative of year-cohorts and gender. In total 64 client files were sampled comprising 32 male clients and 32 female clients from a total of 304 files that are available for the years 2012 to 2015. Thematic data analysis was employed to provide the opportunity to view data in its entirety and refine it into comprehensive categories that were later developed into themes. Data were categorised, named, and then assembled by means of similar codes so as to make sense of the themes that had been formed. By the end of the process, the data had been reduced to a manageable volume and analysed (De Vos et al., 2011).

Findings The findings of the study revealed that rural youth across the different cohorts identified structural risks as prominent barriers that constrain youth development. These structural risks were synonymous with inequality in post-colonial settings and included (i) risks associated with standard of living and (ii) impediments to learning. Indicators of low socio-economic standard of living from a youth perspective were poverty, a lack of infrastructure resources, and unemployment. Indicators of impediments to learning from a youth view were the language of learning, as well as teaching and limited learning resources.

Youth perspective on structural barriers 57

Low socio-economic standard of living Poverty and rurality

In an ASL student’s report, young people described their conditions of living as challenging due to factors associated with poverty and severe resource constraints pronounced in their rural life world: “The client described her family as being poor” (File 3, p.  2, 2013–12); “Lack of financial backing is a barrier to(wards) the client’s future dreams” (File 36, p. 4, line 76, 2012–7); “The unemployed status of the single mother is putting (the) strain on the family, both on (the) emotional and (the) financial levels” (2012–1). Incomplete sentences revealed some challenges identified by the youth. A female student (2014–22) stated: “I regret why I am poor,” while another female student (2013–12) stated: “I love my father, but he does not help me with a lot of things, e.g. money and clothes.” An ASL student’s report stated that both the adults that the client lives with are unemployed (2013–12). A reflection in an ASL student’s report illuminated the client’s (2014–22) concerns as she indicated that her mother did a lot for the community, but they were still poor, and she did not understand why they were poor. Quadrant maps (2012–2; 2015–29, & 2015–32) show that poverty, including food insecurity, forms part of the challenges identified in rural settings. Lack of infrastructure in highly unequal rural spaces

Youth are challenged by a lack of electricity, running water, and transport. ASL student reports stated: “The client does not have access to basic resources” (File 12, p. 4, lines 61–2, 2013–9); “Lack of access to running water, transport, health services and essential services may also lead to extra challenges for the client” (File 8, p. 3, lines 31–2, 2013–9); “The client stays far from school, [and] although there is transport provided, that means him waking up [having to wake up] early and getting tired during the course of [the] school day; and his attention also deteriorates” (File 4, p. 1, line 1, 2013–14); “The geographical location of the school and residence makes it extremely difficult for the client to receive support throughout his schooling career” (File 36, p. 4, lines 69–71, 2012–7); “The remoteness of the community poses challenges in that it limits the client’s exposure to a variety of career opportunities” (File 26, p. 6, lines 97–8, 2012–1). The demographic questionnaire indicated limited access to basic services (2013–14). The reflection notes by this ASL student highlight that the lack of resources in the community poses challenges for youth in rural areas (2014–20). The challenges include the lack of transport, walking long distances to school (2014–22), lack of access to running water and health services (2015–30). In an incomplete sentence, a male student (2014–21) stated: “In my community I need water.” A rural youth indicated the minimal services to which they had access in his community by circling the number corresponding with the single resource that they have.

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High levels of unemployment in rural spaces

Limited resources impact directly on the availability of jobs in the rural setting. Data reveal that young people know that there are limited employment opportunities in rural areas. Young people experience the challenge of unemployment as a risk that affects their parents’ ability to provide for their families. In the ASL students’ reports the following excerpts were captured: “Unemployment and the fact that the client’s mother is now a single parent place both (an) emotional and financial constraints on the family” (File 24, p. 6, lines 93–4, 2012–1); “Few job opportunities and job shadowing presents challenges” (File 12, p. 4 line 65, 2013–10); “Neither the uncle nor the grandmother works” (File 3, p. 2, line 17, 2013–12). The reflection notes by an ASL student stated: “[The] client’s mother was a farm worker, but now she is unemployed and this is challenging to him” (2014–18). Impediments to learning

Various challenges compromise education and learning in rural areas. Some of the challenges include the language of learning and teaching and a lack of learning resources. Language of learning and teaching

Yong people in rural areas battle with English used for learning and teaching. The little exposure to reading English in rural areas impacts on their comprehension of other learning areas that are presented in English and this can be seen in the poor academic performance of the rural youth (Lemmer  & Manyike, 2012). Some of the academic challenges experienced by the clients are captured in ASL students’ reports as follows: “The client seems to be worried (in terms of) [about] her scholastic performance(s) and is currently facing the possibility of not passing Grade 9” (File 27, p. 6, line 101, 2012–1); “We have used the client’s academic report to get an idea of his aptitude. From his academic report it is visible [clear] that he is not coping with the academic demands” (File 6, p. 2, line 22–4; 2012–7); “While working through the client’s worksheet, it became evident that he has limited written English abilities” (2012–7); “When the client feels that they cannot speak, read or write English, they avoid the work” (2013–9). The reflections by the ASL students include: “In the observation, we made it is clear that the client struggles with English and therefore found it difficult to complete the exercises during assessment” (File 5, p. 4, line 56–8, 2012–7); “. . . the client has difficulty with spelling” (2014–22). In the interview related to his kinetic family drawing (KFD), the client was asked by an ASL student if he worried about his schoolwork, and he responded by stating: “Yes because sometimes I do not understand the work” (2012–1). A progress report of a female student (2013–11) describes progress through levels, with Level 1 being the lowest performance and

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Level 7 being outstanding. The Level 1 performance in English is an indication of the difficulty experienced with the language of learning and teaching. Other learning areas are also affected by poor English comprehension. This story is found in the journey bag activity. The ASL student indicated that “the story highlights incoherent writing that makes it difficult to follow the line of thought that the client attempted to put across and their message could therefore be missed” (2012–8). Lack of learning resources

Learning support resources are fundamental to successful learning, and their absence leaves the rural youth in a vulnerable position. They find themselves having to battle resource-related challenges in order to perform well academically. Data indicated the need for learning resources. A quadrant map indicated that “classrooms are overcrowded and that it impacts on effective teaching and learning” (2012–6). In the ASL reflections, the following was reported: “Poor school infrastructure is highlighted as a challenge,” which further impacts on successful learning (2012–2; 2012–3). In addition, the identification of a lack of resources is evident in an ASL student’s report, where it says: “Adding to the challenges faced by youth in school is the poor school infrastructure” (File 12, p. 4, line 66, 2013–10).

Discussion How can the views of young people in a rural space regarding risks that constrain development inform knowledge of caring interventions that could support youth development in similar settings? Of a multiplicity of risks that exist as impediments to young people’s development, it was structural risks that young people privileged. From this, it is evident that changes towards equity have been slow to reach rural spaces. As Arnold et al. (2005) note that resource scarcity in the rural setting remains a widespread challenge. Lack of resources has become an indicator of the marginalisation (Asthana et al., 2009) and remoteness of rural areas. According to Asthana et  al. (2009), resource allocation to rural areas remains unmonitored, and this leads to inadequate and unbalanced distribution. The skewed resource allocation, which is tilted towards favouring urban areas, impacts negatively on equity, and as a result, the rural areas experience social injustice. A lack of such essential resources as running water, a transport system and health services are an indication of the need for a more balanced distribution of resources in rural areas (De Villiers & Van den Berg, 2012). Mapesela et al. (2012) concur as they argue that the inadequate distribution of resources perpetuates the low quality of life in rural settings. Lemmer and Manyike (2012) highlight the lack of economic resources and employment opportunities in rural areas. The inaccessibility of the readily available resources in rural areas further limits possibilities for young people to find employment (Lemmer & Manyike, 2012). Unemployment continues to rise in South Africa as the

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number of job seekers also remains high and perpetuates the cycle of poverty. Although South Africa is considered one of Africa’s large economies, like in other African countries, poverty continues to be a challenge that the country battles with (Khumalo, 2013). The language of teaching and learning remains central to the discourse in current literature across the globe (Nassimbeni & Desmond, 2011). In South Africa, with its diversities in race, language, and culture, various factors influence the individual’s ability to perform academically (Masinire et  al., 2014). Learning in an additional language becomes a barrier to successful learning by young people (Lemmer & Manyike, 2012). Balfour et al. (2008) argue that English continues to be the predominant language used for teaching and learning in South Africa despite attempts by the government to promote multilingualism. According to Lemmer and Manyike (2012), the use of English as the language of instruction serves to perpetuate inequality in learner outcomes. The rural young people clearly articulated this point. As derived from existing literature, rural schools, learning resource scarcity, and the legacy of apartheid cannot be divorced from one another (Hlalele, 2012). Rural schools are striving to align themselves with and be comparable to their urban counterparts as a result of the absence of learning resources. Learning is proving to be increasingly advanced, and young people display improvement in their academic performance in well-resourced schools, where facilities such as libraries are available (Nassimbeni & Desmond, 2011). In marginalised rural communities, on the other hand, learning continues to be significantly adversely impacted by the dearth of learning resources and support (Balfour, 2014; Hlalele, 2012). Improvement of education in the rural setting is receiving attention, albeit inadequate, from policymakers (Mulkeen & Chen, 2008). Attempts to improve school infrastructure in rural settings seek to bring parity between rural and urban schools. The question is: how can an intervention be ethical? How should interventions be developed to address structural disparity as a dominant risk? Ebersöhn et al. (2015, p. 60) advocate for the “justice model,” which seeks fairly and equally to distribute resources. From this point of view, caring interventions need to be scaled. Also, interventions cannot over-promise and under-deliver. Smallscale interventions will not be able to redress large-scale structural inequality. Intervention advocates need to liaise at policy level to argue for structural changes. Such advocacy could be strengthened by including youth leaders in campaigns for change that could decrease constraints and increase opportunities for young people in rural spaces. Joint advocacy could include, with regard to socio-economic deprivation, on macro-level decision-makers (be it government, municipalities, or non-governmental organisations) would aim to create opportunities for increased employment and household income-generation. Similarly, in the education sector emphasis could be on equalising opportunities for young people to learn by addressing constraints with regard to linguistic diversity. Thus enabling teachers who teach in rural spaces to stay close to their

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places of employment, and strategising about ways in which to resource teaching and learning materials in rural spaces.

Recommendations and conclusion It is established that structural disparity denotes risk factors that act as barriers to human development broadly, and in particular for marginalised populations (including young people and people living in rural spaces). This study contributes by indicating that for young people, these inequality-vestiges of post-colonialism carry the most weight in constraining their progress. It is recommended that government agencies and non-governmental organisations should plan intervention programmes based on the structural disparity the youth identify as most significant. This ensures that the beneficiaries of the interventions have a voice in determining what should be prioritised. Future studies may explore why different than predicted by rurality theory, data generated by young people were silent on racism, neglect and conservatism as risk factors in rural spaces.

References Amuzu, J. (2007). HIV/AIDS: The challenges for young people. Commonwealth Youth and Development, 5(1), 11–25. Arnold, M. L., Newman, J. H., Gaddy, B. B., & Dean, C. B. (2005). A look at the condition of rural education research: Setting a direction for future research. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(6), 1–25. Asthana, S., Halliday, J.,  & Gibson, A. (2009). Social exclusion and social justice: A  rural perspective on resource allocation. Policy  & Politics, 37, 201–214. https://doi. org/10.1332/030557309X411264 Balfour, R. J. (2014). ‘Water, water everywhere .  .  .’: New perspectives towards theory development for rural education research in (South) Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 28, 733–747. Balfour, R. J., Mitchell, C., & Moletsane, R. (2008). Troubling contexts: Toward a generative theory of rurality as education research. Journal of Rural and Community Development, 3(3), 95–107. Barley, Z. A. (2009). Preparing teachers for rural appointments: Lessons from the midcontinent. The Rural Educator, 30(3), 10–15. Bojer, M., Lamont, A., Janitsch, C., Dlamini, B., & Hassan, Z. (2007). Orphans and vulnerable children in South Africa: Problem, perceptions, players . . . and possibilities for change. Africa Leadership Initiative. http://reospartners.com/wp-content/uploads/old/OVC%20Phase%20One% 20Report.pdf Dass-Brailsford, P. (2005). Exploring resiliency: Academic achievement among disadvantaged black youth in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 35, 574–591. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F008124630503500311 De Villiers, M., & Van den Berg, H. (2012). The implementation and evaluation of a resiliency programme for children. South African Journal of Psychology, 42(1), 93–102. https:// doi.org/10.1177%2F008124631204200110

62  Omidire et al. De Vos, A. S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C. B., & Delport, C. S. L. (2011). Research at grass roots: For the social sciences and human services professions (4th ed.). Van Schaik. Ebersöhn, L. (2014). Teacher resilience: Theorizing resilience and poverty. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 20, 568–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2014.93 7960 Ebersöhn, L., & Eloff, I. (2002). The black, white and grey of rainbow children coping with HIV/AIDS. Perspectives in Education, 20(2), 77–86. Ebersöhn, L., & Ferreira, R. (2012). Rurality and resilience in education: Place-based partnerships and agency to moderate time and space constrains. Perspectives in Education, 30(1), 30–42. Ebersöhn, L., Loots, T., Eloff, I., & Ferreira, R. (2015). Taking note of obstacles research partners negotiate in long-term higher education community engagement partnerships. Teaching and Teacher Education, 45, 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.09.003 Hlalele, D. (2012). Social justice and rural education in South Africa. Perspectives in Education, 30(1), 111–118. Khumalo, P. (2013). The dynamics of poverty and poverty alleviation in South Africa. Gender & Behaviour, 11, 5643–5652. Kruger, L., & Prinsloo, H. (2008). The appraisal and enhancement of resilience modalities in the middle adolescents within the school context. South African Journal of Education, 28, 241–259. Lemmer, E. M., & Manyike, T. V. (2012). Far from the city lights: English reading performance of ESL learners in different types of rural primary school. Per Linguam: A Journal for Language Learning, 28(1), 16–35. https://doi.org/10.5785/28-1-117 Mapesela, M., Hlalele, D.,  & Alexandra, G. (2012). Overcoming adversity: A  holistic response to creating sustainable rural learning ecologies. Journal of Human Ecology, 38, 91–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2012.11906478 Masinire, A., Maringe, F.,  & Nkambule, T. (2014). Education for rural development: Embedding rural dimensions in initial teacher preparation. Perspectives in Education, 32(3), 146–158. Moletsane, R. (2012). Repositioning educational research on rurality and rural education in South Africa: Beyond deficit paradigms. Perspectives in Education, 30(1), 1–8. Moyo, C. S. (2013). Access to productive resource: The catalyst to rural women’s poverty alleviation. A case of South Africa. Gender & Behaviour, 11, 5153–5161. Mulkeen, A.,  & Chen, D. (Eds.). (2008). Teachers for rural schools: Experiences in Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Uganda. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/ 978-0-8213-7479-5 Nassimbeni, M., & Desmond, S. (2011). Availability of books as a factor in reading, teaching and learning behaviour in twenty disadvantaged schools in South Africa. South African Journal of Libraries and Information Science, 77, 95–103. Nkambule, T., Balfour, R. J., Pillay, G., & Moletsane, R. (2011). Rurality and rural education: Discourses underpinning rurality and rural education research in South African postgraduate education research 1994–2004. South African Journal of Higher Education, 25(2), 341–357. Omidire, M. F., Mosia, D. A.,  & Mampane, M. R. (2015). Perceptions of the roles and responsibilities of caregivers in children’s homes in South Africa. Revista de Asistenţă Socială, 2, 113–126. Panday, S., Makiwane, M., Ranchod, C.,  & Letsoalo, T. (2009). Teenage pregnancy in South Africa—with a specific focus on school-going learners. Child, Youth, Family and Social

Youth perspective on structural barriers 63 Development, Human Sciences Research Council. Department of Basic Education. www.poa.gov.za/education/Supporting%20Documentation/Teenage%20pregnancy%20 in%20South%20Africa.pdf Perkins, D. D., Crim, B., Silberman, P.,  & Brown, B. B. (2004). Community development as a response to community-level adversity: Ecological theory and research and strengths-based policy. In K. I. Maton, C. J. Schellenbach, B. J. Leadbeater, & A. L. Solarz (Eds.), Investing in children, youth, families, and communities: Strengths-based research and policy (pp. 321–340). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10660-000 Smit, E. (2007). The impact of HIV/AIDS on rural South African families. Child Abuse Research in South Africa, 8(1), 1–10. Van der Berg, S. (2007). Apartheid’s enduring legacy: Inequalities in education. Journal of African Economies, 16, 849–880. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejm017

Chapter 6

Youth perspectives on academic service learning Courage to fly into our dreams Liesel Ebersöhn, Funke Omidire, and Seago Maapola

Introduction How can insight into the experiences of young people in a rural school who participated in academic service learning (ASL) inform knowledge on community development? With this chapter, we aim to add to knowledge on community development by leveraging descriptive data on the retrospective perspectives of young South Africans from a rural community who participated in a ten-year academic service learning partnership with educational psychology learners from a university (Seobi, 2017). ASL is one pathway by which to support community building in remote and marginalised settings. Young people are seldom afforded the opportunity to contribute to knowledge generation by voicing their thoughts and opinions about participating in initiatives of higher education institutions (Weeks, 2009). In this chapter, we draw on Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) derived insights from young people (n = 31, female = 14) who engaged in ASL. Although it is established that ASL is meaningful for community development, this chapter positions youth perspectives at the centre of development discourses. From a youth vantage point, ASL was a caring way of engagement affording access to career counselling. We argue that, in a resource-constrained society, curricular interventions by higher education institutions are low cost and high return pathways to build communities via youth development in comparable spaces facing extreme adversity and vulnerable to maladaptation and negative outcomes.

Academic service learning as a supportive pathway to build rural communities Given the challenge of vast distances to available resources, young and old in rural spaces world-wide need to be innovative to access services. Nowhere is this more prevalent than in highly unequal contexts. Here the strain of limited proximity to resources is exacerbated by the limited provision of services, together with the uneven distribution of such scarce resources—with people in rural spaces especially feeling the challenge. Rural communities in South DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-6

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Africa often have limited resources and do not have the same access to basic services and opportunities as their urban counterparts (Hlalele, 2012). Although every rural community is unique, many have similar limitations and strengths (Budge, 2006). The profile of a rural community typically has three components. First is geographic isolation—long distances to the nearest town and having to travel far to gain access to resources such as psychological services or even a basic resource such as a well-functioning library (Arnold et al., 2005; Budge, 2006). Second is limited service delivery—poor condition of roads and basic infrastructure, limited or lack of services such as water, sanitation, electricity, etc. (Hlalele, 2012), as well as a lack of teachers and educational facilities available to clients (Barley, 2009). Finally, rural communities are often characterised by inadequate education, low wages, unemployment, and resource and technological deficiencies (Prinsloo, 2003). According to Myende (2015), it is often the poorest of the poor who occupy these rural areas. An acknowledged innovative strategy to bring scarce services to remote places is that of higher education community engagement. Higher education community engagement is a partnership between higher education institutions and communities on mutually beneficial projects that develop learners and provides essential knowledge and services to communities. Part of the mandate of higher education institutions is to engage in service learning through community development projects which would “produce assets that increase the capacity of residents to improve their quality of life” (Netshandama, 2010, p. 346). Considering that education was used as a tool for oppression, we may assume that it can also be used as a tool for liberation and for uplifting the lives of the youth at risk (Onyx, 2008). By higher education institutions taking up the call to offer services to rural communities, they might help to inspire the communities to strive for better, contribute to their aspirations and to their own social development (Alexander & Khabanyane, 2013). Whether in affluent or resource constrained settings, the use of academic service learning during higher education encourages learners-in-training to learn actively and collaboratively. It also encourages them to become more involved in local communities, particularly with young people (Bringle  & Hatcher, 2000), and to equip them with the skills that are necessary to better their lives. Bringle and Hatcher (2000) define academic service learning as: “course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which learners (a) participate in an organised service activity that meets identified community needs and (b) reflects on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content” (p. 274). Academic service learning affords learners-in-training opportunities to understand the social conditions that the (young) people face as they are directly influenced by them. When learners-in-training understand these conditions they also gain insight into the (young) people themselves (Petersen et  al., 2008). Intentional higher education learning opportunities can assist

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learners-in-training to take a closer look at rural communities through a positive lens instead of only seeing deficiencies and what is lacking (Rapmund & Moore, 2002).

Young people in rural spaces According to Firfirey and Carolissen (2010), poverty is a lack of income and inadequate well-being. Consequently poverty-related challenges extend to the self, influencing one’s perception of self, such as feelings of powerlessness and of being voiceless (Firfirey & Carolissen, 2010). According to Prinsloo (2003), with poverty often comes a culture of vulnerability, isolation, and inadequacy regarding the physical and spiritual being. It is often the marginalised who see themselves as powerless (Nieuwenhuis, 2011; Prinsloo, 2003). Gallagher (as cited in Budge, 2006) supports this concept indicating that thoughts, behaviours, and emotions are shaped by our environment, genes, biological factors, history, and relationships. This implies that youth confronted by extensive risks, who are surrounded by lack in almost every aspect, whose challenges are magnified (Myende, 2015), may be influenced by their environment and may see themselves as they see their surroundings. In a study on the perception of young people regarding achievement it was evident that the concept of achievement held by young people was complex and depended on what the young person aspired to (Matope & Badroodien, 2015). Young people used their aspirations as guide to do what they desire and motivate them to work hard. However, the inability to achieve certain goals, for example, due to financial constraints, often leads to some people reevaluating their goals and aspirations (Matope & Badroodien, 2015). Irrespective of space, young people often feel dissonance between their aspirations and available opportunities. For young people in rural spaces, limited development pathways often place a ceiling on their hope, expectancy, and motivation. Sommers (2007, p. 19) points out that “we are living in the age of the youth.” There are more youths today than has ever before been recorded in history (Sommers, 2007). One of the many rights of all children and young people is to be listened to (Joubert, 2012). Unfortunately, many young people are at the receiving end of social disadvantage and exclusion. Society often overlooks them and the reality is that the youth are in a continuous process of making sense of their lives, forming identities and establishing their position in the world, with these processes being influenced by ethnicity, race, gender, social class, and education (Chadderton & Colley, 2012). Young people who are marginalised by race or socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely to experience difficulties with scholastic performance and suffer psychological ill health and dysfunction (Benner & Wang, 2014). This further implies a double disadvantage for the youth who are in the minority and fall within the low SES range, as posited by Crosnoe (as cited in Benner & Wang, 2014). Marginalised young people often face victimisation at their schools. It is

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usually up to the teachers to engage the marginalised young people in schoolbased activities so they can get involved and experience a sense of belonging (Benner & Wang, 2014). Megahed and Ginsburg (2009) emphasise that most school systems perpetuate the cycle of social inequality and serve the needs of the elite instead of the marginalised. Youth who are marginalised often see themselves as having little or no future and often feel alienated from society (Prinsloo, 2003). This group of young people seldom experience the effects of the changes taking place in the broader society and may have a poor self-image (Jennings, Everett, Lyle, & Budlender as cited in Prinsloo, 2003). Young people in similar spaces of social disadvantage have comparable negative developmental outcomes. However, a higher frequency of poverty in rural areas (Firfirey & Carolissen, 2010; Nieuwenhuis, 2011; Prinsloo, 2003) as well as uneven resource distribution in the urban-rural divides mean that young people in rural spaces have fewer and lower quality support structures available to them (Balfour et al., 2008) with less opportunities to receive assistance towards positive developmental outcomes.

Educational psychology as resource to include young peoples in communities of care Educational psychology services are provided when the barriers to education and development prevent optimal learning and well-being outcomes. In this way, educational and psychological services can also assist in achieving social justice (Petersen et al., 2008). Educational psychology includes career counselling, learning support, and socio-emotional support. Career counselling is a process that supports individuals to make career-related decisions, manage their careers over the lifespan, and develop career adaptability competence to be responsive to future career-related challenges (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2011). Career counselling includes career guidance and education denoting access to relevant career knowledge and information to inform career-pathing decisions (Stead  & Watson, 2006). It follows that career choices are central to career development and that both career guidance and counselling inform capacity to make career choices. Educational psychology services are thus especially pertinent to the case of young people in rural schools. The quality of education that youth receive at rural schools is problematic (Myende, 2015). Youth with limited availability and access to resources (as is the case with rural schools) often have low academic performance outcomes and become early school-leavers (Myende, 2015). Education has the power to transform lives and help inspire youth to want better for themselves. It is also an essential tool in creating a just society (Petersen et al., 2008). According to Benner and Wang (2014), most research shows that the longer young people stay in school, the more likely they are to be active members of society and take part in community development. Education is thus necessary for the health, development, and upward mobility of most rural

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communities (Barley & Beesley, 2007). However, research also shows that more and more youths are becoming early school-leavers, which has a bearing on their engagement with society (Te Riele, 2007). In rural areas, especially, many young people are urged to leave and seek better opportunities in cities (Arnold et al., 2005). Hektner (as cited in Arnold et al., 2005) states that those who perform well academically have great difficulty deciding whether to stay in the community or leave, having to choose between future goals and the desire to stay in their community, where they may feel a sense of belonging.

Flourishing Learning Youth (FLY): Educational psychology school-based intervention with young people in a rural school The FLY study spans a ten-year (2006–2015) partnership between academics and learners from the Centre for the Study of Resilience, University of Pretoria and rural school role-players (leadership, teachers, Grade 9-learners, and parents/caregivers). The aim of FLY was to (i) co-generate knowledge on resilience-enabling pathways in rural spaces, (ii) build professional capacity in educational psychology learners, (iii) provide educational psychology services to young people without access to such resources, and (iv) provide teacher professional development opportunities. The ASL-FLY component entailed providing annual educational psychology services to the Grade 9 learner corps. Educational psychology learners conducted two two-day visits to the rural school. The first visit was used for educational psychological assessment (group and individual psychometric and constructivist media) and the second, four months later, for feedback and intervention (group and individual). Each educational psychology learner partnered with a group of between five and 12 Grade 9 learners. The particular rural high school was in the Mpumalanga province with 96% of young people attending high school. Two percent enrolled in colleges, 1% in universities, and 0.1% in adult learning centres (Statistics South Africa, 2012). Young people in this province face challenges associated with poverty and unemployment, lack of and inadequate service delivery, high prevalence of healthrelated deaths and trauma, poor housing, lack of police presence, and low-quality education. Most young people come from multigenerational families and the rate of migration of young people to urban spaces is high (Makiwane et al., 2012). Household incomes mostly consist of government pensions and children’s grants.

Methodology Inclusion criteria for purposive sampling in the descriptive, instrumental case study of young people’s retrospective experiences of academic service learning were (i) membership in one of the Grade 9  year-cohorts who received FLY educational psychology services and (ii) ability to attend the after-school data generation session. Whereas the 2007 and 2013-year groups had the most

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representatives (six participants each), cohort 2008 had only one participant. Of the 31 participants 17 were males and 14 were females. Most of the participants were aged between 15 and 18 years (n = 20, males = 11, females = 9). Data were collected in isiZulu (the dominant home language) and English (the language of teaching and learning) during two 3-hour after school sessions on subsequent days in a classroom at the rural school. For the PRA, data generation participants were grouped according to the year in which they participated in FLY to consult on and answer several questions, one of which was: How did the university educational psychology learners help you? Each group plotted their answer on a poster which they presented to everyone else in the session. These presentations were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim and posters were photographed and served as visual data. PRA co-creates knowledge through detailed analysis and interaction (Chambers, 1994b), enabling critical thinking (White & Taket, 1997) that mobilises power within people and encourages active participation by directing detailed focus on a life-world (Chambers, 1994a). PRA discussions and presentations were selected as it enables people who experience oppression and marginalisation to share their perspectives and voices on matters relating to them, thus allowing others to learn from their insight. PRA is not just about extracting information, but about individuals learning more about themselves, analysing their world in greater detail and resulting in planning and acting towards achieving solutions (Chambers, 1994a). PRA aids the process of empowerment by altering a stance from being passive to being active (Chambers, 1994a). Verbatim transcriptions and visual data were thematically analysed (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Credibility was strengthened by triangulating across participant year-groups and multiple researchers, together with member checking of themes with participants following analysis. Transferability of findings to comparable settings is enabled by the description of rural school setting. An audit trail of documented data and a research schedule strengthens the confirmability of data. During the recruitment phase the school governing body, parents, and caregivers as well as prospective participants were informed about the purpose of the study. On the first day of data generation participants either assented or consented (depending to their age) to contribute to knowledge generation based on written information on the purpose and time and involvement expectations of the study. Privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality of individual participants, the school and school-community were ensured.

Results: Encouraged to take responsibility to fly into our dreams A central theme was that young people viewed educational psychology services as especially meaningful with regard to career counselling. Young people shared that their self-knowledge increased, their career knowledge expanded, that they felt better able to set goals and make career pathing decisions and felt motivated to pursue their aspirations.

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In terms of increased self-knowledge young people explained that “I know how to work with people and help people enjoy the things they do” (Participant 27, lines 419–20); “They teach us how to study. So now I am motivated and working towards a goal” (Participant 10, lines 325–6); “[I now have] the information and knowledge about life. For example how to interact with people. How to adapt to their environments” (Participant 16, lines 102–5); “I used to undermine myself. So they motivated me and I was really inspired” (Participant 4, line 328); “I was not aware that I can be good in maths. I can be a doctor! They came and I realised this. That I can be a doctor one day” (Participant 22, lines 422–3). A young man explained that he had acquired knowledge to set goals for himself: “They help us see the importance of choosing smart goals. Which SMART means Specific, Manageable, Achievable, Realistic and Timing” (Participant 10, lines 13–5). “They come to help me choose a career” (Participant 27, line 421) shared a young man, adding that “they help us choose subjects that correspond with our careers” (line 425) with a peer stating that “We were sometimes following our friends and what they wanted to do and not really what we wanted to do. For example, study commerce subjects because my friend is doing it as well” (Participant 28, line 66–8). Another said: “They gave us advice to choose a right career. For example, I wanted to be a farmer before. But when the learner came here, she teach me I can also be a teacher” (Participant 12, lines 313–16). A young woman explained that she benefitted from career knowledge as “I had no idea of any career. I just (had a) clue that maybe one day I want to be a nurse or doctor. But I don’t know how. I don’t know what to do” (Participant 1, lines 117–20); “I wanted to be a lawyer. So he told me that I should excel in English. And I must be talkative” (Participant 11, lines 39–41). Young people explained the benefits of otherwise unavailable knowledge on training opportunities: “They came every year. They teach us how we can study and how we can apply if we want to go to university or college” (Participant 4, lines 332–4); “They gave me access to a career book, giving me support as well. I got an opportunity to choose a career that relates with the things I like and the things that I enjoy doing” (Participant 12, lines 210–11); “If you want to be an engineer what subjects I must do. It needs mathematics, physical science” (Participant 27, lines 326–7). Young people shared that “the learners help us to fill out the application where we want to study” (Participant 12, line 311), and “they give us information about training places, and the differences between school and those places” (Participant 5, lines 161–2). Young people explained that their aspiration for education and training improved This year I live at home. It’s my comfort zone. But next year I must be out of the house so I can study to be a doctor at the university [in the city]. I’ll be in a new environment. I’ll have to adapt. (Participant 19, lines 384–8)

Youth perspectives on academic service learning 71

I used to undermine myself. So they motivated me. I am inspired to work (Participant 3, lines 77–8). It was apparent that the presence and efforts of educational psychology learners motivated young people: “They come to motivate and encourage us” (Participant 10, lines 229–30), “we must not give up on our dreams” (Participant 23, line 406), because “[they] come to motivate us to make our dreams come true, to encourage us to work hard, encourage us to take responsibility to fly into our dreams” (Participant 24, lines 247–9); “they advised and inspired me” (Participant 13, line 9). Caring engagement by “outsiders” in young people meant that youngsters had high expectations of themselves despite adversity: “I also learned to not look at our poor background. Because poor today, rich tomorrow. To work hard in our studies. A learner today and a leader tomorrow” (Participant 31, lines 408–10).

Discussion How can insight into the experiences of young people in a rural school who participated in academic service learning inform knowledge on community development? Simply put academic service learning brings expensive services afforded to those in affluent spaces into the epicentre of the lives of young people in remote spaces. It is evident in the perspectives young people share that ASL has utility, at least to some extent, to even-out inequality. Unsurprisingly, given the character of career counselling (Skorikov & Patton, 2007), young people described how their knowledge base increased: They gained self-knowledge, career knowledge (subject, career, and training options), and decision-making knowledge. Ideally this knowledge could also be shared by teachers trained in this skill set. However, the challenges associated with schooling in rural spaces impact negatively on career guidance and counselling opportunities, and consequently career development capacity (Coetzee et al., 2015). Variability of teacher qualifications and assignment of ill-equipped teachers to provide career guidance mean that quality career counselling services are not in ample supply in schools in spaces of social deprivation, and particularly in rural schools. Previous studies also show that providing a platform where learner voices could be raised led to the youth gaining a stronger sense of their own abilities (Mitra, 2004). Belief in oneself can sometimes be difficult when there are numerous factors that present as risk factors. Sometimes, protective factors are not easily recognised due to a focus on and being surrounded by risk factors such as high unemployment rates and a high incidence of alcohol abuse, to name a few (Grobler, 2009). It is highly likely that the daily challenges that young people face influence the manner in which they see themselves and their future. The challenges become a lens through which they perceive and judge their world (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Bringle & Hatcher, 2002; Firfirey & Carolissen, 2010; Myende, 2015; Prinsloo, 2003).

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Bajema et  al. (2002) posit that most rural young people have aspirations, career goals and are aware that there is support in their immediate environment to help them work towards their goals. Geographic isolation however often also comes with low levels of aspiration among young people, because most of the jobs available in the immediate community do not require a high level of education (Irvin et al., 2011). Haller and Virkler (1993) point out that most young people from rural communities have low aspirations because they do not have a point of reference. There are minimal career role models to look up to in their immediate communities (Haller  & Virkler, 1993). Similar to findings in the current study, Walberg in Bajema et al. (2002) confirms that higher education interaction develops aspiration in young people with significant positive effects on how they learn and perform scholastically. It is also known that the caring presence of others matter for youth development (Wilkinson  & Pickett, 2010). What was additionally evident in this study is the extent to which, by their own account, the interest and engagement of professionals (albeit in training) motivated young people to aspire to alternative future paths. Obviously added capability (Sen, 2009) of educational psychology services brought into the (severely deprived socio-economic rural) life-worlds of marginalised young people matter. However, it was not only that additional resources were provided or where and to whom these resources were provided. What is significant is that, through a youth lens, added capability scaffolds freedom for young people to decide what to do with this added bonus. It was therefore not only the fact that ASL added capability that mattered for youth development. It was the magical x-factor of human development: Young people appropriating esteem and responded in idiosyncratic ways to confidently manifest expectations given additional resources of care and knowledge.

Conclusion The findings show that ASL is a caring pathway to promote youth development in rural spaces. It is established that ASL is significant for community development and bridges spaces of privilege (university) and disadvantage (rural youth) to enable (youth) development. This chapter adds to this body of knowledge by noting that, for young people, career counselling is central to their development. Career counselling also constitutes, from a rural youth perspective in an extremely unequal country, a crucial educational psychology service. In addition, the study affirms that engagement of concerned carers (in this instance professionals) is a meaningful pathway to support youth aspiration. This study again confirms that ASL is an available resource even in a country with resource constraints and brings out-of-reach resources into the lives of marginalised young people.

References Alexander, G., & Khabanyane, M. (2013). Service learning as a response to community/school engagement: Towards a pedagogy of engagement. Perspectives in Education, 31(2), 102–113.

Youth perspectives on academic service learning 73 Arnold, M. L., Newman, J. H., Gaddy, B. B., & Dean, C. B. (2005). A look at the condition of rural education research: Setting a direction for future research. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(6), 1–25. www.keystone-institute.org/pdf/JRRE_05.pdf Bajema, D. H., Miller, W. W., & Williams, D. L. (2002). Aspirations of rural youth. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43(3), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2002.03061 Balfour, R. J., Mitchell, C., & Moletsane, R. (2008). Troubling contexts: Toward a generative theory of rurality as education research. Journal of Rural and Community Development, 3(3), 95–107. https://journals.brandonu.ca/jrcd/article/view/139/49 Barley, Z. A. (2009). Preparing teachers for rural appointments: Lessons from the midcontinent. The Rural Educator, 30(3), 10–15. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ869310.pdf Barley, Z. A., & Beesley, A. D. (2007). Rural school success: What can we learn. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 22(1), 1–16. Benner, A. D., & Wang, Y. (2014). Demographic marginalization, social integration, and adolescents’ educational success. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1611–1627. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0151-6 Bong, M.,  & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really? Educational Psychology Review, 15(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/ 10.1023/A:1021302408382 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Quality Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (2000). Institutionalization of service learning in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 71, 273–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221 546.2000.11780823 Bringle, R. G.,  & Hatcher, J. A. (2002). Campus—community partnerships: The terms of engagement. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 503–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/15404560.00273 Budge, K. (2006). Rural leaders, rural places: Problem, privilege, and possibility. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21(13), 1–10. http://sites.psu.edu/jrre/wp-content/uploads/ sites/6347/2014/02/21-13.pdf Chadderton, C.,  & Colley, H. (2012). School-to-work transition services: Marginalising ‘disposable’ youth in a state of exception? Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 33, 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2012.681895 Chambers, R. (1994a). Participatory rural appraisal (PRA): Analysis of experience. World Development, 22, 1253–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(94)90003-5 Chambers, R. (1994b). The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisal. World Development, 22, 953–969. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(94)90141-4 Coetzee, S., Ebersöhn, L., Ferreira, R.,  & Moen, M. (2015). Disquiet voices foretelling hope: Rural teachers’ resilience experiences of past and present chronic adversity. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 52, 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615570955 Firfirey, N., & Carolissen, R. (2010). ‘I keep myself clean . . . at least when you see me, you don’t know I am poor’: Learner experiences of poverty in South African higher education. South African Journal of Higher Education, 24, 987–1002. Grobler, A. (2009). Experiences of research assistants in the administration culturally tailored psychometric data-collection instruments in the Kgolo Mmogo Project (Master’s dissertation). University of Pretoria. https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/26719/dissertation. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Haller, E. J., & Virkler, S. J. (1993). Another look at rural-nonrural differences in students’ educational aspirations. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 9(3), 170–178. http://cite seerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.566.8775&rep=rep1&type=pdf

74  Ebersöhn et al. Hlalele, D. (2012). Social justice in rural education in South Africa. Perspectives in Education, 30(1), 111–118. Irvin, M. J., Meece, J. L., Byun, S. Y., Farmer, T. W., & Hutchins, B. C. (2011). Relationship of school context to rural youth’s educational achievement and aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9628-8 Joubert, I. (2012). Children as photographers: Life experiences and the right to be listened to [Special issue]. South African Journal of Education, 32, 449–464. https://doi.org/10.15700/ saje.v32n4a677 Makiwane, M., Makoae, M., Botsis, H., & Vawda, M. (2012, July). A baseline study on families in Mpumalanga (Report commissioned by the Mpumalanga Department of Social Deve lopment). http://ecommons.hsrc.ac.za/bitstream/handle/20.500.11910/3332/Mpuma langa%20family%20study%2030-07-2012.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Matope, J., & Badroodien, A. (2015). Youth perspectives of achievement: Is money everything? Perspectives in Education, 33(3), 58–71. Megahed, N. M., & Ginsburg, M. B. (2009). Social inequalities, educational attainment, and teachers in Egypt. In D. B. Holsinger  & W. J. Jacob (Eds.), Inequality in education (pp. 369–391). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2652-1 Mitra, D. L. (2004). The significance of students: Can increasing “student voice” in schools lead to gains in youth development? Teachers College Record, 106(4), 651–688. http:// curriculumstudies.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/52018177/Mitra2004TheSignificanceof ChildrensVoice_TCRecord.pdf Myende, P. E. (2015). Tapping into the asset-based approach to improve academic performance in rural schools. Journal of Human Ecology, 50(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1080 /09709274.2015.11906857 Netshandama, V. O. (2010). Community development as an approach to community engagement in rural-based higher education institutions in South Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 24, 342–356. Nieuwenhuis, J. (2011). Social justice in education today. Acta Academica, 43(1), 189–209. www.researchgate.net/publication/289921510_Social_justice_in_education_today Onyx, J. (2008). University-community engagement: What does it mean? Gateways: International Journal of Community Research and Engagement, 1, 90–106. https://digitalcommons. unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1046&context=slcepartnerships Petersen, N., Dunbar-Krige, H., & Fritz, E. (2008). Chronicling a faculty of education’s journey into community engagement through service learning. Education as Change, 12(2), 123–135. Prinsloo, E. (2003). At society’s margins: Focus on the youth in South Africa. Educare, 32(1_2), 275–292. Rapmund, V., & Moore, C. (2002). Enhancing learners’ personal resources through narrative: Embracing diversity. South African Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 22–32. Schreuder, A. M. G., & Coetzee, M. (2011). Careers: An organisational perspective (4th ed.). Juta. Sen, A. (2009). Capability: Reach and limits. In E. C. Martinetti (Ed.), Debating global society: Reach and limit of the capability approach (pp. 15–28). Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli. Seobi, S. M. (2017). The voices of youth in a rural school on higher education community engagement partnership (Master’s dissertation). University of Pretoria. https://repository.up.ac.za/ bitstream/handle/2263/62906/Seobi_Voices_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Skorikov, V. B., & Patton, W. (Eds.). (2007). Career development in childhood and adolescence. Sense.

Youth perspectives on academic service learning 75 Sommers, M. (2007). Creating programs for Africa’s urban youth: The challenge of marginalization. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 10(1), 19–31. www.researchgate. net/profile/Marc_Sommers/publication/237420809_Creating_Programs_for_Africa’s_ Urban_Youth_The_Challenge_of_Marginalization/links/590e5e950f7e9b2863a483ee/ Creating-Programs-for-Africas-Urban-Youth-The-Challenge-of-Marginalization.pdf Statistics South Africa. (2012). Census 2011 statistical release—P0301.4. Statistics South Africa. www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf Stead, G. B., & Watson, M. B. (2006). Career psychology in the South African context (2nd ed.). Van Schaik. Te Riele, K. (2007). Educational alternatives for marginalised youth. The Australian Educational Researcher, 34(3), 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03216865 Weeks, F. H. (2009). What are the essential characteristics of caring schools? A  teacher/ learner perspective. Child Abuse Research in South Africa, 10(1), 1–13. White, L.,  & Taket, A. (1997). Beyond appraisal: Participatory appraisal of needs and the development of action (PANDA). Omega, 25, 532–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0305-0483(97)00027-3 Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2010). The spirit level: Why equality is better for everyone. Penguin Books.

Chapter 7

 meta-summary review A of enabling school-based interventions in highly challenged schools in a postcolonial, global south space Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn Introduction In highly challenged spaces, schools are well-placed to serve as a fulcrum for care and support. School-based interventions could be an instrumental pathway to buffer young people in at-risk contexts against extreme hardship. Such interventions could also promote mechanisms that support young people to attain better than expected positive outcomes despite that which is predicted given dire circumstances. In this chapter, we engage with evidence from a systematic, meta-summary review on school-based interventions in severely challenged postcolonial, Global South spaces aimed at enabling positive educational psychology outcomes. Schools in Southern Africa serve as an exemplar of “schools in challenged Global South spaces.” Positive educational psychology outcomes denote socioemotional competence, study orientation, career counselling, learning, and family support. Future directions for more systemically inclined school-based interventions are considered.

School-based interventions to buffer against severe challenge This chapter draws on findings from a meta-summary systematic review of peer-reviewed publications of school-based intervention studies in Southern African schools in challenging contexts. Global South and postcolonial spaces face similar socio-economic, health and education challenges which act as barriers to young people’s development and well-being (Ebersöhn, 2014). Following geopolitical changes towards democracy and with transformation progress being made, many Global South societies continue to struggle with negative vestiges of colonialism. Structural disparity remains a chronic barrier to development and well-being. Scarce resources are distributed unevenly. Majority indigenous populations are marginalised with limited access to resources that DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-7

Enabling school-based interventions 77

support development and quality of life. Extreme inequality means widespread levels of high vulnerability with high need for additional care and support strategies (Ebersöhn, 2015). South Africa serves as an exemplar of a highly challenged postcolonial, Global South space with multiple interventions to buffer against the many risks of inequality and promote better-than-expected health, education and economic outcomes of citizens who remain largely marginalised. Care and support interventions often earmark schools as places to impact meaningfully on the well-being of the vulnerable population of children and young people. Structurally, the South African government aims at providing equal opportunities for quality education to all to actualise their potential. Education policy implementation is less than ideal though (Ebersöhn, 2014, 2015; Gardner et al., 2015). Learners in the majority of South African schools continue to face a plethora of challenges constraining opportunities to function optimally (Teise & Le Roux, 2016). Learners often come from households with high unemployment and are plagued by socio-economic disadvantage synonymous with poverty. Given the human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV&AIDS) pandemic, many learners may be orphaned and live in child-headed households assuming caregiver roles unfamiliar to that of their developmental phase. Ebersöhn (2014) explains that schools in challenged spaces are characterised by poor infrastructure, limited teaching and learning support materials, lack of community support, limited parental involvement, teachers who are not well equipped or qualified to teach and overcrowding of learners in schools and/or classrooms. Such life and learning conditions may lead to the failure or non-achievement of learners signified by limitations to develop positive outcomes, experience well-being, support and connectedness. Despite being a multilingual society, English as additional language is the language most South African teachers teach in, and learners learn in. Structural deprivation is evident in schools typified as dysfunctional or nonperforming (Bipath, 2011). This is often the culmination of material deprivation associated with poverty, community disruptions, and consequent breakdown of learning and teaching opportunities. Functional (performing) schools in the same country are characterised by being well-resourced with limited disruptions to teaching and with high levels of support from the community. The learning and developing young person is often faced with the cumulative and seemingly insurmountable challenges characteristic of postcolonial, Global South spaces. Caring and supportive interventions are necessary to (i) respond to a pervasive, multiplicity of challenges, and (ii) support the attainment of unpredicted positive health and education outcomes given the severity of risk (Ebersöhn, 2014). This necessity raises two key questions: How do school-based interventions enable positive learning, development, and wellbeing outcomes of young people in a highly challenged postcolonial, Global South space? And, how do such school-based interventions build communities of care? This chapter demonstrates that there is limited systematic evidence on

78  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

school-based interventions that address challenges young people encounter in spaces in the Global South, and that what is known is not systemic in nature— does not account for a systemic mandate implied by “communities” of care. The chapter concludes that more systematic evidence on especially systemic school-based interventions is required. Such knowledge could be instrumental to lobby for large-scale school-based interventions that may enable community-nested spaces of care in geopolitical spaces of extreme adversity.

Educational psychology outcomes In the developing Southern African education sector, educational psychology encompasses more than learning support to enable positive education outcomes (Ebersöhn, 2014, 2019). Large scale vulnerability of young Southern Africans calls for alternatives to customary one-on-one individualised educational psychology support. Proactive interventions in schools need to catch as many young people as possible in a net of support. In this setting, where challenge is normative, educational psychology support needs to build capacities that buffer large numbers of young people against widespread risk. In addition, such interventions have to offer support that promotes, in as far as is possible, positive education as well as subjective well-being outcomes in school settings. Educational psychology support is thus inclusive of promoting socio-emotional competence, provides learning support, career counselling, and includes family support. Socio-emotional competence enables people to form positive relationships and rally for personal social support. Social support is also a pathway to accessing available resources that support learning and development (Ebersöhn, 2014). Socio-emotional competence refers to young people’s ability to manage and regulate their emotions, which manifests in their everyday behaviour (Reddy et al., 2013). Socio-emotional competence enables a person to develop hardiness and capacity to pursue aspirations (Laible, 2007). Socio-emotional competence is evident when people remain optimistic in the midst of adversity, can accept and acknowledge their traits and learn to confidently manage without externalising behaviours (Laible, 2007). Positive outcomes are signified by people understanding and adapting well to who they are. As a result, they may find it reasonable to manage conflict, relate well to others, develop good interpersonal skills, have minimal anxiety, anger, depression, esteem and self-concept issues, emotional regulation problems or when they find purpose and meaning in life. Learning support is the intentional provision of external resources to address learning challenges related to reading, spelling, writing, mathematics, language, concentration, and attention skills. Support includes that from a school-based support team, tutor, parent, teacher, or peer. Ideally, a team of experts (educational psychologists, clinical psychologists, occupational therapists, speech therapists or school social workers) provide learning support (Nel et al., 2013).

Enabling school-based interventions 79

Support goals must be measurable, achievable and have a time frame. Learners in high-risk schools often struggle academically because of a lack of effective learning support facilities (Spaull, 2013). Study-orientation and habits signify levels of motivation and attitudes people have towards learning (Snowman  & McCown, 2013). Study habits include ways to learn effectively and strategies that support learning. This includes identifying traits, learning styles, study habits, effective coping mechanisms to manage stress, making summaries and taking notes, and preparing notes or preparing for tests and exams (Landsberg et al., 2005; Nel et al., 2013). Studyskill interventions introduce strategies that aid memory, promote retention and storing of information, and application to real-life situations. A consequence of poor study skills is learners give up on their abilities and choose less demanding subjects in order not to practice problem-solving over and over (Spaull, 2013). Positive outcomes are evident in self-regulated learners able to focus on a task without being monitored by others (Snowman & McCown, 2013), ability to learn meaningfully and succeed when devoting time to study, and being lifelong learners motivated to aspire beyond perceived personal capacity (Spaull, 2013). Career counselling equips people with self- and career knowledge to support informed decision-making related to school, subjects, career, and type of work (Maree, 2009). In a Global South space, this opportunity is a scarce service mostly available in urban spaces for those from affluent classes. Additionally, young people from high-risk schools have limited career role models. They herald from spaces plagued by a lack of employment opportunities, an extreme overall unemployment rate of 25% (higher than other developing countries with more than 50% of people who are unemployed being young people; Spaull, 2013; Weir-Smith, 2014). Career guidance for career adaptability is necessary to prepare young people in high-risk settings for the environments in which they could work one day (Stead  & Watson, 2017). Positive outcomes include motivation to aspire and knowledge for informed career pathing (Maree & Molepo, 2007). Family-level support promotes learning and development. Positive and lasting relationships, as well as being connected and socialised in the school and the community are support factors that promote positive outcomes. Support includes daily caregiver support and school-family involvement (reciprocal communication, volunteering, and participation in school decision-making processes). It matters that young people know that their kin value education, school attendance, achievement, and progress (Chowa et al., 2013). Supportive family outcomes are indicated by time spent with family members in support of attaining goals (Chowa et al., 2013).

The meta-summary review methodology In this meta-summary review, the search for peer-reviewed publications was done through Africa-wide electronic databases (EBSCO; ERIC; FRANCIS;

80  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

PsycINFO; PsycARTICLES, Google Scholar; Humanities Index, Science Direct, Sagepub, Sabinet, and MEDLINE), by hand, and through research networks within the research group (i.e. Schools as Enabling Spaces). Inclusion criteria were research in Africa published between 2007 and 2017 in peerreviewed journals, focused on primary and secondary schools, in spaces of severe socio-economic deprivation. Altogether 440 publications were identified in the search and screened for inclusion or exclusion using predetermined criteria. Keywords used for inclusion or exclusion during purposive sampling (Sandelowski et al., 2007) included: school-based interventions (Southern Africa AND school-based interventions, AND/OR primary OR high schools, AND/OR academic achievement OR vocational guidance) and educational psychology outcomes (socioemotional competence, learning support, study-orientation, career counselling, family support). Of the identified publications, 41 met the sampling criteria and were sampled for inclusion. Table 7.1 provides an overview of data included in the sample. The PICOC model (population, intervention, comparison, outcomes and context) was used for coding. PICOC was developed to elaborate on methods required to answer a research question in a systematic review of qualitative research (Booth et al., 2012; Petticrew & Roberts, 2008). Table 7.2 provides an overview of how PICOC was operationalised in the review. Table 7.3 provides an example of the coding framework used to analyse publications included in the sample.

Results of the meta-summary review on schoolbased interventions that enable educational psychology outcomes in Southern Africa Most school-based interventions were in South Africa (n  =  39, Western Cape  =  14, Gauteng  =  7, Mpumalanga  =  4, KwaZulu-Natal  =  3, North West = 2, Eastern Cape = 2, Limpopo = 2, Free State = 1, Northern Cape =0). There were two school-based interventions outside of South Africa: one with learners in an urban high school in Namibia and the other with teachers in a rural primary school in Botswana. There were more school-based interventions in high schools (n = 27) than primary schools (n  =  14). Participants in school-based interventions were mostly learners (n = 34) with an average sample size of more than 1,000 learners. Teachers were also frequently participants in the school-based interventions (n = 16) with an average sample size of 20 teachers per intervention. Caregivers (non-teacher adults collaborating with schools to promote learning and development) were participants in only a handful of cases (n = 3) with an average sample of 20 caregivers and included mostly parents, a few health caregivers, educational psychology learners, nurses, nurse assistants and audiologists. School-based interventions were mostly in urban schools (n = 31) with less in

Table 7.1  Sampled data No

Authors

Date

Title

Publication

2014

2

Joubert, I., Ebersöhn, L., Ferreira, R., Du Plessis, L., & Moen, M. Cook, A., & Maree, J. G.

3

Maree, J. G., & Symington, C.

2015

Journal of Asian and African Studies South African Journal of Education Journal of Psychology in Africa

4

Naidoo, S., Satorius, B. K., De Vries, H., & Taylor, M.

2016

5

2010

8

Draper, C. E., De Villiers, A., Lambert, E. V., Fourie, J., Hill, J., Dalais, L., . . . Steyn, N. P. Wegner, L., Flisher, A. J., Caldwell, L. L., Vergnani, T., & Smith, E. A. Balfour, L., Farrar, T., McGilvray, M., Wilson, D., Tasca, G. A., Spaans, J. N., . . . Cameron, W. D. Maree, J. G., & Molepo, J. M.

Establishing a reading culture in a rural secondary school: A literacy intervention with teachers Efficacy of using career and self-construction to help learners manage career-related transitions Life design counselling effects on the career adaptability of learners in a selective independent school setting Verbal bullying changes among students following an educational intervention using the Integrated Model for Behavior Change HealthKick: A nutrition and physical activity intervention for primary schools in low-income settings Healthwise South Africa: Cultural adaptation o f a school-based risk prevention programme HIV prevention in action on the football field: The WhizzKids United program in South Africa

2007

9

Ebersöhn, L.

2010

Australian Journal of Career Development Journal of Psychology in Africa

Ebersöhn, L., Ferreira, R., & Mnguni, M. Ebersöhn, L., Loots, T., Eloff, I., & Ferreira, R.

2008

Changing the approach to career counselling in a disadvantaged context: A case study Resilience and career counseling: Describing the utility of quadrant mapping Teachers’ use of memory-box-making to provide psychosocial support in their pastoral role In-service teacher training to provide psychosocial support and care in high-risk and high-need schools: School-based intervention partnerships

1

7

10 11

2008 2013

2015

Journal of School Health BMC Public Health Health Education Research AIDS and Behavior

Journal of Psychology in Africa Journal of Education for Teaching (Continued)

Enabling school-based interventions 81

6

2016

Table 7.1 (Continued) Authors

Date

Title

Publication

12

Krog, S.

2015

Speed stacking: An appropriate tool to enhance academic learning in the foundation phase

13

Van der Walt, M. S., Maree, J. G., & Ellis, S. M. Weeks, F. H.

2009

Developing a basic mathematics questionnaire for Grades 4 to 7 “Caring schools”—a solution for addressing challenging behaviour in schools? Identifying a context-effective school hearing screening test: An emic/etic framework Reading strategy instruction and teacher change: Implications for teacher training Mathematical Literacy teachers: Can anyone be one? Bullying in schools—The educator’s role

African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance Journal of Psychology in Africa

14 15

2008 2015

16

Cloete, T. L., Wilson, W. J., Petersen, L., & Kathard, H. Klapwijk, N. M.

17

Botha, H., Maree, J., & Stols, G.

2013

18

Venter, E., & Du Plessis, E. C.

2012

19

Cherrington, A. M., & De Lange, N.

2016

20

Beery, M., Adatia, R., Segantin, O., & Skaer, C. F. Ybarra, M. L., Mwaba, K., Prescott, T. L., Roman, N. V., Rooi, B., & Bull, S. Wood, L., & Hendricks, F.

2014

James, S., Reddy, P., Ruiter, R. A. C., McCauley, A., & Van den Borne, B. Botha, C. J., & Wild, L. G.

2006

21 22 23 24

2012

2014 2017

2013

‘I want to be a hope champion!’—Research as hope intervention with rural South African children School food gardens: Fertile ground for education Opportunities for technology-based HIV prevention programming among high school students in Cape Town, South Africa A participatory action research approach to developing youth-friendly strategies for the prevention of teenage pregnancy The impact of an HIV and AIDS life skills program on secondary school students in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Evaluation of a school-based intervention programme for South African children of divorce

Koers International Journal of Audiology South African Journal of Education Perspectives in Education Koers − Bulletin for Christian Scholarship Journal of Psychology in Africa Health Education AIDS Care Educational Action Research AIDS Education and Prevention Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health

82  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

No

25 26 27

Caldwell, L. L., Patrick, M. E., Smith, E. A., Palen, L. A., & Wegner, L. Tsanwani, A., Harding, A., Engelbrecht, J., & Maree, K.

2010

Influencing adolescent leisure motivation: Intervention effects of Health Wise South Africa

Journal of Leisure Research

2014

Perceptions of teachers and learners about factors that facilitate learners’ performance in mathematics in South Africa Photo-voice as a tool for analysis and activism in response to HIV and AIDS stigmatisation in a rural KwaZulu-Natal school School experiences of HIV-positive secondary school learners on ARV treatment in Namibia Predicting primary and secondary abstinence among adolescent boys and girls in the Western Cape, South Africa Predictors of early first sexual intercourse among adolescents in Cape Town, South Africa

African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health

Prevalence, correlates and perceptions toward cigarette smoking among male and female in-school adolescents (aged 11–18 years) in South Africa: Results from the 2008 GYTS study Process evaluation of a school-based HIV/AIDS intervention in South Africa

Journal of Psychology in Africa

ʼn Skoolgebaseerde sosiaal-emosionele program as strategie teen misdaad en geweld Peer education training for sexual health and wellbeing in public high schools in South Africa: Is it enough to change peer educators themselves? Impact of HealthWise South Africa on polydrug use and high-risk sexual behavior

Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health

2007

Eggers, S. M., Mathews., C., Aarø, L. E., McClinton-Appollis, T.; Bos, A. E. R., & De Vries, H. Mathews, C., Aarø, L. E., Flisher, A. J., Mukoma, W., Wubs, A. G., & Schaalma, H. Peltzer, K.

2017

Mukoma, W., Flisher, A. J., Ahmed, N., Jansen, S., Mathews, C., Klepp, K. I., & Schaalma, H. Van der Merwe, P.

2009

34

Mason-Jones, A. J., Flisher, A. J., & Mathews, C.

2013

35

Tibbits, M. K., Smith, E. A., Caldwell, L. L., & Flisher, A. J.

2011

28 29 30 31

32 33

2015

2009 2012

2012

International Journal of Educational Development AIDS and Behavior Health Education Research

Scandinavian Journal of Public Health

Health Education Research (Continued)

Enabling school-based interventions 83

Moletsane, R., De Lange, N., Mitchell, C., Stuart, J., Buthelezi, T., & Taylor, M. Baxen, J., & Haipinge, E.

Table 7.1 (Continued) Authors

Date

Title

Publication

36

Uys, M., Dapper, C. E., Hendricks, S., De Villiers, A., Fourie, J., Steyn, N. P., & Lambert, E. V. MacPhail, C., Adato, M., Kahn, K., Selin, A., Twine, R., Khoza, S., . . . Pettifor, A. Mathews, C. Eggers, S. M, Townsend, L., Aarø, L. E., De Vries, P. J., Mason-Jones, A. J., . . . De Vries, H.

2016

Impact of a South African school-based intervention, HealthKick, on fitness correlates

American Journal of Health Behavior

2013

Acceptability and feasibility of cash transfers for HIV prevention among adolescent South African women Effects of PREPARE, a multi-component, schoolbased HIV and intimate partner violence (IPV) prevention programme on adolescent sexual risk behaviour and IPV: Cluster randomised controlled trial Differences in achievement between home language and language of learning in South Africa: Evidence from prePIRLS 2011 In-school psychosocial support services for safeguarding children’s rights: Results and implications of a Botswana study Constraints to quality education and support for all: A Western Cape case

AIDS and Behavior

37 38

2016

39

Van Staden, S., Bosker, R., & Bergbauer, A.

2016

40

Ntinda, K., Maree, J. G., Mpofu, E., & Seeco, E.

2014

41

Dreyer, L. M.

2017

AIDS and Behavior

South African Journal of Childhood Education School Psychology International South African Journal of Education

84  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

No

Table 7.2  PICOC method used during the summary review No

Authors

Date

Title

Publication

2014

2

Joubert, I., Ebersöhn, L., Ferreira, R., Du Plessis, L., & Moen, M. Cook, A., & Maree, J. G.

2016

3

Maree, J. G., & Symington, C.

2015

Journal of Asian and African Studies South African Journal of Education Journal of Psychology in Africa

4

Naidoo, S., Satorius, B. K., De Vries, H., & Taylor, M.

2016

5

2010

8

Draper, C. E., De Villiers, A., Lambert, E. V., Fourie, J., Hill, J., Dalais, L., . . . Steyn, N. P. Wegner, L., Flisher, A. J., Caldwell, L. L., Vergnani, T., & Smith, E. A. Balfour, L., Farrar, T., McGilvray, M., Wilson, D., Tasca, G. A., Spaans, J. N., . . . Cameron, W. D. Maree, J. G., & Molepo, J. M.

Establishing a reading culture in a rural secondary school: A literacy intervention with teachers Efficacy of using career and self-construction to help learners manage career-related transitions Life design counselling effects on the career adaptability of learners in a selective independent school setting Verbal bullying changes among students following an educational intervention using the Integrated Model for Behavior Change HealthKick: A nutrition and physical activity intervention for primary schools in low-income settings Healthwise South Africa: Cultural adaptation o f a school-based risk prevention programme HIV prevention in action on the football field: The WhizzKids United program in South Africa

9

Ebersöhn, L.

2010

Ebersöhn, L., Ferreira, R., & Mnguni, M. Ebersöhn, L., Loots, T., Eloff, I., & Ferreira, R.

2008

1

7

10 11

2008 2013 2007

2015

Changing the approach to career counselling in a disadvantaged context: A case study Resilience and career counseling: Describing the utility of quadrant mapping Teachers’ use of memory-box-making to provide psychosocial support in their pastoral role In-service teacher training to provide psychosocial support and care in high-risk and high-need schools: School-based intervention partnerships

BMC Public Health Health Education Research AIDS and Behavior Australian Journal of Career Development Journal of Psychology in Africa Journal of Psychology in Africa Journal of Education for Teaching (Continued)

Enabling school-based interventions 85

6

Journal of School Health

Table 7.2 (Continued) Authors

Date

Title

Publication

12

Krog, S.

2015

Speed stacking: An appropriate tool to enhance academic learning in the foundation phase

13

Van der Walt, M. S., Maree, J. G., & Ellis, S. M. Weeks, F. H.

2009

2015

16

Cloete, T. L., Wilson, W. J., Petersen, L., & Kathard, H. Klapwijk, N. M.

17

Botha, H., Maree, J., & Stols, G.

2013

18

Venter, E., & Du Plessis, E. C.

2012

Developing a basic mathematics questionnaire for Grades 4 to 7 “Caring schools”—a solution for addressing challenging behaviour in schools? Identifying a context-effective school hearing screening test: An emic/etic framework Reading strategy instruction and teacher change: Implications for teacher training Mathematical Literacy teachers: Can anyone be one? Bullying in schools—The educator’s role

African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance Journal of Psychology in Africa

19

Cherrington, A. M., & De Lange, N.

2016

20

Beery, M., Adatia, R., Segantin, O., & Skaer, C. F. Ybarra, M. L., Mwaba, K., Prescott, T. L., Roman, N. V., Rooi, B., & Bull, S. Wood, L., & Hendricks, F.

2014

James, S., Reddy, P., Ruiter, R. A. C., McCauley, A., & Van den Borne, B. Botha, C. J., & Wild, L. G.

2006

14 15

21 22 23 24

2008

2012

2014 2017

2013

‘I want to be a hope champion!’—Research as hope intervention with rural South African children School food gardens: Fertile ground for education Opportunities for technology-based HIV prevention programming among high school students in Cape Town, South Africa A participatory action research approach to developing youth-friendly strategies for the prevention of teenage pregnancy The impact of an HIV and AIDS life skills program on secondary school students in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Evaluation of a school-based intervention programme for South African children of divorce

Koers International Journal of Audiology South African Journal of Education Perspectives in Education Koers − Bulletin for Christian Scholarship Journal of Psychology in Africa Health Education AIDS Care Educational Action Research AIDS Education and Prevention Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health

86  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

No

25

Caldwell, L. L., Patrick, M. E., Smith, E. A., Palen, L. A., & Wegner, L. Tsanwani, A., Harding, A., Engelbrecht, J., & Maree, K.

2010

Influencing adolescent leisure motivation: Intervention effects of Health Wise South Africa

Journal of Leisure Research

2014

Moletsane, R., De Lange, N., Mitchell, C., Stuart, J., Buthelezi, T., & Taylor, M. Baxen, J., & Haipinge, E.

2007

African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health

Eggers, S. M., Mathews., C., Aarø, L. E., McClinton-Appollis, T.; Bos, A. E. R., & De Vries, H. Mathews, C., Aarø, L. E., Flisher, A. J., Mukoma, W., Wubs, A. G., & Schaalma, H. Peltzer, K.

2017

Perceptions of teachers and learners about factors that facilitate learners’ performance in mathematics in South Africa Photo-voice as a tool for analysis and activism in response to HIV and AIDS stigmatisation in a rural KwaZulu-Natal school School experiences of HIV-positive secondary school learners on ARV treatment in Namibia Predicting primary and secondary abstinence among adolescent boys and girls in the Western Cape, South Africa Predictors of early first sexual intercourse among adolescents in Cape Town, South Africa

Journal of Psychology in Africa

Mukoma, W., Flisher, A. J., Ahmed, N., Jansen, S., Mathews, C., Klepp, K. I., & Schaalma, H. Van der Merwe, P.

2009

Prevalence, correlates and perceptions toward cigarette smoking among male and female in-school adolescents (aged 11–18 years) in South Africa: Results from the 2008 GYTS study Process evaluation of a school-based HIV/AIDS intervention in South Africa

34

Mason-Jones, A. J., Flisher, A. J., & Mathews, C.

2013

Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health

35

Tibbits, M. K., Smith, E. A., Caldwell, L. L., & Flisher, A. J. Uys, M., Dapper, C. E., Hendricks, S., De Villiers, A., Fourie, J., Steyn, N. P., & Lambert, E. V.

2011

ʼn Skoolgebaseerde sosiaal-emosionele program as strategie teen misdaad en geweld Peer education training for sexual health and wellbeing in public high schools in South Africa: Is it enough to change peer educators themselves? Impact of HealthWise South Africa on polydrug use and high-risk sexual behavior Impact of a South African school-based intervention, HealthKick, on fitness correlates

26 27 28 29 30

32 33

36

2009 2012

2012

2016

International Journal of Educational Development AIDS and Behavior Health Education Research

Scandinavian Journal of Public Health

Health Education Research American Journal of Health Behavior (Continued)

Enabling school-based interventions 87

31

2015

Table 7.2 (Continued) Authors

Date

Title

Publication

37

MacPhail, C., Adato, M., Kahn, K., Selin, A., Twine, R., Khoza, S., . . . Pettifor, A. Mathews, C. Eggers, S. M, Townsend, L., Aarø, L. E., De Vries, P. J., Mason-Jones, A. J., . . . De Vries, H.

2013

AIDS and Behavior

39

Van Staden, S., Bosker, R., & Bergbauer, A.

2016

40

Ntinda, K., Maree, J. G., Mpofu, E., & Seeco, E.

2014

41

Dreyer, L. M.

2017

Acceptability and feasibility of cash transfers for HIV prevention among adolescent South African women Effects of PREPARE, a multi-component, schoolbased HIV and intimate partner violence (IPV) prevention programme on adolescent sexual risk behaviour and IPV: Cluster randomised controlled trial Differences in achievement between home language and language of learning in South Africa: Evidence from prePIRLS 2011 In-school psychosocial support services for safeguarding children’s rights: Results and implications of a Botswana study Constraints to quality education and support for all: A Western Cape case

38

2016

AIDS and Behavior

South African Journal of Childhood Education School Psychology International South African Journal of Education

88  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

No

Table 7.3  E xample of the coding framework used to analyse publications included in the sample Code Population

Learners Teachers Caregivers

Context

Outcomes

Comparative intervention Type of study

Study 2

Study 3

Grade 4s n = 887 Teachers from 100 schools n = 517 Parents n = 104

Grade 9 and 11s n = 1200 None

Grade 4–7s n = 1103 None

None

None

< 10

< 10

100 primary schools Primary

Primary

1 Western Cape

High schools 4 Provinces

South African

South African

South African

Rural Urban Low socioeconomic background HealthKick promotion and training on healthy eating habits Grade 4s developed understanding and had material to promote healthy eating habits 8 schools in a control group

Rural

Rural Urban Low socioeconomic settings

3 phases intervention mapping

Remote and resource constrained Career counselling and career adaptability and socioemotional skills High awareness, enhanced career adaptability, career curiosity, concern and confidence 600 learners in the control group Action research, mixed methods

1 North West

Learning support and study orientation towards mathematics Enhanced mathematical skills and improved orientation and practice in mathematic s None Qualitative study

Enabling school-based interventions 89

Intervention

Schools < 10 Schools > 10 Primary High/Secondary 1 Province > 1 Province South African Other countries Rural Urban Resource constrained

Study 1

90  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

rural schools (n = 15), a few school-based interventions (n = 7) in both rural and urban settings, and an instance not specifying the rural-urban context. Only 15 studies had an intervention and a control group in the intervention studies. One study (2) provided 10 Life Orientation lessons for the control group. Sample size for schools included in the intervention was smaller than 20. In one study with a comparison group (38), 21 schools were sampled whereas the nature of the school in a control group in one comparative study was not specified. Table 7.4 provides an overview of intervention focus per educational psychology domain. Table 7.4  Focus of Southern African school-based interventions Educational psychology outcome

Focus in intervention

Evidence (refer to Appendix A)

Socioemotional competence

Socioemotional competence

Study 21, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, and 38 Study 24, 10, and 11

Learning support

Study-orientation and habits Career counselling

Family support

Aggression Grief, bereavement Bullying Anxiety Self-concept, self-esteem Interpersonal relationship Emotional regulation, emotional intelligence Purpose/meaning in life/ spirituality Values Reading Writing Spelling Listening Numeracy/mathematics intervention Language/literacy intervention (multilingualism intervention) Study methods Meta-cognitive strategies Self-regulation Career guidance Subject choice School choice Goals, objectives, aspirations Motivation Family and diversity and world views School-family partnerships Parenting Homework support

Study 4 and 18 Study 22 Study 27, 28, 31, and 35 0 studies Study 7, 25, 31, 35, and 36 Study 10 and 11 Study Study Study Study Study Study

10 and 11 1, 12, and 39 1, 12, and 26 12 15 and 16 12, 13, and 26

Study 1, 17, and 39 Study 13, 16, and 39 Study 40 and 41 Study 4, 12, 18, 31, and 35 Study 2 and 3 Study 2 and 3 Study 8 and 9 Study 8 and 9 Study 9, 19, and 25 0 studies Study 1, 10, and 11 0 studies 0 studies

Enabling school-based interventions 91

As reflected in Table  7.4, school-based interventions focused overwhelmingly on building socio-emotional capacity to promote positive health and well-being outcomes. Some school-based interventions focused on prosocial socio-emotional behaviour to limit at-risk behaviour and promote positive objective health and wellbeing outcomes. Most school-based interventions (n  =  14) in this domain had a focus on sexuality and reproductive health. Instances included intervention studies to create awareness on prosocial behaviour relevant to limit at-risk sexual behaviour in a context of HIV and AIDS prevention and treatment, as well as being proactive with regard to related stigma and discrimination. This included sexuality education, motivation to delay onset of sex, preventing teenage pregnancy, engaging in risky behaviours and substance abuse. Nine studies focused on HIV&AIDS prevention (studies 21, 23, 24, 30, 31, 32, 35, 37, and 38), two on HIV treatment and reduction of stigma (studies 27 and 28), as well as three on sexuality and prevention of teenage pregnancies (studies 22, 29, and 34). Other interventions focused on food and nutrition behaviour to promote well-being and prevent eating disorders or developing non-communicable diseases. In five instances school-based interventions focused on promoting food, nutrition, and well-being (studies 5, 20, 25, 32, and 36). There were two instances of school-based interventions focused on preventing substance abuse (31, 35). Studies reporting on HIV&AIDS-prevention outcomes (n = 13) indicated an increase in HIV/AIDS prevention knowledge and stigma reduction (21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, and 38). Learners developed positive attitudes towards sexuality and sexual conduct. Other positive outcomes related to delayed engagement in at-risk behaviour are associated with drug and substance abuse. Positive food and nutrition outcomes were evident (n = 3) in increased healthy eating habits (5) and insight into the importance of physical activity (studies 7 and 36). Seven other socioemotional school-based interventions focused on selfregulating prosocial socio-emotional behaviour to promote positive subjective health and well-being outcomes. These included studies regarding addressing barriers to learner mental health (i.e. bullying and divorce) and associated supportive teacher practices (4 and 18). One study used hope as a pathway to resilience in high-risk environments (19), and others, participation in football and leisure time to promote well-being (7, 25, and 36). Other studies (10 and 11) also leveraged teacher professional development as a pathway. Here teachers used psychosocial support to assist primary school children in distress by using counselling skills and through school-community partnerships. Another high frequency focus for school-based interventions was that of learning support and study orientation. Six school-based interventions focused on building capacity to promote literacy, numeracy and reading outcomes (1, 12, 15, 16, 17, and 26). Teacher capacity was developed regarding instructional practice to support reading (1, 16, and 17). Learner capacity was developed in

92  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

mathematics achievement (12 and 26), as well as reading, spelling and visualmotor integration (12). Caregiver capacity was built on effective hearingscreening testing (15). Four studies, all promoting mathematics outcomes, focused on enhancing positive study habits. In one study learners received support to improve their orientation toward mathematics (13). Another foregrounded reading and literacy skills (39), and two others included learners with learning difficulties in the study-orientation intervention (40 and 41). Positive learning support outcomes included learners demonstrating that speed stacking contributes to positive academic performance, and teachers reporting increased capacity to support learner phonetic and reading skills (1 and 12). The data in all relevant studies were silent on outcomes. Only a few of the school-based interventions focused on enabling career preparedness. Career counselling interventions focused on building learner career adaptability capacity with significant change noted (2 and 3). Another intervention provided career counselling to learners noting increased career awareness with career concern, curiosity and confidence following the intervention (8). Caregivers in one study implemented cross-cultural career counselling which lead to enhanced hope and confidence amongst learners in their capabilities (9). Family-focused school-based interventions were silent in the data.

Discussion School-based interventions lacked systemic mandates to “build communities of care.” Interventions in schools in a Global South space, such as Southern Africa, did not make the most of knowledge that building capacity with regard to social support and collaboration enabled/ing school-community partnerships—as a meaningful pathway to enable development and promote quality of life (Cacioppo et al., 2015; Ebersöhn, 2019). Rather than using systemic approaches to build caring communities, current school-based interventions built personal capacity of either learners or teachers—focusing on individual achievement. Studies aimed at building capacity in young people to equip them to withstand age-appropriate developmental- and contextual challenges synonymous with social disadvantage. Similarly, the focus was on building teacher professionalism to support learners in dire circumstances towards educational achievement and progress. A  limited systemic lens on intervention in a challenged, Southern African space is problematic socio-culturally, politically and structurally. Only a handful of small case study interventions extended into communities by including caregivers as participants. This signifies acknowledgement that caregivers are meaningful, available protective resources to mobilise as support to promote learner well-being. However, the limited quantity of studies also highlights the extent to which caregivers and the larger community are not

Enabling school-based interventions 93

integrated into children’s educational supports. Indeed, Ubuntu family and kinship structures (Masango, 2005) as a supportive pathway to promote quality of life was significantly silent in the data. Interventions that foreground individual responsibility are not salient with dominant socio-cultural values and beliefs. This silence could be the result of preparatory conversations being absent and interventions missing insider perspectives regarding that which constitutes “good.” Interventions without consultation on participation excludes opportunities for “beneficiaries” to decide on opting in to “receive” good supports, when and how this happens, and to what end. Rather, interventions could privilege social justice aims to contemplate agency and collaboration to build communities of care in contexts of transformation away from inequality to equity. Fraser’s (2009) parity of participation may serve as an interesting model to argue for engagement in decisions on how to capitalise on opportunities that enable development and buffer against constraints inhibiting such progress. Structural disparity is not accounted for in interventions foregrounding individual responsibility. An emphasis on the (achievement of) the lone learner, teacher, parent or caregiver to become capable of withstanding hardship ignores that which constrains the development and other enablers which could support development. Whether an intervention increases individual capability to acquire additional competencies becomes moot in a space of uneven resource distribution (Ebersöhn, 2019). One (internal) opportunity is added as lone puzzle piece. The defining corner-pieces of risk remain. The baffling greyscaled pieces of resource constraints abound. Hope to find central definitive pieces that show patterns of opportunity continue to be allusive. To be useful in building communities of care, school-based interventions could consider a capability approach (Sen, 2009). Interventions aimed at building collective care could opt to focus on joint capability (and rights) that considers what a person does with the good which is given—rather than on who gets what (in the intervention) and what this good does for the person. Associated strategies could craft meaningful multi-level dialogues on factors that impact care and support, to build on existing community-level social support mechanisms to initiate, monitor and sustain collective actions that enable care and support (Ebersöhn, 2019).

Conclusion This chapter demonstrates that there is limited systematic evidence on schoolbased interventions that address challenges young people encounter in spaces in the Global South, and that what is known is not systemic in nature—do not account for a systemic mandate implied by “communities’ of care. The chapter concludes that more systematic evidence on especially systemic school-based interventions is required. Such knowledge could be instrumental to lobby for large scale school-based interventions that may enable community-nested spaces of care in geopolitical spaces of extreme adversity.

94  Leah Nabongwe Nkoana and Liesel Ebersöhn

Supplementary care and support interventions make sense to promote education and development outcomes in schools where functioning is negatively impacted by socio-economic disadvantage. School-based interventions targeting systemic support of positive learning, development and well-being outcomes in highly vulnerable populations may want to position their interventions within notions of schools as (i) nested within communities of care and (ii) being a nexus to coordinate care and support.

References Bipath, K. (2011). The leadership of a functional school in a dysfunctional environment. Lap Lambert Academic Publishing. Booth, A., Papaioannou, D., & Sutton, A. (2012). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review. Sage. Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., Capitanio, J. P.,  & Cole, S. W. (2015). The neuroendocrinology of social isolation. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 733–767. https://doi. org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015240 Chowa, G. A. N., Masa, R. D., & Tucker, J. (2013). The effects of parental involvement on academic performance of Ghanaian youth: Testing measurement and relationships using structural equation modeling. Children and Youth Services Review, 35, 2020–2030. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.009 Ebersöhn, L. (2014). Teacher resilience: Theorizing resilience and poverty. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 20, 568–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2014.93 7960 Ebersöhn, L. (2015). Making sense of place in school-based intervention research. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 40, 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.10.004 Ebersöhn, L. (2019). Flocking together: An indigenous psychology theory of resilience in Southern Africa. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16435-5 Fraser, N. (2009). Social justice in the age of identity politics. In Geographic thought: A praxis perspective (pp. 72–91). Routledge. Gardner, F., Waller, R., Maughan, B., Cluver, L., & Boyes, M. (2015). What are the risk factors for antisocial behavior among low-income youth in Cape Town? Social Development, 24, 798–814. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12127 Laible, D. (2007). Attachment with parents and peers in late adolescence: Links with emotional competence and social behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1185–1197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.010 Landsberg, E., Krüger, D., & Nel, N. (Eds.). (2005). Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective. Van Schaik. Maree, J. G. (2009). Career counselling in the 21st century: South African institutions of higher education at the crossroads. South African Journal of Higher Education, 23, 436–458. https://journals.co.za/docserver/fulltext/high/23/3/high_v23_n3_a2.pdf?expires=15885 04224&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=4CAB4C5486C467EC61EFF097095A31D5 Maree, J. G., & Molepo, J. M. (2007). Changing the approach to career counselling in a disadvantaged context: A case study. Australian Journal of Career Development, 16(3), 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F103841620701600312 Masango, M. (2005). Reconciliation: A way of life for the world. Verbum et Ecclesia, 26(1), 133–145.

Enabling school-based interventions 95 Nel, N., Nel, M., & Hugo, A. (Eds.). (2013). Learning support in a diverse classroom: A guide for foundation, intermediate and senior phase teachers of language and mathematics. Van Schaik. Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2008). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide. John Wiley & Sons. Reddy, S. P., James, S., Sewpaul, R., Sifunda, S., Ellahebokus, A., Kambaran, N. S.,  & Omardien, R. G. (2013). Umthente uhlaba usamila: The 3rd South African national youth risk behaviour survey 2011. South African Medical Research Council. Sandelowski, M., Barroso, J.,  & Voils, C. I. (2007). Using qualitative meta-summary to synthesize qualitative and quantitative descriptive findings. Research in Nursing & Health, 30(1), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20176 Sen, A. (2009). Capability: Reach and limits. In E. C. Martinetti (Ed.), Debating global society. Reach and limit of the capability approach (pp. 15–28). Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli. Snowman, J., & McCown, R. (2013). Ed psych. Cengage Learning. Spaull, N. (2013). South Africa’s education crisis: The quality of education in South Africa 1994–2011 (Report commissioned by CDE). Centre for Development  & Enterprise. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8284/240c243cbd0172ee1451486af141f3fd2e09.pdf Stead, G. B., & Watson, M. B. (2017). Career psychology in the South African context (3rd ed.). Van Schaik. Teise, K., & Le Roux, A. (2016). Education for sustainable development in South Africa: A model case scenario. Africa Education Review, 13(3–4), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 18146627.2016.1224584 Weir-Smith, G. (2014). An overview of the geographic data of unemployment in South Africa. South African Geographical Journal, 96(2), 134–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/037 36245.2013.854177

Chapter 8

Building learners’ reading literacy for academic resilience in challenging reading literacy development contexts Lisa Zimmerman Introduction Due to ongoing societal and economic challenges in the world, often the main asset in an economy is knowledge. The emergence of knowledge-based economies in the 21st century requires that education systems adapt to equip learners with the skills and competencies needed to participate effectively (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Such skills and competencies require higher-order thinking and reasoning abilities which can be aligned to reading literacy development throughout the childhood years, a task mostly undertaken in schools. As such, the school as a community of care is central, and, indeed, it can be argued that such reading literacy development aids in both learner and community resilience over time. Literacy is recognised worldwide as a foundational skill for learning that is vital for educational advancement. Education has high rates of return, specifically as labour market demand for advanced skills grows and demand for routine and manual skills falls. Without literacy, people cannot successfully move through education systems to the highest levels to take advantage of high rates of return, nor can they learn the more advanced skills for which there is rising demand. The costs of illiteracy are as such very high in terms of employment opportunities, education, crime rates, and health outcomes (Graham & Kelly, 2018). The development of reading literacy not only involves the mechanical act of reading but involves the performance of a range of literate behaviours linked to written language (Currin & Pretorius, 2010). Although not limited to these only, such behaviours may involve accessing and using vocabulary knowledge, using knowledge of text structures, and the cognitive processing of the meaning of text. Reading literacy is also accomplished within a specific socio-cultural context wherein values are apportioned to particular literacy behaviours and practices (Currin & Pretorius, 2010). School-based reading literacy development in South Africa has not been optimal to date. Whilst language of instruction is a confounding issue in the DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-8

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country, participation of the country’s Grades 4 and 5 learners in multiple Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) assessment cycles (Howie et  al., 2008, 2012, 2017) has cemented the fact that, regardless of the language of instruction, learners have reading problems. In particular, they have difficulties with reading comprehension tasks associated with higher-order thinking and reasoning skills development. Whilst numerous studies attest to the fact that reading literacy development has not been given the attention it needs in schools for a myriad of reasons, it needs to be a central school activity (Pretorius & Lephalala, 2011; Zimmerman, 2017). To tackle the challenges of poor reading literacy development, it is important to scrutinise the factors that underlie effective schools and then investigate those factors that assist schools to be resilient despite obstacles faced (Currin & Pretorius, 2010). This chapter focuses on the review of school-based practices as part of a community of care for reading literacy development. There is a large corpus of knowledge on effective schools for reading literacy development from developed country contexts but less so from developing contexts such as South Africa. There is a specific paucity of research on the promotion of reading literacy in schooling contexts that are less than optimal due to teaching, learner, context, and resource factors. This chapter explores the school contexts and resources that can promote reading literacy for academic resilience in South African schools, where the majority of learners struggle in their development of reading literacy. As a starting point, it is necessary to contextualise reading literacy development challenges in South African schools by considering South African learners’ reading literacy achievement and the prevailing challenges thereof. The connection between academic resilience and reading literacy is then posited. This is followed by a discussion of the crucial role of schools for reading literacy development via contemplation of school reading culture and the school as a literacy community as well as the characteristics of effective schools for the enablement of learners’ reading literacy development. In summation, the place of the school as a reading development resource to build learners’ reading literacy for academic resilience is argued.

The prevailing situation with reading literacy development in South Africa A learner’s socioeconomic status (SES) is often a determinant of their educational opportunities and the quality of their educational outcomes. Worldwide, it is consistently shown that learners of high socioeconomic status perform better academically than those of lower socioeconomic status (Gomez Vera et al., 2015). Indeed, in South Africa, with its socio-political history, the legacy of apartheid and the prevailing correlation between education and wealth has meant that, in general, poorer South African learners perform worse academically (Spaull, 2013).

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As both a result of the prevailing conditions and compounding the issue further, developing countries such as South Africa face specific challenges in delivering quality education. Such challenges revolve around educational participation, effectiveness, and resources. School disciplinary and academic climates, teacher quality, teaching practices, curriculum planning, and implementation, leadership and access to resources influence learners’ educational progress to varying degrees (Marks et al., 2006; Lockheed & Levin, 1993; Zimmerman & Howie, 2016). A lack of strong reading literacy development may render learners unsuccessful in their educational progression resulting in dire consequences for their future. There have been several policy initiatives in the country aimed at ameliorating problems with reading development in schools as well as significant curricular changes (Pretorius & Klapwijk, 2016; Zimmerman, 2017; Department of Basic Education (DBE), 2011). Disappointingly, these systemic changes have not yet revealed the impact required (see Howie et al., 2017) that would allow learners to flourish educationally with reading literacy as a major personal resource towards their progress, optimal development and academic resilience. Moreover, without grassroots impetus and understanding of the importance of reading literacy development by teachers and managers in schools, there is unlikely to be any significant change to the status quo (Zimmerman, 2017). The poor school management of the literacy programme may be a specific issue leading to non-conducive professional organisation and environments for teaching reading literacy (Zimmerman et al., 2011).

Reading literacy development as an enabler of academic resilience The linkages between academic resilience and the school system

Academic resilience is considered a particular kind of educational resilience whereby a learner’s academic performance in a specific subject is used as the relevant outcome predictor (Gomez Vera et  al., 2015). Wills and Hofmeyr (2019) point out that South Africa is interesting as a context for studying academic resilience. This is because, in contrast to other countries, it manifests one of the strongest correlations between learners’ home background and academic resilience. This relationship is linked to South Africa’s inequitable education system. This system is historically aligned to apartheid racial segregation policies and the resulting inferior education offered to learners in schools denoted for Black learners. In continuing to perpetuate the impact of these policies between schools, differences in home background explain the majority of the learning gap between low and high SES South African learners.

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Despite the association of socioeconomic disadvantage with lower chances of educational success, some learners do not fall victim to the circumstances which are invariably linked to such disadvantage deeming these learners as academically resilient (Agasisti et al., 2018). Certainly, academic success in the South African context can be considered a measure of resiliency, even if in other contexts, such success is considered an ordinary academic task. A focus on processes and the cultural context in which such success occurs can assist those striving to overcome the adversity of their contexts (Dass-Brailsford, 2005). Mampane and Bouwer (2011) argue that learners living in South African townships characterised by obstacles and adversities in their context of development, require protection and resilience to overcome them. Most research linked to such academically resilient learners tends to focus on intrinsic characteristics such as confidence in academic abilities, assertiveness, the capacity to work hard, high levels of internal motivation, and ambitious future aspirations. While it is recognised that such intrinsic strengths and capacities may be spurred on by school and broader social sphere circumstances and experiences, there is scant knowledge on the specific school and system-level factors that enable learners’ academic resilience (Agasisti et al., 2018). In reference to predictors of high school learners’ academic resilience, Cappella and Weinstein (2001) point out the need to look at both risks related to continued low achievement and resilience factors to overcome such risks. Risks are generally considered as either distal or proximal in nature with distal risks being demographic and proximal risks arising from early schooling experiences. Risk factors are purported to increase the likelihood of negative responses to adverse situations. The more negative responses are elicited; the more risk factors are experienced. Where a learner is deemed at-risk, this can, therefore, be compounded by other risk factors decreasing the chances for resilience (Gomez Vera et  al., 2015). Theorists have suggested that multiple domains of learner experience may be involved in protecting learners from such risks. Amongst these individual, family, and peer group experiences, the school environment may also be involved in protecting learners from distal risks (Cappella & Weinstein, 2001). Mampane and Bouwer (2011) reiterate this by stating that in contexts characterised by obstacles and adversity, social systems such as family, school, and community are highly significant in enhancing the resilience potential of individuals in that resilience is embedded systemically. Logically, when learners do not have access to constructive and supportive conditions at home, the school is the next available resource. A school that is safe and supportive can buffer the effect of risk via protective factors and the promotion of resilience in learners (Mampane & Bouwer, 2011). Agasisti et al. (2018) report on an in-depth analysis of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) Programme for International Learner Assessment (PISA) data from 2012 and 2015. Their analytical

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focus was on the subset of countries and economies where at least 5% of disadvantaged learners could be classified as resilient. The analysis revealed that the chances of disadvantaged learners being academically resilient varied dramatically within each sampled education system, with such variation being related to the schools learners attended. The variation in resilience across schools suggested that the school environment plays a fundamental role in mitigating the risk of low achievement for disadvantaged learners. Agasisti et al. (2018) therefore argue that whilst resilience is recognised as a characteristic of individuals, education policies and school practices can greatly reduce the vulnerability of disadvantaged learners leading to the enablement of learners. Reading literacy development and academic resilience

The alignment of academic resilience to learners’ academic performance means that resilient learners may be found across different areas of knowledge, including reading literacy or comprehension. These learners are identified by normal, outstanding or recovered academic performance in interaction with personal or environmental risk conditions (Gomez Vera et  al., 2015). There is a large amount of research indicating a robust relationship between reading and academic performance. Learners who do not achieve reading proficiency are unlikely to do well at school or even post-schooling. Such learners may be less exposed to new ideas and experiences that would allow for their further educational advancement (Pretorius & Machet, 2004). Reading comprehension is a specific academic content performance indicator which can be enriched by specifying its relationship with resilience and its contributing factors. Engaged reading as a concept, unites a learner’s cognitive dimensions of reading ability to noncognitive dimensions. Noncognitive dimensions include attitude towards reading, the quantity and quality of chosen books, reading strategies employed, and metalinguistic skills. Scrutiny of engaged reading can also highlight hidden factors in the complex and multidimensional process underlying the development of reading comprehension. This requires the investigation of both cognitive and noncognitive protective factors that lead to higher levels of reading engagement and reading comprehension. Protective factors are those characteristics that can strengthen resilience, promote it, or are fundamental for it to occur (Gomez Vera et al., 2015). Given the changing required job skills landscape worldwide, it may also be meaningful to look not only at academic resilience of learners but more specifically at their reading resilience. Such resilience, as coined by tertiary education researchers Douglas et al. (2016), involves learners’ ability to read and interpret complex and demanding literary texts by drawing on advanced, engaged, critical reading skills. For our purposes here, this can be interpreted as reading literacy development for accessing the higher-order thinking and reasoning

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abilities needed for further educational, and in turn, economic advancement, regardless of context but especially for those in challenging contexts. The crucial role of schools for reading literacy development in developing contexts School reading culture and the literacy community

School contexts play a fundamental role in reading literacy development in classrooms (Postlethwaite & Ross, 1992; Reynolds, 1998). However, there is very little quality research into the schooling conditions that either promote or impede reading literacy teaching and learning in South African classrooms (Zimmerman et  al., 2011; Pretorius  & Klapwijk, 2016; Biesman-Simons et al., 2020). Hoadley (2018) argues that school-level aspects of literacy development have been neglected in favour of the investigation of classroom-level aspects. Despite this dearth of evidence, a strong school-wide emphasis on reading is recognised as a factor related to improved learner outcomes (Hoadley, 2018). As Pretorius and Machet (2004) reason, literacy does not develop in a vacuum. Reading is taught and learnt within a social context with the school and teachers being central therein. The context impacts how learners acquire literacy and also influences the consequences of their literacy accomplishments in the learning environment. A reading culture in a setting can be developed and maintained through teachers, the school and the community assisting a child to learn to read and to read habitually. Such a culture involves the collective attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of all of the stakeholders in a school aligned to activities associated with the enablement of learners to read at the highest level of attainment for both academic and personal gain. In such a situation, reading is not only scholastic but rather something which is practised in all aspects of a learner’s life (Joubert et al., 2014). Turner and Kim’s (2005) concept of a literacy community concerning classroom instructional practices with learners from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds can easily transfer for use in the building of a community of care for reading literacy development in a school. Literacy communities are dynamic classroom environments rich in social relationships, partnerships, and talking, reading, thinking, and writing collaborations. Viewed from a social constructivist perspective, members of a literacy community learn through social interactions to adopt the discursive practices and norms and values of the community as well as to fully and actively participate in reading and writing activities. Turner and Kim (2005) identified four major practices that can help teachers to build literacy communities, which are (1) building relationships amongst community members; (2) fostering a sense of collective responsibility; (3) promoting ownership of literacy for all community members; and

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(4) reflecting on the community’s learning. These practices are not dissimilar to the characteristics of effective schools for reading literacy development. Characteristics of effective schools for reading literacy development Effective management in general

Although choosing effective educational inputs is the first step toward improving learning, managing these inputs well at the school level is fundamental (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991). Allington and Cunningham (2007) relay that when schools have a few good teachers, it is usually as a result of individual initiative. In contrast, when a school has many good teachers, it is a result of leadership (Zimmerman, 2011). The provision and effective use of education inputs is the role of educational management at all levels. Effective schools manage to transform their given inputs into children’s learning, despite poor conditions in some instances. These schools have an orderly school environment, clear goals, high expectations, a sense of community and strong instructional leadership. In terms of order, there is good attendance by learners and teachers; clean facilities in good condition; and routine provision of teaching materials. The academic emphasis of these schools is apparent in high expectations and defined goals for academic achievement; a curriculum which is focused on teaching both basic and complex goals; the concentration of available resources and their operations on achieving these goals; sufficient time for teaching these goals; coordination of instruction across grade levels; and continuous monitoring of learner progress to check whether goals have been achieved (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991; Zimmerman, 2011). Sailors et al. (2007) investigated the qualities of seven high-performing primary schools in reading literacy serving low-income South African learners. These schools had participated in a five-year intervention focused on school improvement initiatives, training of teachers in effective teaching strategies and providing classrooms with high-quality learning materials. These schools stood out as consistently high performers across all measures of learner achievement in the sub-sample of schools evaluated at the end of the intervention. Five broad themes linked to these high-performing schools were identified: (1) a safe, orderly, and positive learning environment; (2) strong leaders; (3) excellent teachers (competent, committed, caring, collaborative); (4) a shared sense of competence, pride and purpose for the school; and (5) high levels of school and community involvement (Sailors et al., 2007). These effective local schools had similar attributes to their overseas counterparts from the school effectiveness literature (see also Reynolds, 1998). Even so, the Sailors et al. (2007) study reveals little insight into what makes a school effective in terms of reading literacy practices in particular (Zimmerman, 2011).

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Management of reading literacy development specifically

School-wide reading programmes impact class teaching. Internationally, the research base indicates several features of effective school-wide reading programme initiatives that can positively impact classroom practices (Taylor, 2008) and school change undertakings that enhance learners’ academic achievement (Allington & Cunningham, 2007; Zimmerman, 2011). In effective schools, the staffs are committed to the idea that all learners can learn to read and write and thus work to produce this outcome. Teachers work together to develop a cohesive school-wide programme. They collaborate between themselves and other resource teachers. Interventions are in place to meet the needs of learners experiencing reading difficulties, those with special educational needs or who are second language learners. Support programmes are recognised to connect such support with classroom instruction and teachers, especially through collaboration. Cohesion is created in the amount of time for reading instruction across different grades and blocks of time during the school day (Allington & Cunningham, 2007; Taylor, 2008). According to Allington and Cunningham (2007), this is important in that nearly every study of classroom effectiveness in primary schools has concluded that teachers who allocate more time to reading and language instruction are those whose learners show the greatest gains in literacy development. Such studies also show that the amount of time allocated to teaching reading and writing varies substantially from school to school and even within schools, as teachers schedule more or less time. In effective schools, more classroom instructional time is allocated to reading and writing activities while using multiple approaches to literacy instruction, and, cross-curricular integration of reading and writing into other learning areas. Moreover, school-wide assessment plans in which learner data are collected and used regularly to inform instruction are utilised. Successful schools also work to involve families. Parents are not just expected to monitor homework but also help to make decisions about the use of school resources, curriculum and schedules. These schools thus work effectively with parents as partners (Allington & Cunningham, 2007; Taylor, 2008; Zimmerman, 2011). Moats (2009) emphasises that all teachers, not only reading specialists, need to understand best practices of reading instruction. Prevention and amelioration of reading problems need to be viewed as a whole school responsibility involving teamwork and a coordinated approach between teachers and other role-players in a school. Thus, a common knowledge base between all teachers must be established and maintained (Moats, 2009). In consideration of strong instructional leadership, the principal is highly visible at school and devotes considerable time to coordinating and managing instruction. A common sense of commitment and collegiality amongst staff is evident, and a participatory management style is employed (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991). Allington and Cunningham (2007) further highlight that, in such schools, substantial investments are made in teachers’ professional development,

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primarily to enhance their instructional skills and to create teaching and learning environments that support high-quality instruction. There is also investment in classroom libraries and reading material resources. Lockheed and Verspoor (1991, p. 47) wrote that “Instructional materials are critical ingredients in learning, and the intended curriculum cannot be easily implemented without them.” It has also been found that learners in well-resourced schools are inclined to attain higher literacy levels than learners from schools with high levels of poverty (Pretorius & Machet, 2004). An intervention study reported by Pretorius and Currin (2010) revealed that when high poverty schools were assisted in making books available to learners and motivating them to read, their reading levels improved. The authors stress that one crucial factor requiring financial outlay is that of making books available to learners, and as poor schools cannot afford to buy print resources on their own they will continue to produce poor readers. In scrutinising the processes and practices for reading literacy development in a school with a high Grade 4 class average performance from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2006, Zimmerman (2017) highlights similar research-based themes. The school had the highest Grade 4 class average performance of six purposively selected case study schools with varying contexts and performance levels aligned to achievement benchmarks from the PIRLS 2006. Although the school was considered highly privileged in comparison to the majority of schools in South Africa, it was evident that the reading literacy development processes and practices implemented at the school could be learnt from and applied in less privileged contexts. Planning and monitoring of literacy teaching and learning were key activities leading to high levels of accountability in the management structures of the school. Planning and monitoring involved the collaboration of all stakeholders, including the principal of the primary school, grade teachers, Literacy leaders, and Language subject area leaders. This school was the only case in the larger study with an active strategy to deal with the coordination of teaching and learning across educational phases. Reading literacy teaching took place within a larger school-wide framework for the teaching and promotion of reading literacy development. The school leaders drove multiple initiatives using varied strategies to encourage and develop learners’ reading literacy. Moreover, the school was the only case where teachers had mostly positive views of parental involvement in their children’s education, which was again encouraged by schoollevel initiatives aimed at the promotion of parental involvement (Zimmerman, 2017). Hoadley’s (2018) review of the research literature on school management for literacy further cements these features of effective schools. According to Hoadley (2018), one of the most prominent themes for the establishment of leadership in literacy in a school is that of collaboration in the form of informal and formal in-school professional development and communication. This can link to the notion of aligned professional learning communities to the ideas

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of school reading culture and literacy communities as discussed earlier. The professional learning community literature centres on collaboration around instruction via coordinated collegial networks to provide high-quality teaching and learning at scale. A school leader needs to endorse knowledge sharing amongst teachers and the creation of internal structures that promote reading in a trust-based interaction between management and teachers. Other prominent themes reiterated by Hoadley’s (2018) review include: A school-wide focus on reading to create conditions conducive to reading instruction; managerial reading knowledge and expertise used to shape the conditions of reading instruction and its improvement; assessment of reading in schools; and the extent and quality of reading resources available in a school. Echoing and extending these themes, Fletcher et al. (2013) report findings from a longitudinal case study of a previously “at risk,” multicultural, intermediate school (years 7 and 8) in a low SES area in a New Zealand city. The case study focused on exploring conditions under which children can improve their reading in the final primary school years by investigating explicit skills a competent reader needs at this school level and by considering the wider school and community structures that support and enhance reading. These researchers wanted to explore how school leaders and other school members built and maintained successful school learning environments with an emphasis on the influence of school leadership on the wider school systems. Fletcher et al. (2013) indicate that the case study supported the utility of taking a wholeschool approach in implementing strategies aimed at improving learners’ reading achievement. There was evidence that school leaders should strive to create a supportive and collaborative learning environment. Furthermore, they found that school-wide professional development is more effective when driven by a person with expertise and credibility and when the principal actively participates. Assessment data enhances reading outcomes when used to: Identify learner needs; inform teaching strategies; track schoolwide progress; and form the basis of school-wide plans for improvement. Reading programmes also need to be regular, sustained, and facilitated by teachers with strong pedagogical knowledge about reading. Additionally, school leaders need to manage behavioural issues proactively so that learning occurs in optimal conditions; home–school partnerships need to be sought with parents being kept informed about their child’s reading and general academic progress, and external reviews of school performance may drive changes.

In conclusion: The school as a reading development resource Lessons can be gleaned from the general school effectiveness literature related to management in schools as well as the specific literature on effective schools for reading development. Such schools are characterised by strong instructional leadership from leaders who understand reading development and drive

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school-wide reading programmes and interventions with accountability. There is active collaboration amongst all school role-players, not only reading teachers, to set goals and coordinate reading development. Reading resources are allocated, and the use thereof closely monitored for efficacy. In recognition of the importance of reading, more time is allocated to reading and language, which increases learners’ opportunity to learn. Assessment is used to monitor progress and feeds into learning as well as school-wide improvement planning. Home-school partnerships are actively pursued, and professional development is ongoing. Reading literacy development is a fundamental task in the schooling years with the simultaneous development of higher-order thinking and reasoning becoming more and more essential for future economic productivity and sustainability. School role-players in developing contexts can act to buffer learners from adverse distal effects by acting as a proximal enabler of strategies and resources that promote optimal reading literacy development and aid overall academic and/or reading resilience. For a school to be considered an effective school of reading literacy development, it takes more than the efforts of a few individual classroom teachers. A  whole-school approach to reading literacy development may help to ensure that learners, especially those in less than optimal economic and educational circumstances, have an opportunity to access reading as a tool for further enablement. The available research literature base should be accessed and scrutinised for its pragmatic value in its application by school-based role-players in such contexts. In each setting, these role-players need to work collectively to decide on the transferability and utility of this information for their learners. One of the ultimate if not the ultimate resource in such schools is human agency. Within a school community focusing on reading literacy development, collective agency specifically becomes paramount wherein outcomes are sought through interdependent efforts. Shared knowledge and skills of all role-players are needed to attain the goals of optimal reading literacy development via interactive, coordinative and synergistic transaction dynamics (Bandura, 2000). As Bandura (2000, p. 75) eloquently states, People are partly the products of their environments, but by selecting, creating, and transforming their environmental circumstances, they are producers of environments as well. This agentic capability enables them to influence the course of events and to take a hand in shaping their lives.

References Agasisti, T., Avvisati, F., Borgonovi, F., & Longobardi, S. (2018). Academic resilience: What schools and countries do to help disadvantaged students succeed in PISA. (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD Education Working Papers No. 167). EDU/WKP(2018)3. OECD Directorate for Education and Skills. https://dx.doi. org/10.1787/e22490ac-en

Building learners’ reading literacy 107 Allington, R. L., & Cunningham, P. M. (2007). Schools that work: Where all children read and write (3rd ed.). Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st century skills and competences for new millennium students in OECD Countries. (OECD Education Working Papers No. 41). OECD Publishing. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/218525261154 Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), 75–78. Biesman-Simons, C., Dixon, K., Pretorius, E. J., & Reed, Y. (2020). Pitfalls and possibilities in literacy research: A review of South African literacy studies, 2004–2018. Reading & Writing, 11(1), a238. https://doi.org/10.4102/rw.v11i1.238 Cappella, E., & Weinstein, R. S. (2001). Turning around reading achievement: Predictors of high school students’ academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(4), 758–771. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-O663.93.4.758 Currin, S., & Pretorius, E. J. (2010). The culture of the sharp pencil: Can a literacy intervention lever school change? Reading and Writing, 1(1), 23–46. Dass-Brailsford, P. (2005). Exploring resiliency: Academic achievement among disadvantaged black youth in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 35(3), 574–591. Department of Basic Education (DBE). (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy statement. Grades R—3. English home language. Department of Basic Education. Douglas, K., Barnett, T., Poletti, A., Seaboyer, J., & Kennedy, R. (2016). Building reading resilience: Re-thinking reading for the literary studies classroom. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(2), 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2015.1087475 Fletcher, J., Grimley, M., Greenwood, J., & Parkhill, F. (2013). Raising reading achievement in an ‘at risk’, low socioeconomic. Multicultural intermediate school. Journal of Research in Reading, 36(2), 149–171. Gomez Vera, G., Valenzuela, J. P., & Sotomayor, C. (2015). Against all odds: Outstanding reading performance among Chilean youth in vulnerable conditions. Comparative Education Review, 59(4), 693–716. Graham, J., & Kelly, S. (2018). How effective are early grade reading interventions? A review of the evidence (Policy Research Working Papers No. 8292). World Bank. Hoadley, U. (2018). Leading for literacy: A review of the research. Leading for literacy: A review of the research (Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers No. WP19/2018). Stellenbosch University. Howie, S. J., Combrinck, C., Tshele, M., Roux, K., McLeod Palane, N.,  & Mokoena, G. M. (2017). PIRLS 2016: South African highlights report. Centre for Evaluation and Assessment. Howie, S. J., van Staden, S., Tshele, M., Dowse, C.,  & Zimmerman, L. (2012). PIRLS 2011: South African children’s reading literacy achievement summary report. Centre for Evaluation and Assessment. Howie, S. J., Venter, E., van Staden, S., Zimmerman, L., Long, C., Scherman, V., & Archer, E. (2008). Progress in international reading literacy study 2006. Summary report. South African children’s reading literacy achievement. Centre for Evaluation and Assessment. Joubert, I., Ebersöhn, L., Ferreira, R., du Plessis, L., & Moen, M. (2014). Establishing a reading culture in a rural secondary school: A literacy intervention with teachers. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 49(4), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096134 87676 Lockheed, M. E., & Levin, H. M. (1993). Creating effective schools. In H. M. Levin & M. E. Lockheed (Eds.), Effective schools in developing countries (pp. 1–19). Falmer Press.

108  Lisa Zimmerman Lockheed, M. E., & Verspoor, A. M. (1991). Improving primary education in developing countries. Oxford University Press. Mampane, R., & Bouwer, C. (2011). The influence of township schools on the resilience of their learners. South African Journal of Education, 31, 114–126. Marks, G. N., Cresswell, J., & Ainley, J. (2006). Exploring socioeconomic inequalities in learner achievement: The role of home and school factors. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12(2), 105–128. Moats, L. C. (2009). Knowledge foundations for teaching reading and spelling. Reading and Writing, 22, 379–399. Postlethwaite, T. N., & Ross, K. N. (1992). Effective schools in reading: Implications for educational planners. An exploratory study. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Pretorius, E. J., & Currin, S. (2010). Do the rich get richer and the poor poorer? The effects of an intervention programme on reading in the home and school language in a high poverty multilingual context. International Journal of Educational Development, 30, 67–76. Pretorius, E. J.,  & Klapwijk, N. M. (2016). Reading comprehension in South African schools: Are teachers getting it and getting it right? Per Linguam, 32(1), 1–20. https://doi. org/10.5785/32-1-627. Pretorius, E. J., & Lephalala, M. (2011). Reading comprehension in high poverty schools: How should it be taught and how well does it work? Per Linguam, 27(2), 1–24. Pretorius, E. J., & Machet, M. P. (2004). The socio-educational context of literacy accomplishment in disadvantaged schools: Lessons for reading in the early primary school years. Journal of Language Teaching, 38(1), 45–62. Reynolds, D. (1998). Schooling for literacy: A review of research on teacher effectiveness and school effectiveness and its implications for contemporary educational policies. Education Review, 50(2), 147–162. Sailors, M., Hoffman, J. V., & Matthee, B. (2007). South African schools that promote literacy learning with learners from low-income communities. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(3), 364–387. Spaull, N. (2013). Poverty  & privilege: Primary school inequality in South Africa. International Journal of Educational Development, 33, 436–447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. ijedudev.2012.09.009 Taylor, B. M. (2008). What does excellent reading instruction look like in elementary classrooms? Minnesota Center for Reading Research. Turner, J. D., & Kim, Y. (2005). Learning about building literacy communities in multicultural and multilingual classrooms from effective elementary teachers. Literacy Teaching and Learning, 10(1), 21–41. Wills, G., & Hofmeyr, H. (2019). Academic resilience in challenging contexts: Evidence from township and rural primary schools in South Africa. International Journal of Educational Research, 98, 192–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.08.001 Zimmerman, L. (2011). The influence of schooling conditions and teaching practices on curriculum implementation for Grade 4 reading literacy development (Unpublished PhD thesis). Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria. Zimmerman, L. (2017). Learning from the best: Reading literacy development practices at a high performing primary school. Per Linguam, 33(2), 36–50. http://dx.doi. org/10.5785/33-2-740

Building learners’ reading literacy 109 Zimmerman, L.,  & Howie, S. J. (2016). Moving from a discourse of access to reading instructional materials to the management and utilisation thereof: Progress in international reading literacy study at grade 4 in South Africa. Mousaion, 34(2), 31–53. Zimmerman, L., Howie, S. J., & Smit, B. (2011). Time to go back to the drawing board: Organisation of primary school reading development in South Africa. Educational Research and Evaluation, 4, 215–232.

Chapter 9

Creating enabling spaces for adolescents through the development of spiritual intelligence Cheryl Currie

Introduction Education in South Africa is caught up in a debilitating crisis where many of our secondary schools are depicted as sites of widespread violence. Numerous reports and studies (Chidi & Sing, 2018; Mncube & Madikizela-Madiya, 2014; Solomons  & Fataar, 2010) indicate that there is an increase in school-based violence in various forms, including bullying, daily assaults, and even murders and/or deaths of learners occurring in or around school premises. The results of school-based violence are reflected in the large numbers of school dropouts, academic underperformance, substance abuse, increased risk of teenage pregnancy, and the transmission of HIV/AIDS among the youths. It can thus be deduced that moral decay and a loss of values have resulted in adolescents in many secondary schools being portrayed as “youth-in crisis” (Ferreira, 2011, 2014). The cause of such violence may be attributed to the numerous social ills that filter into school premises. Nevertheless, education today is the most powerful enabler of a conscious choice to evolve through and beyond our current crisis. Miller (2000) points to a broader vision of education that promotes values and vision, connectedness, compassion, and meaning. These qualities are all hallmarks of spiritual intelligence or SQ. Accordingly, to cope in a society that is besieged by violence and crime, alongside challenging schooling contexts with a particular deficit, SQ should be considered as an asset-based approach that has the capacity for transformational teaching and learning.

A portrait of our “youth in crisis” In 2012, with the cooperation of Department of Basic Education (DBE), the Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention undertook a second National School Violence Study (NSVS), focusing on secondary schools in all nine provinces. At that stage, there were 4,597,285 secondary school learners. The 2012 NSVS study explored the prevalence of four specific types of violence among secondary school learners, including threats of violence, assault, sexual assault, and DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-9

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robbery. The victimisation rates revealed that more than a fifth had experienced at least one of the four types of violence in the 12 months preceding the study. However, when considering theft of personal belongings, the overall victimisation rate increased significantly to 53.2%, indicating that a total of 2,445, 756 high school learners had succumbed to crime between August 2011 and 2012. These alarming figures imply that more than half of all secondary school learners in South Africa were victims of violence. The causes may be both broad and multifaceted and include socioeconomic factors such as poverty, substance abuse, and peer pressure (Burton & Leoschut, 2012). Furthermore, adolescence is essentially a period filled with turbulence and conflict (World Health Organization, 2016). Much of this conflict relates to existential issues where adolescents are actively reflective and ask questions like, Why am I here? What is my purpose in life? (Tirri et al., 2005). Besides, a search for meaning during adolescence may result in heightened anxiety and a sense of personal emptiness and isolation (Damon et al., 2003; Weems et al., 2004). It is apparent from these findings that the majority of South African secondary school learners who engage in these forms of school-based violence may also experience a sense of existential angst or typify an identity crisis in the adolescent stage of human development (Erikson, 1950, 1968; Marcia, 1966). What therefore transpires in a school context is usually a reflection of what is taking place in the broader social contexts in which schools are found. These are all factors that increase the vulnerability of adolescents in South African secondary schools and increase their chances of becoming victims of violence, thus experiencing identity confusion. Schwartz (2005) proposes a concept of identity, including both personal and social identity. This may be more related to a variety of cultural groups as it engages an understanding of identity within a broader, more far-reaching sociocultural context, and particularly in respect of understanding the adolescent within the South African context. Similarly, Yoder (2000) outlines several barriers that may impede identity development. For example, low socioeconomic factors and poverty may have a debilitating effect on the range of identity choices that are offered. It can thus be deduced that violence and moral decay have resulted in adolescent learners in many South African secondary schools being portrayed as “youth-in-crisis” (Ferreira, 2011, p. 1). Developing SQ will therefore provide a viable option for combatting moral degeneration in adolescents and enabling educational environments, thereby enabling spaces that foster transformation and change.

What is meant by spiritual intelligence (SQ)? Howard Gardner (1998) was the first scholar who considered evidence in support of a ninth intelligence in his Multiple Intelligence (MI) array, which he termed spiritual intelligence. However, he concluded, “any discussion of the

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spirit, whether cast as spiritual life, spiritual capacity, spiritual feeling, gift of religion, mysticism, or the transcended, is controversial within the sciences” (p. 30). For this reason, he preferred the term “existential intelligence,” which he defined as being typified by individuals who tend to reflect on existential questions about life, death, and ultimate realities. Therefore, to establish SQ as a separate intelligence, essential distinctions between religiosity, spirituality, and SQ must be drawn. Concerning spirituality, it is proposed that SQ describes the mental abilities that underpin many components of spirituality. According to Vaughan (2002) and Noble (2001), spiritual experiences most likely promote the constant development of SQ. Religions, on the other hand, may be coupled with symbolic systems for conceptualising characteristics of SQ (Emmons, 2000a). Zohar and Marshall (2000), however, claim that SQ has no necessary association with religion. For some people, SQ may be expressed through formal religion, but being religious does not guarantee a high SQ. For example, secularists and atheists may have a high SQ by exhibiting high moral standards, while many dogmatic religious people may exhibit low SQ by displaying intolerance towards those who uphold different values and belief systems. According to Zohar and Marshall (2004, p. 430), it is because “SQ is pre-cultural and more primary than religion; it is because we have SQ in the first place that humanity later evolved religious systems and answers to the existential questions that SQ makes us ask.” Zohar and Marshall (2000, p. 9) further expound on SQ as regards the issue of values in the following way: Throughout human history, every known culture has had some set of values, though the specific values may differ from culture to culture. SQ is the intelligence that rests in the deep part of the self that is connected to wisdom from beyond the conscious mind. This statement implies that in human development, SQ precedes values and is, in fact, the intelligence we use not only to recognise existing values but also to discover and construct new values creatively. SQ thus provides a vehicle with which to address the concept of values/attitudes in a multi-cultural and multireligious school environment. In assessing the moral and social malaise adolescents’ experience within the South African secondary school contexts, teachers require a means by which to cultivate specific values that have the potential to bring about a radical change in the turbulent lives of our youth. Zohar and Marshall emphasise the adaptive function of the values that fall into one or more of the following categories: •

Personal values—these values relate to the adolescent’s life, friends, family, and interests, and include, among others, excellence, honesty, humility, compassion, friendship, dignity, and resilience.

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•

•

Interpersonal values—these values relate to the characteristics that define a group and to the relationships between the adolescent members of the group and include service, liberty, respect, awareness, loyalty, trust, gratitude, and harmony. Universal values—for example, truth, equality, altruism, tolerance, forgiveness, happiness, love, commitment, education, justice, and wisdom.

These values encompass SQ, given their prevalence in virtually all the major religions. However, to cultivate values, the aim is to improve situations by regularly reviewing those values and goals that can bring about change in adolescents. Here, two values are highlighted that are particularly significant in cultivating the adaptive function in adolescents. Humility

According to Emmons (2000b), humility refers to the realistic appraisal of one’s strengths and weaknesses, neither overestimating nor underestimating them. Adolescent humility has been linked to several personal and interpersonal life outcomes. Humility has, for example, been associated with enhanced informational search abilities and problem-solving efficacy (Weiss & Knight, 1980). Humility is also strongly linked with morality, which is vitally important in adolescent development. Humility is one criterion that was used for identifying moral excellence in Emmons’ (2000b) in-depth study of high moral exemplars, such as Mother Theresa and St John of the Cross. At a more spiritual level, a sense of humility puts a person in touch with a sense that one’s true self comes from something deeper than, or beyond, the superficial and, as such, it provides a broader context to and deeper meaning in life. This implies that humility may be regarded as deeper self-awareness which encompasses gratitude and a wish to serve. Fostering humility in adolescents would enable them to take cognizance of their mistakes and to recognize their inner strengths. This implies that they may be less vulnerable to the criticisms of others (Zohar & Marshall, 2004). Compassion

Compassion implies that adolescents display empathy, which subsumes kindness and concern for others, irrespective of who they are and where they come from, even if they have opposite views or are from different racial groups. Having empathy for someone may encourage adolescents to become actively

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involved in voluntary and community projects. Developing compassion may further result in an adolescent feeling a universal sense of awe and reverence for all, and empathy with the pain and suffering of others. Aside from all these insights of SQ, there are many challenges in defining and describing SQ, in particular, how it can capture the mental capacities of SQ succinctly. For this reason, King’s (2007, 2008) definition and model of SQ is of particular significance as it provides convincing evidence of how intelligence can be derived from spirituality.

A definition and viable model of SQ King (2007, p. 4) views spirituality as being more closely related to existential understanding, meaning, purpose, and transcendence, which implies knowledge and understanding of spiritual qualities and attributes, such as love, peace, purity, and connectedness. Similar to Amram’s (2007) views of SQ, giving expression to these qualities through our behaviour and attitude is crucial, as they unlock adaptive mental capacities and capabilities, such as reasoning and problem-solving skills, goal attainment, and coping skills that are essential in human development. This implies that a distinct set of mental abilities related to spirituality exists, which King (2007, 2008) refers to as critical existential thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental awareness, and conscious-state expansion. These four components are key to King’s model of SQ.

Viewing King’s four components through the lens of intelligence and adaptive functioning King’s four components of SQ present a compelling argument for the way in which intelligence can be extracted from spirituality. In the next section, each component will be unpacked to illustrate how they can foster adaptive functioning in adolescents. Critical existential thinking

King (2008) defines critical existential thinking as the ability to ponder or think deeply and critically analyse issues about the nature of existence, reality, the universe, space, time, and death. This reflects Gardner’s (1993, p. 20) description of existential intelligence as the intelligence of the “bigger questions,” thus questions of meaning and purpose. Emmons (2000b, p. 1) refers to the “thoughtful reflection” involved in existential thinking, while Evans and Wellman (2006, p. 471) refer to “existential reasoning.” It is thus possible to infer that references to thinking and reasoning on an existential level incorporate mental capacity.

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According to King (2008), there are particular situations in which the capacity for critical existential thinking is valuable and can thus foster adaptive functioning in adolescents. The ability to contemplate and analyse issues of an existential nature would imply that an adolescent will analyse the cause of the crisis, examine its nature, and search for a solution. Thus, it would act as a coping mechanism and a source of problem-solving in a time of crisis. This type of existential thinking would also contribute to an adolescent’s general abstract reasoning abilities. It is suggested, then, that critical existential thinking can serve as a multifaceted source of adaptation and abstract reasoning. According to Zohar and Marshall (2000, 2004), an adolescent’s need to ask “why” originates from a deeper motivation to understand the essence of things and goes hand in hand with an inclination to refuse to take anything for granted. More pertinent is that it embodies a tendency to search for better solutions regarding the issues they are confronted with. Furthermore, a tendency to ask “why” also takes adolescents beyond the present situation and encourages exploration. It is further contended that there is no limit to the application of critical existential thinking, as any problem can be approached from different perspectives and thus this can be applied to provide unique insight into problems and dilemmas that adolescents encounter in this turbulent phase of development. This implies that an adolescent should not become limited by personal paradigms, belief systems, prejudices, and ideologies, which refer to as mental spontaneity (Zohar & Marshall, 2000, 2004). This often requires a willingness to enter a discomfort zone and be able to transcend personal boundaries and celebrate diversity. This encompasses a spiritual dimension for the adolescent—an openness to life’s possibilities and an existential readiness to develop purpose and meaning in life. Valuing diversity enables adolescents to be open to many truths and to realise that there is a richness underlying everyone’s belief system and personal worldview. It implies seeing differences as opportunities and growing beyond personal limitations (Zohar & Marshall, 2000, 2004). Closer analyses of SQ reveal that many aspects establish intellectual ability. For example, Amram (2007) developed an ecumenically grounded theory of SQ, based on interviews with 71 people from different spiritual traditions designated as spiritually intelligent. Although Amram’s (2007) significant themes of SQ can still be broadly defined as the manifestation of a lived spirituality or aspects of religiosity such as grace trust, love, and reverence for the sacred, it is the ability to apply spiritual resources and qualities that enhance daily functioning and well-being that supports SQ as a separate intelligence. For example, “meaning” emerged as a major or a universal theme across participants. Thus, experiencing significance in daily activities through a sense of purpose and a call for service, including in the face of pain and suffering, embodies a mental capacity.

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A sub-theme that is further highlighted in Amram’s (2007) SQ model is mindfulness. According to Brown and Ryan (2003, p. 822), mindfulness is “a self-regulatory skill that involves observing one’s thoughts without judgement” or “a state of consciousness to the present moment in an open and accepting state” (Bishop et al., 2004, p. 230). Mindfulness is thus a profoundly integrative state and is referred to as “reflective coherence” (Siegel, 2007, p. 74). Langer (1997) maintains that mindfulness emphasises cognitive categorisation, context, and situational awareness. According to Langer (1997), when we are mindful, we implicitly or explicitly view a situation from several perspectives—see information presented in the situation as novel, attend to the context in which we perceive the information, and eventually create new categories through which this information may be understood. Therefore, it can be described as a multifaceted source of adaptive functioning. An increasing number of studies have reported a link between mindfulnessbased practices and benefits for health and well-being, and the way mindfulnessbased practices can foster adaptive functioning in everyday activities. Meditative mindfulness requires discipline to anchor the mind in the present moment. From this perspective, Kabat-Zinn (1994, p. 4) defines mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular way, purposefully, in the present moment, and nonjudgementally,” which can increase self-awareness. This intense self-awareness can put adolescents in touch with their deepest centres and allows them to grow and improve themselves continuously. It also confers a sense of focus and peace. A firmer sense of self, in turn, can facilitate making choices of who they want to become (Zohar & Marshall, 2004). Self-awareness, as a character trait of SQ, puts adolescents in touch with their deepest centres and enables them to focus on aspects of meaning and purpose. It also implies an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. However, merely knowing that you have strengths and weaknesses is just one level of self-awareness. It means accepting those weaknesses that take a person to a completely different level. By doing so, an adolescent can develop not just self-awareness but also gain self-acceptance by realising that they are capable in some areas and not as capable in others. Personal meaning production

The second component of this model is personal meaning production that King (2008, p. 62) defines “as the ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master a life purpose.” This implies that it goes beyond simply thinking about existence and herein we find a different cognitive capacity. Meddin (1998, p.  164) identifies a cognitive component of personal meaning or “a set of principles that enables one to make sense of one’s inner life and outer environment.” It is thus the cognitive component that allows one to derive, create, and endow with meaning and a sense of vocation (King, 2008; Zohar & Marshall, 2000).

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A sense of vocation drives adolescents to pursue a specific course in life based on a sense of personal purpose and a need to act from and upon their deepest ideals and values. Adolescents who feel a sense of vocation are usually thoughtful, focused, and well-grounded. It enables them to reflect on what truly motivates them, as well as encouraging them to explore ways in which to make a difference in life and to display a sense of responsibility and caring towards others (Zohar & Marshall, 2000). King (2008) further asserts that research suggests that the ability to construct or derive meaning from one’s environment is adaptive in a variety of situations. For example, Mascaro and Rosen (2006) suggest that spiritual meaning can buffer an individual against the effects of stress and depression as well as increasing resilience, and that those with higher spiritual intelligence are more able to adapt and cope with difficulties by relying on internal strength. This will be of value to the adolescents as their quest for purpose and meaning is often accompanied by increasing levels of anxiety and a sense of personal emptiness. It is proposed that when faced with stress, personal meaning production acts as a coping method by allowing an adolescent to construct meaning and purpose within the stressful situation, thereby lessening its adverse effects. According to a study undertaken by Khosravi and Nikmanesh (2014), SQ has a positive association with resilience. This finding is consistent with research that has revealed the components of resilience as hopefulness, personal control, and coping mechanisms. Transcendental awareness

Transcendental awareness is defined as “the capacity to identify transcendent dimensions of the self (e.g. a transpersonal or transcendent self), of others, and the physical world (e.g. non-materialism) during the normal, waking state of consciousness, accompanied by the capacity to identify their relationship to one’s self and the physical” (King, 2008, p. 65). Accordingly, it describes the mental capacity to recognise transcendent dimensions of reality in objects, activities, experiences, and daily events. In effect, this means the ability to recognise or perceive these transcendent dimensions and one’s relationship to them. Emmons (2000a, p. 10) states that transcendence indicates “a rising above or going beyond the ordinary limits of physicality and develops a deeper awareness of a divine being and/or one’s self.” This suggests an ability to perceive things holistically. There are ways in which transcendental awareness would be highly adaptive, in particular with reference to adolescents (King, 2008). Piedmont (2004) found that spiritual transcendence promotes a sense of connectedness, which plays a significant role in substance abuse recovery and overall wellness. It is further suggested that the awareness of something more than the physical or material acts is a highly effective coping mechanism in any form of crisis. Holistic awareness, described by Coward and Reed (1996, p. 263) as “awareness of wholeness,” would further act as a method of coping, thus allowing an adolescent to perceive their life as integrated and connected, which then acts as

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a safeguard against the depression and hopelessness that can result from loneliness and detachment during this stage. In addition, holistic awareness may enable an adolescent to consider all aspects and facets of a dilemma, thus enabling a way to reframe a problem or situation, stand back from a situation, suggestion, strategy or problem, and look for the “bigger picture.” At the spiritual level, reframing may be seen in terms of bringing something new into the world or a person (Zohar  & Marshall, 2000). Equally, an adolescent will be able to draw on this awareness for inner strength when material and physical sources seem unavailable. Transcendence can further develop capabilities of the mind, such as attention training and the refining of awareness in adolescents (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993, p. 2). Conscious-state expansion

Conscious-state expansion is defined by King (2008, p. 72) as “the ability to enter and exit higher/spiritual states of consciousness (e.g. pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, and unity) at one’s discretion as in deep contemplation, meditation, and prayer).” Emmons’s (2000a, p. 10) model of SQ supports the inclusion of this ability, which he describes as the capacity to “engage in heightened or extraordinary forms of consciousness.” Such higher states involve different mental structures and altered brain activity compared with the waking state, thus making them more than just heightened awareness. It would appear that expanded or altered states of consciousness have vast potential for adaptive functioning in adolescents. For example, Maslow (1964), who equates a peak experience with a conscious-state expansion, has extreme views on their adaptive function, which includes preventing suicidal tendencies and various forms of self-destructive behaviour, for example, substance abuse and addiction to violence. Such altered states of consciousness are worth considering as a means of dealing with the moral dilemmas that adolescents are often confronted with. According to Nidich et al. (1973), experiencing higher states of consciousness may also contribute to the self-actualisation process, indicating another potential application of a conscious-state expansion that fosters adaptive functioning in adolescents. From the aforementioned discussions, it can be inferred that King’s (2008) four components of SQ present a compelling argument that a distinct set of mental abilities related to spirituality exists, thus refuting Gardner’s (1999, p. 33) insistence that there are too many “allusions to items that fall under the rubric of spirituality.” Emmons (1999, p. 174) concurs: Viewing spirituality as intelligence enlarges the concept of spirituality to encompass meanings typically not associated with it. SQ enhances the plausibility of a scientific spirituality by locating spirituality within an existing acceptable psychological framework. It allows spirituality to

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become anchored to rational approaches that emphasise goal attainment and problem-solving. However, more pertinent, King’s (2008) model also provides a framework for designing appropriate educational strategies to develop the problem-solving, abstract reasoning, and coping skills that are critical in the adolescent phase of human development. Such educational strategies could be of particular significance for many South African secondary education contexts where violence at schools impedes growth and the capacity to face the adversity that adolescents are confronted with daily. These educational strategies encompass thinkingabout-thinking and deep reflection, thus enabling spaces that enhance growth and transformation that are hallmarks of an asset-based approach. Educational strategies that strengthen SQ traits

Sisk (2008) has summarised educational strategies that can be deliberately and intentionally employed to strengthen core SQ traits in terms of both teaching and learning. For ease of reference, I have summarised them in Table 9.1. Table 9.1  Educational strategies to develop SQ Core Traits of SQ

Educational Strategies

A concern with the “bigger” questions Intuition/discernment Acute self-awareness Mindfulness Holistic thinking Openness Sensitivity to purpose in life Vision and value-led Inner-directedness Curiosity Enjoys debating issues The ability to reframe Courage to stand up to personal convictions Concern about inequity and injustice

Use of problem-solving (predicting); reflective activities; guided visualisation; mental imaging and affirmations; mindfulness training

Ability to face and use suffering Sensitivity to social problems Peacemaker

Study lives of pathfinders; journaling Use “What,” “So What,” “Now What,” “How” model; thinkingabout-thinking model; open-ended discussion Use problem-based learning; authentic learning Study lives of pathfinders, use roleplay/socio-drama Utilise learning projects that encourage service Use negotiation/conflict resolution activities (Continued)

120  Cheryl Currie Table 9.1 (Continued) Peak Experiences

Educational Strategies

Heightened awareness Awe and wonder A sense of balance Connectedness Freedom and liberation Creativity and spontaneity

Poetry, art, metaphor, storytelling, dance, music, drumming, myth, meditation, prayer, breathing exercises; socio-drama or any other symbolic systems, e.g. rituals, drumming

Table 9.1 outlines educational strategies that strengthen SQ traits in classroom practice. However, teachers would need to cultivate essential SQ qualities to be the enablers of transformational teaching and learning.

Defining SQ qualities in teachers Miller (1995) emphasises two qualities that the teacher who aims to develop SQ in adolescents can bring to the classroom—presence and caring. This author emphasises that presence implies that the teacher is capable of listening attentively. Caring is a quality that is closely related to presence. The caring teacher relates the subject they are teaching to the needs and interests of the learners. To illustrate how teachers could incorporate SQ in the classroom, Kessler (2000) provides the defining qualities that a teacher should develop. This author suggests that teachers should listen to the hidden messages that adolescents try to convey. He refers to an adolescent’s “yearning, wonder, wisdom, fear, and confusion” (Kessler, 2000, p. 3). The author urges teachers to consider these qualities and make them central to the curriculum in secondary school education.

Conclusion I advance the notion that SQ is the ultimate intelligence that brings forth an awareness of ultimate values and uses spiritual resources to solve problems, thereby forming a pivot for change and transformation. More specifically, SQ can be developed deliberately by implementing educational strategies that cultivate critical reasoning, deep existential reflection, problem-solving and coping skills, and thereby adaptive functioning in adolescents, particularly those who find themselves in challenging contexts with particular incapacitating deficits. This implies an asset-based approach rather than a deficit focus, thereby placing teaching and learning in a meaning-driven context with more far-reaching positive outcomes. However, foremost is that teachers should strive to inculcate SQ qualities in themselves to create enabling spaces in their classroom practice that could filter down to schools, enabling them to become communities of care.

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References Amram, Y. (2007). The seven dimensions of spiritual intelligence: An ecumenical, grounded theory [Conference]. Paper presented at the 115th Annual Conference of the American Psychological Association. www.yosiamram.net/docs/7_Dimensions_of_SI_APA_confr_paper_ Yosi_Amram.pdf Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph077 Brown, K., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–824. https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822 Burton, P.,  & Leoschut, L. (2012). School violence in South Africa: Results of the 2012 national school violence study. Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention. www.cjcp.org.za/ uploads/2/7/8/4/27845461/monograph12-school-violence-in-south_africa.pdf Chidi, I. E., & Sing, S. (2018). Social networking as a critical tool in the management of school-based violence. South African Journal of Education, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.15700/ saje.v38n1a1320 Coward, D.,  & Reed, P. G. (1996). Self-transcendence: A  resource for healing at the end of life. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 17, 275–288. https://doi.org/10.3109/ 01612849609049920 Damon, W., Menon, J.,  & Bronk, K. C. (2003). The development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/ S1532480XADS0703_2 Emmons, R. A. (1999). The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality. Guilford Press. Emmons, R. A. (2000a). Is spirituality an intelligence? Motivation, cognition and the psychology of ultimate concern, International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 10(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327582IJPR1001_2 Emmons, R. A. (2000). Spirituality and intelligence: Problems and prospects. The international journal for the psychology of religion, 10(1), 57–64. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton. Evans, E. M., & Wellman, H. M. (2006). A case of stunted development? Existential reasoning is contingent on a developing theory of mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 471–472. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X06319103 Ferreira, C. (2011). Educating adolescence towards spiritual intelligence (SQ) (Masters dissertation). University of South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/13517 Ferreira, C. (2014). Educational strategies for the development of spiritual intelligence (SQ) in South African secondary schools (Doctoral thesis). University of South Africa. http://hdl.handle. net/10500/21136 Gardner, H. E. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. Basic Books. Gardner, H. E. (1998). Are there additional intelligences? The case for naturalist, spiritual, and existential intelligences. In J. Kane (Ed.), Education, information, and transformation (pp. 111–131). Merrill-Prentice Hall. Gardner, H. E. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. Basic Books. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go there you are. The Principles of Psychology, 1, 224–290.

122  Cheryl Currie Kessler, R. (2000). Nourishing soul in adolescents: Integrating, heart, soul, spirit and community in youth development. CYD Journal, 1(2), 1–9. http://passageworks.org/ wpcontent/uploads/2013/12/NourishingSoulInAdolescents_R_Kessler_CYDjournal_ Spring2000.pdf Khosravi, M., & Nikmanesh, Z. (2014). Relationship of spiritual intelligence with resilience and perceived stress. Iran Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, 8(4), 52–56. King, D. B. (2007). Extracting intelligence from spirituality: A  new model of human ability. AMINSS (Psychology). www.dbking.net/present/thomashb King, D. B. (2008). Rethinking claims of spiritual intelligence: A definition, model, and measure (Master’s thesis). Trent University. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2015.310007 Langer, E. J. (1997). The power of mindful learning. Perseus. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023281 Mascaro, N., & Rosen, D. H. (2006). The role of existential meaning as a buffer against stress. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 46, 168–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167805283779 Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Ohio State University Press. Meddin, J. R. (1998). Dimensions of spiritual meaning and well-being in the lives of ten older Australians. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 47, 163–175. https://doi.org/10.2190/1lxa-k5tn-bgy4-faxv Miller, J. P. (1995). Education and the soul. www.hent.org/world/papers/Education_Soul Miller, J. P. (2000). Holistic learning and spirituality in education: Breaking new ground. State University of New York Press. Mncube, V., & Madikizela-Madiya, N. (2014). Gangsterism as a cause of violence in South African schools: The case of six provinces. Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 5(1), 43–50. www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSSA/JSSA-05-0-000-14-Web/JSSA-05 Nidich, S., Seeman, W.,  & Dreskin, T. (1973). Influence of transcendental meditation: A  replication. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 20, 588–866. https://doi.org/10.1037/ h0035129 Noble, K. D. (2001). Riding the windhorse: Spiritual intelligence and the growth of the self. Hampton Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.18.3.213 Piedmont, R. L. (2004). Spiritual transcendence as a predictor of psychosocial outcome from an outpatient substance abuse program. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.18.3.213 Schwartz, S. J. (2005). A new identity for identity research: Recommendations for expanding and refocusing the identity literature. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(3), 293–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558405274890 Siegel, D. J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. Norton. Sisk, D. (2008). Engaging the spiritually intelligence of gifted students to build global awareness in the classroom. Roeper Review, 30(1), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783 190701836296 Solomons, I. D., & Fataar, A. (2010). A conceptual exploration of values education in the context of schooling in South Africa. South African Journal of Education, 31, 224–232. https://doi.org/10.4314/saje.v31i2.66456 Tirri, K., Tallent-Runnels, M. K., & Nokelainen, P. (2005). A cross-cultural study of preadolescents’ moral, religious and spiritual questions. British Journal of Religious Education, 27, 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200500141181

Creating enabling spaces for adolescents 123 Vaughan, F. (2002). What is spiritual intelligence? Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42, 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167802422003 Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1993). The art of transcendence: An introduction to common elements of transpersonal practices. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 25(2), 1–9. http://atpweb.org/jtparchive/trps-25-93-01-001.pdf Weems, C. F., Costa, N. M., Dehon, C., & Berman, S. L. (2004). Paul Tillich’s theory of existential anxiety: A preliminary conceptual and empirical examination. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17(4), 383–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800412331318616 Weiss, H. M.,  & Knight, P. A. (1980). The utility of humility: Self-esteem, information search, and problem-solving efficiency. Organisational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 25(2), 216–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(86)90016-6 World Health Organization. (2016). Adolescent development. www.who.int/maternal_child adolescent/topic s/adolescence/development/en/ Yoder, A. (2000). Barriers to ego identity status formation: A  contextual qualification of Marcia’s identity status paradigm. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 95–106. https://doi. org/10.1006/jado.1999.0298 Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. (2000). Spiritual intelligence: The ultimate intelligence. Bloomsbury. Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. (2004). Spiritual capital: Wealth we can live by. Berret-Koehler.

Chapter 10

Resilience resources for children in conflict with the law The role of socio-ecological care and support Lloyd Daniel Nkoli Tlale Introduction We now understand resilience to include a give-and-take process between individuals and their environment across a continuum (Masten, 2014; American Psychological Association, 2018). The term “resilience” refers to attributes of an individual, features of the individual’s environment, as well as a set of practices and devices through which internal and external assets or strengths are harnessed when distress is present (van Breda, 2017; Lerner, 2015; Rutter, 2012). Such multidimensional expressions of resilience have helped researchers like Masten (2014) to identify resilience amongst children growing up in poverty as a characteristic that is more common than expected. The success of these children results from a combination of personal capacities and environmental support and care, such as enabling schools, helpful parenting practices, and enhanced socio-economic conditions for the family (Masten, 2014). The purpose of this chapter is to offer a literature review on the socio-ecological resilience resources of children in conflict with the law. Resilience as a significant component of reformatory practice has considerable value, emphasising health, well-being, and empowerment. Many practice approaches focus narrowly on antisocial behaviour, ignoring vital opportunities to engage children in conflict with the law and to build supportive relationships that enable children in conflict with the law to resolve the issues and difficulties that they feel stand in their way (Lynch et al., 2018). The resilience perspective presented here is inherently more appreciative of the views of children in conflict with the law and the meaning they give to their actions and their relationships. Van Breda (2017) argues in favour of hidden resilience, inviting all those involved in correctional facilities’ schools to reconsider what may conventionally be seen as challenging behaviour, identifying where children in conflict with the law are demonstrating social strengths and skills in their actions and interactions that can be drawn on in interventions. This approach enables services to recognise children in conflict with the law as having competencies and capacities, even though they may be misappropriated (Masten, DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-10

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2014). Consequently, a resilience approach shifts the focus from problems and shortfalls and creates space for reconstructing visions and practical steps to move forward (Lynch et al., 2018). Identity, power, and agency are keystone elements within a resilience approach (Hecht  & Crowley, 2020). Children in conflict with the law may seek each of these in ways that are damaging or hurtful. However, this does not negate the validity of their attempts to find self-expression and meaning (Lu et al., 2018). Sensitivity to developing identities and ways of being in the social world is an essential ingredient in positive engagement with children in conflict with the law. The collaborative enterprise of seeking resources and opportunities to explore other possible identities provides educators with a valuable opportunity to work with these youths. What is set out here is an argument for a future-oriented reformatory, in correctional facilities’ schools, that works with children in conflict with the law as they develop and embark on the transition to adulthood (Lynch et al., 2018). The driving force is the will to enable children in conflict with the law to utilise their energies in optimistic and focused ways to create new social roles and identities. In this way, practice is orientated towards optimism and a belief in children and their capabilities. Notions of resilience are now firmly established in practice and research in education, the justice system, social work, and mental health (McCauley et al., 2019). Concerns typically focus on how children in conflict with the law cope with difficult life experiences and transitions (Drapeau et  al., 2007) in correctional facilities’ schools and on leaving the support and care system (Stein, 2007). Of course, there is a discrepancy in our understanding of the manifestation of resilience and the knowledge and understanding of how professionals might help build resilience (Hart et al., 2007). Nevertheless, resilience, generally understood as “good outcomes in spite of serious threat to care, support or development” (Masten, 2001, p. 228), has entered the vocabulary of children’s services, and is rooted in the practice dialogues around areas such as neglect, out of home placement, and emotional vulnerability (Gopalan et al., 2017). I will use this review of the research to show that it is children’s interactions with multiple reciprocating systems, like correctional facility of schools, and the quality of those systems, that accounts for most of developmental success of children in conflict with the law. To consolidate this argument, I use Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development as an organising outline. I conclude this review with recommendations for service providers.

Understanding resilience Resilience, and its components, has been much debated (Masten, 2001; Ungar et al., 2013). Although a variety of definitions and ways of operationalising and measuring resilience have been employed (Luthar & Suchman, 2000), the body of research and literature has indicated some areas of consensus. First, resilience is not a quality or a trait of the individual (Liebenberg, 2020; Rutter, 2012),

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although certain dimensions of personality might be consistently associated with resilience (Masten, 2014). Agreement has also developed around the importance of the environment in fostering or hindering the ability of individuals to survive or to thrive (Rutter, 2012) and, subsequently, the understanding of resilience as a dynamic process involving interaction between the individual and the environment that enables positive care and support following distress (Liebenberg, 2020; Luthar & Suchman, 2000). However, resilience remains a complex concept, not least because it is dependent on judgments about degrees of risk and distress and also about the criteria for assessing positive supporting and what would count as being good or adequate care and support (Masten, 2001). It thus opens to examination values and beliefs about what represents normative child development, making this a challenging area of enquiry, especially in diverse cultures and locations (Masten, 2014; Theron et al., 2015). Within child justice, it also makes us question the assumptions made by services, and in the risk factor research about the supporting/mal-supporting of children in conflict with the law who face difficult school, family, social, or other experiences, and the tendency to frame their behaviour in negative terms (Gopalan et al., 2017). Resilience, according to Rutter (2012), is concerned most with the dynamic processes that engage multiple risk and protective factors leading to positive developmental outcomes over the longer term. Maladaptive behaviour, however, like withdrawal from emotional attachments in contexts of physical abuse, may temporarily protect a child, though this behaviour can disadvantage the child later in life (Wyman, 2003). The more a child is exposed to destitution like exposure to violence, poverty, and disability, the more the child’s resilience depends on the quality of the environment rather than individual qualities, as well as the resources that are available and accessible to nurture and sustain well-being. In the last example, a child with attention deficit who is raised in a safe well-resourced school is likely to have access to many sources of care, support, and to experience the harmonisation of systems that makes it possible for him/her to succeed regardless of his/her school making structural changes to accommodate his/her needs (Lynch et al., 2018). Much of the research describes the interaction between individuals and their environments as a shared process in which both the person and the environment hold equal significant (Lerner, 2015). According to Lerner (2015), resilience describes the flexibility of all the interactions between the individual and their environment, their mutual reciprocity, and adjustment over time. Unless the children in conflict with the law are empowered to negotiate for what they need, the assets that are provided are unlikely to be used (Bottrell, 2009). Engaging with these children in ways that enhance their empowerment and let them be heard in their case management is more likely to support good outcomes.

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When considering the likelihood of children in conflict with the law engaging in antisocial behaviour, both protective and risk factors should be carefully examined. Protective factors are those characteristics of the child, family, school, and wider environment that reduce the likelihood of distress leading to negative child outcomes and behaviour, such as being in conflict with the law and later an antisocial adult (Vanderbilt-Adriance & Shaw, 2008). Risk factors are indicators of the probability of children becoming involved in problem behaviour. However, protective factors are conceptually distinct from risk factors, in that they are characteristics or conditions that may reduce the influence of risk factors causing antisocial and violent behaviour (Rutter, 2012). Protective factors can also be thought of as buffers, where they are characteristics or conditions that reduce the negative effect of distress on child outcomes (Vanderbilt-Adriance  & Shaw, 2008). Thus, where exposure to risk factors increases the likelihood of adverse outcomes, exposure to protective factors shields children from these risks, reducing the likelihood of problem behaviour and related outcomes such as engagement with the law (Jenson & Fraser, 2011). To sum up, children in conflict with the law present with complex needs which cannot easily be managed in correctional facility schools. Many correctional facilities in South Africa are mostly adult-centred and are therefore concerned with managing and controlling the children in their care, rather than supporting healing and behavioural change. There is an emphasis on problems and these children are viewed through a negative and deficit-based lens. Consequently, they are marginalised in their own rehabilitation as they are primarily perceived as risks to be managed as opposed to collaborators in their own reform.

Comprehending resilience through socioecological systems Bronfenbrenner’s work explains how the school, community, and culture that surround children influence their development. Factors such as media, school, state policies, and a child’s neighbourhood can all shape how he or she develops. Bronfenbrenner identifies three separate systems: the microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, which can all act individually on the child, but also can act in unison on the child (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner clearly states how each system is vital for every child’s development, and that real-life events can be related back to a certain system. Events such as relationships between peers, parents, and teachers all are shaped by a child’s microsystem. Events that take place in a child’s neighbourhood or community all are shaped by a child’s exosystem. Societal expectations and norms all are shaped by a child’s macrosystem. Additionally, the child may have some control over the events in his or her microsystem, but the exosystem and macrosystem are beyond their control. Bronfenbrenner’s theory further explains how both immediate

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relationships and a positive environment are necessary for the child to develop and succeed to his or her fullest potential possible, emphasising the role of parents and teachers. A social-ecological understanding of resilience draws upon Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) socio-ecological systems theory to understand how the interactions between individuals and their environments impact individual development. Ungar (2008) argues that good outcomes are more likely to occur when resources (including educational and reformative services) are provided in ways that are culturally and contextually relevant to the child. Relatedly Gilligan (1999) argues that there are three building blocks that underpin resilience: a secure base which provides a child with a sense of belonging and a sense of security; good self-esteem, an internal sense of self-worth and competence and self-efficacy; and the self-belief in one’s own personal strengths. These resources can be developed through positive social support and access to relevant resources in the child’s environment (Labella & Masten, 2018; Liebenberg, 2020). Disadvantaged children in conflict with the law who experience significant distress, such as abuse and neglect, and those who reside in dangerous environments, suffer significant distress, and multiple disadvantages. The subjectcentred approach places the responsibility for resilience on children in conflict with the law, a position criticised by authors such as Rutter (2012) and Liebenberg (2020). Rather, the disruptive or negative behaviour of children living within challenging and dangerous environments is made understandable in terms of its functionality from this perspective. Anti-social behaviour reflects the nature of the environment, and the child’s choices reflect their efforts at doing well despite the constraints, controls, and oppression within that environment (Labella & Masten, 2018).

Resilience and the reformatory as support mechanism Education is regarded as a central component of rehabilitation in correctional facilities (Muntingh  & Ballard, 2012). Rehabilitation is considered vital to children in conflict with the law as it is intended to teach them the skills such as emotional control and behavioural regulation. The key goals are for them to be accepted in their community after serving their sentence and to avoid re-offending. Rehabilitation is intended to create the foundation for a healthy lifestyle in the community once out of the juvenile justice system. Recently, in many countries, the focus has shifted to include the successful reintegration of offenders into society. This shift recognises that, if what is available in the environment of children is limited, then steering them towards the best options available is necessary in supporting better outcomes. For example, children who have been excluded from school may look for meaningful relationships and opportunities to grow, in dangerous spaces, such as criminal

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gangs, despite the trouble that might follow. Ability to access what is available is also important within schools. Learning difficulties, lack of reading skills, and poor relationships with teachers may all impact on the ability of children to negotiate what is required to receive the benefits of education. Thus, opting out of school might be a strategy for maintaining a positive self-identity. The young women in Bottrell’s (2009, p.  328) study in Glebe, Sydney, for example, illustrate how truancy and hanging out with peers became “both critique of alienating school practices and opting for the sense of acceptance, belonging and social support of the youth network that is seen as unavailable at school.” Robinson (2015) believes that by contrast, resilience can be nurtured and readdressed through a focus on strengths and competencies within a more supportive, collective and hands-on way of working. To achieve this, there is a need for a recognition and acceptance by reformatory counsellors that the currently perceived defective and risky behaviour represent means of maladaptive coping and related maladaptive strengths. In the absence of positive supports, these activities are in fact supportive, despite being illegal. Robinson (2015) further argues that all people, including children in conflict with the law, are driven to form an identity which is shaped by the experiences and opportunities available to them. Consequently, maladaptive ways of coping represent an effort to copy an identity, given the children in conflict with the law have some assistance, support, and control over their own lives. Therefore, the starting point for facilitating a changed relationship with children in conflict with the law is to listen to them and attempt to understand their behaviour and choices in terms of the meaning it has for them (Munford  & Sanders, 2016; Sanders & Munford, 2014). From this standpoint, advances can be made by modifying the negative ways in which children in conflict with the law are understood. In that way, moving from antisocial, rebellious, puzzling, and a focus on shortfalls, to a restructuring of behaviour in a more positive language, such as coping, enduring, and flourishing (Robinson, 2015). The more universal approach identifies the strengths that the children in conflict with the law possess and recognises the role of broader social practices and how they restrain and limit the opportunities for children in conflict with the law. Resilience aids the potential to realise the assets and capabilities of children both in the correctional facility schools and in services to children in general. However, resilience is not a fool-proof remedy, and it has weaknesses. The functionality of the behaviour of the children in conflict with the law may be better understood through the acknowledgement of hidden resilience. However, antisocial behaviour at the most basic level still focuses on the individual who must change, and this focus echoes of the current individualistic approach of the deficit and risk focused paradigm. It also diverts responsiveness away from the power and responsibility of the correctional facility schools and ultimately the government to address unjust social and fiscal policies that shape

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the environments children and their families must live in (Bottrell et al., 2010; Liebenberg, 2020). The sensitivity to developing identities and ways of being in the social world is an essential ingredient in positive engagement with children in conflict of the law and the collaborative enterprise of seeking resources and opportunities to explore other possible identities. What is set out here is an argument for a future-facing juvenile justice system that works with children as they develop and embark on the transition to adulthood. The driving force is the will to enable children to utilise their energies in positive and purposeful ways to create new social roles and identities. In this sense, practice is orientated towards optimism and a belief in children and their capacities, expecting growth and progress, not the persistence of complications. Juvenile justice systems, and especially the educational resources situated within them, need to offer much more than just the formal classes and curriculum offered to children. More comprehensive and responsive interventions and programmes are required. For example, children’s literacy levels need to be accounted for, not only in pragmatic ways but also in ways that account for the impact of low literacy on their self-perception and personal identity. Indeed, research shows that when children in conflict with the law are provided with resources such as psychosocial services, many do well in spite of their personal characteristics such as low motivation, self-esteem, or sense of efficacy (Sanders et al., 2014, 2017; Ungar et al., 2013). Juvenile justice systems may therefore further serve as facilitative environments to improve the circumstances of children, specifically those in conflict with the law. However, the problem is that most correctional facilities lack the capacity to carry out the required rehabilitation programmes. A proposal submitted to the South African Department of Correctional Services (2004) explicitly stated the theoretical approach and behavioural model of the Integrated Youth Offenders Programme (IYOP; to be offered at one Correctional Centre in Gauteng), was that of risk and resilience. Additionally, this proposal incorporated an understanding of socio-economic dynamics that impinge on a young person in the South African context, influencing their offending behaviour. Known protective factors that influence effective reintegration of youth and prevent reoffending were also considered in the design of the programme. Because the focus of the IYOP was on influencing behaviour change, the Trans-Theoretical Model (i.e., cycle of change process) was used to model the approach, methodologies, and sequencing of programmes within the overall intervention. The integrated approach differs from programmes targeting the promotion of single protective factors. An integrated approach allows for interventions within the complex coexistence of multiple risk factors and therefore supports the young person to identify these factors in their own lives and to understand the impact of these factors on their lives and their offending behaviour. An integrated approach uses this understanding in ways that allow the children in conflict with the law to make informed choices about their behaviour and their lives. It also supportively challenges children to

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contemplate and dialogue possible positive changes. Where the young person demonstrated the determination to change the behaviour, it supports them in taking the necessary action within the prison setting to initiate these changes. Environmental factors within the correctional facility setting, as well as within their home communities, can then be accounted for at the various stages in the journey of change. Targeted risk factors that negatively influence behaviour are included, as are the known protective factors that contribute towards preventing re-offending. In addition to understanding risk, resilience and protective factors as part of the process of youth offender transformation is the need to understand issues of youth development within the context of offending behaviour and rehabilitation within the criminal justice system. Of interest here are reintegration scenarios relevant to young people in South Africa, as this approach acknowledges that youth development and context are integral to personal development, changing offending behaviour and the reintegration after incarceration into families and communities (Labella & Masten, 2018). In closing, it should be noted that where resources are lacking, there may be an active role for the professionals in helping children in conflict with the law to navigate towards fresh sources of guidance, support and to negotiate their use (Liebenberg, 2020). Strength-based approaches orientated towards resilience also acknowledge the eminence of identity for children in conflict with the law, produced within their social networks and through interactions. Crucially, these include interactions within the school, and, for some, the systems involved with health, social care, and juvenile justice. The restrictive nature of the labels applied by these systems as they categorise children in conflict with the law and their challenges cannot be overstated. In practical ways, they may close down opportunities, but they impact psychologically as well where children in conflict of the law internalise negative views of themselves and their potentials. For some children in conflict of the law, this means accepting a delinquent identity as inevitable, whereas for others it could involve creating and exploiting deviant identities in the absence of other viable options (Bottrell, 2009). Guiding and helping relationships could be used consciously to mitigate reoffending. Good co-ordination between families, schools, and other service providers as well as experts can assist positive growth (Ungar, 2008) and the forms of resilience that enable children in conflict with the law to resist offending or to reduce harm, even in an unsympathetic environment. Not that the stimulus for change should rest solely with experts or professionals. The engagement and support of those involved in managing, training, and making policy are vital if resilience is to be embedded inclusively.

Recommendations Correctional facilities should be incorporating risk- and protective-factor assessment tools into their assessments and considering how the presence of protective factors mitigates the levels of risk an individual confronts. These risk

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and protective factors should be measured in a quantifiable, replicable manner. Interventions should seek to remediate risk factors and to develop protective factors. Further, there is little related empirical evidence or published innovative treatment work for children in conflict with the law that takes protective factors into account. It may be beneficial for such approaches to be adopted with children in conflict with the law. The efficacy of these approaches should then be subjected to empirical scrutiny. Once the relationship between resilience and antisocial behaviour is better understood by correctional staff, the next task is for correctional facility schools to determine how best to foster resilience resources and reduce risk for reoffending in learners. Presently there is evidence that care and support treatment programmes can enhance resilience processes in the lives of children who have offended (Arnetz et al., 2009; Gucciardi et al., 2009; Hayman, 2009; Steinhardt et al., 2009). A variety of programmes in physical and mental health have found improvements in resilience as measured by both resilience tools and other outcome measures. While the programmes vary in content and structure, they tend to include the education of effective coping strategies, emotion regulation, psychoeducation, and social skills training (Arnetz et al., 2009; Gucciardi et al., 2009; Hayman, 2009; Steinhardt et al., 2009). Correctional facilities that are involved in treatment of children may consider incorporating resilience enhancement training with their clients. Furthermore, many children move through correctional facilities each year. This is an indication of the wider social injustices to which most of these children have been subjected. Criminal behaviour of children is a form of communication, presenting an opportunity to engage with them in the development of their own supportive measures and recuperation. This necessitates a different perspective towards children who come into conflict with the law; a perspective that frames these children not as a risk to be managed and controlled into conformity, but as valued individuals possessing hopes and dreams, unrealised potential, and unrealised skills, and many competencies. When these children feel they have a voice, are listened to and what they say is heard and considered important, real progress can be made. However, to fully foster resilience resources in the lives of these children, the wider physical and social ecology must furnish them with the resources that they need to build a solid sense of identity and to realise their full potential. There is therefore also a need for additional change at the government level, ensuring more socially just policies and legislation, fostering inclusion rather than exclusion. Many children in conflict with the law are given custodial sentences for non-violent offences. The money currently spent on custodial sentences could be redirected to helping foster resilience through community-based sentences. Similarly, to really realise the hidden resilience of children at risk of coming into conflict with the law, school and social systems need to change their perspectives of vulnerable children, who are not only in conflict with the law, but also for example, in situations of sexual exploitation, or displaying behaviours

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considered to be at odds with specific social spaces, such as schools, streets, and social ventures. It is further recommended that in future research, studies should both build on the current research but also re-examine the presence of resilience resources in relation to antisocial behaviour, exploring how resilience processes at different developmental stages relates to reoffending and the commencement of antisocial behaviour. Consequently, future research can foster better understanding of the role of resilience resources and their interaction between the individual and antisocial behaviour. These insights would simultaneously improve our knowledge about the intervention requirements of children in conflict with the law as well as how to enhance resilience and protective factors to address antisocial behaviour. In the move to increase the resilience resources of children in conflict with the law, there is a caution against insubstantial and hurried approaches. Programmes that enhance protective factors should not replace targeted clinical programmes intended to care and support severely distressed children. Additionally, education departments should prioritise the emotional and behavioural development of children living in contexts of marginalisation and risk, establishing goals for the prevention of emotional and behavioural disorders and the promotion of their wellbeing. Participatory approaches involving children in conflict with the law in the transformation of community life hold a great deal of promise (Jacquez et al., 2013). Many education programmes must prioritise the involvement of children from marginalised and high-risk communities who may or may not be beneficiaries of specialised services, their families, and the larger community in the development of programmes (see, for example, Isaacs et al., 2020). Future research exploring the benefits of social support and attachment relationships for children in conflict with the law should be enhanced by considering social processes operating at the peer, school, family, and community level.

Conclusion In this chapter, it is argued that resilience provides a useful framework for the practical observation that some children are surprisingly able to adjust to overcome situations of serious distress. Many of these able boys and girls appear to remain resourceful in the long term and to adapt well in adulthood. Some even find themselves caring for younger siblings and adults more vulnerable than themselves. This quality and the factors that contribute to resilience are surely worthy of extensive exploration and analysis. Moreover, the ability to isolate risk and enhance protective factors in the life of a developing child is key to effective intervention. If we are to better care and support and protect children in conflict with the law, we urgently require more information about what fosters improved outcomes: What circumstances are responsive to intervention and change and how best to support them. For

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interventions to effectively address the actual needs and concerns of children at risk of coming into conflict with the law, this information must be grounded in both sound theory and evidence from a broad range of settings. The existing research into risk and resilience in children confronting distress goes some way towards addressing these requirements by stressing the significance of personality traits of the individual child, family circumstances, peer, and school support. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that there are certain shortcomings, and it is the fact that very little of children’s own understandings and perspectives across cultures and of their active contributions to their well-being, coping and very survival is used.

References American Psychological Association. (2018). The road to resilience. http://www.apa.org/ helpcenter/road-resilience.aspx. Arnetz, B. B., Nevedal, D. C., Lumley, M. A., Backman, L., & Lublin, A. (2009). Trauma resilience training for police: Psychophysiological and performance effects. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 24(1), 1–9. Bottrell, D. (2009). Understanding “marginal” perspectives: Towards a social theory of resilience. Qualitative Social Work, 8(3), 321–339. Bottrell, D., Armstrong, D., & France, A. (2010). Children in conflict with the law’s relations to crime: Pathways across ecologies. Reformatory, 10(1), 56–72. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Open University Press. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). (2007). General comments on children’s rights in Juvenile justice. www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/AdvanceVersions/GeneralCom ment10-02feb07.pdf Department of Correctional Services. (2004). Centre of excellence. Government Printers. Drapeau, E., Mayo, W., Aurousseau, C., Le Moal, M., Piazza, P. V., & Abrous, D. N. (2007). Spatial memory performances of aged rats in the water maze predict levels of hippocampal neurogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 14385–14390. Gilligan, R. (1999). Enhancing the resilience of children and young people in public care by encouraging their talents and interests. Child and Family Social Work, 4(3), 187–196. Gopalan, G., Horen, M. J., Bruns, E., Corey, M., Meteyer, S., Pardue, M., . . . Matarese, M. (2017). Caregiver perceptions of parent peer support services within the wraparound service delivery model. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(7), 1923–1935. Gucciardi, D. F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J. A. (2009). Evaluation of a mental toughness training programme for children-aged Australian footballers: II. A  qualitative analysis. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(3), 324–339. Hart, A., Blincow, D.,  & Thomas, H. (2007). Resilient therapy: Working with children and families. Routledge. Hayman, F. M. (2009). Kids with confidence: A programme for adolescents living in families affected by mental illness. The Australian Journal of Rural Health, 17(5), 268–272. Hecht, M., & Crowley, K. (2020). Unpacking the learning ecosystems framework: Lessons from the adaptive management of biological ecosystems. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 29(2), 264–284.

Resilience resources for children 135 Isaacs, S. A., Roman, N., & Carlson, S. (2020). Fostering family resilience: A community participatory action research perspective. Child Care in Practice, 26(4), 358–372. https:// doi.org/10.1080/13575279.2020.1801578 Jacquez, F., Vaughn, L. M.,  & Wagner, E. (2013). Youth as partners, participants or passive recipients: A review of children and adolescents in community-based participatory research (CBPR). American Journal of Community Psychology, 51(1–2), 176–189. Jenson, J. M., & Fraser, M. W. (2011). A risk and resilience framework for child, youth, and family policy. In J. M. Jenson & M. W. Fraser (Eds.), Social policy for children & families: A risk and resilience perspective (pp. 5–24). Sage. Labella, M. H., & Masten, A. S. (2018). Family influences on the development of aggression and violence. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 11–16. Lerner, R. M. (2015). Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (7th ed.). Wiley. Liebenberg, L. (2020). Reconsidering interactive resilience processes in mental health: Implications for child and youth services. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(5), 1365– 1380. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22331 Lu, S., Rios, J., & Huang, C.-C. (2018). Mindfulness, emotion, and behaviour: An intervention study with Chinese migrant children. Children & Society, 32(4), 290–300. Luthar, S. S., & Suchman, N. E. (2000). Relational psychotherapy mother’s group: A developmentally informed intervention for at-risk mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 235–253. Lynch, M., Astone, N. M., Collasos, J., Lipman, M., & Esthappan, S. (2018). Arches transformative mentoring program: An implementation and impact evaluation in New York City. Urban Institute. Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. Masten, A. S. (2014). Invited commentary: Resilience and positive children development frameworks in developmental science. Journal of Children and Adolescence, 43, 1018–1024. Masten, A. S., & Obradovic, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27. McCauley, J. B., Harris, M. A., Zajic, M. C., Swain-Lerro, L. E., Oswald, T., McIntyre, N., Trzesniewski, K., Mundy, P., & Solomon, M. (2019). Self-esteem, internalizing symptoms, and theory of mind in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(3), 400–411. Munford, R., & Sanders, J. (2016). Finding meaningful support: Young people’s experiences of “risky” environments. Australian Social Work, 69(2), 229–240. https://doi.org/10. 1080/0312407X.2015.1133682 Muntingh, L. & Ballard, C. (2012). Report on children in prison in South Africa. Community Law Centre. Robinson, A. (2015). Foundations for offender management: Theory, law and policy for contemporary practice. Policy Press. Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience: Causal pathways and social ecology. In M. Ungar (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience: A handbook of theory and practice (pp. 33–42). Springer. Sanders, J.,  & Munford, R. (2014). Youth-centred practice: Positive youth development practices and pathways to better outcomes for vulnerable youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 46, 160–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.08.020. Sanders, J., Munford, R., & Liebenberg, L. (2017). Positive youth development practices and better outcomes for high-risk youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 69, 201–212. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.04.029

136  Lloyd Daniel Nkoli Tlale Sanders, J., Munford, R., Liebenberg, L., & Ungar, M. (2014). Multiple service use: The impact of consistency in service quality for vulnerable youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.024 Stein, M. (2007). Resilience and children in conflict with the law leaving care. Child Care in Practice, 14(1), 35–44. Steinhardt, M. A., Mamerow, M. M., Brown, S. A., & Jolly, C. A. (2009). A resilience intervention in African American adults with type 2 diabetes: A pilot study of efficacy. The Diabetes Educator, 35(2), 274–284. Theron, L., Liebenberg, L.,  & Ungar, M. (Eds.). (2015). Youth resilience and culture— commonalities and complexities. Springer. Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38, 218–235. Ungar, M., Liebenberg, L., Dudding, P., Armstrong, M., & Van de Vijver, F. (2013). Patterns of service use, individual and contextual risk factors, and resilience among adolescents using multiple psychosocial services. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37, 150–159. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.05.007 Van Breda, A. D. (2017). A comparison of youth resilience across seven South African sites. Child & Family Social Work, 22(1), 226–235. Vanderbilt-Adriance, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2008). Conceptualizing and re-evaluating resilience across levels of risk, time, and domains of competence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(1–2), 30–58. Wyman, P. A. (2003). Emerging perspectives on context specificity of children’s adaptation and resilience: Evidence from a decade of research with urban children in adversity. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 293–317). Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 11

School as a community of care in facilitating resilience among learners with intellectual disability Chantel L. Weber and Hermien Olivier

Introduction The school environment often presents various challenges that place the learner with intellectual disabilities at risk for negative outcomes (Firth et al., 2010; Gilmore et al., 2013; Hall, 2010; Ofiesh & Mather, 2013; Okyere et al., 2019; Valentim  & Valentim, 2020). Research has found that learners with disabilities (and specifically intellectual disabilities) often find it difficult to cope with their circumstances and, as a result, are particularly vulnerable and experience ongoing challenges in their emotional, behavioural, and social development (Okyere et al., 2019; Salvador-Carulla et al., 2011; Valentim & Valentim, 2020). Amid these challenges, some learners with intellectual disabilities are able to overcome their circumstances and cope in the midst of adversity. Despite the limited nature of what we know about the resilience of individuals with intellectual disabilities, resilience-focused studies support a more positive understanding of how those affected by intellectual disabilities continue to thrive. Using a social-ecological understanding of resilience, this chapter explores how the school as a community of care can facilitate resilience among learners with intellectual disabilities by providing resources that have been found to be associated with better developmental outcomes for learners with intellectual disabilities. We then comment critically on the limitations implicit in these processes for explaining resilience processes. We first discuss findings from the United States, and then how this can be relevant in the African context. What we already know about resilience, resilience in schools and intellectual disability

The understanding of resilience has evolved over the years. Resilience was once thought of as a special characteristic of an individual, where every human being is capable of developing a resilience mindset (Masten, 2015; McMurray et al., 2008). It was thought that developing a resilient mindset

DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-11

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would allow one to deal with and cope with adversity in one’s life, and that resilience is rare and results from extraordinary talents or resources (Masten, 2014, 2015). This definition of resilience suggested that it is merely the individual’s fault that he or she is unable to rise above adversity or risk. Later, resilience was seen as an individual’s ability to cope with adversity or trauma because of the mitigating protective factors within the family and environment. Even though protective factors from outside the individual were now taken into consideration as affecting the development of resilience, it was still seen as the individual’s responsibility to ensure resilience (Luthar et al., 2000; McMurray et al., 2008). Resilience is no longer seen as simply a characteristic of an individual, although individuals demonstrate resilience in their behaviour and life patter n (Theron, 2019). The aim is now to explain the detail of the processes involved in resilience, in both the individual and their environment (O’Dougherty Wright et al., 2013; Ungar & Liebenberg, 2011). Resilience, therefore, refers to a process of positive adaptation to significant adversity (Gatt et al., 2020), which involves both the individual and his or her environment (Masten, 2018; Ungar, 2018, 2021). In other words, learners should navigate towards health resources that might protect them against the potential negative impacts of the adversities they are facing. For example, when a learner is growing up in extreme poverty, she might approach service providers in her community or ask to be part of a support group at school. However, the learner cannot navigate towards resources if the resources are not available or if the learner does not have the skills to do this (Liebenberg, 2020). Internal resources, such as the willingness to ask for help, as well as external resources, such as support groups are necessary to promote resilience. It is also the responsibility of families, schools, communities, as well as the government to provide or negotiate for appropriate protective resources (Ungar, 2010; Wright & Masten, 2015). According to Masten (2014), resilience is therefore a cluster of processes that change over time and that can be intentionally enhanced by the actions of others. In line with an ecological understanding of resilience (Ungar, 2012, 2021), schools have been found to actively facilitate resilience processes in the lives of learners (Cefai, 2021; Liebenberg et al., 2016; Masten, 2018; Nash et al., 2019; Ungar, 2018), including learners with intellectual disabilities (Fourie & Theron, 2012; Hall & Theron, 2016a, 2016b). According to Doll et al. (2014), school ecologies that encourage academic efficacy, self-determination, selfcontrol, worthwhile peer friendships, caring, and reliable teacher–child relationships are seen as an ecology that promotes resilience. Furthermore, Theron and Theron (2014) have found that constructive relationships, schools support learners in developing a strong identity, ensuring access to material resources, and ensuring fair treatment in order to bring about a sense of social justice, as pathways to resilience. School ecologies should partner with other social ecologies, such as families and communities to promote resilience.

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Social ecology of resilience theory as a theoretical framework to understand resilience

Social Ecology of Resilience Theory (SERT) provides a holistic and systematic explanation for resilience. According to Ungar (2012), SERT describes an ecological and systemic understanding of resilience. Theron and Theron (2010) argue that resilience can be viewed as dynamic, context bound, and transactional. Resilience can influence and be influenced by systems including the individual, family, community (school), and society at large. This exchange process between an individual and her/his environment can become a mutually beneficial process. All the components of the ecosystems are equally important in enabling resilience (Ungar, 2011). SERT guides us to understand that an individual does not only draw on their own assets but also access resources in their family and communities (schools) to facilitate resilience. Ungar (2011) explains how the school ecology can make resources available to an individual (and in this study the intellectually disabled adolescent) in order to facilitate resilience. The adolescent is acknowledged as a role player in the process. The school can become a community of care and work together with the adolescent with intellectual disabilities to facilitate resilience. This can possibly explain why some learners are resilient in the face of adversity, and some not. SERT is guided by four principles that provide a resilience framework: decentrality, complexity, atypicality, and cultural relativity (Ungar (2011). For the purpose of this study, let us look briefly at each principle. According to Ungar (2011), decentrality suggests that resilience should be observed from an individual perspective as well as from an environmental perspective, as a mutually beneficial process. In this study, the adolescent learner as well as the caretakers/parents and the school have equal roles in the process of enabling resilience. Complexity implies that resilience outcomes can vary and that protective factors that influence resilience are multifaceted. Each part of a social system is adaptable and aspects such as context, developmental stage, and point of time in history might play a role (Ungar, 2011). Ebersöhn et al. (2017) indicated that the experience and understanding of resilience varies because could be influenced by different factors such as gender, race, class, and culture. Atypically indicates that a resilience facilitating action or trait in one context may be considered strange or inappropriate but in a different context it may be viewed differently (Ungar, 2011). Cultural relativity suggests that positive development under adversity is shaped or influenced by culture (Masten, 2018). Identifying and understanding the protective factors within the school ecology that encourages learners with disabilities to resile are of essence as it contributes to a comprehensive understanding of adjustment within this population. The aim of this chapter is to understand the ways in which the school ecology encourages and facilitates youth resilience from a learner and caretaker’s perspective. The ways in which school ecologies matter for resilience will provide teacher as well as the school ecology with insights on how to support

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learners with intellectual disabilities. Furthermore, these insights can be translated into health-promoting policy and empirical starting point for interventions in the African context. It challenges communities, educators, and parents to partner with learners with intellectual disabilities and collaborate with them to co-promote their resilience. The ways in which we gained a new understanding about resilience and intellectual disability

The first author conducted a study in the United States with four female adolescents, each living with an intellectual disability, with the aim of developing an understanding what contributes to the resilience of these adolescents. A  phenomenological qualitative research design was followed (Creswell  & Creswell, 2018) with the focus routed in the interpretive paradigm (Thanh & Thanh, 2015), which allowed us to understand what contributed to the resilience of adolescents with intellectual disability, and more specifically the role of the school ecology, through the meanings that the participants assigned to them (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Participants who assisted us to understand resilience and intellectual disability

Four case studies were included in the study. The four primary participants were all Caucasian American females, between the ages of 16 and 29, who had been diagnosed with an intellectual disability, and were seen as resilient. Convenience sampling took place with the first primary participant as the first author was a live-in carer for her. Purposive sampling (Maree  & Pietersen, 2007; McMillan & Schumacher, 2014) was used with the other three primary participants. The other three primary participants were identified as resilient by an Advisory Panel (Didkowsky et al., 2010; Theron, 2013; Ungar & Liebenberg, 2011). An Advisory Panel refers to locals who advocate for youth, know a resilient young person in question well, and understand resilience. Making use of an Advisory Panel allows one to invite community participation in a contextually relevant definition of resilience, and offers more objective participant recruitment. The Advisory Panel consisted of a parent, a teacher, and an educational psychologist. The first author then approached these participants (primary participants) as well as their involved adults (secondary participants) to participate in the study. The Advisory Panel also knew the first primary participant and confirmed that they experienced her as resilient. Interviews as data collection method to get new information about resilience and intellectual disability

The data were collected by means of interviews. The first author interviewed the primary participants and made use of semi-structured interviews (Court

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et  al., 2017). The interview questions were based on open-ended questions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), which allowed for the interviews to be flexible and exploratory. The first author also interviewed the involved adults of the four primary participants, by making use of semi-structured interviews. Analysing resilience and intellectual disability data

For the purpose of this chapter, we conducted a secondary data analysis (Creswell, 2012). We re-analysed an existing saturated data set generated by resilient individuals with intellectual disabilities and their involved adults.

The significance of the new information It is important to hear the stories of the adolescent learners with intellectual disabilities and their caretakers/parents, in order to understand their experiences, but more importantly to shed light on the route to resilience that someone has taken, and in that way to learn from them. Semi-structured interviews conducted with individual adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their caretakers/parents have reported various ways in which the school ecology facilitated resilience (Fourie, 2011; Fourie & Theron, 2012; Hall & Theron, 2016a, 2016b). Insights that adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their caregivers/parents have on how their school ecologies contributed to their resilience might encourage more teachers and school ecologies towards optimal support for learners with similar disabilities. Four positive themes emerged from the data and indicated that school ecologies enabled resilience in positive ways. The following is a discussion of the results from the viewpoint of the learners with intellectual disabilities and their caretakers/parents regarding the schools facilitating resilience. Theme 1: Teamwork and individual attention

It is evident throughout the data that the stakeholders within the school, the school district, the school as a whole, teachers, parents, and learners worked together as a team. The participants on various occasions stated that there was a clear awareness of the teamwork between role players, and importantly that the learners were aware of this teamwork approach. Lucy’s mother mentioned numerous times how teamwork in the Special school was a factor that contributed to her daughter’s resilience. “. . . they were a real team, because there were some key players that, I think the teachers really invested in her. So there was just this attitude that people were wanting to work together as a team, for Lucy” (Interview 4, lines 206–209). “Lucy is very aware they work together as a team” (Interview 4, lines 213–220). Another aspect of teamwork in the school that created a resilience resource was effective communication between the role players. Lucy reported to her parents that she was struggling with interpersonal relationships with a peer. Her

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parents then consulted with her teachers who were able to assist. “Lucy has had a hard time acting appropriately around a boy she liked. Her parents brought this to the teacher’s attention and the teachers assisted where necessary to help her act appropriately. This means that she was able to tell her parents that she was having a hard time acting appropriately around the boy. Her parents were able to talk to the school, so that they could assist. The teachers assisted Lucy to ensure more appropriate behaviour” (Research Journal—August 7, 2008). Another example was provided by participant Melissa who explained that when she had a hard time communicating with her mom, her teacher would be there to assist. She could rely on her teacher to contact her mother. “Well, like when I was working on a project, she would e-mail my mom or if I didn’t know how to tell my mom something, I’d tell her and she’d kinda tell my mom and umm you know, what I umm know couldn’t tell my mom” (Interview 6, lines 180–182). Lucy’s mother commented positively on the helpful assistance they received from the school district: “We’ve had a lot of support from the school district as being helpful. Umm and, and pretty much doing what is in her best interest, as opposed to trying to save money or get her out of the way and then we ended up coming to a special needs school with the support of our school district. Umm in terms of them covering the expenses, which is really great and umm the teachers, they are really, you know are really geared towards kids with different needs” (Interview 4, lines 191–196). Theme 2: Compassionate teachers

One parent commented that teachers at the school were aware of the learners’ limitations and rather focused on what the learners could do. These teachers were a resource to the learners and teachers praised and celebrated milestones that the learners achieved. The parent is of opinion that the teacher’s positive attitude towards her child contributed to her daughter’s high self-esteem and positive school experiences. “I think that the teachers in school saw the things that Lucy could do and there was so much she couldn’t do, that I think they focused on, ‘Oh my God, look what Lucy did today!’ And it was so minor compared to where the other kids were at. But they were watching and helping her accomplish, and because of that created a very high self-esteem and it made school a very pleasant thing for her. It transformed it to the other kids, you know they, they saw what Lucy had accomplished and they were proud of her, of what she could do as opposed to what she couldn’t do. So I think that helped a lot” (Interview 4, lines 197–209). This parent mentioned that teachers at her child’s school knew that the learners were “different” and “not perfect” and the learners knew that they could approach the teachers: “umm the teachers (special education teachers), they are really, you know are really geared towards kids with different needs and so even though things are not perfect there, umm, they overall recognise every learner there has needs, and so Lucy is very aware that they work together as a team. So if she wanted to know something she knows she can approach the teacher and it’s pretty cohesive” (Interview 4, lines 217–221).

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Participant Kelly stated the following: “I had nice teachers for the most part” (Interview 8, line 50). Participant Melissa’s consulting psychologist told how supportive Melissa’s teachers were and that they were advocates of reform, and therefore were in favour of her success: “Melissa had several Special Education teachers and a counsellor who were advocates and supported her during difficult times” (Interview 11, lines 19–20). Melissa’s father also told how supportive most of the teachers were: “. . . the teachers really cared, but some teachers have just been teachers for too long and they get to the point where they are kind of cynical about their job and you know. So some of the teachers were not quite as understanding, but in the broad scheme of things the school was very supportive” (Interview 10, lines 174–177). Theme 3: Peer support

Lucy’s mother explained how Lucy received peer support at her school (Special school). “Well, I think there is such a community there (Lucy’s high school). Just in terms of being with kids that are kind of like you. And being able to have a leadership role. If she was in a local public school, I mean I don’t think she’ll be secretary of the learner council. So the opportunity she has to do those things, I think is really, really important. And I think a school like that does a lot from a social perspective” (Interview 3, lines 139–148). It appears that learners with similar disabilities were very supportive of Lucy. The researcher mentioned another milestone in her research diary that Lucy’s four friends held her elbow and Lucy used an escalator for the first time when she was out at the mall with her friends. These peers provided support at school and after hours to Lucy. Lucy’s mom mentioned more of the positive influence of Lucy’s peer group in a story she told where Lucy was able to tie her shoelaces after returning from a school camp, something she and the teachers tried to teach her before. Lucy also overcame some fears by an individual in her peer group supporting her. Lucy: “When I was a freshman, he was a junior, he helped me with Huron (Lucy’s dog) actually” (Interview 1, lines 106–107 and 113–114). I asked her how he had helped her and she replied: “By like, he like put his hand on top. He like petted it first. And then he hold Huron and then I hold the leash, and then . . . and then he really helped” (Interview 1, lines 106–107 and 113–114). Lucy’s tutor was also of the opinion that having friends with the same disabilities as herself had made Lucy connect more with these peers: “. . . umm probably helps and you know there is kind of a community and connectedness there” (Interview 3, lines 167–169). I also asked Kelly what her friends has done to help her cope and she replied: “I don’t know, just getting me out of the house. And like doing things. Like going to the movies or to dinner” (Interview 8, lines 64–65). Friends supported her not only emotionally but also socially and this was confirmed by Kelly’s father. Melissa’s consulting psychologist stated that the fact that Melissa’s peers had similar learning challenges made it easier for Melissa to connect with them on a social level. “Melissa has several friends she made in high school. These friends

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have similar learning differences (difficulties) and relate to her on a similar cognitive level. This has been a good thing for her as she has been successful with her friends in social venues” (Interview 11, lines 48–50). Cindy’s father stated that Cindy’s friend who had also been diagnosed with Fragile X Syndrome and had similar intellectual disabilities was someone with whom Cindy could be herself: “This person she can be as silly as she wants to be because she’s not being judged, she’s just being who she is. And umm, and Cindy can just kinda be herself ” (Interview 10, lines 26–31). Melissa also spoke positively about a social group with which she was involved. This was a school initiative. She mentioned that she experienced a sense of belonging in this group: “So it’s my one thing a week, you know, where I can like you know, you know, do whatever, have fun” (Interview 6, lines 221–222). Theme 4: Schools accommodating special needs

It is important to all the caregivers/parents that the schools the children attend accommodate the learners’ special needs. Some of the participants attended Special schools and others mainstream schools but in the special education programme. Melissa attended a mainstream school and her parents expected the worst but received accommodation and support for their daughter. Melissa’s mother appreciated the time and effort of the teachers: “So we were prepared to you know, have a difficult, you know, time with the school and the first time we had a meeting with them, they had a whole room of people there. And they were all about, ‘Hmm how can we qualify Melissa for the greatest services we possibly could?’ And it’s like whenever we would have a meeting at the school, the vicepresident of the school would come, the guidance counsellor would come. They all took a personal interest in Melissa and her success” (Interview 10, lines 180–192). Melissa mentioned the learners with disabilities programme at her school: “instead of being in regular classes and that made it a lot easier for me. I was comfortable there” (Interview 6, lines 159–160). Melissa’s access to special education services in a smaller class at her mainstream school made a positive impact on her educational processes. Melissa received assessment accommodations and followed an individual education plan (IEP). This reduced her anxiety. She was provided with a transition plan and with the assistance of a career coach was employed. Melissa’s parents mentioned the social group that Melissa belonged to that the school arranged: “She also has a social skills coach who runs a group with Melissa and her friends from school. They go into the community and engage in social interactive activities. This gives her a wonderful resource and much to look forward to” (Interview 11, lines 51–53). Lucy and Melissa both mentioned the life skills that they learnt at school as resources that they could use beyond school. Lucy attended a special school and her mother is of the opinion that the school not only accommodated Lucy’s academic needs but also gave her the opportunity to develop her leadership and social skills. Lucy mentioned that she also received assessment accommodations at the school and was able to

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access the Learning Resource Centre which was very helpful. “Because you know, I couldn’t finish the tests on time, and there was like this IEP, that is a legal backing up to say that I have extra time. And she was like, you go to this you know to the LRC (Learning Resource Centre) and you finish that test” (Interview 6, lines 99–101). Kelly and Cindy’s parents praised the learning resource centres at their daughters’ school and explained that the girls received a lot of assistance and support with schoolwork there. They also mentioned the assessment accommodations as resources.

Recommendations for resilience in schools and intellectual disability Identifying and understanding the protective factors within the school ecology that encourage learners with intellectual disabilities to resile are of essence as it contributes to a comprehensive understanding of adjustment within this population. The findings of this study complement SERT (Ungar, 2011). When a school makes resources and protective factors available to a learner with an intellectual disability, it leads to academic efficacy and facilitates resilience. A school that provides resources and protective factors is a community of care. The following specific recommendations were made regarding the role of the school as a community of care in facilitating resilience among learners with intellectual disabilities: 1) Teamwork between all role players and individual attention should be encouraged as a resource especially if there is a learner with intellectual disabilities in a school. SERT (Ungar, 2011) speaks of decentrality, this means that the individual component of protective resources (the learner with intellectual disability) needs to be understood in relation to the protective factors from other ecosystems (e.g. the school and community) in order to facilitate resilience. It is a mutually beneficial process where the school and individual have equal roles. 2) When there is a learner with intellectual disabilities in the school, teachers should be compassionate and mindful. There should be caring teacher– learner relationships. Ungar (2011) suggests that resilience is a complex phenomenon that differs from one individual to the other and that individuals should be treated differently. Participants view caring and compassionate teachers who assist in addressing their individual needs as resources and contributing to resilience. Within a learner with intellectual disabilities, resilience similarities might be present, but resilience may also differ from one learner to the next. 3) Promote peer support that might lead to worthwhile peer friendships. These are viewed as pathways to resilience. Ungar (2011) refers in SERT to cultural experiences. Although specific cultural activities were not evident

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in this study, socialising and belonging to groups where the learner with intellectual disability felt that she belonged, contributed to resilience. 4) Accommodating special needs and providing resources irrespective of which type of school the learner with intellectual disability attends is recommended. The teachers and school might have to go the extra mile to accommodate and include these learners. Individuals and contexts might be different. One of the SERT principles previously described in this chapter is atypically which indicates that one resilience facilitating action or trait in one context may be considered strange or inappropriate and in another context it may be viewed differently (Ungar, 2011).

Conclusion A limitation of this study relates to some of the participants (learners with intellectual disabilities) attending Special schools and others mainstream schools. It is possible that learners could have provided different insights into how school ecologies mattered for resilience. Ungar’s (2011) SERT framework assisted us in understanding the personal protective components of adolescents with intellectual disabilities and has implications for schools as communities of care. Teachers and school ecologies should pay attention to the facilitation of resilience insights of these learners with intellectual disabilities and their caregivers/ parents. Although resilience is context related and depends on the individual learner and his/her experiences, it can be facilitated by schools if there is teamwork, if teachers are caring and understand the individual’s needs, show compassion, and can accommodate the disabilities to ensure academic efficacy and if there are opportunities for peer support at the school and after hours. These positive protective factors ease adaptation for learners with intellectual disabilities and schools become a community of care, facilitating resilience.

References Cefai, C. (2021). A transactional, whole-school approach to resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.), Multisystemic resilience: Adaptation and transformation in contexts of change (pp.  220–231). Oxford University Press. Court, D., Abbas, R., Riecken, T., Seymour, J., & Le Tran, M. (2017). Qualitative research and intercultural understanding: Conducting qualitative research in multicultural settings. https://0doi-org.oasis.unisa.ac.za/10.4324/9781315113685 Creswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage. Didkowsky, N., Ungar, M.,  & Liebenberg, L. (2010). Using visual methods to capture embedded processes of resilience for youth across cultures and contexts. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(1), 12–18.

School as a community of care 147 Doll, B., Brehm, K., & Zucker, S. (2014). Resilient classrooms: Creating healthy environments for learning. Guilford Press. Ebersöhn, L., Nel, M., & Loots, T. (2017). Analysing risk and resilience in the first sand tray of youth at a rural school. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 55, 146–157. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.aip.2017.04.007 Firth, N., Greaves, D., & Frydenberg, E. (2010). Coping styles and strategies: A comparison of adolescent learners with or without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(1), 77–85. Fourie, C. L. 2011. Resilience in the presence of Fragile X syndrome. (Dissertation). North-West University. Fourie, C. L., & Theron, L. C. (2012). Resilience in the face of Fragile X syndrome. Qualitative Health Research, 22(10), 1355–1368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732312451871 Gatt, J. M., Alexander, R., Emond, A., Foster, K., Hadfield, K., Mason-Jones, A., Reid, S., Theron, L., Ungar, M., Wouldes, T. A., & Wu, Q. (2020, March 9). Trauma, resilience, and mental health in migrant and non-migrant youth: An international cross-sectional study across six countries. Frontiers in Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019. 00997 Gilmore, L., Campbell, M., & Shochet, I. (2013). Resiliency profiles of children with intellectual disability and their typically developing peers. Psychology in the Schools, 50(10), 1032–1043. Hall, A., & Theron, L. C. (2016a). How school ecologies facilitate resilience among adolescents with intellectual disability: Guidelines for teachers. South African Journal of Education, 36(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v36n2a1154 Hall, A., & Theron, L. C. (2016b). Resilience processes supporting adolescents with intellectual disability: A  multiple case study. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 54(1), 45–62. Hall, E. (2010). Spaces of wellbeing for people with learning disabilities. Scottish Geographical Journal, 126(4), 275–284. Liebenberg, L. (2020). Reconsidering interactive resilience processes in mental health: Implications for child and youth services. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(5), 1365–1380. Liebenberg, L., Theron, L. C., Sanders, J., Munford, R., Van Rensburg, A., Rothmann, S., et  al. (2016). Bolstering resilience through teacher-student interaction: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37(2), 140–154. doi: 10.1177/ 0143034315614689. Luthar, S. S., Cicchietti, D.,  & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A  critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. Maree, K., & Pieterson, V. L. (2007). First steps in research. In J. W. Creswell, L. Ebersohn, I. Eloff, R. Ferreira, N. V. Ivankova, J. D. Jansen, J. Nieuwenhuis, V. L. Pieterson, V. L. Plano Clark, & C. van der Westhuizen (Eds.), First steps in research sampling (pp. 214–223). Van Schuik Publishers. Masten, A. S. (2014). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development. Guilford Press. Masten, A. S. (2015). Pathways to resilience in context. In L. Theron, L. Liebenberg, & M. Ungar (Eds.), Youth and resilience and culture: Commonalities and complexities (pp. 3–22). Springer. Masten, A. S. (2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/ jftr.12255

148  Chantel L. Weber and Hermien Olivier McMillan, J. H. & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (7th ed.). Pearson Education. McMurray, I., Connolly, H., Prestn-Shoot, M., & Wigley, V. (2008). Constructing resilience: Social workers’ understandings and practice. Health and Social Care in the Community, 16(3), 299–309. Nash, R., Riley, C., Gilbertson, K., Paramsothy, P., Raspa, M., Wheeler, A., Dziuban, E. J., & Peacock, G. (2019). A description of the educational setting among individuals with Fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 124(1), 57–76. O’Dougherty Wright, M., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 15–38). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_19 Ofiesh, N., & Mather, N. (2013). Resilience and the child with learning disabilities. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 329–348). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_19 Okyere, C., Aldersey, H. M., & Lysaght, R. (2019). The experiences of children with intellectual and development disabilities in inclusive schools in Accra, Ghana. African Journal of Disability, 8(542). https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v8i0.542 Salvador-Carulla, L., Reed, G. M., Vaez-Azizi, L. M., Cooper, S. A., Martinez-Leal, R., Bertelli, M., Adnams, C., Cooray, S., Deb, S., Akoury-Dirani, L., Girimaji, S. C., Katz, G., Kwok, H., Luckasson, R., Simeonsson, R., Walsh, C., Munir, K.,  & Saxena, S. (2011). Intellectual developmental disorders: Towards a new name, definition and framework for “mental retardation/intellectual disability” in ICD-11. World Psychiatry, 10(3), 175–180. Thanh, N. C., & Thanh, T. T. L. (2015). The interconnection between interpretivist paradigm and qualitative methods in education. American Journal of Educational Sciences, 1(2), 24–27. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ Theron, L. C. (2013). Community-researcher liaisons: The pathways to resilience project advisory panel. South African Journal of Education, 33(4). http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo. php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0256-01002013000400004 Theron, L. C. (2019). Championing the resilience of sub-Saharan adolescents: Pointers for psychologists. South African Journal of Psychology, 49(3), 325–336. Theron, L. C., & Theron, A. M. C. (2010). A critical review of studies of South African youth resilience, 1990–2008. South African Journal of Science, 106(7/8). Art. 252. https:// doi.org/10.4102/sajs.v106i7/8.252 Theron, L. C.,  & Theron, A. M. C. (2014). Education services and resilience processes: Resilient black South African learners’ experiences. Child and Youth Services Review, 47(3), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.10.003 Ungar, M. (2010, January 12–14). Pathways to resilience: How collaboration between educators, mental health counsellors, child welfare workers and correctional officers help young people thrive [Conference]. Keynote address, EASA Conference, Vanderbijlpark. Ungar, M. (2011). The social ecology of resilience: Addressing contextual and cultural ambiguity of a nascent construct. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(1), 1–17. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01067.x Ungar, M. (2012). The social ecology of resilience: A handbook of theory and practice. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0586-3 Ungar, M. (2018). The differential impact of social services on young people’s resilience. Child Abuse & Neglect, 78, 4–12.

School as a community of care 149 Ungar, M. (2021). Modeling multisystemic resilience: Connecting biological, psychological, social and ecological adaptation in contexts of adversity. In M. Ungar (Ed.), Multisystemic resilience: Adaptation and transformation in contexts of change (pp. 6–31). Oxford University Press. Ungar, M., & Liebenberg, L. (2011). Assessing resilience across cultures using mixed methods: Construction of the child and youth resilience measure. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 5(2), 126–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689811400607 Valentim, A., & Valentim, J. P. (2020). What I think of school: Perceptions of school by people with intellectual disabilities. Disability and Society, 35(10), 1618–1640. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687599.2019.1702507 Wright, M. O., & Masten, A. S. (2015). Pathways to resilience in context. In L. C. Theron, L. Liebenberg,  & M. Ungar (Eds.), Resilience and culture. Commonalities and complexities (pp. 3–22). Springer.

Chapter 12

Schools to accommodate sport participation of learners with a mobility impairment Alet Moll

Introduction Africa has a diverse population where the belief systems and traditions of many people with an African worldview differ from those of a Western orientation. The root of this is that people from such a diverse land should learn to respect each other and recognise the contributions the many cultures and ethnic groupings can bring to the table. This kind of respect should already be taught at home even before children are attending school (Gouws et al., 2019). One of the greatest things about humanity is that we all are different from one another. Each person is unique in their own very special way. Instead of dreading those differences, it is important for us to recognise them and accept them, and above all be respectful. In Africa, there are many persons with disabilities and their numbers are snowballing for a variety of reasons, which preclude them from playing a full part in society and the workplace. People are living longer, they survive illness, accident, or war, which would be fatal or leave them with a disability. The challenge is now to provide people with a better quality of life and to enable them to play a full and active part in society. Sport can help to increase awareness of the range of problems that exist for people with a disability. Sport can play a significant role in achieving an inclusive barrier-free society, serving as a factor for social integration, and helping to pave the way to employment (African Union, 2008). The African Union Conference of Ministers of Sport recommended that special consideration should be given to people with a disability to facilitate their participation in sport that is appropriate for their physical conditions at their locality, educational institutions, and work places. The mentally and physically challenged should be encouraged to participate in physical and sporting activities, as it provides a particularly favourable opening for the development of individual talent, rehabilitation, social integration, and camaraderie (African Union, 2008). Participation in physical activity, exercise, or sport has numerous benefits for individuals. The most positive outcomes are the improvement in physical health, strength building, improved coordination and motor skills, and better

DOI: 10.4324/9781003051398-12

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cardiovascular health (Allender et al., 2006). Virgilio (2012) identified the following physical advances from being physically active: weight control, controlled blood pressure, reduced risk of heart diseases, avoidance of some cancers and type-2 diabetes, reduced cholesterol levels, and the development of strong bones and muscles. Another essential aspect of sport participation or being involved in any kind of physical activity is the impact that it has on emotional healing and psychological well-being (Coakley & Dunning, 2000). Sport participation provides a positive outlet for aggression and stress and helps to alleviate depression and anxiety. Not only does it improve mental functioning and concentration but also it facilitates self-confidence and a positive self-image (Coakley & Dunning, 2000). Athletes with a disability who participate in sport display higher levels of positive mood, enhanced wheelchair mobility skills, show lower levels of tension and depression, and an advanced state of health and well-being (Groff et al., 2009; Moll & Bester, 2019). Participation in sport also plays a significant role in healthy social development and interaction. Allender et al. (2006) found that although most people recognised the health benefits, this was not their main reason for participation in sport. The factors such as enjoyment, social interaction, and support were more common reasons for participation in sport. Considering the importance and benefits of sport, it is alarming to see that children, in general, are becoming less involved in sport (Moll & Bester, 2019). According to McVeigh and Norris (2012), South African children show trends of obesity and overweight, and less than one-third of the children participate in sufficient physical activity on a weekly basis. Draper et al. (2014) also reported on the decline in physical activity and concluded as follows: South Africa has moved from a C [grade] in 2010 to a D grade in terms of getting children physically active and eating healthily. The time has come for engaging parents and communities for advocacy and social mobilization.

The place of sport participation in schools The time allocated to physical education in many western schools has declined over the last era, with a subsequent increase in time allocation for other academic subjects (Hillman et  al., 2008). Financial restrictions and difficulty to meet academic targets have caused schools to cut on physical education, with the aim of enhancing academic performance. Advocates of school-based physical activity have, however, proposed that physical education, physical activity, and sport may contribute to the improvement of academic performance. This will be either directly or through the achievement of wider social outcomes, which, in turn, may affect academic achievement (Stead & Nevill, 2010). Studies examining this relationship between physical activity and learning behaviour have suggested that learners may indeed gain cognitive benefits from

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participation in physical activities, including sport. Related to these cognitive benefits, it has been suggested that physical education, physical activity, and sport may improve classroom behaviour contributing to the enhanced academic achievement of learners (Stead & Nevill, 2010). It was also stated that the potential psychological and social benefits of physical education, physical activity, and sport may indirectly enhance academic performance by enhancing mental health, improving feelings of connectedness with school, and enhancing positive social conducts (Trudeau & Shephard, 2008, 2010). Unfortunately, there are barriers which prevent learners from participating in sport. These barriers to sport participation can be grouped into three categories: barriers to sport delivery as experienced by the schools, barriers to sport within the school as experienced by learners, and barriers to sport outside of school as experienced by learners (Australian Sports Commission, 2017). Some of the universal barriers experienced by learners include: •

•

•

•

Cultural barriers: For learners from a particular cultural background, mixed-gender sport can be intimidating and uncomfortable. This tends to become more noticeable when these learners reach the age of 9 and more so for girls than boys. Other cultural challenges include participating in sport during religious observation times (such as during Ramadan) and newly immigrated female learners who have not participated in sport wearing Hijabs or other coverings (Australian Sports Commission, 2017). Limited access to sport activities: There are some learners, mostly those in remote and regional areas, who wish to participate in sport but face limitations. They stand facing long travel times and minimal facilities and are more likely to experience financial challenges to fund transport and sport commitments. In many circumstances, only mainstream sport (e.g. netball and football) are available, so learners with other sporting interests are enormously limited in their options. In city areas, learners from low socio-economic backgrounds, or who are new to the area, are faced with a lack of information or awareness of prospects within their communities (Australian Sports Commission, 2017). Increasing time demands for extracurricular activities: The most significant barrier to sport engagement outside school hours for learners is the increasing number of activities they are involved in. These include social activities, paid work, household and farming duties, religious practice, and academic study requirements. With the limited amount of leisure time left, learners are aware that any extracurricular activity requires a further commitment of time (Australian Sports Commission, 2017). Parent or guardian support: Learners rely deeply on the support of their family to participate in sport outside the school environment, including meeting financial expenses (a barrier for low-income families) and time commitments from parents/guardians (travelling to/from and staying during training/matches). Families with other children, single parents, and/or

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working parents face challenges with prioritising other day-to-day commitments and activities. Families may not value sport participation but put great emphasis on academic achievement or other extracurricular activities. This can put pressure on their children to perform in those areas and consequently disengage from sport. Gender prejudices among parents in terms of the types of sport children can play is a further barrier to consider (Australian Sports Commission, 2017). The presence of a mobility impairment is an additional barrier to sport participation. Despite the health benefits, social context, and fun, there are other factors, such as age and type of disability, that create barriers to participation. There might also be individual, social, or environmental barriers responsible for the lack of participation (Physical activity in individuals with disabilities, 2019). Against this background, it was necessary to discuss the ecological theories to understand the situatedness of learners with a mobility impairment and how the impairment affects their ability to develop as physically active individuals.

Ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner versus African ecological perspective Developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (a Russian-born American psychologist), ecological systems theory explains how human development is influenced by different types of environmental systems (Ettekal  & Mahoney, 2017). The ecological theory is based on the interdependence between different organisms and their physical environments. The relationship between learners and their environment is seen holistically. The idea of balance is the central concept. When there is a disturbance in one part of the system, the balance of the whole system may be threatened (Donald et al., 2017). Bronfenbrenner’s theory was published in 1979 and influenced many psychologists in terms of the manner of analysing a person and the effects of different environmental systems that he/she encounter. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model focuses on the impact of human connections and relationships on the lives of children. This is also inclusive of the political context and the time, era, and place in that the child grows up. One of the critiques against Bronfenbrenner is that his theory silences the importance of the natural world and the impact this has on children’s lives. For our children this is central to their healthy life outcomes and to their identity. Family connections and ancestry is vital in developing strong identities, but this is never in isolation to knowing the land one is from and the stories of that land over time. Protecting land through an Aboriginal lens is central to health and well-being. A true ecological systems theory cannot silence the importance of this. (Elliott & Davis, 2018).

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Africa has a diverse population where the belief systems and traditions of the majority of people with an African worldview differ from those of Western or European orientation. To study the development of learners from an ecological point of view, especially in the African population group, Ogbu (1981) designed such a model. This model is essentially not much different from Bronfenbrenner’s model. However, Ogbu’s (1981) model differs from Bronfenbrenner’s model in his focus, in that his model focuses on the nature of culturespecific child education techniques and their relationship to cultural-specific skills, rather than on the interactions of an individual with various aspects of his or her milieu. From the African ecological perspective, the relationship between the different systems that develops over time is very important. These systems, namely, the micro-cosmos, meso-cosmos, exo-cosmos, and macrocosmos, link with the systems identified by Bronfenbrenner (Tabane, 2014). Table 12.1 provides a brief comparison between the systems and the cosmoses (see Table 12.1 for further details). In Figure  12.1, the conceptual integration of the ecological approach of Bronfenbrenner and the African perspective approach is showing a complete system around the child (Tabane, 2014) (see Figure 12.1 for further details). The  microsystem or micro-cosmos  is the setting in which the child lives. This system includes the child’s family, peers, school, and the community. It is within the microsystem that the close interactions with parents, siblings, family members, peers, and teachers take place. The individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but someone who helps to construct the settings. The dynamics within the microsystem are also applicable to children with a mobility impairment. Children’s development is influenced by a wide range of biological and environmental factors, some of which protect and enhance their development while others compromise their developmental outcomes. Children who experience disability early in life can be excessively exposed to risk factors, such as poverty, stigma and discrimination, poor caregiver interaction, institutionalisation, violence, abuse and neglect, and limited access to programmes and services, all of which can have a substantial effect on their survival and development (World Health Organization [WHO], 2012). Children with disabilities are more likely to miss school than other children. Even if they go to school, they are more likely to leave before finishing their education. For children who are already marginalised, for example, girls living in rural areas, a disability creates an additional barrier to accessing education.

Accommodation of all learners through inclusive education Inclusive education as an educational approach is one of the most commended, yet provocative developments in the quest for education for all learners (Murungi, 2015). The approach originated from the acknowledgement that specific groups of learners—such as children with mobility

Table 12.1  Urie Bronfenbrenner integrated with the African ecological perspective

Microsystem vs Micro-cosmos

Exosystem vs Exo-cosmos Macrosystem vs Macrocosmos

Chronosystem vs Chronocosmos

African ecological perspective

The microsystem includes all the head-on interactions in the developing person’s immediate settings, such as family, school, peer group, and community. The microsystem directly affects the child and contrariwise. How a child acts or reacts to other people will affect how they will be regarded by others. However, each child’s special genetic and biologically influenced personality characteristics will also affect how others treat them (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). It is the vibrancy of the environment in the microsystem that is important to the development of the child. A great deal of a child’s behaviour is learned in the microsystem. The mesosystem has an organisational relationship with the microsystem and consists of the interactions among the various settings, such as linking the child with the teacher, the parents, the church, and the community. For example, the children’s experiences at home influence their school performance, and their experiences at school influence their interactions at home. The mesosystems help with activities going on in the microsystems.

This is the domain where the child is directly involved and relationships with significant others are fostered.

The exosystem portrays a larger social system in which the child does not function directly and which is external to the child, but affects the child. For example, if the parent has a challenging and stressful job, it may affect the way the parent relates to his or her children at home, and this, in turn, may have a negative effect on the child. The macrosystem may be considered the outmost level in the child’s environment and comprises cultural values, customs, and laws. In this system, the child’s beliefs, attitudes, and traditions are affected. Generally, children who live in rural areas are likely to be affected by the values and cultural traditions of the cultural group that predominately lives in that area. Comparisons made across cultures have the potential to provide important information about the effects of culture on development (e.g. initiation schools, lobola, and other cultural traditions). The chronosystem encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments, for example, the age and time in history in which one lives, that is, the evolution of the four other systems over time. In South Africa, the change from an apartheid government to one of democracy is an example of the chronosystem. (Gouws et al., 2019, p. 69.)

This is the domain of traditional health practitioners, spiritual leaders, and priests. In the African worldview, it also includes the extended family. There is an African saying: “Ngwana wa gago ke waka” (your child is my child) to indicate the significance of family and community in the education of the child. The child is not directly involved, but events in this domain have an impact on the child’s development. It is the domain in which God and the ancestors are confronted. From an African perspective, this system influences the belief system, for example, the relationship between the persons, values, customs, community, and ancestor, as well as the relation with religious systems. The fundamental Afrocentric view of Botho or Ubuntu is nurtured in the child. This domain clarifies time and the influence of time on the development of the child. In South Africa with its political changes and economic developmental challenges, children will also be influenced by the chronosystem. (Tabane, 2014, pp. 81–98)

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Mesosystem vs Meso-cosmos

Urie Bronfenbrenner

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Figure 12.1  I ntegration of the ecological approach of Bronfenbrenner and the African perspective approach

impairments—have been directly or indirectly excluded from the existing system of education. Inclusive education has been defined by numerous researchers in different ways. The core view of inclusive education is that all learners—regardless of any restrictions or limitations they may have—will be placed in age-appropriate general classes in their own environment to receive high-quality education, interventions, and support that enable them to succeed in the curriculum. Possibly the most authoritative definitions come from United Nations agencies and from treaties, such as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Schuelka, 2018). According to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2016, p. 3), inclusive education is to be understood as “A fundamental human right of all learners; a principle that values the wellbeing of all students, respects their inherent dignity and autonomy and acknowledges individuals’ requirements and their ability to effectively be included

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in and contribute to society; a means of realising other human rights; and the result of a process of continuing and proactive commitment to eliminating barriers impeding the right to education, together with changes to culture, policy and practice of regular schools to accommodate and effectively include all students.” The South African Inclusive Education Model, envisaged in White Paper 6 (Department of Education, 2001), is focused on the inclusion of learners with a range of special needs in education but is biased towards learners with an impairment. This involves accepting that all learners have learning needs, respecting diversity in learning capacities and needs, and recognising that all children can learn if they are given the necessary support (Murungi, 2015). The key principles of the White Paper are to move away from impairments as criteria for organising special needs education (SNE) and favouring the availability of support programmes, as opposed to the movement of learners between ordinary and special schools. This implies that all learners are together in mainstream classrooms (Schuelka, 2018). Despite the conceptualisation of inclusive education and its focus on success, it is also necessary to take note of the main obstacles and challenges hampering the successful implementation of inclusive education. The most general challenges for the successful implementation of inclusive education include the lack of policy and legal support, inadequate school resources and facilities, inadequate specialised school staff, inadequate teacher training in inclusive thinking and techniques, didactic and passive pedagogical techniques, rigid curriculum that offers no accommodation, modification or personalisation, unsupportive school and district leadership, and sociocultural attitudes about schools and disability (Schuelka, 2018, p. 7). Inclusive education is designed to meet the individual needs of every learner (Ferguson, 2009; Obiakor et al., 2012). Inclusive education also includes raising awareness of the rights of children with disabilities (Obiakor et al., 2012). It is not projected at the government level only, but more importantly, it involves teachers, parents, and other community members. Learners who experience barriers to learning are often considered too different from other learners and are therefore not accommodated in the school. The stigma or superstitions surrounding learners with impairments are often factors that prevent learners from attending school. As the objective of inclusive education is to accommodate learners with an impairment in the mainstream as far as possible alongside normally developing peers, adaptive sport is incorporated as an avenue to foster this inclusivity. Besides raising awareness, inclusive education includes training parents and teachers on how to work with children with impairments. It also requires the involvement of the community (Ferguson, 2009). Partnerships can improve school programs and school climate, provide family services and support, increase parents’ skills and leadership, connect families with others in the school and in the community, and help teachers with their work (Epstein & Associates, 2019, p. 11). “However, the main reason to create such partnerships is to

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help all youngsters succeed in school, and in later life. When parents, teachers, students, and others view one another as partners in education, a caring community forms around students and begins its work” (Epstein, 1995, p. 701). The goal of inclusion in an educational environment is to accommodate learners with a disability in the mainstream as far as possible alongside normal developing peers. This also applies to a sport context. The implication hereof, according to Pangrazi and Beighle (2014), is that learners with a disability can participate in physical education and sporting events on an equal level with peers not having a disability, without any changes or adaption of the activities. However, it is not always possible to accommodate all learners successfully without any adaption. It is thus understandable that inclusion has been criticised for neglecting to provide for learners with a disability (Moll & Bester, 2019). The participation in physical activities for a young child is of the utmost importance to ensure that specific cognitive, motor, and perceptual skills are developed. Without these skills, learners cannot develop to their full potential. A  combination of various factors, including social isolation from peers and their own physical limitations, results in children with a disability becoming observers of sport rather than participants. Learners with a disability are already confronted with several internal and external barriers to sport participation. What aggravates matters is that learners with a disability often have limited opportunities to engage in recreational and sport activities (Moll  & Bester, 2019). There are multiple factors that make it difficult for learners with a mobility impairment to participate in sport, if not impossible. Unfortunately, it is not known which of these factors can be considered as the most important ones (Moll & Bester, 2019). Each form of disability and mobility impairment has different requirements, which complicate matters even more (Moll & Bester, 2019). To facilitate sport participation among adolescents with a mobility impairment, barriers should be eliminated as far as possible. Moran and Block (2010) mention four of the most common barriers. Firstly, the coaches fear liability. They fear a player with a disability will get hurt, which may result in parents taking legal action or that the athlete’s adaptive equipment (crutch or artificial arm) would injure another athlete. Secondly, many coaches agree that athletes with a disability deserve “the right to participate” but they lack the knowledge to appropriately meet their needs. Thirdly, parents are concerned regarding the remarks of other athletes about their own child’s disability. Parents also fear for their children’s safety, as they are concerned that their children might get hurt or harm other children. Fourthly, there is a lack of appropriate programmes, especially in small rural areas (Moll & Bester, 2019, p. 2226). The possibilities of adaptive sport participation in a cooperative school milieu, as an avenue to improve the well-being of learners who experience learning and developmental challenges, are therefore explored.

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Adaptive sport Adaptive sport, or sport for persons with a disability, is not a new concept, but its full potential as a powerful means to foster inclusion and well-being of persons with a disability has not been exploited fully yet (Australian Sports Commission, 2015). The type of disability or impairment, as well as the severity thereof, determines the specific adaptions required. As a result of the introduction of adaptive sport, there is no reason for any learner with a disability or impairment to be excluded from participating in sport due to the presence of the specific disability or impairment. Sport for athletes with a disability or an impairment is becoming more and more professional. It is becoming more popular all over the world, it is becoming an important event for the global society, it is changing the attitudes towards athletes with a disability, and it promotes social integration and socialisation of people with a disability, improving their psychosocial health and physical condition (Skučas, 2013). Adaptive sport is sport in which athletes with a disability or impairment participate. It is parallel to sport for able-bodied athletes, with adapted equipment and rules to make sport fun and accessible for everyone. Not all sport for people with a disability is adapted. Several sport have been specifically developed for athletes with a disability, which have no equivalent in able-bodied sport. Adaptive sport can be made accessible for athletes with a disability by using existing sport in which individuals with a disability can participate with no modification (e.g. swimming), using existing sport with minor modifications (adaptions) to accommodate athletes with a disability (e.g. a strap used in powerlifting to strap the athlete to the bench), or using existing sport that has major modification (adaptions) to accommodate athletes with a disability (e.g. wheelchair tennis where the rules are also changed). The last resort is to design sport that has been specially developed to accommodate athletes with a disability (e.g. boccia and goalball) (Australian Sports Commission, 2015). Despite the recent emphasis on increased levels of inclusion of learners with a disability in the general education academic environment, the opportunities for many of these children to participate in physical activities and sport remain limited. Even the sport organisations for people with a disability do not provide sufficient opportunities and variety for the athletes with a disability to participate in sport. There is a need to increase sport participation opportunities for youth with a disability and one way of addressing this is to introduce the concept of adaptive sport. Adaptive sport programmes are designed particularly to provide athletes with a disability the opportunity to participate in and enjoy sport to enhance their emotional, physical, and social development. The possibility of adapting other sport to accommodate athletes with a mobility impairment was investigated and alternative options for athletes were mentioned. Randomly selected sport that are popular in South Africa were identified to serve as examples of how these sport can be adapted with a little or even no effort (see Table 12.2).

160  Alet Moll Table 12.2 The possibility of adapting existing sport to accommodate athletes with a mobility impairment Sport

Images

Short description of adaption

Angling

The equipment is mainly adapted when an angler does not have strength in his/her upper body or has limited arm and hand movement. Adapted equipment includes steel adjustable clamp-on rod holders for wheelchairs and harness rod holders. Some of the adaptions that are made to the rod include electric reel-in devices, battery-powered fishing rod, and power caster, which is pushbutton controlled. During competition, a helper can handle the landing net.

Pool and snooker

Pool and snooker are truly multidisability sport where people with a physical disability can participate equally with able-bodied competitors. The rules of both the games remain the same. There is an assistive device available called the Cannonaid. It is a stainlesssteel device for holding the cue while playing. This invention is designed for a player with one arm and players who cannot bend over the table.

Running

Sport prostheses cover a range of activities. Trans-tibial (below-theknee) prosthetic legs or trans-femoral (above-the-knee) prosthetic legs are designed according to the needs of the athlete. Racing wheelchairs are used for taking part in road races and marathons. These three-wheel chairs are designed to travel on smooth surfaces. There are no gears and the athlete’s arms are continuously pushing the chair on the smaller designed push rims.

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Images

Short description of adaption

Soccer

Power soccer is played by individuals who use power wheelchairs (electric wheelchairs). There are four players in a team. Foot guards are placed on the chairs to push the ball with. Soccer for amputee players: the number of team members can be reduced from 11 to five. The playing field dimensions are reduced along with smaller goal areas.

Squash

Squash is a sport that has only recently begun to take root among players with a mobility impairment. The rules remain the same, but the equipment can be adapted. The wheelchair is faster and lighter than a normal chair. A single swivel, heightadjustable anti-tip wheel prevents the player from tipping. Balance straps can also be tied around the waist and legs. The handle of the racquet can be shorter, and the head can be bigger. Grip mate sport Velcro strip can be used to keep the racquet attached to the hand.

Body boarding

The adaptions to the equipment depend on the specific needs and balance of the surfer. A deep-dish concave deck that holds the body and legs centred on the board helps to stabilise the surfer. Handles on surfboards also help if the surfer has an adequate grip.

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We are guided by Bronfenbrenner’s and the African theoretical framework, on the micro-level/micro-cosmos, to support our learners with a mobility impairment. It is evident that the development of children is entwined in the biological, psychological, and societal systems in which they find themselves. Parents, educators, and coaches are important role players to assist in every child’s development, also those children with a disability. It is important for children with a disability that their psychosocial needs be met to enable them to reach their full potential. The experience of a child with a disability is a unique and dynamic experience, which varies in different environments and in different circumstances (Falvo, 2014, p. 2). Disability is experienced in the context of a life, of a family, and of a community. The person experiences disability not simply as an internal state, but in and through familial and community relationships. The culture in which the person is embedded creates the meaning of disability, creates the identity of the individual, and in very real ways, directs what is possible in terms of adjustment and adaptation. (Marini et al., 2012, p. 82). A study undertaken to investigate the sport participation of children with a mobility impairment (Moll, 2017) indicated that there are three important factors influencing the sport participation, namely, the children’s relationships with their friends, the children’s relationships with their parents and their health. The role players are identified in die figure below.

Figure 12.2  R ole players in the microsystem/micro-cosmo of sport participation

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Health From the literature, it appears that personal health is of great concern to learners with a disability (Law et al., 2014). The presence of a mobility impairment, whether it is congenital or acquired, and the influence thereof on their health is a reality that children must deal with (UNICEF, 2013). It is acknowledged that parenting and parenting practices in particular play a fundamental role in children’s health (Gouws, 2019). Mistry et  al. (2012) highlighted four contexts of children’s health that parents should focus on responsive caregiving; safe and secure environments; adequate and appropriate nutrition; and healthpromoting behaviours. Responsive caregiving (Mistry et  al., 2012) implies creating a warm and accepting environment to respond to children’s needs and signals. In such an environment, a child experiences acceptance. Responsive caregiving supports early childhood development across social, behavioural, cognitive, and language domains (Merz & McCall, 2010). Although emotional attachment develops in the first few years of life, it influences psychological and social-emotional functioning throughout life (Mistry et  al., 2012). By providing loving responses that meet the needs of learners with a mobility impairment, parents make the children feel secure and continued communication is stimulated, which is important for their successful overall development. A safe and secure environment should be created for learners with a mobility impairment. A comfortable and safe house is a basic condition for any family. Parents should avoid exposure to unsafe and insecure environments that can significantly damage the physical and mental health of adolescents (Mistry et al., 2012). The design and maintenance of a child’s physical environment can also affect the risk of disease, further disability, and injury. Access to safe neighbourhood parks and playgrounds offers children with a mobility impairment an opportunity to play and socialise with friends and family. It also encourages physical activity and increases social ties. Regarding disability and neighbourhoods, living in a supportive community is associated with better coping capability of the family. It may often be necessary for parents to organise and supervise activities for learners with a mobility impairment in a more secure environment (Fattore et al., 2009). It is the responsibility of parents to create opportunities for their children with a mobility impairment to participate in activities that require different physical activities, depending on the nature of the mobility impairment.

Relationships with parents The parent–child relationship differs from other relationships because of its degree of intimacy (Popov  & Ilesanmi, 2015). Mutual respect, trust, and healthy communication within the home environment are also critical aspects in strengthening family ties, effectively resolving conflict, and developing

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children’s relational skills. Learners with a mobility impairment must always be treated with respect, regardless of their mobility impairments. Learners with a mobility impairment should also treat other people with respect and not use their mobility impairment as an excuse for disrespectful behaviour. When children with a mobility impairment experience their parents’ communication with them as a sincere interest, and not as an interrogation, it will create an atmosphere for family members to express their differences and their love and support for one another. It is also important for adolescents with a mobility impairment to be able to discuss their mobility impairment, and the implications thereof, with their parents. It is of great importance that parents create and explore opportunities for adolescents to be successful (Wong et al., 2010). Parents should help their children with a mobility impairment to identify what their strengths and weaknesses are. Some children are strong in an academic environment, while others prefer to participate in performing arts or sport. When children with a mobility impairment are interested in sport, parents can help them to build their confidence by improving their athletic skills and abilities. Parents are the role models, setting an example for their children’s behaviour through their own actions towards their friends. Relationships are further affected by the quality of the relationship with their parents (Justen, 2014). Parents can also convey the requirements for friendships and the implications of friendships to their children with a mobility impairment during their conversations. A warm trusting parent–child relationship greatly improves the child’s chances of developing healthy friendships (Duncan et al., 2009).

Relationships with friends Friendship is a unique relationship that is voluntary and grows through personal investment in the relationship (Wood, 2016). Making friends is not always easy for all learners. The forming of friendships might be even more difficult in the presence of a mobility impairment. Learners with a mobility impairment may have less confidence in their abilities to make friends because of the negative attitudes of others. The forming of relationships involves two stages: the initial stage of meeting someone new, and thereafter, maintaining the friendship (Marlow & Hayden, 2013). If learners fail in one of the two stages, a friendship will probably not be formed. Parents and teachers are in the best position to guide and support learners in their quest for friendships. Learners must realise that it is not difficult to maintain a friendship once you are interested in and committed to a relationship. It is important that learners be true to themselves. They must be helpful and listen to the other person. Although learners themselves may have a mobility impairment, they can still provide emotional support to others (Marlow & Hayden, 2013).

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According to Solish et  al. (2010), opportunities for social interaction to promote friendship development and the building of social skills for learners with a disability are necessary. It is important that parents create opportunities for children with an impairment to be part of a group, or team, as it endorses a sense of inclusion and a sense of belonging. Structured activities, such as organised sport or lessons, provide opportunities for socialising with peers and friends. This is especially important for learners with a mobility impairment as they should not be isolated because of their limited mobility functioning.

Conclusion The participation of learners should not be intimidating or challenging for the teacher. The teacher must be able to handle this situation with ease. Not only for the sake of the learner but for the sake of all the role players involved in the education of these pupils. Collaboration with teachers is important. The learner’s behaviour in the classroom may be different from the behaviour at home. The friendship with friends may also change when learners are in a group. Specific skills to be worked on in the classroom, as well as at home, can jointly be identified by the parent and the teacher. In terms of social development, parent–teacher collaboration may enhance learners’ behaviour at home and in the classroom as parents and teachers work together to enhance social skills and the forming of friendships of learners with a mobility impairment (El Nokali et al., 2010). The role of teachers in the forming of friendships is equally important. Teachers can have regular discussions in their classrooms about friendships and what it means to be a good friend. Teachers should also have a real interest in learners and their forming of friendships. Sociometric techniques can assist the teachers in manipulating social interactions of the adolescents. Aspects of social relationships, such as the social acceptance (i.e. how much a learner is liked by peers) and the social status (i.e. a child’s social standing in comparison with peers), can be measured by using sociometric methods (Burns & Erdley, 2011). The teachers can then determine who the popular learners in the class are and a learner with a mobility impairment can be placed with these learners when groups are formed to perform specific tasks. In developing trust, the teacher must create an inclusive environment where learners with a mobility impairment are welcomed and accommodated. A sense of belonging must be established. The trust of learners increases when they realise that they do not have to be embarrassed about their mobility impairment among their friends. They must accept themselves and be sure that others accept them as well. Learners must feel safe, at home, and at ease. Their confidence increases if they experience success to some extent and if they feel that they are in control of their situation.

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Teachers, including the full team of professionals available at the schools, are also important role players in contributing towards the health of the adolescent with a mobility impairment. Teachers must get to know learners, their specific mobility impairments, and the unique implications of the impairments. They must become familiar with specialised equipment or assistive devices that the learners may be using. They must also ensure accurate evaluations in collaboration with the learners, their families, and medical specialists. The teacher must be familiar with any treatment the learner with a mobility impairment may be undergoing. If the adolescent is responsible for self-administration of medication, the teacher must oversee the selfadministration and assist if required. It is also their duty to notify the parents when incidents out of the ordinary occur (British Columbia Ministry of Education). Most learners with a physical disability are not receiving adequate information on health topics, including marriage, parenthood, birth control, sexually transmitted diseases, and sexual abuse. Schools are still one of the main sources of information about sexuality for adolescents with mobility impairments and, therefore, important to reach them (Seidel et al., 2013). Regardless of the mobility impairment they live with, adolescents have feelings, sexual desires, and a need for intimacy and closeness. To behave in a sexually responsible manner, they need skills, knowledge, and support (Szydlowski, 2016). Teachers should, therefore, ensure that learners with a mobility impairment are not excluded from health education opportunities (Maart & Jelsma, 2010). Every teacher should promote the participation of all learners, including adolescents with a mobility impairment, in sport and physical activity programmes. By making use of adaptive sport, participation by all learners is possible. Learners with a mobility impairment might prefer to participate in a sport environment where athletes and players with a mobility impairment compete against athletes and players without a disability. Some of the learners with a mobility impairment might prefer to participate in an environment where the participants are all athletes and players with a disability. A  few learners might prefer to participate in an environment where all the players and athletes have the same mobility impairment. Through adaptive sport, all three environments of sport participation can be explored for adolescents with a mobility impairment. It is important that teachers build on learners’ individual interests and strengths. There is accumulative evidence that physical activity in childhood is associated with several health benefits. These benefits include greater bone density, reduced risk of obesity, and reduced clustering of cardiovascular disease risk factors (O’Donovan et al., 2010). It is widely acknowledged that the health benefits of participation in physical activities are not limited to only physical health, but also incorporate mental components (Eime et al., 2013, p. 1). Not all children with a mobility impairment are, however, interested in sport participation. That must also be respected.

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168  Alet Moll Ferguson, H. (2009). Self-identity and everyday life. Routledge. Gouws, E. (2019). The adolescent. Pearson. Gouws, E., Weber, C.,  & Bester, G. (2019). Psychology of education. Only study guide for PED3701. University of South Africa. Groff, D. G., Lundberg, N. R., & Zabriskie, R. B. (2009). Influence of adapted sport on quality of life: Perceptions of athletes with cerebral palsy. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(4), 318–326. Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008, January). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58–65. Justen, M. R. (2014). A qualitative investigation of therapists’ practices for addressing the parentadolescent relationship (Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers No. 345). St. Catherine University. Law, M., Hanna, S., Anaby, D., Kertoy, M., King, G., & Xu, L. (2014). Health-related quality of life of children with physical disabilities: A longitudinal study. BMC Pediatrics, 14, 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-14-26 Maart, S., & Jelsma, J. (2010). The sexual behaviour of physically disabled adolescents. Disability and Rehabilitation, 32(6), 438–443. Marini, I., Glover-Graf, N. M., & Millington, M. J. (2012). Psychosocial aspects of disability. Insider perspectives and counselling strategies. Springer. Marlow, M. J., & Hayden, T. (2013). Teaching children who are hard to reach: Relationship-driven classroom practice. Corwin Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483387857 McVeigh, J. A.,  & Norris, S. A. (2012). Criterion validity and test-retest reliability of a physical activity questionnaire in South African primary school-aged children. The South African Journal of Sports Medicine, 24(2), 43–48. Merz, E. C., & McCall, R. B. (2010). Behavior problems in children adopted from psychosocially depriving institutions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 459–470. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9383-4 Mistry, K. B., Minkovitz, C. S., Riley, A. W., Johnson, S. B., Grason, H. A., Dubay, L. C., & Guyer, B. (2012). A new framework for childhood health promotion: The roles of policies and programs in building capacity and foundations of early childhood health. American Journal of Public Health, 102(9), 1688–1696. Moll, A. M. (2017). The influence of adaptive sport involvement on the identity formation of mobility impaired adolescents (Unpublished DEd thesis). University of South Africa. Moll, A. M., & Bester, G. (2019). Factors that relate to sport participation of adolescents with a mobility impairment. African Journal of Disability, 8, a614. https://doi.org/10.4102/ ajod.v8i0.614 Moran, T. E., & Block, M. E. (2010). Barriers to participation of children with disabilities in youth sports. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 6(3), 2–13. Murungi, L. N. (2015). Inclusive basic education in South Africa: Issues in its conceptualization and implementation. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/pelj.v18i1.07 Obiakor, F. E., Harris, M., Mutua, K., Rotatori, A., & Algozzine, B. (2012). Making inclusion work in general education classrooms.  Education and Treatment of Children,  35(3), 477–490. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2012.0020 O’Donovan, G., Blazevich, A. J., Boreham, C., Cooper, A. R., Crank, H., Ekelund, U., Fox, K. R., Gately, P., Giles-Corti, B., Gill, J. M., Hamer, M., McDermott, I., Murphy, M., Mutrie, N., Reilly, J. R., Saxton, J. M., & Stamatakis, E. (2010). The ABC of physical activity for health: A consensus statement from the British association of sport and exercise sciences. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(6), 573–591.

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Ogbu, J. U. (1981). Origins of Human Competence: A Cultural-Ecological Perspective. Child Development, 52(2), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129158 Pangrazi, R. P., & Beighle, A. (2014). Dynamic physical education for elementary school children. Pearson. Popov, L. M., & Ilesanmi, R. A. (2015). Parent-child relationship: Peculiarities and outcome. Review of European Studies, 7(5), 253. https://doi.org/10.5539/res.v7n5p253 Schuelka, M. J. (2018). Implementing inclusive education. K4D. Knowledge, evidence and learning for development. Helpdesk report. Institute of Development Studies. Skučas, K. (2013). Obstacles and possibilities for participation in sport after spinal cord injury. Sportas, 1(88), 82–87. Solish, A., Perry, A., & Minnes, P. (2010). Participation of children with and without disabilities in social, recreational and leisure activities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23, 226–236. Stead, R.,  & Neville, M. (2010, September). The impact of physical education and sport on education outcomes: A review of literature institute of youth sport school of sport, exercise and health sciences. Loughborough University. Szydlowski, M. (2016). Gender recognition and the rights to health and health care: Applying the principle of self-determination to transgender people. International Journal of Transgenderism, 17(3–4), 199–211. Tabane, R. (2014). The ecological model of human development: An African perspective. In C. Okeke, M. Van Wyk,  & N. Pasha (Eds.), Schooling, society and inclusive education. Oxford University Press. Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2008). Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5, 10. Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2010). Relationships of physical activity to brain health and academic performance of schoolchildren. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 4, 138. United Nations. (2016). General comment No. 4—Article 24: Right to inclusive education. CRPD/ C/GC/4. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/general-comments-and-recommendations/ general-comment-no-4-article-24-right-inclusive United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF]. (2013). The state of the world’s children. Children with disabilities. UNICEF. Virgilio, S. J. (2012). Fitness education for children. A team approach (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics. Wong, N. T., Zimmerman, M. A., & Parker, E. A. (2010). A typology of youth participation and empowerment for child and adolescent health promotion. American Journal of Community Psychology, 46(1–2), 100–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9330-0 Wood, J. T. (2016). Interpersonal communication. Everyday encounters. Cengage Learning. World Health Organization [WHO]. (2012). Early childhood development and disability: A discussion paper. World Health Organization.

Index

Note: A page number in italics indicates a figure and a page number in bold indicates a table on the corresponding page. academic achievement 20; budget cuts’ impact on 151; enhancing 103; fostering relational well-being for 38; secure attachments’ influence on 43; teacher-learner relationships promoting 44, 44, 47 academic challenges 58 academic efficacy 138, 145, 146 academic enhancement in schools: relational ethics and 33 academic environment, different responses to learning in 159, 164 academic learning 1 academic motivation 1 academic outcomes 4 academic performance 47; academic resilience and 100; improvements in 60; sport and physical education enhancing 152, 153 academic progress, reading levels and 105 academic resilience: academic performance and 100; building learner’s reading literacy in South African schools for 8, 96 – 106; predictors of 99; reading literacy development and 100 – 101; school system and 98 – 100; supportive relationships enhancing 41 academic success, factors leading to 48 academic service learning (ASL): academic challenges reported by clients 58; educational psychology services and 67 – 71; FLY and 56, 68 – 71; as supportive pathway to building rural communities 64 – 66; young people

in rural spaces and 66 – 67; youth perspectives on 7, 64 – 72 academic underperformance 110 adaptive functioning in adolescents 112 – 118, 120 adaptive sport 157, 158, 159 – 162, 166; see also sport adolescents: conflict as part of 111; creating enabling spaces for via spiritual intelligence 110 – 120; intellectually disabled 140, 141, 146; interpersonal relationships to support 16; mobility-impaired 158, 162–163, 165, 166; vulnerability of 111 African Union Conference of Ministers of Sport 150 Agasisti, T. 100 Allington, R. 102, 103 Amram, Y. 114, 115, 116 angling, sport of 160 anti-social behaviour 128, 133 Armstrong, D. 19 Arnold, M. 59 ASL see academic service learning Asthana, S. 59 attachment: cultivating 46; definition of 42; school relationships and 42 attachment theory 42 – 43 Austin, W. 33 Bajema, D. 72 Balfour, R. 60 Bandura, A. 106 Benner, A. 67 Bergin, C. 46

Index 171 Bergin, D. 46 Bergum V. 33 Bochner, A. 32 body building, sport of 161 Bottrell, D. 19, 129 Bouwer, C. 99 Bowlby, J. 42 brain activity, altered 118 “brain drain” xvii “brain gain” xvii Bringle, R. G. 65 Bronfenbrenner, Urie 127 – 128, 162; versus African ecological perspective 153 – 154, 155, 156 Brown, K. 116 Capone, V. 47 care: building collective care 93; community-nested spaces of 78, 94; educational communities of 7; ethics of 26 – 35, 41; idea of 33; nodes of 1 – 10; school as community of 3, 96, 137 – 146; school as fulcrum of 76; schools as nodes of care 4 – 5, 10, 13 – 21; school-based practices as part of community of care for reading literacy development 97, 101; “shadow side” of 35; socio-ecological, role of 124 – 133; “take care” 35; see also communities of care; relational ethics of care care and connectedness in the classroom 40 – 41; reflections on 47 care and support interventions 77 career counselling 64, 67, 69 – 72, 76, 79; as focus of South African school-based intervention 90 career guidance 67, 71, 79 career preparedness, enabling 92 caregiver: of adolescents with intellectual disabilities 141; children in roles of 77; of children/learners with special needs 144, 146; family-level support for 79; loss of 54; poor caregiver interaction, impact on children 154; school-based interventions involving 80, 89, 92; structural disparities and hardships involving 93 caregiver exhaustion 3 caregiving: early-childhood 16; responsive 163 caregiving responses, eliciting 42 care ethics 30, 32; see also relational ethics of care care professions 33, 34

care theory 30, 31 caring: act of 40; as essence of education 32; as foundation for school community 26; presence and 120; relational ethics and 32, 33; women and 30; see also teacher-learner relationships; teachers caring communities, need for systemic approaches to building 92; see also communities of care caring engagement: by outsiders 71 caring environment, creation 31 caring interventions 7, 53, 59; necessity of 77; scaling 60 caring leaders 26, 28, 29, 34, 35; idea of 33 caring presence of others 72 caring relationships, moral stance of 29 Carolissen, R. 66 Carrigan, D. 5 children in conflict with law, socio-ecological care and support for 124 – 134 Claessens, L. 39 Clarke, N. 28 Collins, K. 45 communities of care 78; school as 3, 96, 137 – 146; school-based interventions and building of 92, 93; young people in 67 – 68 competent, committed, caring, collaborative teachers 102 conceptual framework: for education 5; for promoting teacher-learner/student relations 44, 44 – 47 conceptualisation of inclusive education 157 conceptual models for school effectiveness 4, 9 – 10 conceptual papers, four types of 39 COVID-19 xviii, 3 Coward, D. 117 Craps, M. 27 Crawford, M. 34 Creemers, B. 4 critical existential thinking 114 – 116 critical thinking 69 Cunliffe, A. 29, 33, 35 Cunningham, P. M. 102, 103 Currin, S. 104 Davis, J. 153 Department of Basic Education (DBE) 98, 110

172 Index distress in children 3, 35; conflict with the law and 128; protective factors to reduce 127; psychosocial support for 91; resilience as framework of response to 124, 126, 133 Doll, B. 138 Dossetor, J. 33 Douglas, K. 100 Draper, C. 151 Du Plessis, A. 29 Ebersöhn, L. 5, 6, 7; on experience and understanding of resilience 139; on flocking, reflecting, coming together 47; on “justice model” 60; on loss of parents/caregivers and poverty 54; on schools in challenged spaces, characteristics of 77 ecological approach see Bronfenbrenner ecological constraints 5 ecological understanding of resilience 138; see also SERT educational psychology: school-based intervention for young people in rural schools 68 – 71; young people in communities of care and 67 – 68 Egeland, B. 14 Ellis, C. 32 Elliott, S. 153 Eloff, I. 54 Emmons, R. A. 113, 114, 117, 118 Eriksen, M. 29, 34, 35 ethics of care 30; see also care; care ethics Evans, E. 114 existential angst 111 existential intelligence 112, 114 existential issues 111 existential reasoning 8, 114 existential reflection 120 existential thinking see critical existential thinking exo-cosmos 154, 155, 156 Ferreira, R. 54 Firfirey, N. 66 Fletcher, J. 105 flourishing learning youth (FLY) 7, 56, 68 – 71 FLY see flourishing learning youth Fraser, N. 93 friendliness 39

friendships 16, 45, 70, 138; students with intellectual disability 143 – 145; students with mobility impairment 162, 163, 164–165 Gardner, Howard 111, 114, 118 Gilligan, Carol 30, 32 Gilligan, R. 128 Ginsburg, M. B. 67 Godman, M. 2 Grogan, M. 28, 29 guidance counsellor 144 Haller, E. 72 Hallinger, P. 28 Hoadley, U. 101, 104 – 105 Hofmeyr, H. 98 holistic awareness 117, 118, 119 holistic systems approach: resilience understood via 139; SDGS and 4 Hood, R. 20 Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) Youth Survey 54 identity: classroom positionality and 45; delinquent 131; personal 130; Robinson on 129; Schwartz’ concept of 111 identity crisis 111 illiteracy 53, 96 impediments to learning 58, 59; from a youth view 56 inclusive barrier-free society, goal of achieving 150 inclusive education 9, 154 – 158, 165; South African Inclusive Education Model 157 inclusive practices in the classroom 42; educational psychology and 78 inclusiveness over exclusiveness in schools 30 individual educational plan (IEP) 144 – 145 Integrated Youth Offenders Program (IYOP) 130 intellectual ability: SQ and 115 intellectual disabilities, learners with 137 – 139: resilience in schools and 137 – 146 intellectual impairments, supporting learners with 9 internal working model (IWM) 42 isiZulu 69 IYOP see Integrated Youth Offenders Program

Index 173 Jaakkola, E. 38 justice 30; adolescent concerns about 119; Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (South Africa) 110; child 126; juvenile 128, 130 justice model 60 justice system 125, 128, 130; criminal 131 Kabat-Zinn, J. 116 Khosravi, M. 117 Kim, Y. 101 King, D. B. 114 – 119 Kruger, L. 54 Kyei-Blankson, L. 39, 40, 47 Lambert, L. 28 Langer, E. J. 116 language of learning and teaching 58 – 59, 60 learning: African school-based interventions aimed at enabling 8; bullying, impact on 40; effective leadership tied to 7; enabling schools as nodes of care to improve 5; impediments to 58 – 59; literacy and 96; literacy teaching and 104; problem-based 119; quality of education tied to 4; secure relational settings, importance to 34; SQ and 119, 119 – 120; transformational 120; see also academic service learning; FLY; literacy learning at scale 105 learning challenges 9, 158 learning development, positive 94 learning differences 144 learning difficulties, learners with 92, 129 learning environment 2; creating safe 42 learning experiences, shaped by learners 45 learning gap 98 learning partnerships (with teaching) 42 learning process 31 Learning Resource Centre (LRC) 145 learning resources, lack of 58, 59, 61, 77 learning spaces, classrooms as 38 learning support 78, 80; school-based interventions 90, 91 learning support facilities 79 learning support outcomes 92 Lemmer, E.M. 59, 60 Lerner, R. 126 literacy: building learner’s reading literacy in South African schools 8, 96 – 106;

characteristics of schools effective at developing 102 – 105; as foundational skill of learning 96; low literacy, impact on children 130; role of schools in 97, 105 – 106; see also illiteracy literacy development as enabler of academic resilience 98 – 102 literacy community 101, 105 Lockheed, M. E. 104 Mabusela, M. 27, 28 macro-cosmos 154, 155, 156 Magwa, L. 45 maladaptive behaviour in adolescents 15, 126, 129 Mampane, R. 99 Mandela, Nelson xvii Manyike, T.V. 59, 60 Mapesela, M. 56, 59 maps 56, 57 Marini, I. 162 Marshall, I. 112, 113, 115 Mascaro, N. 117 Masinire, A. 56 Maslow, A. 118 Masten, A. 41, 124 Mbele, B. 47 McCubbin, L. D. 42 McVeigh, J. A. 151 meaning-making frameworks 17 Meddin, J. 116 Megahed, N. M. 67 meso-cosmos 154, 155, 156 micro-cosmos 154, 155, 156, 162 Miller, J. P. 110, 120 mindful communication 44, 44; relational and 46, 48 mindfulness 116, 119, 145 mindfulness-based interventions 43 mindful self-reflection 32 mobility impairment, learners with 150 – 166; accommodating athletes with 160 – 161 mobility skills 151, 153 Moats, L. 103 Moore, J. 33 moral education, philosophy of 32 Moran, T. 158 mother-child attachment 42 mothers: single 57, 58; of students with special needs 141 – 144 Mother Theresa 113

174 Index Multiple Intelligence (MI) array 111 Munford, R. 39 Myende, P. 65 Nidich, S. 118 Nikmanesh, Z. 117 Noble, K. 112 Noddings, Nel 32 Norris, S. A. 151 Obiakor, F. 157 Ogbu, J. U. 154 Ospina, S. 28 Owusu-Ansah, A. 39, 40, 47 Pangrazi, R. P. 158 parity of participation 93 participatory reflection and action (PRA) 64, 69 peak experience 118 peer friendships 138 peer group 16 peer pressure 111 peer relationships 19, 41, 127, 141 peers 10, 40, 78, 129; adaptive sport with 157, 158, 165; Bronfenbrenner and African ecological model including 156; social relationships, evaluation of 165 peer support 1, 134, 143 – 144; promoting 145, 146 peer-reviewed publications, systematic review of 76, 79 – 80; meta-summary review of 80 – 92 personal meaning, cognitive component of 116 personal values 112 – 113; see also spiritual intelligence Pianta, R. 39, 43 Piedmont, R. 117 pool and snooker, sport of 160 positionality, classroom 44, 45 PRA see participatory reflection and action Pretorius, E. J. 101, 104 Priestley, M. 45 Prinsloo, H. 54 psychosocial health 159 psychosocial needs of children with disabilities 162 psychosocial services 130

psychosocial support 91 psychosocial outcomes 5, 6 14, 17, 18 reading see literacy reflective coherence 116 relational and mindful communication 46 relational ethics 32, 33 relational ethics of care 31 – 34; Bochner and Ellis on 32 relational integrity 29 relational leadership 7; Clarke on 27; Craps on 27; Cunliffe and Eriksen on 29; for future leadership 34 – 35; Grogan and Shakeshaft on 30; Hallinger and Truong and 27; Lambert on 28; schools as communities of care enabled by 26 – 35; Uhl-Bien on 28 relational language 46 relational leadership theory 28 relational resources 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20 relational skills in children 163–164 relational support 21 relational well-being 7, 38 – 48; classroom care and connectedness and 40 – 41; classroom positionality and 45; classroom relationships and 38 – 39; intersections 43 – 44; Kitching on 40; theoretical perspectives on 42 – 43; ubuntu principles for 47; well-being and relational spaces 41 – 42 relational well-being intersections 43 – 44 resilience: anti-social behaviour and 132, 133; bi-directional thinking on 13 – 21; children in conflict with law and 124 – 134; ecological understanding of 138, 139; definitions of 124, 138; hope as pathway to 91; Masten’s definition of 41, 124; reformatory as support mechanism for 128 – 131; reformatory practice and 124; Robinson on 129; schools as nodes of 20; socio-ecological process and systems 14 – 17, 127 – 128, 137; SQ and 117; systems and 41, 139; understanding 125 – 127; see also academic resilience; SERT resilience and intellectual disability 137 – 146; data, collection and analysis of 140 – 146 resilience approach 125 resilience as community endeavor 17 – 20 resilience literature 13 resilience outcomes 47

Index 175 resilience process 16, 17; among youths and young people 38, 39, 53; successful 18; understanding 138 resilience-promoting resources 18 resilience of vulnerable youth 5 resilience resources 19; for children in conflict with law 124 – 134 resilience sources 46 resilience-supporting classroom practices 40 resilience theory 14, 43 resource scarcity 49 Reyes, J. 18 running, sport of 160 rural communities, building 64 – 66 rural areas and spaces, young people in 53, 66 – 67; aspirations of 72; barriers to education in 55; educational psychology services for 67; FLY in 68 – 71; lack of learning resources and support in 59; problem of English as language of teaching in 58 – 59; shortages of teachers in 56 rurality: poverty and 57; theory of 54 – 56, 61 Ryan, R. 116 Sabol, T. 43 Sailors, M. 102 Scheerens, J. 4 Scherman, V. 28, 29 Schwartz, S. 111 secure attachment, need for 42 SERT see Social Ecology of Resilience Theory Sharkey, J. 18 Shields, C. 27 Sisk, D. 119 Smit, B. 7, 27, 28 Smith, E. 54 Smith, J. 32 Smith, R. S. 16 soccer, sport of 161 social constructivism 101 Social Ecology of Resilience Theory (SERT) 139 – 140, 145 – 146 social distancing: COVID-19 and 3 social engagement 41 social exclusion 41 social injustice 59, 132 social justice 18, 45, 67, 93, 138; rural education as matter of 55

social responsibility 15, 27 social processes of influence 27, 28, 29 social status 165 social theory 30 socio-cultural values and beliefs 93 socio-drama 119, 120 socio-ecological care and support: for children in conflict with law 124 – 134 socio-ecological context: resilience and 13 socio-ecological systems theory 128 socio-economic challenges 53, 54, 56; as impediment to learning 56 – 57; poverty 76, 77 socio-economic deprivation 80 socio-emotional capacity, building 91 socio-emotional competence 78 socio-emotional support 67 socio-political history: South Africa 97 Solish, A. 165 Sommers, M. 66 South Africa 54; disparities between rich and poor 55 South African Inclusive Education Model 157 special educational needs 103 Special Education teachers 143 special needs education (SNE) 157 Special schools 141, 142, 144 – 145, 146 sport participation: accommodation of all learners through inclusive educational approach to 154 – 158; adapting existing sports to accommodate athletes with mobility impairment 160 – 161; adaptive sport 159 – 162; African Union Conference of Ministers of Sport 150; Allender on 151; Bronfenbrenner versus African ecological perspective on 153 – 154, 156; health and  163,  166; importance and benefits of 151; parent-child relationships and 163 – 164; place in school of 151 – 153; relationships with friends and 164–165; students with mobility impairment and 150 – 166 spiritual intelligence (SQ) 8, 110 – 120; Amram’s ecumenical theory of 115 – 116; compassion 113 – 114; conscious-state expansion 118 – 119; critical existential thinking 114 – 116; defining SQ traits in teachers 120; definition of 114; educational strategies to develop 119,

176 Index 119 – 120; Emmon’s model of 118; humility 113; interpersonal values 113; King’s four components of 114 – 119; mindfulness associated with 116; personal meaning production 116 – 117; personal values 112 – 113; positive association with resilience of 117; self-awareness and 116; transcendental awareness 117 – 118; universal values 113; viable model of 114 SQ see spiritual intelligence squash, sport of 161 Starratt, R. 28 Supkoff, L. 17 system archetypes 2 systematic review of school-based interventions 76 – 94 system spaces 5 systems: belief 15, 150, 154; classrooms as bounded systems 42; ecological 127 – 128, 153, 154; education/al 13, 14, 20, 53, 96, 100; harmonisation of 126; justice 24, 125, 130, 131; meaning-making 18; micro/meso/macro 127 – 128, 154, 156; reciprocating 125; religious 112; resilience understood in terms of 41, 139; schools as 2 – 3, 19, 67, 98; social 29, 99, 132, 139; socio-economic 19; symbolic 112; thinking in terms of 1 – 10; transport 59 systems theory 128; ecological 153 teacher–child relationships 138 teacher–learner relations/hips: caring 138, 145; conceptual framework for promoting 44, 44 – 45; enhancing 47; Pianta’s description of 39; Wubbels’ definition of 39 teacher and learner: action and agency 45; caring between 40; interaction 19; positive relationships, importance of 38, 39 teacher empowerment 27; concept of 7 teacher practices, supportive 91 teacher professionalism, building 92 teacher qualifications, variability of 71 teachers: as agents of change 42; caring 102, 120; in challenged schools 77; compassionate 142 – 143, 145; competent, committed, caring, collaborative 102; coping with stress

31; COVID-19’s impact on 3; inclusive education and 157 – 158, 165 – 166; interactions with 16; learners with intellectual disability and 138, 139, 140, 141, 142 – 143, 145 – 146; mental health of 3; prosocial behaviour encouraged by 46; reading literacy development by 98, 101, 103, 105, 106; relatedness forged by 42; as role models 41; rural school 55 – 56, 60, 65; school-based interventions involving 80, 89; school leaders building trust with 30; sociometric techniques of use to 165; SQ in the classroom of 120; SQ traits of 120; training of 102; “turn around” 19; wholistic learner outcomes and 19 teacher self-determination 43 Theron, A. M. C. 17, 138, 139 Theron, L. C. 17, 40, 138, 139 Tol, W. 13 Toland, J. 5 Tomkins, L. 30, 34 truancy 1, 41, 129 Truong, T. 27 Turner, J. D. 101 ubuntu 41, 44, 47, 48, 93 Uhl-Bien, M. 28, 29 UNESCO 19 Ungar, M. 39, 128 UNICEF 4, 19 Vaughn, L. 112 Virgilio, S. 151 Virkler, S. J. 72 Weiss, H. 113 Werner, E. 16 wholistic learner outcomes 19 Wills, G. 98 Wubbels, T. 39 Yoder, A. 111 youth and young people: rural 54 – 55; in rural spaces 66 – 67 youth at risk 14, 53, 65, 66; Integrated Youth Offenders Program (IYOP) 130 youth development: barriers to education, impact on 55 – 56; caring

Index 177 presence of others, impact on 72; high levels of unemployment 58; lack of infrastructure, impact on 57; low socioeconomic standard of living, impact on 57; poverty and structural disparities constraining 55

youth perspectives: on academic service learning 64 – 72; on structural barriers 7, 53 – 61 youth resilience 38, 39 Zimmerman, L. 104 Zohar, D. 112, 113, 115