Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture 9781634842068, 9781634842075

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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

ADVOCACY FOR CHANGE IN EDUCATIONAL CULTURE

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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

ADVOCACY FOR CHANGE IN EDUCATIONAL CULTURE

DALE H. EBERWEIN EDITOR

New York

Copyright © 2016 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication‘s page on Nova‘s website and locate the ―Get Permission‖ button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title‘s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: [email protected].

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN:  (eBook)

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Prologue

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List of Figures

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Introduction

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Chapter 1

Globalization and the Imagined ‗Global Thinker‘ Brian D. Denman

Chapter 2

Constructivist Instructional Strategies for Synchronous Web Conferencing: Synchronous Constructivist Instructional Strategies for the 21st Century Ann Armstrong

Chapter 3

Towards a Theory of Enablers to eLearning Adaptation: eSUCCESS, a Research Based Framework Ann Armstrong

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Chapter 4

Interactive Learning with Technology Pricilla Jones-Akpaita

Chapter 5

Nature and Role of Web-Based Distance Learning (WBDL) Business Outcome Leili H Green

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Educational Technology-Enhanced Architecture: Case Studies Dale H. Eberwein

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Chapter 6

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vi Chapter 7

Contents Implications for Future Educational Culture Dale H. Eberwein

Conclusion

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Dale H. Eberwein Appendix A: Brookfield‘s Discussion Techniques

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Appendix B: Critical Incident Questionnaire

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Appendix C: Formative Assessment

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Appendix D: Summative Assessment

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Appendix E: Qualitative Interview Questions

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Appendix F: Qualitative Interview Transcriptions

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Editor and Author Information

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Index

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PROLOGUE Traditional pedagogical architecture has stymied modern educational culture. Historically, education‘s intention was to prepare students to enter the workforce as agrarian or factory workers. Unfortunately, much of modern teaching is patterned on original industrial revolutionary design. Today, educational technology exists that can link students with curriculum through many mediums for academic practice. Using learning management systems (LMS), offering visually appealing multimedia lessons, and tasking students with routine access requirements to core curricular content via the Internet, is somewhat common practice. However, educational culture continues to languish due to edification‘s inability to provide student-based technologyenhanced strategies that encourage and nurture students while embracing a technology-rich student-centric approach to learning. Providing student-based technology-enhanced educational stratagems shows promise as a means to shift educational practices and augment student performance outcomes. Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture intends to provide a compilation of conceptual frameworks, research in the field of educational technologies, available educational technologies, implications for career and leadership, and developmental architectures for pedagogical practices. Whether face-to-face, hybrid, or virtual, technology enhancements may evolve educational culture. Combining technology and the creativity of students, providing remote access, and designing curricular presentations that make use of student-centric architectures, may promote enhanced performance outcomes academically as the student enjoys non-stereotypical educational culture. Empowering students with his or her own learning through the use of educational technologies while cultivating necessary 21st century skill-sets technologically may represent the sought after paradigm shift that education needs to fully integrate pedagogical

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practices at a student-based technology-enhanced level. Offering virtual and technology-enhanced educational culture many times tasks students with their own edifying progress. This shift in responsibility nurtures critical thinking and seems to develop intellectual maturity as the student navigates curriculum via technology-enhanced means. The following chapters report and propose alternatives to traditional educational architectures and offer stakeholders options for an educational culture not widely present in modern education. By exploring educational technologies and focusing on what works in disseminating curriculum, Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture proposes to introduce educators to skill-set opportunities and trends that evolve current educational philosophy. There exists many architectures that promote the edification of modern students, and with this in mind, Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture intends to deliver literature on educational technology platforms that work pedagogically, case study research in the field of educational technology integration into classroom practice, perspectives on educational technology skill-sets in leadership, direction for potential careers, and opinions from educators considered experts in the field of educational technology. Ostensibly, if it works academically, use it.

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11

Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15

Illustrations of Learning Behavior Approaches based on Social Reproduction Illustrations of University Models Types of Multiculturalism (unity in diversity) and Multicultural Policies R2D2/C3PO Components, Instructional Strategies/Learning Activities, Synchronous Tools Typical Web-conferencing Tools Roles of Faculty, Instructional Designer(s) and Learners in a Synchronous Web Conference. Summary: Critical Success Factors — From Experience eSUCCESS Tenets with Descriptions eLearning Required Support from the Organization Learner Motivation Factors DLOQ Finding—As Perceived by e-Learning Executives Compared to the Mean Score of the eLearning Executives‘ Sample Watkin & Marsick‘s Characteristic of a Learning Organization Applied to Web-based Learning Interactive Dialogue Formative and Summative Assessment comparison Male High School student Formative and Summative Assessment totals Post-Secondary students

5 6 10 24-26 28 32 41 42-43 44 45

46 47 57 82 83

INTRODUCTION Advocacy for change in educational culture provides a compilation of opinions, research, and potential architectures that intend to encourage reform in educational culture. The emphasis of this work is the American educational system, however several chapters in this book were written by colleagues from abroad. The understanding that education now imbues new and exciting influences is a predication of this work. No longer is education relegated to inspiration from within but needs to embrace what works internationally, as well. Many new ideologies have manifested due to global encouragement and educational technology continues to be the medium for these exculpatory transfers of potential constructs, educationally. This exploration may provide a lens that aids the reader in understanding what it means to be an advocate for change in educational culture. Educational culture, as exists today, was founded on agrarian and industrial revolutionary concepts and only in the past several decades has the need for reform evolved to the point of urgency. With the advent and evolving of educational technology, many paradigms need evaluation and reconstruction due to the ready access that information and communication technology (ICT) provides. Literally, modern education must develop the understanding that students are no longer preparing for a career based on mechanization but rather the need for enhanced digitization has become a critical and necessary standard for educational reform.

Educational Culture Defined So what is educational culture? Culture may be regarded as the sum-total of societal knowledge passed on from one generation to the next through accepted mediums for scholarly gain. The goal is to provide each generation with acquired knowledge from the society in which they live to encourage the

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assimilation of social norms, history, and values. The term ―productive citizenry‖ comes to mind in this endeavor. Therefore, educational culture is the environment that supports students with the assimilation of these identified socially accepted constructs. However, educational culture is not complete unless the mediums for social transfer are addressed and explored. In his book, The Culture of Education, Jerome Bruner (1996) outlined four distinct approaches to how education views erudition and the methodologies for curricular transfer. Bruner (1996) states that the first view opines that the student is an uninspired pupil and therefore educational concentration is on skills and expertise through sample and demonstrated achievement. This method stresses aptitude, expertise, and proficiency, as opposed to information and achievement. The second view approaches students through instructive disclosure. It is founded on the precept that students must be taught with truths, values, and guidelines that are erudite, aroused, and useful. Bruner (1996) states the third view approaches children as scholars and emphasizes development of ―intersubjective‖ exchange. This view focuses on how the student derives logic of his or her environment. This view, pedagogically, focuses on the importance of dialog and teamwork. Finally, the fourth architecture sees children as erudite and focuses on the management of unprejudiced information. This standpoint embraces the instructional need to help children develop understanding that a difference exists between individual understanding, and what is considered to be truth by the culture in which they live. Bhamani and Mehar (2014), provide an eloquent overview of pre-modern, modern, and post-modern educational cultures. Their exploration and report offers insight into cultural mechanisms and the impetus for how education viewed curricular transfer at the times. Pre-modern education classrooms were held, relegated by spiritual regard. ―The students were given no authority to challenge or create knowledge on their own. Transitional method of teaching whereby, the knowledge if transferred to a student was the only teaching method that was apparent in this era,‖ (Bhamani and Mehar, 2014, p.196). The modern era in education promoted group discussion and encouraged teachers as co-creators of knowledge (Bhamani & Mehar, 2014). This era promoted interactions between teacher and students and presented knowledge to be challenged, discussed, and agreed upon. The post-modern era ―believed the aim of education was to allow students to construct their own identities, to be responsible for their own knowledge, information and receive it at their own convenience,‖ (Bhamani and Mehar, 2014, p. 197). Post-modernism gave ―rise

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to experiential learning, active learning and student centered learning,‖ (Bhamani and Mehar, 2014, p. 197). Modern educational practices seem relegated to curricular transfer via archaic constructs in that teaching students has focused on the assimilation of information and not on critical thinking considered necessary for intellectual maturity. Force-feeding curriculum to students does little to promote intellectual maturity, may stunt academic growth, and many times fails to stimulate student‘s natural curiosity. ―Teaching to the test‖ has become the catch phrase in this regard and continues to plague education‘s attempts to advance students, academically. The most poignant example of this architecture is the common core approach to education. To appease academic standards used to test curricular achievement, seems to stimulate short-term educational literacy but does little to motivate students to seek personal intellectual prowess beyond memorization of curricular content that equates to favorable test scores for promotion to the next level in school. Common core manifested as a means to align state educational systems with the requirements set forth in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and provided that each student nationally would be evaluated periodically to assure compliance with the educational standards set forth by the federal government. The NCLB in its architecture was a positive attempt to standardize educational constructs that equated to viable and educated citizenry, regardless of personal background. However, the interpretation of the NCLB was left to the discretion of each individual state as states are responsible for the education of their citizens. Common core developed to raise the bar, so to speak, in that many states continued to fall behind due to state‘s concerns of losing funding by not showing progress educationally. The outcome was that many states set educational standards low to show continued progress with students. Common core was created and embraced by many states as a way to seek standardization of educational architecture to meet or exceed mandated federal guidelines. Unfortunately, common core morphed into something totally different and became the black sheep of educational family and continues to be so to this day. To truly identify education culture, we must look at the foundation of educational systems, the methods used to teach our youth, and societal norms considered vogue for emphasis in schools.

The Struggle for Educational Culture Continuity ―The education and training of a population, in the United States and elsewhere, is a critical input to productivity and thus to economic growth,‖ (Goldin, 1999, p. 1). Goldin (1999) provides that by the mid nineteenth

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century the United States achieved the status of the most educated country in the world. This status came about due to egalitarian school practices that catered to the populace at large and not an exclusive application enjoyed by wealthy European counterparts abroad. In the early twentieth century, secondary schooling (High School) spread rapidly. Schools were built and students in districts already having high schools were encouraged to enter and remain. This trend addressed the need for white-collar workers and for qualified blue-collar labors and prompted the demand for instruction past eighth grade (Goldin, 1999). However, much of this trend developed students for entering careers in factories and little change has manifested to-date that evolves modern career needs in the global economy. Though factories still manufacture goods for consumers, computer technology has replaced much of the needed workforce through robotics, Computer Numeric Control (CNC), and 3D printing. All the aforementioned technology advances require increased understanding of computers, technology as a whole, and ICT. The question then is how does education prepare students for these advances in careers if pedagogical architecture remains rooted to mechanized constructs? The short answer is it doesn‘t. As discussed earlier, national education has floundered in attempts to focus educational constructs that equate to continued federal funding. Attempts to promote new paradigms in education are met with skepticism and reluctance. Administrators are reluctant to embrace change for fear of losing needed funding, teachers balk at attempts to introduce new teaching methods, and students are left with substandard educations that fall short for competing in the global economy. Nowhere is this more evident than with an exploration of global standings (By Country) educationally. According to the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), the outcomes from 2012 analysis confirmed that high school age students‘ scores in the United States decreased from 25th to 31st in mathematics from 2009; from 20th to 24th in science; and from 11th to 21st in reading. This data citation was provided by the National Center for Education Statistics that gathers and analyzes statistics on education in the United States. According to Crotty (2014) the United States per capita spending per student is the highest of any developed country globally and though the U.S. increased global rankings marginally from statistics two years prior, still ranks dismally when compared to its Asian counterparts. Asian educational culture concentrates on foundational skill-sets like mathematical ability and reading ability and a culture that values effort, educationally. The comparison between U.S. and Asian educational systems promotes an understanding that in order to compete

Introduction

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on the educational field globally, requires a change in mindset from force feeding curriculum to students that may appear to be personally irrelevant, to architecture of educational engagement that equates to proficiency in skill-sets for advanced education and careers beyond school. So to define educational culture we must take into account methods, means, and instructional variety by which students are taught. In today‘s school systems, students are subjected to levels one and two based on Bruner‘s methods discussed earlier. Students continue to be considered empty vessels that must be filled with knowledge considered to be socially acceptable content based on U.S. educational standards. These approaches do little to promote autonomy and certainly do not encourage critical thinking beyond cramming information for assessments.

Emergence of Modern Educational Culture How educational culture may be viewed depends on personal perspective. For the sake of continuity, educational culture will be considered the attempted means by which curriculum is transferred via educational landscape. Each society disseminates curriculum based on the culture the system represents. Educational culture therefore, remains the approach and delivery of curricular content educationally for student assimilation within the confines of the school system under exploration. In the U.S. this means, as Bruner (1996) and Bhamani and Mehar (2014) described, inundating students with traditional curriculum through a deliver and receive paradigm that does little to foster creative and critical thinking. Only recently has education explored diverse conceptual frameworks that incorporate the student into the equation as the creator of their own learning. Quality Control for Distance Learning Distance learning is transforming education. No longer saddled with faceto-face requisites, busy adult learners, post-secondary students, and primary education has transformed curricular dissemination into formats that, in some fashion or form rely on a digital interfacing. Several organizational entities have developed standards that reflect best practice recommendations for the creation and sustainability of distance instructional formatting and quality control of educational technology, as it aligns with pedagogy, has taken center stage in virtual instructional design architecture. Wang (2008) forwarded specific parameters that any attempts at distance learning should follow if the end user (students) will glean benefit from the

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curricular exchange. According to Wang (2008) instructional designers need to adhere to benchmarking that appeases ―the National Education Association (NEA), the benchmarks of the American Distance Education Consortium (ADEC), the benchmarks of the American Federation of Teachers, and the benchmarks of the Quality Matters project‖ (2015, p. 31). Each association provides benchmarking that best practice in distance education should consider if the final outcome is to be construed as achievable (e.g., performance outcomes on par or greater than a face-to-face interactive).

The National Education Association The National Education Association describes distance learning course design constructs that warrant consideration and may be described as follows: 1. Courseware development benchmarks: The development of minimum standards that use performance outcomes as the required measurement for satisfactory distance learning architecture regardless of available technologies at the student‘s disposal. Course development must contain elements that compel students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate learning components as part of his or her course interaction. 2. Pedagogical process: Reliance on communication as a means to clarify, interact, and query is paramount to student successful outcomes and includes navigation of course materials, blogging/threading as an interactive for student/student and student/teacher exchange. Development of credible research skillsets also encourages students to provide valid topic development void of ethical dilemma. 3. Course Architecture: Course architecture should include a content overview, a self-efficacy assessment with available technology and personal motivation to participate in an online format, and familiarity with potential resources (e.g., digital libraries, digital repositories of specific knowledge, and alignment of resources with student access). Finally, academic expectations and schedules must be discussed, in advance, so that academic cadence may manifest and students can develop timemanagement strategies to fulfill course requirements.

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American Distance Education Consortium (ADEC) Wang (2008) discusses four defining principles developed by the ADEC that provides guidance for distance education: Distance learning architecture must contain components for dynamic and operative learning. Wang (2008) further summates that contained within this benchmark are six developmental aspects to consider: I. II. III. IV. V. VI.

Specific context; Needs, learning goals, and other characteristics of the learners; Nature of the content; Appropriate instructional strategies and technologies; Desired learning outcomes; Local learning environment. (p. 32)

Distance learning must contain components that lend sustenance to and for the learner. ―The provider of distance learning should develop and maintain the technological and human infrastructure so that learners and learning facilitators are supported in their use of technologies‖ (p. 32). Distance learning must have administrative and organizational sponsorship.

American Federation of Teachers Wang (2008) articulated that the American federation of teachers provides 14 benchmarks that provide guidance from surveys conducted with distance educators: 1. Faculty must retain academic control; 2. Faculty must be prepared to meet the special requirements of teaching at a distance; 3. Course design should be shaped to the potentials of the medium; 4. Students must fully understand course requirements and be prepared to succeed; 5. Close personal interaction must be maintained; 6. Class size should be set through normal faculty channels; 7. Courses should cover all material; 8. Experimentation with a broad variety of subjects should be encouraged; 9. Equivalent research opportunities must be provided; 10. Student assessment should be comparable;

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Dale H. Eberwein 11. Equivalent advisement opportunities must be offered; 12. Faculty should retain creative control over use and re-use of materials; 13. Full undergraduate degree programs should include some sametime same-place coursework; 14. Evaluation of distance coursework should be undertaken at all levels. (p. 32-33).

The Quality Matters Project (QM) Developed in conjunction with 19 institutions of higher learning, QM lenses the need for peer review and constant comparison analysis of online components so that evolution is encouraged to align with advances in information and communication technology (ICT). The quality matters consortium represents the most comprehensive foundation to-date for the development of value when distance education is the lens for discussion (Schwab, 2010). Designed as a faculty and peer review process, QM forwards a systematic distance instructional design rubric divided into eight categories that contain a total of 40 relevant components aligning distance education course developmental architecture with best practices in the field of distance education. The eight categories outline is as follows: 1. Course overview and introduction with transparency for students at every step of 2. the distance educational process. 3. Learning objectives must be clearly stated so all materials and objectives provide 4. clear detail on course objectives, assessment detail, and factors on student compliance (Schwab, 2010). 5. Assessment and measurement include measurements on effective learning, 6. evaluation of student progress as related to stated objectives, and designed to align with the learning process to include clear criteria for student work and participation Schwab (2010). 7. Resources and materials must be comprehensive and reflect the stated objectives of the 8. course. 9. Learner interaction; should include methods to engage students in activity that

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10. aligns with potential student achievement and tools that integrate distance learning platforms with student‘s potentials for successful outcomes. 11. Course technology must be engaging and provide students with 24-7 access to resources. 12. Learner support is developed through information systems backing by qualified information technology specialists. 13. Accessibility should consider all students, however, ADA 508 standards that cater to accommodations necessary for the visually and hearing impaired should be a component to the design process.

Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI) According to the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI), instructional designers dedicated to distance learning should possess the following competencies: 1. The ability to communicate effectively visually, orally, and in written form. 2. Designers must be able to develop programming based on research and theory pertaining to distance education. 3. Remain current with trends in distance education. 4. Read and develop data for collection and analysis for distance instructional design projects. 5. Understand and comply with ethical, legal, and political implications for distance Instructional design. 6. Ability to conduct needs assessments for project-specific design solutions. 7. Develop project-specific designs that meet identified standards in the distance Education industry. 8. Be familiar with analysis techniques to determine appropriate instructional content. 9. Ascertain potential alignment of existing and emerging technology and viability for incorporation into practice. 10. Able to align instructional design and the developmental process to coincide with the identified project. 11. Organize instructional programs and/or products to be designed, developed, and evaluated. 12. Determine and design potential interventions as need occurs.

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Dale H. Eberwein 13. Plan potential non-instructional interventions. 14. Modify existing instructional materials to align with desired student outcomes. 15. Develop new instructional materials as needed. 16. Develop assessments for determining the effectiveness of the programming. 17. Able to evaluate instructional and non-instructional interventions. 18. Make and take action on shortfalls to instructional design based on analysis of collected data. 19. Implement, disseminate, and diffuse instructional and noninstructional interventions. 20. Apply business skill-sets necessary to manage instructional design functions. 21. Maintain and manage collaborative efforts with team, stake holder, and management. 22. Plan and manage the instructional design project (IBSTPI, 2012).

The IBSTPI advocates the aforementioned competency standards as best practice but admits that not all the principles persist as achievable by one instructional designer. ―The instructional designer‘s competency in technology may only be as current as when he or she was last exposed to technology. Instructional design practices have often been guided by established taxonomies, such as those found in IBSTPI‖ (Bose, 2012, p.6). Based on the abovementioned standards and competencies, several constructs stand out as germane no matter what guidelines determine the architecture for the creation of a distance learning course of instruction. All standards recommended agreed on transparency of design, comprehensive student support at all levels of the distance learning process, institutional support of the project to include technical support with LMS interfacing, and open communications between students/students and students/teachers identified as critical to ensuring a successful outcome. Competencies of students, teachers, and instructional designers frame-worked the viability for distance learning programming and essentially this group must possess sufficient accolade to ensure curricular transfer for the programming to be successful. According to Gibson and Dunning (2012), the comparison of annual growth rate as of 2008 provides that on-line and blended learning rose 17.5% faster than face-to-face academics, nationally. Roughly 4.6 million higher education students now enroll in at least one online formatted course of

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instruction (Allen & Seaman, 2010). Gibson and Dunning (2012) summate that in online instruction, the effectiveness of the learning experience is manifest, in part, in the course design (Yang & Cornelious, 2005). ―The investment in up-front planning of a course is critical to constructing a comprehensive plan of instruction‖ (Allen & Seaman, 2010, p.209). By adopting the principles of quality matters in the design and execution of on-line curricular dissemination, institutions of higher learning may insure elimination of suspect architecture and develop programming that is transparent, provides needed student support, and develops accommodation for every learner. In adopting a peer-review process in the development of on-line curricular formatting, organizations assure the best practice potential that the field of distance learning has to offer. Alignment of curricular content with transparent learning objectives, expected outcomes, and technical support for educators, institutions insures that students will flourish in the distance educational environment. However, distance learning architecture can only be as sound as the competency displayed by the distance or on-line instructional designer‘s ability to meet or exceed necessary components described by the IBSTPI.

Trends in Distance Educational Architecture Much evolution has occurred in the design of educational transfer beyond the traditional classroom. The following chapters intend to explore modern technology-enhanced pedagogical architecture. The intent is to provide educators with alternatives, expansions, and potential solutions to curricular dissemination that function as an alternative to traditional educational landscape. These chapters were written by experts in the field of alternative educational architecture, and to provide the reader with understanding about the authors, a brief biography with accomplishments, is provided at the end of the book to lend credibility to the professional overviews and opinions presented.

REFERENCES Allen, E. I., & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on demand: Online education in the U.S., 2009. The Sloan Consortium. Needham, MA: Olin & Babson Colleges, Babson Survey Research Group. Retrieved from www.sloanc.org/publications/survey/pdf/learningondemand.pdf

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Bhamani, S., & Mehar, Z. A. (2014). Education: From Pre-modern to Post Modern and to Globalization--A Brief Review. Pakistan Business Review, 16(1), p. 196-201. Bose, E. V. (2012). IBSTPI, quality matters, and online learning: What's right and what needs changing? (Order No. 3548967, Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 210. Retrieved from http://search. proquest.com/docview/1282651795?accountid=35812. (1282651795). Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Harvard University Press (ISBN10: 0674179536). Business Insider (2012). Rankings of countries in mathematics, reading, and science. Retrieved from, http://www.business insider.com/pisa-rankings-2013-12 Crotty, J. (2014). Why Asian nations dominate education rankings. Forbes journal on education. Retrieved from, http://www.forbes.com/sites/ jamesmarshallcrotty/2014/05/21/why-asian-nations-dominate-globaleducation-rankings/ Gibson, P., & Dunning, P. (2012). Creating Quality Online Course Design Through a Peer-Reviewed Assessment. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 18(1), 209-228. Goldin, C. (1999). A brief history of education in the United States. National bureau of economic research historical paper No.119, (12), N3. Retrieved from, http://www.nber.org/papers/h0119.pdf IBSTPI, (2012). Instructional design competencies. Retrieved from, www.ibstpi.org Quality Matters Project (2015). Retrieved from, https://www.quality matters.org/ Wang, H. (2008). Benchmarks and Quality Assurance for Online Course Development in Higher Education. ERIC Number: ED503008. Retrieved from, http://eric.ed.gov/?q=quality+matters+and+online&ft=on&id=ED503008 Yang, Y., & Cornelious, F. (2005). Preparing instructors for quality online instruction, Online

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

GLOBALIZATION AND THE IMAGINED ‘GLOBAL THINKER’ Brian D. Denman University of New England, Australia

ABSTRACT The imagined ‗global thinker‘ in many cultures is inherently valueladen. Broadening and expanding one‘s global thinking by placing emphasis on curricular reform and pedagogy, particularly in higher education, suggests two very interesting developments. First, there is increasing interest in joint degrees, the establishment of the New Humanities, and the notion that a student‘s heightened sense of selfworth, competition for jobs, and employability is at stake. Secondly, there is the notion that there may be a cultural lens overlaying the way we approach teaching, learning, and research, suggesting that ‗global‘ may be confined to a particular worldview. In an attempt to track and map the ‗global thinker,‘ regardless of definition, there are many challenges to overcome, many of which include the ambiguity of lateral thinking, the perceived erosion of learning content over delivery, and the realization of its ‗imaginative‘ potential and applicability. While the curriculum generally specifies what students are expected to learn and requirements for graduation through accreditation and quality control standards set by the disciplines, universities are increasingly under pressure to refashion their degrees to conform to what students and industry demand. At the same time, higher education institutions are increasingly monitoring offerings, not by the quality of content but by the

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Brian D. Denman quantity of enrollees. Their emphasis increasingly is on financial viability and immediate employability of graduates. All of these developments undermine an historic regimen that promotes the development of the ‗global thinker.‘ This discussion identifies and analyses the tensions between the core activities of universities---namely teaching and research---and the development of the imagined ‗global thinker.‘ It also considers the feasibility of tracking a student‘s academic progress through the use of an online rubric that is custom-tailored to visually demonstrate one‘s mastery of creativity and innovation, deep thinking, assessment for learning, and critical problem solving skills.

INTRODUCTION In the mid to late 1990s, globalization became a commonplace term that has often been referred to and defined as an integration of economic systems (Slaughter, 1997; Sasson, 2001; Ohmae, 1994). It has since evolved to include aspects of politics and the rising influence of trans-national organizations, especially national governments. It has also become nominalized in pseudonisms such as globalony (Staudt & Rai, 2001) and glocalisation (Robertson, 2012), which have referenced globalization‘s detrimental effect on socio-cultural dimensions---apparent disconnects with local community and its influence in behalf of convergence and divergence (Baddeley, 2006). In many ways, globalization has become synonymous to a worldwide phenomenon that cannot be reduced to any one political, economic, or socio-cultural mechanism. The term ‗imagined global thinker‘ is a similar concept, as it covers an extensive spectrum that includes exclusivity and inclusivity, ideological representation and pragmatism, and positivism and cultural relativism. With regard to the globalization of education, Nordtveit (2008) refers to how ‗things have fallen apart‘ as a result of a Western dominated system imposing external norms and expectations in education upon nonWestern societies. The resulting effects continue unabated, classifying many nation-states as ‗under-developed‘ and ‗disastrous‘ in terms of recognizing education as a basic human right and in providing educational access, equity and opportunity. An unequal playing field leads to varying levels of educational quality and the misperceived views of the ‗other‘ as parochial, provincial, uninformed, or worse, uneducated. The standardization of educational testing worldwide has further exacerbated a competitive yet

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narrow approach to student performance. It is clear that in the current global era, educational systems are missing the mark. If one were to harken back to the days of Kant (1724-1804), Kant argued that we cannot perceive the world in other than causal, spatial, and temporal terms, which suggests that there will always be a sense of skepticism in accepting one‘s global way of thinking by virtue of our inborn ways of perceiving the world through filters or ‗categories‘ (Wertheimer, 1979, p.41). Carney refers to these filters as policyscapes (Carney, 2009), and argues that a combination of structures, agencies and actors dictate how such policyscapes resonate and impact with one‘s particular worldview. In the present-day context, educational quality may be considered dependent on the quality of teaching provided and, in systems where education comes at a cost, ―what you buy is (often) what you get.‖ Notwithstanding the importance of content, much of how education is delivered via teaching, coaching, mentoring whether faceto-face or online, the relevance of the teacher and his or her teaching approaches to imparting knowledge cannot be overemphasized. Clearly, teachers serve as a refreshing reminder that education is all about human development and culture, about knowledge and commitment, and not just about markets, money and machines (Power 2015, p.191). While there is no classification system treating teachers as professionals---the 1966 UNESCOILO recommendation concerning the status of teachers still serves as the charter of rights for teachers worldwide (UNESCO, 1966), the value of what is taught, how it is taught, and how it is assessed is in question. As far as the global thinker is concerned, educational quality is dependent on the exposure of perceiving the world through numerous lenses and perspectives. The pursuit of identifying the imagined ‗global thinker‘ therefore rests not only in lateral, productive, and agile thinking, but also in exposure to various approaches, methods, and ways of knowing or doing. Those who ascribe to ‗becoming global‘ and ‗one with the world‘ choose not to belong to any one culture or identify with a particular set of beliefs, customs, or traditions. Identity or ‗identification‘ is not an issue; rather, emphasis is placed on becoming lateral in one‘s thinking and agile in approaching solutions to problems.

Losing the Plot: Form over Substance Füredi (2004) argues that the ‗intellectual‘ of yesteryear has been lost to a culture of mediocrity, due to the massification of higher education. The

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descriptor ‗intellectual‘ originates from what Clark (2006) refers to as academic charisma, which emerged in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries where ‗town gown‘ disputes often occurred. As McLaren contends, With the decline of the critical intellectual, the thinker gives way to the expert, politics yields to technocracy, and culture and education lapse into forms of social therapy. The promotion of ideas plays second fiddle to the provision of services. (McLaren, 2005, p.250). Structures imposed on educators (e.g., schools, curricular content) are confounding the natural process of inborn precepts (worldview) to understanding and applying new and innovative ideas into the real world. It is as if policy makers seem to take precedence in determining what educational quality is by assuming that the structures employed will add greater value to the student and improve the quality in instruction. Bettering the ‗system‘ does not necessarily correlate to reversing the educational process of concepts (form) over precepts (substance). Conversely, it is likely to compartmentalize education and restrict its very scope and scalability. This point seems to echo Sir Ken Robinson‘s TED talk that schools are educating people ‗out of‘ their creativity (Robinson, 2006). There is no one approach to teaching, but changing and reforming educational structures should be approached with the rapprochement of both agency and key actors. Agency includes traditional disciplines, particularly those found in the humanities and social sciences now have to consider aligning with professional degrees such as education, law, and business (Goodman, 2015) in order to survive. Interdisciplinarity appears to be a ‗make or break‘ for the ‗New Humanities.‘ Governments at all levels are also increasing their pressure on educational institutions by making them held more accountable to the public while, at the same time, divesting in them. Intellectuals such as Arundhati Roy, Noam Chomsky, Toni Morrison, Zygmunt Bauman, Stanley Aronowitz, and Cornel West as well as the late Pierre Bourdieu, Jacques Derrida, and Edward Said may defend academic rights for teaching and learning freedoms and distain political controls (Giroux, 2006, p.65), but the ‗academic‘ elements of knowledge advancement appear stymied by the very ‗processes‘ and bureaucratic measures imposed on it. This leads to focusing our discussion key actors; namely the teacher and student. This is where change can be transformative.

Theoretical framework(s) Learning approach

Participant‘s role

Patterns of behaviour

Minority views

Scholastic contributors

Collaborative Symbolic interactionalism; Cultural relativism Interactive with others and self; group-oriented Projection of self and society to reflect a particular way, orientation, or construct Self-dependent upon society and vice versa; emphasis on prevailing values and standards of society Opportunistic but cooperative if negotiated Jarvis; Feyerabend

Inquiry-Based Constructivism; Pragmatism; Phenomenological Collaborative problem solving; critical thinking

Advocacy-Based Neo-Populism

Rationalistic Idealism; Positivism; Normativism

Persuasive and/or lobbying for a cause or direction based on majority rules Spokespeople for the ‗majority‘ usually through media

Argumentative; interventionistic; mechanistic; structural Firmly held stances based on testing, empirical verification, and accountability

Understanding is based on interactions with environment; dissonance stimulates learning; knowledge evolves through social negotiation Cultivated and valued

Persuasion of others to accept viewpoint/ perspective; defence and justification of stance; downplay weaknesses

Legitimisation and justification of facts through existing bodies of information; pre-occupation with preserving identity or ideology

Discouraged or dismissed

Restricted, excluded or alienated

Dewey; Montessouri; Plato; Husserl

Kitching (1989)

Plato; Hegel

Critical thinkers

Sources: Savery & Duffy (2001); Jarvis (2007); and Bowen & Hobson (1974). Figure 1. Illustrations of Learning Behavior Approaches based on Social Reproduction.

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By their very nature, teaching and learning go hand in hand, and many of the learning approaches used are based on the social reproduction from and with specific communities. Figure 1 offers a possible conceptual framework for understanding knowledge gaps in ways of approaching learning behavior from four perspectives of social reproduction. Although patterns of learning behavior are purposely oversimplified to demonstrate variation, the intent here is to identify social structures implicit in the way education is perceived and pursued. Such approaches are generally practiced and refined through schooling and learning acquisition throughout life, but may also be influenced by cultural considerations as well. By distinguishing between social worlds of ‗ways of thinking,‘ one may be able to uncover learning barriers and/or learning bridges. Cognitive and cultural dissonance may also diminish over time from exposure and experience as well as from an expansion of one‘s worldview.

Knowledge Gaps in Relation to Learning Behaviors and Educational System Rankings Historically, educational systems---particularly in Europe---assisted with the notion of molding and shaping the minds of students by virtue of specific university models.

Source: Modified from (Husén, 1991) in (Denman & Dunstan, 2013, p.88). Figure 2. Illustrations of University Models.

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Whatever the model, the onus was placed on the student to help develop his or her academic skills and often at a cost. Later, human capital theory helped many of these systems (models) expand their skills-base in an effort to differentiate the marketplace, expand the nation-state economy and, in the process, improve living and working standards. Educational ‗standards‘ have since morphed into performance-based measures that are often linked to financial incentives by government. While these measures may be considered necessary in order to increase accountability, their efficacy may be limited as a result of misuse of resources, misguided information, design anomalies, and political considerations. Steiner-Khamsi (2015) argues that national policymakers often use metadata from trans-national organizations as ―quasi-external sources of authority‖ to either approve or reject reform. Initiated by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in the early 2000s, the annual Education at a Glance publication helped policy makers use international comparisons to improve the educational outcomes of the economies of the OECD member countries. UNESCO has developed its own Global Monitoring Reports, which furthers the attempt to reference compiled census-education-related data from all nation-states, but it has also helped to highlight ongoing challenges with regard to educational access, equity, and opportunity on a global scale---not just the OECD member countries. Documenting efforts to improve the quality of education, view education as the great equalizer, and sustain worldwide initiatives, these reports show how far we have gone but also how far we need to go. Secondary data compiled from the OECD, UNESCO and other transnational organizations have been used to help measure specific educational benchmarks, particularly in science, math, and literacy, for national purposes and international comparison. International achievement tests are highlighted for purposes of this discussion to reflect the challenges of standardizing and measuring skills and knowledge acquired at given grade levels or age groups. These include: the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) under the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA); the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), which is administered by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, which is administered by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Online or web-based assessments, have been developed, tried, and tested but many times for different purposes. In the United States, concerted efforts have been made to centralize online assessments at the K-12 level,

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(see Georgia‘s Online Assessment System, https://www.georgiaoas.org/ servlet/a2l), that attempts to align mandated curriculum standards in order to assess whether key performance benchmarks have been reached. Other examples of online assessments address personality diagnostics that analyze one‘s behavioral styles related to the workplace, (see DiSC, https://www.onlinediscprofile.com/), and a Web-based talent assessment for future employment prospects (see Gallup, http://www.gallup.com/careers/ 108190/Online-Assessment.aspx).

International and Inter-Regional Comparisons Developing international and inter-regional comparisons relating to educational achievement requires decisions about what and whom to assess. In terms of what to assess, Progress in International Reading Study (PIRLS) chose to measure reading literacy of fourth grade students, reflecting on what had been expected in terms of student learning. It has also collected demographic student data that addresses the impact of the home environment with regards to his or her reading skills. Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) chose to examine reading, mathematical and scientific literacy of 15 year-old students and looking ahead to what might be applied in student learning. Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) measured the achievement in mathematics and science for fourth and eighth grade students but began by looking ahead and then moved to looking back, emphasizing curriculum. The reason for the shift in approach was a technical challenge that influenced the sampling of large international tests. Since TIMSS test designers opted to sample entire classes of students in grades four and eight, there were disparities in those countries whose students were not in their age-appropriate grade class. This meant that in the TIMSS data, 16 out of the 42 participating countries (including Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands) had higher mean scores as a result of older cohorts of students in the same grade (Smith 2006, p.35). PIRLS and PISA experienced similar problems, in terms of who to assess, that there were inconsistencies in the required age group of students assigned to grade levels and differences within each grade. The criticisms of these global achievement tests include teaching to the test; narrowing of the curriculum; generalizing complex differences between learning approaches and contextual educational systems; misusing and abusing evidence-based prescriptions of policy and practice; misaligning expectations

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with experience (quality and equity); and achieving an appropriate way of linking student capabilities to employment.

The New Work Order Post 2015, the alignment between education and employment will likely continue to be a global challenge. Globalization is causing nation-states to consider how they should best organize their skills-formation in the context of an increasingly interconnected, competitive-oriented world (Brown, 1999). At present, it is estimated that there are 45 million entrants to the global jobs market, most of them young women and men, but over 300 million new jobs are required from now until the end of 2015 in order to keep pace with projected growth in the labor force (ILO, 2009). While there are countries that still impose tax penalties for superannuation ‗retirement‘ packages transferring between countries, often at 10% in addition to other taxes incurred, the mobility of skilled migrants is ever-increasing (Colley, 2000). With regard to the 'new work order' and the world of work, globalization appears to have provided, an inclusion of more voices, particularly those coming from the ‗Global South‘ (Connell, 2007). This seems to suggest that inter-cultural communication and multiculturalism should become necessities, especially because the global and social context has evolved in terms of cultural sensitivities, awareness, and acknowledgement. What increases the demands on the ‗global thinker‘ is that consideration should be given to what is known as well as what is possible. Over the past few decades, significant changes have taken place in the way globalization has impacted the workplace. Farrell (2001) has commented on the importance of developing language and learning in the 'New Work Order,‘ which stresses demands for competencies in communication technologies and cooperative learning for increased efficiency and effectiveness. He reflects the view of the Boston Consulting Group's 2020 Vision: The Manager of the 21st Century, which posits that executive leaders are increasingly being required to be more team-focused and more reliant on a 'globalized' knowledge economy (Innovation & Business Skills Australia). This seems to suggest that because the world‘s social context is changing, the world should also consider expanding its understanding of skilled migration, knowledge management, and training and development.

Multicultural Civilisation Multicultural Society

Pre 1900 Democratic pluralism 1840 – Treaty of Waitangi – principle of biculturalism (New Zealand)

Multicultural education

1901-1999 1909 – A Pluralistic Universe (William James) 1963 - Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (Canada); 1974 – equality in society (Sweden); 1977 – The People of Australia – Australia‘s Multicultural Policy (Australia); 1993 -Cultural exception (France) 1966 – 1975 – Social movement to advance beliefs about multiculturalism and make them government policy (Lopez 2000); 1998 – Intercultural Policy (Belgium); 2003 – Multiculturalism & the needs of different language groups (Finland)

Multicultural curriculum

Content integration; knowledge construction; equity pedagogy; prejudice reduction; and empowering school culture and social structure

Multicultural workforce Sources:

2000 & beyond World-Systems Theory (Wallerstein); World Culture Theory Cultural imperialism; Multiculturalism Policy Index

Shende: online; Multiculturalism Policies in Contemporary Democracies: online)

1965 - Affirmative Action (USA); 1963 Bumiputra (Malaysia); 2006 - Saudization (Saudi Arabia) Multiculturalism Policies in Contemporary Democracies: online)

Figure 3. Types of Multiculturalism (unity in diversity) and Multicultural Policies.

Banks 1998: online

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Slaughter (2004) infers that a New World Order has begun because of globalization, suggesting that the sovereignty of specific government institutions could be disaggregated by the capacity and opportunity to participate in trans-governmental networks (Slaughter, 2004). Indeed, the nature of work, particularly in international settings, has increasingly changed to become more fluid, despite certain constraints that may impede progress. There are trends that indicate a preference for organizational structures becoming less hierarchical and that require greater flexibility in the division of activities performed (Claver-Cortés et. al., 2007). For multinational companies operating in at least two countries, lateral communication and decentralization have a greater degree of cultural differences found in operational ‗international‘ networks, particularly of those which are characterized by controlling and owning operations (Buckley & Casson, 2009; Johansen, 2009; Oddou & Mendenhall, 2013). Commentary treating globalization‘s effects over the last two decades raises question about whether we are developing imagined ‗global thinkers.‘ As previously noted, the liberal arts approach to explore the disciplines is one way of broadening the lateral thinker (generalist). However, in recent times, the pursuit of generalist degrees is cause for concern, particularly in the skilled professions, as they are considered ‗jacks of all trades but masters of none.‘ Figure 3 illustrates how types of multicultural policies have developed over time, suggesting possible linkages. It should be noted that while multiculturalism has increased over time, there is inconclusive evidence to suggest that multiculturalism is currently waning across Western democracies (Multiculturalism Policies in Contemporary Democracies). However, while social inclusion tends to be the preferred terminology for policy doctrine in many nation-states, the educational policy dimensions for indigenous peoples, national minorities, and migrants continue to be in the embryonic stages of development.

Personal and Educational Identity In student-centered educational systems, students are required to be more informed about their academic abilities and interests than ever before. In teacher-centered systems, students may show less involvement in content but may express their concerns about whether curricular content is applicable to the real, albeit local, world. Marcia (1966) differentiated between ‗identity achievement‘ and ‗identity diffusion,‘ in that the former reflects educational

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commitment in exercising judgement to achieve an academic or vocational goal and the latter abandonment or resignation. Both concepts are based on prior experiences that in turn help formulate personal identity that guides, directs, and matures one‘s educational identity. However, for cultures that are steeped in tradition, there is concern about whether understanding and preservation of an individual‘s cultural identity, which subsumes into one‘s educational identity, can continue in a post-modern world and, if so, under what set of rules. Educational identity does not necessarily go hand in hand with one‘s inherent educational system. Rather, it refers to the will to commit and explore. In a recent study on personality traits and educational identity formation, Klimstra et al. (2012) argued that there are age discrepancies in how student commitment and exploration are valued. For college years onward, students are more likely to be reflective in approach. For early adolescence, for example, students are considered more comparative when exploring alternatives. Given the general observations of ‗the global thinker‘ and how existing structures may inhibit progress in developing innovative thinking and creative agility, suggestions for new forms of inquiry and approaches have been attempted. Stenberg (1984) has identified three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical, which have been touted as better predictors of success than present-day achievement tests.

A New Rubric The Denman James Rubric, hereafter referred to as the ‗DJR‘ visually tracks a student‘s academic progress and potential and then compares the individual‘s results with a class average. The objective is to provide visual evidence of a student‘s strengths and weaknesses that might assist in improving retention and academic or career advice. Utilizing international collaboration, research has identified benefits for students, teachers, and institutions, suggesting that custom-tailored rubrics can influence both educational attainment and relevance, particularly in regional, rural and remote areas where ethnicity, poverty, and cultural identity are considered major challenges. A primary research goal has been to investigate whether differing teaching and learning approaches and the use of alternative assessments can promote, encourage, and empower students in taking greater ownership of their learning over time.

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In this study, it has been found that online visuals that track a student‘s academic progress and potential can serve as important sources of evidence when used in measuring and scaffolding changes in the educational development of certain attributes, such as creativity, communication, problem solving, reflective thinking, and analytical thinking. An online visual assessment tool such as the DJR provides a good resource to discuss and reflect upon one‘s academic progress and potential in terms of employment. Because the DJR is visual, it elicits important information that is easy to recognize and assess both globally and locally via the Internet. The general ease in use and online accessibly allows an individual and one‘s teacher (instructor) to assess and offer direction and advice in terms of building one‘s attributes---strengths or weaknesses---for academic or career purposes. The assessment of value-laden attributes---such as creativity---has raised concerns about consistency in defining and classifying various forms of creativity. While the DJR was initially designed to explore attributes in freeform modelling and analysis, a two-day action-based workshop with key stakeholders allowed experts in the fields of psychology and education to come together to collectively consider developing concept-maps based on teaching and learning behaviors. Developing these concept maps and incorporating them into the DJR has required additional technical support to improve teacher guidance for assessment purposes and to improve and validate research on distinguishing and classifying attributes. From a cross-cultural perspective, DJR research seeks to examine how the influences of one‘s precepts and worldview can contribute toward greater educational achievements in learning. The DJR not only tracks a student‘s progressive achievement in any course, subject or skill, it provides an evidence base for measuring and scaffolding knowledge acquisition through recognition of one‘s strengths and weaknesses. A principal question: Can educational achievement in ethnic minority groups be improved and ethnic knowledge more valued if education is more engaging and relevant, taking into account the cultural context of learning and application of knowledge? Would students want to commit and explore and take greater ownership of their learning?

The Prototype A prototype of the DJR tool has been developed and the current version provides basic functionality for investigating and promoting learning with

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regard to five attributes: creativity, communication, problem solving, reflective thinking, and critical thinking. These attributes were chosen because they are all skills required for successful innovation. Furthermore, of the 21st Century skills, these are perhaps the five most challenging to understand, learn, teach or assess, especially cross-culturally, and yet they are possibly the most important in terms of the future survival of humankind and the solution of problems we face. Reviewing the research literature and reports from employers of graduates, these skills are often perceived as inadequate and have so far proven to be difficult to improve. Very few educational interventions have demonstrated much influence. There still remains the unresolved issue regarding whether these types of skills are best attained through explicit instruction or embedded acquisition. There are studies of at least some of these attributes that suggest cultural variation is a factor. Given their value-laden nature, each attribute may be interpreted differently by various cultures, experience, and discipline. This has been taken into account, which allows researchers to investigate how such attributes are subjectively defined, assessed and valued over time. The first stage of a collaborative research project is a ‗proof of concept phase‘ for the DJR prototype. It allows researchers to acquire a more intimate understanding of the nature of the problem being addressed. Beyond assessment of the usability of the software, this phase of the investigations includes survey of key stakeholders, teachers, students, parents, local community and employers, concerning their definition, understanding and assessment of ‗attainment‘ in these five attributes. After use of the DJR to assess and mentor students, both teachers and students will be surveyed again. The data will be analyzed to identify similarities and differences in definition of these attributes and how they are currently being assessed, examine how this aligns with local, national and international expectations, and evaluate the impact of the DJR upon perceptions and practice. Addressing the subject of reliability and validity of self-assessment, selfreported teacher logs or interviews are considered questionable, so textural and tonal analyses of responses to open ended questions will allow comparison of the texturally or tonally-implied and the explicit results. As a way to control for differences in background factors such as system policies, classroom organization, teacher knowledge, and home environment that can influence opportunity to learn and the quality of instruction students receive, individual gain scores or progressive achievement are utilized rather than just examining attained achievement. This practice should more closely link improvements to changes in curriculum or instructional approach.

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APPLICABILITY Originally designed as a software tool to aid collection and analysis of comparative research data, it is now obvious that the DJR is a multi-functional tool that is able to serve other purposes. It can be used by a teacher to mentor students, by students to monitor and take ownership of their own learning, coupled with an e-portfolio to provide evidence to employers, be accompanied by online independent learning resources, or utilized in workshops to assist with attribute assessment in professional development for academics and leaders or managers in organizations. How the DJR will finally evolve is unresolved at the moment and will be guided by the outcomes of the research.

CONCLUSION This narrative has attempted to define the imagined ‗global thinker‘ and how the system has fallen short. The current standardization of curricula and educational assessment has undermined the capabilities and potentials of both student ability and agility. Clearly, education in the 21st Century will require overhauls in what is taught, how content is delivered, and how it is to be assessed in order to better align education with employment. The idea of becoming lateral and agile in one‘s thinking is what the real world requires and is expecting, yet current educational systems are not yet equipped to meet this need. The rubric identified is a way forward to not only track student progress but to stretch the individual. In many ways, it fosters a closer working relationship between teacher and student to mold and shape his or her ‗global thinking.‘ The rubric provides a visual means of measuring and scaffolding a student‘s individual ability in five attributes that are in keeping with what industry requires: creativity, communication, reflective thinking, analytical thinking and problem solving. By encouraging and developing a student‘s potential strengths by means of the rubric, the hope is that the student will take greater ownership of his or her learning and commit to learning more. The DJR places greater emphasis on individual development rather than focusing on specific subjects, age groups and grades as international achievement tests attempt to do. Assessment processes are conducted so as to allow for subjective interpretation of student ability and capability. By mapping student attributes and acumen visually, students will have evidence to

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support direction of his or her own academic trajectory and possible professional direction. After all, that is what education is for; namely to expand the horizons of the individual. As Wittgenstein has observed, … [a] world-picture is a view of things particular to a location, held by a particular group of individuals at a certain period of time; it does not need to be sophisticated, philosophical or scientific system aiming at being once and for all true. But the notion of a world-picture itself does not have any explanatory power, it rather labels a setting‖ (Sluga & Stern 1996, p.419- 420).

REFERENCES Baddeley, Michelle (2006). "Convergence or divergence? The impacts of globalisation on growth and inequality in less developed countries.‖ In: International Review of Applied Economics, 20(3): 391-410. Banks, James A., (1995). Multiculturalism's Five Dimensions. Retrieved 13 December 2013, http://www.learner.org/workshops/socialstudies/pdf/ session3/3.Multiculturalism.pdf Carney, Stephen (2009). "Negotiating policy in an age of globalization: Exploring educational policyscapes in Denmark, Nepal, and China.‖ In: Comparative Education Review, 53(1): 63-88. Denman, Brian D., & Neil Dunstan (2013). ―Beyond the University: International University Co-operation and Network Capital.‖ In: Higher Education Forum, Vol 10 (March 2013), Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima: pp. 81-102. http://en.rihe. hiroshima-u.ac.jp/pl_default_2.php?bid=109625 Farrell, L. (2001). "The 'new world order': workplace education and the textual practice of economic globalization." Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 9(1): 57-75. Füredi, Frank (2004). Where have all the intellectuals gone? Confronting Twenty-First Century Philistinism. Continuum: London. Giroux, Henry A., (2006). "Higher Education under Siege: Implications for public intellectuals." In: Thought & Action (2006): 63-78. Goodman, Robin T., (20015). "Corporate Humanities and the Imperial University: The economy of debt in a the culture of higher education." College Literature, (Spring 2015), 42(2): 337-347.

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Green, S., F. Hassan, et al., Eds. (2003). In: Search of Global Leaders. Harvard Business Review on Leadership in a Changed World. Boston, Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. Haddad, W. D. (1997). "Globalization of the economy: The implications for education and skill formation." In: Prospects, 27(1): 35-40. Hofstede, G. (2001). Intercultural Encounters, in Culture's consequences. Thousand Oaks, California, SAGE. Holton, R. J. (1998). Globalization and the Nation-State. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London, St. Martin's Press. Klimstra, Theo A., Koen Luyckx, Veerle Germeijs, Wim H.J. Meeus, and Luc Goossens (2012). "Personality Traits and Educational Identity Formation in Late Adolescents: Longitudinal associations and academic progress.‖ In: Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 41: 346-361. Marcia, James E., 1966). "Development and validation of ego-identity status.‖ In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5) (May 1966): 551558. McLaren, Peter (2005). Capitalists and Conquerors: A critical pedagogy against empire. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Oxford. Nordtveit Bjorn H., (2008). Millennium Development Goals: Background, Discourse, Implications. Comparative Education Research Centre Seminar Series, University of Hong Kong, Faculty of Education. OECD (2015). "Students, Computers and Learning. Making the connection. DOI: 10.1787/.9789264239555-en. Retrieved 17 September 2015, http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/education/ students-computers-and-learning_9789264239555-en#page1 Ohmae, Kenichi (1994). The Borderless World: Power and strategy in the global marketplace. Harper Collins. Peters, Michael A., (2004). "The University and the New Humanities." In: Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, (February 2004), 3(1): 41-57. Piketty, Thomas (2014). Capital in the 21st Century. The Belkap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Power, Colin (2015). The Power of Education. Education for All, Development, Globalisation and UNESCO. Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects Series, Vol 27, Springer, Singapore. Robertson, Roland (2012). "Retrospective Globalisation or glocalisation?" The Journal of International Communication, 18(2): 191-208.

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Robinson, Ken (2006). Do schools kill creativity? TEDTalk. Retrieved 14 August 2015, https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_ kill_creativity Sasson, Anne S., (2001). "Globalisation, hegemony and passive revolution. " In: New Political Economy, 6(1): 5-17. Shende, Dharamdas M., (n.d.) "Better Culture, Better Civilization: Rethinking Multiculturalism.‖ Retrieved 13 August 2015, http://www.cultural diplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf/participantpapers/academy/Dharamdas-M-Shende-Better-Culture-BetterCivilization-Rethinking-Multiculturalism.pdf Slaughter, Anne-Marie (2004). A New World Order, Princeton University Press. Slaughter, Sheila and Larry L. Leslie (1997). Academic Capitalism: Politics, policies, and the entrepreneurial university. The John Hopkins University Press. Smith, Emma (2006). Using Secondary Data in Educational and Social Research. Conducting Educational Research. Harry Torrance, ed., Open University Press. Smith, S. (2003). Labour Economics. London, Routledge. Retrieved 13 September 2015, https://pup.princeton.edu/chapters/i7712.html Staudt, Kathleen, Shirin M. Rai, and Jane L Parpart (2001). "Protesting World Trade Rules: Can we talk about empowerment?" Signs (2001): 1251-1257. Steiner-Khamsi, Gita (2015). "Standards are good (for) business: standardised comparison and the private sector in education.‖ In: Globalisation, Societies and Education. Routledge: 1-22. UNESCO-ILO (1966). Recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers (5 October 1966), http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13084& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Wertheimer, Michael (1979). A Brief History of Psychology. Revised edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR SYNCHRONOUS WEB CONFERENCING: SYNCHRONOUS CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY Ann Armstrong Capella University, Minneapolis, MN, US

INTRODUCTION Online learning is growing significantly. Miller (2012) stated that technology-based education now accounts for 37.3% of all formal learning hours across all learning methods. Allen and Seaman (2014) reported that the number of students taking at least one online course was at 7.1 million and that the portion of higher education students taking a least one online course is 33.5%. Leaders of higher education who believe that online is at least as good as traditional delivery is at 74%; while 26% believe online is inferior to traditional delivery (Allen & Seaman, 2014). Enhanced flexibility is a significant benefit of online delivery allowing the students to be located anywhere as long as there is internet access, and yet many students miss ―live‖ student-student and faculty-student interaction that are present in face-to-face traditional classroom and workshop environments (Stewart, Harlow, & DeBacco, 2011).

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Moore and Kearsley (2012) explained that web-conferencing systems are a unique form of online delivery that provide for synchronous, ―live,‖ interactions between students and other students and faculty and students allowing for enhanced faculty presence and student-student and facultystudent interaction. These systems are often referred to as webinars (webbased seminars), or web-casts, or virtual classrooms in corporations. Many vendors exist who offer web conferencing products including Adobe Connect, WebEx, Wimba, Elluminate, Centra, GoToMeeting, Global Meet, Skype, Google Hangout, and Blackboard Collaborate. A research-based Constructivist model for delivering synchronous web conferences and interactive discussion is a critical component of learning (Brookfield, 2004; Brookfield & Preskill, 1999; Christensen, 1991; Stewart, et al., 2011) and web-conferencing systems provide the tools and techniques to engage in this type of learning online (Armstrong, 2014; Armstrong & Thornton, 2012; Morrison, 2012). According to Stewart et al. (2011) organizations must discover how to incorporate the best of traditional classroom face-to-face interaction with online access. Armstrong (2014) recommended that instructional designers, developers, faculty designers-by-assignment, and facilitator/faculty, who become designers by necessity, follow an enhanced R2D2 design model, called R2D2/C3PO, for the synchronous web-cast sessions. The read, reflect, display, and do components are drawn from Bonk and Zhang‘s (2006) work focused on design for delivering distance education grounded in constructivist design principles. C3PO adds to the model coaching, conviviality, and the use of a critical incident questionnaire, combined with extensive planning and organization is needed to effectively design and support online synchronous web-cast learning environments (Armstrong, 2014).

Constructivist Learning Theory The conclusion of a constructivist epistemology is that knowledge is constructed by the individual as they make sense of their experiences and is often unique to the individual (Driscoll, 2005; Richey, Klein, & Tracey, 2011). This belief is in sharp contrast to behaviorists who believe there exists universal laws of learning and that knowledge occurs outside of and independent of learners. Under these assumptions, the goal of instruction is simply to transfer knowledge from outside to inside the learner (Driscoll, 2005).

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The R2D2/C3PO model has as its foundation an educational philosophy grounded in individual and social constructivism, whereby learners construct knowledge through individual experiences as well as co-constructing knowledge though social interactions (Driscoll, 2005; Richey, Klein & Tracey, 2011; Smith & Ragan, 2005). The instructional design community is becoming increasingly interested in constructivist views of learning and meaning, particularly in creating collaborative environments whereby meaning is negotiated among communities of learners in real-world contexts (Richey, Klein, & Tracey, 2011).

Constructivist Design Theory Richey, Klein and Tracey (2011) explained that instructional designers are becoming increasingly interested in instructional strategies and instructional models that adhere to constructivist philosophy. Constructivist instructional designers, operating on the belief that learning results from a personal interpretation of experience, build courses that leverage the prior knowledge of the learner. The learner then uses this self-world, which includes prior learning along with the learner‘s cultural orientation, values, beliefs, and experiences to negotiate new knowledge and meaning (Richey, Klein, & Tracey, 2011). Included in the learner‘s self-world is an understanding of how learning and meaning evolve. To leverage the self-world of learners, constructivist designers create learning environments and activities that allow the learner control of their own knowledge and beliefs (Richey, Klein, & Tracey, 2011). Authentic learning activities are central to constructivist-based models and include dialogic strategies, exploratory strategies, and supportive strategies (Dabbaugh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). Dabbaugh and Bannan-Ritland (2005) included articulation, reflection, collaboration and social negotiation, and multiple perspectives in dialogic instructional strategies. Activities such as critical discussion, summarizing, agreeing, disagreeing, and answering questions, are called articulation and are part of complex elaboration strategies. Reflection involves analysis and synthesis on the part of individual learners and the group as new meanings are reached. Among these activities are reflective thinking and sharing ideas with peers, faculty, and subject matter experts. Strategies that use collaboration techniques typically involve social negotiation, where learners co-construct knowledge and negotiate meaning through dialogue, discussion, and debate (Dabbaugh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). Finally the importance of honoring multiple perspectives is critical and

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involves creating a climate of mutual respect and trust where different points of view are valued and encouraged (Brookfield, 2013; Brookfield & Preskill, 1999; Dabbaugh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005).

R2D2/C3PO Model Bonk and Zhang (2006) proposed an R2D2 model for online learning that focused on learning activities and technology resources used to support learning activities. This R2D2 model differed from the Willis and Wright‘s (2000) constructivist instructional design model that was developed for governmental instructional design projects. The R2D2/CP3O model, which follows in table 1, enhances Bonk and Zhang‘s earlier work and adds five additional components, as well as more instructional strategies, learning activities, and synchronous web-conferencing tools available to implement these strategies and learning activities.

Read and Listen The read/listen component includes readings from texts, articles, journals on the topic area, as well as a downloadable participant manual made available through the file sharing tool in a web-conferencing system. It also may include listening to downloadable audio files, such as podcasts or video files, such as vodcasts or streaming video. These activities may either take place during the synchronous session or pre and post activities surrounding the synchronous session. Expert lectures, presentations, and demonstrations can occur during the synchronous session where the facilitator/faculty presents a ―live‖ lecture and/or discussion using web-conferencing tools including whiteboards, chats, application sharing, share pods, screen sharing, PowerPoint slides, file transfer, polls, and note pods for announcements, Q&A, and FAQs.

Reflect, Write, Share The reflect/writing/sharing component includes reflection on readings online and off and listening to any audio file transfers or ―live‖ presentation, but can also add the element of reflection prior to and following each assigned reading in a participant manual or listening to a ―live‖ presentation during the

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web-conferencing event. For example, learners may read a page in an online or print-based participant manual, view a page on a link supplied in the webconferencing room, or listen to the facilitator/faculty explain a new concept. After each learning event, allowing time for learners to reflect is important. This can be done by giving the learners time to respond in writing to relevant questions in their participant manual, before sharing these reflections with the other participants, either through verbal discussion, online chats, whiteboarding, or polls. Time for reflection has always been a benefit of asynchronous discussions, where students have time to think, reflect thoughtfully and intentionally, and then respond to others in a threaded discussion. Making time for this reflection in a synchronous session is critical for in-depth ―live‖ discussions and learning transfer from the course-room or conference to the job. Other tools for reflection include self-assessments with the opportunity of comparing results anonymously with fellow learners or a relevant population. Exercises during the web-conferencing class allowing learners to apply concepts that are presented, demonstrated, or modeled during the webconference by writing information in a participant manual, in a chat pod, or on a whiteboard provide additional avenues for reflection and application in a real-world work context. Small group discussions are a powerful instructional strategy for reflection. Using breakout rooms, which are private rooms for a subset (typically 2-5 participants) of an online course, learners can hold lively discussions, debates, mock trials, role plays, and practices with partners, and focus groups. Tools available in the breakout room may include whiteboards, chats, PowerPoint slides, and pools. As in traditional workshops, the structure of the discussions is critical to creating a democratic environment. Ideas for how to do this are presented in Appendix A of this paper.

Display Many learners acquire knowledge best when they can see a visual representation of concepts, processes, and procedures. The display component can include PowerPoint slides, graphic layouts, access to online urls and databases, vodcasts, streaming video, and other multi-media tools that may be shared using a web-conferencing tool such as Adobe Connect.

R2D2/C3PO Component Read/Listening

Instructional Strategies/Learning Activities Reading materials online or offline. Creating participant manuals for each Live synchronous event. Listening to audio materials online or offline. Synchronous Expert Lectures/Presentations/Tutorials Demonstrations.

Reflect/Writing/Sharing

Time allocated for reflection: Pre-work During synchronous event. Between synchronous events (multi-event course) Small Group Discussion.

Synchronous Web-Conferencing Tools Downloadable participant manuals as pdf and/or word files. Downloadable audio files. Downloadable video/multimedia files. ―Live‖ synchronous facilitator/faculty presentation/demonstrations/lectures. Facilitator/faculty tools include whiteboards, chats, application sharing, file transfer, share pods, screen sharing, PowerPoint slides, polls, and note boards for announcements, Q&A, and FAQs. Links to websites. Downloadable participant manuals used to write reflections and journal. Chat pods used for sharing reflections with other participants. Polls used to capture self-assessment and compare anonymously with other participants.

Focus Group Discussion. Online Role Play. Self-Assessment. Online Quizzes. Practice.

Breakout rooms used for small group discussions, debates, mock trials, role play, practice with partners, and focus groups.

R2D2/C3PO Component Display

Instructional Strategies/Learning Activities Visual Representations including: pictures, diagrams, graphs, multimedia, video, charts, animations. Demonstrations.

Synchronous Web-Conferencing Tools Downloadable participant manuals with visual representations of key concepts. Facilitator/faculty ―live‖ presentation using a share pod with a PowerPoint presentation with robust visuals to help explain concepts. Visual of the facilitator/faculty presenting or demonstrating ―live,‖ which enhances teacher presence.

Doing

Caselettes (short cases).

Links to videos on YouTube, TED Talks, Khan Academy etc. Downloadable participant manuals with case, project, collaboration, and apprenticeship instructions.

Case Studies. Practice.

Live facilitator/faculty presentation, demonstration, and modeling for all activities. Time allocated for reflection and Q&A.

Project-based learning. Collaborative group project, paper, etc. Cognitive Apprenticeship.

Breakout rooms with whiteboards and chat pods for individual and collaborative work. Polls available, when needed. Breakout rooms for practice with partners or in larger groups, such as triads.

Assessment. ―Live‖ individual or group presentations in the main room.

Figure 4 (Continued).

R2D2/C3PO Component Coaching

Instructional Strategies/Learning Activities Cognitive Apprenticeships.

Synchronous Web-Conferencing Tools Facilitator/faculty feedback through ―live‖ voice, chat, and private chat.

Scaffolding. Peer coaching in breakouts and private chats. Conviviality Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ) Planning/Organization

Interactive feedback. Ground Rules to encourage Collaboration, Cooperation, and Trust. Use CIQ for immediate student feedback between instructional events. Fast Start

Participatory establishment of ground rules using ―live‖ discussion, chats, whiteboard tools, and polls. Downloadable form or Anonymous Poll. Fast Start and Quick Reference Guides on how to use the web conferencing tools.

Quick Reference Participant Manual Timeline for all Activities. Time for Reflection during event and between events.

Participant manual containing content and exercise during the live session. Facilitator/faculty manual with suggested timelines for all activities. Reflection time built into all events.

Figure 4. R2D2/C3PO Components, Instructional Strategies/Learning Activities, Synchronous Tools.

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A summary of the R2D2/C3PO model components with instructional strategies, learning activities, and implementation with web conferencing tools can be found in figure 4. Each component can be implemented with a variety of instructional strategies and learning activities using the robust toolsets found in synchronous web conferencing platforms. A facilitator/faculty can lecture, present, or demonstrate concepts by sharing their computer, uploading a PowerPoint presentation, or linking to a YouTube or TEDS talk website. During the web-conference any video links should be kept short, ideally 3-5 minutes in length. Multimedia presentations can be created and placed in share pods to demonstrate concepts to learners containing graphics and animation. Graphic tools such as white boards with Venn diagrams, Isikawa (Fishbone) diagrams, SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats), or PEST (Political, Economic, Societal, Technological) matrices can be created earlier and populated by learners as they apply the concepts presented to their own real world contexts. Facilitator/faculty can use visuals and present or demonstrate real world practices, processes, procedures, or techniques serving as models for learners to later emulate. Links may be used with other video sources such as YouTube, TED Talks, and Khan Academy to provide further expert evidence.

Do The do component consists of learners applying the ideas, principles, and concepts of the earlier three components to practice exercises and real world scenarios. This may be done with web-conferencing by providing learners the time and tools to present to one another in pair shares, in breakout groups, or to the entire audience. Learners can use breakout rooms individually, in pairs, or small groups to work collaboratively on cases, projects, or practice individual or group presentations. Visual display tools can be provided in the breakout for learners to fill in, or a blank whiteboard can be available. Learners can present ―live‖ to the whole group, as well as be recorded for later evaluation. Assessment can be done through use of polling tools that provide multiple choice, true/false, and fill-in the blank. Assessments can be automated and responses displayed at the web-conference or evaluated later by the facilitator/faculty offline.

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Typical Web-conferencing Tools Tools are constantly being upgraded and added to in the various web conferencing sites. Typical tools include those listed in Figure 5. Tool Preparation Area Pods Share pods Chat pods Attendee List Video Web Cam Whiteboard Polls Tool Presenter Only Pod Recording Application Sharing File Transfer Control Passing Mobile Enabled

Function Private area for set up and organization. Small windows for different web-conferencing activities. Containers for different types of content. Pods that allow typing information to ask questions, comment, or discuss. List of everyone present at the web-conference. Typically shows what rights each person has and what they are doing. Allows individuals to turn on their web-cams and be viewable ―live‖ to the rest of the attendees. Provides the functionality of a blackboard online. Includes tools such as type, draw, shapes, colors, and highlight. Provides polling, assessing, quizzing capabilities with aggregation capability. Function Allows presenters a private chat area and capability to build pods privately. Allows presenters and hosts the ability to record the webconferencing session for later playback. Allows sharing of other application. Allows file uploads and downloads. Allows passing of control. Works with mobile phones.

Figure 5. Typical Web-conferencing Tools.

The enhanced R2D2 portion of the new model provides additional instructional strategies and learning activities for the web-conferencing delivery platform specifically. C3PO adds elements to the model required to ensure success in these ―live‖ synchronous sessions.

Coaching The first C stands for coaching. The facilitator/faculty must act as a coach and guide scaffolding learners, encouraging discussion, and providing constructive feedback to learners. To do this effectively and promote critical

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thinking facilitator/faculty should ask questions or present problems and issues that are relevant to the work contexts and job responsibilities of the learners, which will ignite motivation for initial and sustained participation. Questioning techniques that encourage participation and critical reflection may be implemented from the onset of the course by setting up the webconferencing course-room with initial pods containing whiteboard and/or chat pods with questions. Before coaching participants, ask for permission to coach. When asking, begin with a question about coaching. For example, who has ever been a coach or been coached? Leverage the audience responses when asking for permission. When coaching, always begin with what the learner has done well, their strengths, and support that with evidence. Next provide constructive feedback for weaknesses; describe what can be improved and how to improve. One way to do this is to explain how the problem, issue, presentation, etc. would be approached by experts.

Conviviality The second C stands for conviviality. The atmosphere in the webconferencing virtual room must be one of conviviality, whereby friendliness, congeniality, affability, and sociability are evidenced. Discussion as a way of teaching began with Socrates and Plato. In describing the importance of discussion, Christensen (1991) posited that discussion creates a partnership between teacher and student, whereby they each share power. This is important in online discussions including those in a cognitive apprentice ship scenario where in some instances the facilitator/faculty exerts power over the student in a master-apprentice ship relationship (Armstrong, 2014). Brookfield and Preskill (1999), strong proponents of discussion as an instructional strategy, emphasized that discussion must be democratic and defined the following characteristics as essential: 1. Hospitality, all feel comfortable participation; 2. Participation by everyone. There is full inclusion; 3. Mindfulness, active listening by the facilitator/faculty/faculty and all participants; 4. Humility, recognizing everyone has experience and no one person has all the knowledge; 5. Mutuality, where each participant encourages everyone else to participate;

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Ann Armstrong 6. Deliberation, using critical reflection and critical thinking before responding; 7. Appreciation, expressed sincerely to all participants; 8. Hope, shown by each participant‘s desire to learn, gain new perspectives, and clarify conflict; 9. Autonomy, whereby each individual has the right his/her opinion based on experiences and construction of meaning (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999).

Following Brookfield and Preskill‘s guidelines, conviviality is central to the atmosphere in the course-room. Ground rules help to ensure that the environment is convivial. Ideally, the instructional designer or facilitator/faculty will post some preliminary ground rules in the course-room to open up a discussion with learners on what ground rules to include. Preliminary suggestions include: no interruptions when someone is speaking, respect in all comments, no multi-tasking, and no politically incorrect comments. It is important that the group discuss ground rules and that majority rule or consensus be used to finalize the ground rules for the event. Two techniques for creating conviviality in the web-conference and ensuring reflection, critical thinking, and democratic discussion are the Circle of Voices and Circular Response Discussion techniques (Brookfield, 2013; Brookfield & Preskill, 1999) (see Appendix A).

Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ) The third C stands for Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ). Created by Brookfield and Preskill (1999), the CIQ is a simple evaluation tool that helps facilitator/faculty model critical thinking in their own processes and helps ensure conviviality in the environment. Traditionally, the tool has been used in multi-class sessions, whereby students answer five questions (see Appendix B) at the end of each day and facilitator/faculty review for themes and commonalities. The next day facilitator/faculty summarizes the finding and spending time discussing them with the learners. At times the CIQ demonstrates that everything is going well and no changes are needed; at other times, concerns are identified and adjustments are made (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). In shorter sessions, like 1-3 hours or 1-day, the CIQ can still give

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facilitator/faculty general feedback from learners that may help them and instructional designers make necessary course adjustments for future similar events.

Planning and Organization Typically synchronous web-conferencing sessions require extensive planning and preparation (Armstrong, 2014). Advanced planning in the form of preparation by instructional designers, developers, and facilitator/faculty should include creating layouts that can be saved and called up with a few simple keystrokes during the web-conferencing sessions. Layouts may include graphic displays, PowerPoint slides, polls, whiteboards, and other web-conferencing tools. Polls can be used for asking questions, multi-choice and true false assessments, and aggregating results. Whiteboards can be used as a traditional blackboard, as well as providing tools for color, highlight, shapes text, and drawing. Planning for the use of these tools typically requires advanced preparation. Participant manuals, Fast and Quick Start Guides and FAQs must be prepared in advanced and aligned with trainer manuals and PowerPoint slides, that always require advanced preparation and planning. Online and offline readings, links, videos, and audio selections must be located and available as downloads, links, or pod shares. Organization and sequencing of instructional events is critical to learner success. Depending on whether the web-conference event is a one-time session or a series of multiple sessions, the first level of organization for a single event may include what topics need to be covered and what objectives are needed to adequately cover the topic in the allowable time frame? For events that take place for a series of topics over multiple web-conferencing sessions, topics and corresponding objectives must be sequenced to achieve the overall program or course goals. Planning instructional events takes organization and might include Gagne‘s, Wager, Golas, and Keller‘s (2005) explanation of the Events of Instruction including: 1) gaining attention, 2) stating objectives, 3) stimulating recall, 4) presenting material, 5) guiding learners, 6) eliciting performance, 7) providing feedback, 8) assessing performance, and 9) enhancing retention and knowledge transfer.

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Integration of Faculty, Instructional Designer(s), and Learners Facilitators/faculties, instructional designers, and learners all have important roles to play in the success of a web conferencing synchronous session. Figure 6 displays the individual roles of each along with the roles which intersect with one another and with all three. Each of the components of the R2D2/CP3O model is critical to the overall success of the learner‘s experience and ultimately meaning making (See Figure 6).

Instructional Designer      

Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation

     

Faculty Expert Knowledge Presentations Demonstrations Coach Guide Mentor

Organization Planning Design Participant Manuals Instructional Strategies Events of Instruction Learning Activities

Conviviality Culture Ground Rules Mutual Respect Cooperation CIT Questionnaire Apprenticeship Scaffolding Assessing

Summative Evaluation And Assessment Kirkpatrick Level 1, 2, 3

      

Learner Read/Listen Reflect/Write/Share Group Discussions Role Play Projects/Assignments Assessments/Quizzes Practice

Practicing

Figure 6. Roles of Faculty, Instructional Designer(s) and Learners in a Synchronous Web Conference.

Significance for Practice Organizations are continually being pressured to deliver authentic learning that includes collaboration, discussion, and problem solving expeditiously for global audiences over the web. The mantra is, do it faster with better quality, and at a reduced cost. While some people respond well to self-directed

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learning, many require a social environment where they can interact, have dialogue, discussion, and debate with peers and experts. This type of interaction has been important and recognized since the days of Socrates and Plato. This can now be done effectively synchronously over the web using constructivist instructional strategies by following the R2D2/C3PO model.

Recommendations for Future Research Richey, Klein, & Tracy (2011) explain the importance of continuing research using new media and technology tools. Future research is important which describes the implementation of these tools following the R2D2/C3PO model.

APPENDIX A Brookfield‘s Discussion Techniques

Circle of Voices  



Individuals reflect on the discussion topic (1-3 minutes) Participants go round the circle in order - each person has up to 1 minute of uninterrupted air time to give their viewpoint on the topic. No interruptions are allowed. Move into free discussion with the ground rule that every comment offered must somehow refer back to a comment made by someone else in the opening circle of voices. This need NOT be agreement - it can be a disagreement, a question, an elaboration or extension, an illustration, and so on.

Circular Response  

Individuals reflect on a topic for discussion Form into circles of 6-8

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 

One person starts by giving her reflections on the topic. Up to 1 minute allowed - no interruptions Person to left of 1st speaker goes next - whatever she says MUST somehow refer to/build on previous speaker‘s comments (can be a disagreement or express confusion). Up to 1 minute allowed - no interruptions Process continues leftwards around the circle with people speaking in order until all have participated Group moves into open conversation with no particular ground rules in force

Retrieved with permission from:http://www.stephenbrookfield.com/ Dr._Stephen_D._Brookfield/Workshop_Materials.html

APPENDIX B Critical Incident Questionnaire 1. At that moment in the class did you feel most engaged with what was happening? 2. At what moment in the class did you feel the most distanced from what was happening? 3. What action that anyone took in class did you find most affirming or helpful? 4. What action that anyone took did you find the most confusing or puzzling? 5. What about this class surprised you most?

REFERENCES Allen, E. & Seaman, J. (2014). Grade change: Tracking online education in the United States. Babson Park, MA: Babson Survey Research Group. Armstrong, A. (2014). Synchronous constructivist discussion strategies for the 21st Century. The 2014 AHRD (Academy of Human Resource Development) International Research Conference in the Americas:

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Leading the Human Resource Development Field through Research. Houston, TX, February 19-22, 2014. Armstrong, A., & Thornton, N. (2012). Incorporating Brookfield‘s discussion techniques synchronously into asynchronous online courses. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 13(1), 1-9. Retrieved at http://web.ebsco host.com.library.capella.edu/ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=127&sid=88ed8dcf174d-41d7-b668-c3a49f0e0182%40sessionmgr111&bdata=JnNpdGU9 ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph&AN=78098498. Bonk, C. J., & Zhang, K. (2006). Introducing the R2D2 Model: Online learning for the diverse learners of the world. Distance Education, 27(2), 249-264. Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Brookfield, S. D. (2004). Discussion as a way of teaching. Unpublished class handout, Teachers College, Columbia University. Brookfield, S. D. (2013). Workshop materials. Retrieved from: http://www. stephenbrookfield.com/Dr._Stephen_D._Brookfield/Workshop_Materials. html. Christensen, C. R. (1991). Premises and practices of discussion teaching. In C. R. Christensen, D.A. Gavin, A. Sweet (Eds.), Education for judgment: The artistry of discussion leadership. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School. Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online learning: Concepts, strategies and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed). Boston, MA: Pearson. Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., Keller, J. M. (2005). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Miller, L. (2012). State of the industry, 2012: ASTD‘s annual review of workplace learning and development data. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Research. Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. K. (2012). Distance education: A systems view of online learning (3rd ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Morrison, K. A. (2011). Using web-conferencing to teach: Constructivist, discussion-rich seminars: Can it Work? Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 12(4), 269-274. Richey, R. C., Klein, J. D., & Tracey, M. W. (2011). The instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.

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Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Stewart, A. R., Harlow, D. B., & DeBacco, K. (Nov, 2011). Students‘ experience of synchronous learning in distributed environments. Distance Education 32(3), 357-381. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 01587919.2011.610289.

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

TOWARDS A THEORY OF ENABLERS TO ELEARNING ADAPTATION: ESUCCESS, A RESEARCH BASED FRAMEWORK Ann Armstrong Capella University, Minneapolis, MN, US

FRAMEWORK eLearning, also called online learning and distance learning, is disrupting the way education is delivered in the U.S. in corporations, healthcare, and education (Allen & Seaman, 2014; Christensen, Horn, & Johnston, 2011; Miller, 2012). Christensen et al. (2011) explained that all disruptive technologies follow a similar pattern. First, the new technology competes with non-consumption and during that time technology improvements are made and costs decrease. Second, the disruptive technology begins to draw consumers from the traditional competitive plane and consumers begin to substitute the disruptive technology for existing technology solutions. Finally, the disruptive technology takes over approximately 100% of the market share and the existing products go out of business (Christensen, 2006; Christensen et al., 2011). Cases describing this process are numerous and include: 1) personal computers replacing mini-computers (Digital Equipment Corporation and

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Wang), 2) cell phones, 3) digital cameras, 4) iPods, and more. Will this be the scenario for the delivery of education? The purpose of this chapter is to present eSUCCESS, a research based framework that specifies eight tenets, the critical success factors or enablers, for successful eLearning adaptation. Included in the chapter is the process of building theory, a research based conceptual framework, the eSUCCESS framework, significance for practice, and recommendations for future research.

BUILDING A THEORY OF ELEARNING ADAPTION ENABLERS Christensen (2006) posited that a model of theory-building requires two major stages, descriptive and normative, and a series of sub-stages that the researchers must pass through to achieve the desired end state. It all starts with the descriptive stage, which includes three sub-stages: 1) observation, 2) categorization, and 3) association. The observation sub-stage includes careful observation, measurement, and documentation of the research findings along with carefully developed constructs. eSUCCESS was derived out of observation and the next step categorization and classification (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong, 2008). Categorizing the themes began an in-depth process of analysis of interview data with seven Chief Learning Officers (CLOs) of some of the world‘s largest banks, investment advisory firms, construction, insurance, and pharmaceutical companies. Analysis began with a preliminary list of start codes based on a conceptual framework built on an exhausted literature review. The analysis revealed five major categories and 30 indicators that ultimately became eSUCCESS. In the final descriptive stage during exploration of the associations between categories and indicators, eight tenets were identified and explored by understanding from the CLOs perspective how the desired outcome of successful implementation of eLearning was impacted by the tenet.

A Research Based Conceptual Framework According to Richey and Klein (2007) design and development research involves context-specific research that yields results that are both

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generalizable and specific to the context. These studies often yield ―lessons learned,‖ which can be applied by others who face similar design and development projects. By studying a specific product or tool from the perspective of key stakeholders, the result can be best practices, ―lessons learned,‖ and key strategies that will facilitate implementation in similar situations. Design and development research can have a significant impact on both the knowledge base of instructional design and educational technology implementation, as well as a direct impact on practitioners, since these studies are situated in real-world contexts and work setting. The research problem explored in the development of the eSUCCESS framework involved the dearth of literature around the real-world experiences CLOs had with implementing eLearning in practice and the critical success factors, enablers, they found needed to make these implementation successful (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong 2008). The purpose of Armstrong‘s study was to Gain an understanding of what eLearning executives (e.g., Chief Learning Officers, Senior Vice Presidents, and Vice Presidents of Learning whose responsibilities include design and delivery of learning over the world-wide web) learned from their experience of defining, designing, developing, and deploying large-scale web-based learning programs for adult professional development in major corporations. Additionally, it sought to uncover what factors these executives believe to be critical and necessary for the organization to successfully deliver training and education over the world-wide web (Armstrong, 2008, p. 201, 2).

The research questions answered included:

1. What perceptions do e-Learning leaders have regarding the way different forms of support contribute to the success or failure of online learning program delivery? Support such as the following:  Executive Line of Business sponsorship  Executive e-Learning leadership  Direct manager involvement  Participation in and recognition by a Community of Practice  Technology infrastructure 2. What perceptions do e-Learning executives hold concerning the impact on e-Learning programs of specific aspects of a learning

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Ann Armstrong culture (e.g., how are external incentives, rewards, and other learner motivational strategies perceived and used by the e-Learning executive in the culture to influence learner participation in a program, etc.)? 3. How important do e-Learning leaders believe is the nature of the content and its relevance to the learner‘s job in driving motivation? (Armstrong 2008, p. 20-1, 3).

The conceptual framework that guided the study included theories of support and culture, external and internal motivation factors, program design and content, and outcomes. Using the critical incident technique developed by Flanaghan (1954), CLOs were interviewed in-depth to fully understand their roles and responsibilities in delivering large scale web-based learning programs and to uncover what these executives believed from their experiences contributed to successes and failures (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong 2008). The results of the study (Armstrong, 2007) confirmed that there were a number of enablers that the CLO‘s considered important. Figure 7 shows a summary of these critical success factors from interviews with the CLOs. The CLOs all agreed that motivating the learner was critical to a successful implementation and those external motivators such as certification and accreditation could help motivate learners; while content relevant to the job was the most powerful motivator. The next enabler they unanimously mentioned was that the design of the program or course had to be purposeful and specific to the organization‘s culture, making many off-the-shelf products ineffective. For example, if the training were sales oriented for financial advisors the content could not be situated in a hospital setting with nurses. The importance of executive support and sponsorship was mentioned by six out of the seven (85.7%) of the CLOs and four out of the seven (57.1%) explained the importance of the vision and value be communicated directly to the employees from the executive sponsor. Executive sponsorship was needed at multiple organizational levels including the line of business, the learning organization, and the information technology organization. Program design that was of high quality, engaging, and enjoyable was emphasized by five out of the seven (71.4%) of the CLOs. While a strong technology infrastructure, which included interoperability between organizational systems, and technical and vendor support, was described only by three out of the seven (42.9%), the issue arose when there was not a strong infrastructure or support. In these cases, eLearning programs

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failed. Enablers, mentioned by only one of the CLOs, but are worth including are, a change management strategy and placing a project manager in the leadership role of the eLearning rollout and development team (Armstrong, 2007). From these findings and the results of the Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ), a validated survey with seven dimensions or action imperatives, which characterize a company‘s relative position as a learning organization (Watkins & Marsick, 2003; Watkins & Marsick, 2007), eSUCCESS emerged as a theoretical framework of eight tenets that blend theory and practice, resulting in both ―lessons learned‖ and best practices, which Richey and Klein (2007) explained are the goal of design and development case study research. Enablers mentioned by CLO are detailed in figure 7. Enabler 1 Motivation: Relevance of Content to Job, Certification, Accreditation 2 Program Design: Specific to Culture and Purposeful 3 Support: Executive Sponsorship 4 Program Design: High Quality, Engaging, Enjoyable 5 Motivation: Benefit Communicated by Executive Sponsor 6 Support: Technology Infrastructure 7 Change Management 8 Project Manager

CLO 1 1

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Figure 7. Summary: Critical Success Factors—From Experience.

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ESUCCESS: A FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGN AND DEPLOYMENT OF ELEARNING The eSUCCESS framework is shown in Figure 8 and each tenet is described in the section that follows. While the original descriptions were based on Armstrong‘s (2007) original study, an in-depth review of current literature yielded some additional best practices for each of the tenets. Tenet # 1

Tenet Name eXecutive Sponsorship

2

Support from the Organization

3

Understand and Motivate the Learner

4

Culture Fosters Learning

Description  Time  Money  Resources  Communications  Vision  Values  Change Management Strategy  Line of Business Executive  Learning Executive  IT Executive  Direct Manager Involvement  Project Manager for eLearning Initiatives  Strong Technology Infrastructure  Help Desk  ―Built into the Organization‖  Communities of Practice  Social Networks  Benefit Communicated  Included in Performance Plan  Granted Additional Resources  Continuing Education Requirement  ―Peer Pressure‖  ―Mandated‖ by the Regulators  Pre-requisite to Live Training Event  Threat of Job Loss  Certification and Accreditations  Systems for Continuous Learning and Sharing  Promote Dialogue and Inquiry  Collective Mission  Leader  Collaboration and Team Learning  Connecting to the Environment

Towards a Theory of Enablers to eLearning Adaptation Tenet # 5

Tenet Name Content is Relevant to the Learner and Organization

6

Evaluate and Assess

7

Structure of Program is Engaging, Interactive, and Blended

8

Simulate the Work Environment and Work Tasks

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Description  Job and Task Specific  CEUs, PDU, CPEs  Certifications  Branded to the Culture and Environment  Recognized SMEs/Experts Facilitating/Teaching ―Hot Topics‖ in the Industry  Kirkpatrick Level 1  Kirkpatrick Level 2  Kirkpatrick Level 3  Kirkpatrick Level 4  On-the-Job Training (OJT)  Coaching and Mentoring  Web-based Technology  Traditional Classroom  Goal-based Scenarios  Problem-based Learning  Case Studies  Caselettes

Figure 8. eSUCCESS Tenets with Descriptions.

ESUCCESS: A FRAMEWORK FOR ELEARNING ADAPTATION

Tenet 1. eXecutive Sponsorship eXecutive sponsorship in the form of time, money, communications, and a change management plan is a critical success factor in any eLearning implementation (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong 2008, Cross & Dublin, 2002; Martin, Quigley& Rogers, 2005; Rosenberg, 2001, Singh & Hardaker, 2013). It is critical that sponsorship include an eLearning strategy that includes adequate sources of funding, adequate and competent resources, and a clear vision for the implementation, which is communicated effectively throughout the organization by the executive sponsors (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong 2008, Singh & Hardaker, 2013).

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Tenet 2. Support from the Organization Support from the organization is needed from multiple levels. At the foundation of support is a strong technology infrastructure with interoperability between organizational systems and a help desk and training to support learner IT skill competence (Armstrong, 2007; O‘Neill, Singh & O‘Donoghue; Singh & Hardaker, 2013). When the infrastructure fails the eLearning initiative is likely to fail. The infrastructure must provide the learner with ease of access, speed, high availability, and reliability (Armstrong, 2007; O‘Neill, Singh, & O‘Donoghue, 2004). Support is also needed from opinion leaders whether they be formal roles such as Chief Learning Officers (CLOs), Chief Technology Officers (CTOs), Chief Compliance Officers (CCOs), (Armstrong, 2007; Singh & Hardaker, 2013) and course facilitators and faculties (O‘Neill, Singh, & O‘Donoghue, 2004), or informal leaders who earn organizational respect through their job competencies or other work related social status (Singh & Hardaker, 2013). Often Communities of Practice (COPs) and social networks can further help support learners as they embark on long term learning strategies, which may include accreditation or certifications (Singh & Hardaker, 2013). A Project Manager is critical for the success of all rollouts and eLearning launches (Armstrong, 2007). In large organizations, a Project Management Office is also a necessity. Figure 9 shows the interrelationship of the different levels of support required for a successful eLearning implementation.

Figure 9. eLearning Required Support from the Organization.

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Tenet 3. Understand and Motivate the Learner Learner motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic and the ability to harness motivation is one of the critical success factors in delivering successful eLearning (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong, 2008). External motivators such as threat of job loss, a pre-requisite to live training or other event, ―mandated‖ by regulatory authorities, access to additional resources, included in performance plans, continuing education requirements, certifications and accreditation, as well as ―peer‖ pressure were all evidenced (Armstrong, 2007). These aligned with extrinsic motivators traditionally expected (Cross & Dublin, 2002; Dweck, 1999; Hardre, 2003, Moshinskie, 2002). Factors such as age and gender can impact motivation to use technology in learning as well as the time it takes to learn to use the technology or prior use experience with using technology (O‘Neill, Singh, & O‘Donoghue, 2004).

Figure 10. Learner Motivation Factors.

Figure 10 shows the learner at the center of the eLearning rollout and factors that influence their motivation to take the course. Motivation factors include executive sponsorship, communication of the vision and values of the course by these executives, human resource requirements that originate from outside regulators, professional development processes, and industry

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continuing education requirements. Also included are motivators that are perceived by the learner, such as fear of job loss, ―peer‖ pressure, receipt of additional resources to do their job, or certifications and accreditations that are valued in their field and may lead to additional job responsibilities, promotion, or ability to secure employment elsewhere (Armstrong, 2007).

Tenet 4. Culture Fosters Learning Watkins and Marsick (2003) emphasized that there are fundamental characteristics of organizations that identify as learning organizations. These include: 1) creating continuous learning opportunities, 2) promoting inquiry and dialogue, 3) encouraging collaboration and team learning, 4) establishing systems to capture and share learning, 5) empowering people to have a collective vision, 5) connecting the organization to the environment, and 6) development of leaders who model and sponsor learning (Watkins & Marsick, 2003). DLOQ Characteristics

Mean Score eLearning Executive

INDIVIDUAL LEVEL A. Sum for Continuous Learning

4.06

B. Sum for Dialogue and Inquiry

4.00

TEAM OR GROUP LEVEL C. Sum for Team Learning

4.36

ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL D. Sum for Embedded Systems

3.40

E. Sum for Empowerment

3.98

F. Sum for System Connections

4.69

G. Sum for Provide Leadership

4.43

H. Sum for Financial Performance

4.33

I. Sum for Knowledge Performance

4.38

C. Sum for Team Learning

4.36

ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL D. Sum for Embedded Systems Note: Adapted from Table 35 Armstrong, 2007.

3.40

Figure 11. DLOQ Finding—As Perceived by e-Learning Executives Compared to the Mean Score of the e-Learning Executives‘ Sample.

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Each CLO completed the DLOQ based on their beliefs about their organization (Armstrong, 2007). The mean responses from the CLOs in Armstrong‘s (2007) study are show in Figure 11. The complete DLOQ diagnostic tool that measure learning practice, learning culture, and performance in organizations can be found at www.partnersforlearning.com/instructions/html. An example of results from the DLOQ can be found in Armstrong‘s (2007) study in Appendix D. Armstrong (2007) applied each of the characteristics of the learning organization as described by Watkins and Marsick (2007) to web-based learning based on feedback from the study CLOs. Figure 12 is an adaptation of Armstrong‘s application with enhancements for new web-based learning technologies. # 1 2

Watkins and Marsick‘s Characteristic Create continuous learning opportunities Promote inquiry and dialogue

Applied to Web-based learning 24X7X365 availability. Flex path options.

Chat, virtual classroom, webcast, asynchronous discussion, synchronous discussion, video conferencing, mentor/coach, Skype, democratic discussion strategies. 3 Encouraging collaboration Chat, virtual classroom, webcast, asynchronous discussion, and team learning synchronous discussion, video conferring, Skype, problembased learning, case studies. 4 Establishing systems to Learning management systems, content management systems, capture and share learning virtual classrooms, web conferences that are available 24X7X365. 5 Empowering people to have Visions may originate from the ground-up or the top down and a collective vision require Executive sponsorship and communications. Sponsorship must include communications, funding, resources, and incentive programs throughout all levels of management. 6 Connecting the Intrinsic motivation for all employees can be gained by each organization to the having the ability to access training to perform better in their environment current job and prepare for future promotions. 7 Development of leaders Executive sponsorship at the highest organizational level, in who model and sponsor learning, in information technology, in lines of business, and learning in compliance. Note: Table adapted from Table 48 Comparison of Watkins and Marsick‘s Model Applied to Webbased Learning Programs with Mean Score on DLOQ of e-Learning Executives. Figure 12. Watkin and Marsick‘s Characteristic of a Learning Organization Applied to Web-based Learning.

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Tenet 5. Content is Relevant to the Learner and the Organization Content that is both relevant to the learner‘s job and tasks they must perform, and which is designed to reflect the culture in the organization, is critical to ignite intrinsic motivation and the learner‘s desire to participate in the course, pass the course, and change behavior on the job after the course is completed (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong, 2008). When certifications and accreditations were offered, participation, including voluntary sign-ups, increased significantly. In one instance the combination of certifications and ―peer pressure‖ increased voluntary participation in a non-mandated program from 500 learners in the first year to 7,000 at the end of year three.

Tenet 6. Evaluate and Access Most organizations believe in evaluation and many subscribe to Kirkpatrick‘s (1998) Four Levels. Level 1 measures reaction and is often referred to as a ―smile‖ sheet. Level 2 measures learning and involves typical assessment such as multiple choice, true/false, short answer, essay, presentation, case study solutions, and papers. Level 3 measures behavior and how behavior has changed on the job over a period of time. Finally level 4 measures results or outcomes. Measurements include improvement in productivity, revenues, quality, or decreases in costs. Typically most organizations implement levels 1 and 2, but fail to implement levels 3 and 4 due to cost and time constraints (Armstrong, 2007). While Kirkpatrick‘s model has gained wide acceptance and use in organizations, there is a growing amount of criticism due to its lack of cohesiveness between levels and its lack of diagnostic capability (Russ-Eft & Preskill, 2001). Where level 4 results have been quantified, learning leaders find that they gain credibility at the top, and in one case where a significant reduction in accidental deaths resulted, the CLO was widely acclaimed by management, employees, suppliers, and regulators (Armstrong, 2007; Armstrong, 2008).

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Tenet 7. Structure of the Program is Engaging, Interactive, and Blended Blended learning emerged as a critical success factor. Blending can be accomplished in a number of ways. Web-based learning can serve as both pre and post work for a live event where learners complete pre-requisite training in advance of a live event and provide evidence of post event behavior change through online interactions. Web-based learning can take place between two live events where students first interact in a traditional workshop environment with expert facilitators and then come together between sessions to practice and receive mentoring and coaching. For these events to be successful, the content must be important to the learner‘s job and job tasks, it must be interactive and engaging, and delivery must be by a qualified expert facilitator.

Tenet 8. Simulate the Work Environment and Work Tasks Goal-based learning, problem based learning, cases, and caselettes all help to simulate the real-world work environment and the tasks that are required to be performed on the job. Using industry specific examples is important (Armstrong, 2007; Schank, 2002; Schank, 2005). All examples should be crafted according to the organizations culture and climate, including pictures, places, and artifacts used in the training. The closer the web-based learning environment is to the learner‘s real-world experience, the more powerful the training will be.

SIGNIFICANCE FOR PRACTICE Richey, Klein, and Tracey (2011) posited that there are six content domain areas for instructional design. These include: 1) learning and learning processes, 2) learning and performance context, 3) content structure and sequence, 4) instructional and non-instructional strategies, 5) media and delivery systems, and 6) designers and design process. The evolution of the eSUCCESS framework draws on each of these domains to help guide eLearning stakeholders, including executive sponsors, program managers, project managers, instructional designers, and developers, with a set of foundational best practices. Design and development research can often result in ―best practices‖ and ―lessons learner,‖ which is what eSUCCESS brings to

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eLearning stakeholders, since all the CLOs involved in the study were situated in real-world eLearning contexts in a variety of industries and work settings.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Christensen (2006) explained that theory-building requires two major stages. eSUCCESS evolved out of stage one, which is the descriptive stage including: 1) observation, 2) categorization, and 3) association. Future research should focus on enhancing and improving the descriptive research and moving from the descriptive to the prescriptive. Correlative studies that use the tenets of eSUCCESS are one possible next step. Another is to replicate the current study in other industries, such as K-12 and higher education, and look for similarities and anomalies.

CONCLUSION eSUCCESS is a research-based framework that provides practitioners with lessons learned and best practices through the eyes of seven CLOs from major U.S. based corporations across the financial services, healthcare, and construction industries. Using the framework key eLearning stakeholders, executive sponsors, CLOs, CTOs, CCO, program managers, and project managers can better ensure success when rolling out an eLearning program or course. Each tenet was examined from the perspective of the participants and the literature.

REFERENCES Allen, E. & Seaman, J. (2014). Grade change: Tracking online education in the United States. Babson Park, MA: Babson Survey Research Group. Armstrong, A. W. (2007). Executive beliefs about the critical success factors in defining, designing, developing and delivering e-learning for adult professional development in corporations. Teachers College, Columbia University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 334. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/862347883?accountid=35812. (862347883).

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Armstrong, Ann. (2008). Executive beliefs about the critical success factors in defining, designing, developing and deploying e-learning for adult professional development In corporations, conference proceedings for The 2008 AHRD (Academy of Human Resource Development) International Research Conference in The Americas, Panama City, Florida, February 20-24, 2008. Online Submission. Retrieved at http://www.eric.ed.gov/ contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED501621 Christensen, C. M. (2006). The Ongoing Process of Building a Theory of Disruption. Journal Of Product Innovation Management, 23(1), 39-55. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5885.2005.00180.x Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., Johnston, C.W. (2011). Disrupting class: How disruptive innovation will change the way the world learns. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Cross, J., & Dublin, L. (2002). Implementing e-learning. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development. Lillington, NC: Edward Brothers. Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 327-358. Hardre, P. L. (2003). Beyond two decades of motivation: A review of the research and practice in instructional design and human performance technology. Human Resource Development Review, 2(1), 54-81. Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1998). Evaluating training programs: The four levels (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Martin, K., Quigley, M. A., & Rogers, S. (2005). Implementing a learning management system globally: An innovative change management approach. IBM Systems Journal, 44(1), 125-143. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.library.capella.edu/docview/222434027?accou ntid=27965 Miller, L. (2012). State of the industry, 2012: ASTD’s annual review of workplace learning and development data. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Research. Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. K. (2012). Distance education: A systems view of online learning (3rd ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Moshinskie, J. (2002). How to keep e-learners from e-scaping. In A. Rossett (Ed.), The ASTD e-learning handbook (pp. 218-233). New York: McGraw-Hill. O‘Neill, K., Singh, G., O‘Donoghue, J. (2004). Implementing eLearning programmes for higher education: A review of the literature. Journal of Information Technology Education 3, 313-323.

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Richey, R. C., & Klein, J. D. (2007). Design and development research. Mahwah, NJ: Routledge. Richey, R. C., Klein, J. D., & Tracey, M. W. (2011). The instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Routledge. Rosenberg, M. J. (2001). Building successful online learning in your organization: E-learning strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. New York: McGraw-Hill. Russ-Eft, D., & Preskill, H. (2001). Evaluation in organizations: A systematic approach to enhancing learning, performance and change. New York: Perseus Book Group. Schank, R. (2002). Designing world-class e-learning. New York: McGrawHill. Schank, R. C. (2005). Lessons in learning, e-learning, and training: Perspectives and guidance for the enlightened trainer. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Singh, G., & Hardaker, G. (2013). Barriers and enablers to adoption and diffusion of eLearning. Education & Training, 56(2), 105-121. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ET-11-2012-0123 Watkins, K. E., & Marsick, V. (2003). Demonstrating the value of an organization‘s learning culture: The dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 5(2), 132-151. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Watkins, K. E., & Marsick, V. (2007). Partners for learning (website). Accessed January18, 2007 at: www.partnersforlearning.com/instructions/ html

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

INTERACTIVE LEARNING WITH TECHNOLOGY Pricilla Jones-Akpaita Conversational English Coach, US

Individual interaction with the use of technology has become an alternative means of learning and has provided global learners an opportunity to improve competitive skills in securing employment and educational opportunities, predominantly in English speaking countries. In almost any country, the use of technology is helping participants within the society move beyond the traditional classroom. It is further evidenced from literature that transformations are subsequently taking place in distance education, including the integration of technology into daily classroom practices. The transformation taking place is synchronous/real time learning and interaction. Synchronous online interaction is an illustration of the impact technology has on teaching and delivery methods. Students are more advanced in the use of technological applications and are benefitting from these transformations as teachers attempt to integrate technology into the learning environment. It is becoming more apparent that the teachers‘ knowledge and beliefs about technology influences the implementation of pedagogical practices, along with the strategies to accommodate the changing needs of all learners. For example, English language learning can be achieved with the use of technological tools known as Web 2.0. These tools include Skype, audio

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visuals, webcams, podcasts, avatars, and digital recordings. Virtual Classroom technologies such as WizIQ, Moodle, Google Hangout, SmartBoards, YouTube videos, and Teacher Tube mirror the learning technologies found in the brick and mortar classroom buildings. Web 2.0 tools are capable of authenticating contact with a native English teacher and an English foreign language (EFL) learner in virtual classrooms. This authentication eliminates the need for teacher close proximity for learning. This authentication is further evidenced by competencies developed by teachers for the purpose of learning content with the use of online integrative technologies while achieving a balance between the needs of the learner coupled with the use of technology.

CHOOSING A TECHNOLOGY FOR LEARNING A large number of socially engaging websites for conversational English are available absolutely free for online EFL learners. Social networks such as blogs, Facebook pages, Facebook groups, and cell phone applications are among the strategies for useful English learning engagement. Each social network is complete with advantages and disadvantages. A few benefits of technology use for Conversational English begin with the freedom of 24-hour access to a native English speaking country, person, or portal. Each technology can be used for a specialized purpose to deliver a specific message or content. Technologies such as Skype provide such opportunity on an intimate level. The use of Skype allows the teacher to interact synchronously with the student. The Student is able to see the teacher, ask questions, engage in conversation, receive instant feedback through voice and facial expressions in real-time. During this synchronous interaction, other technologies can be introduced to facilitate delivery of instruction, comprehension, and retention. It is critical that teachers use technology appropriately as a learning instrument or select the appropriate tool to support authentic learning. In a Conversational English class with Malik, an online EFL learner, I discovered that technology offered him an opportunity to learn without the use of a textbook dictionary for translation. In this class the term raccoon eyes was a part of his discussion. Raccoon is not a recognizable term in Malik‘s language which challenged him to comprehend the meaning as it related to the article. To influence Malik‘s immediate understanding of the word raccoon, I was able to insert an image of the animal into the Skype chat feature to assist in differentiating the instruction.

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Malik‘s experiential learning experience with the embedded image instantly provided deeper insight and understanding into the task-based reading activity. This clarification facilitated his thinking, comprehension, and retention of raccoon eyes for the current lesson and future discussions relating to the wearing of make-up. Words such as raccoon may have a completely different meaning or is non-existent in some languages or cultures. Technology does have limitations and challenges for the teacher and Student. These types of differences may appear small but are significant enough to have a profound influence on the immediacy of comprehension and retention. The native English teacher may face many barriers to quickly identify and relate to a variety of unfamiliar names, expressions, and ideas in a single class. Technology is minimizing these barriers and is a driving force in the way teachers teach and the student learns. To maximize the use of technology, sounds, images, graphics and animations can quickly enhance a lesson that under normal circumstances would take several hours to compile and coordinate for student understanding, comprehension, and retention. This dynamic interaction with technology exceeds previous ideas of an actively engaged and motivated student. The use of technology promotes multiple paths to learning. Active engagement and differentiated instruction is easily recognized. The student and teacher are able to import images to enhance visualization of a certain word or concept. This type of interaction with technology maximizes learning opportunities when a small selection of words, terms or phrases do not share commonality for teacher and student. Barriers that influence the lost learning opportunity are those centered on the technological skill level of the Student and teacher. For example, when using internet features sustaining connectivity can become an issue. Poor reception, power failure, and/or a lack of understanding of how-to integrate Web 2.0 applications to facilitate and seamlessly integrate the learning tool could interfere with the learning process.

EXAMPLE AND PURPOSE OF A CLASS In most cases a conversational English class should have a purpose. In the example that follows the student will be able to read a short task-based reading activity and participate in a teacher created dialogue. The teacher will scaffold the activity similar to scaffolding presented in a regular brick and mortar

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classroom. The teacher will provide opportunities for repetition, confidence building, comprehension, and retention. A dialogue interaction will reinforce vocabulary, word patterns, unfamiliar terms, expressions and common phrases found in typical conversations.

CLASS ACTIVITY USING SKYPE Objective: The student will be able to read a text-based article from the internet and participate in a teacher created dialogue. Review of Vocabulary Words: donned (to wear, to put on, to get dressed) braved (courageous, strong) Discussion Questions/Warm-Up 1. Do you or someone you know wear makeup? 2. What is your opinion of people wearing makeup? 3. What is your definition of natural beauty? 4. What are some examples of extreme sports? Article: Bobbi Brown Makeup Gets a Very Sweaty Test By Hannah Doyle http://www.shape.com/lifestyle/beauty-style/bobbi-brown-makeup-getsvery-sweaty-test Sweat and makeup aren't really friends—at least, that's what our white towels tell us. How many times have we left the cycling studio with unintentional, sweat-induced raccoon eyes (at least the room was dark!), or dripped bronzer onto the treadmill belt during a run? Will makeup ever past. Extreme sports athletes Hannah Teder, Roberta Macino, Julia Mancuso, and Kelia Moniz found out by filming themselves for Bobbi Brown's latest campaign, Long Wear, Life-Proof. Each athlete donned the brand's eye collection and braved the elements with a GoPro camera. If makeup can survive the crazy conditions of the mountains and the ocean, it can survive our cycling class, right? X-Game medalist and Olympic finalist Hannah Teder challenged the products with a sky-high ski lift ride, snow to the face, and intense mountain winds. Olympic gold-medalist Julia Mancuso sped down the slopes. With five

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World Cup wins and three Olympic medals under her belt, there's no doubt she picked up enough velocity to seriously challenge the mascara. Pro surfer Kelia Moniz put Long Wear through arguably the toughest test: heavy, vigorous ocean waves. And you better believe the makeup held up! The point being, even when these pros are challenging the limits of athleticism, they still want to look good—as do we all. Looks like Bobbi Brown has finally made a product that can hold up its end of the bargain. The following dialog intends to encourage participation by the online learner and to promote understanding of real-world conversation using the English language (see Figure 13). Student A Student B Student A

Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B

Student A Student B

Hello _________, how are you today? I‘m fine _______, thank you for asking. I‘m fine too. Thank you for asking. Say ________, I was wondering did you get a chance to read the article about Bobbi Brown Makeup Gets a Very Sweaty Test? Actually I did read it but it did not make much sense to me. Really? Why is that? I‘m not sure. Maybe because I don‘t really ware make-up. Are you serious? Yes! I‘m dead serious. Interesting. I don‘t meet many females that don‘t use make-up. You see ________, it‘s a struggle to keep my makeup on properly all day without working at it. I don‘t think this is good for my skin. I can understand what you are saying. I thought quality make-up is designed for all day wear. Well I started to lose interest in the article very early. Did you read to find out what happened when female athletes skied and surfed in Bobbi Brown's new mascara? Yes, I read it but I did not understand everything. Can you explain more in detail for me? Of course. Did you read the first paragraph that talked about sweat and makeup not really being friends? Yes! I did read the first paragraph. Whenever I used to wipe my face in a towel, the makeup ruined the towel for me and I had those ugly raccoon eyes and then there was the time I was riding the treadmill and my sweat trickled down onto my arms, hands, and then onto the machine. Embarrassing right? I bet you were wondering if makeup could ever pass a useful human test. That‘s right.

Figure 13. (Continued).

58 Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A

Student B Student A Student B

Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A Student B Student A

Pricilla Jones-Akpaita Ha ha ha. Well here‘s the latest. A few Extreme Sports athletes discovered the Long Wear Life-Proof cosmetics by Bobbi Brown I know this brand of makeup by Bobbi Brown. So what did these Extreme Sports athletes discover? Each athlete donned the brands‘ eye collection and braved the elements with a GoPro camera. Wait a minute, I think I‘m missing something. This word ―donned‖ what does it mean? OK! So the word ‗donned’ means in this scenario to wear. The athletes donned/wore Bobbi Brown cosmetics. Hmm! Ok, if the athletes as you say ‗donned’ the makeup what does braved mean? You are asking a lot of questions. But you know. I have the answers too. When they used the word brave… I‘m sure you know that it means not afraid of something. Is that right? Yes, I know the meaning of brave. It means fearless. Was the makeup expected to attack the athletes or something? Of course not! It just means that the athletes were ‗brave’ enough to trust this brand to stay put doing the events of Extreme Sports. Oh, I think I understand now. The girls trusted the brand to function properly even when they were being photographed. Hmm, I might give makeup a try again if an athlete can engage in such demanding activities as Extreme Sports and the makeup does not induce raccoon eyes. That‘s right. This makeup can survive crazy conditions of the mountains and the ocean and eliminate the prospect of raccoon eyes. Hmm, if flawless eyes can be achieved under Extreme Sports conditions, I guess I can try again on my treadmill. So does this mean you will give makeup another try? I think so. Thanks for sharing your thoughts about this article with me. You are most welcome. Say, look at the time. I must go now. Me too. Take care. Bye.

Figure 13. Interactive Dialogue.

CLASS PREPARATION Class preparation should begin with an end goal in mind. In the previous lesson the student end goal is: The student should be able to use the structure of the conversation to engage in an authentic dialogue. The student would be able to include in a basic conversation short phrases such as ‘really,’ ‘I’m not sure,’ ‘that’s right,’ and ‗what does.’

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The student‘s ability to communicate needs for learning will help the teacher to personalize the class. The teacher would benefit by having class materials written in English to facilitate early detection of student difficulty in completing the task of instruction in a supporting and caring environment. The teacher should also assign outside of class activities to facilitate learning. The art of having engaging, fun, and interactive lessons consist of lessons that focus on one or two things to be learned in the class setting. For example, the teacher could ask the student to write a short scenario about a topic and use selected vocabulary words or phrases from an article. The teacher could also ask the students to create a dialogue using a previous lesson dialogue as a template. This dynamic strategy of teaching will provide a context for the student to learn vocabulary. The student does not need to engage in deliberate study of words with a handheld dictionary. Additionally, the activity can be extended outside of class as supplemental learning. The extended activities can be evaluated based upon students understanding of how to construct sentences and engage in an authentic dialogue.

Teaching with Facebook English language learners engage in online activities for a variety of reasons. Some students are preparing for specific tests such as the IELTS or TOEFL exams, and some are online to socialize. Class preparation for test takers is considerably different from those who are interested in socialization. Facebook is an excellent tool for socialization. Facebook allows participants to engage with others through asynchronous interaction. Groups can be created to provide student‘s opportunities to work collaboratively on assignments, exchange ideas, ask questions, post information and receive feedback within a designated time to enhance student learning. This strategy works well for all participants with appropriate access to the Internet or other social media devices but are not available for real time interaction. With the use of the internet, students can use Facebook to become curators of information, engage in ongoing conversations and receive feedback that works well across time zones. Facebook is beneficial to teachers for networking with students that experience challenges with others speaking a different language. Students can quickly find a support group of a host language with the use of Facebook groups or Facebook pages.

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Since many students are considered Facebook natives, this social tool is a great resource for collecting and storing information. As curators of information the students will have easy access to products, pictures, services, organizations and events for learning and retention of instructional content. Motivation is a huge part of learning. With the use of the ‘like’ feature in Facebook, students and teachers can get immediate feedback on almost anything that is posted. The speed at which information is communicated with the use of Facebook is monumental compared to the researching information from a textbook and sharing with others. A Facebook page can be created as a learning assignment complete with historical figures, biographical information, and statistical information, and as a strategy to determine the student understanding of an assignment. The teacher and/or other students can provide instant feedback on the same Facebook page by responding to a survey or an opinion poll.

Virtual Classrooms Environments created or simulated to carry on instructional activities by means of a computer or network are considered virtual classrooms. The introduction of the word virtual applied to activities simulated by a computer, such as virtual memory. The key features of a Web-based virtual classroom are: Courses, Students, Instructors, and Learning Performances. Virtual education promotes instances of equal learning opportunities and conceivably improves the system of global education. A successful virtual classroom has the capacity to replicate a regular classroom without walls. The use of virtual technology allows for a global reach which is beneficial to the English as a second language learner without the prohibited expense of travelling to a native English speaking country for interaction. It is recommended that the use of virtual technology be used if the use of such technology does not overwhelm the student beyond a level of technological know-how. Some students may need some training or remediation with the technology tool before it can be adequately used as a teaching or learning tool. In the virtual classroom, the teacher‘s role is that of a facilitator. The need for lecturing has been greatly reduced to encourage the student to take more responsibility for self-directed learning. With the use of virtual technology, chatting with someone else can be less problematic than communicating with e-mail or an interactive CD-ROM.

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Virtual classrooms that work are cost effective resources capable of delivering knowledge and skill development efficiently with the use of the internet. Geographical location is typically not a problem worthy of consideration for the learner eager to learn at a distance. This radical shift in teaching has transformed teaching and learning and has led to major changes in educational models.

MOODLE (MODULAR OBJECT-ORIENTED DYNAMIC LEARNING ENVIRONMENT) Technologies such as Moodle have made significant improvements with commercialization and acceptance of enterprising online course management tools. Among those are WebCt, Blackboard, WizIQ, and Moodle. These commercial packages of Web 2.0 are also known as CMSs or Learning Management Systems (LMSs) web applications that foster teaching and learning over the Internet in a controlled learning environment. Technological tools and interfaces allow presentation of material in formats for synchronous and asynchronous forums. Moodle provides opportunities for students to receive feedback to facilitate their ability to experience self-efficacy within the classroom toward a stated goal. The Moodle technology supported learning platform could include feedback as an essential competency for the learning process and allow students to find information that is not available within a textbook. Support of online education with computer-mediated communication is important to student learning. Students that pursue engaging, interactive, constructive, intentional, and authentic are situated for authentic learning.

Wiki The term ‗wiki‘ is derived from the Hawaiian phrase, wiki-wiki, which means quick. Wiki is a Web 2.0 technology known also as a collaborative learning environment (CLE). Wiki‘s are considered social technologies and are perceived as being connected in such a way that the users can develop Web content collaboratively. Wiki‘s are open to the public and add a different collaborative dimension to the classroom.

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Within this collaborative website environment, anyone visiting the location with Internet access can create interactive web pages collaboratively without knowledge of hypertext mark-up language. The Wiki allows the instructor and student to create web sites for collaborating, teaching and learning. The participants choose the necessary tools to be used within the wiki to meet the needs for managing and participating in classes. The Wiki has the capability to host fully, online classes within the CLE. A teacher can create a web site to host a class as an online learning environment. This environment will consist of tools for communicating, structuring and sequencing learning content. The CLE will allow the creation of assessments and evaluations along with collaborating with participants.

WizIQ Internet-based learning is one of the fastest growing trends in today‘s educational architecture. Platforms such as WizIQ provide an exceptional opportunity to increase student access, influence student motivation and selfefficacy, and student-interaction. WizIQ is a web-based platform and recognized as a virtual learning environment (VLE). The VLE commonly known as an online, internet, or web-based component is accessible from remote locations. The virtual learning environment is increasing at a rapid rate and is also known as e-Learning or course management systems (CMS). The use of state-of-the-art technology facilitates students‘ learning and engagement through online delivery of instructions with a vast supply of electronic resources of knowledge. WizIQ is designed to support a social framework of education and interfaces with other operating systems. The method of instruction in the class might be described as a combination of traditional face-to-face teaching complemented by synchronous learning elements. In addition to providing online access of continuous and prompt two-way communication between lecturers and students, WizIQ allows lecturers to upload lecture notes, assignments and quizzes for students to view, and save or print. WizIQ has a host of other functions such as screen sharing, audio-video linking, real time chatting, and an interactive whiteboard and recording capabilities for review and remediation. The WizIQ learning management system (LMS) has an application program interface (API) ability to interact with course management systems (CMS), such as Moodle and Blackboard. WizIQ is a virtual classroom

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management solution, as well as a site for building an educational network. The WizIQ community promotes learning from each other as an online learning community. WizIQ affords the distance learner opportunities to use the Internet as an extended network, connecting relationships between people who live in different parts of the world. The WizIQ chat forum for communication through texting allows the use of emoticons to facilitate understanding when words may be misunderstood. Functioning as a course management system, course content can be uploaded and managed. The WizIQ classroom features are quite similar to those features found in a face-to-face classroom with class whiteboard, writing tools, raise hand features, microphone for speaking and a Webcam for facial contact. The presenter and participants can monitor and manage class time by viewing the automatic clocks that registers start time and remaining time for the class. Files and video content can be shared, stored, and easily retrieved for in class use. The recordings of all sessions are available if the presenter chooses the option to record a class. Participants can download presentations, save, store in an alternative device, and retrieve for future viewing at a later date.

CONCLUSION Technology, using Web 2.0 is one of the fastest-moving trends with the goal of effectively integrating learning materials, tools, and services. The generation of distance education has an important place in an educational experience. Internet technologies are a promising alternative to traditional classroom learning. Interactive learning with technology provides unique opportunities for the participants to interact with people from all over the world without leaving the comfort of their host country. This technology is transforming the Web into a space that allows anyone to create and share information online. Today‘s generation of virtual learners are at the center of learning, connecting and constructing knowledge through collaborative, external networks and groups constructing knowledge in a context that includes his or her own histories. The resources available for learning, such as, websites, virtual classroom, videos, etc., all work according to how well they enable the learner to gain knowledge. Online learners will require a substantial amount of selfmotivation and drive for online success.

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Students can use technology as a highly dynamic space that is flexible and adaptable for conversation and collaboration. Additionally, such a learner with the help of a facilitator will need to believe learning with technology is an achievable goal.

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

NATURE AND ROLE OF WEB-BASED DISTANCE LEARNING (WBDL) BUSINESS OUTCOME Leili H. Green Houston Community Corporate College, Houston, TX, US

ABSTRACT The popularity of remote role based training is evolving, and it is imposing changes on the way we train and evaluate workforce across business sectors. The widespread use of this method acknowledges the technological advances of the past decade (Hunt, 2005). WBDLs are connecting with not only those at the K-12 level but also adult learners for preparing the future while updating the existing workforce knowledge and skills. The flexibility of online education is a viable plan for improving learner achievement. Online education is also challenging educators to focus on updating their teaching models. In this chapter some background information distinguishes community building in virtual learning versus traditional education settings and provides examples of how some online institutions have overcome issues of decreased socialization is provided. In addition, the strategy of collaboration and how organizations harness the need for improving and extending the efficacy of such an important tool for educators are discussed.

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VIRTUAL VERSUS TRADITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS Traditional learners may have a slight advantage over students attending distance learning institutions, as traditional learners are more likely to depend on a need for substantial objects for learning and comprehension (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011). For example, some traditional students may have campus resource materials readily available for information validation. In addition, traditional students benefit from immediate feedback from professors while in class. The literature on this topic validates this concept by focusing on how traditional students process information and comprehend to ensure the completion of measurable learning outcomes (Baturay, 2008). Tangibility may be appealing to learners in a synchronous learning environment who desire physical social connections. Synchronous learners view visual instructions as an efficient and systematic method for improving the superiority of learning; educators in this environment ensure that the current benefit of knowledge and experiences and immediate communication is maintained (Baturay, 2008). Therefore, students are dependent upon teacher-centered or collaborative opportunities related to face-to-face learning. Distance learning offers learners a unique opportunity for flexible and convenience learning. Thus, distance and traditional learners share a common desire to develop peer relationships for a sense of belonging or social connection with others who share the same goals and interests (Byrne, 1971). However, learners with a desire to complete assignments and participate in learning communities and class discussions online are encouraged to succeed by educators who understand the importance of communication. Online educators must address the learner expectations and assumptions by providing continual feedback and offering open lines of communication as face-to-face interaction is limited (Ebersole, 2003). The successful implication of educational technology can be used as a tool to create successful learning as technology has changed to suit distant learners (Toch, 2010). In addition, distant learning is most successful when educators use prepared instructional material and follow specific guidelines manipulated from traditional theories as suggested by Karoulis, Stamelor, and Angelis (2010). The idea here is to address learning issues by using proven and effective learning theories and technological support online to attain quality learning outcomes from students with a desire for asynchronous learning opportunities.

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INTERVIEW WITH LORAH GOUGH Challenges: Interactions in a synchronized vs asynchronized virtual learning environment Lorah Gough is Director of Distance Education at Houston Community College System. She discussed with me the success and challenges of Distance Learning vs face-to-face learning environments. She said Distance learning (not necessarily online) has been around since the 1700‘s but on a more formal basis in the 1800‘s via correspondence courses (mail) so, the knowledge must have been transferred successfully in the past. She discussed team work as one of the issues in a WBDL environment and says; ―Team work is not quite the same as the dynamics in face to face group setting.‖

ONLINE TRAINING CAN IMPROVE PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTIVITY The inclusion of technology into classroom instruction is similar to change in introduction and implementation of change in an organization. Any change to an organization evokes positive and negative reactions that affect the change process. As Discussed by Leavitt (1965) an organization is a dynamic system comprised of the four following variables: service and operations or the task, tools or technology, human factor or the users, and the structure. Later Radonr and Boadan (2004) stated that these variables are interdependent hence change in one of the variables affects the others. Based on this model of technology adoption and implementation processes in organizations should be defined and designed as a project to ensure its success, and moves the organization to the path of higher productivity, and performance. In each project, leaders need to consider how the discussed variables affect each other and, what are the solutions to minimize the negative affect of one variable on others?

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Leili H. Green A suggested technology integration project process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identify the need or define the task Assess your existing resources Implement the project (Pilot) Assess the issues, solve the problems Launch the project

Some of the basic, yet very effective techniques and tools that can make a tangible difference in the opinions and outcome of web based distance learning, are further elaborated.

CLOUD-BASED VIDEO CONFERENCING A TRAINING TOOL Cloud computing is an open architecture that solves many of the issues with closed information exchange systems. In recent years the cloud-based ranges of services have increased. For instance, communication services, data storage, and collaboration environments are cloud-based. One of the cloudbased services is voice or video conferencing and is used for the business and training purposes. This technology is affordable and easily available. As discussed by Toperczer (2013) the cloud computing teleconference that uses a source to users processing with multiple bit per second can deliver multiple location high definition video to desktop computers or mobile personal digital assistants (PDA). In addition, cloud computing improves the connectivity between users. As discussed by Toperczer (2013) cloud based services remove the obstacles in connection by removing the obstacles of external firewalls. However, there is a provision that allows the IT department to provide the gateway services and the firewall protection shooting time and increase the technology efficiency via cloud.

BUILDING COMMUNITY IN DISTANCE LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS Although many statements exist about the numerous benefits of distance learning programs whose growth has exploded in the past few years, one noted disadvantage associated with online learning is the lack of socialization or

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sense of community that can occur. Cowan (2011) stated that hybrid programs (i.e., those that combine aspects of traditional and distance education in the classroom) were a better educational alternative to the total distance learning offering because there is not a total loss of face-to-face interaction, that has numerous benefits to the learner‘s social development and academic achievement. At the K-12 level, the traditional classroom setting increases children‘s exposure to diversity and allows them to see how others differ from them in a variety of ways when responding to similar social situations (Cowan, 2011).

INTERVIEW WITH ALAN CORDER Alan B. Corder is Program Manager at Corporate College Division of Extended learning (DEL) Corporate College at Houston Community College System. He shares his views and experience on the users perceptions of collaboration and interactivity in an online training environment. He states that most of existing online training does not promote real creativity or innovation due to lack of multimedia, there is very little interactions, and students cannot ask questions or interact with his or her peers in real-time, but it is mostly because classes in an academic setting have to be 16 weeks for compliance and graduation rate to meet academic requirements. On the other hand completion rates are abysmal because people actually get bored of just getting the assignment off the web copying and pasting the assignment back on the web. Whereas, if you're doing e-learning in your corporate setting you‘re breaking it down into small modules, and you have the trainee going to the workplace in shorter time. He adds training needs to include many activities that would provide trainees parallel exposure to theory and practical applications. However, there are some online programs that have managed to overcome the aforementioned obstacles and successfully create a sense of community in their distance learning programs. Odyssey Charter High School (OCHS), which is in Las Vegas and uses a hybrid model for its online learning program, found the use of social networking tools an effective way to increase the sense of community among students and teachers at the school (Barbour & Plough, 2009). After a failed attempt at increasing student-student and student-teacher

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interaction through the use of Facebook because of numerous security-related issues, the Ning platform was selected as a better choice for facilitating socialization among the school‘s population (Barbour & Plough, 2009). This case serves as just one example of virtual schools that have realized the gap in socialization that can exist in the distance learning environment and implemented plans to combat the issue with success!

CREATING POSITIVE ROLE REMOTE BASED TRAINING CULTURE IN ORGANIZATIONS The transformational success of online education is more noticeable for the reflective student, versus the active student (Kidd & Kidd, 2008). In addition to students developing two-way social and ethical skills in his or her online research, educators must seek to remove barriers to distance learning while employing structural and pedagogical methods for the next generation of learners (Kidd & Kidd, 2010). Whereas the perspectives of both the student and teacher prefigure any restructuring of the academic setting, it is ultimately the instructor ―who sets the tone online‖ for instructional strategies (Kidd & Kidd, 2010, p. 3). Telecommunication and classroom tools for classroom synergy can include elements like electronic forums, e-mail, and computer and video-based systems (Simonson et al., 2006). The potential viability for academic achievement among modern learners with online learning is creating stiffer competition for those less accepting of this method. More importantly, educators and students instill confidence in the communities who face challenges of worth from proponents of local schools (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2006). Perry (1908) mentions that esprit de corps is an important ideal for building a favorable school climate Perry (1908) continues that successful school promotion presages the reputation of that institution. The graduates of these schools need to make attending their school relevant as a traditional view of one who must attend school. According to Freiberg (1999), multiplicities of climate factors exist and are different from determining school effectiveness factors in sustaining a healthy learning environment.

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SIMULATION TRAINING Simulators and simulation training have come a long way. However, this field is changing due to technology and its use (Rosen, 2008). Noticeable, issues exist that contribute to the complexity of medical simulation technology and training. The limited attention to users‘ views, perception, and experiences adds to the complexity of including simulation training in medical training programs (Clever et al., 2011; Education Management Solution, 2010; Rosen, 2008). General agreement among users concerning the effectiveness of simulation technology has not resulted in reducing the skepticism about the effectiveness of its performance or cost (Clever et al., 2011). Although training simulators retain a positive view, the use in healthcare is viewed skeptically (Education Management Solution, 2010; Rosen, 2008).

INTERVIEW WITH ALAN CORDER Alan Corder shares his view on the role and effectiveness of simulation training. He states that if you as a trainer want to create learning then you have to be able to look at different modalities and you have to give students experiential activities. He adds, ―death by PowerPoint is real,‖ and says consider that to be in the class, with no opportunity for practical application of what was learned, or activities to reinforce the learning in terms of various roles. He provides an example of accelerated training for an Oil and Gas company that incorporated online training and practiced what was learned. They took it to the actual site one day and significantly reduced the training time and performance outcomes of the trainees. He adds this type of training has worked in various industries such as healthcare, and hospitality. Most people are familiar with the errors that plague computers. For example, in medical education, errors in computers could create suspicions about the reliability of the services, the software‘s reliability used for training and patient care (MacKenzie & Tierney, 1996; Rosen, 2008). Simulation training improves safety, helps in retention of skilled personnel, and improves quality and risk management in medical and manufacturing industries (Gaba, 2007; Mujbar, Szecsi, & Hashmi, 2004).

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INTERVIEW WITH DORSETTA WILLIAMS Dorsetta Williams is a Manger at the Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence at Houston Commuinty College System and talks about simulation training. She states that the simulation training environment provides a safe environment to practice and believes that leaners must have a chance to practice a task many times to master the skill. Lorah Gough adds that training in context of what you do (your job) or learned skills relevant to your job focuses on the individual instead of the overall learning objective or (individual learning plans). She favors this way to success and advocates to add relevant examples and scenarios to the content, and says that because of the focus on vocational training at HCC educators need to move toward creating more training using simulation training principles. Alan Corder, added that E-learning, and simulation training allows you the opportunity to go out there and actually show a business practice how to create activities to reinforce the learning all the way to taking the learned knowledge to the workplace. So, now you (the trainer/ leadership) know conceptually were all your people are in terms of understanding a concept, and being able to demonstrate it in the workplace. As the progress in connectivity accelerates, so does the demand for accessibility to the training material. In addition, the nature of the jobs and athand trouble shooting material is seen as an exponential growth across industries placing the phenomenon of the mobile work force at the top of the list of discussed topics on web-based distance learning in an organizational training setting.

MOBILE WORKFORCE A FEW FACTS The fact we are faced with is the invention in communication devices in terms of features and speed that facilitate our mobility at the workplace. While technology is making breakthroughs in communication, the need for empowering geographically diverse organizational employees is not within reach. The mobile workforce is a phenomenon that will require a massive

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support from the business world to develop and mature. However, mobile or distance workforces are an existing fact in many organizations globally and its role in the future of the business world is undeniable. Mobile workforces, by nature, are similar to any workforce with the difference of minimum exposure to live interpersonal day-to-day communications of the traditional on-site workforce. Access to instant messaging, E-mail, Go to Meeting and many more platforms that we use for communication has made connection with our offices much easier. It is an accepted fact that the need to be physically present for all the meetings or to travel half way around the world to attend a business meeting is no more an issue in terms of time and cost for business owners. According to a report published by Cisco, the workforce is becoming more mobile each year. What may be news, though, is that 75% of the U.S. workforce will become mobile by year-end 2011. A Cisco Survey conducted by Cisco found that mobile workforce wishes and expectations can mainly be summarized as follows:    

3 of every 5 (60%) employees believe they don‘t need to be in the office to be productive, efficient 2 of every 3 (66%) employees desire work flexibility 2 of every 3 (66%) employees would accept a lower-paying job with more work flexibility than a higher-paying job with inflexibility 45% of IT professionals are unprepared or struggling to make their workforces more mobile, distributed (www.slideshare.net/Cisco Systems)

As shown in the above report around 60% of workforce does not see their physical presence at the office as the factor for increases in their productivity. Productivity is not essentially related to the size and ambiance of an office. Let us remember that for a new business the cost of an office is a factor in their success or failures. Roth (2011) stated, ―Among my biggest issues was space. Our first office didn‘t have much room because, hey, offices are as expensive as it is.‖ (p. 226). Communication technology did allow many office-based tasks to be done in home offices and since then this type of business has shown an increased trend in quantity and improvement in quality of work. A report by (Brian Osborne, 2008) states that the large percentages shown above are due to proliferation of high-speed networks, Wi-Fi technology, and mobile convergence as demonstrated by devices like the Blackberry, I-Phone and IPad. The U.S. will have a run for its money, though. Japan is expected to have the highest percentage of mobile workers by 2011 with nearly 80%.

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The picture drawn by this report is simple to visualize and understand. Technology has paved the way to maintain a work/life balance by providing the ability to access and connect to the workplace form a distance. The same is true in distance education. However, the issue is that we may not be aware of the fact that access to the office from home may disturb the balance between work and life or leisure time. Brian Osborne, 2008 further reports that Companies issue mobile phones, smart phones, with e-mail access, laptops with Wi-Fi compatibility, and cellular data cards mean that even if you are out of the office, there is no reason why you still cannot take calls, access the company‘s network and programs, and read your e-mail. The unfortunate thing is that many companies have also come to expect their employees with these gadgets to do just that. They pay for the gadgets and the monthly subscriptions, and they expect you to use them. That is why bosses or other employees do not feel bad for reaching you at night, especially if it‘s via email or on a company mobile phone. This attitude puts demands on some mobile workforce and they begin to feel that they are isolated and overworked. The question is how to make a balance between work and life in mobile workforce population. ―I would say the best use of mobile technology is maximizing workers‘ productivity, even while on the go, to ensure they make the most of their family time. In other words, maximizing my 8-10 hour day to ensure it doesn‘t have to become a 12-18 hour day that cuts into family time. That is using mobile technology as a freedom enabler‖ (Brian Osborne, 2008). The other example of challenging yet successful stories of business that uses mobile workforce is the for profit or private universities with their on-line programs. The Apollo Group‘s University of Phoenix (www.phoenix.edu) has shown a continuous growth rate using distance education using distance students and mobile instructors (Rosenberg, 2001). The following is the success story of university of phoenix, a for profit educational organization, among many in private education industry today. ―The University of Phoenix (Phoenix, AZ) success story is remarkably simple. Establish a brand over 25 years, improve product based on feedback, and stick to your mission. With this foundation the University of Phoenix Online, though just slightly more than a third the size of the organization's ground-based student-body, is growing rapidly. In September of 2000, the company raised $75 million for the online division with the introduction of a tracking stock for the University of Phoenix Online. The Apollo Group continues to own all assets (Nelson B. Heller & Associates). In the wake of a growing need for higher education and demographic change, many young countries embraced the requirement for higher education

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and is showing rapid growth and that these requirements can be met by introducing distance education using the mobile workforce potentials.

THE WEAKNESS AND STRENGTHS OF REMOTE ACCESS AND GROWING MOBILE WORKFORCE PHENOMENA According to the recent Connected World Report by Cisco (2011) the fear about the mobile workforce phenomena is related to managing a mobile workforce. Security is of paramount concern for respondents and 57% put it first among their fears. Data loss and lost/stolen devices are two other major concerns, though managers admit that these two aren't that dreadful. The issue of isolation, workforce training and development, and leadership are a few of many detractors with development and management of distance, and mobile workforce in a given business setting. However, we all agree on the fact that there is a great potential in the use of mobile workforce architecture in a business setting. To form a mobile workforce brings a competitive advantage for your business and enables workers to have unlimited job opportunities and access to a large number of companies globally (Clemons & Kroth, 2011).

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL MOBILE WORKFORCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT All in all, the mobile workforce and the mobile enterprise are the future, so we need to adapt. For many enterprises, the difference between going mobile and staying status quo will be the difference between staying competitive and dropping out of the game. This is why leaders and managers need to learn quickly how the mobile workforce is different and how to manage it.

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INTERVIEW WITH LORAH GOUGH Lorah Gough states, there is an interest to develop courses for mobile devices and emphasized discussions around HTML5, because more and more students are keen to use their mobile devices to access their online classroom activities. Management plans and strategies play a vital role in developing a positive view about the mobile workforce in order to attract the best talents in the field for a given company or business. As Clemons and Kroth (2011) stated ,to establish well defined expectations should be an absolute priority before hiring a workforce to conduct business or attempt work away from the company or office or basically on the Net. The leadership, management team must assure the success of using a mobile workforce by providing a business plan that makes sure everything works in harmony. The infrastructure requirement for providing a flexible platform to transfer knowledge to mobile employees or learners, as the case may be, is a factor that requires an organizational leadership plan for empowerment and involvement of onsite and mobile workforce decision-making prior and through the process of change from onsite to a mobile workforce orientation. The geographical diverse organization with onsite and distance employees have to remember the key to success to a mobile workforce lies in multi-factorial plans, team work, and adaptation to new technologies in training and communication to ensure the success of such programs.

REFERENCES Barbour, M. & Plough, C. (2009). Social networking in cyberschooling: Helping to make online learning less isolating. TechTrends, 53(4), 56-60. Baturay, M. (2008). Characteristics of basic instructional design models. Ekev Academic Review, 12(34), 471-482. Retrieved from http:// www. ekevakademi.org/eng/index.php. Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York, NY: Academic Press. Clever, S. L., Dudas, R. A., Solomon, B. S., Yeh, H. C., Levin, d., Goldstein, M. & Cofrancesco, J., Jr. (2011, November ). Medical student and faculty perceptions of volunteer outpatients versus simulated patients in

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communication skills training. Academic Medicine, 86, 1437-1442. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21952062. Clemons, D. & Kroth, M. (2011). Managing the Mobile Workforce. New York, NY: Mc Graw-Hill. Cisco Connected World Technology Report (2011). Retrieved from http:// www.slideshare.net/ CiscoBusinessInsights/ future-of-work-ccwtr. Cowan, K. (2011). Learning across distance. In Spotlight on technology in education (7th ed., pp. 91-99). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Ebersole, S. E. (2003). Online learning communities: Connecting with success. The Journal of Education, Community and Values, 9(3). 2910-24. Retrieved form http://bcis.pacificu.edu/journal/2003/09/ebersole.php. Education Management Solution . (2010). Retrieved from http:// www2. emsworks.com/l/6422/2011-04-07/25WR). Freiberg, H. J. (1999). School climate: Measuring, improving, and sustaining healthy learning environments. Retrieved from http:// books.google. Gaba. M. D. (2007). The future vision of simulation in healthcare. Simulation in healthcare: The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare, 2(2), 126-135. doi: 10.1097/01.SIH.0000258411.38212.32. Hunt, M. D. (2005). Web-based Distance Learning: Substitute or Alternative to the Traditional Classroom: Making the Delivery Method Decision. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall83/fall83.htm. Karoulis, A., Stamelos, I. & Angelis, L. (2008). Experimental evaluation of an instructional supporting tool in distance learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(3), 67-81. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info. Kenner, C. & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult learning theory: Applications to non-traditional college students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2), 87-96. Retrieved from http:// www.eric.ed.gov/ contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ926365. Kidd, T. & Kidd, T. T. (2010). Online education and adult learning: New frontiers for teaching practices. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com/ ebooks?id=C7D2vHpqzRwC&as_brr=5. Karoulis, A., Stamelos, I. & Angelis, L. (2008). Experimental evaluation of an instructional supporting tool in distance learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(3), 67-81. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info. Kenner, C., & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult learning theory: Applications to non-traditional college students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2), 87-96. Retrieved from http:// www.eric.ed.gov/ contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ926365.

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Kidd, T. & Kidd, T. T. (2010). Online education and adult learning: New frontiers for teaching practices. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com/ ebooks?id=C7D2vHpqzRwC&as_brr=5 MacKenzie, D., &. Tierney, M. (1996). Safety-critical and security-critical computing in Britain: An xploration. Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 8, 355379. Retrieved from http://www.tandf.co.uk/. Marketing campaign grows University of Phoenix Online enrollment. Nelson B. Heller & Associates. Retrieved from http:// findarticles.com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0BTY/is_2_7/ai_77378634/. Mujber, T. S., Szecsi, T. & Hashmi, M. S. J.(2004). Virtual reality applications in manufacturing process simulation. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 155–156, 1834–1838.doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec. 2004.04.401. Osborne, B. (2008) 75% of US workforce to be mobile by 2011. Retrieved form http:// www.geek.com/ articles/ mobile/ 75-of-us-workforce-to-bemobile-by-2011-20080116/. Perry, A. C. (1908). The management of a city school. Retrieved from http://books.google. Rosenberg, M. J. (2001). E-Learnines Strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. McGraw-Hill. Roth, C. (2011). The Entrepreneur. Dallas, TX: BenbeBella Books, Inc. Rosen, K. R. (2008). The history of medical simulation. Journal of Critical Care, 23(2), 157-166. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2007.12.004. Radnor, Z. J. & Boadan, R. (2004). Developing an understanding of corporate anorexia. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 24(4), 424-440.doi:10.1108/01443570410524677. Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M. & Zvacek, S. (2006). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Toch, T. (2010). In an era of online learning, schools still matter. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(7), 72-73. Retrieved from http:// www.pdkintl.org/ kappan/ kappan.htm. Toperczer, T. (2013). Cloud-computing breathes new life into videoconferencing. Retrieved from http://www.wsta.org/ticker-magazine/ cloud-computing-breathes-new-life-into-video-conferencing.

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED ARCHITECTURE: CASE STUDIES Dale H. Eberwein Founder FPeLearning Systems, University of Phoenix SAS Alumni, Association of Leadership Educators (Submission Review Board), CITI Certified Human Subject Researcher, US

Reading, writing, and reciting in most cultures equates to literacy (UNESCO, 2006). Literacy, according to Piaget (1967) focuses ―on ways in which individual learners, especially children, make sense of their learning experiences,‖ (UNESCO, 2006. p.151). Much debate exists over the concept of literacy as it applies to education and ultimately as an individual‘s ability to function in society. Rather than contemplation on the many definitions of literacy (e.g., functional literacy, information literacy, etc.), this chapter lenses literacy through a technological constructivist view that provides foundational credence for educational transfer through research, composition, and recital that makes lucrative use of educational technology constructs. According to Building information literacy (2015), curriculum must anticipate what it means to be literate and will continue to change as visual and electronic media becomes dominant method of expression and communication. The spread of technology has extended the perception of literacy. To take part in today's culture and function capably in the workplace, students need to read and practice a variety of texts. For these aims,

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―curriculum at every level must extend beyond traditional concepts of literacy to incorporate media and information literacies that offer students various conduits to knowledge through engagement with the extensive assortment of verbal, visual, and technological media‖ (Atlantic Provinces Education Foundation English Language Arts, 1996, p.1) available.

RESEARCH AS A TOOL FOR READING Reading proficiency alone does not necessarily encourage learning in that a proficient reader is only as educated as the content they are directed to review. Examples of superfluous academic reading may be found in social media, comic books, and fictional novels. Students must be directed to explore on-topic readings that encourage intellectual growth in order to claim the learning of new and diverse topics in education. Viable research journal sites, repositories of topic-specific information, and literature considered credible to discipline-explicit content is a must to enhance student academic prowess. Educational technology architecture enriched with credible research sites for student erudition is a critical component to encourage learning.

WRITING FOR UNDERSTANDING According to Intelegen Inc. (2015), a good way to gain understanding of research content is to write it down in the student‘s own words (paraphrase). Writing promotes understanding as students strive for iteration of discovered content through the written word. An educational architecture that promotes writing prowess expands student understanding as he or she evolve subject matter expertise through content manipulation. In an interview with Dr. Judy Willis (2011) neurologist and teaching consultant, she describes the effect writing has on the neuro-process of the brain and its value in the learning process. Dr. Willis (2011) states that ―students know information will be used to create solutions to problems that interest them or to create products they want to create, that is when the brain predicts pleasure and applies efforts to achieve the desirable goal‖ (National Writing Project, 2011, p.1). Willis (2011) further summates that ―when writing is incorporated in learning and assessment, there is increased opportunity to produce the ideal situation for active, attentive learning‖ (National Writing Project, 2011, p.1).

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RECITING AS A MEANS TO CONSOLIDATE LEARNING The development of an audio component to presentational formatting consolidates the learning process through recitation. Narrating final presentations provides the final component for student immersion in topic content academically, creating long-term learning and not just short-term memory for the passing of tests. Narration, many times, requires repetition in order to develop audio that is void of missteps and provides a seamless descriptive of topic content. Creativity engages as the student strives to produce a presentation that encourages pride of ownership for topic content. The integration of educational technology that encourages students to read, write, recite, and develop a presentation on-topic through technologyenhanced architecture, seems to promote self-efficacy with available educational technology, equating to increased performance outcomes.

2014 AND 2015 CASE STUDIES ON EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION INTO CLASSROOM In the NOVA publication The FPeLearning System for Education (Eberwein, 2013), a pilot study explored the effects of using creative educational technology as architecture to promote performance outcomes with post-secondary students. In the fall semester of 2014, ongoing case study research using the FPeLearning System, expanded to incorporate a 17 years old male high school student (MHS1) at Coeur d‘Alene Charter Academy and in the spring semester of 2015, a case study that lensed three post-secondary students at North Idaho College (Both institutions are geographically located in Coeur d‘Alene, Idaho) provided data through case study research. An exploration of the research data delivered results that continued to support using educational technology as a means to improve student performance outcomes. A formative and summative assessment conducted pre and post workshops (See Appendix, C & D) explored the effects of using creative educational technology integration into classroom practice on student selfefficacy, pedagogically. The results (Figure 14, Male High School student MHS1) and (Figure 15, three Post-Secondary students) provided positive increases with a mean score of 21.6% for post-secondary students, a 36% increase with the MHS1, and 28.8% mean increases over both studies combined when self-efficacy was the lens for research development.

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Figure 14. Formative and Summative Assessment comparison Male High School student.

The FPeLearning™ System architecture develops by means of a research/presentation format and all students were encouraged to pick topics that could be used in classes they were attending to promote alignment with personal studies and course work, and to add relevance for potential inclusion into future classes. Two of the students (MHS1 and FGSM) reported using their presentations in required classes and each scored five percentage points above maximum available credit. In each case, students reported that their professors considered the presentations beyond what was required for the assignments and deserved the additional five percentage point credit.

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Figure 15. Formative and Summative Assessment totals Post-Secondary students.

QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT THROUGH PERSONAL INTERVIEWS A qualitative interview intended to explore personal experience with the 12 hour work shop (six two hour sessions). The scripted interview (See Appendix E) provided consistent open-ended query to the participants‘ personal opinions and lived experiences with developing presentations though creative educational technology constructs. A study of the results of these interviews (See Appendix D) revealed several alignments worthy of note: 

Question one provided that other than writing papers for classes, participants had not been exposed to technologies designed to improve their abilities academically.

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

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  

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All participants believed that they needed educational technology as a means to advance their educations. FPM: ―I think using technology would benefit everyone if we ended up integrating it into education because it makes you learn a lot better and I noticed that the more we‘re using technology in our personal lives, we probably should be using technology more in education and business fashion and it can make things a lot more simpler… teaching a lot more simpler and learning a lot more simpler.‖ No participant believed that they had been exposed to student-based, technology-enhanced practices until their experiences with the FPeLearning™ System. The majority of the participants did not describe experiences that enhanced their abilities academically until they volunteered for the workshops. Only one student (MCSM) described instruction using flow charts as a means to promote creative educational architecture. The participants were unable to provide examples of strategies beyond the workshop content that aided them academically. All students found creative technology practices to be beneficial with one student (MCSM) stating: ―It got me motivated and I‘m not even… I wasn‘t even doing it for a grade. This is all voluntary here but I was able to pick a topic of my liking as opposed to being handed a topic here and told to do research. I was able to pull in what I wanted and I was able to say how I wanted, and it made things a lot easier to swallow, so to speak. So I didn‘t feel like I was goaded for a grade. I felt like I was doing something here that I inherently wanted.‖ All participants found the workshops to be helpful to their academic progress and felt that they would use the architecture again in future classes.

LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH DATA Obviously, case study research cannot be generalized to larger populations, however longitudinally the replication of the performance outcomes data is encouraging. Students seem to enjoy the introduction of technology-enhanced educational architecture and continue to do so. The demographic area of the conducted research (Coeur d‘Alene Idaho) is

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predominantly described demographically as white and middle class. Participants were relegated to volunteers and answers to questions may have been offered as an attempt to appease the researcher.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Creative educational-technology constructs remain dearth in practice. The adoption and research of technology-enhanced educational architecture that is student-based in design and creative in application seems to warrant further research. Larger and diverse populations would add credibility to these types of studies. However, creative educational-technology architectures are few and far between. There exists a need to explore the dynamics of technology integration into classroom practice on a larger scale. I encourage other professional educators to expand on this research and to develop alternatives to traditional classroom practices that make lucrative use of educational technology. The student performance outcomes in these studies continue to show increases beyond what is considered significant, scientifically.

CONCLUSION An educational architecture that is technology-enhanced continues to encourage positive performance outcomes with high school and postsecondary students. Not only do students come away with skill-sets that equate to relevance in continuing education but also valuable professional skills that align with careers in a global culture. As stated previously, two student participants used presentations developed using the FPeLearning™ System for education and scored above the assigned potential points for specific topics in two separate disciplines (United States History and Speech). The days of traditional educational architecture must be reevaluated to ascertain the relevance in a modern and digitized world. Granted, the traditional educational culture enjoyed by so many for years has served us well in the education of our youth. However, much has changed in the global community and the results of not staying abreast of what is necessary educationally, is taking its toll on our students and workforce. To compete in the global community, the United States must search for new and innovative constructs that equate to enhanced performance outcomes on a national level.

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It is imperative that education wakes up, so to speak, and embrace alternative methods of education that ostensibly move our traditional educational culture to an alignment that drives the current trends in education to one that promotes skill-sets for the future of our nation. By embracing a technology-enhanced educational architecture that is student-based, we essentially are promoting a seamless transition from school to the global workforce.

APPENDIX C: FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Name__________________________ On a scale of 1-10 where 1 is the lowest self-efficacy with technology and 10 is the highest, please provide a self-estimate for your perceived skill-sets with the following: 1. Web or Internet surfing abilities with an education emphasis. 2. File management protocol abilities for research-to-presentation and the ability to provide seamless access for retrieval of saved information. 3. Research skill-sets that include key-word search abilities, knowledge of websites that are considered credible and your understanding of what constitutes viability in on-line research. 4. Microsoft Office Word Document skill-sets that include formatting, grammar, and manipulation of document construction. 5. Microsoft Office PowerPoint® skills that include, template design, graphics and clip art manipulation, animation ability, and the synchronization of readable and audio text into PowerPoint® presentations. 6. Audio recording abilities either in PowerPoint® or through periphery software. Please include audio editing skill-set mastery in your selfassessment. 7. Any and all Flash Player experience. 8. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server experience. 9. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) experience for document and/or PowerPoint™, hyperlinking ability. 10. Document and or PowerPoint™ Hyperlinking ability. 11. Your ability to give and receive constructive criticism.

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APPENDIX D: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Name__________________________ On a scale of 1-10 where 1 is the lowest self-efficacy with technology and 10 is the highest, please provide a self-estimate for your perceived skill-sets with the following post-workshop: 1. Web or Internet surfing abilities with an education emphasis. 2. File management protocol abilities for research-to-presentation and the ability to provide seamless access for retrieval of saved information. 3. Research skill-sets that include key-word search abilities, knowledge of websites that are considered credible and your understanding of what constitutes viability in on-line research. 4. Microsoft Office Word Document skill-sets that include formatting, grammar, and manipulation of document construction. 5. Microsoft Office PowerPoint® skills that include, template design, graphics and clip art manipulation, animation ability, and the synchronization of readable and audio text into PowerPoint® presentations. 6. Audio recording abilities either in PowerPoint® or through periphery software. Please include audio editing skill-set mastery in your selfassessment. 7. Any and all Flash Player experience. 8. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server experience. 9. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) experience for document and/or PowerPoint™, hyperlinking ability. 10. Document and or PowerPoint™ Hyperlinking ability.

APPENDIX E: QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Gender: M____ F ___ Age: 20-30___31-40____ 41-50____ 51-60____ 61-70____ Other____

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Dale H. Eberwein 1. What are your impressions of the educational technologies currently available to you in your studies? Please describe your experiences todate with these technologies. 2. What is your opinion of using technology in your studies as an aid to your scholastic progress? 3. Tell me about any experiences you have had using creative technology practices in the classroom in which you experienced student-based, technology-enhanced practices. 4. How much personal development with educational technology do you feel is necessary to increase your confidence, so you will be able to use it as an aid to your learning? Please elaborate. 5. Please describe your experiences with any personal development you have received that has aided you in using technology in your studies? 6. How much personal development, with using educational technology included strategies to include these technologies as a foundation for your learning process? Please elaborate. 7. What kinds of strategies do you currently use in your studies that integrate technology? Please convey your experiences with these strategies. 8. What is your opinion on creative technology as a strategy in which you are the creator of your own learning? 9. How would you describe your experience with the FPeLearning™ System for Education workshops? Please describe any positive and negative experience. 10. Is there anything not covered in this interview you would like to add about your experience with the FPeLearning™ System for Education workshops or other strategies that include creative technology practices?

APPENDIX F: QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTIONS Qualitative interviews on educational technology integration into classroom practice. MHS1: Male High School Student. FGSM: Female general studies major. FPM: Female psychology major. MCSM: Male computer science major.

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1. What are your impressions of the educational technologies currently available to you in your studies? Please describe your experiences to-date with these technologies. MHS1: I really haven‘t had much experience with educational technology except for writing papers for classes. I do surf the web for information but I‘m not sure if the information is good or not. The information could be written by anyone really. FGSM: Before I found technology even though I grew up with it, I was never really taught how to use it to do research so I found this workshop very, very helpful. I even feel more confident with my writing skills and can do a presentation now and I‘m not so scared of it. It was very helpful. FPM: As an on-line student I notice even on-line classes are quite lacking in integrating technology into it even though they are using it on-line. A lot of it is just busy work, research papers and assignments you‘re having to download but no actual integration of using the technology to help you incorporate that into your studies. So I think there‘s a lot of progress that can be done on that rather than just assigning students busy work that‘s essentially just work sheets. MCSM: The best experience with available technologies I have had to date is Microsoft office and the blackboard we use, basically the online infrastructure we use here for when we are not in class and that‘s really about it. 2. What is your opinion of using technology in your studies as an aid to your scholastic progress? MHS1: I need it. My dad talked about having to go to the library all the time when he was in college and all I have to do is get online to find stuff to write about. It really helps my studies. FGSM: I think it will be very helpful. I‘ve definitely gained more tips for future writing. I‘m just beginning my education. I‘m not scared of it anymore, that‘s for sure. I found it very entertaining to do research on something. FPM: I think using technology would benefit everyone if we ended up integrating it into education because it makes you learn a lot better and I noticed that the more we‘re using technology in our personal lives, we probably should be using technology more in education and business fashion and it can make things a lot more simpler… teaching a lot more simpler and learning a lot more simpler.

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MCSM: I think it‘s almost crucial to have some kind of technological fluency here. Simply to submit your work, to help with the research, to help with basically the clarification of the topic in general, especially if you‘re going for a computer science degree. 3. Tell me about any experiences you have had using creative technology practices in the classroom in which you experienced studentbased, technology-enhanced practices. MHS1: If you mean me creating stuff for classes, all I have is my ability to write and submit papers. I‘ve never had anything like this workshop before and I think everyone should take this because it really made me think differently about how to learn subjects. FGSM: Other than what we just did, nothing. I just created a presentation for you. FPM: Personally I have been in Sociology classes that have you write your own blogs about things you‘ve learned over the semester and things that interest you in that class and pretty much interact with other students and they will comment on your blogs. It‘s similar to a discussion but you‘re actually making your own website based on your interests in that class and that interaction with other students really helps socially as well. And I really enjoyed that. MCSM: The closest I would say would actually be in a computer science where we had used presentation PowerPoint to exhibit our final projects. It was a project to from the ground-up write a program, demonstrate its use, its practicality, and to also explain how it was created and the fundamental logic between algorithms and how it‘s used to bring it together. It was a lot harder to do than most of my other projects because I was having to explain how I did it, rather than just doing it and then submitting it. For example my research paper so it was pretty necessary for me to be able to use the PowerPoint to convey to other students and they turned around and basically criticized my work …constructive criticism and to give feed-back on what I had presented. 4. How much personal development with educational technology do you feel is necessary to increase your confidence, so you will be able to use it as an aid to your learning? Please elaborate. MHS1: I think all students need to be taught this way all the time. I learned so much more going to the different websites and video places to get

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information. My confidence increased I think. I mean I feel much better prepared to do assignment now that I took this workshop from you. FGSM: I‘d say I‘ve increased a lot in my confidence. I know how to do research now. I found it very useful to have websites that can help me cite my papers. FPM: Well, I think there needs to be a little bit more integration on learning technology in it so you are able to use it within schooling but I‘ve noticed like a lot of this technology is fairly simple and user friendly so you wouldn‘t need lots of experience prior to classes for this technology. You could probably learn this technology in a very short time to integrate it into your learning. MCSM: Personally I feel I would have to understand the code of the program itself to feel incredibly fluent. To understand why a program does something like this or why certain restrictions exist. So it would have to be extraordinarily detailed for me to feel very confident about it. I can use it as an end user and make a program for a presentation here and leave it at that but to actually feel confident about what I‘m doing. I‘d have to almost know every iota of its function. 5. Please describe your experiences with any personal development you have received that has aided you in using technology in your studies? MHS1: Other than this workshop there‘s been nothing. No one has ever taken the time to teach me this stuff before. I just had to figure stuff out on my own. Many times not knowing if I was doing my assignment correctly made me not want to finish. FGSM: Maybe just the ability to have a computer where ever I go. We have smart phones so you can always do research where ever you go. FPM: I‘ve been in classes that also have me build a website that is pretty complex compared to what I had before but I haven‘t had too much experience with learning a lot of new technology at least in college. I haven‘t had to learn a totally different thing. Most of it is just rehashing such as work sheets and things like that. There are not a lot of things I‘ve learned throughout college in dealing with technology. MCSM: No answer

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6. How much personal development, with using educational technology included strategies to include these technologies as a foundation for your learning process? Please elaborate. MHS1: No one has ever given me strategies to do my work. I just figured out thing as I researched topics. I wish I had this knowledge before many years ago. I think it would have helped me get better grades. FGSM: Not so much strategies. Maybe just how to use the internet. Maybe just websites to go to but not how to do through research, and how to find credible sources and what not. I haven‘t really had that experience until now. FPM: Not very often. A lot of times they just have you write papers so I mean there‘s nothing really new. They don‘t really tell you any way… they pretty much say ―do this format‖ and we have to pretty much figure it out from there. But not a lot of technology integration has been taught a lot in dealing with PowerPoint. I haven‘t really used much of that at all. My experience in college has just been based on writing papers. MCSM: There was actually one instructor who taught us how to use a planning program so that instead of just coming up with a concept and writing it out, we had a visual diagram of how it was supposed to flow. It was like a flow-chart. That actually increased understanding. I took two semesters of his class and it increased from one semester here I planned it out pretty much just a note pad file. And then using the program he had taught us (Viseo) I was actually able to construct a base program much faster. Almost a rapid rate. I had all of my classes and basically my entire domain by mid semester as opposed to half way in, last time. 7. What kinds of strategies do you currently use in your studies that integrate technology? Please convey your experiences with these strategies. MHS1: I pretty much just write papers using Word and sometimes have to do a PowerPoint for a class. But I don‘t have any real strategy I can think of. FGSM: I will use Google Earth, common search engines and then I‘ll use that key word plus another key word and things that you taught us. The Perdue Owl website I thought was helpful but I don‘t know how to cite anything, but now I do. FPM: A lot of things I end up using are of course when writing papers I use Word documents. I use a lot of things like outlines and check lists on-line

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that actually help me to do things step by step. I don‘t use a ton of technology with helping my learning though. Could probably use a lot more. It would probably aid me a lot in studies. I notice with studying I‘ll usually have to use Word or something like that to get a lot of the information I need to write down to understand it but I need a lot more of it to expand upon to better learn things. MCSM: Not very many strategies continued on past that class. I‘d have to say the extent of using that strategy went down to constructing my last research paper with piracy. And instead of note pad here we used more of a visual way. Didn‘t use the exact program but I had the same concept pretty much and a blank PowerPoint slide. 8. What is your opinion on creative technology as a strategy in which you are the creator of your own learning? MHS1: I like doing my own thing and to be taught this way was really cool. I got to pick my topic and make my presentation and no one helped except to give me direction when I got stuck. I liked it. FGSM: I think it‘s a very useful thing that needs to be presented in classrooms. When we‘re told we have to come up with a presentation it‘s very stressful and it‘s not entertaining for us. It doesn‘t make me want to learn. And when I have the ability to just do it because I can or because I want to, it makes me want to get the presentation out. So I think that is very important, especially at a younger age when we‘re kind of breaking out of our shell. If I had this at a younger age I wouldn‘t be so shy. I would be a lot more confident. FPM: I really enjoy that, I really enjoyed using PowerPoint. I really enjoyed it, like my other classes creating my own blog, things like that. It kind of puts you in a perspective of really having to know this stuff rather than just spewing information out onto a page such as a research paper or something like a work sheet where you just work the answers out and hopefully you absorb some of it. Whereas if you integrate it into an actual thing you have to create yourself, and it‘s yours, you actually maintain and absorb that information more. MCSM: It got me motivated and I‘m not even… I wasn‘t even doing it for a grade. This is all voluntary here but I was able to pick a topic of my liking as opposed to being handed a topic here and told to do research. I was able to pull in what I wanted and I was able to say how I wanted and it made things a lot

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easier to swallow, so to speak. So I didn‘t feel like I was goaded for a grade. I felt like I was doing something here that I inherently wanted. 9. How would you describe your experience with the FPeLearning™ System for Education workshops? Please describe any positive and negative experience. MHS1: There was nothing negative really except maybe having to write a paper. I learned a bunch of new stuff though and I think that is positive. I learned a lot about Thomas Edison that I didn‘t know before and I don‘t think I would have gotten this much information just in class through lectures on him. Overall I really had a positive experience and would do it again. FGSM: I found it very, very helpful. I have never been introduced to this kind of learning until now. I plan to use it in the future because I know it will help me. There were a lot of big words but I worked through it. That was helpful. FPM: I had an extremely positive experience with this. I didn‘t think I was going to learn as much as I did. I honestly thought it was going to be more about PowerPoint and integrating that but I learned a lot more dealing with Articulate and everything and it‘s something I‘d really like to use further in my education. It might be a good idea for when I write research papers to also have a combination of this because I believe I can learn a lot more from it and break it down in a more simplistic way rather than a very complex research paper. I think absorbing the information would be better. There‘s not much negative I see on it. Just the fact that you have to write a research paper and make this, it might eat up some time. But if you were just to make this your research paper I think that it could do a lot of good. MCSM: The only negative thing I could really think of was managing the file transfer protocol to make sure your presentations are available. But I like the idea of having something visual, audio, aural, and something you can replicate and pass on through access to any medium. Only being able to access your FPe presentations on a laptop or desktop would be a bit frustrating but I noticed they had the IOS plug-ins here. It‘s a lot easier than reading research paper after research paper and doing them is a lot easier too. And what‘s more is that it‘s a lot more interesting. I‘ve had friends who have read my research papers and they take maybe a couple of days before they send it back to me saying they can only get half way through it before they‘re bored, as opposed to having a few minutes here sitting down and listening to a topic that is explained and presented to you. Almost like a YouTube video.

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10. Is there anything not covered in this interview you would like to add about your experience with the FPeLearning™ System for Education workshops or other strategies that include creative technology practices? MHS1: I had a fun time, thank you. FGSM: There is another type of presentation called Preze.com I don‘t know if you‘ve heard of it. But I also found those presentations entertaining. I don‘t know if they are compatible with Articulate or if they work in any way with those presentations like PowerPoint. Or if they‘re compatible but it‘s another way to do a presentation. FPM: Nope I don‘t think so. MCSM: Nothing I can think of.

REFERENCES Allen, E. I. & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on demand: Online education in the U.S., 2009. The Sloan Consortium. Needham, MA: Olin & Babson Colleges, Babson Survey Research Group. Retrieved from www.sloanc.org/publications/survey/pdf/learningondemand.pdf. Baker, L. (2012). A history of school design and its indoor environmental standards, 1900 to today. National clearinghouse for educational facilities. Retrieved from, http://www.ncef.org/pubs/greenschoolshistory.pdf. Bhamani, S. & Mehar, Z. A. (2014). Education: From Pre-modern to Post Modern and to Globalization--A Brief Review. Pakistan Business Review, 16(1), p. 196-201. Bose, E. V. (2012). IBSTPI, quality matters, and online learning: What's right and what needs changing? (Order No. 3548967, Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 210. Retrieved from http:// search. proquest.com/docview/1282651795?accountid=35812. (1282651795). Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Harvard University Press (ISBN10, 0674179536). Business Insider, (2012). Rankings of countries in mathematics, reading, and science. Retrieved from, http:// www.businessinsider.com/ pisa-rankings2013-12. Building information literacy (2015). Retrieved from, http:// www.edu.pe.ca/ bil/bil.asp?ch1.s1.gdtx#top

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Chicosky, C. L. (2015). Restructuring the modern education system in the United States: A look at the value of compulsory education laws. Brigham Young University Education & Law Journal, (1), p.1-75. Crotty, J. (2014). Why Asian nations dominate education rankings. Forbes journal on education. Retrieved from, http:// www.forbes.com/ sites/ jamesmarshallcrotty/2014/05/21/why-asian-nations-dominate-globaleducation-rankings/. Eberwein, D. (2013). The FPeLearning System for Education: Systematic research on creative technology integration into classroom practice. NOVA Science (ISBN: 978-1-62808-830-4). https:// www. nova publishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=44918&osCsid= 6b11802c5234ca962062394470d6e0eb. Furmos, F. & Labar, A. (2013). Cognitive styles, cognitive procession and perceptual curiosity in online and traditional academic learning context. Scientific Annals Of The 'Alexandru Ioan Cuza' University Of Iasi: Educational Sciences Series/Analele Stiintifice Ale Universitatii 'Alexandru Ioan Cuza' - Sect. Stiintele Educatiei, 17185-198. Gibson, P. & Dunning, P. (2012). Creating Quality Online Course Design Through a Peer-Reviewed Assessment. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 18(1), 209-228. Gogus, A., Nistor, N., Riley, R. W. & Lerche, T. (2012). Educational Technology Acceptance across Cultures: A Validation of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology in the Context of Turkish National Culture. Turkish Online Journal Of Educational Technology TOJET, 11(4), 394-408. Goldin, C. (1999). A brief history of education in the United States. National bureau of economic research historical paper No.119, (12), N3. Retrieved from, http://www.nber.org/papers/h0119.pdf. IBSTPI, (2012). Instructional design competencies. Retrieved from, www. ibstpi.org. Intelegen Inc., (2015). Memory and related learning principle. Intelegen Inc. retrieved from http://webMEMORY/memory_and_related_learning_ prin.htm. National Writing Project (2011). Interview with Dr. Judy Willis. Writing and the Brain: Neuroscience Shows the Pathways to Learning. Retrieved from, http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/3555. Piaget, J. (1967). Biology and knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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Prensky, M. (2001). ―Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.‖ On the Horizon 9 (5) p.1–6. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier database. School design matters (2012). 10 current school facility features that are obsolete. National clearinghouse for educational facilities. Retrieved from, http://schooldesignmatters.blogspot.com/2012/06/10-current-schoolfacility-features.html. Schwab, G. (2010). Assessing the quality of online courses: Quality matters. UMASS, Boston Edtech. Retrieved from, http:// umbedtech.wordpress. com/2010/11/23/assessing-the-quality-of-online-courses-quality-matters/. Shorkey, C. T. & Uebel, M. (2014). History and Development of Instructional Technology and Media in Social Work Education. Journal of Social Work Education, 50(2), 247-261. UNESCO, (2006). "Education for All: A Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO. UNESCO., p. 150. Wang, H. (2008). Benchmarks and Quality Assurance for Online Course Development in Higher Education. ERIC Number: ED503008. Retrieved from, http:// eric.ed.gov/ ?q=quality+matters+and+online&ft=on&id=ED 503008. Ward, T. W. (2013). Two Modes of Nonformal Education. Common Ground Journal, 11(1), 44-46. Willis, C., Kestell, C., Grainger, S. & Missingham, D. (2013). Encouraging the adoption of education technology for improved student outcomes. Australasian Journal Of Engineering Education, 19(2), 109-117. doi:10.7158/D12-012.2013.19.2. Yang, Y. & Cornelious, F. (2005). Preparing instructors for quality online instruction, Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8(1). Retrieved from www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/.

In: Advocacy for Change in Educational Culture ISBN: 978-1-63484-206-8 Editor: Dale H. Eberwein © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE EDUCATIONAL CULTURE Dale H. Eberwein Founder FPeLearning Systems, University of Phoenix SAS Alumni, Association of Leadership Educators (Submission Review Board), CITI Certified Human Subject Researcher, US

In the previous chapters an exploration of discussions by experts in the field of educational technology provided much food for thought. Global educational systems, synchronous video conferencing, distance English language learning, corporate expectations, alternate teaching methods, and educational technology integration into classroom practice provided alternatives to traditional architecture, pedagogically. To be an advocate for change in educational culture requires a thorough understanding of what is available as a means to disseminate curriculum. With the vast geographic footprint that higher learning in education, career, and global educational needs imbues, architectural designs where the transfer of knowledge is the intended goal must consider what distance learning has to offer. There remains a genuine need for the advancement of teaching methods that deliver information to stakeholders regardless of where they reside in the global community.

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ADVANTAGES TO EDUCATION AT A DISTANCE Waller (2013) provides the following when describing current technology as it relates to daily life: on a daily basis, most higher education students, faculty, educational administration, teachers and students in K-12, and business workers, use computers or a smart device, such as a smart phone or IPad, to check Email, go online for course updates, or to actually engage in online courses‖ (p.1).

With this kind of interfacing by global learners, it would appear that embracing an educational technology architecture to aid in curricular dissemination would make perfect sense. No longer saddled with having to sit for hours in a face-to-face presentational format, modern students gravitate to education in ways that transcend traditional means. In his works, Prensky (2001) described the digital native. Thamarasserti (2014) articulated that digital natives ―live in a world in which digital technology is part of the texture of their daily lives‖ (p.9). Obviously, ―technology is their native language and they expect to use technology in school,‖ (Thamarasserti, 2014, p.9). If these aforementioned statements reflect how the modern student intrinsically relies on technology, doesn‘t it make sense to develop educational architecture that incorporates more digitalization as a means to edify this population?

COST-EFFECTIVE EDUCATION Few can refute the rising cost of education. Unless one lives in a country that provides free education, cost is a critical factor to consider for many. Rising tuition and the price of text books have all but placed higher education out of reach for students on a budget. How many potential Einstein or Tesla quality students find the cost of a college education prohibitively expensive? Educational technology advancements such as elearning, distance learning, hybrid learning, etc. have gained in popularity as a direct result of the rising cost of a college education.

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ETEXTBOOKS Waller (2014) summated, ―the emergence of EReaders such as Kindle, Nook, IPad, and others, has boosted the use of electronic books‖ (p.3). Electronic books provide many advantages to traditional text books beyond reduced price, as well. Waller (2014) identified that reduced cost, at-hand accessibility, word search capability, easily updated content, green technology, and linking capability were some of the advantages over traditional text books. Teachers may also find advantages in customization of curriculum, current addendums for applicability, lecture notes, links, and practice tests (Waller, 2014).

THE INTERNET AS A MEDIUM FOR ACADEMIC EXCHANGE Qureshi, Shahzadi, Iqbal, and Islam, (2012) eloquently summate the advantages of the internet for education with the following stanza: The internet offers a new opening for old fashioned education, and better yet, old fashioned education available in a novel way - potentially available to the many rather than to the few. An old fashioned education (liberal arts) consists in information, critical thinking, creativity, and communication. The Internet augments all four of these components and thus offers at least four different educational benefits. (p.1).

The previous summation indicates why students may accomplish more with the Internet. They may connect with global students; they gain from others' information and skills, they can contribute in chat-rooms, provide personalize philosophies and explanations, and explore many diverse cultures beyond the confines of their personal environments. Other benefits include, ―flexibility and variety in mode and appearance, ease and low cost of access for learners worldwide, ease of putting student information online, ease of updating course information, increasing ubiquity and indispensability‖ (Qureshi, Shahzadi, Iqbal, & Islam, 2012, p.2).

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With all the aforementioned advantages, the single most cited disadvantage was reluctance to adopt new teaching methods by educators. Using a technology interface for teaching requires new skill-sets to be developed by educators. Whether or not to use technology as a way to enhance education comes down to the willingness of educators to actually use technology as a way to better their teaching skills and to positively affect student performance outcomes.

STUDENT WILLINGNESS TO EMBRACE A NEW EDUCATIONAL CULTURE Students are ready for change in educational culture as is evidenced by their willingness to use Google + Discussion Circles, (GDCs), so ―that when students were given the opportunity to learn using GDCs, the majority took advantage of the academic, social and structural dynamics created by these technologies in many ways that supported their learning, assessment activities and overall academic outcomes‖ (Kivunja, 2015, p.1). When teachers ―create learning, teaching and assessment environments that are similar to the conditions beyond school, college and university where our students live, work and study, the more student-centric, more student-participatory, and more authentic our pedagogical practices will become‖ (Kivunja, 2015, p.23). When discussion gravitates to the alignment of teaching and learning strategies, we need to consider the role that learning styles represent. The modern student uses technology daily and this movement appears to be gaining momentum. Modern education has yet to evolve to include educational technology in all but the most enlightened institutions and societies. If students prefer to use technology as a means to learn then we as educators must step up and provide technology-enhancements that stimulate and satisfy this preference.

CONCLUSION Educational culture remains founded on constructs that preceded the industrial revolution. Not providing students with alternatives to traditional educational landscape is a travesty. Many a multimedia educational architecture seems to show merit when exploring the cause and effect of

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enhanced performance outcomes. Morphing educational culture to one that embraces creative technology advancements is the stated goal of this publication. Only through exhaustive research on the topic of educationaltechnology may we develop into a society that fully understands that technology seems to have a positive effect on students‘ abilities educationally but also develops skill-sets that equal alignment with potential careers or advanced educational endeavors, as well.

REFERENCES GÄITÄNARU, A. (2014). Advantages and difficulties of implementation of new information technologies in education. Elearning & Software for Education, (3), p. 205-209. doi:10.12753/2066-026X-14-172 Kivunja, C. (2015). Innovative Methodologies for 21st Century Learning, Teaching and Assessment: A Convenience Sampling Investigation into the Use of Social Media Technologies in Higher Education. International Journal of Higher Education, (4) n2 p1-26 2015. Qureshi, M., Shahzadi, N., Iqbal, J. & Islam, M. (2012). The Advantages and Barriers of Using Internet in Teaching and Learning. Language In India, 12(11), 394-411. Thamarasserti, I. (2014). Edification of multimedia resources: Aligning technology for student empowerment. Journal of Educational Technology, 11(3), 9-15. Waller, D. (2013). Current Advantages and Disadvantages of Using ETextbooks in Texas Higher Education. FOCUS On Colleges, Universities & Schools, 7(1), 1-6.

CONCLUSION Dale H. Eberwein In this brief compilation of work on the field of educational technology, experts proposed alternatives to traditional educational culture. Developments in international educational systems, English learning at a distance, video conferencing that links stakeholders at a distance, corporate opinions about training, Rubrics, and educational technology infusion into classroom practice provided options for pedagogical purpose. Many questions remain however in that it is obvious that distance education and educational technology remain viable options that far too many ignore as a means to educate our students. The cyclic nature of education, whether it is in career or the advancement of education, dictates a need to embrace innovative pedagogical architectures if there is to be advancements in educational technology constructs. Researchers in the field almost unanimously agree that further study is necessary at every level if wide-spread adoption of educational technology architecture will be embraced. Truly, students are more ready to accept a technology component in their education than school systems are willing to incorporate. My query is why is that? The NCLB Act mandates that education needs to use what works educationally based on systematic research. Research continues to show that educational technology bridges the gap with students and encourages academic successes at a distance, as well as developing skill-sets that will be used infinitum in advanced education and potential careers. Interestingly, modern students seem to be the ones driving acceptance of technology for academic purpose while educators languish or even worse resist the change as

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too much extra skill-sets to learn and employ. The travesty to this thinking is that educational technology actually lessens the burden on educators in that much more may be accomplished in a shorter time than before technology became available. Perhaps the advocacy for change in educational culture will just have to wait and evolve over time as older educators retire and digital native (Prensky, 2001) teachers fill the void in schools left by the old-guard. One thing is for certain, technology waits for no one. Available educational technologies are born daily and there is no sign of it slowing down any time soon. It is troublesome that the ones suffering from the lack of incorporation of current developments in the field of educational technology enhancements are the students we so desperately want to affect. They are certainly ready as evidenced by their obsessions with personal digital assistants, cell phones, lap tops, social media involvement, and connections daily with technology of all shapes and sizes. Dobrican (2009) outlines the influences multimedia imbues in daily life and provided a matrix or hierarchy with the following: Multimedia in business - presentations, training, marketing, advertising, product demos, simulations, catalogues, messages, network communications, videoconferencing. All these elements allow businesses to run smoothly and efficiency. 1. Multimedia in schools - it switches the teaching process. The teacher will becomea facilitator of learning, rather than the traditional role of provider of information and understanding. 2. Multimedia at home - increasing convergence or melding of computer-based multimedia with entertainment and games. 3. Multimedia in public places - in hotels, trains, malls, museums, multimedia is available as kiosk providing information and help to the consumers. 4. Virtual reality - it is placed between technology and creative invention in multimedia. (P. 36) Technologies certainly permeate modern lifestyles and to ignore its influence is akin to the proverbial head in the sand mentality. The advantages to educational technology integration into practice pedagogically are many and the negatives can be worked-around. Advances in education will continue to manifest but the willingness to embrace them seems destine to languish at a snail‘s pace.

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Implications for Educational Leadership Educational governance faces exceptional challenges in modern edification, and none more vibrant than educational technology and what to do with it. Most technology in today‘s schools continue focused on administrative purpose or as Dede, Honan, and Peters (2005) stated, administrators see technology as applying to organizations for organizational purposes and not for schoolroom inclusion (Eberwein, 2013). This attitude to technology integration seems faulty as diminutive effect with students display and augmentations for tracking, record keeping, and specialized substructure such as e-mail, automated grade systems, and standardized testing seem to yield most from this progress (Dede et al., 2005). The sham of this development in education restrains what remains essential in classrooms and integration of technology to affect student learning performance outcomes remains the issue. Wrench, Hayslett, Schweizer, and O‘Sullivan (2010) argue that technology integration imitates a natural evolution in constructivist concept and needs to affect learner results to become viable in presentation, pedagogically. To support technology integration into curriculum requires a paradigm shift to accommodate the exchange. Though most shortfalls in education can be traced back to the predictable scarcities of capital, leadership must take a long look at personnel and the skill-sets they bring to the educational table. Presumably, educators must be sanctioned with not only skill-sets associated with identified technologies but must also be professionally developed to bring technologies into pedagogical practice. Technology in no small way is changing the way education does business in the 21st century classroom. The very term classroom may need to be reinvented to account for other curricular exchanges in the not too distant future. Information retrieval has developed into venues not of a traditional nature and educational leadership needs to look with an open mind, to this next generation of curricular exchange. From the very basic nature of understanding with mandated technology integration to the next generation of smart devices, education is truly changed forever. Technology provides a worthy addendum to this ideology in that it is obviously an innovation of ambitious proportions. Parting Note Advancements in education have, in no small part, been driven by technological innovations affecting the way educators do business. The growth and increased status of nation-sates educationally can almost always be tied to the embrace they exhibit for educational technology advancements. The

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United States was once the standard for educational practices and imitation was the greatest form of flattery. Sadly, this position globally has dwindled and the U.S. now ranks 25th in education status. Just where did we go wrong? One thing is for certain, the nation-states that have enjoyed progress the most, are the ones with the willingness to embrace change in educational culture. If we are to compete in a global community and our youth readied with ample skill-sets necessary to progress in career or further education, something has to change. The U.S. educational system is broken and we continue to shortchange our student-base with our inability to gain consensus on how to do business, educationally. This publication does not represent a definitive alternative to educational culture as it exists today but rather was intended to stimulate thought by educators on potential directions for improvement or alternatives to traditional teaching architecture. Advocating an ―and/with‖ structural design rather than an ―either/or‖ mind-set, the infusion of educational technology into current practices promises a return on investment beyond expectation and the winner of this change in educational culture is the future of our nation.

REFERENCES Dede, C., Honan, J., & Peters, L. (2005). Scaling up success: Lessons from technology-Based educational improvement. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dobrican, O. (2009). Multimedia and decision-making process. Informatica Economica, 13(3), 36-48. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Eberwein, D. (2013). The FPeLearning System for Education: Systematic research on creative technology integration into classroom practice. NOVA Science (ISBN: 978-1-62808-830-4). Prensky, M. (2001). ―Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.‖ On the Horizon 9.5: 1–6. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier database. Wrench, J., Hayslett, C., Schweizer, H., & O‘Sullivan, E. (2010). Faculty Development in the Use of Blended Learning. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2010 (p. 975-978). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

APPENDIX A: BROOKFIELD’S DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES Circle of Voices • Individuals reflect on the discussion topic (1-3 minutes) • Participants go round the circle in order - each person has up to 1 minute of uninterrupted air time to give their viewpoint on the topic. No interruptions are allowed. • Move into free discussion with the ground rule that every comment offered must somehow refer back to a comment made by someone else in the opening circle of voices. This need NOT be agreement - it can be a disagreement, a question, an elaboration or extension, an illustration, and so on. Circular Response • Individuals reflect on a topic for discussion • Form into circles of 6-8 • One person starts by giving her reflections on the topic. Up to 1 minute allowed - no interruptions • Person to left of 1st speaker goes next - whatever she says MUST somehow refer to/build on previous speaker‘s comments (can be a disagreement or express confusion). Up to 1 minute allowed - no interruptions • Process continues leftwards around the circle with people speaking in order until all have participated • Group moves into open conversation with no particular ground rules in force Retrieved with permission from: http://www.stephenbrookfield.com/Dr._Stephen_D._Brookfield/ Workshop_Materials.html

APPENDIX B: CRITICAL INCIDENT QUESTIONNAIRE [1] At that moment in the class did you feel most engaged with what was happening? [2] At what moment in the class did you feel the most distanced from what was happening? [3] What action that anyone took in class did you find most affirming or helpful? [4] What action that anyone took did you find the most confusing or puzzling? [5] What about this class surprised you most?

APPENDIX C: FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Name__________________________ On a scale of 1-10 where 1 is the lowest self-efficacy with technology and 10 is the highest, please provide a self-estimate for your perceived skill-sets with the following: 1. Web or Internet surfing abilities with an education emphasis. 2. File management protocol abilities for research-to-presentation and the ability to provide seamless access for retrieval of saved information. 3. Research skill-sets that include key-word search abilities, knowledge of websites that are considered credible and your understanding of what constitutes viability in on-line research. 4. Microsoft Office Word Document skill-sets that include formatting, grammar, and manipulation of document construction. 5. Microsoft Office PowerPoint® skills that include, template design, graphics and clip art manipulation, animation ability, and the synchronization of readable and audio text into PowerPoint® presentations. 6. Audio recording abilities either in PowerPoint® or through periphery software. Please include audio editing skill-set mastery in your selfassessment. 7. Any and all Flash Player experience. 8. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server experience. 9. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) experience for document and/or PowerPoint™, hyperlinking ability.

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APPENDIX D: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Name__________________________ On a scale of 1-10 where 1 is the lowest self-efficacy with technology and 10 is the highest, please provide a self-estimate for your perceived skill-sets with the following post-workshop: 1. Web or Internet surfing abilities with an education emphasis. 2. File management protocol abilities for research-to-presentation and the ability to provide seamless access for retrieval of saved information. 3. Research skill-sets that include key-word search abilities, knowledge of websites that are considered credible and your understanding of what constitutes viability in on-line research. 4. Microsoft Office Word Document skill-sets that include formatting, grammar, and manipulation of document construction. 5. Microsoft Office PowerPoint® skills that include, template design, graphics and clip art manipulation, animation ability, and the synchronization of readable and audio text into PowerPoint® presentations. 6. Audio recording abilities either in PowerPoint® or through periphery software. Please include audio editing skill-set mastery in your selfassessment. 7. Any and all Flash Player experience. 8. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server experience. 9. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) experience for document and/or PowerPoint™, hyperlinking ability. 10. Document and or PowerPoint™ Hyperlinking ability.

APPENDIX E: QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Gender: M____ F ___ Age: 20-30___31-40____ 41-50____ 51-60____ 61-70____ Other____ 1. What are your impressions of the educational technologies currently available to you in your studies? Please describe your experiences todate with these technologies. 2. What is your opinion of using technology in your studies as an aid to your scholastic progress? 3. Tell me about any experiences you have had using creative technology practices in the classroom in which you experienced student-based, technology-enhanced practices. 4. How much personal development with educational technology do you feel is necessary to increase your confidence, so you will be able to use it as an aid to your learning? Please elaborate. 5. Please describe your experiences with any personal development you have received that has aided you in using technology in your studies? 6. How much personal development, with using educational technology included strategies to include these technologies as a foundation for your learning process? Please elaborate. 7. What kinds of strategies do you currently use in your studies that integrate technology? Please convey your experiences with these strategies. 8. What is your opinion on creative technology as a strategy in which you are the creator of your own learning?

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APPENDIX F: QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTIONS QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS ON EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION INTO CLASSROOM PRACTICE MHS1: Male High School Student. FGSM: Female general studies major. FPM: Female psychology major. MCSM: Male computer science major. 1. What are your impressions of the educational technologies currently available to you in your studies? Please describe your experiences to-date with these technologies. MHS1: I really haven‘t had much experience with educational technology except for writing papers for classes. I do surf the web for information but I‘m not sure if the information is good or not. The information could be written by anyone really. FGSM: Before I found technology even though I grew up with it, I was never really taught how to use it to do research so I found this workshop very, very helpful. I even feel more confident with my writing skills and can do a presentation now and I‘m not so scared of it. It was very helpful. FPM: As an on-line student I notice even on-line classes are quite lacking in integrating technology into it even though they are using it on-line. A lot of it is just busy work, research papers and assignments you‘re having to

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download but no actual integration of using the technology to help you incorporate that into your studies. So I think there‘s a lot of progress that can be done on that rather than just assigning students busy work that‘s essentially just work sheets. MCSM: The best experience with available technologies I have had to date is Microsoft office and the blackboard we use, basically the online infrastructure we use here for when we are not in class and that‘s really about it. 2. What is your opinion of using technology in your studies as an aid to your scholastic progress? MHS1: I need it. My dad talked about having to go to the library all the time when he was in college and all I have to do is get online to find stuff to write about. It really helps my studies. FGSM: I think it will be very helpful. I‘ve definitely gained more tips for future writing. I‘m just beginning my education. I‘m not scared of it anymore, that‘s for sure. I found it very entertaining to do research on something. FPM: I think using technology would benefit everyone if we ended up integrating it into education because it makes you learn a lot better and I noticed that the more we‘re using technology in our personal lives, we probably should be using technology more in education and business fashion and it can make things a lot more simpler… teaching a lot more simpler and learning a lot more simpler. MCSM: I think it‘s almost crucial to have some kind of technological fluency here. Simply to submit your work, to help with the research, to help with basically the clarification of the topic in general, especially if you‘re going for a computer science degree. 3. Tell me about any experiences you have had using creative technology practices in the classroom in which you experienced studentbased, technology-enhanced practices. MHS1: If you mean me creating stuff for classes, all I have is my ability to write and submit papers. I‘ve never had anything like this workshop before and I think everyone should take this because it really made me think differently about how to learn subjects. FGSM: Other than what we just did, nothing. I just created a presentation for you.

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FPM: Personally I have been in Sociology classes that have you write your own blogs about things you‘ve learned over the semester and things that interest you in that class and pretty much interact with other students and they will comment on your blogs. It‘s similar to a discussion but you‘re actually making your own website based on your interests in that class and that interaction with other students really helps socially as well. And I really enjoyed that. MCSM: The closest I would say would actually be in a computer science where we had used presentation PowerPoint to exhibit our final projects. It was a project to from the ground-up write a program, demonstrate its use, its practicality, and to also explain how it was created and the fundamental logic between algorithms and how it‘s used to bring it together. It was a lot harder to do than most of my other projects because I was having to explain how I did it, rather than just doing it and then submitting it. For example my research paper so it was pretty necessary for me to be able to use the PowerPoint to convey to other students and they turned around and basically criticized my work …constructive criticism and to give feed-back on what I had presented. 4. How much personal development with educational technology do you feel is necessary to increase your confidence, so you will be able to use it as an aid to your learning? Please elaborate. MHS1: I think all students need to be taught this way all the time. I learned so much more going to the different websites and video places to get information. My confidence increased I think. I mean I feel much better prepared to do assignment now that I took this workshop from you. FGSM: I‘d say I‘ve increased a lot in my confidence. I know how to do research now. I found it very useful to have websites that can help me cite my papers. FPM: Well, I think there needs to be a little bit more integration on learning technology in it so you are able to use it within schooling but I‘ve noticed like a lot of this technology is fairly simple and user friendly so you wouldn‘t need lots of experience prior to classes for this technology. You could probably learn this technology in a very short time to integrate it into your learning. MCSM: Personally I feel I would have to understand the code of the program itself to feel incredibly fluent. To understand why a program does something like this or why certain restrictions exist. So it would have to be extraordinarily detailed for me to feel very confident about it. I can use it as an

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end user and make a program for a presentation here and leave it at that but to actually feel confident about what I‘m doing. I‘d have to almost know every iota of its function. 5. Please describe your experiences with any personal development you have received that has aided you in using technology in your studies? MHS1: Other than this workshop there‘s been nothing. No one has ever taken the time to teach me this stuff before. I just had to figure stuff out on my own. Many times not knowing if I was doing my assignment correctly made me not want to finish. FGSM: Maybe just the ability to have a computer where ever I go. We have smart phones so you can always do research where ever you go. FPM: I‘ve been in classes that also have me build a website that is pretty complex compared to what I had before but I haven‘t had too much experience with learning a lot of new technology at least in college. I haven‘t had to learn a totally different thing. Most of it is just rehashing such as work sheets and things like that. There are not a lot of things I‘ve learned throughout college in dealing with technology. MCSM: No answer 6. How much personal development, with using educational technology included strategies to include these technologies as a foundation for your learning process? Please elaborate. MHS1: No one has ever given me strategies to do my work. I just figured out thing as I researched topics. I wish I had this knowledge before many years ago. I think it would have helped me get better grades. FGSM: Not so much strategies. Maybe just how to use the internet. Maybe just websites to go to but not how to do through research, and how to find credible sources and what not. I haven‘t really had that experience until now. FPM: Not very often. A lot of times they just have you write papers so I mean there‘s nothing really new. They don‘t really tell you any way… they pretty much say ―do this format‖ and we have to pretty much figure it out from there. But not a lot of technology integration has been taught a lot in dealing with PowerPoint. I haven‘t really used much of that at all. My experience in college has just been based on writing papers.

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MCSM: There was actually one instructor who taught us how to use a planning program so that instead of just coming up with a concept and writing it out, we had a visual diagram of how it was supposed to flow. It was like a flow-chart. That actually increased understanding. I took two semesters of his class and it increased from one semester here I planned it out pretty much just a note pad file. And then using the program he had taught us (Viseo) I was actually able to construct a base program much faster. Almost a rapid rate. I had all of my classes and basically my entire domain by mid semester as opposed to half way in, last time. 7. What kinds of strategies do you currently use in your studies that integrate technology? Please convey your experiences with these strategies. MHS1: I pretty much just write papers using Word and sometimes have to do a PowerPoint for a class. But I don‘t have any real strategy I can think of. FGSM: I will use Google Earth, common search engines and then I‘ll use that key word plus another key word and things that you taught us. The Perdue Owl website I thought was helpful but I don‘t know how to cite anything, but now I do. FPM: A lot of things I end up using are of course when writing papers I use Word documents. I use a lot of things like outlines and check lists on-line that actually help me to do things step by step. I don‘t use a ton of technology with helping my learning though. Could probably use a lot more. It would probably aid me a lot in studies. I notice with studying I‘ll usually have to use Word or something like that to get a lot of the information I need to write down to understand it but I need a lot more of it to expand upon to better learn things. MCSM: Not very many strategies continued on past that class. I‘d have to say the extent of using that strategy went down to constructing my last research paper with piracy. And instead of note pad here we used more of a visual way. Didn‘t use the exact program but I had the same concept pretty much and a blank PowerPoint slide.

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8. What is your opinion on creative technology as a strategy in which you are the creator of your own learning? MHS1: I like doing my own thing and to be taught this way was really cool. I got to pick my topic and make my presentation and no one helped except to give me direction when I got stuck. I liked it. FGSM: I think it‘s a very useful thing that needs to be presented in classrooms. When we‘re told we have to come up with a presentation it‘s very stressful and it‘s not entertaining for us. It doesn‘t make me want to learn. And when I have the ability to just do it because I can or because I want to, it makes me want to get the presentation out. So I think that is very important, especially at a younger age when we‘re kind of breaking out of our shell. If I had this at a younger age I wouldn‘t be so shy. I would be a lot more confident. FPM: I really enjoy that, I really enjoyed using PowerPoint. I really enjoyed it, like my other classes creating my own blog, things like that. It kind of puts you in a perspective of really having to know this stuff rather than just spewing information out onto a page such as a research paper or something like a work sheet where you just work the answers out and hopefully you absorb some of it. Whereas if you integrate it into an actual thing you have to create yourself, and it‘s yours, you actually maintain and absorb that information more. MCSM: It got me motivated and I‘m not even… I wasn‘t even doing it for a grade. This is all voluntary here but I was able to pick a topic of my liking as opposed to being handed a topic here and told to do research. I was able to pull in what I wanted and I was able to say how I wanted and it made things a lot easier to swallow, so to speak. So I didn‘t feel like I was goaded for a grade. I felt like I was doing something here that I inherently wanted. 9. How would you describe your experience with the FPeLearning™ System for Education workshops? Please describe any positive and negative experience. MHS1: There was nothing negative really except maybe having to write a paper. I learned a bunch of new stuff though and I think that is positive. I learned a lot about Thomas Edison that I didn‘t know before and I don‘t think I would have gotten this much information just in class through lectures on him. Overall I really had a positive experience and would do it again.

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FGSM: I found it very, very helpful. I have never been introduced to this kind of learning until now. I plan to use it in the future because I know it will help me. There were a lot of big words but I worked through it. That was helpful. FPM: I had an extremely positive experience with this. I didn‘t think I was going to learn as much as I did. I honestly thought it was going to be more about PowerPoint and integrating that but I learned a lot more dealing with Articulate and everything and it‘s something I‘d really like to use further in my education. It might be a good idea for when I write research papers to also have a combination of this because I believe I can learn a lot more from it and break it down in a more simplistic way rather than a very complex research paper. I think absorbing the information would be better. There‘s not much negative I see on it. Just the fact that you have to write a research paper and make this, it might eat up some time. But if you were just to make this your research paper I think that it could do a lot of good. MCSM: The only negative thing I could really think of was managing the file transfer protocol to make sure your presentations are available. But I like the idea of having something visual, audio, aural, and something you can replicate and pass on through access to any medium. Only being able to access your FPe presentations on a laptop or desktop would be a bit frustrating but I noticed they had the IOS plug-ins here. It‘s a lot easier than reading research paper after research paper and doing them is a lot easier too. And what‘s more is that it‘s a lot more interesting. I‘ve had friends who have read my research papers and they take maybe a couple of days before they send it back to me saying they can only get half way through it before they‘re bored, as opposed to having a few minutes here sitting down and listening to a topic that is explained and presented to you. Almost like a YouTube video. 10. Is there anything not covered in this interview you would like to add about your experience with the FPeLearning™ System for Education workshops or other strategies that include creative technology practices? MHS1: I had a fun time, thank you. FGSM: There is another type of presentation called Preze.com I don‘t know if you‘ve heard of it. But I also found those presentations entertaining. I don‘t know if they are compatible with Articulate or if they work in any way with those presentations like PowerPoint. Or if they‘re compatible but it‘s another way to do a presentation.

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EDITOR AND AUTHOR INFORMATION EDITOR Dale H. Eberwein, Ed. D/ET Founder FPeLearning Systems, University of Phoenix Alumni, Association of Leadership Educators (Submission Review Board), CITI certified human researcher Tel: (208) 659-4098 Email: [email protected] Dr. Eberwein is a lifelong learner. He is a certified human subject researcher and review principle for the Association of Leadership Educators (ALE) conference committee. Since obtaining his doctorate degree in Educational Leadership with an emphasis in Educational Technology, Dr. Eberwein has devoted several years to the study of educational technologyenhanced architectures through systematic research with students. He is the founder of FPeLearning™ Systems since 2009, Adjunct Faculty at North Idaho College since 2006, and is an educational consultant for business, industry, education, and government on learning management systems (LMS), information systems design (ISD), instructional design architecture, and the development of digital courseware for online training. He is the author of the NOVA Science Publication (The FPeLearning System for Education: Systematic Research on Creative Technology Integration into Classroom Practice). His tireless commitment to the betterment of education continues with this compilation of experts in the field of virtual education and continues

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to devote countless hours to the advancement of technology into pedagogical constructs.

CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS Ann Armstrong With more than 35 years of experience that spans business and education, Dr. Armstrong is a seasoned leader, experienced in driving measurable organizational change through blended learning programs utilizing alternative and technology-enhanced formats. Based in Fairfield County, CT Dr. Armstrong is an expert in adult learning and leadership, eLearning, Project Management, and leveraging technology to provide cost-effective, scalable, and global solutions. Her career includes roles as an executive director at Columbia University‘s Teachers College where the Columbia Coaching Certification program was started under her leadership, as well as the first online master‘s degree in collaboration with the Center for Computing and Technology; an area practice executive for eBusiness and eLearning at IBM Global Services where her team designed and delivered the first global asynchronous learning program to 10,000 leaders; and a vice president of Ernst & Young's eLearning Financial Services Practice where her team designed, delivered, and implemented large scale blended learning solutions for up to 210,000 global client employees including a CFO university, a Bank Wide Credit Certification, Six Sigma Certification, and a Financial Advisor (FA) Specialist Certification Program for 13,000 financial advisors. She is a certified IBM consultant and a confirmed IBM principal. She is a certified facilitator and coach for Dale Carnegie. Today she is core faculty at Capella University in the Instructional Design for Online Learning program. She is widely published in peer-reviewed journals and received the Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) cutting edge, top ten papers award in 2009. In the spring 2012 she was published in the Quarterly Review of Distance Education and in 2014 in AHRD on the topic of synchronous web-conferencing delivery. Ann received her doctoral degree in instructional technology and media specializing in Adult Learning and Leadership from Teachers College, Columbia University. She also holds a master of education degree from Teachers College, Columbia University; a Master of Arts degree from Fairfield University in instructional design, educational technology and media;

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and a Master of Arts degree in economics from University of Cincinnati. She recently completed the MBA program in Project Management at Capella University with Distinction. Brian D. Denman Dr. Brian D. Denman is a senior lecturer at the University of New England (Australia) in the School of Education and serves as the SecretaryGeneral of the World Council of Comparative Education Societies (WCCES), an international organization consisting of over 40 comparative and international education societies worldwide. His particular areas of expertise include the study of educational systems, educational planning and policy studies, international higher education policy, and comparative education research. Leili H. Green Dr. Leili H. Green is adjunct faculty at the Houston Community Corporate College in Houston, Texas. She received her doctorate in Education majoring in Educational Technology form the University of Phoenix. Her rewarding international training experiences have taken her to Iran, Qatar, Afghanistan, Australia, and the U.S. She designs and delivers quality training electronically and in person, covering ―soft skills‖ (like diversity and communication) and highly complex, technical topics such high fidelity simulation training. Her teaching and managerial experience is across industries such as government, higher education at the under and graduate level schools, healthcare organizations, and the energy industry. Dr. Green has co-authored the first bilingual English/Persian book titled ―Speech and Language Pathology Terminology‖ (2010). Her first book titled ―Deaf Children in a Regular Classroom‖ was published by the University of Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran in 1994. She has presented papers in many international conferences, won the best presenter award at the 2014 Academic Forum Conference, and has six peer review papers published. She currently resides in Houston with her husband Wayne. Priscilla Jones-Akpaita Dr. Priscilla Jones-Akpaita EDD/ET is the founder of Speak Excellent English, an online conversational portal. She has been a professional educator for over 25 years and teaches completely online at http://www.speakexcellentenglish.net. Online she is known as Dr. Priscilla and has created over 500 YouTube videos to help demonstrate and teach methods

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and strategies for teaching online with a host of technologies. Her dedication to teaching a global community was influenced by a cadre of online learners and the completion of a Degree in Educational Leadership with an emphasis in Educational Technology, with University of Phoenix. Dr. Priscilla is constantly seeking innovative teaching methods, platforms, and technologies to increase exposure and avenues for English language learners to gain easy access for communicating effortlessly, fluently, and confidently through her website http://www.speakexcellentenglish.net.

INDEX A academic learning, 96 academic progress, 2, 12, 13, 17, 84 academic success, 105 accreditation, 1, 40, 44, 45 achievement test, 7, 8, 12, 15 adaptation, 38, 47, 76 administrators, 107 adult learning, 77, 78, 128 advancement(s), 4, 99, 100, 103, 105, 107, 127 advocacy, 106 affirming, 34, 111 agencies, 3 agility, 12, 15 animations, 25, 55 annual review, 35, 51 anorexia, 78 articulation, 21 Asia, 17 assessment, xvi, xvii, xviii, 2, 8, 13, 14, 15, 48, 80, 81, 102 athletes, 56, 57, 58 athleticism, 57 Authentic learning activities, 21 authentication, 54 authority(s), xii, 7, 45

B background information, 65 barriers, 6, 55, 70 behaviorists, 20 Belgium, 10 benchmarks, xvi, xvii, 7, 8 benefits, 12, 54, 68, 101 blogs, 54, 90, 120 brain, 80 Britain, 78

C case study(ies), viii, 41, 47, 48, 81, 84 categorization, 38, 50 CD-ROM, 60 cell phones, 38, 106 certification, 40 challenges, 1, 7, 12, 55, 59, 67, 70, 107 Chicago, 96 children, xii, 69, 79 China, 16 Circle of Voices, 30, 33, 109 Circular Response Discussion, 30 classes, 8, 62, 69, 82, 83, 84, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124 classification, 3, 38 classroom, viii, xxi, 14, 19, 20, 47, 53, 54, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 69, 70, 76, 81, 85,

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88, 90, 96, 99, 105, 107, 108, 117, 119, 120 classroom management, 63 Cloud computing, 68 coaching, 26, 29, 43, 128 cognitive process, 96 collaboration, 12, 21, 25, 33, 46, 47, 64, 65, 68, 69, 128 college students, 77 communication, xi, xvi, xviii, 9, 11, 45, 62, 63, 66, 68, 72, 76, 77 communication skills, 77 communication technologies, 9 community(s), 6, 21, 63, 65, 66, 69, 70, 77, 85, 99, 108, 129 comparative education, 129 competition, 1, 70 competitive advantage, 75 compliance, xiii, xviii, 47, 69 comprehension, 54, 55, 56, 66 compulsory education, 96 computer, xiv, 27, 60, 61, 70, 88, 90, 91, 106, 119, 120, 121, 122 computer-mediated communication, 61 concept map, 13 conference, 23, 27, 28, 30, 31, 51, 127 connectivity, 55, 68, 72 construction, 10, 30, 38, 50, 86, 87, 113, 115 constructivist epistemology, 20 constructivist model, 20 consumers, xiv, 37, 106 consumption, 37 convergence, 2, 73, 106 conversations, 56, 59 Conviviality, 26, 29 cooperative learning, 9 cost, 3, 7, 33, 48, 61, 71, 73, 100, 101, 128 course content, 63 course work, 82 creativity, vii, 2, 4, 13, 14, 15, 18, 69, 101 Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ), 26, 30, 31, 34, 111 critical thinking, viii, xiii, xv, 5, 14, 29, 30, 101

criticism, 48, 86, 90, 114, 121 cultural differences, 11 culture, vii, viii, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xxii, 3, 4, 16, 40, 48, 49, 79, 85, 95, 99, 102, 105, 106, 108 curricula, 15 curriculum, vii, viii, xiii, xv, 1, 8, 10, 14, 79, 99, 101, 107

D database, 97, 108 decentralization, 11 decision-making process, 108 demographic change, 74 demonstrations, 22, 24 Denmark, 8, 16 designers, 8, 20, 21, 49 developed countries, 16 developmental process, xix dialogic strategies, 21 digital cameras, 38 display, 23, 25 distance education, xvi, xvii, xviii, xix, xxi, 20, 53, 63, 69, 74, 78, 105 distance learning, xv, xvi, xvii, xix, xx, xxi, 37, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 77, 99, 100 diversity, ix, 10, 69, 129 Doing, 25 drawing, 31

E economic systems, 2 economics, 128 educational assessment, 15 educational attainment, 12 educational culture, vii, viii, xi, xii, xiv, xv, 85, 99, 102, 103, 105, 106, 108 educational experience, 63 educational institutions, 4 educational opportunities, 53 educational policy, 11, 16 educational practices, vii, xiii, 108

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Index educational process, 4 educational quality, 2, 3, 4 educational system, xi, xiii, xiv, 3, 6, 8, 11, 12, 15, 99, 105, 108, 129 educational technology skill-sets, viii educators, viii, xvii, xxi, 4, 65, 66, 70, 72, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108 elaboration, 21, 33, 109 e-learning, 50, 51, 52, 69 employability, 1, 2 employees, 40, 47, 48, 72, 73, 74, 76, 128 employers, 14, 15 employment, 8, 9, 13, 15, 46, 53 empowerment, 18, 76, 103 English Language, 80 enrollment, 78 environment(s), xii, xxi, 5, 8, 14, 19, 21, 23, 30, 36, 46, 47, 49, 59, 62, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 101, 102 environmental standards, 95 equity, 2, 7, 9, 10 ethnic minority, 13 ethnicity, 12 Europe, 6 Events of Instruction, 32 evolution, xviii, xxi, 49 exploratory strategies, 21

F Facebook, 54, 59, 60, 70 face-to-face interaction, 20, 66, 69 facial expression, 54 facilitators, xvii, 44, 49 faculty presence, 20 fear(s), xiv, 46, 75 focus groups, 23, 24 force, xv, 34, 55, 72, 109 foreign language, 54 France, 10 funding, xiii, xiv, 43, 47

G Georgia, 8 Germany, 8 global education, 60, 99 global scale, 7 globalization, 2, 9, 11, 16 Google, 20, 54, 77, 78, 92, 102, 123 governance, 107 government policy, 10 grades, 8, 15, 92, 122 ground rules, 30 growth, xx, 9, 16, 68, 72, 74, 80, 107 growth rate, xx, 74 guidance, xvii, 13, 52 guidelines, xii, xiii, xx, 30, 66

H hegemony, 18 high school, xiv, 81, 85 higher education, xx, 1, 3, 16, 19, 50, 51, 74, 100, 129 Hong Kong, 17 human capital theory, 7 human development, 3 human right, 2 hybrid, vii, 69, 100 hyperlinking, 86, 87, 113, 115 hypertext, 62

I identity, 5, 11, 12, 17 identity achievement, 11 identity diffusion, 11 ideology, 5, 107 IEA, 7 image(s), 54, 55 India, 103 indigenous peoples, 11 individual development, 15 industrial revolution, vii, xi, 102

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industry(ies), xix, 1, 15, 35, 45, 49, 50, 51, 71, 72, 74, 127, 129 inequality, 16 information exchange, 68 information technology, xix, 40, 47 infrastructure, xvii, 39, 40, 43, 76, 89, 120 institutions, xviii, xxi, 1, 11, 12, 65, 66, 81, 102 instructional activities, 60 instructional design, xv, xvi, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, 20, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 49, 51, 52, 76, 127, 128 instructional models, 21 instructional strategies, xvii, 21, 22, 27, 28, 33, 49, 70 integration, viii, 2, 10, 53, 68, 81, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 96, 99, 106, 107, 108, 119, 121, 122 interactive discussion, 20 interface, 62, 102 Internet, vii, 13, 59, 61, 62, 63, 86, 87, 101, 103, 113, 115 interoperability, 40, 43 intrinsic motivation, 48 investment, xxi, 38, 108 Iran, 129 Islam, 101, 103

J Japan, 73

K knowledge acquisition, 13 knowledge economy, 9

L labor force, 9 languages, 55 laws, 20, 96 leadership, vii, viii, 35, 39, 41, 72, 75, 76, 107, 128

learner achievement, 65 learners, xv, xvii, 20, 21, 23, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 40, 44, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 59, 63, 65, 66, 70, 76, 79, 100, 101, 129 learning behavior, 6, 13 learning culture, 40, 47, 52 learning environment, xvii, 20, 21, 49, 53, 61, 62, 66, 67, 70, 77 learning management systems (LMS), vii, 62, 127 learning outcomes, xvii, 66 learning process, xviii, xx, 49, 55, 61, 80, 81, 88, 91, 117, 122 learning styles, 102 leisure time, 74 lens, xi, xviii, 1, 81 literacy, xiii, 7, 8, 79, 95 local community, 2, 14

M Malaysia, 10 management, vii, xii, xvi, xx, 9, 41, 43, 47, 48, 51, 61, 62, 63, 75, 76, 78, 86, 87, 113, 115, 127 manipulation, 80, 86, 87, 113, 115 manufacturing, 71, 78 mapping, 15 market share, 37 marketing, 106 marketplace, 7, 17 materials, xvi, xviii, 24, 35, 59, 63, 66 mathematics, xiv, xxii, 8, 95 matrix, 106 measurement(s), xvi, xviii, 38 media, 5, 23, 49, 59, 79, 80, 106, 128 memory, 60, 96 mentor, 14, 15, 47 mentoring, 3, 49 Microsoft, 86, 87, 89, 113, 115, 120 middle class, 85 migrants, 9, 11 migration, 9 minorities, 11 mobile device, 76

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Index mobile enterprise, 75 mobile phone, 28, 74 modelling, 13 models, 6, 7, 21, 27, 61, 65, 76 motivation, xvi, 29, 40, 45, 47, 51, 63 multiculturalism, 9, 10, 11 multimedia, vii, 24, 25, 69, 102, 103, 106 multinational companies, 11

N National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), xiv, 7 national policy, 7 natural evolution, 107 negotiation, 5, 21 Nepal, 16 Netherlands, 8 networking, 59, 76 New England, 1, 128 new media, 33 New Zealand, 10 next generation, 70, 107 No Child Left Behind, xiii

O obstacles, 68, 69 online learning, xxii, 22, 35, 37, 39, 51, 52, 62, 63, 68, 69, 70, 76, 78, 95 operating system, 62 operations, 11, 67 opportunities, viii, xvii, xviii, 46, 47, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 75 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 7, 17

patient care, 71 pedagogy, xv, 1, 10, 17 peer relationship, 66 peer review, xviii, 129 personal computers, 37 personal development, 88, 90, 91, 117, 121, 122 personal identity, 12 personality, 8, 12, 51 personality traits, 12 pharmaceutical, 38 pilot study, 81 piracy, 93, 123 PISA, xiv, 7, 8 Planning and Organization, 31 Planning/Organization, 26 platform, 28, 61, 62, 70, 76 Plato, 5, 29, 33 policy, 4, 7, 8, 11, 16, 129 policy makers, 4, 7 positivism, 2, 5 poverty, 12 pragmatism, 2 prejudice, 10 principles, xvii, xx, xxi, 20, 27, 72 prior knowledge, 21 private education, 74 private sector, 18 problem solving, 2, 5, 13, 14, 15, 33 problem-based learning, 47 professional development, 15, 39, 45, 50, 51 professional educators, 85 professionals, 3, 73 project, xvi, xix, xx, 14, 25, 41, 49, 50, 67, 68, 90, 121 psychology, 13, 88, 119

Q P quality control, xv, 1 Pacific, 17 Pakistan, xxii, 95 Panama, 51 participants, 23, 24, 29, 30, 50, 53, 59, 62, 63, 83, 84, 85

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R R2D2/C3PO, ix, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33 R2D2/C3PO Component, ix, 24, 25, 26 R2D2/C3PO Model, 22 raccoon eyes, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 Read and Listen, 22 Read/Listening, 24 reading, xiv, xxii, 8, 22, 55, 80, 94, 95, 125 reading skills, 8 recall, 32 recognition, 13, 39 Reflect, Write, Share, 22 Reflect/Writing/Sharing, 24 resources, xvi, xix, 7, 15, 22, 43, 45, 46, 47, 61, 62, 63, 68, 103 restrictions, 91, 121 risk management, 71 rubrics, 12 rules, 5, 12, 26, 30, 34, 109

S SAS, 79, 99 Saudi Arabia, 10 school, xiii, xiv, xv, 4, 10, 18, 69, 70, 78, 86, 95, 97, 100, 102, 105, 106, 107, 129 school climate, 70 school culture, 10 schooling, xiv, 6, 91, 121 science, xiv, xxii, 7, 8, 88, 90, 95, 119, 120, 121 scope, 4 second language, 60 secondary students, xv, 81, 85 self-assessment, 14, 23, 24, 86, 87, 113, 115 self-efficacy, xvi, 61, 62, 81, 86, 87, 113, 115 self-world, 21 self-worth, 1 seminars, 20, 35 sequencing, 31, 62 services, 4, 50, 60, 63, 68, 71

short-term memory, 81 simulation(s), 71, 72, 77, 78, 106, 129 Simulation Training, 71 Singapore, 17 skilled personnel, 71 skills training, 77 sociability, 29 social construct, 21 social constructivism, 21 social context, 9 social development, 69 social environment, 33 social interaction(s), 21 social network, 44, 54, 69 social situations, 69 social status, 44 social structure, 6, 10 socialization, 59, 65, 68, 70 society, xi, xv, 5, 10, 53, 79, 103 Socrates, 29, 33 software, 14, 15, 71, 86, 87, 113, 115 stakeholders, viii, 13, 14, 39, 49, 50, 99, 105 standardization, xiii, 2, 15 standardized testing, 107 state(s), xii, xiii, 2, 7, 9, 11, 38, 62, 69, 71, 72, 73, 76, 80, 108 structure, 23, 49, 58, 67 structuring, 62 student achievement, xix student motivation, 62 student-based technology, vii style(s), 8, 56, 96 supportive strategies, 21 Sweden, 10 synchronization, 86, 87, 113, 115 synchronous web conferences, 20 synthesis, 21

T teachers, xii, xiv, xvii, xx, 3, 12, 14, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 69, 100, 102, 106 technical support, xx, xxi, 13 techniques, xix, 20, 21, 27, 29, 30, 35, 68 technological advances, 65

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Index technology-rich student-centric approach, vii testing, 2, 5 textbook, 54, 60, 61 time constraints, 48 trainees, 69, 71 training, xiii, 9, 39, 40, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 60, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 105, 106, 127, 129 training programs, 51, 71 transformation(s), 53 transparency, xviii, xx

U UNESCO, 3, 7, 17, 18, 79, 97 United States (USA), xiii, xiv, xxii, 7, 10, 34, 50, 85, 96, 108 universities, 1, 2, 74

V virtual and technology-enhanced educational culture, viii

vision, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 77 visualization, 55 vocabulary, 56, 59 vocational training, 72

W web, 7, 20, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39, 40, 47, 49, 61, 62, 68, 69, 72, 89, 96, 119, 128 web pages, 62 web sites, 62 web-conferencing systems, 20 websites, 24, 54, 63, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 113, 115, 121, 122 white-collar workers, xiv Wi-Fi, 73 William James, 10 work environment, 49 workers, vii, 73, 75, 100 workforce, vii, xiv, 10, 65, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 85 workplace, 8, 9, 16, 35, 51, 69, 72, 74, 79