Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology 9819911869, 9789819911868

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Water Resources Development and Management

Muhammad Suleman Tahir Muhammad Sagir Muhammad Bilal Tahir

Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology

Water Resources Development and Management Series Editors Asit K. Biswas, Water Management International Pte Ltd., Singapore Third World Centre for Water Management, Mexico University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK Cecilia Tortajada , School of Interdisciplinary Studies, College of Social Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK Editorial Board Dogan Altinbilek, Ankara, Türkiye Francisco González-Gómez, Granada, Spain Chennat Gopalakrishnan, Honolulu, USA James Horne, Canberra, Australia David J. Molden, Washington State, USA; Kathmandu, Nepal Olli Varis, Helsinki, Finland

Indexed by Scopus Each book of this multidisciplinary series covers a critical or emerging water issue. Authors and contributors are leading experts of international repute. The readers of the series will be professionals from different disciplines and development sectors from different parts of the world. They will include civil engineers, economists, geographers, geoscientists, sociologists, lawyers, environmental scientists and biologists. The books will be of direct interest to universities, research institutions, private and public sector institutions, international organisations and NGOs. In addition, all the books will be standard reference books for the water and the associated resource sectors.

Muhammad Suleman Tahir · Muhammad Sagir · Muhammad Bilal Tahir

Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology

Muhammad Suleman Tahir Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology Rahim Yar Khan, Punjab, Pakistan

Muhammad Sagir Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology Rahim Yar Khan, Punjab, Pakistan

Muhammad Bilal Tahir Institute of Physics Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology Rahim Yar Khan, Punjab, Pakistan

ISSN 1614-810X ISSN 2198-316X (electronic) Water Resources Development and Management ISBN 978-981-99-1186-8 ISBN 978-981-99-1187-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Acknowledgement

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, and the Merciful All praises are attributed to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, the Compassionate and Merciful, who conferred upon us the knowledge, ability, and wisdom to accomplish this book. First and foremost, I would like to thank my mentor beloved father ALLAH DITTA TAHIR, for his guidance and support throughout the life, research and writing process (M.B Tahir).

v

Contents

1 Contamination: Nature and Origin of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The Wastewater Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Nature and Origin of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Types of Wastewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Contaminants in Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Organic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Inorganic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Impact on Surface and Ground Water Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Analytical Methods for Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.1 Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy (UV) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.2 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) Analysis . . . 1.6.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 4 4 5 7 7 10 10 11

2 Environmental Effects of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Effects of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Aquatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Agriculture Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Effect of Effluents on Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Preliminary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Natural Biological Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 15 16 17 18 20 21 21 24 26 30

3 Wastewater Treatment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Different Methods Used for Treatment of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Physical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Chemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35 35 36 36 43

12 13

vii

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Contents

3.2.3 Biological Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 New Trends in Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Major Water Pollutant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Oxidizing Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Hydroxyl Radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Ozone O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Corona Discharge and Ozone Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Corona Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Types of Corona Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Ozone Generation Through Corona Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Advantages of Corona Discharge Ozone Generation . . . . . . 4.3.5 Corona Generated with Brush Type Discharge Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.6 Characterization of Brush Type Discharge Electrodes . . . . . 4.4 Reaction Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Advance Oxidation of Pollutant with Corona Discharge . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Wastewater Treatment Corona Discharge and Degradation of Various Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 Acetone Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 Mineralization of EDTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.3 Solution Preparation, Sampling, and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.4 Phenol Degradation and Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.5 Color Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.6 Phenolic Industrial Wastewater Treatment Through Corona Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Wastewater Generation and Photo Bioreactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Wastewater Generation Source, Characteristics, and Its Pollutants Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Characteristics of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Wastewater Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Motivational Factors for Recycle/Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Industrial Wastewater Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Types of Industrial Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 How Water Pollutants Can Be Measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Method of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Selection of Relevant Organisms (Algae and Bacteria) . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Design and Fabrication of Photo Bioreactor (PBR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Culturing/Cultivation of Selected Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 Culturing of Algae and Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48 49 50 53 53 53 53 54 54 54 55 56 57 57 58 62 64 65 65 66 66 68 68 69 69 73 73 73 75 75 76 76 78 78 78 83 85 85

Contents

ix

5.6 Mass Culturing of Cultured Organisms with Simulated and Real Wastewater in PBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Economics and Efficiency Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86 86 86

6 Photocatalysis—Green Approach for Removal of Contaminations from Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Conventional Treatment Methods and Photocatalysis Approach . . . 6.2.1 Nanomaterials Used as a Photocatalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89 89 90 92 95

7 Recycling of Industrial Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Water Recycling is an Emerging Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Usage of Membrane Technology in Palm Oil Mill Effluent for Water Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Different Approaches and Wastewater Recycling Design . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Health Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Quantitative Risk Approaches (QRA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Real Risk Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Approaches at the End of Twentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Future Concern of Global Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Evaluation of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Bioenergy from Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Bioenergy Production from Anaerobic Digestion . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 TSBP’s for Energy Production from Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Financial and Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Financial Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Practical Examples from International and Regional Level . . . . . . . . 7.6.1 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Groundwater Table Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99 99 101 104 105 106 107 107 107 109 109 110 111 112 112 113 113 114 114 115 116

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Abbreviations

AAS HPLC IR PDAs RL RO TM UV spectroscopy Vis

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer High-Performance Liquid Chromatograph Infra-red Photodiode exhibit Rhamnolipid Reverse Osmosis Transition Metal Ultra-Violet Visible spectroscopy Visible

xi

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6 Fig. 1.7 Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9 Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6

Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10

Water pollution sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Various activities responsible for water pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wastewater contaminates into natural waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The pathway and heavy metal effects on human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principal diagram of UV–visible spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Double beam UV–vis spectrometer sketch diagram . . . . . . . . . . . Basic arrangement of AAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principal diagram of high-performance liquid chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Possible contamination process by the use of wastewater and their effect on living beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harmful effects of wastewater on environment and human . . . . . Benefits of treated and recycling of wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different methods used for treatment of wastewater . . . . . . . . . . Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The schematic diagram of the experimental setup of nano-filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual process flowsheet for the concentration and purification of bioleach liquor of low-grade uranium ore by nano-filtration process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equipment used for the CC-MF process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scheme of the experimental apparatus. 1. Thermostatic bath 2. Feed tank 3. Stirrer 4. Pump 5. Flow Meter 6, 7. Mercury Pressure Meter 8. Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membrane 9. Inlet Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diagram of ozonation sludge removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coagulation/Flocculation method of wastewater treatment . . . . . Electrochemical filtration method (structure of 3D electrode) . . . Schematic illustration of activated sludge removal process . . . . .

2 3 4 5 8 11 11 12 13 16 17 23 37 38 40

41 42

43 44 46 47 48

xiii

xiv

Fig. 4.1

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5

Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3

Fig. 6.4

Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4 Fig. 7.5 Fig. 7.6 Fig. 7.7 Fig. 7.8

List of Figures

Comparison of ozone generation. Mean duration per experiment was 30 min; partial brush type discharge electrode, of 5 mm diameter with 0.075 mm wire radius; investigation at ambient conditions without and with various air purge conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different sources of wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic of general water recycling mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow chart showing steps in industrial wastewater treatment processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different types of open photo bioreactor or the cultivation of microorganisms in wastewater treatment process . . . . . . . . . . . Design of different closed photo bioreactor for the cultivation of microorganisms in wastewater treatment process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General mechanism of photocatalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photocatalytic degradation mechanism for carbendazim over BSyBFO heterojunction surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of the amount of Fe3 O4 and Fe3 O4 /C sorbents on the extraction efficiencies of PAHs. Operation in the batch mode. Sample volume: 500 mL; volume of acetonitrile: 8 mL; and concentration of each analyte: 0.4 ngmL−1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a Photocatalytic degradation of RhB in aqueous solution using CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 nanocomposite photocatalyst. b The time-dependent UV–Vis absorption spectra for the RhB photocatalytic degradation using 0.15 g of the CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 catalyst. c Plots of -ln(C0/C) versus reaction time for the RhB photocatalytic degradation using various dosages of CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 catalyst. d The degradation efficiency of various dosages of CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 photocatalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of water for different products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tips for efficient use of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reuse of wastewater in different countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow of water recycling potential for industrial wastewater . . . . . Flow diagram of raw POME treatment by using membrane technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Palm oil Mill effluent treatment method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Filtration treatment plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary, secondary, and tertiary water treatment technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59 74 74 76 84

84 91 92

93

95 100 101 102 102 103 104 105 106

List of Figures

Fig. 7.9

Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.11

Systematic description of the industrial wastewater flow during bio augmentation approach for industrial wastewater recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Systematic diagram or the bioenergy production and recovery of organic materials from the industrial wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Framework for appreciating the ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

108

113 114

List of Tables

Table 1.2 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 4.1 Table 4.2

Table 4.3 Table 4.4

Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8

Table 5.1 Table 5.2

Common heavy metal ions sources their effects and regularity limits [6–9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wastewater of different industries and their effects on humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heavy metals contamination on agricultural products and their sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oxidizing potentials of oxidants normally used for wastewater treatment at 25 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experimentally observed corona current values with partial and complete brush type discharge electrodes at 2.9 M3 /H mode and percent increase of corona current in terms of ma difference is calculated at various applied voltage . . . . . . . Shows various fit rate equation determined with table curve 2D program for ozone generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rate equations determined with table curve 2D program for ozone generation. Various parameters for rate equation are also demonstrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods used for water treatment and technical specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photochemical advanced oxidation processes used and available in the market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Various chemicals, concentration and volume of solution used for experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shows degradation of phenol during operation of the wet electrostatic precipitator. Physical and chemical changes are summarized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major characteristics and disposal methods for industrial wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bioremediation of textile dye wastewater by using microalgae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 19 22 54

61 62

63 64 65 67

69 79 82

xvii

Chapter 1

Contamination: Nature and Origin of Wastewater

1.1 The Wastewater Issues There are several things that are required for life to survive on Earth, but the most important of them all is water, which is a basic need of humans. Water is required for a variety of applications including home, agricultural, industrial, and biological applications. Earth has a total water volume of 1.386 × 106 (km)3 , of which 70% of the surface is covered by water, most of which are seas and oceans, and only 2.5% is covered by fresh water. This fresh water comes from ice caps and glaciers, or it can be found in the ground. Around 7 billion people live in places where there is a scarcity of fresh water. Fresh water is also polluted with dangerous chemicals, resulting in the pollution of a significant amount of the available fresh water. Large-scale garbage dumping and poor wastewater management have polluted naturally occurring water sources, resulting in deterioration of the quality of naturally occurring water sources. According to the World Health Organization, over 1.2 million people drink this filthy water, and nearly 0.03 million people have died as a result of illness outbreaks caused by water pollution. Because of the rapid development of the industrial region and the transfer to modern living, the consumption of many sorts of materials is increasing, resulting in water contamination. Water pollution is on the rise as a result of many human activities, and water contamination has a variety of hazardous environmental consequences. The water is polluted by a variety of organic and inorganic contaminants. Water scarcity and overuse result in massive amount of wastewater, which has a significant impact on the environment and humans. Different sources have an impact on water quality, which can be categorized as point source pollution, non-point sources, or transboundary sources [1]. The sources of water are shown in Fig. 1.1. Many human activities, such as industries, agriculture, and hospital sewage, have a negative impact on water contamination. Colors, phenolic mixtures, nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, biodegradable natural problem, headstrong natural issue, silt, heavy metal particles, and medicinal arrangements are all produced as a result of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_1

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Fig. 1.1 Water pollution sources

these operations. Water consumption has increased as a result of population growth as well as an increase in the demands of living beings. If appropriate water management measures are not followed, the next generation will face a high risk of water scarcity. Contaminants such as heavy metal ions and synthetic colors have a negative impact on naturally occurring water sources, humans, and marine life [2]. Over the last two decades, there has been a growing awareness of the fatal and cancer-causing effects of several dirtying synthetic fabrications that were previously overlooked [3].

1.2 Nature and Origin of Wastewater Due to human activities, the transfer of extremely contaminated wastewater has increased in recent decades (Fig. 1.2) [4, 5]. Significant difficulties have been observed as a result of insufficient wastewater management, which has a rapid impact on human health and causes natural issues. Furthermore, experts and government officials are focused on advanced and environmentally friendly technologies for removing toxins from water bodies [6]. Domestic wastewater contaminants include garbage, detergents, and other items. The real source of the water contamination is untreated wastewater from the industrial sector. Contaminants from the industrial

1.2 Nature and Origin of Wastewater

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sector contain an alternative concentration of harmful components that are dumped into streams or other water resources. Industries generate wastewater as a result of the production of various products such as paper, mash, material, and synthetic substances [6]. Pesticides, heavy metal ions, hydrocarbons, dyes, and other pollutants are major pollutants released by industry [7–12], and these toxins pose a significant threat to human health and the environment [13]. Heavy metals such as mercury, lead, tin, cadmium, selenium, and arsenic are introduced to the earth by various human activities (aluminum industry, mining, landfilling, transportation, and so on) and accumulate in groundwater and soil over time [14–17]. Uncontrolled activities degrade freshwater resources, disrupting the ecosystem as a whole.

Fig. 1.2 Various activities responsible for water pollution

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1 Contamination: Nature and Origin of Wastewater

Fig. 1.3 Types of wastewater

1.3 Types of Wastewaters Wastewater contains all utilized water in homes and enterprises including storm water and water which overflows from lands, which should be treated before it is discharged into the environment keeping in mind the end goal to save the environment and living beings from any damage. The real sorts of wastewater are shown in Fig. 1.3.

1.4 Contaminants in Wastewater A large part of the contamination of water resources and consequent damage to water value can be traced back to human mobility and modern behavior. Natural and inorganic materials, such as the commercial oil sector, paper industry, fertilizer industry, and metallurgical company, have the greatest ability to contaminate water. Colors and phenolic mixes, supplement substances such as nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, biodegradable natural issue, unmanageable natural issue, dregs, and even micro pollutants such as pharmaceutical mixes, individual consideration items, pesticides, and others are among the primary contaminants of water caused by human modern movement. Figure 1.4 shows a number of different types of wastewater pollutants. Because of their toxicity and biological non-degradability, inorganic contaminants have the most severe consequences [1]. Some of emerging pollutants and their sources are discussed below.

1.4 Contaminants in Wastewater

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Fig. 1.4 Wastewater contaminates into natural waters

1.4.1 Organic Contaminants The discovery of the main aniline hue named Mauveine by the Englishman William Henry Perkin in 1856 marked the beginning of color. A color is a naturally occurring chemical that provides shading due to conjugate synthetic bonds. Material coloring, paper printing, shading photography, pharmaceutical, food, correction, and cowhide industries all use engineered colors [18, 19]. Annually, 7 × 105 metric tons of 105 different hues have been made since 1856 [20]. Material strands, polymers, food items, leather goods, and a variety of other similar things are the most common materials to be tinted [21]. Auxochromes and chromophores are important color particle shading providing moieties. Colors have an unsaturated collection that absorbs and emits a wavelength called chromophore (“chroma” implies shading and “phore” implies conveyor). The trademark groupings Auxochromes (“Auxo” means expand) boost shade and enhance color like to the substrate [21]. Because of their complicated compound compositions, most produced colors are hazardous and very resistant to corruption [22]. The outflow of wastewater from mechanical activities such as domesticated animals, wood-processing ventures, such as paper plants and the stopper, wine, and wine-making industries, among others, has a significant impact on human life and the environment. The physicochemical and microbiological properties of wastewater are used to treat it in this way. Natural medicines are often recommended for biodegradable wastewater treatment [23]. These companies’ various blends are said to be very toxic, hardheaded, and non-biodegradable. As a result, standard organic treatment is ineffective for cleaning certain types of contaminations, and pretreatment or treatment with oxidizing synthetics is often used in conjunction with conventional organic

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treatment procedures. The alleged propelled oxidation forms (AOPs) are the most promising improvements for sterilizing harmful, obstinate, and non-biodegradable poisons among the many pharmaceuticals. The proximity of scented mixtures is one of the main advantages of nonbiodegradable water. The phenolic mixtures have the most trademarks and are often used as a compound model to evaluate the efficacy of these AOPs. While the toxicity of phenolic mixtures isn’t as great as that of pesticides or heavy metals, their high concentration (up to a few grams per liter) may limit or even eliminate populations of microscopic organisms in wastewater treatment facilities [24]. Pharmaceutical innovation in China may be defined by profitable tactics. The first category is biopharmaceuticals, which includes maturation, cell design, chemical design, and hereditary development. Aging design is by far the most popular. Antimicrobials, vitamins, and amino acids are all used by bacteria. The next kind of drug store is synthetic drug stores, which are made up of staggered natural or inorganic substance reactions. Chinese patent solution, often known as common medicine, is another way. The pharmaceutical industry’s rapid development has recently become a critical component of China’s national economy. In 2014, compound unique solution output was 3.034 million tons, up 15.2% over 2013. Pharmaceutical enterprises in China totaled 7108 at the end of 2014, an increase of 8.9% over 2013. Large or medium-sized businesses account for just 1609 of them. Regardless, as the pharmaceutical business develops, the threat of environmental contamination becomes more real. Pharmaceutical wastewater comes in a variety of forms due to the wide range of pharmaceutical products available, as well as the differences in production size and procedure. High-concentrated anti-toxin wastewater, which has a solid vacillation in quantity, a low C/N ratio, a high sulfate fixation, a confused organization, natural harmfulness, and a high chroma, is the primary source of biopharmaceutical wastewater. The pharmacy store’s layout is simple, resulting in a lack of food. It is very difficult to biodegrade and has a high fixing rate. Traditional treatment procedures for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment are difficult to meet the requirements, even with the tight regulatory standard. Pharmaceutical wastewater is unpredictably high in ecological issues, microbiological danger, excessive salt, and biodegradability [25, 26]. Furthermore, the great majority of pharmaceutical production facilities are batch processes, with a wide range of raw materials and manufacturing processes, resulting in massive variations in wastewater [27]. Pharmaceutical wastewater comes in a variety of forms, each with its own set of characteristics. Low C/N, high SS focus, high sulfate fixation, complicated synthesis, natural risk, and high Chroma are all characteristics of biopharmaceutical wastewater. Concoction medication stores are nutritionally deficient, difficult to biodegrade, heavy in salt, and microbiologically hazardous. Sugar, glycosides, natural color, anthraquinone, tannins, alkali content, cellulose, lignin, and other natural issues are present in the effluent of the Chinese patent solution [27]. Natural treatment, which is the most conservative way to removing natural toxins, is normal for pharmaceutical wastewater both at home and abroad. Organic treatment advances may be achieved by the use of a high number of oxygen-consuming

1.5 Impact on Surface and Ground Water Sources

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procedures, anaerobic procedures, and a combination of anaerobic and aggressive procedures [28]. Almost every kind of contamination rate is reduced with optional treatment. However, these technologies do not adequately breakdown contaminants and have a poor degradation efficiency, limiting their usefulness.

1.4.2 Inorganic Contaminants Heavy metals are components with a particular gravity of least 5 times the particular gravity of water. Heavy metals are the components having a particular gravity over 5.0 and nuclear weights somewhere in the range of 63.5 and 2006 [29]. Certain heavy metals (e.g., copper, zinc, and selenium) are necessary for the human body’s healthy digestion, despite the fact that heavy metal particles may cause serious medical problems in certain people. Heavy metal toxicity begins in the drinking water, air, and agricultural land. Figure 1.5 depicts the route and consequences of heavy metals on humans. Heavy metals in water, such as nickel, zinc, copper, mercury, cadmium, lead, thorium, and chromium, are very detrimental to the environment [30, 31]. Individuals are very vulnerable to heavy metals such as lead, copper, cadmium, zinc, and nickel. These metals are often present in tiny concentrations in soil, which may cause a variety of problems. The harmful impacts of these five substantial metals are as per the following Table 1.2.

1.5 Impact on Surface and Ground Water Sources Domestic wastewater has several negative consequences on individuals as well as groundwater. The physical and chemical qualities of natural water sources may be altered by residential water released into groundwater and other bodies of water. The chemical and physical qualities of groundwater are significantly impacted by domestic wastewater discharged into groundwater and soil. These consequences are becoming more prevalent in terms of the concentration and toxicity of unwanted organic and inorganic molecules such as heavy metals, medicines, and other chemicals. In terms of wastewater discharge timing, several significant issues are mentioned below. Through contaminated water, bacterial, viral, and parasite illnesses such as typhoid, cholera, encephalitis, poliomyelitis, hepatitis, skin infection, and gastrointestinal sickness spread. Domestic wastewater is a major cause of pollution in bodies of water. Domestic wastewater mixing and spreading into natural water sources and land has a negative impact on the ecosystem. The hazardous and poisonous chemical components found in home and industrial wastewater have serious health consequences. Sulfates and chlorides must be added to water to be removed because of their poisonous effects. The lethality science and considerable metals such as Cadmium, Chromium,

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Fig. 1.5 The pathway and heavy metal effects on human

Zinc, Arsenic, Iron, Lead, and so on are built into the depleted groundwater. As a result, groundwater becomes dangerous to humans, animals, and plants. The WHO’s recommended categorization of contaminated synthetic components is astronomically greater. Some of the excessive metals’ concentrations rise by more than 100% beyond WHO guidelines and other industry standards [5–10].

1.5 Impact on Surface and Ground Water Sources

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Table 1.2 Common heavy metal ions sources their effects and regularity limits [6–9] Heavy metals Sources of heavy metals pollutants

Effects of heavy metals on humans

Regulatory limits BIS year

Lead

Capacity batteries, galvanization, oil refining, printing and shade businesses, paints, paper and pulp, and terminals in electrochemistry and compound enterprise

Lead is hurtful to 0.01 mg/L numerous organs and tissues including the heart, bones, digestive organs, kidneys, and the regenerative and sensory systems. Indications incorporate stomach torment, perplexity, cerebral pain, weakness, crabbiness, and, in serious cases, seizures, unconsciousness, behavioral disorder in children and death

BIS 1994

Copper

Metal cleaning and plating showers, paints and colors, compost, paperboard, wood mash, printed circuit board generation

At higher dosages, copper cause severe mucosal irritation, widespread capillary damage, hepatic and renal damage, and the central nervous system damage followed by depression

BIS 1992

Cadmium

Mineral stores, producing batteries, colors, plastic stabilizers, metal coatings, compounds and hardware

Cadmium particles are 0.003 mg/L non-biodegradable and effectively get collected in living tissues and can be promptly assimilated into the human body. Cadmium poisonous quality causes unfavorable well-being impacts, for example, bone sores, growth, lung deficiency, and hypertension

BIS 1992

Zinc

Corrosive mine seepage, exciting plants, metals, and metropolitan wastewater treatment ventures

Aggregation of zinc particles can cause perilous impacts in plants and creatures

BIS 1994

Nickel

Electroplating, refining, and welding industries

Nickel poisonous quality 0.02 mg/L can prompt growth, skin sensitivity, and lung fibrosis

0.05 mg/L

5 mg/L

BIS 2003

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1.6 Analytical Methods for Wastewater Analysis of wastewater can be done with the various techniques that are also used in wastewater treatment. Among these techniques UV Spectroscopy, AA Spectroscopy, and HPL Chromatography are very common measuring techniques. These instrumentation and key point are discussed under this section.

1.6.1 Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy (UV) Analysis UV–visible spectroscopy is an optical apparatus that measures a material’s transmission as a function of wavelength. The wavelength ranges from 200 to 800 nm. The UV zone is between 200 and 400 nm, whereas the visible range is between 400 and 800 nm. As illustrated in Fig. 1.6, the UV–visible spectrophotometer is made up of a radiation source, collimators, sample compartment, detector, and data analyzer system. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of conjugate double bonds and aromatic bonds in pollutants using a quantitative assessment of transmission property of a substance. The sample is put in a quartz or glass cell that is positioned between the source and the light in this procedure. Because of the excitation phenomena of electrons, when light falls on the sample, it absorbs it and emits distinct wavelengths of light. The frequency range is The efficiency of the sample may also be determined using a UV–vis spectrophotometer, where the solution is put in the spectrometer and the wavelength is detected by a detector. A light analyzer system examines the observed light further. The removal % efficiency of the pollutants can be calculated by using formula given below. % Removal =

Co − Ce × 100 Co

where Co = concentrations (mg/L) of pollutants before adsorption and Ce = concentrations (mg/L) of pollutants after adsorption. In Fig. 1.7, advance UV–visible spectroscopy mechanism is shown. This spectroscopy has more advantage as compared to the single beam spectrophotometer. It is not necessary to constantly replace the blank with the sample or to adjust the auto zero. The ratio of the powers of the sample and reference is constantly obtained. It has rapid scanning over the wide wavelength region because of the above two factors. It has many advantages such as spectroscopy is helpful for using detection of functional groups, impurities, quantitative and qualitative analysis, single compound without chromophore, and relationship between different groups [32].

1.6 Analytical Methods for Wastewater

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Fig. 1.6 Principal diagram of UV–visible spectrometer

Fig. 1.7 Double beam UV–vis spectrometer sketch diagram

1.6.2 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) Analysis The quantifiable study of the number of heavy metals in wastewater can be done by using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. This technique comprises the excitation of atoms or ions from ground state to the excited state by passing light through a region containing atomic gas. This gives the information about the concentration elements by absorbing light. It is a very common technique for detecting metals and metalloids in environmental samples. It has four basic components (Fig. 1.8) which are given below.

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Fig. 1.8 Basic arrangement of AAS

1. 2. 3. 4.

A light source which is usually a hollow cathode lamp An atom cell atomizer A monochromator Detector and read out devices

It has many applications such as it is used in finding the metals in biological fluids such as urine and blood. It is also used to find the concentration of metals in our environment such as in rivers, sea water, drinking water, and in air [32].

1.6.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis High-performance liquid chromatography is a method of separating, distinguishing, and measuring each component in a mixture. It separates mixtures based on their molecular structure and makeup. It’s essentially a more advanced version of column liquid chromatography. It operates at high pressures of up to 400 atmospheres, making it more quicker. The stationary phase, mobile phase, and sample molecules are all included in chromatography systems. A solid or a liquid on a solid might serve as the stationary phase. The gas or liquid determines the mobile phase. The stationary phase assists the mobile phase in moving and transporting the mixture’s components. The sample components that interact strongly with the stationary phase travel slowly across the column. Those with weaker interactions, on the other hand, travel quicker. The solvent reservoir, pump, sample injector, columns, detector, and data gathering devices are the essential components of the HPLC, as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. The contents of the mobile phase are put in a glass reservoir made up of polar and non-polar liquid components. Pumps transport pressured liquid into the column and detector. The pumps’ pressure may be raised up to 420000 kPa. The sample injector might be a basic injector or an automated injection system, with injection volumes ranging from 0.1 to 100 ml. Stainless steel columns are typically 50–300 mm in length and 2–5 mm in diameter. The pumps provide pressure to the sample and send it through columns, where it is detected by a detector and processed by an analyzer. The HPLC system is comprised of a digital microchip and client programming that displays the examined data. By mixing many thinners in proportions that change

References

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Fig. 1.9 Principal diagram of high-performance liquid chromatography

over time, powered pumps in an HPLC instrument may induce piece inclination in a flexible stage. The mass spectrometry of UV/Vis photodiodes is used to determine the mass of various elements in a mixture. In the great majority of HPLC equipment, a segment stove is also used to change the temperature [33].

References 1. Hernandez-Ramirez O, Holmes SM (2008) Novel and modified materials for wastewater treatment applications. J Mater Chem 18(24):2751–2761 2. Aklil A, Mouflih M, Sebti S (2004) Removal of heavy metal ions from water by using calcined phosphate as a new adsorbent. J Hazard Mater 112(3):183–190 3. Premkumar MP et al (2013) Kinetic and equilibrium studies on the biosorption of textile dyes onto Plantago ovata seeds. Korean J Chem Eng 30(6):1248–1256 4. Gonçalves AL, Pires JC, Simões M (2017) A review on the use of microalgal consortia for wastewater treatment. Algal Res 24:403–415 5. Renuka N et al (2013) Evaluation of microalgal consortia for treatment of primary treated sewage effluent and biomass production. J Appl Phycol 25(5):1529–1537 6. Carstea EM et al (2016) Fluorescence spectroscopy for wastewater monitoring: a review. Water Res 95:205–219 7. Ngah WW, Teong L, Hanafiah M (2011) Adsorption of dyes and heavy metal ions by chitosan composites: a review. Carbohyd Polym 83(4):14461456 8. Quero GM et al (2015) Patterns of benthic bacterial diversity in coastal areas contaminated by heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Front Microbiol 6:1053 9. Finizio A, Azimonti G, Villa S (2011) Occurrence of pesticides in surface water bodies: a critical analysis of the Italian national pesticide survey programs. J Environ Monit 13(1):49–57 10. Gupta V (2009) Application of low-cost adsorbents for dye removal–A review. J Environ Manage 90(8):2313–2342 11. Gong Y et al (2014) A review of oil, dispersed oil and sediment interactions in the aquatic environment: influence on the fate, transport and remediation of oil spills. Mar Pollut Bull 79(1–2):16–33 12. Johnson RF, Manjreker TG, Halligan JE (1973) Removal of oil from water surfaces by sorption on unstructured fibers. Environ Sci Technol 7(5):439–443 13. Xu P et al (2012) Use of iron oxide nanomaterials in wastewater treatment: a review. Sci Total Environ 424:1–10

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14. Babel S, Kurniawan TA (2003) Low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: a review. J Hazard Mater 97(1–3):219–243 15. Sergeev V et al (1996) Groundwater protection against pollution by heavy metals at waste disposal sites. Water Sci Technol 34(7–8):383–387 16. Sörme L, Lagerkvist R (2002) Sources of heavy metals in urban wastewater in Stockholm. Sci Total Environ 298(1–3):131–145 17. Gupta VK, Nayak A, Agarwal S (2015) Bioadsorbents for remediation of heavy metals: current status and their future prospects. Environ Eng Res 20(1):1–18 18. Rafii F, Franklin W, Cerniglia CE (1990) Azoreductase activity of anaerobic bacteria isolated from human intestinal microflora. Appl Environ Microbiol 56(7):2146–2151 19. Kuhad R et al (2004) Developments in microbial methods for the treatment of dye effluents. Adv Appl Microbiol 56:185 20. Chen JP, Wu S, Chong K-H (2003) Surface modification of a granular activated carbon by citric acid for enhancement of copper adsorption. Carbon 41(10):1979–1986 21. Rangneker D, Singh P (1980) An introduction to synthetic dyes. Himalaya Publishing House 22. Lu H, Zhu L, Zhu N (2009) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission from straw burning and the influence of combustion parameters. Atmos Environ 43(4):978–983 23. Meena AK et al (2005) Removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions using carbon aerogel as an adsorbent. J Hazard Mater 122(1–2):161–170 24. Mohammed-Azizi F, Dib S, Boufatit M (2013) Removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions by Algerian bentonite. Desalin Water Treat 51(22–24):4447–4458 25. Gmez-Monedero B et al (2015) Pyrolysis of red eucalyptus, camelina straw, and wheat straw in an ablative reactor. Energy Fuels 29(3):1766–1775 26. Huiqiang LL, Tingyu H (2005) Hydrolytic acidification incorporated with two-stage biological contact oxidation: process for treating pharmaceutical wastewater. Environ Sci Technol 28(1):92–93 27. Guo Y, Qi P, Liu Y (2017) A review on advanced treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science. IOP Publishing 28. Ji J et al (2009) MicroRNA expression, survival, and response to interferon in liver cancer. N Engl J Med 361(15):1437–1447 29. Srivastava N, Majumder C (2008) Novel biofiltration methods for the treatment of heavy metals from industrial wastewater. J Hazard Mater 151(1):1–8 30. Zaki NG, Khattab I, El-Monem NA (2007) Removal of some heavy metals by CKD leachate. J Hazard Mater 147(1–2):21–27 31. Demirbas A (2008) Heavy metal adsorption onto agro-based waste materials: a review. J Hazard Mater 157(2–3):220–229 32. Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy studies of nanofillers and their polymer nanocomposites, Sridevi Venkatachalam Spectroscopy of Polymer Nanocomposites 2016, pp 130–157 33. García R, Báez AP (2012) Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). AtIc Absorpt Spectrosc 1:1–13

Chapter 2

Environmental Effects of Wastewater

2.1 Introduction Every living being’s many life operations are mostly controlled by the environment. In general, the environment is a highly complicated entity for all sorts of living and nonliving species since a single component may affect all of the organisms in the ecosystem. The environment must be favorable for organisms to flourish optimally. Environmental elements such as temperature, air quality, and other factors have a significant impact on creatures’ lives and are crucial in determining whether a species can survive in the same habitat [1]. Human activities have made nature more damaging or tainted in a few ways during the last hundreds of years. Man-made alarming situations threaten the life of several creatures. Pollution has a negative impact on the health of living species in various respects because it alters the fundamental features of natural air, water, and soil. Human activities are increasing pollution, which is a worldwide problem. The primary cause of contamination is the advancement of industrialization in farming and the abuse of natural resources. Contamination causes a number of environmental problems. Contamination, according to Odum (1971), is an undesired alteration in the physical, synthetic, or natural properties of ecological segments (air, arrive, water) that might harm human life or attractive species and their environment. These toxins are having a negative impact on the water, and water pollution is becoming a big problem across the globe. New water (stream and common assets) may be contaminated in a variety of ways [2–4]. Poison is any material that causes contamination. A poison is defined as any liquid, strong, or gaseous chemical that has the potential to damage the environment and cause pollution. Contamination is described as the presence of elements in the wrong amount, at the wrong time, and at the wrong place [4–9]. One of the true sources of natural toxins is industry. Squander materials and ineffective side effects are created during the handling and assembly of mild synthetic dyes to a given level and size. Acids, antacids, inorganic particles, phenols, significant metals, and other © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_2

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natural and inorganic toxins are found at various amounts in mechanical wastes and effluents [10–17].

2.2 Effects of Wastewater Heavy metals, dyes, medicines, and textile contaminants were studied for their toxicity and harmfulness as powerful pollutants [17–19]. They have highly negative impacts on the flora and fauna of marine organisms, and when these pollutants accumulate in food, they cause major health issues [19–21]. They will cause cancer, brain tumors, and a variety of other dangerous conditions in humans if they accumulate over the prescribed limits. The possible contaminated water used by different things and their effects are shown in Fig. 2.1 [22–24]. The organizations for the ecological observing have usual passable opinions of confinement for these contaminants in water because of their harmful effects [25–27]. These pollutants also have adverse effects on agriculture land and on other living or nonliving organisms [28–31]. The harmful effects of wastewater on plants, human, and soil are shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.1 Possible contamination process by the use of wastewater and their effect on living beings

2.2 Effects of Wastewater

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Fig. 2.2 Harmful effects of wastewater on environment and human

2.2.1 Human Health Different substances and ingredients are utilized in textile biology to create textures and other clothing pieces. The usage of synthetic chemicals in the manufacturing of materials has the potential to harm humans [32–34]. Water, synthetic compounds, and vitality-expending firms are all used extensively in the material sector. Material coloring requires large amounts of water and some hazardous synthetic compounds [35–39]. The apparel items purchased and worn by customers typically include a huge number of synthetic compounds that are detrimental to human health, and the environmental consequences of these things are unavoidable after washing [40]. Before the final outcome is obtained, a few steps are related to materials. We aim to evaluate all processes, from texture through the creation of a piece of clothing, as well as the associated techniques and materials and synthetic substances [41, 42]. Textile materials are very hazardous and may potentially cause cancer. Material things that affect human and natural wellness are discussed. The substances employed to create solid

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texture and materials have been studied and shown to be environmentally acceptable [43, 44]. A fraction of the harmful heavy metals is responsible for the dangerous and deadly effects on the current situation [45, 46]. Ionic metals mix with bio particles to create complex compounds, and they are necessary for disengagement. The toxicity of these metals is determined by their concentration in the body and their biomagnification [47–49]. When the concentration reaches a safe level, metallic ions may disrupt cell digestion, reduce brain and nervous system function, raise allergies, cause memory loss, damage the kidneys and lungs, be detrimental to the blood, and cause weakness [50–52]. Free radicals in the body may kill human cells and raise oxidative stress levels. As a result of these effects, health professionals are increasing globally, and a few regulatory agencies have gotten as close as feasible to the major metal release flowing [53, 54, 54–58]. Because of the closeness of fundamental affects in wastewaters, analysts also concentrated on constructing treatment methods. The potential well-being impacts of different contaminants are explained in Table 2.1.

2.2.2 Aquatic System The heavy metals have very adverse effect on aquatic organisms. These heavy metals totally collapsed the aquatic biological community. The metals are entering in the aquatic systems due to the microorganisms and the wastewater of industries. The metals are biomagnified a few times by the oceanic living beings that enter the human life through tainted waste. • Histological or morphological changes in ecological organisms occur by the expansion in metal particle fixation. • Physiological changes in the amphibian creatures, for example, concealment of development and improvement, poor swimming execution, and changes available for use are sub-deadly impacts. • Biochemical modifications, compound movement, and blood science of the seagoing living beings will be genuinely influenced. • Metal particles enter the natural frameworks of amphibian creatures by means of three principle pathways. Absorption through the respiratory surface (e.g., gills) are promptly diffused into the circulation system, adsorbed onto the body surface, and inactively diffused into the circulation system, metals ingested as free particles. It is assessed that 70–80% of infection in the creating nations is because of water sullying, particularly for ladies and kids, who are to a great degree inclined to sicknesses caused by water contamination. Because of the improvement of innovative logical systems and better well-being checking advancements, the satisfactory least convergence of these substantial metals is dynamically diminishing. Stringent directions actualized in numerous nations for the substantial metal sullying in water, which

2.2 Effects of Wastewater

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Table 2.1 Wastewater of different industries and their effects on humans Industry

Effluents

Effects on humans

References

Mutagenic and carcinogenic

Long-time exposure of azo dyes causes bladder cancer. These dyes are entering in intestine wall and in liver and form aromatic amines

[44–47]

Textile effluents Textile formaldehyde resins

Fiber additives

2-(2-hydroxy-5-methylphenyl) benzotriazole is added to spandex clothes that absorb UV light and hence cause sensitization

[53]

Metallic fibers

Metallic fibers tend to be abrasive during wear that’s why they are not used commonly

[53]

Wool fibers, prickle and itch

The long diameter containing clothes [53] causes itching as compared to the small diameter containing fibers. The audio technique is used to engineer wool fabric without prickle and itch

Epoxy resins

Heavy metals

Dermatological effect due to [48, 49] formaldehyde related allergy. Many scientists are focusing on this point and has made low-free formaldehyde in clothes

Epoxy resins were implicated in [51] allergic contact dermatitis cases. Long exposure can cause sensitization in half people and is very harmful for those using or manufacturing plastics, glues, paints, varnishes, composites, and electrical equipment Cadmium

Hepatic toxicity, lung cancer, and diseases and create harm to the respiratory system, kidney, liver, reproductive organs and—Itai-Itai∥ disease appeared due to cadmium exposure. Induced by the cadmium that softening of the bones and fractures to the human being. Additionally, they also bring other harmful effects

[7–9]

Chromium

Chromium V ion is more dangerous [10–12] for plants and living organisms. It causes skin allergy, damage liver and kidneys, vomiting and the creation of ulcer (continued)

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Table 2.1 (continued) Industry

Effluents

Effects on humans

Nickel

The huge utilization of nickel leads [13–15] to various environmental problems. The effects of nickel are a dry cough, chest pain, create breathing problem, nausea, diarrhea, skin eruption, pulmonary fibrosis, gastrointestinal ache, and renal edema, etc.

References

Lead

Nervous system and kidney damages, mental retardation and cancer are due to lead exposure

[17]

Copper

Liver, brain, pancreas, anemia, kidney damage, hair loss headache are due to the exposure of lead and causes death

[24, 25]

Zinc

Pain, vomiting, skin inflammation, fever, vomiting, anemia are happened due to zinc exposure

[27]

Mercury

Kidney, brain, reproductive and respiratory system damage caused due to mercury

[34, 35]

powers the enterprises to treat their effluents legitimately before releasing them into the regular water bodies [37, 49].

2.2.3 Agriculture Land In general, horticulture fields are flooded with municipal wastewater and effluents from particular businesses such as paper mills, bottling plants, refineries, sugar mills, dairies, and so on [57, 58]. Metals, oils, and phenols are found in considerable quantities in contemporary squanders. Along these lines, when current effluents (rich in overpowering metals) are linked to soil in an excessive amount, considerable metals in the topsoil may improve, lowering yield and hindering the character of harvests [59]. The soil element has an influence on plant growth and spread. When toxicants in contemporary effluents combine with natural conditions, they may pose a serious long-term threat to living organisms. In any event, their mortality is determined by their fixation and duration of exposure to the helpless location [60]. Heavy metals may be found in a variety of industrial wastes, either as fluids or as solid deposits. Many fluid wastes are simply dumped into sewers, where the metals are eventually packed in sewage ooze, which may then be used as compost or soil conditioners [61]. Because of the proximity of dampness and a watery ecological

2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment

21

environment, the nature of water plays an important role in seed germination [62] (Table 2.2).

2.3 Effect of Effluents on Soil The soil is a critical component in determining the vegetation of a given area. The routine of discharging contemporary effluents into the seagoing framework is being followed. The character of earth is crumbling under this instruction. Magnesium and calcium concentrations in soil are falling as a result of wastewater, whereas nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphate concentrations are rising. Sharma and Naik [66] looked at the effects of steel manufacturing on agricultural soil and a vegetable product. They discovered that contaminated water moving through the soil quickly oxidized natural issues and raised the quantity of sulfur and nitrogen in the soil, both of which must be eliminated [70]. The effluents of Bhrikuti Pulp and Paper Mills, Gorkha Brewery Limited, and Shree Distillery, all located along the Narayani River in Nawalparasi District [69], were studied by Sahai and Neelam (1987). They discovered that effluents from the papermaking process often flooded agricultural areas due to their high lignin content and natural problem. In wet areas, such effluents did not increase soil salinity or alkalinity. Furthermore, effluents from bottling plants were proven to be highly valuable for water systems because of their high phosphate content. The effects of bottling plant effluents on soil were discovered by Acharya [69]. With the exception of replacement potassium, she discovered that all other concoction parameters were greater in flooded soil than in non-watered soil. Replaceable potassium in flooded soil was 336.5 mg/L, whereas it was 447.35 mg/L in non-watered soil.2.3.

2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment The primary goal of wastewater treatment is to protect people and the environment from the detrimental effects of contaminants found in wastewater. In any event, crude urban wastewater needs to be treated before being used for gardening, landscape water systems, and aquaculture on a regular basis. The activity and execution of the wastewater-soil–plant or aquaculture framework is influenced by the use of wastewater in farming. The design of wastewater treatment facilities is usually based on the requirement to reduce natural and suspended solids loads in order to prevent environmental pollution. Treatment to remove wastewater elements that might be harmful or detrimental to crops, amphibian plants (macrophytes), and fish is technically feasible, but it isn’t always financially feasible. Ordinary wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical, chemical, and natural techniques that remove sediments and hazardous additives from wastewater [71, 72]. There are several benefits to wastewater treatment and recycling. The phrases “general terms” are used to describe several levels of

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Table 2.2 Heavy metals contamination on agricultural products and their sources Sources of waste

Types of seeds

Results

References

Fertilizer industry contaminants

Maize

High concentration of various forms of nitrogen

[63]

Distillery effluents

Rice (Oryza sativa)

Effluent concentration [64] more than 25% had significantly retarded both germination percentage and seedling growth. They observed that the root growth affects as compared to shoot growth

Industrial contaminants

Triticum aestivum

Significant decrease in percentage germination, shoot length, and root length was observed. The shoot length was much more affected than the root length

[65]

Dye factory contaminants Groundnut

Favored seed germination but higher concentrations (above 50%) retarded seedling growth of groundnut

[66]

Paper industry effluents

Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

The germination of rice [67] (Oryza sativa L.) seedling decreased significantly with increase in the effluent concentration of

Steel mill effluent

Abelmoschs esculentus (L) moench

They found more than 7% [68] decrease in germination and about 12%, 30%, and 33% in speed of germination, germination relative index, and seedling growth, respectively

Pharmaceutical factory

Mustard (Brassica juncea L.)

It is concluded that when effluents concentration increases above 20%, then there will be a decrease in germination percentage, seedling growth, and pod production

[69]

Sewage waste containing industrial discharge

Phaseolus mungo

Inhibitory effect

[66] (continued)

2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment

23

Table 2.2 (continued) Sources of waste

Types of seeds

Results

References

Brewery industrial effluents

Agricultural crops

The industrial effluent at higher concentration suppressed seed germination growth and seedling

[66]

therapy that are organized by increasing treatment level. In wastewater treatment, certain levels are required, some are mandatory, and others are optional. Sanitization to remove germs is sometimes performed after the final treatment phase in a few countries (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3 Benefits of treated and recycling of wastewater

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2 Environmental Effects of Wastewater

2.4.1 Preliminary Treatment The goal of early treatment is to remove coarse particles and other expanding components that are common in raw wastewater. Coarse screening and coarseness evacuation are two of the most common therapeutic actions. In coarseness chambers, the speed of the water through the chamber is maintained sufficiently high or air is used to prevent most natural solids from settling. In most small wastewater treatment facilities, coarseness removal is not used as a first treatment step. Analysts are sometimes used to augment coarse screening and help to reduce the size of large particles so that they may be removed as slop in subsequent treatment steps. Standing wave flumes and stream estimate devices are often incorporated in the basic treatment plan [73]. (i) Primary Treatment Primary treatment is to remove natural and inorganic particles and materials by sedimentation and ejection. The principal treatment technique removes 25 to half of the approaching biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), 50–70% of aggregate suspended solids (SS), and 65% of the oil. During necessary sedimentation, some natural nitrogen, natural phosphorous, and overpowering metals associated with solids are also ejected, but colloidal and broken down elements are unaffected. Essential treatment is the basic degree of pre-application treatment needed for wastewater systems in many industrialized countries [71]. Primary sedimentation tanks or clarifiers may be round or rectangular bowls with a depth of 3–5 m and a pressure-driven maintenance time of 2–3 h. Muck rakes that rub the slime are used to discharge settled solids (essential slop) from the bottom of tanks, which is then pushed to ooze handling machines. Filth is pumped to sludge processing machines after being removed over the tank surface by water planes or mechanical techniques. Essential ooze is mainly treated organically by anaerobic absorption in large sewage treatment facilities (>7600 m3 /d in the United States). Anaerobic and facultative microscopic organisms use the natural material in muck in the assimilation process, which reduces the amount of the material and increases the transfer, further stabilizing the lime and improving its dewatering properties. Assimilation takes place in safe tanks (anaerobic digesters) that are typically 7–14 m deep. Living arrangement time in a digester may vary from 10 days or more in highrate digesters (which are heavily mixed and warmed) to 60 days or more in normal rate digesters. Slime is produced at small sewage treatment facilities in a variety of methods, including oxygen-consuming digestion, storage in muck tidal ponds, direct application to ooze drying beds, in-process storage (as in adjustment lakes), and land application [34, 54, 54–57]. (ii) Secondary Treatment The purpose of secondary treatment is to treat the effluents from primary treatment in order to remove any leftover organics or suspended particles. Optional treatment, for the most part, follows essential treatment and involves the removal of biodegradable broken up and colloidal natural matter using oxygen-consuming organic treatment forms. High-impact microorganisms (mainly tiny organisms) undertake vigorous

2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment

25

natural treatment in the presence of oxygen, using the natural problem in the wastewater and therefore providing additional microorganisms and inorganic by products such as CO2 , H2 O. Many additional biological processes are utilized as secondary treatment, and they vary in the way oxygen is delivered to microorganisms and the pace at which organisms digest the organic pollutant. Slime forms, streaming channels or biofilters, oxidation dumps, pivoting organic contactors (RBC), and combinations of two or more of these procedures (e.g., biofilter followed by actuated muck) are sometimes used to treat city wastewater containing a high concentration of natural material from modern sources [24–29]. (iii) Tertiary and/or Advanced Treatment Tertiary or advanced wastewater treatment is used when the pollutants from the wastewater are not completely removed by secondary treatment. For the removal of nitrogen, phosphorous, heavy metals, refractory organics and addition suspended solids, individual treatment methods are necessary. The advanced treatment methods used high-rate secondary treatment methods; these methods are sometimes also called as tertiary treatment. These advance treatment methods are also combined with the primary and secondary treatment methods for the effective removal of phosphorous and primary effluents. The polluted water moves from the primary clarifiers to the biological reactor which is divided into five zones by bewilders and weirs. In arrangement, these zones are: (i) anaerobic maturation zone (portrayed by low disintegrated oxygen levels and the nonattendance of nitrates); (ii) anoxic zone (low broke down oxygen levels yet nitrates present); (iii) vigorous zone (circulated air through); (iv) optional anoxic zone; and (v) last air circulation zone. The first zone effectively removes the phosphorous by stressing them under low oxidation–reduction conditions. Nitrogen is also not removed from the primary and secondary process. Nitrogen exists in the form of ammonia in wastewater which is removed in the advanced treatment method. The ammonia is passed through the first two zones without any change or removal. The third aerobic zone is used to remove ammonia by complete nitrification of wastewater, which converts the ammonia in nitrites and in nitrates. This nitrate liquid is further recycled in the first anoxic zone and it is converted into nitrogen gas which escapes into the environment. Those nitrates which are not recycled are reduced by the endogenous respiration of bacteria in the second anoxic zone. In the final zone, the dissolved oxygen levels are again raised to remove the remaining pollutant from the wastewater. In those situations, where the danger of open presentation of the recycled water or leftover constituents is high, the aim of the treatment is to reduce human exposure harmful viruses and other pathogens. The effective disinfection of bacteria is limited due to the suspended and colloidal solids present in wastewater so the removal of these pollutants is necessary for the effective degradation of water pollutant by using advance treatment methods [71]. (iv) Disinfection The infusion of a chlorine arrangement at the head end of a chlorine contact bowl is usually used for disinfection. The amount of chlorine measured depends on the

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2 Environmental Effects of Wastewater

quality of the effluent and other factors, although dosages of 5–15 mg/l are common. Sanitation may also be accomplished using ozone and ultraviolet (UV) light, although these methods are not as effective. Chlorine contact bowls are usually rectangular pipes with shocks to prevent short-circuiting and a contact period of around 30 min. For certain water system employments of recovered wastewater, a chlorine contact period of up to 120 min is necessary to fulfill propelled wastewater treatment requirements. Chlorine and other disinfectants have various bactericidal effects depending on pH, contact period, natural material, and temperature [74, 75]. (v) Effluent Storage It is a fundamental link between the wastewater treatment plant and the water system structure, not a component of the treatment operation. The following reasons need capacity: • To level daily varieties spilling from the treatment facility and to store excess when the usual wastewater stream exceeds water system demands, includes winter stockpiling. • To satisfy peak water system demands when the usual wastewater stream is overflowing. • To mitigate the effects of disruptions in the treatment plants and water system’s responsibilities. Capacity is used to defend against the possibility of unsuitable recovered wastewater entering the water system and to provide for more time to identify temporary water quality concerns. • To provide further treatment, oxygen demand, suspended particles, nitrogen, and microbes are all reduced during capacity [75]. • Reliability of Conventional and Advanced Wastewater Treatment Wastewater recovery and reuse frameworks should include both design and operational requirements to ensure consistent treatment quality. Quality features like warning systems, backup control supplies, treatment process duplications, crisis storage or transfer of inadequately treated wastewater, monitoring devices, and programmable controllers are critical. The most fundamental highlights of the advanced wastewater treatment method from the standpoint of general wellness are arrangements for adequate and trustworthy sanitization. When sanitization is necessary, a few steadfast quality highlights must be included into the framework to ensure a steady supply of chlorine [69, 74].

2.4.2 Natural Biological Treatment Systems Organic wastewater, such as municipal sewage, is treated successfully using natural biological treatment methods. They are inexpensive, simple to use, and safe for the environment. Although these processes are environmentally benign and have a lower efficiency than traditional biological water treatment technologies, their effectiveness in removing pathogens is high and they may be efficiently removed provided the

2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment

27

system is not overworked. Adjustment lakes and land treatment are among the most common organic treatment frameworks available, with a long history of use and setup. The supplement film approach is a constantly evolving hydroponic plant development framework with applications in wastewater treatment and usage [71]. (i) Stabilization Ponds Depending on the natural quality of the information squander and the gushing quality targets, wastewater stabilization lake frameworks are designed to accomplish various forms of treatment in up to three steps in arrangement. Stabilization ponds are a costeffective and commonly utilized method for treating agricultural wastewater. These procedures are most often utilized in developing nations when land is inexpensive and competent labor is scarce [76]. Around two trains of ponds are fused in parallel in any design for ease of support and flexibility of activity. Solid wastewaters with a BOD concentration in excess of 300 mg/l are routinely fed into first-order anaerobic ponds, which eliminate the effluents quickly. Significantly more grounded squanders (say up to 1000 mg/l BOD5) might be discharged directly into vital facultative ponds for weaker squanders or where anaerobic ponds are environmentally unsuitable. The effluent from the first-organized anaerobic ponds is pumped into facultative ponds, which are used for the second phase of natural treatment. If more pathogen elimination is required, maturation ponds are included in this system. When significant levels of BOD are present, anaerobic chemicals are utilized to efficiently eliminate them. If the quality of the influent wastewater, Li, is less than 1000 mg/l BOD5, a single, anaerobic lake in every treatment prepare is usually sufficient. Up to three anaerobic ponds in an arrangement for high grade mechanical squanders may be suitable, but the maintenance period in each of these ponds should not be less than one day. In first-arranged stabilization ponds, anaerobic conditions are created by maintaining a high volumetric natural stacking, clearly more than 100 g BOD5/m3 d [77]. Anaerobic ponds, which range in depth from 2 to 5 m, are also utilized to treat wastewater. They’re open septic tanks that let the gas out into the air. Anaerobic ponds and anaerobic digesters experience the same biological responses. Mara discovered that these anaerobic processes take place at room temperature in 1976, and she observed the elimination of BOD5 at various temperatures. In 1986, Gambrills et al. investigated the removal of BOD5 at various temperatures. They discovered that 40% BOD5 was eliminated at 10 degree Celsius and 60% BOD5 was removed at 200 °C [78]. Before being released or used, sewage or wastewater from anaerobic ponds must undergo aerobic treatment. As a result, facultative ponds are more effective and acceptable for applications in impoverished nations than traditional biological secondary treatment. Primary facultative ponds are used to treat weaker wastewater and are used in sensitive areas where anaerobic pond odor is an issue. The quantity of BOD5 removed by facultative ponds is determined by the amount of BOD5 placed on the pond. This approach eradicated almost 60–80% BOD5 in 20–40 days. This pond’s size should be larger than the anaerobic pond’s [79].

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(ii) Overland Flow of Wastewater Aside from using effluents for irrigation, the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Process Design Manual for Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters refers to “slow rate” land treatment (EPA 1977). Gushing is dispersed across gently sloping grassland on really impermeable soils in overland stream treatment. Water tolerant grasses are an important part of the system since wastewater should flow equally down the hill to collection ditches at the region’s base. To allow soil reaction and grass cutting, this method of land treatment entails trading applications of emanating (typically treated) and resting of the land. The total area utilized is divided into tiny plots on a regular basis to allow for this sort of irregular work while maintaining continuous wastewater treatment. Despite the fact that this type of land treatment has been widely used for tertiary overhauling of secondary effluents in Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, it has also been used to treat essential emanating in Werribee, Australia, and is being considered for the treatment of crude sewage in Karachi, Pakistan. Without chlorination, overland stream systems expel germs from sewage flowing at levels almost equal to conventional secondary treatment systems. Both for wastewater and gushing quality, a checking system should always be included in the design of overland stream projects [80]. (iii) Aquatic Macrophyte Treatment Systems (AMATS) Macrophyte ponds are maturation ponds that include floating, submerged, or novel seagoing plant species, and they have recently been utilized to modify effluents from stabilization ponds. As a result of their development requirements, macrophytes take up a lot of inorganic nutrients (especially N and P) and substantial metals (such as Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn) and reduce algal cell convergence through light shading by the leaf covering and, possibly, adherence to gelatinous biomass that grows on the roots. In Florida, floating macrophyte systems employing water hyacinth and receiving critical sewage gushing have achieved secondary treatment emanating quality with a multi-day pressure-driven maintenance time, water depth of 60 cm, and water-driven stacking of 1860 m3 /ha d [71]. (a) Floating aquatic macrophyte systems With its extensive root systems, floating macrophyte species are particularly good in supplement stripping. Although various taxa, including Salvinia, Spirodella, Lemna, and Eichornia, have been employed in pilot projects, Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth) has been examined in more depth. Water hyacinth doubles in bulk every 6 days in tropical areas, and a macrophyte lake may produce more than 250 kg/ha each day (dry weight). Nitrogen and phosphorous reductions of up to 80 and 50% have been achieved, respectively. According to tests conducted in Tamil Nadu, India, the coontail, Ceratophyllum demersum, a submerged macrophyte, is exceptionally effective in removing ammonia (97%) and phosphorous (96%) from raw sewage, as well as removing 95% of BOD5. It develops at a slower pace than Eichornia crassipes, allowing for fewer harvests in a row.

2.4 Overview of Wastewater Treatment

29

Apart from any physical removal processes (particularly sedimentation) that may occur in such macrophyte lake systems, aquatic vascular plants serve as living substrates for microbial activity, which eliminates BOD and nitrogen and reduces phosphorous, heavy metals, and certain organics via plant absorption. In the latter method, the macrophytes’ primary function is to ingest, concentrate, and store pollutants in the near term. Following the harvest of the plant biomass, the stored pollutants are permanently removed from the lake treatment system [81]. (b) Emergent macrophyte treatment systems Recently, raw sewage and partly treated effluents have been treated in natural and man-made wetlands and marshes. Artificial systems are specifically engineered to improve performance by providing perfect circumstances for emanant macrophyte production, while natural wetlands are often uncontrolled. Due to the way of life system, wastewater loading rate, plant density, climate, and management variables, the growth rate and pollutant assimilation ability of emanant macrophytes such as Phragmites communis and Scirpus lacstris are limited. In Florida, growing macrophytes were shown to store nutrients in the range of 200–1560 kg N/ha and 40–375 kg P/ha [72]. More than half of the nutrients were stored in underground parts of the plants, which were difficult to harvest for effective supplement removal. However, since rising macrophytes contain more supporting tissue than floating macrophytes, they may have a larger capacity for storing nutrients for a longer length of time. As a result, frequent harvesting is unlikely to be required to achieve maximal supplement removal, while harvesting aboveground biomass once a year might improve overall supplement removal efficacy [74]. (iv) Nutrient Film Technique The nutrient film method (NFT) is a variation of the hydroponic plant growth system in which plants are grown directly on an impermeable surface with a constant thin layer of wastewater supplied to it. On the impermeable surface, root development is high, and the huge surface area collects and accumulates materials. The huge quantity of self-generating root systems and accumulated material acts as living filters, while plant top-growth offers supplement absorption, shade for protection against algal development, and water removal via transpiration. Roughing or preparatory treatment by plant species with huge root systems capable of living and growing in a highly dirty environment is the proposed process. This mechanism is characterized by massive sludge accumulations, anaerobic conditions, and trace metal precipitation and trapping, and a large amount of wastewater BOD and suspended particles would be evacuated down these lines. Supplement conversion and recovery occur as a result of high biomass production and wastewater cleaning during supplement-restricted plant generation, depending on the quality of the output [70, 72, 81].

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44. Busk L, Ahlborg UG (1982) Retinoids as inhibitors of ortho-aminoazotolueneinduced mutagenesis in the Salmonella/liver microsome test. Mutat Res Lett 104(4–5):225–231 45. Esancy JF, Freeman HS, Claxton LD (1990) The effect of alkoxy substituents on the mutagenicity of some aminoazobenzene dyes and their reductivecleavage products. Mutat Res/Rev Genet Toxicol 238(1):1–22 46. Myslak ZW, Bolt HM, Brockmann W (1991) Tumors of the urinary bladder in painters: a case control study. Am J Ind Med 19(6):705713 47. Gingell R, Bridges JW, Williams RT (1971) The role of the gut flora in the metabolism of prontosil and neoprontosil in the rat. Xenobiotica 1(2):143–156 48. Stonecipher MR, Sherertz EF (1993) Office detection of formaldehyde in fabric: assessment of methods and update on frequency. Dermatitis 4(3):172–174 49. Fowler JF, Skinner SM, Belsito DV (1992) Allergic contact dermatitis from formaldehyde resins in permanent press clothing: an underdiagnosed cause of generalized dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 27(6):962–968 50. Scheman AJ, Carroll PA, Brown KH, Osburn AH (1998) Formaldehyde related textile allergy: an update. Contact Dermatitis 38(6):332–336 51. El-Azhary RA, Yiannias JA (2002) Allergic contact dermatitis to epoxy resin in immersion oil for light microscopy. J Am Acad Dermatol 47(6):954–955 52. Pontén A, Bruze M (1999) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from epoxy resins based on bisphenol F. Contact Dermatitis 41(4):235–235 53. Su JC, Horton JJ (1998) Allergic contact dermatitis from azo dyes. Australas J Dermatol 39(1):48–49 54. Head HL (2003) Letter of approval (Doctoral dissertation, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal) 55. Diwakar J, Yami KD, Prasai T (2008) Assessment of drinking water of Bhaktapur municipality area in pre-monsoon season. Sci World 6(6):94 56. Manfredi EC, Flury B, Viviano G, Thakuri S, Khanal SN, Jha PK, Ghimire NP (2010) Solid waste and water quality management models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal: implementation of a participatory modeling framework. Mt Res Dev 30(2):127–142 57. Singh J, Kansal BD, Panesar RS (1985) Chemical composition of waste water of Amritsar city. Indian J Ecol 12(1):12–16 58. Rajankar PN, Gulhane SR, Tambekar DH, Ramteke DS, Wate SR (2009) Water quality assessment of groundwater resources in Nagpur region (India) based on WQI. J Chem 6(3):905–908 59. Webber J (1981) Trace metals in agriculture. In: Effect of heavy metal pollution on plants. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 159–184 60. Noggle GR, Fritz GJ (1983) Introductory plant physiology, 2nd edn. Prentice-Hall Inc. 61. Bhadra A, Mahananda M (2013) Bioaccumulation of hexavalent chromium in rice (Oryza sativa L.) grown in paddy field soil of Basundhara coal mine area, Sundargarh, Odisha, India. Development 25:27 62. Sahai R, Jabeen S, Saxena PK (1983) Effect of distillery waste on seed germination, seedling growth and pigment content of rice [India]. Indian J Ecol (India) 63. Bahadur B, Sharma BK (1990) Effect of industrial effluent on seed germination and early seedling growth of Triticum aestivum var UP 115. Acta Botanica Indica 64. Swaminathan K, Vaidheeswaran P (1991) Effect of dyeing factory effluents on seed germination and seedling development of groundnut(Arachis hypogea). J Environ Biol 12(4):353–358 65. Misra RN, Behera PK (1991) The effect of paper industry effluent on growth, pigments, carbohydrates and proteins of rice seedlings. Environ Pollut 72(2):159–167 66. Sharma A, Naik ML (1991) Effects of a steel mill effluent on agricultural soil and a vegetable crop. Indian J Ecol 18(2):95–98 67. Patel PKB, Kumar KJR (1991) Effect of Pharmaceutical factory effluent on seed germination, seedling growth and pod productivity of mustard (Brassica juncea L. Var. T-59). Geobios (Jodhpur) 18:91–97

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68. Ramanujan MP (1991) Germination and seedling growth of black gram grown in municipal wastewater. Geobios (Jodhpur) 18:219–222 69. Acharya I (2001) Effect of brewery industrial effluents on some agricultural crops and soil (Doctoral dissertation, M. Sc. Dissertation, Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu) 70. Sahai R (1987) Effect of fertilizer factory and distillery effluents on the seed germination, seedling growth, pigment content and biomass of Phaseolus radiatus Linn. Indian J Ecol 14(1):21–25 71. Reddy KR (1987) Nutrient storage capabilities of aquatic and wetland plants. Aquatic plants for water treatment and resource recovery 72. Sharma RK, Yadav M, Gupta R. Water quality and sustainability in India: challenges and opportunities green chemistry network centre. University of Delhi, Delhi, India 73. Jewell WJ, Madras JJ, Clarkson WW, DeLancey-Pompe H, Kabrick RM (1983) Wastewater treatment with plants in nutrient films. In: Wastewater treatment with plants in nutrient films. EPA 74. Amin MM, Hashemi H, Bovini AM, Hung YT (2013) A review on wastewater disinfection. https://doi.org/10.4103/2277-9183.113209 75. Bansah KJ, Suglo RS (2016) Sewage treatment by waste stabilization pond systems. JENRM 3(1):7–14 76. Spuhler D (2012) Wastewater stabilization ponds, sustainable sanitation and water management. www.sswm.info. Accessed 28th March 2016 77. Adongo G (2005) AngloGold Ashanti merger - the new phase of underground mining development in Ghana, project report. University of Mines and Tech405 nology, Tarkwa 78. Abbas H, Nasr R, Seif H (2006) Study of waste stabilization pond geometry for the wastewater treatment efficiency.Ecol Eng 28(1):25–34 79. Stefanutti R, Packer AP, Coraucci Filho B, Mattiazzo ME, de Figueiredo RF (2003) Accumulation of metals in the soil of an overland flow wastewater treatment system. J Environ 4(6):967–971. https://doi.org/10.1039/B207482F 80. Tang Y, Harpenslager SF, van Kempen MML, Leon PM (2017) Lamers aquatic macrophytes can be used for wastewater polishing, but not for purification in constructed wetlands. Biogeosciences Discuss 14(14):755–766. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-755-2017 81. Vaillant N, Monnet F, Sallanon PVH, Coudret A, Hitmi A (2002) Urban wastewater treatment by a nutrient film technique system with a valuable commercial plant species (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Trev.). Environ Sci Technol 36(9):2101–2106

Chapter 3

Wastewater Treatment Methods

3.1 Introduction Organic and inorganic contaminants are removed from wastewater throughout the treatment process. These contaminants, which have been present for many years and are gradually being eliminated, have very negative impacts on individuals and the environment. However, the effectiveness of these methods has been hampered in the last two decades due to three significant challenges [1]. The first issue is raising public awareness about water contamination and its consequences for the ecosystem. The need for the highest quality water has prompted the development and execution of high-level regulations to reduce the amount of effluents in the water. The inter-link between halo-generated disinfection by-products (DBPs) and pollutants that cause cancers, as well as the inter-link between halo-generated disinfection by-products (DBPs) and pollutants that cause cancers, are essential improvements that have been made in the water treatment process to remove these pollutants. Similarly, stronger measures are being taken to reduce wastewater effluent discharge levels. Because of their hazardous impacts on human health and the environment, synthetic organic pollutants and nutrients must be removed. The second issue is the diminishing water supplies as a result of environmental development, and wastewater reuse is a major issue. The recovery of possible contaminants used in current techniques has shown to be easier. This is especially true in dry or semiarid areas. The recovery might also be justified in light of growing concerns about the tainting of water resources by the entry of increasingly harmful mixtures. Different advanced treatment advancements have been shown to evacuate various potentially harmful intensities that could not be properly expelled by classic treatment forms. Furthermore, advancements in the manufacturing and expanding business sectors associated to cutting-edge treatment forms have resulted in major improvements and costs of these treatments on a current scale. Wiesner et al. (1994), for example, used life-cycle analysis to conclude that the costs of modern weight-driven layer filtration © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_3

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facilities are comparable to or even lower than those of traditional treatment forms for capacities up to 20,000 m3 /day.

3.2 Different Methods Used for Treatment of Wastewater There have been several wastewater treatment technologies found to date. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches are discussed below, although physiochemical technology is the most recent and cost-effective way for wastewater treatment [2]. Coagulation, sedimentation, buoyancy, started carbon adsorption, propelled oxidation forms, and layer division are examples of physical or concoction processes used to treat wastewater. All conventional procedures have the same basic goal: to clean dirty water according to realistic excellent norms. The recycling of wastewater and its release into water bodies were traditionally envisaged as excellent models of protected water [3]. Several factors impact the wastewater treatment process, including the consistent quality of the procedure equipment, the type of saved water, waste transfer standards, utilization, and maintenance [3]. Different wastewater treatment methods are shown in Fig. 3.1.

3.2.1 Physical Methods Physical treatment forms depend on the physical properties of the contaminants and are for the most part least complex types of treatment. Physical treatment includes floatation, reverse osmosis, and adsorption which can expel substantial metal particles from watery arrangement. (i) Floatation In the floatation process, the gravity gradient is quite beneficial. Because of the gravitational factor, the floating particles were skimmed out. Air floatation and dissolved air floatation are the two forms of floating methods. Carbazite, for example, includes sodium, potassium, and calcium that are removed by adsorption of zinc, copper, and nickel ions [4]. Floatation is a process in which solid particles float on the surface and are skimmed away. Bubbles are suspended on the surface during this procedure, and particles may be removed [5]. The most important criteria for dealing with the lightweight technique are air stash measurement, bubble speed, bubble improvement repetitions, and assertions [6]. (a) Dissolved air floatation (DAF) The primary premise of this floatation is to maximize particle collection in a suspension by using bubbles that flow through the solution and may easily be collected via the water suspension’s surface. Different surfactants are employed

3.2 Different Methods Used for Treatment of Wastewater

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Fig. 3.1 Different methods used for treatment of wastewater

to create the accumulation among vehemently accused air that rises due to contrarily excited flocks to improve the performance of this operation. Because of Mn evacuation, dissolved air floatation enhances Mn subordinate convergence by taking responding operators into account (chlorine, potassium manganese oxide, and ozone). The collection of particles is improved in this method by utilizing chemicals to create a junction between particles and bubbles [7]. Organic polymers, which create a monolayer on the surface of the particles and form chains, are extensively utilized in this technique. Al-Zoubi et al. [8] used polyvinyl alcohol, modified polyvinyl alcohol, adjusted polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and chitosan to remove cadmium chloride, zinc chloride, manganese chloride, lead nitrate, and nickel chloride. This research covers a wide range of topics, including heavy metal concentrations, collectors, and PVA kinds. Cadmium, nickel, manganese, and lead are removed by chitosan at 29, 27, 31, and 29%, respectively, whereas nickel and zinc are removed by PVA at

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Fig. 3.2 Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) setup

30 and 28%, respectively [8]. This technique eliminated 70% of sulfate from acid amines utilizing micro and nano bubbles. Some analysts like Amaral et al. [9] researched expulsion of sulfate particles in wastewater can be decreased from 1753 mgL−1 to 500 mgL−1 by using this method [9]. In this way, this treatment can possibly evacuate the substantial metal stacked wastewaters. Figure 3.2 shows a setup for the wastewater treatment of DAF [10]. (b) Ion floatation Ion floatation is a potential approach for dealing with contaminated water caused by metal disposal. Surfactants are used to convert hydrophobic ions from metals, which subsequently react with bubbles to form flocs, resulting in floc expulsion [11]. Ion floatation’s benefits include a small volume of waste production that is effectively coupled to varied levels of metals and a reduction in vitality [12, 13]. Ion floatation was utilized by Liu and Doyle [14] to extract nickel, copper, and cupric ions using a non-ionic surfactant, namely dodecyl diethylene triamine (Ddien). Hoseinian et al. [12] used Ethyl hexadecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide and SDS as accumulators in the ion floatation process to recover wastewater from nickel and zinc ions at 88 and 92%, respectively. The most severe removal of Pb, Cu, and Al was achieved at 80% using bio-surfactants such as tea spooning in the particle floatation [15]. (c) Precipitate floatation Precipitate floatation is a kind of floatation method that uses various compound reagents and air to extract heavy metals from wastewater. Metal hydroxide

3.2 Different Methods Used for Treatment of Wastewater

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aggregation with strange anions (sulfide, carbonate) may help the precipitation progress [11]. The surface area of precipitates and the reaction charge on the bubble with surfactants determine separation efficiency. Salmani et al. [16] achieved 95% chromium removal utilizing Rhamnolipid (RL) as a collector, demonstrating that this surfactant has great activity in this approach. (ii) Reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis is a physical treatment that addresses the size limitation and charge rejection standards. It removes dissolved particles from water using a semi-porous film [17]. The reverse osmosis layer aperture is estimated to be 0.1–1.0 nm in size. This was often used in the purifying process. In water treatment, reverse osmosis is used to remove heavy metals. Reverse osmosis may effectively remove salts, metal particles, and color atoms. (iii) Filtration Filtration is a physical process for removing a wide range of contaminants from wastewater. This process removes heavy metals, organic debris, and a variety of other effluents. There are many forms of filtration, including nano-filtration, membrane filtration, micro-filtration, and ultrafiltration, which are addressed further below. (a) Nano-filtration Nano-filtration is the most reliable weight-driven technology used in many synthetic and biotech industries. It’s a method that falls in between ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis [17]. Benefits of this filtering include lower vitality consumption, a feasible technique for overpowering metal removal, ease of usage [18], and a lower weight need than RO [19]. pH, weight, temperature, layer inclination, film arrangement, and feed fixation all affect nano-filtration productivity [20]. However, film execution should be enhanced in order to eliminate electrostatic intercommunication between layers and metal particles. Measure avoidance and charge prohibition are the detachment instruments of nanofiltration [21]. For expulsion of considerable metallic particles from dirty water, Zhu et al. created a double layer nano-filtration empty film employing polybenzimidazole, polyethersulfone, and polyvinylpyrrolidone. Figure 3.3 shows a schematic example. Magnesium and cadmium were removed at a rate of 98 and 95%, respectively. Cr2 O72 and lead dismissal proportions may be increased from 98 and 93%, respectively, by altering the pH of the system [21]. Torkabad et al. used nano-filtration process for the purification of low-grade uranium, flowchart diagram of which is shown in Fig. 3.4 [22]. (b) Membrane filtration Membrane filtration is a weight-saving partitioning technology that may be used in dirty water. Heavy metals are removed during this procedure, and sanitization is also performed [23]. The molecule is isolated by film filtering based on its size, arrangement focus, pH, and connected weight. The filtering instrument may be strengthened by treating the layer with concoction professionals [24].

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Fig. 3.3 The schematic diagram of the experimental setup of nano-filtration

The layer is made out of a special permeable substance that does an excellent job of removing heavy metals from contaminated water [6]. This material is divided into two categories: artistic and polymer. Because of its resistance to synthetic compounds, polymer is the most often used material for mechanical wastewater treatment. It has a hydrophobic limit as well. The main disadvantage of creative stuff is that it is difficult and expensive to produce. Polymeric materials are commercially available compounds that are used to block chemicals [25]. (c) Microfiltration The microfiltration procedure basically utilized basic treatment for removal of heavy metals. It can go about as either deadlock method or cross-stream mode. It removes particles having size in 100–10,000 nm. The critical qualities of microfiltration procedure include, extraordinary steadiness, film having long lifetime and used for large volumes. Obstructing happens effectively in the microfiltration layer due to primary imperfection in film. Molgora et al. [26] utilized joined innovation, specifically coagulation taken after by microfiltration for arsenic evacuation. About 97% arsenic was removed effectively with this joined strategy of contrasted and additional filtration procedures. Figure 3.5 shows the apparatus used for the microfiltration of arsenic [26]. (d) Ultrafiltration Ultrafiltration is a partition technique that requires very little energy to clean dirty water. The elements are easily segregated from the aqueous arrangements due to hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. That method is usually used as a consolidated technique because it has a larger pore estimation film that is

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Fig. 3.4 Conceptual process flowsheet for the concentration and purification of bioleach liquor of low-grade uranium ore by nano-filtration process

larger than the span of metal particles. In this technique, the UF layer allows metal particles to pass through with ease. Substance experts and polymeric operators are used to speed up the ultrafiltration process, which is often referred to as micellar ultrafiltration and polymer enhanced ultrafiltration [17]. PEUF is a form of ultrafiltration that employs water-soluble polymeric compounds. Because the membrane is smaller than the macromolecules, the polymeric operators are coupled with metal particles to form macromolecules, which cannot pass through the membrane. Metal-containing macromolecules may be recovered, and polymers can be employed for a variety of applications [18]. Three types of polymeric materials are available. Natural polymers, synthetic polymers, and commercial polymers are all included [20]. The use of natural and synthetic polymers in lab-scale applications is fantastic, but its applications are limited owing to the high cost of the systems [20]. PEUF technique has a high evacuation efficiency and macromolecule organization, which

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Fig. 3.5 Equipment used for the CC-MF process

is a key advantage of this filtering approach. The detachment of specific metal particles is dangerous and difficult to duplicate because the polymers have a complex structure [27]. Natural polymers, on the other hand, are low in water [27]. Figure 3.6 shows a schematic of an ultrafiltration system used for this purpose [27]. (iv) Adsorption Nowadays, the adsorption approach is regarded as a reliable and excellent alternative to many heavy metal removal improvements. This approach is a mass transformation technology that exchanges wastes into dynamic destinations using physical or chemical methods [28]. The adsorption approach is a more cost-effective and reliable alternative to the traditional procedure, with a lower operating cost, fewer catching concerns, and a higher return on investment for heavy metals removal. Desorption is utilized in the adsorption method to recover the absorbents. For the recovery of adsorbent, there are a few options. The available recovery options include warm recovery, weight swing approach, and electrochemical recovery. Similarly, the adsorption approach has shown to be the most important system in wastewater removal procedures. Adsorption is a tough-to-use process that is pliable, has a simple outline, and does not offer toxic pollutants [29]. Heavy metals are removed using a variety of absorbents [30]. The efficiency of the adsorption procedure is determined by the size of the external area, the aperture estimate conveyance, beneficial gatherings, and the adsorbent’s extremity [31].

3.2 Different Methods Used for Treatment of Wastewater

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Fig. 3.6 Scheme of the experimental apparatus. 1. Thermostatic bath 2. Feed tank 3. Stirrer 4. Pump 5. Flow Meter 6, 7. Mercury Pressure Meter 8. Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membrane 9. Inlet Valve

3.2.2 Chemical Methods Synthetic treatment forms comprise of utilizing at least one compound responses to enhance the water quality. The most regularly utilized compound procedures are ozonation, precipitation, particle trade, and electro-coagulation. (i) Ozonation Ozone is a very effective disinfectant and oxidant [32]. Ozone is introduced into the water during this procedure. Ozone is a strong oxidant since it contains three oxygen atoms. Highly oxidant radicals are created in this process, which react with contaminants and eliminate them. One of the downsides of this procedure is that it requires energy to create ozone by exposing oxygen to high voltage or UV light, which makes the system expensive [33]. Figure 3.7 depicts a schematic of sludge ozonation for wastewater treatment, including two channels for ozone input. Ozonation may be added to the returned activated sludge line in route I and the sludge digestion line in route II [34]. (ii) Precipitation Precipitation is one of the regular concoction forms utilized for the evacuation of metal particles or colors from water [35]. It is generally connected to extravagance

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Fig. 3.7 Diagram of ozonation sludge removal

and the stiffness in consumable water produced by tremendous nearness of Ca and Mn salts. Overwhelming metals can be expelled by the expansion of soluble substances, for example, limestone, lime, ferrous salts, or different mixes (e.g., Mg(OH)2 , MgCO3 , BaCl2 , CaCl2 ), by methods for expanding the pH of corrosive water to antacid qualities [36]. (a) Chemical precipitation Chemical precipitation converts dissolved elements in wastewater into solid particles, and various surfactants are employed to limit the particles’ solubility. Impurities may also be eliminated by adjusting the pH, adding various synthetic chemicals, increasing the electrooxidizing potential, and employing co-precipitation reagents such aluminum and ferrous sulfates. This method is used in a variety of industries [37]. A typical chemical approach consists of four steps: first, pH correction (which may be accomplished by various synthetic chemicals), second, flocculation, sedimentation, and solid liquid separation. Chemical processes are mostly utilized to remove low, moderate, and low-level nuclear waste [18, 17]. This process has certain drawbacks, such as the fact that iron-based particles are difficult to remove using this method, necessitating the use of a costly plant. Because of rushes of insoluble metallic ions, it creates an excessive amount of slop with huge water guts [38]. Filtration and sedimentation are the procedures employed in this process to release the effluent. This water is then recycled and released into the environment. To eliminate the metals, compound precipitation requires a large amount of synthetic dyes. They are employed as a component in current-scale applications due to their simplicity and ease of usage. (b) Hydroxide precipitation

3.2 Different Methods Used for Treatment of Wastewater

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This approach is the most cost-effective and simple-to-use way for removing pollutants. Metallic hydroxides may be formed at various pH levels, but they are not soluble in suspension and can be collected readily, while layered double hydroxides are generated from trivalent ions and can remove heavy metals [39]. Many precipitates were used to create hydroxide precipitates (lime, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide). Limestone is often utilized as a precipitant due to its cost-effectiveness and availability. To remove fluoride metals from wastewater, Jadhav et al. [40] employed calcium chloride, manganese chloride, and calcium hydroxide. He came to the conclusion that the best results were achieved when the pH was adjusted between 4 and 14, and that the best percipients were calcium salts, which had the largest fluoride metal precipitates [40]. Many studies examined zinc ions’ removal using electro-fenton and chemical precipitation methods employing rayon industry wastes [41]. The chemical oxygen demand was lowered by 88%, however there was no impact on the concentration of zinc ions, while Ghosh et al. [41] eliminated zinc ions by 99% using lime as a precipitant. (c) Sulfide precipitation Sulfide precipitation is the most effective approach for wastewater treatment of all the precipitation technologies. Because sulfide precipitates are insoluble in alkaline suspension, they are preferable to hydroxide precipitates. Solid precipitants include ferric sulfide and calcium sulfide, whereas sodium sulfide, NaHS, NH4S, is utilized as a liquid sulfide and H2S is employed as a gaseous sulfide [18]. Cao et al. [140] investigated the removal of pollutants using several Sulfurreducing bacteria cultures. H2S was generated in the first reactor, and effluents were precipitated in the send reactor using Sulfur-reducing bacteria [42]. The sulfide precipitation technique provides high resolving limits, selective metal evacuation, and quick reaction rates [18]. In an acidic environment, sulfide precipitants measured may sometimes release harmful exhaust. In important or impartial situations, the sulfide precipitation technique is now required. (iii) Coagulation/flocculation The best alternative technique for converting effluents into sulfide, carbonates, and hydroxide in wastewater is coagulation [43]. Colloid molecules are soluble in water due to their low density, which is equivalent to that of water [44]. The kind of coagulation, quantity, pH, environment, alkalinity, and mixing conditions are all important aspects that influence the method’s effectiveness. Al2 (SO4 )3 , Fe2 (SO4 )3 , FeCl3 , and their products are employed in this procedure as chemical components or inanimate flocculants [45]. The size of the particles is increased by stirring in flocculants. Following that, the suspension is filtered, and the bigger particles are eliminated. Chang et al. [46] used chitosan and mercaptoacetic acid to make mercaptoacetyl a micro-flocculant that was used to remediate wastewater effluents. However, since this approach does not completely remove contaminants, it is combined with other procedures like precipitation, spontaneous reduction, and the coagulation or flocculation process. Bojic et al. [47] used a combination spontaneous reduction-coagulation

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Fig. 3.8 Coagulation/Flocculation method of wastewater treatment

approach to remove heavy metals from effluents. Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn are all present in the slurry formed at the conclusion of this operation [48]. Despite the fact that coagulation/flocculation is effective for wastewater treatment, it may have negative consequences such as rushes, which are a kind of supplemental toxin, and extra chemical diluters, which are less recyclable and detrimental to the environment. The coagulation/flocculation process is schematically shown in Fig. 3.8 [49]. (iv) Ion Exchange Fe and Mn salts have been widely removed from water resources via ion exchange [50]. It has also been used to particularly remove certain contaminating impacts as well as to recover key metals (Cr, Cu, Pb, Cd, Ni) and color atoms from current waste emissions. A particle exchanger is used to trade cations and anions in encompassing supplies. Particle trade tars are only available for certain metal particles. Characteristic materials, such as zeolites, may be used as particle trade sources in altered zeolites, such as zeocarb and chalcarb, which have a higher preference for nickel and lead particles [51, 52]. The ion exchange technique is a detachment operation that alternates particles from different wastewater treatment with high metallic particle evacuation productivity. Slime formation is much less in the ion exchange approach than in the contrasting and coagulation processes [17]. Furthermore, this method is expensive, and it cannot be employed on a large scale for wastewater treatment [17]. (v) Electrochemical Treatment Due to changes in the environment, the electrochemical process is the most demanding water treatment procedure. When coupled with other treatment procedures, this approach produces a highly prestigious elimination of pollutants from wastewater. The effluents in the solution were eliminated by electron motion in electrodes [53]. It is a more effective approach for removing dirty particles from wastewater due to its adaptability, electrode material, and cell characteristics such as mass transfer, current density, and water composition [54]. This approach is ideal for

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removing pollutants without causing negative side effects. It has a number of drawbacks, including the requirement for costly maintenance facilities, a short electrode life time, limited mass transfer rates, and a high temperature [55]. The PAA-coated gold electrodes for the removal of effluents from wastewater were investigated by Le et al. [56]. Many particles may gather low concentrations of PAA. After the steps outlined, this approach is employed as a supplementary level [56]. Cui et al. [23] created the PAOA, which was used to remove fluorides from wastewater. PAOA developed a touching conductor device, which is a rising approach used to remove fluoride from polluted waters [23], and the largest fluoride removal achieved up to 10.5 mg/g at pH 7.2. Electrocoagulation, electro-floatation, electro-deposition, electro-dialysis, and electro-deionization are some of the electrochemical therapies available. These processes are also used to remove pollutants from wastewater. Figure 3.9 shows the electrochemical method of wastewater filtration, in a 3D electrochemical cell.

Fig. 3.9 Electrochemical filtration method (structure of 3D electrode)

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3.2.3 Biological Methods The treatment of the effluent is usually associated to parasitic decolorization, microbial exploitation, microbial biomass adsorption, and bioremediation settings [57– 59]. The ability of microorganisms, green growth, yeast, and organisms to degrade poisons such as metal particles and colors is studied extensively. Microorganisms have transformed colloidal and carbonaceous natural matter into various gases and biomass. The thickness inclination allows the biomass to be readily removed from the effluent by gravity settling. The microbes’ biomass is mixed with natural oxygen, and cell tissue must be removed from the effluents following treatment. (i)

Anaerobic–aerobic-activated sludge process

The anaerobic–oxygen-depleted started muck process is a viable option for removing large metal particles from contaminated water. Chromium, for example, may be removed biologically using this method. From the contaminated water using aerobic and anaerobic activated sludge and two types of air drying, several additional metallic ions such as copper, zinc, manganese, and iron were extracted from wastewater. The sludge from this procedure is collected from the oxidation tanks and dried under ambient conditions as a biosorbent [60]. The Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (MSWI) process creates base fiery debris and destroys low-natural deposits such as Zn, B, Mn, Fe, Cu, Pb, As, Mo, and V. Continuous flow by leading a progression of biosorption group evaluations, the as-biofilm initial plant was used to evacuate cadmium, zinc, and nickel, and the biosorption capability of biomass was examined [61]. Figure 3.10 depicts a modified activated sludge technique that increases biological phosphorous and nitrogen removal is shown in this diagram [62].

Fig. 3.10 Schematic illustration of activated sludge removal process

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3.3 New Trends in Wastewater Treatment Researchers have long been interested in water treatment procedures, and they are now updating the previous approach to improve the effectiveness of water treatment methods. Because of specific viewpoints like the accelerated development of industrialization, contamination, and the successive accessibility of substantial metals in the earth, advanced water treatment methods that have been tested in the lab will be extended to the commercial level and in practical applications. A novel hydrogel [63] based on guar gum was created by polymerizing acrylamide onto guar gum and accelerating the polymerization response using a potassium bromate/thiourea dioxide redox framework. The sorbent material was picked up as a hydrogel by connecting the polyacrylamide/guar gum copolymer with glutaraldehyde (GA). The hydrogel obtained was used to expel hexavalent chromium particles from a fluid arrangement. Guar gum–nano zinc oxide (GG/nZnO) was organized by Khan et al. [64] as a financial and ecological bio-compound. These compounds are used as adsorbents to aid in the removal of chromium (VI) from a watery solution. Organic and inorganic pollutants such as pharmaceutical wastes, dyes, and heavy metals are increasingly being removed from wastewater since they pose a threat to both human health and the environment. Different procedures such as coagulation/flocculation, ion exchange, floatation, membrane filtration, chemical precipitation, electrochemical treatment, and adsorption are used to remove pollutants from contaminated wastewater with the particular purpose of meeting the suggested ecological restrictions. The techniques mentioned are quite beneficial for treating industrial effluents. The benefits and drawbacks are also explored in order to choose the optimal treatment technique for removing toxins from wastewater. Coagulation treatment eliminates pollutants while also producing secondary effluents that are very hazardous to humans. It also generated a lot of garbage, which had to be handled at the end. The ion exchange process utilized here is also often used to remediate contaminated water. This technology is both cost-effective and beneficial for the remediation of contaminated water. In comparison to the coagulation process, floatation is the most probable approach for treating wastewater to create fewer slugs. In comparison to alternative treatments, the membrane separation technique takes less area to treat a variety of pollutants. It also eliminates harmful viruses from effluents. The disadvantage of this strategy is that it produces poor partition execution. Chemical precipitation is ineffective for metal ions and results in hazardous secondary effluents. Electrochemical wastewater treatment uses electricity to treat wastewater. However, since electrode life span is restricted, their applications are constrained. According to a recent research, the adsorption technique is the best wastewater treatment option. The adoption process has enormous promise, but it is now restricted to the laboratory. In general, economic viability is the most important constraint imposed by adsorbent for treating polluted water processes that increase biological phosphorous and nitrogen removal.

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References 1. Am Water Works Res F et al (1991) Ozone in water treatment: application and engineering. CRC Press 2. Fei L et al (2015) Graphene/sulfur hybrid nanosheets from a space confined—sauna∥ reaction for high performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Adv Mater 27(39):5936–5942 3. Al-Shammiri M et al (2005) Waste water quality and reuse in irrigation in Kuwait using microfiltration technology in treatment. Desalination 185(1–3):213–225 4. Bhatnagar A, Sillanpää M (2010) Utilization of agro-industrial and municipal waste materials as potential adsorbents for water treatment—a review. Chem Eng J 157(2–3):277–296 5. Rubio J, Tessele F (1997) Removal of heavy metal ions by adsorptive particulate flotation. Miner Eng 10(7):671–679 6. Mahmoud MR, Lazaridis NK, Matis KA (2015) Study of flotation conditions for cadmium (II) removal from aqueous solutions. Process Saf Environ Prot 94:203–211 7. Patil DS, Chavan SM, Oubagaranadin JUK (2016) A review of technologies for manganese removal from wastewaters. J Environ Chem Eng 4(1):468–487 8. Karhu M, Leiviskä T, Tanskanen J (2014) Enhanced DAF in breaking up oil-in-water emulsions. Sep Purif Technol 122:231–241 9. Al-Zoubi H, Ibrahim KA, Abu-Sbeih KA (2015) Removal of heavy metals from wastewater by economical polymeric collectors using dissolved air flotation process. J Water Process Eng 8:19–27 10. Khan TA et al (2017) Removal of Chromium (VI) from aqueous solution using guar gum–nano zinc oxide biocomposite adsorbent. Arab J Chem 10:S2388–S2398 11. Amaral Filho J et al (2016) Removal of sulfate ions by dissolved air flotation (DAF) following precipitation and flocculation. Int J Miner Process 149:1–8 12. Hubicki Z, Ko ody ska D (2012) Selective removal of heavy metal ions from waters and waste waters using ion exchange methods. In: Ion exchange technologies. InTech 13. Hoseinian FS, Irannajad M, Nooshabadi AJ (2015) Ion flotation for removal of Ni (II) and Zn (II) ions from wastewaters. Int J Miner Process 143:131–137 14. Salmani MH et al (2013) Removal of cadmium (II) from simulated wastewater by ion flotation technique. Iran J Environ Health Sci Eng 10(1):16 15. Liu Z, Doyle FM (2009) Ion flotation of Co2+, Ni2+, and Cu2+ using dodecyldiethylenetriamine (Ddien). Langmuir 25(16):8927–8934 16. Yuan X et al (2008) Evaluation of tea-derived biosurfactant on removing heavy metal ions from dilute wastewater by ion flotation. Colloids Surf, A 317(1–3):256–261 17. Mólgora CC et al (2013) Removal of arsenic from drinking water: a comparative study between electrocoagulation-microfiltration and chemical coagulation-microfiltration processes. Sep Purif Technol 118:645–651 18. Mutamim NSA et al (2012) Application of membrane bioreactor technology in treating high strength industrial wastewater: a performance review. Desalination 305:1–11 19. Wang J et al (2015) To appear in: J Membrane Sci 20. El Zeftawy MM, Mulligan CN (2011) Use of rhamnolipid to remove heavy metals from wastewater by micellar-enhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF). Sep Purif Technol 77(1):120–127 21. Tao W et al (2016) Influence of silver nanoparticles on heavy metals of pore water in contaminated river sediments. Chemosphere 162:117–124 22. Dassey A, Theegala C (2012) Optimizing the air dissolution parameters in an unpacked dissolved air flotation system. Water 4(1):1–11 23. Le XT et al (2009) Electrochemical behaviour of polyacrylic acid coated gold electrodes: an application to remove heavy metal ions from wastewater. Electrochim Acta 54(25):6089–6093 24. Wang J, Chen C (2006) Biosorption of heavy metals by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a review. Biotechnol Adv 24(5):427–451 25. Barakat M, Schmidt E (2010) Polymer-enhanced ultrafiltration process for heavy metals removal from industrial wastewater. Desalination 256(1–3):90–93

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26. Fu F, Wang Q (2011) Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters: a review. J Environ Manag 92(3):407–418 27. Soleimany A, Hosseini SS, Gallucci F (2017) Recent progress in developments of membrane materials and modification techniques for high performance helium separation and recovery: a review. Chem Eng Process: Process Intensif 28. Al-Rashdi B, Johnson D, Hilal N (2013) Removal of heavy metal ions by nanofiltration. Desalination 315:2–17 29. Ojedokun AT, Bello OS (2016) Sequestering heavy metals from wastewater using cow dung. Water Resour Ind 13:7–13 30. Demirbas A (2008) Heavy metal adsorption onto agro-based waste materials: a review. J Hazard Mater 157(2–3):220–229 31. Vunain E, Mishra A, Mamba B (2016) Dendrimers, mesoporous silicas and chitosan-based nanosorbents for the removal of heavy-metal ions: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 86:570–586 32. Ewecharoen A et al (2009) Nickel adsorption by sodium polyacrylate-grafted activated carbon. J Hazard Mater 171(1–3):335–339 33. Monier M, Nawar N, Abdel-Latif D (2010) Preparation and characterization of chelating fibers based on natural wool for removal of Hg (II), Cu (II) and Co (II) metal ions from aqueous solutions. J Hazard Mater 184(1–3):118–125 34. Torkabad MG, Keshtkar A, Safdari S (2018) Selective concentration of uranium from bioleach liquor of low-grade uranium ore by nanofiltration process. Hydrometallurgy 178:106–115 35. Baig S, Liechti P (2001) Ozone treatment for biorefractory COD removal. Water Sci Technol 43(2):197–204 36. Kumar PR et al (2004) Removal of arsenic from water by electrocoagulation. Chemosphere 55(9):1245–1252 37. Chon K et al (2014) The role of a combined coagulation and disk filtration process as a pretreatment to microfiltration and reverse osmosis membranes in a municipal wastewater pilot plant. Chemosphere 117:20–26 38. Tanong K et al (2017) Recovery of Zn (II), Mn (II), Cd (II) and Ni (II) from the unsorted spent batteries using solvent extraction, electrodeposition and precipitation methods. J Clean Prod 148:233–244 39. Kuan Y-C, Lee I-H, Chern J-M (2010) Heavy metal extraction from PCB wastewater treatment sludge by sulfuric acid. J Hazard Mater 177(1–3):881–886 40. Zhou JZ et al (2010) Effective self-purification of polynary metal electroplating wastewaters through formation of layered double hydroxides. Environ Sci Technol 44(23):8884–8890 41. Jadhav S et al (2014) Treatment of fluoride concentrates from membrane unit using salt solutions. J Water Process Eng 2:31–36 42. Zhang W, Cheng CY, Pranolo Y (2010) Investigation of methods for removal and recovery of manganese in hydrometallurgical processes. Hydrometallurgy 101(1–2):58–63 43. Shen X et al (2015) Membrane-free electrodeionization for purification of wastewater containing low concentration of nickel ions. Chem Eng J 280:711–719 44. Visa M (2016) Synthesis and characterization of new zeolite materials obtained from fly ash for heavy metals removal in advanced wastewater treatment. Powder Technol 294:338–347 45. Ghernaout D et al (2015) Brownian motion and coagulation process. Ame J Environ Protect 4(5–1):1–15 46. Renault F et al (2009) Chitosan for coagulation/flocculation processes–an eco-friendly approach. Eur Polymer J 45(5):1337–1348 47. El Samrani A, Lartiges B, Villiéras F (2008) Chemical coagulation of combined sewer overflow: heavy metal removal and treatment optimization. Water Res 42(4–5):951–960 48. Bojic AL, Bojic D, Andjelkovic T (2009) Removal of Cu2+ and Zn2+ from model wastewaters by spontaneous reduction–coagulation process in flow conditions. J Hazard Mater 168(2– 3):813–819 49. Chu L et al (2009) Progress and perspectives of sludge ozonation as a powerful pretreatment method for minimization of excess sludge production. Water Res 43(7):1811–1822

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50. Morrison S (1998) Research and application of permeable reactive barriers. US Department of Energy, available at: http://www.gwrtac.org/html 51. Rudzinski W, Guthrie S, Cassidy P (1988) Poly (Schiff base) polymers based on substituted biphenyl. J Polym Sci, Part A: Polym Chem 26(6):1677–1680 52. Van der Heen P (1977) The removal of traces of heavy metals from drinking water and industrial effluent with ion exchanger. In: The regional chemical society meeting 53. Bratkova S et al (2018) Treatment of wastewaters containing Fe, Cu, Zn and as by microbial hydrogen sulfide and subsequent removal of COD, N and P. J Chem Technol Metall 53(2) 54. Trellu C et al (2016) Removal of hydrophobic organic pollutants from soil washing/flushing solutions: a critical review. J Hazard Mater 306:149–174 55. Almeida CCD et al (2014) Application of electrochemical technology for water treatment of Brazilian industry effluents. J Mexican Chem Soc 58(3):276–286 56. Zhang C et al (2013) Three-dimensional electrochemical process for wastewater treatment: a general review. Chem Eng J 228:455–467 57. Cui H et al (2012) Electrochemical removal of fluoride from water by PAOA-modified carbon felt electrodes in a continuous flow reactor. Water Res 46(12):3943–3950 58. Sarioglu M, Akkoyun S, Bisgin T (2010) Inhibition effects of heavy metals (copper, nickel, zinc, lead) on anaerobic sludge. Desalin Water Treat 23(1–3):55–60 59. Fu Y, Viraraghavan T (2001) Fungal decolorization of dye wastewaters: a review. Biores Technol 79(3):251–262 60. Chen Y et al (2005) Enhanced phosphorous biological removal from wastewater—effect of microorganism acclimatization with different ratios of short-chain fatty acids mixture. Biochem Eng J 27(1):24–32 61. Wu Y et al (2012) Biosorption of heavy metal ions (Cu 2+, Mn 2+, Zn 2+, and Fe 3+) from aqueous solutions using activated sludge: comparison of aerobic activated sludge with anaerobic activated sludge. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 168(8):2079–2093 62. Ebeling JM et al (2003) Evaluation of chemical coagulation-flocculation aids for the removal of phosphorous from recirculating aquaculture effluent. Aquacult Eng 29(1):23–42 63. Yan L et al (2012) Characterization of magnetic guar gum-grafted carbon nanotubes and the adsorption of the dyes. Carbohyd Polym 87(3):1919–1924 64. Abdel-Halim E, Al-Deyab SS (2011) Hydrogel from crosslinked polyacrylamide/guar gum graft copolymer for sorption of hexavalent chromium ion. Carbohydr Polym 86(3):1306–1312

Chapter 4

Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

4.1 Major Water Pollutant Various contaminants may be found in the air, water, and wastewater. The concentration and kind of components in water may be affected by the source of contaminants. Some pollutants are quite prevalent in both air and water, but some air pollutants are quantitatively and hazardously distinct from water pollutants; hence, the principal pollutants in both phases are classified individually [1–3].

4.2 Oxidizing Reagents There are several oxidants, solely few are expansively studied for applications in the field of environmental technology. A contrast of the oxidation potentials out of which few of these oxidants are shown in Table 4.1.

4.2.1 Hydroxyl Radical Indirect zonation hydroxyl free radicals, such as ozone oxidation reduction, offer a larger potential for the oxidation of refractory organic molecules. It must be created on the spot. Organic and inorganic contaminants are swiftly degraded by hydroxyl radicals. Many routes have been constructed and square measure commonly classified ozone-based, UV-based exposure contact action, and Fenton reactions, depending on the feedstock. Hydroxyl radicals are very reactive and may efficiently destroy contaminants directly. They can be produced form hydrogen atom or from abstraction of water or the addition of associate in nursing OH ion radical (Eqs. 4.2 and 4.3). The novel OH ion may additionally react with the creation of another radical OH ion © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_4

53

54

4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

Table 4.1 Oxidizing potentials of oxidants normally used for wastewater treatment at 25 °C

Oxidizing reagents

Equation

Fluoride

F2 + 2e− = 2F−

Hydroxyl radical

·OH + H2 O

Ozone

O3 + 2H+ + 2e− = 2.10 O2 + H2 O

Oxygen radical

O(1D) + 2H+ + 2e− = H2 O

H+

Oxidizing potential (V) +

e−

2.87 =

2.33

1.80

Hydrogen peroxide H2 O2 + 2H+ + 2e− 1.76 = 2H2 O (acid)

H2 O2 a stable product (Eq. 4.3). R denotes radical [4, 5]. RH + OH → R + H2 O

(4.1)

R + OH → R(OH)

(4.2)

OH + OH → H2 O2

(4.3)

4.2.2 Ozone O3 Christian Freidrich Schönbein in 1839 discovered the gas and was appointed to its sturdy smell (from the Greek word Ozone: the smell). It’s a robust chemical agent and is extremely reactive. It’s additionally capable of oxidizing inorganic constituents like arsenic, atomic number 25, and iron to create insoluble oxides. The gas decomposition is accelerated by the initiators, specifically anion OH- that ends up in a radical chain reaction mated out by substances which are known as promoters [6, 7].

4.3 Corona Discharge and Ozone Generation 4.3.1 Corona Discharge Before electrical breakdown, there must be sufficient electrical discharge from the surface of the electrodes capable of ionizing the fluid around the discharge electrodes, and the potential gradient must surpass a particular amount of electrical field strength. Due to local short circuiting, sparking/arcing will trigger a breakdown. The geometry,

4.3 Corona Discharge and Ozone Generation

55

the form of the electrodes, the polarity, the gap size, and the ionizing medium all influence the unique attributes of corona discharge (gas, mixture of gases). The performance of corona discharge is controlled by the gas composition, temperature, pressure, type of discharge electrodes, type of discharge current, and polarity of the current/voltage characteristic, in addition to geometry. The relevance of corona discharge and its use in off-gas and wastewater treatment are explained in research. Ionization must produce electrical conductivity in gases, and ionization impact causes corona discharge. An electrical field produces and accelerates free electrons in the gas phase. When charged particles collide with dust particles, more electrons are released. The term “emission of electrons” refers to ion mobility, which plays a vital role in ESPS collection efficiency. In the literature, the classification of corona discharge processes and research into the behavior of various discharge mechanisms are clearly discussed [8–10].

4.3.2 Types of Corona Discharge Positive and negative corona discharges are the two forms of corona discharges that are widely addressed. Different methods and their capacity to remove contaminants from off-gas and waste liquids were examined by Chang et al. [11]. The author examined and highlighted the system’s efficiency, energy needed per unit removal, product reuse, and how the technology is efficiently implemented for pollution management. In electrostatic precipitators, literature [12] and Abdel-Salam et al. [10] examined the space charge density, influence of potential, and corona current characteristics. Negative corona discharge produces negative ions, electrons, and photons, whereas positive corona discharge produces electrons, positive ions, photons, and photoelectrons. The corona behaviors in electrostatic precipitation was also discussed in the literature [2, 13]. The behavior of emission and physical shape/color creation during streaming are used to further classify corona discharge. As described in the literature, positive polarity corona is divided into burst pulse corona, streamer, glow corona, and spark, while negative polarity corona is divided into trickle pulse corona, pulse less corona, and spark. The electron emission process and its impact on the corona process are also defined by the kind of discharge. In both the active and passive zones, several discharge processes contribute to the development of a corona field. Air molecules and particles are ionized by the corona, which then travel to the counter electrodes. The collection efficiency of electrostatic precipitators is directly related to particle migration velocity [14–22].

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4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

4.3.3 Ozone Generation Through Corona Discharge Several researchers looked at the impact of corona current on ozone production under different settings. The ionizing wire’s material and chemistry have a significant impact on ozone formation in electrostatic precipitation. Under the same operating circumstances for positive corona in electrostatic precipitators, ozone production from stainless steel discharge wire is 24 times that of silver wire ionizing electrodes. The input power to electrostatic precipitators is also closely connected to ozone production [22]. When compared to DC and AC corona with equal operating settings, pulsed corona generates a greater ozone concentration. According to writers in the literature, the direction of air flow impacts ozone formation, and the concentration of ozone in the corona reactor is larger for parallel flow than for normal flow [23, 24]. Electronic and ionic collisions are key in the creation of ozone because they dissociate oxygen molecules. Ozone synthesis from pure oxygen is more efficient than from air [25, 26], and it consumes less energy. The influence of gas composition may promote harmful gas formation via side reactions [27]. The influence of gas temperature on the rate of ozone formation from free radicals has been studied in the literature [27]. Ozone synthesis is significantly reduced as gas temperature rises, and ozone to oxygen molecules, as well as other nitrogen oxides, undergo a reversal process. In electrostatic precipitation, Kanazawa et al. [28] and literature [29] found that polluted discharge electrode surfaces create much more ozone than clean wire discharge electrodes. Viner [30] demonstrated how the net rate of ozone generation is affected by oxygen concentration, air relative humidity, current flow, ozone destruction rate, discharge electrode radius, and polarity. The impact of quiet-surface hybrid discharge was compared to surface discharge and silent discharge by Nomoto et al. [31]. For the same applied voltage, the author claims that the ozone production efficiency and concentration rate are substantially higher with the quiet-surface hybrid system than with surface discharge electrodes and silent discharge. Ozone production increases when the applied voltage is raised, but reduces as the residence duration is increased. Ohkubol et al. [32] examined the impact of increasing discharge electrode temperature on ozone creation and concluded that external discharge wire heating reduces ozone generation. The convective heat transfer from the discharge wire to the collecting electrodes is also affected by ionic wind, which has an impact on the ozone reaction process. In their experimental experiments, Fang et al. [33] studied and assessed the influence of several electrode designs (wire–cylinder and cylinder– cylinder electrodes) on ozone formation. They found that wire–cylinder electrodes are more successful in producing ozone at lower applied voltages, but cylinder– cylinder electrodes are more effective at higher applied voltages. The impact of the ferroelectric-pellet barrier on ozone creation in point-plate type ESP was researched by Moon [34] and literature [35, 36], and it was found that the concentration of ozone created is many times greater than without the ferroelectric-pellet barrier. They also said that DC electricity with a negative charge creates greater ion mobility than DC power with a positive charge. Micro discharge has been discovered on the AC

4.3 Corona Discharge and Ozone Generation

57

corona-charge surfaces of ferroelectric-pellet barrier by Junga and Moon [37]. With the same applied high voltage and no pellets, they may create corona discharge twice each half cycle. The plasma reactor has the ability to create more ozone owing to dense discharge from wire and ferroelectric pellets, yet ozone dissociation occurs due to the high temperature. Charges are emitted by discharge wires, and depending on relative permittivity, ferroelectric pellets may store them. The influence of electrical field and potential distribution on ozone formation features was explored by Jenei et al. [38]. Parker et al. [39] explained the mechanism of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) using meshed and plate electrodes and discovered an increasing influence on ozone formation experimentally. They also spoke about the impact of increasing gap spacing on the discharge corona and ozone formation. Based on their experimental findings, Jody [40] concluded that polluted electrodes create greater ozone in ESP owing to back corona in the inter-electrode area. Pekarek et al. [39] studied the amount and placement of TiO2 in the discharge chamber and discovered that it boosted ozone production and yield.

4.3.4 Advantages of Corona Discharge Ozone Generation (i) Increased quantities of ozone are generated more efficiently. (ii) Corona cell life exceeds the life expectancy of any UV bulb when dry air or oxygen is utilized. (iii) Small construction allows generator to be installed in virtually any area— Highest ozone concentration possible of any type of ozone generation. (iv) More cost-effective than UV-ozone generation for large-scale installations. (v) Very less electrical energy is required to produce the same quantity of ozone. (vi) Higher gas phase concentrations mean the handling of lower gas volumes.

4.3.5 Corona Generated with Brush Type Discharge Electrodes Corona discharge is discovered by establishing an electrical field between (thin) discharge wires (discharge electrodes) with negative/positive or variable polarity and an earthed tube serving as a pledge electrode. A high voltage power source is installed in each installation to provide adequate operating voltage to meet the crucial field strength requirements. Corona current begins to flow above this critical field intensity, which may be measured using an ampere meter linked to a high voltage power source. Regions of high field strength are visible by creating a regularly formed (positive corona) or irregularly shaped (negative or alternating corona) blue plume within the variation of corona discharge (started at the corona onset voltage and restricted by the flashing voltage or breakthrough voltage).

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4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

A large number of positively and negatively charged particles are created and drift to the counter-charged electrode during the discharge process. The field strength and particle size will mostly determine how particles move from the passive zone to the counter electrode. By intense ion impact, each particle traveling through this field is released in milliseconds. An electrostatic precipitator’s electrical field may transport up to 108 negatively charged particles per cubic centimeter. A dense aerosol, by contrast, contains around 105 particles per cm3 . Additionally, the Coulomb-force promotes particle mobility. Inertia and friction force cancel out the Coulomb-force. While inertia may be disregarded, Stokes Law regulates counter-action. Coulombforce and Stokes-force are used to quantify the ensuing particle movement. The pace of migration is measured in centimeters per second and ranges from 3 to 20 cm/s on average. The ratio of electrode distance to migration rate vs residence time is used to calculate process performance. The ratio must be lower than that of the precipitator length to the gas velocity.

4.3.6 Characterization of Brush Type Discharge Electrodes A partial brush type discharge electrodes was investigated to characterize the specific design of discharge electrodes under various operation conditions. Investigations were conducted with various diameters of brush type discharge electrodes (partial, complete, and with other various design schemes of brush type discharge electrodes) with various diameters of brushing wires. (i) Ozone Generation During the investigations of partial brush type discharge electrodes, formation of ozone was also observed and quantified as well. Ozone generation at different corona current was monitored to determine optimum process parameters. Effect of air flow on the ozone generation was verified at corona current of 0.1–3 mA as shown in Fig. 4.1 [41]. It shows ozone generation and degradation at specific corona discharge with and without air flow conditions. (ii) Effect of air flow on the ozone generation Ozone formation was detected in batch mode and different air purging modes using fractional brush type discharge electrodes with corona currents ranging from 0.1– 3 mA. Under all operating settings, including batch and varied air purging conditions (0.5, 1, 1.5 and 3 m3 /h), a rising ozone production trend was seen at lower corona currents from 0.1 mA to 0.6 mA. The deterioration trend of ozone was detected from 0.75 mA to 3 mA corona current, as illustrated in Error! There was no reference source identified. (iii) Validation of ozone degradation at increased corona currents At 1–3 mA corona current, the degradation response was dominant. At 3 mA corona current, the emission discharge was strong enough to degrade the created

4.3 Corona Discharge and Ozone Generation

59

Fig. 4.1 Comparison of ozone generation. Mean duration per experiment was 30 min; partial brush type discharge electrode, of 5 mm diameter with 0.075 mm wire radius; investigation at ambient conditions without and with various air purge conditions

ozone. Continuous running of WESP at 3 mA resulted in ozone deterioration, while switching off the power supply resulted in an instantaneous rise in ozone. Ozone generation followed a similar pattern in batch mode and different air purging settings. When the power source was turned off shortly after the highest value of corona current (3 mA), the ozone degradation process slowed and the creation reaction took over, resulting in increased ozone production. For all operation settings, the increase in ozone was measured in both on and off mode. Ozone levels were greater in the off mode than they were during WESP operation. Experimentally documented ozone formation and degradation at different corona current levels as well as in off mode using partial brush discharge electrodes with and without air flow. (iv) Ozone production with whole brush type discharge electrodes The outcome of full brush type discharge electrodes for continuous corona current was found, and long-term ozone creation measurements were recorded to maximize ozone production with unique brush type discharge electrode design (500 mm). Investigations were carried out to see how different continuous corona currents affected ozone formation over time. Experiments with entire brush type discharge electrodes were conducted at different corona currents such as 0.05, 0.1, and 0.35 mA for 60 min under comparable applied circumstances. Corona currents of 0.05 mA, 0.1 mA, and 0.35 mA corresponded to applied voltages of 12, 13, and 14 kV, respectively. Maximum ozone concentrations were measured during a 10 min period. After 20 min, all corona current data showed a small drop in ozone concentrations.

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4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

The impact of a simultaneous degradation process (decay reaction) on produced ozone was a decrease in ozone concentration after 20 min. A little deterioration and dissociation of ozone may occur after 20 min due to accumulated corona (dense). The concentration of ozone produced at 0.1 mA corona current was substantially identical to that produced at 0.35 mA corona current. Although the energy used per unit of ozone produced at 0.35 mA was greater than that consumed at 0.1 mA, the energy consumed per unit of ozone was lower. With an active length of 1.5 m of discharge electrodes, the best corona current for generating ozone was 0.1 mA. The experiment was carried out at constant applied voltages of 12, 13, and 14 KV, respectively, with corona currents of 0.05, 0.1, and 0.35 Ma. At increasing corona current, the mechanism of ozone formation was explored using entire brush type discharge electrodes (5, 0.15 mm) in batch and different air purge modes (0–4 mA). With the unique design of full brush discharge electrodes, increased ozone was found when corona current was increased from 0.05 to 0.5 mA under batch and air purge conditions. At all operating circumstances, a decreasing trend of ozone was detected above 0.5 mA corona current (batch, air purge). The concentration of ozone decreased with increased corona current, and the trend persisted to a very low concentration of ozone under all operating settings. Under comparable operating settings, ozone production trends with full brush discharge electrodes were almost identical to those found with partial brush discharge electrodes. With air purging of 0.5 m3 /h and enhanced air purging (1.2 and 2 m3 /h) modes, ozone concentration was somewhat boosted and increased. Ozone production was not significantly larger with 0.5m3 /h, and beyond 0.5 mA corona current, a very similar declining trend of ozone was seen in batch mode and different air flow modes. Even at optimal corona current of 0.5 mA, a decreasing trend of ozone production was seen with improved air purging circumstances (2, 3 m3 /h) compared to batch and less air purging settings with full brush type discharge electrode (5 mm diameter, 0.15 mm wire diameter). It was also discovered that the rate of ozone degradation with increased air purging was slower for 1, 2, 3, and 4 mA than for batch and lower air flow settings. Due to dilution of created ozone, lower ozone with increased air purifying was predicted. Under varied operating circumstances, increased corona current resulted in increased ozone deterioration. When the high voltage power supply was turned off, the immediate impact on ozone creation was detected, as there was an increase in ozone concentration. After this increased ozone amount, a reduction in ozone was seen, and within 5 min, the ozone concentration had dropped to a very low level (4–10 ppm). The experimentally recorded data led to the conclusion that ozone was dissociated at higher corona currents and that the system might be optimized at lower corona currents using the specified test facilities. (v) Comparison of ozone generation for partial and complete brush type discharge electrodes Experiments were conducted to determine the influence of brush discharge active duration on the generation of ozone. Ozone production was detected using partial and total discharge electrodes at the same operating conditions and for the same

4.3 Corona Discharge and Ozone Generation

61

Table 4.2 Experimentally observed corona current values with partial and complete brush type discharge electrodes at 2.9 M3 /H mode and percent increase of corona current in terms of ma difference is calculated at various applied voltage kV

I (mA) 700 mm

I (mA) 1500 mm

% Difference

14

0.25

0.5

50

15

0.4

1.2

66.6

16

0.75

2.35

68

17

1.25

4.25

70

18

3

5

40

period (3 min) for a given corona current. With partial and entire brush discharge electrodes, ozone production and degradation patterns were almost identical. Even under diverse operating circumstances, maximum ozone formation was reported at 0.45–0.5 mA corona current with partial and total brush discharge electrodes (batch and air purging modes). The partial brush discharge electrode was adjusted for ozone formation at 0.45–0.5 mA corona current. (vi) Comparison of current/voltage curves and ozone generation with water circulation Experimental investigations were conducted under various water circulation; various air purging and batch modes with 5 mm diameter of partial brush discharge electrode under identical operation conditions. It was experimentally observed that water circulation showed an effect on current/voltage curves while geometric parameters were same. Increase in water circulation and air purging caused a decrease in corona current at lower applied voltage (10–15 kV) and increased over range of 15–17 kV as compared to batch mode or without water circulation. Comparatively increased corona current at 17 kV was observed with 70 l/h of water circulation and above this corona current, short circuiting was observed and tripped the system. Continuous sparking was observed above 17 kV applied voltage and hence process was limited at 17 kV applied voltage (Table 4.2). To compare with ozone production in batch mode under identical geometry and operating parameters, a trend in ozone generation was detected with different water circulation conditions and air purging modes. In comparison to less water circulation and low air purge circumstances, ozone formation was reduced with increased water circulation and improved air purge conditions. Ozone formation was best at 0.5 mA corona current, while ozone dissociation was seen at higher corona currents under all circumstances. Ozone created by water circulation was also compared to different water circulation circumstances, and it was inferred from the data that ozone production at 70 l/h seems to be lower than at 20 l/h. As water circulation increased, ozone absorption increased as well, resulting in lower ozone levels at the electrostatic precipitators’ outlet. It was also discovered that when water circulation was doubled, the ozone peak was measured at 1 mA corona current instead of 0.45 mA. Ozone was also carried from the gas phase to the circulating water.

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4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

4.4 Reaction Mechanism Various brush type discharge electrodes were investigated to determine the current/voltage behavior at specific applied conditions. Effect of corona current on ozone formation was also investigated. Remarkable ozone concentration was recorded. Investigations were conducted at ambient conditions and 21% of oxygen was utilized for ozone formation. For simplification of modeling, it is also important that concentration of oxygen remains constant to give access to a first-order reaction as proposed by Chapman. He postulated in 1930 the formation and destruction of ozone in atmosphere under sun-irradiation. Ozone formation mechanism was studied to evaluate the reaction kinetics. Experimental data was used to fit ozone formation with table curve 2D program. Fit data representing the various kinetic equations was discussed in Table 4.3. Various rate constant and equation parameters were also compiled. The results are summarized in Table 4.3. This intermediate reaction corresponds to a typical equation containing X and Y. Coordinates (mA, O3 ) with two rate constants having technical background and explained as Table 4.3 Shows various fit rate equation determined with table curve 2D program for ozone generation Brush specs

Mode

Rate eq

R2

A

B

C

D

8 mm (0.15)

Batch

8069

0.977

49.0

2311.9

4.18

0.91

8071

0.97

2.48

3026.5

2.92

1.39

8069

0.975

5.77

1451.4

4.36

0.6

8071

0.975

3.50

1429.6

4.43

0.6

8071

0.937

5.39

960.86

0.45

0.4

8069

0.79

66.3

908.66

0.67

0.6

8135

0.74

260

3914.6

1.38

1.3

8071

0.98

1.17

2440.0

4.82

1.9

8069

0.98

8.44

2221.3

5.58

1.1

8071

0.983

2.67

3581.7

7.5

0.4

8069

0.983

2.83

45,861

0.48

5.9

8069

0.98

−4.13

947.2

1.05

1.05

8129

0.95

−35.2

989.4

0.91

0.9

8071

0.966

0.79

2300.4

8.9

1.1

8129

0.752

−145

3669.3

1.37

1.3

8069

0.977

−1.14

18,408.

0.54

4.8

8129

0.978

15.3

17,701

0.56

4.7

8069

0.82

37.5

786.79

1.56

8130

0.97

104

9.76

1.09

Air purge Air + water 6 mm (0.15)

Batch

Air Air, water 5 mm (0.15)

Batch Air Air, water

4.4 Reaction Mechanism

63

Table 4.4 Rate equations determined with table curve 2D program for ozone generation. Various parameters for rate equation are also demonstrated Brush dia. (mm)

Wire dia. (mm)

8

(0.15)

6

5

(0.15)

(0.15)

y=

Mode

Most fit equation

K1

K2

Batch

8069

2311.9

4.18

Air

8069

1451.4

4.36

Air + water

8069

908.66

0.67

Batch

8069

2221.3

5.58

Air

8069

45,861

0.48

Air + water

8069

947.2

1.05

Batch

8071

2300.4

8.96

Air

8069

18,408

0.54

Air + water

8069

786.79

1.56

   ab exp(−b(x − d)) − exp(−c(x − d)) c−b

(4.4)

Above, Eq. (4.4) was generated from table curve program best representing the ozone formation with applied corona current. Ozone (ppm) is plotted on x-axis and corona current (mA/m) is on y-axis, while b and c correspond to k1 and k2 , respectively (Table 4.4). Corona discharge with high energy photons (5.1 eV) can dissociate oxygen molecules to atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen has affinity with molecular oxygen and immediately forms ozone. As we know, ozone is not a stable compound and has short life. Kinetically speaking corona discharge initially produces the excited oxygen and ozone species at a specific rate and rate of reaction purely depend upon the intensity of corona current. k1

k2

3O2 + hv → 2O3 + hv → 3O2

(4.5)

The rate equation may be transferred into terms of oxygen and ozone. C O3 =

 C A O k1  −k1 (I −I0 ) e − e−k2 (I −I0 ) k2 − k1

(4.6)

k1 and k2 : [m/mA] vI, I0 : [mA/m] Equation (4.6) represents the ozone formation in the wet electrostatic precipitator under specific corona current for batch, air purge and air plus water circulation mode.

64

4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

4.5 Advance Oxidation of Pollutant with Corona Discharge Advance oxidation processes are classified on the basis of the medium used for oxidation of the pollutants in wastewater and air. The use of UV radiation/light and technology, UV radiation/light and environment, technology are interrelated and extraordinarily versatile with respect to their future development potential. Therefore, the use of UV radiation in diverse applications especially in waste treatment represents the basic advanced technologies of twenty-first century. Advanced oxidation technologies (AOTs) focus on the reaction mechanisms and engineering concepts of technologies by using UV radiation as a selective reagent for the cleavage of chemical bounds and hence for the destruction of unwanted chemicals or microorganism [4] (Table 4.5). Advanced oxidation processes with UV-radiation and combination of UVradiation with oxidizing reagents like ozone or hydrogen peroxide are listed in Table 4.6. Possible combination of processes is illustrated. In the past two decades, hydroxyl radicals have also been employed to clean water and air by oxidizing contaminants. Hydroxyl radical is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly industrial chemical that is widely employed in the water treatment sector. Glaze et al. (1987) proposed advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), and he expressed great interest in the scientific community and advocated the advancement of its use. The dilapidation of refractory in different effluent or dirty water in which physical, chemical, or biological approaches are unsuitable is a suitable use of AOP. In this technique, two oxidation steps are entangled. The formation of Table 4.5 Methods used for water treatment and technical specification Process

Technical specification

Mechanical process

A process in which the wastewater is purified by some mechanical means is called mechanical process. Mechanical means may be grits/meshed, screen, scrapers, grill, flotation, sedimentation, settling, coagulation, adsorption, desorption, filtration etc.

Biological processes A process in which bacteria is a worked as process activator. Commonly used process are-Anaerobic and Aerobic activated process Physical processes

A process in which physically separates the pollutants. Most commonly used processes are filteration, microfilteration etc.

Thermal processes

Processes are temperature and heat based. Processes are crystallization. Disinfection, absorption, evaporation and distillation

Chemical processes

A process in which is treated by the use of chemical and a chemical change is observed. Chemical processes are further classified on the bases of process activity. Incineration, combustion, disinfection, neutralization, ion exchange, chemical oxidation and advance oxidation [photochemical oxidation] as well. Advance oxidation processes are further classified on the basis of medium used for oxidation of the pollutants in wastewater and air

4.6 Wastewater Treatment Corona Discharge and Degradation of Various … Table 4.6 Photochemical advanced oxidation processes used and available in the market

Source of process

Process name

UV

Photolysis

UV/H2 O2

UV-peroxide process

UV/O3

Ozonolysis

UV/O3 /H2 O2

PEROXON-process/ technology

Fe2 + /H2 O2

FENTON-Reaction/Process

UV/Fe2+ /H2 O2

Photo-Fenton process

UV/TiO2

Photo catalysis

65

hydroxyl radicals is the first step, in which electrons are transferred from a lessening expert to an oxidizing operator. In the presence of an unpaired electron, these radicals are temperamental and exceedingly receptive. The consumption of supplemental response by radicals with the goal mixes will follow this curve. Oxidizing things from these AOPs oxidize natural and inorganic materials until thermodynamically lasting oxidation items are formed. In other cases of natural irritant reactions, the BOD and COD levels in wastewater are significantly reduced, with carbon dioxide and water being the decisive items following complete oxidation or mineralization. Compound process circumstances result in rarelobtained by electric release (dielectric hindrance release, i.e., beat crown release), resulting in hydroxyl radicals (OH), ozone (O3 ), hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), nuclear oxygen (O), and hydroperoxyl radicals (HO2 ).

4.6 Wastewater Treatment Corona Discharge and Degradation of Various Pollutants The wet tube-type electrostatic precipitator may be applied in wastewater treatment too. Investigations showed a great potential in WESP to eliminate hazardous contaminants from wastewater. Experiments were conducted to investigate the elimination of various hazardous constituents (acetone, phenol, EDTA) commonly present in wastewater. Degradation of acetone and mineralization of ethylene di-amine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) and phenol was recorded. Degradation and mineralization of various constituents are discussed.

4.6.1 Acetone Degradation Acetone-contaminated water was treated in a WESP, and acetone degradation was measured. UV-radiation technology was also used to compare the deterioration trend (low-pressure mercury lamp). Acetone dilapidation was studied using a wet tubetype electrostatic precipitator and a low-pressure mercury lamp. During the treatment,

66

4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

the pH was measured and the difference was recorded as an indication of acetone chemical conversion. Experiments were carried out to identify the mechanism of acetone degradation in a rainy electrostatic precipitator and irradiation with a very low-pressure Hg and under DC corona discharge (WSEP) as well as UV-irradiation, resulting in TOC depletion. The development of acidic intermediates is indicated by a change in pH. The creation of acetic acid, formic acid, intermediates, and other compounds from acetone is indicated by a drop in pH. Kim et al. discovered a change in pH. Finally, a growing pH value during operation shows that acidic intermediates are being degraded further to carbon dioxide.

4.6.2 Mineralization of EDTA EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) is a complex-forming organic chemical that has a broad range of uses in industry. This chemical is not entirely removed from wastewater and continues to harm the environment via waste streams. There is little information on using an electrostatic precipitator to degrade complicated compounds like ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) from wastewater. The capacity of the wet tube-type electrostatic precipitator to degrade EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) under ambient circumstances at different applied voltages was investigated. EDTA mineralization was discovered during WESP operation. At varied applied voltages and ambient operating conditions, the trend of EDTA depletion was observed. With Fe (II) and Fe (III) at varied applied voltages, EDTA degradation was observed. This study also looked at the brush discharge characteristics (mentioned previously), the influence of increasing current/voltage characteristics on EDTA cleavage, and the optimization of operational settings. The experiment also looked at the influence of Fe (II) and Fe (III) on the dissociation of EDTA at different pH levels. Under specified air and water flow conditions, brush discharge electrodes with an active length of 500 mm produce a noteworthy and required corona current at an applied voltage of 15 kV. Corona current rises as the applied voltage rises, as mentioned in previous chapters. While employing sulfuric acid, keep the pH of the EDTA solution at 3.

4.6.3 Solution Preparation, Sampling, and Results 0.5 g/l of EDTA and 0.05 molar Na2 SO4 was dissolved in de-ionized water. Chemicals dissolved perfectly. EDTA solution was circulated in tube-type electrostatic precipitator and effect of corona discharge on the degradation of EDTA was studied at various operation conditions. At pH 5.5: a suitable water falling film was developed and required water flow rate was adjusted through flow meter and water circulation was adjusted at 40–70 l/h from

4.6 Wastewater Treatment Corona Discharge and Degradation of Various …

67

top, and air (0.5 m3 /h) was purged from bottom of WESP. The system was operated at various applied voltage and samples were collected on hourly basis from circulation tank (discussed in design and development) and preserved in a refrigerator. Samples were analyzed with TOC analyzer. TOC: There was no remarkable change in TOC. Slow degradation was observed at pH = 5.5. A remarkable color change was recorded. Results were also reproduced but no major degradation recorded. HPLC: Samples were analyzed to determine the degradation of EDTA treated with wet tube-type electrostatic precipitators. Dissociation and mineralization of EDTA was recorded. At pH 2.5–3 and with 0.98 g/l of H2 O2 : Various intermediates formed from EDTA at pH 3 are 2-propane, acetone, ethyl 9, 9-diformylnona-2, 4, 6, 8-tetrae benzene, 1-ethoxy-2-fluoro-4(1H)pyrimidinone, 2, 3-dihydro-2-thi, benzene acetic acid, alpha-crotonitrile, butane nitrile, etc. At pH 3 and with 0.98 g/l of H2 O2 (plus 1 g/10 l of TiO2 ): Mineralization of EDTA was recorded and formation of intermediates at various process conditions was discussed separately. Various intermediates determined at pH = 3 are 2-propane, acetone, s-tri azolo (1, 5-a) pyridine, 8-methyle-2 benzene, azido- phenyl azide, DDihomoestra-1, hexacholoro-benzene, benzene ethamine, 3-choloro-5-phenyle1, 2, 4 Tri-azine. Literature described the degradation mechanism of EDTA from the effluents treated with UV-radiation at different operation conditions. Several authors also discussed the effect of peroxide and pH on EDTA degradation. Chitra studied the combined effect of Ultrasonic process with Fenton and hydrogen peroxide. He observed higher degradation rate of EDTA and formation of acidic intermediates. Literature focused on de-complexing and oxidation of different chelates with electrochemical processes. This pretreatment process enhances the efficiency of biological processes. The WESP is capable of emitting UV radiation and produces oxidizing reagents. UV radiation and oxidizing reagents (O3 ) directly attacked and reacted with EDTA molecules to disintegrate and cleave complex and hazardous chemicals (Table 4.7). UV-radiation recorded at various operations conditions (kV/mA) with brush discharge electrode. Data was recorded with spectrophotometer (UV-160 A). Table 4.7 Various chemicals, concentration and volume of solution used for experiments Chemical

Ci (mol/l)

M (g/mol)

VR (l)

Mi (g)

Potassium iodide (KI)

0.60

166.01

4

398.44

Potassium iodate (KIO3 )

0.10

214.00

4

85.60

Borax Na2 B4 O7 *10 H2 O 0.01

381.37

4

15.26

68

4 Power of Corona Discharge and Its Application in Water Treatment

4.6.4 Phenol Degradation and Mineralization Phenol is a chemical that is difficult to degrade and persists in waste effluents. The existing technologies are expensive and need significant financial commitment. With WESP, the process of phenol degradation was examined, and mineralization was seen along with little phenol decomposition. The breakdown process of phenol with hydroxyl radicals was also studied by Cheng et al., as indicated in reaction Eq. (74). The influence of wavelength on pollutant oxidation has been studied extensively in the literature. In comparison, total organic carbon (TOC) decreased rapidly in the first three operating hours, with a downward trend. The effect of titanium dioxide (0.05 g/l) on phenol degradation was also investigated, and no significant changes in TOC were seen under identical operating circumstances. At the indicated TiO2 content, no photolysis impact was observed. The concentration of TiO2 in the phenol water combination may have been greater than required. The wet electrostatic precipitator works in a moderate environment. The system runs at a functioning voltage of 17 kV and a corona current of 1.2 mA. The phenol solution went from colorless to blackbrown in hue. The hue of industrial wastewater containing phenol changed from light brown to black-brown after treatment in a wet tube type electrostatic precipitator. A falling film and corona discharge from discharge electrodes are also visible in the image. After every 4 h, samples were taken.

4.6.5 Color Observation For the experiments, 4.5 g of phenol were combined with 10 ltr of de-ionized water. The phenol water combination started off white, but as it progressed, it became light brown, then dark brown, and eventually brown-blackish. The titanium dioxide phenol water combination was white-turbid, and the color of the phenol solution swiftly changed from brownish to green brownish, and eventually brown-blackish solution was formed throughout operation. Water containing phenol components was colorless before to WESP treatment and dark brown thereafter. During the operation of the tubular corona reactor, a high-pressure liquid chromatograph (HPLC) was utilized to analyze the samples and detect the intermediates (reaction products) from phenol degradation. The compounds of the phenolic family were identified, as well as a few unknown chemicals that will be investigated further.

References

69

Table 4.8 Shows degradation of phenol during operation of the wet electrostatic precipitator. Physical and chemical changes are summarized Time Volume Phenol index (mg/l) X. Phenol index (%) Phenol index (g/5 l) Color 0

5

1079.0

0.0

5.3950

Light brown

12

5

343.6

68.2

1.7180

Blake-brown

4.6.6 Phenolic Industrial Wastewater Treatment Through Corona Discharge Industrial wastewater containing high concentration of phenol was also treated through wet electrostatic precipitation to investigate the power of corona technology and its limitations. The wet electrostatic precipitator was operated with 0.5 m3 /h air purge conditions and at 15.5–16.5 kV applied voltage. The process was operated over a long time. Degradation and mineralization of phenol was observed in terms of phenol index. The phenol index was high at zero time and a decreased index was recorded after 12–14 h of continuous treatment with WESP. The degradation data is shown in Table 4.8. Recorded data shows a decrease of phenol index after a specific time at specific corona current. Investigated and recorded data show a remarkable decrease in phenol contents in wastewater. Table 4.8 shows the decrease of the phenol index from 1079 to 343.6 which corresponds to a decrease of nearly 68% of phenol contents (5.4–1.7 g). Color of wastewater was changed from light brown to black or brown black color, and similar color change was recorded with phenol solution prepared at laboratory. The wet electrostatic precipitator equipped with brush type discharge electrode is capable of disintegrating and mineralizing the phenol family constituents from wastewater [41].

References 1. Siebenhofer M (1991) Off-gas purification, 9th edn. Aerosolabscheidung durch Ionisationswäscher. Chemie Ingenieur Technik 63:904–910 2. Parker KR (1997) Applied electrostatic precipitation. Chapman and Hall, London, U.K. 3. Perry RH, Green DW (eds) (1997) Perry’s chemical engineers’ handbook, 7th edn. McGrawHill 4. Seeger H (1999) The history of German waste water treatment. Eur Water Manag 2(5) 5. Oppenlander T (2002) Photochemical purification of water and air. Wiley-VCH, pp 5–6 6. Tanaka K, Abe K, Hisanaga T (1996) Photo catalytic water treatment on immobilized TiO2 combined with ozonation. J Photochem Photobiol A: Chem 101(1):85–87 7. Yan K (2008) Electrostatic precipitation (11th International conference on Electrostatic Precipitation). Springer 8. Chang JS, Lawless PA, Yamamoto T (1991) Corona discharge processes. IEEE Trans Plasma Sci 19(6):1152–1166 9. Nakano M, Mizuno A, Abdel-Salam (2007) Corona-induced pressures, potentials, fields and currents in electrostatic precipitator configurations. J Phys D: Appl Phys 40(7):1919–1926

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10. Abdel-Salam M, Gabr (2003) Characteristics of corona and silent discharges as influenced by geometry of the discharge reactor. J Phys D: Appl Phys 3:252–260 11. Chang J-S (2001) Recent development of plasma pollution control technology: a critical review. Sci Technol Adv Mater 2(3–4):571– 576 12. Gunenc MV (2007) Enhanced charging sieving electrostatic precipitator. Thesis 44–79 13. Nicole and Technical note: Performance of a personal electrostatic precipitator particle sampler. Aerosol Sci Technol 36:162–165 14. Glor M, Schwenzfeuer K (2005) Direct ignition tests with brush discharges. J Electrostat 63(6):463–468 15. Tamus Z, Kiss I, Szedenik N, Keindl M (2009) Effective method for measuring the energy of propagating brush discharges. J Electrostat 67:267–270 16. Zevenhoven CAP (1999) Uni-polar field charging of particles: effects of particle conductivity and rotation. J Electrostat 46(1):1–12 17. Huang S-H, Chen C-C (2003) Loading characteristics of a miniature wire-plate electrostatic precipitator. Aerosol Sci Technol 37(2):109–121 18. Kurodaa Y, Kawadaa Y, Takahashia T, Eharaa Y, Itoa T, Zukeranb A, Konob Y, Yasumoto K (2003) Effect of electrode shape on discharge current and performance with barrier discharge type electrostatic precipitators. J Electrostat 57:407–415 19. Brocilo D, Podlinski J, Chang JS, Mizeraczyk J, Findlay RD (2008) Electrode geometry effects on the collection efficiency of submicron and ultra-fine dust particles in spike-plate electrostatic precipitators. J Phys: Conf Ser 142(1):1–6 20. Talaie MR, Taheri M, Fathikaljahi J (2001) A new method to evaluate the voltage/current characteristics applicable for a single-stage electrostatic precipitator. J Electrostat 53(3):221– 233 21. Mischkulnig G (2004) Enhanced corona discharge using innovative rigid discharge electrodes (RDE). ICESP 1–12 22. Abdel-Salam M, Mizuno A, Shimizu K (1997) Ozone generation as influenced by gas flow in corona reactors. J Phys D: Appl Phys 30:864–870 23. Yehia A, Abdel-Salam M, Mizuno A (2000) On assessment of ozone generation in dc coronas. J Phys D: Appl Phys 33:831–835 24. Guti´errez-Tapia C (1998) Dynamics of Ozone generation in a silent oxygen discharge. IEEE Trans Plasma Sci 26(4):1357–1362 25. Yanallah K, Pontiga F, Fern´andez-Rueda A, Castellanos A, Belasri A (2008) Ozone generation by negative corona discharge: the effect of joule heating. J Phys D: Appl Phys 41:195–206 26. Kogelschatz U (1998) Ozone generation from oxygen and air: discharge physics and reaction mechanism. Ozone: Sci Eng 4(10):367–378 27. Hensel K, Machala Z, Tardiveau P (2009) Capillary micro-plasmas for ozone generation. Eur Phys J Appl Phys 47(2):22813-P1-P5 28. Kanazawa S, Ohkubo T, Nomoto Y, Adachi T, Chang JS (1997) Simultaneous measurements of wire electrode surface contamination and corona discharge characteristics in an air-cleaning electrostatic precipitator. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 3:279–285 29. Kanazawa S, Ohkubo T, Nomoto Y, Adachi T, Chang JS (1993) contamination of the discharging electrode in an air-cleaning electrostatic precipitator. Ind Appl Soc Annu Meet 1870–1874 30. Viner AS (1992) Ozone generation in DC-energized electrostatic precipitators. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 28(3) 31. Nomoto Y, Ohkubo T, Kanazawa S, Adachi T (1995) Improvement of ozone yield by a silentsurface hybrid discharge ozonizer. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 31(6):1458–1462 32. Ohkubol T, Hamasaki S, Nomoto Y, Chang JS, Adachi T (1988) The effect of corona wire heating on the ozone generation in an air cleaning electrostatic precipitator. Ind Appl Soc Annu Meet, IEEE 1647–165 33. Fang Z, Qiu Y, Sun Y, Wang H, Edmund K (2008) Experimental study on discharge characteristics and ozone generation of Dielectric barrier discharge in a cylinder–cylinder reactor and a wire–cylinder reactor. J Electrostat 66:421–426

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34. Moon J-D (2006) A wire-to-wire type non-thermal plasma reactor with ferroelectric pellet barrier. J Electrostat 64:699–705 35. Moon J-D (2007) Effective corona discharge and ozone generation from a wire-plate discharge system with a slit dielectric barrier. J Electrostat 65:660–666 36. Moon J-D, Geum S-T (2008) Discharge and ozone generation characteristics of a ferroelectricball/mica-sheet barrier. J Electrostat 56(5):335–341 37. Junga J-S, Moon J-D (2007) Corona discharge and ozone generation characteristics of a wireplate discharge system with a glass-fiber layer. J Electrostat 660–666 38. Jenei I, Kiss P, Kiss E (2008) Development of ozone generator by modification of the field distribution. J Phys: Conf Ser 142:1–4 39. Park S, Moon J, Lee S, Shin S (2006) Effective ozone generation utilizing a meshed-plate electrode in a dielectric-barrier discharge type ozone generator. J Electrostat 64(5):275–282 40. Jody (1994) Ozone production in electrostatic air cleaner with contaminated electrode by IEEE Trans Ind Appl 30(2):370–376 41. Application of Corona Discharge in Off-gas and Wastewater Treatment, Effect of Electrode Geometry on Performance, Muhammad Suleman Tahir, university of Technology Graz, Austria March 2011 42. Yehia A, Mizuno A, Takashima K (2000) on the characteristics of the corona discharge in a wire-duct reactor. J Phys D: Appl Phys 33:2807–2814 43. Takayama M, Ebihara K, Stryczewska H, Ikegami T, Gyoutoku Y, Kubo K, Tachibana M (2006) Ozone generation by dielectric barrier discharge for soil sterilization. Thin Solid Films 396–399 44. Chang C-L, Bai H (2000) Effects of some geometric parameters on the electrostatic precipitator efficiency at different operation indexes. Aerosol Sci Technol 33:228–238 45. Abdel-Sattar S, Singer H (1991) Electrical conditions in wire-duct electrostatic precipitators. J Electrostat 26(1):1–20 46. Chang JS, Kelly AJ, Crowley JM (eds) (1995) Handbook of electrostatic processes. New York, Dekker 47. Suarasana I, Ghizdavu L, Ghizdavu I, Budu S, Dascalescu L (2002) Experimental characterization of multi-point corona discharge devices for direct ozonization, of liquids. J Electrostat 54:207–214

Chapter 5

Wastewater Generation and Photo Bioreactors

5.1 Wastewater Generation Source, Characteristics, and Its Pollutants Profile There are two kinds of wastewater: black water and gray water. Gray water is linked with the residual wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundry, whereas black water is associated with toilet waste. A flowchart of several wastewater sources is shown in Fig. 5.1. By settling out particles and allowing room for floating scum to be kept, the septic tank provides significant treatment for both kinds of wastewater. Water is released from the septic tank to the absorption field that is quite clear but not clean [1]. When wastewater enters the soil profile, it requires further treatment. Untreated or inadequately treated wastewater contains biological pollutants that have been linked to illness. Furthermore, wastewater is unsafe to drink, and dumping it directly into the environment (on the ground or into a water body) may cause health and safety issues. After all, this water is part of the water cycle and will ultimately end up as a source of our drinking water [1, 2]. To ensure human and environmental health and safety, wastewater must be appropriately handled. The wastewater treatment process is shown in Fig. 5.2 [25].

5.1.1 Characteristics of Wastewater There are many characteristics of wastewater but some of them are discussed here: (i) Temperature Temperature is the important factor in wastewater because the temperature changes in wastewater can distress the relaxing rates, dissolved oxygen levels, and also the organic action. The temperature of wastewater is very essential in many wastewater operations like sedimentation tanks and recirculating filters [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_5

73

74

5 Wastewater Generation and Photo Bioreactors

Fig. 5.1 Different sources of wastewater

Fig. 5.2 Schematic of general water recycling mechanism

(ii) Color The color of wastewater containing is gray because it contains dissolved oxygen (DO) while black colored wastewater contains no dissolved oxygen because of foul odor, known as septic. In these colors, many problems are present [1]. In gray, there is no problem indicated yet. In red, blood or other industrial wastes are indicated. In green and yellow, industrial wastes are not penetrating. In brown or other soil color, surface runoff into effluent is indicated [2]. In black, septic conditions and other industrial flows are indicated [3].

5.1 Wastewater Generation Source, Characteristics, and Its Pollutants Profile

75

(iii) Odor Domestic wastewater has a musty odor. Bubbling of gas and foul odor may designate industrial wastes and anaerobic (septic) circumstances. So, odor is also an important characteristic of wastewater.

5.1.2 Wastewater Management Wastewater management involves a wide range of efforts that encourage effective and liable water use, treatment disposal and also encourage the protection and reestablishment of watersheds. (i) Reuse Some relatively clean wastewater can be reused without treatment. Gray water is wastewater, which is generated by washing, laundry, and bathing (not from toilets) [2, 4]. Almost 50–80% of domestic wastewater can be reused for irrigation or flushing toilets. (ii) Recycle Wastewater can be treated (on-site or off-site) and recycled for nondrinking purposes. Closed loop treatment systems are often used to capture, treat, and recycle wastewater on-site [5]. Wastewater reclamation involves treating the wastewater and using it for a different purpose. (iii) Discharge Wastewater is transported to (on-site or off-site) treatment facility, treated, and then discharged into water body. These treated can be discharged and reused for watering in gardens and other washing purposes [4].

5.1.3 Motivational Factors for Recycle/Reuse Due to the liberation of treated/untreated wastewater in the environment, many environmental problems arise that can damage human health. So, by recycling the wastewater properly, we can protect our environment. When we reuse the wastewater for irrigation, then the nutrients present in wastewater can support the growth of plants [6]. There are a few motivational factors for wastewater recycling: • Possibilities to enhance constrained water sources. • Opportunities to accomplish in-site wastewater sources.

76

5 Wastewater Generation and Photo Bioreactors

• Infrastructure costs, including overall treatment can be minimized. • Discharges of treated/untreated wastewater can be reduced or eliminated into environment. Recycling of water can be a tremendous addition to current water resources, particularly in arid/semi-arid climatic areas [6, 7]. Reuse of wastewater are considered as a method of water resource management.

5.1.4 Industrial Wastewater Pollutants In the environment of water pollution, industrial wastewater is the most important source of pollution. In the past few decades, a large amount of industrial wastewater was discharged into streams, ponds, and seaside areas [8]. This type of pollution is a serious problem which is also imposed adverse effects to human’s life as well as ecology.

5.1.5 Types of Industrial Wastewater Industrial wastewater has many types based on different trades and pollutants. Each industry creates its own arrangement of pollutants. Generally, industrial wastewater can be distributed into two main types, i.e., inorganic and organic industrial wastes. Figure 5.3 shows different types of industrial wastewater along with treatment process [26].

Fig. 5.3 Flow chart showing steps in industrial wastewater treatment processes

5.1 Wastewater Generation Source, Characteristics, and Its Pollutants Profile

77

(i) Inorganic Industrial Wastewater Pollution Wastewater is created in this part as a result of the coal and steel industries, industrial companies, and metal surface processing industries (electroplating plants). This sort of wastewater has a lot of suspended particles, which may be killed by sedimentation. Adding metal or iron salts, action agents, and a few types of organic polymers to the side of action is often suggested. Assume that a large volume of water is used to separate coal from dead rock, and that this water includes a tremendous number of rock and coal particles, referred to as coal laundry water [7, 8]. Furthermore, by removing both rock and coal particles during the sedimentation and floatation process, this coal wash water may be recycled. (ii) Organic Industrial Wastewater Pollution Chemical industries that primarily use organic substances for chemical reactions, pharmaceutical factories, tanneries factories, leather factories, textile factories, paper manufacturing industries, synthetic detergents, organic dye stuff, glue and adhesive industries, and other industries produce this type of wastewater [5]. The quality of wastewater from pharmaceutical enterprises, for example, varies greatly due to the wide range of fundamental raw materials, operating methods, and waste products. Water substances include natural and man-made solvent extraction residues, used nutrient solutions, and a variety of other organics [8, 9]. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels typically range from 5000 to 15000 mg/L. However, the biological oxygen demand (BOD) concentration is minimal. The BOD/COD ratio is less than 30%, indicating that wastewater is poorly biodegradable. Such wastewater has a foul odor and a high pH, necessitating a powerful pretreatment procedure, followed by a biological treatment process with a lengthy reaction time [9]. Chemical industries that primarily use organic substances for chemical reactions, pharmaceutical factories, tanneries factories, leather factories, textile factories, paper manufacturing industries, synthetic detergents, organic dye stuff, glue and adhesive industries, and other industries produce this type of wastewater [5]. The quality of wastewater from pharmaceutical enterprises, for example, varies greatly due to the wide range of fundamental raw materials, operating methods, and waste products. Water components include natural and manufactured solvent extraction residues, utilized nutrient solutions, and a variety of other organics [8, 9]. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels typically range from 5000 to 15,000 mg/L. However, the biological oxygen demand (BOD) concentration is minimal. The BOD/COD ratio is less than 30%, indicating that wastewater is poorly biodegradable. Because such wastewater has a foul odor and a high pH, it requires a powerful pretreatment procedure, followed by a biological treatment process with a lengthy reaction time [9].

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5 Wastewater Generation and Photo Bioreactors

5.2 How Water Pollutants Can Be Measured Water pollution can be measured by three methods: physical, chemical, and biological methods. Most of them involve the collection of samples, followed by particular analytical tests. Some testing methods are described here. Table 5.1 shows the major characteristics and disposal mechanisms of industrial wastes [26].

5.2.1 Method of Testing Most common physical tests of wastewater contain temperature and solid concentrations (turbidity and TSS—total suspended solids∥). (i) Chemical Method of Testing In this testing method, by using the principles of analytical chemistry, water samples are studied. This method is frequently used to analyze BOD, COD, pH, nutrients, and metals (Zn, Cd, Cu etc.). (ii) Biological Method of Testing This testing contains the usage of plants, animals, or bacteriological indicators to screen the health of aquatic environment (copepods and crustaceans) [10]. 3Rs to Prevent Water Pollutants Refuse: Say no to water pollution. Recycle: Recycle water. Reduce: Minimize the use of water.

5.3 Selection of Relevant Organisms (Algae and Bacteria) The important step in wastewater treatment is the selection of relevant organisms. In this section, we are going to discuss the role of algae and bacteria in wastewater treatment. (i) Algae Algae is a large category of creatures that belong to several evolutionary groupings. As a result, algae may be described as plant-like creatures that lack roots, leaves, branches, and vascular tissue. Algal reproduction is also fairly easy. Because organic waste contains a considerable volume of suspended material, it may restrict the amount of light available to photosynthetic organisms, notably algae [11]. It is required to carefully consider both wastewater treatment and algal culture in order to construct a wastewater treatment system from algae. Cell retention time,

5.3 Selection of Relevant Organisms (Algae and Bacteria)

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Table 5.1 Major characteristics and disposal methods for industrial wastes Industrial producing wastes

Major characteristics

Major treatment and disposal methods

Textile

Highly alkaline, colored, COD, temperature, high suspended solids

Neutralization, chemical precipitation, biological treatment, aeration, and/or trickling filtration

Leather goods

High total solids, hardness, salt sulfides, chromium, pH, precipitated lime, and BOD5

Equalization, sedimentation, and biological treatment

Laundry trades

High turbidity, alkalinity, and organic solids

Screening, chemical precipitation, floatation, and adsorption

Canned goods

High in suspended solids, colloidal products, and dissolved organic matter

Screening, lagooning, soil absorption, or spray irrigation

Dairy

High in dissolved organic Acidification, floatation matter, mainly protein, fat and biological treatment, aeration lactose trickling filtration, activated sludge

Meat and poultry products

High in dissolved and suspended organic matter, blood, other proteins, and fats

Screening, setting and/or floatation, trickling filtration

Brewed and distilled beverages High in dissolved organic solids, containing nitrogen and fermented starches or their products

Recovery, concentration by centrifugation and evaporation, trickling filtration; use in feeds; digestion of slops

Beet sugar

High in dissolved and suspended organic matter, containing sugar and protein

Reuse of wastes, coagulation, and lagooning

Pharmaceutical products

High in suspended and dissolved organic matter

Activated sludge

Yeast

High in solids (mainly organic) and BOD5

Anaerobic digestion, trickling filtration

Pickles

Variable pH, high suspended solids, color, and organic matter

Good housekeeping, screening, equalization

Coffee

High BOD5 and S.S

Screening, settling, and trickling filtration

Fish

Very high BOD5 , total organic Oil removal, biological solids, O&G, and odor treatment

Glass

Red color, alkaline Calcium chloride precipitation nonsettleable suspended solids

Fuel oil use

High in emulsified and dissolved oils

Leak and spill prevention, floatation (continued)

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Table 5.1 (continued) Industrial producing wastes

Major characteristics

Major treatment and disposal methods

Rubber

High BOD5 and odor, high suspended solid, variable pH, high chlorides

Aeration chlorination, sulfonation, biological treatment

Cane sugar

Variable pH, should organic Neutralization, calculation, matter with relatively high chemical treatment, some BOD5 of carbonaceous nature selected aerobic oxidation

Palm oil

High BOD5 , COD, solids, and Neutralization, coagulation, total fats and low pH floatation, filtration

Pulp and paper

High or low pH, color, high suspended, colloidal, and dissolved solids, inorganic filters

Settling lagooning, biological treatment, aeration, recovery of by-products using floatation

Photographic

Alkaline, containing various organic and inorganic reducing agents

Recovery of silver; discharge

Steel

Low pH, acids, cyanogen, Neutralization, recovery and phenol, ore, coke, limestone, reuse, chemical coagulation alkali, oils, mill scale, and fine suspended solids

Metal-plated

Acid, metals, toxic, low Alkaline chlorination of volume, mainly mineral matter cyanide, reduction and precipitation of chromium, lime precipitation on other metals

Oil fields and refineries

High dissolved salts from Recovery of salts; acidification field; high BOD5, odor, burning of alkaline sludge phenol, and sulfur compounds from refinery

Petrochemical

High COD, TDS, metals, COD/BOD5 ratio

Recovery and reuse, equalization and neutralization, chemical coagulation, settling or floatation, biological oxidation

Cement

Heated cooling water, suspended solids, some inorganic salts

Segregation of dust-contact streams, neutralization, and sedimentation

Asbestos

Suspended asbestos and mineral solids

Detention in ponds, neutralization, and land filling

Paint and inks

Contain organic solids from Settling ponds for detention of dyes, resins, oils, solvents, etc paints, lime coagulation of printing inks

Pesticides

High organic matter, benzene Activated carbon adsorption, ring structure, toxic to bacteria alkaline chlorination and fish, acid (continued)

5.3 Selection of Relevant Organisms (Algae and Bacteria)

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Table 5.1 (continued) Industrial producing wastes

Major characteristics

Major treatment and disposal methods

Organic

Varied types of organic chemicals

Biological degradation plant control, process modification

water depth, nutrient count rate, and degree of mixing are some of the main aspects that must be addressed for improved algae development. Other characteristics in the wastewater treatment process that are important include BOD reduction, TDS decrease, pH, nitrogen removal rate, and phosphorous removal rate. As a result, in order to commence algae development, the system must be properly built [11, 12]. Algae is also a fantastic indicator of water quality. Through a symbiotic interaction between algae and bacteria, the major goal of employing algae for wastewater treatment is to lower BOD and COD while also removing nitrogen and phosphate. Sunlight, temperature, carbon dioxide, and biological competition are all elements that impact algae development. Table 5.2 illustrates the use of microalgae to remediate textile dye wastewater [27]. (ii) Bacteria For wastewater treatment in biology, the use of various microorganisms like bacteria, virus, and protozoa is involved. In this section, the harms and benefits of bacteria for wastewater treatment purposes have been discussed. (a) Harmful Bacteria In the presence of several and wide strains of bacteria in wastewater can affect plants, animals, and humans in the form of contaminated food and water [10, 12]. Bacteria of such aptitudes include Escherichia coli, 0157:H7, vibrio cholera, and helicobacter pylori. Such type of bacteria is already existing from the start of process of treatment due to their appearance with dirty water [13]. We can remove bacteria from strains by UV radiations, zonation, and chlorination but the vibrio cholera can be destroyed by high doses of UV rays under biological treatment. (b) Beneficial Bacteria After the filtration, a large no. of harmful bacteria was filtered out with algae, cyanobacteria, and other microorganisms [13]. In secondary treatment systems, biofilm creating bacteria are already present which is measured to be beneficial for the elimination of harmful organic materials from the strains of bacteria [12]. This contains aerobic bacteria like pseudomonas zoogeia, flavobacterium, and chromobacter while anaerobic such as brocadia anammoxidans. Such type of bacteria is removed in tertiary treatment of the process.

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Table 5.2 Bioremediation of textile dye wastewater by using microalgae Microalgae species

Target

Biosorption Decolorization Biomass Nutrients capacity (%) productivity removal (mg/g) (mg/L day)

Spirulina platensis

RR−120

482.2

99

–

–

Chlorella pyrenoidosa

MB

21.3

>90

–

–

Chlorella Sp

MB MO

–

99.9 70

–

–

Scenedesmus quadricauda

RBBR

Active 68 Inactive 95.2

–

–

–

Spirogyra

Synazolre active –

85

–

–

–

6369

–

–

39

95

–

–

Elkatothrix viridis Basic Fuschin

–

93

–

–

Spirulina platensis

RB19

251.61

–

–

COD-85.6%

Spirogyra Sp

DB

–

80

–

–

Spirogyra

RY22

0.0004

92

–

–

Volvox aureus

MR

–

45

–

–

Spirogyra Sp

Cr(IV)

14.7

30

–

–

Chlorella pyrenoidosa

DR31

30.53

96

–

COD 82.7% PO4 1 19.9%

Desmodesmus sp. MB, MG

-

98

–

–

Oscillatoria sp.

TWW

-

76

-

-

Chlorella vugaris

RTWW

–

–

3.08 per cathode

Zn-98% Cr 80%

Chlorococcum vitiosum

TWW

–

13

0.0335div

COD 13%

Neochloris sp.

Industrial-TWW –

–

0.109

COD 34.5%

Chlorella pyrenoidosa

TWW

20.8

80

8.114

NO3 −1 82% PO4 −1 87%

Gloeocapsa pleurocapsoides

FF sky Blue

–

90

3.34

–

Chroococcus minutus

Amido Black 10B

–

55

2.04

–

–

75

0.00005

COD 75% NH4 -N 72%

Chlroella-vulgaris Tectilon yellow 2G Caulerpa scalpelliformis

Sandocryl golden yellow C-2G

Chlorella sp. G23 TWW

(continued)

5.4 Design and Fabrication of Photo Bioreactor (PBR)

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Table 5.2 (continued) Microalgae species

Target

Chlorella vulgaris TWW

Biosorption Decolorization Biomass Nutrients capacity (%) productivity removal (mg/g) (mg/L day) –

77

0.0019

COD 69.9%

5.4 Design and Fabrication of Photo Bioreactor (PBR) A photo bioreactor is a kind of algal bioreactor that uses light to cultivate phototropic microorganisms. In exchange, these microorganisms use photosynthesis to create biomass from light and carbon dioxide [14]. Some particular settings are organized for each species within the simulated environment of a photo bioreactor. As a result, a photo bioreactor may grow at a significantly faster pace. Water cleanliness is also at its highest degree anyplace in nature [12, 15]. A phototropic biomass might theoretically be produced in a photo bioreactor using flue gas carbon dioxide and nutrients [14]. Closed photo bioreactors and open photo bioreactors are the two kinds of photo bioreactors. (i) Opened Photo bioreactor This is the first approach for the organized production of phototropic organisms and still is a natural open pond. Open photo bioreactor contains all necessary nutrients and carbon dioxide which is pumped around in a cycle. This construction principle is the simplest way of production for phototropic organisms. But due to their depth and related reduced average light supply, open systems only reach limited areal productivity rates. Different types of open photobioreactor are shown in Fig. 5.4 [27]. Also, the consumption of energy is relatively high, but the product is very low. Open space is expensive in areas with a dense population, while water is rare in others [15]. Open system causes high water losses due to evaporation into the atmosphere [16]. (ii) Closed Photo bioreactor Since the 1950s, several approaches have been conducted to develop closed systems. These systems provide theoretically higher density cells of phototropic organisms and therefore a lower amount of water to be pumped than the open systems. Also, there are no water losses and the risk of contamination through landing water is in closed construction. Design of different closed photo bioreactor is shown in Fig. 5.5 [28]. All modern photo bioreactors have tried to balance between thin of culture suspension, optimized light application, capital expenditure, low pumping energy consumption, and microbial purity [16]. Examples of the closed system of photo bioreactor are redesigned laboratory fermenters, tubular photo bioreactors, Christmas tree photo bioreactor, and horizontal photo bioreactor [15].

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Fig. 5.4 Different types of open photo bioreactor or the cultivation of microorganisms in wastewater treatment process

Fig. 5.5 Design of different closed photo bioreactor for the cultivation of microorganisms in wastewater treatment process

(iii) Advantages of Photo bioreactor There are many advantages of photo bioreactor in wastewater treatment process: • It has higher efficiency. • It has very large surface to volume (S/V) ratio. • It has a good control over gas transfer.

5.5 Culturing/Cultivation of Selected Organisms

85

• It has less evaporation for the growth of medium. • It has uniform temperature. (iv) Disadvantages of Photo bioreactor • In spite of its advantages, there is also some disadvantages of photo bioreactor [17]: • It has very high capital cost. • The productivity and production cost in a few bounded photo bioreactor systems are not much improved than those achievable in open cultures. • The technical trouble is sanitizing.

5.5 Culturing/Cultivation of Selected Organisms In this chapter, we use bacteria and algae as microorganisms for wastewater treatment. So, in this we will discuss only the culturing of bacteria and algae.

5.5.1 Culturing of Algae and Bacteria A bacteriological culture is a method for increasing the size of microorganisms via multiplication by allowing them to proliferate in predetermined subculture medium under well-ordered laboratory conditions [17]. Bacteriological cultures are also used to identify the kind of organism and its quantity in the material being analyzed. Bacteria must be cultured in vitro for a variety of reasons, including segregation, characteristics, maintenance of normal cultures, estimation of viable counts, testing for antibiotic sensitivity, creating antigens for laboratory usage, and some genetic investigations and cell manipulation [15, 18, 19]. Another easy technique to separate germs in a combination is to culture them on solid medium. Bacteria are isolated and cultured in pure culture in the laboratory to examine the functions of a specific species [20]. There are two methods for cultivating algae: indoor and outdoor. We can develop the microalgae in 1–10 days by growing it. Algae may also grow up to 20 times quicker than food crops. In the absence of pure species or kinds, a pure is a population of cells or a developing population of cells [18, 20]. A pure may come from a single cell, and the cells in this scenario are genetic clones of one another.

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5.6 Mass Culturing of Cultured Organisms with Simulated and Real Wastewater in PBR Photo bioreactors have been developed in the growth of several algae species and have a wide range of uses. It is often utilized in laboratory systems and is only used in very small amounts at pilot size [20, 21]. We may scale it up by increasing the height, length, and diameter of the object. These techniques of scaling up are tough in culture systems because maintaining optimal light, mixing temperature, and mass transformation in the photo bioreactor process are all problematic [19]. The component of mass culture for algae necessitates a large space. This is a setback for algae farming in wealthy nations. If the population grows at an exponential pace, the cost of land becomes excessive, this has prompted a significant number of scientists to seek for potential production areas. Many attempts have been made to boost productivity using this procedure, and if we want to lower the cost, we should manufacture metabolites at a very high rate [22].

5.7 Economics and Efficiency Comparison There are several traditional techniques for wastewater treatment, but their effectiveness is limited, and some systems need pretreatment procedures for full pollution degradation. The efficiency of traditional procedures was improved by using pretreatment methods. They also failed to adequately remove organic and inorganic pollutants such as heavy metals and other contaminants. New technologies for removing pollutants, such as open and closed photo bioreactors, have been devised to successfully remove organic pollutants utilizing algae. These approaches can have disadvantages, such as a high cost. So, nowadays, modern treatment methods such as photocatalysis are used, which are both efficient and cost-effective [21–24].

References 1. Gonzalez-Camejo J, Barat R, Pachés M, Murgui M, Seco A, Ferrer J (2018) Wastewater nutrient removal in a mixed microalgae–bacteria culture: effect of light and temperature on the microalgae–bacteria competition. Environ Technol 39:503–515 2. Salama E-S, Kurade MB, Abou-Shanab RA, El-Dalatony MM, Yang I-S, Min B, Jeon B-H (2017) Recent progress in microalgal biomass production coupled with wastewater treatment for biofuel generation. Renew Sustaine Energy Rev 79:1189–1211 3. Hench KR, Bissonnette GK, Sexstone AJ, Coleman JG, Garbutt K, Skousen JG (2003) Fate of physical, chemical, and microbial contaminants in domestic wastewater following treatment by small constructed wetlands. Water Res 37:921–927 4. Hongyang S, Yalei Z, Chunmin Z, Xuefei Z, Jinpeng L (2011) Cultivation of Chlorella pyrenoidosa in soybean processing wastewater. Biores Technol 102:9884–9890 5. Chernicharo CD (2006) Post-treatment options for the anaerobic treatment of domestic wastewater. Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technol 5:73–92

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6. Huang Q, Jiang F, Wang L, Yang C (2017) Design of photobioreactors for mass cultivation of photosynthetic organisms. Engineering 3:318–329 7. Alcántara C, Domínguez JM, García D, Blanco S, Pérez R, García-Encina PA, Muñoz R (2015) Evaluation of wastewater treatment in a novel anoxic–aerobic algal–bacterial photobioreactor with biomass recycling through carbon and nitrogen mass balances. Biores Technol 191:173– 186 8. Christenson L, Sims R (2011) Production and harvesting of microalgae for wastewater treatment, biofuels, and bioproducts. Biotechnol Adv 29:686–702 9. Lee CS, Lee S-A, Ko S-R, Oh H-M, Ahn C-Y (2015) Effects of photoperiod on nutrient removal, biomass production, and algal-bacterial population dynamics in lab-scale photobioreactors treating municipal wastewater. Water Res 68:680–691 10. Grady Jr CL, Daigger GT, Love NG, Filipe CD (2011) Biological wastewater treatment. CRC press 11. Mara D, Horan NJ (2003) Handbook of water and wastewater microbiology. Elsevier 12. García D, Posadas E, Blanco S, Acién G, García-Encina P, Bolado S, Muñoz R (2018) Evaluation of the dynamics of microalgae population structure and process performance during piggery wastewater treatment in algal-bacterial photobioreactors. Biores Technol 248:120–126 13. Viessman W, Hammer MJ, Perez EM, Chadik PA (2009) Water supply and pollution control. Pearson Prentice Hall New Jersey 14. Stavenhagen M, Buurman J, Tortajada C (2018) Saving water in cities: Assessing policies for residential water demand management in four cities in Europe. Cities 79:187–195 15. Kang D, Zhao Q, Wu Y, Wu C, Xiang W (2018) Removal of nutrients and pharmaceuticals and personal care products from wastewater using periphyton photobioreactors. Biores Technol 248:113–119 16. Koester S (2018) Land-based wastewater management. In: Handbook on marine environment protection. Springer, pp 311–325 17. Diamond J, Altenburger R, Coors A, Dyer SD, Focazio M, Kidd K, Koelmans AA, Leung KM, Servos MR, Snape J (2018) Use of prospective and retrospective risk assessment methods that simplify chemical mixtures associated with treated domestic wastewater discharges. Environ Toxicol Chem 37:690–702 18. Abinandan S, Subashchandrabose SR, Venkateswarlu K, Megharaj M (2018) Nutrient removal and biomass production: advances in microalgal biotechnology for wastewater treatment. CritAl Rev Biotechnol 1–17 19. Singh N, Upadhyay A, Rai U (2017) Algal technologies for wastewater treatment and biofuels production: an integrated approach for environmental management. In: Algal biofuels, Springer, pp 97–107 20. Iribarnegaray MA, Rodriguez-Alvarez MS, Moraña LB, Tejerina WA, Seghezzo L (2017) Management challenges for a more decentralized treatment and reuse of domestic wastewater in metropolitan areas. J Water SanitIon Hyg Dev. washdev2017092 21. Mara D (2013) Domestic wastewater treatment in developing countries. Routledge 22. Zhu L (2015) Microalgal culture strategies for biofuel production: a review. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefin 9:801–814 23. Ding J, Zhao F, Cao Y, Xing L, Liu W, Mei S, Li S (2015) Cultivation of microalgae in dairy farm wastewater without sterilization. Int J Phytorem 17:222–227 24. ESCWA U (2010) Waste-water treatment technologies–a general review. UN ESCWA. http:// www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sdpd-03–6.pdf 25. Fazal S, Zhang B, Zhong Z (2015) Industrial wastewater treatment by using MBR (membrane bioreactor) review study

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26. Ranade VV, Bhandari VM (2014) Chapter 1-industrial wastewater treatment, recycling, and reuse: an overview. In: Ranade VV, Bhandari VM (eds) Industrial wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp 1–80 27. Fazal T, Mushtaq A, Rehman F, Khan AU, Rashid N, Farooq W, Xu J (2018) Bioremediation of textile wastewater and successive biodiesel production using microalgae. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 82:3107–3126 28. Dormido R, Sánchez J, Duro N, Dormido-Canto S, Guinaldo M, Dormido S (2014) An interactive tool for outdoor computer controlled cultivation of microalgae in a tubular photobioreactor system. Sensors 14(3):4466–4483

Chapter 6

Photocatalysis—Green Approach for Removal of Contaminations from Wastewater

6.1 Introduction Due to increased industrialization and overpopulation, the formation of wastewater, as well as the provision of non-portative and drinking water, has been a source of worry in our contemporary technological period. Effluent control and environmental protection are also becoming important challenges in residential civilization [1]. Global warming, the depletion of fossil fuel assets, and other environmental issues such as water scarcity [2, 3], toxic gases [4], and energy crises [5] have all become major concerns. Researchers are working harder than ever to balance the economic and the natural environment in order to address a major issue: water contamination [6, 7]. Pollution of this water system is a major source of worry for the whole universe’s economic and social systems. Because market effluents only transmit a tiny percentage of chemical fraction to the environment, their integrity affects environmental quality equitably [8, 9]. With the expansion of industries, large amounts of clean and fresh water are employed as impure material in fabrication purposes. The processed waste products are dumped into bodies of water. As a result, wastewater from the textile industry is an important by-product and a major source of pollutants in industrial pollution. Exclusion of undesired manure to the environment, resulting in pollution of adjacent soil and liquid [10], is a major ecological threat prevalent in fabric maker industrial dye arcades. As a result, there is a compelling need to reduce environmental contamination, particularly water pollution. As a result, the wastewater treatment process cleans the water for use by people and other living species, as well as ensuring the availability of safe water in the future. Many researchers are looking into these strategies. A significant amount of work has been put toward removing colors from industrial wastes using coagulation, oxidation, adsorption, flocculation, filtering, precipitation, electrochemical treatments, and other ways [11– 14]. These methods have certain drawbacks in addition to their benefits, such as high setup costs and inadequate contamination removal [15, 16]. Water needs are increasing due to population expansion, lifestyle changes, and industrialization. The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_6

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distribution of water has been disrupted by environmental changes, which have also disrupted the supply [17–19]. Because of its superior effectiveness in mineralizing global effluents, photocatalysis is now the best approach for dye degradation and removal of pollutants from wastewater [20]. Many semiconductor MOs are employed in these applications, including zinc oxide, titanium oxide, and cupric oxide [21–23]. The development of photocatalysis approaches employing various semiconductor-based photocatalysts was thought to produce a good reaction to visible light.

6.2 Conventional Treatment Methods and Photocatalysis Approach Various techniques are being used for decontaminating the aquatic bodies. From these techniques, microbial degradation is very common which has the capability of microorganism to decolorization of the dyes. This technique is best used for the elimination of the contaminants from the atmosphere [24]. Photocatalysis is the process in which light is used for the activation of catalysts as according to its name which is the combination of—photo∥ light and—catalysis∥ process used for the increasing reaction rate. The constituent used for rising reaction rate is known as catalyst which uses very less energy and initiates the reaction very rapidly. From these, we can say that the photocatalysis is the process in which a catalyst activates and increases the reaction process under light illumination [25, 26]. Because the chemical process requires both photons (light) and a catalyst (semiconductor), photocatalysis connects two essential subjects: photochemistry and catalysis. Depending on the semiconductor materials employed, photons may be generated using UV (300–388 nm) or visible (388–520 nm) light sources. The semiconductor materials have a valence band (VB) and a conduction band (CB), with VB being completely occupied and CB being vacant; the VB electron may be excited by a photon with the required energy equivalent or more from Eg, which can be found between CB and VB. The e-transfers from VB to CB during excitation and leaves a positive charge in the VB, known as a hole [27]. Charge separation is the initial stage in a photocatalytic process. Light-generated charge carriers may then be submerged in a variety of reactions. The first is charge carrier recombination and heat dissipation, while the second is the electron and hole being locked in a meta-stable state. The third is the start of oxidation/reduction reactions on the surface of semiconductors or within the surrounding double layer of electric charged carriers [27]. In addition to the liquid (aqueous, organic solvent), solid (photocatalyst), and gaseous phases (oxygen, nitrogen), a typical photocatalytic process may be represented as a four-phase system. Charge carriers are responsible for the oxidation and reduction reactions in photocatalytic reactions. Figure 6.1 depicts the general mechanism of photocatalysis [28].

6.2 Conventional Treatment Methods and Photocatalysis Approach

91

Fig. 6.1 General mechanism of photocatalysis

The photocatalytic characteristics of a material are heavily influenced by the band gap. When a material has a smaller band gap in the UV–visible region, it may influence its adsorption capabilities, making it a more effective catalyst. Changing experimental parameters, synthesized mechanisms of materials, or the introduction of different materials into the base material (e.g., doped materials, composites, heterojunctions, etc.) can enhance or tune the band gap of a material. For example, Fig. 6.2 depicts the photocatalytic degradation mechanism over BSyBFO for carbendazim heterojunction surface [29]. According to Chen and Ray, when an electron forager (oxygen) is present, oxidation reactions are relatively common, however when a hole forager (formic acid, methanol, etc.) is present, the oxidation process is bypassed and the reduction reaction becomes the primary reaction. Chen and Ray discuss the photoreduction of metal ions well, where M represents metallic-ions and RH signifies the biological component. Water oxidizes at a substantially slower pace in the absence of an organic component, resulting in worse metal reduction. The latent of VB must be higher than the oxidation potential of chemical species to conduct photooxidation. To survive the photo-reduction process, the conduction band must be more negative than the redox pair’s reduction potential [30].

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Fig. 6.2 Photocatalytic degradation mechanism for carbendazim over BSyBFO heterojunction surface

6.2.1 Nanomaterials Used as a Photocatalyst There are different methods and techniques that have been adopted; and there are many different materials that have been used in the form of nanostructures as photocatalyst for the purpose of photodegradation. Photocatalytic degradation is a technique that resolves the water pollution problem with low cast due to the abundance, of sun light. So, every researcher is moving to explore new things in this field so, they are using different material for the synthesis of different catalyst in nano scale to use it as photocatalyst. The following are common photocatalysts that have been used for Photocatalytic activity like CdS/Pt/WO3 -CeOx, Bi2 S3 , WO3 , Graphene, Ta3 N5 , TiO2 , BiVO4 , g-C3 N4 , ZnO, Ni8 P3 , GaInP2 , TiO2 , InGaP, C3 N4 , CdS, NiCo2 S4 , NiSe, Ni2 P, Co3 O4 , SnO2 , CeO2 , Mn3 O4 , Bi2 MoO6 , K4 Nb6 O17 , CuInS2 , CuGaSe2 , CaFe2 O4 , and their composites with various materials [27, 31–35]. (i) Iron and iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) Due to the quantity of electrons present on the conduction band, metal oxides are preferred for photocatalytic degradation because they generate rapid excitation of electrons, which triggers burning and produces CO2 and H2 O as by-products. Due to its magnetic nature, iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are the extraneous material to employ for wastewater purification [31]. During the light degradation process, the magnetic property of iron and iron oxide NPs promotes high adsorption, separation of impurities, and steady behavior. These magnetic materials are useful in both laboratories and on a commercial basis. Iron oxide compounds have two distinct characteristics. They may be used to remove toxins from wastewater as well as to break down heavy contaminants into less effective contaminants. As a result, iron

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93

Fig. 6.3 Effect of the amount of Fe3 O4 and Fe3 O4 /C sorbents on the extraction efficiencies of PAHs. Operation in the batch mode. Sample volume: 500 mL; volume of acetonitrile: 8 mL; and concentration of each analyte: 0.4 ngmL−1

oxide nanoparticles are regarded as more significant than others, and they are widely employed in wastewater decontamination [33, 34]. During the purification of wastewater, iron oxide nanoparticles are a stable substance in water. These particles are nano scale in size yet have a huge surface area for chemical reactions with other materials. Due to its extraneous biocompatibility, iron oxides are not harmful to human health [35]. Table 6.1 lists the various iron oxide nanoparticles modified with various ligands, as well as their adsorption capacities for photocatalysis [33]. The impact of Fe3 O4 and Fe3 O4 /C sorbent concentration on the removal efficiency of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is shown in Fig. 6.3 [36]. (ii) Bimetallic nanoparticles Two different metals combined together make bimetallic nanoparticles that are most effective as compared to the monometallic nanoparticles in both cases, scientific as well as technological approach. Metals in the form of combination like Cr–BiVO4 , CdS/Pt/WO3 -CeOx, GaInP2 , Ag–TiO2 , NiCo2 S4 , K4 Nb6 O17 , CuInS2 , CuGaSe2 are very effective for the decontamination of wastewater under the shower of solar light [37, 38]. The band gap property on the metals reduces with the synthesis of composite of two metals that can enhance the photocatalytic efficiency which further increases the decontamination of the impure water. Electrical, mechanical, thermal, optical, and catalytic properties of the metals can be enhanced with the coupling of other metals to form bimetallic composite [38]. The surface area of these composite increases even they are in nano scale size.

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(iii) Semiconductor metal oxide composites Making a composite with a reduced bandgap material, such as metal oxide, is the most recent technique for improving photocatalytic performance. Because of their biological and analytical chemistry uses, these composites are theoretically and practically important in environmental research. One-dimensional metal oxide nanoparticles’ piezoelectric, semiconducting, and pyroelectric characteristics are also relevant [39]. These nanostructures are often used in optoelectronics, actuators, and sensors. Metal oxide NSs are biocompatible, have a high surface area to volume ratio, are environmentally benign, and have chemical stability [33]. Fast electron transfer is necessary to improve the performance of nanomaterials when utilized as a biomimetic membrane that can detect and maintain the activity of proteins, for example. ZnO, CuO, CdS, Cu2 O, g–C3 N4 , and other metal oxides exhibit various and appealing morphologies such as nanorods (NRs), nanowires, Nano leaves, nanotubes, and nano-flowers [40, 41]. The variable morphology nanostructures may be very useful in the design and fabrication of nanodevices for optoelectronic, gas sensing, and photocatalytic applications. Figure 6.4 shows photocatalytic efficiency of CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 , a nanocomposite photocatalyst that was synthesized and used against the catalytic reduction of rhodamine B pollutant. Its catalytic efficiency was determined over time period of 300 min. The bar graph in the figure shows the removal efficiency of CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 nanocomposite photocatalyst with a maximum efficiency of 75% for 0.15 g catalyst concentration [42]. Photocatalysis, a green method for contaminant remediation, is gaining popularity across the world. The varied and distinctive features of produced nanostructures, as well as their convergence with traditional treatment approaches, provide huge potential for wastewater treatment revolution. It is worth noting that various colors generated by various textile businesses have negative effects on human life, the aquatic system, and the environment. Additionally, current treatment methods and discharge procedures, which depend primarily on transportation and centralized systems, are no longer viable. This chapter gives a wide overview of prior as well as contemporary advances in photocatalyst trends. The highly efficient and integrated photocatalysis system is expected to provide cost-effective and high-performance treatment options.

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Fig. 6.4 a Photocatalytic degradation of RhB in aqueous solution using CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 nanocomposite photocatalyst. b The time-dependent UV–Vis absorption spectra for the RhB photocatalytic degradation using 0.15 g of the CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 catalyst. c Plots of ln(C0/C) versus reaction time for the RhB photocatalytic degradation using various dosages of CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 catalyst. d The degradation efficiency of various dosages of CuO(10wt%)/SmFeO3 photocatalyst

References 1. Singh S et al (2013) Mechanism of dye degradation during electrochemical treatment. J Phy Chem C 117:15229–15240 2. Singh S et al (2014) Electro-chemical treatment of dye bearing effluent with different anodecathode combinations: mechanistic study and sludge analysis. Ind Eng Chem Res 53:10743– 10754 3. Potti PR, Srivastava VC (2012) Comparative studies on structural, optical, and textural properties of combustion derived zno prepared using various fuels and their photo-catalytic activity. Ind Eng Chem Res 51:7948–7956 4. Chan SH, Wu TY, Juan JC (2011) The Recent developments of metal oxide semiconductors as photo-catalysts in advanced oxidation processes (aops) for treatment of dye waste-water. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 86:1130–1158 5. Priyanka et al (2014) Catalytic oxidation of nitrobenzene by copper loaded activated carbon. Sep Purif Technol 125:284–290 6. Wang G et al (2012) Oxygen-deficient metal oxide nanostructures for photo electrochemical water oxidation and other applications. Nano scale 4:6682–6691 7. Cho IS et al (2011) Branched tio2 nano-rods for photoelectron chemical hydrogen production. Nano Lett 11:4978–4984 8. Chatterjee D, Gupta SD (2005) Visible light induced photo-catalytic degradation of organic pollutants, J. Photochem. Photobiol. C–Photochem. Review 6:186–205

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9. Zhang H et al (2009) Photo-electro catalytic materials for environmental applications. J Mater Chem 19:5089–5121 10. Potti PR, Srivastava VC (2013) Effect of Dopants on zno mediated photocatalysis of dye bearing wastewater: a review. Mater Sci Forum 757:165–174 11. Su J et al (2011) Vertically aligned WO3 nanowire arrays grown directly on transparent conducting oxide coated glass: synthesis and photo electrochemical properties. Nano Lett 11:203–208 12. Gu G et al (2002) Tungsten oxide nano wires on tungsten substrates. Nano Lett 2:849–851 13. Gu Z et al (2005) Self-assembly of highly oriented one-dimensional h-WO3 nanostructures. Chem Commun 41:3597–3599 14. Jin YZ et al (2004) Simple approaches to quality large-scale tungsten oxide nano needles. J Phys Chem B 108:15572–15577 15. Hodes G, Cahen D, Manassen J (1976) Electrochemical, solid state, photochemical and technological aspects of photo electro-chemical energy converters. Nature 260:312–313 16. Chakrapani V et al (2009) WO3 and W2 N nanowire arrays for photo electrochemical hydrogen production. Int J Hydrogen Energy 34:9050–9059 17. Wang GM et al (2012) Hydrogen-treated WO3 nano flakes show enhanced photo stability. Energy Environ Sci 5:6180–6187 18. Liu R et al (2001) Water splitting by tungsten oxide prepared by atomic layer deposition and decorated with an oxygen-evolving catalyst. Int Ed 50:499–502 19. Smith WA et al (2001) Quasi-core-shell TiO2 /WO3 and TiO2 /WO3 nanorod arrays fabricated by glancing angle deposition for solar water splitting. J Mater Chem 21:10792–10800 20. Seabold JA, Choi KS (2011) Effect of a cobalt-based oxygen evolution catalyst on the stability and the selectivity of photo-oxidation reactions of a WO3 photo anode Chem. Mater 23:1105– 1112 21. Liu H, Peng T, Ke D, Peng Z, Yan C (2007) Mater. Chem Phys 104:377–383 22. Qamar M, Gondal MA, Hayat K, Yamani ZH, Al-Hooshani K (2009) J Hazard Mater 170:584– 589 23. Sajjad AK, Shamaila S, Tian B, Chen F, Zhang J (2009) Appl Catal B–Environ 91:397–405 24. Sacco O, Stoller M, Vaiano V, Ciambelli P, Chianese A, Sannino D (2012) Int J Photoenergy 25. Xiong Z, Zhang L, Ma J, Zhao XS (2010) J Chem Commun 1259 26. Zhanga J, Yua K, Loub L, Yanga Z, Yanga J, Liub S (2014) J Mol Catal A: Chem 391 27. Sacco O, Stoller M, Vaiano V, Ciambelli P, Chianese A, Sannino D (2012) Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes under visible light on N doped photocatalysts ∥. Int J Photoenergy Article ID 626759:8 28. Wang W et al (2015) Advances in photocatalytic disinfection of bacteria: development of photocatalysts and mechanisms. J Environ Sci 34:232–247 29. Bhoi YP et al (2018) Photocatalytic mineralization of carbendazim pesticide by a visible light active novel type-II Bi2 S3 /BiFeO3 heterojunction photocatalyst. Catal Commun 114:114–119 30. Mohamed Gar Alalma (2016) Shinichi Ookawarab, Daisuke Fukushic, d, Akira Satoc, Ahmed Tawfik, -Improved WO3 photocatalytic efficiency using ZrO2 and Ru for thedegradation of carbofuran and ampicillin∥. J Hazard Mater 302(2016):225–231 31. Xiong Z, Zhang LL, Ma J, Zhao XS (2010) Photocatalytic degradation of dyes over graphene– gold nanocomposites under visible light irradiation∥. J Chem Commun https://doi.org/10.1039/ c0cc01259a 32. Zhanga J, Yua K, Yub Y, Loub L-L, Yanga Z, Yanga J, Liub S (2014) Highly effective and stable Ag3 PO4 /WO3 photocatalysts for visiblelight degradation of organic dyes∥. J Mol Catal A: Chem 391(2014):12–18 33. Xu P, Zeng GM, Huang DL, Feng CL, Hu S, Zhao MH, Lai C, Wei Z, Huang C, Xie GX, Liu ZF (2012) Use of iron oxide nanomaterials in wastewater treatment: a review. Sci Total Environ 424:1–10 34. Gratian R (2000) Bamwenda, Hironori Arakawa,-The visible light induced photocatalytic activity of tungsten trioxide powders∥. Appl Catal A 210(2001):181–191

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Chapter 7

Recycling of Industrial Wastewater

Water is used in many chemical and photochemical industries as a standard functioning constituent to fulfill all the desired functions in industries. Nearly water that comes of industrial functioning is known as wastewater. Industrial wastewater is a major environmental problem, and hazardous substances are also damaging to humans. The pollutants in industrial wastewater vary depending on the type of industry and how it operates [1]. The use of different industries for the production of different products is shown in Fig. 7.1. Water is extensively used in the steam striping, liquid–liquid extraction, as a solvent in washing operations, refineries, and in chemical plants. In addition, water is extensively used in hydro-metallurgy process, solid particles, ionic metals which are found in the water after processing. Similarly, in textile, electronic and pharmaceutical industries used water for intense purpose.

7.1 Water Recycling is an Emerging Solution The availability of water is decreasing which can be overcome by recycling. Water recycling is generally same termed as newspaper, canes, and glass recycling, etc. The non-potable recycled wastewater used for the irrigation of landscape, agriculture, and industrial development. Recycled water provides resources and financial benefits for developing countries. The efficient use of water can save a large quantity of water. Some tips for effective use of water are given in Fig. 7.2 [2]. Treated wastewater provide an alternative source of water where the water is decreasing. Many countries are running out of options, and the reuse of water is one of the cheapest alternatives than the other. Many countries are using recycled wastewater in different purposes such as shown in Fig. 7.3 [3].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5_7

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Fig. 7.1 Use of water for different products

Domestic water is a dehydrated waste that is often utilized as a solvent in a variety of reusable applications. The entrance of aquatic food in aquatic systems and temperature variations should be improved to resolve aquatic problems. The greatness in route for which marine re-claim is familiar and that juncture is depending on marine obtainability, monetary encouragements, controlling probability, and common rejection. Probability of water availability is most important for these factors, however the most important one; where water is rarely present and rainwater can be used again by conventional wide-ranging collective, parsimoniously practicable, and sympathetic monitoring surroundings is fashioned [2]. Water reuse defines as the usage of industrial wastewater for useful applications can be seen in a scheme (Fig. 7.4). Water recycling characteristically denotes to manufacturing systems, in which contaminated particle recover for further process, mostly this recycled water and products again are used for industrial applications. For domestic purpose, pathogens are necessary to remove for further usage from wastewater [3]. Typical water quality apprehensions for engineering reuse or recycling contain mounting, rust, organic development, catching and boiling, as well as impressions on operative well-being, such as by breath of misters covering unstable organic mixtures or fungal pathogens.

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Fig. 7.2 Tips for efficient use of water

7.1.1 Usage of Membrane Technology in Palm Oil Mill Effluent for Water Recycling Malaysia is the world’s leading producer and exporter of palm oil [4]. Palm oil is derived from the palm oil fruit bunch and acquired from palm oil mills. A huge amount of water is utilized in the extraction of palm oil from fruit bunches, and half of the water is polluted by palm oil mill effluents (POME). POME is a thick brownish liquid that contains a variety of substances such as oil and grease. Different biological technologies have been established to clean POME-polluted water, but they have significant disadvantages, such as the high maintenance and monitoring of microorganisms required since the whole process is dependent on the microbes that break down the contaminants. Because these microorganisms are environmentally sensitive, they must be utilized with caution while treating POME wastewater. As a

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Fig. 7.3 Reuse of wastewater in different countries

Fig. 7.4 Flow of water recycling potential for industrial wastewater

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Fig. 7.5 Flow diagram of raw POME treatment by using membrane technology

result, using a membrane for this process is a novel technique for degrading POME. The application of membrane technology for the treatment of POME was described by Abdul Latif Ahmed et al. They create a system that includes pretreatment and membrane technology. Figure 7.5 depicts a graphical diagram. The pretreatment process is divided into two steps, each of which removes heavily suspended oil and particles from the raw POME. The complete description of the process is given in Fig. 7.6 and this plant is also working in Kelang Kalapa Sawit. This plant has 5 main units which are pretreatment unit, biological treatment unit, reclamation unit, biogas utilization, and sludge treatment unit. All tanks are made of concrete but two anaerobic expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) are made of steel. In pretreatment process, the components are rotary screen, grit separator, equalization tank (EQ tank), oil water separator tank, and cooling tower. There is another unit which is a biological unit consisting of two EGSB steel tank having a diameter of about 6 m and length is about 16 m. The total volume of the tank is 423.9 m3 . To preserve the heat in the reactor, its walls are covered with cloth which behave as insulator. The reactor is operated at constant temperature which is average 35 °C and to control the influent temperature, the cooling tower is used. EGSB tanks are fabricated for running in parallel in this study; other tanks included 2 dosing tanks, a dissolved air floatation (DAF) set, a biocontact aerobic tank, and a membrane bioreactor (MBR). The reclamation unit contained two modules of ultrafiltration (UF) membrane (LH3-1060-V) containing nominal molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 50,000 Dalton (Litree, China). Another module was PROC-10 reverse osmosis (RO) membrane (Hydranautics, USA) having 99.7% NaCl rejection rate. For the protection of the membrane modules, a safety filter was installed between MBR and UF; another fine filter was located between UF and RO. Biogas purifier (containing Fe2 O3 for H2 S, CO2 , and moisture removal) and a generator were used to transform biogas into electrical energy. The surplus sludge mainly from EGSB system and the pretreatment unit was piped and condensed in sludge tank and then dewatered by the sludge frame filter press. The retentate from RO and the surplus sludge from anaerobic unit were meant for land farming. The presence of oil and solid could damage the membrane and lead to a shorter membrane life. For the removal or adsorption of organic contaminants and residual

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Fig. 7.6 Palm oil Mill effluent treatment method

disinfectants, activated carbon was used. After that the POME moves to the ultrafiltration membrane (UF) and reverse osmosis membrane (RO) to remove the remaining effluents from the POME. It is a multifunctional process which effectively degrades the pollutants from wastewater and is further used in the mill. Professionals have faced several challenges and opportunities during water recycling process [5].

7.1.2 Challenges • Trust Failure in public sector and assurance in public organizations and administrators. • Decline in usage of best machineries that can remove totally effluents and microorganisms from wastewater.

7.2 Different Approaches and Wastewater Recycling Design

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7.2 Different Approaches and Wastewater Recycling Design The municipal communities are created to maintain the urban water clean and to improve the quality and availability of water in the area. According to the municipal administration, there is still need of clean water at large extent and they are developing a number of new approaches for water recycling and other creative methodologies, for example, decentralization designed for limiting water removals and contamination [6]. There are three types of plants which are disinfection plant, filtration plant, and softening plant. These plants are defined below. Disinfection plant is used for high-quality water source to ensure that water does not contain pathogens. Filtration plant is usually used to treat surface water. Softening plant is used to treat groundwater. These water treatment and recycling plants consist of basic five systems which are fabricated to remove odors, color, turbidity, bacteria, and other contaminants. The basic plant processes given below are also shown in Fig. 7.7 [7]. Rapid mixing: It is the process where chemicals are added and rapidly dispersed through water. Flocculation: Chemicals like alum (aluminum sulfate) are added to the water both to neutralize the particles electrically and to make them come close to each other and form large particles called flocs that could more readily be settled out. Sedimentation: During sedimentation, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply, due to its weight. Filtration: Once the floc has settled to the bottom of the water supply, the clear water on top will pass through filters of varying compositions (sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore sizes in order to remove fine particles that were not settled, such as dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Disinfection: It involves the addition of chemicals in order to kill or reduce the number of pathogenic organisms [7].

Fig. 7.7 Filtration treatment plant

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Fig. 7.8 Primary, secondary, and tertiary water treatment technologies

These water recycling systems should be environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and socially acceptable. Disagreement and community opposition has slowed down some innovative ideas. Given the forces on the world’s freshwater assets, reused water is a significant asset. Reused water can build the consistency in supply of water, since it is independent origin of water. Recycling of water requires convincing procedures to ensure general fitness and atmosphere. Without far-reaching universal rules, various countries have created distinctive approaches to deal with water recycling which depends on the facts of the fitness dangers, the discrete financial conditions, and affordability. The different recycling process is shown in Fig. 7.8.

7.2.1 Health Risk Microbiological and chemical contamination both are hazardous for health, therefore industrial contaminations are properly controlled and microbiological contamination for water recycling is considered as major risk in potable water recycling. Different countries developed different approaches to minimize health risk [8–10].

7.2 Different Approaches and Wastewater Recycling Design

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7.2.2 Quantitative Risk Approaches (QRA) This approach leads to high techniques [12–15], expensive and less risk approaches for water recycling. QRA is based on the extraction of the microbiological contamination from water and it consists of four steps: • Characterization of recycled water and identification of microbiological contaminations • Account number of organisms present in the recycled water and exposure rate of pathogens transmittance to human being • Dose absorption rate for particular organism and activity of these pathogens in human organism • Quantitative approaches developed for the theoretical analysis and exposure rate of absorbed dose QRA responds to extremely low risk and proved as helpful tool in future guidelines or new designs for water recycling [16–20].

7.2.3 Real Risk Approaches These ideas for water recycling included less equipment, lower costs, and lower danger. The epidemiological chain is taken into account in real risk methods [17]. This may include both physical and social variables, such as an increase in vulnerability. Applied risk (AR) methodology, which is based on a set of criteria, has lowered the health risk associated with water recycling and minimized the danger associated with current systems. AR is less successful in removing contaminations than QRA, as shown by epidemiological research. AR is limited in terms of size and control accessibility [18–22]. Similarly, a global health organization created innovative methods for gray water recycling based on field irrigation, both regulated and unrestricted. Furthermore, in microbiological techniques, physical and chemical effective factors are overlooked. Fecal coliform, TSS, cleaning agent, turbidity, TN, and TP are all used in these water recycling methods [23].

7.2.4 Approaches at the End of Twentieth Century Economic, social, and political prerequisites for water recycling development have recently altered [24–26]. Water planning and control processes during industrial wastewater recycling have been the attention of scientists. Official attempts have been made to determine how much water is necessary in industrial processes and how it is handled appropriately. To solve all of these issues, we need effective technology and techniques. A novel way to water recycling has been devised by scientists, which is

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altering the nature of water demand in industry. One of the latest techniques to the recycling of industrial wastewater. Electrocoagulation is a sophisticated method of removing industrial contaminants from wastewater by mixing water and electricity [1, 26–29]. In numerous sectors, this method is outstanding for removing oil, gas, petroleum hydrocarbons, waste materials, and heavy metal pollution. Scientists have been concentrating on environmental safety without resorting to the use of chemicals in water recycling. It has surpassed older technology in terms of industrial applicability. Electrocoagulation is a method of obtaining water at a specified level for crops and other applications. Depending on the application, we may purify 100–500 gallons per minute to 20000 gallons per minute with this technology [26, 28–30]. Biodegradation is the most appropriate and efficient method for removing organic waste sludge during industrial wastewater recycling. However, since most limits are not addressed during the recycling process, bio augmentation has been created to remove all constraints from industrial wastewater and promote microbial activity [11]. Reuse of industrial wastewater treatment is shown in Fig. 7.9.

Fig. 7.9 Systematic description of the industrial wastewater flow during bio augmentation approach for industrial wastewater recycling

7.3 Future Concern of Global Community

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7.2.5 Designs Regardless of water recycling approaches different industrial wastewater system design, shows promises for reuse of most efficient available water resources. Moreover, design selection is one of the new approaches in water recycling. Design thinking consists of seven different steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Outline Investigation Evidence Model Select Appliance Study.

Contamination and wastewater have a powerful impact on the design thinking process [12]. Water with a large volume and low COD is used in industrial wastewater, such as textile effluent. However, scientists favor the fluidized-bed fenton design as an AOP technique for the textile sector. Industrial wastewater reduction using an integrated strategy. For industrial wastewater recycling, many designs have been explored. Although there are challenges in developing methodologies that work with three-dimensional water recycling systems. For industrial wastewater recycling designs, an integrated technique has been established. Using mathematical calculations, water is efficiently recycled in this manner. Essentially, this design technique is built on the deconstruction of the superstructure, which includes all of the aspects of water recycling design. A new technique for water recycling design was presented, which reduced the overall cost and complexity of the construction, which should be useful for employing realistic restrictions throughout the process. Although water sustainability is not found in the same project, several principles for sustainable water recycling designs have been developed [13]. Researchers are still working on evaluating different designs for water recycling by developing efficient assessment techniques such as economic assessment, environmental assessment, and addressing trade-off issues during design development, among other things. Designers kept relevant abilities and managerial tendencies in mind while designing the physical framework of the project.

7.3 Future Concern of Global Community In many parts of the globe, policies encourage the use of recycled water in order to achieve water sustainability. Community people have an important part in water management decisions and water recycling initiatives under these rules [14]. The public’s health, finances, taste, and environmental security are all affected by the success or failure of any water recycling operation. There are several issues that might

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impede the development of wastewater treatment projects, one of which is a lack of community support. A conflict between people’s psyche and preferences creates a roadblock in the development of water recycling. People may use low-quality water for agricultural and other reasons, but the global society prefers high-quality water for home usage. Recently, scientists and communities throughout the world have been working hard to manage water recycling in both the public and private sectors [15].

7.3.1 Evaluation of Work The intensity of what we do lies in our capacity to create connections that put the general population of the network at the cutting edge of their own improvement [14]. The improvement in the work manufactures trust and understanding between the network and the organization. (i) Concluding Evidences of Worldwide People Group More than 20 countries from Africa, Europe, Asia, America, the Caucasus, the Caribbean, and the Middle East are now working together [16]. The true increases in relative water demand indicated here revealed that a large portion of the planet would face serious challenges with water foundation and management. The implementation of response systems will very certainly incur significant financial costs. In addition to a scarcity of available water, the challenges include a reduction in financial activities, the surrender of current water offices, mass displacement, and conflict in global waterway bowls. Many regions of the construction scene will see significant increases in relative water demand. Some locations, such as the tropics, have abundance of water, but not enough for drinking purposes after processing. From an institutional standpoint, postgraduate students of present understudies at professional institutions all over the globe are constantly attempting to increase learning and skill development in order to meet the activity market want. Several PhD-level schools include activities such as the C4SI test training program, a student-run development lab for co-making responses to real-world situations. Connected research creates some of the fundamental themes for interdisciplinary ace’s understudies at the graduate level. Capstone promotes a collaborative effort between understudies, staff, and outside advancement performers [17]. Outside partners in these projects are also future enterprises, providing one-of-a-kind insights into the aptitudes, competencies, and knowledge sets required in today’s fast-paced job market. Drawing on five years of experience, organizing and coordinating nearly 200 understudies in Geneva via 46 coordinated projects with UN agencies, INGOs, and civil society organizations. Here are five crucial trends that progress specialists should be aware of in order to prepare for the future .

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(ii) Worldwide Plan of Twenty-first Century When the thousand-year advancement goals first appeared on the scene, many of us saw globalization of advancement as a side effect of millennial fever, an erratic attempt to settle the globe [18]. After fifteen years, 193 member states went through the same process again to set the 2030 achievable improvement targets. Younger generations have never experienced a world without a global activity plan, a world without goals, targets, and pointers. The future global development expert will not only work in, but also lead, a post-neoliberal business model that combines the agility of a startup (to test small and expand or fail) with the broad and rights-based approach to reasonable development typified by the 2030 SDGs. We’d be able to see how this one-world drive allocates resources and establishes terms of reference in the global progress labor market. Examine how approaches and functions propose to contribute to the SDGs. It’s starting to knit up in groups of responsibility, and it’s developing into an indication of action on execution. Increasing the rate of monetary change in lower- and middle-wage countries, as well as decreasing reciprocal advancement assistance, would help to rebalance limit (and power) exchange [19]. The partners and their requirements will shift as new modes of subsidizing from establishments and crowd sourcing to social venture revenue join the pool. As a result, future advancement experts must be skilled in comaking limits, coming up with solutions to fulfill distinct objectives, and developing integration. Finally, you must choose how to submit your circumstances to various change professionals and community partners. Global progress that is sustained, broad, and peaceful is achieved by monetary and mechanical change, as well as political will and cooperation. All development professionals need delicate abilities such as refined technique, tact, gifted communication, and transaction. Trust is the foundation of all relationships. These talents are significantly more essential for a comprehensive and serene globe in the middle of conflict and political disturbance, mechanical and climatic changes. Use opportunities like temporary work and courses to observe others and refine these transferrable skills from predecessors who know how to walk the line between confidence and straightforwardness. The most intriguing question to ponder about the future of worldwide progress specialists is: what comes next? Will a third round of 15-year cycles of global progress plan setting follow the first two? Will the world eventually gather, consult, and agree on a third global agreement, or will our future leaders find another way to create the society they desire? It gives me great pleasure to know that the necessary replies are in your capable hands.

7.4 Bioenergy from Wastewater Contamination of wastewater and other organic pollutants in the environment are an alternative source of bioenergy generation [20]. We’re interested in finding a

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long-term solution for disposing of hazardous solid waste from industry. Microbial biotechnologists are enthusiastic about converting trash into bioenergy and biomaterial. Biopolymers are made from waste materials recovered from many industries, such as biomass, biopolymers, and bio hydrogen. Various bacteria, including Alcaligenes eutrophus, Alcaligenes latus, Azotobacter vinelandii, Azotobacter chroococcum, and Azotobacter beijerincki, were employed to synthesize bioenergy from industrial organic waste. Many attempts have been made to manufacture bioenergy from trash at a low cost; however, a sustainable integrated system has become a simple solution to produce biopolymers and bioenergy. Researchers have recently been interested in producing bioenergy from recovered industrial effluent.

7.4.1 Bioenergy Production from Anaerobic Digestion Anaerobic digestion [21] is a biological process that removes sludge from industrial and municipal wastewater. This study topic was inspired by the need to generate energy from waste materials and minimize the amount of organic waste in landfills. Data on bio methane production from industrial wastewater utilizing anaerobic digestion has been obtained, with a potential of 379.796 KW per year determined. For steady energy generation, several temperature ranges were used throughout the process. Following the creation of bioenergy or biomethane from industrial wastewater, the residual solid sludge is treated as an armless material since it has no effect on the CO2 ratio in the environment. Similarly, hydrogen, also known as biohydrogen, is produced from wastewater, and hydrogen is a viable energy carrier.

7.4.2 TSBP’s for Energy Production from Wastewater In TSBPs two stages involved, hydrolysis and acidogenesis of organic solid waste, at first stage fatty acid are volatile (VFAs) and other intermixing materials, after that changing of all these VFAs by using suitable functional bacteria at the second stage. TSBPs strategy is useful not only for organic industrial waste materials but also efficient for high yield and purity of target constraints. TSBPs showed great promises for bioenergy production such as hydrogen gas, bio electricity, and methane gas production [22]. Bioenergy can be produced from organic pollutants as shown in Fig. 7.10.

7.5 Financial and Environmental Impact

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Fig. 7.10 Systematic diagram or the bioenergy production and recovery of organic materials from the industrial wastewater

7.5 Financial and Environmental Impact Scientists have been focusing on the strategies to develop the environment and economy of the world [23]. In this regard, approaches have been investigated to study the replacement of the cost methodology (RCM) for economic exploration, also life cycle assessment (LCA) for ecological analysis. In 1995, Dow chemical Co. (Dow) actively worked on the developing approaches that improve the ecosystem and economics. Later in 2005, millennium ecosystem assessment (MEA) has been developed for the environmental benefits. In industrial application, green infrastructure technologies have developed to capture the value of ecosystem and economics. In 2013, Dow cooperated with the nature conservancy (TNC) and a resiliency expert to explore the green infrastructure situation. Ecosystem services and Dow’s valuation are described by the framework (Fig. 7.11) for appreciating ecosystem and economics services [24].

7.5.1 Financial Assessment In financial assessment RCM three fundamental requirements are applied: 1. Same function is used for both gray and green solutions. 2. Environmental solutions must be compared with the cost-effective solutions. 3. Contributors are willing to donate for all the services regardless of the way of solution.

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Fig. 7.11 Framework for appreciating the ecosystem services

7.6 Practical Examples from International and Regional Level According to facts and data, 97.5% of the water is salty, 2.5% is fresh water, but only 1% is suitable for human consumption [25]. Recently, numerous nations have experienced water shortages, including Pakistan, China, and Europe, which will suffer water scarcity by 2025, affecting more than two-thirds of the population. Many nations have successfully installed water recycling systems for long-term water management [26]. These tiny initiatives repurposed urban and industrial wastewater for agricultural and residential use. Many nations have implemented water treatment systems to utilize industrial, agricultural, and home wastewater. As a result, Mediterranean nations have established industrial water recycling requirements in accordance with WHO guidelines, as well as California water recycling rules for agricultural, urban, and other applications [27]. Some practical examples of industrial water recycling have been counted under sustainable environmental and financial conditions such as:

7.6.1 California Monterey water pollution control organization at regional level in California has introduced a strategy to use recycled water, 20 Mm/year for agricultural usage in Monterey and nearby towns. (i) Mexico In Mexico, almost 90% of industrial recycled water is used for agriculture and domestic purposes especially in the low rain area and valleys [1]. Recycling of wastewater and irrigation reduced the charge on the groundwater resources and increased the flow of water streams under soil.

7.7 Groundwater Table Issue

115

(ii) Australia In Australia at Rouse hill in 2001, Homebush Bay near new housing scheme of Sydney, water recycling plants were developed. Recycled water is used to fulfill the domestic purpose, gardening, and for flash systems of 300,000 population range. Freshwater usage of Sydney has been reduced up to 850,000 m3 /year using this strategy especially at the game spots in Sydney. (iii) China In China, the ratio of industrial wastewater has increased and is then reduced from the time period 2004–2013; reduction in the wastewater cleared that industrial water recycling rate and efficiency increased during this time period [28]. Using systematic approaches, China has reduced the water consumption for industrial usage. Recently, China recycles 8–0% of industrial wastewater for green housing, flushing of floors, and for un-industrial usage. A union of national association of water suppliers and wastewater services from EU and EFTA countries, abbreviated as EUREAU [29], is developed in 1975 for the wastewater recycling to ensure and protect the fresh water for various applications.

7.7 Groundwater Table Issue Groundwater is regarded as a global cleanser and source of fresh water. The unique features of groundwater help to meet global needs and build large infrastructure. Furthermore, groundwater aids in the adaptation to global climate change. Soil water, as a global source of water and food, may alter as the environment changes, becoming more regular and life-threatening under severe situations. Housekeepers, farmers, and industrial users each used 36, 42, and 27% of the groundwater supply, respectively. Under extreme conditions, such as no rain, groundwater discharges beneath the surfaces of rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Poor nations exploited groundwater resources to overcome energy shortages and increase agricultural yields. Despite its critical role in human and environmental well-being, the link between climate change and groundwater has been explored by an international panel on climate change (IPCC). Changes in the climate, as well as changes in groundwater usage, have an impact on groundwater systems directly or indirectly. Human activities, such as land-use change, have a significant impact on groundwater (LUC). The groundwater responses following long-term climatic change without human activity are documented in palaeohydrological evidence. LUC has a greater impact on groundwater than climate change [30]. Global warming has a significant impact on the distribution of snow, ice, and glaciers at high altitudes and latitudes. Following that, when climate change occurs, less snow accumulates and melts quickly, as seen by an increase in the frequency of snow and rain events in the winter. Rapid snow melting indicates that the seasonal period and recharge magnitude are decreasing. Groundwater at peak melts quickly owing to spring melt in the mountains, and lower groundwater sources lead to longer and lower base flow time periods. To

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limit climate change and its severe consequences on groundwater supplies, inclusive methods should have been used [26]. A link is established between groundwater and surface water, such as when groundwater is used in extreme situations while surface water is used during wet weather or rain duration [21, 31, 32].

References 1. Ranade VV, Bhandari VM (2014) Industrial wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse: an overview. Ind Wastewater Treat, Recycl Reuse 1 2. Sharma RK, Yadav M, Gupta R (2017) Water quality and sustainability in India: challenges and opportunities. In: Chemistry and water. Elsevier, pp 183–205 3. Klemeš JJ (2012) Industrial water recycle/reuse. Curr Opin Chem Eng 1(3):238–245 4. Voulvoulis N (2018) Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential risks from an unregulated approach. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 2:32–45 5. Wang J, Mahmood Q, Qiu JP, Li YS, Chang YS, Chi LN, Li XD (2015) Zero discharge performance of an industrial pilot-scale plant treating palm oil mill effluent. BioMed Res Int 6. Liu S, Butler D, Memon FA, Makropoulos C, Avery L, Jefferson B (2010) Impacts of residence time during storage on potential of water saving for grey water recycling system. Water Res 44(1):267–277 7. Shmeis RMA (2018) Water chemistry and microbiology. In: Comprehensive analytical chemistry, vol. 81. Elsevier, pp 1–56 8. Ahmad AL, Ismail S, Bhatia S (2003) Water recycling from palm oil mill effluent (POME) using membrane technology. Desalination 157(1–3):87–95 9. Toze S (2006) Reuse of effluent water—benefits and risks. Agric Water Manag 80(1–3):147– 159 10. Livingston DJ, Stenekes N, Colebatch HK, Ashbolt NJ, Waite T (2004) Water recycling and decentralised management: the policy and organisational challenges for innovative approaches. In: WSUD 2004: Cities as Catchments; international conference on water sensitive urban design, proceedings of engineers. Australia, p 581 11. Anderson J, Adin A, Crook J, Davis C, Hultquist R, Jimenez-Cisneros B, Van der Merwe B (2001) Climbing the ladder: a step by step approach to international guidelines for water recycling. Water Sci Technol 43(10):1–8 12. Page D, Dillon P, Toze S, Bixio D, Genthe B, Cisneros BEJ, Wintgens T (2010) Valuing the subsurface pathogen treatment barrier in water recycling via aquifers for drinking supplies. Water Res 44(6):1841–1852 13. Li F, Wichmann K, Otterpohl R (2009) Review of the technological approaches for grey water treatment and reuses. Sci Total Environ 407(11):34393449 14. Glieck PH (2000) The changing water paradigm, a look at twenty-first century water resource development. Water Int 25(1):127–138 15. Nzila A, Razzak SA, Zhu J (2016) Bioaugmentation: an emerging strategy of industrial wastewater treatment for reuse and discharge. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13(9):846 16. Guest JS, Skerlos SJ, Barnard JL, Beck MB, Daigger GT, Hilger H, Mihelcic JR (2009) A new planning and design paradigm to achieve sustainable resource recovery from wastewater 17. Hartley TW (2006) Public perception and participation in water reuse. Desalination 187(1– 3):115–126 18. Hurlimann A, Hemphill E, McKay J, Geursen G (2008) Establishing components of community satisfaction with recycled water use through a structural equation model. J Environ Manage 88(4):1221–1232 19. East. Radcliffe JC (2006) Future directions for water recycling in Australia. Desalination 187(1– 3):77–87

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Index

B Bioenergy, 111–113

C Coagulation/Flocculation, 45, 46, 49 Contaminants, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 16, 18, 21, 22, 35, 36, 39, 43, 45, 53, 55, 64, 65, 86, 90, 92, 94, 101, 103, 105, 108 Corona discharge, 54–58, 63–66, 68, 69

D Degradation, 7, 25, 58–61, 65–69, 81, 86, 90–92, 95

E Ecosystem services, 113, 114 Electrochemical filtration, 47

G Ground Water, 3, 7, 8, 105, 114–116

H High Performance Liquid Chromatography, 12, 13, 67, 68

I Industrial wastewater, 7, 68, 69, 76, 77, 99, 100, 102, 107–109, 112–115 M Membrane technology, 101, 103 O Ozonation, 43, 44 P Photo bioreactors, 83–86 Photocatalysis, 65, 86, 90, 91, 93, 94 R Recycling, 21, 23, 36, 74–76, 99–102, 104–110, 115 S Simulated and real wastewater, 86 Sludge removal, 44, 48 U Uv-visible spectrometer, 11

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 M. S. Tahir et al., Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology, Water Resources Development and Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1187-5

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120 W Wastewater, 1–7, 9–11, 16–21, 23, 24–29, 35–40, 42–49, 53–55, 64–66, 68, 69, 73–78, 81, 84–86, 89, 90, 92–94, 99–102, 104, 105, 107–109, 111–115

Index Water, 1–7, 12, 15–18, 20, 21, 24–26, 28, 29, 35, 36, 38–49, 53, 61–66, 68, 73–78, 81, 83, 89–93, 99–110, 114–116