Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies [1 ed.] 9781617281211, 9781606920725

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ACTIVE EDUCATION: LESSONS FOR INTEGRATING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY WITH LANGUAGE ARTS, MATH, SCIENCE AND SOCIAL STUDIES

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

ACTIVE EDUCATION: LESSONS FOR INTEGRATING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY WITH LANGUAGE ARTS, MATH, SCIENCE AND SOCIAL STUDIES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

JULIAN A. REED, ED. D., MPH FURMAN UNIVERSITY

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

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Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Reed, Julian A. Active education: lessons for integrating physical activity with language arts, math, science, and social studies / Julian A. Reed. p. cm. ISBN H%RRN 1. Physical education for children. 2. Interdisciplinary approach in education. 3. Education, Elementary--Activity programs. I. Title. GV443.R36 2009 372.8'6--dc22 2008044936

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.    New York

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

DEDICATION To my wife Brooke whom I love and respect. You are my best friend; I cannot imagine my life without you. I love you more than words can express.

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To my daughters Crosby, Elise and Molly: Each day spent with you is better than the day before. Thank you for the joy you bring to my life.

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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CONTENTS Preface

ix

Acknowledgements

xi

Introduction

Physical Activity in Today’s World: Where Are We?

1

Chapter 1

An Ecological Perspective to Promote Wellness

7

Chapter 2

What Is in It for Me (The Teacher)?

11

Chapter 3

What Current Brain Research Is Telling Us about Movement

17

Chapter 4

Integrating Movement in the Classroom Is Not a Replacement for a Good Physical Education Program

29

Chapter 5

Helping the Kinesthetic Learner

41

Chapter 6

Movement for the ADD and ADHD Child

51

Chapter 7

National Standards and No Child Left Behind

55

Chapter 8

Integrative Activities for English and Language Arts

59

Chapter 9

Integrative Activities for Math

81

Chapter 10

Integrative Activities for Science

99

Chapter 11

Integrative Activities for Social Studies

Index

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113 127

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PREFACE The belief that physical activity plays a pivotal role in the public health of our nation’s children is no longer a minority opinion, but rather, a mainstream belief. The health benefits associated with leading an active healthy lifestyle are well documented; yet America’s youth remain inactive and overweight, if not obese. Data suggest that about 25 million adolescents are pushing the scales towards obesity. Close to half of American youth do not participate regularly in physical activity and many children report no participation in activity during an average week. An abundance of empirical research findings illustrates how regular physical activity provides a wide array of physiological health benefits. What is frequently overlooked is the link between movement and enhanced cognition in children. Brain research suggests that increasing movement time has the potential to foster academic performance while simultaneously improving the health of our nation’s children. Empirical evidence from leading scientists reveals strong associations between the cerebellum and memory, spatial perception, language attention, emotion, nonverbal cues and decision making ability among children who are active while learning in the classroom. When regular physical activity is integrated with traditional elementary school curricula improved concentration, reading and mathematics performance, and academic achievement have been documented. Furthermore, using movement as a reinforcer to enhance learning has been found to decrease behavioral episodes of children suffering from ADD and ADHD. The current emphasis on performance pedagogy and standardized testing related to “No Child Left Behind” has caused many states and school districts to reduce physical education offerings. In some instances reductions in the amount of daily recess time have been made also, all in an effort to increase classroom contact hours with the hope of boosting test scores. Many teachers and principals often ignore research that demonstrates that teaching current elementary school curricula (i.e., Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies) with movement can improve academic performance and achievement while improving the wellness of future generations of children. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies provides teachers with tested activities designed for teaching required elementary school curricula with movement with the result of improved learning while making both teaching and learning more enjoyable.

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x

Preface

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Permission to use photograph provided by the Greenville News, Greenville, SC

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge those who have contributed to the development of this book. Beginning with thanking one of my mentors, Dr. Cynthia Carlisle, Professor Emeritus at the University of Northern Colorado. I was Dr. ‘C’s graduate assistant during my last year as a doctoral student. She generously provided me with an opportunity to assist her with one of her courses designed for pre-service elementary school teachers who were learning to integrate movement with Art, Music and Physical Education. This experience dramatically influenced my life and some of the lessons that I present in this book result from my time working with Dr. ‘C’. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Allen Phillips, Professor Emeritus at the University of Northern Colorado. Dr. ‘P’ was my doctoral and research advisor, whom I consider a mentor, friend and colleague. He taught me the skills necessary for developing a framework for becoming a scholar and educator. For that I am eternally grateful. Finally, I would like to acknowledge my wife Brooke whom I consider a silent author for this book. Her commitment to education has taught me a lot about myself and how we raise our three children. She is my inspiration.

Special Thanks: I would like to recognize Katie Blaker for her lesson plan illustrations.

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN TODAY’S WORLD: WHERE ARE WE? Children of the 21st century are not as physically active as they should be. It is readily accepted among the medical and scientific communities that regular activity is a necessary preventive behavior for reducing the risk of developing chronic diseases while increasing the quality, and perhaps the longevity of life. Regrettably, youth spend much of their leisure time playing videogames, watching television and engaging in an array of sedentary activities. Such behavior is closely linked with our current childhood obesity epidemic. The American Academy of Pediatrics (1991) nearly two decades ago reported that children from the ages of two to 12 watched about 25 hours of television per week. Anderson and colleagues (1998) discovered that youth who watch four or more hours of television per day have greater Body Mass Index (BMI) values in comparison to children who view fewer than two hours of television per day. Recent findings from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCa, 2008) reveal that 35% of youth in grades 9 to 12 watch television for three or more hours on the average school day (CDCb, 2008). Childhood obesity is one of the most dangerous health threats facing youth. Current data suggest that more than 33% of adolescents, approximately 25 million American children, are overweight or obese (Odgen et al., 2006). Childhood obesity is the primary result of sedentary living. The prevalence of overweight youth is increasing: for children aged two to five, the prevalence increased from 5.0% in 1980 to 13.9% in 2004; for those aged six to 11, the prevalence increased from 6.5% to 18.8%; and for those aged 12 to 19, prevalence increased from 5.0% to 17.4% during the same time span, respectively (CDCb, 2008). Overweight children and adolescents are more likely to have risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and Type 2 diabetes, than are other children and adolescents. These overweight children are more likely to become obese adults. According to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), more than 80% of individuals with Type 2 diabetes are overweight (NIDDK, 2008). Furthermore, the CDC estimates that 48.3 million Americans will have diabetes by the year 2050 (Venkat at al., 2006). One study revealed that approximately 80% of children who were overweight at ages 10 to15 were obese adults at age 25 (Whitaker et al., 1997). Another study found that 25% of obese adults had been overweight as children (Freedman et al., 2001). The latter study also found that if a child is overweight before the age of eight, obesity in adulthood is likely to be more severe.

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Americans must recognize that our nation is a nation of fat people. Youth and adults alike are consuming unhealthily oversized portions of foods at a blistering pace. At the same time they are failing to participate in recommended levels of activity. Children, in the full view of their parents, continue to behave irresponsibly when it comes to their health and wellness. Childhood obesity and physical inactivity are primarily adult-driven problems manifesting themselves in children. Most children cannot control the types of foods their parents purchase and the meals they prepare. More than 65% of American adults are themselves obese or overweight, according to the CDC’s recent calculations. A similar percentage of American adults do participate in regular physical activity (CDCb, 2008). Therefore, it should not come as a surprise that so many children are overweight and inactive. The Reality (According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [2008a] www.cdc.gov) 

  

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

The percentage of young people who are overweight has more than tripled since 1980. Among children and adolescents aged 6-19 years, 16%—over 9 million young people—are considered overweight. Fewer than 25% of young people eat the recommended five or more servings of fruits and vegetables each day. Despite the proven benefits of physical activity, more than 50% of American adults do not get enough physical activity to provide health benefits. More than a third of young people in grades 9–12 do not regularly engage in vigorous physical activity. Unhealthy diet and physical inactivity can cause or aggravate many chronic diseases and conditions, including Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, stroke, and some cancers.

The Cost of Obesity and Chronic Diseases (According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [2008a]) 

 

Among children and adolescents, annual hospital costs related to obesity were $127 million during 1997–1999 (in 2001 constant US dollars), up from $35 million during 1979–1981. In 2000, the total cost of obesity in the US was estimated to be $117 billion. About $61 billion was for direct medical costs, and $56 billion was for indirect costs. A 2005 study by Anderson and colleagues (2005) revealed that 27% of US healthcare costs were related to physical inactivity, overweight and obesity.

Available data suggest the prevalence of obesity is more related to a lack of physical activity than increased food intake. Close to half of American youth age 12 to 21 do not participate in vigorous physical activity on a regular basis and 14% of youth report no participation in physical activity (US DHHS, 2001). The Children and Youth Fitness Study provided similar findings in the early 1990s, reporting that fewer than 59% of 5th through 12th grade students participated in vigorous physical activity (US DHHS, 2001). Close to 60% of 12 year olds exhibit one modifiable coronary artery disease risk factor, possibly attributable to a lack of regular physical activity and 27% exhibit two (Armstrong et

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Introduction: Physical Activity in Today’s World

3

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al., 1998). From 1963 to 1980 the incidence of obesity increased 54%, as defined by skinfold measurements in six to 11 year olds. Lack of physical activity probably contributed to the increase (Gortmaker et al., 1987). Since physical activity helps to promote long term weight loss, increasing physical activity levels could play a role in preventing and treating childhood obesity (CDCb, 2008; Epstein et al, 1985; Odgen et al., 2006; Sallis & McKenzie, 1991; Sallis & Owen, 1999). Numerous other benefits of physical activity to children have been reported, including the enhanced uptake of calcium in the bones and the development and maintenance of muscular strength that will help to prevent back pain and other injuries into adulthood (CDC, 2008a; Sallis & McKenzie, 1991; Sallis & Owen, 1999). It has been reported that of all deaths in the US from major chronic disease, 23% are linked to sedentary living (Bulwer, 2004). The belief that physical activity plays a pivotal role in the public health of our nation’s children is no longer a minority opinion, but rather, a mainstream belief. The health benefits associated with an active healthy lifestyle are well documented and summarized in The Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and Health (US DHHS, 1996). In addition, the CDC’s National Physical Activity Initiative (US DHHS, 2001) encourages all Americans to participate in moderate intensity physical activity most days of the week so as to reduce the risk of developing or dying from such ailments as heart disease, Type 2 diabetes and colon cancer (Bouchard et al., 1988; CDCb, 2008; Sallis, 1994; Sallis & Owen, 1999). Physical activity has also been found to enhance mental health and improve quality of life (Bouchard et al., 1993; Dishman, 1994; King et al., 1995; Sallis & Owen, 1999). Thus, participating in regular physical activity offers a multitude of healthrelated benefits and has the potential for preventing disease and premature death. Close to 60% of Americans participate in no leisure-time physical activity or they receive no health benefits from the minimal activity in which they engage (Caspersen, Merrit, & Stephens, 1994; CDCb, 2008; US DHHS, 2001). Physical inactivity annually contributes to over 300,000 preventable deaths a year in the US (DHHS, 2001).

THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS Noticeably, the number of overweight youth continues to increase at a striking pace. Studies document that students in the US are significantly less active in comparison to their Australian and Swedish peers (Vincent et al., 2003) and have significantly higher BMI values. Physical activity, like many behaviors, is complex and influenced by a number of variables. To change an individual’s activity patterns, his or her behavior must be modified. Given the number of inactive American children, the probability of an increased incidence of obesity continuing into adulthood is significant (Freedman et al., 2001; Sallis & Owen, 1999). Therefore, the re-examination of our current educational policies designed to combat this problem is warranted. It is important that the education community embrace an ecological perspective (see Chapter 1) to begin to develop appropriate models to intervene to reduce the risky behaviors of inactivity and obesity. The public school system in America is truly one of the last egalitarian entities in our society. Regardless of race, ethnicity, socio-economic status and gender, all children and adolescents have the right to attend public school. For many children, this is their only opportunity to be physically active (Sallis & Owen, 1999). However, the current emphasis on

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performance pedagogy and standardized testing has led many school districts to reduce physical education offerings. In extreme cases the amount of daily recess time has been drastically reduced or even eliminated so as to increase classroom contact hours in an effort to boost test scores. Educators must allocate the time necessary for providing regular physical activity. Educators also need to promote healthy eating. Both are necessary for ensuring that children lead a healthy lifestyle that will continue for the remainder of their lives. The focus of this book is the integration of movement and physical activity with instruction. However, this introduction and the first two chapters focus on the health benefits of physical activity because of the critical problems facing our youth as a result of the prevalence of obesity. Chapter 3 will present an abundance of empirical data documenting how regular physical activity while providing an array of physiological health benefits, also is linked to enhanced cognition. Increasing movement time during elementary school has the potential to increase academic performance and academic achievement simultaneously, positively influencing the health of our nation’s children.

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REFERENCES American Academy of Pediatrics. (1991). Sports medicine: Healthcare for young athletes. 2nd ed. Elk Grove Village, Illinois: Author. Anderson, L. H., Martinson, B. C., Crain, A. L., Pronk, N. P., Whitebird, R. R., O”Connor, P. J., & Fine, L. J. (2005). Healthcare charges associated with physical inactivity, overweight, and obesity. Preventing Chronic Disease, 2(4), A09. Anderson, R. E., Crespo, C. J., Bartlett, S. J., et al. (1998). Relationship between physical activity and television watching with body weight and level of fatness among children: Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 938-942. Armstrong, C. A., Sallis, J. F., Alcaraz, J. E., Kolody, B., McKenzie, T. L., & Hovell, M. F. (1998). Children’s television viewing, body fat, and physical fitness. American Journal of Heath Promotion, 12(6), 363-368. Bouchard, C., Shepard, R. J., Stephens, T., Sutton, J. R., & McPherson, B. D. (Eds.), (1988). Exercise, fitness, and health: A consensus of current knowledge. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Bouchard, C., Shepard, R. J., & Stephens, T. (Eds.), (1993). Physical activity, fitness, and health. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Bulwer, B. (2004). Sedentary lifestyles, physical activity, and cardiovascular disease: From Research to Practice. Critical Pathways in Cardiology, 3(4), 184. Caspersen, C. J., Merrit, R. K., & Stephens, T. (1994). International physical activity patterns: A methodological perspective. In Dishman, R. K. (Ed.), Exercise adherence and public health. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008a). Overweight prevalence. Accessed on 4/18/2008 http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/childhood. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008b). Physical activity resources for health professionals. Accessed on 10/18/2008 http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/ aag/dnpa.htm.

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Introduction: Physical Activity in Today’s World

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Dishman, R. K. (1994). Advances in exercise adherence. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Epstein, L. H., Wing, R. R., Koeske, R., & Valoski, A. (1987). Long-term effects of familybased treatment of childhood obesity. J Consult Clin Psychol, 55(1), 91-5. Freedman, D. S., Khan, L. K., Dietz, W. H., Srinivasan, S. R., & Berenson, G. S. (2001). Relationship of childhood overweight to coronary heart disease risk factors in adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics, 108, 712–718. Gortmaker, S. L., Dietz, W. H., Sobol, A. M., & Wehler, C. A. (1987). Increasing pediatric obesity in the United States. Am J Dis Child, 141(5), 535-540. King, A. C., Jeffery, R. W., Fridinger, F., Dusenbury, L., Provence, S., Hedlund, S. A., & Spangler, K. (1995). Environmental and policy approaches to cardiovascular disease prevention through physical activity: Issues and opportunities. Health Education Quarterly, 22, 499-511. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Do you know the health risks of being overweight? Weight-Control Information Network, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Win.niddk.nih.gov/publications/health_risks.htm accessed June 11, 2008. Odgen, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. A., Tabak, C. J., & Flegal, K. M. (2006). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. JAMA, 295(13), 1549-1555. Sallis, J. F., & McKenzie, T. L. (1991). Physical education’s role in public health. Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 62, 124-137. Sallis, J. F. (1994). Determinants of physical activity behavior in children. In Pate, R. R., & Hohn, R. C. (Eds.), Health and fitness through physical education (31-43). Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Sallis, J. F., & Owen, N. (1999). Physical activity and behavioral medicine. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1996). Physical activity and health: A report of the surgeon general. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Physical activity and health: The link between physical activity and morbidity and mortality. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Venkat, N. K. M., Boyle, J. P., Geiss, L. S., Saaddine, J. B., & Thompson, T. J. (2006). Impact of recent increase in incidence on future diabetes burden: United States, 20052050. Diabetes, 55(Suppl. 1), A56. Vincent, S. D., Pangrazi, R. P., Raustorp, A., Tomson, L. M. & Cuddihy, T. F. (2003). Activity levels and body mass index of children in the United States, Sweden and Australia. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(8), 1367- 1373. Whitaker, R. C., Wright, J. A., Pepe, M. S., Seidel, K. D., & Dietz, W. H. (1997). Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. N Engl J Med, 37(13), 869–873.

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Chapter 1

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AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE TO PROMOTE WELLNESS Embracing an ecological perspective to better understand why large sections of youth populations are habitually inactive may shed some light on the behavior of physical inactivity (Reed & Ainsworth, 2007; Reed et al., 2008a; Reed et al., 2008b) and its interrelationship with childhood obesity. Examining the obesity and inactivity epidemics using ecological models requires educators to not only understand, but accept that there is a variety of factors influencing the inactivity and obesity epidemics. It is difficult to discuss the unhealthy behaviors of children without recognizing how social, cultural, inter-personal, and intrapersonal environments influence what a child does, and does not do in and out of the classroom. According to Wicker (1979), understanding that individuals are only one component of a larger behavioral network that can restrict the range of a person’s behavior by promoting certain actions and discouraging others is vital for identifying the effects of varying environments on the physical activity and the eating patterns of youth. It is abundantly clear that most children are not participating in enough physical activity to generate protective health benefits. This lack of activity has reached epidemic proportions, and is currently being addressed at the local, regional, state and national levels. To attempt to intervene to promote physical activity without considering all of the elements shaping behavior is futile. For example, educators who fail to understand the powerful influence of parental behavior on that of their children will not be successful in promoting sustainable change in youth physical activity levels. Educators can and are beginning to affect the physical activity and dietary patterns of children during the school day. However, the value of such interventions is reduced if a child’s parents do not also promote the healthier behavior at home, both in word and in their own deeds. If parents are inactive, their children’s learned activity patterns from school are not likely to be reinforced; indeed, they may be undermined. Similarly, if children are provided information on the importance of eating a healthy diet and are provided with healthy food choices daily to modify their eating behaviors at school, this effort will be compromised, if the very same children are fed unhealthy foods at home. To promote regular physical activity for children, interventions should be developed that are not only sustainable throughout the school day, but are sustainable outside of school as well. Unfortunately, neglecting to understand the influences of the home and school environments on the health of our children has resulted in a pandemic of inactivity and obesity in the US.

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Before any attempt to better understand the impact the home environment has on the physical activity patterns of our nation’s youth, one must first examine the school environment’s influence. Educators should recognize that, from the standpoint of physical activity, the school is more of an obstacle than an asset. Although this is a difficult concept to accept, the educator must embrace it in order to move forward. The infrastructure of our public school system has not changed significantly in the past 50 years. Standard classrooms are still comprised of tables, chairs and desks that encourage inactivity and immobility. Children continue to be chastised and reprimanded for moving too fast and for exploration and unguided discovery through play and activity in the classroom. What has changed in the last fifty years are the demographic and physical characteristics of the children who occupy these tables, chairs and desks. Children today are more likely to be overweight and obese and participate in less leisure time activity than children of the 1980’s and 90’s. According to the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2008), approximately nine million children over six years of age are obese. Unfortunately, the current approach to promoting physical activity during the school day has not evolved to meet the needs of the 21st century child. Physical activity has long been the primary duty and responsibility of the school’s physical educator. Yet, physical education is often underfunded in the US. Most elementary children only receive physical education for 30 minutes one day a week; while the Surgeon General, along with the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2008), currently recommends that children accumulate at least 60 minutes of physical activity each day. Most elementary schools, however, cannot meet this recommendation. Therefore, each child receives a minimal amount of time to be physically active during the day. Other than recess (which has been reduced or completely removed in some school districts throughout the US), the elementary school child is sedentary the majority of the school day. The only logical alternative for ensuring that our nation’s children begin to receive the recommended amounts of physical activity is to further utilize the classroom space and the classroom teacher. Think about it this way. Classroom teachers spends significant amounts of time with their children during school hours, and they teach their children everyday. Before educators dismiss the idea of incorporating physical activity into regular learning activities and begin to squirm in their chairs just thinking about the idea, they need to continue reading.

THE PRIMARY FOCUS The ecological approach to promoting physical activity mentioned above is based on the premise that the classroom teacher has more contact time with students than physical educators. As a result the classroom teacher has a greater probability of affecting the physical activity patterns of youth than does the physical educator in our CURRENT educational climate. One needs to be clear. Classroom teachers should not become physical educators (see Chapter 4). Classroom teachers have not been trained to teach physical education and would suffer an undue burden if required to do so. What is being proposed is not a new innovative approach to teaching physical activity. Books and journal articles have been written discussing the importance of movement and the role of the classroom teacher for decades. Most of these books and articles encourage integrating traditional classroom content in the gymnasium to enhance learning in the

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An Ecological Perspective to Promote Wellness

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classroom. The focus of this book is to advocate and provide lessons for integrating physical activity in the classroom to complement current classroom curricula. To provide adequate opportunities for elementary school children to accumulate appropriate amounts of physical activity in order to reduce the number of inactive and obese youth, educators must embrace an ecological approach to behavior change. With the budget constraints presently facing most states, it is unreasonable and unrealistic to think that physical education will receive the necessary additional funding for increasing contact time. Therefore, the education profession needs to empower and train the classroom teacher to provide many movement opportunities for children during the course of the school day. Teachers may be saying to themselves yes, it is important for my students to become healthy, but there is such a lot of content to cover with a minimal amount of time. Won’t adding movement into daily teaching only make teaching more difficult? How are movement opportunities for children to be added without the necessity of removing current curricular topics? These are important questions and will be thoroughly addressed in Chapter 2.

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REFERENCES Institute of Medicine (2008). Focus on childhood obesity. www.iom.edu accessed on May 23rd, 2008. Reed, J. A., & Ainsworth, B. E. (2007). Perceptions of sidewalk presence, maintenance and safety from crime on the physical activity behaviors of university males and females. Journal of American College Health, 56(2), 199-204. Reed, J. A., Arant, C. A., Wells, P, Stevens, K., Hagen, S., & Harring, H. (2008a). A descriptive examination of the most frequently used activity settings in 25 community parks using direct observation. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 5(s1), s183-s195. Reed, J. A., Malvern, L., Hardy, R., & King, L. (2008b). Using an ecological approach combined with primary care counseling to promote physical activity. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 5(1), 169-183. Wicker, A. W. (1979). An introduction to ecological psychology. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole.

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Chapter 2

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WHAT IS IN IT FOR ME (THE TEACHER)? The topic of integrated curricula and multidisciplinary teaching is frequently discussed among educators and is perceived by many as a relatively new one. However, integrated curriculum has a long history. Stack (1961) traced the philosophical and psychological elements of the integrated curriculum as far back as the 1800s. Faunce and Bossing (1958) discussed some of the early integration curriculum reform movements in the 1930s and 40s. None of these efforts was more important than the progressive education movement that included a strong emphasis on student-centered, integrative approaches to education (Dennison, 2006; Vars, 1991). Although the discussion of the integrated curriculum has been debated for more than a century, Werner (1999) has traced its inclusion of physical activity as having begun in the 1970s. Recently, discussion of the integrated curriculum has been going through a revitalization (Dennison, 2006; Lehwald & Greene, 1996). To fully understand its role in the shaping of teaching, integration must be clearly defined. Werner (1999) defines integrated curriculum as two or more subject areas combined with the goal of enhancing learning across disciplines. Jacobs (1989) defines integrated curriculum as a knowledge view and curriculum approach that concisely applies methodology and language from more than one discipline to examine an issue or problem. Regardless of the definition, integration is a concept that has shaped teaching, and was developed to enhance student learning. An integrative curriculum provides students with a global view of learning and can teach skills necessary for the transference of knowledge gained in one area into another (Nielson, 1989). “Integration allows students and teachers to make meaningful associations and perceive new relationships between the skills and knowledge of different disciplines” (Cone & Cone, 1999, p. 9). Both teachers and students benefit from interdisciplinary learning as it builds an understanding of other subject areas and teaching methods (Cone & Cone, 1999; Dennison, 2006). Daryl Siedentop (1991), a famed physical educator from The Ohio State University, posits that students learn through their involvement with the content. Integration of subject matter allows for more student involvement in the learning experiences (Lehwald & Greene, 1996). In the context of this book, integrated learning will be examined to illustrate how physical activity can be used to complement other subjects and disciplines. The author has been teaching workshops focusing on movement integration specifically designed to train elementary school classroom teachers to use physical activity to teach math, language arts,

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science and social studies for the past seven years and has witnessed a multitude of benefits linked to teaching with this approach. Below is a newspaper article (see figure 1) highlighting this program. Learning through basic fundamental movements is one of the oldest teaching methods. When physical activity is used as the learning device the interaction between the child and the content is more complete, because the whole child is actively involved (Dennison, 2006; Stevens-Smith, 1999; Werner & Burton, 1979). Integrated curriculum enables the student to better grasp material from other content areas through basic movements. Therefore, integration assists in the connection between content, experiences and skills in a child’s daily life (Dennison, 2006; Stevens-Smith, 1999). Integrating curricula is not a passing fad. It has a long history in education, and has helped to shape the pedagogy of physical activity by reinforcing the idea that children can learn various disciplines through movement. Integrative curriculum helps learners understand new relationships on their own, realizing that traditional academic disciplines are a way of organizing knowledge (Dennison, 2006; Lehwald & Greene, 1996).

A revolution Integrating movement into classroom lessons is the latest revolution for schools that are increasingly filled with sedentary and overweight children. The Federal Centers for Disease Control says the number of children who are overweight has more than doubled since 1980, and among adolescents, the rates have more than tripled.

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That’s led to increased illness among the nation’s youth. Just 10 years ago, Type 2 diabetes was virtually unknown in children and adolescents. In fact, it was commonly referred to as “adult onset diabetes.” Today, Type 2 accounts for almost 50 percent of new cases of pediatric diabetes in some communities. Julian Reed, an assistant professor in health and exercise science at Furman University, said he became interested in childhood obesity while studying for his doctorate. He found numerous scientific studies supporting movement for greater physical and mental improvement. “The beauty of this thing is two-fold,” he said. “It’s not only increasing movement time for kids to intervene in obesity, but it also enhances knowledge retention and brain changes.” Reed has taught two graduate-level classes and a handful of workshops to Greenville County elementary school teachers. While other school districts have done the same thing, they’ve focused on PE teachers. “We are doing movement with classroom teachers,” he said. “We’re using movement to teach language arts, using movement to teach math, using movement to teach science. “It’s not just movement for movement’s sake; it’s using movement as a way of enhancing and putting into context these different disciplines. It’s awesome.” The response from teachers like [Rachel] Parris is overwhelmingly positive. Teachers have concrete evidence — improved grades and fewer discipline problems — after implementing specific movement skills in their classes, Reed said.

How it works Keeping class fresh is a constant challenge for teachers. “Sometimes you feel half of the kids are with you and half are zoned out,” said Parris, a third-year teacher. But after taking Reed’s class and learning how to work movement into her lessons, she observed that “my lower-achieving kids, their reading has gone up.”

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In a typical school day she’ll incorporate a movement game into her lessons at least once. She also uses at least three “Brain Gym” exercises — a series of 30- to 60-second exercises designed to develop neural connections in the brain — as transitions between lessons. “They’re crosshemisphere, so that they’re working both the right-side and the left side of the brain,” she said about Brain Gym. “The kids love them and they can do more afterward. I’ll have kids ask about them: ‘Can we do another Brain Gym?’ It’s cute.”

Greenville County buys in Elementary school students in Greenville County get just one 45-minute physical education class a week. Many health and government guidelines call for a minimum of 30 minutes of exercise a day. So any extra movement, whether in an after-school sports or recreation program or as part of daily classwork is welcomed. Brenda Mays, consultant for health and physical education for the school district, said she’d been looking at ways to increase activity for the district’s youngest children. “You have to get kids at ages 3, 4 and 5 years old moving so you can prevent the risk of inactivity and obesity,” she said. “The idea is to create a group of kids who don’t have to be ‘fixed’ later.” Mays pays for district teachers to take Reed’s classes and workshops, and she’s been amazed by the response from teachers. “It didn’t take any selling. They were ready,” she said. “I sent out an e-mail about a workshop and it filled up within 24 hours. And I had more than 100 people on the waiting list. It’s just caught on like wildfire.”

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Catherine Dillon, the ESOL program lead teacher for the school district, took Reed’s graduate class figuring additional movement in the classroom would simply burn more calories for her students. What amazed her was the educational impact. “The successes they’ve had, just from implementing simple activities is amazing,” she said. “It never occurred to me before taking the class that you can get a person to learn much more easily doing a relay race than in a lecture.”

Heartbeats When she taught her first-graders how to take their own pulses, Parris said they were fascinated about feeling their hearts beat beneath their chins. She turned that into a mini-science lesson. Another morning, she taught spelling by having kids move their bodies to form letters, like a crowd at a ballpark singing and moving to the song “YMCA.” She demonstrates how the earth moves in a 24-hour rotation and how it revolves around the sun by having children pretend they are the Earth. They circle and spin around one student holding a flashlight — he’s the sun — in a partially darkened room. When she did the math and realized statistics show that many of her first-graders — one in three — are likely to become overweight and get diabetes, heart disease and worse, she decided to do something to help. “I like to think this is making a difference,” she said. “It would be awesome if I could prevent the kids in my class from ever getting diabetes.” Even better, she feels she’s become a better teacher as she sees her kids learn more quickly. “The class I took just opened me up to tons of things you can do instead of just talking to students,” she said. “And as long as I’m covering my standards, my principal is cool with it. “As for me, I’m loving it.” Figure 1. Education Has Some New Moves (permission to Reprint provided by Mike Foley and the Greenville News, Greenville, SC).

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Studies on science (Werner, 1971), music (Brown, Sherill, & Gench, 1981), and language arts (Earle, 1981 [see Chapter 3 for more information on the benefits of activity on academic performance]) have illustrated beneficial effects for integrating these disciplines with physical activity. However, many classroom teachers have never been taught how to do it effectively. In addition to enhancing the learning experiences of children in the classroom setting through movement integration, teachers are afforded the opportunity to participate in regular physical activity by performing these activities with their students. Lack of time is one of the most frequently cited barriers by adults for not participating in regular activity. Performing the integrated movement activities with students can provide an opportunity for the classroom teacher to participate in regular activity without having to spend additional time outside of school. Finally, recent data has shown that regular physical activity breaks can promote on-task behavior. Researchers have found that when children have an opportunity to expend energy through physical activity their time-on task increases and there is significantly less fidgeting in comparison to school days that do not have a scheduled activity break (Jarrett et al., 1999). Providing movement opportunities throughout the school day helps teachers become better educators while students remain on-task and enjoy learning.

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REFERENCES Brown, J., Sherrill, C., & Gench, B. (1981). Effects of integrated physical education/music program in changing early child hood perceptual-motor performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 151-154. Cone, T. P., & Cone, S. L. (1999). Standards, assessment and interdisciplinary education. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, January, 12-14. Dennison, P. E. (2006). Brain gym and me. Ventura, California: Edu-Kinetics, Inc. Earle, J. A. (1981). The effect of integration of language arts objectives with motor development objectives in physical education curriculum: Kindergarten through second grade. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 2558A. (University Microforms No. 8127583). Faunce, R. C., & Bossing, N. L. (1958). Developing the core curriculum (2nd ed.). Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Foley, M. (2006, March 28). Education has some new moves. Greenville News, pp. D1, D4. Jacobs, H. (1989). Interdisciplinary curriculum: design and implementation. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Jarrett, O. S., Maxwell, D. M., Dickerson, C., Hoge, P., Davies, G., & Yetley, A. (1998). Impact of recess on classroom behavior: Group effects and individual differences. The Journal of Educational Research, 92, 121-126. Lehwald, H. D., & Greene, L. (1996). Game adaptation: Essential to health integration within physical education. Physical Educator, Spring, 94-101. Nielsen, M. E. (1989). Integrative learning for young children: A thematic approach. Educational Horizons, Fall, 19-24. Siedentop, D. (1991). Developing teaching skills in physical education (3rd ed.). Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.

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Stack, E. C. (1961). The philosophical and psychological antecedents of the core curriculum in educational theory, 1800-1918. Doctoral Dissertation., University of North Carolina. Dissertation Abstracts International, 20, 1830-1831. Stevens-Smith, D. A. (1999). Physical education in the classroom… you’ve got to be kidding! Teaching Elementary Physical Education, January, 18-20. Vars, G. F. (1991). Integrated curriculum in historical perspective. Educational Leadership, October, 14-15. Werner, P. (1999). The future of the integrated curriculum in physical education: Guarded optimism. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, November, 11-13. Werner, P., & Burton, E. (1979). Learning through movement. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby.

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Chapter 3

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WHAT CURRENT BRAIN RESEARCH IS TELLING US ABOUT MOVEMENT The research cited in Chapter 2 should have helped to make it clear that integrating physical activity into the classroom provides numerous benefits and can help to intervene on the current inactivity and childhood obesity epidemics ailing America’s youth. This chapter delves more deeply into the research about integrated learning to bolster the case. Some still argue that the integration of physical activity in the classroom is a novel idea and it is not necessarily a needed component for elementary-aged children. Current pedagogical and educational models utilized in elementary schools throughout the US are claimed by some to be sufficient and thought to yield maximum benefits for all children. If these claims seem persuasive to the reader, he or she is encouraged to read the chapter with an open mind before making a decision regarding the importance of integrating movement in the classroom. If the reader is in accord with what has been presented thus far in the initial chapters and is interested in learning more about the benefits of teaching elementary curricula with physical activity, then he or she will find more detail about the benefits linked to teaching math, language arts, science and social studies with movement. It is readily accepted that participating in regular physical activity can provide an array of health benefits. These benefits, as discussed in the Introduction of this book, range from maintaining a healthy weight, preventing the onset of obesity, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and reducing the risks of developing certain cancers to developing muscles and strong bones. In addition to these benefits, participation in regular activity has also been linked to increasing emotional wellness related to positive self-esteem and positive selfconcept. Physical activity has and continues to be used as a treatment in a number of studies for depression and substance abuse as well. What has frequently been overlooked is the positive impact regular physical activity has on the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems, and in particular, the developing brain. Numerous studies have examined the impact of movement on brain plasticity, resulting in the identification of a variety of therapeutic enhancements. Movement has been documented to increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) which enhances learning and cognition which, ironically, is regulated by physical activity (Cottman & Engesser-Cesar, 2002; Hannaford, 1995; Jensen, 2000). Furthermore, regular physical activity has been found to promote structural changes in the hippocampus region of the brain. The hippocampus is an

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area important for memory (Jensen, 2000). Regular physical activity has also been found to increase neurons, dendrites and synapses which are essential structural elements located throughout the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems (Cottman & Engesser-Cesar, 2002; Hannaford, 1995; Jensen, 2000). Current research on the brain and brain plasticity documents that physical activity positively affects the brain and brain development. Over two-decades ago, Gabbard and Barton (1979) found a positive correlation between physical activity and school performance; yet, the vast majority of school children attending elementary school remains sedentary throughout the school day. A review paper by Sibley and Etnier (2003) on this topic found that exercise training is significantly linked to improved cognition in youth. Being an overweight child has also been reported to be associated with poor IQ test performance (Campos et al., 1996; Li, 1995). A study by Judge and Jahns (2007) examining the associations between overweight children and academic performance from data collected in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study revealed that overweight third grade children had significantly lower math and reading tests scores in comparison to those of non-overweight children in the same grade. A program entitled Collaborating with Classroom Teachers to Increase Daily Physical Activity, The Gear Program, discovered that integrating movement into the classroom can invigorate students as well as provide positive effects on student learning (Maeda & Murata, 2004). Additionally, Blakemore (2003) reported that the brain is activated during physical activity by increasing blood flow to essential areas that stimulate learning. Strong associations between the cerebellum and memory, spatial perception, language attention, emotion, nonverbal cues and the decision making ability of students have also been found (Blakemore, 2003; Jensen, 2000). Furthermore, an established relationship between physical activity and the cognitive abilities of the cerebellum has been identified. Research also suggests that increased blood flow as a result of movement enhances the cerebellum by promoting specific cognitive functions (Blakemore, 2003; Diamond, 2000; Jensen, 2000). More recently, Carlson and colleagues (2008) investigated the link between time spent in physical education and academic achievement from data collected on children from kindergarten through fifth grade and discovered a significant increase in academic achievement in math and reading among girls enrolled in higher amounts of weekly physical education. Researchers at the RAND Institute identified that overweight kindergartners had significantly lower math and reading test scores in comparison to those of children who were not overweight (Datar, Sturm & Magnabosco, 2004). Movement is clearly essential to learning. Jensen (2000) argues that learning time is wasted when students sit too much. Jensen (2000) posits that: 





Physical activity improves spatial learning. While the brain encounters a space, it makes a map of that space based not only on the physical surroundings but also on the basis of the body’s association with the particular space. Physical activity enables the brain to develop new maps, even if the movement space is not new. This process serves to create additional unique learning opportunities through space. Physical activity also provides the brain time to digest new information because our brains are designed to only learn bits and pieces of information at a time. The human

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brain was not designed for children to continuously encounter new information all day without time to process it. Too much information sent to the hippocampus region of the brain, prevents the integration of information and newly learned content. Additional benefits linked to physical activity and learning were recently highlighted in a published review paper. Taras (2005) revealed that physical activity improved concentration, along with reading and mathematic performance, with the strongest relationship between activity and concentration. Physical activity also stimulates the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenalin) enabling children to become alert and ready to learn (Hannaford, 1995; Jensen, 2000; Taras, 2005). Research findings by Carlson (2005) further validated that cognitive functioning could be sensitive to physical activity. Kolb and Whinshaw (1998), a decade ago, discussed how the pattern of neural specialization often referred to as the pruning of synapses in the nervous system can be determined, in part, by environmental stimulation. Moreover, Hillman and colleagues (2005) examined EEG brain activity in children who were considered to have a high level and low level of fitness while performing a choice-reaction test. Children who were considered to possess a high level of fitness in the study performed this task more rapidly and had larger P3 amplitudes that are consistent with enhanced executive functioning. Perhaps the most compelling research to date was conducted in 2007 by researchers at the Medical College of Georgia. Davis and her colleagues identified that exercise training among overweight youth showed dose-response benefits on executive function (located in the frontal lobe of the cerebrum) and possibly math achievement correlated with exercise levels. The executive function hypothesis that originated in the field of gerontology (Churchill et al., 2002; Hall, Smith & Keele, 2001; Kramer et al., 1999) is based on the idea that the largest improvements in cognition-- the ability to plan, initiate and carry-out activity sequences that comprise goal directed behavior-- are due to exercise and physical activity (Davis et al., 2007). Regular exercise may be a simple, important method for enhancing children’s cognitive and academic development, considering that, according to Welch and colleagues (2006), executive function begins during early childhood and extends through adolescence. The results of the work by Davis and colleagues (2007) should persuade educators to implement vigorous physical activity curricula to intervene in the childhood obesity epidemic. A recent brief from Active Living Research sponsored by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation further highlights the impact of movement on academic achievement and performance. This brief provides empirical based data that concludes the following:     

Sacrificing physical education for classroom time does not improve academic performance. Youth who are more physically active tend to perform better academically. Kids who are physically active and fit are likely to have stronger academic performance. Activity breaks can improve cognitive performance and classroom behavior. Short activity breaks during the school day can improve students’ concentration skills and classroom behavior.

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Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance Fall 2007 Research Brief In schools across the United States, physical education has been substantially reduced—and in some cases completely eliminated—in response to budget concerns and pressures to improve academic test scores. Yet the available evidence shows that children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom, and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children’s health through physical education.

The Impact of Schools on Physical Activity Today, obesity is one of the most pressing health concerns for our children. More than onethird of children and teens, approximately 25 million kids, are overweight or obese—and physical inactivity is a leading contributor to the epidemic. The Surgeon General recommends children should engage in 60 minutes of moderate activity most days of the week, yet estimates show that only 3.8 percent of elementary schools provide daily physical education (PE).1

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Percentage of schools providing daily 1 PE in 2006 10% 9% 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0%

7.9%

3.8% 2.1%

elementary middle schools schools

high schools

Schools serve as an excellent venue to provide students with the opportunity for daily physical activity, to teach the importance of regular physical activity for health, and to build skills that support active lifestyles. Unfortunately, most children get little to no regular physical activity while in school. Budgetary constraints and increasing pressure to improve standardized test scores have caused school officials to question the value of PE and other physical activity programs. This has led to a substantial reduction in the time available for PE, and in some cases, school-based physical activity programs have been completely eliminated.2 Yet advocates for school-based physical activity programs argue that allocating time for daily PE does not adversely impact academic performance and that regular exercise may improve students’ concentration and cognitive functioning.3-6

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Only 36 percent of high school students meet the current recommended levels of physical activity.7

The Findings This summary of peer-reviewed research on the relationship between physical activity and academic performance among children and adolescents yields the following insights: Sacrificing physical education for classroom time does not improve academic performance. Many school systems have downsized or eliminated PE under the assumption that more classroom instructional time will improve academic performance and increase standardized test scores. The available evidence contradicts this view.8-14 To date, five controlled experimental studies—in the United States, Canada and Australia—have evaluated the effects on academic performance of allocating additional instructional time for PE. All five studies clearly demonstrate that physical activity does not need to be sacrificed for academic excellence. A study conducted in 2006 with 214 sixth-grade students in Michigan found that students enrolled in PE had similar grades and standardized test scores as students who were not enrolled in PE, despite receiving 55 minutes less of daily classroom instruction time for academic subjects.14

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In 1999, researchers analyzed data from 759 fourth- and fifth-graders in California and found that students’ scores on standardized achievement tests were not adversely affected by an intensive PE program that doubled or tripled PE time. On several test scores, students with enhanced PE performed better than students in control groups.12 In 2007, 287 fourth- and fifth-grade students from British Columbia were evaluated to determine if introducing daily classroom physical activity sessions affected their academic performance.13 Students in the intervention group participated in daily 10-minute classroom activity sessions in addition to their regularly scheduled 80-minute PE class. Despite increasing inschool physical activity time by approximately 50 minutes per week, students receiving the extra physical activity time had similar standardized test scores for mathematics, reading and language arts as did students in the control group. Students whose time in PE or school-based physical activity was increased maintained or improved their grades and scores on standardized achievement tests, even though they received less classroom instructional time than students in control groups.

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Kids who are more physically active tend to perform better academically. Fourteen published studies analyzing data from approximately 58,000 students between 1967 and 2006 have investigated the link between overall participation in physical activity and academic performance. Eleven of those studies found that regular participation in physical activity is associated with improved academic performance. Eight health surveys involving population-representative samples of children and adolescents from the United States,15-17 United Kingdom,18-20 Hong Kong21 and Australia22 observed statistically significant positive correlations between physical activity participation and academic performance. However, none of these studies assessed academic performance with standardized educational tests. For example, a national study conducted in 2006 analyzed data collected from 11,957 adolescents across the U.S. to examine the relationship between physical activity and academic performance. Adolescents who reported either participating in school activities, such as PE and team sports, or playing sports with their parents, were 20 percent more likely than their sedentary peers to earn an “A” in math or English.17 Three other smaller studies conducted between 1970 and 2006 involving students from one or two schools also reported a positive correlation between physical activity and academic performance.14, 23, 24 Two studies found no evidence of a relationship between physical activity and academic performance25, 26 and one study conducted in Canada in the year 2000 reported a trivial negative association between physical activity and standardized test scores.27 Kids who are physically active and fit are likely to have stronger academic performance. Evidence supporting the association between physical activity and enhanced academic performance is strengthened by related research that found higher levels of physical fitness to be linked with improved academic performance among children and teens. For example, two large national studies in Australia22 and Korea,28 along with two smaller studies conducted in the U.S.,29, 30 found physical fitness scores to be significantly and positively related to academic performance. These studies included students from elementary through high school.

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Activity breaks can improve cognitive performance and classroom behavior. According to five studies involving elementary students, regular physical activity breaks during the school day may enhance academic performance. Introducing physical activity has been shown to improve cognitive performance and promote on-task classroom behavior.31-36 It is important to note that the cognitive and behavioral responses to physical activity breaks during the school day have not been systematically investigated among middle or high school students. Investigators in Georgia studied the effects of an activity break on classroom behavior in a sample of 43 fourth-grade students in 1998. Students exhibited significantly more on-task classroom behavior and significantly less fidgeting on days with a scheduled activity break than on non-activity days.35 A 12-week research project conducted in eastern North Carolina in 2006 evaluated the effects of providing elementary students with a daily 10-minute activity break. Among 243 students in kindergarten through fourth grade, a daily activity break increased on-task behavior significantly, by an average of 8 percent. Among the least on-task students, the activity breaks improved on-task behavior by 20 percent.36 Elementary students' on-task classroom behavior improves with 35 physical activity breaks

25% 20% Percent change in on-task behavior

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20% 15% 10%

8%

5% 0% -5%

-3%

physical activity breaks, physical activity breaks, students overall off-task students

breaks with no physical activity

In a study conducted in 1999 with 177 New Jersey elementary students, researchers compared concentration test scores after students completed either a classroom lesson or a 15-minute physical activity session. Fourth-grade students exhibited significantly better concentration scores after completing the physical activity. Among second- and third-grade students, the physical activity intervention was neither beneficial nor detrimental to test performance.33

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Short activity breaks during the school day can improve students’ concentration skills and classroom behavior.

Conclusions  Five studies consistently show that more time in physical education and other school-based physical activity programs does not adversely affect academic performance.  In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.  Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement.  There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity could improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior.  Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including African-American, Latino, Native American, Asian American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities.

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Lee S, Burgeson C, Fulton J, Spain C. Physical Education and Physical Activity: Results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2006. Journal of School Health 2007;77:435463. National Association for Sport and Physical Education and American Heart Association. 2006 shape of the nation report: Status of physical education in the USA. Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education; 2006. Shephard RJ. Curricular physical activity and academic performance. Pediatric Exercise Science 1997;9:113-126. Pellegrini AD, Smith PK. Physical activity play: The nature and function of a neglected aspect of play. Child Development 1998;69:577-598. Tomporowski PD. Cognitive and behavioral responses to acute exercise in youths: A review. Pediatric Exercise Science 2003;15:348-359. Sibley BA, Etnier JL. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science 2003;15:243-256. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2005. Surveillance Summaries, June 9. MMWR 2006;55(SS-5):1–108. Shephard RJ, Volle M, Lavallee H, LaBarre R, Jequier JC, Rajic M. Required physical activity and academic grades: A controlled longitudinal study. In Children and Sport. J Ilmarinen and L Valimaki (Eds.) Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984, pp. 58-63.

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Shephard RJ. Habitual physical activity and academic performance. Nutrition Reviews 1996 Apr;54(4 Pt 2):S32-36. Dwyer T, Blizzard L, Dean K. Physical activity and performance in children. Nutrition Reviews 1996 Apr;54(4 Pt 2):S27-31. Dwyer T, Coonan WE, Leitch DR, Hetzel BS, Baghurst RA. Investigation of the effects of daily physical activity on the health of primary school students in South Australia. International Journal of Epidemiology 1983;12:308-313. Sallis JF, McKenzie TL, Kolody B, Lewis M, Marshall S, Rosengard P. Effects of healthrelated physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 1999;70:127-134. Ahamed Y, MacDonald H, Reed K, Naylor PJ, Liu-Ambrose T, McKay H. School-based physical activity does not compromise children’s academic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2007;39:371-376. Coe DP, Pivarnik JM, Womack CJ, Reeves MJ, Malina RM. Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2006;38:1515-1519. Pate RR, Heath GW, Dowda M, Trost SG. Associations between physical activity and other health behaviors in a representative sample of US adolescents. American Journal of Public Health 1996;86:1577-1581. Fejgin N. Participation in high school competitive sports: A subversion of school mission or contribution to academic goals? Sociology of Sport Journal 1994;11:211-230. Nelson MC, Gordon-Larson P. Physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns are associated with selected adolescent health risk behaviors. Pediatrics 2006;117:1281-1290. McIntosh PC. Mental ability and success in school sport. Research in Physical Education 1966;1:20-27. Smart KB. Sporting and intellectual success among English secondary school children. International Review of Sports Sociology 1967;2:47-54. Williams A. Physical activity patterns among adolescents – some curriculum implications. Physical Education Review 1988;11:28-39. Lindner KJ. Sports participation and perceived academic performance of school children and youth. Pediatric Exercise Science 1999;11:129-143. Dwyer T, Sallis JF, Blizzard L, Lazarus R, Dean K. Relation of academic performance to physical activity and fitness in children. Pediatric Exercise Science 2001;13:225-237. Schurr T, Brookover W. Athletes, academic self-concept and achievement. Medicine and Science in Sports 1970;2:96-99. Field T, Diego M, Sanders CE. Exercise is positively related to adolescents’ relationships and academics. Adolescence 2001;36:105-110. Daley AJ, Ryan J. Academic performance and participation in physical activity by secondary school adolescents. Perceptual and Motor Skills 2000;91:531-534. Fisher N, Juszczak L, Friedman SB. Sports participation in an urban high school: Academic and psychologic correlates. Journal of Adolescent Health 1996;18:329-334. Tremblay MS, Inman JW, Willms JD. The relationship between physical activity, self-esteem, and academic achievement in 12-year-old children. Pediatric Exercise Science 2000;12:312323. Kim HYP, Frongillo EA, Han SS, Oh SY, Kim WK, Jang YA, Won HS, Lee HS, Kim SH. Academic performance of Korean children is associated with dietary behaviours and physical status. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;12:186-192.

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Julian A. Reed Knight D, Rizzuto T. Relations for children in grades 2, 3, and 4 between balance skills and academic performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1993;76:1296-1298. Castelli DM, Hillman CH, Buck SM, Erwin HE. Physical fitness and academic achievement in third- and fifth-grade students. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2007;29:239-252. Gabbard C, Barton J. Effects of physical activity on mathematical computation among young children. The Journal of Psychology 1979;103:287-288. Raviv S, Low M. Influence of physical activity on concentration among junior high school students. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1990;70:67-74. McNaughten D, Gabbard C. Physical exertion and immediate mental performance of sixthgrade children. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1993;77:1155-1159. Caterino MC, Polak ED. Effects of two types of activity on the performance of second-, third, and fourth-grade students on a test of concentration. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1999;89:245-248. Jarrett OS, Maxwell DM, Dickerson C, Hoge P, Davies G, Yetley A. Impact of recess on classroom behavior: group effects and individual differences. The Journal of Educational Research 1998;92:121-126. Mahar MT, Murphy SK, Rowe DA, Golden J, Shields AT, Raedke TD. Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2006;38:2086-2094.

Active Living Research, a national program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, stimulates and supports research to identify environmental factors and policies that influence physical activity for children and families to inform effective childhood obesity prevention strategies, particularly in low-income and racial/ethnic communities at highest risk. Active Living Research wants solid research to be part of the public debate about active living. This report was prepared by Stewart G. Trost, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Nutrition and Exercise Sciences at Oregon State University, with support from the Active Living Research staff, Burness Communications and Pyramid Communications.

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For updates and a web-based version, visit www.activelivingresearch.org. Active Living Research San Diego State University 3900 Fifth Avenue, Suite 310 San Diego, CA 92103 www.activelivingresearch.org Figure 2. Active Education. Permission to reprint has been received by Active Living Research and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

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REFERENCES Active Living Research. (2007). Active education: Physical activity, physical education and academic performance. www.activelivingresearch.org/alr/alr/files/Active_Ed.pdf. Accessed on May 23rd, 2008. Blakemore, C. L. (2003). Movement is essential to learning. JOPERD, 74, 22-24, 41. Campos, A. L., Sigulem, D. M., Moraes, D. E., Escrivao, A. M., & Fisberg, M. (1996). Intelligence quotient of obese children and adolescents by the Wechsler scale. Revista de Saude Publica, 30(1), 85-90. Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Lee, S. M., Maynard, L. M., Brown, D. R., Kohl, H. W., & Dietz, W. H. (2008). Physical education and academic achievement in elementary school: Data from the early childhood longitudinal study. American Journal of Public Health, Feb 28 [epub ahead of print]. Churchill, J. D., Galvez, R., Colcombe, S., Swain, R. A., Kramer, A. F., & Greenough, W. T. (2002). Exercise, experience and the aging brain. Neurobiology of Aging, 23, 941–955. Cotman, C. W., & Engesser-Cesar, C. (2002). Exercise enhances and protects brain function. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 30(2), 75-79. Diamond, A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Development, 71, 44-56. Datar, A., Sturm, R., & Magnabosco, J. L. (2004). Childhood overweight and academic performance: National study of kindergartners and first-graders. Obesity Research, 12(1), 58-68. Davis, C. L., Tomporowski, T. D., Boyle, C. A., Waller, J L. Miller, P. H., Naglieri, J. A., & Gregoski, M. (2007). Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children’s cognitive functioning: A randomized controlled trial. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(5), 510-519. Gabbard, C., & Barton, J. (1979, November). Effects of physical activity on mathematical computation among young children. Journal of Psychology, 103, 287-288. Hall, C. D., Smith, A. L., & Keele, S. W. (2001). The impact of aerobic activity on cognitive function in older adults: A new synthesis based on the concept of executive control. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 13, 279–300. Hannaford, C. (1995). Smart moves: Why learning is not all in your head. Arlington, Virginia: Great Ocean Publishers. Hillman, C. H., Castelli, D. M., & Buck, S. M. (2005). Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy pre-adolescent children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37, 1967-1974. Jensen, E. (2000). Moving with the brain in mind. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 34-37.

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Judge, S. & Jahns, L. (2007). Association of overweight with academic performance and social and behavioral problems: An update from the early childhood longitudinal study. Journal of School Health, 77(10), 672-678. Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (1998). Brain plasticity and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 43-64. Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C., R., et al. (1999). Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function. Nature, 400, 418–419. Li, W. (1995). A study of intelligence and personality in children with simple obesity. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 19, 355-357. Maeda, J. K., & Murata, N. M. (2004). Collaborating with classroom teachers to increase daily physical activity: The GEAR program. JOPERD, 75, 42-46. Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15, 243-256. Taras, H. (2005). Physical activity and student performance at school. Journal of School Health, 75(6), 214-219. Welsh, M. C., Friedman, S. L., & Spieker, S. J. (2006). Executive functions in developing children: Current conceptualizations and questions for the future. In K. McCartney & D. Phillips (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of early childhood development. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.

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Chapter 4

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INTEGRATING MOVEMENT IN THE CLASSROOM IS NOT A REPLACEMENT FOR A GOOD PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM Integrating movement into the classroom is not and should not be considered a replacement for a sound elementary school physical education program. Physical education, now more than ever, is a necessary curricular element to help mitigate or extinguish the risky behaviors linked to physical inactivity and childhood obesity. Unfortunately, according to recent statistics, only 3.8% of elementary schools provide daily physical education (Lee et al., 2007). According to the School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS [2007]) only 69% of elementary schools in the US require physical education. With few schools in the US providing daily elementary physical education now is not the time to abandon those programs currently meeting national and state standards. Quality physical education programs can provide a variety of benefits (see figure #3). The health benefits associated with leading an active healthy lifestyle are well documented and summarized in The Surgeon Generals Report on Physical Activity and Health (US DHHS, 1996). However, American adults and youth remain inactive. Physical inactivity has contributed to over 300,000 preventable deaths each year in the US (DHHS, 2001). Estimates based on clinical measurements suggest that in the year 2000, 31% of the adult population was obese and 64% was overweight (CDC, 2001). Using this information many experts have argued that physical educators should advocate a public health approach that ought to become a “cornerstone” for providing students with the skills, attitudes, and knowledge necessary to live an active healthy lifestyle (Reed, et al., 2007; Tappe & Burgenson, 2004).

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During the past decade, the interest in the benefits derived from an active lifestyle has spawned a wide assortment of health clubs, a vast array of books and magazines concerning exercise and fitness, a weekly smorgasbord of distance runs and triathlons, streamlined exercise equipment, and apparel for virtually any type of physical activity. Unfortunately, most of this interest and lifestyle change has occurred among middle-and upper-class Americans. Little change in activity patterns has occurred in lower-middle-and lower-class families. The nation’s enthusiasm for physical activity has not trickled down to elementary school youngsters. A statement issued by the American Academy of Pediatrics (1991) reported that children from the ages of 2 to 12 watch about 25 hours of television per week, more time than they spend in school receiving instruction. Another study (Anderson et al., 1998) showed that children who watched four or more hours of television per day had significantly greater BMI values compared to children watching fewer than two hours per day. Health goals for the nation for the year 2010 (US DHHS, 2000) are based on increasing daily levels of physical activity. Many of the goals directly target schools, or programs that can take place within the school setting. These goals emphasize reducing inactivity and increasing light to moderate physical activity. The need is clear: Implement physical education programs to teach youngsters how to live an active and healthy lifestyle. What evidence is available that shows the benefits of a quality physical education program?

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1.

2.

3.

The percentage of youth who are overweight has more than tripled in the past 30 years (US DHHS, 2002). A recent study has suggested that the prevalence of obesity is more strongly related to decreases in energy expenditure than to increases in energy intake (Jebb & Moore, 1999). The school environment discourages physical activity. Students are asked to move slowly, sit still, and walk, rather than run, everywhere they go, which results in a decrease in energy expenditure. A 30-minute physical education class can offer 1,200 to 2,000 steps of moderate to vigorous physical activity to counteract the effects of an inactive day (Beighle & Pangrazi, 2000; Morgan, Pangrazi, & Beighle, 2003). This is a substantial contribution to the daily energy expenditure of students, particularly those who are inactive. For example, for a student who is averaging 8,000 steps a day, a quality physical education class could increase the number of steps by 20 percent. This would increase the number of steps to 10,000, which is a substantial increase in physical activity. A positive experience in physical education classes will encourage youngsters to be active as adults. In a survey sponsored by the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association (2000), 60 percent of respondents ages 18 to 34 reported that a positive experience in physical education classes encouraged them to be active later in life. On the other hand, of those respondents who said they were sedentary, only 10 percent said their physical education classes encouraged them to be active. Overweight children grow into overweight adults. Studies (Guo et al., 1994; Must et al., 1992) show that adolescent weight is a good predictor of adult obesity. A study by Whitaker et al. (1997) showed that the risk of obesity persisting into adulthood is much higher among adolescents than younger children. The chance for childhood obesity persisting into adulthood increases from 20 percent at four years of age to 80 percent by adolescence (Guo & Chumlea, 1999). This supports the case for dealing with overweight children in elementary school, before the problem becomes much more difficult to rectify. Since a quality program encourages active behavior, it makes sense that a program be in place to help youngsters understand the importance of proper weight management and an active lifestyle.

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Integrating Movement in the Classroom Is not a Replacement … 4.

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A quality physical education program educates youngsters physically but does not detract from their academic performance in school. An argument often used is that spending time on physical education will lower the academic performance of students because they have less time to study and learn. To the contrary, studies have shown that students who spend time in physical education classes do equally well or better in academic classes. Two major studies that looked at this issue are the Three Rivers study (Trudeau et al., 1998) and a SPARK-related activity program study (Sallis et al., 1999). In both cases, students received the health benefits of physical education without any negative impact on their academic performance. Physical education gives students the skills they need to be active as adults. One commodity that youngsters have in contrast to adults is the time to practice and learn new skills. Few adults learn an entire new set of physical skills. More often than not, they practice and enhance skills they learned earlier in childhood. Since many adults like to participate in activities that require a requisite skill level (e.g., golf, tennis, racquetball, etc.), learning such skills during their school years makes it more likely that they will feel able and competent to participate in later life. Physical activity (which most often occurs in physical education classes) provides immediate and short-term health benefits for children (Bar-Or, 1995). For obese children, increased physical activity results in a reduction of the percentage of body fat. Additionally, increased activity reduces blood pressure and improves the blood lipid profile for high health-risk children. Finally, evidence shows that weight-bearing activities performed during the school years offer bone mineral density benefits that carry over into adulthood (Bailey et al., 1996). Active children become active adults. Telama et al. (1997) looked at retrospective and longitudinal tracking studies and concluded that the results “indicate that physical activity and sport participation in childhood and adolescence represent a significant prediction for physical activity in adulthood.” The relationship is low but still indicates that activity during youth has an impact on adult activity level. Another study (Raitakari et al., 1994) showed how strongly inactivity patterns track. In that study, the probability of an inactive 12-year-old remaining sedentary at age 19 was 51-63 percent for girls and 54-61 percent for boys. This clearly delineates the legacy given to youth when we place them into an inactive school environment.

Figure 3. The Need for Physical Education Programs. Permission to reprint by the Author, Robert Pangrazi, Ph.D. from Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 15th ed.

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Physical education teachers need to know the essential components of a quality physical education program. In other words, they need to know the critical elements that should be included to ensure youngsters receive a quality physical education experience. The following components interlock to form a comprehensive physical education program that will be valued by parents, teachers, and students. Each of the components is described briefly in this section. I.

II.

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V.

Quality physical education programs are organized around the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) national standards that offer direction and continuity to instruction and evaluation. A quality program is driven by a set of content standards. These standards are defined by a number of competencies youngsters are expected to accomplish. Standards are measurable so that both teachers and students know when progress has been made. Quality programs are student-centered and based on the developmental urges, characteristics, and interests of students. Youngsters learn best when the skills and activities they must learn match their physical and emotional development. Including activities in the program because they match the competencies of the teacher is not a criterion. Teachers have to teach new activities outside their comfort zone if they are going to present a comprehensive program. A quality program focuses on the successes of students so that there is motivation to continue. Developing a positive set of behaviors toward physical activity is a key goal of physical education. Quality physical education programs make physical activity and motor skill development the core of the program. Physical education is the only place in the total school curriculum where instruction is focused on teaching motor skills. Physical education is a unique discipline that focuses on physical activity to ensure the physical development of students. It is mandatory that the program focus on skill development and quality physical activity. Quality physical education programs teach management skills and self-discipline. Physical education teachers are usually evaluated based on how students in their classes behave. Administrators and parents look to see that students are on task and receiving many opportunities to learn new skills. When a class is well managed and students work with self-discipline, the experience compares to classroom instruction, bringing credibility to the program. Quality programs emphasize inclusion of all students. Instruction is designed for students who need help the most—less skilled youngsters and children with disabilities. Students who are skilled and blessed with innate ability have many opportunities to learn. They have the confidence to take private lessons, join clubs, and play in after-school sports programs. Unskilled youngsters or children with disabilities lack confidence and often are unable to help themselves. Physical education is most likely the last opportunity youngsters will have to learn skills in a caring and positive environment. Instructional progressions designed to facilitate youngsters whose ability places them in the lower 70 percent of the class ensure a positive experience for all. Students who are not naturally gifted must be made to feel successful if they are expected to enjoy and value physical activity.

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VI.

Quality physical education programs focus instruction on the process of learning skills rather than on the product or outcome of the skill performance. When youngsters are learning new motor skills, performing the skill correctly is more important than the outcome of the skill. Youngsters need to learn proper techniques first and then focus on the product of the skill performance. Translated, this means it is more important to teach a youngster to catch a beanbag properly than to worry about how many he catches or misses. VII. Quality physical education programs teach lifetime activities that students can use to promote their health and personal wellness. Quality physical education programs prepare youngsters to participate in activities that they can perform when they become adults. If a program is restricted to team sports, the program will be of little value to the majority of adults. Participation in sports activities declines rapidly with age. Less than 5 percent of adults above the age of 30 report playing a team sport (US DHHS, 1996). By far, walking is the activity most often reported in adulthood. Other activities such as stretching exercises, bicycling, strength development exercises, jogging, swimming, and aerobics are also popular with adults. Quality physical education looks to the future and offers activities that youngsters can enjoy and use as adults. VIII. Quality physical education programs teach cooperation and responsibility and help students develop sensitivity to diversity and gender issues. Cooperative skills have to precede competitive skills. Students have to agree to follow rules in order to enjoy group activities. The majority of fights and physical violence occur when youngsters are in a physical activity setting. Physical education is an effective laboratory for students to learn to behave responsibly because behavior is so observable to others. Situations in physical activity give rise to the need to resolve conflicts in a peaceful manner. Competitive activities such as the Olympics often bring cultures together and offer students the opportunity to see different cultures compete with respect and dignity. Coeducational activities help students understand how activities cut across gender and stereotypes. When gender differences occur in physical activities, it is an excellent time to point out that individuals differ regardless of race or gender. Figure 4. Essential Components of a Quality Physical Education Program. Permission to reprint by the Author, Robert Pangrazi, Ph.D. from Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 15th ed.

Since physical activity helps to promote long term weight loss in children, increasing physical activity levels could play a role in preventing childhood obesity (Epstein et al., 1985; Sallis & McKenzie, 1991; Sallis & Owen, 1999). Unfortunately, the one place in our school system designed to promote participation in regular activity has failed to intervene in the current obesity and inactivity epidemics. Fewer than 1 in 4 children get 20 minutes of vigorous physical activity each week (Sallis & Owen, 1999). In a study conducted by Simons-Morton and colleagues (1993) one hundred fifty-seven fifth grade students in 20 of the 355 elementary schools in one Texas county were systematically observed during physical education classes. On average the students only spent 8.5% of the time in moderate to vigorous physical activity.

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Physical educators want their students to be active and remain active throughout adulthood, but many are not sure how to accomplish this feat. The fact that only 13% of physical educators are trained to increase physical activity outside the physical education environment is proof that this issue warrants further consideration (Pate et al., 1995). However, until DAILY elementary physical education is mandatory and the majority of elementary physical education programs across the US systematically meet current national and state standards by meeting the health needs of all youth, integration of movement in the classroom should be encouraged to provide each child with daily activity opportunities. Evident from the Shape of the Nation Report (see figure 5), physical education programs remain underfunded while childhood obesity rates continue to rise. Physical education is an essential element of elementary education. Unfortunately it has become marginalized at the expense of the health of our children.

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Most States Receive a Failing Grade on Physical Education Requirements RESTON , VA , May 2, 2006 – Despite skyrocketing childhood obesity rates and calls from Congress, the Surgeon General and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for high quality daily physical education programs, most states receive a failing grade on their physical education requirements. Those are the findings of the latest Shape of the Nation Report: Status of Physical Education in the USA, released by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and the American Heart Association (AHA). According to NASPE President Jacalyn Lund of Georgia State University, "This report shows that state physical education requirements are extremely weak. Furthermore, a vast array of 'loopholes' such as exemptions, waivers and on-line physical education classes too often eradicate those minimal standards at the local level at a time when more and more children are obese or at risk of obesity." Physical education is a planned instructional program with specific objectives. An essential part of the total curriculum, physical education programs increase the physical competence, health-related fitness, self-responsibility, and enjoyment of physical activity for all students so that they can establish physical activity as a natural part of everyday life. "Unbeknownst to many policymakers, the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 is threatening the amount of time available for physical education," said NASPE Executive Director Charlene R. Burgeson. "NCLB focuses on student achievement in defined core academic subjects. As states develop or select standardized tests to hold schools and students accountable, content that is not tested, such as physical education, has become a lower priority." Conducted every five years, the purpose of the Shape of the Nation Report is to provide current information about the status of physical education in each state and the District of Columbia in the following areas: time requirements, exemptions/waivers and substitutions, class size, standards, curriculum and instruction, student assessment, teacher certification, National Board Certification, state physical education coordinator and body mass index collection. For the complete report, visit www.naspeinfo.org.

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According to M. Cass Wheeler, CEO, American Heart Association, "Children are more overweight than ever before and they're at great risk of developing cardiovascular disease as they reach adulthood. Now is not the time for schools to cut physical education, and deprive children the chance to adopt healthy lifestyles. We must mandate that quality physical education be required at all grade levels and that it be taught by qualified teachers." Since the last Shape of the Nation Report in 2001, there has been a continued increase in childhood and adult overweight and obesity. Currently 17% (over nine million) of children and teens age 6 to 19 years are overweight and an additional 31% are at risk for overweight. Even though a majority of states mandates physical education, most do not require a specific amount of instructional time and about half allow exemptions, waivers, and/or substitutions. These "loopholes" significantly reduce the effectiveness of the mandate. Another general pattern with differential impact on physical education is local control of education. Some states establish standards or very broad guidelines for curriculum content and defer specific decisions regarding time, class size, and student assessment to local school districts or even schools. This results in very diverse patterns of delivery for physical education within states.

Highlights    

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 



Forty-seven states and the District of Columbia have their own state standards for physical education. Approximately 30% of states do not mandate physical education for elementary and middle school students. Almost one-fourth of states (24% or 12) allow required physical education credits to be earned through online physical education courses. Forty-three percent of states (22) require physical education grades to be included in a student’s grade point average (GPA). Sixteen states have a required comprehensive assessment test for graduation, but none include physical education. Thirty-six states have an educational report card that rates specific subject areas individually, but only three of those states ( California, Hawaii, Kentucky) include physical education on their state report card. Currently only three states – Arkansas, California and Illinois – require schools to measure body mass index (BMI) for each student.

Recommendations for Action NASPE and AHA want to remind America that “Physically active, healthy kids learn better!” School age youth need at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity every day. To achieve that level of activity, NASPE and AHA recommend that schools across the country make physical education instruction the cornerstone of a comprehensive school physical activity program that also includes health education, elementary school recess, after-school physical activity clubs and intramurals, high school interscholastic athletics, walk/bike to school programs, and staff wellness programs. It is particularly important that voluntary programs (i.e., after school physical activity clubs, intramurals) are designed to attract all students, especially those not interested in traditional athletic programs.

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The preeminent national authority on physical education and a recognized leader in sport and physical activity, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education(NASPE) is a nonprofit professional membership association that sets the standard for practice in physical education and sport. NASPE’s 17,000 members include: K-12 physical education teachers, coaches, athletic directors, athletic trainers, sport management professionals, researchers, and college/university faculty who prepare physical activity professionals. NASPE seeks to enhance knowledge, improve professional practice, and increase support for high quality physical education, sport and physical activity programs through research, development of standards, and dissemination of information. It is the largest of the five national associations that make the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance (AAHPERD). To assess whether your child is receiving a quality physical education program, visit www.naspeinfo.org/observePE for an observation assessment tool.

The Fight for Physical Education in the States States have become a battleground for the fight to keep physical education in schools. While not a direct attack on the importance of physical education, policies in response to the requirements of No Child Left Behind and decreases in funding have led some state legislatures and boards of education to decrease requirements for physical education in recent years. Many local school districts have also made cuts to programs and requirements. Advocates for physical education have responded to the assault and have heightened their efforts at the state level to set minimum requirements for physical education in schools.

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Progress Made in Recent Years While states continue to work toward statutory requirements that reflect the national recommendations for physical education, as of 2005, no states currently meet that standard. However, South Carolina has approved legislation that will bring it very close. Incremental progress has been made in a number of other states in recent years. In 2004, Florida passed legislation (SB 354) directing the Department of Education to conduct a study to determine the status of physical education in schools. At the same time, advocates in Hawaii successfully defeated a proposal to cut state graduation requirements for physical education. And in Michigan, the State Board of Education passed a resolution strongly encouraging local school districts to meet the national recommendations. The work continued in 2005 when the Alabama Department of Education enacted a policy that phased out blanket, system-wide physical education waivers during the 2005-2006 school year. It also concluded that recess and lunchtime activities could not be substituted for physical education. In Maryland, a new law (SB 233) required the state's Department of Education to employ a fulltime director of physical education. Advocates in West Virginia worked to pass the Healthy Lifestyles Act of 2005 (HB 2816), which increased physical education requirements for elementary school children to 30 minutes a day, three days a week. Also, in New Mexico the legislature approved an increase in funding for elementary schools that allowed for the hiring of 33 new licensed and endorsed physical education specialists. Finally, in South Carolina wideranging legislation was signed into law that will establish physical education, school health services, and nutritional standards in elementary schools. This legislation will provide for increasing amounts of physical education instruction that students in kindergarten through fifth grade must receive each week on a phased-in basis. Additionally, the bill will mandate an established teacher-to-student ratio in physical education classes on a phased-in basis, require

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student assessment to determine the effectiveness of the physical education program in all public schools, and require and fund a physical activity director to be designated at each elementary school.

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The Work Continues in 2006 With legislative sessions in full swing in 2006, over 100 bills have been introduced in state legislatures to increase the requirements for physical education. Early success has been achieved in a few states and the hard work continues in others. The Alabama Legislature passed the Alabama Education Budget Bill (HB 272) in March 2006. This bill contains $11.8 million to hire approximately 180 additional physical education teachers. The additional teachers will make it possible for each school district in the state to have a certified physical education teacher to oversee the physical education program. The "Georgia Student Health and Fitness Act" (SB 474) is moving through the Senate. The legislation requires 150 minutes per week of physical education in grades K-5 and for middle schools to develop a plan for implementing 225 minutes of physical education per week for grades 6-8. SB 474 also creates an office within the Department of Education to oversee physical education curricula as they are developed by the local school districts. Tennessee advocates are supporting the "Tennessee Student Health Act," (SB 2494) which requires 150 minutes of physical education per week in grades K-5 and 225 minutes per week in grades 6-8. In Illinois, one of the only states that requires daily physical education in schools, advocates continue to work hard on legislation (HB 5370) that will make it harder for schools and school districts to get waivers from the time requirements. The current Illinois waiver system has made it easy for school districts to seek to reduce or eliminate physical education in schools. If HB 2778 passes the legislature in Arizona this year, the state would create a two-year pilot program consisting of at least ten schools that would receive funding to ensure that all students in grades 1-8 participate in physical education. Students would participate in 90 minutes of physical education per week during the 2006-2007 school year and 120 minutes per week during the 20072008 school year. Pennsylvania is working on HB 185, which is now moving through the Senate. It would require all school districts to write a quality physical education curriculum based on national and state standards. Florida is following up on their progress in 2004 with the "Student Health Promotion Act," (SB 2601) which, if passed, would encourage schools to provide 150 minutes per week of physical education for students in grades K-5 and 225 minutes per week for grades 6-8. Advocates in Minnesota have been working on physical education policy since 2003 when the legislature eliminated the requirement for physical education, citing No Child Left Behind as the reason for no longer requiring physical education in schools. A proposal in 2006 (HB 3260) would prohibit schools from further cutting physical education programs and would reinstate physical education as a graduation requirement. While the advances may be incremental, the work at the state level continues to bear out what the surveys all tell us—parents want physical education for their kids and their commitment to the issue will make success possible in the long-term. For more information on how you can get involved in the effort to fight for physical education at the state level, visit www.americanheart.org/yourethecure. Figure 5. Shape of the Nation Report. (http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/ShapeOfTheNation/template.cfm?template=pressRelease.html) Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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REFERENCES American Academy of Pediatrics. (1991). Sports medicine: Healthcare for young athletes. 2nd ed. Elk Grove Village, Illinois: Author. Bailey, D. A., Faulkner, R. A., & McKay, H. A. (1996). Growth, physical activity, and bone mineral acquisition. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 24, 233-266. Bar-Or, O. (1995). Health benefits of physical activity during childhood and adolescence. Physical Activity and Fitness Research Digest, 2(4), 1-6. Beighle, A., & Pangrazi, R. P. (2000). The validity of six pedometers for measuring the physical activity of children. Unpublished Manuscript. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Physical activity trends—United States, 1990-1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 50, 166-169. Epstein, L. H., Wing, R. R., Koeske, R., & Volaski, A. (1985). A comparison of lifestyle exercise, aerobic exercise, and calisthenics on weight loss in obese children. Behavior Therapy, 16, 345-356. Guo, S. S., & Chumlea, W. C. (1999). Tracking of body mass index in children in relation to overweight and adulthood. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70, 145S-148S. Guo, S. S., Roche, A. F., Chumlea, W. C., Gardner, J. D., & Siervogel, R. M. (1994). The predictive values of childhood body mass index values for overweight at age 35 y. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59, 810-819. Jebb, S.A., & Moore, M. S. (1999). Contribution of a sedentary lifestyle and inactivity to the etiology of overweight and obesity: Current evidence and research issues. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31, S534-S541. Lee, S., Burgeson, C., Fulton, J. & Spain, C. (2007). Physical education and physical activity: Results from the school health policies and programs study. Journal of School Health, 77, 435-463. Morgan, C. F., Pangrazi, R. P., & Beighle, A. (2003). Using pedometers to promote physical activity in physical education. JOPERD, 74(7), 33-38. Must, A., Jacques, P. F., Dallal, G. E., Bajema, C. J., & Dietz, W. H. (1992). Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents: A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. New England Journal of Medicine, 327, 1350-1355. Pangrazi, R. P. (2007). Dynamic physical education for elementary school children 15th (ed.). San Francisco, California: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Pate, R. R., Small, M. L., Ross, J. G., Young, J. C., Flint, K. H., & Warren, C. W. (1995). School physical education. Journal of School Health, 65, 312-318. Raitakari, O. T., Porkka, K. V. K., Taimela, S., Telama, R., Rasanen, L., Viikari, J. S. A. (1994). Effects of persistent physical activity and inactivity on coronary risk factors in children and young adults. American Journal of Epidemiology, 140, 195-205. Reed, J. A., Beighle, A., Phillips, D. A., & Pangrazi, R. P. (2007). Promoting lifelong physical activity. Official Journal of the International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance (ICHPER-SD) XLIII(3), 5-9. Sallis, J. F., & McKenzie, T. L. (1991). Physical education’s role in public health. Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 62, 124-137. Sallis, J. F., & Owen, N. (1999). Physical activity and behavioral medicine. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

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Sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, S., & Rosengard, P. (1999). Effects of health-related physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 127-134. Shape of the Nation Report. (2006). www.aahperd.org. Accessed on 5/16/2008. SHPPS 2006 (2007). School policies and programs study. Journal of School Health, 77(8). Simons-Morton, B. G., Taylor, W. C., Snider, S. A., & Huang, I. W. (1993). The physical activity of fifth-grade students during physical education classes. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 262-264. Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association. (2000, May/June). Fitness and sports newsletter. Tappe, M. K., & Burgeson, C. R. (2004). Physical education: A cornerstone for physically active lifestyles. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 23(4), 281-299. Telama, R., Yang, X., Laakso, L. & Viikari, J. (1997). Physical activity in childhood and adolescence as predictors of physical activity in young adulthood. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 13, 317-323. Trudeau, F., Laurencelle, L., Tremblay, J. Rajic, M., & Shepard, R. J. (1998). A long-term follow-up of participants in the Trois-Rivieres semi-longitudinal study of growth and development. Pediatric Exercise Science, 10, 366-377. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1996). Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, & National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2000). Healthy people 2010: National health promotion and disease objectives. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Physical activity and health: The link between physical activity and morbidity and mortality. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2002). Prevalence of overweight among children and adolescents: United States, 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Whitacker, R. C., Wright, J. A., Pepe, M. S., Seidel, K. D., & Dietz, W. H. (1997). Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 869-873.

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Chapter 5

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HELPING THE KINESTHETIC LEARNER Infants begin to move as they enter the world. They integrate sensory information to produce an appropriate motor response. Movement begins during the early fetal stage and is a synergistic relationship between the sensory and motor divisions of the nervous system. Human beings are constantly receiving sensory information from their environment. That flow of information constantly updates the Central Nervous System enabling the performance of appropriate responses. Humans must move in order to learn (Dennison, 2006). Carla Hannaford, a well respected neurophysiologist, said it best when she argued that, “every movement is a sensory-motor event, linked to the ultimate understanding of our physical world, the world from which new learning derives” (Hannaford, 1995, p. 96). Movement, ranging from reflexive and rudimentary to fundamental and specialized, (Gallahue & Ozmun, 2002) is based on the body’s ability to interpret sensory information to generate a motor response. Depending on the complexity of the movement required, the brain and nervous system will determine where the sensory information is integrated and assimilated. For example, most reflexes are preprogrammed responses that aid the body in structured and defined ways. As an infant begins to move, the majority of the movements expressed are reflexive and a stimulus is required for a movement to be exhibited. Since reflexes are preprogrammed, they frequently integrate in the spinal cord. However, as the brain further develops, movements becomes voluntary and the sensory impulses move their way up to higher brain centers like the cerebellum, basal ganglia and the cerebrum to be interpreted. Reflexes are important during infancy because they provide information to the developing nervous system as well as helping the infant to survive. The progression in the ability to process more complex sensory information is often coupled with more complex movements. The phenomena of interpreting sensory impulses from the immediate environment is often aided by using movement to better understand the surrounding environment and subsequently learning from it. Gardner (1993) in his theory of multiple intelligences argues that there are eight types of intelligence and one must teach to meet these differing intelligences. Since children interpret sensation from their environment differently, it is important for the educator to recognize these individual differences and present content accordingly to accommodate these various intelligences. Kinesthetic Intelligence, or as it often referred to as Kinesthetic Learning Style, suggests that individuals who prefer this learning style create or solve problems by moving their bodies. Children with strong Kinesthetic Intelligence often prefer to learn by doing. However,

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the Kinesthetic Learning Style is often the most neglected in the classroom (Dennison, 2006; Pettifor, 1999). Children who possess this learning preference need to move in order to appropriately interpret their sensory stimuli. Yet, most schools throughout the US continue to require children to be seated throughout the school day (Dennison, 2006). This narrow and dated model of teaching is a strong contributor to the current obesity epidemic because children spend the majority of their weekdays in school. A teacher’s goal is to make the learning process as efficient as possible (Coker, 1996). In order to do so educators must recognize individual learning styles. Learning styles, according to DeCecco (1968), are the ways that individuals process new information. Hence, identifying individual learning styles has monumental implications for designing the learning environment (Coker, 1996; Gardner, 1993). In disciplines, such as reading and mathematics, increased levels of achievement have been linked with matching instructional strategies to individual learning styles (Dunn, Beaudry & Klavis, 1989; Dunn & Dunn, 1975). There is not just one view of reality or one school of thought; empirical, phenomenological and scientific research reveal that individuals perceive both the physical and the concrete world, as well as the nonphysical and abstract world (Dunn et al., 1989). Some people are more comfortable with one world than the other. Individuals’ “predilections” affect what they see and do not see, along with what they experience and do not experience, despite equal opportunities for interacting with the same environment (Gregorc, 1982). Thus, researchers believe that individuals organize their thoughts in linear and in non-linear, leaping or holistic, fashions (Gregorc, 1982). For thousands of years educators have sought to define the role of education in meeting the needs of the individual. John Dewey, in his work at the beginning of the twentieth-century, focused on the learner as an individual (Keefe, 1982). Educators over the past three decades have begun to depart from traditional discussion emphasis on classroom materials and teacher-student ratios, and are now more concerned with the differing ways students learn. Such efforts have focused on student learning skills and learning styles (Coker, 1996; Keefe, 1982; Reed, Banks & Carlisle, 2004). The key to effective teaching is to understand the range of student learning styles and to be able to design instruction and materials that respond to an individual’s learning needs (Keefe, 1982). Despite this new emphasis, the Kinesthetic learner continues to be overlooked. Kinesthetic Learners Tend to Do the Following:  Move around a lot  Like to touch people they are talking to  Tap their pencil or foot while doing schoolwork  Enjoy physical activities  Take frequent breaks when studying  Do not spend a lot of time reading  Have difficulty spelling correctly  Like to solve problems by physically working through them  Like to try new things  Are considered hyperactive  Express their feelings physically (i.e., hugging, hitting)  Move their hands when they talk

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 Lay on the floor or bed when studying  Enjoy touching things  Have difficulty sitting still for extended periods of time  Excel in athletics and the performing arts Adapted from Helping Kinesthetic Learners Succeed. http://www.education.com/ magazine/article/kinesthetic_learner. Learning is an internal process, and learning is only said to have taken place when one can observe a change in learner behavior from what has been experienced. Learning styles are variables that link underlying causes with learning behavior (Keefe, 1982). Learning style brain research has taught us that people think differently. For example:

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The brain is differentiated in function: two halves process different kinds of information in different ways. The hemispheres appear to “house” specific functions like analytical and synthetic processes, imagery and verbal responses and simultaneous and successive processes in different sections. This supposition supports empirical evidence about the differences in stylistic responses to stimuli (Gregorc, 1982, p. 6).

Certain environmental stimuli stimulate specific functions of the brain more than others. This principle sheds light on the biases in some of our teaching techniques and raises questions regarding balancing our approaches (Dennison, 2006; Gregorc, 1982; Hannaford, 1995). “Brain growth periods may occur in which certain data can be gathered and reinforced better than at other times in human growth and development. This lends credence to the empirical and psychological positions regarding cycles, ages, and stages, periods of absorption and reflection, transitions and crisis periods in human life” (Gregorc, 1982, p. 6). According to Dennison (2006), Gregorc (1982), and Hannaford (1995), individual differences do exist, and some of our instructional approaches are inappropriate for many individuals. Every individual is uniquely wired. Each person’s life experiences shape his or her perceptions, “the way we learn and in essence, who we are. Some of our neural wiring, our nerve networks, however are determined by innate factors” (Hannaford, 1995, p. 178). It is this neural wiring that determines our learning style (Dennison, 2006; Hannaford, 1995). Daryl Siedentop (1991) clearly states that for pedagogy to be successful, certain student outcomes must be obtained. No outcomes, no successful teaching. Understanding how students process information will enable educators to design lessons that meet their students’ needs to ensure that certain student outcomes are attained. We must remember what Fauth (1990) stated close to two decades ago with regard to retention. We retain: 10 percent of what we read, 20 percent of what we hear, 30 percent of what we see, 50 percent of what we hear and see at the same time 70 percent of what we hear, see and say, and 90 percent of what we hear, see, say and do (dramatizing, painting, dancing, drawing, touching, constructing, and therefore moving).

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Ricki Linksman, an educational expert identifying children’s preferred learning styles has made tremendous strides by helping children discover how they learn and assisting teachers to tailor lessons to meet the needs of all learning styles in the classroom with her Superlinks to Accelerated Learning™ inventory. Below is an article by Linksman that illustrates the power of this process. Ask children in classrooms across the country what their favorite class is and a common answer they give after naming “recess” is P.E. (physical education) class. The response of many of these children goes a lot deeper than just desiring to “play.” In developing the Superlinks to Accelerated Learning™ inventory (made up of the Linksman Learning Styles Preference Assessment™ and Linksman Brain Hemispheric Preference Assessment™) and using it with tens of thousands of students in rural, suburban, and urban schools, from high poverty level to affluent, from elementary and middle school to high schools and colleges, a common thread runs throughout the results. A large number of those who are classified as needing Title 1 or remedial reading services, or who are recommended for a case study for possible placement in Special Ed, or who are recommended for evaluation for ADD or ADHD turn out to be kinesthetic or tactile learners, or right-brain learners. In fact, many of the students who end up getting low grades in class or scoring low on state reading tests are those who prefer the kinesthetic or tactile learning style or right-brain learning strategies. As a trainer, an instructor of graduate level education courses, and a consultant to schools throughout the nation, I am called upon to help failing schools that have over two-thirds of the students below state standards in reading to meet state standards in an attempt to remove those schools from being on probation or the “watch list.” I have been consistently successful in raising these failing schools to meeting and exceeding state standards, often for the first time since the first year their state reading assessments began, and have done so within as little as six to eight months. How did I take a failing school to meeting state standards or becoming a superior school in such a short time? My approach has been to assess each student’s reading levels and reading skills for their baseline through a reading diagnostic assessment I developed, the Linksman Passage Reading Test to Diagnose Reading Skills and the Linksman Phonics Diagnostics Test, which together I have combined into an easy to use Internet-based system for rapid diagnosis and easy scoring for teachers to use, called Keys to Reading Success™. Then I assess each student’s Superlinks™ learning style and brain hemispheric preference using the online Superlinks™ learning inventory I created so that it is easily scored to give the teachers instant results. I spent eight years developing an Internet software program, Keys to Reading Success™, an Internet assessment, designed to do what I as a reading diagnostician would do except that it instantly combines in real-time all that data to produce the diagnosis and a detailed individual prescriptive plan for each student. From that combined data, it quickly gives the immediate results of where the student currently is in reading at any moment and informs instruction on what skills the student needs and what learning styles and brain hemispheric preference strategies to use to help the students improve and accelerate learning. In fact, teachers or parents who use this program with students realize an average of two to five grade levels growth above the student’s age in the shortest possible time. I have systematized my proprietary process into a teacher training and professional development methodology with all the reading diagnostic assessments, individual prescriptive plan, the Superlinks to Accelerated Learning™ learning style and brain hemispheric preference inventory and the pre-K-12 and college reading curriculum lesson plans as Keys to Reading Successtm (www.keystoreadingsuccess.com) so that teachers and parents can use it to improve reading scores.

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The phenomenal results that we have been tracking over studies over several years reveal the efficacy of this approach. Students make average gains of two to five years growth in reading in an average of eight months. Corresponding to this growth in reading level are gains in reading scores as measured by state tests, where often two-thirds of the students who were below in state standards in reading rose to two-thirds of the students meeting or exceeding state standards in reading in six to eight months. These gains include the large numbers of students who had either a kinesthetic learning style or a tactile learning style. It also includes those with right-brain hemispheric preferences. What accounts for this phenomenal growth? The success of this methodology as used in the Keys to Reading Success™ methodology is that kinesthetic learners are taught reading in a kinesthetic way. Tactile students are taught in a tactile manner. Whereas previously these students were taught in a way that was either visual or auditory or a combination of both, which predominates the methodology used for instruction in their schools in all the previous years in which they were struggling or failing reading, or lingered without improvement in special ed or Title 1 classes, suddenly their grades and scores skyrocketed. Not only did these students rise from below grade level to grade level, from 88%-99% of them soared on average two to five grade levels above their age, with many reaching eight years above their age in reading within six to eight months of instruction. While kinesthetic and movement activities are good for the physical health of the child, for the kinesthetic leaner it might mean the difference between struggling with school subjects and success. By using kinesthetic approaches, these kinesthetic learners can learn not only as fast as their visual or auditory cousins, but often accelerate far beyond the other students. It is not hard to understand this when we think about our own selves and how we learn. If you are a visual learner who is reading this, you can most likely relate to your need to read text, view a power point, or look at hand-outs or possibly charts, maps, pictures, illustrations, or graphs when you are learning as opposed to sitting and listening to a lecture. Think about how frustrated you would feel if the “visuals” were removed and you had to take in the lecture auditorially. Now, after experiencing your discomfort, you can well understand the same frustration experienced by a kinesthetic learner when you remove his or her ability to move in class. Their need for movement is not a neurological disorder or learning disability; rather, it is a preference, just as the visual learner needs visual stimulus when learning. It is a preference which helps the visual learner take in information better, faster, and more easily. Similarly, the kinesthetic learner takes in information better, faster, and more easily when his or her large or gross motor muscles are in motion. When that kinesthetic learner is not allowed to move, the tension increases and the student’s ability to take in cognitive material decreases because his or her most open “channel”— taking in information while moving—is shut down. When a kinesthetic learner is asked to listen and learn he or she instinctively knows he or she can best do so while moving. Thus, what does the teacher see? The student may start wiggling his or her legs while listening to the lecture. The student may start rocking in the seat. Many of the students will even throw a wad of paper across the room just to get a chance to stand up and retrieve it, while listening to an auditory lecture. Thus, we find students needing to sharpen their pencils or excessively ask permission to go to the bathroom, just to be able to move. I always tell teachers, if you see these behaviors, it may be a “call for help” from the child to let you know he or she needs to move. Here is a secret—if the teacher does not let the child move in the context of learning the lesson, the kinesthetic child will take on his or her own opportunity to move, and it may not be a movement that supports the goal of the lesson but is considered off task or misbehavior. The child is not trying to misbehave or anger the teacher, but has the same

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need to move while learning as the visual learner has to see visuals, or the auditory person has to hear auditory stimulus, while learning. The same holds true of a tactile child. The tactile child learns best when his or her hands are involved in hands-on learning. Thus, the child uses the hands to touch things, write, draw, take notes, or doodle while listening which allows the information to come in through the visual or auditory channels along with the child’s preferred tactile modality. Over thirty-five years I have developed an entire pre-K-12 and college reading, learning, and memory curriculum based on a child’s best and fastest learning style and brain hemispheric preference style. Thus, a kinesthetic child can learn any subject using kinesthetic techniques. By training science teachers how to teach science kinesthetically to kinesthetic learners, and teaching social studies teachers methods to teach social studies kinesthetically, we dramatically increase the chances that the kinesthetic learner will get high grades and master the subject in the shortest time. Kinesthetic learners can learn math quickly and easily using kinesthetic math techniques. We think of sports as already being kinesthetic, but how are sports taught? A visual coach may only show visuals to an athlete, but that does not help the kinesthetic learners. An auditory coach may only be “talking” the instructions to the kinesthetic athlete, but that goes in one ear and out the other when it comes to teaching a sports play to the kinesthetic learner. The same holds true for tactile learners. A fascinating case study involved a former coach, Coach Ken Karcher, at Liberty University in Lynchburg, Virginia. He had read my book, How to Learn Anything Quickly, (1996-2008) published by Barnes and Noble Publishers. He was facing a double challenge—how to help over a hundred football players maintain their grade point average to meet the standard required grades to allow them to stay on the team, and how to have a winning season. He had read my work on how to teach anything to anyone in their fastest way of learning and asked if I could both help the students raise their reading scores and grades academically and help them have a winning season. Trusting in the process that I had proved time and again over thirty-five years of work with accelerated learning I agreed to fly out to the university and help the athletes improve in their academics and in learning the football playbook. I worked with the coaches and taught them how to assess their students Superlinks™ learning style and brain hemispheric preference, in which they used the online inventory I had developed found at www.superlinkslearning.com We also assessed all the football coaches for their Superlinks™ learning style and brain hemispheric preference so they could understand how they were presently teaching and what adjustments they needed to make to teach to the athlete’s fastest and best way of learning. I then trained the coaches in how to teach the football play book to each type of learner. Coach Karcher had told me that in all his years of research and work in the field of coaching football, and even playing as the quarterback for Notre Dame in his college days, he had never heard of anyone teaching the football playbook in various learning styles and brain styles. The result was that by using the techniques that match the Superlinks™ learning style and brain style to each athlete, their academic performance rose, and for the first time—their football team had a winning season. A dramatic by-product of using kinesthetic strategies in classes where students learn English, literature, math, science, social studies, health, P.E., art, music, or any other subject is that kinesthetic learners have improved discipline and behavior. One in-school suspension officer whose office previously was teeming with students noted that after students were taught in their best learning style, especially kinesthetic students who were taught in a kinesthetic manner, there was such a dramatic drop in referrals for in-school suspension that he claimed he had “become lonely” as hardly any students were suspended anymore. Only the most severe behavior

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disordered children were being referred to his office. He noted how engaged and motivated kinesthetic students had become when taught in a kinesthetic style after previously having a record for misbehaviors, acting out, cutting up, and dropping out. When the playing field is even and all students are being taught in their best learning style and brain hemispheric preference, with visual students taught in a visual manner, auditory students taught in an auditory manner, tactile students taught in a tactile way, and kinesthetic students in a kinesthetic way, each student has an equal opportunity to excel. When a teacher teaches in one way that differs from what the child needs, it is providing an unfair advantage when measured by grades or test scores for those who learn in the way the teacher is teaching, while the other percentage of the class struggles. In fact, it takes students longer to learn, with unnecessary repetition, often for days, weeks, months, and even years, as the teacher keeps repeating the same material over as the student does not “get it,” when instruction is delivered through the child’s non-preferred or even weaker learning style and brain hemispheric preference. For kinesthetic learners to achieve success not only in sports or movement activities, but in academic subjects, kinesthetic techniques can help those children take in the information in their best and fastest way and can take each of them rapidly on the road from failure to success. Ricki Linksman is Author of How to Learn Anything Quickly (Barnes and Noble), Director of National Reading Diagnostics Institute and Keys Learning, in Naperville, Illinois, co-founder of www.secretstolearningsuccess.com. She is the developer of the Superlinks to Accelerated Learning™ Assessment (Linksman Learning Style Preference Assessment and Linksman Brain Hemispheric Preference Assessment), and developer of Keys to Reading Success™™, an Internetbased (pre-K-12 and college) reading program for schools and parents. Keys to Reading Success™ is an Internet-based pre-K-12 and college accelerated program of reading containing an on-line reading diagnostic test, phonics diagnostic test, the Superlinks to Accelerated Learning™ Inventory (Linksman Learning Style Preference Assessment™ and Linksman Brain Hemispheric Preference Assessment™ inventory) to produce an individual reading diagnosis and individual prescriptive reading plan, and a pre-K-12 and college accelerated learning and reading curriculum proven to raise students scores on average of 2-5 grades in reading above one’s grade level within 6 to 8 months. It includes metacognitive lesson plans in phonics, comprehension, vocabulary, fluency, phonemic awareness, study skills, memory, and test-taking skills for each learning style: visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic, and for students with a left-brain hemispheric preference and/or right-brain hemispheric preference. Ricki Linksman provides training and consulting to schools, including administrators and teachers) and to parents both live and through teleseminars and tele-conferences through National Reading Diagnostics Institute and Keys Learning, in Naperville, Illinois. Her websites include www.readinginstruction.com, www.keystoreadingsuccess.com, www.superlinkslearning.com. To access free information to educators and parents go to: www.secretstolearningsuccess.com or email: [email protected]. Figure 6. For Kinesthetic Learners, Kinesthetic Learning Techniques Can Make the Difference between Failure and Success. By Ricki Linksman, Author and Accelerated Learning and Reading Expert Permission to print provided by Ricki Linksman.

It is essential that educators understand that “movement is learning.” (Dennison, 2006). According to Dennison the author of Brain GymR, many of our public school teachers

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continue to conform to a meaningless tradition in which teachers teach content passively to students. We must move to learn. All learning-including that requiring abstract thought-occurs through movement, since abstract thought involves the internal repositioning of ideas. Movement is the primary way we integrate our learning into expressive action. Because children and adults learn by practicing and doing things, by putting knowledge into action and feeling the process of growth, we need to allow our youngest generation to learn kinesthetically, in a natural way, instead of requiring them to learn by passive listening and rote memorization (Dennison, 2006, p. 181).

Kinesthetic learners have the capacity to use their whole bodies to express themselves. They are interested in learning through creative movement and often do well when they can move and not stand still (Dennison, 2006). This type of behavior often results in punitive treatment when expressed in a classroom setting (Dennison, 2006; Mohnsen, 1997). Sadly, many educators consider children who express themselves in this fashion to be difficult to teach or in extreme cases label the students as having learning disorders such as ADD and/or ADHD.

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REFERENCES Coker, C. A. (1996). Accommodating students’ learning styles in physical education. JOPERD, 67(9), 66-68. DeCecco, J. P. (1968). The psychology of learning and instruction. Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Dennison, P. E. (2006). Brain gym and me. Ventura, California: Edu-Kinetics, Inc. Dunn, R., Beaudry, J. S., & Klavis, A. (1989). Survey of research on learning styles. Educational Leadership, 16(6), 50-58. Dunn, R., & Dunn, K. (1975). Learning styles, teaching styles. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 59, 38-49. Fauth, B. (1990). Linking the visual arts with drama, movement, and dance for the young child. In Moving and learning for the young child, ed. W.J. Stinson, 157-187. Reston, Virginia: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD). Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (2002). Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York, New York: Basic Books. Gregorc, A. F. (1982). Learning style/brain research: harbinger of an emerging psychology. In student learning styles and brain behavior (pp. 3-10). Reston, Virginia: National Association of Secondary School Principals. Hannaford, C. (1995). Smart moves: Why learning is not all in your head. Arlington, Virginia: Great Ocean Publishers. Helping Kinesthetic Learners Succeed. http://www.education.com/magazine/article/ kinesthetic_learner accessed on 5/15/2008.

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Keefe, J. W. (1982). Assessing student learning styles: An overview. In student learning styles and brain behavior (pp. 73-79). Reston, Virginia: National Association of Secondary School Principals. Mohnsen, B. S. (1997). Teaching middle school physical education. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Pettifor, B. (1999). Physical education methods for classroom teachers. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Reed, J. A., Banks, A. L., & Carlisle, C. S. (2004). Knowing me, knowing who? Getting to know your students’ preferred learning style. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 15(4), 25-27. Siedentop, D. (1991). Developing teaching skills in physical education (3rd ed.). Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.

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Chapter 6

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MOVEMENT FOR THE ADD AND ADHD CHILD According to the Attention Deficit Disorder Association (ADDA) approximately 4% to 6% of the US population suffers from ADHD (ADDA, 2008). It is also thought that close to two-thirds of children who have been diagnosed with ADD or ADHD will continue to have problems with these symptoms into adulthood. Therefore, it is important that children learn how to treat their ADD and ADHD with non-pharmacologic agents such as physical activity and avoid unnecessary dependence on medications with their attendant side effects. Folkins and Sime (1981) over two-decades ago reported improvements in mood, self-concept and work behavior linked with exercise. A more recent study by Tantillo et al. (2002) suggests that exercise as treatment has the potential to modify the behavior of children who suffer from ADHD. Putnam (2003) argues that hypokinesis (inadequate levels of movement) can be linked to hyperkinesis or hyperactivity. Moreover, it is thought that children who suffer from ADD or ADHD are able to participate in regular physical activity that could be integrated into regular classroom routines. Such integrated learning could affect these two disorders positively (Putnam, 2003). A recent paper examining the impact of physical exercise on a 4-year old boy suffering from ADHD revealed that age-appropriate reinforcers, such as activity, were effective in promoting attentiveness and calmness (Azrin et al., 2006). Claims about the effectiveness of drugs, such as Ritalin, (Hannaford, 1995) which is frequently used to treat children suffering from ADD and ADHD, are suspect considering that the pathology and etiology of these ailments remains illusive. “Ritalin is a Schedule Two classified drug (along with cocaine, morphine, and opium) and its possible side effects include depression, irritability, hypertension, stomach pains, inhibited growth, social drawl, loss of appetite and depletion of the immune system” (Dennison, 2006, p. 185). Furthermore, using such substances does not necessarily solve the broader problem in the long term, since experts estimate that only 5% of children diagnosed with these disorders needs medication (Dennison, 2006). Dennison (2006) further argues that ADD is not a Ritalin- or substancetreatable deficiency. He claims ADD is an inefficiency in the ability to focus attention that has the potential to be eliminated by activities that integrate the functioning of the brain and body. Regardless of whether one adopts a position such as that of Dennison on this topic, few would dispute that some children do perform better in a classroom setting when they receive medication. However, many children who are diagnosed with ADD and ADHD are often having difficulty learning and therefore exhibit the symptoms linked to these disorders. In

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reality, instead of actually having ADD and ADHD these children are behaving inappropriately because they are frustrated as a result of their difficulty with learning. It is this behavior that leads many educational specialists to diagnose a child with ADD or ADHD instead of trying to find the root of the problem that is causing the behavior. Thus, a lack of understanding and knowledge about the varying ways children learn often contributes to the labeling of children who have difficulty focusing and are hyperactive as suffering from ADD and ADHD. Children, according to Breggin and Breggin (1994), are naturally curious and active; they are dependent on parental attention and support that will help them to learn. When children are actively engaged in activities they enjoy or are provided with a reasonable level of attention, interestingly, the behaviors that led to their having been classified as ADD or ADHD often disappear (Breggin & Breggin, 1994). Children often labeled with ADHD tend to have motor coordination problems (Pitcher et al., 2003). Although major theories tend to underemphasize motor control, ADHD is often associated with a variety of motor control timing and temporal issues (Nigg, 2006). Perhaps teaching the elementary curriculum with specific emphasis on fundamental movements could decrease the symptoms associated with ADD and ADHD. Many children seen at the National Reading Diagnostics Institute in Naperville, Illinois had previously received a diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Yet in-depth reading evaluations of these youngsters often reveal that rather than having an attention disorder, they are simply kinesthetic learners that need to engage in gross motor (large-muscle) activity to learn best. Once they are given the opportunity to learn through the proper methods, their ADHD-like behavior often disappears. It is interesting how many students are now being labeled "attention disordered." At one time, only medical practitioners determined whether a child had an attention disorder, and the numbers given this diagnosis were small. Now, teachers, relatives, and next-door neighbors are quick to point out the characteristics of ADD or ADHD. Increasing numbers of youngsters are routinely placed on ”trials” of Ritalin or other medications, without first ruling out other factors that could be causing apparent ADHD symptoms. A kinesthetic learner may not need medication so much as innovative teaching methods. There are four basic types of learning styles: visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic, While types may overlap, visual learners tend to work best with visual stimuli, while auditory learners relate best to auditory input. Tactile-oriented students absorb new information most readily through their sense of touch, such as when tracing letters made from sandpaper. Kinesthetic learners require body movement and action for optimal results; they need to move around, use their muscles, or explore. Flashlight writing is an example of a kinesthetic technique. Writing letters in large size in the sand, using the large arm muscles is a kinesthetic method. Kinesthetically-oriented children find it stressful to be asked to “look and listen” for long periods of time. Imagine the frustration of having your hands tied, your mouth covered, and your eyes blindfolded, so that you could neither gesture, speak, or see. Kinesthetic students face similar frustration when they are not allowed to move in a classroom. To relieve stress, they seek to break out of these constraints. When faced with several hours of desk work, for which they are required to ”sit still,” they tend to get up to sharpen their pencil several times, ask to go to the rest room, or drop things, so they can get up to retrieve them, They may seek to be class monitors to run errands. If they cannot engage in these activities, they will at least begin to move while in their seats: wiggling their legs, leaning back in their chairs, rocking, or tapping their pencils. When

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these actions are also not acceptable, they may resort to misbehavior as part of a psychological need to move. Teachers consider many of these behaviors as red flags for an attention (or behavioral) disorder. Another frustration that kinesthetic learners face is poor achievement. Any type of learner can be successful. But of all the learning styles, kinesthetic learners are least likely to receive appropriate teaching methods. When reading is taught in the primary grades, most of the instruction involves the teacher talking (auditory) and using displays, either on the chalkboard or in books or handouts (visual). The teacher introduces new letters, words, or word families verbally and has the class repeat them (auditory), and then write them (tactile). In kindergarten, students generally take part in group activities involving songs (auditory) with various actions and routines (kinesthetic). Projects requiring large-muscle movement are also common at the kindergarten level. However, from first grade onwards, seatwork predominates, and creative, kindergarten-type activities that are kinesthetic rapidly diminish. Not coincidentally, it is at this point that teachers often start complaining about "ADD or ADHD behaviors" in some of their students. Unfortunately, remedial reading instruction, tutoring, or even a specific learning disabilities program may not be successful if a student’s learning type has not been properly identified. Frequently the approach is just “more of the same,” using the same types of techniques as in the classroom. A thorough reading evaluation and customized approach, with attention to a student’s best learning style, however, often results in rapid progress. At the National Reading Diagnostics Institute, we recommend kinesthetic techniques for kinesthetic learners before prematurely applying a label of attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactive disorder. An ounce of prevention, in the form of instruction matched to each child’s unique learning style, is worth years of remediation or special programs using inappropriate techniques.

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Figure 7. The Fine Line between ADHD and Kinesthetic Learners. Permission to reprint provided by author: Ricki Linksman.

REFERENCES Attention Deficit Disorder Association (2008). www.add.org. Accessed on 5/17/2008. Azrin, N. H., Ehle, C. T., & Beaumont, A. L. (2006). Physical exercise as a reinforcer to promote calmness of an ADHD child. Behavior Modification, 30(5), 564-570. Breggin, P. R., & Breggin, G. R. (1994). The war against children. New York, New York: St. Martin’s. Dennison, P. E. (2006). Brain gym and me. Ventura, California: Edu-Kinetics, Inc. Folkins, C. H., & Sime, W. E. (1981). Physical fitness training and mental health. American Psychologist, 36, 373-389. Hannaford, C. (1995). Smart moves: Why learning is not all in your head. Arlington, Virginia: Great Ocean Publishers. Nigg, J. T. (2006). What causes ADHD? New York, New York: Guilford Press. Pitcher, T. M., Piek, J. P., & Hay, D. A. (2003). Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45, 525-535. Putnam, S. C. (2003). Attention deficit: Medical or environmental disorder. Principal Leadership (High School Ed), 3, 59-61.

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Tantillo, M., Kesick, C. M., Hynd, G. W., & Dishman, R. K. (2002). The effects of exercise on children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34(2), 203-212.

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Chapter 7

NATIONAL STANDARDS AND NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND

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The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requires the states to consistently assess progress in the classroom. Progress, as defined by NCLB, is based primarily on achievement on tests scores related to the core academic subjects of reading/language arts, mathematics, and science. Focusing on these specific content areas has led to less time spent on learning social studies, art, music and physical education. With so much weight placed on performance on state-administered standardized tests teachers have had to narrow the scope of the content presented in the classroom in their efforts to have their students reach acceptable assessment scores in the core areas. The NCLB emphasis on student achievement in the core subjects has forced school districts to reduce resources for those content areas that are not tested under NCLB, such as physical education, art and music. The excerpt below is from the Introduction Section, disseminated on March 10, 2003 in the Department of Education’s Standards and Assessments for No Child Left Behind, and reads as follows. The cornerstone of any substantive education reform lies in the creation and application of rigorous academic standards. For far too long, many children in this country have fallen victim to, in terms of President George W. Bush, “the soft bigotry of low expectations.” The No Child Left Behind Act, sign by the President on January 2, 2002, has ushered in a new era in American public education, an era that begins with the premise that every child can learn and an era that demands that all children achieve to high standards, regardless of race, socioeconomic status, or disability. Only by holding all students to high standards and believing that all children can learn, will every child in America excel and be able to live out his or her dreams. Under The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, States will build on the work they have already begun in the area of academic standards and implement challenging academic content and student achievement standards in the core academic subjects of reading/language arts, mathematics, and science. The power of rigorous State academic standards is undeniable: they provide a clear direction for what all students should know and be able to do and establish clear expectations for schools, teachers, parents, and students. Rigorous academic standards, however, are but one critical element to ensuring that all children attain to high levels of academic achievement. To reach our goal of high achievement for all children, we must also be able accurately and efficiently to measure whether or not students are meeting the standards of learning expected of them, diagnose problems, and offer immediate intervention. As President Bush has stated, “In order to make sure children are not

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simply shuffled through the system, we must measure. We must determine what needs to be corrected early, before it’s too late.” Although previous federal legislation also required that States assess public school children, States were required to test only three times during a student’s tenure in the K-12 educational system. This left too many intervening years in which children’s academic difficulties went undiagnosed. The President and the Congress, in passing The No Child Left Behind Act, recognized that these intervening years without assessments were precious years during which far too many children were slipping through the cracks and being left behind. Therefore, under No Child Left Behind, States will enhance their existing assessment systems to include annual assessments in reading/language arts and mathematics for all public school students in grades 3 through 8 and at least once in grades 10 through 12 by the 2005-2006 school year. Additionally, by the 2007-2008 school year, all States will annually assess their students in science at least once in grades 3 through 5, once in grades 6 through 9, and once in grades 10 through 12. Accessed at http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html.

Regardless of one’s feelings, beliefs and opinions about NCLB, or as a colleague likes to refer to it, ”No Child Behind Left”, NCLB is a part of the current educational climate that focuses on performance. This simply translates into pedagogy that is aimed at improving TEST SCORES. Although this federal mandate has been and will continue to be debated by the educational community at national, state and local levels, the simple fact remains that the current public school system in the US is based on accountability embedded within a system of standards based education. To successfully operate within the parameters of this system requires schools and teachers alike to design, develop and teach within the structure imposed by standardized testing as the method of assessment. For many, understanding these parameters or boundaries, can provide a framework to teach that clearly defines expectations. The use of standards in education is not a new concept. Unfortunately standards based education with the passage of NCLB has limited the content choices for schools because performance on standardized tests required by NCLB encourages the teaching of specific content areas and overlooking others. The importance of the test as emphasized by Departments of Education at the state and national levels has reduced time allotment for content areas like music, art and physical education. The rationale for such curriculum modifications stems from the belief that more time spent on traditional curricular components will lead to enhanced tests scores. NCLB subscribes to the position that content must be standards based and measureable. The allocation of fiscal resources based on performance drives home the need to comply. As stated in the Introduction Section of the NCLB Act of 2001, States will build on the work they have already begun in the area of academic standards and implement challenging academic content and student achievement standards in the core academic subjects of reading/language arts, mathematics, and science. The NCLB Act of 2001 places the burden clearly on the states for determining what standards and assessments of standards are appropriate. Many states, through their Departments of Education, have adopted standards set forth by national councils for specific content areas. For example, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) has drafted appropriate standards for the K-12 learner of English and Language Arts. Similar actions have been taken by the National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) and the National Council for Teaching Math (NCTM). Additional standards have been adopted by the National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) as well as

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other societies and/or councils, even though the adoption of such national standards is not mandated by the NCLB Act of 2001. Therefore, the following chapters are designed with these standards in mind. Every lesson provided is measurable and is consistent with the standards set forth by the specific associations responsible for their content.

REFERENCES

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Standards and Assessments for No Child Left Behind (2003). Accessed at http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html. 6/1/2008.

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Chapter 8

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INTEGRATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR ENGLISH AND LANGUAGE ARTS The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and the International Reading Association (IRA) developed the standards for English and Language Arts instruction for the K-12 learner. Although it is up to the individual states to determine how students will meet these standards and how they will be assessed, NCTE and IRA have defined a set of content standards to assist educators. By visiting the NCTE website at www.ncte.org elementary teachers can download Standards for the English Language Arts, published and sponsored by NCTE and IRA. The 12 standards identified in this document are listed below. The intent of this chapter is to provide a series of example movement activities that meet at least one of these 12 standards. The individual benchmarks for each standard by grade level are determined at the state level and vary from state to state. Therefore, benchmarks to meet the standards listed below must be modified depending on the cognitive ability of students per elementary grade level. All of the integrative activities, presented after the standards, are aligned with at least one of the following standards: 1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works. 2. Students read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience. 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).

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4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts. 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience. 8. Students use a variety of technological and informational resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge. 9. Students develop an understanding of and respect for diversity in language use, patterns, and dialects across cultures, ethnic groups, geographic regions, and social roles. 10. Students whose first language is not English make use of their first language to develop competency in the English language arts and to develop understanding of content across the curriculum. 11. Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities. 12. Students use spoken, written and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information). Adapted from Standards for the English Language Arts at www.ncte.org.

ALPHABET PARADE Grade Level(s): K-1 Standard(s): 1  



Place letters of the alphabet on the floor. Have children march/walk/run/hop around the alphabet and stop on a letter and identify it by saying it aloud. Once each student has moved to all letters and has said them aloud, then move on to the next task. The next task for this activity is to ask each child to perform a locomotor movement associated with a letter on the ground. Once the child stops on a letter, the child makes the shape of letter with his or her body. This activity continues until every child has made the shape of each letter in the alphabet with his or her body (they do not need to go in alphabetical order).

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Once they have made the shape of each letter of the alphabet with their bodies alone, they will then work with a partner to make the shape of the letter again as a group. This activity also continues until the partners have made a shape with each letter of the alphabet with their bodies together. Then each pair of students moves to a letter on the floor and the two children say a word aloud that starts with that particular letter. Example: ‘b’ butterfly. Once each pair of children has performed a locomotor movement to all the letters in the alphabet and has said a word that starts with each letter aloud-they will continue the activity by moving to the letters again and this time will say a word that starts with each letter and use it in a sentence. Example: The ‘b’utterfly is beautiful.

MODIFICATIONS FOR VARYING GRADE LEVELS Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): 1 & 4 Same as above but have the children work with whole words:  Student now guesses which word the partner is “acting out.”  Identify whether the word is a noun, verb or adjective.

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The cognitive ability and grade level of students will determine the intricacy of design for this particular lesson. As students’ cognition improves the teacher can vary the steps by making them more difficult.

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This activity helps children learn the alphabet by enhancing their kinesthetic sense and using movement to put the alphabet into a context for better learning. Too often the alphabet is taught with no context for children to comprehend its complexity. Performing the letters with movement helps construct a setting to reinforce this content.

NOUN OR VERB TO MOVEMENT Grade Level: 2-3 Standard(s): 1, 4 & 6     

The definition of a verb and a noun should be written on the board. Students (together) say aloud the definition as they are standing at their desks. Each student begins by saying a verb aloud. Example: run. Every student then runs in place to put the word into context. The same student now uses the word in a sentence. This process is repeated for each student. After verbs-move onto nouns and repeat the steps above. Example: I was ‘running’ away from the bee.

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This activity reinforces the differences between nouns and verbs simultaneously providing students with choices on how to express themselves. Furthermore, students are able to move to reinforce their kinesthetic sense for this content.

Figure 9.

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IDENTIFYING SYLLABLES Grade Level(s): 1-2 Standard(s): 1, 3 & 6    

Each student says his or her name aloud from the standing position at his or her desk. Each student performs one hop for each syllable for each name in the class. Move on to other words following the names of each student (i.e., spelling words, vocabulary words, etc). Vary the locomotor activity (i.e., hopping, skipping, jumping, running place, etc.).

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This activity does not require much space (other than the space around the desks and chairs). Students stand behind their chair and move. This is a great activity to put syllables into a learning context.

Figure 10.

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SYLLABLE RACE Grade Level(s): 1 & 2 Standard(s): 1, 3 & 6  

Organize children on one side of the classroom. Place a poster on wall or board illustrating a movement for a corresponding number of syllables in a word.

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Figure 11.

  

Example: one syllable = “a giant step;” two syllables = “jumping jacks;” three syllables = “large jump;” four or more syllables = “one ski jump.” Teachers say a word and write it on the board. The number of syllables in the word determines what movements the students perform.

Another great language arts activity that follows a sound progression. This particular syllable lesson requires more space, but also enables varying types of movement while teaching important content.

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STORY EXERCISE Grade Level(s): 3-5 Standard(s): 1, 4, 5, 6, 11 & 12    

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

Define the differences between an Introduction of a story, the Body of a story and the Conclusion of a story. Select a book and begin reading it aloud. Students will move around the classroom based on what part of the story the teacher is reading. For example, if the teacher is reading the Introduction, the students will walk around the room. When the Body of the story is being read, the students will perform a different locomotor movement (e.g., hop in place). When the Conclusion is being read, students can skip in place, if space is limited or they can skip around the room.

Figure 12.

Story Exercise is a good way to integrate movement into teaching the essential components of a story. It also provides a visual example for the teacher to identify, based on the movements currently being performed, which elements students are learning and which ones they are not. For example, if the teacher is reading the Body of a story and the children are supposed to be hopping in place and some children are skipping around the room, the teacher can visually identify the students who are skipping instead of hopping. This observation will cue the teacher that some of the students are having difficulty distinguishing between the Body and the Conclusion of a story.

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LOCOMOTORS TO PARTS OF SPEECH Grade Level(s): 1-2 Standard(s): 1, 4, 5 & 6   

Parts of speech are assigned to locomotors. Example: verb = “hop on left foot;” noun = “skip,” etc. The teacher writes a sentence on the board and underlines a part of speech. Students perform the proper locomotor for the specific part of speech underlined.

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Learning the varying parts of speech is difficult and is often taught without regard to context. This particular lesson enables children to move while they are learning essential language arts content.

Figure 13.

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VOCABULARY CHARADES Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): 1, 4, 6, 11 & 12  

Place children in pairs and give each group of children a sheet of paper with the week’s current vocabulary list. Using current vocabulary words, one person acts out the word and the partner guesses the word and spells it correctly aloud. Each child should ‘act’ out half of the words on the paper and then switch with the partner.

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Vocabulary words are an integral element to all elementary school curricula. However, learning these words in isolation without a contextual referent can be difficult. Acting out the vocabulary/spelling words enables the students to place the meaning of the word into a context to assimilate and accommodate this content based on their preferred learning style. The actions help to place the words into memory for the students.

Figure 14.

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WORD WALL WORDS Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): 1, 2, 3, 4 & 6   

Word Wall Words for the week are written on the board and introduced by the teacher. The teacher places students in groups of 4 or 5 children. Students act out the words using everyone in their group.

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Word Wall Words, like weekly vocabulary words (depending on grade level) are essential to the cognitive development of elementary school children. This particular lesson helps to reinforce these important words by enhancing their kinesthetic sense.

Figure 15.

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ACT OUT PREPOSITIONS Grade Level(s): 3-4 Standard(s): 6, 11 & 12    

Teach and/or review the role of a preposition and provide examples. Place students in groups of 3 to 4 students. Say a preposition aloud and write it on the board; then ask the groups to demonstrate. Example: Under; two students stand and make an arch and two students sit under the arch.

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This activity truly gets to the essence of integrating movement to learn language arts. Learning prepositions without a context is extremely difficult for children. Putting this content into a movement context provides a clear representation and is another great way to get children moving that does not require a lot of space nor time.

Figure 16.

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HOMOPHONES WITH MOVEMENT Grade Level(s): 4-5 Standard(s): 11 & 12      

The teacher provides a definition of a homophone and writes it on the board. Word cards are passed around to every student in the class. Students hop around the room saying their word aloud looking for someone with the same sounding word. Each student finds a partner with the same sounding word. Then all students make a circle and they repeat the two sounding words to the class together. Example: “Hear” and “here.”

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Homophones are hard to learn and apply. This particular movement lesson serves to reinforce this material in a context that leads to true application!

Figure 17.

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PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): 1, 2, 4, 5 & 6     

The teacher distinguishes common nouns from proper nouns and writes the definitions on the board. Students march in place while the teacher reads a story. If the students hear a common noun they continue to march in place; if they hear a proper noun they perform jumping jacks. Reread the story and replace all proper nouns with common nouns and ask students which version is more interesting to listen to. To accommodate the visual learner in this activity the teacher can write the different nouns on the board for all children to see as he or she reads the story.

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Distinguishing between common and proper nouns is obviously a core component of a sound educational curriculum for elementary children. This lesson provides an opportunity for children to move while the teacher can visually assess each student’s ability to understand the differences between these two types of nouns. For example: If the teacher says a common noun and some students perform jumping jacks, the teacher can visually distinguish which children understand the difference between the two types of nouns.

Figure 18.

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PARTS OF SPEECH STORY ACTIVITY Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, & 6   

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Teach and/or review the following parts of speech depending on grade level: noun, verb, adverb, adjective, preposition, pronoun, etc. Copy a page from a book that the class is currently reading and make copies for each student in the class. If space is limited and each child is performing the activity alone, assign a movement to each part of speech. For example: noun = “jog in place for 5 seconds,” verb = “hop 5 times,” etc. Student reads the page and begins by only looking for nouns in the story. Every time they read a noun they circle it and write noun over the word, then they perform the designated movement. Once they have read the entire page, they repeat the activity for the next part of speech and perform the appropriate designated movement again. Once each child is finished he or she turn the paper into the teacher to be assessed.

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Although this particular activity does not provide a context to reinforce this particular content, it does give students an opportunity to move as they learn important content for their age range.

Figure 19.

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STORY RELAY Grade Level(s): 4-5 Standard(s): 1, 4, 5, 11 & 12  

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Four or more teams depending on the numbers in the class are organized on one side of the classroom and placed in single file lines. The first person on each team runs to the board (or you can tape paper to the classroom floor if your board is too small) and writes a sentence using one word from the current week’s spelling and/or vocabulary list (one word per sentence per child). The spelling and/or vocabulary words are written on the board for a reference for students. Upon completion of the sentence the student runs back to the team and tags the next student who continues the story by writing the next sentence with a word from the current spelling and/or vocabulary list. The teacher should vary the locomotor movements (i.e., hop, skip, jump, etc.) of the children moving down to the board or paper on the floor. After stories are complete, read each one to the class to see if the words are used correctly and check for punctuation and spelling.

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This activity combines many essential elements found in an elementary school curriculum while simultaneously giving students an opportunity to apply what they have learned while they are moving.

Figure 20.

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POWER OF PUNCTUATION Grade Level(s): 3-4 Standard(s): 1, 2, 3 & 6    

The teacher writes definitions of varying punctuation symbols on the board. Students develop a movement for each punctuation symbol. Example: ! = “hop on one foot;” ? = “jog in place for five seconds,” etc. Place students into groups of 4 or 5 children. Ziploc bags are placed on the floor with a punctuation symbol in it. The students need to develop a sentence using the punctuation symbol in the envelope and act out the shape of the punctuation symbol with their bodies.

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The punctuation lesson described assists students to learn their punctuation by providing a context for learning.

Figure 21.

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LEARNING ADJECTIVES Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): 1, 3, 5 & 6      

The teacher defines an adjective to students and writes the definition on the board. Teacher reads sentences aloud with adjectives in them. Students will jump in place when they hear an adjective. Following this initial activity, the teacher places numerous pieces of paper on the floor around the classroom with adjectives written on them. Students will hop on two feet to each piece of paper and say the adjective aloud. Depending on the cognitive level of the students, have them also say a noun that the adjective describes and then hop to the next adjective on the classroom floor.

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Learning adjectives is an important curriculum component during elementary school. This lesson enhances critical thinking skills while integrating movement in a fun learning environment.

Figure 22.

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PREPOSITIONAL ADVENTURE Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): 1, 6, 11 & 12  

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Divide children into three groups and assign each group a color. Once this grouping is completed, go outside to the playground. Have the first group, which may be called yellow, go “under” three pieces of playground equipment. At the same time, have the second group, which may be called blue, go “over” three pieces of equipment. The third group, which may be called green, will be instructed to go “around” three pieces of equipment. When they have completed their activities, they will run back to the starting point. Repeat the activity using different prepositions for each color group. Prepositions such as over, under, between, above, below, around, and across may be used for this adventure.

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This particular activity, although designed for the playground can be performed in a variety of settings. What is abundantly clear from this activity is that movement places the preposition into a context that can be applied and learned in an authentic environment.

Figure 23.

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VOCABULARY LINE DANCE TO SPECIFIC CONTENT (WWII, AMERICAN REVOLUTION, CIVIL WAR, ETC.) Grade Level(s): 4-5 Standard(s): 1, 5, 6, 11, & 12   

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Students are paired and face each other in two lines in the classroom (play music from the selected time period). Each pair of children is given one or two words that represent an event from a particular time period from the vocabulary list. Students face their partners and move to the word(s) down the line in front of the other children. Example: D-Day-the two children come-up with a movement to represent this event and perform the movement down the line in front of the other children. Other students are doing a movement in line (i.e., march in place, or some form of movement that represents the era) and trying to guess what event is being described by the two students moving down the line. Each pair of students moves down the line in front of the students to act out their word(s).

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This particular integrative activity can also be used in social studies. It provides students with creative learning opportunities via movement to music for a specific historical event during a selected time period.

Figure 24.

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SPELLING FUN Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): 1, 3, 4 & 6    

 

The teacher reviews the spelling words for the week. The teacher then places students into groups of 4 or 5 with a list of spelling words in a bag. The teacher places each group into single file lines and asks them to march in place while the first person in each group says the word aloud. After saying the word aloud, the first person in line for each group will perform a locomotor movement as they move towards the board where there will be sentences with blanks in them. Each student will read the sentence and find a place to write the spelling word where it fits and makes sense. After the student has written the word in the sentence the student will perform the same locomotor movement back to the group and tag the next person in line.

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This activity integrates essential content with movement that promotes problem solving. Using movement to make this activity ‘fun’ will help keep the children on task.

Figure 25.

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ALPHABETIZATION Grade Level(s): K-1 Standard(s): 1 & 3      

Students march in place as they say the alphabet aloud. Each student receives a card from the teacher containing a letter of the alphabet. Students hop to their place in alphabetical order on one side of the classroom. Once the students put themselves into alphabetical order, the students move back to their desks. This time each student is given a card with a word on it. Students then gallop to one side of the room and get back into alphabetical order using the first letter of the word on their card.

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Similar to “Spelling Fun” this standard-based activity provides children with the opportunity to improve their problem solving skills using movement as the context to explore learning the alphabet.

Figure 26.

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Chapter 9

INTEGRATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR MATH According to the National Council for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM) website, the “Standards for school mathematics describe the mathematical understanding, knowledge, and skills that students should acquire from prekindergarten through grade 12. Each Standard consists of two to four specific goals that apply across all the grades. For the five Content Standards (listed below), each goal encompasses as many as seven specific expectations for the four grade bands considered in Principles and Standards” (www.nctm.org). Prekindergarten through grade 2, grades 3–5 are the grade bands emphasized in this chapter. The five content standards are: Number and Operations, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement and Data Analysis and Probability. Below is each standard presented by NCTM and the expectations to be learned.

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Number and Operations Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to- understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships among numbers, and number systems;  understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another;  compute fluently and make reasonable estimates. Adapted from www.NCTM.org

Algebra Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to- understand patterns, relations, and functions;  represent and analyze mathematical situations and structures using algebraic symbols;  use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships;  analyze change in various contexts. Adapted from www.NCTM.org

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Julian A. Reed Geometry Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to- analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships;  specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other representational systems;  apply transformations and use symmetry to analyze mathematical situations;

 use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems. Adapted from www.NCTM.org

Measurement Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to- understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and processes of measurement;

 apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements. Adapted from www.NCTM.org

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Data Analysis and Probability Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to- formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them;  select and use appropriate statistical methods to analyze data;  develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data;

 understand and apply basic concepts of probability. Adapted from www.NCTM.org

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HOP SCOTCH MATH Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): Number and Operations

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 

Have children organized in groups of two or three. Place numbers on hop scotch boards located on the floor.

Figure 27.

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The teacher will write answers on the chalkboard and have students answer them (one person in each group at a time by hopping). For example: 1 + 5 = 6. The first child will hop on the number 1 and say it aloud. The same student will then hop to the number 5 and say it aloud. The same student will then say aloud 1 + 5 = 6 and then hop to the number 6. Repeat with different math equations for each child in each group. Modify using all symbols (i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).

Hop Scotch is a beloved game by children throughout the world. This game can be used as a great movement activity and can teach children a variety of mathematical skills. Physically moving enables the students to kinesthetically comprehend their answers.

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FRACTION REVIEW Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): Number & Operations, Measurement    

Have students in a group standing next to each other and count the number of students in the class for that day. Say the number aloud and write it on the board. Example: There are 6 students in the class today and you select the number 2. Six divided by 2 = 3. Students gather themselves by moving into 3 groups to learn the overall fraction. Repeat this activity with different numbers regardless of how many children are in the class on a given day to provide numerous practice opportunities.

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Fractions can often be difficult to teach and difficult for students to learn. By designing a context through movement provides students with a visual and kinesthetic representation to better retain the content.

Figure 28.

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MULTIPLICATION BINGO Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): Number & Operations   

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Develop a bingo board on a standard sheet of paper with varying movements on the top of each column and give one bingo board sheet to each student. On the bingo board sheet are individual numbers (e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…….18, 19, 20, etc.). When the answer to a multiplication problem is written on the board each student with the answer to the multiplication problem on his or her bingo board would perform the movement listed on the top of the column for the corresponding number For example: The teacher writes 4 x 2 = 8 on the chalk board. Students who have 8 on their board would place a square on it and then look at the top of the column to determine what movement to perform 8 times. It could be 8 jumping jacks, jog in place for 8 seconds, etc. that is written on the top of that particular column. When a student has bingo,-the student will read their answers back to the teacher for verification.

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Bingo continues to be popular among children of varying ages. This game lends itself nicely to movement tasks to assist students to learn math. Multiplication Bingo ensures that learning remains fun at the same time reinforces important curricular content for elementary aged children.

Figure 29.

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PLACE VALUES FUN Grade Level(s): 3-4 Standard(s): Measurement     

Introduce the roles of place values to the class. Develop a scale for place values and a specific locomotor movement. Example: tens = “jumping jacks;” hundreds = “hopping on two feet,” etc. The teacher calls out a number. For example: 751 and the teacher says hundreds column. The students would then hop 7 times because the number is in the hundreds place value. Repeat this activity with varying numbers and place values.

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Learning place values with movement serves to reinforce the differences between number values. This particular activity provides students with appropriate movement opportunities to enhance problem solving and developing a sound context to reinforce the content.

Figure 30.

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JUMP ROPE (WITHOUT THE ROPE) TO MATH Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): Number & Operations, Algebra   

 

Students work in groups of two or three. Math problems on a worksheet are said aloud by one student and the other student(s) answer it with jumps. Example: 2 + 6 = ? is read aloud by one student in each group. The remaining one or two students perform 8 jumps to demonstrate their comprehension of the math (since there is no rope encourage students to be creative with their jumping, e.g., 360 degree jumps, cross-arms, etc.). Vary depending on grade level with subtraction, multiplication and division. Example: 20 divided by 5 = student would perform 4 jumps.

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Jumping rope can be difficult for individuals of any age, but jumping with an imaginary rope can be performed by any individual who can jump. This activity is a great integrated task that promotes problem solving and uses movement as an assessment method and is also great exercise. Jumping the answer helps students to have concrete examples to reinforce the content.

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MATH EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): Number & Operations, Algebra    

Students are at their desk while the teacher writes a fraction on the board and then says it aloud. A locomotor will be performed to demonstrate the numerator. Example for 2/3, two jumping jacks would be performed by each student. Students will then perform three hops for the denominator to demonstrate the different values of the numbers. Once each student understands the concept, the teacher will say a fraction and the students will provide an equivalent fraction with movement. For example: If the teacher says 2/3, the equivalent could be 4/6. Then the children would now do four jumping jacks and six hops.

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Equivalent fractions are important to learn and can be fun when using movement as the medium to teach them. This particular activity enables students to kinesthetically demonstrate how one fraction can be equal to another by using movement as the source for comprehension.

Figure 32.

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MATH OPERATIONS Grade Level(s): 1-2 Standard(s): Number & Operations; Algebra   

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Begin this lesson by reviewing the four basic operations. Pair students in the class and provide dice, paper and pencil to each pair of students. Each student in the pair will roll the dice and add the numbers together and write them down in the form of an addition problem and answer the problem with a movement. Example: both dice are rolled and one is a 2 and the other is a 6. 2+6 = ? The pair of students skip for 8 seconds to demonstrate that they know the answer. After addition, move on to subtraction, multiplication and division.

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In order for students to successfully perform a variety of mathematical equations they must understand the role of the mathematical operations. This activity provides an authentic learning environment for which movement reinforces the content with a contextual referent. This activity also promotes problem solving techniques.

Figure 33.

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TEACHING PERIMETERS WITH MOVEMENT Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): Geometry  

Find the perimeter of an object or certain space using heel-to-toe walking around that perimeter. This activity provides an opportunity to reinforce balance, stability and geometry.

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Understanding perimeters of objects is an important core curricula element taught during elementary school. This concept is frequently placed on standardized tests by school officials in each county and/or state. This activity helps students better understand this difficult content.

Figure 34.

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ADDING AND SUBTRACTING Grade Level(s): 1-2 Standard(s): Number & Operations   

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Place children in groups of two. One child has 10 beanbags for instance, and the partner is 20 feet away (depending on age, experience, and/or ability). The person without the beanbags runs to the student holding the beanbags and grabs the number that is called out by the teacher. The student then runs back to the original position and sets the beanbags on the floor, stating the math equation created. For example: The teacher says 4 aloud. The student without the beanbags runs to get four beanbags from the partner and returns to the original position and creates (0 + 4 = 4). The partner also states the math equation (10 – 4 = 6). The children then switch off with the partner either taking or giving beanbags and stating equations each time to reflect the number said aloud by the teacher.

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This activity can be performed with bean bags, balls or any objects that are easy for students to manipulate and add and subtract. What is exciting and fun about this activity is that it provides students with a creative way to reinforce essential math content in an authentic contextual environment enhancing the tactile sense.

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BALL GAME Grade Level(s): 1-2 Standard(s): Number & Operations  

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Have a circle of students and a ball with shapes and numbers written on it. Each student passes the ball to a friend using a two-handed chest pass. Wherever the two thumbs land on the ball as the student catches it are the numbers the child needs to add (e.g., 5 + 2 = 7) or depending on the cognitive ability of the student they can multiply. Once the student answers the equation the student selects a locomotor to perform. In this case because the answer is 7, if the student selected skipping, the ENTIRE class would skip around the room or in place for 7 seconds. Then the student throws the ball to another person that has not had a chance to participate and the activity is repeated.

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Passing a ball is an important manipulative that children need to master. This particular activity provides students with an opportunity to improve their passing skills while they learn math.

Figure 36.

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LEARNING TO FEEL ‘TIME’ Grade Level(s): 1-2 Standard(s): Measurement  

To “feel” how long a minute ‘is’ the students can either: walk, jump, leap, jog or hop for one minute in place at their desk or around the classroom. Have your students rest for 30 seconds and then repeat.

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Learning to “feel” the variations of time are important components of traditional elementary school curricula. This particular activity provides a context to learn this content as well as receiving the health benefits of an increased heart rate.

Figure 37.

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MEASUREMENT Grade Level(s): 3-5 Standard(s): Measurement, Algebra     

Place students in groups of 3 and go out to the playground. Each student performs a long jump and measures the distance with a tape measure, using standard or metric measurements. Each student performs 10 trials and compares distances with each student in the group. The group calculates the median, mean and mode for all 30 trials. They graph their answers and turn it into the teacher to be graded when they are finished.

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This integrative activity helps to reinforce traditional elementary school curriculum in an applicable context. Having the children actually jump and measure their distances provides an authentic teaching and assessment environment for this particular content.

Figure 38.

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TELLING TIME Grade Level(s): K-2 Standard(s): Number & Operations, Measurement    

Review parts of a clock and provide example times, e.g., 11:30 a.m. to students. Attempt to place ‘time’ into a context by asking students when they go to bed, have dinner, etc. and write the times on the board. Write times on flashcards and ask each student to come to the front of the class and pick one from a pile. For each time, the student will do a movement that represents what they do at the particular time each day. Example: 7:30am, “eat breakfast” is said by a particular student. Everyone then demonstrates, with movement, the action of eating breakfast. Next example: 3:00pm, “play outside” is said by another student. All students then act out with movement how they play outside.

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Telling time, similar to “feeling” and/or experiencing time is also very important for children to learn. This particular movement activity provides children with a context as a frame of reference to learn this content in an authentic learning environment.

Figure 39.

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MATH PATTERNS Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): Number & Operations; Algebra 

   

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

Call out a mathematical pattern and have each child in the class choose a sequence of movements to represent the pattern and the answer. For example: 3 + 3 = 6; each child could hop 3 times, walk 3 steps, and run 6 steps. As children learn patterns in math, have them make up their own movement patterns for varying equations. ABAB, single alternating, ABBA, AABB, etc. Set-up stations with patterns written out on a piece of paper at the varying stations around the classroom. Each student creates a movement pattern (using locomotor movements with numbers like the example above) for each equation that is located at each station and rotates to another station clock-wise when a signal is given by the teacher. Have each child teach one pattern to the entire class with movement once every child has completed the station circuit.

Figure 40.

Patterns in math, similar to patterns in language arts are important aspects of elementary curriculum. This exercise provides children with the opportunity to kinesthetically comprehend patterns by using movement as the context for learning.

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CURRENCY WITH COINS Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): Number & Operations, Measurement     

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Introduce denominations of currency to your students. To reinforce the value of each coin you will move to its denomination, i.e., penny = “1 hop;” nickel = “5 jumping jacks;” dime = “10 skips;” quarter = “25 marches.” Then discuss buying things with money and how much they cost. Each student will be given a handful on coins (fake or real-it does not matter). Spread out through the class are objects with prices on them. Each student will run to pick up an object that they want to purchase and return to his or her desk. Student will repeat aloud what they decided to buy with their money and how much it costs. Each student will then move, based on the designated movements listed above to the exact amount of the purchase. Example: a piece of gum = 47 cents. Maybe they do 25 marches, 10 skips, 10 jumping jacks and 2 hops. Students watch the movement and try to guess how much the object cost.

Figure 41.

This standards based integrative activity provides children with an opportunity to learn the monetary cost of specific items by working within a context that provides movement to reinforce coin denominations.

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Chapter 10

INTEGRATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR SCIENCE

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The National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) is a group that “provide[s] ways for science teachers to connect with one another. We inform Congress and the public on vital questions affecting science literacy and a well-educated workforce” (www.nsta.org). This association develops education standards for the K-12 learner specifically in science. Below are the eight categories of content standards for grades K-4. Unifying concepts and processes Systems, order, and organization

Science as inquiry

Physical science

Life science

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

Properties of objects and materials

Characteristics of organisms

Evidence, models, and explanation

Understanding about scientific inquiry

Position and motion of objects

Life cycles of organisms

Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism

Organisms and environments

Science in personal and social perspectives Personal health

History and nature of science Science as a human endeavor

Change, constancy, and measurement Evolution and equilibrium Form and function Earth and space science Properties of earth materials Objects in the sky Changes in earth and sky

Science and technology Abilities of technological design Understandings about science and technology Abilities to distinguish between natural objects and objects made by humans

Characteristics and changes in populations Types of resources Changes in environments

Science and technology in local challenges

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The following integrative lessons for science are designed to meet at least one or more of the content standards developed by NSTA. The specific benchmarks for all eight of the science content standards vary by state and, therefore, will require some modifications to meet those specific standards. Nonetheless, at least one of the eight content standards is reflected in each of the following integrative science lessons.

CARDINAL DIRECTIONS Grade Level(s): K-2 Standard(s): Unifying Concepts & Processes, Science in Personal & Social Perspectives      

Teach your students the four cardinal directions (N, S, E, & W). Place students in the center of the classroom and have them point to the varying cardinal directions. Using movement (e.g., hop, skip, etc.), have the class move as a group to the N-then move back to the center where they began. Repeat with a different movement pattern to a different direction (e.g., S, W & E). You can make this activity more difficult by using states as places to move. Example: The teacher says-California and the students move W.

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Cardinal directions are a core component for elementary education that are frequently aligned with state standards for science. This particular lesson uses movement to reinforce directions in a spatial setting.

Figure 42.

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FUN WITH ORBITS Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): Earth & Space Science, Physical Science  

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Begin this activity by reviewing the solar system with your class. Assign each student to a planet and have the student get in order and orbit around the sun using a specific locomotor movement for each planet; always keeping the correct order as they orbit. For example, place the children in groups of four with one student being the sun. The other three children will be one of the 8 planets and orbit the sun in the appropriate order. This is a modified activity to introduce this content without making it too complicated. Reinforce to the students that there are actually 8 planets that orbit the sun, but for the purposes of this particular lesson you are simplifying the activity so they can understand orbits.

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Planets are taught at many levels during elementary school and can be adapted depending on the cognitive ability of the children at each grade level. This particular activity assists children with understanding how orbits move in space.

Figure 43.

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MOVEMENT WITH PLANETS Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): Earth & Space Science, Physical Science  

 

Continuing with the solar system theme and after students better understand the content, students will now perform this activity with all 8 planets. Each student is assigned one of the 8 planets in the solar system (since there are usually more than 8 children in a classroom-have more than one solar system so all children can participate). Students line up in order of the planets beginning with the sun. The children orbit around the sun based on their location and distance from the sun using a specific locomotor movement distinct from the other planets (example: Saturn is one movement; Jupiter is another, etc). It is important that each planet has different locomotor movements (i.e., hop, skip, run, jump, etc.) so the planets can be distinguished from each other.

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This activity will help students physically and visually understand the relationships between planets in an authentic teaching environment.

Figure 44.

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WATER CYCLE Grade Level(s): 3-5 Standard(s): Earth & Space Science, Physical Science, Life Science & Science as Inquiry   

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Review the water cycle with your class (i.e., evaporation, precipitation, condensation and collection). Design a trip using movement through the classroom to search for water. Move through different climates with varying temperatures to identify what water does in that environment. Example: Walking through a hot day in the dessert, they body begins to sweat. Ask students what will happen to their sweat as the sun warms their bodies. Another example: Look into the sky and see clouds. It appears it will begin to rain. What part of the water cycle do the clouds represent? Keep walking in the room to varying climates to reinforce the different components of the water cycle. Vary the locomotor movements as you move into different climates.

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The water cycle is an extremely difficult subject to teach and to learn. This movement activity helps children understand each cycle by using movement as the mediator to reinforce the content. This activity is truly integrative in the sense that movement provides the context to learn the material.

Figure 45.

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HEALTHY HEART Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): Life Science, Science in Personal & Social Perspectives & Science as Inquiry

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Present information about the body and the role of the heart to your class. Teach students about checking their heart rate and its importance in health.

Figure 46.

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Have the students take their radial or carotid pulse at rest. Following 30 seconds of jogging in place, have the students check their pulse again. Compare the numbers and discuss the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and why their heart and respiration rates changed following jogging.

Children today are not has healthy as they should be. Based on current trends, elementary school students do not move as much as they should. This lesson helps to provide a context for movement in regards to health and its impact on the body.

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SKELETAL SYSTEM Grade Level(s): 3-5 Standard(s): Life Science & Science in Personal and Social Perspectives

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Introduce your students to the axial and appendicular skeletons. Use 10 to 15 black line copies of a skeleton and place sticky dots on the picture of a bone. Example: humerus (i.e., upper arm).

Figure 47.

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Spread the cards around the classroom. Students in groups of 2 or 3 move around the classroom using any of the locomotor movements (e.g., skipping, hopping, leaping, etc.), from bone card to bone card as you give the rotation signal. They are to move the bone on their own body indicated on the card. The game could be modified for older students by also having them name the correct bone as they study the skeletal system.

Recognizing the different components of the human body is difficult content for many elementary aged children. This particular lesson provides children with an opportunity to move as they learn this material in an authentic context. Actually moving their own bones on their bodies will enhance their kinesthetic sense.

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MULTISENSORY LEARNING Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): Unifying Concepts and Processes, Life Science & Science as Inquiry   

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Discuss how learning is multisensory and how our bodies rely on our senses everyday. Around the room, spread large cards symbolizing each of the senses (example: nose, ears, fingers, tongue and eyes). Have students work in groups of two or three. Each group has a ring of cards with a phrase written on each (example: the doorbell ringing; cookies baking; eating a piece of fruit; etc.). The partners read each card together and take turns deciding how they will move to the corresponding symbol card. The same locomotor could be used for each sense.

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Learning is an internal process that is multisensory. Recognizing the impact of sensation and perception on learning is essential. This particular lesson provides students with choices on how to express varying types of senses through movement.

Figure 48.

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WHAT IS PHAGOCYTOSIS? Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): Science as Inquiry, Life Science & Science in Personal and Social and Social Perspectives 

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Phagocytosis is defined as the engulfing and ingestion of bacteria or other foreign bodies by phagocytes or the engulfing of microorganisms or other cells and foreign particles by phagocytes. Discuss these two definitions with your students and how the scientific principles of Phagocytosis can be applied with a movement example. To demonstrate this concept have some students form a circle (joined hands) and have them engulf another student (acting as food) in a tag type game.

Figure 49.

Phagocytosis is a scientific principle that applies to a variety of scientific contexts. This activity serves to reinforce this difficult concept with movement.

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MOVE LIKE AN ATOM Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): Physical Science & Earth and Space Science      

Review the role of atoms from the scientific perspective. Have your children pretend they are atoms and ask them to move like an atom, when atoms get hot, cold, etc. Again, ask the students to be atoms. Then ask them how close together they would need to be if they were, for example: a solid (answer = very close). In this example the children should then proceed to move close to each other. Continue to ask them how atoms in a liquid would move (answer = further apart), or a gas (answer = spread out all over the room). Have the children move as a group based on the state of matter you select.

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This science integration activity provides a landscape to learn in an authentic manner how atoms move and respond in varying environments.

Figure 50.

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CELL MOVEMENT Grade Level(s): 3-5 Standard(s): Life Science & Science in Personal and Social Perspectives     

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This game reinforces and visually demonstrates the role of lymphocytes in fighting invading cells, e.g., viruses. Healthy cells have to avoid being tagged by the invader cells. There is one invader cell and lymphocyte for every five healthy cells to begin the game. Invader cells try to tag the healthy cells; if a healthy cell is tagged the healthy cell turns into an invader cell. The lymphocytes try to tag the invader cells: if the lymphocyte tags the invader cell that invader cell becomes a healthy cell. There should be three different colors of flags. The students wear the color of flag that denotes their kind of cell and they change their color of flag when tagged (colored jerseys can also be used.)

Variations: It is important for students to see that the healthier their bodies are, the better chance they have of fighting off viruses. These variations that can demonstrate this are as follows:

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Allow only the healthy cells to run and the invader cells must walk. This activity will demonstrate what happens to healthy cells when a body does not get enough exercise, sleep, and/or good nutrition.

Tag games are frequently favorite activities of young children for a host of reasons. This particular activity provides children with the opportunity to learn extremely difficult science concepts by reinforcing content in an authentic learning setting.

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FOOD CHAIN Grade Level(s): 2-3 Standard(s): Life Science, Science as Inquiry & Science in Personal and Social Perspectives    

Discuss the food chain and its importance in numerous ecosystems. Describe the differences between predators and prey. Assign students to varying animals and develop a situation in which they move like their animal (e.g., set-up a specific ecosystem in the classroom). Demonstrate how certain animals are predators, but then become prey to others in this specific ecosystem and have the students move around the classroom. If they are preyed upon, they then turn into that particular predator until all the prey are gone.

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Movement like animals in specific ecosystems as predators and prey helps to put this content into a context that students can better understand as well as providing a great opportunity to exercise. Based on the cognitive ability of your students you can have numerous animals in the ecosystem to illustrate the complexity and interrelatedness of the food chain.

Figure 52.

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HOPSCOTCH FOR ANIMALS Grade Level(s): 1-3 Standard(s): Life Science & Unifying Concepts and Processes  

Continuing with the predator/prey theme, develop hopscotch boards with varying animals on them. Students act as a predator and hop on the varying animals in a hierarchical order that they would prey upon starting from the predator highest in the food chain to the prey lowest in the food chain.

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Hopscotch is frequently performed at recess, but offers numerous opportunities to integrate movement with core curricula. Similarly to Hopscotch Math, this game uses movement to reinforce what was learned during the Food Chain activity.

Figure 53.

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GRAVITY GAMES Grade Level(s): 2-4 Standard(s): Physical Science & Earth and Space Science     

Discuss the elements of gravity and how it impacts daily living activities. Provide a ball to each student and have the student throw the ball up in the air, and watch the motion. Show different angles of the ball at different lengths when in the air. Practice different locomotors as the ball is thrown in the air and caught. For example, skip in place as the object is thrown in the air. Change the ball to a balloon to compare differences.

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Gravity and its implications on activities in our daily life are important concepts for students to comprehend. Using a ball and a balloon as the medium to teach gravity provides student with an authentic example of the role of gravity and physical activity.

Figure 54.

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Chapter 11

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INTEGRATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES According to its website, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) was founded in 1921 and is devoted solely to social studies education. “NCSS engages and supports educators in strengthening and advocating social studies. With members in all the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and 69 foreign countries, NCSS serves as an umbrella organization for elementary, secondary, and college teachers of history, geography, economics, political science, sociology, psychology, anthropology, and law-related education. Organized into a network of more than 110 affiliated state, local, and regional councils and associated groups, the NCSS membership represents K-12 classroom teachers, college and university faculty members, curriculum designers and specialists, social studies supervisors, and leaders in the various disciplines that constitute the social studies” (www.NCES.org). NCSS has identified ten “thematic strands” that, according to the association, form the basis of its social studies standards. The thematic strands are listed below: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X.

Culture Time, Continuity, and Change People, Places and Environments Individual Development and Identity Individuals, Groups and Institutions Power, Authority and Governance Production, Distribution and Consumption Science, Technology, and Society Global Connections Civic Ideals and Practices

The thematic strands according to NCSS “draw from all of the social science disciplines and other related disciplines and fields of scholarly study to build a framework for social studies curriculum design. The ten themes present a holistic framework for state and local curriculum standards. To further enhance the curriculum design, social studies educators are encouraged to seek detailed content from standards developed for history, geography, civics, economics, and other fields” (www.NCSS.org).

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Each one of these thematic strands has a “performance expectation” per grade level for each strand. How teachers meet these performance expectations is often regulated by state Boards of Education. Therefore, the lessons below are intended to meet at least one of the thematic strands. Some modifications of the integrative activity might be needed based on specific state guidelines for social studies.

MOVEMENT TO MUSIC Grade Level(s): K-2 Thematic Strand(s): Culture; Global Connections    

Introduce varying music forms from different cultures of the world to your students. Have children learn movements to music from the different cultures. Teach a movement that is considered American. Example: Electric Slide. Then teach a movement form from a different country and discuss the differences.

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Moving to music is a fantastic teaching aid to distinguish between varying cultures. Comparing different forms of movement can accentuate cultural differences at the same time providing students with an opportunity to be physically active.

Figure 55.

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DIRECTIONAL AWARENESS Grade Level(s): 2-4 Thematic Strand(s): People, Places and Environments; Science, Technology & Society 

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Similar to the Cardinal direction lesson presented in the math section, have children perform different locomotors based on the location of a particular region in the US or world. Link certain locomotors with specific directions, i.e., W = “run;” S = “hop;” N = “gallop;” E = “skip.” The teacher says a state or country aloud and the students move with the appropriate movement to the corresponding location in the room. Example: Using the US as a reference the teacher says Italy and the students will then skip to the part of the classroom that represents the East.

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Teaching children directional awareness is an integral element of a sound elementary school curriculum. This particular lesson provides a movement context to better understand this important content.

Figure 56.

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TELLING TIME Grade Level(s): K-2 Thematic Strands(s): Time, Continuity and Change; People, Places and Environments 

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Draw a clock on the floor using card-board or standard sheets of paper and then have children walk to different times. For example: The teacher will have the clock read 3 p.m. on the floor. All of the students will walk to the 3 on the clock. Each student will then do something (using movement) to illustrate what they would do at 3 p.m. in the afternoon on a normal day. Change the locomotor movements and the designated times to provide an authentic environment to learn this content.

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This integrated movement activity provides children a context to learn an essential element found in virtually all elementary school curricula. Having children move to the ‘time’ will assist them in comprehending this content by promoting long term memory and long term potentiation.

Figure 57.

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GEOGRAPHY MOVEMENT Grade Level(s): 3-5 Thematic Strand(s): People, Places & Environments     

Discuss the importance of maps as they relate to understanding different places and environments. Give maps to children and have them locate items on the map. Place different countries all over the classroom and have the children use their maps as a contextual reference. Ask the children geography questions related to specific places located in varying countries in the world. The children will skip to that particular location using the map as a guide to demonstrate, with movement, the answer.

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Sound geography skills are necessary for functioning in society. This activity helps to reinforce this important content for spatial and kinesthetic learners by providing a context to learn this material. Recognizing in space where places are located and having a frame of reference will serve children well when they need to recall this information.

Figure 58.

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MOVEMENT SPELLING Grade Level(s): 2-4 Thematic Strands(s): Global Connections; People, Places and Environments    

The teacher says the names of various countries, states and state capitals aloud for children to spell. Each child jumps in place at his or her desk for each letter of the word. After spelling the word, the student performs a locomotor to the area of the world where the country is located (i.e., N, S, E & W). The teacher has designated areas of the classroom labeled as N, S, E and W for the children to move to after they have spelled the word correctly at their desk.

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This activity could be placed in the language arts category as well. However, considering the types of words that are going to be spelled, it seemed more appropriate to discuss this particular lesson as it relates to social studies content. Spelling the words and moving to different locations as they spell the word is a fun exercise that serves to reinforce the content learned while children move.

Figure 59.

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MOVEMENT TIME LINE FOR DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING Grade Level(s): 3-5 Thematic Strand(s): Time, Continuity and Change; People, Places and Environments; Individuals, Groups and Institutions 

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Place different location signs around the room, e.g., Birmingham, Alabama; Memphis, Tennessee; etc. where important events and their locations took part for Dr. King and the Civil Rights Movement. Discuss the importance of Dr. King and the Civil Rights Movement and its impact on the US. Put students into groups and have them do varying locomotors to the different locations and act out the event with movement. The students must move in chronological order. Therefore, the students must know the dates for each event.

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Recognizing the contributions of Dr. King is an essential component of any elementary school social studies program. This particular activity helps to provide a context to retain the progression of many of the Civil Rights activities instrumental during this era in our nation’s young history.

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WWII TAG Grade Level(s): 4-5 Thematic Strands(s): Time, Continuity and Change; Global Connections; People, Places and Environments  

Review important dates and events from WWII. One person is the tagger, each child is only safe from being tagged if he or she can recite an event from WWII before being tagged.

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Similar to the activity for Dr. King, WWII’s impact on our country is profound. Using movement as a way to reinforce the learning of this content will assist the kinesthetic learner as well as providing a fun activity.

Figure 61.

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TIME ZONE WALK Grade Level(s): 3-4 Thematic Strand(s): Time, Continuity and Change; People, Places and Environments   

Place a large map of the US on the floor with the time zones identified. Have students walk, hop, skip or jump to each state and figure out what time zone it is in. Repeat for all 50 States. Then have the students identify the ‘groups of states’ that are located in various time zones. Example: have the students identify all the States in the Central Time Zone, etc.

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Understanding time zones is a difficult concept to grasp for adults as well as children. This integrative activity provides an authentic context to learn this content.

Figure 62.

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MOVEMENT RACE FOR THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Grade Level(s): 3-5 Thematic Strand(s): Culture; Time, Continuity and Change; Power, Authority and Governance; People, Places and Environments   

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

Review the Tea Act, Intolerable Acts, Rebellion of the Colonists and the Declaration of Independence. Divide students into small groups of a few students in each group, e.g., 4 or 5 on one side of the classroom arranged into single file lines. Each group of 4 or 5 students in a single file line will gallop (one student at a time) to a pile of cards (characteristics of the war and title of specific events as well as including information from other historical events unrelated to the American Revolution should be placed on each card) on the opposite side of room in a random order. One student at a time will perform a locomotor down to the pile of cards and retrieve one and return back to his or her group. Once all the cards have been collected in each group-students place all events in chronological order and only include events and characteristic cards related to the American Revolution. Each group then discusses its cards to determine if what they selected was correct when compared to those of the other groups in the class.

This particular movement activity provides a variety of movement experiences that enable each student to learn varying historical events while having fun and encouraging cooperation among peers. Having other events not related to the American Revolution will gauge students’ knowledge of this important event.

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LEAPING TIME Grade Level(s): 4-5 Thematic Strand(s): People, Places and Events; Global Connections; Time, Continuity and Change     

Leaping the time periods, e.g., American Revolution, Civil War; WWI, WWII, Intolerable Acts, Prohibition, etc. The teacher selects time periods and places them on card-board pages on the floor throughout the room. Students then leap to each time period in order of historical succession. On the second round of this activity, each student writes down an event or a piece of information related to each period of time on the card-board for each time period. On the third round, the teacher writes an event on the board and each student leaps to that time period that represents when the event actually took place.

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Leaping Time is an activity that provides a context for learning varying time periods and the accompanying events while providing a host of movement opportunities for children. This particular activity can be adapted to many forms of social studies content that children will enjoy.

Figure 64.

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EAST VS. WEST AND NORTH VS. SOUTH Grade Level(s): 2-4 Thematic Strand(s): People, Places and Events; Time, Continuity and Change   

The teacher will label the four walls of the classroom N, S, E & W. Children will move via a locomotor (e.g., hop, skip, leap, etc.) east and west or north and south in the classroom based on what the teacher presents. The teacher will say the name of a state or historical event aloud, and if that state is located in or the event takes place in the east, the children will move toward the eastern portion of the classroom. The same procedure will be performed for all states and/or events.

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This discovery integrated activity is the essence of multidisciplinary involvement. Applying this important social studies content with an authentic environment like moving the area where the State and/or event is located promotes long term memory.

Figure 65.

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MAP SKILLS “SHOPPING TRIP” Grade Level(s): 3-5 Thematic Strand(s): People, Places and Environments    

Students develop maps specific to their school using the school hallways as streets. Various “stores” are set up in different locations in the school. Pairs of students are given shopping lists and, using the maps, they must bring specified items back to the classroom while performing a ‘brisk walk’. “Stores” consist of signs or logos posted on the walls; cut out “items” are taped beneath the signs for retrieval.

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This particular movement activity serves to provide a context to apply mapping skills in a true “authentic” environment designed specifically for this purpose. Learning to read a map in isolation does not provide a child with the context to understand its utility and purpose. This activity does just that.

Figure 66.

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INDEX

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A absorption, 37 academic, ix, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 28, 33, 40, 41, 49, 50 academic difficulties, 50 academic performance, ix, 4, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 40 academics, 19, 40 access, 41 accountability, 50 achievement, ix, 4, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 36, 47, 49 achievement test, 16 activity level, 3, 1, 19, 25, 27 acute, 18 adaptation, 8 ADHD, vii, ix, 38, 42, 45, 46, 47 administrators, 41 adolescence, 13, 24, 25, 32, 33 adolescents, ix, 1, 2, 6, 15, 16, 19, 21, 24, 32, 33, 42 adult, 2, 6, 23, 24, 25, 29 adult obesity, 24 adult onset diabetes, 6 adult population, 23 adulthood, 1, 3, 5, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 45 adults, 1, 2, 8, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 32, 42, 115 aerobic, 21, 32 aerobic exercise, 21, 32 aerobics, 27 African-American, 18 afternoon, 110 after-school, 7, 26, 29 age, 1, 2, 24, 25, 27, 29, 32, 38, 39, 45, 66, 81, 85 aging, 21 aid, 28, 35, 108

air, 106 Alabama, 30, 31, 113 alternative, 2 American Academy of Pediatrics, 1, 4, 24, 32 American Heart Association, 18, 28, 29 American Revolution, 71, 116, 117 anger, 39 animals, 104, 105 antecedents, 9 anthropology, 107 apparel, 24 appendicular skeleton, 99 application, 49, 64 argument, 25 Arizona, 31 Arkansas, 29 artery, 2 Asia, 19 Asian American and Pacific Islander, 18 assault, 30 assessment, 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38, 49, 50, 81, 88 athletes, 4, 32, 40 atoms, 102 Attention Deficit Disorder, 45, 46, 47 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 46 attitudes, 23 Australia, 5, 15, 19 authority, 30 averaging, 24 awareness, 41, 109

B back pain, 3 bacteria, 101 baking, 100 barriers, 8

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Index

basal ganglia, 35 BDNF, 11 behavior, 1, 3, 5, 1, 3, 8, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27, 37, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46 behavioral medicine, 5, 32 behavioral problems, 22 beliefs, 50 benchmarks, 53, 94 beneficial effect, 8 benefits, ix, 2, 3, 4, 1, 6, 7, 11, 13, 23, 24, 25, 32, 87 blood, 1, 12, 25 blood flow, 12 blood pressure, 25 body fat, 4, 25 Body Mass Index (BMI) 1, 3, 5, 24, 28, 29, 32 body weight, 4 boys, 25 brain, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 21, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45 brain activity, 13 brain development, 12 breakfast, 89 British Columbia, 16 burn, 7 butterfly, 55

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C calcium, 3 Canada, 15, 16 capacity, 42 cardiovascular disease, 1, 4, 5, 11, 29 case study, 38, 40 category a, 112 CDC, 1, 2, 3, 23 cell, 103 Centers for Disease Control, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 18, 28, 32, 33 CEO, 29 cerebellum, ix, 12, 21, 35 cerebrum, 13, 35 certification, 28 channels, 40 childhood, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 6, 11, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33 children, ix, xi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 38, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 82, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 103, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117, 118 cholesterol, 1

chronic disease, 1, 2, 3 chronic diseases, 1, 2 Civil Rights, 113 Civil War, 71, 117 class size, 28, 29 class struggle, 41 classes, 6, 7, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 33, 39, 40 classroom, ix, 4, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 26, 28, 35, 36, 38, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 58, 59, 67, 69, 71, 73, 87, 90, 94, 96, 97, 99, 104, 107, 109, 111, 112, 116, 118, 119 classroom activity, 16 classroom teacher, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 22, 43, 107 classroom teachers, 2, 5, 6, 8, 22, 43, 107 classrooms, 2, 38 clouds, 97 Co, 31 coaches, 30, 40 cocaine, 45 cognition, ix, 4, 11, 12, 13, 18, 22, 55 cognitive, 12, 13, 14, 17, 21, 39, 53, 55, 62, 69, 86, 95, 104 cognitive abilities, 12 cognitive ability, 53, 55, 86, 95, 104 cognitive development, 21, 62 cognitive function, 12, 13, 14, 21 cognitive level, 69 cognitive performance, 13, 17 colleges, 38 colon, 3 colon cancer, 3 Colorado, xi colors, 103 Columbia, 28, 29, 107 comfort zone, 26 commodity, 25 communities, 1, 6, 18, 20, 54 community, 3, 50 competence, 28 competency, 54 competitive sport, 19 complexity, 35, 56 components, 26, 50, 59, 87, 97, 99 comprehension, 41, 81, 82 computation, 20, 21 concentration, ix, 13, 14, 17, 18, 20 conceptualizations, 22 concrete, 6, 36, 81 condensation, 97 confidence, 26 Congress, 28, 50, 93 consensus, 4 constraints, 3, 14, 46

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Index consulting, 41 contact time, 2, 3 continuity, 26 control, 2, 11, 16, 21, 29, 46 control group, 16 coronary artery disease, 2 coronary heart disease, 5 costs, 2, 91 counseling, 3 covering, 7 credibility, 26 crime, 3 critical thinking, 69 critical thinking skills, 69 cultural differences, 108 currency, 91 curriculum, 5, 6, 8, 9, 19, 26, 28, 29, 31, 38, 40, 41, 46, 50, 54, 65, 67, 69, 88, 90, 107, 109 cycles, 37, 93

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D daily living, 106 deaths, 3, 23 decision making, ix, 12 decisions, 29 Declaration of Independence, 116 deficiency, 45 deficit, 47, 48 definition, 5, 56, 64, 69 delivery, 29 dendrites, 12 density, 25 Department of Education, 30, 31, 49, 50 Department of Health and Human Services, 5, 33 depression, 11, 45 designers, 107 developing brain, 11 diabetes, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11 diet, 2, 1 dietary, 1, 19 dietary behaviour, 19 dignity, 27 direct observation, 3 disability, 39, 49 discipline, 5, 6, 26, 40 discomfort, 39 disorder, 39, 46, 47, 48 District of Columbia, 28, 29, 107 diversity, 27, 54 division, 77, 81, 83 download, 53 downsized, 15

129

E ears, 100 earth, 7, 93 eating, 4, 1, 89, 100 eating behavior, 4, 1 ecological, 3, 1, 2, 3 economics, 107 ecosystem, 104 ecosystems, 104 education, vii, ix, xi, 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 14, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 42, 43, 49, 50, 108 education reform, 49 educational policies, 3 educational system, 50 educators, 1, 2, 5, 8, 13, 28, 36, 37, 41, 42, 53, 107 EEG, 13 electricity, 93 elementary school, ix, xi, 4, 2, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 61, 62, 67, 69, 84, 87, 88, 95, 98, 109, 110, 113 elementary students, 17 elementary teachers, 53 email, 41 emotion, ix, 12 emotional, 11, 26 energy, 8, 24 English Language, 53, 54 enthusiasm, 24 environment, 2, 24, 25, 26, 28, 35, 36, 70, 85, 88, 96, 97, 110, 118, 119 environmental factors, 20 environmental stimuli, 37 epidemic, 1, 13, 14, 36 epidemics, 1, 11, 27 epinephrine, 13 equilibrium, 93 equipment, 24, 70 ethnic groups, 54 ethnicity, 3 etiology, 32, 45 evaporation, 97 executive function, 13 executive functioning, 13 exercise, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 18, 24, 32, 45, 47, 48, 81, 103, 104, 112 exertion, 20 expert, 38 eyes, 46, 100

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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Index

F failure, 41 family, 4 fat, 2 feelings, 36, 50 feet, 69, 80, 85 females, 3 fetal, 35 first language, 54 fitness, 4, 5, 13, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 47 flow, 12 focusing, 5, 46 food, 2, 1, 101, 104, 105 food intake, 2 football, 40 frontal lobe, 13 fruits, 2 frustration, 39, 46, 47 fulfillment, 53 funding, 3, 30, 31

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G games, 103 ganglia, 35 gas, 102 gauge, 116 GEAR, 22 gender, 3, 27 gender differences, 27 generation, 42 genre, 54 geography, 107, 111 Georgia, 5, 13, 17, 28, 31, 33 gerontology, 13 gifted, 26 girls, 12, 25 goals, 19, 24, 75 government, 7 GPA, 29 grades, 1, 2, 6, 15, 16, 18, 20, 29, 31, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47, 50, 75, 93 graph, 88 gravity, 106 group activities, 27, 47 grouping, 70 groups, 16, 54, 62, 63, 68, 70, 72, 77, 78, 81, 85, 88, 95, 99, 100, 107, 113, 115, 116 growth, 33, 37, 38, 39, 42, 45 guidelines, 7, 29, 108

H hands, 36, 40, 46, 101 Harvard, 32 Hawaii, 29, 30 health, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16, 19, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 40, 87, 93, 98 Health and Human Services, 5, 33 health education, 29 health services, 30 healthcare, 2 heart, 2, 3, 5, 7, 18, 28, 29, 87, 98 heart disease, 2, 3, 5, 7 heart rate, 87, 98 heat, 93 heme, 96 hemisphere, 7 high blood pressure, 1 high school, 15, 16, 17, 19, 29, 38 hippocampus, 11, 13 hiring, 30 holistic, 36, 107 Hong Kong, 16 hospital, 2 host, 103, 117 human, 12, 37, 53, 93, 99 human brain, 12 human experience, 53 Human Kinetics, 4, 5, 43 humans, 93 humerus, 99 hyperactivity, 45, 48 hypertension, 2, 45 hypothesis, 13

I identification, 11, 53 Illinois, 4, 5, 29, 31, 32, 41, 43, 46 imagery, 37 immune system, 45 implementation, 8 inactive, ix, 2, 3, 1, 3, 23, 24, 25 incidence, 5 inclusion, 26 income, 18, 20 individual differences, 8, 20, 35, 37 inefficiency, 45 infancy, 35 infants, 35 Infants, 42 inferences, 76

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Index infrastructure, 2 ingestion, 101 injuries, 3 inspiration, xi instruction, 15, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 47, 53 instruction time, 15 instructional time, 15, 16, 29 integration, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 28, 102 intelligence, 22, 35 intensity, 3 interaction, 6 interactions, 53 interdisciplinary, 5, 8 Internet, 38, 41 intervention, 16, 17, 49 IQ, 12 IRA, 53 irritability, 45 isolation, 61, 119 Italy, 109

J JAMA, 5 junior high, 20 junior high school, 20

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K K-12, 30, 38, 40, 41, 50, 53, 93, 107 Kentucky, 29 kindergarten, 12, 17, 30, 47 kindergartners, 12, 21 kinesthetic, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46, 47, 56, 62, 78, 99, 111, 114 Korea, 16 Korean, 19

L labeling, 46 land, 86 language, ix, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 16, 49, 50, 54, 58, 60, 63, 90, 112 later life, 25 Latino, 18 law, 30, 107 lead, 4, 7, 49, 50 learners, 6, 38, 39, 40, 41, 46, 47 learning, ix, xi, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 25, 27, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49,

131

54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 90, 100, 103, 114, 117 learning behavior, 37 learning disabilities, 47 learning environment, 14, 36, 69, 83, 89 learning process, 36 learning skills, 27, 36 learning styles, 36, 38, 40, 42, 43, 46, 47 legislation, 30, 31, 50 legislative, 31 leisure, 1, 3, 2 leisure time, 1, 2 lesson plan, xi, 38, 41 life experiences, 37 lifestyle, ix, 3, 4, 23, 24, 32 lifestyles, 4, 14, 29, 33 lifetime, 27 linear, 36 lipid, 25 lipid profile, 25 listening, 39, 40, 42 literacy, 54, 93 location, 96, 109, 111, 113 locomotor activity, 57 long period, 46 longevity, 1 longitudinal study, 18, 21, 22, 33 long-term, 31, 33 loopholes, 28, 29 loss of appetite, 45 love, 7 lower-income, 18 low-income, 20 lymphocyte, 103 lymphocytes, 103

M magazines, 24 magnetism, 93 maintenance, 3 males, 3, 47 management, 24, 26, 30 mandates, 29 mapping, 119 marches, 91 Maryland, 30 Massachusetts, 22 mathematical skills, 77 mathematics, 16, 36, 49, 50, 75 meals, 2 meanings, 75 measurement, 76, 93

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132

Index

measures, 88 media, 54 median, 88 medications, 45, 46 medicine, 4, 5, 32, 45 membership, 30, 107 memory, ix, 11, 12, 40, 41, 110, 118 mental health, 3, 47 mentor, xi meta-analysis, 18, 22 metacognitive, 41 metric, 88 Mexico, 30 microorganisms, 101 middle schools, 31 Minnesota, 31 minority, ix, 3 Missouri, 9 modality, 40 modeling, 76 models, 3, 1, 11, 75, 93 moderate activity, 14 money, 91 mood, 45 morbidity, 5, 32, 33 morning, 7 morphine, 45 mortality, 5, 32, 33 motion, 39, 93, 106 motivation, 26 motor control, 46 motor coordination, 46 motor skills, 26, 27 mouth, 46 movement, ix, xi, 4, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 23, 28, 35, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 105, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 119 multidisciplinary, 5, 118 multiplication, 77, 79, 81, 83 muscle, 46, 47 muscles, 11, 39, 46 music, 7, 8, 40, 49, 50, 71, 108

N naming, 38, 99 nation, ix, 2, 3, 4, 2, 6, 18, 24, 38, 113 national, 1, 16, 20, 26, 30, 31, 50 Native American, 18 natural, 28, 42, 93

NCES, 107 nerve, 37 nervous system, 13, 35 network, 1, 107 neural connection, 7 neurological disorder, 39 neurons, 12 neurotrophic, 11 New England, 32, 33 New Jersey, 8, 17, 42 New Mexico, 30 New York, 42, 47 nickel, 91 Nielsen, 8 No Child Left Behind (NCLB), vii, ix, 28, 30, 31, 49, 50, 51 non-linear, 36 non-profit, 30 nonverbal, ix, 12 nonverbal cues, ix, 12 norepinephrine, 13 normal, 110 North Carolina, 9, 17 Notre Dame, 40 nutrition, 103

O obese, ix, 1, 2, 3, 14, 21, 23, 25, 28, 32 obesity, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36 obesity epidemics, 1, 11 obesity prevention, 20 Ohio, 5 older adults, 21 online, 29, 38, 40 on-line, 28 on-line, 41 opium, 45 optimism, 9 orbit, 95, 96 Oregon, 20 organization, 93, 107 oversight, 2 overweight, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 32, 33 overweight adults, 24

P Pacific, 18, 19 pain, 3

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Index pandemic, 2 paper, 12, 13, 39, 45, 61, 67, 69, 79, 83, 90, 110 parents, 2, 1, 16, 26, 31, 38, 41, 49 particles, 101 passive, 42 pathology, 45 pedagogical, 11 pedagogy, ix, 4, 6, 37, 50 pediatric, 5, 6 peer, 15 peers, 3, 16, 116 Pennsylvania, 31 perception, ix, 12, 100 perceptions, 37 performance, ix, 3, 4, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 40, 49, 50, 108 peripheral, 11 personal, 1, 27, 53, 93 personality, 22 persuasion, 54 philosophical, 5, 9, 53 physical activity, ix, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 45, 106 physical education, ix, 4, 5, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 38, 42, 43, 49, 50 physical exercise, 45 physical fitness, 4, 16 physical health, 39 physical world, 35 physiological, ix, 4 planets, 95, 96 plasticity, 11, 12, 22 play, 3, 2, 18, 26, 27, 38, 40, 71, 89 policymakers, 28 poor, 12, 47 population, 16, 23, 45 positive correlation, 12, 16 poverty, 38 power, 1, 38, 39, 49 precipitation, 97 predators, 104 prediction, 25 predictors, 33 preference, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41 prefrontal cortex, 21 premature death, 3 President Bush, 49 pressure, 1, 14, 25 prevention, 5, 20, 47 preventive, 1 prices, 91

133

primary care, 3 primary school, 19 private, 26 probability, 3, 2, 25, 76 probation, 38 problem solving, 72, 73, 80, 81, 83 professional development, 38 profit, 30 program, 6, 7, 8, 12, 16, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38, 41, 47, 113 promote, 3, 4, 1, 3, 8, 11, 17, 27, 32, 47 pruning, 13 psychology, 3, 42, 107 public, ix, 3, 4, 5, 2, 20, 23, 31, 32, 41, 49, 50, 93 public education, 49 public health, ix, 3, 4, 5, 23, 32 public schools, 31 pulse, 98 pulses, 7 punitive, 42

Q quality of life, 3 quarterback, 40

R race, 3, 7, 27, 49 rain, 97 random, 11, 116 range, 1, 11, 36, 53, 54, 66 reading, ix, 2, 6, 12, 13, 16, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 46, 47, 49, 50, 59, 66 reading assessment, 38 reading skills, 38 reality, 36 reasoning, 76 recall, 111 recreation, 7 reduction, 14, 25 reflection, 37 reflexes, 35 regional, 1, 107 regular, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 8, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 27, 45 reinforcers, 45 relationship, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 22, 25, 35 relationships, 5, 6, 19, 75, 76, 96 relatives, 46 remediation, 47 research, ix, xi, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 30, 32, 36, 37, 40, 42, 54

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

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Index

researchers, 13, 16, 17, 30, 36 resolution, 30 resources, 4, 49, 54, 93 respiration, 98 respiratory, 98 retention, 6 returns, 85 risk, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 28, 29, 32 risk behaviors, 19 risk factors, 1, 5, 32 risks, 1, 5, 11 routines, 45, 47 rural, 38

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S safety, 3 sample, 17, 19 sand, 46 school, ix, xi, 1, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 49, 50, 61, 62, 67, 69, 75, 84, 87, 88, 95, 98, 109, 110, 113, 119 school activities, 16 school performance, 12 science literacy, 93 scientists, ix scores, 12, 16, 17, 38, 39, 40, 41, 49, 50 search, 97 secret, 39 sedentary, 1, 3, 2, 6, 12, 16, 19, 24, 25, 32 sedentary behavior, 19 sedentary lifestyle, 32 self-concept, 11, 19, 45 self-discipline, 26 self-esteem, 11, 19 Senate, 31 sensation, 35, 100 sensitivity, 27 sentences, 69, 72 series, 7, 53 services, 30, 38 shape, 2, 6, 18, 37, 54, 68 shaping, 5 short-term, 25 side effects, 45 sign, 49 signs, 113, 119 skeleton, 99 skills, xi, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 18, 20, 23, 25, 26, 27, 36, 38, 41, 43, 69, 73, 75, 77, 86, 111, 119 sleep, 103

social roles, 54 socioeconomic, 3, 49 socioeconomic status, 3, 49 sociology, 107 software, 38 solar, 95, 96 solar system, 95, 96 South Carolina, 30 Spain, 18, 32 spatial, ix, 12, 76, 94, 111 spatial learning, 12 specialization, 13 speech, 60, 66 spelling, 7, 36, 54, 57, 61, 67, 72, 112 spin, 7 spinal cord, 35 sports, 7, 16, 19, 26, 27, 33, 40, 41 St. Louis, 9 stability, 84 stages, 37 standardized testing, ix, 4 standards, vii, 7, 8, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 75, 91, 93, 94, 107 state legislatures, 30, 31 statistics, 7, 23 statutory, 30 stereotypes, 27 stimulus, 35, 39, 40 stomach, 45 strategies, 20, 36, 38, 40, 53, 54 strength, 3, 27 stress, 46 stretching, 27 stroke, 2 structural changes, 11 student achievement, 28, 49, 50 students, 2, 3, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 115, 116, 119 substance abuse, 11 substances, 45 subtraction, 77, 81, 83 suburban, 38 suffering, ix, 45, 46 supervisors, 107 Surgeon General, 3, 2, 14, 23, 28, 33 surprise, 2 sweat, 97

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for

Index Sweden, 5 symbols, 68, 75, 77 symmetry, 76 symptoms, 45, 46 synapses, 12, 13 synergistic, 35 synthesis, 21 systems, 15, 50, 75, 76, 98

U United Kingdom, 16 United States, 5, 14, 15, 16, 18, 33, 53

V

T

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135

tea, 116 teacher training, 38 teachers, ix, xi, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 26, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 40, 41, 46, 47, 49, 50, 93, 107, 108 teacher-student ratio, 36 teaching, ix, 2, 5, 6, 8, 11, 26, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 50, 58, 59, 88, 96, 108 team sports, 16, 27 technology, 93 teens, 14, 16, 29 television, 1, 4, 24 television viewing, 4 temporal, 46 Tennessee, 31, 113 tension, 39 tenure, 50 test scores, ix, 4, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 41 Texas, 27 theory, 9, 35, 42 thinking, 2 threatening, 28 threats, 1 three-dimensional, 76 time periods, 117 time-on task, 8 timing, 46 title, 116 tracking, 25, 39 tradition, 42 training, 12, 13, 38, 40, 41, 47 transference, 5 transformations, 76 transitions, 7, 37 trend, 3, 1 trial, 21 tutoring, 47

validity, 32 values, 1, 3, 24, 32, 80, 82 variables, 3, 37 vegetables, 2 venue, 14 violence, 27 viruses, 103 visual stimuli, 46 visual stimulus, 39 visualization, 76 vocabulary, 41, 54, 57, 61, 62, 67, 71

W walking, 27, 84, 97 war, 47, 116 warrants, 28 water, 97 wear, 103 web, 21 web-based, 21 websites, 41 weight loss, 3, 27, 32 weight management, 24 wellness, ix, 2, 11, 27, 29 wildfire, 7 winning, 40 workforce, 93 workplace, 53 worry, 27 writing, 46, 54, 67 writing process, 54

Y yield, 11 young adults, 32 younger children, 24

Reed, Julian A.. Active Education: Lessons for Integrating Physical Activity with Language Arts, Math, Science and Social Studies : Lessons for