Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports [1 ed.] 9781617612909, 9781608767335

Citation preview

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

SPORTS AND ATHLETIC PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE, AND PSYCHOLOGY SERIES

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ADVANCEMENTS IN THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF COMBATIVE SPORTS

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

SPORTS AND ATHLETICS PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE, AND PSYCHOLOGY SERIES Is Sports Nutrition for Sale? Ethical Issues and Professional Concerns for Exercise Physiologists William T. Boone 2005. ISBN: 1-59454-422-0 Doping in Sports Christopher N. Burns (Editor) 2006. ISBN: 1-59454-683-5 Literature Reviews in Sport Psychology Sheldon Hanton and Stephen Mellalieu (Editors) 2006. ISBN: 1-59454-904-4

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Hot Topics in Sports and Athletics Samuel R. Bakere (Editor) 2008. ISBN: 978-1-60456-077-0 Sports Injuries and Their Effects on Health Robert R. Salerno (Editor) 2009. ISBN 978-1-60741-507-7 A Competitive Anxiety Review: Recent Directions in Sport Psychology Research Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-248-4 A Competitive Anxiety Review: Recent Directions in Sport Psychology Research Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60876-405-1 (Online book) Advances in Strength and Conditioning Research Michael Duncan and Mark Lyons (Editors) 2009. ISBN 978-1-60692-909-4

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Advances in Strength and Conditioning Research Michael Duncan and Mark Lyons (Editors) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60876-661-1 (Online book) Former NFL Players: Disabilities, Benefits, and Related Issues Thomas P. Wasser (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-346-7 Thoroughbred Horseracing and the Welfare of the Thoroughbred Cameron L. Stratton (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-724-3 Handbook of Sports Psychology Calvin H. Chang (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-256-4

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports Jason E. Warnick and W. Daniel Martin (Editors) 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-733-5

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

SPORTS AND ATHLETIC PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE, AND PSYCHOLOGY SERIES

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ADVANCEMENTS IN THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF COMBATIVE SPORTS

JASON E. WARNICK AND

W. DANIEL MARTIN EDITORS

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‟ use of, or reliance upon, this material.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Advancements in the scientific study of combative sports / editors, Jason E. Warnick and W. Daniel Martin. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-61761-290-9 (Ebook) 1. Martial arts. 2. Boxing. 3. Judo. 4. Kung fu. I. Warnick, Jason E. II. Martin, W. Daniel. GV1101.A38 2010 2009038986 796.81--dc22

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

ix A Review of the Variables Predictive of a Professional Boxing Bout‟s Outcome Jason E. Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson and W. Daniel Martin High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist John Amtmann Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results Emerson Franchini, Fabrício Boscolo Del Vecchio and Stanislaw Sterkowicz

1

13

41

Chapter 4

Biomechanics of Kung Fu Palm Strike Osmar Pinto Neto

Chapter 5

Judo and Variability: Application to Technical Actions During the Match Emerson Franchini and Fabrício Boscolo Del Vecchio

79

The Influence of Painful Stimulation During Asian Martial Arts Training on Pain Perception Monika Dirkwinkel and Stefan Evers

97

Chapter 6

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

61

viii

Contents

Chapter 7

Handedness, Achievement in Sport and Boxing Recep Gursoy, Mehmet Akif Ziyagil, Suleyman Sahin and Senol Dane

Chapter 8

Further Evidence of the Availability Heuristic Bias for Boxing Awards Jason E. Warnick and Kyla Warnick

113

129

Chapter 9

Injuries in the Martial Arts Merrilee Zetaruk

135

Chapter 10

Health Benefits Associated with Kung Fu Training Tracey W. Tsang

163

Chapter 11

The Biomechanics of Impact in Boxing Cynthia A. Bir and Sarah Stojsih

183

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

201

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

.

PREFACE

My entrance into the study of combative sports has been described as unorthodox by many of my academic colleagues. However, I believe that it is my perspective as an outsider and newcomer to this field that led me to pursue the publication of this collection of manuscripts. I am extremely grateful to Nova Science Publishers for publishing both this book and several other journals and book series that promote scientific progress in this field. My scientific training and career has been primarily focused within the field of psychopharmacology and behavioral neuroscience. While my life was consumed by engaging in professional pursuits in these fields, nearly all of my free time consisted of following the sport of boxing. My wife and I both enjoyed watching and following this sport, but both wanted to become members of the boxing fraternity. Without the athletic ability or pedigree to participate in this athletic endeavor, we both pursued becoming boxing judges by earning the certification through the Association of Boxing Commissions and licensure by the Athletic Commission of the state of Arkansas. This furthered our knowledge and enjoyment in this sport. However, one night while watching a televised boxing bout I stumbled into a career changing moment that lead me to scientifically study the sport. The announcers were debating the relative merits of an aging fighter. Did his advanced age hinder his ability to win or did his greater level of experience make him more formidable? Hearing this discussion led me to wonder what variables are influential in determining a boxing bout‟s outcome. I immediately began searching the scientific literature and found that virtually no research had been conducted on this historic and immensely popular sport. I decided to perform a preliminary investigation into this topic and published the article in the journal Perceptual and Motor Skills (Warnick & Warnick, 2007). To my surprise, I have

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

x

Jason E. Warnick and W. Daniel Martin

received more requests for reprints for this article than all of my previous articles combined! This led me to believe that there is a deep interest in the scientific study of this sport that is not reflected in the literature. Once I began to familiarize myself in this field, I found that the small amount of research on combative sports was found in disparate disciplines and their associated journals. In my opinion, this seemed to separate and divide the small community of combative sports scientists. Thus, this book was designed to bring the top combative sports researchers from a variety of scientific disciplines and present a contemporary view of investigations into athletic endeavors like boxing, martial arts, and mixed martial arts. Chapter one was written by Jason Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson and W. Daniel Martin. This chapter summarizes a series of studies coming out of Dr. Warnick‟s laboratory that have investigated the variables associated with victory or defeat in a boxing bout. As each of the described studies employ historical data, the authors discuss the need for future investigations using participants. Psychological variables of interest are detailed for this investigatory call to action. Chapter two was written by John Amtmann and describes his research and experience in training athletes for mixed martial arts contests. Dr. Amtmann describes a method of training called High Intensity Training. The benefits of this training method, which include decreased number of injuries, are discussed and example training schedules are provided. Chapter three was written by Emerson Franchini, Fabrício Boscolo Del Vecchio and Stanislaw Sterkowicz. This chapter presents a review of the Special Judo Fitness Test which is a method of measuring the conditioning of judo athletes to determine their training effectiveness. The chapter provides a thorough analysis of the reliability and validity of the Special Judo Fitness Test. Chapter four was written by Osmar Pinto Neto and describes a series of studies on the biomechanics of the Kung Fu Yau-Man palm strike. Among many variables, these studies investigate the relationship between palm strike speed and effective mass of the impact and the muscle coordination differences found between trained and untrained participants. Other variables described are muscle power, impact power and electromyography data. Chapter five was written by Emerson Franchini and Fabrício Boscolo Del‟Vecchio and provides a detailed analysis of the techniques and actions performed by judo athletes. The authors present data that clearly differentiate the tactical aspects that separate elite and novice judo athletes. The authors also provide evidence for the kind of techniques necessary for success in the sport of judo.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preface

xi

Chapter six was written by Monika Dirkwinkel and Stefan Evers. This chapter presents data from their laboratory on the potential for changing pain thresholds through martial arts training. The authors findings suggest that providing repitive painful stimuli over a period of time, also known as inurement exercises, decreases pain intensity ratings. These findings are argued to support the practice of inurement exercises in the martial arts. Chapter seven was written by Recep Gursoy, Mehmet Akif Ziyagil, Suleyman Sahin and Senol Dane. This chapter discusses differences in motor abilities for right and left handed persons. The authors present evidence from Dr. Gursoy‟s laboratory that suggest these differences are responsible for the unique advantage that left-handed boxers appear to have in the sport. Left-handedness and success in other sports are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter eight was written by Jason Warnick and Kyla Warnick. This brief report presents data that suggests that boxing awards are given in a biased manner. Specifically, this study shows that boxer of the year awards are predominantly given to boxers in the heavyweight division. These results are discussed in the context of the availability heuristic bias. Chapter nine was written by Merrilee Zetaruk and describes the common injuries associated with the most popular varieties of the martial arts. In addition to the data on the risk of injury in these athletic endeavors, Dr. Zetaruk provides details on how to manage and avoid many of the most frequent injuries. Chapter ten was written by Tracey W Tsang. This chapter summarizes the research on the health benefits of practicing Kung Fu. The conclusions suggest that practioners of this ancient martial art can improve both physical and mental health. The author makes a direct appeal for further study on this topic and suggests potential research strategies. Chapter eleven was written by Cynthia A. Bir and Sarah Stojsih. This reviews previously published studies that have investigated the biomechanics of boxing punches. This chapter makes careful distinctions between the different types of punches used in the studies and the different equipment employed to measure the parameters of the punch. Whether you are a long-time scientist in this field or a novice, we hope that you find this book to be an informative collection of articles showing the contemporary face of the scientific study of combative sports. This book contains manuscripts that would have easily fit in many of the top journals in the various combative sports-related disciplines. Researchers that are interested in this field are encouraged to explore journals in the fields of sports psychology (Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology; Journal of Applied Sport Psychology), sports sociology (International Review for the Sociology of Sport; Sociology of Sport

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

xii

Jason E. Warnick and W. Daniel Martin

Journal), biomechanics (Journal of Applied Biomechanics; Sports Biomechanics), and sports medicine (The American Journal of Sports Medicine; British Journal of Sports Medicine; Clinics in Sports Medicine; Current Sports Medicine Reports). Other journals that include articles on sports science include: Perceptual and Motor Skills; International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance; and Journal of Sports Sciences. As mentioned above, Nova Science Publishers have many journals (e.g., Athletic Insight; Contemporary Athletics) and book series (e.g., Contemporary Athletics Compendium; Sports and Athletics Preparation, Performance, and Psychology) that are related to this field. With this book and these resources, you have a great amount of information at your fingertips. I hope you have as much enjoyment learning about the science of combative sports as I have. -- Jason E. Warnick, Ph.D. June 2009

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Warnick, J. E. & Warnick, K. (2007). Specification of variables predictive of victories in the sport of boxing. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 105, 153-158.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

In: Advancements in the Scientific Study… ISBN: 978-1-60876-733-5 Editors: J. E. Warnick et al, pp. 1-11 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

A REVIEW OF THE VARIABLES PREDICTIVE OF A PROFESSIONAL BOXING BOUT’S OUTCOME Jason E. Warnick1, Kyla Warnick2, Andrew Johnson1 and W. Daniel Martin1 Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1

Department of Behavioral Sciences, Arkansas Tech University, USA 2

Russellville School District, Russellville, AR, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter summarizes a series of investigations conducted to determine the variables predictive of positive and negative boxing performances. These studies found that previous success was the main predictor of winning a boxing bout while increased age, previous defeat and fighting in the United States when it is your homecountry were the predictors of losing a boxing bout. The implications for these findings and ideas for future research are discussed.

Keywords: Boxing; Pugilism; Athletic Competition

 Corresponding author‟s address: Jason E. Warnick, 407 West Q St., Russellville, AR 72801 USA. E-mail: [email protected]. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

2

Jason E. Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson et al.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A REVIEW OF THE VARIABLES PREDICTIVE OF A PROFESSIONAL BOXING BOUT’S OUTCOME While pugilism is the one of the world‟s oldest athletic endeavors, it has received virtually no attention from the scientific community. When the sport of boxing receives any attention, it primarily focuses on the associated injuries (e.g., Zazryn, McCrory, and Cameron, 2009a; 2009b; Valkering, van der Hoeven, and Pijnenburg, 2008) and general calls for the ban on the athletic enterprise (e.g., British Medical Association Board of Science Working Party on Boxing, 2007). This laboratory has sought to fill in this gap in the research literature by investigating some of the variables believed to be associated with success in the sport of professional boxing. The research literature contains many reports that have characterized variables that are predictive of positive and negative athletic performance in many sports. For most sports, increased age is associated with negative athletic performance (e.g., running: Starkes, Weir, Singh, Hodges, and Kerr, 1999; Fair, 2007; baseball: Schulz, Musa, Staszewski, and Siegler, 1994). Similarly, losing weight for an athletic contest is associated with negative athletic performance (amateur wrestling: Horswill, Hickner, Scott, and Costill, 1990; amateur boxing: Hall and Lane, 2001). One widely investigated variable that is normally associated with positive athletic performance is competing in one‟s hometown (Gayton and Coombs, 1995; Smith, Guilleminault, and Efron, 1997) or in the one‟s home-country when the sport is subjectively scored (e.g., amateur boxing and skating: Balmer, Nevill, and Williams; 2001; Balmer, Nevill, and Williams, 2003). Another variable predictive of positive performance in sports is previous success (Landis, 2001). Likewise, failure in an athletic endeavor can lead to negative changes in an athlete‟s self-efficacy, leading to a greater likelihood of future negative athletic performance (Gernigon and Delloye, 2003). In a series of studies, our laboratory has attempted to begin characterizing the effect of each of these variables on the outcome of a boxing bout. These investigations have used archival data to answer some questions, reveal some interesting relationships and point the way for future studies using direct measures on athletes. Below we will discuss each of these studies and the implications of their findings.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

A Review of the Variables Predictive of a Professional Boxing…

3

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

VARIABLES PREDICTIVE OF VICTORY IN BOXING In 2007, Warnick and Warnick conducted an investigation into the variables that were predictors of a professional boxing bout‟s outcome. For this study, professional boxing record samples for all bouts occurring for one month in the United States were acquired from the BoxRec online database (http://www.boxrec.com). The following data were evaluated through a regression analysis: the fighter‟s age, the change in weight from their preceding bout, whether the boxer was competing in their home-country or abroad, the number of career victories and defeats, the outcome of their preceding bout, and the whether the fighter possessed a championship title. The regression model indicated four significant predictors of the bout outcome. Similar to other sports (Fair, 2007; Schulz et al., 1994; Starkes et al., 1999), increased age was associated with negative athletic performance as it predicted defeat. This was not a surprising finding as physical and cognitive decline is associated with the aging process (Laursen, 1997). Also, in congruence with previous research, the other predictors indicated the total number of wins and a victory in the preceding bout were predictive of victory and the total number of losses was predictive of defeat. Interestingly the change in weight from a previous contest was not predictive of the bout‟s outcome. While some previous studies have shown weight loss to negatively affect amateur boxing performance (Hall and Lane, 2001), other studies have found this effect to be highly variable (Smith, Dyson, Hale, Hamilton, Kelly, and Wellington, 2001; Smith, Dyson, Hale, Harrison, and McManus, 2000). For example, in one study using a boxing simulation task (Smith et al., 2000), some athletes were shown to be resistant to weight loss‟ negative effects. It must be emphasized that our investigation differed substantially from the research literature. Previous studies investigated the effect of weight loss immediately prior to a boxing bout while our study employed a weight change measure that was unable to assess when weight change might have occurred. Another finding we were unable to explain was the lack of evidence for a home-country advantage. We decided that this research area was so rich, we would need to investigate it further (see below).

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

4

Jason E. Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson et al.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

THE EFFECT OF PREVIOUS BOUTS ON THE OUTCOME OF THE CURRENT BOUT Our laboratory followed the above described study with a more detailed examination on the effect of the outcome of previous bouts on the performance of a future bout (Warnick and Warnick, 2009). Based on previous research in other sports (Chase, Magyar, and Drake, 2005; Fitzsimmons, Landers, Thomas, and van der Mars, 1991; Gernigon and Delloye, 2003; Weiss, Wiese, and Klint, 1989), it was hypothesized that previous athletic performance is able to change (i.e., increase or decrease) an athlete‟s self-efficacy for a future athletic performances. Much of the previous research on self-efficacy‟s role on athletic performance utilized highly salient stimuli (e.g., informing the contestant of the result of their preceding event) to affect a participant‟s self-efficacy immediately prior to an athletic event (e.g., Gernigon and Delloye, 2003). We sought to further investigate this self-efficacy hypothesis by examining the performance of boxers in bouts that are highly salient of previous performance, namely, participating in a rematch against a former opponent and competing in a bout in the same city as a previous contest. We assumed that if self-efficacy changes occur after a boxer‟s athletic performance, the salient features of a rematch or a bout in a common locale would likely be predictive of an athletic performance‟s success or failure. Similar to the study described above, professional boxing record samples for all bouts occurring for one month in the United States were acquired from the BoxRec online database. The following data were evaluated through a regression analysis: the outcome of the last bout, the preceding bout‟s outcome, the outcome of all of the bouts against a particular boxer, the outcome of all of the bouts in a particular location. Consistent with our laboratory‟s previous research (Warnick and Warnick, 2007), the outcome of the preceding bout was found to be a significant predictor of the current bout‟s outcome. Similarly, the outcome of the preceding bout against a particular opponent was found to be a significant predictor of the rematch outcome. Further, both the total number of wins and losses against a particular opponent were significant predictors (i.e., victory and defeat respectively) of the rematch outcome. The outcome of the preceding bout in a particular city was found to be a significant predictor of the bout outcome in that location. Both the total number of wins and losses in a city were significant predictors (i.e., victory and defeat respectively) of the bout outcome in the same location.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

A Review of the Variables Predictive of a Professional Boxing…

5

These findings demonstrate that boxing performance in previous highly salient bouts (i.e., the immediately preceding bout, rematches and bouts in a common city) was found to be predictive of outcome in future contests. These findings further the hypothesis that self-efficacy changes due to previous athletic performance affect subsequent bouts. While these data provide more support to this hypothesis, future studies employing direct measures of self-efficacy are clearly necessary. Additionally, it would be interesting to investigate the role of attributional style after a loss on future success and whether self-efficacy enhancing techniques (e.g., Brown, Malouff, and Schutte, 2005) are capable of alleviating the effects of a poor boxing performance.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

HOME ADVANTAGE AND HOME DISADVANTAGE: THE PRICE OF AMERICANS FIGHTING AT HOME In response to our previous study‟s inability to detect a home country advantage (Warnick and Warnick, 2007), our laboratory conducted an in depth analysis of this often studied variable (see Warnick, Johnson, and Martin, in press). In previous research on group sports, home teams, when compared to visiting teams, have a significantly greater chance of winning the contest (baseball: Courneya, 1990; Pollard, 1986; basketball: Schwartz and Barsky, 1977; Silva and Andrew, 1987; soccer: Brown, Van Raalte, Brewer, Winter, Cornelius, and Andersen, 2002; Pollard, 1986; hockey: Schwartz and Barsky, 1977). A similar effect has been seen for athletes performing in individual competitions at home (amateur wrestling: McAndrew, 1993). Further, the home country effect has been found to occur in international athletic events like the Olympic Games (Balmer, Nevill, and Williams, 2001; 2003) and the World Cup (Brown et al., 2002). While the home advantage effect is a complex phenomenon, it is believed that it is primarily the result of two variables. One of the variables associated with the home advantage effect is the psychological state that accompanies performing in front of a supportive audience (Bray, Jones, and Owen, 2002). Under normal conditions, this psychological state has been shown to be associated with increased levels of self-efficacy (Bray et al., 2002; Bray and Widmeyer, 2000) and self-confidence (Bray et al., 2002; Terry, Walrond, and Carron, 1998; Thuot, Kavouras, and Kenefick, 1998) and decreased levels of state anxiety (Bray et al., 2002; Terry et al., 1998). However, this relationship is context dependent as performing at home during high-stakes contests (e.g., championship events) is associated with decreased chance of victory (Baumeister and Steinhilber, 1984; Wright and Jackson, 1991; Wright and

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

6

Jason E. Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson et al.

Voher, 1995). This is believed to be the result of the negative psychological states, like increased self-monitoring and over-cautiousness (Wallace, Baumeister and Vohs, 2005), that accompany meaningful athletic events. The second variable that is believed to contribute to the home advantage effect is officiating bias. For example, soccer referees have been found to award extra time to a home team if they are losing (Sutter and Kocher, 2004). Similarly, judges for subjectively scored sports, like ice-skating, have been shown to give more favorable scores to athletes from their home country (Seltzer and Glass, 1991). Our laboratory sought to investigate a potential home advantage-like effect in championship boxing contests by seeking evidence for potential judging biases. The following information for all championship boxing bouts (i.e., World Boxing Council, World Boxing Association, World Boxing Organization, International Boxing Federation, International Boxing Organization) occurring in 2006 was obtained from The Boxing Record Book (Fight Fax Inc, 2007): the bout‟s result, the champion‟s previous win and loss record, the opponent‟s previous win loss record, the champion‟s home country, the opponent‟s home country, the home country of each judge, the scoring of each round for every judge, the country where the bout occurred. For bouts occurring in the United States, the champion was more likely to win the bout if he was not from the United States. For bouts occurring outside of the United States, the champion was more likely to win the bout if he was fighting in his home country. Analyses of bouts going to the judges‟ scorecards revealed a similar pattern of results. For bouts occurring in the United States, the champion was more likely to win the bout if he was not from the United States. For bouts occurring outside of the United States, the champion was more likely to win the bout if he was fighting in his home country. For bouts going to the judges‟ scorecards, there was a significant correlation between the number of judges that share the champion‟s home country and the champion losing the bout. A regression analysis was conducted using the following variables: number of champion‟s previous victories, number of champion‟s previous defeats, number of opponent‟s previous victories, number of opponent‟s previous losses, number of judges sharing the champion‟s home country and number of judges sharing the opponent‟s home country. The regression model was significant and indicated the number of judges sharing the champion‟s home country was a significant predictor of the bout outcome. For bouts occurring in the United States, there was a significant correlation between the number of judges that share the champion‟s home country and the champion losing the bout. However, for bouts occurring outside of the United

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Review of the Variables Predictive of a Professional Boxing…

7

States, there was no relationship between the number of judges that share the champion‟s home country and the bout‟s result. These findings both support and further a previous study investigating the home advantage effect in professional boxing. In that study, Balmer and colleagues (2005) that found European boxing champions enjoyed an increased probability of winning when fighting in their home country. Our study supports this finding by showing there were a greater number of victories for champions fighting in their home country for bouts occurring outside of the United States. However, there does not appear to be any evidence of judging bias in these bouts as the number of judges from the champion‟s home country is not associated with the bout‟s outcome. This suggests that this home advantage effect is likely due to factors not associated with the bout‟s officiating, like the psychological factors associated with performing for a supportive audience. Our laboratory‟s findings for bouts occurring in the United States are novel and will need to be further investigated as many potential hypotheses can be found to explain the pattern of results. In the United States, boxing has received much attention as being influenced by corruption (see Newfield, 1995). Boxing judges in the United States may be displaying a form of psychological reactance by not wanting to show any evidence of bias, thus judging the opponent more favorably. The judges are in an environment that mimics the conditions associated with the Hawthorne effect (Mayo, 1949). That is, they are aware that their scoring will be public record. Further, being involved in the sport, they are likely to be aware of the public‟s perception that corruption influences the outcome of boxing contests. Boxing judges may be reacting, either consciously or unconsciously, in a manner that is attempting to correct for potential bias towards the champion. The findings that champions are at a home disadvantage in the United States may also be a component of the country‟s long history of racial and ethnic discrimination. Many studies have shown that people attempt to correct for perceived discrimination against a particular group by favoring that group (i.e., reverse discrimination; Dutton, 1973; Dutton and Lake, 1973). The boxing judges we sampled may be attempting to reverse the ethnocentric appeal to favor the champion from one‟s home country. However, as the current study solely analyzed archival data, future studies will need to test this reactivity hypothesis by administering psychological measures to boxing judges in the United States and abroad.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

8

Jason E. Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson et al.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSIONS The findings that have come out of our laboratory (Warnick and Warnick, 2007; 2009; Warnick, Johnson, and Martin, in press) are compelling as they fit within the framework of current calls to revamp the sport of boxing. For example, the finding that increased age is associated with negative athletic performance could be employed in the current discussion of adopting an age limit for participating in the sport of boxing (Zazryn et al., 2009a). Also, the findings that suggest potential biased judging in championship bouts occurring in the United States appeal for a more comprehensive education of boxing officials. In the United States, the Association of Boxing Commissions currently conducts training seminars for referees and judges. One component of this training is to prepare a judge to be mentally prepared for a bout. This should likely be expanded to include a discussion on biased scoring and the Hawthorne effect. Analysis of the training efficacy should be employed to improve future educational protocols. It is hoped that these findings could also be useful for trainers of boxers. As our findings suggest previous performance, particularly with highly salient cues, can affect self-efficacy, trainers could begin offering scientifically-grounded exercises to increase an athlete‟s self-efficacy prior to a bout. Formally incorporating these techniques into a boxer‟s training regimen could provide a unique advantage for a fighter. The potential for this practice demands further investigation. Currently, our laboratory is using the studies described in this chapter to develop studies to investigate these topics using direct psychological measurement of boxers both before and after a bout. Also, we are continuing to investigate the potential evidence of ring officials showing biases during a bout.

REFERENCES Balmer, N. J., Nevill, A. M., and Lane, A. M. (2005). Do judges enhance home advantage in European championship boxing? Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, 409-416. Balmer, N. J., Nevill, A. M., and Williams, A. M. (2001). Home advantage in the Winter Olympics (1908-1998). Journal of Sports Science, 19, 129-139. Balmer, N. J., Nevill, A. M., and Williams, A. M. (2003). Modeling home advantage in the Summer Olympic Games. Journal of Sports Science, 21, 469-478.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Review of the Variables Predictive of a Professional Boxing…

9

Baumeister, R. F., and Steinhilber, A. (1984). Paradoxical effects of supportive audiences on performance under pressure: The home field disadvantage in sports championships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 8593. Bray, S. R., Jones, M. V.,and Owen, S. (2002). The influence of competition location on athletes‟ psychological states. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25, 231242. Bray, S. R., and Widmeyer, W. N. (2000). Athletes‟ perceptions of the home advantage: An investigation of perceived causal factors. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 1-10. British Medical Association Board of Science Working Party on Boxing. (2007). Second Report. Retrieved from http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/content/ boxingpu. Brown, L. J., Schutte, N. S. (2005) The effectiveness of a self-efficacy intervention for helping adolescents cope with sports-competition loss. Journal of Sport Behavior, 28, 136-150. Brown, T. D., Van Raalte, J. L., Brewer, B. W., Winter, C. R., Cornelius, A. E., and Anderson, M. B. (2002). World cup soccer home advantage. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25, 134-144. Chase, M. A., Magyar, M. T., and Drake, B. M. (2005) Fear of injury in gymnastics: Self-efficacy and psychological strategies to keep on tumbling. Journal of Sports Science, 23, 465-475. Courneya, K. S., (1990). Importance of game location and scoring first in college baseball. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 624-626. Dutton, D. G. (1973). Reverse discrimination: The relationship of amount of perceived discrimination toward a minority group on the behavior of majority group members. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 5, 34-45. Dutton, D. G., and Lake, R. A. (1973). Threat of own prejudice and reverse discrimination in interracial situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 94-100. Fair, R. C. (2007). Estimated age effects in athletic events and chess. Experimental Aging Research, 33, 37-57. Fight Fax Inc. (2007). The boxing record book (Vol. 24). Maple Shade, NJ: Fight Fax Inc. Fitzsimmons, P. A., Landers, D. M., Thomas, J. R., and van der Mars, H. (1991) Does self-efficacy predict performance in experienced weightlifters? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 424-431.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

10

Jason E. Warnick, Kyla Warnick, Andrew Johnson et al.

Gernigon, C., and Delloye, J. B. (2003) Self-efficacy, causal attribution, and track athletic performance following unexpected success or failure among elite sprinters. Sport Psychologist, 17, 55-76. Hall, C. J., and Lane, A. M. (2001). Effects of rapid weight loss on mood and performance among amateur boxers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 35, 390-395. Hill, R. A., and Barton, R. A. (2005). Psychology: Red enhances human performance in contests. Nature, 7040, 293. Horswill, C. A., Hickner, R. C., Scott, J. R., and Costill, D. L. (1990). Weight loss, dietary carbohydrate modifications, and high intensity, physical performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22, 470-476. Landis, R. S. (2001). A note on the stability of team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 446-450. Laursen, P. (1997) The impact of aging on cognitive functions. An 11 year follow-up study of four age cohorts. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica: Supplementum, 172, 7-86. McAndrew, F. T. (1993). The home advantage in individual sports. The Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 401-403. Mayo, E. (1949). Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company: The social problems of an industrial civilization. London: Routledge. Newfield, J. (1995). Only in America: The life and crimes of Don King. New York: Morrow. Pollard, R. (1986). Home advantage in soccer: A retrospective analysis. Journal of Sport Sciences, 4, 237-248. Schulz, R., Musa, D., Staszewski, J., and Siegler, R. S. (1994). The relationship between age and major league baseball performance: Implications for development. Psychology and Aging, 9, 274-286. Schwartz, B., and Barsky, S. F. (1977). The home advantage. Social Forces, 55, 641-661. Seltzer, R., and Glass, W. (1991). International politics and judging in Olympic skating events: 1968-1988. Journal of Sport Behavior, 14, 189-200. Silva, J. M., and Andrew, J. A. (1987). An analysis of game location and basketball performance in the Atlantic Coast Conference. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 18, 188-204. Starkes, J. L., Weir, P. L., Singh, P., Hodges, N. J., and Kerr, T. (1999). Aging and the retention of sport expertise. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 30, 283-301. Sutter, M., and Kocher, M. G. (2004). Favoritism of agents – The case of referees‟ home bias. Journal of Economic Psychology, 25, 461-469.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Review of the Variables Predictive of a Professional Boxing…

11

Terry, P. C., Walrond, N., and Carron, A. V. (1998). The influence of game location on athletes‟ psychological states. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 1, 29-37. Thuot, S. M., Kavouras, S. A., and Kenefick, R. W. (1998). Effect of perceived ability, game location, and state anxiety on basketball performance. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21, 311-321. Valkering, K. P., van der Hoeven, H., and Pijnenburg, B. C. (2008). Posterolateral elbow impingement in professional boxers. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 36, 328-332. Wallace, H. M., Baumeister, R. F., and Vohs, K. D. (2005). Audience support and choking under pressure: A home disadvantage? Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, 429-438. Warnick, J. E., Johnson, A., and Martin, W. D. (in press). Home country disadvantage for United States championship boxers. In D. C. Lieberman (Ed.), Aerobic exercise and athletic performance: Types, duration and health benefits. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers. Warnick, J. E., and Warnick, K. (2009). Specification of variables predictive of victories in the sport of boxing. II. Further characterization of previous success. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 108, 137-138. Warnick, J. E., and Warnick, K. (2007). Specification of variables predictive of victories in the sport of boxing. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 105, 153-158. Weiss, M. R., Wiese, D. M., and Klint, K. A. (1989) Head over heels with success: The relationship between self-efficacy and performance in competitive youth gymnastics. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 444-451. Wright, E. F., and Jackson, W. (1991). The home-course disadvantage in golf championships: Further evidence for the undermining effect of supportive audiences on performance under pressure. Journal of Sport Behavior, 14, 5160. Wright, E. F., and Voyer, D. (1995). Supporting audiences and performance under pressure: The home-ice disadvantage in hockey championships. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18, 21-28. Zazryn, T. R., McCrory, P. R., and Cameron, P. A. (2009a). Injury rates and risk factors in competitive professional boxing. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 19, 20-25. Zazryn, T. R., McCrory, P. R., and Cameron, P. A. (2009b). Neurologic injuries in boxing and other combat sports. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 20, 227-239.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

In: Advancements in the Scientific Study… ISBN: 978-1-60876-733-5 Editors: J. E. Warnick et al, pp. 13-39 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING AND THE MIXED MARTIAL ARTIST John Amtmann

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Montana Tech of The University of Montana

ABSTRACT The strength and conditioning research conducted over the last few decades has had a significant impact on sports. Forty years ago athletes competed during their season, and that is about it - there was no supplemental strength and conditioning. For today‟s athletes, it is not even a question of if an athlete will participate in supplemental strength and conditioning. ALL athletes are involved in some type of strength and conditioning program. The sport of MMA combines several Olympic sports such as boxing, taekwondo, wrestling and judo, as well as other related arts such as Thai boxing and Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ). No other sport comes close to the volume of training required of the MMA athlete to be successful. MMA competitors must focus their training on kick-boxing, wrestling and BJJ to be well-rounded and competitive in the sport. Consequently, because of the high volume of training required, chronic and acute injuries are constant companions of the MMA athlete, and a constant threat to their success. Strength and conditioning for the MMA athlete must be welldesigned, focusing on safety and effectiveness, in order to improve overall structural integrity to prevent injury and improve performance. This article  Contact Information: Applied Health Science, Montana Tech of The University of Montana. Office: 406-496-4346, Fax: 406-496-4711. Email: [email protected].

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

John Amtmann

14

outlines a safe and effective approach that could be used by a beginning amateur or an elite professional MMA athlete.

HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING AND THE MIXED MARTIAL ARTIST

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Strength and conditioning for the modern athlete is a vital part of the total training regimen, and many of the myths and misperceptions from the past concerning strength training have been dispelled through scientific research. Most coaches are now well aware of the positive effects strength training can have on their athletes. These effects include improvements of the following physical components which will help prevent injury and improve performance (ACSM 2000, Brzycki 1995):      

Muscular strength and endurance Joint integrity Fat-free mass and resting metabolic rate Bone mass Glucose tolerance Musculotendinous integrity

Of course MMA athletes spend a great deal of time training in the actual skills of the sport, sometimes up to three sessions per day of wrestling, jiujitsu, boxing and kickboxing, but supplemental strength and conditioning is important as well. This chapter will focus on the components of high intensity training (HIT) relative to the more widely practiced approach of volume training (VT). The objective of this chapter is to help coaches and athletes understand more about each method so informed decisions can be made regarding efficient and effective supplemental strength and conditioning. I am well acquainted with coaches who follow a variety of approaches and, given the right amount of effort from the athlete, most of them work very well. This chapter, basically, highlights the strength and conditioning methods I have used to train athletes for mixed martial arts (MMA) competition.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

15

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Literature Review Injuries Preventing injury in sports by training the specific joints identified as frequently injured is known as prehabilitation (Fleck and Kraemer 1997), and identifying injuries incurred in specific sports, and developing programs to prevent them, should be a top priority for coaches. It is also the coach‟s responsibility to be knowledgeable of the most common injuries in MMA, and how the strength and conditioning program will be of benefit to their athletes. In general, there are two types of injuries, acute and chronic. It is legal in mixed martial arts to apply joint locks to the wrist, elbow, shoulder, hip, knee and ankle. A joint lock is a technique that takes a joint to the limits of its‟ range of motion, causing pain, and is usually followed by a “tapout,” which is a signal for defeat while preventing a fracture or dislocation. Common sense tells us that, because of the very nature of joint locks, the potential for acute musculoskeletal injuries to these joints is high. Dislocations, fractures, sprains and strains will occur to the athlete training for and competing in these events. At present, there is only one publication from a peer-reviewed source focusing on the injuries from MMA competition. Bledsoe and associates analyzed injuries from 171 professional MMA bouts sanctioned in the State of Nevada and found a total of 96 injuries to 78 athletes. The injury rate was 28.6 injuries per 100 bout participations with facial lacerations (47.9%) being the most common injury followed by hand (13.5%), nose (10.4%), eye (8.3%), shoulder (5.2%), knee (3.1%), elbow (2.1%), back (2.1%), ankle (2.1%), jaw (1%), neck (1%) and foot (1%) injuries (2006). Since grappling plays a significant role in MMA, it is wise to use the literature published on wrestling and judo injuries as well. Common injury sites in wrestling occur at the knee, shoulder, ankle, head, elbow and neck (Jarret et al 1998, Boden et al 2002). Although neck injuries are more frequent in football and hockey (Biasca et al 2002), the neck injuries in grappling sports like wrestling and judo (and potentially MMA) have been no less catastrophic (Boden et al 2002, Chesterman 2003). The take home message is that there is potential for injury from head to toe in MMA competition and training, and the supplemental training needs to focus on developing whole body structural integrity. Also, because the MMA athlete must train intensely and often, there are chronic over-use injuries to be aware of as well. Though physical activity in general is an important element in promoting and maintaining health in the general population, the risk of musculoskeletal injury increases for all levels of participation with increasing physical activity, intensity, and duration (Kovaleski

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

16

John Amtmann

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Gurchiek and Pearsall 2001), therefore the supplemental strength and conditioning programs must be well planned.

Training Methods A comprehensive literature review of training methods employed by MMA athletes yielded only a few results. One study originating from my laboratory surveyed 28 athletes competing at a regional mixed martial arts (MMA) event. The survey attempted to gather information regarding overall training volume, supplement use, and specific exercises used, and the survey return rate was an impressive 100% (28/28). Twenty-five out of the twenty eight athletes supplemented their training with strength training. Overall frequency of strength training sessions/week ranged from 1 to 7, and overall frequency of fighting specific training sessions/week ranged from 3 to 12. Five out of the twenty-eight athletes used or had used anabolic-androgenic steroids. Twelve of the MMA athletes did not perform exercises specifically for the neck musculature, and eight used the power clean and/or power snatch within their strength-training program. We concluded that these results suggest that strength and conditioning specialists should educate MMA athletes regarding the importance of balanced training, effective exercises, and the side effects of anabolic androgenic steroid use (Amtmann, 2004). A second study from my laboratory sought more information on training volume variation from four months out to within one month out from the bout. This study surveyed 32 athletes competing at a mixed martial arts (MMA) event held in Butte, MT. The survey return rate was also 100% (32/32) and found that twenty-five out of the thirty two athletes supplemented their training with strength training. Overall frequency of strength training sessions/week ranged from 1 to 6, and overall frequency of fighting specific training sessions/week ranged from 2 to 10 and 2 out of the 32 athletes used or had used anabolic-androgenic steroids. Sixteen of the MMA athletes performed exercises specifically for the neck musculature, and eight used the power clean within their strength-training program. The volume of ST, both number of ST sessions per week and sets per exercise varied only slightly as the bout neared. The volume of MMA specific training sessions varied slightly more with the largest trend being an increase in MMA specific training. This indicates that some of the athletes may understand and implement periodization and volume variation to suit their MMA specific needs. It is obvious that the best way to train for an MMA style bout is to participate in MMA specific training, and the results of this survey show that some of the

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

17

athletes involved in this particular event understand that concept (Amtmann, 2009). It is not always the athlete that trains the most, but the one who trains the smartest, who is successful. Smart training may include an adjustment to overall strength training volume to allow for metabolic conditioning specific to MMA, which may require increases in MMA specific training. Smart training would also include training the body in a balanced fashion using a practical, prudent and efficient approach, with safe exercises and targeting each major muscle group including the neck. Finally, smart training should exclude the use of anabolic androgenic steroids.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING The high intensity training methods began with Arthur Jones, the founder of the Nautilus line of strength training equipment. Jones advocated training each major muscle group with one set per exercise, and that this one set should be taken to complete muscular failure. He believed that the individual should train this way about three times per week. Subsequent supporters of Jones‟ method agreed that the most important factor in developing strength was intensity – how hard the athlete worked during each set in a session, instead of volume – how many sets were performed. By taking each set of each session (after the initial orientation period) to failure, overload would be assured and the musculoskeletal system would respond positively. Table 1. High Intensity Training vs. Volume Training High Intensity Training Low Volume (1-3 days/week) Intense workouts (most sets taken to failure) Slow/controlled movement speed

Volume Training Moderate to High Volume (usually 3-5 days/week) Periodized approach (more and less intense at different times during the year) Slow and fast movement speeds

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

18

John Amtmann

Though explosive lifts, such as the power clean, are widely used, Jones believed that fast movement speeds in strength training exercises were less effective in developing strength because the momentum introduced during fast speeds meant less actual work the muscle had to do. He also believed that high movement speeds increase the potential for soft tissue injury (Jones, 1982). This view is still supported today by many high intensity training (HIT) proponents (Brzycki 1995, Mannie 2000, Riley and Wright 2002). Since Jones came out with his theory of training a good number of other approaches to training have developed that fall under the umbrella of HIT. The common elements of HIT are that the strength training sessions are hard (intense), brief, infrequent, and require slow movement speeds. A basic principle of exercise physiology is progressive overload, which states that for a muscle group to improve its‟ function, the group must be exposed to a stimulus greater than it is normally accustomed to. Most HIT sets are taken to complete muscular failure to create this overload. Only 1-3 sets of each exercise are performed anywhere from 1-3 sessions per week because that is all that is needed to create an overload if the sets are taken to muscular failure. HIT supporters relate their theory of musculoskeletal adaptation to the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) first described by Hans Selye (1956). The GAS states that there are three stages to a stressor: alarm-reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. In terms of strength training and the GAS, the stressor (strength training) provides an overload stimulus causing an alarm reaction. Given proper nutrition and rest, the body will enter the resistance stage of the GAS by becoming stronger; adapting to the stressor. HIT proponents believe that each strength training session is a stressor and, in order to allow for adaptation to occur in the resistance stage, recovery time must be allowed for after each training session, and is the reason no more than three strength training sessions/week are recommended. Allowing for full recovery after each training session will prevent the individual from reaching the exhaustion phase of the GAS, or overtraining. The HIT advocates believe that this training is beneficial and effective for athletes of all levels who wish to improve performance, and that performance enhancement occurs by practicing a skill so that the athlete becomes more efficient at that specific skill. Combining this improved efficiency with overall strength improvements from a safe strength training program is how performance enhancement and sport-specific power through strength training is achieved (Brzycki 1995, Mannie 1996).

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

19

WHO USES HIT As an athlete, coach, strength coach and as a professor for the Applied Health Science program at Montana Tech, I have had the opportunity to research, in depth, the many approaches to strength training and conditioning. In the last 10 years I have been influenced by strength coaches who use HIT methods in their programs, including:   

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.



Ken Mannie (Michigan State University, Football) Dan Riley (Houston Texans) Mark Asanovich (formerly of the Jacksonville Jaguars and Tampa Bay Buccaneers) Mike Vorkapich (Michigan State University, Basketball)

I recommend the reader research all of the various approaches to strength training keeping an open mind, weighing and considering the points made by experts from each side, to determine what to accept as useful and practical training information. I am a supporter of the HIT methods, and I believe this approach to training is especially beneficial for the MMA athlete. Training for MMA is, literally, equivalent to training for three different sports. The volume required for training in the skills of stand-up grappling, stand-up striking, ground grappling and ground striking is high enough that the strength training component needs to be well planned, safe, efficient and practical in order to prevent overtraining injuries from developing and to maximize effectiveness of the program.

Balance It is important to remember that balanced strength training is the goal to develop the body in a structurally sound manner rather than just exercising a few select muscle groups. So, training the body as one functional unit, focusing on all the major muscle groups should be a priority. The major muscle groups include, from head to toe:    

Neck Upper back/trapezius Shoulders Middle back

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

John Amtmann

20        

Lower back Chest Upper Arms Forearms/grip Abdominals Hips Thighs Lower leg

It is tempting, sometimes, to give more attention to the “mirror” muscles such as the chest or biceps, but remember, the point of the program is to safely and efficiently work each muscle group to create a more structurally sound athlete. ALL of the major muscle groups are important!

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Table 2. Sample Strength Training Routine* Exercise

Muscles Worked

Repetition Range

Leg Extension

Thighs

10-15

Leg Curl

Thighs

10-15

Hammer Deadlift

Low Back/Hips/Thighs

12-20

Neck Flexion/Extension

Neck

8-12

Abdominal Curls

Abdominals

12-20

Hyperextensions

Lower Back

12-20

External Rotation

Shoulders/Rotator Cuff

8-12

Dumbbell Overhead Press

Shoulders

8-12

Lat Pull Down

Upper Back

8-12

Bench Press

Chest

8-12

Curls

Biceps

8-12

Tricep Extension

Triceps

8-12

Wrist Curls

Forearms

8-12

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

21

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Table 3. Sample Split-Routine A Day 1

Day 2

Leg Extension

Reverse Flies

Leg Curl

Seated Cable Row

Hammer Deadlift

Dumbbell Fly

Shoulder Shrug

External Rotation

4-way Neck

Bench Press

Abdominal Curls

Dumbbell Lateral Raise

Hyperextensions

Tricep Extension

Wrist Curls

Dumbbell Hammer Curls

Calf-Raise

Hammer Ab Machine

Dorsi-flexion

Swiss Ball Hypers

Table 4. Sample Split-Routine B Day 1

Day 2

Squat

External Rotation

Lunges

Dumbbell Pullover

Leg Curl

Lat Pull Down

4-Way Neck

Pec Deck

Reverse Hypers

Hammer Bench

Hip Abduction

Sit-up

Hip Adduction

Wrist Curl

Calf-raise

Depending on the acute program variables, targeting every major muscle group in every session may not always be possible, however, balance should be Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

22

John Amtmann

achieved over the course of one to two weeks. A basic and balanced strength training program is listed in Table 2. The athlete performs 1-3 sets of each exercise with each set taken to muscular failure on two to three non-consecutive days/week, such as Monday/Wednesday/Friday or Monday/Thursday. A proper warm-up should always precede the strength training program. A warm-up could be as little as 5-10 minutes at an easy to moderate pace on the stationary bike or a more intense 20-30 minute cardiovascular session such as cycling, running, or a shadowing session. The key to improving strength and conditioning specific to any sport is safe and logical progression in the methods used. Progression is ensured by increasing resistance when the athlete is able to perform more than the prescribed number of repetitions set for each exercise with good form. Many athletes have experience with split-routine training, where different muscle groups are trained on different days. For example, legs, back an biceps on Monday and Thursday, and chest, shoulders and triceps on Tuesday and Friday. However upper back, chest and shoulders all involve shoulder musculature, and overtraining in the form of rotator cuff strains and tendonitis sets in rapidly when an athlete is training striking, grappling and shoulder musculature strength with that kind of frequency. HIT advocates will employ upper/lower body split routine training however the split routines are not performed on successive days. We have found this helps to prevent overtraining. See Tables 3 and 4 for sample split routines. The frequency of either program would still be two to three nonconsecutive days per week, so day one would be Monday, day two would be a Wednesday and on Friday you would go back to day one‟s routine. The following week day two would be on Monday and Friday, with day one on Wednesday. You could also split the days on Monday for day one and Thursday for day two, or something similar. If you analyze each exercise in these three sample programs, you will see that each major muscle group is addressed. Many strength and conditioning specialists inadvertently ignore two muscle groups that are essential to address for any athlete competing in MMA: the external rotators of the rotator cuff and the neck.

Rotator Cuff Many shoulder injuries involve the rotator cuff. The rotator cuff is a group of four muscles that help to stabilize the head of the humerus within the glenoid fossa of the scapula. These muscles have flat tendons that fuse together and surround the front, back and top of the shoulder joint like a cuff on a shirt sleeve.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

23

When the muscles of the rotator cuff contract, they pull on the rotator cuff tendons, causing the shoulder to rotate inward or outward. Preventing chronic and acute injuries, including injuries to the shoulders, is one purpose to strength training. The athlete who does not supplement his/her training with proper strength training is likely to develop imbalances because many sports rarely produce balanced improvements in strength. For example, the tennis player may develop strength unequally between the right and left sides of the body in the absence of a strength training program. Also, swimmers may develop more pulling strength that may lead to muscular imbalances unless pressing/pushing exercises are implemented via a balanced strength training program. The adjective “proper” is used because improperly designed strength training programs, or improper execution of well-designed strength training programs and exercises, could also lead to injury. Boxers and mixed martial artists tend to utilize the anterior musculature of the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint disproportionately more than the posterior musculature and this imbalance increases the risk of injury (Cibrario 1997, Estwanik 1996, Wallace and Flanagan 1999). This problem is exacerbated when strength and conditioning programs that completely exclude the posterior musculature are marketed to unsuspecting MMA athletes – coaches and athletes need to be aware of this and evaluate the programs they are using. Table 5. Muscle Strength Balance at Potential Injury Sites Joint

Movement

Ratio

Shoulder

Flexion: Extension

2:3

Shoulder

Internal: External Rotation

3:2

Elbow

Flexion: Extension

1:1

Trunk

Flexion: Extension

1:1

Knee

Extension: Flexion

3:2

Note: Data from Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Ed. T.R. Baechle. Champaign: IL: Human Kinetics.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

John Amtmann

24

Table 6. Popular Exercises and Their Counterparts* Bench Press

Seated Cable Rowing

Incline Press

60 Degree Lat Pull Down

Decline Press

Upright Row

Dumb Bell Flies

Bent Over Lateral Raise

Overhead Press

Lat Pull Down

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

*For each exercise done on the left, the same number of sets should be designated for the exercise on the right (or a similar exercise).

Overall muscle strength is important in developing joint stability, but the ratio (or balance) of strength between opposing muscle groups is just as important in developing stability and preventing injury (Cibrario 1997, Warner et al 1990). Therefore, one of the strength and conditioning professional‟s priorities should be to develop a balanced program and ensure proper ratios of strength from one muscle group to another. The general guidelines in Table 5 are strength ratios for opposing muscle groups and are based on isokinetic tests of peak torque production at slow speeds. Cibrario (1997) and Estwanik (1996) suggest giving equal importance to all muscles crossing the glenohumeral joint to prevent imbalance injuries. One simple way to ensure your strength program is balanced regarding the shoulder musculature is comparing pushing/pressing exercises with pulling exercises. For example, if your program consists of four (pushing/pressing) exercises for the chest (bench press, flies, incline bench press, decline bench press), but only two pulling exercises (lat pull down, seated cable rowing), then the focus of your program is on the anterior musculature. Decreasing the number of pushing/pressing exercises and/or increasing the number of pulling exercises easily remedy this imbalance. See Table 6 (Exercise Counterparts) for examples of what exercises may be used in a balanced fashion. Of particular importance in maintaining structural integrity and preventing injury are the external rotators. External rotation exercises help to isolate the posterior muscles of the rotator cuff and may help to maintain or improve shoulder joint stability. Estwanik (1996) offers a guide on how often to perform these exercises. He recommends performing one external rotation set for every

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

25

bench press movement. So, if you do three sets of a bench pressing movements, you should do three sets of external rotation exercises.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Neck Like it or not, neck injuries are a potential danger in MMA. Dr. Ken Leistner points out the importance of making neck training a priority to prevent neck injuries in the following statement: “Blow out your knee, and you may rehab for a full year; damage a cervical vertebra, and you may spend the rest of your life in a wheel chair” (1996). Wolff‟s law is the theory developed by the German Anatomist/Surgeon Julius Wolff (1835-1902) in the 19th century that states that bone in a healthy person or animal will adapt to the loads it is placed under. If loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that sort of loading. Modern research supports this theory (ACSM 200), and researchers typically suggest children, young adults and older adults participate in a variety of physical activities that require some degree of muscular effort. With adequate nutrition, the muscle actions and overall weight bearing nature of these physical activities stimulate the skeletal system to respond over time by developing stronger, more dense, bones. This concept also applies to ligaments, which connect bones at joints to maintain joint integrity, and other connective tissues as well. The same stresses that stimulate bone to increase density and become stronger, stimulate the ligaments to adapt in order to support greater forces and they become stronger too. This is a benefit to anyone participating in a sport that carries potential for head and neck trauma. Mixed martial arts is one of those sports. Not only will structural integrity improve with increases in neck strength, stronger neck musculature helps to absorb the stress of high impact forces to the head seen in boxing and kick-boxing (Wallace and Flanagan 1999). MMA coaches should consider implementing neck training for their athletes if they are not already doing so. Every combat sport has the potential for neck injury (see Figure 1), and it would be a gross error to exclude the neck musculature from an MMA athlete‟s strength training program. Dan Riley, the highly regarded strength and conditioning coach formerly of the Super Bowl champion Washington Redskins and currently with the Houston Texans, makes neck exercises the top priority for his football players (Riley and Wright 2002). In their planned strength training sessions, his players are instructed, and supervised, to complete all neck exercises first before proceeding

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

26

John Amtmann

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

to other body parts. Some athletes approach neck training as an afterthought, because they perceive the neck musculature to be of lower importance. However, well educated coaches and athletes recognize the importance of this area and develop their strength training programs accordingly. A great way to train the neck musculature is by using a 4-way neck machine. The 4-way neck machine is an effective way to train the neck flexors, extensors, and lateral flexors on each side.

Photo by Bob Willingham (copyrighted).

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

27

If a neck machine is not available there are other alternatives. To simply and effectively train the major muscle groups providing support and movement of the neck, an overload situation for that musculature needs to be created. One of the best forms of resistance is manual resistance in the form of a training partner. By positioning our body so that our partner can apply resistance with their hands we can effectively add resistance to the flexors, extensors, and lateral flexors of the neck. Another way to train the neck muscles is by using free weights. Using a head harness attached to an appropriate weight, move your head up and down while maintaining a stable position with good posture. To exercise the neck flexors, pad your head with a folded towel while lying supine (face up), add weight, and move your head up and down while stabilizing the weight with your hands. You can exercise the neck extensors without the harness by padding the head, holding the weight on your head, and moving your head up and down as described above for the neck flexors. However, you would have to be lying prone (face down) instead of supine. There are different expert opinions regarding range of motion for neck exercises. Some experts suggest a limited range of motion to ensure minimal stress is placed on the ligaments, discs, and vertebral structures (Estwanik 1996). Other experts recommend exercising the neck through a full range of motion (Brzycki 2002, Mannie 2002). Our own position on this is to use slow movements and listen to your body. Do not do anything that produces pain as opposed to fatigue of the neck musculature. Isometric training is another viable option. Isometric, or static contraction, training involves a muscle group creating force while maintaining a specific joint angle. In other words, you are “flexing” a muscle group without any significant movement of that part of the body. For example, holding a half push-up or half squat is a way to exercise the muscles involved in the push-up or squat exercise in an isometric fashion. Simply pushing against a partner‟s resistance with the intention of moving the head/neck but with no actual movement is an effective method for developing strength. Another way to train the neck muscles in an isometric manner is by holding a head/neck position while adding resistance with weights. Pad your head with a folded towel, add weight, and hold the position while stabilizing the weight with your hands. As long as the overload principle is met by exposing the muscle group to an intensity of muscular action it us unaccustomed to, isometric training of the neck musculature will be effective (Brzycki 2002, Mannie 2002, Prentice 1999). In addition to the exercises using flexion/extension and lateral flexion, we recommend an exercise for the upper trapezius (upper shoulders/back). The upper

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

28

John Amtmann

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

trapezius aids in stabilizing the cervical spine and can be effectively trained with a shoulder shrug exercise using dumbbells, a barbell or anything else that can provide resistance while elevating your shoulder towards your ears. The deadlift is another exercise that, although not isolating the upper trapezius exclusively, will improve upper trapezius strength and cervical integrity. The neck exercises should be done anywhere from one to three times/week as a regular part of the strength-training program. Brzycki recommends one set of 812 repetitions to volitional fatigue for each of the neck exercises, which would equate to about 60-90 seconds for the isometric forms of the exercises (2002). If you choose to use dynamic (moving as opposed to isometric/static) exercises for the neck, we highly recommend slow movements for all exercises focusing on the neck. If you choose to use isometric variations of the neck exercises, remember to breathe! Holding your breath during isometric actions can cause blood pressure to rise significantly, which may be dangerous for some individuals. Again, always remember that strength training should be balanced so exercise the front/back and the right/left sides of the neck equally. The cervical spine is a complex part of the human body. Damage to this area can have life-long consequences at best, and life threatening consequences at worst. MMA athletes and coaches must establish neck training as a top priority within their program.

Conditioning When considering the energy systems used for a particular activity, it is essential to analyze the intensity of effort and the duration of that effort. Experts agree that most activities require energy from both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, but the percentage of ATP production from aerobic and anaerobic sources will vary according to intensity and duration. According to the general guidelines in Table 6, energy system involvement is directly dependent on the duration of the activity. However, there are intermittent periods where intensity changes according to the demands of the particular match in dynamic sports like MMA. For example, at certain times the athletes may be working at 100% of their maximum intensity, and at other times a submaximal percentage, and this is true for many sports. Most experts agree that both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems are contributing varying percentages at various times during the fight. Most MMA rounds are five minutes long and, according to Paul Soucy, the strength and conditioning coach for Jimmy Pedro, 1999 World Judo Champion, it is the strength and conditioning specialist‟s duty to create the

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

29

worst-case scenario when developing a metabolic conditioning program for a specific sport. In other words: prepare for the worst (overtime), but hope for the best (a quick submission). Pulkinnen conducted a comprehensive review of the literature related to time motion analysis of grappling sports and suggested a work to rest ratio of 2:1 to 3:1 for judo specific interval training (2001). Like wise, Tabata and his associates found that seven to eight sets of interval training with the same work:rest ratio had a profound effect on both aerobic and anaerobic capacities (1996). They used interval training for their national team speed skaters that involved 20 seconds of pedaling on a cycle ergometer at maximal levels followed by 10 seconds of submaximal work for seven to eight repetitions. Combining circuit weight training (CWT) with interval training (IT) are the main components of our metabolic conditioning program, and is an effective method for pre-fight conditioning. There is no substitute for training in the actual sport, however because of their metabolic costs, CWT and IT can be effective in creating a metabolic state similar to what develops in an MMA bout in a safe manner while maintaining strength (Amtmann et al 2008, Pichon et al 1996, Tabata et al 1996). The previously listed strength training programs can be made into a CWT session simply by minimizing the time between exercises. So, an effective conditioning session utilizing CWT combined with Tabata‟s cycle ergometer protocol for IT is shown in Table 7, Sample Conditioning Session. This conditioning session was found to exceed MMA metabolic demands as defined by lactate measurements and rate of perceived exertion responses in athletes training for and competing in mixed martial arts bouts (Amtmann et al 2008). Table 6. Contributions of Anaerobic and Aerobic Energy Systems Time

Anaerobic

Aerobic

0-30s

80%

20%

0-60s

70

30

0-120s

60

40

0-240s

40

60

Note: Data from Powers, S., Howley, E. (2001). Exercise Physiology: Theory and application to fitness and performance. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

John Amtmann

30

Table 7. Sample Conditioning Session Day 1 Leg Extension Leg Curl Hammer Deadlift CEP* Shoulder Shrug 4-way Neck Abdominal Curls CEP Hyperextensions Wrist Curls Calf-Raise Dorsi-flexion CEP

Day 2 Reverse Flies Seated Cable Row Dumbbell Fly CEP External Rotation Bench Press Dumbbell Lateral Raise CEP Tricep Extension Dumbbell Hammer Curls Hammer Ab Machine Swiss Ball Hypers CEP

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

*Tabata‟s cycle ergometer protocol.

The frequency and overall volume with which the CWT should be used depends on a variety of factors, and the strength and conditioning coach should work closely with the MMA coach to monitor overall training and competition volume in case acute program variables need to be modified, however, we usually recommend 2-3 sessions/week. The intensity of the CWT session can be varied by several methods. We recommend varying the order of the exercise to increase or decrease the overall intensity. For example, for the first two to three weeks, the strength and conditioning coach may alternate upper body and lower body exercises to gradually prepare the athlete for more intense training. As conditioning improves, the intensity may be increased by grouping body parts together: lower body exercises, upper body exercises and abdominal/low-back exercises together, or by adding more multi-joint movements. To maximize efficiency of time, each circuit is separated by the interval training method described above. Another method that is effective in preparing the athlete for the metabolic environment specific to MMA is “fight” specific interval training (FSIT). A collection of movements specific to MMA competition are combined with other basic exercises in a manner that creates a metabolic environment similar to an MMA bout. For example the athlete begins with one minute of shadowing techniques (strikes, takedowns/throws, takedown defense), then proceed to timed

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

31

segments of exercises totaling five-minutes. This process can be continued for as many rounds as desired. See Table 8 for an example. Table 8. Sample Fight Specific Interval Training (5-minute rounds) Round 1 60 seconds shadow striking 30 seconds push-ups 30 seconds pull-ups 60 seconds free squats 30 seconds heavy bag lifts or double leg lifts with partner 30 seconds mountain climbers 30 seconds sit-ups or abdominal curls 30 seconds shrimping (hip-scoots)

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Maximum of 60 second break between rounds Round 2 (Heavy Bag) 20 seconds free striking 20 seconds knee strikes 20 seconds non-stop body punching 30 seconds free striking 30 low-leg kicks 30 lunge jumps 30 seconds free striking 45 seconds non-stop body punching 45 seconds knee strikes 30 seconds low-leg/floating rib kicks

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

John Amtmann

32

Table 8. Sample Fight Specific Interval Training (5-minute rounds) (Continued) Round 3 (ground grappling dummy) 60 seconds free striking 30 seconds bottom guard striking 30 seconds top guard striking 60 seconds lunges 60 seconds top mount striking with tie ups 60 seconds top side control striking with tie ups

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Repeat/modify as needed

Metabolic conditioning is a part of grappling sports, and is usually a natural component within the drilling and free practice of the practice session, however intense supplemental metabolic conditioning, such as the CWT and FSIT, can be initiated to improve lactic acid tolerance, and Pulkinnen suggests 12 weeks to allow for this adaptation (1996), but we see improvements in lactate tolerance with as little as 4 weeks using this kind of conditioning. There are many ways to manipulate this phase as the athlete‟s conditioning, and ability to withstand lactic acid, improves. For example, the first week of FSIT the athlete may require complete rest during the 60-second break between rounds. In successive weeks, the athlete may begin to shadow between rounds with increasing intensity. Also, the coach may decrease the break from 60 seconds to 50, then to 40 seconds. Again, the purpose is to create the worst-case metabolic scenario.

Periodization Periodization is a term commonly used to describe the planned variation in volume and intensity specific to an athlete‟s year-round or even multi-year training. We usually employ two phases in strength and conditioning for MMA. The first phase, common with most MMA athletes because of the comprehensive technical nature of the sport, is to train year round, anywhere from three to eight

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

33

sessions per week of actual on the mat MMA specific training including kickboxing, wrestling and jiujitsu along with a basic strength training program similar to the strength programs outlined in this chapter. The second phase begins when an athlete has scheduled a bout and, ideally, the athlete has 10-12 weeks to prepare for the bout. Ten to twelve weeks is not always the case, in fact at many regional events promoters will have to make last minute changes to the fight card because of injury, illness, car trouble and other reasons. It is not uncommon for MMA athletes to accept a bout with, literally 60 minutes notice. This is one reason why year round basic strength and conditioning is important. Different coaches will use different terms for this 10-12 week phase: pre-fight phase, fight-prep phase, peaking phase, metabolic conditioning phase. Nonetheless, this phase will include, most importantly, increases in and more intense MMA-specific sparring and free-style training sessions, as well as modifying the strength and conditioning program to improve lactate tolerance as noted in the metabolic conditioning programs described above. Depending on the intensity of the actual bout, most athletes will take a week or two off of training after the bout, and to allow for much-needed rest and recuperation. Maintaining enthusiasm for training is helpful when training and planning for these recovery sessions following the bouts are important. Though MMA is an individual sport, it is imperative to have a team to train with. Each and every member of the team is an important component in training one of the team members for a bout, and maintaining a positive attitude will help the overall atmosphere; planned breaks following bouts help to maintain that positive attitude.

WHERE’S THE FLUFF? Many athletes and strength coaches buy into the belief that the more flamboyant an exercise is the more effective it must be. Trying to balance on a stability ball while performing squats and using other fancy contraptions are just a couple of examples. The best MMA athlete to come out of Butte, Montana is Sam Rauch (see Photograph 1, see Photographs 2-5 for the author and other athletes). He is a tough young competitor who is always looking for an edge over his competition. The following dialog with Sam helps to clarify the point.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

34

John Amtmann “Hey John, I saw on television these high level athletes who were jumping onto these 3-foot platforms. Some of them were even holding dumbbells dropping down off the platform and immediately jumping up to another platform…”

In the field of strength and conditioning this exercise is known as the depth jump, and I knew what was coming next. “…shouldn‟t we be doing that?” He asked. “Do you fight guys while jumping on and off three foot platforms?” “No, but wouldn‟t it improve power in my double leg take-down?”

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

“Absolutely not. Depth jumps might improve lower body strength but we‟ve already got a good lower body training program, Sam, your body is already taking a pounding on a weekly basis, and you‟re consistently dealing with minor nagging injuries as it is. Your strength training should be balanced and safe; your metabolic conditioning should be intense and safe; your technique training should be comprehensive. Combining your improvements in strength and conditioning with technique training is what will improve power in any of your techniques.”

CONCLUSION There are many different strength and conditioning approaches to training the MMA athlete. The one common element in all of them is intensity – none of them are easy. This chapter covered a basic but practical and effective approach to strength and conditioning for the MMA athlete. The key to developing strength and conditioning specific to the mixed martial arts should be safe methods and logical progression – in that order! Do not be fooled by the simplicity of these programs. They will work if the effort is put into them AND the risk of injury is much lower compared to higher volume programs utilizing explosive lifts.

DEDICATION This chapter is dedicated to my lovely wife Kelly and my three beautiful daughters Aidan, Hannah and Devin.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

MMA athlete Sam Rauch (8-0 as an amateur and 4-3 as a pro). Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Photograph 1.

John Amtmann Photograph 2.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

35

36

John Amtmann

Bennie West.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Photograph 3.

Kahl Clark. Photograph 4.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

37

Thomas Brown

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Photograph 5.

REFERENCES American College of Sports Medicine. (2000). ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription (Sixth Ed). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Amtmann, J. (2004). Self-reported training methods of mixed martial artists at a regional reality fighting event. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 194-196. Amtmann, J. A., Amtmann, K. A., and Spath, W. K. (2008). Lactate and rate of percieved exertion responses of athletes training for and competing in a mixed martial arts event. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22, 645-647. Amtmann, J. (under review). Training volume and methods of athletes competing at a mixed martial arts event. Biasca, N., Wirth, S., and Tegner, Y. (2002). The avoidability of head and neck injuries in ice hockey: An historical review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36, 410-427.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

38

John Amtmann

Bledsoe, G., Hsu, E., Grabowski, J., Brill, J., and Li, G. (2006). Incidence of injury in professional mixed martial arts competitions. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 5, 136-142. Boden, B., Lin, W., Young, M., and Mueller, F. (2002). Catastrophic injuries in wrestlers. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 30, 791-795. Brzycki, M. (1995). A Practical Approach To Strength Training. Indianapolis, IN: Masters Press. Chesterman, B. (2003). Judo. Broomall, PA: Mason Crest Publishers. Cibrario, M. (1997). Preventing weight room rotator cuff tendonitis: A guide to muscular balance. Strength and Conditioning, 19, 22-25. Estwanik, J. (1996). Sports Medicine for the Combat Arts. Charlotte, NC: Delmar Printing Company. Fleck, S., and Kraemer, W. (1997). Designing Resistance Training Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Jarret, G., Orwin, J., and Dick, R. (1998). Injuries in collegiate wrestling. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 26, 674-680. Jones, A. (1982). Avoiding and preventing injuries. In Total Fitness: The Nautilus Way. Peterson, J. (Ed.). West Point, NY: Leisure Press. Kovaleski, J., Gurchiek, L., and Pearsall, A. (2001). Musculoskeletal injuries: Risks, prevention, and care. In ACSM’s Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. Baltimore, Maryland: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins. Leistner, K. (1996). Athletic priorities. Hard Training, 1, 1-2. Mannie, K. (2000). High-volume or high-intensity. Coach and Athletic Director, 2000, 7-10. Mannie, K. 1996. Ballistic weight training dangerous and unnecessary. Hard Training, 1, 10-17. Pichon, C., Hunter, G., Morris, M., Bond, R., and Metz, J. (1996). Blood pressure and heart rate response and metabolic cost of circuit versus traditional weight training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 153-156. Prentice, W. (1999). Regaining muscular strength, endurance, and power. In Rehabilitation Techniques in Sports Medicine. William Prentice (Ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Pulkkinen, W. (2001). The Sport Science of Elite Judo Athletes. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Pulkinetics. Riley, D., and Wright, R. (2002). Houston Texans strength and conditioning program (player‟s manual). Internet Available: http://www.houstontexans. com/photos/training_manual010703.pdf. Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

High Intensity Training and the Mixed Martial Artist

39

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Tabata, I., Nishimura, K., Kouzaki, M., Hirai, Y., Ogita, F., Miyachi, M., and Yamamoto, K. (1996). Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2 max. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, 1327-1330. Wallace, B., and Flanagan, S. (1999). Boxing: Resistance training considerations for modifying injury risk. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 21, 31-39. Warner, J., Micheli, L., Arslanian, L., Kennedy, J., and Kennedy, R. (1990). Patterns of flexibility, laxity and strength in normal shoulders and shoulders with instability and impingement. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 18, 366-377.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

In: Advancements in the Scientific Study… ISBN: 978-1-60876-733-5 Editors: J. E. Warnick et al, pp. 41-59 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

SPECIAL JUDO FITNESS TEST: DEVELOPMENT AND RESULTS Emerson Franchini,1 Fabrício Boscolo Del Vecchio1 and Stanislaw Sterkowicz2

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1

Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, Sport Department, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, Brazil 2 Combat Sports Department, Krakow Academy of Physical Education, Poland

ABSTRACT The aim of this work was to review publications from 1995 to 2008 which enabled to standardization and development of the Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT). This test was designed to evaluate physical fitness of judo athletes as well as control the training process in this sport. After its proposal in 1995 the SJFT was implemented in at least dozen countries. The chapter describes the SJFT protocol and points out the similarity between the time structure of a judo match and the test, in which judo athletes are using a sport specific technique. The reliability of the SJFT is discussed, the correlations of this test results with indices of both anaerobic and aerobic  Contact Information: Emerson Franchini, Av. Prof.Mello Moraes, 65, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo (SP) - Brazil. ZIP Code: 05508-900. Tel number: 0 55 11 3091-3173. E-mail: [email protected].

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

E. Franchini, F. B. Del Vecchio and S. Sterkowicz

42

capacity is presented and comparisons of different background judo players are shown. As the main conclusions it is stated that the SJFT: a) is a reliable tool of training control, b) sensitive to the actual preparation state of a competitor, c) differentiates in a proper way competitors representing higher and lower sport level, d) correlated with results of recognized laboratorial and field tests, e) correlated with number of attacks during judo matches. Finally, based in a large sample of judo athletes a table of norms is proposed for evaluation of testing fitness in judo according to total number of throws, heart rate immediately after and 1 minute after the SJFT, and the Index proposed.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

SPECIAL JUDO FITNESS TEST: DEVELOPMENT AND RESULTS Judo is an intermittent combat sport with high intensity efforts followed by low intensity acitvities. Many studies (Castarlenas and Planas, 1997; Marcon et al., 2007; Sikorski, Mickiewicz, Majle and Laksa, 1987; Sterkowicz and Maslej, 1998; Van Malderen et al., 2006) were conducted in order to determine the time structure of a judo match and they concluded that a typical judo combat has effort periods (between hajime and mattê) of about 20-30 s and short interruption periods (between mattê and hajime) of about 7-15 s. This characteristic, effort/pause relation of 2 by 1, has important physiological implications (Franchini, Takito, Nakamura, Matsushigue and Kiss, 2003): (1) increase in aerobic contribution when the match is near the end; (2) decrease in the ability to maintain a high intensity effort. During high intensity intermittent exercise, the following factors affect the physiological responses (Glaister, 2005): (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

effort intensity; recovery intensity; effort duration; recovery duration; effort/pause relation.

As consequence, judo has been considered a high physiological demanding sport, especially due to the high anaerobic contribution during the match. However, some authors (Castarlenas and Sole, 1997; Lehman, 1997; Muramatsu et al., 1994) have suggested that a better aerobic fitness would help in longer

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results

43

matches or in competitions where the athlete has to perform many combats in the same day. Additionally, strength development seems to be quite important to judo performance (Fagerlund and Häkkinen, 1991). Thus, judo is a sport where training should be directed to different physical abilities which would allow the athlete to perform his/her technical and tactical actions with better quality (Franchini, 2001). Due to the interaction among different physiological, technical and tactical aspects during a judo combat, both the evaluation and physical conditioning processes have been considered complex (Ammtman, 2005; Lidor, Melnik, Bilkevits and Falk, 2006). Searching for a specific judo test, Sterkowicz (1995) proposed a high intensity intermittent one (Special Judo Fitness Test - SJFT), which employ the arm technique ippon-seoi-nage. Since its proposition, many studies were conducted to allow a better comprehension about this test. Thus, the objective of this chapter is (a) to describe the SJFT protocol; (b) to present the main results obtained in high level judo athletes from different ages and weight categories; (c) to present a classificatory table.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

TEST DESCRIPTION, FOUNDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS The SJFT is divided in three periods: 15 s (A), 30 s (B) and 30 s (C) with 10 s intervals among them. During each period the athlete (tori) throws two partners (uke A and B; far from each by 6 m) as many times as possible using the ipponseoi-nage technique. Test representation is presented on Figure 1.

Figure 1. Special Judo Fitness Test representation.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

44

E. Franchini, F. B. Del Vecchio and S. Sterkowicz

Both uke A and B should have a similar height and weight from the tori (athlete been evaluated). Just after and one minute after the test heart rate is measured. The ability to perform a high number of throws in this short period is related mainly with a high anaerobic capacity, while the heart rate recovery is related to aerobic power. The throws are added and the following index is calculated:

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(Equation 1) Thus, a lower index value indicates a better performance during this test. Performance during the test can be improved by: (1) increasing the number of throws during the periods, which represents an improvement in speed, anaerobic capacity and/or a better efficiency in technique execution; (2) decreasing heart rate at the end of the test, which indicates a higher cardiovascular efficiency for a similar effort (the same number of throws); (3) decreasing heart rate after the test, i.e., a better recovery, which indicates an improvement in aerobic power; (4) a combination of two or more of the factors above cited (Franchini, Nakamura, Takito, Kiss and Sterkowicz, 1999). The choice for the ippon-seoi-nage technique was based in the following aspects: (a) mechanical – this technique requires that only one hand performs a grip in the uke judogi and the turn performed to execute it prepares the tori to run in the opposite direction; (b) frequency in judo competitions – this technique is among the most used judo throws performed in competition and many judo athletes are able to perform it properly, even when it is not their favorite technique (tokui-waza). The time structure of this test was based on the data published by Sikorski et al. (1987), and corroborated by other authors (Castarlenas and Planas, 1997; Marcon et al., 2007; Sterkowicz and Maslej, 1998; Van Malderen et al., 2006). The division in only three blocks was used in order to allow the athletes (a) to maintain a high rate of execution and (b) to avoid a low intensity at the beginning of the task or to perform it in steady-state (Sterkowicz, 1995). The SJFT has some limitations, which deserve special considerations: (1) the number of throws can not be divided, not allowing a clear distinction between an athlete who finished the test just after a throw and another who finished it just before start a new throw; (2) heart rate can be influenced by weather (temperature and humidity, for example) and from other aspects as stress and overtraining; (3) despite using a judo specific technique, the running activity is not a judo

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results

45

characteristic; (4) the test employ only one technique, while during the match judo athletes perform many of them.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

RELIABILITY One of the most important things of a test is its reliability. The SJFT presents good reliability. Sterkowicz (1995) reported a Spearman correlation coefficient of 0.97 (p < 0.01) when considering test-retest. However, it is important to consider that the Spearman correlation coefficient has been criticized when used to test reliability (Thomas and Nelson, 1990). Two other studies (Franchini et al., 1999; Iredale, 2003) used the intraclass correlation coefficient. Using the SJFT only twice, Franchini et al. (1999) reported 0.73 (p < 0.05) for the number total of throws and 0.89 (p < 0.05) for the index value. Iredale (2003) found a 0.88 intraclass coefficient for total number of throws and 0.84 for the index. Furthermore, Iredale (2003) determined the typical error for these two variables when performing two repetitions of the SJFT: 2.58% for total number of throws and 4.85% for the index. Thus, when considering the index alone, the application of this test once as criteria for training purposes or studies can not be used to detect changes lower than 5%. The author suggested an execution of at least two tests and the use of means as criteria, which would result in an error reduction to 70% (i.e., 3.4%) of the initial error when using two tests and to 57% (2.8%) if the test is applied three times. In this way, it would be possible to detect lower performance changes during the training program. On the other hand, it is important to consider that the mean error (4.85% for the index) when only one test application is conducted is not quite high.

CORRELATION WITH OTHER TESTS Performance in the SJFT has been correlated with performance on other tests. As the total number of throws has been considered an indicative of anaerobic capacity (Franchini, Nakamura, Takito, Kiss and Sterkowicz, 1998a) and the Wingate test has been applied to evaluate the anaerobic capacity in laboratorial condition (Inbar et al., 1996), some studies focused on the correlation between both tests (Franchini et al., 1999; Sterkowicz, Zuchowicz and Kubica, 1999). Franchini et al. (1999) used the upper-body Wingate test in male and female judo players. For male judo players they found the following significant correlations:

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

46

E. Franchini, F. B. Del Vecchio and S. Sterkowicz

throws in the second block (B) of the SJFT and absolute (r = 0.82) and relative mean power (r = 0.84) in the Wingate test; throws in the third block (C) of the SJFT and absolute (r = 0.82) and relative mean power (r = 0.84) in the Wingate test; total number of throws in the SJFT and absolute (r = 0.85) and relative mean power (r = 0.94) in the Wingate test. For female judo players they also found significant correlations: relative mean power during the Wingate test and numbers of throws during the first block (A; r = 0.87), during the third (C; r = 0.75), total number of throws (r = 0.79) and index of the SJFT (r = -0.83); fatigue index during the Wingate test and number of throws during the second block (B; r = 0.75), third (C; r = -0.72) and total of throws (r = -0.71) in the SJFT. Sterkowicz et al. (1999) used the lower body Wingate test and found the following significant correlations: relative total work during the Wingate test (J/kg) and number of throws during B (r = 0.70) and C blocks (r = 0.69), total number of throws (r = 0.72) and index of the SJFT (r = -0.71). Furthermore, relative peak power (W/kg) was moderately correlated (r = 0.55) to number of throws during the A block. Thus, if we consider the Wingate test as a valid test to evaluate the anaerobic capacity, we can accept the SJFT as a valid test to evaluate the anaerobic capacity in a specific judo task, as moderate to high correlations were found between performances in both tests. However, some authors (Bogdanis, Nevill, Lakomy, Graham and Louis, 1996; Gaitanos, Williams, Boobis and Brooks, 1993; Tabata et al., 1997) have observed an increased aerobic contribution when high intensity exercise is performed intermittently, as in the SJFT. Considering the short interval (10s) between SJFT blocks, the accumulation of H+ and the low creatine phosphate resynthesis can contribute to an increase in the aerobic participation and the subsequent decrease in the final block of this test. In fact, confirming the relevance of aerobic metabolism during high intensity intermittent exercise,

 O2max Sterkowicz et al. (1999) found a significant correlation between V (ml/kg/min) measured during an incremental treadmill test and the number of throws during the C block (r = 0.67) of the SJFT. Furthermore, heart rate recovery  O2max in many indirect tests. These authors observed has been used to predict V  O2max and HR 1-min after the a significant correlation (r = -0.63) between V SJFT, indicating that HR recovery can be used as an indicative of aerobic fitness of judo athletes submitted to this test. Additionally, the SJFT index, which can be interpreted as a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic fitness, was also correlated (r =  O2max. 0.73) to V

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results

47

 O2max test (12-min Cooper test) was used a Even when an indirect V significant correlation was found (r = 0.79) between this variable and number of throws during the SJFT, confirming the importance of aerobic fitness to high intensity intermittent performance (Franchini et al., 2007).

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS WITH DIFFERENT COMPETITIVE LEVELS, AGE AND BLOOD LACTATE AFTER THE SPECIAL JUDO FITNESS TEST The SJFT seems to be able to discriminate properly judo players with different competitive levels as found by Sterkowicz (1996), who verified that athletes classified in the 1994 Polish National Championship performed a higher number of throws and had a lower index when compared to lower level athletes (Table 1). Using a higher number of judo athletes (23 medal winners in national and international competitions and 53 non medal winners), Franchini, Takito, Kiss and Sterkowicz (2005a) found significant differences in the total number of throws and in the SJFT index between judo players of different competitive levels. Results are presented on Table 2. Table 1. Performance during the Special Judo Fitness Test in judo players of different competitive achievements

A (15 s) number of throws B (30 s) number of throws C (30 s) number of throws Total number of throws Final heart rate (bpm) Heart rate 1-min after (bpm) Index

Polish Championship medal winners 62 11  2 * 10  2 * 27  5 * 177  10 130  7 * 11.57  2.52 *

Polish Championship non medal winners 51 10  1 91 24  2 182  6 136  4 13.28  1.34

Values are mean  standard deviation; * significant difference (p < 0.05) Adapted from Sterkowicz, 1996.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

48

E. Franchini, F. B. Del Vecchio and S. Sterkowicz

Table 2. Results in the Special Judo Fitness Test in elite and non elite judo players Variable Total number of throws *** Final heart rate (bpm) Heart rate 1-min after (bpm) Index ***

Elite (n = 23) 28  2 181  10 162  12 12.53  1.11

Non elite (n = 53) 25  2 186  11 165  13 14.16  1.52

*** significant difference between groups (p < 0.001). Adapted from Franchini et al., 2005a.

Table 3. Results on the Special Judo Fitness Test in elite and non elite judo players

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Variable Total number of throws *** Final heart rate (bpm) * Heart rate 1-min after (bpm) Index ***

Elite (n = 33) 28  3 180  10 152  18 12.1  1.6

Non elite (n = 47) 25  2 185  10 156  15 13.6  1.4

*** significant difference between groups (p < 0.001); * significant difference between groups (p < 0.05). Adapted from Sterkowicz and Franchini, 2001.

Table 4. Special Judo Fitness Test performance in main and reserve judo players of the Brazilian National Team Variable Total number of throws Final heart rate (bpm) Heart rate 1-min after (bpm) Index

Team A 28 ± 3 178 ± 9 151 ± 7 11.83 ± 1.16

Team B and C 27 ± 2 175 ± 9 157 ± 11 12.21 ± 1.26

Adapted from Franchini et al., 2007.

In another study (Sterkowicz and Franchini, 2001), with 80 Brazilian and Polish judo players (33 of national/international level and 47 of lower competitive levels) the total number of throws were higher for higher level compared to lower level judo players. Conversely, final heart rate and index was lower in higher competitive level compared to lower level judo players (Table 3).

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results

49

The only difference between both studies was that Sterkowicz and Franchini (2001) also found a difference in heart rate after the SJFT. Thus, when considering these three studies (Franchini et al., 2005a; Sterkowicz, 1996; Sterkowicz and Franchini, 2001) it can be concluded that both the total number of throws and the SJFT index are able to discriminate properly different levels judo competitors and can be used to evaluate the physical training progress. This discriminant ability presented can be explained by the moderate correlation (r = 0.68) between the total number of throws during the SJFT and the number of attacks during a match simulation in international level judo players (Franchini, Takito and Bertuzzi, 2005b). Another factor to explain this is the result of Sterkowicz, Blecharz and Lech (2001) who found that the total number of throws during the SJFT was correlated (Spearman correlation coefficient = 0.63) with the success in competition. In fact, the Spearman correlation coefficient between classification in competition and throws during the SJFT increased in the different blocks (A = 0.47; B = 0.51 and C = 0.64). However, when the competition level of the athletes analyzed is close, no difference is found concerning the performance in this test. Franchini, Nunes, Moraes and Del‟Vecchio (2007) compared A Brazilian National Judo Team (n = 7) with a group of B and C teams (n = 15) and did not find any significant difference in the SJFT. These results are presented on Table 4. In fact, another study (Franchini et al., 2005c) using a similar procedure compared the Athens Olympic Brazilian Judo Team A with a group of second placers and found a higher number of throws during the SJFT for reserves (n = 7; 29  2 throws) when compared to the main athletes (n = 7; 28  3 throws) when data were adjusted for weight category. For the female group no such difference was found between the main (n = 6; 26  2 throws) and the reserve group (n = 5; 26  4 throws). For both genders no significant difference was found concerning the SJFT index. Thus, although the test is able to properly discriminate higher and lower level judo players, this aspect of the physical conditioning seems not to be the main factor to determine judo performance when the athletes are competing for a place in a National Team. The SJFT was also applied in Paralympic judo athletes. Seven men and four women were evaluated before the Athens Paralympic Games and index values of 16.8 were found for the female group, 15.7 for men under 81 kg and 16.7 for men above 81 kg (Mataruna et al., 2004). Athletes with different age categories (Juvenile, Junior and Senior) submitted to the same type of training sessions did not present any significant difference on the SJFT performance (Franchini et al., 1998a). Study with juvenile (n = 6) and adults (n = 6) judo players submitted to the same training sessions (Franchini,

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

50

E. Franchini, F. B. Del Vecchio and S. Sterkowicz

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Nakamura, Takito, Kiss and Sterkowicz, 1998b) also did not present any difference on blood lactate concentration, despite a tendency to a lower blood lactate concentration in the youngest group (Table 5). Another study (Sterkowicz and Franchini, 2001) with 80 judo players divided in two age categories (under 21 years-old, n = 50; above 21 years-old, n = 30) found a significant difference in heart rate 1-min after the SJFT (under 21 = 185  9 bpm; above 21 = 179  10 bpm) and in the index (under 21 = 13.4  1.5; above 21 = 12.3  1.7). However, in this study the group under 21 years-old was composed by a lower percentage of athletes from National or International level when compared to the group above 21 years-old, which could be affected the results. When the same individuals were divided in two weight categories (light, under 81 kg, n = 52; heavy, above 81kg, n = 28) a significant difference was found concerning total number of throws (light = 27  3; heavy = 25  2) and a tendency of difference (p = 0.07) concerning the index (light = 12.8  1.7; heavy = 13.5  1.4) (Sterkowicz and Franchini, 2001). The difference between weight categories can be explained by the following: (a) an inverse correlation commonly

 O2max and judo weight category (Franchini et al., 2007; observed between V Thomas, Cox, Legal, Verde and Smith, 1989); (b) a higher body fat percentage in athletes from heavier categories (Iida, Wakayama, Nakajima and Matsumoto, 1998) and (c) a decrease in their speed displacement during this test. Franchini et al. (2007) found a significant negative correlation (r = -0.70) between body fat percentage in Team A-C Brazilian judo athletes and the number of throws during the SJFT; (c) a lower relative anaerobic capacity in heavier athletes (Plisk, 1991). One important aspect to consider is the use of a technique which can not be the favorite technique (tokui-waza) of the athlete. To verify if the tokui-waza could affect the result on this test Sterkowicz and Franchini (2002) submitted 52 judo players to the SJFT. These athletes were grouped concerning their tokuiwaza: leg techniques (ashi-waza, n = 19), hip techniques (koshi-waza, n = 5), sacrifice techniques (sutemi-waza, n = 7) and arm techniques (te-waza, n = 21). The total number of throws during the SJFT did not differ significantly among these groups with different favorite techniques. However, the index was lower for the te-waza group (ippon-seoi-nage is an arm technique) compared to the other groups. Thus, this aspect should be considered, i.e., the comparison between an athlete who do not have an arm technique as his/her favorite technique with athletes who do have should be done with caution.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results

51

Table 5. Blood lactate concentration (mmol.l-1) before and after the Special Judo Fitness Test Moment of measurement [LA] Rest (mmol.l-1) [LA] 1 min after test (mmol.l-1) [LA] 3 min after test (mmol.l-1) [LA] Peak after test (mmol.l-1)

Juvenile (n = 6) 1.7  0.9 7.1  2.8 8.1  3.7 8.2  3.5

Adults (n = 6) 1.5  0.5 10.0  2.7 9.8  2.2 10.7  2.3

Values are mean  standard deviation; [LA] = blood lactate concentration. Adapted from Franchini et al., 1998b.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Table 6. Performance and heart rate of female judo players submitted to the Special Judo Fitness Test

A (15 s) number of throws B (30 s) number of throws C (30 s) number of throws Total number of throws Final heart rate (bpm) Heart rate 1-min after (bpm) Index

Polish (n = 11) 4.8  0.4 9.3  0.5 8.4  0.7 22.5  1.1 162  17 136  21 13.23  1.54

Brazilian (n = 8) 5.1  0.8 9.5  1.8 9.0  1.7 23.6  4.1 184  9.9 162  14.1 14.95  2.00

Values are mean ± standard deviation Adapted from Sterkowicz, 1997 and from Franchini et al., 1999.

Another important aspect to be considered is that the blood lactate response to the SJFT is quite similar to that presented in typical judo activities as uchi-komi, match simulation, randori and match during competition (Franchini, 2001; Sikorski et al., 1987). However, Artioli et al. (2005) did not find a significant correlation between blood lactate concentration and performance in the SJFT. On the other hand, Franchini et al. (2005b) found a significant correlation (r = 0.82) between blood lactate concentration after the SJFT (10.87  2.52 mmol/l) and blood lactate after a match simulation (11.40  4.71 mmol/l) in 10 athletes of the Brazilian College Judo Team. These results suggest that the use of specific judo movements in an intermittent and high intensity pattern resulted in similar anaerobic lactic contribution when considering blood lactate as a marker of this metabolism.

Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

52

E. Franchini, F. B. Del Vecchio and S. Sterkowicz

There are few reports of female judo players results on this test. Table 6 presents the results of Polish (Sterkowicz, 1997) and Brazilian (Franchini et al., 1999) female judo players submitted to the SJFT. Only one longitudinal study was found concerning female athletes submitted to judo training preparing to an international competition (Panamerican Games 1999) and evaluated using the SJFT (Franchini, Matsushigue, Kiss and Sterkowicz, 2001). In this study the Female Brazilian Team was evaluated 70 and 30 days before the competition. Table 7 presents performance in this test in both evaluation periods. Although variables related to number of throws or heart rate did not differ between periods the index was able to detect an improvement during the training period (p = 0.043), suggesting an increase in physical performance (aerobic and anaerobic) in a judo specific task. Table 8 presents blood lactate responses in both periods of evaluation.

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Table 7. Perfomance in the Special Judo Fitness Test 70 and 30 days before the 1999 Panamerican Games in the female Brazilian Judo Team

A (15 s) number of throws B (30 s) number of throws C (30 s) number of throws Total number of throws Final heart rate (bpm) Heart rate 1-min after (bpm) Index*

70 days before (n = 5) 5.8  0.4 10.6  1.1 9.4  0.9 25.8  2.4 176  13 159  7 13.09  1.55

30 days before (n = 5) 6.0  0.7 10.8  0.8 9.8  0.8 26.6  2.3 177  14 156  5 12.62  1.48

Values are mean ± standard deviation; * significant difference between periods (p < 0.05). Adapted from Franchini et al., 2001.

Table 8. Blood lactate concentration after the Special judo fitness test 70 and 30 days before the 1999 Panamerican Games in the female Brazilian Judo Team

Blood lactate 2 min after (mmol.l-1) Blood lactate 3 min after (mmol.l-1) Blood lactate 5 min after (mmol.l-1) Peak blood lactate (mmol.l-1)

70 days before (n = 5) 30 days before (n = 5) 8.1  3.5 10.9  0.8 9.4  2.7 11.5  1.2 10.3  1.3 11.0  1.2 10.5  1.4 11.5  1.1

Adapted from Franchini et al., 2001. Advancements in the Scientific Study of Combative Sports, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Special Judo Fitness Test: Development and Results

53

There was no change on blood lactate concentration after the SJFT when the periods were compared. As blood lactate is related to the glycolitic activation and the number of throws, which is an indicative of anaerobic capacity, was not changed the abscence of modification on blood lactate was expected. However, it is important to note that the percentage of index change (3.6%) was below the measurement error (4.85%) reported by Iredale (2003). Furthermore, the training program was conducted in a shorter period (40 days) than that reported (6-8 weeks) for detectable changes in anaerobic capacity (Plisk, 1991; Ross and Leveritt, 2001). Additionally, the fact that the judo athletes were already in good physical condition can explain the unchanged results in the number of throws during the SJFT. Other studies that investigated the sensitivity of this test were conducted with regional level judo players and just for four weeks (Kussumoto and Milistetd, 2004) or three months (Franchini et al., 1999). However, in both studies the number of subjects was small (six and four athletes, respectively). Despite these limitations, both studies found performance improvements. Kussumoto and Milistetd (2004) reported a 3.8% improvement in the total number of throws (from 25  2 to 26  2), but did not present the index values. Franchini et al. (1999) found a 8.3% increase in the number of throws (from 24  2 to 26  2) and a decrease in the index (from 15.15  1.74 to 13.28  0.84; 8.8%). For these two variables presented in this study, the change percentage is above the measurement error proposed by Iredale (2003). Thus, the main variables of the SJFT seem to be sensitive to changes in judo players‟ physical condition and could be used to monitor their training status. However, studies with a better control in the training program and a bigger number of subjects need to be conducted in order to increase the comprehension of the test sensitivity. Table 9. Number of throws during each SJFT and total number of throws after sodium bicarbonate and placebo ingestion Variable Throws in 1st SJFT Throws in 2nd SJFT* Throws in 3th SJFT* SJFT-Total Throws**

Condition Sodium bicarbonate 27.7 27.4 27.0 82.1

Placebo 26.7 25.9 25.6 78.1

Sodium bicarbonate significantly greater than placebo: * p