Advances in Design, Music and Arts II: 8th International Meeting of Research in Music, Arts and Design, EIMAD 2022, July 7–9, 2022 (Springer Series in Design and Innovation, 25) [1st ed. 2023] 3031096584, 9783031096587

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Springer Series in Design and Innovation 25

Daniel Raposo · João Neves · Ricardo Silva · Luísa Correia Castilho · Rui Dias   Editors

Advances in Design, Music and Arts II 8th International Meeting of Research in Music, Arts and Design, EIMAD 2022, July 7–9, 2022

Springer Series in Design and Innovation Volume 25

Editor-in-Chief Francesca Tosi, University of Florence, Florence, Italy Series Editors Claudio Germak, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy Francesco Zurlo, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy Zhi Jinyi, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China Marilaine Pozzatti Amadori, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Maurizio Caon

, University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Fribourg, Switzerland

Springer Series in Design and Innovation (SSDI) publishes books on innovation and the latest developments in the fields of Product Design, Interior Design and Communication Design, with particular emphasis on technological and formal innovation, and on the application of digital technologies and new materials. The series explores all aspects of design, e.g. Human-Centered Design/User Experience, Service Design, and Design Thinking, which provide transversal and innovative approaches oriented on the involvement of people throughout the design development process. In addition, it covers emerging areas of research that may represent essential opportunities for economic and social development. In fields ranging from the humanities to engineering and architecture, design is increasingly being recognized as a key means of bringing ideas to the market by transforming them into user-friendly and appealing products or services. Moreover, it provides a variety of methodologies, tools and techniques that can be used at different stages of the innovation process to enhance the value of new products and services. The series’ scope includes monographs, professional books, advanced textbooks, selected contributions from specialized conferences and workshops, and outstanding Ph.D. theses. The volumes of the series are single-blind peer-reviewed. Keywords: Product and System Innovation; Product design; Interior design; Communication Design; Human-Centered Design/User Experience; Service Design; Design Thinking; Digital Innovation; Innovation of Materials. How to submit proposals Proposals must include: title, keywords, presentation (max 10,000 characters), table of contents, chapter abstracts, editors’/authors’ CV. In case of proceedings, chairmen/editors are requested to submit the link to conference website (incl. relevant information such as committee members, topics, key dates, keynote speakers, information about the reviewing process, etc.), and approx. number of papers. Proposals must be sent to: series editor Prof. Francesca Tosi (francesca.tosi@unifi.it) and/or publishing editor Mr. Pierpaolo Riva ([email protected]).

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/16270

Daniel Raposo João Neves Ricardo Silva Luísa Correia Castilho Rui Dias •

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Editors

Advances in Design, Music and Arts II 8th International Meeting of Research in Music, Arts and Design, EIMAD 2022, July 7–9, 2022

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Editors Daniel Raposo Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Castelo Branco, Portugal

João Neves Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Castelo Branco, Portugal

Ricardo Silva Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Castelo Branco, Portugal

Luísa Correia Castilho Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Castelo Branco, Portugal

Rui Dias Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Castelo Branco, Portugal

ISSN 2661-8184 ISSN 2661-8192 (electronic) Springer Series in Design and Innovation ISBN 978-3-031-09658-7 ISBN 978-3-031-09659-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

This book is a chapter’s collection resulting from the double-blind peer-review process under the scientific program of the 8th EIMAD 2022, International Meeting of Research in Music, Arts and Design, that took place on July 7–9, 2022, in Castelo Branco, Portugal, as a hybrid conference. At a time when the pandemic caused by COVID-19 has shaken up the idea of the global village and the dilution of land borders and when the world geopolitical situation is re-launching the debate on globalization, EIMAD continues to fulfill its mission to disseminate, leverage, and promote research in the fields of design, music, arts, and their intersections. EIMAD has resumed its physical format, while maintaining the possibility of remote online participation, increasing the participation of researchers from a greater number of countries. As in previous editions, EIMAD continues to grow, revealing itself to be a point of sharing knowledge, experiences, processes, and research results in the area of design, music, and its intersections. In this year’s edition, the number and origin of the participants once again emphasize the importance that EIMAD has for the academic community and designers. In this year’s meeting, we gathered, among paper and poster authors, a total of 162 participants, with diverse origins. We have authors from Thailand, Malaysia, and India. From the American continent, there are representatives from Brazil, Ecuador, and the United States of America. From Europe, besides Portugal, Italy, Northern Ireland, Spain, Germany, and Switzerland stand out. Such a number of participants reinforce the identity of an increasingly global EIMAD and where design, which is resilient in the face of vicissitudes, knows no borders. EIMAD maintains its open matrix that integrates investigative processes in specific research lines alongside those and transdisciplinary ones. And this idea has been amplified by the combination of the 8th EIMAD to the New European Bauhaus initiative, promoted by the European Commission, aiming to combine a movement with human, aesthetic, and cultural sense to the EU climate transition.

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Therefore, the 8th EIMAD also intends to promote, publicize, and value the need for research, projects, and line of actions on sustainability, aesthetics, and inclusion. Thus, the four keynote speakers were in line to the New European Bauhaus main concepts, as well as we can find innumerous links in the research advances proposed by different authors. In this book, you will find research results, different approaches, new knowledge advances about social and technical issues in design, music, arts, concerning the professional practice, teaching, and education and its impact on people quality of life, culture, marketplaces, and governance. Book’s chapters are organized into five sections: – – – – –

Communication Design, Design Education, and Thinking Fashion Design Interior and Product Design Music, Musicology, and Music Education Design, Music, Arts, Culture, and Society

The first section deals with points such as the designer is a catalyst agent of the strategy, who integrates and brings together people and ideas around the place branding, which in turn contributes to the sense of place and to affirm and position it and, in the same sense, the way visual identity design serves as an interpretation and argument of the identity of a territory. This section also addresses major issues such as the student learning curve depending on design methods and the importance of the importance of visual thinking to boost the generation of ideas. On the other hand, specific themes are put forward, such as how the use of genres, such as comedy, romance, and suspense, in sexualized advertising affects self-perceptions of young adults and how design can catalyze digital technologies and innovate ways of involving the public in new museum experiences, promoting accessibility and inclusion of people; a diagnosis or framework of the existing personal health management apps and the use of icons for seniors in the perspective of digital literacy; the impact of editorial design on meaning and visual communication and the use of semiotics to analyze cover design of a magazine; contributes to the history of graphic design by analyzing vinyl record covers; how the incorporation of presence into media was developed through montage aesthetic as a leading artist practice; and about typography are advanced studies on the use of modular sets of type in letterpress and modularity processes as well of the use of new algorithmics approaches in typeface design. The second section presents advances on fashion design, namely how the seven lessons of Edgar Morin can help to address the issues and challenges of fashion design education and, also, some definition of the key skills for the textile designer to respond to contemporary challenges, namely environmental, social, economic, and cultural; a study correlating the age of fashion designers with inclusion of components of the Country Cultural Identity into their brands; in another perspective, how audiovisual narratives or virtual scenarios impacted contemporary

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dressing imagery and which are the most relevant ideas for consumers of fashion products on co-creation; the study of genderless fashion design using the triangulation method; an academic approach on Trend Studies, and advances on circular economy, such as a proposal for producing new fabric from recycling materials or the development of biodegradable buttons from eating waste; innovation processes as a proposal for bio-based textiles from agricultural and forest biomass for local development; and perspectives on intercultural experience involving international designers and local craftsmen. The third section includes issues on interior and product design, such as a discussion on the design method as a hermeneutic process and a cooperative participation considering Tomas Maldonado, Brief History of Commercial Physical Space as fundamental element in Interior Design, the process of rationalization in the design of kitchens over time; new perspectives about the workplace after the pandemic context and the occurred changes in product design and particularly on furniture design to improve new forms of collaborative work, and a study about the pandemic impact over human spaces and Television Set Design; new developments between design, business, and the performing arts sector as a way for innovation and systemic lighting products; an Ergodesign approach for a modular Backpack for Children; and a comparative analysis between woods used for xylophone bars manufacture and a sustainable proposal for a new Oriented Particle Board made from Bambusa Vulgaris. The fourth section addresses topics regarding research on music and sound, presenting three main groups, namely music, musicology, and music education. The first group introduces three chapters from different areas of research, comprising a thorough depiction on the guitar playing and cultural idiosyncrasies of jazz manouche, an insight and ongoing research on the negotiation process in studio recording sessions, and an approach to the digital modeling of dynamic tridimensional shapes with the use of audio signals. The following four chapters are dedicated to musicological studies, with a specific focus on historical musicology, in chapter forty-three, with a study on how Portuguese music in the eighteenth century was apprehended by German travelers, and musical iconography in the three following chapters, namely with the depiction of the paintings on the ceiling of the Church of Santa Maria Maior in the city of Covilhã, Portugal, the study of use of the image of Saint Cecilia, patron saint of music and musicians, in Baroque paintings in Portugal, and finally an encompassing proposal of an history of Portugal through images, stating the relevance of musical iconography’s role in history studies. The last seven chapters of this section, from chapter forty-seven, are dedicated to research in Music Education and Performance, starting with a study on bodily movements in saxophone performance, by analyzing audio, motion, and video capture data of the player during the performance. The next chapter studies the role of perfectionism in Music Performance Anxiety in piano majors in China, aiming to access the negative effects of a potentially unhealthy perfectionism due to extreme concerns and competition among piano students; next, a search for new creative approaches in music theory education through musical theater as a pedagogic

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resource, followed by a study with a focus on the awareness of emotional intelligence and self-regulation in musical performance and education; following, a survey and analysis of the teaching-learning process of music education, and the last two chapters which focus on instrument teaching, namely a thorough survey on violin teaching methods used in Italy and a study on how the selection of the repertoire influences the progress of the student learning the viola. Finally, the fifth section deals with intersections between design, music, arts, and other disciplines with impact on culture and society and a proposal on how transdisciplinary approaches between art, crafts, and design contribute to the conceptual evolution of each of the sectors or the impact of the confluence of different disciplines—graphics, technical–scientific disciplines, music, and visual arts—to the design project; a study on the correlations between jewelry and sculptures; the proposal for an action model of collaborative design to stimulate innovation, utility, and safeguarding of a craftsmanship know-how and heritage; the potential of teacher-generated drawings as a strategy in theory instruction of designers; a cultural route about Miguel Torga’s places of memory in Coimbra, connecting city and literature, positioning the design as a cultural mediator; and a discussion on visual resistance and activism in Thailand. Throughout these five sections, perspectives are presented covering areas such as health and well-being, art, teaching, culture, history, heritage, innovation, and democracy, forming a cohesive book that can be read as a whole or by parts, but is relevant to any researcher, teacher, or practitioner. Daniel Raposo João Neves Ricardo Silva Luísa Correia Castilho Rui Dias

Organization

Conference Chairs Daniel Raposo João Neves Ricardo Silva Luísa Correia Castilho Rui Dias

ESART—School of Applied Arts, Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal ESART—School of Applied Arts, Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal ESART—School of Applied Arts, Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal ESART—School of Applied Arts, Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal ESART—School of Applied Arts, Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal

Honorary Committee António Fernandes Emília Duarte Francisco Rui Cádima

Helena Pereira João Neves João Pedro Costa

President of the Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco (IPCB) President of the Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação (UNIDCOM/IADE) Coordinator of Centro de Investigação em Informação, Comunicação e Cultura Digital (CIC.Digital – Pólo FCSH/Nova) President of the Directive Council of Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) Coordinator of Grupo de investigação em Design para o Território (RETHINK) President of the Centro de Investigação em Arquitectura, Urbanismo e Design (CIAUD/FA–ULisboa)

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João Soeiro de Carvalho

Manuel Pedro Ferreira Mariana Amatullo Phillip Kalantzis-Cope Vasco Branco

Organization

President of Instituto de Etnomusicologia— Centro de Estudos em Música e Dança (INET-md), (FCSH-UNL) President of Centro de Estudos de Sociologia e Estética Musical (CESEM) President of Cumulus Association Chief Social Scientist Common Ground Research Networks (Common Ground) Director of Instituto de Investigação em Design, Media e Cultura (ID+)

Scientific Committee Graphic Design Álvaro Sousa Ana Filomena Curralo Ana Luísa Marques Ana Paula Gaspar Ana Sabino Anna Talley António Lacerda Carlos Rosa Catarina Grácio Moura Cátia Rijo Cristina Pinheiro Cristina Portugal Daniel Brandão Daniel Raposo Elga Ferreira Elisabete Rolo Fernando Oliveira Fernando Suárez-Carballo Gonçalo Falcão Helena Barbosa Helena Lobo Joana Lessa João Brandão João Neves Jorge dos Reis José Silva Karel van der Waarde Leonardo Springer Luís Ferreira Luísa Barreto

UA, Portugal IPVC, Portugal IADE - U, Portugal ESTGP-IPP, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal EU, UK ESE-UAlg, Portugal IADE-U, Portugal UBI, Portugal ESE-IPL, Portugal IADE-U, Portugal SBDI, Portugal UMinho, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESAD.CR–IPL, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal IADE-U, Portugal UPSA, Spain ESART-IPCB e FA-ULisboa, Portugal UA, Portugal HL, Portugal ESE-UAlg, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal FBA-ULisboa, Portugal UÉvora, Portugal SUT, Belgium ISEC, Portugal UA, Portugal ESAD.CR – IPL, Portugal

Organization

Luísa Costa Mafalda Sofia Almeida Marco Neves Maria Cadarso Nuno Coelho Nuno Martins Oriol Moret Paula Tavares Pedro Amado Pedro Serapicos Prajakta Parvatikar Priscila Farias Rita Coelho Robin Turner Sheila Gonzalez-Mardones Susana Barreto Teresa Cabral Tiago Marques Vera Barradas Vítor Quelhas

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ISMTCoimbra, Portugal IPCB e UBI, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal IADE-U, Portugal UC, Portugal IPCA, Portugal UB, Spain ESD-IPCA, Portugal FBA-UP, Portugal ESMAD, Portugal RS.CAAC, India USP, Brazil ESMAD, Portugal GDC, South Africa UB, Spain FBA-UP, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal UÉvora, Portugal ESTG-IPP, Portugal ESMAD-IPP, Portugal

Interior and Furniture Design Ana Margarida Ferreira Cláudia Albino Carlos Alho Catarina Rito Ermanno Aparo Fernando Miguel Marques Francisco Peixoto Alves Giuseppe Vaccaro Graça Pedroso Jan Eckert Joana Quental João Placido da Silva Joaquim Bonifácio Costa José Manuel dos Santos José Silveira Dias Liliana Aparo Maria João Félix Marinella Ferrara Mónica Romãozinho Mafalda Casais Paulo Maldonado

IADE-UE, Portugal UA, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal ULusófona, Portugal IPVC, Portugal ISEC, Portugal ULusiada, Portugal UN “Federico II”, Italy IPCB, Portugal Scdh, Switzerland UA, Portugal UFU, Brazil ESART- IPCB, Portugal AS, USA FA-ULisboa, Portugal IPVC, Portugal ESD-IPCA, Portugal POLIMI, Italy UBI, Portugal CIAUD, Portugal UÉvora, Portugal

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Pedro Oliveira Suzana Gonzaga Teresa Fanqueira

Organization

IADE-U, Portugal UMA, Portugal UA, Portugal

Clothing and Textile Design Alexandra Cabral Alexandra Cruchinho Ana Cristina Broega Carla Morais Caroline Loss Cristina Broega Cristina Carvalho Cristiane Mesquita Giovanni Conti Joana Cunha Madalena Pereira Margarida Fernandes Maria Antonietta Sbordone Rafaela Norogrando Regina Sanches Rui Miguel Sandra Regina Rech Selma Pereira Sílvia Barros de Held Yoád David Luxembourg

FA-ULisboa, Portugal ULusofona, Portugal UMinho, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal UBI, Portugal UMinho, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal UAnhembi, Brazil POLIMI, Italy UMinho, Portugal UBI, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal UC Luigi Vanvitelli, Italy UBI, Portugal USP, Brazil UBI, Portugal UDESC, Brazil IPCB, Portugal USP, Brazil UBI, Portugal

Music/Music Education Adélia Abrunhosa Amparo Carvas Ana Isabel Pereira Ana Luísa Veloso Ana Telles António Sousa Dias Carlos Canhoto Almeida Carlos Luíz Cristina Fernandes Diogo Alvim Elisa Lessa Enrique Muñoz Filipe Lopes Francisco Rodilla Gilberto Bernardes Inês Thomas Almeida

ESART-IPCB, Portugal UC & IPC, Portugal FCSH.UNL, Portugal ESSE-IPP, Portugal UÉvora, Portugal FBA-UL, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESEC/IPC, Portugal FCSH.UNL, Portugal FCSH.UNL, Portugal UMinho, Portugal UAM, Spain ESMAD-IPP, Portugal Unex, Spain FE-UP, Portugal FCSH.UNL, Portugal

Organization

Javier Marín-López João Cordeiro João Delgado José Alberto Gomes José Francisco Pinho José Raimundo Luísa Correia Castilho Luisa Tender Luzia Rocha Marco Conceição María Elena Riaño Galán Maria Helena Vieira Mauro Dilema Noemy Berbel-Gómez Paulo Esteireiro Rui Dias Sara Carvalho Vera Fonte Vincent Debut Yurima Blanco García

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UJAEN, Spain IPORTUGALomar/ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal UCP, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal FCSH.UNL, Portugal ESMAE-IPP, Portugal UCantabria, Spain UMinho, Portugal UÉvora, Portugal UIB, Spain NOVA/FCSH, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal UAveiro, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal Uva, Spain

Other Themes Ana Moreira da Silva Ana Sofia Marcelo Azucena Hernández Martín Bartolomeu Paiva Carla Suzana Dias Catarina Lelis Cristina Caramelo Gomes Emília Duarte Fátima Pombo Fernando Manuel Raposo Fernando Moreira da Silva Francisco Paiva Francisco Rebelo João Machado José Bártolo Katja Tschimmel Krasimira Drumeva Madalena Ribeiro Maria Caeiro Guerreiro Magdalena Kochanowska Nelson Zagalo

ULusíada, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal USAL, Spain ESE-IPC, Portugal IPCA, Portugal UA, Portugal ULusíada, Portugal IADE-U, Portugal UA, Portugal IPCB, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal UBI, Portugal FMH-ULisboa, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal ESAD, Portugal FE-UP, Portugal UNI-VT, Bulgaria ESART-IPCB, Portugal UAlg, Portugal ASP.WAW, Ponand UA, Portugal

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Olga Glumac Paulo Noriega Penousal Machado Ricardo J. Nunes Silva Rita Almendra Salviano Pinto Soares Sara Gancho Teemu Leinonen Valéria Feijó Victoria Carrillo

Organization

LoCY, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal U.Coimbra, Portugal ESART-IPCB, Portugal FA-ULisboa, Portugal UTAD, Portugal IADE-U, Portugal AU, Finland UFSC, Brazil UNEX, Spain

Contents

Communication Design, Design Education and Thinking The Role of Designers in City Branding Process: A Conceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paula Malamud, Marco Neves, and Gabriel Patrocinio

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Problematics of a Territorial Brand Visual Identity Creation: Portalegre Territory as a Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Joaquim Elias Martins, Cátia Rijo, and Vera Barradas

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Learning by Design - Learning by Exposing My Design Methods . . . . . Carla Paoliello, Ana Lia Santos, and Ana Thudichum Vasconcelos

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Visual Thinking Through Practice Led Research: Case Study Decryption as a Triggering Creative Mechanism for Design Ideas . . . . . Cátia Rijo, Helena Grácio, Javier Antón, and Victor Larripa

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Frame of Mind: The Genres of Sexualized Advertising Influencing an 18 years-Old’s Self-perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paige Coote and Catarina Lelis

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New Horizons of Museum Experiences: Between Physical and Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stefania Palmieri, Mario Bisson, Giuseppe Rubino, and Alessandro Ianniello A Comparison Review of Existing Personal Health Management Apps in the Portuguese Health Sector Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Óscar T. Viana, Miguel Terroso, Cristiana Serejo, and João L. Vilaça Iconography Design for Digital Applications Developed for the Elderly or Senior User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leonardo Pereira, Nuno Martins, Sérgio Dominique Ferreira, João Neves, José Silva, and Daniel Brandão

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The Contribution of the Printed Editorial Object: Wrong Wrong Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Rita Correia and Vítor Quelhas Vogue Magazine Cover Pages During the Pandemic – The Drama of Illustrations and Fonts: A Semiotic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Surya Bharath, V. Bhanu Rekha, and K. Gowri Mediations Between Images, Words and Sounds: An Analysis of Graphic Design in the Record Label Orfeu (1966–1983) . . . . . . . . . . 138 José Bártolo The Montage, Time and Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Kenneth Feinstein TIMOS a Modular Speculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Ângelo Gonçalves and Vítor Quelhas Typography Design: An Algorithmic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Ana Filomena Curralo Fashion Design The 7 Complex Lessons from Edgar Morin Applied in Fashion Design Education for Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Fernanda Enéia Schulz, Luiza Honorato Freire, and Joana Luisa Ferreira Loureço da Cunha Technology Epiphany and Knitwear Design. Critical Perspectives and Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Giulia Lo Scocco Where is Textile Design in Portugal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Sónia Seixas, Gianni Montagna, and Maria João Félix Color in Sustainable Fashion: A Reflection on the Importance of Design Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Livia Lara, Isabel Cabral, and Joana Cunha The Cultural Identity of a Country as a Competitive Factor in Fashion Design: The Impact of Academic Education on the Construction of National Brands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Catarina Rito, Madalena Pereira, and Alexandra Cruchinho The Metaverse Narrative in the Matrix Resurrections: A Semiotic Analysis Through Costumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Ana Claudia Alcantara and Daniel Luiz Michalack

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Studying Genderless Fashion Design: Triangulation Method in Fashion Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Benilde Reis, Madalena Pereira, Nuno A. Jerónimo, and Susana Azevedo Consumer Involvement and Ideologies on the Co-creation of Fashion Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Paulo Martins, Rui Miguel, Liliana Pina, and Madalena Pereira Trends in the Fashion Sector: An Analysis of Their Use and Paths for the Researcher Profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Layla de Brito Mendes, Ana Cristina Broega, and Nelson Pinheiro Gomes Fashion Design Out of Waste: Cradle to Cradle Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Roberto Liberti, Rosanna Veneziano, and Giuseppina Carozza Proposal for Producing New Fabric Through the Use of Fabric Scraps Discarded by Ibitinga Clothing Manufacturers: A Brazilian Example of Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Regina Aparecida Sanches, Rafael Rocha, and Adriana Yumi Sato Duarte New Sustainable Materials for the Fashion Industry: The Button in the Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Junior Costa and Ana Cristina Broega From Farm to Clothes. Design for New Bio-Based Textiles Productions from Local Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Sbordone Maria Antonietta, Amato Carmela Ilenia, De Luca Alessandra, and Merola Venere Italian Designers for Yucatan Industries. Designing Intercultural Knowledge Transfer for Fashion Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Martina Motta and Giovanni Maria Conti Interior and Product Design Being Tomas Maldonado: Designing Transversal and Cooperative Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Liliana Soares and Ermanno Aparo Interior Design a Brief History of Commercial Physical Space: The Sensory Relationship with the Viewer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Eliana Zmyslowski, Gilbertto Prado, and Suzete Venturelli The Process of Rationalization in Kitchen Design Processes and Methodologies in a Company Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Carla Lourenço and Mónica Romãozinho On Site or Remote? A Time to Reimagine the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Cristina Caramelo Gomes

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The Local Dimension in Design Products During a Pandemic Time: Reflection on Intra-territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Carla Paoliello and Lia Krucken Designing Furniture for Versatile Spaces of Collaborative Work. Covid-19 Accelerating the Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Rita Cruz and Fátima Pombo Television Broadcasts in the Time of COVID-19 Pandemic: Spatial Adaptations in the Scenography of Brazilians Infotainment Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Raquel Vianna Duarte Cardoso, Viviane Cruz e Silva, and José Jorge Boueri Design for Systemic Lighting Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Liliana Soares, Ermanno Aparo, Rita Almendra, and Fernando Moreira da Silva Modular Backpack Project for Children – An Ergodesign Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 Paulo Demétrio Santos, Francisco Rebelo, Fernando Moreira da Silva, and Paula Mercedes das Neves Brief Physical-Mechanical Characterization of Wood from Maranhão for the Manufacture of Xylophone Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 David Guilhon, Helton de Jesus Costa Leite Bezerra, Anna Karen Lima Lourenço, and Olímpio Jose Pinheiro Analysis of the Physical and Colors Addition Characteristics in the Particles with Bixa Orellana and Blue Textile Dye for Feasibility of Production of the Oriented Particleboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 Fabio A. Moizes, Ivaldo Valarelli, and João Carlos R. Plácido Silva Music, Musicology and Music Education Listening for Cultural Clues in Jazz Manouche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Leon Bucaretchi and Vincent Debut A Phenomenological Approach on the Negotiation in Recording Sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Gilvano Dalagna, Clarissa Foletto, Marco Conceição, Baishali Sarkar, Luís Bittencourt, and Samuel Peruzzolo Vieira Metamodeling and Audio Signals Design Process, for the Encounter Between Sound and Changing Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Alonso Peñaherrera, Oriol Ventura, and Sheila Gonzalez-Mardones

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Bias or Factuality? Music in Majestic Representation and Public State Ceremonies in Late 18th Century Portugal, as Seen by German Travellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Inês Thomas Almeida Medieval and Renaissance Echoes in the 20th Century: Iconography, Memory, and Identity on the Ceiling of the Church of Santa Maria Maior, Covilhã (Portugal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Luísa Correia Castilho, Carlos dos Santos-Luiz, and José Carlos Oliveira Saint Cecilia in Baroque Painting in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Sónia Duarte A History of Portugal Through Images: The Role of Musical Iconography in the Conception of Symbology’s of Narration, Meaning and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Luzia Aurora Rocha How Do Saxophonists Communicate Through Bodily Behavior? A Contribution to Embodied Performance Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Nádia Moura, João Paulo Vilas-Boas, and Sofia Serra The Role of Perfectionism in Music Performance Anxiety Within University Piano Majors in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 Yang Yang, Franziska Schroeder, and Matthew Rodger Learning Music Theory Through Musical Theatre During a Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Pedro Gazalho Martins and Luísa Correia Castilho Emotional Intelligence and Self-regulation in the Teaching and Learning Process of Music Ensemble with Singing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Mariana Picado, Cristina Pereira, and Luísa Correia Castilho Teacher Profile vs Student Profile: Processes of Teaching-Learning in the Subject of Music Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Filipa Maria Castilho and Cristina Pereira Violin Methods in Musical Education in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753 Pierangela Palma, Carlos Javier Fernández Cobo, and Enrique Muñoz The Influence of the Repertoire on the Student’s Progress of the Viola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Bruno Pavão, Luísa Correia Castilho, and David Wyn Lloyd Design, Music, Arts, Culture and Society Considerations Regarding the Concepts: Art, Crafts and Design . . . . . . 797 Maria Sílvia Barros de Held and Carlos Alberto de Assunção Alho

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“A Serious Plane Crash”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 Santi Centineo Building Interactions Through Participative Methodologies: Co-creation Between Crafts and Design in an Academic Context . . . . . 829 Helena Grácio, Miguel de Aboim Borges, and Cátia Rijo Teacher-Generated Drawing Strategy - Green Rice Served at the Last Supper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Rui Barreira, Susana Campos, and Maria João Félix Elements for the Design of a Literary Route: Miguel Torga in Coimbra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859 Maria Luísa Costa Hacking the Thai Regime of Images: Visual Activism in Post-coup Thailand (2014–20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 Nigel Power Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887

Communication Design, Design Education and Thinking

The Role of Designers in City Branding Process: A Conceptual Model Paula Malamud1(B) , Marco Neves1 , and Gabriel Patrocinio2,3 1 CIAUD, Research Centre for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário do Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisboa, Portugal [email protected] 2 ISMAT, Portimão, Portugal 3 IFHT, UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

Abstract. City branding is a governance strategy that, based on the identity of a city, aims to generate attractiveness for external public (visitors, investors, talents) and quality of life for internal public (citizens). Its process involves several steps and multidisciplinary teams, which interact with residents and other stakeholders from the political, economic, and social spheres. It is an activity with a transforming capacity of people and places, the same way as design. From this convergence, this study aims to understand the role of designers in a city branding process. We followed an explanatory multiple case study, mapping and decoding the development of the brands of Mississauga (Canada), Eindhoven (Netherlands), Cascais (Portugal) and Porto Alegre (Brazil), as well as the interventions of designers throughout the processes. As a result, it was possible to develop a conceptual model, describing three essential designer’s roles in city branding: articulator, strategist, and activator, delivering relationships, strategy, artefacts, communication, and services. Keywords: City branding · Place branding process · Design process · Design for territories · Place branding strategy

1 Introduction Place branding is a governance strategy [1], “to link place identity and perceived images through memorable place experiences and projected images” [2]. It is a transforming activity capable of bringing structural changes and, consequently, benefits residents [3]. On the other hand, design is also considered a transforming activity [4]. It goes beyond a problem-solving function [5], becoming increasingly transversal and multidisciplinary, dealing with abstract and intangible issues [6]. Considering that both design and place branding are transformative activities, this study aims to understand their convergence. We used a case study methodology, analyzing four municipalities where place branding was carried out and the respective contributions of the designers. We mapped and described the place branding process for cities (city branding) since the context that boosted it to its current management. We also mapped how and when © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 3–16, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_1

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designers’ interventions took place. As a result, it was possible to find similarities and differences between processes and describe three essential roles played by designers in city branding. Then, we summarized these roles in a conceptual model.

2 Design, Territory, and People Place branding is a complex, multidisciplinary discipline that involves multiple actors to create a unique experience based on the identity of the place. It deals with connections between people and places [7]. It has evolved in theory and practice. In the first phase, around the 2000s, its concepts were still confused with place marketing, and it was based on corporate branding techniques, aiming at communication and promotion of places [8]. After 2010, practitioners and academics found that to build authentic place brands and ensure project effectiveness, stakeholders [9] and residents [10, 11] had to be part of it. Processes became more inclusive and participatory [12]. In the current phase, the purpose of place branding is not only to generate attractiveness for external public (tourists, investors or talents), but also to create actions for internal public (residents), generating quality of life and territorial development [3]. Place branding is conceived with people (stakeholders in the political, economic, and social spheres) and for people (internal and external audiences). It faces challenges such as generating consensus among multiple stakeholders and dealing with the intrinsic dynamism of a place. Hence, it is relevant to understand how designers can tackle territorial challenges through their attitudes, processes, approaches, and tools. According to Margolin [13] design activity was once known for creating the visual appearance of products. However, now it is being recognized for its work in design for services and public and private organizations. Specializations such as experience design, social design, and design for sustainability have emerged. The designer’s work embraces projects that improve urban life, performing on three levels: micro-level (individual), meso-level (groups) and macro-level (governments, international organizations, and large companies). Place branding also involves making territories more resilient and sustainable. Regarding to design for sustainability, Ceschin and Gaziulusoy [14] also categorizes in four levels how design can contribute for innovation: 1) product: improving existing or developing new products, 2) product-service system: developing integrated combinations of products and services, 3) spatio-social: improving spatio-social conditions of communities, and 4) socio-technical system: promoting radical changes on societal needs. In the field of design for territory, Maffei and Villari [15] consider that design is a strategic tool that allows leveraging local processes by connecting skills, knowledge and creative resources to build meaning and value for communities. The designers’ action can occur at three levels: relationship level, making connections with the community; at the strategic design level building future scenarios; and finally, at the level of creating artefacts as a product-services system, to implement the strategy. The relationship with communities is also highlighted by Manzini [16]. Designers can work with communities through co-design and participatory processes, constructing

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shared visions. Designers also work for communities, intervening in the context of the services and artefacts. For the Design Council [17], design is the connection between different sectors. Within a systemic perspective, where there are multidisciplinary teams around a common issue, designers can play four roles: 1) System thinker: visualizes how everything is interconnected in a macro view; 2) Leader and Storyteller: makes the work possible, obtaining support from all levels; 3) Designer and Maker: understands the power of design and innovation tools and has creative and technical skills to make things happen; and 4) Connector and Convener: has ability for relationships, able to connect people of different profiles. It is worth mentioning that what differentiates a professional designer is their set of technical and cognitive skills to problem-solving, sensemaking, making things visible and tangible, and making things effective and meaningful [18].

3 Case Study Through this study, we intended to understand the building process of municipal brands in their historical context and the interventions of designers along the process. The aim was to map steps, methodologies, participants, the designers’ contribution and their relationship with other professionals and stakeholders involved. We used the explanatory multiple case study methodology, which aims to propose explanations for the same set of events and indicate how to replicate it. It also aims to observe a phenomenon within its context, analyzing the facts in-depth and understanding ‘how’ and ‘why’ they occurred [19]. In this research, we followed the four macro steps that encompass the case study methodology: 1) planning, 2) data collection, 3) analysis and 4) conclusion. 1) Planning First, we elaborated a protocol that provided guidelines for the research, with six guiding questions: 1) What was the context that boosted city branding? 2) What was the strategic goal of city branding? 3) How was the branding process? 4) What are the main challenges of the project? 5) What were the results? 6) How did designers participate in the place branding process? Then, we selected four case studies. According to Anholt [20], it is possible to apply place branding in places of different scales: neighborhoods, regions, cities and nations. However, cities are different from countries. They usually do not have a strong political influence on their image, even when they are known to be the seat of a national government. Cities tend to have the same degree of challenges and complexity and follow the same structure and political hierarchy. Therefore, we chose to analyze only cases of city branding. We used as primary selection criterion municipalities that were not the political or economic capital of the country. In other words, places needing a city branding strategy to differentiate themselves from other national competitors. In addition, we looked for a diversity of locations: municipalities in different countries that had various forms of intervention by designers. We also used as criterion cases in which the management was still active.

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Thus, the municipalities of Cascais (Portugal), Eindhoven (Netherlands), Porto Alegre (Brazil) and Mississauga (Canada) were defined. 2) Data collection To obtain different data sources, we conducted semi-structured interviews and secondary data research (desk research): documents, produced literature, reports, schedules, brand manuals, news, among others. We prioritized selecting the most representative interviewees who had participated in the building process of the local brand, including designers, brand managers, strategists, and public managers. 3) Analysis The third stage of the methodology aimed to decode, systematize, and analyze the information. First, we elaborated a systematization of the content having as parameter concepts described in the literature review. For this purpose, we developed an analysis tool that describes the main stages of city branding, the designers, their roles, their types of intervention and their relationship with other professionals involved. After decoding in matrices, we developed a comparative analysis of the cases, observing pattern matching and associations. Finally, we created diagrams that allowed a synthetic and objective view of the main findings of the analyzed cases. 4) Conclusion As a result, it was possible to understand the similarities and differences between the processes, the main challenges of city branding and especially the roles of designers in the process. The last step of the methodology refers to the conclusions and limitations of the study.

4 City Branding: Development and Implementation of Municipal Brands 4.1 Cascais, Portugal Context. The project was born in 2010 when the Cascais City Council asked a branding agency to produce a film to publicize the municipality of Cascais at the 2nd Estoril Conference. This event brought together national and international leaders. However, the political team did not have a clear idea of what this film was supposed to express. The branding agency realized the issue’s depth and proposed going beyond the briefing. It was not just a promotional film but a place branding project to leverage the territory’s attractiveness. They then suggested developing the brand’s strategic plan, and the City Council agrees. Goals. After deep research, the branding agency developed the brand’s strategic plan describing the territory’s vocation and differential. Next, they prepared a report defining the positioning of quality of life and high prestige as the axes. The objective was to affirm the municipality as one of Portugal’s most dynamic, competitive, and driving forces to attract new residents to develop their professional activity there. The priority target audience were self-employed professionals and families, national and international, from middle to upper-middle class, to work and live in Cascais. Process. The branding agency prepares a ten-year action plan, encompassing from revitalizing urban space to organizing events with a focus on gastronomy and art.

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The Cascais Municipality partially implemented the plan until 2014, when a repositioning took place. A second branding agency carried out a study on the perception of the Estoril brand, which belonged to Cascais, but was advertised independently, focusing on tourism. They concluded that it was better to eliminate the Estoril brand and strengthen the Cascais brand, which should communicate to both the external public (tourists) and the internal public (citizens). The second branding agency develops a new visual identity system still present today. The concept of quality of life remains. In 2022. The communication division of the City Council is currently responsible for brand activation. Its team is made up of 15 designers and professionals from other areas. Their work includes developing communication material, exhibitions, street furniture, signage, products, marketing campaigns and graphic interaction material (physical or digital) with citizens, tourists, and other audiences. Specialized companies are hired for more complex projects, such as systems or services, indirectly involving designers.

4.2 Eindhoven, Netherlands Context. Eindhoven is a city of industrial profile, without attractions such as castles or historical centers, like others in the Netherlands. Its history is directly related to the Philips factory, founded in 1891. The company influenced daily life, urbanization, and the local economy, which prospered until it faced crises in the 1990s. Mass layoffs occurred, and the headquarter moved to Amsterdam. Eindhoven became a devastated and abandoned city. However, two factors were essential for Eindhoven’s identity. First, Philips maintained the design and R&D departments, located at the High Tech Campus since 1998, a hub that integrates technology, design, and business. Then, from 2004 onwards, the Design Academy transferred the annual student exhibition that used to take place in Amsterdam to Eindhoven, starting the Dutch Design Week. But the city faced another global crisis in 2008 again, affecting their companies. There was a new drain of talents and businesses. The city’s future was depending on attracting high-tech and design talent to compete globally. Goals. Given this scenario, in 2009, public managers and the mayor met to outline a plan to rebuild the city. They developed a program and a management structure to work on the image and reputation and, above all, raise the community’s self-esteem. Thus began the place branding project to make Eindhoven recognized as a great place to live and to work, integrated with an innovative and technological bias. The aim was to generate curiosity and knowledge about Eindhoven and create an excellent environment to meet the expectations of global talent. Process. Aiming at a long-term action, the city council created the Eindhoven365, an independent marketing agency responsible for developing the strategy, visual identity, brand narrative, and brand activation actions. From the beginning until today, a designer (brand manager) leads the Eindhoven365, being the bridge as strategist and articulator between the political and creative environments.

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They coordinated a survey with citizens, which defined the brand’s key attributes: technology, design, and knowledge—also specifying a strategy activation based on unconventional urban experiences. To begin the elaboration of the visual identity, Eindhoven365 hired a branding agency that carried out in-depth research on the identity elements of the city and outlined guidelines for the brand. Next, the branding agency coordinated a meeting with designers, strategists, trend observers and other professionals from creative areas to share their visions and perceptions about the city. Finally, this agency proposed the creation of the visual identity through an unconventional process. Instead of inter-agency competition, they formed a co-creative group bringing together Eindhoven’s best design studios, plus color and typography experts. This collective was named Virtual Design Agency, which launched in 2014 a dynamic and open-source visual identity to be used freely by citizens, institutions, and companies, to achieve maximum adhesion and a sense of collective ownership. In 2014, Eindhoven365 and the Virtual Design Agency created the brand narrative, allowing an accurate description of the city’s identity. They also developed the formula of Eindhoven Non-Conventional x Collaboration = Energy, which accurately expresses the city’s DNA, with a symbol called “Vibe”, represented by three zigzags. In 2016, Eindhoven365 started brand activation actions, such as the “Share the Vibe” campaign, in which they invited creatives to express in video their perspectives about the city. They also were responsible for the “Another City Trip” project, consisting of touristic experiences with digital influencers. Eindhoven continues to innovate. In 2021, they launched the campaign “The Sound of Eindhoven”, a contest with public voting to choose a music representing the city’s energy. Eindhoven achieved several goals set at the beginning of the place branding program. For instance, they were among the ten best cities attractive to talent in 2017. In 2022. Eindhoven365 supports the strategy, managing the main communication channels to dialogue with talents, such as digital platforms and events. Other companies manage incoming tourism and the brand’s concept store, which sells products with the brand’s visual identity. The City Council has in-house designers for standard communications, while Eindhoven365 hires design and branding agencies to develop unconventional projects.

4.3 Mississauga, Canada Context. Mississauga is a multicultural and financially prosperous municipality that has undergone significant transformations since its founding in 1974. It is the sixth most populous city in Canada, with immigrant residents from diverse backgrounds. However, their positive attributes, such as high quality of life and vision of the future, were not communicated correctly. There was an external perception problem. The city was perceived as a dormitory suburb, overshadowed by its neighbor Toronto, located 30 km away. In 2012, the Municipal Communication Master Plan identified the need to develop a strong brand reputation for the city, rooted in its strategic vision. A survey conducted with

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stakeholders revealed that the way the city communicates, including the visual identity that was the same since 1987, was considered outdated. It was time for a change. Goals. This is how Mississauga’s place branding began aiming to improve its reputation and correctly communicate its values and attributes to the internal and external public. The premise was to have stakeholder participation and engagement. Process. A multidisciplinary team was assembled with internal and external professionals from the city hall. A branding agency was hired for the methodology and coordination of the strategic stages, assuming the project’s leadership. They were responsible for conducting co-creative processes with stakeholders and the brand guidelines. The team included in-house designers from the city hall, researchers, public managers and placemaking strategists, and a brand manager specialized in marketing, who is currently still responsible for managing the brand in the communication division of the city hall. The process began with an online survey to collect information and opinions from residents and entrepreneurs through a platform developed by the branding agency. Next, they conducted individual interviews with key stakeholders to understand Mississauga’s uniqueness. Finally, four workshops were held with more than 100 participants, bringing together the most representative stakeholders, such as entrepreneurs, residents, and local community leaders. The result was the definition of the brand positioning and the synthesis of the three ingredients of the brand: receptivity to cultural diversity, naturally enriching and inspiring possibilities. After the consensus of the brand concepts, the team of seven designers from the city hall developed the new visual identity under the supervision of the branding agency. The stakeholders also validated the result. In 2013, the branding agency with the brand manager developed the strategy to implement the brand in the main points of contact in the city. The intention was to generate experiences based on the brand’s values: optimistic, vibrant, collaborative, effective, open, and engaging. In 2014, the brand’s official launch took place in the city’s event square. In 2022. The brand maintains consistency in its narrative, visual identity, attitudes, and behavior, following its guidelines. The city hall’s in-house designers are responsible for elaborating day-to-day communication with citizens, involving products and services.

4.4 Porto Alegre, Brazil Context. Porto Alegre is the 10th most populous city in Brazil, and in 2017 it was suffering the impacts of the national economic recession. Several companies closed, and design activity was particularly affected. Aiming to reverse this scenario, designers from ABEDESIGN-RS (Brazilian Association of Design Companies, branch of Rio Grande do Sul) got together to think about solutions for the city. This way, the project “What marks Porto Alegre” was born: a place branding proposal that aimed to develop and donate a brand to the city, to rescue the optimism and pride of the citizens, in addition to giving more visibility to the design activity, showing its potential for social transformation.

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Goals. They defined that the execution of the project should have three fundamental premises: 1) voluntary protagonism: absence of remuneration to the participants; 2) collective authorship: all acting as co-creators and 3) community ownership: the result would be donated to the city of Porto Alegre. Process. The collaborative and voluntary premises that guided the process were essential to characterize it as a pioneer project in place branding. In addition, designers idealized, structured, and led the entire project, covering all stages: research, strategy, methodology development, articulation with stakeholders, visual identity creation and social media campaigns. In 2017, members of ABEDESIGN-RS organized themselves to carry out thematic research by desk research on identity themes in the city. They also carried out qualitative and quantitative research on the perception of the image of Porto Alegre. Being aware of the dimension of the project, in 2018 they started to articulate partnerships. However, the project gained strength and visibility in 2019 with the support of Pacto Alegre, an organization that brings together universities and public and private entities to promote entrepreneurship and innovation. Also, in 2019, ABEDESIGN-RS organized a workshop that brought together 120 residents of different profiles, ensuring diversity and representation, co-creating ideas for the city’s future, making reflections on its past and present. Next, ABEDESIGNRS designers and professionals from other areas such as urbanism, communication and innovation carried out a sprint to define the brand’s strategic guidelines. Finally, the stage of designing the visual identity begins. More than 40 design studios came together in co-creative hubs, generating three graphic branding proposals. The project took a break due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In the end of 2021 the project returned, opening for public voting to choose the new visual identity. The brand’s campaign was widely publicized in the press and social media and received more than 10,000 votes. Simultaneously, the marketing team of Sebrae (Brazilian Micro and Small Business Support Service) developed an action plan focused on tourism based on the brand guidelines. In 2022. The new visual identity is launched at the city’s 250th birthday in keytouchpoints. The brand activation starts. Pacto Alegre and ABEDESIGN-RS are setting up a structure to activate the brand through experiences and placemaking.

5 Case Analysis To systematize, decode and interpret the cases of city branding, we developed an analysis tool based on information extracted from interviews, documents, and other collected materials, in addition to references from the literature review. This tool consists of a matrix that describes: 1) phases of the place branding process; 2) designers involved; 3) other participants; 4) roles of designers at each phase; and 5) types of design intervention, as detailed below.

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1) Phases A place branding project is composed of multiple steps, but there is no consensus between authors and practitioners regarding its nomenclature and chronological order. There isn’t either a standard methodology. However, to understand the cases of place branding in their historical contexts, we considered relevant to classify and standardize the terminology of each step. Hence, we systematized the terms found in the literature review, brand manuals and methodologies used by consultancies, grouping the activities into seven essential macro steps (Table 1).

Table 1. Macro essential steps of a city branding process Step

Description

1. Setup

Planning and definitions of how the project will be made possible: financial resources, hiring of consultants/specialists, definition of teams (brand staff) and leadership (brand manager)

2. Articulation

Articulation, engagement, and management of stakeholders (representatives of the political, social, and economic areas) to support the project. Community building

3. Research and analysis

Research (quantitative and qualitative) and analysis to understand the place’s perception by audiences. Competitor mapping and benchmarks. Survey of local identity elements (= who are we?)

4. Brand Strategy

Conceptual and strategic definitions of the brand such as a central idea, positioning, values, pillars, key attributes, brand promise, personality, competitive differential. Definition of objectives, goals, and metrics (KPIs) and vision (= how do we want to be perceived?). Deployment of the strategy into a tactical plan of action and activation

5. Development of brand components Creation of the brand architecture and brand identity system composed of tangible, intangible, symbolic and functional elements. Specification of fields of action – key touchpoints. Definition of the brand’s tone of voice and narrative elements (storytelling) 6. Activation

Implementation of the brand on the touchpoints (= how will we be perceived?). It involves brand interactions, experiences, and relationships. Actions in physical and digital spaces. Communication and marketing actions

7. Management and monitoring

Continuous monitoring. Evaluation of results according to pre-established metrics. Adjustments to strategy, if necessary

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2) Designers involved We observed that designers do not act alone. They work in different structures – public or private. Depending on demand, they also work together with other creative or strategic professionals. In this way, we mapped and developed a classification relative to the designers involved in city branding, based on the type of workplace in which they are inserted (Table 2).

Table 2. Profiles and context of the designers who worked in the analyzed cases. Type of workplace

Context

Branding agency

It has a multidisciplinary team. The creative director (designer) works together with the strategist. They have a design team with multiple profiles, including strategic

Design studios

Studios or self-employed professionals with different expertise graphic design, equipment design, typography, interaction design, etc

City hall design team It has a multidisciplinary team. The creative director works together with the strategist. They have a design team with multiple profiles, but mostly communication designers Specialist companies

Companies that deal with complex and sporadic projects related to technology and services. Designers act indirectly

3) Other participants Describes with whom the designers are involved in the cocreative or decision-making process, such as public managers, political leaders, professionals in the areas of communication and marketing. 4) Designers’ role Categorizes the key role of designers in each step. The reference for this categorization is the definition of roles proposed by the Design Council [17]. We consider that both systemic design and place branding are complex activities, and therefore, there are some similarities in their roles. Thus, we proposed to adjust the terms used by Design Council (“System Thinker”, “Leader and Storyteller”, “Designer and Maker” and “Connector and Convener”), correspondingly to new terms applied to place branding: “Strategist”, “Leader”, “Activator” and “Articulator”. 5) Types of design intervention Describes the activities carried out by the designers and the outputs.

6 Comparative Analysis After the detailed construction of the historical narrative of each case, we extracted and synthesized the most relevant facts and inserted them into the analysis matrices, structured by steps, applying an analysis matrix for each city. Then, we carried out a comparative analysis, using graphs and tables, observing similarities and differences between the processes and the designers’ interventions. Below, we present some of the observations found in the comparative analysis.

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6.1 About the Processes We created a diagram on the chronological comparative analysis of the cases (Fig. 1) in which each step of the city branding process is represented by a color bar. The duration of each step is marked horizontally along the timeline. From this analysis we observed that the processes occurred in similar steps, although not necessarily in the same chronological sequence. Some are more structured, like Mississauga. Others are more fragmented, such as Porto Alegre. We also observed that the activation step is the longest one. This phase is the most critical, as it is vulnerable to political, economic, and social changes.

Fig. 1. Chronological comparative analysis of case studies Source: Authors.

6.2 About the Intervention of Designers The analyzed cases are distinguished by their objectives, methods, and processes, some being more participatory or co-creative. The intervention of designers occurs in practically all stages, from the strategic to the most operational, as described in Table 3.

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P. Malamud et al. Table 3. Intervention of designers in the place branding process Cascais Eindhoven Mississauga Porto Alegre

Setup The process begins at the initiative of political managers (top-down) The process starts at the initiative of a branding agency or designers

x

x

x

x

Articulation Designers articulate with stakeholders

x

x

Designers develop participatory methods, tools or platforms involving residents

x

x

x

x

x

x

Strategy Designers, stakeholders, and other professionals develop the strategy in a co-creative process The branding agency develops the strategy

x

x

Development of brand components Design studios come together to create a visual identity in a co-creative process Branding agency develops the visual identity

x

x

x

The city hall’s design team develops the visual identity

x

Activation The city hall’s team of designers continues the activation of the brand by developing products and communication

x

x

x

N/A

The brand manager or the political x managers invites other companies for differentiated projects such as placemaking, systems or services, in which designers are integrated

x

x

N/A

Management and monitoring The brand manager is a designer

x

7 Results From the analysis of case studies and concepts extracted from the literature review [17, 18, 21] we created a conceptual model (Fig. 2) which summarizes the three essential roles played by designers in the city branding process: Articulator, Strategist and Activator, as well as their profiles, types of intervention and the outputs. To avoid overlapping, we

The Role of Designers in City Branding Process

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choose to exclude the Leader because he has the skills to perform as an articulator and strategist.

Fig. 2. The role of designers in the city branding process. Source: Authors

8 Final Considerations From this study, it was possible to observe that the city branding process is multidisciplinary and that the design activity is transversal, inserted in different contexts when designers assume different roles according to the needs of each step. At some moments, it is possible to clearly define the designer’s role, especially in the more technical or operational phases. In others, the boundaries of functions are not well defined, and designers take on tasks that go beyond their conventional roles. During the process, three essential roles stand out. The designer-articulator creates connections with the community and stakeholders; the designer-strategist generates the strategy in consensus with stakeholders; and the designer-activator works to make the brand’s strategy tangible, creating meaningful experiences. All roles are relevant to strengthen the connection between people and places.

References 1. Eshuis, J., Edwards, A.: Branding the city: the democratic legitimacy of a new mode of governance. Urban Stud. 50, 1066–1082 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098012459581

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2. Govers, R., Go, F.: Place Branding - Glocal, Virtual and Physical Identities, Constructed, Imagined and Experienced. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (2009). https://doi.org/10.1057/ 9780230247024 3. Reza, M., Panah, Y., Hassan, S., Mojtaba, S.: Explaining the theoretical model of place branding: an asset - based approach to regeneration of the historic district of Tehran. J. Brand Manag. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41262-020-00186-7 4. Borja de Mozota, B.: The four powers of design: a value model in design management. Des. Manag. Rev. 17, 44–53 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1948-7169.2006.tb00038.x 5. Cross, N.: Designerly Ways of Knowing. Springer, London (2006) 6. Muratovski, G.: Research for Designers: A Guide to Methods and Practice. Sage Publications, Los Angeles (2016) 7. Esteves, C.: Place branding - Identificando vocações, potencializando identidades e fortalecendo lugares. Editora Simonsen (2016) 8. Kavaratzis, M.: From city marketing to city branding: towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. Place Brand. Public Dipl. 1, 58–73 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1057/ palgrave.pb.5990005 9. Kavaratzis, M.: From “necessary evil” to necessity: stakeholders’ involvement in place branding. J. Place Manag. Dev. 5, 7–19 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1108/17538331211209013 10. Aitken, R., Campelo, A.: The four R’s of place branding. J. Mark. Manag. 27, 913–933 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2011.560718 11. Braun, E., Kavaratzis, M., Zenker, S.: My city - my brand: the different roles of residents in place branding. J. Place Manag. Dev. 6, 18–28 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/175383313 11306087 12. Here´zniak, M.: Place branding and citizen involvement: participatory approach to building and managing city brands. Int. Stud. Interdiscip. Polit. Cult. J. 19, 129–141 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1515/ipcj-2017-0008 13. Margolin, V.: The good city: design for sustainability. She Ji. 1, 34–43 (2015). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.sheji.2015.07.001 14. Ceschin, F., Gaziulusoy, I.: Evolution of design for sustainability: from product design to design for system innovations and transitions. Des. Stud. 47, 118–163 (2016). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.destud.2016.09.002 15. Maffei, S., Villari, B.: Design for local development. Building a design approach for the territorial capital resources based on a situated perspective. Cumulus Work. Pap. - OLSO (2006) 16. Manzini, E.: Making things happen: social innovation and design. Des. Issues 30, 57–66 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1162/DESI 17. Design Council: Beyond Net Zero - A Systemic Design Approach, pp. 1–60 (2021) 18. Manzini, E.: Design, When Everybody Designs: An Introduction to Design for Social Innovation. The MIT Press, London (2015). https://doi.org/10.13128/Techne-21142 19. Yin, R.K.: Case Study Research - Design and Methods. Sage, Los Angeles (2014) 20. Anholt, S.: Competitive Identity: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2007) 21. Maffei, S., Villari, B.: Designer as a learning enabler for strategic design processes in local development. Cumulus Working Papper - OLSO (2004)

Problematics of a Territorial Brand Visual Identity Creation: Portalegre Territory as a Case Study Joaquim Elias Martins1(B)

, Cátia Rijo2,3

, and Vera Barradas2

1 Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão do Instituto Politécnico de Portalegre, Campus

Politécnico, 10, 7300-555 Portalegre, Portugal [email protected] 2 Valoriza – Research Centre of Endogenous Resource Valorization, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, Edifício BioBIP, Campus Politécnico, 10, 7300-555 Portalegre, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 3 Escola Superior de Educação de Lisboa, Campus de Benfica do Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, 1549-003 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. The identity of a territory comprises a complex and dynamic inexhaustible network. This article aims to understand the intersection between this complexity and the process of creating a graphic brand. This study reports on an exploratory project conducted based on a Case Study Research Methodology. As a case study we bring the creation of a new brand identity for Portalegre, a Portuguese city in the Alentejo region of Portugal. We tried to bring to light the visual and conceptual inspiration of the creative process, as well as the justification for the creation of the brand design and the graphic system created around it. As we describe, design plays an enlightening role in the definition of the territory’s identity, resulting in a graphic brand that can be adapted to different contexts and experiences. Which, like the territory itself, can be transformed and enriched over time. Keywords: Visual identity design · Territorial brand · Portalegre identity

1 Territorial Brand: Definitions Marc Augé defines place as an anthropological space - as an identitary, relational, and historical that creates and fosters interpersonal relationships, moving within a very welldefined time and space. The place “[…] is simultaneously the principle of meaning for those who inhabit it and the principle of intelligibility for those who observe it” (Augé, p. 51) [1]. The image of the territory is the sum of its intrinsic and objective characteristics with the impressions that people already have about it. Avraham (p. 174) [2] considers that there are two distinct images of territories: the “open images” and the “closed images”. Open images are those that direct us to contexts in which the public is receptive to the place’s information, in such a way that a favorable scenario is created in its memory. Closed images are those that are associated © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 17–28, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_2

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with stereotypes, referring to value judgments that cannot be altered in the minds of their audience, because it is assumed that they are not predisposed to receive current information that would allow them to reposition the place in their minds. The territory is the use that is made of it, and it is essential that we participate in the construction of local identity, which happens through the interaction that citizens develop and with those with whom they share the same space. Territory has identities with tangible and intangible attributes, the former referring to physical aspects, such as heritage, and the latter referring to all that is immaterial - such as human relationships and symbols that prove to be intertwined with local culture. In that way it’is recognized that the involvement of the population is essential for a collective image of the place, and it is crucial to recognize that it is through the involvement of people that social habits are strengthened and, at the same time, the territory is valued. The territory identity is not copyable and must represent the various characteristics that distinguish it from others, to ensure recognition and identification by its inhabitants. In that way the territory can manage to project its added value outwards, which makes it distinctive from all others, which makes it unique.

2 The City of Portalegre The Municipality of Portalegre is located in Portugal, North Alentejo, in the heart of Serra de S. Mamede Natural Park and near the border with Spanish Extremadura. It comprises seven parishes, one urban (Sé and São Lourenço) and six rural (Alagoa, Alegrete, Fortios, Reguengo and São Julião, Ribeira de Nisa and Carreiras e Urra). It has a surface area of 464 Km2 and about 26 thousand inhabitants. The town has, in its history, a strong industrial tradition in two essential axes, the transformation of cork and textiles. The manufacture of woolen cloth dates back to the Middle Ages, but it underwent remarkable development from the 18th century onwards and, in the following century, with the foundation of the Real Fábrica de Lanifícios (Royal Woolen Factory), on the initiative of the Marquês de Pombal. He was Secretary of State of the Kingdom during the reign of King D. José I,). In 1947 the Manufactura de Tapeçarias (Tapestry Manufactory) was created, which, due to the originality and artistic value of its works, soon became the city’s ex-libris, until today. The city of Portalegre, from the point of view of landscape and territorial framing differs from the South Alentejo, for being framed between mountains and plains. These characteristics give it a unique landscape and an enormous wealth of products with very peculiar characteristics [3].

3 The Creation of a Territorial Brand 3.1 Problematics Increasingly, places are impersonal, anonymous, and uninhabitable, and the need for them to have a soul is evident. This will only happen if they develop an original and inimitable identity, offering a unique experience. Lynch [4] defines places or neighborhoods as spaces of a city where the observer mentally enters and recognizes the common characteristics that represent him and that are internally identifiable by his community.

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In the representation of a territorial brand, the designer must use these elements in the visual representation of the territory, as these are the references that allow its recognition. According to Hornskov [5] identify and build an identity based on cultural resources and distinctive places so the image is recognized and that matches expectations. The places awaken behaviors in their inhabitants, as they stimulate, encourage, encourage and inspire. It can be said that the character of the territory is defined by its various characteristics: heritage, culture, religion, urban planning and history, which are perceived as aggregated to the individuality of its inhabitants. The designer must make use of these characteristics, duly recognized in their relationship with the character of the inhabitants, in order to create a symbolic relationship that can be an effective reference, rewarding the identification by its inhabitants as well as ensuring its external recognition. According to Augé ([1], p. 51) “Human symbolization […] allows making legible to all those who frequent the same space, a certain number of organizing schemes, ideological and intellectual marks that order the social. These three main themes are identity, relationship and history.” The problem that arises from the point of view of establishing criteria for the adequate creation of a visual representation for the territory is that it must be understood in the same way by all recipients, which raises difficulties since the multiplicity of points of view seen under the same territory. The creation of a visual and symbolic representation, associated with the territory, often has as its main objective to increase the feeling of belonging of its inhabitants and make the place more attractive externally. In order to achieve these objectives, the visual representation of the territory “should be illustrative of the values, culture and history of the site, in order to create self-recognition in its inhabitants, identifying them as belonging to the place” Rijo [6], p. 211). 3.2 The Case Study Methodology The touristic brand of Portalegre results from services rendered by a group of researchers of Politécnico de Portalegre, among which authors of the present article. Having, as the target public, the inhabitants of Portalegre and national and international tourists. Besides the active participation in this project this article intends, considering the case study as methodology, to be able to bring to light the process, the decisions taken, its implementation and the results of the project. Yin [7] defines case study as “a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context, especially when the boundaries between a phenomenon and context are not clear and the researcher has little control over the phenomenon and context.” As we have already mentioned, and as we will see during the development of the project, working on a brand for a territory involves a significant amount of uncertainty and little control over the collective imaginary of that territory and, on the other hand, how the brand will be experienced.

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4 Brand Identity Design: The Development 4.1 The Creative Process As already mentioned, creating a brand for a territory or a place differs from the process of creating a brand for a product from the very beginning of the entire creative process. The biggest difference of all starts with the issue of tangibility and objectivity of a product versus the complexity of a territory. Added to this multidimensionality is the difficulty of understanding the various perceptions of place. Moilanen and Rainisto ([8], p. 21) identify this complexity with several factors such as the difficulties of controlling, closeness to politics, the product’s development which forces it to change and adapt, or also the changing seasons. The citys are very different in summer or in winter for example. Thus, the creative process of this brand arises from this identification of the place and meeting its identity and structuring truths. The creation of the brand Portalegre,

Fig. 1. Images from the brand book. Photographed by Luís Branquinho.

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além do alentejo, (beyond alentejo) starts from a story found to narrate and describe this Alentejo, which goes beyond the generalized vision taken. Starting by telling the story allowed triggering the mental design of the graphic brand, as suggested in Lupton [9], “Action moves stories and it also moves the design process. Design makes things happen in the world. The word ‘action’ is at the heart of interaction. Design is a verb as well as a noun.” Visual Inspiration for the Creation of the Graphic Brand. As a basis for formal inspiration, the unweaved lines of the tapestry are the structuring formula of the design that will breathe from experience and identification. An Alentejo that stands out to the north, that is mountain and plain, cornfield and waterfall, that is the warmth of the sunset and the blue of the immense sky. Also in the lines of the landscape, which in the mountain range of vineyards is found the structuring matrix of the design (Fig. 1). Formal Development. At this stage the need to create a graphic brand that is adaptable formally and conceptually, that is alive and organic, was clear. “Designing a logo does not have to be the representation of the brand’s product or service, but on the contrary, answer the appropriate technical considerations so that over time its shape becomes filled with history. The history of the brand” Barradas ([10], p. 190). Based on the infinite possibilities of the line that moves, the P of the word Portalegre was built, using a millimetric design produced by hand. The circular base structure gave the formal result a sense of movement, essential in the applicability to different graphic formats and contexts (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Formal structure. Author’s image.

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Typography, Color and Other Elements of the Graphic Brand. For Gastal and Oliveira [12] “typography is a significant element for the passage of the written message and maintains associations to the Brand personality. In turn, colors act in the emotional connection of the brand to the audiences, reinforcing the sense of form and content.” Concerning typography, and in order to respond to the concepts already widely defined in this article, the choice of typeface fell on Gilroy. Gilroy, designed by Radomir Tinkov is a contemporary, sans serif with a geometric touch. It comes in 20 weights, 10 uprights and its matching italics. It was designed with powerful opentype features in mind. Each weight includes extended language support, fractions, tabular figures, arrows, ligatures and more. [11] Perfectly suited for graphic design and any display use. It could easily work for web, signage, corporate as well as for editorial design (Fig. 3). The identity colors show the diversity of the landscape, culture and art. The main version is a midnight blue that will take on other colors depending on the context and the needs of the logo. The palette of 5 colors between hot and cold is also the result of the option to work the contrasts of the territory and at the same time respond to the needs of the graphic brand (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Typeface weights. Author’s image.

Fig. 4. Identity colors. Author’s image.

The Main Version. According to the manual of graphic standards, “Portalegre, beyond alentejo, is a graphic brand with infinite possibilities that when lived can be dressed in

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Fig. 5. Main version. Author’s image

many ways and all the colors of the sunset, that only Portalegre has”. Being vertical in its main version, this graphic brand composed with symbol, description and tagline also works in horizontal version and when losing resistance the symbol allows itself to be changed to 3 lines. (Fig. 5) The intertwining of the lines makes the comfort of an embrace and at the same time the movement and dynamism of a near future. As Costa [14] states “Brands need time to align their corporate image in the sense that this is the junction of their culture, their products, their services, their quality, their ability to communicate, to innovate, etc.”. This time is a future open to multiple possibilities, which this structure intends to be able to accompany (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Brand mark versions. Author’s image

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The Dynamic Brand and Iconography. Sometimes a dynamic brand is confused with a brand that moves. This starting point of a metamorphosis mindset may be an answer, but it goes beyond that. “Creating a dynamic identity requires much more freedom than just movement (…) one or more of the components could consist of different variables, adding flexibility to the identity”. van Nes ([13], p. 7). The creation of the graphic brand icons were based on the same structural grid as the P. With the same number of vertical lines. Each line is 1mm thick and 17 mm high. All icons are composed of 9 lines spaced 1 mm apart like the graphic brand construction. They essentially serve to represent various focal points of the city while enriching the brand’s visual identity system (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Graphic brand iconography. Author’s image

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Applications. From the point of view of brand application, several pieces were proposed and designed to be distributed to the population and for sale in Museums of the city. We also show here urban communication applications such as billboards and other formats integrated in the city (Figs. 8 and 9).

Fig. 8. Graphic brand applications and promotion actions. Brand book and social media images.

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Fig. 9. More applications. Author’s image.

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5 Conclusions A city, a country, are entities full of experiences, memories, products, services and endless features capable of changing the way they are experienced. Creating a graphic brand for a territory, as a premise, should not serve to identify, represent or characterize it, but a bit of all these things assuming that working this brand creates emotional benefits and differentiates it from others. Starting from a holistic vision of the territory, decisions were taken in this process that allowed to build a visual identity capable and open to various possibilities. Just like the territories that influence behaviors, but are influenced at the same time by the way they are experienced, this dynamic graphic brand is also allowed to grow and get to know various graphic universes. In a world where digital technology plays a major role in the dissemination of a brand, it is also necessary to ensure that, always with full respect for formal integrity, dynamic graphic programmes are created that can also respond to these formats. If it is true that function rules, it is also true that the emotional value of brands is an essential vector, what used to be communication is now dialogue, what used to be service is now trust. And that trust is directly related to the accuracy and quality of the design created and its capacity to seduce. Acknowledgments. The authors would like to acknowledge all those involved in the project process of Portalegre brand. The marketing team Ana José and António Costa, the multimedia team who did the capture of the images for the movie and social media, Luís Branquinho and Rui Moura and also Ana Carvalho who participates in the application design process of the brand. The video of the brand can be seen in https://youtu.be/8jCXvosJWiQ.

References 1. Augé, M.: Não lugares: introdução a uma antropologia da supermodernidade. 1a edição francesa. Lisboa, 90 Graus (2005) 2. Avraham, E.: Media Strategies for Improving an unfavorable city image. Cities, 471–479 (2004) 3. Website of the Municipality of Portalegre. http://www.cm-portalegre.pt. Accessed 21 Feb 2022 4. Lynch, K.: A imagem da cidade. M. Fontes Edições, São Paulo ([1960] 1998) 5. Hornskov, B.: On the management of authenticity: culture in the place branding of Oresund. Place Brand. Public Dipl. 3(4), 317–331 (2007) 6. Rijo, C.: Design de comunicação, cultura, identidade dos sítios e suas representações. Alcântara dos sítios aos sítios: território para um modelo. Tese de Doutoramento em Design, Faculdade de arquitetura da Universidade de Lisboa (2015) 7. Yin, R.K.: Case Study Research: Design and Methods. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks (2002) 8. Moilanen, T., Rainisto S.: How to Brand Nations, Cities and Destinations. Palgrave, London (2009) 9. Lupton, E.: O design como storytelling. Gustavo Gil, Osasco (2020) 10. Barradas, V.: La imagen de las marcas de ropa infantil creadas a través de la experiencia online. Tese de Doutoramento. Universidad de Extremadura. España (2015)

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11. My fonts page. https://www.myfonts.com. Accessed 21 Feb 2022 12. Gastal, M., Oliveira, F.: Princípios do design aplicados na perspectiva da semiótica e do branding: na senda por um modelo para a imagética da marca. Convergências - Revista de Investigação e Ensino das Artes XIII(26), 129–139 (2020). https://doi.org/10.53681/c15142 25187514391s.26.50 13. Van Nes, I.: Dynamic Identities: How to Create a Living Brand. BIS Publishers, Amsterdam (2012) 14. Costa, J.: Design para os olhos: marca, cor, identidade, sinalética. Dinalivro, Lisboa (2011)

Learning by Design - Learning by Exposing My Design Methods Carla Paoliello(B)

, Ana Lia Santos , and Ana Thudichum Vasconcelos

Fine Arts Faculty, Lisbon University, CIEBA, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The present research focuses on the analysis of student evolution based on design methods. The investigation took place during the past semester at Design for Sustainability (D4S) Master’s Course at the Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Lisbon (FBAUL). During this time, the student’s knowledge and skills were documented from the start. The process was planned, the learning path recorded, and the key moments were reflected. Step by step, students performed a set of theoreticalpractical exercises. A protocol to register the process that was created, allowing the students to navigate through the design development more consciously and autonomously. With this methodology, it was possible to observe the students shift from an early stage of reserve and uncertainty to another thinking structure developed as a positive change. All this process was experimental research where our teaching performance was justified by ‘Learning by Design’ concepts and theory. Keywords: Design teaching · Design learning · Design methods · Design research

1 Introduction This paper presents the result and the critique of a design method teaching process, elaborated and applied in the curriculum unit ‘Design Methods - Design Thinking’, taught in the master’s course ‘Design for Sustainability’ (D4S) at the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Lisbon (FBAUL). The discipline’s main goals are: a) To provide an overview of the state of the art on Design Methods; b) To provide tools and instruments, analog and digital, to research and apply to a design project; c) To encourage students to become aware of their own way design methods’ approach, simultaneously, instilling them to reflect and construct their work process. One of the initial texts was ‘Designing Design Education - White Book on the Future of Design Education’ from If Design Foundation. From this, three interesting questions were identified: © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 29–38, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_3

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What knowledge is necessary to design? What knowledge is specific to design? What knowledge is gained in/through design? A fourth proposal was added: What knowledge is gained by addressing design methods? The article is divided into three parts. First, the teaching context, the syllabus, and the main bibliographic references are presented. Secondly, the set of theoretical-practical exercises performed by the students is presented. And third, research-based on ‘Learning by Design’ concepts is discussed.

2 Part I: Design Thinking at FBAUL – M4S Design Methods/Design Thinking UC at FBAUL - M4S deals with a varied audience. Students came from diversified backgrounds, and are not exclusively designers. For this reason, it was important to promote the development of skills inherent to Design Thinking (DT) and a guide to identifying design opportunities and strategies. Through DT, interpersonal management was also encouraged; the organization of project work; and the integration of multidisciplinary knowledge. Another relevant aspect is to present DT as an empathy tool. It helps to manage a collaborative design process, with a more intense and participatory attitude. The proposal was to challenge students to become aware of their work processes and, stimulate them to make the design development discernible, repeatable, and transferable. The subject syllabus is The nature of Design; Design Thinking; Design and Research; Soft vs. Hard methods; Methods and Project Phases; Co-creation; Design Tools for Participatory Processes; and, Design Methods: applied to D4S project. To support this work, the following books and manuals were chosen as the main references: ‘Designerly Ways of Knowing’ by Nigel Cross; ‘Design Methods’ by John Chris Jones; ‘Universal Design Methods: 100 Ways to Research Complex Problems, Develop Innovative Ideas and Design Effective Solutions’ by Bella Martin and Bruce Hanington; ‘The Art of Innovation’ by Tom Kelley; ‘Total Design - Managing the Design Process in the Service Industry’ by Gillian Hollins and Bill Hollins; and ‘Map-ping Design Research’ by Simon Grand and Wolfgang Jonas.

3 Part II: Design Methods Activities Carried Out by the Students In this session, the activities carried out during the pedagogical activity will be described. The activities were divided into two stages: a) concepts debate and reflection on the design process and design methods - activities 1 to 5; and b) application of the design methods to a specific project - activities 6 to 9. Activity 1: “Design Idea” - consists of circumscribing, through debate, the following key design concepts:

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a) “All men are designers. All that we do, almost all the time, is design, for design, is basic to all human activity. (…) Design is the conscious effort to impose meaningful order” (Papanek 2005, p. 4) b) “Design is to design a design to produce design” by Alice Rawsthorn in Hello World: where Design meets life (2013, p. 17) c) “(…) design represents the union of great ideas: that diverged from art and science— having crossed and fertilized in a creative complementarity. The meaning of the word occurs in the context of the association of cunning and deceit” by Flusser (1999, p. 17). In this semi-formal academic discussion, students tend to maintain an almost convergent tone and they agree with all the main authors about what design is. Activity 2: The “Design Profile” aims to lead students to access their “Design Profile”, assuming a more critical stance, Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Activity 2 is based on Flaherty’s paradigm of change adapted to DT.

This diagram was adapted from Best (2006, p. 31) and Flaherty (1999). It highlights the need to have a “very rich starting point to identify design opportunities” (2006, p. 31). While Flaherty (1999) point out that for any organization there are three different and interactive time zones: the past, the present, and the future. These time zones can be translated into the business dimensions: traditional, transitional, and transformational. In our adaptation, the word “business” was replaced by “design”. This graph served to introduce the following questions to the students: Were they in a traditional, transitory, or transformational zone? Do they want to contribute to what the design should be? To deal with the forthcoming questions that it arises?

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This exercise helped students to understand where they stand and reflect on their discourse. Also allowed them to analyze the relationship with design at a level true to themselves. Design activity as a choice and decision process became more evident; as their need to use design methods and interact with instruments, tools, and materials. Activity 3: The “Design method” moved the students towards the methods and tools discussion. As said by Bonsiepe, we expected “the method to offer guidelines and clarify the design process” (1992, p. 205). There are different phases in the design process, as well as different actions established between them. There is a need to access how to solve problems and what tools to use. So, in the second exercise, each student presented their method (Fig. 2). They externalized their design thinking strategies, as stated by Cross, i.e., they try to get your thoughts and thinking processes out of your head and into the charts and diagrams that commonly feature in design methods. This externalizing is a significant aid when dealing with complex problems, but it is also a necessary part of team work, i.e. providing means by which all the members of the team can see what is going on and can contribute to the design process. Getting a lot of systematic work out of your head and onto paper also means that your mind can be freer to pursue the kind of thinking at which it is best: intuitive and imaginative thinking. (Cross 2007, p 47).

Fig. 2. Activity 3: Student A expression of her design process.

Activity 4: “Design Thinking” brought the process of divergent and convergent thinking. First, the historical introduction of the most representative design methods was made. Next, the idea of linear, cyclical, branched, or disruptive thinking was discussed. There was also a presentation on the open methods of DT and the Framework of Innovation from the Design Council. It gave rise to other themes related to design such as creativity, empathy, circular economy, biodesign, human center design; and meta projects. Activity 5: Reassess and redraw the “Design method” based on the concepts and methods presented. That was the exercise proposed at this stage. With a more informed attitude, students reevaluated the activity 3 exercise (Fig. 3).

Learning by Design - Learning by Exposing My Design Methods Student A

Student B

Fig. 3. Activity 5: Students A and B revised design processes.

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To re-visit activity 3 led to the expansion of the process’s presentation to a more visual and insightful level. The students saw the gaps and links in their design process, from the beginning to the end. Some students still presented simple models with very few phases. Other processes were more complex and unfolded the phases into different tasks. Each student presented his/her design sequence. It was their innate and personal development, but still a bit undefined. Subsequently, we applied this tool to the design work that the students were developing in the Project I discipline. In this UC, students work on the theme “Remote Realities – from immersion to the development of solutions for the territory”. The place of study was the municipality of Mértola, district of Beja, Portugal, where they were invited to develop and propose a D4S intervention in the territory. Here, the students, organized into groups of 4 elements, delved into the local reality, studying its biological, geographical, historical, social, climatic, and cultural interconnections aspects. This process allowed them to transform individual visions into a collective proposal. Activity 6: The “group design processes” are illustrated in Fig. 4. Due to the need to accommodate different ways of thinking, and various levels of information, the models evolved into new structures, with cyclical, branching, and flexible steps. Students understood that design problems are complex, poorly formulated (wicked problems as described by Buchanan 1992), and contradictory.

Fig. 4. Activity 6: Group B design process.

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Activity 7: “Action maps” applied to the project. ‘Action maps’ have evolved in terms of structure, due to the need to adapt to direct field research protocols, indirect research, choice of sources, validation of information, models, and tools to evaluate, capture and incorporate feedback, organize and display information. At this point, a set of digital tools were introduced, such as platforms (miro, conceptboard; creately; lucidchart; mindtools; boardofinnovation; and scrib) that provided visual models to organize and present information. Some of them were just scans, new graphic designs, and more traditional analyzes (MM, PEST, SWOT, HOQ). Others were new strategic proposals and collaborative tools that proved to be fundamental for real-time remote work. As the project developed, the methodological framework also evolved. To record everything carefully constituted a fundamental difference. The integration of protocols allowed students to navigate the process backward and forward. And this process allowed better and richer results to be obtained. All because it generated information as content (multiple records of the same information: images, sound, text, materials, etc.) with greater organization and better hierarchy. Based on this information it was possible to compose and illustrate each group’s design process. Activity 8: “Methodological Presentation” is about summarizing the group design process. The design process became more noticeable and repeatable. As seen from an overflight view in Fig. 5, the students presented visual diagrams very different from the initial ones. Each group stayed true to its unique process. But they were able to devise a system that validated the project and its context. Group C

Group D

Fig. 5. Activity 8: Overflight view into two groups’ revised design processes.

Activity 9: “Tracing Paper Method” became the end of the full circle. This method consists of drawing a line over the visual diagrams presented in Activity 8. The exercise proved to be performing and fun, which helped to point the way to the solution. This very simple exercise (Fig. 6) was supported to go even further, demonstrating that the project can evolve to a different stage. It was, of course, a semiotic blink: (...) the determination of an object (process) presupposes that one already has the rule of its signification: the class to which it belongs and the categories of that belonging. Reflection presupposes that one does not have this rule. And,

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consequently, that one does not possess the object itself, since one is not yet capable of signifying or naming it. (Jean-François Lyotard, Lectures d’Enfance, p. 124).

Group C

Group D

Fig. 6. ‘Tracing Paper Method’ results.

4 Part III: Discussion About ‘Learning by Design’ ‘Learning by Design’ is a Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis concept. It bases the students’ understanding of themselves as a builder of their knowledge. ‘Learning by Design’ uses different learning processes: analyzing, conceptualizing, experiencing, and applying which allows the model to respect the expectations of each student and his/her individuality. In classes, the diversity of students was evident. It was composed of 24 students and only half of them were designers with basic training. This means that students had different cultural backgrounds, experiences, and expectations about learning and also about design. For these reasons, we chose to start by developing small exercises that were important to highlight each process. The work developed is always aligned with the fundamental pillars proposed by these two authors: learning by knowing; by doing; by creating together; and learning by being (self-awareness). Activities 1 to 3 helped to bring theory and practice closer. and still, to better understand the specificities of each student. And productive relationships between formal and informal learning were established thru activities 4 and 5.

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As a result, we can consider that the students acquired instruments that allowed them to better understand the world around them. They developed a critical sense that helped in the selection of information. Not only on new topics that we discussed, but also, in the recognition of the validation, or not, of the information or data available. In this sense, students were not only learners but also knowledge builders. This pedagogical choice extended their learning process beyond school and academic life. In activities 6 and 7, the dynamics allowed the groups to play a more active role. The development of collaborative peer relationships was encouraged, and it has been an important step in the creation and reinforcement of knowledge. Learning together presupposes the idea of pluralism. We have to understand the other in confrontation with the self. In this way, the students recognized themselves as social beings. As agents who live, work, grow and cooperatively transform our society. Therefore, we can also say that the students deepened their cooperative work skills, not only within the group but also between different groups and with Mértola’s population. These acquired competencies are associated with the importance of ‘Learning by Design’ attributes. The students were mobilizing agents of learning. They acted as builders of their individuality, through different experiences. The learning processes can depend on the content and the previous skills of the learners. It can also lean on the resources and means available. Our approach is based on learners’ propensity to get valid knowledge through their process, and the recognition that there are different alternatives of action. Or even different paths to reach the defined objectives and competencies. But there is also the belief in the acceptance of different response possibilities. Because the same teaching/learning activity can result in a variety of answers as seen in activities 8 and 9. All of them differ according to the different orientations and motivations of each group. How can we diverge our design thinking? How to choose tools? How to make the information more visible and understandable to everyone in a group? How do we reach conclusions? How to systematize and confirm the entire project development process? Those were the final questions made to answer the first one: What knowledge is gained by addressing one’s design methods? Not all these questions we have the chance to answer. This was only the first semester of this investigation. But we realized through the process that students that reflect upon their method created better.

5 Conclusion Design research methods differ in the social sciences. Design methods can be collaborative, empathic, observational, analytical, experience-oriented. But they can also help to interpret the world differently. They enable the ability to systematically integrate relevant contexts of a task, or to obtain and confirm analytical and empirical insights. And, above all, they contribute to the ability of interpersonal communication. “Learning by exposing my design method” could be a method. This concept allowed students to maintain a critical distance to a given problem that respected the pre-set culture and promoted creative ideas. This method helped students to deal with uncertainties and dynamically change underlying conditions. It also helped to set priorities and make decisions ethically and responsibly.

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In these pedagogical activities, the iterative nature of the learning process was assumed, with its cycles of planning, realization, and retrospective analysis respected. Attention was paid to the complexity of the factors involved in this system, and also to the condition of the results obtained. It allowed teachers to acquire knowledge about their role and also the students’ actions in this investigation. Teachers and students were not just the ‘subjects’ of a certain ‘research’, but active co-participants in the research carried out. In this article, the process has been realigned. Here we develop a critique of our study, distancing ourselves from experience. Sometimes, we relied more on each actor’s experience, intuition, and momentary creativity than on scientific and methodological foundations. It was impossible, however, to isolate all the variables. So that the investigation could carry out a careful and planned analysis of the data presented. Time will help to make this better when this study will be applied again, as well as the creation of more rigorous measurements that will improve the understanding of the real impact of exercises on each student. Acknowledgments. FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia has financed this investigation. Project «UIDB/04042/2020»

References Best, K.: Design Management: Managing Design Strategy, Process, and Implementation. Fairchild Books (2006) Boninge, C., Frenkler, F., Schmidhuber, S.: Designing Design Education - White Book on the Future of Design Education. If Design Foundation, Avedition Gmbh (2021) Bonsiepe, G.: Teoria e prática do design industrial: elementos para um manual crítico. Centro Português de Design, Lisboa (1992) Buchanan, R.: Wicked problems in design thinking. Des. Issues 8(2), 5–21 (1992). http://www. jstor.org/stable/1511637. Published by: The MIT Press Cope, B., Kalantzis, M. (eds.): A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Learning by Design. Palgrave, London (2015) Cross, N.: Designerly Ways of Knowing. Birkhauser, Basel (2007) Flaherty, J.: Peter Drucker: Shaping the Managerial Mind--How the World’s Foremost Management Thinker Crafted the Essentials of Business Success. Jossey-Bass, London (1999) Flusser, V.: The Shape of the Things: A Philosophy of Design. Reaktion Books, London (1999) Hollins, G., Hollins, B.: Total Design. Managing the Design Process in the Service Sector. London Pitman (1993) Jones, J.C.: Design Methods. Wiley, New York (1992) Kelley, T.: The Art of Innovation. Harper Collins Business, London (2001) Martin, B., Hanington, B.: Universal Methods of Design: 100 Ways to Research Complex Problems, Develop Innovative Ideas, and Design Effective Solutions. Rockport Publishers, Beverly (2012) Papanek, V.: Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change. Academy Chicago Publishers, Chicago (2005) Rawsthorn, A.: Hello World: Where Design Meets Life. Hamish Hamilton, London (2013) Thackara, J.: In the Bubble: Designing in a Complex World. The MIT Press, Cambridge (2005)

Visual Thinking Through Practice Led Research: Case Study Decryption as a Triggering Creative Mechanism for Design Ideas Cátia Rijo1(B)

, Helena Grácio2 , Javier Antón3 , and Victor Larripa3

1 CIAUD, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, 1349-063

Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 2 Lisbon School of Education, Lisbon Polytechnic, Benfica Campus, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal 3 Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Universidad de Navarra, 31009 Pamplona, Spain

Abstract. The present article arises from the objective of allowing the understanding of a set of problems diagnosed in higher education practice, in order to reflect on practices and methodologies adopted in the context of design teaching, more specifically on the importance of visual thinking, through the use of semantic map, as a tool to boost the generation of ideas. As a research methodology we adopted the case study as it is a research method that allows us to collect data from real contexts to explain, explore or describe actions embedded in a real context. With these in mind, we introduced a workshop developed in the context of the ERASMUS+ programme on the design diploma of the School of Architecture of the University of Navarra. In the end a tool adopted proved to be indispensable for the rapid unlocking of ideas, effectively helping students in the process of synthesizing information and constituting an engine for the creative mechanism of design ideas. Keywords: Methodologies used in design teaching context · Visual thinking in design teaching · Semantic mapping as a tool of visual thinking

1 Introduction In design education the projectual trajectory needs cycles of observation, analysis, and synthesis, for which means that favor the expression, sharing of perceptions and information are necessary, and in a development context, the capacity of expressive synthesis is essential in designers training. This article will present a semantic map based on the assumption that visual representations help organize and link ideas, since they provide a panoramic look over the set of information collected, as well as the simultaneous perception of different possibilities of connection between elements. The research presented is based on the principle of looking at, or envisioning classroom experience as an effective training instrument (Dreeben 1976), at the heart of a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 39–49, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_4

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Higher Education Institution, whose specificity somehow lies in an educational action characterized by the importance given to experimentation, to observation and integration of knowledge, techniques and technologies found in productive activities (Urbano 2008) and the predisposition to reflect on them, for the benefit of the improvement of the educational practice itself and consequent viability of significant learning. In the area of design, regardless of its sphere, the expressive ability is essential among the skills of a designer, in the sense that the evolution of the project depends on its ability to externalize, register and communicate ideas. The development of a project in design implies the experience of cycles of observation, analysis and synthesis that invariably require means that favor the perception, demonstration and sharing of the result of these processes; and in this sense, in the scope of design teaching, the expressive capacity is worked as a form of projectual knowledge management, at the same time, emphasizing the importance of using a visual support that synthesizes the various elements collected during the initial project research. Therefore, tools that explore visual thinking acquire greater relevance when it comes to rewarding the teaching-learning process, and several investigations assume visual thinking as an essential tool since it helps students to transpose the concept of the project into syntactic elements, highlighting the benefits of using visual representations in the production of knowledge (Eppler and BurKhard 2004). In the context of the application of tools to support visual thinking, it is noteworthy the systematic finding of difficulties of students, in understanding the nature of the tools and their applicability in the context of the project development process, being relevant to emphasize the difficulty of transposing the concepts from the abstract level to the concrete level, which allows us to attest visible weaknesses in the process of design delimitation transposition. It is in this context that the workshop here described, arises as a way to test a new tool to support visual thinking and simultaneously favor creative thinking.

2 The Importance of Visual Thinking in Design Teaching The importance that visual thinking has in the scope of design teaching can be more easily clarified if we firstly evaluate some core objectives of the work to be developed with students. In design teaching context, one of the main teacher roles is to help the students through the application of adequate methods and techniques that direct the reasoning towards good projectual solutions, and it is up to the students to interpret the proposed problem, coordinate and apprehend the several stages inherent to the projectual process, in order to reach a proposed goal. According to Van der Linden and Lacerda (2012), the exploration of the problem occurs in a cognitive, non-verbal and fluid way and Goldschmidt (2014) reinforces that human memory prioritizes the reception of elements such as light, color and contour in patterns, figures or shapes with meaning, this process is called “visual thinking”, which is characterized by the fact that visual processing itself is the privileged means through which cognition is built. In that way we can say that visual thinking promotes dynamism and fluidity in linking information to build new knowledge, also favoring the transformation of the concept into syntactic elements. According to Eppler and Burkhard (2004), the use of

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visual representations is an asset in the construction of knowledge, and Roam (2011) adds that if we link linear and analytical thinking with visual, spatial and synthetic thinking, we can create graphic representations that promote the expression and sharing of ideas, which can be recognized in the operation of relating words and images, which involves graphic elaboration, a process that broadens the experience of understanding an idea. In accordance with Sanches (2017), visual thinking through graphic representations helps the perception of simultaneous connections offering more celerity in understanding the relations of the projectual system and in the association of information. In the scope of design teaching the use of methodological tools that stimulate visual thinking are crucial since they help it clarify ideas or visualize images that represent concepts, while assisting in the interpretation of problems, triggering associations of ideas where images are treated as information so that, from them, innovative ideas are created. These tools therefore facilitate the construction of design knowledge, in the sense that they help students visualize and unify concepts, and therefore are essential for meaningful learning, as they rely on visual reasoning, playing a crucial role in the assimilation of knowledge by the student resulting from the process (Eppler and Burkhard 2004). One of the most used tools to stimulate visual thinking in design teaching are semantic maps, which are an essentially visual sensory reference source since they use aesthetic and symbolic elements to define the form of a product (Lobach 2001). Teaching design, it plays a fundamental role, serving as a source of sensory reference, especially visually speaking, since it uses aesthetic and symbolic elements to define the shape of a product (Lobach 2001) - and for this reason it can be said that we are facing a visual analysis technique that can help define the aesthetic sense or style of a project, being often used in the conceptual phase of the design process, because it is in this phase that the designer must have the ability to summarize the symbolism of the project translated in visual communication. One can therefore see that this type of tool is characterized by being more logical and empathetic to the design context, compared to a traditional approach centered on verbal code. However, even though semantic maps are widely used in design education and that there are several authors who refer to its advantages, there is still little research reflecting on the contours of the use of semantic maps and consequent results (Reis and Eugénio 2020) and this is a weakness that we intend to urgently overcome. Given the above, trying to contribute to a greater knowledge in this area, we propose a tool, able to be applied in the initial stage of a design project development, with the aim of helping students to synthesize and extract information, while promoting the transposition of aesthetic-symbolic elements to guidelines for the representation of a project at the level of product design/equipment elements.

3 Workshop 3.1 Context In the context of the ERASMUS+ program and in the sequence of the invitation from the Design Degree coordinator of the Architecture School from Universidad de Navarra (UNAV), Javier Antón, the opportunity arose to test the pedagogical tool under study in

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an international context, which materialised in the workshop entitled “Visual thinking through practice led research: Case study decryption as a triggering creative mechanism for design ideas”. The workshop took place at the UNAV facilities in Pamplona, on the 8th and 10th of March 2021, with a total duration of 6 h, attended by 60 students from the 1st year of the Design Degree. Given the objectives of the workshop and the plan to achieve them, as given the impossibility of monitoring the development of individual work of 60 students, it was decided to develop the workshop in groups of two students, having a total of thirty working groups. The workshop was structured in four distinct moments divided in two classes of 3 h each. The first day was characterized by a first moment of theoretic framework (2 h) and the second one characterized by the exemplification of the application of the semantic map (1 h). The second day was divided in two moments, at first by the autonomous students work (2,5 h) and after by the discussion of results (30 min). 3.2 Challenge: Creation of a Chess Set It is quite common to find in the industry sets of products whose pieces are different among them, but that despite their differences form part of a whole, i.e. a set of tableware, a fashion collection, a lamp series (bedside table lamp, living room lamp, reading lamp, wall light, etc.). A designer with such a task should understand the concept of “set”, where an ensemble of elements should keep a coherence with the entirety. Therefore, different pieces of the set should share and communicate a visual, formal, material and conceptual cohesion. With that in mind the in the class of Design Studio II, and as students had to design a chess set, that as a family of objects, it would be necessary to define pieces as different as the King, Queen, Knight, Bishop, Rook, and Pawn. The final goal was to build a prototype in a 1/1 scale of the whole set, that is, 16 pieces. In this game as in many others, the play is based on a battle between two sides. Thus, this project should be developed in pairs in such a manner that the set design of each side is meant to clash on the board against the other one. Each student of the pair should design the pieces of each side. Since the students were still in the initial phase of the project, the workshop was designed with the objective of boost creativity and to promote the generation of quick solutions for the challenge, aiming to help students to unlock preconceived ideas and to generate the creation of new ideas. For the workshop the students had to come up with two different ideas for a chess set. To help the students with this task, they were given sixteen case studies to study, and for the development of each set, students needed to choose four of them and from each one select one characteristic that could inspire them on the creation of a new set (Fig. 1). From each case study that students chose, they need to select just one characteristic from the six options available: color, concept, form, material, repetition and scale.

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Fig. 1. The sixteen case studies given to the students with the six characteristics that students need to choose. Image by the author.

As a result, to trigger the chess set creation, students had four different characteristics, each one from a different case study, as an example shown in Fig. 2 for better understanding (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Example of the choice of four case studies and the respective selection of the feature that will serve as a reference for the first proposal of the chess game. Image by the author.

After choosing the case study and the respective characteristics that they would use in the creation of the new chess set, the students should cut out the images to illustrate in the best way what was the exactly visual reference used and afterwards they should place it on the semantic map to create the drafts for a new proposal.

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Fig. 3. Example of the choice of four case studies and the respective selection of the feature that will serve as a reference for second proposal of the chess game. Image by the author.

It was required that the students express themselves only graphically, not allowing the support of text to explain the idea. The intention was that only through the images and drawings the students could transmit the concept of their project and that the references and respective chosen characteristics could be understood by visual communication (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Example of Graphic Semantic Map adaptation applied to the challenge of the chess game creation. Image by the author.

3.3 Workshop Development Because it was the first approach of the students to this design field, on the first day we started with a theoretic framework about the main theme: “how to create a set”. It was given to the students the definitions for concepts like set, collection, kit, among others.

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We challenged the students to think in which kind of characteristic are important to define and create a set as a family of elements and/or objects, and therefore translating themselves in characteristics which can help ensure that several elements are read as a whole. All the information was supported by cases studies in the field of the product design, including Bauhaus references, given by professor Javier Antón and fashion design by Professor Kate Mawby. After this first moment that, like we said previously, was constituted by a more theoretical approach, we passed to the second part of class, that was characterized by a demonstration of the importance of visual thinking through a dynamic development with the students. It was intended that through the presentation of “Lufthansa” case study, students could identify which elements define this visual identity as a family and therefore communicates an association with a set. This second moment of class was given by the author and by Professor Helena Grácio, and the main goal was to add references from graphic design field (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Composition that illustrates the different moments of the first day of workshop. Image from the author.

In the second day of the workshop the first moment was the project development by the students with the application of the semantic map and a second one where we discussed the results. We start by giving the printed material to the students: the case studies from where they could choose and identify the characteristics and images to cut, and the map to introduce all the references and draw the first ideas/sketches. The students had two

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hours and half to develop this process, discuss ideas among the different groups and design two different proposals for a complete chess set (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Composition that illustrates the first moment of the second day of the workshop. Image from the author.

In the end we invite the students to put all the semantic maps in the several windows that exist in the office space and we discuss the results with the students. In this moment the intention was give the opportunities for the students see the works of each group to boost the discussion of the process and the results (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7. Composition that illustrates the last moment of the workshop. Image from the author.

3.4 Results of Workshop It is important to highlight that the results obtained exceeded the initial expectations, because we were aware that it was a very demanding challenge, and it should be noted that, given the fact that we were working with first year and undergraduate students, we did not expected so much consistency and speed in the work developed. It should be clarified that the workshop began without any previous research by the students, the briefing was given only on the first day, so the students were able to identify the case studies and their characteristics that they wanted to serve as a basis of inspiration for the development of the individual project. If we analyze the results, we can see the

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elements of inspiration, and yet they were able to come up with very creative options for the proposed challenge. Being impossible to present all the results obtained, we highlighted some of the results obtained, and the only criteria adopted was was to ensure the diversity of the results exposed (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Composition that illustrates the last moment of the workshop. Image from the author.

Analyzing the results of the application of the semantic map by the different groups, we are able to recognize that, although in the presence of the same guidelines for completion, and all students with the same case studies, the different work teams achieved quite different results among themselves. However, regardless of the organization adopted, we consider that the diversity of proposals presented attests the fact that this semantic

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map rewards guidelines while allowing room for creativity and consequent multiplicity of application proposals. Regarding what was possible to ascertain regarding the experience of applying the tool, by asking the students about the aspects in which they felt that the use of this tool helped them, it is noteworthy that most students have stated that the tool helped mainly in the boosting of ideas, and that many of the groups had not yet completed the map and already had a number of ideas that they felt the need to record. As a final balance, it can be stated that this workshop was a very enriching and promising experience from the point of view of evaluating the potential of the tool and reflecting around the working conditions within the area of studies under consideration. It is also worth mentioning that the group of students who attended the workshop, even though they were from the 1st year of design degree, demonstrated a maturity and a mastery of the concepts that has highly overcomed what was expected.

4 Conclusion As mentioned in the workshop reflections, it was possible to assess the unanimity among students regarding the fact that the semantic map used, considerably helps the process of systematization of information, providing significant help in terms of the graphical representation of the elements collected in the research phase, allowing extraction of very objective information within the initially stipulated characteristics that make up a set. From the students’ feedback it was also unanimous that the semantic map led to a much faster unleashing of ideas than through other processes they had already experienced. It is noteworthy that the work developed by several students, after the application of the map under study in this research, reached quite satisfactory results given the cycle in which they are, and considering the maturity and elementary knowledge of design on the part of students. As such, in addition to the final results presenting good ideas and reflecting a meaning that meets the proposed briefing. The proposed tool assumes that visual representations help organize and link what we already know with new ideas, since they provide a panoramic look at the set of information collected, as well as the simultaneous perception of different possibilities of connection between elements. It is expected that the work developed in this research will trigger further studies about the methodologies and techniques applied in design teaching, more specifically in the application of semantic maps to stimulate visual thinking.

References Author, F.: Article title. Journal 2(5), 99–110 (2016) Author, F., Author, S.: Title of a proceedings paper. In: Editor, F., Editor, S. (eds.) CONFERENCE 2016. LNCS, vol. 9999, pp. 1–13. Springer, Heidelberg (2016) Author, F., Author, S., Author, T.: Book title. 2nd edn. Publisher, Location (1999) Author, F.: Contribution title. In: 9th International Proceedings on Proceedings, pp. 1–2. Publisher, Location (2010) LNCS Homepage. http://www.springer.com/lncs. Accessed 21 Nov 2016

Frame of Mind: The Genres of Sexualized Advertising Influencing an 18 years-Old’s Self-perception Paige Coote1(B)

and Catarina Lelis2

1 University of West London, London, UK

[email protected] 2 Department of Communication and Art, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Abstract. The advertising industry has relied heavily on sex appeal for decades. However, its reputation for sexualizing women and stereotyping gender has captivated researchers who aim to identify what influence it might have on consumer behaviour. Studies tend to focus almost exclusively on either “adults” or “minors” but ignore the fact that there is an age group in between that is important to pay attention to. In legal terms, 18-year-olds are considered adults, but they do not have the same level of maturity as those much older and are not quite young enough to classify as minors. The purpose of this study is to explore how the use of genres, such as comedy, romance, and suspense, in sexualised advertising affects this small demographic of young adults. Specifically, how it influences their self-perceptions which will affect how they see themselves as they grow into adulthood. Frame-by-frame analysis will be conducted to examine the elements of formalist film theory and specifically how camera composition is applied. Results of the study indicate that participants’ self-worth decreased as they considered this to be determined by their appearance. The results indicated that across all three genres, narrative aids both the interpretation of the advertisement and the understanding of their self-perception positively. Keywords: Sexualised advertising · 18-year-old consumers · Self-perception · Advertising genres · Humour · Romance · Suspense · Framing analysis

1 Introduction The implementation of sex appeal in advertising is a popular and persuasive technique within the creative industries as it immediately grabs the attention of consumers (Reichert et al. 2012). However, the consequences associated with this technique are often negative. For instance, sexism is a reoccurring theme within this controversial topic, and is described by Heller (2000), as “the oldest form of discrimination”. Women are endlessly stereotyped for their postfeminist roles and are therefore primarily applied to advertising household products. Zawisa-Reiley (2019) explains that if a man was to replace the women in this paradigm, they would be portrayed “as the heroes”, as it would be perceived as a modern twist on a traditional domestic relationship. While this specific © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 50–70, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_5

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example is not sexualised, this type of prejudice within the media is known to harm an individual’s self-image as it influences the role they should embody within society and thus who they are as an individual. In print media, women are frequently depicted with their heads tilted or looking up at the camera to depict them as vulnerable and powerless (Heller 2000). In contrast, men are typically portrayed looking down on or directly at the viewer, to indicate confidence and superiority (idem). this visual semiotic composition executed repeatedly for decades conveys the subordination of women and the dominance of men. Cronin (2000) indicates that adult consumers have become more visually adept, and aware of these techniques - but what about their influence on the younger generations of today? As a means of identifying new contributions to the field of study, a specific demographic was chosen for exploration. There are currently no studies that focus on 18year-olds as the primary focus, which was originally identified by Reichert (2003). This is because an 18-year-old is legally considered an adult, however, the few seconds in which an individual transitions from a child to adult on their 18th birthday would not have brought them any significant change regarding their growth or maturity. Therefore, they must be explored separately from other adults and minors also. Heller (2000) states the youth market is a desired demographic for many brands because they tend to be gullible and more inclined to subconsciously believe what they interpret. According to Reichert (2003), fashion advertisements with sexual imagery on them were more likely to induce customers to buy the advertised clothing. Consequently, this confirms that this demographic may already perceive sexualised advertising differently from older adults. Moreover, current 18-year-olds, referred to as “Generation Z”, have experienced a great deal of social pressure due to growing up in a world dominated by social media, which may make them more susceptible to media influences than previous generations— particularly since sexual content is more prevalent in advertisements that target young adults (Reichert 2003). This research will also explore another gap in existing literature by examining sexualised advertising through a rigorous categorisation approach, in the context of three specific forms of advertising content: comedic, romantic, and suspenseful. As a result of this knowledge, the creative industries will be able to avoid negative and harmful interpretations, thus improving overall communication. Hence, the research question that this project aims to answer is: “How is the use of comedic, romantic and suspenseful sexualised advertising content influencing an 18-year-old’s self-perception?”.

2 Literature Review According to Hultin and Lundh (2004, p. 1), “companies make use of sexual appeal in advertising more now than ever”. Fifteen years later, Reichert (2019), explains that sexual content is prevalent in the media with its intensity increasing in recent years. Therefore, this implies that the popularity of this tactic within advertising has only amplified since then. This poses several questions, namely around the influence and effect this is having on us, the consumers, amidst a new digital age. Reichert is a recurring and popular author in this subject area and thus one of communications leading experts on the topic of sexualised advertising. In 2012, he and his colleagues explained that the popularity of sex

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appeal among the communications sector originated from its ability to “grab consumers’ attention” (Reichert et al. 2012). However, it was more recently identified that the effects of the strategic use of sexual content on viewership and consumption were less obvious to the field of study, thus highlighting a gap in research (Reichert 2019). Furthermore, the author strongly believes that sex can influence consumers’ sexual perceptions, attitudes, and actions both directly and indirectly (idem). Lindstrom (2008) questioned whether sex in advertising has gone too far, in fear that consumers were being “corrupted by sex”. Moreover, he states that “sex hijacks our attention”, as can extreme beauty standards particularly amongst celebrity endorsement (idem). This was based on the knowledge that in 2005 American Apparel were penalised for degrading women, promoting pornography, and even encouraging sexual assault within their advertising. However, by 2006, the author mentions that sales were estimated at “approximately $300 million”, thus demonstrating that this encouraged customer engagement and consequently increased sales, putting them in a better position than ever before. Lindstrom (2008) also theorised that consumers are more likely to identify with people/actors who look like us, as they seem more “inviting” and thus more welcoming to the brand. The author’s research led to concluding that sex does not sell anything other than itself for two reasons: 1) his participants struggled to recall sexualised advertisements, and 2) sexually suggestive material blinded participants to all other information in the advertisement including the brand name and product itself. Sexualised advertising, however, does not also originate from the narrative. Heller’s “Sex Appeal: The Art of Allure in Graphic and Advertising Design” intricately unveils the role sex appeal plays within all forms of visual communication. He investigates typographic characteristics associated with sex appeal, analyses and contextualises advertisements, whilst also reaching insightful conclusions within the topics of socialisation, feminism, gender diversity, and youth exposure. Furthermore, the author states that “the use of sexual stimuli is especially appropriate in design because sexual excitement like any strong emotion first associates events with memory” (2000, p. 17). Leung et al. (2017) conducted a study with the intent to propose a framework for analysing how approaches and mindsets towards nudity in advertising change as a result of modernisation. Whilst this study does not focus predominantly on 18-year-olds, participants are similar in age as they are all university students. Therefore, the findings from this experiment identify that females in the most modernised city harvested notoriously less positive attitudes to the ads compared to male participants (idem). Sexualised advertising is used worldwide, often “fulfilling erotic fantasies and appetites” (Gould 1994, p. 73). The nature in which these adverts are conducted has a large influence on what deems an advertisement ethical or not. Gould (1994) believes that this approach encourages a disrespectful atmosphere towards the objectification of women, as many female consumers make social comparisons between themselves dependent on the way that their gender is stereotyped through sexualised advertising. This proposes the notion that perhaps if a sexualised advertisement accommodates itself within a particular theme, it may escape viewer aversion. If brands consider both the nature of the advertisement with the desired message, they may potentially evade criticism from the public. For instance, Calvin Klein’s 1995 campaign which depicted underaged models through a grainy resolution and low lighting, led to what Lindstrom

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(2008) believes intentionally impersonates “a low budget 1970’s porn”. This launched an investigation into whether Klein had breached child pornography laws which he was later found not guilty of as he claimed the advert was intended to depict “glamour” (Lindstrom 2008). This indicates that potentially unethical sexualised advertising could avoid repercussions if those involved in its production can justify its concept and claim it had been misinterpreted. Previous studies that have explored sexualised advertisements’ effect on consumers have failed to investigate how the genre of sexualised advertising may serve as an influence on one’s self-perception. Through attempting to identify if this influences self-perception, three genres of sexualised advertising content have been selected: comedy, romance and suspense. The use of humour in advertising is an evident and popular approach with many products within the fast-moving consumer goods sector. However, Sutherland and Sylvester (2000) agree that humour is usually successful in any context. According to Weinberger and Gulas (1992, p. 36), this is because “94% of advertising practitioners see humour as an effective way to gain attention”. Fugate (1998) also agrees that humour attracts attention and mentions additional benefits to the utilisation of this technique, such as it encourages people to remember the advert and therefore the message, thus improving brand image and recall. More recently, Kenny and Euchler (2012, p. 308) have explained that “humour within advertising can be used to relativize power and poke fun at dominant and oppressive gender discourses in operation”. Humour may result in any situation where the sudden realisation of how much better we are than our direct competition occurs (Hobbes 1886; Tafoya 2009; Sen 2012). Sen (2012) explains that humorous remarks made at others may be a sign of attempting to dominate those whom he or she considers inferior, thus inciting humour at another’s expense. The second sexualised genre is Romance, another universal approach used within advertising. In a study by Lindstrom (2008), results concluded that nearly twice as many participants were found more likely to purchase an advertised product if it portrayed images of “love” rather than images that alluded to sex. Therefore, 18-year-olds could easily romanticise their life through this form of content, however, it could be argued they lack understanding of a real relationship or alter their self-perception in terms of what is expected of them. It could even potentially escalate to the pressure to engage in sexual relations before they’re ready (Ruchika et al. 2015). Sternberg (1986) developed a theory entitled the ‘Triangular Theory of Love’ which will aid in defining how various methods of romance influence one’s self-perception. He theorised that love can be understood through three components; intimacy, passion and commitment, which all manifest to “different kinds of loving experiences” (idem, p. 119). Intimacy refers to feelings of closeness and bondedness in affectionate relationships whilst passion refers to the physical attraction and sexual drive that follows; commitment refers to long-term relationships designed to maintain love (Sternberg 1986). The third and final theme is Suspense. Alwitt (2002) states that suspense is a genre that can be easily distinguished from most other genres within advertising. Characteristics include a feeling of both excitement and nervousness, combined with apprehension, tension and uncertainty (Nieding 2008). Within this theme, nudity is predominant in comparison to both comedy and romance. Ruchika et al. (2015) state that nudity is perceived as more offensive than any other appeal, and therefore, despite tasteful, this

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genre could offend or negatively influence one’s self-esteem, mood, and attitudes towards body image. Gould (1994) agrees, believing that sexualised advertisements that exhibit nudity contribute to creating unrealistic expectations of how men and women should look. Smuts (2008) proposed that “in order to feel suspense, one must care about an outcome”. He adds that “in addition to strong desire, the event one cares about must be imminent” (idem, p. 284), stating that we rarely experience suspense in real life but frequently feel it powerfully in response to played out narratives. Alwitt (2002) believes that a negative aspect of suspenseful advertising is that there is less brand-content integration. Therefore, recall on these advertisements may prove to be less prevalent in comparison to both comedy and romance.

3 Methods This research will employ an interpretivist epistemology and an inductive approach following a qualitative content and framing analysis methodology. The genres were explored in-depth to create a clear understanding of how each one may contribute to one’s understanding of their self-perception, both male and female 18-year-old’s. This research aims to identify whether current 18-year-olds are either susceptible or invulnerable to the influence sexualised advertising can potentially have. An equal number of males and females was recruited to participate in the research, consisting of six participants in total (N = 6). The sampling followed a snowballing technique; to avoid mistakenly involving those who are not 18-years-old and, therefore, would not be relevant to the study, all potential participants were screened individually prior to engaging with the project. They were invited to observe a showreel of nine advertisements, three for each genre. They were shown content predetermined by the researcher according to a set of criteria consisting of visual semiotics, music, nudity, and sexualised/suggestive language. All advertisements, both for print and television, were created by reputable agencies where both quality control and legal standards would have already been met. Furthermore, the adverts have no registered complaints or distressed comments as a result of public viewing. Data on participants’ perceptions regarding these same adverts was collected through a series of in-depth 1:1 semi-structured interviews, conducted using video conferencing software due to the ongoing Coronavirus pandemic. After that, a combination of questioning, observation and projective techniques (Nunez 2015) were used to establish any impact on their self-perception along with various visual and verbal exercises designed to indicate one’s overall perception. Using a colour card technique, participants could indicate the colour that best describes the advert they witness in any context that they desire. The participants were then asked to explain their choice based on their interpretations of the advertisements. To conclude central thoughts, participants were also asked to choose three words describing each advertisement and its genre. This gave the participants a chance to consider the wording they feel describes the content they have witnessed, thereby gaining a better understanding of how it has been interpreted. To understand how their perception is influenced, participants were also contacted a week after their interview and asked if they could remember any of the advertisements and why.

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By applying a frame analysis (Goffman 1974), this research aims to evaluate how participants understand situations and themselves based on culturally determined meanings of reality through their frames. Goffman (1974, p. 38) states that “we can hardly glance at anything without applying a primary framework (social or natural), thereby forming conjectures as to what occurred before and expectations of what is likely to happen now”. Therefore, in light of this, it is likely that participants’ answers, upon watching a selection of adverts, may be influenced by how they’re framed. Moreover, the Superiority Theory of Humour (STH) will serve as a framework to comprehend the relationship between humorous sexualised advertising and an 18-yearolds self-perception. Conger describes STH as focused on the darker side of comedy as it refers to the idea that one laughs in response to their “elevation over others’ unfortunate situations or social standings” (2011, p. 2). In other words, STH will aid in understanding both who’s expense the humour within the advert is aimed towards and the intended message regarding who the advert aims to make laugh. Theories implemented to comprehend the relationship between romantic advertising may also cross over with Festinger’s (1954) Social Comparison Theory (SCT) as it enables its viewers to envision that the romance on-screen within the advertisement could be theirs (Ma and Gal 2016). In doing so, both negative and positive self-evaluations may be made, thus influencing one’s self-perception. The Desire-Frustration Theory (DFT) will act as a framework to grasp participants’ self-perception in terms of understanding their level of interest. If participants attest to be uninterested in the narrative, they, therefore, will not feel the suspense and thus will not exhibit any changes to their self-perception nor individual influence on the other forms of advertised content. Through using a qualitative ranking system ranging 1–5 within the data analysis process an average score per gender and as a whole has been identified. Film theory will be explored to understand the cinematographic keys that influence how the participants may translate the media, so that their answers can be dissected and understood suitably. As the theoretical framework for this research follows Goffman’s frame analysis, this study focused on depicting the role of shot composition within the chosen advertisements, as Fritts (2019) states that camera placement can offer “new dramatic impact” to film. In doing so, this research adopts a formalist approach to film theory, meaning the technical aspects of the film through shot composition will frame logical explanations behind the interpretation of comedic, romantic and suspenseful advertisements.

4 Findings This section will include an analysis of the selected media shown to participants. This has been examined in alignment with their appropriate theories to ensure an understanding of how their self-perception has been influenced. A summary of said analysis can be seen in Table 1, at the end of the section.

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4.1 Analysis of Comedy-Based Adverts The first advert presented to participants was from stationary brand Post-It entitled “For the little thing you’ll forget”. The photograph shows a sleeping couple featuring the stick notes product which has been attached to the forehead of the female character. The note reads ‘Jade’, and therefore we assume this to be the female character’s name. Based on the name of the advertisement, it suggests that the male has forgotten her name and that the couple appears naked, indicating that sexual activity might have occurred before. In doing so, this implies that the man has slept with other women and has trouble remembering their names. It could be argued that the scene implicitly represented in this advert is disrespectful to the female community. However, the fact that many adults may relate to this circumstance brings humour and relatability to the concept and brand. In truth, the ad portrays a situation that is not exclusive to just men as women may have also found themselves in this incident. In alignment with The Superiority Theory, an analysis of who is at the brunt of the joke was compared to who the intended audience was. In this advert, it is clear that the female character is at the centre of the joke. It is also evident that in doing so, the advert aims to encourage promiscuous behaviour, particularly in men. In addition, about a third of the participants interviewed also identified that the humour was centred at the female characters expense, which served in acknowledging the superiority theory among the various responses, thus ensuring an understanding of how their selfperception is influenced. This example takes the superiority theory literally as it depicts men as advantageously superior over women which is predicted to aggravate female participants. As this is a print advertisement, the analysis resorted to a single frame which has been composed as a mid-shot. This was identified because the frame displays both subject and scenery. Half of participants, all of whom were men, acknowledged that the advertisement was funny before recognising the effect that this may have had on women. Alternatively, the remaining female participants described the advert as “misogynistic”, “toxic”, “empty” and “objectifying”. Furthermore, most participants explained despite the objectification towards women, this behaviour was something that has been normalised and therefore it is something that they are used to. Hence, half of the participants, all female, admitted to feeling powerless to men and also objectified as a result of the narrative. They expressed that they felt this was “unnecessarily sexualised” considering they are advertising stationary. Out of the total, a minority felt that the advert encouraged them to be more cautious of ensuring they are considerate with a partner, and a third, all men, admitted the concept encouraged them to behave similarly, describing the male using terms such as “womanizer”. Therefore, as expected, this advert may have had a negative effect on 18-year-old women, thus portraying men as the superior gender amongst the humour. The second advert that was shown to participants within the comedy genre was the Durex’s “Cheaper” campaign, which portrays expensive alternatives the viewer may have to purchase if they choose to not invest in purchasing their $2.50 pack of condoms. These alternatives include a $217 baby car seat or a $420 play crib, thus highlighting the importance of safe sex from an unintended pregnancy perspective.

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Considering the Superiority Theory yet again, an analysis of who is at the brunt of the joke was compared to who the intended audience was. Durex’s advert aimed to entertain all through relating to the concept of money. Through highlighting the expense of children, humour is directed towards both parents and individuals who engage in unprotected sex, thus placing those who use condoms at a superior advantage as they are not at risk of being in this predicament. In doing so, the advert promotes sexual health and, potentially, reduces the statistics regarding unplanned pregnancies. As another print advertisement, this example only includes one frame, however unlike the previous example, this one has been designed and constructed to show items, not people. As all items can be completely seen, both the baby carrier and the brand logo, this would count as a wide-shot, as all contents are within the frame with just a gradient colour as a background. Most participants had positive reactions explaining the advertisement encouraged a “shared responsibility” amongst both parties, “didn’t offend anyone” and was a “respectful way to talk about sex”. The remaining felt that the advert could potentially discourage people from wanting to have children in the future out of fear of the expense. Additionally, some participants also stated that sexualised advertising was better without actors or explicit imagery in what seems to be a clear comparison with the advert they had observed previously. Regarding how it has influenced self-perception, the vast majority explained that the advert encouraged a desire within them to have an equal dynamic in their ongoing/future relationships. A few participants admitted feeling low self-esteem due to fear of never being able to support a family, stating “I don’t know if I could ever afford to have kids, but especially now I fear I won’t be able to”. This may be a consequence of living in London, as all participants were based there, and, for the past years, living prices have been constantly increasing, thus intimidating younger generations. However, the drastic change in positive reactions compared to the last advert shows the benefits of using comedy without objectifying another individual. The final advert in the comedy genre is a moving image spot advert from eBay, entitled “94 s”. A narrator describes a “young couple” who engage in a “fateful 94 s together”, which nine months later resulted in a baby. It is due to this narration that comedy is conveyed. In doing so, this advert encourages awareness around one sexual performance, specifically to men who are traditionally mocked regarding this circumstance within various media. The advert then portrays how eBay was supposedly used to sell their old possessions and replace them with items for the baby, through the online market site. Although the couple is always absent, basic visual semiotic analysis imply the act of sex through the index of empty wine glasses, a messy sofa and abandoned clothing. The advert yet again advocates consumer relatability as many parents may empathise with the concept of sacrificing their old lives and possessions to benefit their children, regardless of a planned or unplanned pregnancy. This narrative, similarly aims to be superior to those who engage in regular unprotected sex or those who have children thus encouraging most people to find it funny through the element of relatability. However, this also aims to make women laugh through the title “94 s”, encouraging a sense of superiority over men considering the average duration of their sexual performance.

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Similar to Durex, this advertisement refrains from using actors within the concept and instead resorts to visual hints, alongside using a narrator, to indicate the narrative, accompanied by music. As the first moving image advertisement, in the form of a spot concept, the advert conveys a sequence of consistent shots of a mid-shot composition, filmed in one take as the camera travels at a 360-degree angle (twice) using a combination of camera techniques, panning and dolling. These terms refer to the camera movements travelling backwards and forwards around the room. As the camera flows around the room, slowing down on certain objects to help frame the narrative, minimal editing can be seen. As the camera moves closer towards an object, we see them transform individually but suddenly, into other objects to suggest this is how we presume the characters felt during the process of selling the items; one minute they were there and then the next, they were gone. All participants expressed positive responses to the advert explaining that it was “effective”, “light-hearted” and “funny”. One third explained that the parts they found specifically amusing were the frames that included minimal editing and explained that the presence of no actors helped draw the focus to this. Additionally, they also stated that implementing a storytelling element benefitted how the advert was interpreted as they described it as “straight to the point”, “relatable” and “easy to understand”. Half of participants, all females, admitted that the advert encouraged the desire, yet again, for an equal relationship where both parents make sacrifices rather than just one, who, they explain, would typically be “the woman” as she is portrayed as the “nurturing one”. They explained that they therefore felt more equal to men in society. The remaining half of participants, all of whom were men, declared they felt “offended” by the title “94 s” as they confessed it made them “insecure” and “unconfident” regarding their sexual performance. However, when the female characters were asked about the title, some did not understand what it was in reference to, as they explained that when it was said by the narrator, the frame slightly closed into a mid-shot of a pregnancy test. However, perhaps close-up shots should be used more in future to avoid misinterpretation because if they could see the test was already developed, they would have understood the concept more. Similar to the first advert (for Post-It Notes), using a sensitive subject such as sex to laugh at is unsettling for younger adults, especially when aimed at specific genders, due to their lack of experience. In reflection to the genre of comedy overall, women only showed positive responses to the adverts that implied the notion of children, whilst men found them all funny, but preferred it if the titles were not so suggestive. 4.2 Analysis of Romance-Based Adverts The next genre shown to participants was romance. The first example is another spot advertisement entitled “Rip Your Clothes On” from Downy, a fabric softener and conditioner brand. The advert begins with a young couple, in their underwear. At first, we assume we are about to witness an intimate moment but instead of undressing each other further, the couple does the opposite, moving around, what we assume, is their apartment: hey clothe one another, growing increasingly passionate as they appreciate each item of clothing and each other, demonstrating sexually suggestive actions as they dress each other such as pushing the female onto the sofa, and pulling the man closer into the woman’s body.

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Sternberg’s “Triangular Theory of Love” has been applied to comprehend the data through this genre. Downys’ advert implies the act of sex whilst still demonstrating intimacy. This advert features a sequence of all the camera shots chosen to explore: long, medium, close-up and point-of-view (POV). However, the most frequently used shots contain close-ups and point-of-views which aid in portraying intimacy as the viewer feels physically close to the situation. In the background, singer and songwriter Ella Eyre sings “we don’t have to take our clothes off”, a semiotic factor that highlights the ability to be intimate and sensual whilst still clothed. This is another form of formalist film theory as it references the sound and is an important element of the advert and crucial to the analysis. The final frame of the advertisement features text that reads “a feeling so soft, you’ll want to rip your clothes on” emerges. This allows the brand and concept to come together, as the product is associated with an intimate and sexual feeling thus portraying the role sex can play in a non-explicit concept. Most participants expressed a positive response to the advert describing the narrative and message as “comfortable”, “wholesome” and “calming”, all of which identified that the music assisted in positive reactions as well as the concept “unique twist on intimacy”. Despite enjoying the concept, the remaining participants described the advert “cringe” due to the movements the characters performed, observed through wide and medium shots where more the subjects’ full body was witnessed. As the narrative and message of the advert was approved, this suggests that if the close-up and POV shots had been consistent within the advertisement, then this may have been avoided. A few had concerns regarding the use of sexualised advertising to promote a fabric softener due to a lack of relevance, stating that it was “unneeded”. Perhaps, identifying strong connections with sexual narratives and the brand are key to avoiding negative interpretations. In regard to how this advertisement has influenced participants’ self-perception, over half of those interviewed suggested the advert had increased their self-esteem, as they expressed the advert inspired an increase in their self-worth through feeling equal to a partner. Additionally, others admitted that due the act of sex being implied rather than shown, they felt less sexualised and therefore more positive about themselves and their gender roles. One participant clarified “[the characters] treat each other with respect and were both equally naked and dressed at the same time”. Therefore, as we are typically accustomed to women being less clothed in adverts, this was “refreshing” and “romantic” to them. However, the remaining participants admitted the advert encouraged a decrease in their self-esteem due to experiencing feelings of either loneliness or jealousy which encouraged them to be more insecure in regard to if a relationship like this was achievable for them. Gucci’s, “Gucci Guilty Intense” fragrances “for him and her” starring actors Chris Evans and Evan Rachel Wood in 2016 was also shown to participants within this genre. This short monochrome advertisement features the two young celebrities naked and intimate in what appears to be a hotel room featuring plants in the corner and a minimalist décor. The couple kisses each other slowly, whilst tracing their fingers suggestively over parts of their partner’s body. As the ad draws to a close, we hear and see their landline ringing out, with the fragrance next to it. The ad, which was released just before Valentine’s Day was the perfect marketing move to persuade consumers that purchasing

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this item for their lover would result in the same effect – an adoringly intimate and erotic encounter. Within Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love the element of romance this advert exhibits is passion. As this advert lacks narration and portrays what can be described as a “physical relationship”, this is a clear example of passion as the characters are focused on the act of sex rather than their relationship. This advert is almost entirely a sequence of close-up shots apart from the odd midshot. Portrayed entirely through a monochrome colour palette, the close-up shots mostly frame sections of the characters’ bodies, which sexualises the subjects. Another element worth mentioning is that the first and last frame both include reference to the brand. Most participants expressed a positive response to the concept of the advert describing it as “comfortable”, “desirable”, “passionate”, “intimate”, “sexy” and “idealistic”. The remaining described the advert as “inappropriate” and “fake” regarding the exploitation of sex appeal to sell the product. They also implied a narrative, or at least a deeper attachment to the characters would have aided the project in feeling less fake and help their relationship appear more convincing as they described it as “too perfect”. Alternatively, could simply implying sex through visual semiotics also assist, as this is a repetition of what was identified through the previous genre, comedy. Half of those who expressed positive opinions specifically commented on the use of black and white imagery throughout the advertisement, and how this effect helped the advert be conveyed as “expensive”, “elegant” and “sexier”. Half of the interviewees admitted that the equal presence of both parties across all frames assisted in conveying an equal relationship which, therefore, increased their sense of self-worth. Some felt the lack of narration and character development led to them feeling stereotyped by the portrayals of gender, rather than seen as an individual. For example, the relationship within the advert depicted the male as “dominant” and the female as “delicate”. Therefore, participants perceived themselves similarly which led to explaining they now feel “pressured” or “objectified”. About one third admitted to feelings of decreased self-esteem; one participant felt the advert implied that only a fragrance would help them to achieve a similar relationship, rather than being confident in themselves. Similarly, another participant felt that the use of overtly attractive actors made them feel they should be beautiful but passive to be desirable. The final advert in the romance genre is entitled “The Kiss” from Vodafone. It has the longest duration compared to the others, as it lasts 1 min 30 s. The advertisement tells the story of two characters, showing how their relationship developed over the course of their lives, showing them age from children to elderly adults. This narrative is shown through a sequence of scenes portraying various moments in the relationship from youthful to mature. The advert begins with them as children experiencing what we assume to be their first kiss as they appear nervous and hesitant. Once they kiss, the characters transform to much older versions of themselves, perhaps the same age as the demographic this research targets. After kissing for a second time, their location changes to what can be perceived as a nightclub, showing their relationship change and also their behaviour, as they appear more familiar and lustful with each other. Ultimately, the advert depicts a series of kisses that transforms them and their environment to depict the journey of their relationship through time. Towards the end of the video, emotion

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is shown, as the female characters is shown crying. The aim of the advertisement is to promote Vodafone’s 2013 service “Vodafone Red” which the brand describes through their tagline its “a good thing”. The connection with the narrative relates to the longevity of the characters relationship as it lasted a few years, thus suggesting the relationship was “a good thing” similar to the service that it is advertising. In alignment with the Triangular Theory of Love, this advert clearly demonstrates the third and final segment of the theory: commitment. Sternberg (1986) describes this as a long-term relationship designed to maintain love. As mentioned previously, this advert harvests a strong and clear narrative of a romantic long-term relationship, thus signifying commitment to each other. Regarding the frame analysis of the media, we see a variety of camera shots used. The advert begins with a wide-shot to set the scene, which assists in forming the narrative. This is followed by a series of close-ups, with occasional mid-shots, showing consistent intimacy over time through minimal editing. The location and actor change when the couple kiss is a combination of the editing and camera work—which practices continuous movement, never deflecting from the female character. Finally, the closing frames feature text with the brand identity to help tie the narrative with the brand. Half of the participants expressed positive responses to the advert, specifically commenting on how the narrative was “heart-warming” and portrayed well using minimal editing. Although, the other half communicated negative responses to the advert. There were a variety of reasons for this such as its narrative being perceived as “too good to be true” and “unrealistic”. One participant stated that the comedic adverts were more believable even if disrespectful. Another reason for the negative interpretations was due to the fickleness of young relationships. Participants felt older relationships were of a more believable age to become committed at, specifically commenting on the ages of 20–40 to maintain authenticity, claiming this was a more “appropriate age to settle down”. Additionally, some participants commented that the implementation of text in the final frame aided in ensuring the narrative linked to the product/brand. Regarding how this has influenced self-perception of the participants, half admitted to experiencing increased feelings of jealousy and heightened insecurity due to the fear of never achieving a long-term successful relationship, thus suggesting a decrease in their self-esteem. One third felt that, through showing the relationship over time including portrayals of intensified emotions, this suggested that healthy relationships are possible, which they admit encouraged them to feel “worthy of love” and “hopeful”. However, few participants, consisting of females only, had their self-perception negatively influenced as they felt that by only showing the female character as upset, she was displayed as the “weaker gender”. Furthermore, it was conveyed that “the relationship felt more like hers [the female character], rather than theirs”. In doing so, they implied that this has led to them perceiving themselves as the person who is expected to be emotional and vulnerable in a relationship, thus influencing their role in society. 4.3 Analysis of Suspense-Based Adverts The third and final genre that was explored within this research was suspense. Paco Rabanne’s 2018 advertisement for their fragrance “Pure XS for her” includes a striking and well-known model named Emily Ratajkowski. The model seductively struts through

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an elegant building with determination, removing her bag, jewellery and eventually her clothing. As she struts towards her boudoir, infatuated suitors follow her “scent” individually until a new male character appears and sabotages their chance with her by letting them fall into traps along the way. These include stairs that change into a slope, a trap door in the floor and even a chandelier falling from above. Once naked and in the bedroom, the female character shuts the doors and sprays her exposed body with the fragrance. The advertisement is accompanied by the classical composition “CarmenSuite Nr. 2: II. Habanera” which is famously known to heighten arousal within the media and is recognised worldwide. To translate the effect this genre had on participants, the Desire-Frustration Theory has been implemented as a framework. Amongst male participants, the average interest scored at a level of 4. This was due to the fact some participants had more to say on this advert compared to previous video-based adverts, which suggests they took in more of the advert. Alternatively, others expressed enjoyment in the “tense music”. Amongst female participants, a slightly higher level of interest was identified as they scored 4.3. This all due to a consistent high level of interest toward the outcome as they answered questions expressing more vulnerability than they had previously. Alternatively, others demonstrated a high level of attention by commenting on multiple elements within the advert that others had not, such as the setting, music and semiotic elements which later helped them to reach insight conclusions on their thoughts of the advert. This advert consisted of mostly close-up shots of the female character’s face and body. Almost every shot that included a character, also contained a part of her, meaning she was the entire focus, whether it be her face, or later in the clip, her body. However, there is also a strong presence of point-of-view shots where the female character looks at the viewer mischievously. This is something new to the adverts previously shown to participants, as all other POV shots were to mimic the eyeline of the other characters, whereas here the female character is walking alone, but somehow manages to locate the camera’s lens, thus increasing anticipation and heightening the viewer’s interest. Half of the participants described the advert positively, using words such as “powerful”, “confident” and “seductive”. The remaining held negative opinions for a variety of reasons: some felt it encouraged women to play games in relationships, whereas others felt that by trying to empower women they had done the opposite—although still sexualising her through scenes of nudity. One participant verbalised that the media implied that to be desirable, one must look similar to the actress. Additionally, more than half expressed concerns regarding where the female character generated her confidence from, as they felt strongly that it was solely due to the male role finding her attractive and wanting to have her. One participant even stated that “if the men were not in the video, it would have had a completely different but much better effect”. One third of the participants acknowledged that by the female character looking “directly at the camera”, they felt “more involved” in the concept. In regard to self-perception, some male participants felt “degraded” by the advert, explaining that they showed women as superior to men when they would have preferred a more equal portrayal. Additionally, a third of participants admitted that they felt insecure upon viewing the advert regarding their own self-worth:, “I don’t think I would be good enough to be with a beautiful woman like her”. Also, few of the participants expressed

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heightened confidence during the interview and even claimed that they wanted to purchase the product due to how much self-assurance it gave them. Finally, the remaining third described a decrease in their self-esteem as they felt their worth was determined by their own appearance. Hugo Boss’ campaign for their female fragrance “The Scent” is a 45-s clip, showing model Anna Ewers and actor Theo James educating viewers on the art of seduction through a combination of intense eye contact and limited physical contact. The advert begins with the female character alone, until night falls and the male characters appear in the elegant setting of what seems to be a penthouse suite or luxurious sky rise apartment, overlooking New York City. The characters are positioned extremely close to one another, caressing each part of the body, but never share a kiss, although this is later implied. The advert aims at creating the illusion that women would gain seductive power through the magnetic appeal of this product. The music that accompanies the sequence is from contemporary Rhythm and Blues artist “The Weekend”, with a song called “High For This”. This slow and seductive piece aids in constructing feelings of anticipation as they aim to encourage viewers to feel eager as the sexual tension builds between the two characters. When applying the DFT amongst male participants, their average interest scored at a level of 2.6, which is much lower to what we saw with the previous advert. This was due to some participants having the least to say about this advert in comparison to the ones shown earlier, thus indicating less involvement with the outcome. Additionally, one participant struggled to describe the advert in three words. However, the female participants scored higher with a collective interest level of 3.3. This was due to some females identifying various elements of the advert such as location, which could only be witnessed through one frame, thus indicating stronger attention to detail. Others described the advert as interesting due to the stereotypical relationship the concept portrayed which she admitted made them “bored”. Opening and closing frames with both the brand and the product through wide shot compositions have been identified. This may have been implemented to reinstate the purpose of the advertisement as there is a lack of narration throughout. A collection of wide, medium and close-up shots portrays the female character staring out at the New York skyline from her penthouse location. We then observe a short time lapse as the city sky transforms into the night. In the reflection of the glass windows overlooking the city, we see the female spray the perfume to her chest and neck. Within the change of frame, the male character appears almost instantly after spraying the perfume to suggest the scent draws men to her. As mentioned previously the couple touch and caress each other, and then start to remove clothing. As the advert draws to a close, we see the couple about to kiss through a close-up composition, before the frame fades into a wide-shot, right before their lips would meet, to show the product and brand logo. By not showing the couple kiss within the frames, the advert builds suspense, arousal and anticipation for the viewer. Over half of participants described the advert positively using words such as “seductive”, “successful”, “confident” and “desirable”. The remaining described the advert negatively, using words such as “fake”, “toxic” and “boring” as they felt the advert

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portrayed as “unrealistic aesthetic”, rather than a reality, which was preferred. This suggests that by including a relatable less-luxurious narrative, this would also aid in positive perceptions, like what was identified within the previous genres. Additionally, half of those who expressed positive responses, commented specifically on the setting shown through the wide-shot composition as they idolised the environment: “shows that they are successful in life as well in their relationship”. Another positive reaction was identified in some participants who explained that due to the couple embracing each other, fully clothed and implying sex rather than showing it, they felt this was “respectful” and “elegant” without objectifying one gender over another in the process. They also described this tactic of creating a more believable relationship as stimulating to watch. In regard to the influence on self-perception, some felt that the role of the male character influenced their concept of how they should be in a relationship: “dominant” and “confident”. About one third admitted they felt insecure regarding their ability to entice an attractive partner and jealous of those who have. Few participants admitted the advert made them feel empowered as women as they felt that by purchasing the perfume they may also experience this effect on men. The remaining third of participants, yet again defined a decrease in their self-esteem as they felt their worth was determined by their appearance. The last advert shown to participants and the final media within the suspense genre is for another female fragrance campaign for a perfume named “Armani Code”, from Armani, in 2012. The advert features a woman, American model Kendra Spears, zipping up her elegant gown before walking down a luxurious corridor, passing a man walking in the opposite direction on route. Once the man sees her, he turns and starts following her. The woman is aware, seductively looking back sporadically and smiling to herself. The female then arrives at her destination, which we can see is a party, and the male loses her in the crowd. Looking around slightly desperate, the male struggles to locate her until the woman finally reappears amongst the mass, making direct eye contact at the male and smiling seductively at him. The man then walks away as a sensual voiceover says “it’s time for your life to begin” and we see the female has now started to follow him. The repetitive music that has been playing consistently on a loop begins to build in tempo as the couple are finally alone and make physical contact. As the advert draws to a close with these scenes a final voiceover verbalises the name of the product, its category and the brand. Amongst male participants, their average interest scored at their lowest level of 2.3. This was simply due to the amount they had to say regarding the advert, as they felt there was very little to comment on, apart from how they felt about it. The females’ interest level scored an average of 4.3, the same as in the analysis for Paco Rabanne. This was indicated through their ability to recall various elements within the advertisement such as camera composition and scenery details. This advert is composed of mostly mid-shots, however there are wider shots focused on just the female’s body which could potentially lead to further sexualisation of the subject. Additionally, a variety of POV shots were also integrated equally across the advertisements beginning, middle and end. The opening and closing frames display the brand logo and an image of the product. All participants had negative responses. They all expressed that this was due to the portrayals of both men and women on-screen; over

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half of the participants explained that the advert demonstrated a disregard for the safety of consumers by glamourising the scenario of being “stalked” by a stranger which they fear could influence others to see this behaviour as normal and flattering, as opposed to dangerous. One participant referred to the male character as the “hunter” and the female as the “prey”. The remaining participants admitted that despite what they considered a “terrible concept”, they felt the advert was elegantly portrayed through the monochrome colour scheme and deluxe setting. In regards to how this advertisement has influenced self-perception, half of the participants, all of whom were male, felt “attacked” within the advert as the concept shows a man following a woman when she is alone. They felt that, considering recent events, such as the murder of Sarah Everard, these scenarios should be avoided. The remaining participants, all women, describes a variety of its influence on their self-perception: some felt the advert made them insecure regarding self-worth as the advert included models which led them to believe they were “not the type of person to be desired”; others admitted they felt objectified and unsure of their role in society, as this advert suggests women are there for men’s approval and come second to their wishes. Finally, others experienced a decrease in their self-esteem as she felt her worth was determined by her appearance. Table 1. Summary of research findings and advert analysis

5 Discussion According to Lindstrom (2008), consumers are more likely to identify with everyday people to whom they can relate, which is the humour style in which Post-It Notes’ advertisement focused on. However, at the age of 18, this may not be as common and,

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therefore, could potentially encourage sexual objectification or a lack of regard for sexual safety and emotional connection within the context of sexual intimacy. Within Durex’s advertisement, which also focused on relatability but through the concept of expenditure, it was identified that participants preferred when the act of sex was implied through visual clues rather than explicitly portrayed. This was also identified in the eBay’s ad, as this used minimal editing and visual semiotics to convey a narrative. However, this advert also encouraged men to experience decreased self-confidence due to the title “94 s”, as humour related to sexual performance, hence encouraging insecurity. Overall, it was identified across all three adverts that when the humour related to the notion of children and procreation, such as in Durex and eBays adverts, they were perceived more positively by women. In the romance genre, it was clear that ensuring applicable relevance to the brand before pursuing a sexualised concept was crucial in avoiding negative interpretations. This was indicated as participants felt Downy’s method to promote their fabric softener was very loosely connected to the sexual narrative and therefore was perceived slightly negatively due to this. Downy’s shot composition shared similarities with Gucci’s as they frequently implemented close-up shots which were perceived as more intimate and romantic, thus preferred by participants. This enforces Lindstrom’s (2008) statement that nearly twice as many people were found more likely to buy an advertised product if it related to the narrative of love rather than to sex. However, Gucci’s advert also allowed the research to identify that equal screen time of genders accompanied with gender equality encouraged participants to feel more equal in their own existing and future relationships. This was supported by the fact that during Vodafone’s advertisement, the female character, who was the main subject in the narrative, was the sole focus of the camera, specifically showcasing her range of emotions throughout. As a result, female participants identified that this led to a negative influence on their own selfperceptions regarding what it means to be a woman and the pressure of maintaining a relationship as their responsibility, as opposed to it being shared with their partner. This highlighted that whilst Gucci’s advertisement conveyed a lack of emotion that encouraged an unrealistic perception, Vodafone showed the downsides of a relationship, thus eradicating these ideals and encouraging what has been noticed in the comedic adverts as having an element of relatability. Furthermore, the use of celebrities in Gucci’s ad supported this, as participants experienced a decrease in their self-esteem due to negative social comparisons to the models on screen. To counteract this, participants felt that using more relatable actors over the age of 20, allowed them to perceive the advert as more realistic, since younger couples, such as those in Vodaphone’s advert, led to the demographic feeling that their relationship was fickle, and withstanding opposed to older couples who are more believable on screen. However, as Downy and Vodafone’s adverts included a clear narrative which was identified by participants as to why this was more positively perceived overall, they felt the character development and playfulness helped to convey a realistic narrative—whereas Gucci’s intimacy led to participants feeling the relationship on screen was “fake” and “unconvincing”, and encouraged stereotyped portrayals of gender. Within this genre, it was identified that the closing frames of text assist in aligning the brand identity, helping to tie the narrative to the brand. In comparison to the comedy genre, it was clear that the success of said advertising comes from having

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the consumer relate to the brand, whereas romance aims to have the consumer fall in love with them, by envisioning themselves as the lover on screen. However, Ma and Gal (2016), believe that the frequency of sex-based advertisements, such as these, could produce a decrease in couples who engage in romantic activities, such as dates, for instance. Therefore, participants may easily romanticise their life through this kind of content. However, this could also suggest they lack an understanding of a real relationship or alter their perception. It could even potentially escalate to the pressure to engage in sexual relations before they are ready (Ruchika et al. 2015). Suspense identified a further range of insights into the influence on self-perception. Within Paco Rabanne’s advertisement, male participants felt “degraded” as the female character was portrayed as superior to men. Therefore, respect and equality should be conveyed as opposed to portraying one gender over another. Furthermore, if an advertisement aims to empower women, nudity should be evaded to avoid sexualising the subject. Specifically, participants felt strongly that sexualising the actress was unnecessary and therefore the advert did the opposite of empowering her, which they felt was the overall purpose. Another method to avoid overt sexualisation was through implementing a story within the advert, a concept that has been encouraged across all three genres. Particularly within the suspense category as participants continued to express a decrease in their self-esteem during Paco Rabanne and Hugo Boss’ advertisements (as they fell into social comparisons as a substitute). This suggests that the lack of a strongnarrative forced the participants to focus on the main character’s appearance, thus sexualising her as they had no character development or background knowledge of the concept to deflect them from focusing on her beauty alone. By not implementing a story, participants felt that they were stereotyped with negative connotations of their gender through expressions of individuality, to which they could not relate nor compare. In alignment with the desire-frustration theory, findings prove that less physical intimacy on-screen heightens the interest and suspense for participants. As Armani’s concept glamorises a lack of safety through its narrative of stalking, it may encourage young consumers to not see the danger within this form of behaviour in reality and romanticise it instead, thus putting themselves at risk. Another pattern acknowledged within this genre was linked to the narrative, specifically with using a man’s desire to instil confidence in women. Female participants expressed that this encouraged them to feel that their own worth was dependent on another’s opinion of their appearance. Since a lot of the ads within this category feature supermodels or famous actors, this was proven to have a detrimental effect on young people’s self-concept and expectations of themselves. Finally, with every advert, participants felt this theme portrayed that a man’s desire for a woman was the reason she felt confident and empowered—which led to declinations in female consumers’ self-esteem. After a week of conducting primary research, the participants were individually contacted to identify what three adverts were most prominent in their memory. Only seven out of the nine adverts were recalled. The most prevalent advertisement was Paco Rabannes’ “Pure XS” feminine fragrance, a suspense-based campaign. The following three adverts were all within the genre of comedy, while the three adverts that were recalled the least all fell within the genre of romance. As predicted in the literature

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review, recall of suspenseful advertisements was predicted to be low in comparison to comedy. As all forms of media from the alternative genres were identified, this confirms this research’s initial supposition. As Paco Rabanne’s advert indicated a much higher influence on negative self-perception it suggests that participants may have only recalled this advertisement due to the negative influence it had on their self-concept (Table 2). Table 2. Diagram of recalled advertisements.

6 Conclusion This research aimed to investigate the relationship between sexualised genres and their influence on an 18-year-old’s self-perception. This is a demographic highly sensitive to equality matters, namely when it comes to gender equality (Rieger et al. 2016). It is also the generation that is currently more aware of gender-related issues: according to a report by trend forecasting agency J. Walter Thompson Innovation Group, only 48% of Gen Zs identify as exclusively heterosexual. If a majority of Millenials believe that gender is a spectrum rather than a binary description, Gen Z’s views on gender are even more advanced, as a majority knows someone who uses a gender neutral pronoun and believe “man” and “woman” are limited ways of defining gender. But the most revealing—and that may constitute an open avenue for this research—is that 25% of Gen Zers expect to change their gender identity at least once during their lifetime. Some brands are starting to realise that this shift is no longer something they can ignore, but certainly not all, as showcased in this article. This may mean that the selected ads are not representative of these generational trends, nor is the sample of participants that took part of this study. Hence, it would be interesting to research how 18 years-old sensitive to gender neutral

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identities experience brands with sexualised advertising typically resorting to binary contexts. The individual strategies offer an alternative route to successful advertising, without causing harm to this youthful demographic, at the start of their adult lives. Due to limited sampling, these results are to provide a direction of understanding, opposed to being noted as fact. In light of this, further research is needed to confirm them. The knowledge obtained would be fundamental to both the demographic and the advertising industry, as it would light the way for how to avoid harmful or negative influences for current and future generations. In conducting this research, key patterns across various genres were identified as well as consistency within their influence. It is evident that there are many contributing factors in what influences self-perception within visual media beyond the narrative, which was consistently favoured across all sub-genres. For instance, casting, camera composition and implementation of minimal editing are just a few examples of what was identified as key contributors to how an advertisement is perceived and interpreted. This study brought an interesting insight into how the mindset of 18-year-olds differs, thus highlighting the original need for research as the participants vary in maturity more than any other demographic.

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Lindstrom, M.: Buyology: How Everything We Believe About Why We Buy Is Wrong. Random House Business Books, London (2008) Ma, J., Gal, D.: When sex and romance conflict: the effect of sexual imagery in advertising on preference for romantically linked products and services. J. Mark. Res. 53(4), 479–496 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.14.0374 Nieding, G.: Suspense. The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Wiley, Hoboken (2008) Nunez, K.: Projective Techniques in Qualitative Market Research. AMA, San Diego (2015). https://sdama.org/knowledge/projective-techniques-qualitative-market-research/#:~:text=Pro jective%20techniques%20are%20indirect%20methods. Accessed 18 June 2021 Reichert, T.: The prevalence of sexual imagery in ads targeted to young adults. J. Consum. Aff. 37(2), 403–412 (2003) Reichert, T., Childers, C., Reid, L.: How sex in advertising varies by product category: an analysis of three decades of visual sexual imagery in magazine advertising. J. Curr. Issues Res. Advert. 33(1), 1–19 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2012.675566 Reichert, T., Lambiase, J.: Sex in Advertising: Perspectives on the Erotic Appeal. Google Books. Routledge (2014). Accessed 31 July 2021 Reichert, T.: Investigating the Use of Sex in Media Promotion and Advertising. Google Books. Routledge (2019). Accessed 31 July 2021 Rieger, G., Savin-Williams, R.C., Chivers, M.L., Bailey, J.M.: Sexual arousal and masculinityfemininity of women. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 111(2), 265–283 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1037/ pspp0000077 Ruchika, J., Mahajan, R., Poddar, A.: Effects of sexual advertising on customer buying decisions. J. Bus. Manage. 17(7), 5–11 (2015) Sen, A.: Humour Analysis and Qualitative Research (2012). sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk. https://sru.soc. surrey.ac.uk/SRU63.pdf. Accessed 22 Sept 2021 Smuts, A.: The desire-frustration theory of suspense. J. Aesthet. Art Crit. 66(3), 281–290 (2008) Sternberg, R.J.: A triangular theory of love. Psychol. Rev. 93(2), 119–135 (1986). https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119 Sutherland, M., Sylvester, A.K.: Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer, 2nd edn. Allen & Unwin, Australia (2000) Tafoya, E.: The Legacy of the Wisecrack. Brown Walker Press, Boca Raton (2009) Weinberger, M.G., Gulas, C.S.: The impact of humor in advertising: a review’. J. Advert. 21(4), 35 (1992) Zawisza-Riley, M.: Advertising, Gender and Society - A Psychological Perspective. Routledge, Oxfordshire (2019)

New Horizons of Museum Experiences: Between Physical and Digital Stefania Palmieri, Mario Bisson, Giuseppe Rubino(B) , and Alessandro Ianniello Design Department, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. Museums [1] represent a collection of ancient and modern knowledge that needs to be protected, disseminated and passed on in the best possible way. The development of digital technologies in recent years is providing an answer to this need, with the transformation of research and restoration sections of museums into veritable FabLabs. The outputs generated by these specialised laboratories range from faithful physical/virtual reproductions of historical artefacts to digital libraries that can be used by experts and others. The museum framework is ideal for testing the quality and flexibility of these new technologies aimed at preserving and at the same time disseminating cultural heritage [2]. The global spread of this practice and the sharing of research data is progressively giving rise to new application scenarios within the community, with the aim of generating cultural networks and inclusion. The macro-scenario of “museum digitisation” triggers a series of micro-scenarios with scientific and public implications, generating social value. The methodology applied involves a preliminary analysis of the current museum context, taking into account the possibilities provided by technological innovation. Subsequently, through the research of case studies, the importance that these technologies, linked to a conscious use, can assume in the museum context was consolidated. The last phase sets out how design approaches can strategically guide museum realities towards the generation of innovative and accessible experiences and modes of use. The aim of the paper is to investigate, through the use of case studies, how design can catalyse the potential of digital fabrication and digital technologies. All this can lead to new kinds of scientific and public fruition, reaching an increasingly wide audience. Keywords: Museum · Design for all · Experience design · Digital technologies · Digital fabrication · Public art · Social responsibility

1 Introduction “Design innovation generally does not conform to dominant aesthetic standards, but creates new canons and seeks to transmit them to society, which is constantly evolving” [3]. This process of innovation and refinement can generate multiple scenarios and opportunities for growth [4]. In this context, the designer assumes a relevant role, as he is prompted to rethink spaces, experiences and habits of future users. This is possible thanks to the transversal and multidisciplinary skills that characterise them, combined with a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 71–82, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_6

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human-centred approach and a propensity to manage complexity. If from the design point of view, the progress-user relationship encourages the rethinking of “contextual” (futuristic) spaces and services, from the museum point of view, the same relationship requires a rethinking of its offer: catalysed in all-round experiences. The adoption of new technologies, both by individual users and institutions, enables the generation of new outputs, creating new meanings and influencing changes in the context [5]. In this framework, the museum is identified as a dynamic reality born in conjunction with cultural and social transformations since the Renaissance, which continues to develop today [1]. In this context, new technologies, applied to the cultural context with a design approach, aim at the democratisation of knowledge (Fig. 1). The Human-Centred Design approach in museums gives rise to a new practice of designing cultural heritage through digital means. Design becomes the catalyst for digitally enriched museum experiences, involving both designers and external professionals in the design process. This practice plays a central role in a broader panorama of design innovation in museums [6]. The process of museum digitisation would allow various groups of users, differing in age, interests, profession and culture, to have access to a huge amount of: information, images and historical reproductions through any device. The aim of this practice is to make knowledge usable through a strategy that facilitates cultural accessibility, involves citizens and enhances local and large-scale participation. The adoption of technology by these institutions can be read, through “Design for all”, as an important driver of innovation in the museum experience [7]. Managing and understanding the complexity of new technologies activates a series of strategies that aim to: – Enhance cultural participation. – Strengthen and innovate ways of involving the public. – Design methodologies and tools for accessibility and inclusion of people. Experience Design methodologies [8] enable the design of the whole museum experience, from pre to post visit. The design process is based not only on the visit itself, but also on the moments of “contact” that precede and follow the experience. The phases of the customer journey can be further enriched by the implementation of the digitisation process of the museum resources, eliminating through innovative methods of use the geographical barriers between the user and the museum artefact. This vision would allow both the public and professionals to openly enjoy cultural heritage by highlighting the artistic value, strengths and opportunities, strategy and overall objectives. In this frame of reference, “design-driven innovation”, defined by Verganti as an “innovation of meaning”, absorbs “technology-push” innovation [9] and becomes itself a means that allows technology to redesign the competitive logic of the market and the way in which users access/use it. The presence of design is widespread in museums, from the exhibition to the types of service offered. The adoption of technology by these institutions can be read, through “design for all”, as an important driver of innovation in the museum experience. In this perspective, the advent of Digital Fabrication has greatly stimulated the development of digital technologies for acquisition, modelling and prototyping, opening new

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Fig. 1. Pictured is the diagram that contextualises and describes the design approach of the paper.

perspectives of application in the cultural field. This phenomenon is progressively integrating with museum realities by intervening on the reorganisation of physical spaces, destined to change due to the advancement of technological progress but more than ever due to the issues raised by the current Covid-19 pandemic. The aim of the paper is to analyse the impact that new technologies and digitisation can have on museum experiences. The survey revealed that design principles lend themselves well to the design of spaces, exhibitions and guided workshops. In this perspective, the designer’s intervention aims to increase the levels of accessibility in relation to the use of cultural heritage by an increasingly wide range of users in the light of the principles of accessibility, social inclusion and enhancement of cultural heritage (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Pictured is the diagram that contextualises and describes the research objective of the paper.

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2 Digital Fabrication Digital fabrication is a design and production process in which tangible outputs are generated from digital files. Accessible digital fabrication tools bridge the gap between design and production. Reducing the gap in technological skills that differentiate professionals and ordinary users makes it easier for anyone with the skills to create products. This enables designers and small businesses to produce anything from prototypes to final products [10]. Democratising science and access to research samples is the process by which scientific knowledge and resources are made freely available to the community at large without marginalising any population of people [11]. The technologies derived from digital fabrication are a source of new tools and opportunities for museums. Specifically, the production of digital models, starting from real samples, with reality-based surveying and modelling techniques, is becoming an essential practice. This leads to processes of integration and implementation of traditional systems of: analysis, conservation, documentation and use of historical and artistic heritage. 2.1 Digital Fabrication Applied to the Museum Context These tools, in addition to their purely scientific and academic value, can be a valuable teaching aid in the laboratories that museums offer, enabling new learning experiences for an increasingly wide range of audiences. The blurring of the perimeters between physical and digital spaces leads to the creation of new learning resources on site or remotely, underlining how these technologies are progressively transforming the very concept of the museum experience. In the context of digital fabrication, the research and restoration sections of museums have been transformed into veritable FabLabs, capable of creating faithful physical reproductions of historical artefacts and digital libraries that can be used by experts in the field and beyond. This practice can be used not only for dissemination but also for conservation. The use of new technologies guarantees the structural integrity and intrinsic cultural value of the artefact. The generation of digital outputs is done through mapping processes, which in addition to revealing characteristics of the way the artefact was made, guarantees the protection of the museum’s property, as well as the possibility of handing down an accurate three-dimensional “snapshot” of the artefact’s state of health. The implementation of these specialised workshops within the museum’s perimeter has triggered and facilitated the creation of new innovative environments and services for the museum.

3 The Pioneers of Digital Capture Advances in 3D modelling techniques and the dissemination of 3D data through online archives have facilitated scientific research, formal and informal education and public awareness [12]. One of the first museums to adopt digital tools and practices was the British Museum in London [13]. This centuries-old institution opened its doors to online and on-site digital experiences by encouraging interaction with various museum works. One of the most well-known platforms to mark this change is Sketchfab [14]. The website is widely used by researchers and educators because its platform tends to

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facilitate interest in museums and cultural institutions by making digital models of artefacts widely available. The provision of ‘complete’ and downloadable digital models, from the institution to the individual user originated in 2014 when the British Museum partnered with the SketchFab platform (Fig. 3) [15]. By accessing the website it is possible to view and download museum works from various eras and cultures, through an up-to-date library that informs the user not only about the morphological and material characteristics of the work, but provides additional historical data that enriches and fills this new experience with meaning.

Fig. 3. Open source library of 3D models taken from the British Museum [13].

Virtual reproduction techniques are based on three-dimensional acquisition processes that exploit CT scanning technologies. This methodology is important for nondestructive study through the creation of 3D virtual model replicas of paleontological specimens [16]. The use of these tools provides various types of information about the historical artefact analysed, such as: age, materials, thickness, processing techniques, morphology and texture. Among the works that have been analysed by the British Museum with these technologies [17], the case studies of the Buddha head belonging to the “Ganfhara” series and a Tibetan “thangka” are interesting (Fig. 4). X-ray scanning of the clay head revealed the morphology of the find, which consisted of two layers. In a first phase, a coarse clay was used to define the proportions of the head. Subsequently, the face, hair and headdress were covered with a more compact material which was then painted. The study conducted on this artefact allowed us to highlight the technique used to make this head, while also showing its chemical composition through a digital section that analyses the objects without damaging them (Fig. 5). The ‘thangka’ (painting on fabric) is an atypical find to study, as most of the works are three-dimensional (Fig. 6). However, the use of X-rays has also proved effective on two-dimensional elements such as paintings. Showing characteristics related to the type of painting, its chemical composition up to the reconstruction of the initial sketch. Another museum that has embraced the advent of digital technologies is the Egyptian Museum in Turin [18]. In the research project “B.A.C.K. TO T.H.E. F.U.T.U.RE.” [19] in

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Fig. 4. On the left, the moulded and painted clay head of a female bodhisattva wearing a diadem. On the right, the thangka after conservation treatment, showing the coloured front as well as the reverse [17].

Fig. 5. X-ray CT scanning shows the internal composition of one of the heads and how this type of imaging can show the hidden cross-section of objects without damaging them [17].

Fig. 6. Detail from the visible image and X-ray of the thangka. The latter shows two sets of golden lines radiating from the Mahasiddha Saraha [17].

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collaboration with the Polytechnic of Turin, the museum has contributed to the creation of digital models of “maquettes” usable from an online library [20]. The collection, which includes 14 temples and an obelisk, arrived in Turin at the end of 1823, together with other objects collected by B. Drovetti during his expedition to Egypt and Nubia. The wooden models, covered in stucco, were an attempt to represent a culture still largely unknown in Europe, together with the many drawings produced by J.J. Rifaud, a sculptor who accompanied Drovetti on the expedition. In the online library, each virtual architectural structure can be explored in first person, through autonomous navigation enriched with historical information and mini-games to entertain the user in an educational way (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Open source library of 3D models created in the project “B.A.C.K. TO T.H.E. F.U.T.U.RE.” [20].

In this new global scenario, digital and detection technologies meet the new needs of museums. They offer a view from perspectives that improve the understanding of the meanings of an object, through the acquisition of additional information that has value both from a scientific point of view and for public use.

4 Design and Accessibility in Museums Design is a founding element within museum realities and services, the nuance of application of this discipline, embracing the concept of social inclusion, is “Design for all”. “Accessibility and equal opportunities for all in the digital age have become increasingly important in the last decade. In one form or another, the concept of accessibility is considered to a greater or lesser extent in most projects developing interactive systems. However, the concept varies between different professions, cultures and interest groups. Design for all, universal access and inclusive design are all different names for approaches that largely focus on increasing the accessibility of the interactive system for the widest possible range of users” [21]. This approach to museum experiences is reinforced by technologies, which help to define new resources and experiences that take into account a wider audience.

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4.1 Educational Workshops The social implications of “museum digitisation”, guided by an appropriate project strategy, can affect various categories of users, starting with the generations of the future. The museum, like the school, is one of the driving factors for the cultural and moral growth of society, so it is necessary to bring these two worlds together as active and irreplaceable elements for positive individual growth. The educational workshop in the museum is the place where knowledge of cultural heritage and creative experimentation are combined [22]. Here the young visitor can benefit from transversal experiences ranging from the acquisition of knowledge to the conscious use of new prototyping and scanning technologies, always passing through practical experimentation which remains a fundamental moment of training. In this way the museum becomes a pedagogical arena aimed at broadening the experiences of the individual. Every activity carried out according to this vision has the objective of encouraging the unfolding of an experience where the cultural asset becomes a means of stimulating curiosity, aptitude and creativity. To educate is to act as a mediator, providing the tools to understand cultural heritage, while having fun and interacting with others. Experiences of this kind take root and generate affection for places of culture, nurturing a sense of civic and social responsibility and a desire to share. 4.2 The Contribution of Design The use of technology is progressively renewing the concept of museum accessibility. The term “accessibility” applied to the museum context, refers to all spatial characteristics that facilitate the autonomous use of public facilities, taking into account the characteristics of “extended” users. Disability, whether temporary or permanent, should not be an obstacle or a reason for exclusion for anyone. An ever wider range of users should be able to fully enjoy services, spaces and environments, so it is essential to adopt functional solutions in museums that have social inclusion as a fundamental value [23]. The use of digital technologies intervenes to facilitate the sight-impaired users through the creation of faithful reproductions that they can freely touch. In this way, each tactile nuance is able to thoroughly define what is being “observed”. Using Experience Design methodologies [8], it is possible to design the whole museum experience, from pre- to post-visit [24]. This design is based not only on the visit itself, but also considers the moments of “contact” that precede and follow the experience [25]. The stages of the customer journey can be further enriched by the implementation of the digitisation process of museum resources, eliminating, through innovative ways of use, the geographical barriers between the user and the museum artefact. The task that the museum can and must fulfil is to revive the dialogue between visitors and museum objects, activating the emotional and cognitive process that is the indispensable prerequisite for a full understanding and appreciation of museums. The application of Design for all, enriched by the design features derived from Experience Design, guarantees these principles; through the conscious design of spaces and experiences aimed at a wider public.

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5 Case Study 5.1 The MUSE of Trento and the “Extrilon” Project An example of application comes from the MUSE in Trento with the “Extrilon” project launched in 2018 [26]. This involves the three-dimensional, virtual and physical reproduction of Trilobites, selected within the paleontological collections present in the museum. The geometric and surface features of these specimens were acquired threedimensionally through the use of structured light scanners, suitable for small objects. These systems are equipped with a light wave emitter and one or more passive sensors positioned at a known distance, which use the principle of triangulation to derive metric information. In this case, coded light patterns are projected onto the object, highlighting surface roughness captured by the sensors. The instrumentation is thus able to analyse the deformation of the known geometry projected onto the object. For each trilobite, a variable number of scans were acquired, depending on the complexity of the individual find. Using automatic and semi-automatic alignment procedures, mesh models of 15 genera of trilobites were produced. The polygonal models produced were optimised, reducing the number of polygons without compromising the geometry, in the opensource solid modelling software Blender 2.76. Reducing the complexity of the models allowed them to be better managed for 3D printing and online sharing. “Extrilon” has enabled the creation of several full-size physical replicas and aims to produce others on a larger scale to allow millimetre details to be visible, making the work accessible to the visually impaired. The models reproduced thanks to the use of the 3D printers in the MUSE FabLab will become part of an educational laboratory aimed at exploring biodiversity, and in particular the morphological diversity of Trilobites, their evolution and extinction, through free tactile experiences and targeted educational lessons. The dissemination of these technologies and the sharing of the research data produced also generates significant spin-offs in the broader context of Open Science [27], which is seeing a growing diffusion and adherence within the scientific community. 5.2 The FLMNH The second case study concerns the Florida Museum of Natural History (FLMNH) [28]. This American museum institution engages the public through exhibitions and community outreach programmes, which can be categorised under the umbrella of ‘informal education’. The content of these experiences is derived from the research and formal education practices employed by the museum. Given the usefulness of technologies in research, these new tools are also intrinsically present in public awareness and information processes. In order to make this content accessible to a wide range of users, figures within the museum institution translate the processes and results into narratives usable by “any” category of user. In 2017, the FLMNH celebrated its 100th anniversary with the exhibition “Rare, Beautiful and Fascinating: 100 years of Florida Museum”. The event, with the aim of broadening the museum’s user standard, exhibited various pieces that can be enjoyed safely thanks to new technologies. Among these extraordinary objects and natural history specimens, a 3D printer was constantly at work printing models of various objects

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on display. The use of digital technology in natural history disciplines reflects one of the main practices associated with the museum. The reproduction of tangible threedimensional models fascinated museum visitors and provided them with experience of facilitated technological applications in research and education. The presence of 3D models was also included in the publicity for this event, “Hands-on stations will allow guests to examine museum artefacts, specimens and 3D printed replicas” [29]. The event was structured to the extent that, during each centenary week, a different section of the museum occupied a portion of the exhibition space to interact directly with the public.

6 The Museum in the Covid Era Another factor related to “museum digitisation” is the Covid-19 pandemic. This historical moment has pushed museum institutions to maintain an open dialogue with the public by inevitably moving towards an online experience. The time of the Coronavirus is acting as an incubator for the evolution of digital presence in museum culture. The typology of the proposals is varied, ranging from the website to the social pages up to Google Arts&Culture [30] and Spotify [31], used by museums as an integrated audio-guided visit tool. Among the Italian realities we find the digital exhibitions of Hangar Bicocca [32], the Uffizi Gallery [33] and audio-meetings realised by the Triennale di Milano [34]. The current challenge will be to make the digital and real spheres interact in an effective and interesting way, adapted to the conditions of both these worlds: the web and social pages of the museums will therefore have to function first as an attraction, then as an in-depth study, representing an authentic and culturally rich experience. It remains to be seen to what extent the multiplication of initiatives will have a response in terms of user enjoyment.

7 Conclusions In the light of this analysis, digital technologies lay the basis for rethinking the concept of the museum as an institution. This metamorphosis is progressively freeing the museum space from the stereotype of the occasional or single visit, through an updated and innovative fruition that involves the user with the conscious design of targeted experiences. The role that design can and must play within the museum institution inevitably brings with it metamorphoses both from a spatial and professional point of view, described and summarised in the concept of Systemic Design [35]. These transformations have redefined professional figures and introduced new ones. In addition to the museum curator, there is the Digital Strategy Manager, the Digital Media Curator, and a range of design professionals who are able to promote technological innovation to bring museums into a new era. Added to this is the morphological reorganisation of exhibition spaces and services due to Digital Fabrication and the Covid-19 emergency. Digital is thus becoming a means of making culture accessible, on site and online, without forgetting that the museum must remain the “place” where the user enters into an intimate and direct connection with the objects conserved. There is no doubt that the application of digital

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Fig. 8. The diagram describes the project opportunities generated by a design approach.

technologies is progressively expanding the potential of all the basic activities that are characteristic of museums (Fig. 8). They bring new methodologies that will generate, in the coming years, further changes in the museum landscape, comparable to the one that saw the introduction of the first computers for cataloguing in the 1980s. The creation of three-dimensional models and their printing brings undeniable advantages to museum activities and professions, which are being pushed towards a progressive morphological modification of environments according to new standards of collective learning that take into account the needs of “vulnerable” users. This new application scenario, outlined by an increasing integration between the virtual and the real world, provides museums with tools that, if exploited in the right way, can widen the pool of users and bring benefits to the social community itself.

References 1. Findlen, P.: The museum: its classical etymology and renaissance genealogy. J. Hist. Collect. 1(1), 59–78 (1989) 2. Scopigno, R.: Digital fabrication techniques for cultural heritage: a survey. Comput. Graph. Forum 36(1), pp6–pp21 (2017) 3. Eco, U.: Storia della bellezza. Bompiani, pp. 4–5. Bompiani, Milano (2004) 4. Jonas, W.: A scenario for design. Design Issues, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 64–80. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2001) 5. Palmieri, S., Rubino, G., Sordini, B., Bisson, M., Zinzone, M., Ianniello, A.: Cardboardification: from play to knowledge. In: EDULEARN21 Proceedings (2021) 6. Mason, M., Vavoula, G.: Digital cultural heritage design practice: a conceptual framework. Des. J. 24(3), 405–424 (2021) 7. Luck, R.: Inclusive design and making in practice: bringing bodily experience into closer contact with making. Des. Stud. 54, 96–119 (2018) 8. Hassenzahl, M.: Experience Design: Technology for All the Right Reasons. Folkwang University, Essen (2010) 9. Verganti, R.: Design, meanings and radical innovation: a metamodel and a research agenda. J. Prod. Innov. Manage. 25(5), 436–456 (2008)

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10. Gershenfeld, N.: How to make almost anything: the digital fabrication revolution. Foreign Aff., no. 91 (2012) 11. McCormick, S.: Democratizing science movements: a new framework for mobilization and contestation. Soc. Stud. Sci. 37(4), 609–623 (2007) 12. Ziegler, M.J., et al.: Applications of 3D paleontological data at the Florida Museum of natural history. Front. Earth Sci. 8, 600696 (2020) 13. The British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/. Accessed 21 Feb 2022 14. Sketchfab. https://sketchfab.com. Accessed 14 Feb 2022 15. Sketchfab: The British Museum. https://sketchfab.com/britishmuseum. Accessed 21 Feb 2022 16. Herman, G.T.: Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projection, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84628-723-7 17. The British Museum, Blog, Dan O’Flynn, Scientist: X-ray Imaging (2021). https://blog.bri tishmuseum.org/secrets-from-the-x-ray-lab/. Accessed 14 Feb 2022 18. Museo Egizio. https://museoegizio.it/. Accessed 21 Jan 2022 19. Turco, M., Piumatti, P., Rinaudo, F., Tamborrino R., González-Aguilera, D.: B.A.C.K. TO T.H.E. F.U.T.U.RE. − Bim Acquisition as Cultural Key TO Transfer Heritage of ancient Egypt For many Uses To many Users Replayed (2018) 20. B.A.C.K. TO T.H.E. F.U.T.U.RE. http://www.backtothefuture.polito.it/. Accessed 14 Feb 2022 21. Persson, H., Åhman, H., Yngling, A.A., Gulliksen, J.: Universal design, inclusive design, accessible design, design for all: different concepts—one goal? On the concept of accessibility—historical, methodological and philosophical aspects. Univ. Access Inf. Soc. 14(4), 505–526 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-014-0358-z 22. Rahm, J.: Project-Based Museum-School Partnerships in Support of Meaningful Student Interest- and Equity-Driven Learning Across Settings (2016) 23. Accolla, A.: Design for all. Il progetto per l’individuo reale. Angeli, F. (2009) 24. Vermeeren, A., et al.: Design dell’esperienza museale futura: folle, ecosistemi e nuove tecnologie (2018) 25. Dal Falco, F., Vassos, S.: Museum Experience Design: una moderna metodologia di narrazione. Des. J. 20 (2017) 26. Farella, E., et al.: Fabbricazione digitale per la valorizzazione del patrimonio museale: tre casi studio al MUSE - Museo delle Scienze di Trento. Museologia scientifica 11, 108–113 (2017) 27. Open Science. In: Kipfer, B.A. (ed.) Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-5133-8 28. The Florida Museum of Natural History. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/. Accessed 14 Feb 2022 29. Gardiner, K.: Rare, beautiful, & fascinating 100 years at the Florida museum: new 100th anniversary exhibit to open saturday with free special activities (2017) 30. Google Arts & Culture. https://artsandculture.google.com/partner?hl=it. Accessed 14 Feb 2022 31. Spotify Museums. https://www.spotify.com. Accessed 05 Feb 2022 32. Hangar Bicocca. https://pirellihangarbicocca.org. Accessed 05 Feb 2022 33. Galleria degli Uffizi. https://www.florence-museum.com. Accessed 05 Feb 2022 34. Triennale di Milano. https://triennale.org. Accessed 05 Feb 2022 35. Jones, P., Kijima, K.: Systemic Design: Theory, Methods and Practice. Springer, Tokyo (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55639-8

A Comparison Review of Existing Personal Health Management Apps in the Portuguese Health Sector Framework Óscar T. Viana1(B)

, Miguel Terroso2

, Cristiana Serejo2

, and João L. Vilaça1

1 2Ai – School of Technology, IPCA, Barcelos, Portugal

{osviana,jvilaca}@ipca.pt

2 ID+ - Research Institute in Design, Media and Culture, School of Design, IPCA, Barcelos,

Portugal {mterroso,cserejo}@ipca.pt

Abstract. Due to the implementation of new technologies, the healthcare sector now produces more data than ever before. This data is of high importance to patients but in many cases it is inaccessible. To counteract this effect, many mobile apps have been developed to aid patients in the management of their personal health data. In this article we will present an analysis and comparison of several apps of this sort, selected from those available within the Portuguese market. The goal of this analysis is to create a design framework for a new personal health management app to be developed. It was concluded that despite an ample offer, there is still opportunity to produce a differentiated application for this market, by including innovative features and methods of displaying information, such as 3D models. Keywords: Mobile apps · Health management · Digital twins · Infographics · UX & UI design

1 Introduction With the deep implementation of network technologies such as mobile internet, cloud computing and the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), systems now produce massive amounts of medical data, so-called big data. Usage of this data has been widely applied in medical assistance, medical emergency communication and various health and medical investigations. This usage helps reduce medical costs, improving patient prognostics and will have a notable impact in society, the economy and public health. With the development of 5G technology, health directed cloud-based big data will become closer to the public, bringing greater convenience and efficiency to their lives [31]. These technologies have an untapped potential for the management of daily health needs, empowering patients through various resources such as automated functions and electronic monitoring. This idea of patient empowerment has begun gaining traction in healthcare contexts that require self-care and active personal health information management by the patient [12]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 83–92, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_7

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Borne from technological advancements such as the ones mentioned above, a huge volume of medical data is now created throughout a person’s life, to the point where issues in management arise, making it so that much of this data becomes lost or inaccessible. In the UK the medical records of tens of thousands of patients were lost by the NHS after a series of safety breaches between January and April of 2009, during which 140 safety violations were recorded [23]; data privacy violation has strongly affected the healthcare sector, with an article by CNN Business indicating that in 2021 and 2013 as much as 90% of healthcare organizations have had patient data stolen or exposed, according to privacy investigators of the Ponemon Institute [21]. The same article further states that the healthcare sector faces more data privacy violations than the military and banking sectors put together. Considering these issues in healthcare data management, the “SmartHealth – Artificial Intelligence for lifelong Personalized Patient Care” research project, which aims to develop intelligent tools and platforms to support patients and professionals during healthcare processes, has promoted the development of this article, in search of a solution through the implementation of novel technologies. One of the solutions proposed is the development of a mobile app with the capability to aggregate and present to the user their full healthcare history. In the last few years, a growing number of web-based apps have been developed to improve patient access to clinical information, with these apps varying according to the functions provided, the types of information recorded, how this information is presented and how the user is allowed to interact with it. They are usually developed by hospital groups and provide the users only with information relevant to that group, with very little interconnectivity. The focus of this article is to analyse and compare these apps to document common features, as well as the best way to present and implement them, with the aim to develop the framework for a visually cohesive and accessible interface for the proposed app. Furthermore, in order to fully understand the technological and design requirements for an app of this sort, a short literature review is made in the areas of digital twin technology, infographics and UI & UX design. This review is important to acknowledge the structure and type of information necessary, how to best present this information to the user and also how to make this information accessible through a mobile app.

2 State of the Art 2.1 Digital Twins The digital twin concept, first introduced by Michael Grieves in 2002, [9] is described as a system in which, for a physical entity, a digital counterpart is created. This digital twin is an information-based model, comprised of measurements and descriptive characteristics, identical to the physical entity, sometimes aided by sensors, to create a constantly updated model. In an ideal digital twin, any measurement that might be taken from the real entity will also be measurable from the digital model, independently. The main purposes of digital twin models are interrogative, the model allows for access to any information regarding the entity from any time since its inception, and predictive, access to the whole history of the entity gives the model the capacity to predict and simulate potential future events [10, 24].

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This concept has already proved to be applicable to the healthcare sector [8], with it being possible to create digital twins of hospitals, equipment and even patients [5, 14, 17] and their organs [16, 27]. 2.2 Infographics and the Visual Transmission of Information Considering the vast amount of information that comprises a digital twin it’s important to consider how best to present this information to the user [29]. Most of this information will be transmitted visually, which warrants a study of the field in infographics. This field focuses on the optimisation of information transmission by associating text-based information with images, graphics, and other visual resources, which, when adequately executed, have been shown to promote greater attention hold, better readability, increased memorisation and higher interiorization of data [4]. Authors in this field study how the visual presentation of information affects its perception and understanding [3, 13, 28], and how these resources must be carefully crafted to promote readability, accuracy, and truthfulness. Some important considerations include the balance between information readability and aesthetic concerns, reduction of noise in data, and data distortion [26]. Throughout history, infographics have proven to be successful in divulging scientific and health related information, influencing healthcare practices and behaviours [2, 19, 25]. Still, care should be had when selecting the specific kind of infographic material to transmit different health information, as these can influence understanding and user response [1]. 2.3 UX and UI User Experience (UX) and User Interface (UI) comprise the main focus of this article. These two fields are essential to conduct the categorization and evaluation of other health management applications to be made further in this article. An interface is understood as the mediating surface that receives the user’s input and communicates it to the product. Any interface is built according to, and as part of, the User Experience, which also defines the product’s capabilities for interaction, and how these interactions are performed. Beyond this, the User Experience encompasses any and all characteristics of how the product and interactions performed with it are perceived by the user during its usage. In the context of digital applications, Garrett [6] defines the user experience as the result created from the conjunction of a series of overlapping layers: • The Surface Plane, the aesthetic experience, comprised of the visual characteristics and look of the elements that make up the application. • The Skeleton Plane, the organizational structure of the application, defining the placement of visual and interactable elements. It’s designed for efficient perception and access to important elements. • The Structure Plane, the abstract structure of the application. This defines the pages of the application and the navigational flow between them, the cause and effect of interactions within the application.

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• The Scope Plane outlines the available functions and features of the application, the overall capabilities. • The Strategy Plane is the foundation of the application, defining the goals to meet and the problems to solve. For example, in the app proposed by this project, the strategy is to give users access to their lifetime medical history. These planes build on top of each other sequentially. The goals of the strategy dictate the kind of features to include in the scope, which are assembled in a cohesive structure, organized for optimal access in the skeleton and made visually pleasing at the surface.

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This outlines the basic methodology for developing a user experience, but additional considerations must be had when adapting an interface to mobile devices. Some authors [11] describe a series of common interface design issues along with issue-resolving recommendations, while Gong [7], based on Shneiderman’s “Golden rules of Interface Design” [24] and research on design for mobile devices, builds a series of foundational guidelines for interface design, adapted to mobile devices. These guidelines focus mainly on the adjustment of digital interfaces to make them adequate for smaller screens, adaptable to changing environments with less-than-ideal conditions and built to avoid requiring all of the user’s focus to navigate. Since the publication of these guidelines, mobile device technology and computing power has vastly advanced, with some of the concerns raised becoming obsolete, but most guidelines remain highly applicable. Some authors defend the main issue in adapting digital interfaces to mobile devices now lies in the large variety of systems, screen sizes and resolutions [21], ignoring the increasing amount of attention these applications require from the user, causing accidents and injuries [18]. In sum, mobile applications should be built with easy to navigate interfaces, reduced number of actions to perform tasks, receptivity to various input methods and limited need for users’ attention [30]. Table 1 summarily presents the main takeaways from this literature review, as well as important considerations to keep in mind for the following chapters of this article.

3 Methods After the analysis and consideration of the previously presented themes, a few features were proposed as being desirable in apps for consulting and managing personal health data. Those being, the ability to maintain an extensive, lifelong personal medical history; the capability to receive new inputs, documents, registrations, measurements, and instructions and to process them, accordingly; processing of data into accessible and interactive infographics or other methods of transmitting information; the capability to communicate this information to doctors and caretakers; and the inclusion of 3D models for navigating and presenting information. Many personal health management apps include these features, to some degree, with variations in their execution and presentation, prompting this analysis to determine which of the apps were more extensive and adequate for reference in the creation of the design framework of the proposed theoretical application. The apps selected from the Google Play Store for analysis in this article are MyCuf, MyLuz, Trofa Saúde, Saúde Unilabs, SNS 24, My São João, Bem-Me-Ker and MyIPO Lisboa; these are associated with the main healthcare groups present in Portugal and to the national health service. The decision to study only apps available within the Portuguese market arose from the necessity for direct contact with the app, which is limited to patients registered in the corresponding hospital’s database. Another factor for this restricted selection is sample limitation, as many of these apps generally follow the same feature structure a wider sample of apps would wield the same results.

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After installing and analysing the selected apps, their functions were classified according to four major groups, as interconnected facets of the user experience layers described earlier in this article. • Data, categorizing the types of information retained in the medical history accessible through the app. This category was subdivided into Appointments, Exam Results, Analysis Results, Vaccinations. • Presentation refers to the methods used to show the information to the user. This category was subdivided into information transmitted through text, text with images, with models, with graphs and interactive information. • Introduction, describing the kinds of information the user would be allowed to input into the system and how this input would be done. • Navigation, this category generally categorizes the methods and actions the user would perform to access the information. Finally, after this first categorization, the apps were classified, using a Likert Scale (Likert, 1932) on their adherence to the list of proposed desirable features.

4 Results and Discussion The apps selected for this study include: MyCuf, MyLuz, Trofa Saúde, Saúde Unilabs, SNS 24, My São João, Bem-Me-Ker and MyIPO Lisboa. Table 2 presents the categorization of app functions, with each line corresponding to an app, and each column corresponding to a function. The “X” marks signal the presence of a function in the corresponding app. • Data: While many apps featured extensive histories of medical consultations and interventions, all were limited to the acts performed as part of the same hospital network, with no overlap or collaboration. MyLuz featured the most extensive history, including all medical acts as well as access to results and doctors’ reports. Of all, the SNS 24 app was the only to provide the full lifelong history of vaccinations. • Presentation: All the apps presented most of their information through text, with MyLuz standing out by being the only one to adapt some information into interactive graphs and images. • Introduction: All the apps had some capability to make and manage appointments. Only two, MyLuz and SNS 24, allowed the user to make recordings of measurements, with MyLuz being the most extensive of the two, accepting inputs for headaches, cholesterol, glycaemia, weight, height, specific questions, blood pressure, heart rate and generalized symptoms, as well as accepting the uploading of external documents, while SNS 24 only accepts measurements for BMI, glycaemia, and blood pressure. None of the apps had the capability to take these or any measurements automatically. • Additionally, most apps allowed the user to file and manage requests for additional documentation such as exam results or special declarations. • Navigation: All the studied apps used exclusively the conventional methods of sliding and clicking through items and menus. This would mean that using an innovative

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Table 2. Function categorization and presence for each of the studied apps

method of navigation, such as through interaction with a 3D user avatar, as proposed in this article, would be completely disruptive in the national panorama. After this first analysis, a second table was created (Table 3) to evaluate, for each category, to which degree the characteristics of the analysed app corresponded to the proposed desirable features. A Likert scale was applied, with 1 being strongly disagree or not corresponding and 5 strongly agree or absolutely corresponding. Considering these results, MyLuz has the greatest similarity to the project proposal, making it useful for further study and reference. Among those studied MyLuz is the only with the capacity to receive user inputs of basic health status measurements, such as weight, height, heartrate, cholesterol, blood pressure, and process these measurements into interactive evolving graphics. These measurements, however, can only be introduced manually by the user, as there is no option to scan analysis reports or connect to conventional measuring devices or wearables. Furthermore, the SNS24 app should be mentioned as the only retaining a full history of vaccinations, allergies, and chronic conditions, as well as renewable prescriptions.

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Ó. T. Viana et al. Table 3. Likert Scale evaluation of similarity to the project proposal

App

Data

Presentation

Introduction

Navigation

MyCuf

3

1

1

3

MyLuz

4

4

4

3

Trofa Saúde

3

1

2

3

Saúde Unilabs

2

1

1

3

SNS 24

2

1

3

3

My São João

1

1

1

3

Bem-Me-Ker

1

1

2

3

MyIPO Lisboa

2

1

3

3

5 Conclusion With this analysis many considerations have been recorded to begin establishing a design framework, ranging from the data that should be available through the application, the methods to present and transmit this information and how to build an accessible interface so the user can access the information effectively. Some limitations to this article were posed during the study of the different apps, as access to some of them was limited without an account registered to the hospital´s database, making the observations limited to the descriptions and screenshots in each app’s Play Store page. Further work in this project will involve deeper analysis of the selected relevant apps and investigation into the use of 3D models as interface elements in mobile apps. Acknowledgements. This work was funded by the project “NORTE-01-0145-FEDER- 000045”, supported by Northern Portugal Regional Operational Program (Norte2020), under the Portugal 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER).

References 1. Arcia, A., et al.: Sometimes more is more: iterative participatory design of infographics for engagement of community members with varying levels of health literacy. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 23(1), 174–183 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocv079 2. Ataíde, M.: A INFOGRAFIA COMO FERRAMENTA DE DIVULGAÇÃO CIENTÍFICA: O CASO DO HERBICIDA GLIFOSATO (2019) 3. Behrens, R.R.: Art, Design and Gestalt Theory. Leonardo On-Line, November 2004. https:// leonardo.info/isast/articles/behrens.html 4. Cairo, A.: The Functional Art: An introduction to information graphics and visualization (2013). www.newriders.com 5. Díaz, V., Viceconti, M., Stroetmann, V., Kaldra, D.: Roadmap for the Digital Patient (2008). www.digital-patient.net

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Iconography Design for Digital Applications Developed for the Elderly or Senior User Leonardo Pereira1(B) , Nuno Martins2 , Sérgio Dominique Ferreira3 João Neves4 , José Silva5 , and Daniel Brandão6

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1 DigiMedia, Department of Communication and Art, University of Aveiro, Campus

Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal [email protected] 2 Research Institute for Design, Media and Culture, School of Design, Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave, Barcelos, Portugal 3 Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), School of Hospitality and Tourism, Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave, Barcelos, Portugal 4 Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, CIAUD, Castelo Branco, Portugal 5 University of Évora, CIAUD, Évora, Portugal 6 Communication and Society Research Centre, Institute of Social Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Abstract. Given the specific characteristics of seniors in terms of their digital literacy and the difficulties introduced by memory and learning skills’ deterioration, it is expected that seniors present greater difficulties than young people in the interpretation of the meaning of a visual icon. Therefore, this paper starts by presenting a brief literature review about icon design for elderly people, mainly focusing in the icons’ iconicity variable regarding the target audience. This is then followed by the description of the results of a circumscribed iconography study which main goal was to assess, with a sample of the senior public, the degree of iconicity of a set of icons designed for the interactive menus of an iTV (Interactive Television) application. To do so, 21 icons with different combinations of visual attributes such as figuration, abstraction and the use of cultural conventions, were individually shown to each participant of the study, which were later asked to describe a meaning for each shown icon. From the collected data, attribute combinations were identified that seem to facilitate the correct interpretation of an icon’s meaning for a senior. As a main result, this study found that the best strategy to adopt, in order to assure that icons are totally and globally accessible for seniors, is the combined use of the written meaning of the icon along with a pictorial and visual representation of the concept or object to which the icon relates to. Keywords: Communication design · Iconography design · Digital applications for seniors · User Interface

1 Introduction Typically, iconography sets developed for digital applications’ interfaces, are not designed taking into account the sensory, cognitive and cultural constraints that usually characterize senior users. As stated by Becker and Webbe (2006, p. 3297), ‘the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 93–108, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_8

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human interface for most technologies, excluding special devices, has been designed for a younger user’. According to Robinet et al. (2008, p. 01), ‘designers forget sometimes that users are not mainly computer professionals, especially the elderly who are not familiar with new technologies’. To make things worse, as stated by Yu and Fong (2016), there are only a few studies about icon principles design for seniors. And in this domain, iconography developed for digital interfaces is not an exception. Therefore, for a senior user, an icon’s degree of iconicity acquires a higher importance. Degree of iconicity stands for the degree of similarity between the visual representation of something and the represented thing itself. It’s the relation of this property with the characteristics of the end user that will determine the icon’s communication effectiveness. So an icon is efficient when the perceived meaning matches the object, action, or concept that the designer wants to communicate with the visual representation he has conceived for it (Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos 2010). Depending an icon’s iconicity degree, of the user’s sensory, cultural and cognitive characteristics, it is important to start by understanding that a senior person is different from a young one. Seniors, as a result of the natural aging process, usually present declines in their abilities—though their combination vary from case to case (Hawthorn 2006)—such as vision, speed and cognitive ability, memory and learning (Fisk et al. 2004; Hawthorn 2006; Zajicek 2001), many of whom are also characterized by a conceptual gap regarding knowledge of digital technologies (Rice and Alm 2008). So a senior is expected to have a much lower digital literacy degree than that of a young person. Regarding the decline of speed and cognitive ability, in tasks that require a substantial effort and cognitive processing, it is expected that senior individuals take longer to complete the task (Hawthorn 2006). Therefore, this is reflected in the learning processes that, with seniors, take much longer than with young individuals (Hawthorn 2006). Cumulatively, associated with the decline of the speed of cognitive functions, is also the decline of a specific type of memory. Information stored in the short term memory—which stores information that has just been acquired (…)—is quickly lost if not constantly remembered and used (Fisk et al. 2004; Pereira et al. 2021). On the other hand, the semantic memory—which stores factual information regarding knowledge that the individual accumulates during his lifetime experience—does not decline with age (Fisk et al. 2004; Fisk et al. 2004; Pereira et al. 2021). With these memory performance differences, it is expected that, for a senior person, an abstract icon becomes more difficult to grasp and remember, in its meaning, than: 1. An icon that uses some kind of representation with which the senior has already been faced throughout his life; 2. A figurative icon. In what refers to seniors’ digital literacy degree, the predisposition that young people have to learn and to deal with the new digital technologies, gives them increased advantage, compared with senior people, in their relation with technological innovations (Garcia 2001). For this reason, and in the context of iconography design, seniors may not always be able to recognize some of the conventions used in visual iconography

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commonly adopted in the internet and computers, especially those solutions that rely on a more abstract or ‘digital technology culture’ driven representation. So, taken into account this framework of seniors’ cognitive and cultural properties, these should be addressed when designing iconography targeted at this specific type of end user. This premise amply justifies all research contributions on this issue, otherwise the design solutions developed by designers for iconography targeted for seniors, may not be the most effective, in terms of its iconicity degree, for the senior user. In this sense this paper starts by outlining the considerations that other researchers already present in the literature regarding the problem of designing visual iconography for digital interfaces targeted at seniors, particularly focusing on the iconicity variable. Secondly it describes an iconicity assessment applied to a total of 21 icons, which were tested with a sample of this specific end user. The test assessed: 1. The degree of iconicity of each icon; 2. The need to include or ad to the icon visual representation, a written name/description of its meaning/concept. Lastly this paper ends by presenting the conclusions arisen from the collected and analyzed data as Iconography Design Principles for digital applications targeted at senior users.

2 Theoretical Framework Digital Iconography Design for seniors is a research field that already gathers contributions from the global scientific community. However, regarding the iconicity variable, these contributions are generally scarce and scattered. Among the researchers who approach this Iconography variable, there are the ones of Wiedenbeck (1999), Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010), Carmichael (1999), Rice and Alm (2008), Nunes et al. (2012), Hawthorn (2006), Fisk et al. (2004), Martins et al. (2021), McLaughlin and Pak (2020) and Tanid (2011). Wiedenbeck (1999), in a study she conducted about the use of icons and labels in an end user application program, in which she tested the influence that 3 versions of icons and labels combinations – the label-only ones, the icon-only ones and icon-label ones – had on the learnability of its interface. She came to the conclusion that, to a general end user (and not a specifically senior one) and compared to the icon-only combinations, there is a learning advantage in using the label-only and icon-label combinations. This highly suggests that the participants more easily and efficiently understood the meaning of combinations that used labels than the one that didn’t use a label. And although this study did not use elderly participants, its results are considered to be, due to ageing cognitive declines, even more pertinent and applicable to elderly users. Carmichael (1999), author of the Style guide for the design of interactive television services for elderly viewers, describes in this document a study about the effects of iconography design in Human-Computer interaction1 . In this study a written instruction 1 See Blankenberger and Hahn (1991).

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was shown, in a screen, to a group of participants. They were next shown a group of visual representations from which they had to choose the one they considered to be the best visual representation of the mentioned instruction. Three types of representations were shown: • arbitrary icons (abstract); • meaningful icons (figurative); • textual icons (Carmichael 1999). Mistakes were shown to be less frequent with the textual ones. The same found Rice and Alm (2008), when in the focus groups they set up with seniors—in which they invited the seniors to prototype and discuss the interface of an integrated video calling system, built into an iTV application—they found that their participants dealt better with textual representations of information than with pictorial icons. But Nunes et al. (2012) warn that the use of textual icons does not provide an overall guarantee of effectiveness for senior users. These researchers argue that, since a wide strip of this population, has low levels of literacy, the combined use of visual and textual icons minimize the typical difficulties with written language that some seniors suffer from (Nunes et al. 2012). Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010) also agree that it is the combined use of text with a visual representation, that results in an understandable icon for seniors. This also converges with what Tanid (2011) calls Multimodal Communication strategy - the repetition of the same content in different formats. He states that “the use of multisensory to perceive information can reduce workload of short-term memory” (p. 15) which is actually beneficial for seniors as this cognitive ability reduces with age. So, these arguments suggest that not leaving aside a visual representation is, for an icon’s iconicity degree, beneficial for seniors. But going back to the study cited by Carmichael (1999), regarding the effects of iconography design in Human-Computer interaction, it was also found that, among figurative and abstract icons, the figurative were more effective. Fisk et al. (2004) converge, on this issue, with Carmichael (1999) because they argue that the use of icons is a viable solution when these are figurative enough to be recognized. Seniors are expected to take longer to learn the meaning of abstract icons, and it’s harder for them to remember its meaning, even after having learned it—therefore its use is risky and inappropriate (Fisk et al. 2004). McLaughlin and Pak (2020) also converge with Carmichael (1999) regarding this issue. As stated by them, “using icons that are less abstract and more representative of their function or task can also reduce the level of uncertainty” (p. 68). However, as Carmichael (1999) warns, this also means that the icons have to be as different as possible from each other, claim which is also backed up both by Hawthorn (2006) and McLaughlin and Pak (2020). Hawthorn (2006) values color as an element of distinction between icons. Therefore, it is not advisable, according to him, for seniors, to trust in iconography sets based on small variations, either of color or shape (Hawthorn 2006). And McLaughlin and Pak (2020) add that when icons are abstract or similar in shape, size and color, due to age-related acuity loss, icon selection becomes confuse and slower. But, still regarding an icon’s iconicity degree, Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010) introduce a new variable into the equation of this feature’s degree magnification:

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the use of cultural conventions. In the experiments in which they assessed the iconicity of mobile phone icons, with a sample of population divided into two groups—a younger and a mature group—they found that the mature group was only familiar with icons that had a direct graphical representation of the object or action to which they referred to in the real world. The younger group was more familiar with customized icons for the mobile phones’ context. This suggests, on one hand, that designers should develop representations that are as literal as possible to the object or action to be represented by the icon. On the other hand, it suggests that, for a senior, the use of visual and cultural conventions that arise from new digital technologies, may not be an effective communication strategy. However, it does not clarify whether the use of another type of cultural convention, with which the older generations have been faced throughout their lifetime (e.g. iconography used in home appliances), could be, or not, effective for seniors. As shown by the above mentioned researchers, there is not a full convergence scenery between them, regarding the visual representation strategy of concepts that best suit the design of digital iconography for seniors. If, on one hand Carmichael (1999), Fisk et al. (2004) and McLaughlin and Pak (2020) argue that a figurative icon is always more effective than an abstract icon, on the other hand, the same Carmichael (1999) and Rice and Alm (2008) argue that a textual icon generates less interpretation errors in seniors. Also, Nunes et al. (2012) and Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010) question the overall effectiveness of a purely textual icon, arguing that the best strategy is based on the combined use of text with a pictorial/visual representation. Wiedenbeck (1999) on one hand seems to be aligned with Nunes et al (2012) and Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010), as she also favors the combined use of text with a pictorial/visual representation. But on the other hand some of her results also conflict with Nunes et al (2012) and Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010) when they also suggest that a purely textual icon (a label-only one) is also better than an icon-only one. Finally, although Nunes et al. (2012) have found that elder individuals are more familiar with figurative representations, than with representations based on recent conventions of the digital world; it remains unclear whether the use of cultural conventions from contexts with which seniors have already been faced throughout their lifetime, are effective for seniors or not. The assessment described below in this paper, thus, intended to contribute with additional data to this discussion and expand the available field of knowledge regarding how to make an icon or an iconography set, in terms of its iconicity degree, more effective within the special characteristics of a senior end user.

3 Assessment Scenery and Data Collection Methodology A set of 21 icons were designed to be part of the GUI (Graphical User Interface) of an iTV application developed for senior users. And therefore this opportunity was taken to assess their iconicity level amongst this target user group. The 21 icons, shown in Fig. 1, were intended to illustrate the following concepts and meanings associated with the different navigational and content areas of the application: 1 - Health; 2 - My medication; 3 - Medical appointments and drugstores; 4 - Create medical prescription; 5 - Information; 6 - Meteorology; 7 - Useful contacts; 8 - Terms of use; 9

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- Leisure; 10 - Managing events and invitations; 11 - Calendar; 12 - Volunteering; 13 Community; 14 - My friends; 15 - My profile; 16 - Search friends; 17 - Communication; 18 - Calls; 19 - Messages; 20 - News; 21 - Turn off.

Fig. 1. Assessed iconography set

These were created with different combinations of the following three attributes, to assess the best approach to take in digital iconography design for seniors, in terms of their iconicity: • Figurative ones (these represent direct and visually the object or action to which they refer to); • Non-figurative or abstract ones (these don’t represent direct and visually the object or action to which they refer to); • Cultural2 ones. In terms of the adopted data collection methodology, individual assessment sessions of the above mentioned iconography set were conducted, with the participants in their own households. During each individual session, each icon being assessed was individually shown to each participant, without any kind of written mention to its meaning. Then each participant was asked what he or she thought each symbol meant or symbolized. Regardless of the answer to the first question, they were also asked if they thought that, in order to correctly interpret the icons’ meanings, they need to be combined with a written mention to their meaning, or not. The goal of this second question was to assess whether participants would abdicate or not, of a written mention to the icon’s meaning, even in the cases in which they had already shown that they were able to decode their meaning, alone with the visual representation.

2 Cultural icons are icons that use visual representation solutions based on common cultural

conventions. These visual conventions were assumed to be more familiar to seniors because they were commonly used in contexts and situations with which seniors could have been confronted during their lifetime experience. One example is the Turn off icon, which uses a representation solution similar to the one used in most of the common household appliances, that usually refers to the act of turning off something.

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4 Recruited Sample - Participants With respect to the sample of participants that collaborated with this assessment, we recruited four couples of seniors. In terms of age, four of the eight participants had between 61 and 65 years of age, two had between 66 and 70 years of age and the remaining two had between 71 and 75 years of age. In professional terms, six of the participants were retired, one was still employed and the remaining participant was unemployed. With regard to literary qualifications, the sample was characterized by low levels of education. Six of the participants had the 4th grade of primary school, one had the 6th grade and the remaining participant had the 7th grade. As for digital literacy and skills, the sample was characterized by a low degree of digital literacy. Only two declared to use a computer, the internet and an email service. One declared that he uses the computer other than being to navigate the internet, though he also uses it to check his email. The remaining one declared to use the computer to check his email and the internet, not using it, though, for anything else. However, both declared they never use online services such as a Chat/Messenger or Social Media. A fact to highlight is that the participants who reported not being able to use a computer, are mostly from the female gender. While two male participants use a computer and the internet, none of the female participants use the internet or a computer. Regarding the use of a mobile phone, the vast majority declared to use this device to make and receive phone calls. However, none of them declared using it to send or receive messages. In order to protect the participants’ privacy, when they are identified in the following data’s analysis, this identification is made in Superscript mode and using a numerical system, which adopts the following model/distribution: [P1] = Participant one; [P2] = Participant two; [P3] = Participant three; [P4] = Participant four; [P5] = Participant five; [P6] = Participant six; [P7] = Participant seven; [P8] = Participant eight.

5 Assessment of the Icon’s Iconicity Degree - Results From the analysis of the collected data, five different iconicity degrees were identified that made up the following proposed scale: • Total iconicity (all participants identified the meaning or answered a similar one); • Good iconicity (more than half of the participants identified the meaning or answered a similar one); • Intermediate iconicity (half of the participants identified the meaning or answered a similar one, but the other half did not); • Low iconicity (less than half of the participants identified the meaning or answered a similar one); • Total absence of iconicity (none of the participants identified the meaning). Consider the following chart on Fig. 2: By analyzing the data available in the chart of Fig. 2, where the gray bars identify the number of participants who missed the meaning and the black bars identify the number of participants who correctly identified the icons’ meaning, the results are organized as follows:

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Fig. 2. Results of the iconography set’s iconicity degree assessment

• Total iconicity: Only the meaning of one of the icons being assessed (Calls) was identified by the whole sample; • Good iconicity: Only the meaning of four of the icons being assessed (My medication; Meteorology; Useful Contacts; Leisure) was identified by more than half of the sample; • Intermediate iconicity: The meaning of three of the icons being assessed (Health; Information; Calendar) was identified by half of the sample; • Low iconicity: The meaning of eight of the icons being assessed (Manage events and invitations; Volunteering; My profile; Search friends; Communication; Messages; News; Turn off ) was identified by less than half of the sample; • Total absence of iconicity: The meaning of five of the icons being assessed (Medical appointments and drugstores; Create medical prescription; Terms of use; Community; My friends) was identified by none of the participants of the sample. In a general analysis, it appears that this iconographic set has revealed to be, for this sample of participants, mostly ineffective in the representation of the meanings they were originally designed for. Only five out of the 21 assessed icons, proved to be comprehensible in their meaning for most of the sample. However, when one crosses in a table (Table 1) each icon’s iconicity degree with its attributes combination, one finds evidence that suggests which approach or approaches, in terms of combination of attributes, favor a better understanding of iconography’s meaning for seniors. Consider Table 1: From the analysis of the data displayed in Table 1, the following was found: • In the five icons that are figurative and cultural, none presents a low iconicity degree. Two have intermediate iconicity, two have good iconicity and the last one has total iconicity; • In icons that are non-figurative and cultural, three out of five have low iconicity, one has intermediate iconicity and the last one has good iconicity; • In icons that are just figurative, only one of them has good iconicity. Three have low iconicity and two have total absence of iconicity; • In icons that are just non-figurative, two in five have low iconicity, while the remaining three have total absence of iconicity. So the findings listed before and quantified from Table 1 suggest the following:

Iconography Design for Digital Applications Table 1. Icons organized by attributes and their measured iconicity degree

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• The icons that are figurative and cultural are those with a better performance in terms of iconicity. In ten of which are cultural icons (figurative and non-figurative) seven are above the low iconicity degree, in the interval between the intermediate and total iconicity. The cultural attribute appears, therefore, to be the more decisive and the one that most contributes, in the attributes binomial figurative/cultural, to expand the iconography’s degree of iconicity. This suggests that cultural icons are a good strategy to visually communicate concepts to seniors in iconography; • Although Carmichael (1999) and Fisk et al. (2004) argue that the use of figurative iconography is more effective than the use of non-figurative solutions, with this assessment it was verified that, although the figurative attribute helps, it is, by no means, guarantee of total or good iconicity. Notice that, of the eleven icons that are figurative (figurative and figurative/cultural) only six have an iconicity degree above low iconicity. The remaining have a lower degree than intermediate iconicity. Notice, also, that this does not contradict what’s advocated by Carmichael (1999) and Fisk et al. (2004). Because, of the ten icons that are non-figurative (non-figurative and non-figurative & cultural) eight have an iconicity degree below the intermediate iconicity. Therefore, despite the figurative attribute not being the most decisive, figurative iconography also proved to be more effective than non-figurative iconography. Despite these more generalist findings there are curious cases that deserve a qualitative analysis and that pose questions such as the following: i) Having icons such as Search friends, Communication and Turn off attributes in their properties such as the cultural one, why were they ranked, by the participants, in degrees of iconicity below the intermediate degree? ii) And what about the remaining ones? Why were they rated below the intermediate degree? From the direct analysis of the participants’ answers, recorded during the assessment, it is possible to find evidence from which can be inferred some answers to the previously posed questions. Regarding the first one, let’s consider the interpretations of meaning given by the participants for icons such as Search friends, Communication and Turn off : • Answers given for the icon Search friends: Although this icon uses a common visual convention used in content search icons (mainly used in websites’ interfaces), the answers provided by participants revealed that they were not familiar with it. Only two participants [P1 e P4] identified a magnifying glass (object) and only a third one [P7] associated the icon to the searching act (verb/action). To all the remaining participants, the icon: i) didn’t represent any type of action; ii) it represented other objects different from the magnifying glass, such as a tennis racket [P2, P3 e P5] , a strainer or even a door key [P2] . So there is a tendency, amongst these participants, for a denoting reading of meanings rather than a connotative one; • Answers given for the icon Communication: The answers given for this icon also suggest that most of the participants did not associate the icon with a speech comics balloon and much less associated it with the communication metaphor, as intended. This shows that they were also unaware of this visual convention commonly used, either in comics or even in the context of the web. Three of the participants, however, associated it with concepts related with

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the act of communicating. One of the participants [P1] said that it looked like a door intercom, because it gave him the impression of a sound coming out of the grid. A second participant [P6] said it could represent the possibility of talking through the television set. And a third one [P4] said it could represent anything related with the act of talking. The remaining participants either failed to assign a meaning to the icon [P5] or said that it looked like a belt buckle [P8] , a records indication [P3] , or even a service station [P2] . So, in this case, a more connotative than denotative reading of meanings was found amongst the assessment’s participants; • Answers given for the icon Turn off : The results of the Turn off icon represented a surprise because, it was initially believed that the use of the typical Turn off icon, used in many appliances, ensured that its meaning would immediately be recognized by all participants. However, only one participant recognized it [P3] . The others said it either suggested a wheelchair [P7 e P8] , or the typical deficiency icon [P2 e P8] , or even an electric stove [P1] . Two weren’t even able to assign a meaning to it [P4 e P5] . The association of this icon with both the icon of disability and an electric stove (clearly more figurative/denotative interpretations than the Turn off icon, which is an abstract/connotative representation) suggests a tendency, in seniors, to more denoting interpretations rather than connotative ones. It also suggests that, if the intention is to represent an action, the icon should illustrate its execution rather than just objects used to perform that same action, as it is here the act of turning off something. Moreover, these answers also denounce that seniors aren’t always aware of common visual/cultural conventions, though these are very common in objects with which one would expect them to have crossed with throughout their life (as controlling a TV set or appliances). Proof of this was the statement made by one of the participants [P8] when, upon completion of the assessment session, and after being pointed to a television set where a button with the Turn off icon was used, and asked if he didn’t recognize it. The participant only answered he had never noticed that icon because it was very small and subtle. This informal answer indicates that not all visual/cultural conventions, even in contexts that might be familiar to seniors, ensure their full effectiveness. Analyzed the icons which, despite their cultural attribute, were rated by participants on a level below the intermediate iconicity, next the answers given for the icons with total absence of iconicity will be analyzed, in order to answer the second question raised by the analysis of quantitative data presented above. In these icons (Community, My friends, Terms of use, Create medical prescription e Medical appointments and drugstores), what seems to be fairly common to all of the provided answers, is that, in most cases, the representations are too ambiguous and insufficient, in terms of their formal and visual detail, for participants to assign a meaning to them. If in some cases they can’t even assign a meaning to the icon, in other cases, when they assign a possible meaning to it, it is mostly objects that if were drawn with minimal and stylized representations, such as the ones of this iconographic set, could actually be represented by the solution created for these icons. Note that, on one hand, the icon developed for Terms of use could also represent a Mobile phone card [P1 e P6] , a Door intercom [P5] , a Heater [P2] , a Ventilator [P3] , or even a Grid [P4] . On the other hand, the icon developed for Medical appointments and

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drugstores could also represent a Grid with a hinge [P1] , a Medication blister [P5] , an ATM machine [P7] , or even a Phone keypad [P8] . The same is valid for the Create prescription icon where were participants assigned meanings to it like such as Cutting medication [P2] , Crossed head screw [P3] , Phone [P6] , Medication [P7 and the Red cross [P7] . These interpretations suggest that designers should be more specific and more graphically detailed in the iconographic representations they come up with, otherwise a senior end user may confuse their meanings with others than those intended. Further evidence for this need for greater detail in icon’s visual representations for seniors, is the interpretations made by some of the participants for the My friends icon. Although they visually identified a human figure, they also referred and pointed out the absence of some formal details whose inclusion would be important for a more effective interpretation of the icon’s meaning. One participant said that the icon represented a deaf and dumb person because it does not have eyes or a mouth [P1] . Other participant, comparing the My friends icon with the Community one, states that if the first one meant Community than the second meant a Very closed community, because it didn’t have a smiling face [P2] , clearly referring himself to the absence of eyes and mouth elements. One final observation to be noted is that, in the case of the icons that should represent actions (Search friends, Managing events and invitations, Create Medical prescription and Turn off ), when participants gave an answer and assigned a meaning to them, they almost always referred an object rather than an action. In 24 answers (in this number are already excluded answers where participants cannot assign any meaning to the icon), only one was towards the execution of an action. But even this was diverted from the intended meaning for the icon because, for the Create Medical Prescription icon, the participant interpreted it as meaning To cut medication [P2] . This suggests that, in cases where the icon’s meaning expresses the execution of an action, if possible, a solution should be sought that includes the illustration of the execution of that action. Otherwise the interpretation might be wrong or, at best, only express objects associated with the execution of the action that the icon should illustrate. Taking in account all the described data and its analysis, it is advisable that designers consider the following recommendations regarding the design of digital iconography for seniors: • Whenever possible and relevant, an icon should combine the figurative attribute with the cultural one. Although the cultural attribute does not completely assure that the icon’s meaning will always be correctly interpreted by the senior user, this attribute can amplify, in some cases, the iconography’s iconicity degree; • The iconography should be as figurative and literal as possible. Although this assessment has demonstrated that the figurative attribute is not always guarantee of full effectiveness in all situations, it has also shown that icons that had the figurative attribute were rated with a higher iconicity degree than those who did not have this attribute; • Iconographic representations that might represent multiple objects should be avoided. Icons which depict representations that may induce the association to several different objects appear to, for this type of user, induce meaning interpretations deviated from the intended original meaning;

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• Avoid too minimalist and stylized visual representations. The absence of distinguishing visual features and details between icons, can create undesirable similarities between them, that can induce meaning interpretations different from the originally desired; • Avoid using visual metaphors or connotative representations in the illustration of an icon’s meaning. The data collected show that this type of user tends to have a more denotative than connotative interpretation, having a hard time in assigning meanings beyond the objects or actions depicted in the visual representation developed for an icon; • When resorting to cultural conventions, one should check if this type of users is familiar with those conventions in particular. Conventions are that, although very common in the general population of users, are not always familiar to seniors; • In icons which are intended to express actions or the execution of an action, it is recommended that the implementation of this action is also illustrated in the representation used in the icon. The data collected in this paper’s assessment suggests that, if the used representation only resorts, for example, to an object which is used in performing that same action, this type of user tends to interpret the meaning of the icon as the object itself and not the action the object allows to perform.

6 Assessment of the Need of a Written Mention to the icon’s Meaning - Results The answers to the question ‘Do you think that, in order to decipher the meaning of this symbol, you must have the meaning written under the icon? Or not?’ proved clear. Consider the following chart of Fig. 3, where the black bars represent the number of participants who do not abdicate of the written meaning, and the gray bars represent the number of participants who do abdicate:

Fig. 3. Answers to the question “Do you think that, in order to decipher the meaning of this symbol, you must have the meaning written under the icon? Or not?”

It appears, by the overwhelming majority of the provided answers (8 participants multiplied by 21 icons = 168 answers) that the participants do not abdicate of the written meaning. In only twenty-one of the one hundred and sixty-eight answers (12.5%) given by participants, they preferred to abdicate from the written meaning. Even in

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icons like Calls, whose meaning every participant had correctly identified, seven out of eight participants expressed that they’d prefer not to abdicate of the written meaning. The justifications for this strong need were revealed by proactive answers provided by participants. It was often referred: i) the fear of forgetting the meaning of each icon, given the huge amount involved; ii) the concern about their future memory capacities; iii) the concern with other older user’s memory capabilities, as expressed in the following statement: • ‘I’ll say it again. I know the meaning of it but most people of my age don’t!’ [P3] . Some participants’ self-awareness of their senior condition and the awareness of the typical cognitive and memory constraints that aging brings, was very clear, as portrayed by their following statements: • ‘We sometimes have things in our hands and we don’t know where they are… It’s safer to have the written meaning there!’ [P2] ; • ‘At our age it’s always better!’ [P7] ; • ‘It’s better in the first times so we get used to them!’ [P7] ; • ‘Today I might even know what that means. But tomorrow I might not because I’m growing old. It’s always better to have the written name!’ [P1] ; • ‘It always helps. For most old people it helps!’ [P6] ; • ‘If you want the symbol to be more effective to all, than it needs the text!’ [P6] . Some participants also justified the need of written meaning with the cognitive difficulty they felt in interpreting visual codes they were unfamiliar with: • ‘It very quickly helps not thinking too much in what this means’ [P3] ; • ‘Sometimes we might be thinking about something else. This way we immediately understand what it means’ [P8] . One of the participants showed awareness of his lack of contact with the codes and visual conventions typically used in new technological media: • ‘These symbols for us are a little bit… (pauses and waves his head denoting incomprehension), mainly when we don’t know anything about new technologies’ [P7] . Given these statements and the overwhelming tendency of participants for preferring to include the written meaning in the icon, it looks like it is always preferable to do so. This finding converges, moreover, with what is advocated by Carmichael (1999), Fisk et al. (2004) and Rice and Alm (2008), regarding this iconography’s variable. However, these researchers advocate the use of textual icons, rather than pictorial ones, because it was found that errors were less frequent with written icons. In the case of this assessment, it was found that the presence of the written meaning is needed, not only to avoid interpretation flaws, but also to induce a confidence feeling and mitigate the fear that seniors have in not understanding or forgetting, the meaning of a specific icon.

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7 Conclusions Starting from the comparison between the data presented in the theoretical framework described in this paper, and the data collected from the assessment of the iconographic set’s iconicity, it looks like, in general terms, the best strategy to adopt in digital iconography design for seniors, in order to ensure its global effectiveness, approaches the strategies advocated by Nunes et al. (2012) and Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010) and part of what Wiedenbeck (1999) advocates. That is, the combined use of the written meaning of the icon with a pictorial and visual representation of the concept or object to which the icon relates. However, here the use of this design strategy is defended for different reasons of those advocated by Nunes et al. (2012) e Koutsourelakis and Chorianopoulos (2010). If on one hand, these researchers argue that the use of textual icons is not a guarantee of overall effectiveness for seniors, being necessary a parallel representation to minimize the typical difficulties with writing and reading that some seniors suffer of; on the other hand, the results of this assessment show that it is not advisable to abdicate of the written meaning of an icon, because: i) there is a strong probability of the senior having a hard time interpreting the meaning of icons if they are not combined with their written meaning; ii) this written meaning also favors and induces a feeling of confidence, minimizing the fear that this type of user has, in later forgetting the meaning of a specific icon. In what concerns the formal aspect (shape/visual representation) of the icon, it was also found that visually simplified and minimalist representations entail, for the participants, either difficulties in assigning a meaning to the icon, or interpretations disconnected from the meanings the icons were initially designed for. Thus, these results indicate that, for seniors, the more literal a visual/graphical representation is, the more formal detail it has, the more figurative, the more an icon visually represents an action when the intended meaning refers to the execution of that same action; the greater the effectiveness of the icon for the elder population. The use of cultural conventions, with which they are familiar, although isn’t a total guarantee of effectiveness, can help this type of user to identify the icon’s meaning. However, in none of these solutions - abstract, figurative, cultural or the combination of the before mentioned - is expendable using written references to the meaning of the icons. Therefore, with respect to iconography, more is better and safer. The less abstract and more formally detailed the icon, the better.

References Becker, S.A., Webbe, F.M.: Designing for older adult users of handheld technology. In: Conference proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, pp. 3297–3300. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (2006). https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2006.260370 Blankenberger, S., Hahn, K.: Effects of icon design on human-computer interaction. Int. J. Man Mach. Stud. 35(3), 363–377 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7373(05)80133-6 Carmichael, A.: Style Guide for the Design of Interactive Television Services for Elderly Viewers: School of Computing - University of Dundee (1999) Fisk, A., Rogers, W., Charness, N., Czaja, S., Sharit, J.: Designing for Older Adults. Principles and Creative Human Factors Approaches, 1st edn. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton (2004)

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Garcia, H.D.: A terceira idade e a Internet: uma questão para o novo milênio. Universidade Estadual Paulista, Marília, Brasil (2001). http://acervodigital.unesp.br/handle/123456789/48098. Banco Digital de Teses e Dissertações da Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” database Hawthorn, D.: Designing effective interfaces for older users. (PHD Thesys), The University of Waikato, Waikato, New Zeland (2006). http://hdl.handle.net/10289/2538. Research Commons database Koutsourelakis, C., Chorianopoulos, K.: Icons in mobile phones. Comprehensibility differences between older and younger users. Inf. Des. J. 18(1), 22–35 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1075/idj. 18.1.03cho Martins, N., Ralha, S., Simoes, R.: ICT4Silver: design guidelines for the development of digital interfaces for elderly users. In: Machado, J., Soares, F., Trojanowska, J., Yildirim, S. (eds.) icieng. LNME, pp. 178–188. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03079168-1_17 McLaughlin, A., Pak, R.: Designing Displays for Older Adults. Human Factors and Aging Series, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2020) Nunes, F., Kerwin, M., Silva, P.A.: Design recommendations for tv user interfaces for older adults: findings from the eCAALYX project. In: ASSETS 2012: Proceedings of the 14th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility, pp. 41–48. Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2012). https://doi.org/10.1145/2384916.2384924 Pereira, L., Brandão, D., Martins, N.: Ageing related human factors to be addressed in the design of visual interfaces of digital applications developed for seniors: a literature review. In: Martins, N., Brandão, D., Moreira da Silva, F. (eds.) Perspectives on Design and Digital Communication II. Springer Series in Design and Innovation, vol. 14, pp. 65–80. Springer, Cham (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75867-7_5 Rice, M., Alm, N.: Designing new interfaces for digital interactive television usable by older adults. Comput. Entertain. 6(1), 1–20 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1145/1350843.1350849 Robinet, A., Picking, R., Grout, V.: A framework for improving user experience in ambient assisted living. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Collaborative Research Symposium on Security, E-learning, Internet and Networking (SEIN 2008), Glyndwr University, Wrexham, UK, pp. 111–121 (2008) Tanid, P.: Is a big button interface enough for elderly users? Towards user interface guidelines for elderly users (Masters Dissertation). Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden (2011). https:// www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A416488&dswid=2592 Wiedenbeck, S.: The use of icons and labels in an end user application program: an empirical study of learning and retention. Behav. Inf. Technol. 18(2), 68–82 (1999). https://doi.org/10. 1080/014492999119129 Yu, Y., Fong, T.: Designing mobile application icons with elderly a target consumers. Int. J. Modern Commun. Technol. Res. 4(12), 1–7 (2016) Zajicek, M.: Interface design for older adults. In: WUAUC 2001, Proceedings of the 2001 EC/NSF Workshop on Universal Accessibility of Ubiquitous Computing: Providing for the Elderly, pp. 60–65, Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2001)

The Contribution of the Printed Editorial Object: Wrong Wrong Magazine Rita Correia1 and Vítor Quelhas2(B) 1 School of Media Arts and Design, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal

[email protected]

2 ID+ Research Institute for Design, Media and Culture/uniMAD, Porto, Portugal

[email protected]

Abstract. This investigation aims to contribute to the subject of study − magazine design − through the analysis of the process of transmutation from digital to print media. Thus, it is intended to answer: How can a printed editorial object contribute to an online magazine? Starting from the online contemporary art magazine Wrong Wrong, the main objective is the design of a printed, collectible editorial object, which contributes to enhance and strengthen its recognition in the targeted audience. The methodologies adopted in this research emerged according to the requirements of each phase necessary to fulfill the proposed aim. This study is organized in two distinct moments − the theoretical framework and the project. For the theoretical framework, a literature review was carried out on the themes adjacent to the central theme − printed object −, the publication and the grids. Additionally, case studies are analyzed, and a semi-structured interview was carried out with the director of the Wrong Wrong magazine. For the design of the printed editorial object − Project −, a methodology informed by design is used, revealing all the processes, challenges and decisions taken, which led to the materialization of a prototype. The results of this study reveal that the choices made in the design of the printed editorial object strategically contribute to expand meanings, enhancing visual communication. Keywords: Publication design · Magazine design · Grid in editorial design

1 Introduction Wrong Wrong is an online publication focused on the field of contemporary artistic production. This magazine stands out in the online market for its unique bilingual approach, with an international context, and endowed with a bold identity. This study focuses on the creation of a printed editorial object based on the contents of the Wrong Wrong online magazine and is motivated by the interest to research in the field of editorial design, mainly in print media. The theme of this study focuses on the analysis of different approaches, adaptations, and solutions for the transposition of individuality and specificity to the printed medium. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 109–123, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_9

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For the development of this investigation, it was necessary to carry out a literature review as well as an analysis of this object in the field of contemporary art to understand the state of the art of the current market, regarding to design and user experience. It is intended to investigate through the printed design and its intrinsic characteristics, such as the physical touch, the sensations coming from the handling or the smell of print, how they contribute to a relationship of proximity and identity with the user. In the end, the user interacts with the object to discover new content and thus expand their involvement with the publication. Through small details, tactile experiences can be provided to the user to capture their attention and interest and make content easier to read.

2 Theoretical Framework 2.1 Digital and Print Design Over the last few decades, there has been a constant discussion about the end of print media as a medium of communication, as well as post-digital and hybrid practices. Since we are in a digital age and with so many digital formulas and tools accessible to almost everyone, it is understandable that this question arises. However, over the last few decades, communication design and printed materials have adapted as needs arise. Print continues to reinvent itself and celebrate its qualities such as materiality, flexibility, and convenience – areas where digital design, geared towards a screen, cannot compete. It can be considered that the lack of knowledge about some subjects, such as interaction design, leads to considering the death of paper. This typology is not only linked to digital, but also to print. Digital design can work hybrid with editorial design, as the latter can nurture the former. Different media can be carriers of various sizes, from a sheet of paper to digital content in an electronic device. Although the visual factor is always present, there are tactile and sensorial details that seduce us, capturing our attention in a different way. It can be considered that the best harmony would be for both media to coexist. Aspects such as the faithful reproduction of the touch of paper, its smell and its traditional format make it practically impossible to be replaced by digital media. Another point of view arises around the printed word and how it has been modernized, as well as its physical support has been improved. In the same way that this was a revolutionary appearance, if it doesn’t challenge and evolve it won’t be able to face the barriers imposed daily, given the numerous functionalities of digital media. Paper is therefore being threatened by a digital age that forces it to revitalize itself. The pleasure that a traditional printed object conveys is immeasurable and cannot be faithfully reproduced in digital media [3]. These means answer different needs, one stands out for its speed and the other for its stability. Both can go together to suppress user needs [6]. In this context, it is necessary to find a balance between the two typologies. It is urgent to rethink the models previously practiced, both in design and in business, since reformulating and transforming printed content into digital, and vice versa, is not the

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future, but rather experimenting with new formats with hybrid and diversified content [6]. The expectations of a website user and a printed document user are different. Readers of a print magazine are more patient than readers of a digital magazine. This happens not only because it is more tiring to read on digital media, but also for cultural reasons [8]. A print job and a digital job have their own limitations. For both, it is necessary to establish the relationship between format/size, color, and typography. When a designer has a printed work, the format is defined, while the work in the digital environment is subject to a variety of flexibilities caused by the different screen sizes and even the behavior of the website in which it will be inserted. In the same way, the grid, as it is also fixed in the printed design and variable in the digital one [14]. 2.2 Periodical Publication and Magazine The printed periodical publication is one of the three major types of publication, the other two being the following: the book and the digital ones. Periodical publications, commonly referred to as periodicals, are paper or electronic publications that are usually published at regular time intervals. These can be about a specific subject or several subjects. The magazine emerged at a time when there were social and technological conditions of mass production for this to happen – the Industrial Revolution. It immediately distinguished itself from the books, through its soft cover and the text arranged in more than one column [15]. Over time, the concept of a magazine has changed. In the beginning it was considered only as ephemeral, with a wide range of information, for a low cost and dedicated to a wide target audience. Magazines are adopting new formats that challenge our traditional perception of this object. This idea is due to the competition generated by the constant evolution of digital media and, at the same time, by its saturation. Institutions in these areas began to feel the need to adopt new strategies to stand out. As the approach to digital media was designed to adapt to new means of consumption and reading, magazines adopt formats like books, some newspapers adopt magazine formats or even magazines take the format of posters, for example. In this more global market, the approach becomes more active and less passive. According to Caldwell and Zappaterra [4], magazines can be divided into two categories: commercial magazines that are sold all over the world in newsstands, kiosks, and stores; and independent magazines, with few copies and a restricted audience. Independent magazines, unlike commercial magazines, generally do not have cover calls because they do not need to compete with other magazines on newsstands, as they are aimed at restricted target audiences. 2.3 Magazine Components To find functional solutions it is important to understand the main magazine components and its anatomy.

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The appearance of the object acts as a stimulus for people to approach and interact. It should provide the necessary visual cues for the user to correctly interact with the communication artifact. Visibility and usability must be considered, so that a good conceptual model can be provided, since it allows to guide the user during the interaction experience with the visual support [9]. Harmony is one of the characteristics that all designers try to achieve through the proportion of an object. Sometimes, it is economic and sustainability situations that lead designers to choose a solution that best suits industrial paper sizes and production systems [1]. Currently unconventional formats are considered for the development of magazines. For example, a posterzine is considered a small poster. These dimensions can become even smaller with the use of mechanisms such as folds [7]. In this context, the concept of a rationed catalog also arises. Many magazines are sold, as a set of articles published periodically and even separately by a newspaper or magazine, with the aim of being gathered in a collection. A rationed catalog is composed of a type of publication/object developed for the same purpose. In this context, this creation of items generates a collection. The cover is the interface element between the outside and the inside of the publication. It has three main goals: to identify the magazine, not to go unnoticed at the point of sale, and to express the content and character of the magazine [15]. The main function of the cover is to protect the inside of the magazine, hence covering it totally or partially. And it is important that it is versatile enough to maintain a coherent, fresh, and vibrant look, forming a recognizable style. There are several components that favor the internal organization of a magazine. These components may have an explicit and/or implicit function that the reader may not even notice. These same components can be using a different color paper, different grids, different typographic style or even placing important information in prominence in other areas of the page such as the margins. All of this creates hierarchy and contributes to the sense of rhythm and coherence within the publication [1]. 2.4 Interactivity on Paper Due to the excess of digital information that comes to us daily through the media, mainly by cell phone, more and more designers are looking to create content with which people can interact. Pursuing the rediscovery of tactility and maximizing the practical potential of print, designers can help relate these pleasures while helping to secure the future of paper. In these cases, the user is invited to perform several tasks to make the best use of the information that tries to reach him, in real time [2]. This concept of interactivity is multidisciplinary and can trigger a unique and valuable character in communication design. Interaction is present in the various physical artifacts of communication, but there are objects that effectively invite the reader to discover and explore the contents presented in a more direct and explicit way, turning a simple moment into an enriching experience. Interactive design can be seen as a complement to communication design and visual identity. The aim is to create products that are easy to learn, with an effective and pleasant look for the user [9]. It is not possible to design an experience that is absorbed by all

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users in the same way, it is only possible to influence that this happens. Users express opinions and reveal emotions spontaneously. 2.5 The Grid Editorial design in its essence has a structure that sustains it: the grid. Grids are carriers of information. They serve as the underlying structure for composing and archiving human thought, interactions, and events. The grid works as a tool for designers to graphically order text boxes and images to maintain design coherence. It is a procedure that helps to structure, divide, and organize the contents [10]. It is very useful because it can be used to solve composition problems, not being completely infallible. These methodologies are applied to create harmonious and aesthetically pleasing compositions. Therefore, the use of the grid will promote a more readable, balanced, attractive, and functional final result [14]. Grids are geometric divisions of the page, which, despite not being commonly visible, are decisive in the quality of the graphic design. The grid is used as an aid in organizing the graphic elements on the page, to design a rational, pleasant, and coherent visual aspect. Its structure should be idealized in a double page (even – odd spread), because regardless of the composition, the reader observes the pages (odd and even) as a whole. Layout is understood as the visual appearance of the page and works as the basic structure for the arrangement of the various graphic elements, such as grids, margins, text spots, columns, page numbering and empty spaces [1, 5]. The grid has been studied in the world of art and design, resulting in different discourses. It can be symbol that has no purpose or purpose beyond itself; emblematic matrix of modernist ambition (autonomous from the universe because it is flattened, geometric and ordered – that is: anti-natural, anti-mimetic and anti-real); appears before modernity, it is the most prominent visual structure of Western culture [11]. The grid can define relations of power or hierarchy, of regulation and duality, while at the same time enhancing communication and knowledge systems. Structuralist theories dictate that the elements that a structure contains are not a simple cluster of independent elements. They are an entity that is perceived as an integral part of the structure of which it is a part. It can contain elements such as horizontal and vertical, circular, and oblique lines, and are articulated in space and time. The nature of each element has no meaning by itself but is defined by the relationship of all the other elements that make up the whole and that contribute to the sense of unity. The grid subdivides a surface into smaller areas, and these areas can be either identical or different in size. The areas are separated from each other by intermediate spaces (gutters). These are critical to preserve readability. With this type of division into grids (modules or fields) it is possible to better order and position the elements that make up a composition [5]. To obtain uniformity in the arrangement of visual information, all elements occupy one or more spaces created by the grid as it determines the constant dimensions and proportions of the available space. There is no limit to the divisions of a grid, however, each project must be carefully studied so that it is assigned a system that matches its requirements.

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The grid drives analytical thinking, but also provides a solution to the problem on logical bases and objective criteria. There are several reasons that justify its use: economic, as it shortens time and costs; rational, because any problem can be solved coherently and with a characteristic style; of mental posture, this type of content presentation should be an expression of our sense of responsibility and a constructive contribution to the culture of society [10]. The aggregation of all graphic elements in the plots of a grid system creates a sense of organization, intelligibility, and clarity, generating an idea of logical order in editorial design. This order increases the credibility of the information and creates trust [10]. The hierarchical information found in these systems allows for faster and easier reading, as well as allowing the same information to be better understood and retained in memory. The grid was used ostensibly in the modern graphic design movement of the 20th century. The grid, defined by the line and the module, is more than a delineation of the space that separates the text and illustration from the margins. From another perspective, the grid can indicate the opposition between two objects. It allows to infer meanings of direction, succession, progression and interval of space and time. The grid defined by the module is found in typography (with the application of Gutenberg’s movable types – composing the characters in lines that fit the size of the sheet vertically and horizontally, conventionally the construction of variable units) and conveys horizontality ratios in the plane. The module is also synonymous with predictability as the units are repeated throughout the territory, creating scales of space and time for each of them. In addition to being predictable, they allow comparisons between territories. In other words, the grid has evolved over centuries, so it is not easy to name all those who contributed in some way to its formation, institution, and articulation in graphic design. On the one hand, graphic design emerged in a context of union between the artist and the machine, in which the grid would give it status, moving it away from a simple artistic practice. The debate between art and technology has always been a recurring theme. The history of the grid in Modernism evolves alongside the experience, eventually merging into one another. One of the predominant influences in graphic design was the use of geometric construction to organize the page, which had been investigated by artists of various movements since the beginning of the century, especially Constructivism and De Stijl. The search for a social function in typography would turn the grid into a construction and precision tool, essential in the formulation of a functional discipline that wanted to be as credible as architecture or engineering. Artists and artisans worked together to strengthen standardized techniques and products, manipulating an attractive industrial reality, creating, in parallel, advertising supports to promote them. The functional character of the grid, together with an expansive vision, would constitute the next step in its identity. Graphic design would conclude by reflecting this interdisciplinarity, while trying to correspond to an ideal of modern aesthetics: the use of industrial technology to the

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detriment of artisanal production and architectural functionalism with the principle that form follows function. The notion of structure (grid) was implicit both in the shape of the sheet and in its subdivision [16]. In the second half of the 20th century, many other designers became famous advocates of grid systems. For example, Massimo Vignelli and Wim Crouwel. Vignelli favored precious modular grid systems for a large number of editorial projects, particularly books, and also in public information materials. Crouwel is particularly known for his typography embedded in the grids. 2.6 The Grid and the Digital Era The desktop publishing revolution that began in the 70’s, swept through the 80’s and 90’s, and continues to this day. In addition to rapidly changing the tools and techniques used by typographers and printers, it created opportunities for experimentation among designers. Using graphic design software in the late 80’s and early 90’s, grids could be changed with just one click. A block of text could be resized and rendered to flow back onto the screen. Images can be rotated, distorted, and layered. This opened a new era of experimentation in graphic design – one of the clearest historical illustrations of how technical tools and constraints can drive the creation of new work. Grid systems in graphic design have survived centuries, if not millennia, from the earliest illuminations. And despite the stimulating anti-design experiments of the late 20th century, grids have probably never been as widely used as they are today [5]. This is due to the dominance of the internet and digital devices, and to the emerging need for websites and apps to resize and reshape themselves to accommodate any device used. Today, for graphic and interface designers, column grids are an indispensable tool in creating compositions with enough structure to allow them to be flexible and adapt to various devices. The first reaction as a reader will be to question whether there is, in fact, a grid present in all examples of today’s graphic design practice, considering that some assure not resorting to the use of this structure. Although this statement may be true and honest on the part of the designer, we cannot neglect his academic training based on a modernist tradition. In academia, the designer is instructed to resort to the use of a structure, and only then encouraged to subvert it. This means that the grid, a heritage of modernity, is a mental scheme that is imprinted on the designer’s collective subconscious, even if he does not draw it on the sheet [11]. The grids are sometimes considered a creative constraint, but they are extremely valuable. Rather than constraining creativity, constraints provide a starting point and invest the freedom to explore possible solutions. Grid systems provide constraints for layout and visual organization, which simultaneously reduce the number of options available to the designer, but also open a wide range of constrained possibilities. Even a simple modular grid can contain thousands of layout options.

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3 Project This practical project emerges from the need to answer the initial question raised in this investigation, motivated by the interest in studying the concept of editorial design as well as deepening knowledge about printing and do it yourself (DIY) techniques. The digital project fell on Wrong Wrong Magazine due to its irreverence and uniqueness in the Portuguese panorama. Considering that the lack of a tactile object restricts the way the reader sees an object, the limitation of the experience intrinsic to it is a determining factor for the existence of a physical object. Above all, formats, grids and techniques linked to digital, and print were explored. Various materials and techniques available for this type of support were approached and tested. Wrong Wrong is a fully online magazine founded and directed by art historian, curator, and essayist Sandra Vieira Jürgens. The magazine is bilingual and has four editions a year, each one subordinated to a different theme and composed of multiple reflective essays on the same guiding line. The name was inspired by a Marcel Duchamp, Henri Pierre Roché and Beatrice Wood project dating from 1917: the single-issue magazine Rongwrong, whose name should have been Wrong Wrong. “The error occurred in the printing” [17]. The magazine, edited by the cultural association Terceiro Direito, can be consulted on the Internet for free, and has a newsletter service. Terceiro Direito, a non-profit association, designs projects in the field of contemporary arts, functioning as a platform for the dissemination of artistic creation and research [17] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. All the editions chosen (1, 3, 5, 8, 14 and 15) from Wrong Wrong Magazine.

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3.1 Development The project development started with the observation and detailed analysis of all digital editions of Wrong Wrong Magazine. The initial idea would be to celebrate the magazine, that is, to create an object that would show a global perception of the magazine – best of 2019. However, it is so unique and different among all its editions, and, therefore, it could not be culminated so much information without losing coherence and a sense of unity. Therefore, the primary idea of compiling the most viewed and shared articles by readers in 2019 – corresponding to issues 14 and 15 – was not considered since there are also no statistics corresponding to this niche, that is, per article. Therefore, the editions as a whole were considered. In the detailed observation of the digital magazine, seven elements were detected, always different, that are inserted in each edition, which are: the editorial (composed of text), index, moodboard (composed of images and respective captions), logo, edition number, start and end dates, and finally the color palette. In addition to these elements, it is important to mention that the articles of different typologies, also has its Portuguese and English versions. These typologies are visual essays, articles, and sound essays. The essays may contain photographs of material, part video and part sound. All articles are accompanied by biographies of each author or authors. At this stage, we felt the need to study in more detail some of the current periodicals that were considered relevant for the development of this project, both due to thematic proximity and graphic and editorial characteristics. Five case studies were analyzed: Contemporânea, Umbigo, IdN (International designers’ Network), Posterzine and Re·vis·ta. An interview was carried out with the director of the magazine − Dr. Sandra Vieira Jürgens, enabling the collection of primary data, various information such as statistics of views of the various editions of the magazine, the target audience, among others. Another problem, however considered during the interview process, was the creation of a low-cost object since it is a non-profit association. The main focus of this project was always to contribute and value the magazine and never to create a representation of the digital magazine on paper. Hence the idea of summary and highlighting became the focus of this investigation. Informed by the analysis carried out on the case studies, it was realized that the best format would then be the folding poster format. With the concept of poster magazine, the hybrid support between a poster and a magazine, each edition could be worked individually. Thus, each of these numbers would not lose its individualistic identity present on the website. Within these concepts, it was defined that this would be a project that could be printed in risography because in this way it would be able to offer the object a rich, plastic, and dynamic character. Risography is characterized by the almost irrevocable error and lag in printing. The fact that the magazine appeared due to a printing error and is called wrong wrong magazine, makes this choice even more coherent. In this context, the maximum size that could be worked on was defined as A3, as it is the maximum size that this printing method provides. At this stage, having knowledge and experience about the printing method facilitated the process. The editions were

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chosen according to the number of views. That is, the six most viewed editions until 2019, out of a total of fifteen editions. The editions chosen were: 1, 3, 5, 8, 14 and 15. After some models were tested, it was decided to choose the right angle with short fold format for the folding poster. The fact that it can be folded out made it possible to create zones and organize information better, without getting too cluttered. A cover was added to give it structure, support and to add the remaining information that was missing and that was no longer restricted to a single edition. This same cover allows the final object to be handled without the poster detaching from it (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The 6 posters printed in risography without the respective covers.

3.2 Process It started with the elaboration of issue n.° 1 entitled Wrong, which was launched in May 2015. As for the inside, phrases, notes, and varied images were chosen that best reflected the concept that the edition intended to convey. Images and phrases that arouse interest for the reading of certain articles were chosen. This applies to both the English and Portuguese versions. All the information was kept for later elaborating the corresponding editorial. In each edition, 3 predominant tones were extracted and according to the colors of the available cardstock, the color of the paper for printing and the colors available for risographic printing, the colors for each edition were chosen. And so, the testing of the positioning of the various blocks of text and image in the editorial object began. This format has become a hybrid between a traditional poster and a leaflet.

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The paper used for the inside was Munken Pure 120 g, which stands out for its finish after printing, as well as for its raw color that makes it more comfortable for reading and touching.

Fig. 3. Complete version of the edition n.° 5 from Wrong Wrong Magazine, displayed in its possible ways.

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The paper chosen for the cover was Elle Erre 220 g cardstock, in the colors: Giallo, Onice, Aragosta Rosa, Blanco and Viola. This appeared to be the ideal option to match the printing and finishes needed and desired (Fig. 3). To consolidate, hierarchize and organize the information in the most efficient way, a grid system of 8 × 8 modules was used, facilitating the distribution of available information in a coherent way. The fonts chosen for the development of this project were the same used in the digital magazine, Dia and Tramuntana Pro, to maintain its identity image. All covers were printed using inkjet on a Canon IPF770 Plotter, in black. The poster printing was designed and executed in risography using the Riso MF9350 machine, and the following colors: Black, Fluorescent Orange, Risofederal blue, Red, Yellow, Fluorescent Pink and Blue. Risografia is a duplicator created in Japan by RISO Kagaku Corporation, in 1986. The speed and low cost make risography machines the ideal technique for high print runs. As a result of the high number of impressions per minute, their cost per sheet tends to be reduced, soon they began to be sold to schools, churches, prisons, as well as political parties. Other factors contribute to the reduction of cost and environmental impact, such as energy savings, the low need for machine maintenance and the composition of paints based on mineral and vegetable products, such as soy oil [12]. The riso printer was specially developed to be a fast and low-cost printing tool for small formats. It is adopted by artists and illustrators, since, in graphic terms, they find in this technique very interesting colors and textures and an ecologically sustainable, practical, accessible, and fast process. The visual possibilities that the risographic printing promotes attracts the creation of aesthetic content [13]. As with screen printing, printing is monochrome and one color is printed at a time, which means that the paper needs a new pass through the machine for each layer of color desired. There are also bicolor printers (allowing the paper to come out with two colors in a single pass). The colors are direct print and as they have transparency, they can be layered on top of each other to obtain other colors. This is one of its most significant features because it does not create a homogeneous solid color patch, but textured patches, guaranteeing an elaborate aesthetic and graphic appearance. Due to the color-by-color printing mode, risography has registration errors, that is, deviations between each color. In addition to the textures obtained from oily ink absorbed by the paper, which give the artworks a handmade appearance, we have the displacements generated by superimpositions [13]. A Riso is not as perfect as an inkjet or laser printer. The final work will look different than it does on the computer. They are not designed for multi-color printing and do not register perfectly, there will always be a little color misalignment. Each print is imperfect and unique in its own way [12]. The cardboard cover was finished with a cut and three creases, later manually folded, with especially long flaps to strengthen the publication and give it a more consistent character. The NAGEL Ring Ri 26/6 staple, also known as the omega staple because of its peculiar appearance. This staple is particularly interesting because it can be inserted into a filing document, thus raising its collectability.

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The wrapper was made from test print sheets. This idea emerged from the desire to take advantage of the printing error and contribute to the sustainability of the presented solution. It allows an address to be written on the external tab in case the object is sent by post.

Fig. 4. Complete closed version of the edition n.° 15 from Wrong Wrong Magazine, displayed in its possible ways.

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Despite initially considering the conventional magazine format, after several brainstorming sessions, the poster format was chosen as it was considered the most suitable, due to its portability, creative freedom, and low cost, thus provoking interest. From this mutation came a portable, light, and collectible magazine-like sample object (Fig. 4).

4 Conclusion All the research and investigation were essential to reach the final result. It was through rigorous and in-depth research that information and knowledge were taken to answer to the initial problem and objectives of this project. The printed publication resulting from this project highlighted the characteristics and particularities, such as: the content − text and photographs; the graphics − size, layout, typography, grids, navigation, and system; the materials and printing − cover, papers, and printing technique; and finally, the details. The printed magazine tries to find a balance between being faithful to the aesthetic content of the online Wrong Wrong Magazine and taking a risk in a new printed format that resembles and enhances the identity of the digital magazine so that the result honours the content, without losing its personality. Among both media the visual perception is always present. Details in print, such as, those that are added through textures, creases, unusual formats and even printing methods capture our attention in distinct ways. All these components, formal and material, contribute in a different way to arouse the senses and interest of readers, enhancing the visual communication and reading experience of digital content in an analogue way. On the other hand, this printed approach also nurtures back in a complementary way to the reading experience of the online magazine content, increasing audiences and interest in this hybrid post-digital era.

References 1. Ambrose, G., Harris, P.: The Layout Book. AVA Publishing, London (2007) 2. Anderson, R.: New book celebrating interactive print design as an antidote to digital overkill. It’s Nice That, 13 June 2012. https://www.itsnicethat.com/articles/viction-ary-han ds-on. Accessed 23 July 2021 3. Assreuy, G.L.: As pertinências do livro impresso na atualidade. Faculdade de Belas Artes da Universidade do Porto, Porto (2020) 4. Caldwell, C., Zappaterra, Y.: Design Editorial: Jornais e revistas/Mídia impressa e digital. Editora Gustavo Gili, Barcelona (2014) 5. Cardoso, C.: A Grelha de Paginação no Design Editorial Impresso. Instituto Politécnico de Tomar, Tomar (2017) 6. Correia, C.: Relatório de Estágio. Escola Superior de Artes e Design – IPL, Leiria (2014) 7. Lourenço, M.: Do papel ao movimento: o cartaz animado em contexto de design de comunicação. Faculdade de Belas-Artes da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa (2018) 8. Lupton, E.: Thinking with Type. Princeton Architectural Press, New York (2004) 9. Moreira, A.: Interação na Comunicação Visual: o exercício do design de comunicação em suportes físicos interativos. Escola Superior de Artes e Design, Matosinhos (2015) 10. Müller-Brockmann, J.: Sistemas de Grelhas. Editorial Gustavo Gili, Barcelona (2012)

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11. Pereira, A.M.: Design Líquido. Faculdade de Belas Artes da Universidade do Porto, Porto (2016) 12. Riso Trip.: Impressão. Riso Trip. https://risotrip.co/Impressao. Accessed 10 Feb 2022 13. Serpa, L.: Risograph – Riso – Risografia. A nova mania das artes gráficas. Gravura Contemporânea. http://gravuracontemporanea.com.br/risograph/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022 14. Valente, A.C.: Contributos do design editorial para o design digital. Faculdade de Belas Artes da Universidade do Porto, Porto (2016) 15. Valente, I.: Design Editorial aplicado a Revistas: Revista Design Gráfico Português. Faculdade de Arquitetura da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa (2017) 16. Wilshere, A.: Grids in Graphic Design: A Quick History, and 5 Amazing Tips. DesignLAB, 22 July 2018. https://trydesignlab.com/blog/grids-ui-ux-graphic-design-quick-history-5-ama zing-tips/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022 17. Wrong Wrong Magazine: Sobre. Wrong Wrong Magazine. http://wrongwrong.net/sobre. Accessed 10 Feb 2022

Vogue Magazine Cover Pages During the Pandemic – The Drama of Illustrations and Fonts: A Semiotic Analysis Surya Bharath(B)

, V. Bhanu Rekha , and K. Gowri

School of Fashion Technology, KCG College of Technology, Anna University, Chennai, India [email protected]

Abstract. Vogue covers reflect the contemporary events, emphasizing the happenings around the globe. The leader of the fashion magazine shows dynamic and diverse patterns of graphic culture and art. We can sense the ensuing prospect of eye catching visuals over the cover pages. Even during this pandemic, Vogue covers have never failed to impress us they are an outburst of cognitive creativity. The text and illustrations are a fresh ray of light to the viewers. The covers are a key element to drag the attention towards the magazine. They have evolved through this pandemic giving rise to a varied range of font styles and art. The impact of the pandemic is reflected through the composition, colour and typography. This paper aims to study and analyse Vogue cover design using the semiotics framework. The paper is studied in terms of relationship with the genre of the cover, the structural parameter and the analysis is done on the production technique and context of use. Keywords: Magazine title design · Vogue cover pages · Editorial design · Semiotics analysis

1 Introduction Vogue is an American monthly fashion and lifestyle magazine with 26 international editions which covers many topics including fashion, beauty, culture and runway displaying diverse patterns of visual culture. The leader of the fashion magazines Vogue is diverse, multilingual and multi-cultural due to its multiple International editions with unique cover pages for each edition. [1] In the history of magazine cover pages, different media are used for advertisement. Before, pencil and paper were the medium to explore art and illustration but in today’s scenario the computer generated graphics play a vital role in creation of an impactful and lively cover pages. The covers are always widely spoken about, due to its enigmatic creativity portrayed throughout the times. The covers are influenced by numerous art movements and socio cultural changes. The changing social and emotional standards are delivered through the covers as they offer first-hand visual experience to its audience. [3] During the 1920s and 30s, illustrated covers were used by Vogue which later started using starlets and supermodels to push social and sartorial © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 124–137, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_10

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envelopes. Last year is a nightmare in the life of Vogue’s history as pandemic caused havoc on the fashion industry. This paper is structured with the scope to understand the core value of the title design in Vogue magazine cover pages by using a semiotic framework. The relation of the cover, letterform treatments and cover production technique will be discussed.

2 Methodology of Title Cover Page Analysis Human cognition analyses and interprets the cover design by correlating it with the background. But semiotics is a framework that helps in understand the signs and the actual relation associated with it. Analysis and study of semiotics help in assessing the meaning behind the signage and crucial construction undergone in creating and signifying it. [6] The Vogue cover titles are analysed separately by semantic, syntactic and pragmatic approach. The study is based on 40 Vogue covers which is selected from various international editions released during the pandemic with unique visual features and inventiveness. This study culminates with the analysis of title design as cover design & layout, letterforms and composition of the title. As shown in Table 1 different variables like stroke, style, shadow, outline and hue are proposed for the study of the letterform structure and also the illustration across the various magazine cover pages. The formal structure of study of the sign which enables us to understand the interrelations and its connectivity with various elements of the design. The study is done on the cover layout, letterform structure and the treatment using syntactic principles to interpret and understand the cover design. Whereas, Semantics involves analysis of connotation formulated by symbols in a system, in which they interact with other elements of the cover design and signs. To understand the cover design and the inter relationship of various elements semantics approach is utilised. Pragmatics is used to compare the cover production technique, display positions and the technology used for the title design display.

3 Syntactic Analysis The overall title design, impact and effectiveness depends on the Cover layout, letterform and decorative elements. Typography and layout analysis of the cover pages are done in this section of the study. 3.1 Cover Layout In the Cover layout the title has be displayed in various positions. Figure 1 shows three possible position of title in the Vogue magazine covers. Out of 40 covers considered for the analysis, 55% of the Vogue cover titles are placed at the bottom whereas 12% are placed at top and 30% in the centre of the cover page and 3% without any title. The title of the cover page has been placed according to the visual hierarchy principles. In the cover pages the position was assigned to the word Vogue whereas the tertiary position was predominantly occupied by the title of the particular edition. The primary position of the cover was occupied by the central focus elements which depicted the theme and the mood of the cover page [2, 3].

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Fig. 1. Cover layout of Vogue magazine

3.2 Letterform The covers theme is portrayed through the individual letters, which acts as basic constituent in construction of the cover design which is well understood by anyone who knows the script of the particular language. But the entire concept and idea behind using the fonts is well understood by thorough analysis of style and illustration in the title design. [4] The interesting results of the analysis is represented in the Table 1. Table 1. Prominent trends in letterform structure in Vogue magazine covers Property

Feature

Number of covers

Style

Bold

28

Thin

12

Texture

Present

3

Absent

37

Outline Shadow

Present

8

Absent

32

Present

11

Absent

29

As the entire covers of the magazine are designed during the pandemic, the impact of the theme can clearly be noticed in the various elements of design and also the structure of the titles. So to add depth and intensity the covers portray a strong colour code with innumerate Effects and titling. Surely, the covers released during the pandemic are exclusive and unique in its own terms. In order to the grab the attention of the viewers the poster artists have brought in glossiness and lively hues [7]. For emphasising on the outlines of the titles darker hues are brought in, adding a tint of shadow as well. Widely, to add more emphasis on titles decorated case letters with shadow are used. In 1950–1980, the perspective view of the title design has been a dominant look in the films produced. 3.3 Use of Decorative Elements Though the covers are designed during the pandemic, they never fail to attract and impress the viewer at first sight. There are two perks of using embellished fonts: Firstly,

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we can use the standard fonts as basic structures. Second, it explores your creativity in creating a graphic design or title using the same typeface. The decorative fonts can be created using bands, borders, textures and typographic illustrations. The decorative elements in fonts are the push to depict the theme and inspiration.It also enables the artist to understand the software better by trying out numerous tools. [7] Fig. 2 some examples of letterform and decorative titles in the Vogue cover page.

Fig. 2. Letterform and decorative titles in the Vogue cover page. A. Bold B. Perspective C. Decorative

4 Pragmatic Analysis of the Titles The connection of the title with the plot and context of the cover is thoroughly analysed in this section. Also the production techniques and technology used for the cover pages are thoroughly studied. The analysis brings out the actual reason why the particular element has turned out to be the way they are by systemic study of the full range of inferences [8]. 4.1 Perpetual and Direct Associations of the Fonts Perpetual associations

Number of Vogue cover pages

Vogue magazine cover reference

Thin

11

1,2,5,12,13,16,21,25,28,32,33

Tall

8

8,9,17,18,24,38

Loose

11

3,4,10,11,20,22,26,31,34,35,36

Thick

10

6,7,14,15,19,23,27,29,30,39

Direct associations

Number of Vogue cover pages

Vogue magazine cover reference

Pleasant

17

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,12,15,17,21,22,27,28,29,30,37

Beauty

14

10,11,13,18,26,25,34,35,36,39,40

Makeup

9

8,16,19,20,23,24,32,33,38

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4.2 Poster Making Techniques From letterpress and linotype to photosetting and offset printing and now the digital printing the printing industry has been through various changes. In this era of advancements the best design can be brought out using the computer graphics to bring alive the sensitivity of an issue of the magazine. For editing the images Adobe Photoshop is best whereas Adobe illustrator and Corel Draw are good alternatives for creating graphics, which creates wonders in terms of the final output. Of the total subscriptions, 3.5% constitute digital subscriptions, as per leading media research reports. It is reported that, there is a decline of print circulation by 1.7%, whereas, the digital subscriptions are at a rise of about 36.7%. [3] The digital publishing of cover pages has better visibility when compared to the conventional forms, owning to its importance with the mission to deliver the best possible [9]. 4.2.1 Manual Art It’s a raw depiction of what the artist feels to deliver to his audience, but always within the framework of the theme an message to be conveyed. The manual art has its own hidden aura, which adds value to the art and the cover pages. An innumerable arts have been protected and preserved for the future to ponder upon, to know its roots. In the Vogue September issue 2020, a fictional scene was illustrated by Kerry James for his Vogue cover of a Black woman, who can be seen in a white evening dress which is off-white toned. He delivers the message that she’s not waiting for the gaze of the Spector’s but she is self- possessed [10]. Which is shown in Fig. 3. In the Vogue September issue 2020, activist and designer Aurora James was illustrated for the Vogue cover page. It depicts her enthusiasm with her Vogue experience, depicting artistic integrity shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3. Vogue cover pages with Manual art

4.2.2 Computer Graphics Imagery The art created with the application of Computer-generated images (CGI) for printed media, computer animation and VFX in films, and videos falls under this category. The Computer Graphics Imagery is used to the 3D Computer graphics for creating characters and used to design the title pages by adding special effects which make the cover page attractive and glossy. CGI allows the designer to bring alive the imagination without causing any hindrance to create it. CGI enables to create 2D or 3D images or videos.

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The virtual cinematography and art is the evolution of CGI, which increased computer speeds and allowed artists to produce professional grade fine arts. [11] For the first time in the history of Vogue magazine covers, a 100% CGI cover pages were used during the May 2020 edition of Taiwan, the most creative and futuristic with the title “Future in Transit”.

Fig. 4. Vogue cover page made with 100% CGI

4.1.3 Digital Manipulation To improve the elegant look and achieve the specific goal digital manipulation is done and also to convert a existing one to the fit for the present it’s done. The digital manipulation of the art or photograph such be done with utmost care, as the element and context of the photograph should not be disturbed. Digital manipulations are for Colour Combustion, Photo Cut-out, Recreation of Historical images, Lighting Effects, and Masking effects. [12] In the Vogue covers published during the pandemic had few digital manipulations to add depth and intensity to it. Vogue Arabia, one of the brand’s international titles, has made unique covers by reimagining some of its supremely stupendous cover pages, including IMAN’S, in which they had made the cover suitable for the current scenario by digitally adding a face mask (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Digital manipulation of Vogue magazine cover page

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5 Contrinution of Artists in the Vogue Covers Semiotic analysis is the study of signs and their meaning relating to the social world and social processes. Vogue covers have presented the various semiotic meanings through the art forms of artists from various parts of the world. let us understand the styles and semiotic symbolisms presented by the various artists.

Vogue Cover: Australia Issue: September 2020 The cover structures an artwork of spiritual healer BettyMuffler by Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara. In the September 2020 issue of Vogue Australia, Betty Muffler’s ‘Ngangkari Ngura’ which means healing country is depicted. Muffler is an aboriginal native of Australia, who is a natural healer and an artist. The free moving rhythmic lines of her art form relaxes the mind and heals. She depicts through her art form that the country will soon heal from the covid pandemic and the only way through is with hope.

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Vogue Greece September 2020 Artwork Dimitris Papaioannou Visual artist and choreographer Dimitris Papaioannou is a Greek experimental theatre stage director who draws the face of hope for Vogue Greece’s September 2020 Issue and claims that “Hope lives in us”. The internationally acclaimed Greek artist believes that if hope had a face, this would not be gender, skin colour or age specific. This face would not resemble any of us, precisely because it resembles all of us together. He has been labelled “a blue-collar worker of the art studio,” “an artist of delicate gestures,” even Greece’s “national artist” 1; he has been described as a visual artist, dancer, performer, choreographer, and director: most of those who have attributed to him his many designations would concur that Dimitris Papaioannou is a man of many faces and an artist of many talent (13).

September 2020 Artwork by Takashi Murakami

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Commercial art and fine art are brilliantly portrayed by Japanese artist Takashi Murakami. Various explicit art illustrated, has given him widespread fame in the tradition of Pop Art and beyond. He is considered as one of the finest artist of contemporary world, for his innovation of art with super flat aesthetics which is a combination of contemporary pop culture of Japan with the classical Japanese art. His art has set bars as cultural barometer for his works in which he has worked in exploring the links between the Japanese manga and traditional printmaking techniques, with imagery and subversive undertones. The cover page in his style renders exaggerated dimensions and cartoonishly proportioned visuals yet powerful and sensitive. It presents the hallucinations of people and adds emotions and liveliness through the art form.

Vogue Russia September 2020 Artwork by Erik Bulatov Erik Bulatov’s arts are colourful, large, with the realistic images of urban settings, and its people, of which the art works are partially concealed by phrases or words. He emphasizes on the aspects of the peoples life and geographical settings, which are reinforced with people’s notion as well as feelings. The cover page artwork by him depicts the clouds and the widespread skies of Russia, with emphasis on hope for the people during the pandemic.

6 Conclusion The study agreements with the title design in the setting of vogue magazine cover pages. The study reveals that the title design is influenced by various factors and structural elements such as syntactic, semantic and pragmatic flavours to the covers. With the use of colours and manipulating letters a symbolic meaning is delivered. The covers published during the pandemic has lots of unique features which were not found during any other period in the history of Vogue. Vogue has benchmarked the bar for magazine

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covers for over a century, depicting the world that fashion is a culmination of culture and not just an art form. It has evolved and extensive use of external typo elements became evident in the covers in recent times. Expressive typography and cover design persuades the user towards the magazine as it creates a sense of interest. The study is just based on a small variable, so it doesn’t generalise any argument. The study reveals that distinction in the structural elements in title design has many semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic influences. 40 Vogue Cover Pages The below table gives the list of various Vogue magazine cover pages considered for the analysis and study of the fonts on the cover pages. These magazine pages are with a serial number, which is as used in the context of the article. 2

1

3

Vogue India September 2020 featuring Norah Jones

British Vogue September 2020 featuring Marcus Rashford and Adwoa Aboah

Vogue Arabia September 2020 featuring Hend Sabri

Photographed by Kat Irlin Styled by Priyanka Kapadia

Photography by Misan Harriman

Photography Ämr Ezzeldinn Styling Yasmine Eissa

5

4

6

Vogue Arabia September 2020 featuring Mila Abouchalbak

Vogue Australia September 2020

Photography Tarek Moukaddem Styling Amine Jreissati

Artwork by Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara spiritual healer #BettyMuffler

Vogue Brazil September 2020 featuring Emilly Nunes Photography Hick Duarte Styling Pedro Sales Beauty Silvio Giorgio

Photography Hick Duarte Styling Pedro Sales Beauty Silvio Giorgio 9

8

7

Vogue Brazil September 2020 featuring Rita Auxiliadora Teixeira

Vogue Czechoslovakia

Vogue China September 2020 featuring Zhang Ziyi Photography Elizaveta Porodina Styling Yuhang Yao

September 2020 featuring Cynthia Nixon Photo: Cameron Postforoosh

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10

12

Vogue Cover: Germany

Vogue Cover: Greece September 2020

Vogue Cover: Hong Kong

Edition: September 2020 features,Nicole Atieno

Artwork Dimitris Papaioannou

Edition: September 2020 features, Sammi Cheng Sau Man Photography Luke Casey

Photography Stefan Heinrichs

14

13

15

Vogue Japan September 2020

Vogue Cover: Italia September 2020 covers Vogue Cover: Italia

Artwork Takashi Murakami Edition: September 2020 features, Saskia de Brauw 17

16

18

Vogue Cover: Korea

Vogue Cover: Mexico

Edition: September 2020 Features, GDragon

Edition: September 2020 Features, Vanessa Romo

Vogue Cover: Mexico

Edition: September 2020 features,

Photography by Mauricio Sierra Artwork by G-Dragon Gee Eun editor

Dominican models Hiandra Martinez and Ambar Cristal Zarzuela Photographyby Renell Medrano 20

19

21

Vogue Cover: Paris

Vogue Cover: Poland

Edition: September 2020 features, Malika Louback

Edition: September 2020 features, Bianka Nwolisa

Vogue Cover: Netherlands

Edition: September 2020 features, Jill Kortleve Photographer by Casper Kofi

Photography by Mikael Jansson Photography by Marcin Kempski

Vogue Magazine Cover Pages During the Pandemic 23

22

135

24

Vogue Cover: Portugal

Vogue Cover: Russia

Edition: September 2020

Edition: September 2020

Art direction by José Santana

Artwork by Erik Bulatov

Vogue Cover: Spain

,

Edition: September 2020 features Dora Postigo Photography Ezra Petronio Styling Elodie David-Touboul

26

25

27

Vogue Cover: Taiwan

Vogue Cover: Thailand

Vogue Cover: Turkey

Edition: September 2020 feature, Chen Hsuan Hsu

Edition: September 2020 features, Nathalie Ducheine

Edition: September 2020 features, Hana Jirickova

Photography by Aekarat Ubonsri Illustration by Terawat Teankaprasith

Photography by Zhong Lin 29

28

Photography by Cihan Öncü 30

Vogue Cover: US

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References https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogue_(magazine)#:~:text=The%20British%20Vogue%2C%20l aunched%20in,there%20are%2026%20international%20editions Deepali, R.S.: Rajasthan impact and relevance of design principles in magazine covers: a content analysis. Amity J. Media Commun. Stud. (2016). ISSN 2231–1033 Shahid, M.: Title design in bollywood film posters: a semiotic analysis. In: International Conference on Research into Design (2015) Pinney, C.: Notes on the epidemiology of allure. In: Blamey, D., D’souza R. (eds.) Living Picture, London, pp. 45–54 (2005) https://www.forbes.com/sites/lelalondon/2020/05/18/these-vogue-coronavirus-covers-may-betheir-most-iconic-yet/?sh=af3048a77896 Chandler, D.: Semiotics the Basics. Routledge, Oxon (2002) https://www.fonts.com/content/learning/fyti/situational-typography/type-as-decoration Duffy, G.: Pragmatic analysis. In: Klotz, A., Prakash, D. (eds.) Qualitative Methods in International Relations. RMS, pp. 168–186. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2008). https://doi.org/10.1057/ 9780230584129_11

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Wang, X.: Does a paper being featured on the cover of a journal guarantee more attention and greater impact? WISE Lab, School of Public Administration & Law, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116085, China https://anneofcarversville.com/fashion/tag/Kerry+James+Marshall#:~:text=Kerry%20James% 20Marshall%20created%20a,m%20not%20here%20for%20you Computer-generated imagery - Wikipedia Jaspreet Singh. https://medium.com/@jaspreet_singh_32313/digital-manipulation-techniquesto-increase-intensity-of-your-photographs-ca19e55ca9f Delikonstantinidou, K.: Non-still life: a mosaic portrait of Dimitris Papaioannou. Gramma J. Theory Crit. 22(2), 217–230 (2014)

Mediations Between Images, Words and Sounds: An Analysis of Graphic Design in the Record Label Orfeu (1966–1983) José Bártolo1,2,3(B) 1 ESAD – Escola Superior de Artes e Design, Matosinhos, Portugal

[email protected]

2 esad—idea, Investigação em Design e Arte, Matosinhos, Portugal 3 FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Matosinhos, Portugal

Abstract. Established in 1956 by Arnaldo Trindade, a businessman from Porto, the record label Orfeu (1956–1983) stood out in the phonographic panorama in Portugal for four decades. The diversity of the phonographic repertoire released, and the visual identity it conveyed, are reflected by different expressions and artistic values, as well as cultural commercial and political, prior to, and following the democratic revolution of April 1974. Placing the phonogram at a crossroads where different axes meet — making; editing; commercialisation; reception and filing —, in this article design and visual culture values are assessed which are associated with the Orfeu label. This article, which is an analysis and interpretation, will develop a research methodology based on the analysis of primary sources (basically made up of Orfeu’s catalogue and all related documentation), as well as secondary (in this case, oral storytelling was valued as a means of overcoming the shortage of work published in the area) and tertiary ones (mainly to do with methodology in interdisciplinary research), placing them in context. This article will contribute to fill a gap in the history of Portuguese design, as far as vinyl record covers are concerned, along with its designers, photographers and, in a broader sense, intersemiotic translations between expressive culture and visual culture in Portugal over the second half of the 20th century. Keywords: Orfeu records · Record covers · History of graphic design

1 Introduction: Aim, Structure, and Method Created in 1956 and relevantly in business until the early 1980s, the activity of the Orfeu label from the company Arnaldo Trindade & Ca., Lda. spans over four decades of contemporary Portuguese history, and the breath of its collections and sub-labels reflect different cultural, artistic, commercial, and political expressions. So far, Portuguese design history has not paid proper attention to phonographic edition as an object of analysis. This absence is that much more significant in the sense that the phonogram enables a broad historical understanding as it leads us to triangulate © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 138–154, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_11

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interactions between industry, design, and society. From this perspective Orfeu – Arnaldo Trindade Lda. constitutes a particularly stimulating case study. Our understanding of design history identifies a critical and interpretative task based on the analysis of primary sources (basically made up of Orfeu’s catalogue and all related documentation), as well as secondary (oral storytelling being valued as a means of overcoming the shortage of work published in the area) and tertiary ones (mainly to do with methodology in interdisciplinary research), all placed in context. Values of a given time are modelled, in terms of their identity or as a reaction, in connection with value systems in design production. Our analysis perspective may well be centred, and our research methodology may well be suitable; however, a historical understanding of design will be more fitted to a certain balance between approach and withdrawal, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, a thorough look as opposed to a panoramic view. Furthermore, a certain harmony between focusing on processes and the artifact arising from them; between the outline, as defined by research, valuing design as an object of study, and various circumstances which are characteristic of their horizon of context, be they economical, technological, cultural, or political. This article aims to consider a plane intersecting different axes, with an eye for the phonogram: making, editing, commercialization, reception, and filing. The disciplinary look of critical history will be interwoven with that of cultural studies — by articulating material, visual, and expressive cultures — and ethnomusicology (Stobart 2008; BeasterJone 2014). The goal is to build a territorial outline for the study on which the work is conducted from the area of media studies, in the sense that it is particularly motivating to analyse the phonogram as medium and to make a subject of the intermediations taking place between visual, verbal, and sound regimes. The concept of musicking (Small 1998), put forward by Christopher Small, directs our attention towards processes of meaning on each occasion operating on and from music. Small is interested in significant social forms, among which he names “performing”, “listening”, “rehearsing”, and “composing”. It seems pertinent to add “designing” to those four (Gronstad and Vâgnes 2010). Moreover, it is deemed important to clarify that, beyond this focus on the field of musicking, there are dimensions both upstream and downstream to it, demanding our attention. They concern that which, for lack of means, we can associate with systems of cultural, economic, and political value in contemporary capitalism. This article is guided by this definition. It was decided that its organisation would consist in sectioning a timeline defined by the time period in which Orfeu was in operation. This way four sessions are created: In the Beginning Was the Word (1956–1959); Songs of the Passing Wind (1960–1967); Voices from the Revolution (1968–1975); Between Venus and Mars (1976–1985).

2 In the Beginning was the Word (1956–1959) The period of time, covering roughly a decade, from the end of World War II to the year when the record label Orfeu was created, in 1956, is complex in its characterisation, and, in it, new strength relations are noticeable between processes of continuity and processes of change, as well as a reconfiguration of national foreign policy and of the

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way the Allied Nations, victorious in the armed conflict, began considering our country. Along with that of Spain, the totalitarian, fascist regime of Oliveira de Salazar keeps Portugal isolated and politically out of step, following the collapse of dictatorial regimes in Italy and Germany. A change which was impossible to overlook, and that had to be dealt with politically. The new geostrategic order emerging from the Post-War was neoliberal and it defined new guidelines. A new international policy, based on a reformist economic vision whose principles of free market, encouraging industrialisation and building alliances across borders, lead to the creation of supranational authorities to regulate production and trade, which would originate the consecutive creation of OEEC (1948), ECSC (1951), EEC (1957), and EFTA (1959). Portugal was among the founding countries of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation, created on April the 16th of 1948. Its goal was economic cooperation between European countries following the Marshall Plan and the Conference of Sixteen, and in the wake of the Second World War. In the late 1950s, Portugal was to be the only non-industrialised country to join EFTA. This forced the country’s government to put into practice liberal customs policies, although special clauses were created for tariff dismantling, which paved the way for developing industrial areas deemed emerging (Brito 1989; Lains 2013). New Portuguese design starts to configurate in the early 1950s (Bártolo 2016, 2018; Baltazar 2015; Almeida 2015). The new economic context was generating fresh possibilities allowing for new businesses to be created or that existing ones, traditional in character, be restructured, by means of investments made in the field of design. In 1956 television test broadcasting began in Portugal, and the Portuguese Radio and Television [Rádio Televisão Portuguesa, RTP] was created. Its design and scenography departments were to be run by Octávio Clérigo, which would change the outlook of Portuguese media. However, in 1958, when it was hoped that there would be a shift towards democracy with the presidential election, and with a candidate opposing the regime (Humberto Delgado), the Portuguese press was pretty much the same in terms of its functioning, tied as it was to censorship (Ribeiro 2005). In the 1960s, the relocation of the Rádio Clube Português (RCP) studios from Parede to Lisbon brings about profound changes in the station’s outlook. In 1963, RCP introduced continuous 24-h broadcasting on its Parede transmitter and self-run programming on its FM network. Radio in Portugal, up until then, interrupted all broadcasting between three and six in the morning. The RCP was a forerunner in that it recognised a changing society, with various activities that operated all night long (from hospitals to continuous production industries, from transport services to customs officials). From this innovation, two consequences arise as more striking: in the field of information, under the guidance of Luís Filipe Costa, Rádio Clube Português introduces hourly, objective and concise news programmes, based on telegrams coming from news agencies; in the dissemination of music, the introduction of evening and late-night programmes should be mentioned. Evening programmes, such as Meia-Noite, hosted by António Miguel and Armando Marques Ferreira, and Sintonia 63, hosted by António Miguel and Fernando Curado Ribeiro, explore new broadcast formats — with the introduction of “requested records” by listeners — and take advantage of the night time slot,

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less controlled by censors, to widen their musical selection with greater irreverence than allowed to Artur Agostinho in the morning programme Onda do Optimismo, and in Duarte Ferreira’s Alta Fidelidade. RCP’s programme schedule now also included the Momento para os Jovens, a programme dedicated to new music, and which was to pave the way for Em Órbita, which would start broadcasting in April 1965. Up until 1956 practice in the field of music (from educational structures to the media) had been strictly controlled by the regime, by means of its organizations, from the middle of that decade onwards circumstances changed. The societal reconfiguration of the country, which we have briefly described, was significantly accelerated in that same year — when Arnaldo Trindade founded the Orfeu record label —, owing to the fact that RTP began broadcasting, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation settled in Portugal, and a greater variety of music schools were established in different major cities. These new circumstances proved a stimulus for underground zones, dissonant when compared with dominant traditional musical creation, as was the case of Hot Clube de Portugal, founded in 1948 by Luís Villas-Boas, legalised in 1950, and which would become a venue for cultural irreverence bringing together as it did personalities from fields as the visual arts, literature, architecture, music and dance. Alongside the Hot Club, both in Lisbon and in Porto, new spots were being created which became staples in cities’ nightlife, thus enabling the spread of new musical genres, while functioning as heterotopic places for democratic resistance. During the post-war period, the phonographic industry underwent a profound evolution. In 1948 Columbia Records introduced the first 331 /3 rpm microgroove long-playing phonograph. The following year, RCA Victor introduced the 7-in. (18 cm) microgroove vinyl phonograph at 45 revolutions per minute. Throughout the beginning of the 1950s these two new formats gradually replaced the 78 rpm records. From one to the other, in a short period of time, different changes were introduced, from their manufacture (with shellac being replaced by vinyl production), to the recording system and reproduction equipment. In particular, singles and the 7-in. EPs (extended plays) produced in vinyl made manufacturing more economical and standardised. Vinyl was made by pressing shellac, a natural resin of animal origin, imported from India, although from the late 1920s onwards, Bakelite and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) records were produced. The production of PVC, through the reaction of acetylene with hydrogen chloride, started industrially in 1921 by the Griesheim-Elektron company, and its industrial production in Portugal developed from 1960 with the creation of the CIRES company [Industrial Company of Synthetic Resins (Companhia Industrial de Resinas Sintéticas)], which also ensured the import of natural resins for record manufacturers. This technological evolution, matching a period of development and diversification in the market, as well as in consumption trends, naturally made it inevitable for the phonogram to be questioned as a commodity, with subsequent changes in the way design packaging was valued. As a matter of fact, the phonographic industry, within popular culture, had been a relevant force since the 1920s, but in the late 1930s the practice of personalising covers had not yet emerged. The phonograms were sold inside standard envelopes made of thin paper, which were limited to a protective function for these

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heavy shellac records. The title was identified through the circular cutout that allowed the record company’s seal to be visible (Losa 2014). In the 1920s, it became more frequent for envelopes to have printed advertising content associated with the phonographic industry not specific to the phonogram they enveloped. It was only in 1938 that a record company, Columbia Records, hired a graphic designer, Alex Steinweiss, to take on the art direction of their releases. The first record factory working in Portugal was founded by José Cândido Silva and Manuel Lopes Cruz. In 1947 the Fábrica Portuguesa de Discos da Rádio Triunfo was founded, with its headquarters in São Mamede de Infesta, Matosinhos. At the beginning they produced 78 rpm records, but in the late 1940s they started producing 45 and 33 rpm records. Arnaldo Trindade was 22 years old when he started the record label Orfeu. He was no stranger to the phonographic edition, as his father had created a label that published Polydor records in Portugal. In taking over the management of the family business, a household appliance shop which, as was common at the time, also sold vinyl records, Arnaldo Trindade would invest on a consignment with the firm of Ricardo Lemos, the most important representative of international record labels and musical equipment existing in Porto. He would resume his project of launching his own label. If the name of the record label, homonymous with that of the modernist magazine directed by Fernando Pessoa and Mário de Sá-Carneiro, evokes a similar cultural purpose, the early stages of the catalogue will not be a match to it. The first releases were light music. The first phonographic record, recorded at Teatro de S. João, was a set by German accordionist based in Porto Heinz Worner, followed by recordings by Walter Behrend and his ensemble, and by Los Paraguyaos. The visual identity of the first Orfeu releases was the work of painter Moreira Azevedo. For the cover of the EP Conjunto Heinz Worner (ATEP 600 1958), Moreira Azevedo created a minimal artwork, in a very expressive line, with a drawing of the keys conveying the idea of movement, in a composition where it is noticeable that there is an influence of the cover of the 10” Frankie Carle – At the Piano (Columbia Records, C 23 1946) designed by Alex Steinweiss. In other covers, such as those by Digno Garcia/Quarteto Paraguayo (ATEP 6006) or the beautiful Francisco Serrano/Conjunto Walter Behrend (ATEP 6007) Moreira Azevedo explored a more abstract illustrative language, exploring geometric elements and a remarkable integration of calligraphy within the composition. This graphic record, aligned with a contemporary style, would contribute to building a visual identity for Orfeu which was quite distinct from that which characterized records released by Valentim de Carvalho, Sassetti, Alvorada, Rádio Triunfo and other minor labels active in the late 1950s (Figs. 1, 2). With the evolution and diversification of the Orfeu catalogue, it would soon become apparent that the publishing of light had more to do with a commercial side of the label than to Arnaldo Trindade’s initial drive. When he decided to create a record label, his ambition was clearly to register great figures of literature reading their own texts. When he was 20 or somewhat older, he managed to convince writer Miguel Torga to record a reading of his texts. Orfeu was born with Torga and two other authors associated with the magazine Presença: José Régio and Alberto Serpa.

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Fig. 1. Anda Comigo. Heinz Worner e o Seu Conjunto com Tito Godinho. ATEP 6000. EP. Litografia Nacional. s.d. Cover designed by Moreira Azevedo.

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Fig. 2. Antologia da Poesia Portuguesa. Jayme Valverde. AT- 508. LP. s.d. Cover designed by Moreira Azevedo.

The design of the phonograms devoted to poets and prose writers would cement the collaboration with Moreira Azevedo. Much the same as the book covers authored by the main illustrators and designers of the period, Moreira Azevedo’s record covers convey by means of drawing an authorial synthesis of the work published. Miguel Torga por Miguel Torga [Miguel Torga by Miguel Torga] (Orfeu AT 504 1959) printed in Tipografia Ideal, the first piece in the Antologia da Poesia Portuguesa [Anthology of Portuguese Poetry] catalogue presents a brightly coloured cover, with a refined representation, made in gouache, portraying the mountain landscape of São Martinho da Anta. Over the decade when, at long last, stand-alone record covers became widespread, taking over the old envelopes, Orfeu was aligned with a certain international avantgarde, with its 10-in. records presented in 26-cm packages, and 12-in. records in 31-cm packages. In addition to the protective function, the covers now possessed the added function of visual communication, thus creating a new graphic artifact that would play a leading role in the decades to come. Besides the influence of Steinweiss, Azevedo’s covers can be compared to the most notable album covers released in Brazil during the 1950s, namely Di Cavalcanti’s cover for the phonographic edition by Noel Rosa (Discos Continental 1955) and the extraordinary cover by Raymundo Nogueira for Músicas de [Songs by] performed by Orfeu da Conceição (Odeon 1956). In 1959, Orfeu — Arnaldo Trindade & Ca., Lda. releases the edition/catalogue Orfeu — Antologia da Poesia Portuguesa [Anthology of Portuguese Poetry] composed and printed at Tipografia Empresa Guedes, bringing together biographies of Miguel Torga, José Régio and Alberto Serpa by Alberto Uva, with drawings cover and artwork by Moreira Azevedo. For the first time in Portugal (and it was then rare in Europe and the United States), and already under the name Orfeu, the majority of great Portuguese poets record works phonographically. Their own voice and the sense of their own spoken interpretation reading their poems go beyond biological time, reaching some other dimension. By exploring the possibilities of limited editions, Arnaldo Trindade would diversify the label’s catalogue in the first two years of the 1960s, releasing, among others, Pequenos

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Cantores da Imaculada, Rancho Coral de Serpa, Rancho Regional de Aves, Rancho Támar da Nazaré and Grupo Folclórico Poveiro, handing the covers over to visual artists Isolino Vaz and Teófilo Rego. This way, Orfeu made its phonographic editions at the early stage of the folklore catalogue singularly oscillate between the popular culture of its sound and the erudite culture that was a feature in the design of its covers.

3 Songs of the Passing Wind (1960–1967) In addition to publishing poets and prose writers, Orfeu would gradually diversify its musical catalogue from the early 1960s onwards. In fact, as mentioned before, the first Orfeu album is a recording by Conjunto [Ensemble] Heinz Wormer, which, along with Walter Behrend, Francisco Serrano, and Digno Garcia y Los Paraguayos, was to associate the label with the rhythms of light music, jazz, and Latin music. At about the same time, came the Radertz editions, which set off the phonographic edition of Portuguese poetry, while marking the beginning of the edition of popular and folk music in the country. In 1961, although only 5 years had passed since Orfeu was in business, the national socio-spatial reality had changed. The Portuguese empire, one of the ideological pillars of the Estado Novo, showed signs of crisis, with the surge of African liberation movements. Mass emigration — which the ease of international transport increasingly led to rapidly growing emigration communities in Venezuela, the United States or South Africa — and the need for international alliances resulting from either the new geostrategic order, or the colonial war –, force Salazar’s regime to a faltering process of modernisation. During this decade and the following one, the rural peasantry capitalized, with a significant abandonment of rural areas. Internal migration turns the country’s energies significantly towards coastal areas, which simultaneously causes the desertification of inland areas and the population growth of greater Lisbon and greater Porto. For a number of reasons — to do with the ongoing urbanisation, industrialisation, tertiarisation and emigration processes — new fringes of the national population envisaged a real possibility of changing their lives (Bandeira 1996). In this changing context, challenges facing a label such as Orfeu, as well as its horizon of possibility, had also been renewed, in significant ways, in this short period of 5 years. Not only was the vinyl record a medium within a reconfiguration of the media system, but the broad scope from manufacturing to publishing, from consumption to diffusion, never ceased to take on new characterisations. As a response to the creation of Fábrica Portuguesa de Discos da Rádio Triunfo, based in the northern Portugal, and the Fábrica de Discos Ibéria, based in Vila Franca de Xira, Valentim de Carvalho opened its record factory in 1956. These three companies alone ruled the entire vertical chain of phonographic production in Portugal. They controlled everything from making and producing media to the reproduction of records, as well as typography and lithography, storage, and retail trade. In the early 1960s, Valentim de Carvalho dominated the national market with its own production and modern repertoire, while Rádio Triunfo, its main competitor, had a traditional catalogue quite abundant in folk music, fado and the so-called nacional-cançonetismo [a national(istic) singing style], inseparable from the forms of political instrumentalisation of music employed by the Estado Novo.

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Graphic design in record covers would prove to be an important element in the path of cultural legitimacy and publicity for an independent label, still in its early stages, and perceived as having no more than a regional appeal. The covers of the first 7” — Anda Comigo, Heinz Worner and his ensemble (ATEP 6000); Mas sou Fadista, Heinz Worner (ATEP 6001) — had Moreira Azevedo’s artwork in them. From the edition of Era um Bikini Pequenino às Bolinhas Amarelas by Pedroso Osório and his band (ATEP 6012. Single), a significant commercial hit, design of record covers was the work of Fernando Aroso. Although, in the early 1960s, there was an artistic collaboration between Isolino Vaz, Teófilo Rego, António Portugal, and, in some cases, design for the covers was done by the printing company that produced them, Marânus, the truth is that Aroso’s collaboration was prolific and with his work a new visual identity — or identities — for Orfeu was defined throughout this decade. Much like Orfeu, several phonographic labels had emerged in the 1950s, motivated by the possibilities of microgroove records, by the market growth and by micro-socialization processes that established new consumption trends. On book and magazine covers, and, in line with the same trend, on record covers, photography is expanding its role in the graphic languages dealt with. In the United States of America, S. Neil Fujita’s covers for CBS Records in the late 1950s and 1960s already marked a transition from the illustrative language of Steinweiss, creating a visual exploration quite lean, which results in extraordinary covers such as The Well-Tempered Clavier by JS Bach (Decca 1953) with design by Erik Nitsche, Hard Drive by Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers (Bethlehem 1957) with design by Tom Hannan or Tone Poems of Color by Frank Sinatra with a beautiful cover by Saul Bass. Exploring typography and using either figurative illustration or a more geometric abstract artwork and collage, Fujita’s covers convey, above all, a graphic rhythm with a particular sense of elegance, and visually quite clean. Within the Portuguese market, Nuno Calvet’s cover for The Fabulous Marceneiro by Alfredo Marceneiro (Columbia/Valentim de Carvalho 1961) is a good example of his alignment with international trends and of his expressive use of photography and modern typefaces using capital letters. Fernando Aroso had created his own design and photography studio in 1959 and the following year he began his collaboration with Orfeu, performing the cover for the Quarteto Paraguayo. Although he had worked with other record labels (Vadeca, Fénix, Alvorada and Clave) it was with Arnaldo Trindade that he would maintain a more lasting and fruitful professional connection that took on an indelible expression during the 1960s. Aroso’s main achievement was to build a graphic record capable of defining an identity dimension to the various catalogues that Orfeu released during this decade. Among his covers, those with a more modern expression, which he authored then, explored highcontrast black and white photography. The cover of Joaquim Pimentel’s Mulheres há muitas (ATEP 6155) highlights Aroso’s photographic quality, but also his typographic sensitivity. The best covers from this period explore this visual grammar, which we find in Confissão, by Fernanda Gonçalves and José Augusto (ATEP 6069), and in Saga Warum (ATEP 6039) with Raul Manuel’s face portrayed in a photo cut out against a black background. At the same time, Aroso will masterfully explore an ethnographic approach, in idyllic photographs, in pastel shades, for example for Assis Jones or for

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Regresso, by Virgílio Cervantes (ATEP 6132). In these, as in other covers similar to them, the human figure appears in a rural environment. They are female figures, with working clothes, recorded from the back, who seem to exhibit a certain frailty in the face of the strength of the landscape. Unlike covers for Rádio Popular or Alvorada releases, in which folk phonograms had covers predominantly dealt with by means of photography of the folk group or by a denoting cultural reference, Aroso records an environment, a landscape, a sort of indication of an ethnographic wandering. Alongside these two, a third and decisive lexicon is created by Fernando Aroso for Orfeu. They are studio photographs, deeply staged, scenic, in which humour, at times of a surreal nature, tends to break out. The covers of 7 e Pico 8 e Coisa 9 e Tal (ATEP 6080) and O Carrapito da D. Aurora, both for the António Mafra Ensemble (ATEP 6100) exemplify this well. Towards the end of the decade, Aroso’s work became quite different from what was characteristic of the early 1960s. His technical knowledge of the photographic process was to lead him to explore photomontage and take on greater freedom in typographic experimentation, creating effects whose visuals seem to anticipate digitally manipulated work, as can be seen on the cover of Fado Tristão by Tristão da Silva (ATEP 6244) (Figs. 3, 4).

Fig. 3. Fados por Tristão da Silva. Tristão da Fig. 4. O Carrapito da D. Aurora. Conjunto Silva. ATEP 6122. EP. s.d. Cover designed by António Mafra. ATEP 6100. EP. s.d. Cover Fernando Aroso. designed by Fernando Aroso.

Instinctively realizing what the new Portuguese socio-spatial reality was like, Arnaldo Trindade made a few crucial decisions that would make the transition to the following decade and which were reflected in the company’s management model, in the diversity of its catalogue and also in the visual identity of its covers. With Portuguese emigrant communities growing sharply, Arnaldo Trindade chooses Conjunto António Mafra to go on a tour (the first of any Portuguese musical group) in the USA in 1963, in which the businessman, after selling out all the records taken to sell among Portuguese emigrants, manages to record them, in the RCA studio, in New York City. The “market for the saudade” emerged both from the flow of people returning from what were then the Portuguese colonies in Africa, from the movements of internal migration, and, above all, emigration. This market would give rise to a significant number of phonographic editions, which began in the 1960s and which would gain more expression

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in the early years of the following one. Proof of that can be found in the phonograms Adeus, Moçambique, by Orlando Henrique (ATEP 6111), Saudades de Portugal, by Various Artists (XYZ-147), and Cantar do Emigrante, by Adriano Correia de Oliveira (ATEP 6400 1971).

4 Voices from the Revolution (1968–1975) In this time of change, in which a revolution could be foreseen, but when not too much faith was put in it, an incessant eruption of events, within the country as abroad, brought about changes to everyday life. Within the cultural context, music and music studies will assume particular importance. In 1959, the Saber Collection, from the publishing house Publicações Europa-América, published João de Freitas Branco’s História da Música Portuguesa [History of Portuguese Music]. Even if this was not a historiography opposing the ideals of the regime, the work of Freitas Branco, owing to its systematization, for what it highlighted, but also for what it did omit, would contribute to solidifying a relevant historical and theoretical basis. Since the 1940s, Fernando Lopes-Graça had been opposing “folk counterfeiting” in favour of “authentic folklore”, by valuing instances of field research already carried out (namely, the work of Rodney Gallop) and denouncing the instrumentalisation of folklore as a commodity at the service of ideological interests of the Estado Novo. Lopes-Graça was undoubtedly right, although it is fair to stress how important it was that Armando Leça was commissioned by António Ferro to conduct a sound documentation of traditional Portuguese music. This was done as part of the Commemorations of the Double Centenary of the Foundation and the Restoration of the Independence of Portugal, and it would allow for the first record releases to come out in 1956, notably the ten phonograms (33 rpm) from the Folk Music of Portugal collection published by the BBC [LP/BBC 1956 1–10]. While it is doubtful whether we can speak of protest songs and political intervention any time before 1968, it must be recognised that certain heterotopic spaces have always resisted. In the first three decades of the 20th century, fado of a social nature had developed, also known as proletarian or libertarian fado, which conveyed new ideas. In its lyrics, themes such as poverty, hunger, precarious employment, and hope for a better future are in evidence (Nery 2012). The Alentejo song, too, translated in a less submissive way, the harshness of daily toil and the dignity of the workers who sang it. The expression of a politicized music is in the Canções Regionais Portuguesas and Canções Heróicas [Portuguese Regional Songs and Heroic Songs] collected by Fernando Lopes-Graça in the repertoire of the Grupo Dramático Lisbonense Choir, which he had created under the auspices of the Movimento de Unidade Democrática [Movement of Democratic Unity] in 1949. In the 1950s and 1960s, ethnomusicology emerged in Portugal, in the wake of pioneering studies from Armando Leça, Artur Santos and Rodney Gallop. This was especially due to new possibilities created by the Comissão de Etnomusicologia do Serviço de Música da Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian [Ethnomusicology Commission of the Music Service of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation], created in 1958 and directed by Madalena Perdigão, and, in 1964, with the creation of IAC’s Centro de Estudos de Etnomusicologia [Ethnomusicology Study Centre]. In 1960, Michel Giacometti created the

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Arquivos Sonoros Portugueses [Portuguese Sound Archives], for the preservation and dissemination of the phonographic collections he developed. Then, until 1970, he prepared the Antologia da Música Regional Portuguesa [Anthology of Portuguese Regional Music]. This pioneering work would be publicized on television, from the beginning of the 1970s onwards, in the series of programmes Povo que Canta produced and broadcast by RTP. In Coimbra, the canção ligeira [“light song”] was being renewed, which created a new compositional structure for the balada [ballad] and fado in Coimbra. Adriano Correia de Oliveira, one of the authors of Orfeu, played a central role in this effort for a new musical creation inseparable from political activism. In 1963, the same year in which the musical, literary and political movement Movimento Nuevo Cancioneiro began in Argentina, Orfeu ensured the phonographic edition of the EP Trova do Vento, which was written by Adriano Correia de Oliveira (Orfeu, ATEP 6097), which in a certain way is a threshold for the process of musical renewal with affinities to Nuevo Cancioneiro. The two homonymous albums by Adriano Correia de Oliveira, launched by Orfeu, in 1964 and 1967, are the crossroads between the poetry of Reinaldo Ferreira, Manuel Alegre, Urbano Tavares Rodrigues, Borges Coelho and Fiama Hasse Pais Brandão, among others, and the music of José Afonso, Luís Cília, António Portugal and Rui Pato, simultaneously with Adriano’s own compositions and popular and traditional themes. After his stretch in the military service, Adriano Correia de Oliveira settled in Lisbon (1968) and, one year later, resorting once more to the poems of political exile Manuel Alegre, he came up with O Canto e as Armas (STAT 003), an album which would prove decisive in the history of contemporary Portuguese popular music, heralding the winds of a new change: the transition from a brief phase of “protest song”, direct heir to the most pronounced critical-interventive qualities of the balada [“ballad”], to the so-called “nova canção portuguesa” [“new Portuguese song”]. O Canto e as Armas opens with actor Rui Mendes saying: “And suddenly a bell”. Thereafter, any interruption is prohibited. The cover, designed by José Bagulho, bears a photograph of a popular manifestation, the title is arranged in a powerful handcrafted lettering, in red, evoking graffiti graphics. The echoes of May 1968 are well present in an album that, in the Portuguese context, has an equivalent relevance to the homonymous album by Chilean intervention singer Victor Jara released in 1966 by Arena (Figs. 5, 6). Adriano will play the leading role in bringing this “new Portuguese song” to the heart of Orfeu. At the turn of the 1960s, Arnaldo Trindade managed to bring together in his label some of the most important interpreters of Portuguese music — from what Arnaldo Trindade will call Música de Tema [Theme Music] — with an emphasis on José Afonso, but also Adriano Correia de Oliveira, Fausto, Vitorino, Júlio Pereira, Paulo de Carvalho, José Cid or Sérgio Godinho. To this end, much was due to the publisher’s courage in confronting prior censorship, the seizure of records by PIDE and the lack of commercial return from some artists. The publisher’s contractual system, in relation to many of the artists, was equally original and unprecedented. The general rule was to establish a monthly fee for the artists (without prejudice to other complementary pay in royalties and copyright), who had in return the right to the annual recording of an LP. The label’s growth in the late 1960s was largely due to its commercial management — a clear focus on marketing and catalogue handling; organization of events, of which

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Fig. 5. O Canto e as Armas. Adriano Correia Fig. 6. Cantaremos. Adriano Correia de de Oliveira. STAT 003. LP. 1969. Cover Oliveira. STAT 007. LP. 1970. Cover designed designed by J. Bugalho. by J. Bugalho.

the Convenção Internacional do Disco [International Record Convention] promoted in Ofir, in 1969, is the greatest example —, but also of the artistic direction which, following the opening in Lisbon, on Rua da Alegria, of a branch for the label, will feature a team in which José Niza, Carlos Cruz and José Calvário stand out. The turn of the 1960s is marked by the phonographic release of some of the most important albums from that period, signaling a significant exploration of new sounds within pop, rock, and folk music. The albums Epopeia da Filarmónica Fraude (Philips 1969) are a good example of this, with incredible artwork by Lídia Martinez on the cover, Quarteto 1111, by Quarteto 1111 (Columbia/Valentim de Carvalho 1970), with a cover affiliated with psychedelics, designed by Rui Coelho Dias, Blackground, by Duo Ouro Negro (EMI/Valentim de Carvalho 1971) and, perhaps above all, Cantigas do Maio, by José Afonso (Orfeu, STAT 009 1971), and Palavras Ditas, by Mário Viegas (Orfeu 1972). For these two releases designer José Santa-Bárbara was invited to provide artwork. The graphic work for Palavras Ditas, akin to the movement of visual and concrete poetry, exploring different types of letters, handled different weights, in a vibrant typographic composition, which is particularly remarkable. Although some of the best covers from this period are by José Santa-Bárbara — such as Cantares do Andarilho (Orfeu 1968), Traz Outro Amigo Também (Orfeu 1970) and Venham Mais Cinco (Orfeu 1973) — a reference must be made to the cover of Baladas, by Adriano Correia de Oliveira (XZ 138, Orpheus 1973). Fernando Aroso’s photograph would have nothing remarkable to it — this is a photograph of a girl (Aroso’s daughter), with her back to the camera, who is playing by the sea on the beach at Leça da Palmeira — if it weren’t for one of the rocks in the picture, where an inscription can be seen: “Make Love not War”. The Rock and Roll boom required the phonographic industry to stabilise formal lexicons that could be able to respond to commercial and standardized production needs. In the early 1960s, there was a sudden change in national and continental publishing

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and commercialization models, which was due to a globalisation generated by the socalled “British Invasion” of 1962, the year when The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Animals, and other British bands broke into the North American and Asian markets. In the national context, and specifically in Porto — where Armando Alves was the most outstanding graphic designer —, Fernando Aroso remained a central author in defining the visual identity of Orfeu, but the modernisation of the visual discourse was taking place, under the influence of Carlos Cruz, through the inclusion of new artistic collaborations and a particular attention to graphic production and media dissemination, in the press and radio, and, immediately, on public television. If the International Record Convention (Ofir 1969) and the commitment to participating in the Festival RTP da Canção are notable aspects in the editorial and commercial strategy of Orfeu in the years leading to the 1970s, they are far from being the only ones. Arnaldo Trindade was clearly aware of this change and made an effort to control the vertical plane of phonographic editing: from manufacturing (which would lead Arnaldo Trindade and José Serafim to acquire the Fábrica de Discos Rádio Triunfo in 1979) to distribution (with the renovation of appliance stores, redesigning the corners where records are available and opening a branch on Rua da Alegria, in Lisbon), reproduction (with a strong commitment to the sale of portable record players at low prices, ensuring a democratisation of access to vinyl), and from editing and design, to media dissemination. In a context in which the media space was reconfigured and the major television event was the Festival RTP da Canção, Arnaldo Trindade decided seriously to invest in participating in this event, having won, at the first attempt, in 1972, with A Festa da Vida, and, again, in 1974 with E Depois do Adeus. Not for nothing, on the night of April 25, 1974, the song performed by Paulo de Carvalho will be, along with José Afonso’s Grândola, Vila Morena — both of them Orfeu songs — the secret passwords for the revolution and the crack in the system towards democracy, a process which the label had long and tenaciously interiorised.

5 Conclusion: Between Venus and Mars (1976–1983) In Portugal the first four years in the 1970s saw contradictory signs of modernisation in the economy, as in the world of culture, and in terms of politics and governing. These, however, ran side by side with persistent atavism, and only slight signs of opening, as repression remained as violent as before. The opening of the Primavera Marcelista [Spring of Marcelo Caetano] at the end of the previous decade had left cracks in a regime that sought to regain tight control. But external circumstances and the various fronts of conflict were creating an increasingly precarious political situation. Especially as far as the young are concerned, urban or suburban, the regime no longer has effective control. Ideological biased institutions, like Mocidade Portuguesa [Portuguese Youth], are now deemed anachronistic and obsolete state apparatuses. In 1971, the first Festival Internacional de Jazz de Cascais [Cascais International Jazz Festival] took place, where Miles Davis, Ornette Coleman, or Thelonious Monk performed. That same year in Vilar de Mouros its famous music festival became an opportunity to come up with an event inspired by the Woodstock experience.

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In the early hours of April, the 25th , 1974, the Movimento das Forças Armadas [Armed Forces Movement] unleashed a military revolution, putting an end to the longest dictatorial regime in 20th century European history. The last days of April successively witness the proclamation of the Junta de Salvação Nacional [National Salvation Junta] led by António de Spínola, the release of political prisoners and the return from exile of socialist and communist leaders, such as Mário Soares and Álvaro Cunhal, but, equally from a series of intellectuals, artists, musicians and professionals in the music industry, such as composer, producer and interpreter José Mário Branco. Songs functioned as weapons and would continue to do so after April the 25th . The Carnation Revolution took place at a time when Fausto was recording a new album, produced by Adriano Correia de Oliveira. It would be called Pró Que Der e Vier (ed. Orfeu 1974), and the excellent cover photograph by Luís Martins and P. Almeida would help make it iconic. In the years leading to the shift towards democracy, the phonographic industry in Portugal had had a significant development throughout the 1960s and 70s, but the only multinational to operate in Portugal before 1974 was Philips. The first phonogram edited by Orfeu after the Revolution was entitled A Força das Palavras [The Strength of Words], and it brought together songs by interpreters associated with what was then called canto livre [free singing], and who had contractually bound with the label: Adriano Correia de Oliveira, José Afonso, Francisco Fanhais, Mário Viegas and Samuel. The illustration on the cover of A Força das Palavras represents the two elements that most prominently mark post-revolutionary iconography: the G3 machine gun and the red carnation. In the wake of the ongoing Revolutionary Period (Telo 2008), Arnaldo Trindade would tend to take an apolitical stand, emphasizing above all the cultural scope of the label and its attention to different sound registers, from folk songs to progressive rock. However, it must be recognised that in the post-1974 period, the Orfeu catalog held a remarkable set of phonograms, in particular collective albums, which show a strong presence of intervention music within the label. Good examples of this are the album Somos Livres, with the participation of Conjunto Movimento and Avante, Camarada, a phonogram that brings together songs, among others, by José Afonso and Adriano Correia de Oliveira, and also versions of the theme Avante Camarada by Luís Cília, and A Internacional, by Pierre Degeyter. After April, the 25th , the vast nationalisation of productive and business sectors, associated with the end of exports to Africa and the arrival in Portugal of 650.000 Portuguese from the former African colonies, leaves the country in a state of economic asphyxia, which would only be overcome with the arrival of European support after the integration into the EEC – European Economic Community –, in January 1986. On the other hand, the revolution brought about the opportunity for greater democratic intervention by artists and designers, while politicising discourses and ideologically mobilising practices and languages. If, inevitably, the political instability and conflict during the period between 1974 and 1976 brought new difficulties on the normal functioning of the phonographic industry, it should also be noted that in this period several phonograms were released that exemplify the new possibilities of democratic publishing. Moreover, the activity of new revolutionary labels (in particular releases from Avante and Vozes da Luta) and the exploration of

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new sounds, as well demonstrate the following: Pr’o Que Der e Vier by Fausto (Orfeu 1974), Canções Heróicas/Canções Regionais Portuguesas by the Choir of the Academia de Amadores de Música, directed by Fernando Lopes-Graça (A Voz do Dono/Valentim de Carvalho 1974). Such projects were guided towards the same direction: “Festive, provocative and utopically you dialogued with all citizens” [“Festivo, provocatório e utopicamente dialogaste com todos os cidadãos”]. In addition to the previously mentioned phonograms, a highlight should be given to Coro dos Tribunais (STAT 026, Orpheus 1974), whose remarkable cover and back cover illustrations were by José Brandão. It was, perhaps, the most perfect transposition of José Brandão’s dreamlike universe into a commercial work and one of the most iconic graphic works of the time. Made in 1974, this work exemplifies a more personal production that, at that time, Brandão combined with the projects he was developing at Imperial Group, where he had the opportunity to test languages and resources (infographic, use of photography, new typographic experiments). José Brandão would also be responsible for some of the best album covers made in Portugal in the following years. In 1977 he designed the beautiful cover of Madrugada dos Trapeiros, by Fausto, released in 1977, and including what remains one of this musician’s greatest hits: “Rosalinda”, a beautiful ecological manifesto. It is also a record with a deep political charge, but in which it is already possible to glimpse the author’s new aesthetic concerns, namely in the systematic use of traditional elements that, undeniably, coexisted within Orfeu. In the late 1970s, Brandão also drew, among others, the covers of Histórias de Viageiros (STAT 093, Orfeu 1979), and the extraordinary Melro, by Janita Salomé (FPAT 6008, Orfeu 1980), and Por Este Rio Acima (Triângulo 1982), its artwork inspired by the work of Milton Glaser, in what is one of the most notable Portuguese record covers of all times. Along with José Brandão, another designer, with a fruitful collaboration with Orfeu, stands out, the aforementioned José de Santa-Bárbara. His covers prior to 1974 are excellent — Cantares do Andarilho (Orfeu 1968), Traz Outro Amigo Também (Orfeu 1970), Venham Mais Cinco (Orfeu 1973) —, and they remain in the second half of the decade, with emphasis on Com as Minhas Tamanquinhas, by José Afonso (Orfeu 1976). Among the most interesting covers of Orfeu’s phonograms from that period, the covers by Judite Cília for Pretextos para Dizer, by Mário Viegas (STAT 066, Orfeu 1978), deserve mention, as do the amusing comic strip by the Porto illustrator Miranda for 25 de Abril – “Confidencial”, by Mena Matos (STAT 022, Orfeu), Filipe de Melo for Música Nova, by José Calvário (STAT 008), and Renato Cruz for Semear Salsa ao Reguinho, by Vitorino (STAT 031), Manuel Vieira for Caridadezinha, by José Barata Moura (SB 1157) and the series designed by Fernando Aroso for the 3-volume Pianora, by Miguel Graça Moura. These examples make it possible, by sampling, to account for the diversity of artistic collaborations and visual expressions that the Orfeu catalogue displayed at the time. The emerging British Rock scene, kicked off by the hits of Lonnie Donegan and The Shadows, in the 1950s, would explode internationally with the rise of The Beatles (1960), Rolling Stones (1962), Animals (1962), Yardbirds (1962), and Kinks (1964). Orfeu followed this trend, releasing Os Titãs, Conjunto José Nóvoa Ensemble, Conjunto Sousa Pinto, Blusões Negros, and, from 1968 onwards, Pop Five Music Incorporated.

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The cover of the LP Faces is one of Fernando Aroso’s last great works, which by then had been collaborating with Orfeu for three decades. The photographic portrait on the cover, in a positive/negative game, is of his daughter. Having proved a reasonable commercial success, Faces was published at a time when Orfeu was being restructured. The years immediately after the Revolution of 1974 had forced a few changes. From 1976 onwards, with the departure of Carlos Cruz for RTP, as programme director, the election of José Niza as a Member of Parliament and the departure of José Calvário to Switzerland, Orfeu experienced a period of evident artistic indefiniteness, which was reflected, equally, in a progressive weakening of the quality of its design. In 1978, 10 000 Anos Depois Entre Vénus e Marte was released, a progressive rock concept album reflecting dominant concerns in the context of the Cold War and speculating about space travel after the destruction of planet Earth. Isabel Nabo conceived and illustrated the cover of an essential album in the history of Portuguese contemporary music. At the end of the 1970s, with the emergence of the new Portuguese rock, Arte & Ofício emerged, among others, from Porto, such as Rui Veloso, who released, in 1979, the important Faces (STAT 085, Orfeu 1979), which predated by one year the iconic album Ar de Rock, by Rui Veloso e a Banda Sonora (Valentim de Carvalho 1980), a landmark in Portuguese pop-rock music. The boom of Portuguese Rock in the early 1980s and the significant commercial success of records by Portuguese rock bands singing in Portuguese, paved the way for a significant number of new bands. These Orfeu was no longer able to attract, notably among them Táxi — Polydor band —, Jáfu’mega — Metro-Som and Polydor —, Trabalhadores do Comércio — Polydor —, and UHF — which in 1982 exchanged Valentim de Carvalho for Orfeu —, and GNR — EMI/Valentim de Carvalho. In addition to this, the creation of new labels wound up being encouraged, even if most of them were short-lived. Notwithstanding a deterioration of its musical catalogue, the 1980s still allowed Orfeu to have some phonographic releases of indisputable interest. Whether coming back to the “spoken word” (Arnaldo Trindade’s keen interest), with the last of the albums that Mário Viegas was to make under the label, Humores (1980), or in the exploration of electronic music, with emphasis on Dez Propostas para Teclados, by Miguel Graça Moura (STAT 019), just as very relevant is the release aligned with the renovation in interest for the Portuguese guitar, represented by the two albums by Pedro Caldeira Cabral, Encontros (1982) and A Guitarra Portuguesa nos salões do séc. XVIII (1983). After Rádio Triunfo was acquired, in 1979, the company Movieplay Portuguesa acquired the entire catalogue of “Arnaldo Trindade & Companhia, Lda.” in 1983, the Rádio Triunfo and Orfeu labels having definitively been abandoned in 1985. The adventure started by Arnaldo Trindade came to an end almost thirty years after its beginning. His legacy remains, a remarkable kaleidoscope through which three decades of contemporary Portugal can be examined, and the curves that weave, in filigree, offer mediations between sounds, words and images, that are to be dismantled and analysed.

References Stobart, H.: The New (Ethno) Musicologies, Lanham, MD: Scarecrow (2008) Beaster-Jones, J.: Beyond musical exceptionalism: music, value, and ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology 58(2), 334–340 (2014)

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Small, C.: Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening, Wesleyan University Press (1998) Gronstad, A., Vâgnes, B. (eds.): Coverscaping: Discovery Album Aesthetics. Museum Tusculum Press, University of Copenhagen (2010) Brito, J.M.: A Industrialização Portuguesa no Pós-Guerra (1948–1965). O Condicionamento Industrial. Publicações Dom Quixote, Lisboa (1989) Lains, P.: Os Progressos do Atraso. Uma Nova História Económica de Portugal. Imprensa de Ciências Sociais, Lisboa (2003) Bártolo, J.: A tradition of departure. Graphic design, typography and illustration in Portugal—a view of recent work. In: Slanted, Portugal, no. 27, pp. 206–213, Slanted Publishers, Karlsruhe (2016) Bártolo, J.: Motorizadas Portuguesas—Design e Circunstância 1957–1974. In: Barbosa, E. (ed.). Motos de Portugal, pp. 22–32. ESAD, Matosinhos (2018) Baltazar, M.J.: Design Português 1940–1959. In: Bártolo, J. (ed.). Design Português 1940/1959, pp. 12–53. Verso da História, Vila do Conde (2015) Almeida, V.: Design Português 1950–1969. In: Bártolo, J. (ed.). Design Português 1940/1959, pp. 12–52. Verso da História, Vila do Conde (2015) Ribeiro, N.: A Emissora Nacional nos Primeiros Anos do Estado Novo. Quimera, Lisboa (2005) Losa, L.: Machinas Falantes. Tinta da China, Lisboa (2014) Bandeira, M.: Demografia e Modernidade. Família e Transição Demográfica em Portugal. Imprensa Nacional-casa da Moeda, Lisboa (1996) Nery, R.V.: A History of Portuguese Fado. Imprnsa Nacional-casa da Moeda, Lisboa (2012) Telo, A.J.: História Contemporãnea de Portugal. Do 25 de Abril à Actualidade. Editorial Presença, Lisboa (2008)

The Montage, Time and Presence Kenneth Feinstein(B) Sunway University, o. 5, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected]

Abstract. In this paper we will be looking at how our understanding of time has changed from the classic period to today. We will see how memory and presence have transformed our understanding and experience of time. From there we see how the incorporation of presence into media was developed through montage. This will lead to a discussion of how presence brings us into relation with otherness through the montage aesthetic. Finally, we conclude discussing montage as an aesthetic has developed as a leading artist practice which either engage with presence and otherness. Keywords: Montage · Media aesthetics · Memory and time · Media ethics presence · Henri Bergson · Vilém Flusser · Emmanuel Lévinas

1 Introduction In our present moment we are living our lives mediated by various forms of timebased images. Looking out the window of my home I can see large advertising screens, smaller roadside screens, buildings with facades of generative patterns and images. This not counting temporary projection mapping, various moving images or interactive installations found in public spaces or even on transport. As we live in a world where we are engaging with moving images, we need to address how they change our world, the nature of how we interact with them and how this changes our understandings of presence and meaning. This highly mediated world brings forward our relationship of media to memory culturally and personally. Images, sounds, texts and their storage systems are fundamental to how we keep and transmit memory and information. Of course, this is not unique to the digital world. We can see beginning with the first cave paintings. As we will see later techniques and technologies for preserving memory have been with us since the first person. The development of spoken language into text and later printing transformed how we understood the world through the creation of conceptual thinking [1] and preserving that knowledge in a portable form. With the text, memory and thought was able to be transported across space and time. With the development of what Vilém Flusser calls the technical image how we relate to memory, meaning and the world undergoes yet another transformation [1]. With technical images how common people were able to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 155–165, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_12

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store memory through media developed. With reproducible images the ability to create or alter images for personal meaning and memory was possible. Significantly this first occurs with the development of amateur photography. While it was possible to have diaries as a repository of memory before photography, literacy was not common enough for it to have an impact beyond an elite until the mid-19th century. With the invention of the camera and especially after the introduction of the Kodak camera, images could be created whose significance was personal rather than aesthetic. Highly conventionalized images were created to commemorate the relationship of the participants to the experience of being-with each other rather than the just making an aesthetic image. The combining of personal images with images from print into albums became a new way of creating personal narrative as well as making it possible to transmit this narrative to others [2]. Starting with amateur photography and the photo album we see technology being deeply embedded in how we remember. Moving forward from that, other forms of sound and image recording/transmission had aspects of both memory and presence. The telephone allowed remote present through conversation; the phonograph preserves a moment in time as an experience. From this we should be able to recognize that we live in technology and not beside it. Technology is part of our evolutionary process and is fundamental to our being-inthe-world [3, 4]. From that we need to understand that as we develop our technology, we changed how we see and experience the world. New technologies bring with them new philosophical questions about how understand ourselves, relate to each other and the world. [5]. In this paper I will lay out how the development of technical images has changed how we relate to time, memory, each other and the technology itself. How this change has become one of placing us into the world through experience as a being-with-otherness (presence) instead of experiencing the world as a series of symbols to lead us to a transcendent removal from the world. We will look at how the cutting up and splicing of images (montage) has allowed us to experience time outside to the linear and how this becomes the experiential, our conscious being-in-the-world. From there we look at how the experiential image brings us into a direct relation with the world as an interaction with otherness. As our interactions with media images become more experiential and less semiotic, they place us in the world of presence. That our being-with-the-other defines the ethical relationship we have with others and images and that it is based on imminence. The understanding of this relation with imminence should help define how we understand and develop our media moving forward.

2 The Reinvention of Time and Memory Through Montage 2.1 The Changing View of Time. Let is first look at how the idea of memory has developed and transformed in the West. From the ancient Greeks to modern times memory has been tied to the art of rhetoric. As Francis Yates states, “it was as a part of the art of rhetoric that the art of memory travelled down through the European tradition” [6]. Early forms of memory systems such as memory palaces were developed for oration. It should be noted that memory palaces are a mnemonic system based on visual memory. Parts of texts or other items

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are remembered in relation to the place in which it is stored. Later this was developed into in the Renaissance into theater where the physical theater was designed so that it could function as a memory palace for the actors on stage. This is notably remembered in the design of the Globe Theater by Robert Fludd [6]. In these forms memory is seen as utilitarian, it is a means to an end. Information was recorded and placed in a specific place, a particular page in a particular book. It was not intended to enhance our personal lives as much as find a way to make a difficult task, remembering an epic poem or delivering a speech manageable. An idea of memory as we know it today, as part of what makes up an identity, a sense of self, had not been created yet. This would start to begin in the Renaissance with Ramon Llull and a hermetic aspect of memory. What remains from the ancients is the importance of the image and place. What is not present in mnemonic or even hermetic forms of memory is a relationship to time. If memory is just the art of recollection, be it used for oration of alchemical knowledge, it still does engage with an idea of past or present. The importance of recall lessened with the printing press because physical objects were created that functioned in a similar way to mnemonic memory. Mnemonic memory operates in a constant present while time is not meaningful to memory. Using the past as a way of making sense of the present is not seen as relevant, yet. If memory only functions as a way of having something at hand, then a past as experience is not useful. In essence time is just way of explaining progression of cause and effect. It is used to explain before and after but has no meaning beyond that. With the development of the technical image, the photograph, telephone, etc., distance and time become something that can be understood as having a tangibility bringing the past into to the present. In Camera Lucida, Roland Barthes talks about looking at the images of people who died long before he was born, specifically mentioning Jerome Bonaparte (Napoleon’s youngest brother) and Lewis Payne (a conspirator in the murder of Abraham Lincoln) [7]. That we can view them with a sense of presence, seeing what we know to be their actual faces and not representations, gives a feeling of reality to the presence of the past in the act of seeing. A sense of imminence is created in the act of looking at the photograph. It places us in a present by the fact that it brings the past to us. With the technical ability to record time as a frozen moment or as movement through time, the relationship of meaning to the image and the image to us transformed. As we move away from time as just purely a linear experience, as exemplified in historical writing, time allows for events, moments which fall out of the flow of cause and effect, as well as opening up meaning to be created by the juxtaposition of events to each other. 2.2 Past Present and the Modern View or Time It is with the work of Henri Bergson, that we move into a more modern idea of memory and self. He shows how memory works with perception enabling us to navigate through the world in the present time. For him the present contains the past as an active part of consciousness. Starting with Matter and Memory, Bergson defines matter as images in movement and separates the image from representation. Perception is the taking in of images that are affective, allowing us to navigate through the world [8]. Images are imminent while representation and semiotic meaning is only ascribed to some images as a secondary phase. Semiotic meaning is only useful in as much as it can be used to

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reflect on present action. We see this begin with the late 19th century novel. The internal monologue became important to the text. Memory as a form of perspective became a central feature. The idea of affectivity being determined by memory drives characters like Emma Bovary, K. in The Castle or the narrator of In Search of Lost Time. Here the reader is placed in the image of the world as seen by the protagonist. Memory takes on an active role in determining the actions of the protagonist, where in the classic world memory was only a tool for recollection. This form of memory as personal perspective develops after the invention of photography and other forms of temporal recording and transmitting devices are created. The idea of the image as a temporal artifact of an individual memory can be seen in the amateur photographic image. The amateur photograph is intended to capture a moment of our being-with others and preserve it in the image. It creates an artifact that contains memory by capturing presence. As we move from writing to technical images, we see that memory is moving away from linear experience into a new form of time, memory and experience. Regarding the relationship of writing to time, Flusser says the text place us in a linear relationship to time which he calls an historical consciousness. “It created a world of cause and effect in which the past causes an anticipated future. Those who use texts to understand the world, those who ‘conceive’ it, mean a world with a linear structure. Everything in such a world follows from something, time flows irreversibly from the past toward the future, each instant lost is lost forever, and there is no repetition” [9]. The present is just a moment in this flow from past to future. The linear flow of the text becomes the flow of time for us in such a world. The past and the future are linked through the present, but it plays a minor role in time. This has several implications. Flusser refers to the origin of texts as a way to understand the world by the use of concepts. It is through texts that we create concepts. With conceptual thinking a transcendental idea of the world is established [10]. What we are seeing or doing is only meaningful in relation to how it expresses a transcendental truth. Inside historical consciousness events are understood as signifiers of that truth. This places us in a position where we our actions are in service of a Truth beyond us. We are present in the actions of our life, but they are in service of a transcendental truth. We are present in history, but its forces are more important than we are. This linear world assumes an ever evolving progression. We are moving forward in a trajectory towards the future. We try to define what this future will through our actions in the past. The greatest disruption to time would be to disrupt the flow of time. The first places where we see this disruption is in photography and cinema. Across the two volumes of Cinema, Deleuze uses film as a way of explaining how we understand the world in this new way. He is maps out how the changes in the cinematic image from movement-image to time-image to demonstrate how our perception of the world has developed from the 19th century to the present [5]. Perception as our understanding of the world through time transforms from time as images in movement into time as image. For Deleuze central to cinema is the montage. In the montage we find the coming together of desperate images create a new whole. In the montage we are allowed to combine images from different times together. Montages assume a flow of affection, that the elements have an interplay with each other that creates new meaning or action by

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their mutual relationship. This new relationship is one that revolves around the creating a new presence in and through the image.

3 Encountering the World Through Presence Being present means that one is present in relationship to something other than the self. Presence is presence with. Bergson’s idea of the image being a combination of memory and presence to cause affectation places us in the world with others [8]. Where the classical view of time and self, culminated the Cartesian idea of the separation of the mind form the physical world, the Bergsonian view places the physical world squarely in its center. To have affection there must be an object even if it the self. This is why he defines matter as images that have affection. In this view we are defined through our interactions with other images (people and objects). There is a conversational nature to how we experience the world in this formulation. When he speaks of the interval between sensation and conscious reaction, he opens a space for not only memory to be affective, but also gives more value for the input making it more equal in the process. For him sensation can equally be feeling heat on your hand or a conversation with another person. Although he does make a distinction between reactive and conscious thought. We are only concerned with the latter. The importance of the idea of the interval was developed further in relation to literature and the arts by Maurice Blanchot. In The Space of Literature, talks about how the work of art is first an object that we encounter as an unfolding, an experience that we enter into, and only secondly a container of meaning. He says that when encounter the work we come to it with our experiences, and it comes to us with its. It is through entering the interval or void that we are able experience and come to understand the work. We experience the work as its own present, as the event. It is other than the flow of time, but rather something we experience as presence [11]. We experience the work as a coming together, a being-with, of ourselves and the work. Presence is created because the relationship between us and the object is one of encounter. It is a dialogic relationship of I-You as defined by Martin Buber. For Buber we are defined through our relationship with the other (You) as a way of being present in the world. The I-You relationship is about presence as much as the I-It is about creating meaning. In the I-You relationship action is found in the relationality of the interval. This is where we find ourselves present in imminence, where the elements of presence; being, memory and otherness come together. Form this we can create knowledge and semiotic meaning later.

4 How Montage Changes How Experience Time and Presence With the development of the montage the relationship of the image to time changed profoundly. As stated above, the montage is the joining together of two elements where a new meaning is created different from the individual parts. In cinema we understand this through classic continuity editing. Where different shots are put together to create a unified scene taking place in a unified space. The shot reverse shot where we watch two people having a conversation from each person’s point of view as good example of this. Cinematic montage can also the joining together of images from different locations or

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times [5]. It is only with cinema that we find different times, flashback, parallel action or flashforwards, occurring in a single work. Memory and anticipation become active within an unfolding work. But the term montage has also been used to refer to images made up of combinations of other images to create new works. This was first found in the works of the Dadaists and the Surrealists and later became a common form. We are using the term montage to distinguish it from earlier forms of collage where the intention was to use the parts to create a realistic whole. Collages are made by creating parts intended to make up a precomposed whole. Henry Peach Robinson’s Fading Away (1858) is an example of this type of collage. By contrast montage creates meaning through the juxtaposition of diverse elements which create a new meaning separate from the meanings of the original works [12]. The photomontages of Hannah Höch, John Heartfield, the site-specific projections of Shimon Attie and the multiscreen works of Isaac Julian are examples of montage. The montage aesthetic is one where the diverse elements remain readable in the final work. The incongruity of the elements may be enough for a new reading although in many cases the viewer is expected to recognize the origins of the differing elements [12]. In such works we are aware that a new event is being created by the work, one that takes from diverse times and places putting them into relation to create new meaning. Each element brings with it its own memory, its meaning from a previous place and time, and it comes into relationship with the other elements in a way where a new image is created while still referring to the original images. Montage as a technique uses memory, either cultural or personal, as a driving force in creating meaning. Where traditional images expected the viewer to be aware of the narrative depicted, the juxtaposition found in the montage demands that the viewer to be an active participant in the creation of meaning. The act of encountering the work and actively creating meaning from its whole and elements brings the viewer into relationship with the work in a form of presence. Within the montage is the concept of Bergsonian memory, one that causes and is caused by affection. Just as the elements of the work are drawn into a relationship with each other so are we as viewers. The work is conversational in form expecting us to bring our own experience (memory) to the work for us to dialog with it. We are no longer just expected to be present before a work that re-presents a familiar narrative to us, rather we are expected to be in relation to a work that demands that we bring as much meaning to the interaction as it does. In this way montage becomes a mode of developing works which are affective on a viewer in time. Becoming images containing the modern meaning of time. This new form is based on our being present and in dialog with the work. With the development of imaging and sound devices our relationship to information has profoundly transformed. Where reading gave us a level of distance from a work, now we enter a relationship with the medium that is conversational and playful. We are not extracting information from an object so much as interacting with this object in order to create information. The device that allows this relationship is what Flusser calls an apparatus. Explaining what is an apparatus and how it is different from tools and machines, Flusser says that it is run by a set of rules and that we enter into a relationship of play with it [1]. This idea of play as the interplay between an apparatus and the users within a set of rules (a game) is what we now call interaction. Further he says that the point of a game is to find all the possible combinations within the set of rules. To be able

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to exhaust the possible combinations of moves within a game means that the game must have a memory. Action happens only in regard to what has happened before and what possibilities it presents. Thus, the memory of actions is affective to both the player and the apparatus, making the relationship between the two dialogic. Flusser in later works more explicitly defines the apparatus as a device of dialog [13]. We should see that as the apparatus as well as the user of it are in dialog that dialog is embedded in presence. It is a moment of joining together that is defined by interaction, memory and affection. Flusser’s idea of play is about how this dialog brings about events that could not have happened except by creating this relationship of interaction. As we look at how works have developed since the first apparatus, the camera, we see that we enter into a relationship with and through the technology used. This is possible because this technology is temporal, spatial, dialogic and incorporates the memory of its own play and that of the user. The montage aesthetic is different form the remix in that the remix is one person transforming another’s work while maintaining the identity of the original. In some cases, the remix can seem to have nothing to do with the original, yet it still needs to identify with it. While the remix can seem to be about being in dialog with the original work in the end it is about one person putting their stamp on another’s work. This is a relationship that appears to be dialogic while reenforcing the individual artist outside of dialog. The montage by contrast demands that one is in a sense of dialog with others, with the technology or with the viewer. It engages in a relationship with otherness. The montage aesthetic is found in the technology that we use and how it is developed, while the remix maintains the Romantic view of the artist as genius. As such the montage is a method of placing us in the world.

5 From Facing the Other to Being-In-The-World In the I-You relationship we find that it is the being-with that is engaged. It is not centered on functionality or the creating of wealth, that is the I-It relationship. For Buber these definitions are important. The classical Cartesian idea of I-You and I-It operate on the assumption that I, as being, is an independent individual separated from the world. It assumes that the individual enters into relation with the world reluctantly. That by doing so one’s will is compromised. For Buber it is precisely the I-You relationship which places us into the world. We are activated by interaction and made real through it. As much as Bergson’s memory, this brings time into Being. From this we come to understand our relationship in the world as one towards world. By this I mean one where we are defined and activated by our being in the world. We exist not in a hostile world bent on altering our will at every turn, but one where our self as Being and its will is defined by our relationship to the world. That Being not only does it come before and remain after us, as Heidegger says, but we exist because of Being’s relationship to otherness and owe it a debt and responsibility. This is what Emanuel Lévinas tells us in his ontology [14]. Taking Heidegger’s idea of Being as one in time, he states that we find ourselves as first and foremost being-in-the-world as an imminence. Our consciousness is not thought separate from the world but actively part of the world. “To think is no longer to contemplate, but to be engaged, merged with

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what we think, launched-the dramatic event of being-in-the-world” [14]. From there he states that the ethics which frames us as human comes from this presence. That as beings-in the-world we owe our existence to the other as that which is before and after us. We exist because of the other and therefore owe it an obligation or debt. Our coming from the other means that being-in-the-world is always relational. It is not just that we owe it a debt, but that we are obliged to act in relation to and for the Other. We do this by facing the other as itself. We see the other as it is and not by turning it into a symbol of a transcendental ideal, what he calls thematizing the subject. Coming face-to-face with the other means that we encounter it in its reality. We face it as presence, if we are to find a meaning that will happen later after the encounter. It places the interaction with the other as first and foremost as an ethical encounter. By this he means that the ethical springs from this encounter and the obligation it entails. He sees the ethical as primary to the social structures that follow from it. The alterity of the other demands a caring for the other as expressed in the face-to-face encounter as presence. From this comes both civilization and the personal development of the self. Both being intertwined through presence. Where Lévinas posits this relationship only to human encounters subsequent theorists have seen that this is also true for non-human encounters with animals and even technology. We see this in Donna Haraway’s Cyborg Manifesto and the work of the Object-Oriented Ontology movement. This facing the other is central to how we develop and use media. When McLuhan talks about high and low-definition media, he is talking about the difference between a media that opens up a relationship to otherness, like the telephone or text messaging, and that which speaks at us taking turning us into thematized objects [12]. As we develop more and different apparatuses, we are creating relationships with technological objects that enact a being-with and a being-in-the-world. The engagement with the other as presence is one of dialog and as such it is one where meaning is developed through the coming together of the diverse elements as individual and in combination. This is the montage aesthetic.

6 Meaning Through the Montage: Experience and Memory as Tools of Knowledge The montage could only come into being after the development of temporal media. The movement from the detached observer into the experiential was marked by developing media that valorized presence. Previous forms of image making presented a completed world one that existed wholly within the frame [1]. As such we as viewers were excluded from its presence. Our relationship to the image/sound changes once it is mediated by technology and presence becomes central to the experience. How we encounter the work becomes important in a way that becomes more intimate. Stiegler talks refers to the way that we encounter a work in time as retention. It expresses how we relate to media as a presence. Primary retention is the initial encountering of a work in time, the unfolding of a piece of music of film. It is how we experience it as we would with another person [15]. It is the face-to-face of encountering something that cannot be reduced to a message [16]. But very interestingly secondary retention, as

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it is the reexperiencing of the work, carries with it memory. In both cases we are experiencing a work as an unfolding. We are entering into a relationship to it as it develops, but in different ways. Primary retention allows for an encounter with the work as stated by Blanchot where we are confronting the interval between, the work and the viewer/reader within the encounter [11]. Secondary retention is one where our past retention becomes a third party to this encounter. Where we can say that the primary is intimate the secondary opens the encounter to other forms of meaning [15]. It allows a space for learned knowledge to play more of a role in deriving a meaning to the work. This is because we have already taken away not only a memory of the original encounter, but we have also had time away from the work to thematize the experience into usable knowledge. We place ourselves into the position of the one experiencing the work, the one observing the experience and the one remembering the original experience. Finally, tertiary retention has to do with the systems that allow for retention to occur. This speaks to how the technology we develop allows presenting and preserving works. We can see the tertiary as the systems of presentation as McLuhan does or with Stiegler we can be more critical in understanding the forces that develop them. Not assuming an inevitability to how our technology is but recognizing that it develops by our actions and choices. Our uses of the technology are affected by how we react to and live with primary and secondary retention as well as the market forces of late capitalism. The direction that our technology takes is found in how we develop these systems from these forces. We also see from the development of the montage that new unforeseen ways of seeing and being, can come out of our technology despite what is intended. In the end, the montage aesthetic is one where elements of secondary retention are merged into an object that is experienced as primary retention. It takes being-in-the-world and tries to allow actionable knowledge to be embedded within the work without reducing the encounter with the Other to only a theme. Because montage works as an encounter of diverse elements that forms a new entity distinct on its own, but still conscious of each element’s history, it bares within its own encounter with Otherness. We find this with classic photomontage such as the work of Hannah Höch or Paul Kennard, but we also see how with the creation of installation works by artists like Shimon Attie, Olafur Eliasson or the media interventions of Ubermorgan. These are artists that incorporate the space of exhibition, be it physical or virtual, as an element in the montage. Bringing the work’s being-in-the-world directly into to the montage. In the work of media artists like Ubermorgen, or installation artists such as Eliasson, we continue to see how this montage aesthetic is still central to the practice. This idea of creating an Otherness through and in the work that brings the work and the viewer into an experience based on presence is still active. These artists create works put us into a space where we are engaging consciously in the world and juxtaposing events and experiences within the world. Our dialog is about the world as opposed to creating an alternative reality, as we tend to find in theme part entertainment or in some immersive media. For Ubermorgan the media landscape becomes a space of experience. They use elements from the media, security cameras, infomercials, etc. as fodder for collages. A work like Tortureclassics uses images from infomercials, music videos and news footage to create video a commentary on enhanced interrogation through the form of an

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American infomercial selling CDs of music collections used in Abu Graib prison. This was accompanied by a performance re-enacting the same torture done at the Gyeonggi Creation Center in Daebudo South Korea, the site of a former Japanese prison during World War Two. Here the montage aesthetic is utilized in both the video work, bringing diverse elements together into a piece of social commentary and the performance which uses the language of performance art, images from Abu Graib as well as the history of the site as a place of torture to create a work of duration and experience. We can see how our relationship to the elements of the video, performance and physical space are centered on a relationship of the three levels of retention. How the cultural and individual memories are intertwined with a consciousness of the methodologies of presentation. It is through this engagement with the work that our relationship to Otherness, by being in dialog with the media object makes the work complete. We engage with the work as an unfolding experience which presents its content as an argument for us to take up. This relationship of memory and technology, meaning and dialog is the reimagining of the montage aesthetic in contemporary culture. It shows how it has changed and adapted to new technology while still maintaining its central core.

7 Conclusion From this we can see that as an aesthetic montage can be found to have influence beyond just the photomontage or film, but in how we experience multiple images in art installation, projection mapping, augmented reality and by using multiple screens with our computers. The montage aesthetic and its relationship to facing otherness has become an active part of our daily lives. It has become an expression of how we live in a world of being-with-the-other. As a form, the montage is the coming together of diverse images and/or sounds to form a new whole. It is constituted by a form of dialog within the elements that make it up and is understood as an expression of both the new image and the memory of its parts. The meaning found in the montage is found through the interaction of the viewer to the work, which brings the viewer into a relationship with the montage as an Other. We need to understand how this montage aesthetic is embedded within all apparatuses, especially digital technology. And how this being-with is central to its function. From this understanding we can develop practices artist and communicative which either engage with this in a positive way or try to take advantage of it for other ends.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

Flusser, V.: Towards a Philosophy of Photography. Reaktion, London (2000) Feinstein, K.: The Image That Doesn’t Want to be Seen. Atropos Press, New York (2010) Stiegler, B.: Technics and time (Stanford University Press, 1998) (1998) Lem, S., Zylinska, J.: Summa Technologiae. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis (2013) 5. Deleuze, G.: Cinema. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis (1986) 6. Yates, F.A.: The Art of Memory. Routledge, London (1999) 7. Barthes, R.: Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Hill and Wang, New York (1981)

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8. Bergson, H., Paul, N.M., Palmer, W.S.: Matter and memory, G. Allen & Co., The Macmillan Co., London (1912) 9. Flusser, V., Ströhl, A.: Writings. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis (2002) 10. Flusser, V., Mathews, A.: The Shape of Things: A Philosophy of Design, 1st English edn. Reaktion, London (1999) 11. Blanchot, M.: The Space of Literature. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln (1982) 12. Feinstein, K.: An unheimlich media: bringing the uncanny into the world. In: Kurosu, M. (ed.) Human-Computer Interaction. Theory, Methods and Tools. HCII 2021. LNCS, vol. 12762, pp. 220–229. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78462-1_16 13. Flusser, V.M.: Into the Universe of Technical Images. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis (2011) 14. Lévinas, E.: Entre Nous: On Thinking-of-the-other. Columbia University Press, New York (1998) 15. Stiegler, B.: The Neganthropocene. Open Humanities Press, London (2018) 16. Lévinas, E.: Time and the other and Additional Essays. Duquesne University Press, Pittsburg (1987)

TIMOS a Modular Speculation Ângelo Gonçalves1 and Vítor Quelhas1,2(B) 1 School of Media Arts and Design, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal

{9160079,vquelhas}@esmad.ipp.pt 2 ID+ Research Institute for Design, Media and Culture/uniMAD, Porto, Portugal

Abstract. The growing interest in letterpress demonstrates that there is still unknown or lost information. Regarding modular sets of type, little is known about their origins, characteristics, and methods of use. This study aims to design a modular set of type and, additionally, to validate the developed project through a workshop. Methodologically, this article was divided into two main phases. Firstly, through case study analyses, modular sets of type were analysed and evaluated. Secondly, a prototype of a modular set of type was built and evaluated, using mixed methodologies to provide a better understanding of the research study object. To evaluate the final prototype, a workshop and a survey were developed, validating the perception and attitudes towards the developed modular set. The sample consisted of six design students from the School of Media Arts and Design, Polythecnic Institute of Porto, in Portugal. Data analysis was performed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results reveal that the modular design applied to traditional typography stimulates the handling of type. It was found that the prototype developed allows expanding and consolidating knowledge around letterpress and modularity, as well as processes and uses. These results contribute not only to the evolution of graphic design education and the profession, but also to increase the knowledge and recognition of modular type design, as well as letterpress by specialists and the general public. Keywords: Modular type design · Letterpress · Modular set · Prototype

1 Introduction Letterpress has been, recently, a topic of increasing national and international interest [2]. More and more researchers and scholars who are passionate about letters or associated with type industry are interested in the shapes of characters. However, research on modular sets of type is still limited. This study seeks to highlight the understanding of modular sets of type by relating them to contemporary type production. These result from the mixture of several years of collective, social, technological, and economic history, combining the passion, readability, experience, and pathways of their creators. Thus, this project also contributes to the discovery of this information, revealing actors and identifying modular sets of type, building a narrative that is still little explored. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 166–177, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_13

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This investigation seeks to develop a modular set of type adapted to contemporary professional and pedagogical requirements. The synergy between type, modularity and contemporary technology contributes to letterpress by serving a differentiating purpose as well as enhancing it. Thus, the main objective of this article is to design a modular set of type that promotes the letterpress process. In addition to fulfill the proposed main objective this study was subdivided into the following specific objectives: – Study modular typographic sets; – Develop a modular set of type; – Validate the modular set of type through a workshop. Considering these objectives, the methodology presented in this investigation is mostly qualitative, understanding the following tasks: – – – –

Data collection and analysis of case studies through exploratory readings; Understanding case studies through literature review; Development of a modular set; Application of the modular set developed in a workshop.

The case studies were obtained through exploratory readings based on the following criteria: modular type comprised between 1920 and 1970 that showed morphological modularity as a response to inherent technology. From the application of the criteria, the following case studies were selected: Kombinations-Schrift, Blickfang-Schmuck, Elementare Schmuchformen, Futura Schmuck, Dekora-Schmuck, Patrona Grotesk, Fregio Mecano, NePo, Kombi, SuperTipo Veloz, Alpha-blox, Super-Plakat. The second phase of the project was carried out in parallel with the previous one. In this way the empirical development was shaped and perfected at the same time as the analysis of the case studies. To assess the relevance of the developed modular set, a workshop was planned, seeking to explore the grammar of the developed set and develop reasoning and stimulation through a modular set. The workshop was divided into two parts: 1st — sketch and planning of the desired compositions; 2nd — structuring and printing the compositions drawn in the previous step. To evaluate its relevance, a questionnaire was developed to assess students’ attitude and degree of satisfaction with the first version of the set. The questionnaire consisted of three sections: 1st — sample characterization; 2nd — perception of the whole in three dimensions (understanding, ease of handling and articulation between tools), measured through four statements evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale; 3rd — student suggestions for future improvements. The sample consisted of undergraduate students in Graphic Design and Advertising at the School of Media Arts and Design, Polythecnic Institute of Porto, in Portugal.

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2 Modular Type 2.1 Kombinations-Schrift Designed between 1923 and 1931 during his teaching period at the Bauhaus, Kombinations-Schrift by Josef Albers (1888–1976) reflects its spirit. One of the pioneers of the Die Neue Typographie movement, Albers was concerned with the clarity of the message and how typography could serve as an interpreter [9]. Systematically constructed from geometric shapes, such as the square, triangle and quarter of a circle, whose radius corresponds to the side of the square, this study fits as one of the first experiments with modular type. The guiding principle behind this design was to achieve the greatest possible reduction of elements through the uniformity of shapes [1]. 2.2 Patrona Grotesk Patrona Grotesk was published in 1931 by the foundry Slevarna Pisem in Prague and was designed by V. Kánsk ý [4]. This czech type features a reformulated alphabet as a variable system of geometrically regulated modules. The modular system consists of breaking up the letter shapes into 38 different modules. These could be combined in monolinear shapes to build a variety of stencil drop caps, making it possible to build uppercase Roman and Cyrillic typefaces. In addition, due to the wide variety of modules, various patterns could be obtained by repeating, rotating, or alternating modules that always contained the stencil effect [9]. 2.3 Fregio Mecano Published by the Italian foundry Nebiolo approximately in 1933, Fregio Mecano is a modular system designed for large format printing (display). The identity of the designer who designed it is unknown, however its authorship is attributed to Giulio da Milano (1895–1990) who was the first director of the Nebiolo foundry in Turin between 1930 and 1936 [4]. The Fregio Mecano type consists of the dismemberment of the letter shapes into 20 different modules. With them it is possible to build an almost infinite variety of alphabets, numbers, patterns, and borders. Vertical and horizontal lines are inserted in all modules which produce a grid that unifies the appearance, the shapes and that served as a disguise for all the junctions between modules. All letters could vary between height, length and weight while maintaining the visual consistency of the grid [9].

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2.4 SuperTipo Veloz Based on Figuras Geométricas typeface, Joan Trochut (1920–1980) with the help of his father (Esteban Trochut), developed a modular type system that could increase the creative options of type workshops. SuperTipo Veloz was published by Fundación Tipográfica José Iranzo in 1942 [3]. The set included three main sets, two supplementary resource sets, a set called Universal, a 36-point size set, and a modular flourish set — in total over three hundred modules that contained the 14 basic designs (main stems), ornamental derivations (complementary characteristics), other designs (secondary stems) and flourishes [5]. Thus, this typeface allowed almost an infinite number of possible combinations that offered printers an enormous range of typographic solutions. This versatility allowed printers to develop their own alphabets and letters, design logos and create illustrations. 2.5 Additional Modular Systems In 1927, Blickfang-Schmuck appears as one of the first geometric modular typefaces of the 20th century. The influences of the Die Neue Typographie movement are evident due to the use of basic elements such as the circle, triangle and square. This modular system also made it possible to add new forms. Therefore, the foundry manufactured some more “attractive” modules (blickfänger) to be used in posters and other advertising media [7]. In the same period, other similar collections of typefaces emerged, such as Elementare Schmuchformen by D. Stempel, Werbeklötze by Ludwig & Mayer and Futura Schmuck by Bauersche Giesserei [7]. Futura Schmuck was launched in 1927, along with the first two Futura weights, mager (light) and halbfet (medium), from the Bauer Type foundry in Frankfurt. It is a set of geometric shapes: circles, squares, triangles, semicircles, and circle quadrants [10]. In 1931 appeared Dekora-Schmuck, a new modular typeface, once again by the Brüder Butter foundry. It demonstrates how a modular system could be used to create illustrations, symbols, and letters. The set had ornaments with two distinct dots that provided tonal contrasts between them. Some had a square grid of 24 squares and others a dotted grid of 48 points. Both grids allowed the combination of different body sizes. These modules would be in appealing illustrations and in type compositions by the Brüder Butter foundry in its brochures [7]. Released by the Brüder Butter foundry in 1934, the NePo type (negative and positive) offered two versions, negative and positive. While the Dekora-Schmuck type modules could be used to build illustrations and alphabets, the NePo type consisted of modules that were intentionally designed for type design. The modules were cast into square pieces, so they could be freely rotated and combined [7]. Another modular type promoted in 1935 by another German foundry was Ludwig & Mayer Kombi. From 22 pieces it was possible to obtain letters and numbers. As in Fregio Mecano, the sorts were crossed by horizontal lines in order to disguise the junctions between them. However, an obvious disadvantage was the fact that it was only possible to change the letters in height. According to a 1935 specimen from the foundry, the typeface was effective and versatile, not only for posters, but above all for advertisements and publicity prints of all kinds.

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Alpha-blox typeface was introduced in 1944 by American Type Founders (ATF). The modules allowed the construction of several letters as well as numerous different patterns. This modular set was made available by ATF in three sizes (12, 24 and 36 points) and two versions: linear (positive) and inverse (negative). These two versions could be used together through color overlays and monochromatic, or polychromatic compositions [8]. In 1949, again by the Brüder Butter foundry, the Super-Plakat type was promoted. According to a 1949 specimen the typeface is so simple that even an apprentice can compose with it due to its guidance sheet. However, the typographer was free to create his own alphabets using the provided modules. The specimens clarified how the type worked, served as a stimulus for experimentation and played an advertising role [7].

3 TIMOS Project 3.1 Framework TIMOS modular set emerges as a typographic tool with the intention of enhancing the potential of letterpress for Design. At the same time, it was noted that this tool was also a contribution to the formal exploration of letters and type in Graphic Design and Typography teaching context. The modular set seeks to place the designer as a thinker and an active participant in the creative process. The project was designed to stimulate the creative process through letterpress using the creation of letters or other signs from the modules present in the set. The project focused on simple and understandable geometric constructions to support the creative process and for a faster understanding of the associated general typographic concepts. As a way of demonstrating the versatility of the project, the modular set is displayed on two different supports: a stencil ruler and a set of type sorts (the main tool of the project). All elements of the project were designed to be used in a complementary way, expanding the user experience, but can also be used individually. Therefore, mechanisms were developed to facilitate, even more, the design of compositions such as the auxiliary sheet and the composing grid. The auxiliary sheet contains some suggestions that demonstrate how the modules work together. However, it is up to the user to decide whether to follow the suggestions or go for a freer exploration. TIMOS consists of 23 modules. Of these, five are structural elements and 18 are decorative elements — nine positive and nine negative. These modules were developed in a 36-point font to favor an exploration on the scale of an A3 sheet and easy handling by people who have or have not interacted with traditional typography (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. TIMOS stencil ruler.

3.2 Development Type Design. Through drawings on paper, the shapes of the modules were planed and the connections between them were positioned. It was decided to highlight the modularity in the letterforms in a more pronounced way. For this, the letterforms were synthetized in a geometric solution. The modules were kept centered to articulate with each other on all faces. After these studies, an attempt was made to adapt the structure of the letterforms to several different modular elements. Within this exploration, several solutions with curved, straight, and mixed characteristics were made. After exploring the presented letterforms, it was decided to apply the designs in the construction of moveable type. Prints using 3D-printed type were uniform, due to smaller variations between type heights compared to previously tested wood typefaces. However, the texture resulting from the 3D printing process was very evident in the printed results. To solve the problems related to spacing, it was decided to make an analysis through the English pangram “the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog”. Thus, it was noticed that some modules, due to their shape, compromised the letterforms and created unequal spaces between letters. It was decided to deconstruct the designed modules. This exercise made it possible to eliminate the white spaces of each module that caused the spacing problems. In a second phase, a negative version was added to each module. The set now consists of 18 decorative elements and five structural elements. Thus, structures were designed in the letterforms to facilitate use. When the structural modules were removed and the decorative ones were added, the set would allow the creation of several different fonts. Subsequently, it was decided, once again, to 3D print this new modular set. Unlike previous tests, these were printed with a body size of 36 points. Despite being half-size typefaces, the faces are larger and allow for larger-scale results.

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At the same time, it was decided to produce wooden type in a more precise way. For this, ipe wood was selected for its hardness and resistance. The process started with the leveling of all boards to the typographic height (23.566 mm). After this process was completed, using laser cutting technique, the developed modules were engraved. Then, each type was thoroughly cut using a table saw. Finally, this process was finished by sanding each type obtained individually (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Print made with wood and 3D printed type.

Stencil Ruler. Alongside the synthesis of the modular set developed into 18 decorative elements and five structural elements, it was noted that the diversity could make it difficult for someone to handle and interpret the system. Therefore, as a result of contextual research, a stencil ruler that shared the Plantilla SuperVeloz concept was developed: to help creating compositions with the SuperTipo Veloz [6]. Firstly, the size of the modules of the ruler were fitted with the type size, 36 points. Consequently, the most appropriate place to design the typographic compositions resulting from the template would be tracing paper. This feature made it possible to draw the compositions from left to right. Then, when the sketches were finished, it was only needed to invert the sheet of tracing paper and compositions would be inverted (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Sketches drawn with the stencil ruler.

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Auxiliary Sheet. Due to the investigation carried out, an auxiliary sheet was designed that, as the name implies, is intended to help, contextualize, and encourage the use of the set by users. This tool was inspired by the instructions for use of the RUHA template and the Super-Plakat type specimen. For this reason, the suggestions on the sheet meet the version of the modular set in type and the design with the stencil ruler (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. TIMOS auxiliary sheet.

Workshop Context. The workshop sought to be a pedagogical experience that articulated the interpretation of graphic design with the process of letterpress and with the TIMOS modular set. Thus, the following objectives were defined: transmit knowledge of letterpress; develop reasoning and stimulation through the presented modular set; explore the visual grammar of the developed set; discover through practice the limitations and potential of the presented modular set. The number of participants was limited to three students for each year of the degree in Graphic Design and Advertising at the School of Media Arts and Design, totaling a group of nine students. This limit was justified by attention that each student would need, the amount of material to be produced and the diversified perception of the various stages of study. Practice. The workshop was divided into two parts. In the first phase, it was defined a duration of two hours. A presentation was prepared that clarified some basic concepts about typography and contextualized the TIMOS modular set (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Timos workshop presentation by Ângelo Gonçalves.

Immediately, it was intended that the students join themselves into working groups and visually explore the grammar of the TIMOS modular set through the stencil ruler and the auxiliary sheet. In the second part, a duration of two hours was also defined, and the groups were asked to create the compositions with the TIMOS modular set through the sketches drawn in the previous phase. Then the form was placed on the press, the shapes were inked, the sheet was positioned, the compositions were printed and, finally, the modules were cleaned (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Top left: Positioning type with the help of the auxiliary sheet; Top right: Fixing the composition to the form; Bottom left: Ink placement process on movable type; Bottom right: Printing on A3 size paper.

Results. The results of the first part were mixed. The students easily understood the dynamics of the template, and this was reflected in the interpretations of the letter designs.

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However, as it is a lengthy process, especially for those doing it for the first time, it was only possible to draw one sketch. The second part proved to be more challenging, due to the limitation of the number of existing modules. However, the help of the drafts developed in the previous phase facilitated the creation of compositions and contributed to the students working independently. It was only in fixing the composition to the forms that assistance was necessary. In order to understand in a more detailed way the opinion about the workshop, a form with nine questions was digitally sent to all participants. A total of six responses were obtained. Of the participants, 67% attend the first year of the degree and 33% attend the second year. Of these, 50% had already practiced traditional typography and 50% had never practiced it. The modules of the TIMOS modular set were used in full by 50% of the students. Of the students present at the workshop, 83% fully agree that the set was easy to understand, while 17% just agree. Regarding the number of elements present in the set, 50% totally agree that it was adequate, 33% agree and 17% are undecided. Regarding the auxiliary sheet, 67% of the students totally agree that it is an instrument that accelerated the process, while 17% agree and 17% are undecided. Regarding the use of the TIMOS stencil ruler, 67% of the students totally agree that it is presented as an intuitive tool while 33% only agree. Finally, 50% fully agree that the TIMOS modular set is a tool that leverages letterpress for Design, while 33% agree and 17% are undecided. Conceptually, the opinion about the TIMOS modular set was positive and, visually, the results corresponded to the initial expectations. But, above all, these results contribute to a deeper understanding about the set developed as well as to future aspects to improve (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Example of one final print resulting from the workshop.

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4 Conclusion The project developed according to the stipulated objectives: modular typographic sets were researched and analyzed; a modular set was developed, and the prototype was validated through a workshop. The design of the proposed set is based on two principles: a strong practical nature, based on knowledge acquired on case studies; and the construction of useful tools to enhance its modular purpose. Crossing theoretical research with applied research, this project proposed methods and reasoning that expand the knowledge of typography and processes associated with the development of typefaces. In order to involve future students in the use of the modular set, as well as to understand their attitudes towards it, a pre-test was carried out through a workshop. The results indicate that students have a very favorable perception of the set, evaluating all dimensions with high scores in most of the tested items. However, it is aware that the workshop was just a pre-test and that the sample was somewhat limited so that the data collected from the surveys carried out would allow a broader view. Therefore, it would have been interesting to broaden the spectrum by holding workshops in other institutions and at different levels of education for a more robust validation. Carrying out this pre-test with design students from the School of Media Arts and Design had a very positive impact on the research, with the prospect that the project has the potential to be carried out in the near future. The current project not only recovered the theme of modular type, but also contributed to the understanding of its development. Reasonings were proposed to support the results that, at the same time, are a contribution to the typographic community, clarifying questions through practice. However, despite the positive reviews, the modular set is still a prototype with some improvements to be implemented in the future to meet users’ expectations. One of the next steps will be the development of versions in addition to the prototypes presented, allowing prints with the necessary precision and, consequently, expanding the potential of their use. Another path will be the creation of modular add-ons to be added to the set in the future. It will be possible to create different levels of use with various associated complements, such as beginner, intermediate or professional. These versions will add a more plastic graphic register, allowing for a greater variety of options and uses. It is expected that the contents of the project will become even more complete and updated. Finally, still in relation to the modular set, establishing links and contact with educational establishments will certainly help to enable and expand the scope of this project.

References 1. Albers, J.: Combination type “3” (1931). In: Albers, J.(ed.) Fundación Juan March: Minimal means, Maximum effect, pp. 215–216. Fundación Juan March, Madrid (2014) 2. Amado, P., Silva, A.C., Quelhas, V. (eds.): Post-Digital Letterpress Printing: Research, Education and Practice. Routledge, Abingdon (2022) 3. Balius, A.: SuperVeloz: a creative response to a typographic crisis. https://typerepublic.com/ blog/superveloz-a-creative-response-to-a-typographic-crisis/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022

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4. Bil’ak, P.: The Importance of Play. Typotheque. https://www.typotheque.com/articles/the_ importance_of_play. Accessed 10 Feb 2022 5. Gamonal, R.: Super Tipo Veloz: La tipografía supercalifragilística (y II). https://pionerosgraf icos.com/super-tipo-veloz-la-tipografia-supercalifragilistica-y-ii/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022 6. Gamonal, R.: Interview with Roberto Gamonal [Personal communication] (2021) 7. Göldner, M.: The Brüder Butter typefoundry. In: Kindel, E. (ed.) Typography papers 9, pp. 91– 116. Hyphen Press, London (2013) 8. Kegler, R.: Alpha-blox. http://devilsartisan.ca/p22_type_specimens_alpha-blox.html. Accessed 10 Feb 2022 9. McNeil, P.: The Visual History of Type. Laurence King, London (2019) 10. Ulrich, F.: Tribute to Mr. Renner. https://www.p98a.com/journal/our-contribution-to-futuras90-anniversary. Accessed 10 Feb 2022

Typography Design: An Algorithmic Approach Ana Filomena Curralo1,2(B) 1 Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua da

Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun’Alvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal [email protected] 2 ID+–Instituto de Investigação em Design, Media e Cultura, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal

Abstract. This article explores the theoretical and practical aspects of a new algorithmic approach in the creation of digital typographic drawing. Generative design enabled an application based on a set of rules (algorithms) in a computer, generating unique and random creations. That set of rules is defined by the designer for the computer to execute. In the theoretical scope, generative design explores mathematical programming. Designers thus withdraw from the forefront of creation, determining the rules for creation, but with no control over result. The impact of the project includes the discussion of the concepts of art and generative design, the process and generation of visual elements through code instruction and execution, and the autonomy of software. It also questions the concept of digital typography. Typography has progressed thanks to new technologies and is nowadays more about choices than about limitations. The digital media provide all the resources, following the return of the analogic, complementing them. This project contributes to that wider range of possibilities. Keywords: Typography design · Generative design · Programming fonts · Algorithms in typography

1 Introduction In this practical project to create typefaces the chosen environment and programming language was Open-Source Processing. Used in design since classical antiquity, the geometric relationship of the golden ratio has been as a measure identified to various aspects of nature, being therefore considered a symbol of perfection and geometric balance. It has been employed in art and architecture and was also employed in the present case, conceptualized as an algebraic constant. Subsequently, a dynamic rectangle was built through measurements and the golden ratio and mathematical codes. Hence, through coding it was subdivided by diagonals from opposite corners forming parallel and perpendicular lines based on that layout. Diagonal tracing, in addition to interconnecting points of the rectangle, originates cells/points of interactivity of the program, thus creating a matrix. In this matrix it is possible to draw the forms of letters in capital letters, with countless possibilities and formal structures, always keeping the letters proportional and harmonious from the perspective of the human eyesight. This design paradigm and automatic compositions © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 178–190, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_14

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of typefaces actually allows the designer his own self-expression, in addition to creative brainstorming, enhancing drafting inputs based on the computer-generated outputs. For the designer as a researcher, this is a cross-disciplinary networked approach to design, providing an unbiased source of innovative solutions for typeface design. Technological evolution has increasingly stimulated the experimentation of new approaches, especially algorithmic, computational, or otherwise, in areas such as art and design. The adoption by artists and designers of programming as an integral and structuring part of the creative process, allows the development of proprietary tools, by author, promoting the creation and exploration of new possibilities. Computers tends to be viewed by creative professionals not only as a tool but also as a possibility to create new systems, languages, and experiences. Beyond computational tools already implemented in design, such as modeling and digital drawing applications, programming allows designers to use the computer’s procedural capability to generate new design tools based on algorithmic thinking and computer programs, as those used in parametric design or generative design. Technology and programming allow designers to overcome the limitations imposed by the available tools, creating their own tools, according to their individual needs and aspirations. These new tools allow exploring the aesthetic potential of technology and the intrinsic beauty of the interaction between form, process, and concept. This project stems from a great curiosity regarding generative processes and typography. Its purpose is to create synergies and to develop an interactive program, allowing the user to design a typographic visual language based on mathematical thinking/golden section. Therefore, the goal includes understanding the concepts of art, generative design, and software development. Ultimately, the project is based on the premise that generative design can in fact contribute to connect different types of typography and mathematics and create an interactive digital visual language.

2 The Algorithmic Approach Generative art has become popular during the 21st century, due to the increasing mediation of digital technology in society, as well as the popularization of algorithms opening paragraph has embedded in technologies [1]. The computer is a unique instrument for art since it operates as an obedient tool, but one that can result in an entirely new medium through the total exploration of unique capacities as the control of randomness, originating work never thought of before [2]. Science and technology have provided the means and the tools to produce works of art. This connection was emphasized by computational art, through the use of computer programs to develop artistic projects. For the first time, the computer was involved in an activity that until then was exclusive to human beings: the act of creating [3]. At present there is no coherent description of what computer art is. Computational art can be described as the mainly experimental use of computers in visual art, music, or poetry traditional artistic practice. However, a classification according to the different artistic disciplines does not reveal the different ways in which the computer was used within these practices. As a tool for the production of a work of art or as its producer [4]. We can distinguish two types of computational art, the one created by commercial drawing programs, such as bitmap and vectorial image software, and the one created

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through computational algorithms, the so-called algorithmic art. Traditional drawing programs directly use the concept of image representation through bits and vectors. They only manipulate image when users operate on it through buttons, for instance. Differently, algorithms manipulate image processing through predefined sets of rules. Works of art produced by these traditional drawing programs are far less under the control of algorithms and more under the control of the artist, who is able to change everything instantly. In this way, the screen is used in a very similar way to that of a painter painting a canvas [4]. In the 1950s, analog equipment such as oscilloscopes were used by scientists such as Ben Laposky (1914–2000) and Herbert Franke (1914–2011) to generate abstract images, preceding art created by digital computers. The term generative/algorithmic was firstly employed in the 1960s, with the emergence of analogic computer technology and subsequently digital, where most of the earlier artistic exploration was performed by engineers and mathematicians. Generative programming is not exclusively associated to computers, because it is a sequence of pre-established instructions that allow generating a new set of combinations. It does not limit creation, on the contrary, it enhances it, because what is rationalized is the process, releasing it from the need to make definitive decisions [5]. Concerning design, the latter meanings indicate that the designed product may not be only an object, but also a time process, therefore a strategy or a program. This leads us to include in the concept of design the design of computer programs. In a narrow sense, design doesn’t only give the product its visible form, it also influences its manipulation, that is, the qualities it reveals when men use it. Over the decades, the evolution of technology and science has profoundly altered the way people work, communicate and create [6]. Artists and designers, whose thinking has always adapted to these developments, found in computational and algorithmic processes the possibility to create and explore new paths. The emergence of easy-to-learn languages and software related to art and design further stimulated the interest and exploration of programming. By the end of the twentieth century, a new generation of designers was able to program and include programmatic methods in the design process. This synergy gave way to a new sort of design: generative design. Generative design systems are focused on creating new design processes that produce innovative and yet constructible spatial projects by exploiting the current computing and manufacturing capabilities [7]. This exploration process is parametrically restricted and oriented by the designer, who operates in parametric systems to assist the project as an emergent process [8]. The founders of the generative design studio Onformative, a studio for digital art and design in Berlin, advocate that the definition of generative design, instead of traditional means, concerns image generation through code. The image is no longer created by hand, it arises from a visual idea, which is transcribed into a set of rules and implemented in a programming language in the form of source code. The design process is no longer divided into concept, design and production, and the end product is now created through a set of iterative steps in which idea, design and programming are always closely intertwined. The projects and teaching by John Maeda (b.1966) have had great impact on digital design and programming for artistic purposes. Maeda developed a programming language in his book Design by Numbers [9], with a view to revealing the aesthetic beauty

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and power of computing and mathematics for artists and designers. He thus fueled the search for an easy-to-use tool through with all artists could create artefacts [6]. Software development is not typically associated with the work of a designer. However, increasingly more designers develop custom software as an integral part of their work. This software is changing typography and is the basis for new categories of the concerning design practice. As an integral part of the design process, programming enables variation and multiplication, making use of the power of the computer to produce multiple customized results. The idea that control is lost is not true, although control is different than usual. When a generative graph is created, it determines the rules in which the code will operate, so it is clear what the expected result is, but it is subject to a degree of computational pseudo-randomness. In other words, the designer may transcribe his intentions through the rules, but the computer will generate diverse solutions through dots, lines, and primitive forms [10]. As an example, the Laika project intends to show that typography no longer needs to be static. Laika is a dynamic font, and as such calls for a new understanding of typography, in terms of dynamic potential. It was built in Processing. This font suffers variations in the inclination angle of italics, length of serifs and contour. The font changes in real time. By definition, this font encompasses all that is meant by the new media. It has a wide range of options, it may be connected to sensors, switches, or mouse, among others, and changes through interactions triggered by those mechanisms. On the other hand, the Japanese site fontpark by Morisawa is a project concerning oriental typography. In the site, users are requested to build images using only Japanese characters. The characters are black and can only be resized, rotated, or duplicated. The likelihood of some results is impressive. Typography in the digital age is indeed “(…) peculiar, personal and unconditionally subjective.” [11] The path that was taken to carry out their work is then reproduced in animation, with sounds. The images are then put to a vote. “The Do it yourself is all over the place.” [12]. 2.1 Designers, Processing, and Collaborative Culture When deciding to work with graphic design and digital representation of models, it is necessary for the designer to be able to handle and transit through the digital applications environment. Despite the difficulties are expressive in this learning process, because the applications present a very large and varied number of available tools, it is necessary to emphasize that, in general, this graphic software has the purpose of simply translating analogic knowledge onto digital environment. This means that through the virtual manipulation of the object, it is possible to apply drawing knowledge and mainly the principles of composition and visual language elements already familiar to the designer. This way, the construction of the object will occur through the manipulation of graphical meshes, geometric elements such as dots, lines, planes and surfaces, color changes and texture mapping. This prior knowledge makes the software learning process less complex for professionals with design training, and the complexity mainly depends on improving the use of the several tools available in the application. However, concerning generative design the knowledge required from the designer goes far beyond. It would be useful for this professional to also have notions on data programming languages and to understand the principles of algorithm construction, as well as the characteristics of the parameters and variables used in it. In addition, the

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geometric construction algorithms will require from the designer a deeper knowledge of mathematics and geometry, since data manipulation may vary from the simplest to the most complex, depending on the algorithm. The concept of generative algorithms can be implemented in design projects through software such as Processing. This opensource free programming software is intended for use by designers and artists without previous computing knowledge. The program language is Java based and develops simple commands and scripts to design graphic elements. The digital tools offered by Processing enable the repetition of manual tasks, as well as the development of intellectual activities. In this sense, the target of the design project is not the process itself, but the designer’s role in concept construction, problem definition, and stipulation of variables. These variables will allow the creation of an algorithm that performs a series of steps to solve a problem, manifesting visual results through geometric and organic forms. Participation in the OpenProcessing virtual community has a significant role in the design process. When a specific function is required but no knowledge of the code is known, it is common practice to resort to the community and search for other users that may have already produced programs with similar functions. As verified in practice, collaborative systems leverage the horizontal and more democratic knowledge production. Systems such as OpenProcessing encourage learning, technical training as well as expressive content sharing for the study area. Thus, generative design changes the role of the computer from just an auxiliary and assigns the role of content generator, collaborating in the design process and allowing the generation of ideas and solutions. This way, design methods oriented toward development through programming transform the program into a design agent, driven by performance criteria and subject to the designer’s initial commands. Another innovative aspect is that this software works within a collaborative system in which the users can share source codes in a virtual environment. One of the main purposes of this project was the creation of experimental artifacts through computational and algorithmic processes, demonstrating new possibilities created by this type of approach in art and design practices. To reach the process formalization, a suitable experimental methodology was developed to suit the artifacts creation, considered instrumental for the accomplishment of this purpose. Widening our technical, methodological, and conceptual knowledge in the areas of design, art, and computing was also a goal. The experiment consisted in the exploratory work produced and guided by the experimental methodology elaborated after the analysis of the literature, carried out during the theoretical research. 2.2 Generative Typographic Design Typography may be understood as the structure and arrangement of a visual message, where typographic design is concerned with the units to be arranged, the characters that will constitute a typeface [13]. Formerly there was a clear and strong distinction between font and typeface, which terminologically still exists, but now diluted by digital media. The typographic font is the set of characters of a given typeface that are all the same size and style, while the typeface is the set of these fonts, corresponding to the same family, agglomerating the various styles of the same design (italic, bold, etc.). The current meaning of typography belongs more to design than to the press, more to the digital than to the analogic, and typography font design and its organization in

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space [12]. In fully digital environments, typography has different characteristics from those found in printed or physical environments. It is a fluid object, since its movement is associated to the media supporting it. These characteristics are partly attributed to their intangibility, since they can only be touched and manipulated through interfaces that facilitate this mediation between the physical world and the algebraic world. According to Smeijers [14], the evolution of computing allows the transformation of typography that changes from fixed in the physical support, to mobile and agile in the digital support. This subsequently allows a variety of behaviors. In the article “Electronic Typography” Jessica Helfand [15], argued that all the technological changes of the last few years, particularly referring to interactive media, have led us to a point where designers were forced to rethink the way they use typography and to take broader and more comprehensive position to make it effective. The new media came to make space and time decisive design elements. It is not easy to find a definition for typography, especially after all these technological changes. Generative design is considered the transcription of a visual idea into a set of rules that after implementation generate a result. Concerning the definition of generative design and typography, algorithmic processes are fundamental. In this regard, generative typography is the autonomous generation of typefaces generated autonomously by a computer program, capable of shaping according to an input or context in which they are inserted. The exploration of generative types goes beyond typeface itself, being used in response to a design problem when integrated, for example, into generative identity systems. For years, graphic designers, especially those adhering to the ideas and philosophies of the Swiss international style or modernism, have argued that logos and typographic fonts should seem consistent to establish their recognition. Programming as an integral part of the design process enables variation and multiplication, making use of the power of the computer to produce multiple customized results. The type of foundry, a company that designs or distributes typefaces, LettError argues that introducing randomness into typography by randomly moving and modifying font shapes does not necessarily mean a reduction in recognition. This company advocates that recognition does not come from a simple repetition of the same shape. It is something smarter, taking place inside human brain. We are able to recognize handwriting, and even decipher how fast it was written. Randomfon is a programmatic type developed in 1989 by LettError, by two typeface and font designers, Erik van Blokland (b.1967) and Just van Rossum (b.1966). Their starting point was the understanding that PostScript fonts are sets of mathematical instructions. By introducing a random element, they can produce a variety of modifications in letter forms. For this company, the standardization of shapes of typefaces is the result of mechanized typographic composition and not typographic perfection. It used to be unthinkable to create several glyphs for the same letter for the movable types.

3 The Project: Creating a Digital Visual Language This project was developed during a personal experience on Processing with the objective of using algorithmic to create a digital and analogic visual language. Thus, we create a digital visual language consists of a software development that allows the user to draw letters of the alphabet in capital letters, based on an organization composed of

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mathematical rules. This challenge fits into changing a design paradigm that instead of limiting design constraints based on the Graphical User Interface (GUI) uses graphics software packages. In addition, the project explores the possibility of transforming letters into powerful forms, that don’t need to be interconnected to write words, since they can communicate independently. If the user intends to use fonts he has drawn, or bought, or fonts from the system, this isn’t necessarily relevant, because within the site they will all be considered a form. Thus, the choice of the source only becomes relevant when chosen according to the form it attributes to the characters that compose it. It is important to highlight that throughout the project, the research phase, both typography and programming went side by side with practical development, to improve it. The purpose was to explore letterform as an imaginary representation based on mathematical thinking, that is, creating a generalization of the legible form of the letter and the form of the letter structured and interpreted by the user. Finally, after the generative typography implementation, an application was created, allowing interaction between the user and the typeface generation. 3.1 The Methodology The methodology used consists of three main phases: (1) analyses (2) digital implementation of the case study (3) physical implementation. In this project, the first phase of the methodology was the research to understand some of the possibilities of codes in typography. After the analysis of the research results, the digital implementation of the main idea. The digital implementation was based on the golden rectangle bounded by a grid with interaction points that allow the drawing and explore letterform of capital letters. The third phase consisted of the physical implementation and allowing interaction between the user and the typeface generation. Generative methodology proposes an unconventional way of conceptualizing and working in design. Research in generative systems is closely related to the general concept of synthesis, which is most evident in natural systems. The diversity and adaptability of life on Earth demonstrates the potential of these mechanisms to overcome design problems and generate originality and diversity from relatively simple entities [16]. 3.2 Creating a Typographic Grid The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by major changes in visual arts and design, which through the emergence of artistic movements such as Cubism, Futurism, and Dadaism incorporated into their works typographic elements, letters, or words, which acquired more and more a visual character. Likewise, Constructivism and De Stijl explored artistic compositions and editorial artifacts with typographic elements that were organized on grid-like structures, also contributing to the emergence and definition of a striking structure in modernist construction, the grid, and later in design with the typographic grid [17]. For Josef Muller-Brockmann [18], the creation of a typographic grid system had the main purpose of unifying the visual identity between typography and image. This new form of visual organization in design is mainly communicational and informative.

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Its genesis is founded in purely visual art compositions, and in its creator’s interest in the work and theories of El Lissitzky (1890–1941), Moholy-Nagy (1895–1946), or Jan Tschichold (1902–1974), artists related to the artistic movements of the first decades of the twentieth century, who influenced the definition of modern typography. The grid is an infinite structure that, nevertheless, in art and design almost always served to set boundaries: those of the canvas in art, and those of the page in editorial design. From its use on the closed plane of the screen or the page, a sort of layout is obtained, which allows a systematized organization of compositional elements such as color, forms, images, and typography. The creation of a typographic grid allows a greater ease in the composition and organization in the construction of typographic letters. In this sense, the principles used in this project include the understanding of classical proportion systems, such as the golden ratio, as well as relations and proportions, interrelations between forms and their regulating lines. Karl Gerstner’s (1930–2017) work is an important milestone in the history of design. In typography, this Swiss designer and artist popularized the use of unjustified text aligned to the left [19]. He also proposed the theory of integral typography, in which the visual aspect of typography can help the communication of ideas. He developed the notion of flexible grid as well as methods based on permutation for design practice [11]. Gerstner pioneered the exploration and creation of complex and flexible grids. In 1962, he was assigned the design of the periodical Capital, for which he developed a grid that enabled the designer to create creative and consistent layout´s. Gerstner’s interactions with computational technology led him to theorize the regulation of space and grid as a program in which a number of parameters are determined through columns, space between columns and margins [5]. For Gerstner, grids systematize artistic creation and simultaneously create a challenging and stimulating platforms for experimentation. 3.3 The Golden Ratio in Typography For this purpose, and towards a correct notion of proportion and composition of the form in the creation of a harmonious visual language one opted for the use of a golden rectangle, that is to say, a rectangle has the property of being divided infinitely in smaller proportional rectangles. This means that when a rectangle is divided in half, two smaller rectangles follow. It should be noted that the proportion of a rectangle is quite close to the golden ratio. The power of the golden section to create harmony stems from its unique property of uniting different parts of a whole, so that each preserves its own identity, but conforms to a larger pattern of a whole. The purpose of this exercise was to design a visual typographic language based on mathematical thinking. For this purpose, a rectangle was drawn through algorithmic codes. Being a foursided shape with all angles at ninety degrees, a rectangle by default, the first two parameters define the location of the upper left corner, the third defines the width and the fourth defines the height. The matrix was then divided as shown in Fig. 1. 3.4 Points Intersection The process of subdividing a dynamic rectangle into a series of harmonic subdivisions is plotted diagonally from opposite corners and constructed by a network of parallel

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Fig. 1. Code to divide matrices figure

Fig. 2. Process of points intersection

and perpendicular lines (Fig. 2). The plot of diagonals connecting points of the goldendimensional dynamic rectangle determines focal points of optical equilibrium and golden sections ideal for visual composition, and this is the principle for the development of a proportional alphabet (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The grid and the drawing points

In this sense, it is only possible to draw when through the cursor the intersection cells are activated, by clicking on the intersection points they are in ‘suspended’ state, changing color to gray and pending activation in another intersection point. After the creation of this program, letters drawing followed. The letters were drawn as exemplified in Fig. 4. As in a game, the user can draw the structure he wishes, uniting the points build a visual language, that is, a typeface. As for the letter configuration, it is only possible to draw the letter structure. Subsequently, a pdf file was generated so it would be possible to work the letters digitally

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Fig. 4. Experimenting with the letter a

with adobe illustrator program, a vector program allowing to fill the outline of the generative letter. Thus, the letters became visually more consistent, presenting aesthetically balanced visual weight. To verify the behavior of the letters between them, they were placed side by side to create the word GIRL (MOÇA). Figure 5 shows how despite being drawn individually, together the letters form a visually balanced word with aesthetical harmony.

Fig. 5. Representation of the word GIRL (MOÇA)

After the program was created and the graphical experiments were carried out, the typographic materialization was performed, consisting in the implementation of the word in physical support for an artistic interactive installation. Typography occurs in the virtual environment with even more property, since computer science promotes the return to the original concept of “matter” while transitory filling of temporal forms, given that the form of an object only exists as concept or from a theoretical perspective, according to Flusser [20]. When this concept of “matter” is rescued in the computational environment it is not related to the physicality of the object. In the computer the algorithms occupy the theoretical sphere, they are responsible for the conception of the form that previously was restricted only by culture. These mathematical codes conceive form and also fill it with a multitude of simulations of ‘matters’ [21]. Nails and raffia thread were used for their implementation. In the first phase the nails were placed in the active cells of the grid, followed by the outline of the letters with the raffia wire. The user, as in the digital media, can physically draw letters, taking the orientation of the active points and in a

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playful way drawing letters on the physical and digital media. Although the letters of the word GIRL (MOÇA) were defined, other words may result from manipulation of line and the user’s imagination (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Physical experiences in drawing letter a using a golden structure.

The computer screen is a window in which one cannot see a ‘real’ landscape. It allows us to see the typography, but what we see is an interface between the virtual and the physical world, allowing us to contact an algebraic world, translating numbers into images or types and filling them with the most varied materials. This mathematical code designs ways to materialize alternative worlds [20]. This way, digitally materialized typography becomes fluid and in constant transformation, as well as the code manipulating it. The expressive power of typography is enormous, and the advent of digital media has often encumbered this possibly due to a greater distancing from more conventional plastic arts. If typography is regarded an “intrinsically visual language” [13], it is easily understood that these worlds are connected. It is important to highlight the form and construction of each letter and the subsequent expressive potential of each. The layout and links between the various elements, digital and analogic, may enhance such expressiveness through the relationships established among the different elements. Typography emphasizes the visual potential; it is more expressive and often symbolic.

4 Conclusion This project studied and explored the role of algorithmic computational approaches in Art and Design. The study of generative approaches based on algorithms aimed to acquire solid knowledge foundations in the field and a comprehensive view. This was followed by experimentation, consisting in the development of interactive software allowing the user to draw generative letters supported by a golden section based on a golden rectangle. Thus, a typographical and digital visual language was created based on mathematical thinking. The experiences allowed using several approaches; from programming to typeface design and explored the advantages and potential of generative typography

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and algorithms. This was followed by vector drawing, the traditional digital form. At this point, we conclude that algorithms are raw material to build digital environments. They mold and fill all images rendered by the computer, conferring them a polyvalent aspect. This allows a greater intensity in the cycles of construction and destruction of the simulated material that fills in the forms. As if the mathematical code of the computer had control over the molecules and was able to make it change from one material into another to fill the form better. This polyvalence of the algorithm and the pixel allows typography not to be set spatially and/or temporally and to interact with the user, rapidly morphing through behavior previously specified in his program. That is, it becomes an object in constant transformation, dynamic and fluid, both with respect to formal qualities, and through its relation between types and other graphic objects. Even in the physical application of the typographic interactive installation, it can be seen that typography is not bound to the materiality of the media. This is because the structure was created after a mathematical code and is able to project any type of matter in the form. The letter can have countess forms, while keeping the same structure, the same visual digital language. Finally, the behavior of typography in this project was configured thanks to digital supports. Malleable and dynamic, they characterize a resilient typography. The coordinate system, the golden grid, with the active drawing points, allows producing “new lives” for typography. It also awards more personality to the character, which human beings experience through the senses. This is what fills, covers and hides the ‘formal world’ of eternal and immutable forms, only perceptible by the extra sensibility of theory.

References 1. Schenker, D.: Original Creators: Manfred Mohr (2011). http://thecrea-torsproject.vice.com/ blog/original-creators-manfred-mohr/. Accessed 20 Sep 2021 2. Noll, A.: Art ex Machina. IEEE Student J. 8(4) (1970). 3. Dietrich, F.: Visual intelligence: the first decade of computer art (1965–1975). Leonardo 19(2) (1986) 4. Schwab, M.: Early Computer Art and the Meaning of Information (2003). http://www.seriate. net/Early_Computer_Art.pdf. Accessed 20 Oct 2021 5. Gerstner, K.: Disenãr programas. Gustavo Gili, Barcelona (1979) 6. Greenberg, I.: Processing: Creative Coding and Computational Art. Springer-Verlag, New York (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4302-0310-0_13 7. Shea, K., Aish, R., Gourtovaia, M.: Towards integrated performance-driven generative design tools. Autom. Constr. 14(2) (2005) 8. Krish, S.: A practical generative design method. Comput. Aided Des. (43) (2011). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cad.2010.09.009 9. Maeda, J.: Design by Numbers. The MIT Press, Massachusetts (1999) 10. Curralo, A.: Generative Design and Information Visualization. Paper presented AR- TECHt 2015 Creating Digital e Motions, Óbidos, Portugal (2015) 11. Bierut, M., William, D., Steven, H. (eds.): Looking Closer: Critical Writings on Graphic Design. Allworth Press, New York (1995) 12. Lupton, E.: Thinking with Type: a Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, and Students. Princeton Architectural Press, New York (2004) 13. Baines, P., Haslam, A.: Type & Typography. Laurence King Publishing, London (2005)

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14. Smeijers, F.: Counter Punch: Making Type in the Sixteenth Century, Designing Type–Faces Now. Hyphen Press, London (1996) 15. Helfand, J.: Electronic Typography: The New Visual Language (2004). http://www.typoth eque.com/articles/electronic_typography_the_new_visual_language. Accessed 30 Oct 2021 16. McCormack, J., Dorin, A., Innocent, T.: Generative design: a paradigm for design research. In: Redmond, J., Durling, D., De Bono, A. (eds.) Futureground–DRS International Conference 2004, 17–21 November, Melbourne, Australia (2004). https://dl.designresearchsociety.org/ drs-conference-papers/drs2004/researchpapers/17. Accessed 7 May 2022 17. Krauss, R.: Grids (1979). http://isites.har-vard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1050153.files/Grids_Ros alind%20Krauss.pdf. Accessed 20 Sep 2021 18. Muller-Brockmann, J.: Grid systems in graphic design: a visual communication manual for graphic designers, typographers, and three dimensional designers. Niggli, Zurich (2007) 19. Hollis, R.: The designer as programmer (43) (2002). http://www.eyemagazine.com/review/ article/the-designer-as-programmer. Accessed 30 Oct 2021 20. Flusser, V.: O Mundo codificado: por uma filosofia da comunicação. Cosac Naify, São Paulo (2015) 21. Broos, K.: From de stijl to the new typography. In: Heller, S. (ed.) Texts on Type, Meggs. Allworth Press, New York (2001)

Fashion Design

The 7 Complex Lessons from Edgar Morin Applied in Fashion Design Education for Sustainability Fernanda Enéia Schulz(B) , Luiza Honorato Freire , and Joana Luisa Ferreira Loureço da Cunha Universidade do Minho, Campus de Azurém, Guimarães, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. This article discusses the role of the University and the importance of transdisciplinary schooling in the education of Fashion Design. Its approach is based on the seven complex lessons proposed by the French anthropologist and sociologist Edgar Morin, which suggests the existence of seven fundamental problems in this century’s education system at all levels. By understanding the need of a more direct and effective approach to sustainability on Fashion Design education and focusing on the training of designers capable of dealing with the challenges of fashion industry and society, we aim, with this article, to show how sustainability could be presented in a transdisciplinary way on education of Fashion Design and following the seven complex lessons proposed by Morin. This seven complex lessons focus on detecting error and illusion, the principles of pertinent knowledge, teaching the human condition, earth identity, confronting uncertainties, understanding each other and ethics for the human genre, taking to this discussion about Fashion education, therefore this article was written using references and examples from Fashion Design. Keywords: Transdisciplinary learning · Seven complex lessons · Sustainability in fashion

1 Introduction Even though a specific date that indicates the separation between the artisanal and the industrial is not known, it is known that Design emerged as a result of three historical episodes that took place in the 19th and 20th centuries, namely industrialization, modern urbanization and globalization [1]. These three milestones, which were part of the Industrial Revolution, were responsible for tremendous changes in society, having changed the system that was in force at the time to a system where greater production was possible at a lower cost, making it possible for the population to have access to consumption with greater ease. The post-industrial period was responsible for the development of several areas, one of which was the expansion of cities, which can be considered one of the agents that led knowledge to develop and move from a predominantly domestic area to a public field. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 193–208, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_15

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It was from the 18th century that schools began to gain some importance, leading to a review of educational policies and defining the process of structuring modernity [2]. Despite the efforts to include Design teaching in universities, in the form of academic courses open to the development of research and experiments, according to Queiroz [1], it was only in the 1990s that the proliferation of higher education institutions directed towards the field of Design began. The development of Fashion Design education in Brazil is approached by Mendes [3] from the perspective of the textile and clothing chain, since the country is the only one to have the complete chain, that is, from agriculture to retail. The country had its industrialization process started in the 19th century. The evolution of this field in the mid-1970s, together with industrial development and increased consumption, was responsible for the beginning of the interpretation of French models and the creation of authorial models by agents who were called stylists. The first academic course in Fashion was opened at Santa Marcelina Faculty, in 1988, in the city of Sao Paulo. Shortly thereafter, two more courses were also opened in the city of Sao Paulo: one at the Anhembi Morumbi University, in 1990, and another at the Paulista University, in 1991, making the city a pioneer in teaching Fashion in the country [1]. Higher education in Fashion Design in Portugal has already started with Fashion being part of the Design area for more conscious creations aimed at industry, this makes innovation and perception of the world more than necessary factors within the courses. The first course offered at a university was the bachelor’s degree in Fashion Design, in 1984, at the Institute of Visual Arts, Design and Marketing (IADE-Instituto de Artes Visuais, Design e Marketing), but it ended up being closed shortly after due to lack of students. In 1992, the first degree in Fashion Design was created, offered by the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon, and lasts until the present day. The opening of the Fashion Design course at the University of Lisbon was the starting point for the creation of other higher education courses in the country, such as the Degree in Fashion and Textile Design at the Superior School of Applied Arts (ESART-Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas), part of the Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute (IPCB-Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco), in 1999; Degree in Textile and Clothing Design, in 2000, at the Beira Interior University (UBI-Universidade Beira Interior); the Degree in Fashion Design at the Superior School of Arts and Design (ESAD-Escola Superior de Artes e Design), in 2004; and the Degree in Fashion Design and Marketing at the Minho University (UMinho-Universidade do Minho), in 2005. Design seen as a subject and theory, according to Bürdek [4], started to be discussed with emphasis in the 1990s, having at the core of the debates Design as an autonomous subject, which contributed to the rise of both the subject and research in the academic environment. It was during this period that education in fashion was academically incorporated into the Design area, due to the market demand for qualified professionals to work in the various sectors of the mass production chain of clothing, since product design was already playing this role and already trained specialized professionals [3–5]. Prior to Fashion Design, the teaching of Fashion was inserted in the field of art and aesthetics, being the professional in this area recognized as a stylist. The stylist would then be a creative being, free to act in the conceptual field of objects and disconnected from marketing issues, that is, the concept of stylist is similar to the concept of the artist

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as a genius [6, 7]. With the development of capitalism, the value of commercialization also developed, that is, a “process of differentiation between products with market value and products with cultural value” was observed [7, p.31] and it is in this process that a separation between the fashion stylist and the fashion designer emerges. In the industrial and economic context, the fashion designer is the one who best corresponds to what is expected by the industry, being this professional the one who identifies the consumer’s needs and, at the same time, meets the objectives of the industries, that is, is the one who “brings together symbolic, expressive, productive and technical issues” [5, 7]. In Brazil, in the 2000s, and in Portugal, in the 1990s, the higher education courses in fashion and styling adapted to the new curricular guidelines. While in Brazil they were adapted to the National Curriculum Guidelines at the request of the Ministry of Education, in Portugal, the Bologna Declaration, signed in 1999, was the agreement responsible for curriculum reform in the country. Therefore, Fashion became part of the Design curriculum and trained fashion designers, with styling being practically only linked to technical training courses. According to Hamilton (apud [1]), the term “curriculum” solidifies the idea that the elements of a course should be organized in an orderly and sequential way for greater control in the teaching process, structuring knowledge in the form of sequential subjects, related or not. It is created based on an ideological consensus in which investigations will be performed in a circular way and not always linked to the complexity of the organization of social life [8], however, a curriculum considered to be democratic must be humanized, considering the cultural and social differences of those who will use it and introducing new knowledge to these students [17]. The structure of the curriculum is related to the knowledge that the professional in the area needs to know, even if it is more comprehensive. It must take into account themes and learning strategies that allow students to have a greater integration with the society in which they are inserted [1]. Although there are studies dealing with methodologies for teaching sustainable Fashion Design through isolated subjects or in a generic way, the understanding of interdisciplinarity is still not well clarified and well developed in classroom practices. According to Souza, Marques, and Broega [9], the sustainability theme in Fashion Design is not guiding education. Collina et al. [10, p.1002] address that educational curricula are not coherent with the contemporaneity challenges, affirming that “the world nowadays is different from the one where design was born: complexity has grown exponentially, the elements to be considered are many and they are mutually interconnected”. In other words, the designer’s training goes beyond industrial demands and the ability to interact with the consumer, it is necessary, in addition to the project, to be able to manage complex processes that incorporate innovation, technology, science, society, culture, politics, marketing, business models and sustainable and ethical issues. In order to solve the methodological problems of teaching sustainability in fashion design, we developed our approach based on a relationship between this topic and the studies conducted by Edgar Morin [11], more specifically the publication on “The 7 complex lessons in education for the future”, where is possible to identify ethical and moral principles and values in education, which are able to contribute to the teaching of Fashion Design with a focus on sustainability. This approach culminates in the ideas of Manzini [12], based on which we address the role of the designer as a sustainable

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agent, capable of solving contemporary problems in the fashion industry with creativity. It is also important to emphasize that, through Morin and specific design studies, it was possible to carry out a brief historical survey of the teaching of fashion design in the Brazil - Portugal axis and the development of the subject at a given time.

2 Transdisciplinarity in Fashion Design for Sustainability Currently, the teaching of Design is of great importance, as it generates a differential factor, and this is a reason of great value for industries and for new sustainable markets. Walter Gropius was the German architect responsible for Design having started to be perceived in an educational way as well, and not just in an industrial way and, in 1919, he wrote a manifesto, entitled “Bauhaus Manifesto”, which culminated in the creation of the Bauhaus School and, consequently, transformed the history of the teaching of Design. It is interesting to remember that the word design, from the English language, when in the form of a noun means “purpose, plan, interaction”, among other things, and when in the form of a verb, from the English “to design”, the word means “to plan, configure, proceed strategically” [13]. Through Flusser, it is possible to understand that with the rise of modern and bourgeois culture, at the end of the 19th century, there was a rupture between “the world of arts and the world of technique and machines”, that is, a division between the aesthetic world and the scientific world. It is in this context that, for the author, the word Design came to be used as a “bridge between two worlds”, since the word is endowed with values that permeate the artistic and technical world and promote a “new form of culture” [13, p.181; p.186]. This “new form of culture” addressed by Flusser [13], from the perspective of teaching Fashion Design, can be transcribed through the transdisciplinary approach of Design, that is, the development of the subject in collaboration and simultaneity with other subjects, being able to integrate the technical approaches of Design with the philosophical, artistic, political, cultural and environmental issues of society, which Papanek [14] defines as an integration of Design with other interfaces. To Edgar Morin [11], the “transdisciplinarity is generally characterized by cognitive schemes that cut across the subjects, sometimes with such virulence that it puts them in a trance” [11, p.51]. Araújo and Nascimento [15] address the transdisciplinary value in the training of the Fashion Design professional, as an essential factor, since it is necessary for the professional to know the world in which he is inserted, the spirit of the time, as well as to develop a repertoire of information capable of assisting him in solving problems, creating new products, and interpreting behavioral and social trends. For the authors, values such as collaboration and technological knowledge are essential in the transdisciplinary training of the fashion designer. Vieira [16, p.110] explains that “transdisciplinary design arises from the identification of the necessary integration of perspective evidenced by the need to overcome difficulties”, that is, in the search for an understanding of the complexities involving the design of the XXI century, such as interdisciplinary collaboration of teams with diversified training, understanding of cultural languages, interaction between industry – consumer – environment – society, creation of new knowledge, etc. Through the author, it can also be concluded that transdisciplinarity in design transits through

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several areas of knowledge (science, philosophy, history, sociology, engineering, literature, management), sharing knowledge and building new perspectives without losing the essence and method of Design. Morin [11] defends transversality as the contemporary teaching model capable of answering the pertinent questions for the future of society. In the words of Berlim [5], Fashion Design is essentially transdisciplinary in that it develops the “clothing-individual-society” relationship, which promotes the development of the designer as a creator and professional agent of social change. In a study developed in 2018, Souza, Marques and Broega [9] carried out a survey of Portuguese higher education institutions that have Fashion courses focused on sustainability, and the authors found that almost none of these courses have this focus, with sustainability being a transversal or isolated theme in subjects, but rarely a guiding theme for the constitution of a higher-level course. Mendes [3], when analyzing education for Fashion Design, carries out a brief study in which he points to France as the starting point and the creative center of professional courses in the area of Fashion, through ESMOD, and the author also found the same result that had already been pointed out by Souza, Marques and Broega [9], that is, the inexistence of the guiding theme of sustainability in fashion education. In the opinion of Rissanen [17], a systemic change is needed from Fashion Design as it is known today to a sustainable Fashion Design, and, according to the author, this change must take place in the classroom, where the development of creative leadership must be promoted. Rafael Cardoso [18], in his book “Design for the complex world”, addresses issues consistent with the theme of transdisciplinarity in the teaching of Design, even without mentioning such terminology. Among the approaches taken by the author are those related to teaching the values of environmental responsibility and social inclusion, which are mentioned by several authors, namely Berlim [5, 6], Fletcher and Grose [19], Manzini [12], among others, and which are current topics and are of supreme importance for the creation of new projects and products. Cardoso [18] emphasizes that the themes are often approached as discourse, “with beautiful slogans attached to the design practice in a more decorative than effective way” [18, p.136]. In part, this confusion generated in Design students occurs since they are presented with two opposing universes: the business, which yearns for an increase in consumption, and the environmental, which deals with the decrease in consumption. The conflict generated directly affects future designers and their projects, requiring an approach capable of reconciling these two needs, consumption, and sustainability. As said by Cardoso [18], this is perhaps one of the most complex and difficult issues to be faced by design students in the 21st century, and education professionals are responsible for the serious and in-depth development of ethical and sustainable subjects in Design courses, not only as theoretical and philosophical approaches, but also as practical ones, through the experimental development of sustainable, ethical and social projects and solutions, consistent with the practice of transdisciplinary methodology. The theoretical teaching of Fashion Design can come to seem utopian when focused only on authors placed in the classroom environment, therefore, it is necessary to make connections with real examples and, preferably, recent ones, connecting subjects and facilitating the perception of the content [17]. Timo Rissanen [17] perceives creative leadership as being a matter of great importance regarding the education of a fashion designer,

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as it can generate a change in the Fashion system, making it more sustainable. The author also mentions that it is from the ideals of creative leadership that the education of a fashion designer gains new roles in three different perspectives: designer-facilitator, solving problems in the manufacture of products; designer-educator-communicator, transmitting information inside or outside the classroom; and designer-activist, who uses design to fight for social and/or political causes.

3 The 7 Facets of Essential Knowledge of Edgar Morin Applied in the Teaching of Fashion Design When enrolling in an educational institution students aim at learning new knowledge and mastering specific instruments, both for personal and collective development, as these institutions are places of cultural and economic reproduction because they have sociological, political, and economic functions in their structure [20]. Universities, colleges, and institutes of higher education have as their main role to foster the critical vision and knowledge of their students. For the French anthropologist, sociologist, and philosopher Edgar Morin [11, p.18], “the University preserves, memorizes, integrates and ritualizes a cultural heritage of knowledge, ideas and values, because it is responsible for re-examining, updating and transmitting it”. Because it is a field linked to erudition and knowledge, the educational system must always be in constant renewal, adapting to what is happening in the global society. For this reason, Teodoro [2] states that it must be a reflection of the period we live in, with its problems and particularities. Therefore, critical analysis must be a constant present and must also always be a feature of higher education, so that the subjects addressed in the academy are relevant and in accordance with society. Severino [21] also corroborates this thought by stating that, during the university course, the absorption of content in a mechanical way, memorizing rather than questioning, is not acceptable. It can be said, then, that, because it is linked to society, the university is a political institution. It is not possible to dissociate educational activities from economic, behavioral and sustainable trends, as this is how knowledge is generated and becomes a cultural and ideological agent within a society [8]. This happens because, as stated by Morin [11], knowledge only has relevance when it is inserted in some context. The university has a duty to generate knowledge, ideas, and values, enabling an autonomy of conscience and stimulating problematization so that, therefore, investigations are in constant development in an open and plural way [11]. It is at the university that knowledge is frequently being revisited, analyzed, reshaped, and transmitted. Education is supposed to benefit the skills of the mind, so that intelligence is stimulated in accordance with its particular skills. The subjects were created in the 19th century, and later developed with the aim of systematizing scientific knowledge as a form of organization and delimitation of thoughts, through a methodological and didactic vision, with the purpose of transmitting it to students [1, 11]. This teaching method is used until the present day, but it brings with it the downside of not stimulating the development of intelligence, making learning difficult [1]. The organization of themes into subjects creates its own barriers, creating its own language and concept and separating the subjects from each other. It is therefore necessary to open these borders and merge issues for a

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broader and more complex vision, meeting the ideas of interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity, which take into account everything that is contextual to them, being at the same time open and closed subjects [11]. Interdisciplinarity has a concept that varies according to the context in which it is inserted, therefore, with regard to this study, it is defined as the ability of the subjects to communicate with each other, while maintaining their individuality, that is, the capacity to address the same theme in different areas [1]. It emerged at the same time that the world was beginning to understand how the connection networks that emerged with globalization worked, and it was the first sign for educators that there is a connectivity between the subjects, although their autonomy is still preserved [22]. Appearing as the evolution of interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity is the most complete and most suitable form for teaching, as it represents the communication and interconnection of subjects in a circular manner and with different references, being able to project notions that are at the same time complementary and antagonistic [11]. Nicolescu [23], in “The Transdisciplinarity Manifesto”, explains that the prefix “trans” refers to what is at the same time in the subjects, through and beyond any subject. The interconnected view of the various themes covered in the most varied subjects makes the receiver of information, in this case the student, have a broad vision and know how to correlate the themes covered in the subjects instead of thinking about the subjects only in an isolated way. Transdisciplinary thinking uses classical thinking, but considers it restricted. This is because disciplinary research concerns only one level of content, while transdisciplinarity is interested in developing content generated from several different sources at the same time. Although it is not a new discipline and cannot be considered a hyperdiscipline, it uses disciplinary research and reproduces it under a new perspective, with disciplinary and transdisciplinary research being, then, complementary types of research [23]. In the words of Santos [24], transdisciplinary learning encompasses mental, emotional, and bodily dimensions, creating greater student involvement in the construction of meanings and maximizing learning. It is in this context of discussion of the role of universities and the need for an education reform that Edgar Morin [11] proposes the discussion of the seven facets of essential knowledge. Considering that Fashion Design, as well as other teaching subjects, and as mentioned above, deals with economic, human, ethical, moral, social, and sustainable values, it is possible to develop a discussion and propose a reflection on the teaching of Fashion Design for sustainability based on the seven complex lessons of Morin. It is based on these theories that Morin [11] emphasizes the need to “ecologize” the subjects, taking into account cultural, social and contextual factors related to the subject in a transdisciplinary context, that is, through cognitive schemes characteristic of transdisciplinarity, generate “complex networks of inter, poly and transdisciplinarity that operate and play a fruitful role in history” [11, p.51], as a way to develop communication between subjects, also characteristic of transdisciplinarity. The seven facets of essential knowledge developed by the author were created when he was asked by UNESCO to write a text that reflected on the problems of education for the 21st century, with Morin reaching “the conclusion that there are seven black holes in the French education system, not only in high school or university, but in all known education systems” [11, p. 80].

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Next, a parallel is made between the seven knowledge of the author and the teaching of Fashion Design for sustainability: • 1: Detecting error and illusion In this first knowledge, Morin leads us to reflect on what knowledge is and on the production of knowledge, even though knowledge, as word and action, permeates all teaching. It is in this sense, of knowledge inserted in teaching, that Morin glimpses the first fundamental problem, and education should respond to “our aspirations, not only of men and women of the third millennium, but of human beings” [11, p.85]. For the author, it is important to teach for the world, a place through which knowledge permeates and is passed on, through information that circulates through various media, such as the internet, social networks, newspapers, books, etc. Transposing this knowledge to Design, it can be understood through Manzini [12] that institutions must create an environment for designers, companies, organizations and citizens capable of training human beings able to deal with the complexities of the world, but above all, capable of “combining their own needs and requirements with sustainability criteria” [12, p28]. Authors such as Berlim [6] and Fletcher & Grose [19] also make this reflection, emphasizing the need to build human, ethical and philosophical knowledge associated with technical and strategic issues in the field of fashion design education. • 2: Principles of pertinent knowledge To Morin, pertinent knowledge refers to how knowledge is disseminated, it does not refer to quantitative values, since we are bombarded by information from the moment we wake up, but about the quality and capacity of connection between different types of knowledge. According to the author, “pertinent knowledge is not founded on sophistication, but on an attitude that consists in contextualizing knowledge” [11, p.86]. In this sense, to facilitate the understanding of pertinent knowledge, Morin makes a comparison with cognitive psychology and mentions the example of translated foreign words, where one must identify their meaning in a dictionary, as well as understand the multiple meanings that exist in the word, in order to know how to put it correctly in the sentence. On the other hand, it is important to understand the sentence as a whole, so that we can use the best sense of the word, that is, in the opinion of Morin [11, p.86], “the word has the phrase as its context and the phrase has the speech, the text, as its context.” The example given by the author refers to contextualization and the ability to make pertinent knowledge possible. Also, through the author, it can be understood that the pertinent knowledge must be taught through open subjects, which provide simultaneously the “analytical and synthetic knowledge of the parts reconnected to the whole and the whole reconnected to the parts” [11, p.87]. In other words, it is understood that pertinent knowledge has the essence of locating different information, from a global and local context, enabling the construction of a transversal knowledge.

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In the teaching of Fashion Design, there are several subjects that address sustainability in Design as an isolated subject or as an infrequent theme, rarely addressing it as a central and transversal theme. This means that there is no development of relevant knowledge, which led the research to show the possibility of developing transversality in the teaching of Fashion Design, since, as mentioned by Bürdek [4] and Cardoso [18], the discipline of Design, by itself, already has this transversal character. Krucken [25] understands that it is not enough for the teaching of Design to be based on transdisciplinarity, having sustainability as a philosophy and practice, but it is also necessary for the designer to have a transversal conception of Design as a subject. In this sense, Krucken [25] concludes that transversality would be the way to connect different types of knowledge, articulating different fields, variables and areas, which implies, for the designer, “a new attitude towards knowledge, both in its production and in its communication and learning” (Gallo, 2001 apud [25, p.23]). This issue, transversality, could be deepened through Morin, who defends transversality as the contemporary teaching model capable of answering the questions relevant to the future of society, and which Manzini [12] refers to as being the “genetic code” of Design. For Morin, relevant knowledge is not taught in institutions, hence resulting in the second fundamental problem identified by the author. • 3: Teaching the human condition With this third knowledge, Morin alerts us to the lack of knowledge about our identity as human beings, since this knowledge is fragmented into specific and disconnected areas, as already reported in second complex lesson and described by the author in the speech below: “At the university, biological man is identified through the study of the brain; the spirit is analyzed by psychology, and culture and the sciences of religions form the aim of sociology. All this is entirely separate, disjoint and disintegrated. The central problem “Who are we?” is entirely absent.” [11, p.88]. The point of view expressed by Morin refers to the need to teach human complexities in the most diverse subjects, as a way to deeply understand human beings and their needs. The teaching of human values in Fashion Design can be expressed through Edelkoort [26], who refers to the need to understand human needs dated throughout history, the relationship between artifacts and our evolution as beings and its relationship, in turn, with technology. In this sense, Edelkoort [26] cites the example of the need to teach craft techniques associated with teaching Fashion Design. For trends researcher Li Edelkoort [26], handicraft has always been part of humanity, having been born from human needs, therefore, handicraft has a human historical constitution to sustain itself in the future. In Design, references from history and arts and crafts have always been present, as inspiration in the

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designer’s imagery universe and as techniques for product development. In general, handicraft applied directly or indirectly in Design has always been present, as well as it has developed with the technologies of the environment, passing from manual development to mechanized development, as in the case of textiles. “The demand for design has been explosive in recent decades, expanding our imagination and generating a huge appetite for new experiences in a world that is already full of consumption” [26, p.63], which, for the researcher, represents the need for reflection and rethinking Design in the sense described by her as “the (non) sense of design”. In the last century, Dormer [27], when writing about modern design in the 21st century, talked about the need for designers to question themselves about the impact of their work on the environment and society, issues that define the need to rethink design processes, relating them to issues that permeate the existential issues of the human being. • 4: Earth identity In this fourth fundamental problem, Morin proposes a reflection on the lack of respect for human understanding, that is, “understanding the human being not only as an object, but also as a subject” [11, p.92]. For the author, in no institution are we taught to understand each other, as different human beings, endowed with different cultures, even if, according to Morin, we have access to some “manuals”, the human cultural factor is very difficult to understand. Defending this position of teaching human understanding, we refer back to Manzini [12], Fletcher and Grose [19] and Edelkoort [26], who in their dialogues reflect on the need for design to teach designers human understanding, not only as a key factor in the development of new products, but, above all, as agents of social change. Manzini [12], in his book “Design for social innovation and sustainability”, builds his study based on human interactions between designers and creative communities, reinforcing that in this interaction and exchange the relationship between Design and well-being is important. For the author, the well-being associated with Design arises when designers develop the ability to unite personal references, called by Morin [11] as self-knowledge, with academic references. For both Morin [11] (self-knowledge) and Manzini [12] (well-being), the union of knowledge promotes the development of human understanding from the perspective of lifestyle, cultural and ethical values, social relations, political contexts and consumer goods. • 5: Confronting uncertainties For Edgar Morin, teaching is focused on teaching certainties, even though through teaching man is taught to question and search for answers regarding unknown issues, for the author, it is still necessary to learn to face uncertainty. According to Morin, “the acquisition of uncertainty is one of the greatest achievements of consciousness, because the human adventure, from its beginning, has always been unknown” [11, p.99]. With this sentence, the author points to two instruments

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associated with uncertainty that must be taught, which thus represent the fifth fundamental problem: 1) it refers to building an awareness of risks and hazards, and of assuming human and cultural challenges; 2) teach and understand the strategic design, knowing how to use and modify behaviors based on new information and knowledge. Among the factors of uncertainty that one must know how to deal with, Morin refers to the ecology of action, which is inserted in social and cultural environments, and which will depend on several factors and actors for it to occur and be understood. The fashion industry can cause environmental and social impacts in favor of sustainability at various points in the process of developing a garment, from the choice of the fiber that will be used to the way in which the product can be discarded, thus changing, through Design, the mode of operation of the business in this area [19]. These changes, made on a large scale, would affect several layers of the fashion industry, which is not an easy thing, as they move away from the consumer culture and bring into discussion their role in society, generating uncertainty about how they would work and how they would be accepted. Another challenge related to the insertion of sustainability in the various layers of the processes of creating a Fashion product arises from the difficulty of supervising the various production chains. Fletcher and Grose [19] mention the fact that the supply chains in the fashion market are so big, that designers and brands are not aware of who the raw material producers are, for example. For this reason, in 2005, Fairtrade was created, with the aim of generating opportunities for workers and producers who are harmed by the traditional trading system, in addition to maintaining geographical production boundaries and generating a relationship between designers and manufacturers. • 6: Understanding each other With this sixth fundamental problem, Morin presents problems associated with the contemporary world and globalization, especially human and cultural values, where, according to the author, we need to teach the integration of the different cultures existing on Planet Earth. This reflection has as its starting point the need to be aware of the historical factors that have occurred since the 15th century, from the navigations, through colonization, slavery, world domination by the West, until arriving at the capitalist model and economic exploitation. Morin points to the difficulty of “understanding our time because there is always a delay in consciousness with regard to the event experienced” [11, p.101]. For a better understanding of the concept proposed here, Morin cites the Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset, who refers to the fact that we do not understand what is happening and, also, to the sense of acceptance of non-understanding, which Morin describes stating that “we live without understanding what we live” [11, p.101]. Concluding this dialogue, Morin proposes that we understand the world (at least) so that we don’t have “a mutilated and abstract vision”, mainly of the demographic, economic and moral factors of the world.

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The approach to this fundamental problem envisioned by Morin can be transcribed into fashion through cultural appropriation, which is a constant process present in the creative artistic production of Fashion, belonging to the designer’s universe to search for cultural, artistic and historical sources. It is through an incorrect process, without a predominance of ethics and sustainable values, that everyday cultural crafts “become symbols of distinction between dominant cultural groups, losing their original value, history and meaning, representing only a demand for consumption” [28, p.20]. This phenomenon is not current, and neither is the fact that artisan communities remain relegated to the popular, peripheral and community classes, while their work and cultures gain prestige through the creative representation of another actor. Heleno and Reinhardt [28] claim that it is possible to observe an increase in manifestations around the problem, seeking a reaffirmation of identity and culture. In 2017, The Fashion Law [29] published a vast article denouncing the cultural copies around the handicraft and textile culture of the Guatemalan people, in a similar way to what happens with the “inspirations” coming from the Maasai tribe, highly profitable for brands like Louis Vuitton and Diane von Furtenberg. In the search for cultural and historical recognition, the community of Kaqchikel Maya, Guatemala, seeks respect and ethics from designers and brands, asking weavers to be consulted and recognized for the creations of prints and patterns, since the weavings and patterns of this community are already recognized as cultural heritage. Through ILO (International Labour Organization), the UN have been acting to guarantee the right to recognition and prevent copying, that is, the creations and inspirations of brands belonging to the member countries of ILO are subject to the rules regarding the consultation of the use of patterns and recognition of the inserted cultural artistic value [29]. In the same article, the case of the French brand Isabela Marant is also mentioned, which, in its spring/summer 2015 collection, used a print from the indigenous people of Oaxaca, Mexico, which demanded recognition of the work. • 7: Ethics for the human genre With this last knowledge, Edgar Morin presents the problem of ethics on a human scale, which the author understands as an essentially important problem to be solved. Ethics on a human scale is understood as the facts that we are human beings and individuals, that we are part of a society and also that we are a fragment of a species. As described by the author, this triad is essentially complex, antagonistic and, at the same time, complementary to each other, which constitutes us as human beings, individuals who are part of a society and belonging to a species. In this sense, the ethics associated with the individual/society and individual/species axes permeates the concept of democracy, through the system of who controls and who is controlled by it, with ethics in the human gender axis associated with the perspective of civilizing the Earth through the concept of terrestrial citizenship. Reflecting on the subject, Morin reveals that there is “a gigantic cause, even though many of us consider that there are no longer great causes as in the past” [11, p.103].

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The author concludes stating that there is still hope, as there are few individuals who identify these ethical causes, become aware of and seek to change the human ethical scenario. In this context, it is important to remember Papanek [14], who, since the 1970s, has defended the need for Design to be centered on man, ecology, and ethics, defending an open position that designers must have an ethical and social posture, stating that “the only importance, in Design, is its relationship with people” [14]. For the author, Sustainable Design is correlated with moral factors, where alternative technologies, material cultures and local production should be the focus of attention. Lipovetsky [30, p.12] calls for “a return to ethical practices or, at least, a strategic change for industry and society regarding environmental, social and sustainable challenges”. Richard Wolff [31], American professor, economist and Marxist who works in the area of methodological developments for economic and social changes, defends the need for a change in the economic and social system, based on education with ethical and sustainable principles.

4 Discussion and Conclusion It is our understanding that the approaches taken by Edgar Morin, when mentioning the seven fundamental problems of education, can be related to the teaching of the values of environmental, social and ethical responsibility. Such issues were also mentioned throughout the research by several authors, such as Berlim [5, 6], Fletcher & Grose [19] and Manzini [12], among others, as they are topics that are currently being discussed and are of paramount importance in the training of new designers and in the constitution of new projects and products. Cardoso [18] emphasizes that the themes are often approached as a discourse, “with beautiful slogans attached to the design practice in a more decorative than effective way” [18, p.136]. In the opinion of Fornasier, Martins and Demarchi [32], the fragmentation of the contents in the subjects of Fashion courses, followed by the segmentation of the contents, contributes for the students to have difficulty in managing the acquired knowledge, often failing to relate the fragmented subjects and form a solution to problems related to project design. Understanding these adversities in the teaching of Fashion Design, and aware of Morin’s observation regarding the problems of education for the century, there is an opportunity to re-discuss the teaching of Fashion Design, in order to insert transdisciplinarity, making sustainability not only a theoretical reality, but, above all, a practiced one. From the point of view of Fletcher and Grose [19], for the ideas and practices of sustainability in Fashion to be truly transformative, the teaching of Fashion must cross the classroom barriers, that is, experimentation and teaching must occur through active methodologies. They develop this idea, of “building knowledge through experience”, exposing the need to acquire knowledge through experiences that go beyond academic and scientific studies, which the authors call “one of the four forms of knowledge: experiential, testimonial, propositional and practical” [19, p.183]. Corroborating with the authors’ discourse and confirming the educational development through methodologies that follows similar proposals to Morin’s seven complex lessons, the Centre of Sustainable Fashion (CSF) [33], which is part of the London College of Fashion, is an example of

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a good practice. It has, in its methodology, three main pillars, which are the development of academic research, the exchange of knowledge and sustainable educational practices, through social, cultural, economic, environmental and sustainability perspectives. The Centre of Sustainable Fashion explains, on its platform, that they “believe that education for sustainability is a catalyst for changes in societies, cultures and economies” [33]. Concluding his speech, Morin alerts us to the need for “audacity and courage to start reforming education” [11, p.103], so that a future can be built based on ethical, human, and sustainable values. Furthermore, the author and philosopher pays attention to the need to identify social needs as a primordial factor within complex thinking. Even though it is challenging, from the point of view of a new perspective of teaching Fashion Design that is different from the historical teaching mode, it is important to understand the need to train fashion designers able to deal with the problems and paradigms of the fashion industry. We also understand that the seven complex lessons of Edgar Morin applied in this context, of the teaching of Fashion Design for sustainability, provide solid and human foundations so that future professionals can develop creative communities, re-establish the value of cultures and historical crafts in a collaborative way and, above all, face the great humanitarian and planetary crisis in which we find ourselves. Thus, we understand that the study proposed in this article is composed of a broad and complex character, which provides new strands of thoughts and dialogues for teaching of Fashion Design focused on sustainable and ethical values1 .

References 1. Queiroz, C.T.M.D.: Do estilismo ao design: Os currículos do bacharelado em moda da Universidade Federal do Ceará [Doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal do Ceará-Programa de Pós-graduação em Edução Brasileira]. UFC Campus Repository (2014). http://www.rep osito-rio.ufc.br/handle/riufc/8687 2. Teodoro, J.O.: O ensino do Design de Moda em Portugal: contribuição para uma análise crítica da educação para a sustentabilidade. Master dissertation, Universidade de Lisboa (2013). http://hdl.handle.net/10451/12184 3. Mendes, F.D.: Educação de moda para o futuro: desenvolvimento sustentável nas dimensões social, econômica, ambiental, cultural e geográfica. EACH/USP, São Paulo (2017). https:// doi.org/10.11606/9788564842304 4. Bürdek, B.E.: História, teoria e prática do design de produtos. Editora Edgard Blücher, São Paulo (2006) 5. Berlim, L.: Transformações no campo da moda: crítica, ética e estética. Doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (2016) 6. Berlim, L.: Moda e sustentabilidade: uma reflexão necessária. Estação das Letras e Cores, São Paulo (2012) 7. Christo, D.C.: Designer de moda ou estilista? Pequena reflexão sobre a relação entre noções e valores do campo da arte, do design e da moda. In: PIRES, Dorotéia (Org), Design de moda olhares diversos. São Paulo, editora: Estação das Letras e Cores, pp. 27–35 (2008) 1 To create this article, the brazilian version named “Educação e Complexidade: os setes saberes

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Technology Epiphany and Knitwear Design. Critical Perspectives and Possible Applications Giulia Lo Scocco(B) Dipartimento di Design, Politecnico di Milano, Via Durando, 10, 20158 Milano, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. This paper aims to frame the concept of Technology Epiphany (Verganti 2011) by relating it to the connections found in the recent literature concerning the field of Knitwear Design (Affinito, Conti, and Motta 2017). Furthermore, starting from an interpretative vision of Peirce’s semiotic triangle, as applied to the contemporary design context (Zingale 2020), this article aims to propose a critical analysis of some aspects of the concept of Technology Epiphany, envisaging a practical application in the field of knitwear design. Keywords: Knitwear design · Design driven innovation · Additive manufacturing

1 Introduction This paper explores the relationship between technological innovation and knitwear design, questioning whether there is a process of reciprocal influence which involves these two elements. In recent years there has been a growing interest in knitting, a textile technology that is very prolific in terms of processes, materials, and possible applications (Karmon et al. 2018). Typically, textile innovation is associated with the creation and manipulation of materials, capable of responding to changing conditions through their structural composition. Advancements in knitting technology too are considered pivotal factors for innovation in the field of textiles, as they allow knitted artifacts to reach increasingly refined customization levels. But is it there a different level of innovation to prefigure for textiles and knitwear in particular? In the attempt to answer this question, in the following paragraphs the prerequisites for contextualizing the concept of innovation in the field of knitwear design will be investigated. On the one hand, some historical examples where innovation was market-driven will be examined. On the other hand, this contribution will consider how, in the contemporary scenario, innovation in the knitwear field is mainly driven by technology and its advancement (technology-driven approach to innovation). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 209–219, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_16

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The discourse goes on to analyze what could be the impact of a design-driven approach to the area under examination, dwelling on the concepts of inventive abduction and technological epiphany, setting them in the current context of the knitwear manufacturing industry.

2 Knitwear as a Design Challenge Knitwear, as a technique for producing a textile element, has long been associated with the idea of manual and hobby work. Even after the introduction of industrial looms in the 16th century, the manual element remained very much present (Conti 2019). Since the end of the 1970s, with the advent of CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Knitwear, i.e. the introduction of electronic knitting machines (Fig. 1), there has been a sudden shift from a scenario marked by the high level of craftsmanship of individual producers to a prevalence of the technological element over the manual one (Conti 2019).

Fig. 1. Example of a CNC knitting machine

In the contemporary industrial scenario, any knitted artifact is produced on digitally programmed machines through sophisticated software and the manual contribution of the individual operator is reduced to a minimum (Anishchenko 2021). So called aguglieria (hand knitting, made with needles or crochet hooks) is nowadays almost exclusively the preserve of the luxury segment of clothing production (Brown 2013) in search of a rediscovery of the ‘slow’ craft tradition or, on an entirely different level, it finds ˇ application as an artistic expression in the so-called knitting art (Pavko-Cuden 2017; Steed 2016). In the light of these considerations, the designer approaching the field of knitting requires specific technical training and can hardly disregard the knowledge of the technology used to create the final artifact (Matkovic 2010; Motta 2019). On the basis of these premises, this paper intends to highlight how knitwear design today represents a very fertile design terrain (Conti2019). The design challenge lies in understanding how a piece of clothing, a design object or even an architectural element can be made starting from a yarn.

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In this sense, contemporary knitwear is, to all intents and purposes, counted among the additive manufacturing techniques (Kaspar et al. 2021; Westerlind and Hernández 2020), the so-called additive manufacturing, an industrial process used to manufacture three-dimensional objects, designed from a virtual model and opposed to the traditional system of manufacturing by subtraction of materials (Gebhardt 2011). A typical example is the so-called 3D printers, which use a digital model to create a three-dimensional object by adding layers. The operation of an electronic knitting machine follows a procedure very similar to that of such printing systems and is therefore the subject of great rediscovery by universities and companies precisely because it is able to fit into the broader discussion on additive manufacturing.

3 A Brief History of Innovation in the Field of Knitwear Taking the textile industry as a reference, there are many cases in which a technological innovation has emerged as a consequence of the diffusion of a certain stylistic need or vice versa (Matkovic 2010). Below are three historical examples of the market-driven and technology-driven approach characterizing the industrial development of the knitwear sector, which took place mainly in England from the 16th century onwards (Aiken 1861). The invention of the first knitting loom (Fig. 2) by William Lee in 1589 occurred at the peak of the Elizabethan fashion of wearing long fine stockings made from a variety of very fine knits.

Fig. 2. William Lee’s stocking frame

This type of weaving was difficult to produce by hand as the fineness of the knit made the weaving operation particularly long and complex. Therefore, the demand for this product was bound to remain largely unsatisfied. This fact was taken as an inventive starting point by the Reverend William Lee, who developed a loom which, by speeding up the knitting process, was able to mass-produce the coveted knitted item. Lee’s loom was a huge commercial success and was in effect a watershed in the history of the textile industry (Hills 1989).

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Another significant example of how fashion influenced knitting technology is the introduction of the so-called tuck presser (Fig. 3) made in 1763 by John Morris.

Fig. 3. a) frame presser; (b) tuck presser; (n) needle; (c, h) tuck; (d) stitch

This device allowed several loops to be worked on the same needle in order to create openwork patterns simulating the effect of traditional lace fabrics (Matkovic 2010). During the 18th century, the demand for garments such as gloves, stockings, hats, handkerchiefs, or ornaments such as cuffs, ruffs, collars made of lace fabric was very high. In this case, too, the market could not satisfy the demand and lace was only used by the upper classes. Morris’s invention succeeded in offering a different technique for the production of such fabrics, less expensive but just as refined as the traditional type. Instead of being woven on warp and weft looms, the new material took the form of a knitted lace. This invention became the starting point for similar constructions and even today electronic knitting machines feature a tuck presser device. Based on these examples, Matkovic (2010) observes that, at the same time, fashion often ignored the possibilities offered by the technological innovations of the time. Thus, in some cases, technological advancement suffered abrupt setbacks due to a sudden drop in demand, while certain technologies were taken up and developed decades or even centuries after their original introduction. For example, the fashion for floral and brocade fabrics in the 18th century was behind the introduction, revolutionary for the time, of a device installed on the textile loom that could make the needles move independently (autarkic) within the working bar. This innovation, initially introduced in 1769 by Josias Crane and J. P. Porter, was not immediately applied due to a change in the stylistic dictates of the time, which were beginning to move towards more minimalist fabrics1 . The commercial success of Crane and Porter’s invention arrived almost a century later with the introduction of CAM, a device that selects the needles to be used, which is installed today on all modern knitting machines and without which it would not be possible to produce patterns of various kinds on a knitted fabric.

1 Specifically in men’s fashion, the so-called English way of dressing involved the use of fabrics

without patterns or complicated embroidery, a predominantly monochromatic design and the use of soft colors in matching shades (Matkovic 2010).

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3.1 Towards a New Framework of the Craft Dimension Throughout the nineteenth century and most of the twentieth century, innovations in the knitwear sector were, in a certain sense, limited to the efficiency of production technology, neglecting the design phase and its prerogatives. Consequently, the role of knitwear designers has long been underestimated by companies, but even more so by the school system, which has only recently introduced specific training for this figure (Motta 2019). At the end of the 1970s, with the advent of analogue technologies in the textile machinery sector, there was a sudden paradigm shift towards the figure of the knitwear designer. Design has thus become an indispensable element in the knitwear creations of fashion houses around the world (Conti 2019). However, this has not coincided with a renewed reliance on a design-driven approach, as the figure of the artisan designer has been joined, and to some extent overlapped, by that of the technical programmer. The digital has therefore separated the moment of creation, by the designer, from that of realization, by the technical programmer (Eckert 1997). In this regard, as Sennett pointed out in his essay The Craftsman (2008), such a progressive abandonment and de-qualification of the craftsman’s work brings with it the risk of separation between hand and head and, the idea of encouraging such a divorce, could lead to a phenomenon of inhibition of the development of the industrial sector in question. According to Sennett’s analysis, the more the craftsman practices, the more he acquires a practical mentality aimed at analyzing the possible and the contingent. Through constant practice, he experiences material creation, internalizing it and resisting the phenomenon of reducing his work to a relationship between objects, forgetting the intersubjective structures of mutual recognition. On the contrary, he finds in the same material working activity those relationships, with himself, with others and with traditions, which contribute, according to the author, to make a man free. In this scenario, it is essential to maintain a relationship of mutual collaboration and influence between design and technology (Heskett 2005, Matkovic 2010), highlighting how in the contemporary knitwear industry there is an unexpressed potential deriving from innovations in the field of textile machinery, which struggle to find new applications outside the clothing sector.

4 Inventive Abduction Applied to Knitwear Design In the light of the above considerations, it is appropriate to inquire how to innovate the content of meaning in the field of design and in particular in the field of knitwear design. Where and when does innovation arise in the contemporary production scenario of knitwear design? In order to answer this question it is useful to resort to the concept of inventive abduction, a form of reasoning that relates an antecedent and a consequent through a so-called mediating image, a sort of mental vision, which invents a possible world, different from the state of things that currently exists and therefore able to prefigure

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a recombination of the available data that takes us towards new levels of meaning, what Kauffmann identifies in the expression of adjacent possible2 2. The designer proceeds to a reformulation of the existing objectuality through the projection of possible similarities, identifying what could be and prefiguring the presence of an absence of something possible, yet to be achieved (Zingale 2015). All artefacts before being designed are, in fact, absent and possible. Design is, therefore, an iterative process that ranges from problem to project, from project to artefact, from artefact to user (Zingale 2012). Following this reasoning there is, then, a concatenation of three elements that are all always necessary: intention, form and objective (Zingale 2012). The need to reestablish the centrality of the user becomes evident if the process of data analysis is approached from Peirce’s semiotic triangle (Fig. 4). According to his view, a concept is formed in our mind via three interconnected elements: a sign, an object and an interpretant.

Interpretant

Representamen (Sign)

Object

Fig. 4. Peirce’s semiotic triangle

The sign is what can be perceived or sensed, in other words it is the world as filtered by the sensor. The object is what pertains to the sign and consists of the physical object itself. The interpretant is the acquaintance that the observer gains about some sign-object relation. “Consider what effects, that might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object” (Peirce, CP 5. 402). By integrating Peirce’s triadic vision in the discourse, it is possible to observe how innovation in design always arises in a dialogical and, in a certain sense, collective context, as it connects different levels of meaning: the meaning intended by the designer, the meaning expressed by the product itself, and the meaning understood and made its own by the user (Zingale 2020). Consequently, the meaning of a ‘designed’ product is 2 Kauffman’s expression is taken up in Steven Johnson’s book Where Good Ideas Come From.In

the case of prebiotic chemistry, the adjacent possible defines all those molecular reactions that were directly achievable in the primordial soup. Sunflowers and mosquitos and brains exist outside that circle of possibility. The adjacent possible is a kind of shadow future, hovering on the edges of the present state of things, a map of all the ways in which the present can reinvent itself (Johnson 2010, p. 31).

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given by the interaction of these three elements. If it lacks even one of them, the overall meaning would partially lose the sense attributed to it by their interaction, losing the triadic perspective at the basis of the Peircean semiotic triangle (Bonfantini 1987). In the final analysis, the meaning of a designed object is to be found not only in the nature of the artifact itself, but also, and especially, in the future effects or consequences that it is capable of producing. 4.1 Technological Epiphanies and Quiescent Meanings Depending on the approach taken, innovation can be driven by three different elements: the technological one (technology-driven innovation), the market-driven one (market-driven innovation) and the one taking design as a reference point (design- driven innovation) (Rampino 2012). On some occasions, a particular type of design-driven innovation could be generated by analyzing in depth the possibilities offered by new or old technologies (Norman 2010). Technologies, in fact, often offer far more opportunities and possible applications than those initially imagined by their first developers (Dell’Era, Altuna, Magistretti, and Verganti 2017). When innovation arises from the revelation of such dormant meanings, hidden in technologies, what Verganti (2011) defines as Technology Epiphany occurs. In particular, according to the author, a Technology Epiphany arises from the interaction of two different approaches to innovation: Technology Push on the one hand, and Design Push on the other. The Technology Push approach refers to an attitude to innovation based on the breakthrough of a new technology that favors the development of products that are more efficient than those used in the past. The new technology is usually embedded in objects and results in a renewed use of these objects. The Design Push approach, on the other hand, focuses on radical changes in meaning that manufacturers want to put into products. According to Verganti (2020), therefore, a Technology Epiphany occurs precisely when these two attitudes converge in a single innovation strategy on the part of the client company. In a more recent paper, the same author deepens the issue of opportunities, so called latent or quiescent, contained in existing technologies when applied in markets other than the one in which they were originally launched (Magistretti, Dell’Era and Verganti 2020). In this case, an epiphany occurs when the developers of a given technology, or even new players, suddenly recognize a different, hitherto dormant opportunity in an already developed and marketed technology. The opportunity revealed in the epiphany may not require higher technical performance, but merely an application of the technology itself in a completely new field. So, what is the right approach to unveil such new meanings? According to the authors, new technological opportunities can be unlocked by exploiting two dimensions: the temporal one and the spatial one. Temporal discovery aims at revealing what the new application opportunities of a given technology might be, with respect to activities or products within the same market segment. Spatial discovery, on the other hand, examines a given technology and aims

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at transferring it to so called adjacent users, i.e. those operating in different sectors of activity (Magistretti, Dell’Era and Verganti 2020). 4.2 Technology Epiphany and Knitwear Design. The Case of Zaha Hadid’s KnitCandela Computationally controlled machine knitting offers an alternative manufacturing technology to other additive manufacturing techniques that can rapidly produce textile objects characterized by breathability, lightness and pleasantness of touch (Albaugh, Hudson and Yao 2019). Flat knitting machines are engineered to produce three-dimensional shapes with little human intervention. Specifically relying on this aspect, some authors (McCann et al. 2016; Karmon et al. 2018) compare industrial knitting to 3D printing in the attempt to present it as part of the broader debate on additive manufacturing. Computational knitting could greatly benefit from this possible incorporation, taking advantage from the many contributions available in other fields to further develop and refine tools for its digitalization process. Over the years, electronic knitting machines have been optimized for the mass production of clothing, totally ignoring possible applications in different areas. If we try to combine the concepts of technological epiphany and spatial discovery in the field of knitwear, we can envisage new application scenarios for its manufacturing technique. There are several examples of academic studies or research companies, in which the knitted element has been interpreted in sectors such as furniture, automotive, biomedical (Underwood 2009), up to the design and realization of an architectural structure with knitted materials, as demonstrated by the challenging construction of the Knit Candela Pavilion (Fig. 5) in Mexico City by the Computational Design Group of Zaha Hadid Architects (ZHCODE) together with the Block Research Group of the Institute for Technology in Architecture of the EHT Zurich (Popescu et al. 2020).

Fig. 5. Knit Candela Pavilion, a tribute to the Spanish-Mexican architect and engineer Felix Candela. The inside of this sculpture was made using a special 3D knitting technique developed at the ETH Zurich.

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KnitCandela is a reedy, undulant, concrete waffle shell based on a flexible formwork knitted fabric that serves as shuttering. In addition to this knitted structure, the sculpture is supported by a primary load-bearing formwork made of cables. The five tons structure has a surface area of 50 m2 and was poured on a flexible cable-net and knitted fabric formwork, with a final weight of only 55 kg. The fully shaped and double layered 3D-knitted formwork’s shuttering was produced following a digitally generated knitting pattern. The production lasted just 36 h and was realized on a conventional CNC knitting machine. Due to the lightness of the materials, transport to the construction site was easy and compact, allowing them to be carried in a suitcase. Zaha Hadid’s experiment of a new construction system has proven ecologically conscious as the stay-in-place mould used for this complex structural geometry produced nearly no waste. “The minimal foundations and scaffolding required to realize KnitCandela’s formwork give a glimpse of how the formwork for such expressive forms of significant size (50 m2 ) can be designed, fabricated and realized with a minimal footprint, in a very short period of time (three and a half months) and at low cost.” (Popescu et al. p. 200).

5 Conclusions An analytical reading of the concepts examined so far, reveals how the logic at the basis of the definition of Technology Epiphany partly overlooks the dimension of meaning given by the level of understanding and meaning made by the final user of a given artifact. It is therefore useful to ask how the final users interpret the product itself, what characteristics they consider to be essential, and consequently what type of meaning they might seek in a knitted product other than a garment. If, as mentioned, the dimension of meaning attributable to an object can be defined as dialogic and iterative (Zingale 2012), we cannot consider meaning or sense as an element resulting from only one of these three moments. On the other hand, a triadic vision of the meaning of a ‘designed’ artifact leads us towards a dimension of greater complexity, starting from the intention of meaning intended by the designer, but at the same time in dialogue with the product, which produces new effects of meaning, which in turn are interpreted by the users. These effects, if on the one hand lead back to the product itself, on the other lead to hypotheses about the designer’s intentions, in a constant oscillatory movement. In other words, new ideas, as well as what is defined as radical innovation, are always found in a so-called common mind, constituted by the convergence of the interaction of the three subjects or design moments and their different dimensions of meaning. Starting from these considerations, knitwear design will be able, in the near future, to find interesting design ideas even in sectors very distant from those to which it was originally associated.

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References Affinito, L., Conti, G.M., Motta, M.: New vision on Knitwear design. How the traditional craft methodologies are evolving into fashion international scenarios. Desi. J. 20(sup1), S2760S2770 (2017) Aiken, J.B.: Treatise on the Art of Knitting: With a History of the Knitting Loom: Com prising an Interesting Account of Its Origin, and of Its Recent Wonderful Improvements, New York, Franklin N, H. (1861). https://archive.org/details/treatiseonartofk00aike Albaugh, L., Hudson, S., Yao, L.: Digital fabrication of soft actuated objects by machine knitting. In: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1– 13, May 2019 Anishchenko, M.: Bespoke knitted textiles for large-scale architectural projects. In: Paoletti, I., Nastri, M. (eds.) Material Balance. SAST, pp. 75–82. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-54081-4_7 Bonfantini, M.A.: La semiosi e l’abduzione, Bompiani, Milano (1987) Brown, C.: Knitwear Design. Laurence King Publishing, London (2013) Conti, G.M.: Design della maglieria. Strumenti e Metodologie progettuali, Lupetti, Mi lano (2019) Dell’Era, C., Altuna, N., Magistretti, S., Verganti, R.: Discovering quiescent meanings in technologies: exploring the design management practices that support the development of technology Epiphanies. Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag. 29(2), 149–166 (2017) Eckert, C.: Intelligent support for knitwear design. Open University, London (1997) Gebhardt, A.: Understanding Additive Manufacturing. Hanser Publishers, Munich (2011) Heskett, J.: Design: A Very Short Introduction, vol. 136. Oxford University Press (2005) Hills, R.L.: William Lee and his knitting machine. J. Text. Inst. 80(2), 169–184 (1989) Johnson, S.: Where Good Ideas Come From. The Natural History of Innovation. Pen guin, New York (2010) Karmon, A., Sterman, Y., Shaked, T., Sheffer, E., Nir, S.: KNITIT: a computational tool for design, simulation, and fabrication of multiple structured knits. In: Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Symposium on Computational Fabrication, pp. 1–10, New York, June 2018 Kaspar, A., Wu, K., Luo, Y., Makatura, L., Matusik, W.: Knit sketching: from cut & sew patterns to machine-knit garments. ACM Trans. Graph. 40(4), 1–15 (2021) Lewis, P.: William Lee’s stocking frame: technical evolution and economic viability 1589–1750. Text. Hist. 17(2), 129–147 (1986) Magistretti, S., Dell’Era, C., Verganti, R.: Look for new opportunities in existing technologies: leveraging temporal and spatial dimensions to power discovery. Res. Technol. Manag. 63(1), 38–48 (2020) Matkovic, V.M.P.: The power of fashion: the influence of knitting design on the development of knitting technology. Textile 8(2), 122–146 (2010) McCann, J., et al.: A compiler for 3D machine knitting. ACM Trans. Graph. (TOG) 35(4), 1–11 (2016) Motta, M.: Designing Knit Designers, Franco Angeli, Milano (2019) Norman, D.A.: The research-practice gap: the need for translational developers. Interactions 17(4), 9–12 (2010) ˇ Pavko-Cuden, A.: Multiple faces of contemporary hand knitting. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 254(19), 1–7. IOP Publishing (2017) Peirce, C.S.: Collected papers of Charles sanders Peirce, vol. I– VI, C. In: Hawthorn, P., Weiss, J.P. (eds.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1860–1911) Popescu, M., Rippmann, M., Van Mele, T., Block, P.: KnitCandela-challenging the construction, logistics, waste and economy of concrete-shell formworks: making resilient architecture. In: FABRICATE 2020: Making Resilient Architecture, pp. 194–201 (2020)

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Rampino, L.: Dare forma e senso ai prodotti: il contributo del design ai processi d’innovazione. Dare forma e senso ai prodotti, Franco Angeli, Milano (2012) Sennett, R.: The Craftsman. Yale University Press, New York (2008) Steed, J.: Hand Knitting in a Digital Era. Bloomsbury Publishing, London (2016) Underwood, J.: The Design of 3D Shape Knitted Preforms. Melbourne, RMIT University, School of Fashion and Textiles Design and Social Context Portfolio (2009) Verganti, R.: Radical design and technology epiphanies: a new focus for research on design management. J. Prod. Innov. Manag. 28(3), 384–388 (2011) Westerlind, H., Hernández, J.: Knitting concrete. In: Bos, F., Lucas, S., Wolfs, R., Salet, T. (eds.) Second RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication. DC 2020. RILEM, vol. 28, pp. 988–997. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-49916-7_96 Zingale, S.: Interpretazione e progetto. Semiotica dell’inventiva, Franco Angeli, Milano (2012) Zingale, S.: This is my Design. Lo spazio dell’abduzione nella progettualità. In: M. A (2015) Bonfantini, R., Fabbrichesi, M., Zingale, S.: Su Peirce, pp. 257–268. Bompiani, Milano Zingale, S.: Design o progettualità? Il progetto come trasformazione inventiva, Ocula, Occhio semiotico sui media, rivista 21(24), 51–72 (2020)

Where is Textile Design in Portugal? Interlace the Past to Weave the Future Sónia Seixas(B)

, Gianni Montagna , and Maria João Félix

CIAUD, Research Centre for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário do Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This study is part of research in design and aims to reflect on the scenery of higher education in textile design in Portugal and the challenges of the sector. The textile industry is facing new challenges with increasingly complex problems, to which are added the dimensions of sustainability, circular economy, digitalization, and the need for decarbonization. Given this scenario, new ways of working are required from textile designers, and it is important that higher education in textile design follows these changes to prepare them for these new challenges. A literature review and data collection were carried out, interconnecting and crossing the different research topics, to stimulate reflection and bring new perspectives on the object of study and understand what key skills the textile designer needs to practice his profession. It aims to reflect on the importance of the relationships between the different actors in the value chain and how they can coexist. The study concludes that there are key skills for the textile designer to respond to these challenges. The offer of higher education in textile design in Portugal is limited and should be complemented by a specialized offer in textile design to prepare these professionals, in a close relationship between industry and academia, to become active members of a circular economy weaving a textile economy of the future. Keywords: Textile design · Higher design education · Designer skills

1 Introduction The practice of developing textile products has always been present in Portuguese culture, it is an inseparable part of the engine of national industry. The textile and apparel industry is one of the oldest in Portugal and remains one of the largest and most important national business sectors, representing one of the most relevant spheres of the national economy due to the creation of wealth and employment [1]. In the latest data from the National Statistics Institute of November 2021, the textile and apparel industry has increased its export volume by 16% compared to November 2019, representing an export value of 5.4 million euros, despite the pandemic Covid-19, indicating the importance that this industry has for weaving the Portuguese social and economic [2]. Despite its positive balance, the textile industry is in a process of change. It is heavily criticized for its less positive impact on the environment and the amount of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 220–237, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_17

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waste produced [3–5], and the fashion industry in 2018 produced approximately 2.1 million tons of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) [6]. It is imperative that circular economy, digitalization and decarbonization practices are incorporated into this industry [5, 7, 8]. The entire production chain must be considered, from fiber to product usability and disposal [9–12], with different actors responsible for adopting circular and sustainable practices. According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, a sustainable circular textile system will be one that is restorative and regenerative through design and that benefits the economy, society and the environment, by demanding indispensable and systemic changes throughout the value chain. Textile designers play an important role in the selection of materials and processes that significantly determine the environmental and climate impacts of textile products in their life cycle [5, 8]. Textile designers can play a key role in building a new strategic positioning by incorporating circular economy concerns into the creative process, promoting a new mindset and attitude throughout the value chain [7], and designing textile products for longer useful life by encouraging their reuse, repair, recycling or disassembly. Higher education in textile design should provide future textile designers with a set of skills and ways of thinking [13–15] that will enable them to find circular solutions to help the textile industry in this urgent change. Problems are becoming more complex, the world is constantly changing, new environmental, economic, cultural, ethical, and social challenges are emerging and it is important to reflect on the mission of design and on the role of academia in preparing these professionals. In this sense, it is important to analyze and rethink the curricula of higher education in textile design to equip textile designers with skills in the fields of sustainability, circular economy, digitalization and society, with a vision and systemic thinking to become active members of a circular economy involved in a textile economy of the future [7, 16]. In Portugal, of the six existing fashion and textile undergraduate courses only one higher education institution has integrated the designation “textile” into its training program, namely the “Fashion and Textile Design” program from the Higher School of Applied Arts, Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute [17]. However, this does not mean that the contents that belong to the universe of textile design are not covered in the other offerings, but they are not part of the “core” of the curricula. Portugal has a long history in the textile industry, therefore it is important to analyze the relevance of a higher education offer focused on textile design, which can help this industry to face the new challenges and continue to be an industry that generates wealth and employment. So, where is higher education in textile design in Portugal? It seems to have always been a “poor relative” of fashion design, or unglamorous in its charm. The objective of this study is to understand the lack of this gap in higher education in an industry that creates wealth and employability. As a counterargument, it can be argued that there is training in textile engineering and that it fills the gap, but where is the creativity inherited from the Bauhaus in the textile field, the only workshop that has survived during the temporal existence of the school. To weave the future with the inspiration and wisdom of the past the designer must always be aware that he is somehow recreating the world when he engages in a design project [18]. He must consider and incorporate concerns about environmental, social, ethical, and cultural values without

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compromising the ecosystem [14, 19]. In the search for sustainable solutions and in the relationship between production and consumption there is an urgent need for a change oriented towards the circular economy. The concern for the future is imposed by the haunted reality of the planet [20], which can be seen in design as a valuable contribution to the creation of new products that appeal to equity in the distribution of resources [21]. Through the literature review and data collection, linking and crossing the different research topics, it was possible to define some guidelines for higher education in textile design and identify the key skills that a textile designer must have to respond to the challenges of the sector.

2 Interlace the Past 2.1 Cross the History of the Portuguese Textile Industry The textile industry was established in Portugal in 1836 [1] telling a long history. The latest data on the textile and apparel industry provided by the Portuguese Textile Association (2019) show that this industry is responsible for about 10% of national exports, 19% of manufacturing employment and 8% of manufacturing turnover, making it significant to the Portuguese economy [22]. The Portuguese textile industry began its industrialization process at the end of the 18th century and was associated with the Industrial Revolution, which began in England and was characterized by the transition from manufacturing to mechanical industry. The technological progress was decisive for the beginning of the Portuguese manufacturing system and the changes in family and social life, because until then the textile industry was essentially artisanal. In the last quarter of the 19th century, the national textile industry was already organized in an industrial system, due to the development of design and weaving techniques, industrial schools were founded to teach textile arts [23]. At the beginning of the 20th century, the textile industry, more specifically the cotton industry, became the most important economic factor in the national economy, followed by the wool industry [23, 24]. During the Portuguese political period of the “Estado Novo” (1933–1974), measures were taken to create vertical factories that covered the main production sectors in the spirit of industrial restructuring. In the 1950s and 1960s, the state intervened directly or indirectly in the industrialization process, either in the form of financing or in the form of economic and political protection [24]. In the 1960s, the Portuguese economy opened up to liberalized European markets based on low labor costs, which was considered a new industrial cycle and made the country one of the world’s largest exporters of textiles and clothing as it was known for its excellent price-quality ratio, leading to Portuguese economic growth. The Portuguese textile industry was at the forefront of the growth of the Portuguese economy [23, 24]. In the 1970s and 1980s, the textile industry developed its activities due to geographical proximity and cultural affinity, and especially due to comparatively lower labor costs than in other parts of Europe. In the late of 1980s, the sector was modernized with the support of the Portuguese State and the European Union through various modernization and incentive programs [23, 24].

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In the 1990s, market globalization set in, forcing companies to become more competitive at all levels, nationally and internationally [24]. In fact, the Portuguese textile industry has a centuries-old history and continues to be an industry that drives the Portuguese social and economic weaves [1, 2]. Looking to the future, the sector faces new challenges with the digital economy, sustainability, circular economy and decarbonization at the forefront [1, 7, 24] and the role of academia should be intervening in the preparation of textile designers, future professionals in the sector but also citizens to help the industry address to face these problems that are proving to be more and more complex. 2.2 Cross Education in Textile Design in Portugal The first attempts to train qualified industrial workers occurred as early as 1836, but it was not until 1852 that industrial education was made official by a decree with a section dedicated to the preparation of industrial education. In 1844, two industrial schools were founded to teach the textile arts, having the Portuguese State hired foreign technicians for this purpose: the Marquez de Pombal Industrial School in Lisboa and the Campos Mello Industrial and Commercial School in Covilhã, the latter offering a course in weaving in 1890–1891 [23]. Between 1916 and 1918, the reform of industrial technical education emerged, linking secondary education to three types of schools: Industrial Schools for the training of skilled workers; Applied Art Schools for specialized training in the industrial arts; and Arts and Crafts Schools for empirically trained workers and craftsmen receiving basic training [25]. At that time, António Arroio (1856–1934), who made an undeniable contribution to industrial education in Portugal, argued that technical education should be divided into two areas - industrial and artistic - and he believed that industrial education should be given in two schools in Porto and Lisboa for this area only. From 1940 and during the political period of the “Estado Novo”, technicalprofessional education was introduced through the inclusion of professional training courses in the industrial, commercial, and decorative arts areas. In the field of textile education, four-year training courses in “Weaving Technician” were introduced in Covilhã and Porto; complementary training courses in “Mechanical Weaver” and “Spinner”, also four-year courses, were introduced in Guimarães and Covilhã; and the “Tapestry Workshop” was introduced in Oliveira de Azeméis, Bragança, Évora and Viseu for practical classes. Also, specializations in “Dressmaker”, “White Clothes Dressmaker”, “Milliner”, “Embroider-Lacemaker”, “Embroidery Drawer”; training courses in “Sewing and Embroidery” and “Chemical Laboratory Assistant”; “Darning”, “Lacemaker” and “Embroider” workshops (Table 1) [26, 27]. In the field of design, instruction took place in two technical and professional schools, the Soares dos Reis School in Porto and the António Arroio School in Lisboa, supplemented by informal learning through professional practice in a studio. Given the driving force of the individuality of the discipline, the creation of an identity of design claiming its own place in teaching, the IADE - Faculty of Design, Technology, and Communication, developed in 1969 the first Portuguese school focused on the specific and advanced education of design [25].

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Table 1. Graduation course in support of the Portuguese textile industry from 1940 (Seixas, 2021). Graduation course to support textile industry

Localization

Weaving technician

Covilhã and Porto

Mechanical weaver

Guimarães and Covilhã

Spinner

Guimarães and Covilhã

Tapestry workshop

Oliveira de Azeméis, Bragança, Évora and Viseu

Complementary graduation Dressmaker

White clothes dressmaker

Milliner

Embroider-Lacemaker

Embroidery drawer

Sewing and embroidery

Chemical laboratory assistant

Darning

Lacemaker

Embroiderer

In 1980, the inseparable relationship between - product, production, and design already consolidated in Europe emerged in Portugal and it is when design education was officially introduced allowing its further development and detachment from architecture and engineering [28]. At this time, vocational training centers were also created with the task of developing vocational education courses for the needs of the textile and apparel industry, considered the central axis of the Portuguese economy. In 1975 the first undergraduate course in Textile Engineering was created at the University of Minho, and in 1991 the first undergraduate course in Fashion Design was created at the Faculty of Architecture of the Universidade de Lisboa, which was launched in 1992 [29, 30], assisting in the last decade of the 20th century to a proliferation of schools in the field of fashion and textile design across the country. Currently, the existing higher education undergraduate courses related to the analyzed sector meet the needs of the fashion and apparel industry, but as for the needs of the textile industry, the response of the academia is reductive to the preparation and training of textile designers. It is important to introduce specialized training in textile design in higher education covering the fields of sustainability, circular economy and digitalization, to meet the urgent challenges of the industry. 2.3 Cross Design Education Design education is inextricably linked to the influence of what is considered the first existing design school in Europe, the Staatliches Bauhaus, better known as Bauhaus (1919–1933). The Bauhaus was born in Germany in 1919 from the merger of two other pre-existing institutions in Weimar, the Academy of Art and the School of Arts and Crafts, whose leadership was entrusted to architect Walter Gropius in 1919. Their goal was to bridge the gap between art and industry and design education was integrated

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into art education [31, 32]. The teaching structure focused on a pedagogy of “learn by doing”, with interdisciplinary work in the workshops that prepared students for practical training through the designing objects with functional characteristics to respond to the need of everyday life [33]. The textile projects were one of the works developed by the institution. The weaving workshops attracted highly talented women such as Anni Albers (1889–1994), Margarete Willers (1883–1977), Gunta Stölzl (1897–1983) and others who became textile artists and designers. The workshops were the heart of the Bauhaus program, some were shortlived, but the weaving workshop was the only one that survived from the beginning to the end of the Bauhaus and was seen as adding value to the school [34, 35]. Stölzl became an official teacher at the weaving workshop, acquired several weaving machine systems and directed learning toward an industrial nature resulting in a leap toward industrial design, a systematization of the creative process [34]. It was from Walter Gropius, who believed that art and technique should be worked in fusion and that design should be considered as a unified activity [36], can be traced to the creation of an industry-oriented professional type, today’s industrial designer who has mastered not only the formal but also the technical language, thus bringing about a change in the professional practice of the traditional artist/craftsman. The Bauhaus provided the impetus for design pedagogy which was consolidated in the post-war period with the Ulm School (1955–1968), namely the Hoch-schule für Gestaltung (HfG) [32]. The HfG was known for believing that design had an important social role to play. The school influenced the theory, practice, and teaching of design [37] with a curricula that reflected the importance of the technical and scientific disciplines, including an industrial design department focused on the study and immersion of creative methodologies [31]. Despite the achievements of the textile sector due to the Industrial Revolution, which allowed the development of machinery and technology, the influence of the Bauhaus in Portugal was not felt in design education until the 1950s, as the industry was late to approach design.

3 Data Collection and Analysis The author of this study organized an OpenTalk seminar in May 2019 [38] to discuss the future of higher education in fashion and textile design in Portugal, bringing together experts from the sector who highlighted gaps, namely the lack of professionals in textile design. Based on the literature review that allowed us to understand the new challenges for the textile industry and to identify how the academia can intervene in the preparation of textile designers, a survey and analysis of the Portuguese higher education offer of undergraduate courses in fashion and textile design, as well as interviews with experts from the sector, were carried out in order to understand what kind of professionals in textile design Portugal trains and what are the real needs of the industry of the sector.

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3.1 OpenTalk with Stakeholders OpenTalk, held as a seminar in May 2019, brought together a panel of experts from the sector (Table 2) to discuss the future of higher education in fashion and textile design in Portugal. Table 2. Characterization of the speakers (Seixas, 2019). Type of business

Function

Textile industry

Head of the Innovation and Development Department

Textile industry

Company manager

Fashion and Textile industry

Consultant and Fashion Creative Director

Training company

Company manager

University of Minho

Teacher

Higher School of Design, Cávado e do Ave Polytechnic Institute

Teacher and Course Director

Fashion brand

Fashion designer

Fashion accessories brand

Fashion designer

The results have shown that relationships between academia and industry are still tenuous. They need to be strengthened to allow the creation of specialized profiles that meet the challenges of the sector, including textile design, where demand exceeds supply. Regarding the key skills that designers in the sector must have, speakers mentioned in-depth knowledge of materials, processes, production, marketing and management, in addition to the field of design. Speakers pointed out the importance of adopting a

Fig. 1. OpenTalk-first panel of speakers: the opinion of industry (Seixas, 2019).

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teaching-learning strategy with a strong practical component, “learn by doing”, “knowing how to do it”, including learning in a working context so that students can understand the reality of the industry [38] (Figs. 1, 2).

Fig. 2. OpenTalk-second panel of speakers: the opinion of higher education institutions and designers (Seixas, 2019).

3.2 Analysis of the Offers of Undergraduate Courses in Fashion and Textile Design in Portugal Higher education in fashion and textile design is still quite young in Portugal. There are six undergraduate programs, four of which are public and two of which are private. Only one higher education institution integrates the designation “textile” in its educational offer, the course in “Fashion and Textile Design” of the Higher School of Applied Arts, Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute (Table 3) [17]. Table 3. Undergraduate courses in fashion and textile design in Portugal (Seixas, 2021). Higher education institution

Acronyms

Undergraduate Courses

Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa

FAUL

Fashion Design

Higher School of Applied Arts, Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute

ESART

Fashion and Textile Design

University of Beira Interior

UBI

Fashion Design

School of Art and Design

ESAD

Design with a specialization in Fashion (continued)

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Higher education institution

Acronyms

Undergraduate Courses

University of Minho

UMINHO

Fashion Design and Marketing

School of Communication, Architecture, Arts and Information Technologies University Lusófona

ECATI

Fashion Design and Production

The analysis conducted revealed that all institutions include in their curricula curricular units that deal with the universe of textile design, whether in terms of materials, laboratory, studio or project (Table 4) [29, 30, 39–42]. Table 4. Curricular units in curricula related to textile design universe (Seixas, 2021). Higher education institution

Curricular unit

Higher School of Applied Arts, Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute

Textile Design I and II Knitwear Design Textile Materials and Technologies Studio and Textile Production Studio Materials Computer Aided Textile Design Project

University of Minho

Textile Materials and Processes I, II, III and IV Textile Design - Fabrics and Knits Textile Design - Printing

University of Beira Interior

Fabric Design Laboratory Knitwear Design Laboratory Color and Ennoblement Laboratory Creative Textiles Laboratory Fashion Materials

School of Communication, Architecture, Arts Textile Materials and Processes and Information Technologies - University Printing Lusófona Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa

Fashion Materials I and II

School of Art and Design

Materials Laboratory

In a percentage analysis, ESART is the higher education institution that integrates a greater relevance of curricular units approaching the universe of textile design with

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31.67%, followed by UMINHO with 25%, UBI with 24.17%, ECATI with 8.33%, FAUL with 5.83%, and finally, ESAD with 5% (Fig. 3). However, none of the existing offerings are specifically specialized in textile design, all existing offerings deal with fashion design in parallel.

Fig. 3. Ratio of curricular units related to the universe of textile design from undergraduate courses in fashion and textile design in Portugal (Seixas, 2021).

3.3 Interviews with Stakeholders Semi-structured interviews with sector professionals (Table 5) were conducted in May 2021 to understand what key skills the textile designer must possess to practice their profession and contribute to boosting the textile industry and creating a textile economy of the future that ensures the socio-environmental well-being of the human being and the planet. Table 5. Characterization of the interviewed (Seixas, 2021). Type of business

Function

Textile Design

Individual Textile Designer and Teacher

Textile Design

Individual Textile Designer

Textile Design

Industrial Textile Designer

Textile Craftsman

Textile Craftsman and Teacher

Textile Craftsman

Textile Craftsman and Teacher (continued)

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Type of business

Function

Technological Center of the Textile and Clothing Industries

General Director

Centre for Nanotechnology and Smart Materials

General Director

Portuguese Textile Cluster

Executive director

Portuguese Textile Association

President

Portuguese Business Association

Executive Administrator

Selectiva Moda Association

Director

ModaLisboa Association

President and Teacher

The results allowed us to conclude that the textile designer must integrate a set of multidisciplinary knowledge, from those inherent in the universe of design to the more technical ones listed in the textile industry and knowledge in management and entrepreneurship. Soft skills are fundamental to teamwork. They are important for the designer because design is not an isolated activity, but a collaborative, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary activity. Interviewees pointed out the importance of these professionals having practical knowledge, “knowing how to do it”, to put into practice the knowledge acquired in academia in a real environment with concrete challenges, to better understand the application of concepts in an industrial environment (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Key skills for textile designer identified by interviewed (Seixas, 2021).

This panorama leads us to reflect on the importance of establishing a undergraduate course in textile design, to train professionals who will help the textile industry meet the new challenges. Curricula focused on textile design to collaborate with the different actors of the value chain, including fashion designers, in finding solutions to complex

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problems which is an emerging concern of the 21st century. A multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach with its different knowledge to respond to the new challenges and build a new strategic positioning for this industry.

4 Weaves the Future 4.1 The Role of the Textile Designer According to the World Design Organization, industrial designers must place the human being at the center of the process. Through empathy, they must acquire a deep understanding of user needs, bringing this into the problem-solving process and designing products, systems, services, and experiences that are user-centered. This is a transdisciplinary profession that uses creativity to solve problems and is strategically positioned in the innovation process to unite various professional disciplines and business interests. They must consider environmental, social, and economic impacts in the development process to co-create solutions for a better quality of life [43]. In order to design textile objects that meet the needs of industry, society and the user, the textile designer must consider all aspects of the product, from the aesthetic dimension to the technological aspects. Therefore, he must expand his knowledge, including the training techniques of the universe of the textile industry and integrate into the current paradigm the issues of sustainability and circular economy [44]. The textile designer plays an important role in the choice of materials and means of production when it comes to solving environmental and social problems [45]. He must be an agent of change, proposing new solutions and even new visions for the world [19], taking a more active role and contributing to significant changes in society. Design is not an isolated activity, but a complex process that involves several phases. In the search for a more sustainable textile industry and less excessive consumption of products for the benefit of the planet and the human being, textile designers must collaborate in multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary teams using their different knowledge to respond to the emerging challenges. 4.2 Textile Designer Skills Knowledge of sustainability, circular economy and digitalization are essential to the textile design profession, as they must consider the origin of materials throughout and during the creative process, which makes their work even more challenging. A multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary mindset in the search for solutions to the aforementioned current and future complex problems, in favor of the survival of the planet and the human being, taking into account the environmental, economic, social, ethical and cultural impacts, its reveals crucial [5, 7, 8]. A collaborative approach allows different perspectives to be expected and respected, enabling constructive criticism and analysis of complex real-world problems. Work together along the entire production chain designing solutions and promote a sustainable textile system that regenerates and repairs natural systems, minimizes waste and pollution, and benefits society, the environment, and the economy [5, 7, 8].

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Textile product is a complex process that involves several stages and requires continuous thinking. Textile designers should consider not only material aspects but also sociocultural aspects and place design at the center of the socio-ethical dimensions of sustainability [46, 47]. There is an urgent need to rethink the strategies used, with a more collaborative vision between industry and academia [48], in order to provide future textile designers with knowledge that meets the challenges of the sector and the needs of users, respecting the human being and the planet, with the construction of a new mentality oriented to the relationship between circular production and consumption [49]. Dual teaching could be a way to enable knowledge transfer bringing together industrial and academic practice in the same context. 4.3 Challenges and Opportunities for Higher Education in Textile Design in Portugal This article highlighted the problems facing the textile industry and listed a number of skills needed to become a textile designer to help the industry in this sector. Education in the 21st century is in a transition process and it is important to include pedagogical practices that address different areas of knowledge and integrate transversal fields such as sustainability, circular economy and digitalization in a multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary vision. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development report (2018), the skills that should be included in education to meet the challenges of the 21st century focus on creativity, critical thinking, the field of information and communication technologies, collaboration, communication and in cross-cultural understanding [50]. Design activity is about finding solutions to complex problems that are often considered undefined [51], where the problem and the solution co-evolve [52], which requires a multiple and collaborative approach in finding different solutions that adapt to different contexts. The problems are proving to be more complex, and the designer can play a more active role and contribute to significant changes in society in the development of objects and changing consumer behavior [19]. Future professionals should be prepared for the interconnected complexity of social and human behavior, behavioral science, and social and political issues [13]. Complexity, in turn, requires a change in approach to the design process from a problem-solving design model to one based on complexity thinking [53]. The result is a very flexible system that reshapes itself according to time and circumstances in a continuous dialogue or dialectical process [54]. A continuous change that incorporates the experiences of other professionals in a transdisciplinary approach where resilience and adaptability are fundamental. The new dynamic, interactive, and holistic conditions for knowledge creation, where thought and action are not separate but united, and where human communication and collaboration are based on more complex and multidisciplinary patterns, require a new curricula model in design. Textile designers must understand the existential, cultural, and social needs of their environment. They can control (or partially control) the selection of materials and production methods of textile products in close collaboration with the different actors involved

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in the process and contribute to replace harmful processes and materials for the benefit of human beings and the planet. Providing new learning experiences through the acquisition of a new way of looking at knowledge, a new way of thinking. Stimulate complex, critical, and deep thinking in textile designers to ensure that a set of social and ethical commitments are fulfilled [13, 15, 18] and needs of the sector, society, and the planet are addressed. Provide tools that enable them to adapt to change in an informed way and make future-oriented decisions in a more socially just and developed world, so that they can act as social innovators and become agents of change [55]. Textile design education should provide practical and academic knowledge to make the creative process more holistic by integrating research, theory, and practice in a real-world context. Current national fashion and textile design undergraduate courses to prepare textile designers and to collaborate in finding solutions to the above problems, are limited, considering that there is a clear opportunity to explore the importance of including a undergraduate course specializing in textile design in higher education.

5 Conclusion and Further Research The main objective of this article was to investigate and reflect on the lack of higher education in textile design in Portugal. From the triangulation of the literature review and data collection, linking and crossing the different research topics, it was possible to perceive that the textile industry is in a process of change, which includes the keywords sustainability, circular economy, digitalization and decarbonization [5, 7, 8]. There is an urgent need to restructure the production processes and the practices for developing textile products taking into account the entire production chain from the fiber to the usability and disposal of the product [9–11] in order to protect the planet and human beings. The yarn of history shows that the textile and apparel industry is one of the oldest industries in Portugal, which has gone through different phases of development evolution and difficulties, but still weaves an important social and economic fabric in Portugal [2], generating wealth and employment [1] and proving to be an industry that drives the national economy. Regarding higher education in design, there have been several attempts to make it official, but this did not happen until the last quarter of the 20th century [28]. At the same time, and in response to the needs of the textile and apparel industry, vocational training centers have emerged, responsible for designing professional education courses in the field. In the analysis of undergraduate courses in fashion and textile design, there is currently only one offering, out of the six existing, that includes the designation “textile”, namely the undergraduate course in “Fashion and Textile Design” of the Superior School of Applied Arts, Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute [17]. This analysis has also led us to conclude that the existing proposals meet the needs of the fashion and apparel industry, but that the response of higher education institutions to the needs of the textile industry in the preparation and training of textile designers is proving to be reductive. It is believed that academia should play a more active role in preparing these professionals to help the textile industry address new and future problems that are proving to be increasingly complex, but this will be difficult because of the absence of specific higher education in textile design.

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The textile designer can act as an agent of change by taking a more active role and contributing to significant changes in society [13, 19]. Textile designer play an important role in the selection of materials and processes, that significantly determine the environmental and climate impacts of textile products in their life cycle [5, 8, 45] and need to collaborate in multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary teams with their different knowledge, to respond to the challenges of the sector. We believe that the main contribution of this study to design is the importance of introducing specialized textile design education in higher education covering the fields of sustainability, circular economy and digitalization, in order to address the urgent challenges of the sector and weave a promising future. Designing a curricula focused on textile design fills an existing gap in the educational offer to collaborate with the different actors in the value chain, including the fashion designers, in finding solutions to complex problems, which is a 21st century concern. A multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach with its different knowledge to respond to emerging challenges and build a new strategic positioning for this industry, promoting a new mindset and attitude throughout the value chain [7]. Providing practical and academic knowledge to guide the creative process by integrating research, theory and practice in a real-world context. Stimulate complex, critical, and deep thinking among textile designers to ensure that a set of social and ethical commitments are fulfilled [13, 15, 18] and the needs of the sector, society, and the planet are addressed. For future studies, it is proposed to continue this analysis even further to understand what kind of curricula should be developed and proposed to train textile designers to use their knowledge for the textile industry and face the new challenges to create a textile economy of the future that guarantees the socio-environmental well-being of human beings and the planet. For this, it is necessary to begin to delicately weave a curricula based on the weaves of knowledge. This is a proposal made by the author of this study to contribute to the advancement of knowledge in this field in Portugal. Acknowledgments. This work is financed by national funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., under the Strategic Project with the reference UIDB/04008/2020 and UIDP/04008/2020, and through the individual research grant 2020.04735.BD.

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Color in Sustainable Fashion: A Reflection on the Importance of Design Education Livia Lara(B)

, Isabel Cabral , and Joana Cunha

School of Engineering, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The fashion industry has a long chain of activities and processes, with complex issues related to environmental, social, economic, and cultural impacts. Faced with the importance of color in products in contrast to the environmental impact of coloration processes, this study addresses the importance of the relationships between the field of design education and textile processes. Design education represents a way to shape and prepare professional designers and students to meet the challenges of sustainable development. This study is part of the review of a doctoral project that aims to contribute to broaden perspectives on the development of interdisciplinary approaches in the teaching of fashion and textile design for the dissemination of knowledge about ecological coloration processes. In addition, it reinforces that the introduction of practical activities, such as workshops, is part of the solution to develop skills and critical thinking about the impact of the textile process. Keywords: Sustainable fashion · Textile coloration processes · Fashion and textile design education

1 Introduction The fashion industry has a long and complex chain with critical points related to environmental issues such as excessive water consumption, global warming, high energy consumption, air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, disposal of toxic effluents and waste generation. In addition, this industry is marked by intensive work-related activities, stemming from extremely fast production cycles and a global-scale supply chain. These issues exemplify the complex relationships of environmental, economic, and social aspects necessary for the incorporation of sustainable practices in the fashion industry. The concept of sustainability was defined in 1987 as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs” in the Report Our Common Future, of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Achieving sustainable development is a main objective in most manufacturing sectors and involves actions in the production of materials, production methods, design practices and business models (Nayak et al. 2020). According to Kozlowski et.al. (2019) fashion designers are the main professionals involved in the transition to sustainable fashion. Researchers discuss new approaches to the design process that incorporate the pillars of sustainability (Karell and Niinimäki 2020). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 238–247, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_18

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Designers’ decisions are very important, several studies emphasize that decisions made during the design process have a great impact on the product life cycle (Hur and Cassidy 2019). According to Murzyn-Kupisz and Hołuj (2021) the choices made in the design process are responsible for 80% of a product’s environmental impact. Design plays a central role in sustainable development (Karell and Niinimäki 2020). Faced with increasingly complex sustainability issues, design is inevitably part of the problem and the solution (Souleles et al. 2019). Given the environmental impact of the textile coloration processes the question that arises is, how can these processes be addressed in the design practices to be part of the solution? Textile coloration processes present critical points mainly in relation to in relation to environmental degradation and social impact. This is due to the large amount of water used, energy from the burning of fossil fuels, the use of toxic chemicals and the generation of effluents resulting from the processes (UN Environment Programme 2020). This study discusses the importance of developing interdisciplinary teaching methodologies for design professionals and students, related to the environmental issues of textile coloration processes. Education in fashion and textile design represents a way to shape and prepare professionals and students to face the challenges sustainable development. Approaches to interdisciplinary methodologies in the teaching of textile and fashion design represent an alternative to develop students critical thinking and knowledge about sustainable fashion. In addition, these approaches can be introduced in companies so that professionals’ designers acquire up-to-date knowledge about ecological coloration processes.

2 Sustainable Fashion Movement The textile and fashion industry has a high impact on the environment, contributing to the global climate and ecological crisis. This sector is the second largest consumer of water, consuming 215 trillion annually. It accounts for 20% of global wastewater, between 2– 8% of global carbon emissions and 3.3 billion metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions (UN Environment Programme 2020). In addition to environmental issues, sustainability perspectives cover issues relating to workers’ rights and conditions to the economics of the global fashion industry. Due to the complexity of these issues, the sustainable fashion movement discusses the various challenges related to the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of this industry, such as the origin of raw materials, toxic chemical, production and consumption cycles, textile waste and implementation of regulations at the level of production and textile products. According to Nayak et al. (2020) the selection of raw materials/fabrics should focus on renewable materials, sourced from natural fibers, such as cotton, wool, linen, and silk or recyclable fibers, such as polyester and nylon. The authors clarify that it must be taken into account that synthetic fibers are not biodegradable and, therefore, these fibers, when chosen, must be recyclable. In addition, care should be taken regarding the use of blends such as synthetic and natural fibers, due to the degree of difficulty in recycling blended fibers compared to a single fiber (Nayak et al. 2020). The use of chemical products in the textile sector may occur at the beginning of the textile chain, in the cultivation of the raw material, but it is intrinsic to the textile

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processes, such as textile coloration. Conventional dyeing processes involve a series of steps, in which there is a large use of water and chemicals (Kumar and Pavithra 2019). It is estimated that around 2.000 products are used in textile processes (Dirty Laundry Unravelling 2011). Many of these chemicals are toxic and have significant impacts on the environment and human health (Nayak et al. 2020). These processes resulting in a toxic effluent. Other challenges refer to the pace of production and consequently the working conditions and workers. In addition, the global consumption of fashion and textile products increases exponentially each year, and this implies the production of more than 30 million tons of products per year (Chen and Burns 2006). This fast pace reflects the search for fast production and low operating costs, impelling companies to seek labor in developing countries, where regulations are reduced, and environmental awareness is limited (Nagurney and Yu 2012). In contrast to the sustainable fashion movement, which has been gaining traction due to increased consumer awareness and stricter global legislation. These movements value social, environmental, cultural, and economic responsibility for the production, distribution and consumption of fashion products (Fletcher and Grose 2011). It is very important that designers understand the concept of sustainability and reflect on how their decisions/choices will impact the textile chain. There are different approaches that can be incorporated into the sustainable design process, such as raw material recycling, product repair, durability, upcycling, and circular design (Fletcher and Grose 2011). However, sustainable product design is a complex practice. The professional must understand the problems related to the product, to select and apply the most appropriate design approaches for the project. According, Watkins et al. (2021) designers must develop skill and critical thinking to deal with conflicting situations. The authors explain that this in practice means that a decision may satisfy one specification but conflict with another. 2.1 Color and Textile Coloration Colors are used to express aspects related to society, such as identity, politics and hierarchy, and personal aspects, such as emotions, self-image, and aesthetic taste (Best 2012). According to Kodžoman et al. (2022), color is one of the most important product variables for the purchase decision. The art of dyeing is as old as our civilization (Arputharaj et al. 2016). Remains of dyed textile substrates found in different parts of the world provide evidence of textile coloring practice in ancient civilizations (Saxena and Raja 2014). Textile coloration is a combination of art and science (Van Campen 2010). Textile substrates are subjected to coloration processes with specific colorant to acquire the desired color (Nanthagopal and Jothilinkam 2017). The colorant can be dye or pigment. Dyes are complex chemicals, of natural or synthetic origin, used to impart color to the substrate textile and is soluble in water (or can be made soluble for their application), whilst pigments are insoluble (Arputharaj et al. 2016; Wardman 2018; Ratnapandian 2020). Natural dyes are derived from plant, animal, microbes, and mineral sources (Ratnapandian 2020). In the second half of the 19th century, after the invention of synthetic dyes, the use of natural dyes began to decline (Arputharaj et al. 2016). Synthetic dyes are derived from petroleum, and have advantages such as the variety of colors, low cost,

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standardized application model and repeatable chromatic results (Ratnapandian 2020). The choice of colorant substance may depend on the origin of the textile fiber, depending on the technology that will be used for the coloration process or on environmental issues involving he dye and process. The coloration process comprises several steps, such as pretreatment (desizing, bleaching, mercerizing), coloration (dyeing or printing) and finishing. Dyeing processes can be carried out loose fibers, yarns, fabrics or garments (Ratnapandian 2020). The operational sequence of the processes is different, depending on the characteristics of the textile fiber, the dye class, and the shapes of the textile substrate (Kumar and Pavithra 2019). However, in general, the coloration processes involve a series of chemical and physical reactions, for the migration, diffusion, and fixation of the dye in the textile fiber. During these steps many factors, such as time, temperature, chemicals, pH, can influence the process in achieving uniform, solid color, and colorfastness properties. 2.2 Environmental Issues of Textile Coloration The coloration processes are responsible for 20% of global water pollution (UN Environment Programme 2020), 3% of global CO2 emissions (World Bank Report 2019) and by 2050 should generate 10% of the world’s CO2 (Quantis Report 2019). Water is one of the main inputs of wet textile processes, and this makes this sector responsible for the highest consumption of water globally (Kumar and Pavithra 2019). According to Arputharaj et al. (2016) approximately 50 to 200 L of water is used to transform 1 kg of textile substrate into a product. In conventional dyeing processes, colorants and chemicals are applied to the textile substrate during dyeing baths, requiring a large amount of water (Samanta et al. 2019; Kumar and Pavithra 2019). The textile coloration process involves the use of colorants in conjunction with auxiliary chemicals, which will assist in the chemical reactions that promote coloration of textile substrate (Ratnapandian 2020). Many times, wastewater, containing unfixed dyes and chemicals, is discharged without any treatment (Kumar and Pavithra 2019; Samanta et al. 2019; Ratnapandian 2020). The effluent from dyeing processes that does not receive adequate treatment is one of the biggest concerns of the textile industry (Arputharaj et al. 2016). In addition, other relevant environmental issues such as high energy consumption and atmospheric emissions come from the dyeing processes. Awareness of the environmental impact of conventional dyeing processes drives the development of ecofriendly processes and biochemicals (Ammayappan et al. 2016). The use of natural dyes on an industrial scale is widely under development, mainly due to the benefits (Ratnapandian 2020). Saxena and Raja (2014) explains that natural dyes are ecologically correct, as they are biodegradable and renewable. In addition, the authors add that it can bring benefits to the user’s health, as it is pleasant for the skin. In addition, emerging technologies, that save energy, reduce water use, minimize the emission of polluting gases, and with improvements in process efficiency are under wide development (Nayak et al. 2020; United Nations Environment Programme 2020). According Ammayappan et al. (2016) the main technologies for ecological coloration processes are plasma, digital printing, air dyeing, nano-dye, microwave-assitsed dyeing, ultrasound-assisted dyeing and supercritical CO2 . According to Ammayappan et al.

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(2016), several specific issues should be addressed to raise awareness among designers about the sustainability of the textile coloration process, such as in-depth knowledge of chemistry, dye reaction kinetics and dyeing machinery. Furthermore, these authors emphasize the importance of creating working groups in the business context to develop and disseminate information on sustainable dyeing processes. And they reinforce the need for training and education of professionals working in the textile industry.

3 Fashion and Textile Design Education The contemporary paradigm of sustainability in fashion requires design professionals, students and educators with skills and an interdisciplinary vision to deal with multifaceted challenges. Education in sustainable product design is particularly important in higher education, where student training, education and instruction takes place before they begin their design careers in the industry (Watkins et al. 2021). The development of strategies for design education represents an opportunity to broaden perception and understanding of issues surrounding sustainable development in the fashion and textile industry. Design education aims to develop in students a set of skills for the continuous and sustained progression of thought and practice, which can be important in creating an ethical fashion system (Börekçi 2018). According to Watkins et al. (2021) to implement sustainable perspectives in the design process it is necessary to develop specific knowledge and skills. In the study carried out by these authors, specific skills were described as the ability to adapt methods to evaluate decisions in the process, in relation to social and environmental impact. In addition, the ability to understand the concept of sustainability, circular economy, and product life cycle (Börekçi 2018). The combination of design practices with sustainability perspectives evolved from the recognition of the importance that designers have of contributing, both positively and negatively, to the impact of fashion on the environment (Souleles et al. 2019). Souleles et al. (2019) refers to the transition from design education to design practice. Faced with sustainable issues in fashion, it is essential to incorporate methodologies that allow a deeper understanding of textile processes. According to Watkins et al. (2021) teaching sustainable design can be based on generic or specific methods and tools, such as seminars, workshops, flipped classrooms, lectures, videos and classes online. The authors explain that teaching based on the development of practical projects is the most common method and contributes to the development of many skills (Watkins et al. 2021). While teaching through seminars allows the presentation and discussion of a topic in an interactive way, improving the assimilation of the subject/knowledge and contributing to the development of critical thinking skills (Watkins et al. 2021). The development of educational activities through practical processes, such as a workshop, contributes to expanding students’ skills. According to Pande and Bharathi (2020) teaching activities through workshops are congruent with sustainable design education. These practical teaching approaches allow students to experiment and develop reflections that lead to the construction of new knowledge and skills. In addition, this practice can be associated with other interdisciplinary design approaches. In the study

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carried out by Lewis and Stasiulyte (2022) the introduction of workshop practices was associated with the multisensory design process. In this study, the workshops contribute to expanding the skills of students. The techniques of the multisensory material used in the workshops were sensitization exercises such as listening, smelling, touching, and moving blindfolded. These sensory activities stimulated the students in the process of identifying and investigating the relationships between the senses and the different forms of the material. These activities allowed the expansion of knowledge about non-visual material experiences, through the activation of the emotional, physical, and psychological senses, which allowed students to know ways to the design process Lewis and Stasiulyte (2022). In addition, experiential design practices can also be associated from the realistic perspective of the industry, through collaborative actions between academia and industry. In the case study carried out by Cobb and Orzada (2016), the collaborative model was used for interdisciplinary interactions of sustainability in the design process. The purpose of this interaction allowed the researchers to establish a direct communication channel between professionals and the industry, engaging students in the search for sustainable alternatives in the field of indigo dyeing. The project involved the realization of an indigo workshop, where designers worked alongside master dyers. Each designer individually explored the images and history of the indigo dyeing process. However, working together allowed the team to find answers through the integration of traditional and digital design, which was beyond the scope of individual research (Cobb and Orzada 2016). Another case study that reinforces the importance of collaboration between industry and academia was carried out within the fur industry, by Lee et al. (2017). In this study, the practical activities carried out within the scope of the workshops, from a pedagogical point of view, allowed students to have direct contact with professionals in the industry and learn to prepare materials, cutting and sewing techniques. Furthermore, this interaction between industry and students reinforced the ethical education point of view. The development of practical activities allowed students to understand the sustainable industrial system in terms of living organisms and to reject the waste of fur in the fur creation and design processes. And yet, it was found that this could be an opportunity to open more creative directions for design and with concerns about the use of certain types of fur Lee et al. (2017). The integration of interdisciplinary practices proves to have powerful implications for student learning. However, this requires a shift in teacher and student roles (Harron and Hughes 2018). In the workshops, for example, the experimentation process requires the direct involvement of the student for the construction of knowledge. Teachers should be facilitators, a source of support so that students can deepen their learning (Gutwill et al. 2015; Wei 2017). From this perspective, learning becomes a multidirectional process that creates synergies between students, teachers, and technologies (Hugles et al. 2022). For the success of these approaches, it is essential that educators are engaged in the incorporation of interdisciplinary pedagogical practices (Baeza and Quinn, 2021). Watkins et al. (2021) adds that educators must have the knowledge and skills to teach about sustainable product design.

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4 Discussion The textile and fashion industry are considered one of the main sectors contributing to the global environmental impact. The discussion about the processes and methods to achieve sustainable development goes beyond the environmental impact, it extends to the social, economic, and cultural aspects of the activities in this sector. Sustainable fashion involves the combination of several factors related to materials, manufacturing processes, working conditions, labor laws, consumer behavior, decisions of professionals involved in the chain and business models. Designers are responsible for thinking, creating, and developing thousands of products every year. The decisions made in the design process are very important for the sustainable development of the industry. Therefore, designers must be aware that their choices, made during the design process, will impact the textile chain. There are several sustainable design approaches that can be used by the professional designer during his creative process. However, it is important to have an extensive knowledge about materials, production processes, textile coloration, finishing, distribution, or in other words, a holistic view of the variables that involve the textile chain. Also, it is important to develop critical thinking skills to face the challenges that may arise in the design process. Design education can be used as a strategy to develop in students and professionals a set of skills to face the challenges of sustainable fashion. Designers must develop technical knowledge about textile processes from an environmental, social, economic, and cultural perspective. For this, a variety of methodologies can be approached in teaching for the construction of knowledge, such as workshops, videos, seminars, projects. Given the environmental impact of the textile coloration process and the importance of color for products, the focus of the study discusses the importance of developing teaching methodologies in this field of knowledge. Although creativity is essential for choosing the color of a product, the sustainability of textile coloration processes must also be evaluated in the design process. As an alternative for teaching these processes, this study exposes the relevance of developing practical activities in textile coloration, so that professional designers, students, and educators can develop in-depth knowledge about aspects related to the sustainability of the processes. The coloration process comprises three steps: pretreatment, coloration, and finishing. Conventional textile coloration processes consume a lot of water, and in addition, part of the water used in the processes is discarded as effluent. This effluent, when not treated properly, is contaminated with dyes and toxic chemicals, that are not only an environmental problem but also represent a risk to human health. Therefore, the amount of water used in the process and subsequently the quality at the end of the textile dyeing process are crucial requirements to assess the sustainability of the process. Other issues with great environmental impact are the process high energy consumption, usually thermal energy is used to heat baths or remove water from textiles. The complexity of these processes opens the possibility for carrying out practical activities with various focuses of action. An ecological coloration process can be assessed during the process level and chemical product efficiency. At the process level, comparative activities can be carried out to assess methods, water consumption, wastewater quality, energy consumption and gas emissions. In addition, the efficiency of enzyme

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treatments, emerging technologies or natural dyes can be measured. The aesthetic characteristics of the color can also be evaluated depending on the colors and methods applied, such as colorfastness, which corresponds to the change in color characteristics by transferring its dyes to other textile substrates. Thus, it is very important that students and professionals understand that ecological coloration processes are the result of the balance of variables that involve the processes. Ecological coloration refers to a process or combination of processes, using non-toxic chemicals, that meets the criteria established by regulatory authorities. In addition, it incorporates a treatment/recycling mechanism or alternative techniques for the reuse of dye baths, waste reduction and effluent treatment.

5 Conclusion The concept of sustainable fashion englobes activities, materials, products, and processes that minimize the negative environmental, social, and economic effects of the textile chain. The sustainability movement in the textile industry requires trained professionals to work towards sustainable development. The role of the designer for the sustainable development of fashion, the teaching methodology in design and the role of the educator are unquestionable. The incorporation of interdisciplinary methodologies aims to arouse curiosity, investigation, critical thinking, and a problem-solving mindset in students. In this sense, this study discussed the importance of the need to develop practices to disseminate knowledge about the textile process. As an example, it focused on the analysis of textile coloration, due to the importance of color from the point of view of the product in contrast to the negative social and environmental impact resulting from these processes. The professional’s designers and students view of color must extrapolate the aesthetic aspects of the product and must encompass the environmental and social aspects linked to the textile coloration process. The introduction of practical educational methods, like workshops, aimed at explaining, developing in-depth knowledge, and critical thinking about the various stages involved in the process and the products involved in the textile coloration. Therefore, is essential part of the solution towards sustainable design practice. Finally, this study reinforces the role of educators and opens space for discussion on the need to promote activities associated with creative expression and the integration of sustainable perspectives in other areas of the textile chain. Future Perspectives This study is based on the research project under development within the scope of the doctorate in fashion design. This project aims to carry out practical activities to enhance the ecological coloration processes in fashion design. The project connects the intangible relationships of the field of design with the material activities of the textile industry. Thus, it intends to explore sustainability in fashion as a broad and dynamic process to generate knowledge, insight, and inspiration from practical teaching.

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The Cultural Identity of a Country as a Competitive Factor in Fashion Design: The Impact of Academic Education on the Construction of National Brands Catarina Rito1,2(B) , Madalena Pereira3,4 , and Alexandra Cruchinho5,6 1 UNIDCOM/IADE, IADE-Universidade Europeia, Lisbon, Portugal

[email protected], [email protected] 2 Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal 3 UNIDCOM/IADE, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 4 FibEnTech/UBI-Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal 5 CICANT, ULHT, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 6 ULHT-Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias – ECATI, Lisboa, Portugal

Abstract. This research is about cultural identity and fashion, study and understand if the symbolic character present in a culture has a functional dimension without losing its meaning. The question of identity, central to the construction of society, it seems not to concern the national fashion designers. The older generations of fashion designers are more interested in having some portuguese culture identity in their brands, such as traditional techniques or local iconography, than the youngest generation, the ones that started their brands on the second decade of this century, and have more school education, do not consider important to work or to include in their brands portuguese culture identity. The study is carried out with a mixed methodology, interventionist and non-interventionist. On one hand, it is developed a research based on bibliographical collection, on the other hand, in a second phase, the interventionist methodology is developed in a case study, specifically, the work of the designer Nuno Gama. Keywords: Fashion design · Fashion education · Country cultural identity

1 Introduction The question of identity is central to the construction of society, however, it is not a concern for most national fashion designers. This factor does not seem to be directly associated with the question of living in a time of globalization, rather an issue that seems to be absent from the basis of the concept and creative structuring of most portuguese fashion designers, perhaps due to a lack of the information obtained during the academic studies (Cruchinho 2009); or translating into a postmodern subject conceptualized as not having an essential or permanent fixed identity. Identity becomes a “mobile celebration”: © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 248–259, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_19

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continuously formed and transformed in relation to the ways in which we are represented or challenged in the cultural systems that surround us (Hall 1987). In a country where research on fashion remains deficient due to the lack of proposals aimed at studying the path of this area in Portugal, the intention of this investigation is to add knowledge about the sector, from the point of view of fashion. Thus, it became essential to use theoretical tools to allow an adequate validation with the object of study. Speaking of “identities” - personal or collective, social, local or national - raises questions of a philosophical and epistemological nature. The question of national identity began to acquire relevance, more than 50 years ago, through anthropology and postmodernist sociology, which showed an increasingly important role in research and historical-geographic interpretation (Cabral 2003). The subject of identity, for Kaufmann (2004), was consolidated in the 1960s and, although it has recently become an object of investigation in Social Sciences, this topic has been discussed since antiquity. Identity is a product of socialization, witch means that the individual is involved in several segments of the society, interconnected, such as family and the job market, guiding the individual to adopt different social roles that express these institutions (Zanatta 2011). To talk about identity is always the temptation to value what is proper, instead of cultivating the connection with the other. Identity and difference are sides of the same coin, they are like the two faces of Jano (Mathias 2007; Lourenço 2006). The writer and historian also stresses that portuguese culture is a set of multiple influences and many qualities and defects. The importance of knowing who you are and where you want to go, it is essential to be aware of the differences that characterize each culture and its value as a whole. “If there is a [Portuguese] culture with a long tradition, it is also certain that fewparticipate in it, because, for reasons of education and instruction, most of the popultion receives mainly the traditional culture of their region” (Dias 1971, p. 13). There is legitimacy to argue that the full assumption of “national identity”, on the part of numerous strata of the Portuguese population, is much more recent, most likely, than could be judged at first sight. This article aims to demonstrate the importance of valuing the country’s identity and culture to differentiate the work of the Fashion Designer. Specifically, it presents the case study of the work of the designer Nuno Gama, one of the main enthusiasts in valuing elements of our identity, namely from the Estado Novo period. The structure of the article consists, in the first part, which presents some of the most important ideas taken from the bibliographic review. The research begins with an approach to how, in an educational context, national identity is explored and valued, followed by an approach and identification of some examples of work by fashion designers that value cultural identity. Finally, we present an analysis of a case study, Nuno Gama, considered a reference for the enhancement of national identity through Fashion Design.

2 Methodology In order to carry out this research, a mixed, interventionist and non-interventionist methodology was chosen. On the one hand, the development of an entire initial research on the theme of the article through a bibliographic review. The whole context of the theme

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addresses the perspectives of some of the most representative authors on the subject. On the other hand, the interventional methodology for the involvement of the researcher in the research, analysis and development of interviews with the designer mentioned in the study. Finally, a practical research methodology by a case study identifying a designer from among the universe of national designers, who develop and present collections in the Fashion weeks held in the national territory, namely, Moda Lisboa and Portugal Fashion. Designer Nuno Gama was the one who, using a convenience sampling technique, was identified to carry out the study. This is the Designer who expressed availability to collaborate in the study and who, simultaneously, develops work using cultural elements that enhance the local identity. Finally, and after analyzing and characterizing the designer’s work, some conclusions drawn from the research are presented.

3 Academic Education Relevance for the Construction of National Fashion Design Identity Global fashion is experiencing moments of analysis, discussion, new creative approaches and consumer practices in the future. Proof of this, is what currently happens in fashion, whether italian or french, as was highlighted in this investigation. Based on Baxter’s methodology, it is important to understand and analyze the business opportunity, as it is possible to identify consumer demand and desires, as well as the differences with the products presented by the competition. Structured interviews were carried out, in which all interviewed had to answer the same questions, not allowing the interviewee to streamline or adjust the question (Kawamura 2011). In order to understand the vision of fashion designers/national stylists, interviews were carried out to understand the fundamental points for the creation of both the brand and its concept, valuing or not the importance of cultural identity. Throughout this research it became clear that the question of identity is central to the construction of society, however, it is not a concern for most national younger fashion designers, as can be seen in the responses provided in the interviews conducted for this study. This factor does not seem to be directly associated with the issue of living in a time of globalization, rather an issue that seems to be absent from the basis of the concept and creative structuring of portuguese brands themselves, perhaps due to a lack of the information obtained during the academic studies (Cruchinho 2009). Fashion that arises from urban areas, such as Lisbon and Porto, seeks inspiration in transversal and universal languages and aesthetics, not particularly national ones. Ideas that want to capture the consumer’s attention, without integrating traditional techniques and materials of iconographic reference, rather aim to find a language that is unique and identifies the project they lead. If, on the one hand, some authors argue that culture is the starting point of an essential concept to understand the true meaning of consumer behavior, associated with the personality of a society, on the other hand, the choices of the same consumer are not dissociated by cultural context in which they were assimilated. In other words, as Eduardo Lourenço (1991) points out, the portuguese have always lived doubly “alienated by the past and by foreigners, where the average

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portuguese knows their land badly, […] he is more gifted than anyone with images, myths, suggestions, delirious curiosity for everything that comes from outside”. The creativity of national fashion professionals is centered on following international trends or influences, reneging on a secondary or even non-existent plan of inspiration that has in its genesis the culture of your country, valuing the history, techniques and typical local materials that can distinguish the final product from what exists on the market. To prove this is, the designers Isidro Paiva or Olga Noronha: “What interests me in this profession of fashion designer is its multidimensional component. […] I am not at all focused on an idea of national identity, but on an idea of holistic and culturally passable design” (Paiva 2018); “I cannot say that national identity and culture is a constant in my work, […] the fact that I always tend to go more through the conceptual path and not so much through aesthetics and traditionalism” (Noronha 2018).

4 Cultural Identity in the Work of the Portuguese Designers The multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary nature of the research in fashion design is reflected in most studies published today, not separating theory from practice, but with a low level of internationalization due to the fact that cultural values, linguistic barriers and language are not considered in geographical distance (Black et al. 2013). However, it is clear to the majority of the scientific community in the different areas related to Fashion design that it focuses, not only on developing products and solutions to satisfy consumer needs, but also their desires, taking into account the aesthetic and functional characteristics and influenced by political, social and cultural factors; and which at the same time is influenced by seasonal trends. Realizing the “apparently aesthetic”, the “social attitude” and the “psychological satisfaction” was central to the French, Italians, English and Japanese, who needed to define the concept of Fashion design. For these people, Fashion is a means to express artistic ideas in the form of clothing and to present the aesthetic beauty of consumers (Au et al. 2001). Not ignoring the fact that each of these countries has adjusted the definition of Fashion design to their cultural interests, in order to enhance their identity. In this sense, Portugal has built a path that aims to value national creativity in the area of Fashion design, seeking to draw the attention of the capitals of Fashion and Fashion design, such as Paris, London, Milan and New York. Understanding whether Fashion is a reflection of a local identity, regardless of its origin, or whether Fashion is a global product, which exists derived from a popular culture that is reflected through a stratified product. In this context, some national fashion designers resort to this popular culture in a systematic or punctual way in their seasonal collections, standing out in professional fashion designers such as: Luís Buchinho, Nuno Gama, Carlos Gil, Júlio Torcato or Nuno Baltazar, the Pelcor brands, Portuguesa or the Burel Factory. It should be stressed the need to analyze that the perception that consumers have of one or more products is guided by the way in which the producing countries of origin disseminate and promote their image (Roth and Romeo 1992). The impact of a country’s image varies depending on the actors: the internal consumer has a different perception than the external consumer, due to the natural relationship of

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proximity or distance that exists between these actors. The Porto Cruz cellars carried out an unprecedented advertising campaign to exhibit in the French market, in 1985 (Fig. 1). “It was never done before in Portugal, at the time, in the middle of wine advertising. And it is a remarkable example. First, we are convinced that it was a campaign that catapulted us into the market. And then it is, without a doubt, the most important campaign that Portugal had in France ", explains the company’s general director, Jorge Dias in an interview with the GPS supplement of the magazine Saturday, on February 24, 2017.

Fig. 1. International campaign of the Caves Porto Cruz, in 1985 site - http://www.porto-cruz. com/

4.1 Traditional Techniques and Iconography: Nuno Gama Case Studie The regular presence of traditional techniques or iconographic elements in the work of national fashion designers is, in some cases, frugal, in others non-existing and in

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others recurring. Highlighting one of the fashion designers who regularly works, in his collections, the Portuguese tradition is Nuno Gama. Through collections made over more than two decades, fashion designer Nuno Gama seeks to recover techniques and symbologies from portuguese popular culture, as is the case with handkerchiefs from Viana (Viana do Castelo), bobbin lace (Vila do Conde), mix of colors alluding to the costumes of the Caretos (Trás-os-Montes) or the integration of iconographic images (religious and maritime) and national gastronomic products: pastel de nata, sardines, Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Santo António, caravels, among others (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Nuno Gama’s colection FW 19 inspired by the traditional Caretos from Trás-os-Montes, at Moda Lisboa

Nuno Gama was born in Azeitão, April 22, 1966. Early on (1984/5) started to sell his first pieces in the Mr. Wonderful chain and in the Lisbon Fashion Show. From 1986/91 studied Fashion Design at CITEX. There began his collaboration with the textile industry, developing multiple collections, national/international, awarded numerous times: António Quelas/Naf Naf; Fomentêxtil/Etecetera Uomo and Oficina da Moda. At the same time selling their collections in selected stores in Lisbon and Porto: Sospetto/Mr. Wonderful/Desfile. Only in 1993 the Nuno Gama Men & Women was registered as a brand, starting its commercialization, both nationally and internationally, counting in 1998, already with eleven national Nuno Gama stores and an international time when it had the fire and lost everything. At this stage, he was represented internationally in Paris by Deuxiéme Bureaux/Silvye Grumbach where he regularly presented his collections both at shows and at fairs such as Shem/Paris; Gaudi Barcelona; CPD, IGEDO/Dusselfdorf. Agents: Spain/Clemente Gomes de Zamora; Italy/Milan/Eo Bocci; France/Seandroom; Holland, Germany, Miami and etc. After the fire, he was invited by Commander Joaquim Cardoso, has manager of the Man department in Maconde Group. From 2008/11 began his collaboration as Creative Director of the international brand Pinho Vieira, presented

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both at Pitti Uomo and Passarela Barcelona, when he returned to Lisbon for family reasons, where he has dedicated himself ever since to his collection and which, due to the great International experience that he acquired in the male area, he specialized in men’s fashion, accessories and jewelery, at his Maison Nuno Gama concept store and teaching Fashion Design. Always and as a guest, he does not count the number of times he represented Portugal in fashion weeks, internationally. Since the beginning he has been part of the Portugal Fashion and Moda Lisboa Creators group, where he regularly presents his collections. He was also present in a series of national and international exhibitions, including Mode Gitanes at the Louvre Museum, and the exhibition Hombres de Falda in Madrid. Author of numerous wardrobes for various ballets, plays and films. On the occasion of its 50th Anniversary, it presented the autobiographical film “50’s Nuno Gama” at CCB in Lisbon and organized the Ball Nuno Gama in favor of the Portuguese Red Cross where it presented the winter collection 16/17. He returned to the French Men’s Fashion Week in Paris, presenting his collection at Galerie Perrotin. AWARDS: Golden Globe. Two, 7 Golden/Time Out/Fashion TV Awards. Three design and architecture awards best store/Lisbon. NY International Academy of Arts and Sciences. Male Personality in the Fashion Sector. Commander of the Order of Infante D. Henrique. UNIFORMS: S. João Hospital. Museums of Portugal. Portugal Telecom. Hospitality: Intercontinental, Porto/Marmoris, Vila Viçosa/, Sky Valley and Medusi, Quinta do Lago Lisbon Oceanarium, Fertagus. Recently won the public tender for the new Uniforms of Carris, Carris Metropolitana de Lisboa and for Hotel Wyndham - Quinta do Lago. PARTNERSHIPS: At the invitation of BMW/Mini, he launched the Mini Gentleman Range and QUINAS - Mini Gama Sport. Eureka shoes for more than 10 years. Fado and FiliGama tableware. Microsoft Ambassador; Rock in Rio; Samsung. He integrated the La Redoute catalog, with a small Nuno Gama collection. In the second half of 2018 the store closes in Príncipe Real (Rua do Século) and opened a new space in Rua Nova do Almada, 1, which ended up closing due to the effects of the pandemic, in 2020. Nuno Gama has a new store at Praça da Ilha do Faial, 5, Lisbon, since last may (2021). The designer’s collections are usually illustrative of an aesthetic that is closely associated with each cultural element that it represents. Thus, in the case of the SS 18 collection, we find a very intense performance on the catwalk, which goes far beyond the traditional concept of the parade. (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Moments on the runway fashion show of Nuno Gama’s SS18 collection, at Moda Lisboa

The space is invaded by different forms of artistic expression, such as music or dance, they come together around a theme - Globalist. The Globalist is the concept of this collection by Nuno Gama: “with global warming and the continuous deconstruction of the rules of the art of dress, we have evolved in the duality reminiscent of classic

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Fig. 4. SS18 Collection by Nuno Gama, at Moda Lisboa

formalism (Fig. 4) with the deconstruction of the rigidity of the structure of pieces and raw materials”(Gama 2018). The details are carefully worked in order to achieve a perfect representation of the concept, a concept that looks at Portuguese tiles and Minho embroidery. The entire construction of the collection refers to the concept and, at the level of silhouettes, shapes can be found, sometimes built, sometimes deconstructed, more evident in the coats. This deconstruction illustrates the entire painting process of the tile, which layer by bed gains shape and color (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. SS18 Collection by Nuno Gama – fabrics with different textures and colors, at Moda Lisboa

The choice of fabrics was also carefully made around this concept and the opaque contrasts with the translucent, the shine with the opaque. The colors appear in a chromatic palette of whites and blues, in an extensive range of different tones that contrast in the

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combination of all the pieces or present monochrome, so characteristic of the beginning of the tile painting. The embroidery appears in some pieces, and stand out in their symbolism. The heart is chosen as a way of representing love (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Details of pieces with motifs from Minho embroidery, SS18 Collection by Nuno Gama, at Moda Lisboa

This collection, like others previously mentioned, is very representative of the working attitude of designer Nuno Gama in seeking value and enhance the culture and local identity (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Runway show finale – SS18 Collection by Nuno Gama, at Moda Lisboa

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5 Conclusions The question of identity is central to the construction of society, however, it is not a concern for most national fashion designers. This factor does not seem to be directly associated with the issue of living in a time of globalization, rather an issue that seems to be absent from the basis of the concept and creative structuring of Portuguese brands themselves, perhaps due to a “gap in the training obtained” (Cruchinho 2009). Fashion that arises from urban areas, such as Lisbon and Porto, seeks inspiration in transversal and universal languages and aesthetics, not particularly national ones. Ideas that want to capture the consumer’s attention, without integrating traditional techniques and materials of iconographic reference, rather aim to find a language that is unique to them and identifies the project they lead. If, on one hand, some authors argue that culture is the starting point of an essential concept to understand the true meaning of consumer behavior, associated with the personality of a society, on the other hand, the choices of the same consumer are not dissociated from contextualization cultural context in which they were assimilated. In other words, as Eduardo Lourenço (1991) points out, the Portuguese have always lived doubly “alienated by the past and by foreigners, where the average Portuguese knows their land badly, […] he is more gifted than anyone with images, myths, suggestions, delirious curiosity for everything that comes from outside”. The creativity of national fashion professionals is centered on following international trends or influences, reneging on a secondary or even non-existent plan of inspiration that has in its genesis the culture of your country, valuing the history, techniques and typical local materials that can distinguish the final product from what exists on the market. To prove this are the designers Isidro Paiva or Olga Noronha: “What interests me in this profession of Fashion designer is its multidimensional component. […] I am not at all focused on an idea of national identity, but on an idea of holistic and culturally passable design”(Paiva 2018); “I cannot say that the identity national culture is a constant in my work, […] the fact that I always tend to go more through the conceptual path and not so much through aesthetics and traditionalism”(Noronha 2018). On the other hand, the posture of the oldest designers in the market, highlights the importance of reflecting the portuguese culture in their creative work, as is the case with Nuno Gama or Alexandra Moura: “I have always tried to be inspired by what is portuguese, since the beginning of my profession. I want to value the value we have before the world and help those who know how to keep our culture alive (Gama 2018); “I try to know what popular culture has created, what makes us portuguese and work on the past in a current perspective” (Moura 2018). The conclusion reached in the face of the study carried out for this investigation, based on the validation of professionals who are active in national fashion, is a different view on what is important for the formulation of the concept, regardless of whether you are portuguese or not, rather, a concern about the brand positioning vis-à-vis the global market. And also we can conclude that the oldest generation of designers, with less school degrees are much more concern in working the national culture identity, and the youngest generation, who studied already in the globalization context, are less interested or it is not an issue, in expressing identity values in their brands.

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References Cruchinho, A.I.: Design - A Construção contínua de Competências. Universidade do Minho Escola de Engenharia, Guimarães (2009) Lourenço, E.: Labirinto da Saudade: Psicanálise Mítica do Destino Português. Dom Quixote. Lisboa (1991) Lourenço, J.F.: A Invenção da Modernidade (Sobre Arte, Literatura e Musica) Charles Baudelaire. Clássicos Relógio D’Água, Lisboa (2006) Foucault, M.: Dits et écris 1954–1988. Editora Daniel Defert, Françpois Ewald e Jacques Lagrange, Paris, Gallimard, vol. 4 (1994) Moda Lisboa. www.dailymodalisboa.pt Moda Lisboa. www.modalisboa.org, images credits by Ugo Camera Zanatta, M.S.: Nas Teias da Identidade: Contribuições para a Discussão do Conceito da Identidade na Teoria Sociológica. Perspectiva, Erechim, vol. 35, no. 132 (2011)

The Metaverse Narrative in the Matrix Resurrections: A Semiotic Analysis Through Costumes Ana Claudia Alcantara(B)

and Daniel Luiz Michalack

Marquês de Ávila e Bolama, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal {ana.alcantara,daniel.michalack}@ubi.pt

Abstract. This article aims to perform a semiotic analysis of the film The Matrix Resurrections (2021), through costumes. The analysis will address the narratives of the metaverse and how this virtual scenario is impacting the image today. The research is exploratory and investigative and is based on bibliographic and filmographic references. To structure the analysis, the three main characters were selected: Neo, Trinity and Morpheus. Each character symbolizes the narrative construction about the metaverse through their costumes. The article will also address the relevance and futuristic readings that the feature film exposed today and how the new film explores the next steps of technology and people’s digital behavior. The analysis approaches Pierce’s semiotic studies, which contemplate the different signs of language. In this way, the research results in a broad reading of the costumes and their creative choices to convey the message and evolution of the characters selected for the article. Keywords: Metaverse narrative · Costume analysis · Semiotics · Fashion

1 Introduction Since its launch, the Matrix story created by directors, Lilly and Lana Wachowski, has been a success. Considered a great enigmatic event at the time, in the early 2000s, its story generated a series of reactions from its spectators, as it was a modern production with a futuristic nature. Nothing so far had been produced with this aesthetic and effects. According to Canguçu (2008) Matrix soon proved to be a considerable commercial success: the investment by Warner Bros. of $63 million netted to the company $460 million in worldwide grosses, the second highest that the company had made so far. For Canguçu (2008) part of this success was due to its technological merits, which won awards such as the Oscars in the categories of best editing, best sound mixing, best sound editing and best visual effects. These characteristics that gave awards to the first films demonstrate how the cinematographic work marked a generation influenced by the beginning of the use of technology. And as such a phenomenon still unexplored, the theories presented in the film were taken as “truth”. Living in a Matrix, what did that mean? This polysemic name can mean either: uterus, mother as a source or even a mathematical plot. Canguçu (2008) argues © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 260–268, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_20

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that science fiction fans had more clues, as the term had already been used by cyberpunk narratives such as those of William Gibson (1948), to designate an interconnected network of computers, which is accessed via virtual reality. The film became legendary, for showing a fictional universe of critical character for its time, a world where technology used humans to exist, and how the main characters wanted to get rid of this situation. More than 20 years have passed and the trilogy, until then, launches its 4th film: “The Matrix Resurrections (2021)”. Now with the technology at a developed point, and the “metaverse” at the center of current discussions, fans and critics were euphoric with the work. The creators of The Matrix had a different vision for the technology in the early 2000s, and it would be no different for the Matrix today. In this way, the current article will portray through a semiotic analysis the costumes of the movie “The Matrix Resurrections”, produced by director Lana Wachowski. And how the narrative of the “metaverse” currently impacts a technology-dependent generation. 1.1 The Fashion and Construction of Cinematographic Costumes Sant’anna (2009) understands fashion as “the very dynamics of construction of modern sociability and, as such, appearance can be understood as the very essence of this universe”. Regarding the costumes, it is a fundamental element for the artistic production that has great representation in cinema and also in fashion. This is a topic widely discussed over the decades, how cinema influences fashion and vice versa. It is possible to say that cinema was and is a vast field of communication and social discussions. According to Marques and Almeida, this relationship has complex aspects: “cinema can represent customs, portray stories lived or inspired by human experience, as well as express behaviors and feelings of individuals and societies. In this sense, cinema, fashion and clothing come together, with costumes being an important element in the film narrative”. (Marques e Almeida 2018, p.40). This argument clearly portrays the importance of costumes in the historical and dramatic construction of cinematographic works. Regarding the film under analysis, Street (2001) discusses that the costumes in The Matrix are the key indicator of the differences between real and hyperreal (Matrix) and the real (post-apocalyptic life in Morpheus). They also highlight the tension in which the pleasures of postmodernist society are abysses against the realities of a harsh future in which, paradoxically, it demonstrates the ideals of modernism, a belief in truth, a belief in a leader. Such reflections are the result of a study made through the costumes produced by the Australian costume designer, Kym Barrett (1965) in the first Matrix films. For Marques and Fontoura (2007) cinema aesthetics has two aspects: a general aspect, which considers the aesthetic effect of cinema, and a specific aspect, focused on the analysis of particular works: film analysis or criticism in the full sense of the term, as used in fine arts or musicology. These factors contribute to the deepening and argumentation of cinematographic works. As proposed by the current research, the analysis of the costumes of the movie “The Matrix Resurrections”, seeks to demonstrate how the narrative composition of the metaverse is presented in the work.

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1.2 Semiotics and Its Aspects of Analysis Reis and Almeida (2020) define semiotics as the science that investigates the system of signs and the forms of representation used to convey feelings, thoughts, ideas and ideologies. For the authors, semiotic analysis is present in several studies in order to understand the process of meaning and meaning of a given sign, as well as the existing relationships with its objects and interpreters. This relationship demonstrates the validation of semiotic analysis in exploratory studies. With such conceptions, Santaella (2007) also presents that semiotics does not study only the laws of thought and the transmission of meaning from one mind to another, or from one mental state to another, but also the general conditions of signs. Among the Semiotic studies, it is worth mentioning that there are different research/analysis strands for the foundation of the studies. Among them are the semiotic aspects: Peircean Semiotics (of signs); the Semiotics of Culture (cultural codes); and Greimasian Semiotics (from the text). For the proposed analysis, Peircean Semiotics will be used, which addresses the signs of language to interpret the costumes. From the point of view of Peircean Semiotics, sign is: “that which, in a certain aspect or way, represents something to someone. Addresses someone, that is, creates in that person’s mind an equivalent sign or perhaps a more developed sign. To the sign thus created, I call the interpretant of the first sign. The sign represents something, its object. Represents this object not in all its aspects, but only with reference to a kind of idea”. (Peirce 2000, p.46). This communication process, as exposed, depends on this movement of the sign’s potentiality to its effective interpretation in a real context of information transmission. According to Peirce (2000) signs can be classified into three trichotomies: the first, which relates the sign to itself (its internal properties, its power to signify); the second, which refers to the sign in relation to its object (what it indicates, refers to or represents); and the third, which concerns the relationship between the sign and its interpretant. In this way, performing a good reading of these phases allows a more consistent analysis in relation to the proposed study. 1.3 The Metaverse and Its Amplitude What is Metaverse? This issue is very present today, even though it is not a “new” subject. In short, Metaverse is the terminology used to indicate a type of virtual world that tries to replicate reality through digital devices. In theory, it is a collective and shared online space, constituted by the sum of “virtual reality” and “augmented reality” through the internet. The term originated in 1992 by writer Neal Stephenson (1959) when he introduced the approach in his novel “Snow Crash”. Such a work contains good ideas and glimpses of a hypothetical future that is coming true. Great writers served as inspiration for the construction of the technological reality that we are privileged to enjoy today. Lévy (2003) approaches that a virtual world, in the broad sense, is a universe of possibilities, calculable from a digital model, these references are present more and more in our daily lives.

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The possibility of a virtual world has been addressed in several science fiction books and movies. Each work contemplates its narrative, being it positive, negative or a critical reflection. With the current research, we will address how the movie Matrix worked with the metaverse in the early 2000s and how it was adapted in the 2021 release. For nowadays digital reality is plausible as we can see. More recent examples are VRChat, Second Life, Roblox and Fortnite games. But the phenomenon that is making the metaverse theme in vogue at the moment was the change of the name “Facebook” to “Meta Platforms”. This action was announced by Mark Zuckerberg (1984), with the intention of adopting the metaverse in his platform. Klastrup (2003) argues that to understand the complexity of the processes of creating experiences of the metaverses, it is necessary to consider the knowledge of online acting, the interactive narrative and cybertextual works in analysis, taking into account that these elements together create the reaction of “worldness”. For the author, this term evokes the perception of direct involvement with the “physical” world, in its habits and knowledge, which allows its inhabitants/users to feel involved and even immersed in the virtual/online world.

2 Semiotic Analysis of the Costume of the Movie “the Matrix Resurrections” For the beginning of the study, a brief introduction of the synopsis of the film and the selection of the characters analyzed will be made. Synopsis “Return to a world of two realities: one, everyday life; the other, what is behind it. To find out if his reality is a construct, to truly know himself, Mr. Anderson will have to choose to follow the white rabbit once more”. (IMDb 2021). The new film reunites original protagonists Keanu Reeves (1964), playing Neo/Mr. Anderson and Carrie-Anne Moss (1967), in the character Trinity. The story is a continuation of the 3rd movie, which ended with the peace agreement between the “Matrix” (virtual world) and the “rebels” (humans outside the Matrix). of the two main protagonists in the final battle. Until then, to give progress to the great number of fans of fiction, games, series and derivatives of the Matrix universe were elaborated. But producer Warner Bros. insisted on another film of the work. But for the new film, only the director Lana Wachowski composed the production. For the present costume analysis of “The Matrix Resurrections” (2021), the following characters were selected: Neo/Mr. Anderson, Trinity and Morpheus. The analysis will start with the main character, Neo/Mr. Anderson. For context, the new film shows that after the battle of Trinity and Neo/Mr. Anderson were reset and placed back inside the Matrix. This time the story is about the previous trilogy in an adapted format. The main character is the developer of the Matrix game. The film already starts demonstrating Neo in his work environment, as shown in the image below. At the beginning, the director addresses the reality of the entertainment/game design industry. Among the codes, the need to do innovative things, marketing and branding the public. This point is very visible in Lana’s criticism of current times and even in terms of her

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creation of The Matrix. The film has always been a reference when it comes to futurism, so for the new film, the market also demanded an established film from the director, even more so when it comes to the metaverse. But as already mentioned, the creators of The Matrix always had a perspective ahead of their time. And the analysis of the costumes will demonstrate the Director’s point of view in the work. Figure 1 below addresses the evolution of the character Neo in the plot.

Fig. 1. Scene sequence of the character, Neo. Source: Movie “The Matrix Resurrections” (2021).

The first image shows Neo inside the “Matrix” in his work as a game designer. The scene presents in detail how the technology of now for the first films has taken a leap. Then the other scenes reveal how his “new life is” “, monotonous, solitary and predictable, as can be seen in their traditional costumes. The first image below in the sequence illustrates him on the top floor of the building trying to jump. This scene demonstrates how the character’s long hair and beard connotes “Jesus the Savior”, which is Neo’s role in the previous films. In succession, the image of Neo when he knows about the Matrix and needs to make the choice between the blue and red pills, his makeup is casual, with jeans, non-social shoes and a dark coat. The last panel image brings the character out of the Matrix, the simple outfit and shaved hair display his release into the real world. Figure 2 follows the sequence of Fig. 1 and addresses the character in his second phase of transformation. After the release and rehabilitation of his memory, Neo begins to regain his identity. In the sequences, the character begins to use his longer coat, a classic model of the first films. But the adaptation points for its new version are the buttonless fit, not so marked and its low and open collar. During the second phase, the coat also increases its length starting at the knee, going a little lower until reaching the emblematic length near the foot in the final scene, as shown in the figure sequence. Another accessory that takes on the reference of the first films is the sunglasses, which reveres his entire trajectory in the Matrix and shows the power of the character. The next character to be analyzed is Morpheus, the same character from the previous films in his new version, which was also adjusted to another actor. The character is

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Fig. 2. Scene sequence of the character, Neo. Source: Movie “The Matrix Resurrections” (2021).

responsible for explaining the Matrix and freeing Neo to real life. Morpheus in the movie “The Matrix Resurrections” is the representation of the beyond of the metaverse. The film explains that after Neo’s death, he continued to believe he was the chosen one and created the Neologist religion. After years of faithfully following his beliefs, Morpheus ceases to exist and gives way to his non-human version, composed only of his consciousness in a virtual format, inside and outside the Matrix. As shown in the last image of Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Scene sequence of the character, Morpheus. Source: Film “The Matrix Resurrections” (2021).

Such a character also composes a costume attentive to the latest fashions, both in modeling, cuts and fabrics. Which demonstrates that the director placed him as a current and imposing figure. Unlike Morpheus in the early films, he has a youthful approach to both his attitudes and clothes. To give more prominence to the character, a monochromatic composition was chosen for each scene, which in each phase of the film is approached in a color consistent with the action of the narrative.

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The last character to be analyzed is Trinity, who like Neo, her love interest in the plot, was rebooted and placed back in the Matrix. Her new life is the representation of the “mature” woman. Trinity is married and the mother of two boys, in the first image of Fig. 4 it is possible to see the patterning of the character. Unlike the sexy Trinity of the first films, the director has prepared an empowered narrative for her. In the image of the sequence, Trinity already appears with a leather jacket, and with a chain on her jeans, in the scene referred to the character went to talk to Neo, whom she found in a cafe. In the dialogue Trinity reports how he identifies with the character of the game produced by him, which is a reference from the previous films, that is, his old version of her. In the following image, the character appears in her work environment, unconventional for a woman. The character has a passion for motorcycles and works with it, the scene shows her power in a place with male predominance, the denim overalls and the tank top demonstrate her adaptation. At the time of the character’s revelation about the Matrix, her love for Neo was put to the test by a false mother’s life, in the scene her children and her husband appear to prevent the character’s release, as shown in the figure.

Fig. 4. Scene sequence of the character, Trinity. Source: Film “The Matrix Resurrections” (2021).

But her instinct to be living a lie and tied to an identity that didn’t make her feel like she belonged in that place made the character break free. The figure below shows Trinity in her fully conscious state. To the surprise of the narrative of the movie “The Matrix Resurrections”, Trinity was the protagonist of the story. Unlike the previous films, the character had the power that until then was Neo’s and defeated his opponent and dominated the Matrix (Fig. 5). As shown in the images, Trinity has the ability to fly, holding Neo. Her costume clearly shows the female empowerment in her long leather suit, the silhouette of the coat is the same used in the first Matrix by Neo. This act demonstrates this possession. of place, now taken over by Trinity. Confirmation of such an act can be seen in the image

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Fig. 5. Scene sequence of the character, Trinity. Source: Film “The Matrix Resurrections” (2021).

where Neo appears holding a cat and Trinity is in front of him, showing that Neo would be the “domesticated” and Trinity the new leader. Final Considerations The present analysis demonstrated how the costumes and their compositions give voice to the character. And through this reading it is possible to identify characteristics that are not spoken in the course of the narrative. Research has shown that the Matrix is still about the future and that the metaverse may just be a path to other realities. As presented in the story, the beyond can be consciousness without the body. It sounds extremely scary, but as the first films approached a virtual reality/metaverse hitherto non-existent at the time. In this way, we can expect great and surreal things for the future, as points from science fiction have already shown to be quite possible. Another point well worked on in the narrative was the position of women today, as this position was relevant to the present. The film is a continuation of an epoch-making film. And as such, it adapted and gave shine to those who occupy a position of great struggles today, taking the image of a sensualized character to a place of prestige. In short, the film is a representation of the director, who went through a gender transition, becoming Lana Wachowski. The film represents a classic that managed to convey the present in a constructive critical way for the present times. And it has undoubtedly divided fans and film critics through its narrative and choices.

References Canguçu, C.: A construção narrativa e plástica do filme Matrix [Master´s thesis, Universidade Federal da Bahia]. Repositório Institucional da Universidade Federal da Bahia (2008). https:// repositorio.ufba.br/bitstream/ri/1162/1/Cristiano%20Figueira%20Cangu%c3%a7u.pdf

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Lévy, P.: O que é o Virtual? Editora, no. 34 (2003) Marques, A.A., Da Fontoura, C.: O cinema como difusor de tendências de moda no âmbito dos figurinos dos filmes de ficção focando no futuro. Coordenador do Curso de Administração, no. 9 (2007) Marques, J.P., De Almeida, R.C.S.: Figurino e cinema: uma experiência didática na formação acadêmica do designer de moda. Projética 9(1), 39−52 (2018) Peirce, C.S.: Semiótica. Tradução de José Teixeira Coelho Neto, 3rd edn. Perspectiva, São Paulo (2000) Dos Reis, M.C., De Almeida, C.C., Ferneda, E.: A questão dos métodos de análise semiótica: contribuições à Ciência da Informação. Revista Brasileira de Biblioteconomia e Documentação 16, 1–30 (2020) Santaella, L.: O que é semiótica. Brasiliense, São Paulo (2007) Sant’Anna, M.R.: Teoria de moda: sociedade, imagem e consumo. Barueri, Estação das Letras (2007) Street, S.: Costume and cinema: dress codes in popular films. Wallflower, Londres (2001) Stephenson, N.: Snow Crash: A Novel. Spectra, India (2003) Wachowski, L.: (Realizador). (18 de dezembro de 2021). The Matrix Resurrections [Filme]. Warner Bros e Village Roadshow Pictures

Studying Genderless Fashion Design: Triangulation Method in Fashion Research Benilde Reis1(B)

, Madalena Pereira2,3 , Nuno A. Jerónimo4,5 and Susana Azevedo6

,

1 CICANT, Lusófona University of Humanities and Technologies, Lisbon, Portugal

[email protected]

2 Textiles Department, I&D FibEnTech, Beira Interior University, Covilhã, Portugal 3 I&D UNIDCOM/IADE, Lisboa, Portugal 4 LabCom, Beira Interior University, Covilhã, Portugal 5 Vilnius Tech, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania 6 Faculty of Economics, CEBER, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Abstract. The design is, by nature, interdisciplinary and collaborative and being so, the contribution of other disciplines is essential to locating the design’s knowledge. Considering the widely interdisciplinary field of fashion and clothing studies, a mixture of methodologies is required. According to Kaiser and Green (2016), the triangulation method makes sense as a methodological approach in fashion studies. In genderless clothing context and by studying genderless fashion, using the triangulation method makes sense in this interdisciplinary fashion research. This paper aims to describe the research methodology and methodological structure of a study that was applied in a fashion doctoral thesis. The methods used in this research to study genderless fashion design are clothes images analysis, a survey, and a proposal of a capsule collection. This interdisciplinarity study, the main issues approached come from different scientific fields, such as gender issues (from the Sociological field), consumer behaviour regarding genderless clothing (from the Marketing field), and genderless fashion design (from the Fashion Design field). This fashion research approach shows that the applied research methodologies converge in new knowledge by building theory through design. Keywords: Genderless clothing · Fashion design · Fashion research · Triangulation method

1 Introduction By choosing a specific object of study related to contemporary fashion, it was intended to study genderless clothing from an approach to gender types, their differences and fashion consumer behaviour, and then the application of fashion design in a genderless capsule collection. Consequently, we obtained research with an interdisciplinary perspective because of this option. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 269–280, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_21

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In this context of genderless clothing, it is essential to address Fashion Design research and scientific areas such as Sociology and Marketing (studies on consumer behaviour) and several sub-themes inserted in these fields of knowledge. In 2011, according to Kawamura (2011), several academic disciplines in social sciences and humanities contributed to our understanding and analysis of clothing and human behaviour. Consequently, fashion studies, as an area of interdisciplinary knowledge that has emerged through research theories that cross traditional disciplinary boundaries, thus becoming possible to integrate and incorporate multiple and different methodological strategies, justifying the three areas addressed in this interdisciplinary work (Reis 2017). Recognising the importance of the subject, this research is considered relevant because it is a current and interdisciplinary theme, which addresses several areas, namely, and as already mentioned, Fashion Design, Sociology and Consumer Behaviour. It recognises that no single method can tap the complexity of a phenomenon such as fashion – with its transnational flows and ongoing change. The intersection becomes a point of convergence in what triangulation becomes a strategy. Triangulation effectively uses each method and locates common findings while recognising the limitations of any single method (Kaiser and Green 2016). In this research, two main phases were considered: non-interventionist and interventionist. From a non-interventionist perspective, the Literature Review process is an appropriate and interdisciplinary approach to Fashion Design (Jenss 2016; Kawamura 2011). The non-interventionist methodology is based on research methodologies as well as text and document analysis (Jönsson and Lukka 2006; Stevenson 2004). To finally proceed to the field research about existing solutions considering genderless clothing, the interventionist phase, where the researcher is involved in the research process, in which the main advantages are the ability to collect data, which can be significant (Jönsson and Lukka 2006). This part explores the empirical research from an interventionist perspective, starting with the methodological procedures, namely the data collection process. The general research process will be described, along with the techniques used to elaborate the image analysis, the questionnaire and data collection, and the project methodology. Considering all the previous information, starting this phase of this study, the empirical research is based on the triangulation method (combination of methods), since the field of fashion studies is mainly interdisciplinary, requiring a combination of methods (Kaiser and Green 2016). A quantitative methodology aims to get as much response as possible to have a solid sample of the chosen universe. Qualitative methods were also used for this study, as these are seen as an efficient way of gathering information, such as based on image analysis, project development and creative processes (Bardin 2013; Baxter 2000; Bonsiepe 2012; Jenss 2016; Joly 2005, 2012; Kawamura 2011; Lupton and Phillips 2008; Munari 2004; Tschimmel 2011). Thus, the triangulation method, which considers qualitative and quantitative methodologies, was used to obtain maximum information about genderless clothing (Coutinho 2011; Kawamura 2011).

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2 Defining Methodological Processes for Studying Genderless Fashion Design According to Moreira da Silva (2010), research helps dissipate doubts and increase convictions, producing informed alternatives. In this way, an improved strategy is developed to address a complex problem in design, going beyond the existing models and taking a broader view, working the interdisciplinarity. Kaiser and Green (2016) state that any isolated method has its limits in a highly interdisciplinary field, such as Fashion Design, which requires a mixture of methods. Thus, triangulation is adopted in this research, recognising that no single method can explore the complexity of a phenomenon like Fashion. Triangulation makes sense as a methodological strategy in fashion studies with transnational flows, continuous changes, diverse webs of meanings, and material consequences for people and the planet. The concept of triangulation exists when there is a need to identify a specific point in space. The idea is that assessments need to be taken from at least two different points of view (in this research, it is three points of view: image analysis, questionnaire data analysis, and project development). The intersection becomes a point of convergence, with some assurance that more than one perspective has been considered (Kaiser and Green 2016), allowing us to look at the phenomenon more robustly and authentically. It was intended to use a combination of methodologies that allowed to achieve the specific objectives of the research by answering the research question. The presence of this interdisciplinary research since the gender theme is studied in the Sociology area, the consumer’s buying behaviour in the Marketing area and the clothing itself in the Fashion Design area. Using an alternative strategy, it was decided to adopt the triangulation method, considering qualitative and quantitative methodologies, interested in a common object of study. Although we are facing interdisciplinary research, also covering the area of social sciences, the focus is on the field of Design, more specifically, Fashion Design. We chose the triangulation method to address two sides of the problem. For the analysis of consumer behaviour, we used a quantitative methodology based on a survey to understand the perception of the apparel consumer before the genderless clothing. To perform this analysis, the SPSS software was used. To analyse the characteristics of the collections of genderless clothing, we used a qualitative methodology based on content analysis of a collection of images. With the support of the MaxQDA software, images of a set of some brands and designers were analysed. Finally, this data collection and the respective analysis of the results allowed answer the research question and thus conclude this study with a solution for genderless clothing collections, focusing on the details based on the results obtained through this study. As suggested by Moreira da Silva (2010), for the present study (Table 1), four coexisting conditions were considered to produce advanced and practical design research: i) the problem should belong to the disciplinary design area; ii) the methods used should constitute a model that can be applied in future research or in the design profession itself; iii) the research topic should be socially relevant; iv) the process should involve users.

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Table 1. Design research conditions applied in this study. Source: Courtesy of the author adapted of Moreira da Silva (2010) Design research conditions

Study application in fashion design

i)

Fashion design

ii)

Triangulation method (see development below)

iii)

Genderless clothing (see development below)

iv)

Consumer questionnaire Garments (considering the consumer)

3 The Triangulation Method According to Kawamura (2011), using only one method is insufficient to provide sufficient information about an object of study. It is possible to obtain a better, truthful, and complete view of the reality of the object of study through several methods. Triangulation is a restricted method for using several data collection techniques to investigate the same phenomenon (Coutinho 2011). Triangulation has its main characteristic results from each method used to obtain results (Teddlie and Tashakkori 2009). A view also shared by Creswell (2007) and Hanington and Martin (2012) calls triangulation a type of mixed methods strategy. It blurs the traditional boundaries between qualitative and quantitative data collection strategies (Teddlie and Tashakkori 2009).

Fig. 1. The research design for the integration of qualitative/quantitative methods. Source: Duarte (2009).

According to Duarte (2009), Fig. 1 illustrates some developments applied to the research plan considering the research design. The phases may occur simultaneously or sequentially (triangulation adapted to the present study Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Methodology Model adopted in this research.

In the research design in Fig. 1, a new design was adapted to the present research, in which the phases run sequentially, as can be seen in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. Application in this research: sequential research design. Source: Adapted of Creswell (2007) and Duarte (2009)

4 Applying the Triangulation Method in Fashion Research: Selected Methodologies 4.1 Image Analysis The use of images has become widespread; whether we look at them or make them, in our daily lives, we are led to their use, decoding and interpretation; what we call an image is a visual text (Joly 2005, 2012). For Bardin (2013), message content analysis should apply to all forms of communication, regardless of its support, enhancing the exploratory attempt and increasing the propensity for discovery. Through contents may, or may not, confirm and lead to: “clarification of elements of significations susceptible of leading to a description of mechanisms of which a priori we did not possess the understanding.” When collecting images, a selection of brands and designers was made to show what is on the market for genderless clothing. Several brands and designers approach the developed collections as unisex clothing or androgynous clothing, or even genderneutral. According to Joly (2012), a good analysis is defined by its objectives. In this sense, this image analysis’s objective consists of looking for, and above all, verifying, characteristics in garments. Garments in collections developed by brands or designers with indications, or even call themselves, unisex, androgynous, genderless, agender or gender-neutral collections or brands. Or, on the other hand, those divide collections by woman/man, but that men’s clothing somehow has more feminine character features and for women (sometimes) more masculine ones. Understanding the ambivalence of genderless clothing concerning some social conceptions of gender. With this aim, we intend to analyse and understand several androgynous, unisex, and genderless collections produced and marketed by designers and fashion brands. The empirical part of this phase is based on a qualitative analysis of the collected information to understand the visible meanings in the objects of study, providing a comparative reading between the presented clothing proposals (Reis et al. 2017). Thus, to understand visible meanings in the objects of study, the empirical part of this phase is based on a qualitative analysis of the information collected through images. Brands and designers that offer androgynous collections, unisex or collections without gender were selected, thus generating the sample, from which data was collected online,

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for the respective observation. The data collected correspond to the collection of images of the respective collections and garments. The selection of the brands was made based on the background of knowledge acquired by the researcher in the question of fashion, designers, brands, news and fashion trends, androgynous and unisex fashion concepts since the brands do not use the expression “genderless” with the same frequency of the other two. The source for collecting the images of most of the collections relied on the collection pages of the brands or designers’ web pages. In what concerns data collection, initially, it was selected a set of brands and designers that had already developed unisex, androgynous or genderless collections. After this selection, we began the process of analysis of some pieces from these collections. In the first phase, the brands are presented and later, we proceeded to the content analysis. The use of MaxQDA software (The Art of Data Analysis) allowed the development of qualitative analysis. It increased the robustness of the analysis by validating the set of images collected from each brand and, later, the setting of all images. 4.2 Survey This survey, commonly used in the social sciences, is part of a quantitative methodology. To collect data, the questionnaires are used to take forms (printed or digital) and can be sent to large populations, making them far-reaching but impersonal and involving lower costs (Coutinho 2011; Hanington and Martin 2012). Questionnaires are a method of gathering information about collecting practices, perceptions, characteristics, thoughts, feelings, behaviours or attitudes (Hanington and Martin 2012). Considering the research objectives, the questionnaire included questions to collect adequate information about the perception of a sample of the Portuguese population. In this context, the snowball sampling technique was used. The term snowball sampling has been applied to two types of procedures related to network sampling (Kawamura 2011; Thompson 2012). In this context, during the questionnaire development, care was taken to ensure the clarity and accuracy of the questions. In other words, the questions were articulated so that all respondents would interpret the questions in the same way (Quivy and Campenhoudt 2005). The questionnaire script contains the questions and sequence (Coutinho 2011). In addition, as Hill and Hill (2000) suggest, there is a need for a preliminary study to verify and test a questionnaire before it is put online. The pre-test aims at improving the form of the questionnaire (Piovesan and Temporini 1995; Walliman 2011). In this context, the questionnaire script was pre-tested. Similarly, considering Bell (2010), it is relevant to apply a pilot questionnaire. In this way, it is possible to understand how long, on average, it takes respondents to complete it, and, on the other hand, it allows for eliminating questions that prove to be less important. This exercise consisted in discovering problems presented by the chosen data collection instrument to understand if the individuals in the real study would not find it difficult to answer. The responses made it possible to revise the questionnaire for further distribution.

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Regarding the first part of the questionnaire, we sought not only to identify the respondent’s perception of clothing characteristics but also to identify which attributes and factors please and/or influence the purchase and purchase decision of a garment, adapting the research of some authors (Davis 1987; Dutton 2006; May-Plumlee and Little 2006; Pedroso 2008; Pereira et al. 2009; Sproles 1979). Considering the second part of the questionnaire concerns the characterisation and profile of the respondents, it was decided to place this part at the end of the questionnaire. Subsequently to the correction of the questionnaire, with information collected in the pre-test, the questionnaire was designed and placed in Google Forms. This is intuitive and attractive, both for creating the questionnaire and for the respondents. The questionnaire was composed of both Likert scale and multiple-choice questions. The multiple-choice questions are closed questions that present a series of possible answers, covering several faces considering only one subject. The possible answers are structured next to the question, the respondent must mark one or several, and it should be explained when only one solution is desired (Marconi and Lakatos 2003). We chose to use the 7-point Likert scale because it reveals more description of a motive and therefore appeals practically to the “faculty of reason” (Joshi et al. 2015). Finstad (2010) completes and refers that a 7-point Likert scale gives us a more accurate measure of a participant’s evaluation and is more appropriate for electronically distributed and unsupervised usability questionnaires. 4.3 Project Methodology The design process helps the designer go through the complex process of solving a design problem in an organised way. The designer uses skills and knowledge to make decisions that provide the customer with a solution that meets the customer’s needs (Piotrowski 2011). In this context, the design process for developing the third practical and determining phase for this research was developed based on project methodologies. We came across distinct investigations in Fashion Design (Monteiro 2018; Moreira 2018; Trindade 2013; Vieira 2014) that already address the various perspectives on the project methodology (Baxter 2000; Bonsiepe 1992; Lupton and Phillips 2008; Munari 2004; Tschimmel 2011). As Vieira (2009) states, “it should be noted that each design method has peculiarities regarding the proposed tools and is characterised by presenting links with the context in which it is inserted as well as by the articulation with other areas of knowledge”. In this way, some of the authors gathered refer to the project methodologies and respective stages. Munari (2004) proposes a scheme that begins with formulating the problem and the solution. There are intermediate stages of the project development process: data collection, data analysis; creativity; materials and technologies; experimentation phase; realisation of the model, verification of this model, constructive design and solution. Bonsiepe (1992), on the other hand, initially establishes three blocks of stages: structuring of the project problem, project and project realisation. Subsequently, each of these phases is subdivided into different passages. In what concerns phase one, it begins with

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discovering a need (situation of lack) when evaluating the demand according to its compatibility with other conditions. This is followed by a general formulation of a problem based on the information collected, a detailed formulation of a problem, its fractionation and the hierarchy of the partial issues, ending phase one with an analysis of the existing solutions (Bonsiepe 1992). Considering the second phase of Bonsiepe (1992), it begins with the development of alternatives (project concepts, project schemes), which can resort to a series of techniques; followed by an evaluation and choice of other options; the elaboration of details; the test of the prototype and the modification of the prototype. The third and last phase concerns the manufacture of the pre-series, considering the prototype submitted to the tests and the improvement adapted to the technical conditions of manufacture (Bonsiepe 1992). Although Bonsiepe’s suggestion (1992) argues that one can never infer a linear character of the sequential ordering project process because it can also develop alternatively. According to Baxter (2000), creativity is at the heart of design, at all project stages. Creativity can be stimulated by following specific steps, where inspiration is the first stage in mind for creative discovery. This is followed by the need for preparation in which creativity “results from associations, combinations, expansions or seeing, from a new angle, existing ideas”. Subsequently, the incubation phase occurs, where we need to pause in the search for the resolution of the problem is found, and in this manner, we temporarily move away from it so as not to block creativity. After the incubation phase, Baxter (2000) elects the enlightenment phase, which concerns a more disciplined and rigorous process. Selecting those that best solve the problem from diverse ideas is necessary. Ending with the verification phase, in which he suggests that the creative process be submitted to continuous, frequent evaluations so that improvements or corrections (if any) may be made to problem-solving methods. Later, Lupton and Phillips (2008) give us a more current and diverse view of project methodology, while (Tschimmel 2011) calls it a proposal for action. Lupton and Phillips (2008) suggest three essential stages: problem definition, idea generation and form creation. There are subdivisions such as interviews, mind mapping, brand matrix, brainstorming, action verbs, visual brain dump, co-design and mock-ups. Tschimmel (2011) mentions that there are quite a few methodological models, in which most emerged within the scope of creativity management in organisations and management of creative processes in design. In this sense, the author proposes an action proposal as a synthesis of several models: (1) perceiving and identifying the problem; (2) exploring and (re)formulating the problem; (3) producing and valuing ideas; (4) realising and communicating ideas and (5) evaluating the process. Based on this analysis of different approaches to project methodology, an adaptation was made according to the project’s needs.

5 Final Considerations A severe development in research through fashion design was created into a proper research methodology, producing a relevant and rigorous theory that others can explore and adapt.

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Progress in the field through a fashion design doctoral thesis was intended to use a combination of methodologies to achieve specific research goals and answer the investigation question. A methodological structure was constructed to support this interdisciplinary theme considering genderless fashion design. We approach Fashion Design as the main field, completing later with Sociology in gender issues and Marketing with consumer behaviour considering genderless clothing. The present paper shows the triangulation method’s adequately described demonstration to support the study object. Using only one method is not enough to provide sufficient information about an object of study. Triangulation is a restricted method for using several data collection techniques to investigate the same phenomenon, defined as having its main characteristic results from each method used to obtain results. It’s also a mixed-methods strategy that blurs the traditional boundaries between qualitative and quantitative data collection strategies (Kawamura 2011; Coutinho 2011; Teddlie and Tashakkori 2009; Hanington and Martin 2012; Creswell 2007). Triangulation was applied to study genderless fashion design, where we accomplished an image analysis, approaching qualitative methodology in the first phase, for an academic verification of what is done in the market of genderless clothing. In a second stage, a research questionnaire was elaborated and inserted into the quantitative methodology for studying consumer behaviour concerning genderless clothing. In the final stage of the investigation, a qualitative methodology was applied for a capsule collection development, considering the steps of the project methodology. The approached fields with one common study object converge in new information, thus moving forward in academia. The developed model methodology in this research can be applied in fashion studies and research, providing new knowledge and new practices contributing to the knowledge advance in Fashion Design fields.

References Bardin, L.: Análise de Conteúdo. Edições 70 (2013) Baxter, M.: Projeto de Produto: guia prático para o design de novos produtos. Blucher (2000) Bell, J.: Como Realizar um Projecto de Investigação, 5a Edição. Gradiva (2010) Bonsiepe, G.: Teoria e Prática do Design Industrial: elementos para um manual crítico. Centro Português de Design (1992) Bonsiepe, G.: Design: como pratica de projeto. Blucher (2012) Coutinho, C.P.: Metodologia de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas: Teoria e Prática. Edições Almedina, S.A (2011) Creswell, J.W.: Projeto de pesquisa: métodos qualitativo, quantitativo e misto, 2a Edição. ARTMED (2007) Davis, L.L.: consumer use of label information in ratings of clothing quality and clothing fashionability. Cloth. Text. Res. J. 6(1), 8–14 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302X8700 600102 Duarte, T.: A possibilidade da investigação a 3: reflexões sobre triangulação (metodológica). In: CIES E-Working Paper, vol. 24 (2009). https://repositorio.iscte-iul.pt/bitstream/10071/1319/3/ CIES-WP60_Duarte.pdf Dutton, K.C.: The affect of garment attributes on purchases intentions of fifteen to twenty-five years old female (2006). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004

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Consumer Involvement and Ideologies on the Co-creation of Fashion Products Paulo Martins1,2(B) , Rui Miguel1,2,4 , Liliana Pina1,2,5 and Madalena Pereira1,2,3

,

1 Textiles Department, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês D’ Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001

Covilhã, Portugal [email protected], {rmiguel,madalena.pereira}@ubi.pt 2 FibEnTech R&D Unit, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês D’ Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal 3 UNIDCOM R&D Unit, IADE/European University, Av. Dom Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisboa, Portugal 4 CIAUD R&D Unit, University of Lisbon, Rua Sá Nogueira, 1349-063 Lisboa, Portugal 5 NECE R&D Unit, University of Beira Interior, Estrada Do Sineiro, 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal

Abstract. This paper aims to identify what reasons and incentives are more important for consumers of fashion products on co-creation. Also, if they see an added value in co-created fashion products and if this is related to the fact that the consumer already has co-created fashion products. This data will serve as a basis for better routing the current co-creation concept. It will also enable the future development of a consumer, brand and supply chain co-creation streamlined framework. A structured questionnaire with closed questions was created based on a literature review, study question, and hypotheses. The findings show that most consumers still have not co-created fashion products, but almost all consider that these types of products have added value. It was also found that the most important reasons or incentives to co-create are related to the product itself and the co-creation process. This paper will help clarify the main reasons and incentives for the consumer to co-create and for which demographics. Keywords: Fashion products co-creation · Co-created products added value · Reasons to co-create · Incentives to co-create

1 Introduction This paper initially focused on the literature review, approaching two different viewpoints. Firstly, looking at co-creation and value creation definitions, and secondly, defining the needs and wants of consumers on co-creation. With the literature review analysis, the study’s initial question was created: “What makes the consumer have interest in co-creation?”. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Raposo et al. (Eds.): EIMAD 2022, SSDI 25, pp. 281–297, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09659-4_22

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Several methods for assessing consumer needs exist, such as observation, surveying, or interviewing (Sampieri et al. 2013). Additional questions and hypotheses were developed and listed throughout the text of this paper. Independently of having a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed approach, all investigations cannot be qualified as scientific if the study is not based on hypotheses (Fortin et al. 2009). The methodology applied in this study is based on a quantitative method and explores a statistical analysis.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Co-creation and Value Creation For Maltzahn (2016), co-creation is how companies interact with their clients and can integrate the consumers’ values into their marketing and retail. Voorberg et al. (2017) also refer that the participation of consumers is viewed as co-creation, indicating that in the service management, co-creation is described as innovation through the customization of products or services in collaboration with consumers. Kristensson et al. (2008) and Chathoth et al. (2013) also say that co-creation is more than customizing services or products to reach consumers’ needs. In co-creation, interaction with consumers is much higher than in customization. In this sense, Q1, “Have you ever co-created fashion products?” was made to understand the percentage that already has co-created a product. Frow et al. (2015) also see co-creation as open innovation from which the result of the interactions in co-creation is valuable. The collaboration between consumers and producers is based on creative, active, and social processes to generate value. According to Arvidsson (2011), value derives from the interaction with consumers or stakeholders while attracting contributions from non-proprietary processes. Alves et al. (2016) state that Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004a) first talked about the co-creation of value still as a concept in business management. That same year, Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004b) created a diagram, about value creation that already included the consumer, its experiences, and its value for the creation of value and the experience environment context. It is referred that value is co-created by the consumer and the company and that the interaction and consequently experiences created are the basis of value. There is the need of having various experiences that are of quality and innovative and at the same time personalized for the consumer that is central in the process, although, focused ate the same time on the networks that the consumer is part of (Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004b). Co-creation moves value creation from the company into collaborations beyond the companies’ walls (Storbacka et al. 2012; Frow et al. 2015). Moreover, many companies have been trying to maximize their value for years by moving from a company-centric model to one that privileges consumer demand (Wang et al. 2017). Brand-consumer interactions increase consumer value and brand value (Gentile et al. 2007). In this sense, it was questioned to the consumers, “Do you consider that a fashion product has added value when it is co-created by means of cooperation between the consumer and the brand?”. Additionally, to understand if there is a correlation between the results in Q1 and Q2 was posed the hypothesis:

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H1. “There is a strong correlation between the perception of added value of co-created products and the consumers that already co-created products.” Consumers can create value through design, feedback, or production know-how and not just at the end of the process (Humphreys and Grayson 2008). Although a company’s cost of production can also increase or decrease and can influence the final price of the product, depending on the amount of work required from the consumers, the perceived value may also increase or decrease. However, consumers often will receive benefits for participating in value creation processes (Humphreys and Grayson 2008). 2.2 Needs and Wants of Consumers on Co-creation Consumer participation in co-creation may happen due to various reasons, such as the need for self-expression and pride and psychological reasons (Etgar 2008). Some may contribute only for altruism, or they can also do it because they believe in the objectives of the process, but they can also do it simply because they are unsatisfied with the products (Hoyer et al. 2010). Others may be motivated by financial rewards or social benefits that can increase status and esteem (Nambisan and Baron 2009; Hoyer et al. 2010). Füller (2010) also enumerates other rewards such as having associated with the developed product the co-creator’s name, getting a thank you or receiving feedback. Alternatively, offers, prize draws, giveaways, lotteries or monetary compensation, and also interest in innovation activities. So, to understand the most important incentives for the consumer, Q3, “What incentives would make you participate more times in the co-creation of fashion products?” was made. Additionally, were posed three hypotheses regarding personal factors: H2. “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their age.” H3. “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their net monthly income.” H4. “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their professional situation.” Their motives can be heterogeneous and will depend on their personalities, and their motives will determine to a large extent, what they expect from the interaction (Füller 2010). In this sense was made to the consumers Q4, “Why do you like or would like to participate in the co-creation of fashion products?” to understand their motivations.

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Companies can stimulate consumers by enhancing the benefits of their participation or simplifying the process by reducing the time spent and the effort needed (Hoyer et al. 2010). This process should be reviewed constantly, and issues found should be repaired (Heidenreich et al. 2015). It is also important to understand what is expected from the co-creation process as consumers can share ideas and preferences and spend their time only if their expectations are met. Also, consumers may not engage in all co-creation activities, so defining the stages as some might like to create is important. However, others might only like to evaluate the ideas (Füller 2010), so it is important to understand which tasks should be offered and the frequency in which consumers can co-create so that they can be frequently engaged. Giving them a reason to return continuously will easily retain them as co-creators, and it is also important to let them know how others reacted to their creations (Füller 2010).

3 Research Design Methods 3.1 Instruments Used for Data Collection and Sample A positivist approach was dedicated to studying consumers, considering a nonprobabilistic and snowball techniques. In addition, the quantitative method was used. A structured questionnaire with closed questions was created based on a literature review, study question, and the hypotheses. To approach as much as possible respondents, the instrument was published online. This was also the easier way to disseminate the questionnaire in terms of simplicity and geographical areas coverage, allowing better control over the data collection process (Sampieri et al. 2006). The questionnaire was online from 27/10/21 to 04/01/22. The questionnaire was disseminated through email and social networks directly to several contacts and groups on social networks dedicated to academic research. It was also disseminated through the Public Relations Office from the University of Beira Interior. The pre-requisites for the survey respondents were that they were between 18 years old and 64 years old and had already co-created a fashion product or would like to co-create a fashion product. From a total of 415 responses obtained in Portugal, 404 responses were validated for use in this study. 3.2 Statistical Treatment and Tests Applied to the Data For the representation of demographic and social data, descriptive statistics were used as well as for Q1, “Have you ever co-created fashion products?” and Q2, “Do you consider that a fashion product has added value when it is co-created by means of cooperation between the consumer and the brand?”. For Q1, IBM SPSS Statistics V. 28.0. was also used. For Q3, “What incentives would make you participate more times in the cocreation of fashion products?” and Q4, “Why do you like or would like to participate in the co-creation of fashion products?” the data was tested through the program IBM SPSS Statistics V. 28.0. A mean and standard deviation analysis was done for the results to be easily understood. The non-parametric Chi-square test was also used for H1 to understand if there

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is a relationship between two categorical variables (Kremelberg 2010). This test tells us if two variables are independent of one another. Phi’s test was additionally used to access the level of the correlation. The non-parametric Kruskal Wallis H test was used to analyze the variants presented on a Likert scale where a normal distribution was not verified (Pestana and Gageiro 2014) as in H2, H3 and H4. This test is appropriate to compare two or more distributions of a variable observed in two or more independent samples (Marôco 2021). The aim was of determining if there were significant differences between a continuous dependent variable and a categorical independent variable.

4 Empirical Analysis and Results 4.1 Findings This chapter will analyze the consumers’ responses to the four questions made to the consumers. The description of the sample for this study can be seen in Table 1. Table 1. Sample description (N = 404). Source: Author Variable

%

Variable

Categories

%

Age range 18–24

162 (40%)

Gender

Male

83 (21%)

25–34

111 (28%)

Female

321 (79%)

35– 44

74 (18%)

Employed

192 (47%)

45–54

49 (12%)

Self-employed

37 (9%)

Monthly income

Categories

Professional situation

55–64

8 (2%)

Unemployed

17 (4%)

No income

135 (34%)

Student

156 (39%)

Less than 635e

41 (10%)

Retired

2 (1%)

636e–799e

67 (17%)

800e–999e

38 (9%)

1000e–1499e

68 (17%)

1500e–1999e

29 (7%)

More than 2000e

26 (6%)

Regarding Q1, “Have you ever co-created fashion products?”, most of the respondents, 72% (292 respondents), indicated that they had never co-created a fashion product and 28% (112 respondents) indicated that they had already co-created fashion products (Fig. 1).

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350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

No

Yes

Fig. 1. Consumers that have or have not co-created fashion products. Source: Author

It is also worth noting that in the ages between 35 and 44 years old, there is a higher percentage of consumers who have not co-created fashion products compared with the other age groups (Table 2). Table 2. Distribution of Yes or No answers to “Have you ever co-created fashion products?” taking into account the age. Source: Author Age Have you ever co-created fashion products?

18–24

25–34

35–44

45–54

55–64

116

76

64

30

6

292

%

71,6%

68,5%

86,5%

61,2%

75,0%

72,3%

Yes

46

35

10

19

2

112

28,4%

31,5%

13,5%

38,8%

25,0%

27,7%

162

111

74

49

8

404

No

% Total

Total

Considering the net monthly income, it is possible to observe that a higher percentage of consumers have not co-created fashion products among the lower to medium caps of income (Table 3).

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Table 3. Distribution of Yes or No answers to “Have you ever co-created fashion products?” taking into account the net monthly. Source: Author Net monthly income Under 635e

636e to 799e

Count

31

52

30

55

17

16

91

292

%

75,6%

77,6%

78,9%

80,9%

58,6%

61,5%

67,4%

72,3%

Yes

Count

10

15

8

13

12

10

44

112

%

24,4%

22,4%

21,1%

19,1%

41,4%

38,5%

32,6%

27,7%

Total

Count

41

67

38

68

29

26

135

404

No

800e to 999e

Total 1000e to 1499e

1500e to 1999e

More than 2000e

I don’t have a monthly income

In Q2, “Do you consider that a fashion product has added value when it is co-created by means of cooperation between the consumer and the brand?” most of the respondents, 94% (379 respondents), indicated that they consider that a co-created product has added value. On the other hand, only 6% (25 respondents) considered that they did not see an added value in this type of product (Fig. 2).

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 No

Yes

Fig. 2. Number of consumers that consider that a fashion product has or has not an added value when it is co-created by means of cooperation between the consumer and the brand. Source: Author

Still, for Q2, was proposed hypothesis H1, “There is a strong correlation between the perception of added value of co-created products and the consumers that already co-created products.”. To test H1, the Chi-square test was used. According to the results,

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since none of the cells (0%) has a count lower than 5, no assumptions were violated (Table 4). Table 4. Have you ever co-created fashion products? * Do you consider that a fashion product has added value when it is co-created by means of cooperation between the consumer and the brand? crosstabulation. Source: Author Do you consider Total that a fashion product has added value when it is co-created by means of cooperation between the consumer and the brand? Yes Have you ever co-created fashion products?

Yes No

Total

No

Count

108

4

112

Expected count

105,1

6,9

112,0

Count

271

21

292

Expected count

273,9

18,1

292,0

Count

379

25

404

Expected count

379,0

25,0

404,0

So, we can base the analysis on the Pearson Chi-Square value having into attention the asymptotic significance (2-sided) result. The result of the p-value is, 176, meaning that it is superior to the alpha-value of 0, 05. This means that the p-value obtained is not statistically significant and that we can conclude that there is no correlation between the analyzed variants (Table 5). Table 5. Chi-square tests. Source: Author Value

df

Asymptotic significance (2-sided)

Pearson chi-square

1,828a

1

,176

Continuity correctionb

1,257

1

,262

Exact sig. (2-sided)

Exact sig. (1-sided)

(continued)

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Table 5. (continued)

Likelihood ratio

Value

df

Asymptotic significance (2-sided)

2,028

1

,154

Fisher’s exact test Linear-by-linear association

1,823

N of valid cases

404

1

Exact sig. (2-sided)

Exact sig. (1-sided)

,249

,129

,177

a. 0 cells (0,0%) have expected count less than 5.The minimum expected count is 6,93 b. Computed only for a 2 × 2 table

The lack of correlation between the analyzed variants is again confirmed in the Phi’s test as the Value is, 067, so under 0, 2 meaning that there is only a very weak correlation (Table 6). Table 6. Symmetric measures. Source: Author

Nominal by nominal

Value

Approximate significance

Phi

,067

,176

Cramer’s V

,067

,176

N of valid cases

404

Although when looking more closely at the risk estimate, we can conclude that the consumers that already have co-created fashion products are 2,092 times more likely to understand that the product has added value, as also supported by the cohort between the answering choices “Yes” and “Yes” to Q1 and Q2 with 1,039, than the consumers that have never co-created fashion products, as also supported by the cohort between the answering choices “Yes” to Q1 and “No” to Q2 with, 497 (Table 7). Table 7. Risk estimate. Source: Author Value

95% confidence interval Lower

Upper

Odds ratio for Q9 (Yes/No)

2,092

,702

6,237

For cohort Q2 = Yes

1,039

,990

1,090

For cohort Q2 = No

,497

,174

1,415

N of valid cases

404

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In Q3, “What incentives would make you participate more times in the co-creation of fashion products?”, respondents indicated that the most important incentive would be, being able to get the product that they envisioned to have, followed closely by the possibility of receiving royalties (% from the sales). The brand offering them the product that they co-created and being recognized for the co-creation by the community and the brand also has a high degree of importance for the consumers, followed by having their name in the product. The possibility of receiving vouchers to buy products from the brand and a monetary reward fully received once are the least important incentives (Table 8). Table 8. Mean and standard deviation. Source: Author N

Mean

Std. deviation

Monetary reward fully received once

404

4,9406

1,56622

The brand offering me the product that I co-created

404

5,5644

1,41011

Vouchers to buy products from the brand

404

5,0124

1,55538

Royalties (% from the sales)

404

5,7376

1,25446

Having my name in the product

404

5,2822

1,67438

Be recognized for the co-creation by the community and the brand

404

5,4802

1,59624

Being able to get the product that I envisioned to have

404

5,7772

1,36597

For Q3, “What incentives would make you participate more times in the co-creation of fashion products?” were proposed H2, “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their age.”, H3, “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their net monthly income.” and H4, “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their professional situation.”, to understand more specifically if personal factors can pose an influence. To test H2, “There are significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their age.” the Kruskal Wallis H test was used since the answers were not normally distributed. According to the results, there are differences in the incentives, monetary reward fully received once, vouchers to buy products from the brand, royalties (% from the sales), having my name in the product and be recognized for the co-creation by the community and the brand (Table 9).

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Table 9. Kruskal Wallis test for significant differences in the incentives that can lead consumers to participate more actively in the co-creation processes of fashion products regarding their age. Source: Author Monetary reward fully received once

The brand offering me the product that I co-created

Vouchers to buy products from the brand

Royalties (% from the sales)

Having my name in the product

Be recognized for the co-creation by the community and the brand

Being able to get the product that I envisioned to have

Kruskal-Wallis H

20,082

8,506

12,631

23,290

29,294

44,861

8,213

df

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

Asymp. sig