Academic Writing for University Students [1 ed.] 0367445387, 9780367445386

Citation preview

Praise for Stephen Bailey’s Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, 5th edition (2018) ‘Academic Writing is organized in a way that makes sense for teaching writing skills. The content covers a diverse body of samples from various fields, so it works wonderfully for my undergrad or graduate students. I especially like the section on common language errors, which includes extra practice for students; there is a good balance between writing instruction and discrete skills practice. It isn’t easy to find a text that addresses plagiarism in a way that is clear for students to understand, and this text does the job!’ Ixchell Reyes, University of Southern California, USA ‘This book is an excellent example of inclusive teaching. It is aimed primarily at international students, but reaches further, as it is equally useful for British students and students who come from a more practice-focused background. It is also a strong companion to books on research methods that need a solid basis for academic skills. The clear structure, accessible content, and well thought through activities in this book all give students the confidence to write effective academic work without the fear of breaking rules of plagiarism or academic malpractice. This is the book I recommend to all my students at the beginning of each academic year, independent of the subject I teach and the composition of my cohort.’ Maria Lonsdale, University of Leeds, UK ‘Academic Writing is simply organised, allowing ease of access for beginner writers and specifically introducing them to the language needed to enter the conversation on academic writing.’ Djuddah Leijen, University of Tartu, Estonia ‘The 5th edition of Academic Writing includes many new features which are extremely useful for all university students who are inexperienced in writing for academic purposes. The book provides both information on important aspects of academic writing and practice exercises which all students will find invaluable. It is a useful book for anyone who is new to writing for academic purposes, regardless of her level of proficiency in English.’ Radhika Jaidev, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore ‘An excellent book that, although aimed at international students, would also benefit UK students who come from a more practice-focused background. Study skills tutors can use it to strengthen particular issues or areas of study that students might be struggling with.’ Jan Beechey, Dyslexia Review

Academic Writing for University Students

Academic Writing for University Students is designed to help all students succeed in writing essays, reports and other papers for coursework and exams effectively. Academic writing is often the biggest challenge facing college and university students, but this book provides all the tools needed to master the necessary skills. The book is divided into four parts to help teachers and students easily find the help they need, both in the classroom and for self-study: ● ● ● ●

The Writing Process: From finding suitable sources, through to editing and proofreading Writing Types: Practice with common assignments such as reports and cause–effect essays Writing Tools: Skills such as making comparisons, definitions, punctuation and style Lexis: Academic vocabulary, using synonyms, nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs

This key handbook breaks down and practises every stage of essay writing. All units are fully cross-referenced, and a complete set of answers to the practice exercises is included. In addition, the companion website hosts comprehensive teaching notes as well as more challenging exercises, revision material and links to other sources. Designed for self-study as well as classroom use, this book uses authentic academic texts from a range of sources and provides models for common writing tasks such as case studies, while progress checks are included for each part to enable students to assess their learning. Academic Writing for University Students is an invaluable guide to all aspects of academic writing in English. Stephen Bailey taught English for Academic Purposes at the University of Nottingham in the UK. Previously he taught in Barcelona, Tokyo, Johor Bahru and Prague. His other books include Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, Academic Writing for International Students of Business and Economics and The Essentials of Academic Writing for International Students, all published by Routledge.

Academic Writing for University Students Stephen Bailey

First published 2022 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 Stephen Bailey The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bailey, Stephen, 1947- author. Title: Academic writing for university students/Stephen Bailey. Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2022. | Includes index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2021026203 (print) | LCCN 2021026204 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367445386 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367445393 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003010210 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Academic writing–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Report writing–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | English language–Rhetoric–Problems, exercises, etc. Classification: LCC LB2369 .B236 2022 (print) | LCC LB2369 (ebook) | DDC 808.02–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021026203 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021026204 ISBN: 978-0-367-44538-6 ISBN: 978-0-367-44539-3 ISBN: 978-1-003-01021-0 DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210 Typeset in Times New Roman by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India Access the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bailey

Contents

Acknowledgements Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers Introduction for Students Academic Writing Quiz

xvii xviii xxi xxiv

Part 1 The Writing Process

1

1.1

3

Writing Basics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1.2

The purposes of academic writing How is academic writing different from other writing genres? Common types of academic writing The format of written assignments Common text features Writing clear sentences Writing in paragraphs Practice

3 4 4 5 7 7 9 10

Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process

11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

11 12 13 13 15 15 16 17

The planning process Analysing essay questions Practice: key words Evaluation criteria Brainstorming Essay length Outlines Practice

x

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Contents

Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

19

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

19 19 20 22 23 25 26 27 27 28 29

Types of text Academic resources Assessing texts Using reading lists Searching library catalogues Using library websites to search journals and bibliographic databases Reading abstracts Practice: varying search terms Assessing text features Reading strategies Practice

Reading: Developing Critical Approaches

31

1 2 3 4 5 6

31 31 33 34 34 36

Critical thinking Fact and opinion Assessing internet sources critically Domain name suffxes Practice A Practice B

Finding Key Points and Note-making

39

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

39 39 40 41 43 43 44

Why make notes? Finding key points Finding relevant points Practice A Effective note-making Practice B Practice C

Avoiding Plagiarism

46

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

46 47 48 48 49 51 51 52 52

Acknowledging sources What is plagiarism? Basic plagiarism Degrees of plagiarism Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits Practice A Practice B Research

Progress Check A

53

Contents

1.7

1.8

1.9

xi

References and Quotations

57

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

57 58 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 64 64

Why give references? Citations and references Reference verbs Practice A Referencing systems Using quotations Practice B Abbreviations in citations Secondary references Internet references Organising the list of references

Summarising and Paraphrasing

67

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

67 68 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 75

What makes a good summary? Stages of summarising Practice A Practice B Practice C Paraphrasing Practice D Techniques for paraphrasing Practice E Practice F

Contrasting Sources

76

1 2 3 4 5

76 77 77 80 81

Referring to sources Practice A Contrasting sources Balancing different sources Practice B

1.10 Organising Paragraphs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Paragraph structure Practice A Practice B Practice C Introducing paragraphs and linking them together Practice D Practice E

83 83 84 85 85 86 87 88

xii

Contents

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions 1 2 3 4 5 6

Introduction components Introduction structure Opening sentences Conclusions Conclusion structure Practice

1.12 Editing and Proofreading 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Editing Practice A Practice B Proofreading Practice C Practice D Practice E Practice F Summary

89 89 90 92 93 94 94

95 95 96 97 97 97 98 99 99 100

Progress Check B

101

Part 2 Writing Types

103

2.1

2.2

Argument and Discussion

105

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

105 106 107 107 108 108 109 110 110

Discussion vocabulary Organisation Practice A The language of discussion Argument and counter-argument Practice B Providing evidence Practice C Practice D

Cause and Effect

111

1 2 3 4 5 6

111 112 113 114 114 115

Causes and effects The language of cause and effect Practice A Practice B Practice C Practice D

Contents

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

xiii

Problems and Solutions

116

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

116 117 117 118 118 119 119

Vocabulary Paragraph structure Alternative structure Practice A Practice B Practice C Practice D

Case Studies

120

1 2 3 4

120 121 121 122

Using case studies Planning a case study Background research Model case study

Literature Reviews

125

1 2 3 4

125 126 127 127

What is a literature review? Examples of literature reviews Writing a literature review Model literature review

Writing Longer Papers

130

1 2 3

130 130 132

Introduction Planning your work Formatting the paper

Reports

134

1 2 3 4

134 134 136 137

Essays and reports Writing reports Scientifc reports Practice

Reflective Writing

141

1 2 3 4 5 6

141 142 143 143 144 144

The purpose of refective writing Example Structure Style Practice A Practice B

Progress Check C

145

xiv

Contents

Part 3 Writing Tools 3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

149

Cohesion

151

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

151 152 152 153 153 154 154 154

Reference words Practice A Preventing confusion Practice B Implied language Practice C Practice D Practice E

Comparison

156

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

156 157 158 158 159 159 160 160 161

Comparison structures Practice A Using superlatives (e.g. the largest/ smallest) Practice B Forms of comparison Practice C Practice D Practice E Practice F

Definitions

162

1 2 3 4 5

162 162 164 164 165

Simple defnitions Category words Complex defnitions Practice A Practice B

Examples

166

1 2 3 4 5

166 167 168 169 169

Using examples Phrases to introduce examples Practice A Practice B Restatement

Generalisations

171

1 2 3 4 5 6

171 172 172 172 173 173

Using generalisations Structure Practice A Practice B Building on generalisations Practice C

Contents

3.6

3.7

3.8

Numbers and Visual Information

175

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

175 176 176 177 179 179 182 183 184 184 185

The language of numbers Percentages Simplifcation Further numerical phrases Practice A Visual information: Types of visuals The language of change Describing visuals Labelling visuals Practice B Practice C

Punctuation

186

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

186 187 187 188 188 189 189 190 190 191

Capital letters Full stops (.) [US: period] Commas (,) Apostrophes (’) Semi-colons (;) Colons (:) Quotation marks/ inverted commas (“ ”/ ‘ ’) Others Practice A Practice B

Style

192

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

192 193 195 195 196 197 198 198

Developing an academic style Guidelines Practice A Avoiding repetition and redundancy Varying sentence length The use of caution Using modifers Practice B

Progress Check D

Part 4 Lexis 4.1

xv

199

201

Approaches to Vocabulary

203

1 2 3

203 204 205

Vocabulary issues Dealing with new vocabulary Language features

xvi

Contents 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

Confusing pairs Words and phrases from other languages Practice A Abbreviations Common abbreviations Punctuation Duplicate abbreviations Abbreviations only found in writing Practice B

206 207 208 208 209 209 210 210 210

Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives

212

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

212 212 214 215 215 216 216

Introduction Nouns Nouns and adjectives Similar adjectives Academic adjectives Practice A Practice B

Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

217

1 2 3 4 5

217 218 220 221 221

Understanding main verbs Common academic verbs Using adverbs Practice A Practice B

Prefixes and Suffixes

223

1 2 3 4 5

223 224 225 226 227

How prefxes and suffxes work Prefxes Practice A Suffxes Practice B

Synonyms

228

1 2 3 4 5

228 230 230 231 231

How synonyms work Common synonyms in academic writing Practice A Practice B Practice C

Progress Check E Written British and American English – A Short Guide Glossary Answers Index

232 235 238 242 296

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the many people who have helped me develop these materials during my teaching career. My colleagues, at home and abroad, have been a constant source of inspiration and advice, and of course my students have contributed massively to my ideas about teaching academic writing. My editors at Routledge, Sarah Hyde and Nicole Salazar, have been extremely supportive throughout the development of this course. Closer to home, my wife Rene, who has a profound knowledge of the vagaries of academic style, has been an invaluable adviser, while my daughter Sophie has provided timely feedback from the student perspective.

Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers

Aims Academic Writing for University Students has been designed to help students successfully complete their written academic work. Many students find the transition from school to university difficult in terms of their teachers’ expectations: they are required to work more independently and critically. In addition, many students taking courses in English-language institutions, both in the UK and abroad, speak English as a second language and find the vocabulary in some reading and writing tasks quite challenging. This course is specifically aimed at their needs, whether they are in a class, studying one-to-one with a tutor or entirely by themselves: due to its flexible structure this book can be used in all these situations. This course is aimed at both undergraduate and postgraduate students, since although they are studying at different levels, their tutors’ requirements are basically similar: written work that is clear, objective, accurate and correctly referenced. The structure of the book allows for a flexible mixture of classroom teaching and self-study. Each unit aims to involve students in completing a variety of exercises, which can be analysed and discussed in the classroom. Depending on time available and tutor preference, most of the exercises can be done either individually or in pairs and groups, and students can check their work using the answer key. The book is designed for ease of access and simplicity of reference, which is achieved via the format shown below.

Structure Part

Topic

Main application

1

The Writing Process from understanding questions to proofreading

Classroom use

2

Writing Types from argument to reflective writing

Classroom and self-study

Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers

xix

3

Writing Tools from cohesion to style

Classroom, self-study and reference

4

Lexis from abbreviations to synonyms

Classroom, self-study and reference

Using the book Part 1 The Writing Process guides students through the entire procedure of writing essays, reports and other papers, and is best taught as a progressive series of lessons, with feedback from the practice exercises. Part 2 Writing Types presents the main kinds of writing students are asked to produce, often as subsections (e.g. case studies or literature reviews) of a longer paper. Part 3 Writing Tools practises some of the skills needed for academic writing, such as giving definitions or making comparisons. Part 4 Lexis deals with vocabulary issues, in particular the more formal vocabulary generally found in academic work, and suggests that the understanding of prefixes and suffixes can help both reading and writing. All the units in Parts 2 to 4 can be taught in conjunction with units from Part 1, or can be suggested to individual students on a remedial basis for self-study. It should be stressed that the exercises can be used selectively: not every student needs to complete all of them, but a comprehensive set is provided if extensive practice is needed in that area. The first two units in Part 1 are designed as a basic introduction to the subject and assume a fairly low level of writing ability. With stronger students tutors may choose to progress rapidly through these to more difficult materials starting with Unit 3, Reading: Finding Suitable Sources. At the end of every part of the book there are Progress Checks to allow assessment of students’ work. Note that Academic Writing for University Students uses authentic reading texts taken from a range of relevant sources, but selected to be of interest to students in all disciplines. Instructions are printed like this: ■

Read the following text

Cross-referencing to relevant sections in other units is provided like this: ► See Unit 3.4 Examples Answers to most exercises are provided in the answer key at the end of the book. If there is no definite answer, a model answer is usually given. The glossary on page 240 explains academic terms. The index on page 299 can be used to find specific information.

xx

Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers

The companion website provides a full set of teaching notes, as well as relevant web links for each unit in the Teachers’ Area. Further practice exercises for certain units plus web links and quizzes can be found in the Students’ Area. See www.routledge.com/ cw/bailey

While the materials in this course have been thoroughly tested in the classroom, improvement is always possible, and so I would be grateful for any comments or suggestions from teachers for future editions. Stephen Bailey [email protected]

Introduction for Students

Discuss the following questions with a partner. a) b) c) d)

What experience do you have of academic writing? What is the longest piece of writing you have done to date? What do you find most challenging about academic writing? How do you plan to improve your academic writing?

The challenge of writing at university Going to university should be an exciting time, when you have the chance to function as an independent adult. With so many experiences to enjoy, dealing with your academic workload may be a low priority. But as the assessment of many courses depends on your performance as an academic writer, it’s not a topic that can be ignored. That’s why this book is designed to help you cope more effectively with your writing tasks. There are several reasons why many first-year university students find it difficult to meet their lecturers’ requirements for writing essays and reports: ● ●

● ●

University students are expected to work more independently, with less supervision than at school. As a result, for instance, you may be required to find your own sources. Another issue can be the expectation that students should approach their sources in a critical fashion, and be ready to interrogate them if necessary. This means that you are expected to question and evaluate everything you read, asking whether it is reliable and relevant. There is also the question of vocabulary, since in most academic subjects students are expected to use a semi-formal vocabulary which is different from normal idiomatic language. In addition, you need to be familiar with the conventions of academic writing such as referencing, as well as adopting an appropriate style. Following these conventions will allow you to express yourself clearly, and your tutor will find it easier to assess your work.

xxii

Introduction for Students

During your university course you may be asked to write a variety of assignments, such as reports, case studies, proposals, essays or a dissertation. These will vary in length, format and complexity, but all should be written in academic English, as explained in the four parts of this book. At first, writing may seem the most difficult and demanding aspect of your work, but these writing tasks provide a great opportunity to improve your writing skills both for your studies and for future employment. This gives you a number of benefits: Writing about a topic helps you to understand the subject better. Writing enables you to organise and examine your ideas clearly. Writing allows you to show your knowledge in tests and exams. Writing is the conventional method for expressing your ideas and presenting your knowledge and ideas to tutors and others in your field. Most companies and other organisations value employees who are able to communicate effectively in writing.

● ● ● ● ●

The aim of the book The main purpose of Academic Writing for University Students is to help you succeed in the writing tasks which you may be asked to complete on your course. The kind of writing you are asked to do at this level could be different from the work you have done before, and this may be the first time you have had to write longer essays and reports. The book is designed for ease of access and simplicity of reference, so that you can find the help you need as quickly as possible. This table explains the format: Part

Topic

Main application

1

The Writing Process from understanding questions to proofreading

Classroom use

2

Writing Types from argument to reflective writing

Classroom and self-study

3

Writing Tools from cohesion to style

Classroom, self-study and reference

4

Lexis from abbreviations to synonyms

Classroom, self-study and reference

Using the book The book can be used either with a tutor or by yourself for self-study and reference, with the help of the answer key. To help you get the most out of the course, note the following points:

Introduction for Students

xxiii

Instructions are printed like this: ■

Read the following text

Cross-referencing to relevant sections in other units is provided like this: ► See Unit 3.4 Examples Answers to most exercises are provided in the answer key at the end of the book. If there is no definite answer, a model answer is usually given. The glossary on page 240 explains academic terms you may not be familiar with. The index on page 299 can be used to find specific information.

The Students’ Area of the companion website provides further practice exercises for some units, plus web links and quizzes. See www.routledge.com/cw/bailey

I hope you find this course helpful in progressing your studies, and I would be glad to receive your comments and suggestions about any part of the book to support the development of future editions. Stephen Bailey [email protected]

Academic Writing Quiz

■

How much do you know about academic writing? Find out by doing this quiz.

1 The main difference between academic writing and other writing is that academic writing: a) uses longer words b) tries to be precise and unbiased c) is harder to understand 2 Italics are used for two of the following reasons: a) to emphasise a word b) to show words from other languages c) with idioms 3 Teachers frequently complain about students: a) not answering the question given b) not writing enough c) writing in pencil 4 The best time to write an introduction is usually: a) before writing the main body b) after proofreading c) after writing the main body 5 The purpose of an introduction is: a) to give your aims and methods b) to amuse the reader c) to summarise your ideas 6 Making careful notes is essential for: a) writing essays b) revising for exams c) all academic work

Academic Writing Quiz

7 An in-text citation looks like: a) (Manton, 2008) b) (Richard Manton, 2008) c) (Manton, R. 2008) 8 Paraphrasing a text means: a) making it shorter and simpler b) changing both vocabulary and structure c) adding more detail 9 Paragraphs always contain: a) six or more sentences b) an example c) a topic sentence 10 Proofreading means: a) getting a friend to check your work b) checking for minor errors c) rewriting the text 11 Teachers expect students to adopt a critical approach to their sources: a) sometimes b) only at postgraduate level c) always 12 This punctuation mark (’) is called: a) a comma b) a colon c) an apostrophe 13 A suitable synonym for ‘a business’ is: a) a firm b) an organisation c) an outfit 14 ‘Progress’ and ‘research’ are both nouns. What kind of noun? a) countable b) uncountable c) proper 15 An abstract is normally found: a) on the back cover of books b) before journal articles c) in exam questions 16 The word ‘unreliable’ contains: a) a prefix b) a suffix c) both

xxv

xxvi

Academic Writing Quiz

17 When making notes you should always include: a) your own ideas b) a full reference c) the date 18 A pie chart is used to show: a) changes in time b) proportion c) the structure of an organisation 19 Acknowledgements are generally used: a) to admit possible errors b) to suggest more research c) to thank people who helped 20 The conclusion to an article usually includes: a) results of the study b) additional data c) references Answers on p. 246.

The Writing Process

PART

1

This section explains and practises all the stages of producing a piece of academic writing, from analysing the title, reading the sources, note-making and referencing through to rewriting and then proofreading the final draft.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-1

The Writing Process

■

Study the fowchart below, which illustrates the process of academic writing. Each stage is fully explained in the relevant units.

UNIT

1.1

Writing Basics

Most courses assess students through written assignments of various kinds. These tasks include both coursework, which may take weeks to write, and exam answers, which often have to be written in an hour. This unit deals with: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

The purpose of academic writing The main features of academic writing The names of different writing tasks The format of short and long writing tasks Sentences and paragraphs

1 The purposes of academic writing Most university students will be asked to write various types of assignments. In every case they should be clear about why they are writing. Academic writing can have various purposes; some of the most common reasons for writing are: ●● ●● ●● ●●

to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view to synthesise research done by others on a topic

■■ Ask a partner if they can suggest any other reasons. ●●



●●



DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-2

4

Part 1: The Writing Process

2 How is academic writing different from other writing genres? i)

j Working with a partner, name as many writing genres as you can. Then suggest answers to the question above (2). ii) j Compare these two extracts from longer texts. What are the main differences between the two genres? a)

Carrying their few possessions in bags and shopping trolleys, hundreds of desperate storm victims in the Bahamas gathered at a port in Grand Abaco yesterday, hoping to get off the hurricane-blasted island amid rising frustration about the speed of the relief effort. ‘It’s chaos here’, said Gee Rolle, who was waiting with his wife for a boat to the capital, Nassau. ‘It’s not livable for nobody. Only animals can live here’.

b) Despite the reputation of ‘engineering’ as a politically innocent, technocratic kind of expertise that is above partisan wrangles, the modern engineering profession has from its inception been bound up with power-infused processes of socio-spatial and material transformation. As Andrew Barry (2005: 94) argues, ‘far from having anti-political effects the calculations of engineers [have] had political resonances’.

The first extract is from a newspaper, reporting an event in vivid language and emotional phrases (desperate storm victims), and using personal reports from local people. The second is from an academic article, and illustrates several common features of academic writing: ● ● ●

rather formal words and phrases are used to explain complex ideas: (power-infused processes of socio-spatial and material transformation) citation and quotation to support the writer’s argument: (As Andrew Barry (2005: 94) argues …) tendency to use the passive: (has been bound up with …)

Although there is no fixed standard of academic writing, and the style may vary from subject to subject, academic writing is clearly very different from the style of newspapers or novels.

3 Common types of academic writing These are the most common types of written work produced by students. ■

Discuss the differences between them with a partner.

1.1: Writing Basics

■

5

Match the defnitions below to the types above. a) The longest piece of writing normally done by a student, often for a higher degree (20,000+ words). b) A general term for any extended piece of academic writing. c)

A description of a situation or process, often with suggestions for dealing with a problem.

d) The answer to a question or task set by the teacher, often on a theoretical subject. e) A detailed account of a particular situation or organisation. f)

A piece of writing in which students critically examine how they dealt with a situation or task and what they learned from it.

g) A condensed summary of something read or listened to, for a student’s own use. h) A persuasive text written to convince a potential customer to adopt a new product or service.

4 The format of written assignments There is no standard format for written work, but in most subjects the following sections are commonly included in shorter essays and reports (1,000–5,000 words). ■

Discuss the meaning of these terms with a partner and then arrange the sections in the most suitable order using the framework below. Appendices Conclusion Discussion Literature review References Case study Introduction

-

6

Part 1: The Writing Process

Longer papers such as dissertations and journal articles may have the following format: Abstract List of contents List of tables Introduction Main body Literature review Case study Findings Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgements* References Appendices * May be placed before the introduction

Business reports and proposals often have a short section at the beginning called: Executive summary

In addition, books may also include:

Foreword* Preface Bibliography/Further reading *Short introduction usually written by a well-known authority

■

Match the following defnitions to terms in the lists above: a) A short initial summary which explains the article’s purpose and main fndings. b) A list of all the sources the writer has mentioned in the text. c)

A section, at the end, where additional information is included.

d) A short section where people who have helped the writer are thanked.

1.1: Writing Basics

7

e) Part of the main body in which the views of other writers on the topic are discussed. f)

A section where one particular example is described in detail.

g) A preliminary part of a book in which the author often explains her reasons for writing.

► See Unit 2.7 Reports

5 Common text features a) Use of titles and subtitles. The title is often short and may be more eye-catching; the subtitle tends to contain more detail: The Engineer and the Plumber: Mediating Mumbai’s Conflicting Infrastructural Imaginaries b) Reference to sources using citation: … while the second (Karlan and Zinman, 2009) compared borrowers and non-borrowers. c) The use of abbreviations for convenience: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) d) Italics are used to show words from other languages, to highlight examples or to add emphasis: … proposals that all players prefer to the status quo e) Brackets are used to give extra information or to clarify a point: … the means by which the circulation of vital substances (such as water) is achieved. f) Inverted commas are used to draw attention to a word or phrase: Despite the reputation of ‘engineering’ as a politically innocent … g) The use of footnotes or endnotes to give extra information. Footnotes are found at the bottom of the page, while endnotes are listed at the end of the chapter or paper. … the local Community Empowerment Network (CEN)4 ► See Unit 4.1.8 Common abbreviations

6 Writing clear sentences Sentences are the basic component of all types of writing. Sentences generally have a subject and a verb: Robin Hood (subject) is (verb) a legendary figure in English history.

8

Part 1: The Writing Process

Sentences generally contain one main idea (legendary figure), but can have two or more clauses containing extra information: Robin Hood, who is the hero of many tales, is a legendary figure in English history. ■

Study the table below.

Analysis of writing assignments by student level in the Business School Type

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Case study

22

57

79

Article/book report

13

43

56

Business report

11

19

30

Business proposal

7

6

13

Refection paper

7

4

11

Research proposal

1

4

5

Simple sentences such as: More graduates than undergraduates wrote case studies. are easier to read and write, but longer sentences are necessary to explain more complex ideas: Articles and book reports are more commonly required from graduates, who were given about three quarters of the total set. Students should make clarity a priority and avoid writing very lengthy sentences with several clauses until they feel confident in their ability. Sentences containing two or more clauses use conjunctions, relative pronouns or punctuation to link the clauses: Undergraduates were rarely asked to write research proposals, but business proposals were more common. (conjunction) Reflection papers, which were written by both student groups, were less common. (relative pronoun) Business reports were commonly required at both levels: 11 on the undergraduate programme and 19 for the postgraduates. (punctuation) ► See Glossary for conjunctions and relative pronouns ► See Unit 3.7 Punctuation ► See Unit 3.8.5 Style – Varying sentence length

1.1: Writing Basics

■

9

Write two simple and two longer sentences using data from the table below. a) b) c) d)

East Wessex Business School: gender balance by programme, 2020 (%) Accounting

Finance

Marketing

Economics

Human Resources

Male

69

71

43

52

27

Female

31

29

57

48

73

7 Writing in paragraphs ■

Discuss the following questions with a partner: What is a paragraph? Why are texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs? Do paragraphs have a standard structure?

► For answers see Unit 1.10 Organising Paragraphs ■

Read the text below and divide it into a suitable number of paragraphs.

The unpredictable effects of energy effciency It has often been argued that by raising standards of energy efficiency, for example making cars more fuel efficient, both consumers and the planet would benefit. In other words, drivers would spend less on petrol, and less fossil fuel would be burnt. In fact, the International Energy Agency recently claimed that if the world’s GDP doubled by 2040, higher standards of fuel efficiency would only cause a small increase in demand for energy. However, some economists have disputed this claim. They point out that as countries get richer, their energy use rises. A new study (Rausch and Schwerin, 2018) explores the example of the USA since 1960. As efficiency gains made energy cheaper, demand for energy rose: people drove further, but also had spare money for other energydemanding products. Described as ‘rebound effects’, these unexpected results mean that energy savings are often reduced or eliminated. But this effect is likely to vary in relation to a country’s level of economic development. In more developed countries there is less appetite for driving extra distances, while in developing economies there may be more latent demand, resulting in a larger potential increase in total energy use. The macro-economic model created by Rausch and Schwerin relates energy use to efficiency-increasing technological development, and aims to predict energy

10

Part 1: The Writing Process

consumption by relating energy consumption to changes in the cost of capital and energy. Their conclusion was that gains in fuel efficiency in America between 1960 and 2011 resulted in higher energy use overall, resulting in no benefit for the environment.

8 Practice ■

Write two simple and two longer sentences on energy effciency. a) b) c) d)

UNIT

1.2

Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process

In both exams and coursework it is essential for students to understand what an essay title is asking them to do. A plan can then be drawn up, which should prevent time being wasted, while ensuring the question is answered fully. This unit looks at: ● ● ●

Key words in titles Essay length and organisation Methods of essay planning

1 The planning process ■

Discuss these questions with a partner. What’s the frst stage in the planning process? What’s the best way of preparing an outline?

Teachers frequently complain that students do not answer the question they were given, but this can be avoided by taking care at the planning stage. Planning is necessary in all academic writing, but clearly there are important differences between planning in exams, when time is short, and for coursework, when preparatory reading is required. However, in both cases the process of planning should include these four steps: a) analyse the title wording b) study the evaluation criteria DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-3

12

Part 1: The Writing Process

c) decide how long each section should be d) prepare an outline using your favourite method Note that when writing coursework over a period of weeks or even months, your first outline will be quite basic, but as you develop your ideas and do more reading it will probably be revised and become more detailed. This is a useful process and you should always try to be flexible and adjust your perspective as your understanding increases. ► See Unit 2.6 Writing Longer Papers

2 Analysing essay questions Titles contain key words which tell the student what to do. They also indicate the main subject. Note that titles often have two (or more) parts: What is meant by a ‘disruptive technology’? Illustrate your explanation with two examples. In this case, ‘what’ is asking for a definition and ‘illustrate’ requires examples. Many essay titles also include a context, such as a time period or geographical area: Instruction

Subject

Context

Discuss

the growth of nationalism

in nineteenth-century Western Europe

Compare

the effects of privatisation on the economies

of Poland and Hungary 1990–2000

Clearly, it is important to limit your answer to the given context. You will lose marks if you ignore this limitation. ■

Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what they are asking you to do. Then decide if any context is given. a) Summarise the main reasons for the growth of e-commerce since 2010, and discuss the likely results of this. b) Describe some of the reasons why patients do not always take their medication as directed. Suggest possible methods of remedying this situation. c)

What are the benefts of learning a second language at primary school (age 6–10)? Are there any drawbacks to early language learning?

d) What are the most signifcant sources of renewable energy? Evaluate their contribution to the reduction of carbon emissions in the last ffteen years. e) Discuss the response of buildings and soil to earthquakes, indicating what measures can be used to ensure structural stability. f)

To what extent can government policy (e.g. taxation) persuade people to adopt a healthier lifestyle?

1.2: Essay Questions and the Planning Process

13

3 Practice: key words ■

Match the key words on the left to the defnitions on the right.

Analyse

Explain a topic briefy and clearly

Assess/Evaluate

Divide into sections and discuss each critically

Describe

Break down into the various parts and their relationships

Discuss

Make a proposal and support it

Examine/Explore

Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefts and drawbacks

Illustrate

Give a detailed account of something

Outline/Trace

Give examples

Suggest/Indicate

Decide the value or worth of a subject

Summarise

Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to the main elements

► See Unit 2.1 Argument and Discussion

4 Evaluation criteria It is always worth spending time finding out exactly what your teacher is looking for. When setting an assignment, your teacher will often give you a very clear picture of how the work will be assessed. This example explains how the mark scheme is organised. It is worth noting, for instance, that 30% of the mark is given for the conclusion(s) – which should give you a guide to how much time to spend on this part. Section

Criteria to be assessed

Overall structure (5%)

The written work is structured clearly and coherently without any spelling errors, the language and grammar are appropriate.

Part 1: Introduction (20%)

The objectives are clearly stated, as are the main sources of information and the focus of the work.

Part 2: Theoretical framework/models (40%)

Theoretical framework(s) and/ or model(s) are adequately stated, described and applied with a clear discussion and interpretation of the analysis of a chosen subject. A critical analysis of the topic should be carried out.

14

Part 1: The Writing Process

Part 3: Conclusions (30%)

Key fndings are clearly presented and discussed with evidence of critical thinking.

Referencing (5%)

The work contains academic references and/ or citations. Please consult the specifc reference style in the module handbook or follow the Harvard referencing system.

You may also be given grade descriptors, as in the following example. These tell you what is expected at different marking levels: Indicator %

The presentation will often demonstrate some of the following features

90–100

An exceptional level of analysis, showing deep critical engagement with a comprehensive range of contextual material. Demonstration of independent thought resulting in creative and original responses to the assignment brief. Clear evidence of understanding of current scholarship and research based on an extensive range of relevant sources. Clarity of structure demonstrating complete focus of argument. Virtually no errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.

80–89

Excellent links between relevant ideas, theories and practice. Clear evidence of independent scholarship and the ability to engage critically and analytically with a range of contextually relevant resource material. Demonstration of insights supported by extremely well-structured overall argument. Very few errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.

70–79

Very good links between a range of different ideas and theories. Places issues in a wider context. Clear evidence of a critical understanding of a range of relevant theories and application of these appropriately. Independent ideas, well-argued and supported. Few errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.

60–69

Clear links between theory and practice. Good coverage of assignment issues. Full understanding of core issues. Evidenced level of understanding of appropriate theory and concepts. Some small repeated errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.

50–59

Identifes main issues and relevant theory. Coverage of most of assignment issues. Competent application of relevant theory and states obvious links to practice. Some repeated errors in grammar or syntax. Failure to apply Harvard referencing standard correctly in places.

NB: In the UK it is common for students’ essays and reports to be marked either as a percentage (e.g. 67%) or rated for a future degree (e.g. 2:1). Other countries, e.g. Australia, may have different marking systems, and students must be clear about this at the start of their course.

1.2: Essay Questions and the Planning Process

15

5 Brainstorming In an exam, it is often helpful to start thinking about a topic by writing down the ideas you have, in any order. Taking the example from 2a) above: ‘Summarise the main reasons for the growth of e-commerce, and discuss the likely results of this’. you might collect the following points: Growth of e-commerce and likely results Main reasons ● Businesses can offer a wider range of products via internet ● Delivery service more convenient for customers than travelling to shops ● Businesses can reduce overheads by centralising distribution centres ● Prices can often be lower, reflecting lower costs Likely results ● Decline in conventional shops ● Growth in delivery businesses ● Shopping centres become entertainment areas ■

Working with a partner, brainstorm ideas for the title below: What are the benefts of single-sex schools at secondary level? What are the drawbacks?

6 Essay length Coursework essays and reports usually have a required length, normally between 1,000 and 5,000 words. You must keep to this limit, although differences of 5% more or less are generally acceptable. However, at the planning stage you need to consider what proportion of the essay to allocate to each part of the question. As a basic guide, 20% is usually sufficient for the introduction and conclusion together (references are not normally included in the word count). Therefore, in a 2,000word essay the main body would have 1,600 words. If this was the length given for title 2a) above, you might decide to give 65% of the main body to part 1 of the question (the main reasons) and 35% to part 2 (likely results): Reasons that beneft businesses: reduced overheads/ wider range

600 words

Reasons that beneft customers: convenience and lower prices

450 words

Likely results: fewer shops/ change in use/ more deliveries

550 words

Total

1600 words

16

Part 1: The Writing Process

This calculation is useful since it can guide the amount of reading you need to do, as well as providing the basis for an outline. Moreover, it prevents you from writing an unbalanced answer, in which part of the question is not fully developed. Essays in exams do not usually have a word limit, but it is equally important to plan them in similar terms e.g. part 1, 40%; part 2, 60%. ■

Identify the key words in the following titles and decide what percentage of the main body to give to each part.

Title

Part 1 (%)

Part 2 (%)

a) Describe the typical social, cultural and environmental impacts experienced by tourist destinations in developing countries. How can harmful impacts be reduced or avoided? b) How can schools make better use of IT (information technology)? Illustrate your answer with examples from one country. c) Outline the main diffculties in combating malaria in Southeast Asia. Suggest possible strategies for more effective anti-malaria campaigns.

7 Outlines An outline should help the writer to answer the question as effectively as possible. Care at this stage will save wasted effort later. The more detail you include in your outline, the easier the writing process will be. Note that for coursework it is usually better to write the main body first, then the introduction and finally the conclusion. Therefore you may prefer to outline just the main body at this stage. There is no fixed pattern for an outline; different methods appeal to different students. For example, with the first part of title 2a) above: ‘Summarise the main reasons for the growth of e-commerce …’ a) The outline might be a list: 1. Benefits for buyers ● greater convenience in shopping by internet at any time ● lower prices ● better choice

1.2: Essay Questions and the Planning Process

2.

Benefits for sellers ● cost saving by centralising distribution ● global customer base ● 24/7 trading

b) An alternative is a mind map:

c)

What are the advantages and drawbacks of each method?

8 Practice ■

You have to answer the second part of the title above (… and discuss the likely results of this). In preparation read the following text, and then prepare an outline using either method.

BRITISH SHOPPERS GO ONLINE People in Britain do more of their shopping (currently 20%) through the internet than in most other countries. This figure, which is increasing rapidly, is having significant effects on many industries. Britain’s geography makes it ideal for the spread of e-commerce, due to it being a small and densely populated country, so that most households can be easily reached from giant warehouses in the Midlands. The popularity and convenience of smartphones is also encouraging internet shopping. The result is that retailers have had to focus on logistics to compete for trade. The efficient management of parcels is the key to success: over a billion packages were sent out in 2018. One effect has been a revival in the fortunes of Royal Mail, which had been suffering from a decline in its letter business. Most internet orders are sent from huge ‘fulfilment centres’ in central England; these structures now cover 40 million square metres. However, intense

17

18

Part 1: The Writing Process

competition on delivery times has recently led to a trend to build warehouses on the edge of cities, especially London, to be near customers. As a result, the cost of rents for these has risen sharply, since this land is also in demand for housing. Another concern for internet retailers is the legal obligation to accept returned goods within two weeks of sale. This amounts to about 6% of sales overall, but as much as 40% with items of clothing. This increases costs for the seller, but has also created a new niche business in dealing with these goods. The volume of parcel deliveries, coupled with the food delivery services run by the major supermarkets, has led to more traffic on the roads. In addition, there is a shortage of drivers for the trucks and vans involved, since this work is demanding and low-paid. One solution may be to use driverless vehicles, and trials of these have begun. At the moment about 3 million people work in UK shops, but the increase in e-commerce and the inevitable closure of many shops may lead to the loss of about a third of these jobs within the next ten years. Some of the closed stores may re-open as cafes, bars or restaurants, others may develop into ‘shopping experiences’ which give customers a taste of the product instead of just selling it. In any case it is likely that Britain’s high streets will drastically change their character in the years to come. (Source: Kuyper, J. (2018) Tomorrow’s Cities, p. 232)

Outline: … discuss the likely results of this.

UNIT

1.3

Reading Finding Suitable Sources

The ability to find relevant and suitable sources is a key academic skill. Although students often underestimate the importance of effective reading, on any course it is vital to be able to locate and process the most valuable sources quickly. This unit: Examines the most appropriate types of texts for academic work ●● Explores ways of locating relevant material in the library ●● Explains the use of electronic resources ●● Demonstrates effective reading methods ●●

1 Types of text ■■ With a partner, list in the table the most common types of sources students may use. Then discuss their likely advantages and disadvantages. Text type

Advantages

Disadvantages

Textbooks

Written for students

May be too general or outdated

2 Academic resources It is useful to think of three levels of academic resources, all of which will be needed by undergraduate and postgraduate students: DOI:  10.4324/9781003010210-4

20

Part 1: The Writing Process

Primary resources such as journal articles often contain the latest research and ideas. Unpublished PhD theses and other ‘grey’ material can also be useful, but care must be taken with all these resources as they may be controversial or represent a minority opinion. Textbooks and other books, especially if they have had several editions, are likely to be more reliable and probably easier to read, particularly as textbooks are usually specially written for students. Tertiary material such as dictionaries and encyclopaedias are the most thoroughly edited resources, and should be consulted when necessary. The type of resource that students use will clearly depend on their subject: law students will need case reports while history students may require newspaper archives. Librarians often organise introductory sessions or provide advice online: it is well worth carefully exploring your library website.

3 Assessing texts ■

What factors should you consider when searching for useful sources?

With most modules your teacher will give you a reading list, but in other situations you will have to identify the most suitable texts and recognise their features, which will help you to assess their value. ■

You are studying Water Management. Read the following text extracts A–C and discuss with other students if they are suitable for academic use, and why. Text

Suitability?

A B C

A. Worldwide pressures The global nature of the crisis is underlined in reports from many regions. In south Asia, there have been huge losses of groundwater, which has been pumped up with reckless lack of control over the past decade. About 600 million people live on the 2,000 sq. km. area that extends from eastern Pakistan, across the hot dry plains of northern India and into Bangladesh, and the land is the most intensely irrigated in the world. Up to 75% of farmers rely on pumped groundwater to water their crops and water use is intensifying – at the same time that satellite images show that supplies are shrinking alarmingly.

1.3: Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

Changing precipitation and melting snow and ice are already altering hydrological systems in many areas. Glaciers continue to shrink worldwide, affecting villages and towns downstream. The result, says the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, is that the proportion of the global population experiencing water scarcity is bound to increase throughout the twenty-frst century. More and more, people and nations will have to compete for resources. An international dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the latter’s plans to dam the Nile has only recently been resolved. In future, far more serious conficts are likely to erupt as the planet dries up. Even in high latitudes, the one region on Earth where rainfall is likely to intensify in coming years, climate change will still reduce water quality and pose risks due to a number of factors: rising temperatures; increased levels of sediments, nutrients, and pollutants triggered by heavy rainfall; and disruption of treatment facilities during foods. The world faces a water crisis that will touch every part of the globe, a point that has been stressed by Jean Chrétien, former Canadian prime minister and co-chair of the InterAction Council. ‘The future political impact of water scarcity may be devastating’, he claimed. ‘Using water the way we have in the past simply will not sustain humanity in future’. B. A drying world? It is easy to think that water will always be plentiful, as it covers 70% of our planet. However, freshwater – the stuff we drink, bathe in, irrigate our farm felds with – is extremely rare. Only 3% of the world’s water is fresh water, and two-thirds of that is tucked away in frozen glaciers or otherwise unavailable for our use. As a result, some 1.1 billion people worldwide lack access to water, and a total of 2.7 billion fnd water scarce for at least one month of the year. Inadequate sanitation is also a problem for 2.4 billion people – they are exposed to diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever and other water-borne illnesses. Two million people, mostly children, die each year from diarrheal diseases alone. Many of the water systems that keep ecosystems thriving and feed a growing human population have become stressed. Rivers, lakes and aquifers are drying up or becoming too polluted to use. More than half the world’s wetlands have disappeared. Agriculture consumes more water than any other source and wastes much of that through ineffciencies. Climate change is altering patterns of weather and water around the world, causing shortages and droughts in some areas and foods in others. This situation will only get worse at the current rate of consumption. By 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population may face water shortages, and ecosystems around the world will suffer even more. C. Measuring scarcity It is surprisingly diffcult to determine whether water is truly scarce in the physical sense at a global scale (a supply problem) or whether it is available but should be used

21

22

Part 1: The Writing Process

better (a demand problem). Rijsberman (2006) reviews water scarcity indicators and global assessments based on these indicators. The most widely used indicator, the Falkenmark indicator, is popular because it is easy to apply and understand, but it does not help to explain the true nature of water scarcity. The more complex indicators are not widely applied because data are lacking to apply them and the defnitions are not intuitive. Water is defnitely physically scarce in densely populated arid areas, such as Central and West Asia, and North Africa, with projected availabilities of less than 1000 m³/ capita/year. This scarcity relates to water for food production, however, and not to water for domestic purposes that are minute at this scale. In most of the rest of the world water scarcity at a national scale has as much to do with the development of the demand as the availability of the supply. Accounting for water for environmental requirements shows that abstraction of water for domestic, food and industrial uses already has a major impact on ecosystems in many parts of the world, even those not considered ‘water scarce’.

■

Some of the main features of academic texts are listed in the table below. Find examples of each feature in the texts above.

Feature

Examples

Formal or semi-formal vocabulary

Sources are cited

Objective, impersonal style

4 Using reading lists Your teacher may give you a printed reading list, or it may be available online through the library website. The list will usually include books, journal articles and websites. If the list is electronic there will be links to the library catalogue to let you check on the availability of the material. If the list is printed, you will have to use the library catalogue to find the texts. You do not have to read every word of all the books on the list: your teacher will probably suggest which sources should be prioritised. On reading lists you will often find the following formats: Books

Griffn, R.C. (2016). Water Resource Economics: The Analysis of Scarcity, Policies, and Projects. 2nd ed. MIT Press.

1.3: Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

Journal articles

Falkenmark, M., Lundqvist, J. and Widstrand, C. (1989). ‘Macro-scale water scarcity requires micro-scale approaches.’ Natural Resources Forum 13: 258–267.

Websites

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml

■

23

What are the differences between the formats of books and journal articles?

5 Searching library catalogues University and college libraries usually have online catalogues. These allow you to search for the materials you want in various ways. If the title and author’s name are known it is easy to check if the book is available. But if you are making a search for material on a specific topic you may have to vary the search terms. For instance, if you want information about exploration for oil, you might try: ● ● ● ●

oil exploration exploring for oil hydrocarbon exploration exploring for hydrocarbons.

■

You have been given an essay title: ‘Outline the current state of global exploration for oil, and relate this to future levels of production’. You have entered the term ‘oil exploration’ in the library catalogue search engine, and these are the nine results. Which would you select to borrow? Give your reasons.

Full details

Title

Edition/ Year

Location

Holdings

1

History, Exploration & Exploitation of Oil and Gas/ Silvia Fernanda Figueirôa (Ed.), Gregory A. Good (Ed.), Drielli Peyerl (Ed.).

2019

Science Library

Availability

2

Upstream: Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: An Overview/ Levonne Louie. 

2015

Main Library

Availability

24

Part 1: The Writing Process

Full details

Title

Edition/ Year

Location

Holdings

3

Oil exploration and human rights violations in Nigeria’s oil producing communities / Olubayo Oloduro.

2013

Main Library

Availability

4

Oil and gas exploration and production [electronic resource]: Reserves, costs contracts / Nadine BretRouzaut and Jean-Piere Favennec.

3rd ed. 2011

Main Library

Availability

5

Deepwater petroleum exploration & production [electronic resource]: a nontechnical guide / William L. Leffer, Richard Pattarozzi, Gordon Sterling.

2011

Main Library

Availability

6

Hydrocarbon exploration and production / Frank Jahn, Mark Cook and Mark Graham.

2nd ed. 2008

Science Library

Availability

7

China and the global energy crisis: development and prospects for China’s oil and natural gas / Tatsu Kambara, Christopher Howe.

2007

Main Library

Availability

8

Operational aspects of oil and gas well testing [electronic resource] / Stuart McAleese.

2000

Main Library

Availability

9

Geophysical exploration: an outline of the principal methods used in the search for minerals, oil, gas and water supplies / F.W. Dunning.

1970

Science Library

Availability

1.3: Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

25

Full details

If you click on this you will get more information about the book, including the number of pages and a summary of the contents. If a book has more than one edition it suggests that it is a successful title. This may help you to decide whether to borrow it.

Year

The most recent books are listed first; always try to use the most up-to-date sources.

Location

Many large universities have more than one library. This tells you which one the book is kept in.

Holdings

If you click on availability, it will tell you how many copies the library holds and if they are available to borrow or out on loan.

6 Using library websites to search journals and bibliographic databases E-journals and other electronic resources such as subject databases are vital tools for all university students. Their advantage is that they can be accessed online, saving the need to visit the library to find a book. Most library websites have a separate portal or gateway for searching electronic resources. This allows you to enter the name of a specific journal, or look for possible journals in your subject area by entering a term such as ‘international business law’. In this case, the database may offer the following titles: European Business Law Review European Business Organisation Law Review International Trade and Business Law Review With each journal, you can access a list of issues available. In the case of European Business Organisation Law Review, which has four issues per year, the list would include: Dec 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 4 Sep 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 3 Jun 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 2 Mar 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 1

26

Part 1: The Writing Process

By clicking on any of these issues you can read a full list of articles. It is usually sufficient to read the abstract to find out if the article will be relevant to your work. Note that most journal websites contain a search engine to allow you to search all back issues by subject. They may also offer links to articles in other journals on the same topic. Another useful tool is Google Scholar. This will let you read abstracts of thousands of articles in every discipline, and in some cases you can read the full article, or access it through your university library.

7 Reading abstracts Abstracts are normally found in journal articles, where they act as a kind of summary to allow researchers to decide if it is worth reading the full article. Students do not normally have to write abstracts, but it is important to be able to read them effectively. ■

Study the example below and underline the following features of an abstract. a) Background to study b) Purpose/ aim of research c)

Method of research

d) Findings/ results of research e) Implications of study

Politics of the ring: limits to public participation in engineering practice How engineering in the context of urban socio-economic challenges is practically and effectively mobilized has been the subject of some debate. Numerous professional bodies have encouraged engineers to approach socio-environmental issues through increased engagement with, and accountability to, the public through effective participatory practices. This article presents a close empirical analysis of a major engineering project in London to argue that engineering has a more complex relationship with social, political and environmental conditions than the idealistic participatory conception supposes. In fact, the spatial, technical and economic arrangements of engineering practice may limit the potential for public participation. Through a detailed analysis of the London Water Ring Main (from around 1988 to 1994), this article shows how myriad sometimes conflicting engineering issues and responsibilities interfered with key elements of effective participation. Therefore, although increased public engagement in engineering may be desirable in theory, substantial professional, institutional and political change may have to occur before this is possible in practice. (Source: Hillier, J. (2018). International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 42 (2): 334–356)

1.3: Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

27

8 Practice: varying search terms ■

As part of your Environmental Science course you are researching the largest rivers in North America. But your initial search terms: Major North American river systems do not provide many useful results. How could you vary the terms? a)

Finding synonyms: major = large/ principal

a)

Use abbreviations: American = US/ USA

b)

Use wild cards (*): Americ* = America or American

c)

Use quotation marks: ‘river systems’ = keeps these words linked together

river systems = waterways

■

You are researching ‘changing rainfall patterns in Southeast Asia’. How could you vary these terms?

■

Select a specifc topic from your subject area. a)

Use the library catalogue to search for relevant books. Write down the most useful titles.

b)

Look for a few relevant journal articles using the library portal. Write a reference for each article.

9 Assessing text features These features should help you find texts relevant to your studies.

Author

Is the writer well-known in their field? What else have they published?

Publication date and edition

How old is the book? Do not use a first edition if there is a (revised) second or later edition available.

Abstract

See section 7 above.

Contents

A list of the main chapters or sections. This should tell you how much space is given to the topic you are researching.

28

Part 1: The Writing Process

Introduction or preface

This is where authors often explain their reasons for writing, and also describe how the text is organised.

References

This list shows all the sources used by the author and cited in the text. It should give you some suggestions for further reading.

Bibliography

These are the sources the author has used but not specifically referred to. A bibliography is not required for short writing tasks.

Index

This is an alphabetical list of all the topics and names mentioned in a book. If, for example, you are looking for information about a person, the index will tell you whether that person is mentioned, and how often.

10 Reading strategies Reading academic texts in the quantity required for most courses is a demanding task. It is clearly quite different from reading a magazine or novel for entertainment. Yet students will not benefit from attending lectures and seminars unless the preparatory reading is done promptly, while most writing tasks require extensive reading. Academic texts often contain new vocabulary and phrases, and may be written in a rather formal style. This means that special methods have to be learnt to cope with the volume of reading needed, and students must be clear about exactly what they are reading for. You do not have time to read irrelevant texts, so you must adopt a two-stage process of selection: ● ●

carefully choose which texts you read only read the sections of the texts which are relevant to your task.

The chart below illustrates the best approach to assessing texts for suitability. ■

Complete the empty boxes in the chart with the following techniques: ● ● ●

Read intensively to make notes on key points Survey text features (e.g. abstract, contents, index) Ask yourself how this relates to your own knowledge of the subject and reasons for reading

1.3: Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

■

29

Can you suggest any other reading skills to add to the chart above?

11 Practice ■

You are writing a report on the impact of the internet on wage levels. Using the reading skills discussed above, decide if the following text is worth reading intensively by: a) skimming quickly for relevance b) scanning for useful sources.

The internet gap: the effect of the world wide web on wage inequality A recent study of the adoption of broadband by Brazilian companies (Poliquin, 2018) looked at the results of this process between 2000 and 2009. Employees of adopting companies enjoyed a 2.3% rise in real wages compared to those in companies which failed to adopt, while managers’ pay increased by 8% and directors gained 18%. These results suggest that the internet boosted

30

Part 1: The Writing Process

productivity throughout the companies. Poliquin’s research duplicates the result of a Norwegian study (Akerman, Gaarder and Mogstad, 2015) which stresses the benefits which were gained by skilled workers, while the work of unskilled employees was often automated. Research which compares the situation of companies in different sectors (Song et al., 2019) suggests the emergence of a high-wage sector such as technology, and a low-wage sector, for example in retail. A contributing factor may be the development of outsourcing, by which functions such as catering are moved to low-wage businesses. It seems that there may be a shortage of workers with digital skills, which may be surprising, given the prominence of social media platforms such as Facebook in everyday life. But a 2016 study by the OECD found that less than half of all adults were capable of doing more than writing a simple email. (Source: Jacobson, Y. (2020). ‘A less equal world: Wage differentials in practice.’ Journal of Econometrics 8: 143–151)

UNIT

1.4

Reading Developing Critical Approaches

Students are expected to take a critical approach to their sources, which means challenging what they read, rather than passively accepting it as reliable. This is particularly important when dealing with internet sources. The approach first requires a thorough understanding of the text, using the skills developed in the previous unit. This unit explores and practises the critical analysis of texts.

1 Critical thinking Critical thinking means not accepting without question what you hear or read, but instead actively questioning and assessing it. Even when you feel that a text is reliable and that you can safely use it as a source, it is still important to adopt a critical attitude towards it. This approach is perhaps easiest to learn when reading, but is important for all other academic work (i.e. listening, discussing and writing). As you read you should ask yourself the following questions: a) b) c) d)

What are the key ideas in this? Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step? Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better? Does the author have any bias (leaning to one side or the other)? If so, it must be taken into account. e) Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common sense? f) Do I agree with the writer’s views, based on my own knowledge?

2 Fact and opinion When reading, it is important to distinguish between facts: Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia. DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-5

32

Part 1: The Writing Process

and opinions: Kuala Lumpur is a welcoming, bustling city. NB: Opinions are often expressed by using adjectives (welcoming, bustling). Be wary of texts containing frequent opinions. In addition, the reader needs to decide if the facts given are true: Singapore lies near the equator. (true) Singapore was an ancient trading port. (false) In some cases, facts and opinions are mixed in the same sentence: The island state of Singapore, home to nearly six million people, is a lively, thriving place. (= fact + fact + opinion) You need to be careful with texts that contain unsupported opinions or ‘facts’ that you think are wrong. A)

j (

Read the following and underline what is presented as a fact (_______) or opinion ). Then decide if the ‘facts’ are true.

Example: Sydney is the capital of Australia. Not true – the capital is Canberra. a) Australia is a dynamic, prosperous and enterprising country. b) The majority of Australians live on sheep farms. c)

Most Australians are open-minded and friendly.

d) Australia is the largest island in the world, and has extensive mineral deposits. e) Among the 22 million Australians are some of the world’s best cricket players. B) j Read the paragraph on New Zealand and underline facts and opinions as above. Then rewrite the paragraph in an objective style, correcting the ‘facts’ where needed.

New Zealand is a proud island nation in the northern Pacific Ocean, consisting of three main islands. Nearly 1,000 miles west of Australia, it was one of the last places on Earth to be settled by man: by the Polynesians who arrived in about 1250 CE, and who developed the fascinating Maori culture. In the eighteenth century enterprising European settlers started to land, and in 1941 New Zealand became part of the British Empire. Due to its long period of isolation many distinctive plants and animals evolved, such as the kiwi fruit, now the nation’s symbol. Today the country is famous for its successful cricket team, the All Blacks, and is a popular holiday destination.

1.4: Reading: Developing Critical Approaches

33

3 Assessing internet sources critically Internet sources are plentiful and convenient, but you cannot afford to waste time on using websites which are unreliable or out of date. Anyone can set up and run a website, and so web sources must be approached with great caution. If you are using material that is not on the reading list you must assess it critically to ensure that the material is trustworthy by asking several questions about each site: ● ● ● ● ● ●

■

Who is responsible for this website? Is it controlled by an academic body, or is it run commercially to sell a product? Does it have a political or religious bias? Is the name of the author given, and is she well-known in the field? Is the language of the text in a suitable academic style? Are there any obvious errors in the text, e.g. factual mistakes, or incorrect spelling, which suggest a careless approach? Is the material up-to-date? Is there advertising on the website? Compare these two texts about a pharmaceutical company, Evergreen. Underline facts and opinions as before. Discuss with a partner which seems more reliable.

A. Our success is based on a commitment to discovery, finding new ideas that are inspired by life and which in turn help to inspire the lives of our stakeholders. We discover new medicines that are designed to improve the health and quality of life of patients around the world – medicines which are innovative, effective and which offer added benefits such as reduced side effects or better ways of taking the treatment. We also focus on getting the best from every medicine we make by exploring all the ways it can be used or improved. With a global business comes a global responsibility for consistently high standards of behaviour worldwide. We aim to effectively manage that responsibility and help to find new ways of bringing benefit to society to ensure that Evergreen continues to be welcomed as a valued member of the global community. B. Recent trading results from Evergreen show an apparently healthy position, with pre-tax profit rising by 24% and total revenues up 5%. These figures, however, were inflated by some one-off gains, such as a $152 million sale of swine flu vaccine to the US government. Sales of the ZX high blood pressure drug also increased sharply due to its main rival being temporarily off the market due to safety concerns. Costs were very significantly lower in the last quarter, falling 14% due to productivity improvements. The anti-cholesterol drug Hixx also sold very well, becoming the market leader, but there are concerns that a pending US court case may soon challenge Evergreen’s patent on this product. There are also worries that re-organisation of the American healthcare system may affect Evergreen’s long-term profits, and the company’s shares have recently fallen by 6%.

34

Part 1: The Writing Process

The first text contains little or no precise information about the company’s performance and is full of statements that cannot be checked (medicines that are innovative, effective). It appears to be taken from the company website. By contrast the second seems to be based on a recent independent financial report and contains both facts (profits rising by 24%) and some comment or opinion (may affect Evergreen’s long-term profits). The first text is of little use to a student, the second could be used, with care, for analysis of the company’s current state.

4 Domain name suffxes These are some of the domain name suffixes you will meet: .ac.uk

UK academic

.edu

US academic

.gov.uk

UK government

.gov

US government

.co.uk

UK company

.org

US organisation

.org.uk

UK organisation

.com

US or UK company

.edu.au

Australian academic

.edu.sg

Singapore academic

■

You are researching the health benefts of being a vegetarian, so you Google ‘health benefts vegetarian’. Below are some of the sites you fnd listed. Which ones are likely to have a bias? https://www.nhs.uk https://www.vegsoc.org http://www.meatismurder.com https://www.vegansociety.com https://academic.oup.com/ https://www.meatlessfarm.com http://health.harvard.edu http://vegetariantimes.com

5 Practice A ■

Read critically the two articles below on universities, using the questions in 3) above.

A. College concerns Despite their dominance of global league tables (e.g. Shanghai Rankings Consultancy) American universities currently face significant criticism. The American Enterprise Institute (AEI) and the Goldwater Institute have recently published negative reports on US universities, while a highly critical book Higher Education? (Hacker and Dreifus) was published

1.4: Reading: Developing Critical Approaches

in 2010. The critics focus on the rising costs of American higher education, which have increased at a much faster rate than inflation, resulting in a situation where even middle-class families are finding the expense unsupportable. In the past, many American students paid for their education by working part-time while studying, but now the higher fees mean that students finish their education with significant levels of debt. This debt can be a serious burden at the start of their working lives, when they may be hoping to get married or buy a property. Another target of criticism is the focus on research at the expense of teaching. Students rarely meet the ‘star’ professors, being taught instead by badly paid graduate students, who work on short-term contracts. It is claimed that in one year nearly half of Harvard’s history professors were on sabbatical leave. As a consequence, students work less; according to the AEI they currently study for 14 hours per week, whereas 50 years ago the figure was 24 hours per week. Despite this the proportion of students gaining a first or 2:1 degree has increased significantly: a situation described by the critics as ‘grade inflation’. It seems incredible that working less should really be rewarded by better grades. (Source: Atlantic Digest, July 2014, p. 119) B. A brighter tomorrow? There is little doubt that a university degree is the key to a better future for any student. Despite the costs involved in terms of fees, it has been calculated that the average UK university graduate will earn £400,000 ($600,000) more over their lifetime compared to a non-graduate. Possession of a degree will also assist a graduate to find a satisfying job more quickly and give greater prospects for promotion inside the chosen career. A degree from a British university is recognised all over the world as proof of a high-quality education. A university course will not only provide students with up-to-date knowledge in their subject area, but also provide practice with the essential skills required by many employers today, such as the ability to communicate effectively using ICT, or the skills of team working and problem solving. In addition, living away from home in an international atmosphere gives the opportunity to make new friends from all over the world, and build networks of contacts that may be invaluable in a future career. Studying at university is a unique opportunity for many young people to develop individually by acquiring independence, free from parental control. They will learn to look after themselves in a secure environment, and gain useful life skills such as cooking and budgeting. Most graduates look back at their degree courses as a valuable experience at a critical period of their lives. (Source: East Wessex University Prospectus, 2018, p. 5)

35

36

Part 1: The Writing Process

■

List any statements from the articles that you fnd unreliable and add comments to explain your doubts in the table below. Then decide which article you fnd more reliable overall.

Statements

Comments

A. College concerns

B. A brighter tomorrow?

6 Practice B ■

You are researching for a report on the economic and social impact of electric cars. Read the following texts critically and, working alone or with a partner, assess their value for your research by completing the box below.

A. Volkswagen plugs in Herbert Diess, the tough-talking CEO of Volkswagen (VW) recently promised to develop 70 new models of electric vehicles (EVs) in the next ten years, significantly increasing the company’s commitment to this exciting new technology. Diess moved to VW from BMW three years ago, promising to confront the powerful labour unions which many shareholders feel have held back VW’s profitability for far too long. Despite producing nearly 11 billion vehicles per year the company’s productivity and profitability are poor, so that the group depends on its upmarket brands, Audi and Porsche, for earnings. The unions are strongly represented on the company’s board and resist any attempt to move production away from Wolfsburg, VW’s base, to cheaper locations outside Germany. Their sole priority is preserving the roughly 300,000 VW jobs inside the country, and they have even opposed plans to sell off subsidiary companies such as Ducati, a motorbike business. Officially, VW claims that the new focus on EVs will help reduce global emissions of carbon dioxide, and also meet stringent new European regulations. But the emphasis on EVs can also be seen as a welcome move to weaken union power, since EVs, having fewer components, are simpler to make and thus require a smaller workforce. However, the unions point out that VW’s involvement in the recent exhaust emissions scandal, which cost the company over £1 billion and damaged its reputation, was more harmful than their labour practices. (Source: European Business Weekly, 8 February 2019)

1.4: Reading: Developing Critical Approaches

B. How electric cars will change the world There is a clear global shift away from petrol and diesel cars. China, the world’s largest car market, is working on a timetable to stop the production and sale of vehicles powered by fossil fuels. India has declared its intention to make all new vehicles electric by 2030. Like Britain and France, these two markets are planning to phase out the sale of petrol and diesel vehicles over the next 20 years or so. Vehicle manufacturers, the oil industry and governments are starting to wake up to the disruption that vehicle electrification could bring about. Automakers recognise that they cannot afford to be legislated out of these lucrative markets. Volvo, Jaguar and Land Rover, Volkswagen, Mercedes, Audi and BMW have all promised to roll out electric models over the next decade. Electro-mobility now seems inevitable, but the impact this shift will have on jobs, the oil economy and even national tax systems will be profound. The global impact on jobs

Electric vehicles, including their batteries, generally require less manufacturing labour than ones that run on petrol. For this reason, among others, a phase-out of combustion engines by 2030 could cost an estimated 600,000 jobs in Germany alone, according to one report from that country’s Ifo Economic Research Institute. Going all-electric by 2030 will place considerable budgetary stress on major oil-producing countries, and change the geopolitical map. Stanford economist Tony Seba and his team push the vision of an electric vehicle revolution a step further, and predict that the disruption will come earlier, during the 2020s. They argue that oil demand will peak at 100 million barrels per day by 2020 and fall to 70 million barrels per day by 2030. According to their 2017 study, net exporting countries like Venezuela, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Russia will feel the greatest impact. They also claim that the geopolitics of lithium, which along with nickel, cobalt and cadmium is key to electric vehicles, are entirely different from oil politics. Although there is potential for supply disruption, lithium is not as critical as oil in the life of a car. The impact on government coffers

By 2030, revenues from petrol taxes could be reduced significantly, with the shift from individual ownership of petrol vehicles to shared (and ultimately autonomous) electric vehicle fleets. Governments whose budgets rely on this revenue stream could find themselves

37

38

Part 1: The Writing Process

shifting to road pricing, such as charging per kilometre of travel or congestion charging. Modelling by Seba and his team shows that US$50 billion from petrol taxes could disappear from the American economy. (Source: Dia, H. (2020). ‘Jobs, tax and politics: three ways electric vehicles will change our world’. The Montrose Review, January 2020)

A. Volkswagen plugs in

Negative points

Positive points

B. How electric cars will change the world

UNIT

1.5

Finding Key Points and Note-making

After finding a suitable source and identifying relevant sections of text, the next step is to select the key points that relate to your topic and make notes on them. This unit explains and practises this process, which also involves skills further developed in Unit 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing.

1 Why make notes? Note-making is a common everyday activity which is often used to assist our memory. In academic work making effective notes is a critical skill in various situations. ■

What are the main academic uses of note-making? Add to the list below.

a)

To summarise the relevant points of an article or book

b) c) d) e)

2 Finding key points Before making notes, you need to find the main ideas in a text. These are often in the first sentence of a paragraph, and tend to be followed by re-statements or examples. ► See Unit 1.10 Organising Paragraphs DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-6

40

Part 1: The Writing Process

■

Read the following article about fnancial fraud, underline the key points and then choose a title for the article.

Title:_____________________________________________________________________ Despite its benefits, the worldwide web has created many new opportunities for criminals to steal money through fraudulent emails and websites. It is difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of internet scams, but the fraud research centre at Stanford University gives a total of more than $50bn per year in the USA. The scammers are steadily becoming more sophisticated and may clone authentic websites, or make phone calls that seem to come from real banks or the tax authorities. Many of the victims are wealthier retired people, who are deceived by fake websites offering tax refunds or fraudulent dating profiles. Such people may be well-educated, but often they overestimate their financial ability, and they may be especially vulnerable if suffering from a recent emotional trauma such as divorce. Many people find it hard to admit, even to themselves, that they have been swindled out of their savings, and some never report their losses. Normally banks refuse to compensate people who have lost money through these schemes, although many victims argue that the banks are partly responsible for the functioning of some of the scams. In turn, the banks maintain that some responsibility lies with the internet companies that give a platform to the fraudsters. In Britain a voluntary code has been prepared, which would compensate some victims who made bank payments after getting fake messages from the ‘police’ or other authorities. But the question remains: who will fund the compensation scheme?

3 Finding relevant points When preparing to write an essay you have to search for information and ideas relevant to your subject. Therefore, the key points that you select must relate to that topic. ■

You are given this essay title: ‘Can changes in social behaviour contribute to a reduction in global carbon emissions? Illustrate your answer with specifc examples’.

Read the following article and underline the key points that link to the essay topic.

CAN SHAME MAKE PEOPLE CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOUR? The last few years have seen the rise of environmental activists using shame as a weapon against polluting businesses. This includes flygskam (a Swedish word meaning ‘flight shame’) and campaigns against animal-based products, such as milk. Although the

1.5: Finding Key Points and Note-making

41

campaigners are relatively few in number they appear to be having a significant effect on certain companies, for instance the Dutch airline KLM is suggesting that customers should take a train on some routes. This appears to be a worldwide movement, so that many Chinese consumers are also aware of the environmental dimension to their shopping. New startup businesses seek to make a brand out of sustainability, as has been done by the car maker Tesla. Investors are also becoming concerned about the long-term outlook for polluting businesses like airlines, which account for about 2% of total global carbon emissions. In Sweden passengers numbers were falling before the Covid-19 outbreak, a growing trend which casts doubts on the airline industry’s forecast of steadily increasing demand. Fashion is another industry in which companies are becoming concerned about the opinions of young buyers. Causing considerably more carbon emissions than aviation, businesses such as H&M have been producing dozens of new collections of garments every year, thus contributing to a throwaway culture. In 2019 many of the leading fashion houses agreed to clean up their practices, probably due to the threat from clothes rental or recycling startups. Pressure on the food industry from vegetarians and vegans has been growing for some time. As their numbers steadily increase, both McDonalds and Burger King have introduced burgers made from plants, while many more restaurants have started to offer a better choice for non-meat eaters. While reduced demand for meat products should reduce carbon emissions, it is not clear how reducing consumption of locally sourced dairy products in favour, for example, of imported soya milk is going to help the planet. There are many historical precedents for this type of protest. In the late eighteenth century American revolutionaries boycotted English tea, while at the same time British abolitionists refused to buy sugar from the slave plantations of the West Indies, and in the apartheid years South African products were widely avoided. Although presently only a minority concern, firms should be aware that many of these campaigns have been successful in the past. (Source: Radickova, E. (2020). International Perspectives 5: 89)

4 Practice A ■

● ● ●

You are looking for information on the everyday effects of technological change. Study the text below (key points underlined) and the notes in the box. What do you notice about the language of the notes?

42

Part 1: The Writing Process

A CASHLESS CONTINENT? There are significant differences between payment methods among European countries. In Scandinavia many shops and cafes no longer accept cash: all payments are made with credit or debit cards. By contrast, in Italy and other southern states the majority of transactions are still made in cash. The reasons for the variations are both historical and cultural. Sweden is the leader in the ‘plastic revolution’, with about 95% of all payments (by value) made by card. This method is seen as quicker and more convenient for both customers and businesses, and also cheaper for the latter, since bank notes need to be sorted, checked and protected. It is also thought that the use of cash encourages tax avoidance, while banks are forced to maintain a large branch network to provide ATM facilities and also accept cash deposits. A further argument against cash use is that cashless shops are less likely to be robbed, so that the staff feel more secure. In contrast, people in both Italy and Germany are far less enthusiastic about a cashless society: here more than 75% of transactions are still made in cash. Their banks charge more to handle card payments, so that shop keepers are less keen to accept them. In Germany there also seem to be fears about security and privacy, perhaps as a legacy of state control in the past, while some Italians apparently prefer to keep their transactions hidden from the government. Everywhere there are poorer people who have no bank account and consequently need to operate in cash, and ultimately cash provides security in case the system breaks down. But despite these considerations, cultural as well as economic, the benefits of a cashless economy seem likely to result in a steady shift towards the use of plastic cards across Europe. (Source: East-West Monthly, December 2017, p. 112)

EUROPEAN PAYMENT TRENDS 1. 2.

Wide variation in methods of payment in Europe – cultural & historical causes In Scandinavia (esp. Sweden) most payments by card: Reasons a) fast and convenient + saves outlets money b) prevents tax evasion c) safer for shops d) banks need fewer branches 3. In Germany & Italy most payments in cash: a) higher bank charges for cards

1.5: Finding Key Points and Note-making

4.

43

b) security concerns c) worries re: govt. interference Cash needed by poor (no bank accounts) and for back-up but general trend > cashless economy

(Source: East-West Monthly, December 2017, p. 112)

5 Effective note-making Notes are for your personal use and you need to create your own style. But some general considerations apply to all types of notes: a) To avoid the risk of plagiarism you should use your own words and not copy phrases from the original. b) The quantity of notes you make depends on your task: you may only need a few points, or a lot of detail. c) Always record the source of your notes, which will save time when you have to write the list of references. d) Notes are written quickly, so keep them simple. Do not write sentences. Leave out articles (a/ the) and prepositions (of/to). e) If you write lists, it is important to have clear headings (underlined) and numbering systems (a, b, c, or 1, 2, 3,) to organise the information. Do not crowd your notes. f) Use symbols (+, >, = ) to save time. g) Use abbreviations (e.g. = for example). You may need to make up your own abbreviations for your subject area. But do not abbreviate too much, or you may find your notes hard to understand in the future!

6 Practice B ■

Complete the set of notes made from the relevant underlined points of ‘Can shame make people change their behaviour?’ in 3) above.

IS SHAME AN EFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR CHANGER? a) Recent growth in environmental campaigns to shame customers of polluting companies b) c) d)

44

Part 1: The Writing Process

e) f) (Source: Radickova, E. (2020). International Perspectives 5: 89)

7 Practice C You have to write an essay titled: ‘How effective are methods of comparing the value of national educational systems?’. ■

Read the following text, underline the relevant key points and make notes on them.

THE LEARNING TOWER OF PISA? The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) publishes the results of the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) tests every three years. These tests attempt to measure the ability of 15- and 16-year-olds in reading, maths and science in all the member countries of the OECD (which are mainly richer states), so that by comparing PISA scores a measure of the effectiveness of each country’s educational system can be reached. When these figures were first published 20 years ago Finland was shown to have the highest scores, and consequently many educationalists visited the country to learn the secrets of its success. (In fact, so many went that the Finnish government began charging $1,300 per visit). They found a well-funded system of state schools with teachers who were highly respected by society, but without the intense pressure on children found in places such as South Korea or Japan. However, the latest test results show that Finland’s scores have fallen since then, while China, Singapore and Estonia have overtaken it. Yet overall, there has been little change in the average scores over all the member countries, despite a 15% increase in spending per pupil in the last decade. It is increasingly appreciated that schools and their teachers can only have a limited effect on student achievement. Cultural norms, especially the national work ethic, and rates of adult literacy are important. Another factor is immigration, since many immigrant children do not speak the language of school at home, and tend to perform poorly in tests.

1.5: Finding Key Points and Note-making

Another consideration in evaluating the PISA results may be distinct local circumstances. Estonia, for instance, has had significant emigration, resulting in a drop of nearly 30% in the school population since 2000. The resulting small class sizes may well be a factor in the success of its students in the tests. This suggests that trying, for example, to replicate the Estonian model of education in another country may be of limited value.

45

UNIT

1.6

Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is a concern for both teachers and students, but it can be avoided by clearly understanding the issues involved. In the English-speaking academic world it is essential for students to use a wide range of sources in their written work, and to acknowledge these sources following academic conventions – otherwise there is a risk of plagiarism. This unit introduces the techniques needed to do this. Further practice is provided in Units 1.7 References and Quotations and 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing.

1 Acknowledging sources If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must show that you have done this by providing the correct acknowledgement. ■

Read this paragraph from an article called ‘The morale effects of pay inequality’ by Emily Breza, Supreet Kaur and Yogita Shamdasani (2018).

We find evidence that relative pay enters workers’ utility function, with the potential for sizable negative impacts on labor supply and group cohesion. However, our findings indicate that pay inequality in itself is not necessarily problematic – at least not if it is clearly justified in the workers’ eyes. There are two ways to use this idea in your work and acknowledge the source: 1. Summary and citation Breza et al. (2018) found that pay inequality could have a negative effect on employees, unless it could be justified in their terms. DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-7

1.6: Avoiding Plagiarism

47

2. Quotation and citation According to Breza et al.: ‘relative pay enters workers’ utility function, with the potential for sizable negative impacts on labor supply and group cohesion. However, our findings indicate that pay inequality in itself is not necessarily problematic’ (Breza et al., 2018:623). These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the main text which includes the following details: Author(s)

Date

Title

Journal title

Details

Breza, E., Kaur, S., Shamdasani, Y.

2018

The morale effects of pay inequality

The Quarterly Journal of Economics

Volume 133, Issue 2, May 2018, pp. 611–663

The citation makes it clear to readers that you have read Breza, Kaur and Shamdasani and borrowed this idea from them. This reference also gives readers the necessary information to find the source if they want to study the original article. NB: There are various styles of referencing in the academic world, and different subjects tend to use different styles. The example here uses Harvard, but more details are given in Unit 1.7 References and Quotations.

2 What is plagiarism? Essentially plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source (e.g. a book or journal article) without giving credit (acknowledgement) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an academic crime. In academic work, ideas and texts are thought of as private property belonging to the person who first thought or wrote them. Therefore it is important for all students to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to prevent it in their work. This situation may appear confusing, since students are expected: to show that they have read the relevant sources on a subject (by giving citations)

but

to explain these ideas in their own words, and come to their own conclusions.

Understanding this requirement and being able to follow the rules is vital to achieving success in the academic community. Reasons why students must avoid plagiarism include: ● ● ● ●

copying the work of others will not help them develop their own understanding plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software, such as Turnitin* it shows a lack of respect for classmates who have worked independently plagiarism may lead to failing a course or even having to leave college

* This software can also be used by students who want to check that their written work does not contain plagiarism before they submit it for marking. See: https://www.turnitin.com/regions/uk

48

Part 1: The Writing Process

3 Basic plagiarism ■

Study the following sentence on early feminist movements:

What is more remarkable, however, is the way the breakdown of royal government in 1640, the prolonged political crisis between King and parliament of 1640–42, the Civil Wars of 1642–48, and the emergence of many extremist independent sects and of a genuinely radical political party, stimulated the women of London and elsewhere to unprecedented political activity. (Source: Stone, L. (1979). The Family, Sex and Marriage in England. Harmondsworth: Penguin)

■

Working with a partner, decide if the following, written by a student, is plagiarised from the previous extract:

A series of events: the 1640 collapse of royal government, the lengthy political crisis between parliament and the King, the 1642–48 Civil Wars, followed by the appearance of extreme sects and a genuinely radical party, caused women in London to become politically active for the first time. Not only does the above text lack citation, it also retains some phrases from the original and follows exactly the same structure. So avoiding plagiarism involves more than changing some vocabulary: ideas must be expressed in the writer’s own voice and correct citation must be included.

4 Degrees of plagiarism Although plagiarism essentially means copying somebody else’s work, in some situations it can be difficult to decide if plagiarism is involved. ■

Working with a partner, consider the following academic situations and decide if they are plagiarism or not. Situation

Plagiarism?

1

Copying a paragraph, but changing a few words, and not giving a citation.

Yes

2

Cutting and pasting a short article from a website, with no citation.

1.6: Avoiding Plagiarism

Situation 3

Taking two paragraphs from a classmate’s essay, without citation.

4

Taking a graph from a textbook, giving the source.

5

Taking a quotation from an article, giving a citation but not using quotation marks.

6

Using something that you think of as general knowledge, e.g. the earth’s climate is getting warmer.

7

Using a paragraph from an essay you wrote and had marked the previous semester, without citation.

8

Using the results of your own unpublished research, e.g. from a survey you did, without citation.

9

Discussing an essay topic with a group of classmates and using some of their ideas in your own work.

10

Giving a citation for some information but misspelling the author’s name.

49

Plagiarism?

This exercise shows that plagiarism can be accidental. For example, situation (10) above, when the author’s name is misspelt, is technically plagiarism but really carelessness. In situation (9) your teacher may have told you to discuss the topic in groups, and then to write an essay on your own, in which case it would not be plagiarism. Self-plagiarism is also possible, as in situation (7). It can be difficult to decide what is general or common knowledge (situation 6), but you can always try asking colleagues. However, it is not a good excuse to say that you didn’t know the rules of plagiarism, or that you didn’t have time to write in your own words. In general, anything that is not common knowledge or your own ideas and research (published or not) must be cited and referenced.

5 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing Quotations should not be overused, as they may give the impression that you are ‘padding out’ your work. So in order to include other writers’ ideas in your work you must learn to paraphrase and summarise. This will demonstrate your understanding of a text to your teacher. ● ●

Paraphrasing involves rewriting a text so that the language is significantly different while the content stays the same. Summarising means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points.

► See Unit 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing

50

Part 1: The Writing Process

Normally both skills are used at the same time, as can be seen in the examples (a–e) below. ■

Read the following text and then compare the fve paragraphs below which use ideas and information from it. Decide which are plagiarised and which are acceptable, and give your reasons in the table below.

The Z Generation Researchers have recently been studying the behaviour of ‘Generation Z’, who are defined as young people born since 1997. This group appear to have different concerns compared with their predecessors, the so-called ‘Millenials’ or ‘Generation Y’. The youngest group (i.e. Z), who now comprise about 25% of the population of the USA, cannot imagine living without smartphones or social media. Pew Research Center’s 2018 report, which surveyed nearly 1,000 young Americans aged between 13 and 17, finds that they are lonelier but better behaved than previous groups, and their prime concern is with mental health issues such as depression. These youngsters feel little pressure to use drugs or get drunk, but more than half mention bullying on social media as a worry. Doing well at school is the leading issue for nearly 90% of those questioned, far more important than finding a sexual partner. However, it appears that anxiety and depression increasingly affect people of all ages, and the WHO reckons that the cost to the global economy is roughly $1 trn annually. At the moment the US only spends 0.05% of its total health budget on psychiatric care, and increasing this total would have positive results in terms of greater happiness and productivity. (Source: Carroll, J. (2019). The New Consumers. Harlow: The Turnstile Press, p. 15) a) A recent study by Pew Research Center of the concerns of teenage Americans shows that this generation is surprisingly different from older groups. Instead of using drugs and alcohol, these youngsters are mainly worried about academic success and bullying on social media. Mental health is an important issue for them, but this appears to be something that increasingly affects young and old, globally. b) Academics have recently been studying the behaviour of ‘Generation Z’: young people born since 1997, who now comprise about 25% of the population of the USA. A 2018 report, which surveyed nearly 1,000 young Americans, finds that they are lonelier but better behaved than previous groups, and their main concern is with mental health issues like depression. These youngsters feel little pressure to use drugs or get drunk, but more than half mention bullying on social media as a worry. Doing well in college is the leading issue for most of those questioned, far more important than finding a sexual partner (Carroll, 2019: 15). c) Generation Z is the name given to people born since 1997, who have grown up with smartphones and social media. A report by Pew Research Center in 2018 identifies this cohort as mainly concerned with success at school and abuse on social media sites. They seem less interested in sex, drink or drugs, but more concerned with mental health, although apparently this is a growing concern for people all over the world (Carroll, 2019: 15). d) Recent research on American youngsters (age 13–17) reveals that their dominant concerns are with school grades and mental health issues, such as depression. According to Carroll: ‘These youngsters feel little pressure to use drugs or get drunk, but more than half mention bullying on social media as a worry’ (Carroll, 2019: 15).

1.6: Avoiding Plagiarism

51

e) The main issues for young Americans appear to be doing well academically, bullying on social media sites and dealing with mental health problems. This has been revealed by research carried out by Pew Research Centre, published in 2018. This contrasts markedly with the behaviour of older groups, who were more likely to be concerned with alcohol or drug taking, or finding a partner (Carol, 2019: 15). Plagiarised or acceptable?

Reason

a b c d e

6 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits Few students deliberately try to cheat by plagiarising, but some develop poor study habits which result in the risk of plagiarism. ■

Working with a partner, add to the list of positive habits. •

Plan your work carefully so you don’t have to write essays at the last minute.

•

Take care to make notes in your own words, not copying from the source.

•

Keep a full record of all the sources you use (e.g. author, date, title, page numbers, place of publication, publisher).

•

Remember that charts, graphs and tables also need citation.

•

Oral presentations should include references to your sources and should make it clear when you are quoting.

► See Unit 1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making

7 Practice A ■

Read this text on the link between Olympic success and national prosperity.

Wealth is an important advantage in pursuing Olympic medals. Clearly, a large population also has benefits, since this is more likely to include people with sporting abilities. But countries must

52

Part 1: The Writing Process

be able to mobilise their human resources: in the London Olympics in 2012 India, with its huge population, only won six medals, while New Zealand (with just 4 million) won 13. When many people are affected by poverty and illness it is not easy to be ordinarily healthy, let alone be an Olympic athlete. In fact richer countries have both healthier populations and can also spend more on encouraging sport. China won only 58 medals in 2000, when its GDP per person was under $4,000. But at the 2012 London Olympics, when its GDP figure had risen to $16,000, China won a total of 88. Governments are also finding that there are benefits in focusing efforts on a limited number of sports in which there is less competition: this was the tactic that led to British success in the cycling events in 2016. (Source: Kaufman, S. (2017). Gold, Silver, Bronze. New York: Avery Newbold, p. 3) ■

Add a citation to the summary and quotation below.

(Summary) Kaufman argues that wealth (expressed as GDP per head) rather than size of population is the key to national success in the Olympics. (Quotation) Large populations alone do not guarantee good national results at the Olympics. Countries must also be wealthy enough to have healthy citizens and be able to provide resources for training. As Kaufman points out: ‘When many people are affected by poverty and illness it is not easy to be ordinarily healthy, let alone be an Olympic athlete’.

8 Practice B ■

Revise the contents of this unit by matching the words on the left with the defnitions on the right. a.

Source

b. Citation c.

Full publication details of a text or other source The origin of ideas or information

To summarise To reduce the length of a text while keeping the main points

d. Quotation

Short in-text note giving the author’s name and publication date

e.

Reference

Using different words or word order to restate a text

f.

Paraphrase

Using the exact words of the original text in your work

9 Research Look on your college or university website to find out the policy on plagiarism. It may raise some issues that you want to discuss with colleagues or your teachers. If you can’t find anything for your particular institution, try one of these sites: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ http://www.uefap.com/writing/plagiar/plagfram.htm

Progress Check A

These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Units 1–6 in Part 1: The Writing Process. 1 Decide if the following statements are true or false. a) Academic writing aims to be accurate and impersonal. b) A case study looks at the views of other writers on the same topic. c) Academic journals are usually peer-reviewed. d) Students should read every page of the books on their reading lists. e) When searching library catalogues it is better to use very specific terms. f) Abstracts generally have a four- or five-part structure. g) Plagiarism often means copying another writer’s words without acknowledgement. h) Introductions are normally about 30% of the essay’s length. i) Note-making should always include the source of the notes. j) Websites are often less reliable sources than books. k) The best kind of outline is a mind map. 2 Study the table below and write two simple and two longer sentences about the data. Results of Student Satisfaction Surveys: Bullbridge College 2017–2020 2017

2018

2019

2020

Quality of teaching

86%

81%

75%

92%

Facilities

58%

65%

50%

47%

Overall

72%

73%

62.5%

69.5%

a) b) c) d)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-8

54

Part 1: The Writing Process

3 Read the abstract below and underline the following sections: a) b) c) d)

Aim Method Findings Conclusions

Complementary and alternative medicine use in Australia: a national population-based survey Charlie C.L. Xue, Anthony L. Zhang, Vivian Lin, Cliff Da Costa and David F. Story

Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the use of and expenditure on 17 of the most popular forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) by adult Australians, the sociodemographic characteristics of CAM users, and communication between CAM users and their doctors. In May–June 2005, a sample of 1067 adults, 18 years and older, from all Australian states and territories, was recruited by random-digit telephone dialling and interviewed about their CAM use in the previous 12 months. In the 12-month period, 68.9% of those interviewed used at least one of the 17 forms of CAM and 44.1% visited a CAM practitioner. The estimated number of visits to CAM practitioners by adult Australians in the 12-month period (69.2 million) was almost identical to the estimated number of visits to medical practitioners (69.3 million). The annual ‘out of pocket’ expenditure on CAM, nationally, was estimated as 4.13 billion Australian dollars (US $3.12 billion). Less than half of the users always informed their medical practitioners about their use of CAM. The most common characteristics of CAM users were: age, 18–34; female; employed; welleducated; private health insurance coverage; and higher-than-average incomes. CAM use nationally in Australia appears to be considerably higher than estimated from previous Australian studies. This may reflect an increasing popularity of CAM; however, regional variations in CAM use and the broader range of CAM included in the current study may contribute to the difference. Most frequently, doctors would not appear to be aware of their patient’s use of CAM. (Source: (2007). The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 13 (6), pp. 643–650) 4 Critically read the text below and decide if it is a reliable source by completing the table.

How green is the greenbelt? Five large English cities contain about 100,000 acres of land which are officially classified as ‘greenbelt’, meaning that they cannot be built on. This would provide enough space for 2.5 million new homes at average densities. Although lots of people think that ‘greenbelt’ means a park-like landscape full of grazing animals, in reality much of the land is semi-derelict. For many years this

Progress Check A

55

land has been seen as sacred, but politicians are now calling for it to be released for constructing homes that young people can afford. As the cost of housing increases in many parts of the rich world, other countries are revising their land-planning rules. Germany made new building easier in 2017, as did California in 2019, in both places due to pressure from millennials unable to get on the housing ladder. Academic research has compared housing costs in the expensive south-east of England with the cheaper north-east and found that in 2008 prices in the south would have been 25% lower if controls had been as lax as in the north. However, other research claims that the cause of rocketing property prices is cheaper borrowing. As interest rates have fallen globally it has become easier for landlords and owner occupiers to pay high mortgage costs. This was the case in both Spain and Ireland before the property crash of 2008: house building was booming yet at the same time prices were accelerating. Clearly both factors (i.e. supply and demand) may have contributed to the situation. Positive points

Negative points

Imprecise: ‘Five large English cities’ – which?

UNIT

1.7

References and Quotations

Academic work depends on using the research and ideas of others, so it is vital to show which sources you have used in your work and to do so in an acceptable manner. This unit explains: ● ● ● ●

The format of in-text citation The main referencing systems The use of quotations How to format lists of references

1 Why give references? There are three principal reasons for providing citations and references: a) to show that you have read some of the previous studies of the subject, which will add weight to your writing; b) to allow readers to find the sources you have used, if they wish to examine the topic in more detail; c) to avoid plagiarism, and show that you understand the rules of the academic community. ► See Unit 1.6 Avoiding Plagiarism ■

Since not every idea in your writing requires referencing, decide if you need to give a reference in the following cases.

Reference needed?

Yes/No

a) Data you found from your own primary research b) A graph from an internet article

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-9

58

Part 1: The Writing Process

c) A quotation from a book d) An item of common knowledge e.g. exercise is good for you e) A theory from a journal article f) An idea of your own based on reading several sources g) A comment made by a person you interviewed for your research

2 Citations and references It is important to refer correctly to the work of other writers which you have used. You may present these sources as a summary or paraphrase, as a quotation, or use both. In each case a citation needs to be included to provide a link to the list of references at the end of your paper: Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is irrational, as despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view ‘they are bad for road safety, the environment and road congestion’ (Smith, 2009: 37).

Reference

Smith, M. (2009). Power and the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan ■

Underline the citations in the example above. Which is for a summary and which a quotation? What are the advantages of each?

Giving citations A quotation

Author’s family name, date of publication, page no.

(Smith, 2009: 37)

A summary

Author’s family name, date of publication

Smith (2009)

3 Reference verbs a) Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb: Ganghof (2019) argues that … Janovic (1972) claimed that …

1.7: References and Quotations

59

These verbs can be either in the present or the past tense. Normally the use of the present tense suggests that the source is recent and still valid, while the past tense indicates that the source is older and may be out-of-date, but there are no hard-and-fast rules about this. If the source is contributing to an on-going debate then the present tense is appropriate even if the publication date is not recent: George Tsebelis (2002) uses the concept of ‘veto player’ to theoretically unify the comparative analysis of political systems. NB: In some disciplines (e.g. History, Politics) older sources may still be relevant. Also note that some writers choose to give the full name of a source (e.g. George Tsebelis) when mentioned for the first time. The choice of reference verb depends on its function. Referring verbs are commonly used to summarise another writer’s ideas: Bakewell (1992) found that most managers tended to use traditional terms. They may also be used to introduce a quotation. As Scott observed: ‘Comment is free but facts are sacred’. Most of the verbs below are followed by a noun clause beginning with ‘that’. a) The following mean that the writer is presenting a case: argue claim consider hypothesise suggest believe Melville (2017) suggests that eating raw eggs can be harmful.

think

state

b) A second group describe a reaction to a previously stated position: accept admit agree with deny doubt Handlesmith doubts Melville’s suggestion that eating raw eggs could be harmful. c) Others include: assume conclude discover explain imply indicate maintain presume reveal show Patel (2013) assumes that inflation will remain low.

4 Practice A ■

Write a sentence referring to what the following writers said, using a verb from 3) above (more than one verb may be suitable). Example: Z: ‘My research shows that biofuels are environmentally neutral’. Z claimed/argued that biofuels were environmentally neutral. a) Allison: ‘I may have made a mistake in my calculations on energy loss’. b) Becher: ‘I did not say that women make better doctors than men’.

60

Part 1: The Writing Process

c)

Curanovic: ‘Small frms are more dynamic than large ones’.

d) De Haas: ‘I support Curanovic’s views on small frms’. e) Eden: ‘I’m not sure, but most people probably work to earn money’. f)

Freire: ‘After much research, I’ve found that allergies are becoming more common’.

g) Gvosdev: ‘I think it unlikely that electric cars will replace conventional ones’. h) Heisbourg: ‘There may be a link between crime and sunspot activity’.

5 Referencing systems There are various systems of referencing employed in the academic world, each used by different subjects. Some disciplines, e.g. law, have their own special system (OSCOLA). Your teachers will normally give you guidelines about which system you are expected to use, or you may find these on your library website. With any system, the most important point is to be consistent, e.g. to use the same punctuation rules throughout your work. Each system specifies how to reference a wide variety of sources; not only books and journals but also sources such as films, music, blogs and oral testimony. Referencing is a complex subject and students should use an online referencing guide for detailed information. Sussex University provides a convenient guide to the different systems at: http://www.sussex.ac. uk/skillshub/?id=451 These are some of the principal systems: a) Harvard, generally used in the UK for Social Sciences and Business, illustrated in 2) above. b) MLA is similar to Harvard but more common in the USA for the Arts and Humanities. In this the year of publication comes at the end of the reference. c) APA is widely used in the USA in the Social Sciences. d) Vancouver is commonly employed in Medicine and Science. Numbers in brackets are inserted after the citation and these link to a numbered list of references: Jasanoff (5) makes the point that the risk of cross-infection is growing. (5) Jasanoff, M. Tuberculosis: A Sub-Saharan Perspective. New York: Schaffter (2001) e) Footnote/endnote systems are commonly used in the Humanities. Here sources are listed either at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. The numbers in superscript run consecutively throughout the paper. The effects of the French Revolution were felt throughout Europe.³ 3. Karl Wildavsky, The End of an Era: Spain 1785–1815 (Dublin: University Press, 2006) p. 69

1.7: References and Quotations

61

6 Using quotations ■

Discuss with a partner reasons for using quotations in your written work.

Using a quotation means bringing the original words of a writer into your work. Quotations are effective in some situations, but must not be overused. They can be valuable: ● ● ●

when the original words express an idea in a distinctive way when the original is more concise than your summary could be when the original version is well known (e.g. Friedman below)

All quotations should be introduced by a phrase which shows the source, and also explains how this quotation fits into your argument: Introductory phrase

Source

Reference verb

Quotation

Citation

This view is widely shared;

as Friedman

stated:

‘Infation is the one form of taxation that can be imposed without legislation’

(Friedman, 1974: 93).

a) Short quotations (1–2 lines) are shown by single quotation marks. Quotations inside quotations (nested quotations) use double quotation marks: As Kauffman remarked: ‘his concept of “internal space” requires close analysis’. b) Longer quotations (3 or more lines) are either indented (given a wider margin) and/or printed in smaller type. In this case quotations marks are not needed: Similarly, she says: One of the many things that people need to be able to do, if their life is to be worthy of human dignity, is to have access to the legal system on terms of equality with other people. …The due process rights … are also fundamental opportunities to act and be treated as a fully equal citizen. (Nussbaum, 2011a: 28)

c) Page numbers should be given after the date. d) Care must be taken to ensure that quotations are the exact words of the original. If it is necessary to delete some words which are irrelevant, use ellipsis (…) to show where the missing section was: ‘Few inventions … have been as significant as the mobile phone’. e) It may be necessary to insert a word or phrase into the quotation to clarify a point. This can be done by using square brackets [ ]. This indicates that you have added to or changed the original: ‘… modern ideas [of freedom] differ radically from those of the ancient world’. f) If you are quoting something which you are aware contains a grammatical or factual mistake, show this by inserting [sic] immediately after the incorrect word or error: He claimed that ‘the company was to [sic] big to fail’.

62

Part 1: The Writing Process

g) If a writer has published more than one book or article in a year it is necessary to add a/b/c to the date to differentiate between works in the reference list: (Nussbaum, 2011a: 28) h) The quotation you are using may contain conventions differing from those you are following (e.g. US spellings such as labor). It is important to reproduce the original in exactly the same form as it was written.

7 Practice B ■

Read the following text from an article called ‘Dealing with transition’ in the journal Education Review (Autumn 2016, pp. 45–47) by A. Kelman.

Students entering Higher Education (HE, i.e. degree-level study) often find the transition from school to university difficult to manage. This can be especially true of the demands of essay writing, a skill required in the majority of subjects. A study by McEwan (2015) explored the reasons for difficulties at this stage by comparing the expectations of staff and students towards writing essays. He found significant differences between the two, and suggested ways in which the differences could be reduced. It often takes time for new students to adjust to the learning culture of HE, and much depends on their previous academic experience. Teaching staff at degree level expect students to study independently and not to need regular supervision, although recently universities have begun to provide more support for first-year students to help them adjust to these expectations.

■

Compare the following. Discuss which you prefer with a partner.

a) Summary Kelman (2016) maintains that the transition from school to university study is particularly hard in terms of writing essays. She refers to McEwan’s research on the mis-match between student and teacher expectations, and highlights the need to give students time to adapt to a new academic culture.

b) Quotation Kelman discusses McEwan’s research on the gap between the expectations of staff and students with regard to essay writing at first-year university level:

1.7: References and Quotations

63

It often takes time for new students to adjust to the learning culture of HE, and much depends on their previous academic experience. Teaching staff at degree-level expect students to study independently and not to need regular supervision. (Kelman, 2016: 45)

c) Summary and quotation Kelman (2016) points out that one area of serious concern for first-year university students is writing essays. She looks at the study done by McEwan on the differences between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of essay writing, which highlighted one distinct difficulty: ‘Teaching staff at degree-level expect students to study independently and not to need regular supervision’ (Kelman, 2016: 45). ■

Read the next part of the same text, also from p. 45.

McEwan argues that student success at university level is partly dependent on narrowing the difference between student and staff expectations. This is particularly important now that the student body includes an increasing proportion of international students, who may take longer to adapt to the university culture. The same is also true of the increasingly diverse university staff, who often come from very different academic cultures. The two most significant findings of the study concerned plagiarism and essay focus. In both cases there was a substantial difference between staff and student opinion. While all the students claimed to understand the meaning of plagiarism, a majority of teachers (over 60%) felt that they didn’t. Similarly, nearly all the students claimed to focus on answering the question in the essay title, but only one fifth of the teachers thought that they did.

■

a)

Write a summary of the main point, including a citation.

b) Introduce a quotation to show the key point, referring to the source. c)

Combine the summary and the quotation, again acknowledging the source.

8 Abbreviations in citations In-text citations use the following abbreviations, derived from Latin and printed in italics: et al.: used when three or more authors are given. The full list of names is given in the reference list: Many Americans fail to vote (Hobolt et al., 2006: 137) ibid.: taken from the same source (and the same page) as the previous citation: Older Americans are more likely to vote than the young (ibid.)

64

Part 1: The Writing Process

Note that journal articles increasingly tend to use full citations at each occurrence, but students should still use the above in their work. Note also that the use of op. cit. seems to be reducing, and that ibid. is used more in its place. ► See Unit 4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary: Abbreviations

9 Secondary references It is quite common to find a reference to an original source in the text you are reading. For instance, in the text by Kelman in 6) above she says: A study by McEwan (2015) explored the reasons for difficulties at this stage by comparing the expectations of staff and students towards writing essays. You may wish to use this information from the original (i.e. McEwan) in your writing, even if you have not read the whole work. This is known as a secondary reference. If it is not possible to locate the original, you can refer to it thus: McEwan (2015), cited in Kelman (2016: 45) compared the expectations of … You must ensure that you include the work you have read, i.e. Kelman, in the list of references.

10 Internet references Note that references to websites should include the hyperlink to the website and the date at which it was accessed in square brackets. If no author is given use the title of the publication. For example: Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) (2010) Research Impact. Available from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/rsrch/REFimpact/ [Accessed 21 July 2016].

11 Organising the list of references

There are many software systems available, e.g. RefWorks or Endnote, which automate the making of a list of references. Using one of them not only saves time, but may also help to produce a more accurate result. Some are free and others require payment, but if you search your library website you may find one which you can access without charge.

At the end of an essay or report there must be a list of all the sources cited in the piece of writing. In some reference systems there may be a bibliography, which also includes sources read but not mentioned.

1.7: References and Quotations

65

In the Harvard system, illustrated here, the list is organised alphabetically by the family name of the author. You should be clear about the difference between first names and family names. On title pages the normal format is first name, then family name: Sheila Burford, Juan Gonzalez But in citations usually only the family name is used: Burford (2001), Gonzalez (1997) In reference lists use the family name and the initial(s): Burford, S., Gonzalez, J. If you are not sure which name is the family name, ask a classmate from that cultural background. ■

Study the reference list below from a paper about the transition from school to university and answer the questions which follow.

REFERENCES Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carroll, J. (2007). A Handbook for Deterring Plagiarism in Higher Education. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development. Cook, A. and Leckey, J. (1999). ‘Do expectations meet reality? A survey of changes in first‐ year student opinion’. Journal of Further and Higher Education 23 (2): 157–171. Crisp, G., Palmer, E., Turnbull, D., Nettelbeck, T., Ward, L., LeCouteur, A., Sarris, A., Strelan, P. and Schneider, L. (2009). ‘First year student expectations: results from a university-wide student survey’. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice 6 (1): 11–26. Killen, R. (1994). ‘Differences between students’ and lecturers’ perceptions of factors influencing students’ academic success at university’. Higher Education Research and Development 13 (2): 199–211. Leese, M. (2010). ‘Bridging the gap: supporting student transitions into higher education’. Journal of Further and Higher Education 34 (2): 239–251. Lowe, H. and Cook, A. (2003). ‘Mind the gap: are students prepared for HE?’ Journal of Further and Higher Education 27 (1): 53–76. Moore, D. and McCabe, G. (2006). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics. 5th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Ryan, J. and Carroll, J. (2005). ‘Canaries in the coalmine: International students in Western universities’. In J. Carroll and J. Ryan (Eds). Teaching International Students: Improving Learning for All. Abingdon: Routledge.

66

Part 1: The Writing Process

The Times. (2016). ‘Coping with transition from sixth form to university’, 26 September 2016, p. 4. Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. White, P. (2013). Embracing Diversity. 7th Annual Learning and Teaching Conference, 9 January 2013, [online]. Available at: https://www.shef.ac.uk/lets/cpd/conf/2013/res/ preso [Accessed 10 July 2014].

a) Find an example of: i) a book by one author ii) a journal article by nine authors iii) a chapter in an edited book iv) a conference paper v) a journal article by one author vi) a book by two authors b) What are the differences between the format of references for books and journal articles? Books: _ Journal articles: c) When are italics used? d) How are capital letters used in titles? e) How is a source with no given author listed? f) Write citations for summaries of the first five sources in the list of references above (see (2) for model). i) ii) iii) iv) v)

UNIT

1.8

Summarising and Paraphrasing

Summarising and paraphrasing are normally used together in academic writing. Summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, allowing the writer to condense lengthy sources into a concise form. ●● Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is significantly different from the original source, without changing the meaning. ●● Both are needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism, and this unit practises them both separately and jointly. ●●

1 What makes a good summary? Summarising is a common activity in everyday life. It is used to describe the main features of a subject in order to give a clear and simple impression. For example, if you have been to Tokyo, you might tell a friend: Tokyo’s a huge city with mainly modern buildings and a dense network of public transport. It has many busy shopping centres which are crowded day and night. ■■ Write a short description of one of the topics below in no more than 30 words. a) A town or city you know well b) A product you have recently bought c) A film you have watched recently ■■ Compare your summary with others in your class. Discuss what is needed for a good summary and write your ideas below. •

 

•

 

•

  DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-10

68

Part 1: The Writing Process

2 Stages of summarising Summarising is a flexible tool. You can use it to give a one-sentence outline of an article, or to provide much more detail, depending on your needs. Generally a summary focuses on the main ideas and tends to exclude examples or supporting information. When writing a summary, the same basic steps always need to be followed in order to meet the criteria discussed in 1) above. ■

Study the stages of summary writing below, which have been mixed up. Complete the chart to show their correct order. •

Write the summary from your notes, reorganising the structure if needed.

•

Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible.

•

Read the original text carefully and check any new or diffcult vocabulary.

•

Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting.

•

Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been changed or lost.

3 Practice A ■

Read the following text and the summaries which follow. Which is best? Rank them from 1 (= best) to 3 and give reasons.

DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY This phrase was first used by Joseph Bower and Clayton Christensen of the Harvard Business School in 1995. They employed it to describe a new technology that appeals to a minority section of the market, but a large enough minority to allow the technology to take root and develop. Companies that continue to use the older technology run the risk of being left behind if they do not adopt the innovation at the right moment. A good example in the mid-1990s was the digital camera. The first models were more expensive than film cameras and had lower picture quality. But their important advantages were that they allowed the photographer to see the results immediately, and it was possible to download the images to a computer for storage, printing or emailing. Since then, digital cameras have completely transformed the industry and are now standard in many devices such as mobile phones. The business of making film has almost ceased, and the vast majority of cameras sold are now digital.

1.8: Summarising and Paraphrasing

69

a) Disruptive technology is a new invention which attracts enough buyers to become established in the market, and then to improve and grow. For example, the frst digital cameras, launched years ago, took poor-quality pictures and were costly, but had some important benefts. Today they dominate the market, and the older type of camera, which uses expensive flm, is now less popular. b) Bower and Christensen from Harvard introduced the term ‘disruptive technology’ in 1995, to characterise a new technology which sold well enough to enter the market, and could then be developed further. The digital camera, for instance, was originally expensive and had low picture quality. However, it had important advantages which quickly allowed it to virtually replace the traditional flm camera. c)

Digital cameras are a good example of a disruptive technology, a term used by Bower and Christensen of Harvard Business School in 1995 to describe a new technology that initially wins enough market share to survive and develop. These cameras at frst produced inferior pictures, but had the critical advantages of showing the picture instantly, and allowing the user to download the image. After a few years they dominated the camera market, while traditional flm cameras almost became redundant. 1. 2. 3.

4 Practice B ■

a) Read the following text and underline the key points.

AFRICA CALLING In many African countries mobile phone ownership is aiding new businesses to get started. Farmers can easily find current market prices for their crops, and traders can use mobile money services to make payments. It seems clear that as more people use these phones, national GDP rises, but it is difficult to quantify this precisely. Ten years ago there were only 130 million mobile users in the entire continent; now the number is over one billion. However, this figure is deceptive; many Africans have two or more SIM cards, and in reality only about half of Africa’s 1.2 billion people have access to a mobile phone. Inevitably, the Africans who have phones tend to be better-educated urban dwellers, but even these are often unable to access the internet, according to an estimate by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). They claim that 75% of Africans are unable to use the net, with figures as high as 95% in places like Chad. This is because much of the continent is rural and sparsely populated, so that providing mobile phone masts in these districts is uneconomic. Even fewer people can receive a fast 4G signal, and when available, costs are high.

70

Part 1: The Writing Process

But the situation may be improving due to advances in technology. New cables are facilitating the connection with other continents, and fibre optic networks are being installed in major cities. Modern satellites are also lowering transmission costs, and solar-powered phone masts are cheaper to run in remote villages. But one significant obstacle to these developments is the heavy taxation many governments impose on the telecom companies, which can be as high as 50% in places such as Tanzania. (Source: Weiss, J. and Evans, P. (2019). African Perspectives. Edinburgh: The Polity Press, pp. 213–214)

► See Unit 1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making ■

b) Complete the notes of the key points below. i)

Mobile phones have helped

ii) Link between higher phone ownership iii) Only half of Africans iv) New developments v) But ■

c) Join the notes together and expand them to make the fnal summary in about 70 words. Check that the meaning is clear and no important points have been left out. Find a suitable title.

Title:____________________________________________________________________

d) This summary is about 25% of the length of the original, but it could be summarised further. ■

Summarise the summary in no more than 30 words.

5 Practice C ■

Summarise the following text in about 60 words.

1.8: Summarising and Paraphrasing

71

THE UNEASY RISE OF VIDEOCONFERENCING The 2020 Covid-19 epidemic accelerated the adoption of videoconferencing by business and government as a convenient and safe alternative to travelling to face-to-face meetings. This effectively reinforced a long-term trend to use this technology to replace expensive and time-consuming journeys. Although it is often difficult to assess the exact energy savings obtained by not travelling, clearly there are other advantages in using this technology such as the ability to see the other participants and watch their gestures and expressions. However, many people feel self-conscious when seeing themselves on a screen, especially if they are at home, casually dressed and possibly surrounded by domestic clutter. These difficulties are made worse if the quality of the images or sound is unreliable, as is often the case. Taking part in a videoconference meeting appears to be more stressful for many than participating in a ‘normal’ meeting. In addition, the element of informal socialising, a key aspect of many conferences, can rarely be achieved via a camera.

6 Paraphrasing Paraphrasing and summarising are normally used together in essay writing, but while summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate the relevant information. For example, the following sentence: There has been much debate about the reasons why the Industrial Revolution happened in eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany. could be paraphrased: Why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion. Note that an effective paraphrase usually: ● ● ● ●

has a different structure to the original has mainly different vocabulary retains the same meaning keeps some phrases from the original which are in common use e.g. ‘Industrial Revolution’.

72

Part 1: The Writing Process

7 Practice D ■

Read the text below and then rank the three paraphrases (a–c) in order of accuracy, clarity and use of original language.

THE CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Allen (2009) argues that the best explanation for the British location of the Industrial Revolution is found by studying demand factors. By the early eighteenth century high wages and cheap energy were both features of the British economy. Consequently, the mechanisation of industry through such inventions as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was profitable, because employers were able to economise on labour by spending on coal. At that time, no other European country had this particular combination of expensive labour and abundant fuel.

a) A focus on demand may help to explain the UK origin of the Industrial Revolution. At that time British workers’ pay was high, but energy was cheap. This encouraged the development of mechanical inventions based on steam power, which enabled bosses to save money by mechanising production (Allen, 2009). b) The reason why Britain was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution can be understood by analysing demand in the early 1700s, according to Allen (2009). He maintains that, uniquely in Europe, Britain had the critical combination of cheap energy from coal and high labour costs. This encouraged the adoption of steam power to mechanise production, thus saving on wages and increasing proftability. c)

Allen (2009) claims that the clearest explanation for the UK location of the Industrial Revolution is seen by examining demand factors. By the eighteenth century cheap energy and high wages were both aspects of the British economy. As a result, the mechanisation of industry through inventions such as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was proftable because employers were able to save money on wages by spending on coal. At that time, Britain was the only country with signifcant deposits of coal. 1) 2) 3)

8 Techniques for paraphrasing a) Changing vocabulary by using synonyms: argues > claims / eighteenth century > 1700 s/ wages > labour costs / economise > to save

1.8: Summarising and Paraphrasing

73

b) Changing word class: explanation (n.) > explain (v.) / mechanical (adj.) > mechanise (v.) / profitable (adj.) > profitability (n.) c) Changing word order: … the best explanation for the British location of the Industrial Revolution is found by studying demand factors. > A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the Industrial Revolution. Note that in practice all these three techniques are used at the same time. Do not attempt to paraphrase every word, since some have no true synonym e.g. demand, economy. ► See Units 4.2 and 4.3 Academic Vocabulary and 4.5 Synonyms

9 Practice E ■

Read the following text.

TEAM PLAYERS Teams allow people to specialise, both in a game of football and in a company. In a football team, for example, success depends on both defenders and attackers working well together. The same applies to business, where a marketing expert complements a colleague who is a skilled accountant. But the critical question in many fields is, what is the best number for a team? In sport this may depend on the size of the playing area, so that indoor sports like basketball have smaller teams (five) than outdoor ones such as football (11). Fifteen (rugby) seems to be the maximum size, and this may be the practical limit in terms of coaching and management. In armies units tend to be around 100, as used by the Romans; today an American army company has 180. Presumably it would be difficult to build and maintain relationships with a larger body. An anthropologist at Oxford University, Robin Dunbar, has studied the way groups of primates interact. He argues that brain size is critical in forming bands, and that humans, having larger brains, can have the benefit of larger groups, which allow for greater specialisation. He believes that many people belong to a range of groups of varying sizes, having about five close friends, 15 good friends and around 50 social friends. In business there are clear advantages to being small: decisions can be taken quickly and communicated rapidly to all employees. Dunbar points out that committees of four or five are the optimum size for decision making. In fact, small companies play a more important

74

Part 1: The Writing Process

role in the economy than is commonly realised. A 2015 survey found that less than 1% of British businesses had more than 150 employees. It seems likely that people feel more motivated when they know most or all of their fellow workers, compared to employees in a giant corporation.

a)

j

Find synonyms for the words and phrases underlined. Re-write the sentences using these. Teams allow people to specialise, both in a game of football and in a company. In a football team, for example, success depends on both defenders and attackers working well together. The same applies to business, where a marketing expert complements a colleague who is a skilled accountant. But the critical question in many felds is, what is the best number for a team?

b)

j

Change the word class of the underlined words. Rewrite the sentences using the changes. In sport this may depend on the size of the playing area, so that indoor sports like basketball have smaller teams (fve) than outdoor ones such as football (11). Fifteen (rugby) seems to be the maximum size, and this may be the practical limit in terms of coaching and management. In armies units tend to be around 100, as used by the Romans: today an American army company has 180. Presumably it would be diffcult to build and maintain relationships with a larger body.

c) j

Change the word order of these sentences, re-writing the paragraph so the meaning stays the same. An anthropologist at Oxford University, Robin Dunbar, has studied the way groups of primates interact. He argues that brain size is critical in forming bands, and that humans, having larger brains, can have the beneft of larger groups, which allow for greater specialisation. He believes that many people belong to a range of groups of varying sizes, having about fve close friends, 15 good friends and around 50 social friends.

d)

j

Combine all three techniques to paraphrase the next paragraph. In business there are clear advantages to being small: decisions can be taken quickly and communicated rapidly to all employees. Dunbar points out that committees of four or fve are the optimum size for decision making. In fact, small companies play a more important role in the economy than is commonly realised. A 2015 survey found that less than 1% of British businesses had more than 150 employees. It seems likely that people feel more motivated when they know most or all of their fellow workers, compared to employees in a giant corporation.

1.8: Summarising and Paraphrasing

10 Practice F a)

j

Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text.

THE PAST BELOW THE WAVES More than three million shipwrecks are believed to lie on the sea bed, the result of storms and accidents during thousands of years of sea-borne trading. These wrecks offer marine archaeologists valuable information about the culture, technology and trade patterns of ancient civilizations, but the vast majority have been too deep to explore. Scuba divers can only operate down to 50 metres, which limits operations to wrecks near the coast, which have often been damaged by storms or plant growth. A few deep sea sites (such as the Titanic) have been explored by manned submarines, but this kind of equipment has been too expensive for less famous subjects. However, this situation has been changed by the introduction of a new kind of mini submarine: the automatic underwater vehicle (AUV). This cheap small craft is free-moving and does not need an expensive mother-ship to control it. Now a team of American archaeologists are planning to use an AUV to explore an area of sea north of Egypt which was the approach to a major trading port 4,000 years ago. (Source: History Now, April 2009, p. 9)

b)

j

Summarise the same text in 50 words.

75

UNIT

1.9

Contrasting Sources

For most assignments students are expected to read a range of sources, often containing conflicting views or different perspectives on the question. In some cases, the contrast between the various views may be the focus of the task. This unit explains how writers can present and organise a range of contrasting sources.

1 Referring to sources In the early stages of a paper it is common to refer to the views of other writers on the subject, to show that you are familiar with their work, and that your work will take their research into account. In a longer essay or thesis this may form a section headed ‘Literature review’. ► See Unit 2.5 Literature Reviews ■

Read the following example from a study of student transition from school to university and answer the questions below.

The expectations which students have of higher education are influenced by their prior educational experiences (Ramsden, 1992: 82; Tinto, 2005; Cook and Rushton, 2008). These experiences form a basis for the academic expectations which students have relating to learning and teaching (Dalglish and Chan, 2005), assessment (Ramsden, 1992: 84), academic support (Yorke, 2000; Crisp et al., 2009), and academic interactions with staff (Crisp et al., 2009). (Source: McEwan, M. ‘Understanding student transition to university: the expectations of essay writing for students and staff’, Enhancement and Innovation in Higher Education Conference, 2015)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-11

1.9: Contrasting Sources

77

a) How many sources are mentioned here? b) Which writers examine expectations of learning and teaching? c)

What was the subject of Yorke’s study?

d) Which writer looked at expectations of assessment? e) Why do you think page numbers are given for Ramsden?

2 Practice A ■

Read another paragraph from the same study and answer the following questions.

Academically, a diverse body of international university entrants have even greater diversity in pre-arrival expectations and prior educational experiences when compared to those of home students (e.g. Dalglish and Chan, 2005; Crisp et al., 2009; White, 2013) resulting in a period of transition which can be more challenging with greater requirements for academic adjustment (Ramsey, Barker and Jones, 1999). For example, international students often need to make significant cultural (Ryan and Carroll, 2005) and linguistic (Wu and Hammond, 2011) adjustments and this takes time; perhaps many months or even years (Carroll, 2014).

a) What is the main subject of the paragraph? b) Summarise the different points made by each of the fve sets of sources cited. Example: i)

Dalglish and Chan, 2005; Crisp et al., 2009; White, 2013 International students have compared to home students

wider

variety

of

expectations

ii) Ramsey, Barker and Jones, 1999 iii) Ryan and Carroll, 2005 iv) Wu and Hammond, 2011 v) Carroll, 2014

3 Contrasting sources Most subjects worth studying are the subject of debate and discussion, as more research is conducted and new data are collected. Therefore it is important to compare a range of views on a topic to show that you are familiar with all sides of a discussion. ■

The following texts are on the subject of gender pay equality. Read 3.1 and 3.2 and discuss their differences with a partner.

78

Part 1: The Writing Process

3.1 MIND THE GAP The gender pay gap is the difference between what women and men earn in different companies or sectors of the economy. According to the latest figures the gap in Britain is nearly 12%, a percentage which has hardly changed since businesses were first required to report their gap in 2017. There were no sectors of the economy in which women earned more than men, while fewer than 500 organisations, out of a total of 10,500, claimed to have a pay gap of 0%. Some of the companies which reported a reduced gap, such as Monzo Bank, explained it as a result of more women being promoted to senior positions. The same occurred in some schools and academies, which tend to be dominated by female staff. But the complexity of the situation is highlighted by companies with the opposite outcome, a widening gap, such as the law firm Ashfords, which pointed out they had recruited a large number of women in junior positions. It is also notable that the pay gap in the public sector, at 16%, is wider than in the private sector (11%). The data are collected by the Equalities and Human Rights Commission, but this body has no power to check the accuracy of the figures, or force companies to reduce their gap. The government insists that the best way to promote equality is by encouraging businesses to adopt female-friendly employment practices, but given the evidence of the past few years it seems that more needs to be done to achieve full equality. (Source: Björkman, 2019)

3.2 CAN SEX SEGREGATION BE ELIMINATED? During the 1970s most Western countries passed laws which required companies to treat male and female employees equally. The majority of jobs were open to applicants of either sex, so that the idea of a female firefighter or a male nurse was no longer considered abnormal. This process has brought significant economic gains: Chang-Tai Hsieh and colleagues at Chicago University calculate that a 25% increase in output per worker was achieved between 1960 and 2010, mainly due to this change. However, it appears that most of the change has been seen in office work, and in other areas there has been little recent progress. In fact, across the economy men still work mainly with other men, and women with women. In the EU around 70% of working women are in sectors dominated by women, such as primary school teaching or catering. A similar situation exists in the USA, where occupations such as nursing are 80% female. This explains most of the gender pay gap, since female-dominated jobs tend to be worse paid than male ones, such as construction. In the US, 26 of the 30 highest paid occupations are male-dominated.

1.9: Contrasting Sources

Even well-qualified women, such as those who graduate in STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering and maths), are less likely than men to get work in that field and are more likely to leave it, possibly due to discrimination. Motherhood poses a further barrier to integration. But one effective method of improving female pay is a national minimum wage, as women tend to do the lowest-paid work. In America, those states with a minimum wage set above the federal level have smaller differences in their gender pay gap than those without. Additionally, if more men entered female-dominated sectors, this would tend to push wage levels higher. However, it may be that the effective limits of de-segregation have been reached, and that there will always be a tendency for houses to be built by men and the sick to be nursed by women. (Source: Ziadah, 2018)

■

Read this extract from a paper which compares the two previous sources.

3.3 WILL MEN AND WOMEN EVER EARN THE SAME? Many countries now ask large organisations to report the difference in pay between their male and female employees. Björkman (2019) emphasises that the latest data from the UK show little change from previous years, with a gap of about 12%. The recruitment situation in particular companies may explain year-on-year changes in the figures. She considers that just reporting the differences will have little effect on the behaviour of firms, and the government must do more to encourage female employment in higher-paid work. Ziadah (2018), however, points out that as there has been little recent progress in employment patterns, the process may have stalled. She argues that, although innovations such as minimum pay levels have aided women, beyond the white-collar sector traditional roles seem to be very resistant to change. Discrimination and the demands of their families, she maintains, are both significant contributory factors.

■

Note the way in which the paper summarises and paraphrases the sources:

3.1 Björkman

3.3 Summary

According to the latest fgures the gap in Britain is nearly 12%, a percentage which has hardly changed since businesses were frst required to report their gap in 2017.

According to Björkman (2019) the latest data from the UK show little change from previous years, with a gap of about 12%.

79

80

Part 1: The Writing Process

… given the evidence of the past few years it seems that more needs to be done to achieve full equality. ■

Find more examples from the second text:

3.2 Ziadah

■

… the government must do more to encourage female employment in higher-paid work.

3.3 Summary

Read the summary (3.3) again and answer the following questions: a) Which verbs are used to introduce the summaries of the two sources? b) Which word marks the switch from summarising Björkman to Ziadah? c)

Can you suggest any other words or phrases to use here?

4 Balancing different sources ■

Study the following structures. Presenting a source According to Dymski … O’Hare (2009) argues/claims that … Unsworth’s main theory/ thesis/ model places foreign policy on a continuum … Various scholars have supported this position (Geddes, 2016; Mulhouse, 2018) Walter Benjamin made Paris the capital of the nineteenth century (Benjamin, 1999) Contrasting sources A counter argument is presented by Croese … Regardless of the theoretical approaches … Despite this, Chatterton claims/ argues/ denies … On the one hand it can be argued that … However, this goal change has had negative consequences.

NB: Multiple sources can be ordered either alphabetically or chronologically (see chronological examples in 1 above), depending on the style of the journal. This is an example of alphabetical order: There is still ambiguity in the literature (see Borchert and Zeiss, 2003; Burch and Moran, 1985; Cotta and Best, 2007; Guttsman, 1965; Kavanagh, 1992; King, 1983).

1.9: Contrasting Sources

81

5 Practice B ■

The two texts below present differing responses to the question ‘What killed the dinosaurs?’ Read them both and then complete the following introductory paragraph from a paper on mass extinctions, contrasting the views of both sources.

WHAT KILLED THE DINOSAURS? 1. For over a hundred million years life on Earth was dominated by dinosaurs; the largest reptiles ever known. Yet about 66 million years ago they suddenly vanish from the fossil record, and the scientific debate about the cause of this sudden disappearance has been long and ferocious, with geologists and physicists unable to agree. For many years huge volcanic eruptions were seen as the likely reason for the dinosaurs’ fate, as these had also been blamed for several other, earlier mass extinctions in the Earth's history. However, during the 1980s a father and son team, Luis and Walter Alvarez, announced a new theory. They claimed that the presence of the rare element iridium, found in clay deposits all round the world, and associated with space rocks, was proof that a meteorite had struck the Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period. Their suggestion was strongly supported in the 1990s by the discovery of a huge crater, over 100 miles in diameter, on the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. This, it was claimed, had been made by a six-mile-wide asteroid crashing into our planet at this time. The impact of this collision would have been devastating for most life, not just dinosaurs. A deadly shock wave must have been followed by an enormous tsunami, forest fires, and years of darkness as the sun’s light was shut out by debris in the atmosphere. Little could have survived this maelstrom, and clearly not large animals. The devastation must have been overwhelming, wiping out not only animals but also the plants that many fed on. Although other causes for the extinction of the dinosaurs have been proposed, some more credible than others, there seems no good reason to doubt the Alvarez hypothesis. The collision has been reliably dated using tektites, small rocks formed by impact, to 66,038,000 years ago, after which time no non-avian dinosaur fossils have ever been found. (Source: Sunderland, J. ‘Climate Chaos’, New World Review, April 2016) 2. Professor Keller of Princeton University has spent many years challenging the meteorite theory as the sole cause of the dinosaurs’ departure. Despite receiving fierce opposition from elements of the scientific community, she believes that dinosaurs were in decline before this event, due to climate change caused by volcanic eruptions in India, several million years before the end of the Cretaceous. These eruptions, throwing volcanic dust into the atmosphere, are thought to have caused global cooling, which must have affected the plants that dinosaurs ate. However, other scientists claim that, on balance, volcanic activity pumps carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and actually results in warming the planet.

82

Part 1: The Writing Process

Today, advances in the precise measurement of the age of geological deposits have lent weight to the theories of Gerta Keller and her supporters. The Indian eruptions and their associated lava flow have now been dated to several hundred thousand years before the meteorite struck, suggesting that the Earth’s climate may have become increasingly hostile to the giant reptiles long before the asteroid collision led to their sudden destruction, along with millions of other species. Yet the debate shows no sign of cooling, with both sides continuing research to support their theories about a crucial event deep in our world’s past. (Source: Kazepov, Y. ‘Mega-extinctions and mysteries’, North Atlantic Quarterly, Winter 2018)

WHAT KILLED THE DINOSAURS? One of the most intriguing scientific questions in the past century has been the reason for the extinction of the dinosaurs, the huge reptiles that dominated life on earth for over one hundred million years.

UNIT

1.10

Organising Paragraphs

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of academic writing. Well-structured paragraphs help the reader understand the topic more easily by dividing up the argument into convenient sections. This unit looks at: The components of paragraphs ●● The way the components are linked together ●● The linkage between paragraphs in the overall text ●●

1 Paragraph structure ■■ Read the paragraph below and answer the questions.

Many countries around the world are currently moving some government departments out of the capital city. Previously, there were attempts to create entirely new capitals, such as Brasilia in Brazil or Islamabad in Pakistan. Now, however, these schemes are seen as too expensive, complex and disruptive. Instead the trend is to disperse different ministries to various, less crowded districts away from the capital. Mexico, for example, has moved its Ministry of Culture from Mexico City to Tlaxcala and Norway has shifted the competition authority from Oslo to Bergen. a) What is the topic of this paragraph? b) How are the sentences in the paragraph linked together? The paragraph can be analysed thus: 1. Topic sentence

Many countries around the world are currently moving some government departments out of the capital city.

2. Supporting information

Previously, there were attempts to create entirely new capitals, such as Brasilia in Brazil or Islamabad in Pakistan. DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-12

84

Part 1: The Writing Process

3. Reason

Now, however, these schemes are seen as too expensive, complex and disruptive.

4. Further detail/ restatement

Instead, the trend is to disperse different ministries to various, less crowded districts away from the capital.

5. Examples

Mexico, for example, has moved its Culture Ministry from Mexico City to Tlaxcala and Norway has shifted the competition authority from Oslo to Bergen.

This example shows that: i)

A paragraph is a group of sentences which deal with a single topic. Dividing up the text into paragraphs helps both writer and reader to follow the argument more clearly.

ii) The length of paragraphs varies signifcantly according to text type, but should normally be no less than four or fve sentences. iii) Usually (but not always) the frst sentence introduces the topic. Other sentences may give defnitions, examples, extra information, reasons, restatements and summaries. iv) The sentences of the paragraph are linked together by the reference words, conjunctions and adverbs shown in bold in the table. These guide the reader through the arguments presented.

► See Unit 3.1 Cohesion

2 Practice A ■

The sentences in the following paragraph, from the same article on government relocation, have been mixed up. Use the table to put them in the right order. i)

One beneft of dispersal is to improve the quality of life of the civil servants, detached from overcrowded and expensive capitals.

ii) Today’s civil servants no longer need to all work in the same district and be able to meet face-to-face. iii) Finally there should be economic benefts for remote and possibly run-down regions in receiving an injection of well-paid employment. iv) Recent developments such as videoconferencing make this pattern of dispersal, which has many apparent benefts, more feasible. v) Moreover, away from the pressures of the capital with its lobbyists and politicians, workers may have a more objective and detached viewpoint. Topic sentence Reason Result 1

1.10: Organising Paragraphs

85

Result 2 Result 3

3 Practice B ■

a)

Analyse the next paragraph from the same text by completing the left-hand column of the table with suitable descriptors.

b) Underline the words and phrases used to link the sentences together. c)

Which phrase is used to link this paragraph to the one before?

Topic sentence

Despite these advantages there are serious drawbacks to relocating government departments. One of the gravest is that many employees, especially younger ones, are reluctant to leave lively capital cities to live in remote provincial towns. In some cases more than half the staff have resigned rather than move, fearing the loss of social life. In addition, new locations may be chosen for political rather than economic reasons. Politicians may attempt to bring jobs to their own constituencies, as when Pinochet moved Chile’s congress to his home town, Valparaiso. So although there are many apparent gains from relocation, putting such a move into practice can be full of problems.

4 Practice C ■

Read the full text on relocating government departments. Find a title for the whole text. Then complete the chart to show how the three paragraphs present the process.

Title: _______________________________________ Many countries around the world are currently moving some government departments out of the capital city. Previously, there were attempts to create entirely new capitals, such as Brasilia in Brazil or Islamabad in Pakistan. Now, however, these schemes are seen as too expensive, complex and disruptive. Instead, the trend is to disperse different ministries to various, less crowded districts away from the capital. Mexico, for example, has moved its Ministry of Culture from Mexico City to Tlaxcala and Norway has shifted the competition authority from Oslo to Bergen.

86

Part 1: The Writing Process

Today civil servants no longer need to all work in the same district and be able to meet face-to-face. Recent developments such as videoconferencing make this pattern of dispersal, which has many apparent benefits, more feasible. One benefit of dispersal is to improve the quality of life of the civil servants, detached from overcrowded and expensive capitals. Moreover, away from the pressures of the capital with its lobbyists and politicians, workers may have a more objective and detached viewpoint. Finally there should be economic benefits for remote and possibly run-down regions in receiving an injection of well-paid employment. Despite these advantages there are serious drawbacks to relocating government departments. One of the gravest is that many employees, especially younger ones, are reluctant to leave lively capital cities to live in remote provincial towns. In some cases more than half the staff have resigned rather than move, fearing the loss of social life. In addition, new locations may be chosen for political rather than economic reasons. Politicians may attempt to bring jobs to their own constituencies, as when Pinochet moved Chile’s congress to his home town, Valparaiso. So although there are many apparent gains from relocation, putting such a move into practice can be full of problems. 1

Background >

2 3

5 Introducing paragraphs and linking them together The paragraph in Practice B begins with a phrase which links it to the previous paragraph, in order to maintain continuity of argument: Despite these advantages … ■

Study the following phrases which can be used to link paragraphs together: 1.

Introducing a topic (often with time phrase) This symposium focuses … Urbanists have shown that … Recent decades have witnessed … The post-modern rejection of ‘grand narratives’ … The rise in energy prices from 2003 …

1.10: Organising Paragraphs

87

Traditionally, few examples were … Currently, there is little evidence of … Originally, most families were … 2.

Referring to a source Dreyfus and Dreyfus drew on this approach … Thompson is more equivocal … George Tsebelis (2002) uses the concept …

3.

Referring back to the previous paragraph (often with a conjunction) This qualitative gap … The meta-criticism is in contrast to … Nevertheless, the academic literature … Meanwhile, the rapid expansion … Yet despite this massive transformation …

4.

Listing a series of points The frst argument is that … Second, if careerism is the core plank … Thirdly, the intersubjective and communicative … On the one hand it can be argued …

5.

Coming to a conclusion This review article has analysed … This paper has argued for … When we assess the implications … Finally, the performance of …

► See Unit 4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

6 Practice D ■

Use the notes below to write two paragraphs on the subject of ‘Trams’. Use conjunctions and other suitable phrases to introduce and link the paragraphs together.

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

As cities grew in 19th century increased need for urban public transport Horse-drawn buses were slow and expensive Trams (streetcars in the USA) developed in late 19th century Provided cheap and convenient mass transport in many cities Rail-based systems expensive to maintain Fixed tracks meant system was inflexible During 1950s and 1960s many European and Asian cities closed tram systems Today trams becoming popular again Some cities e.g. Paris and Manchester have built new systems

88

Part 1: The Writing Process

● ● ●

Trams less polluting than cars and cheaper to operate Problems remain with construction costs and traffic congestion blocking tracks Expense of building modern tramways means that they remain controversial

7 Practice E ■

Choose one of the topics below. Using the internet and your own knowledge make notes as in 6) above. Then write two or three paragraphs on your topic.

● ● ●

The influence of social media The driving test The future of advertising

UNIT

1.11

Introductions and Conclusions

An effective introduction explains the purpose, scope and methodology of the paper to the reader. The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any questions asked in the title, as well as summarising the main points discussed. With coursework, it may be better to write the introduction after writing the main body.

1 Introduction components a)

j

Discuss with a partner the function of introductions to essays or reports. What components are normally found in an introduction? Choose from the list below.

Components

Yes/ No

i) A defnition of any unfamiliar terms in the title ii) Your personal opinions on the subject of the essay iii) Mention of some sources you have read on the topic iv) A provocative idea or question to interest the reader v) A suitable quotation from a famous source vi) Your aim or purpose in writing vii) The method you adopt to answer the question viii) Some background or context of the topic ix) Any limitations you set yourself x) An outline of the main body DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-13

90

Part 1: The Writing Process

b)

j

Read the extracts below from introductions to articles and decide which of the components listed above (i–x) they are examples of. A) In the past 20 years the ability of trial juries to assess complex or lengthy cases has been widely debated. B) The rest of the paper is organised as follows. The second section explains why corporate governance is important for economic prosperity. The third section presents the model specifcation and describes the data and variables used in our empirical analysis. The fourth section reports and discusses the empirical results. The ffth section concludes. C) We attempted to test our hypothesis by comparing the reactions of a random sample of postgraduates with those of a group of frst-year students. D) There is no clear empirical evidence sustaining a ‘managerial myopia’ argument. Pugh et al. (1992) fnd evidence that supports such a theory, but Meulbrook et al. (1990), Mahoney et al. (1997), Garvey and Hanka (1999) and a study by the Offce of the Chief Economist of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1985) fnd no evidence. E) ‘Social cohesion’ is usually defned in reference to common aims and objectives, social order, social solidarity and the sense of place attachment. F) This study will focus on retention rates of nursing staff between 2010 and 2018, since with more recent years an accurate assessment cannot yet be made. G) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme warm and cold temperatures around the globe since 1870.

2 Introduction structure Introductions are usually no more than about 10% of the total length of an assignment. Therefore, in a 2,000-word essay the introduction would be approximately 200 words. ► See Unit 1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process There is no standard pattern for an introduction, since much depends on the type of research you are conducting and the length of your work, but this is a common structure: a

Defnition of key terms, if needed

b

Relevant background information

c

Review of work by other writers on the topic

d

Purpose or aim of the paper

e

Your research methods

f

Any limitations you imposed

g

An outline of your paper

1.11: Introductions and Conclusions

■

91

Study this introduction to an essay entitled: ‘Evaluate the experience of e-learning for students in higher education’.

There is a range of definitions of this term, but in this paper ‘e-learning’ refers to any type of learning situation where content is delivered via the internet. Learning is one of the most vital components of the contemporary knowledge-based economy. With the development of computing power and technology the internet has become an essential medium for knowledge transfer. In addition, the Covid-19 pandemic of 2020 made e-learning necessary for many students around the world. Various researchers (Webb and Kirstin, 2003; Honig et al., 2006) have evaluated e-learning in a healthcare and business context, but little attention so far has been paid to the reactions of students in higher education (HE) to this method of teaching. The purpose of this study was to examine students’ experience of e-learning in an HE context. A range of studies was first reviewed, and then a survey of 200 students was conducted to assess their experience of e-learning. Clearly a study of this type is inevitably restricted by various constraints, notably the size of the student sample, which was limited to students of Pharmacy and Agriculture. The paper is structured as follows. The first section presents an analysis of the relevant research, focusing on the current limited knowledge regarding the student experience. The second part presents the methodology of the survey and an analysis of the findings, and the final section considers the implications of the results for the development and delivery of e-learning programmes.

■

Underline the following sections (a–g) of the introduction above: a) Defnition Certain words or phrases in the title may need clarifying because they are not widely understood, or are used in a special sense. b) Context It is useful to remind the reader of the wider context of your work. This may also show the value of the study you have carried out. c)

Reference to other researchers While a longer article may have a separate literature review, in a shorter essay it is still important to show familiarity with researchers who have studied this topic previously. This may also reveal a gap in research which justifes your work.

d) Aim The aim of your research must be clearly stated so the reader knows what you are trying to do. e) Method The method demonstrates the process that you carried out to achieve the given aim.

92

Part 1: The Writing Process

f)

Limitations You cannot deal with every aspect of this topic in an essay, so you must make the boundaries of your study clear.

g) Outline Understanding the structure of your paper will help the reader to follow your argument.

► See Unit 3.3 Definitions

3 Opening sentences Perhaps the most difficult part of writing a paper is getting started but, especially in exams, hesitation will waste valuable time. The first few sentences should be general but not vague, to help the reader focus on the topic. They often have the following pattern: Time phrase

Topic

Development

Currently,

the control of water resources

has emerged as a potential cause of international friction.

Since 2017

electric vehicles

have become a serious commercial proposition.

Before 1950

antibiotic drugs

were not widely available.

It is important to avoid opening sentences which are over-general and vague. Compare: Nowadays there is a lot of competition among different news providers.

X

In the last 20 years newspapers have faced strong competition from the internet for news and entertainment.

√

■

Working quickly, write an introductory sentence for three of the following titles. a) How important is it for companies to have women as senior managers? b) Are there any technological solutions to global warming? c)

What can be done to reduce infant mortality in developing countries?

d) Compare the urbanisation process in two contrasting countries. e) To what extent are prisons effective in reducing crime?

► See Units 3.5 Generalisations and 3.8 Style

1.11: Introductions and Conclusions

93

4 Conclusions Although it is difficult to be precise, conclusions tend to be shorter and more varied in format than introductions. Some articles may have a ‘summary’ or ‘concluding remarks’. Student papers should have a final section which summarises the arguments and makes it clear to the reader that the original question has been answered. ■

Discuss with a partner which of the following are generally acceptable in conclusions.

Components

Yes/ No

i) A statement showing how your aim has been achieved ii) A discussion of the implications of your research iii) Some new information on the topic not mentioned before iv) A short review of the main points of your study v) Some suggestions for further research vi) The limitations of your study vii) Comparison with the results of similar studies viii) A quotation which appears to sum up your work

■

Match the extracts from conclusions below with the acceptable components above. A) As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be considered in evaluating its fndings. B) These results suggest that the risk of fooding on the east coast has increased signifcantly and is likely to worsen. C) Several hurdles that we encountered provide a point of departure for subsequent studies. D) Our review of 13 studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates that the effect of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may either be temporary or permanent. E) These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with other similar studies conducted in other countries (Cop and Zihnioĝlu, 2009). F) This study has clearly illustrated the drawbacks to family ownership of retail businesses.

94

Part 1: The Writing Process

5 Conclusion structure Although there is no fixed pattern, a common structure for an essay conclusion is: a

Summary of main fndings or results

b

Link back to the original question to show it has been answered

c

Mention of the limitations to your work e.g. geographical

d

Suggestions for future possible related research

e

Comments on the implications of your research

6 Practice ■

The following sentences form the conclusion to the essay entitled ‘Evaluate the experience of e-learning for students in higher education’, whose introduction was given above in 2). The sentences have been mixed up. Put them into a logical order (1–5). a) This fnding was clear, despite the agreed convenience of e-learning. b) Given the constraints of the small and limited sample there is clearly room for further research in this feld, in particular to explore whether certain disciplines are more suited to this mode of learning than others. c)

However, our survey of nearly 200 students found a strong preference for traditional classroom teaching, with the consequent face-to-face contact with the tutor and fellow students.

d) But in general it would appear that e-learning is unlikely to be acceptable as a primary teaching method in higher education. e) This study found that little relevant research on the student experience of e-learning in HE has been conducted, and the research that has been reported indicates a mixed reaction to it.

UNIT

1.12

Editing and Proofreading

In exams you have little time for editing, but with coursework it is important to take time to revise your work to improve its clarity and logical development. In both situations proofreading is essential to avoid the small errors which may make parts of your work inaccurate or difficult to understand.

1 Editing It is important to be clear about the difference between editing and proofreading; both are critical stages of the writing process, but they need to be done separately. Good editing, which aims to make a paper as clear and precise as possible, can make a huge difference to the quality of your work. Although it is tempting to think that the first draft of an essay or report is good enough, it can almost certainly be improved. After completing the first draft it’s a good idea to leave it for two days and then critically reread it, asking yourself the following questions: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i)

Does this fully answer the question(s) in the title? Do the different sections of the paper have the right weight, i.e. is it well balanced? Does the argument or discussion develop clearly and logically? Have I forgotten any important points which would support the development? Is the paper the required length; not too short or too long? Have I mentioned the main authorities on this subject? Is the style suitably academic? Are all the citations and references included correctly? Would a third party be able to understand this?

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-14

96

Part 1: The Writing Process

2 Practice A As part of a module on Qualitative Research Methods, you have written the first draft of a 1,000word paper entitled: ‘What would be an acceptable number of interviews to carry out for a Master’s dissertation?’ ■

Study the introduction to this paper below, and decide how it could be improved, listing your suggestions in the table.

An interview can be defined as a conversation with a definite structure and objective. It goes beyond an everyday conversation with no particular purpose. There are many possible interview situations, but all involve an interviewer and an interviewee. It is normal for the former to ask the latter direct questions, and record the answers. The questions may be prepared in advance or they may occur as the interview develops. The recording is often done on paper, but may also be done by audio or video recording. Interviews can take place anywhere: in a street, café, office, bar, restaurant, etc. It is hard to say how many interviews can be carried out in one day. I personally think that two is the maximum because it can get very tiring. A lot depends on the subject being researched. Suggestions for improvement

a) No sources are mentioned. b) c) d) e) ► See Answers on p. 266 for suggestions. With these points in mind, the introduction could be rewritten as follows: Organising an interview involves a series of steps (Davies, 2007) including recruiting interviewees, finding a suitable venue and writing appropriate guidelines. However, depending on the research subject a more flexible approach can be adopted, resulting in a less structured interview (Cooper and Schindler, 2008). For a Master’s dissertation, interviews must contain data relevant to the research topic which the interviewer can later process. As King states: ‘gathering a large volume of cases does not guarantee the credibility of a study’ (King, 2004:16). Most writers agree that two one-hour interviews per day are effectively the maximum for one interviewer, given the time needed for preparation and subsequent processing. Moreover, if audio or video recording is used there is more content to be analysed, for instance in terms of facial expression. The analysis of one interview can take up to three days’ work. In order to answer the question, clearly much depends on the research topic and the time the researcher has available. ► See Unit 3.8 Style

1.12: Editing and Proofreading

97

3 Practice B ■

Read the following paragraph on ‘Possible ethical issues raised by interview-based research’. Decide how it could be improved, and rewrite it.

Any organisation that allows researchers to interview its employees runs a big risk. The interviewees may complain about the boss or about other workers. Another danger for the researcher is that employees may feel obliged to give positive answers to questions instead of their honest opinions. This is because they are afraid of their bosses finding out what they really think. Also the reputation of the organisation may suffer. I believe that researchers should make sure that this does not happen. They must make it clear why they are doing the research, and keep identities secret by using false names. If this is not done there’s a good chance that the validity of the whole research project will be in danger.

4 Proofreading After you have edited your work, the final stage is to proofread it. This means checking your work for small errors, for instance of spelling or grammar, which may make it more difficult for the reader to understand exactly what you want to say. If a sentence has only one error: The italian economy is burdened with massive debt. it is not difficult to understand, but if there are multiple errors, even though they are all quite minor, the effect is very confusing: A American senate once say: ‘Truth is frist casualty off war’. Clearly, you should aim to make your meaning as clear as possible: [An American senator once said: ‘Truth is the first casualty of war’.] Note that computer spellchecks will not always help you, since they may ignore a word which is spelt correctly but which is not the word you meant to use: Tow factors need to be considered.

5 Practice C ■

Examples of the twelve most common types of error in student writing are shown below. In each sentence underline the error and correct it. i)

Factual Corruption is a problem in many countries such as Africa.

98

Part 1: The Writing Process

ii) Word ending The context provides relative clear clues. iii) Punctuation What is the optimum size for a research team. iv) Tense Since 2017 new editions were published every year. v) Vocabulary The Bulgarian money is the lev. vi) Spelling Pervious experience can sometimes be a disadvantage. vii) Singular/plural It is one of the largest city in Asia. viii) Repetition A multinational business that operates in many countries. ix) Missing word This is an idea established by David Ricardo in nineteenth century. x) Word order Three skills are for needed success in the academic world. xi) Style Recent studies mention racism, misogyny and etc. xii) Agreement (subject/verb or noun/noun) The intensity of the emotions are different.

NB: You probably know the type of error you frequently make e.g. perhaps confusing ‘its’ and ‘it’s’. If so, you should make a point of checking these items carefully.

6 Practice D ■

The following sentences each contain one type of error. Match each to one of the error types (i–xii) above, and correct the error. a) Unfortunately the study shows discrimination against female students. b) Both companies focus on mass marketing to promote its line of products. c)

Failure to fnd the right coffee may lead to torment for consumers.

d) They found that different researchers had differently effects on the research. e) This was after the single European market was established in 1873. f)

Many students for the grant applied.

g) The Arts Faculty has it’s own library. h) She selected Budapest in Hungry for setting up the research centre. i)

Companies from the rest of world are eager to do business in India.

1.12: Editing and Proofreading

j)

From 2012 to 2018 there are few cases of cholera.

k)

He said that the advantage and drawbacks of the plan were obvious.

99

7 Practice E ■

Working with a partner, read the following introduction from a student essay on cyberbullying. Discuss where the errors are, and how they could be corrected.

Right now, cyberbullying has become an increasingly grave international problem because of the swift developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). The most frequently used feature of ICT is computer-mediated communication (McCleod, 2019), which provides a medium for the development and growth of a plethora of social media channels. Individually, social media have enjoyed a blossoming level of popularity in recent decades, which has fully provided benefits for socialising and communicating in people’s life and society. Despite the benefits, the rise of social media in the digital domain has also brought risks. Studies (Nitoiu, 2017, Allen and Cairney, 2019) point out that the growth in the use of ICT or social media has resulted in new means of cyber aggression emerging, such as hate speech, vulgar language, cyberbullying and etc. Among all of these behaviours, the global phenomenon of cyberbullying which cause much attentions presents some new challenges as well as opportunities for researchers.

8 Practice F ■

Underline the errors in the text below and then correct them.

THE PANAMA CANAL Ship canals are important element in the development of world trade, as most manufactured things travel by ship. Unlike the Suez Canal in egypt, crossing the Panamanian isthmus involves lifting ship 26 metres and then lowering them on the other side. Construction was so difficult and danger that the original French engineers were defeated by disease, after over 20,000 men had died working on the project. On the early twentieth century the American government became involved and after ten years’ work the canal opened to shipping 1914, thereby avoiding the difficult route around the tip of South America. But since the 1970s container ships have steadily grown to large to fit the canals locks, and so in 2007 the Canal Authority began a major development to expand canal’s capacity with locks 60% wider. When this was completed in 2016, at a cost of over $5 billion, the canal was able to handle almost all ships, including the giant cruise vessels now being operated.

100

Part 1: The Writing Process

9 Summary ■

Decide if the following are part of the editing (E) or proofreading process (P). 1.

Does the style avoid informal, colloquial terms?

2.

Are enough sources included and are they correctly cited?

3.

Are there any spelling mistakes, such as confusion of ‘quite’ and ‘quiet’?

4.

Are the various parts of the question fully answered?

5.

Is the punctuation correct, especially colons and semi-colons?

6.

Have I included any repetition without a good reason?

7.

Are all the facts e.g. dates accurate?

8.

Do the introduction and conclusion function effectively?

Progress Check B

These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Units 7–12 in Part 1: The Writing Process. 1

Complete the description of the process of essay writing by adding one suitable word to each gap in the text below. The first stage of essay writing is to read and understand the a)…………, and then to prepare a b)………… of work for the time available. Then the topic should be brainstormed and a draft c)………… prepared. Next, possible d)………… have to be carefully evaluated and the most relevant selected, after which you can start e)………… notes, using paraphrasing and summarising f)…………. When you have collected enough material to answer the question the first g)…………. of the main body can be written from the notes, taking care to avoid any h)…………. Subsequently you can write the first draft of the introduction and i)…………, ensuring that a logical approach to the title is developed. After this the whole draft must be j)………… edited and revised for both clarity and accuracy. The penultimate stage is to prepare final lists of k)…………, appendices and other items such as graphs and maps. Finally, the whole text should be thoroughly l)………… before submitting the assignment on time.

2

Decide if the following statements are true or false. a) An essay introduction should explain the purpose of the paper. b) The citation of quotations should include the page number. c) Paraphrasing means changing both vocabulary and structure while retaining the ideas and information. d) Reference verbs always use the past tense. e) Paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence. f) A good summary often includes several examples. g) Conclusions often mention the constraints on the paper e.g. length. h) A literature review is generally found in longer papers. i) Proofreading just means checking for spelling mistakes. j) An essay conclusion should make it clear that the question has been answered.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-15

102

3

Part 1: The Writing Process

Read the following book extract and write a summary in about 80 words. In Europe in the early twentieth century wild bison were nearly hunted to extinction. At one stage there were less than 60 of these fearsome beasts alive, all in zoos. Yet today there are flourishing herds of bison in Poland, Belarus and Romania. This is because parts of eastern Europe provide an ideal habitat for such large wild animals as deer, wolves and brown bears, as well as the birds and insects which have become scarce in western Europe due to more intensive agriculture. During the Communist period marginal land was neglected agriculturally, causing forests to expand and encouraging ecological diversity. Since 1989 many rural areas in ex-Communist countries have become depopulated, because of` emigration to the cities of western Europe. The Caras-Severin region of Romania, for instance, has lost over a quarter of its population in the last 30 years. Although some of its older inhabitants have doubts about the arrival of these large animals, for others they create an opportunity to develop eco-tourism. The more entrepreneurial are establishing bed and breakfast businesses and organic farms, catering for visitors thrilled to see such creatures in the wild. (Source: Nitoiu, C. (2019). Rewilding Europe. Frankfurt: Freihaus, p. 74)

4

Read the following book extract and paraphrase the first paragraph, including a quotation with citation. A group of scientists working at Oxford University have been researching the behaviour of crows. Their work shows that the birds appear to be able to make simple tools, a skill which was thought to be unique to man and other primates. In an experiment a piece of meat was placed in a glass tube which was too long for the crow to reach with its beak. The bird was given a length of garden wire, 9 cms long and 0.8 mm thick, to extract the meat, but it soon discovered that this was not possible if the wire was straight. The bird then held one end of the wire with its feet while it used its beak to bend the other end, making a kind of hook. This could then be used for pulling the meat out of the tube, which in most cases was done within two minutes. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees use simple tools like sticks to reach food, but it was never thought that crows could show similar levels of intelligence. Eight years ago, however, biologists in the forests of New Caledonia watched crows using sticks to reach insects inside trees. The Oxford experiment was designed to see if the same kind of bird could modify this ability to make a tool out of a material not found in their native forests i.e. wire. According to Professor Kacelnik, one of the scientists involved, the research demonstrates that crows have an understanding of the physical properties of materials and the ability to adapt them for their own uses. (Source: Grummitt, F. (2010). What Makes Us Human? Dublin: Roseberry Press, p. 15)

Writing Types

PART

2

This section explains and practises the various types of writing students may be required to complete. These types may be the main focus of the work, or a subsection of it. For example, a case study might be one part of a longer paper, or the entire report. The organisation needed for writing longer papers of up to 5,000 words is also explained.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-16

UNIT

2.1

Argument and Discussion

On most courses students are expected to study the conflicting views on a topic and engage with them, which means analysing and critiquing them if appropriate. This unit demonstrates ways of showing your familiarity with all sides of a debate and presenting your own conclusions in a suitably academic manner.

1 Discussion vocabulary Essay titles commonly ask students to ‘discuss’ a topic: Children will learn a foreign language more effectively if it is integrated with another subject – Discuss. This requires a critical evaluation of both the benefits and disadvantages of the subject, within a section of the essay, sometimes headed ‘Discussion’, in which a summary of the positive and negative points is made and a conclusion reached. The following vocabulary can be used: +

−

beneft advantage a positive aspect pro (informal) plus (informal) one major advantage is … another signifcant beneft is …

drawback disadvantage a negative feature con (informal) minus (informal) a serious drawback is … … was a considerable disadvantage

One serious drawback to integrating content and language is the heavy demand it places on the teacher. A significant benefit of teaching a subject through a foreign language is the increased motivation to master the language. ■

Write a short paragraph of about 100 words on the benefts and drawbacks of learning online. DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-17

106

Part 2: Writing Types

2 Organisation ■

Working with a partner, brainstorm the benefts and drawbacks of prisons for society. The discussion can be organised in two ways: either by grouping the benefts in one section and the disadvantages in another (vertical), or by examining the subject from different viewpoints (horizontal). These alternative structures are illustrated below for the following title: Prisons do little to reform criminals and their use should be limited – Discuss.

NB: In general, the vertical pattern is more suitable for shorter essays.

a) Vertical Drawbacks Prisons are expensive; may be ‘universities of crime’; many prisoners re-offend after leaving; many prisoners have mental health problems which often go untreated. Benefts Prisons isolate dangerous criminals from society; act as a deterrent to criminal activity; may provide education or treatment (e.g. for drug addiction); provide punishment for wrong-doing. Discussion Number of prisoners is rising in many countries, which suggests that the system is failing. Evidence that short sentences are of little value. But prisons will always be necessary for some violent criminals, and as a deterrent.

b) Horizontal Economic

Ethical

Social

Discussion

High cost of keeping prisoners safe and secure. Compare with cost of other forms of punishment.

Do prisons reform criminals? What rights should prisoners have? Cases of wrongful imprisonment.

Effect on families of prisoners, especially female prisoners with children. But also necessary to consider the victims of crime, especially violent crime, and provide punishment for wrong-doing.

Numbers of prisoners is rising in many countries, which suggests that the system is failing. Evidence that short sentences are of little value, while the cost of the prison system is rising. But prisons will always be necessary for some violent criminals, and as a deterrent.

■

What are the advantages of each format (i.e. vertical and horizontal)?

2.1: Argument and Discussion

107

3 Practice A You have to write an essay titled: ‘Working from home can be positive for both companies and their employees – Discuss’. ■

Brainstorm the positive and negative aspects in the box below, and then write an outline using one of the structures (vertical or horizontal) above.

+ Positive

− Negative

No time wasted commuting to work

4 The language of discussion In discussion it is important to maintain an objective style, so avoid personal phrases such as in my opinion or actually, I think …. Instead use impersonal phrases, such as: It is generally accepted that It is widely agreed that Most people It is probable that The evidence suggests that

working from home saves commuting time. email and the internet reduce reliance on an offce. prefer face-to-face contact with colleagues. more companies will encourage working from home. certain people are better at self-organisation and time-management.

These phrases suggest a minority viewpoint: It can be argued that One view is that It is claimed that

home-working encourages time-wasting. home-workers become isolated. commuting can be a positive period.

When you are supporting your opinions with reference to sources use phrases such as: According to Emerson (2013) Poledna (2017) claims that

few companies have developed clear policies. most employees appreciate fexible arrangements.

108

Part 2: Writing Types

5 Argument and counter-argument In contrast to discussion, with argument the emphasis is more on the writer making a case, using examples or reference to other research to establish a position. For instance, if you want to present the arguments for teaching languages at primary school, you might begin: There are clear benefits to early language teaching. Firstly, young children are less inhibited about using new vocabulary. Furthermore, six-year-old children have better memories than older pupils. Numerous studies (e.g. de Wolf et al., 2017) have demonstrated the advantages of this approach … In this case the argument is built up, point by point, with support from relevant sources. However, in most situations there are contrary views, different from your own point of view, which are called counter-arguments. In an academic paper you should show that you are familiar with the various opinions on the topic, and then provide reasons to support your own position. It is usual to deal with the counter-arguments first, before giving your view. In the case of the debate on the best age for language teaching you could start with: Traditionally language teaching has begun around the age of eleven, on the basis that older children can better understand the grammatical concepts involved. In addition these children may have had experience of foreign travel and so be better motivated to learn another language.

6 Practice B ■

Underline the counter-arguments in the following example, on the topic of prisons from 2) above. What is the writer’s position?

It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from society, and to provide punishment for wrong-doing. But while this may be true in a minority of cases, more commonly prisons act as ‘universities of crime’, which serve to reinforce criminal behaviour. The majority of prisoners are not dangerous, and could be dealt with more effectively by other means. ■

Study the example below, and write two more sentences using ideas on the topic of home-working from the title in 3) above.

Counter-argument

Your position

Some people believe that homeworkers become isolated,

but this can be avoided by holding weekly meetings for all departmental staff.

2.1: Argument and Discussion

109

7 Providing evidence Normally your conclusions on a topic follow an assessment of the evidence. You must show that you have examined the relevant sources, since only then can you give a balanced judgement. ■

Study the following text, which discusses the idea that young people today, who have grown up with computing and the internet, are different from previous generations. Underline the counter-arguments, then answer the questions.

DO ‘DIGITAL NATIVES’ EXIST? Various writers have argued that people born around the end of the twentieth century (1990– 2010) and who have been using computers all their lives have different abilities and needs to other people. Palfrey and Gasser (2008) refer to them as the ‘net generation’ and argue that activities such as putting videos on YouTube are more natural for them than writing essays. Similarly, Prensky (2001a) claims that the educational system needs to be revised to cater for the preferences of these so-called ‘digital natives’. But other researchers doubt that these claims can apply to a whole generation. Bennett, Maton and Kervin (2008) argue that these young people comprise a whole range of abilities, and that many of them only have a limited understanding of digital tools. They insist that the so-called ‘digital native’ theory is a myth, and that it would be a mistake to re-organise the educational system and abandon traditional means of assessment and enquiry such as essay writing to cater for their supposed requirements. Clearly there are some young people who are very proficient in online technologies, and many more who regularly use social media in their daily lives, but taking a global perspective, millions still grow up and are educated in a traditional manner. Teaching methods are constantly being revised, but there is no clear evidence of a need to radically change them.

a) How many sources are cited to support the ‘digital native’ theory? b) What do these writers suggest changing? c)

Why do their critics disagree with them?

d) What is the opinion of the writer of this text? e) What is your opinion of this subject?

► See Unit 1.9 Contrasting Sources

110

Part 2: Writing Types

8 Practice C ■

Write three paragraphs (about 200 words) on the topic: ‘Marijuana should be legalised – Discuss’. To prepare, add to the ideas below and make your position clear.

Pros • • •

Criminalising marijuana encourages the illegal activity which supplies the drug. Sales of legal marijuana could be taxed by the state for the common good.

(Source: Shephard, 2017) Cons • • •

Marijuana users would move on to more dangerous drugs. Use of marijuana can have serious effects on mental health.

(Source: Solaiman, 2014)

► See Unit 2.3 Problems and Solutions

9 Practice D ■

Work with a partner. Both of you should choose a topic of debate, similar to those practised in this unit (e.g. prisons, working from home). Your partner has to write a discussion of the topic you have chosen, giving counter-arguments, in about 200 words. Finally you should constructively critique your partner’s work.

UNIT

2.2

Cause and Effect

Academic work frequently involves explaining a link between a cause, such as a hot summer, and an effect or result, such as a drought. Alternatively, research may begin with a result, such as the French Revolution, and discuss possible causes, e.g. a bad harvest. This unit demonstrates and practises two methods of describing the link, with the focus either on the cause or on the effect.

1 Causes and effects ■

Read the text and underline the causes (

) and effects (______).

The recession of 2008–2009 The 2008–2009 recession resulted from a loss of confidence in the international financial system and led to a housing price crash, higher unemployment and the failure of various banks. The trigger may have been rash mortgage lending to unsuitable borrowers in the USA, causing house price inflation. When this bubble burst some financial institutions, such as Lehman Brothers, found they were holding worthless assets, and this led to their collapse. Other consequences of the recession were higher government debt, reduced government spending and more unemployment. This example shows that in many situations cause and effect can be a chain of events, as each effect leads to a further development:

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-18

112

Part 2: Writing Types

2 The language of cause and effect A writer may choose to emphasise either the cause or the effect. In both cases, either a verb or a conjunction can be used to show the link. NB: Conjunctions are linking words and phrases such as because, therefore, then or so.

a) Focus on causes With verbs The poor harvest

caused led to resulted in produced

higher prices

the poor harvest

prices rose

With conjunctions Because of Due to Owing to As a result of

b) Focus on effects With verbs * The higher prices

were caused by were produced by resulted from

the poor harvest

due to because of as a result of

the poor harvest

With conjunctions There were price rises

* Note use of passive Compare the following: Because children were vaccinated diseases declined. Because of the vaccination diseases declined. As/since children were vaccinated diseases declined. Owing to/due to the vaccination diseases declined.

(because + verb) (because of + noun) (conjunction + verb in passive) (conjunction + noun)

Note the position of the conjunctions in the following: The teacher was ill, therefore/hence/so/consequently the class was cancelled.

2.2: Cause and Effect

113

3 Practice A ■

Match the causes with their likely effects and write two sentences linking each together, one emphasising the cause and the other the effect. Use a different conjunction in each.

Causes

Effects

the cold winter of 2015

stores closing on the high street

higher rates of literacy

more tourists arriving

construction of the airport

a new government formed

last year’s national election

greater demand for secondary education

installing speed cameras on main roads

increased demand for electricity

opening a new hospital in 2019

a fall in the number of fatal accidents reduced infant mortality

more people shopping on the internet Example: i)

(cause) Owing to the cold winter of 2015 there was increased demand for electricity.

ii) (effect) The increased demand for electricity was due to the cold winter of 2015. a)

b)

c) d) e) f)

■

Develop one of the ‘effect’ sentences above by adding a further effect. Example: Owing to the cold winter of 2015 there was increased demand for electricity, which led to some power cuts.

114

Part 2: Writing Types

4 Practice B ■

Complete the following sentences with likely effects. Example: Increasing use of email for messages has led to fewer letters being sent. a) The violent storms last week b) The new vaccine for tuberculosis (TB) c)

Building a high-speed railway line

d) The invention of the jet engine ■

Complete these sentences with possible causes. Example: The serious motorway accident resulted from drivers speeding in dense fog. e) The high price of bread f)

The increase in obesity

g) Earthquakes h) The rising prison population

5 Practice C ■

Underline the verbs and conjunctions of cause and effect in this text.

Unhappy workers In recent years there appears to have been a growth in employee dissatisfaction with work. At its most extreme this is shown by high rates of suicide in some companies, apparently owing to the stress resulting from re-structuring programmes. Surveys of both European and American employees have found that more than 50% were unhappy, often due to a feeling of stagnation. Various theories have attempted to explain this situation. Employees in certain industries such as car production may feel stressed because of industry-wide overcapacity, creating a sense of insecurity. More generally, recession can lead to a fear of unemployment or short-time working. In addition, the constant drive to cut costs and increase productivity causes a concern with meeting targets which takes its toll on the workforce. Furthermore, many younger employees are now hired on short-term contracts, which generates an awareness that they could lose their jobs with little warning.

2.2: Cause and Effect

115

6 Practice D a)

j

Study the fow chart below, which shows some of the possible effects of the introduction of driverless cars. Working with a partner, discuss further possible effects and add them to the chart by flling the empty boxes.

b)

j

Complete the paragraph describing this sequence. The introduction of driverless cars and trucks would have various significant results. First, it would lead to …

c)

j Work with a partner. Choose a comparable situation and draw a fow chart showing a cause and some probable effects. Then exchange charts and write a paragraph to describe them.

UNIT

2.3

Problems and Solutions

Academic work frequently involves examining a problem and evaluating a range of solutions. This unit explains ways in which this kind of study can be organised. Note that some of the language is similar to that practised in Unit 2.1 Argument and Discussion.

1 Vocabulary The main problem facing the football club was the lack of young players. One answer to this was the local talent scheme. Another proposal was … The following words can be used as synonyms for problem and solution. three main diffculties have arisen … the main challenge faced by doctors … one concern during the recession … the new process created two questions … the group faced three main issues … our principal worry/ dilemma was … the next drawback to the proposal was …

■

the best remedy for this may be … two answers have been put forward … another suggestion is … Matheson’s proposal was fnally accepted. this was rectifed/ solved by … another avenue/ approach worth exploring … the defect can be overcome by …

Complete the following text with a suitable word from the lists above.

How to motivate workers effectively is a(n) a) …………….. which has been discussed and debated for many years. Higher pay is one obvious b) …………… , but this alone may not be sufficient to motivate the best employees. A different c) …………… is to improve the job satisfaction of workers, although this d) …………… is not always easy to achieve. A third e) …………… is to enhance working conditions, for instance by offering cheap meals in the workers’ restaurant, or perhaps

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-19

2.3: Problems and Solutions

117

offering flexible working hours. But the best f) …………… will usually depend on the kind of work being done by the employees.

2 Paragraph structure ■

Study the organisation of the following paragraph:

Reducing road congestion Currently roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the movement of people and freight. It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or widening existing ones, would ease the traffic jams. However, not only is the cost of such work high, but the construction process adds to the congestion, while the resulting extra road space may encourage more traffic to use the wider road, so it is only a short-term answer. Therefore constructing more roads is unlikely to solve the problem, and other remedies such as road pricing or greater provision of public transport should be examined. Topic

Reducing road congestion

Problem

Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the movement of people and freight.

Solution A

It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or widening existing ones, would ease the traffc jams.

Arguments against solution A

However, not only is the cost of such work high, but the construction process adds to the congestion, while the resulting extra road space may encourage more traffc to use the wider road, so it is only a short-term answer.

Conclusion offering solutions B and C

… other remedies such as road pricing or greater provision of public transport should be examined.

3 Alternative structure The same ideas could be re-ordered to arrive at a different conclusion:

How can road congestion be reduced? Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the movement of people and freight. It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or widening existing ones, would ease the traffic jams. This remedy is criticised for being expensive and liable to lead to more road use, which may be partly true, yet the alternatives are equally problematic. Road pricing has

118

Part 2: Writing Types

many practical difficulties, while people are often reluctant to use public transport. There is little alternative to a road building programme except increasing road chaos. Topic

Reducing road congestion

Problem

Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the movement of people and freight.

Solution A

It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or widening existing ones, would ease the traffc jams.

Arguments against solution A

This remedy is criticised for being expensive and liable to lead to more road use, which may be partly true …

Solutions B and C and arguments against

… yet the alternatives are equally problematic. Road pricing has many practical diffculties, while people are often reluctant to use public transport.

Conclusion in favour of solution A

There is little alternative to a road building programme except increasing road chaos.

4 Practice A ■

Read the following text and then rewrite it to reach a different conclusion.

The housing dilemma In many urban areas there is a serious housing shortage caused by people moving from the country to seek opportunities in the city. There are various possible answers to this problem, but each has its drawbacks. The traditional response is to build family houses with gardens, which offer privacy and space but require a lot of land. In addition, building these is slow and the growth of suburbs creates longer journeys to work. Another solution is to construct tall blocks of flats, which will accommodate more people at high density quite cheaply. However, families may find them noisy and cramped. A third option is to build prefabricated three-storey houses, which can be erected more quickly and cheaply than traditional houses and can be designed to achieve a higher density of population. For many cities these may be the best solution, avoiding the growth of both extensive suburbs and high-rise blocks.

5 Practice B ■

Working with a partner, study the diagram, which shows a current environmental problem and offers four possible solutions. Discuss the value of the solutions, and then write a paragraph analysing the situation.

2.3: Problems and Solutions

119

6 Practice C ■

Working with a partner, add to the list of urban problems and possible solutions.

Problem

Solution A

Solution B

Solution C

Air pollution in large cities

Charge all vehicles to enter centre

Only allow electric vehicles to enter

Ban cars and offer free public transport

Night clubs in city centres create a noise nuisance

■

Choose one of the problems and write a paragraph discussing the possible solutions.

7 Practice D ■

Think of a similar problem in your subject area. Complete the table and write a paragraph which offers possible solutions.

Topic Problem Solution A Argument against A Solution B Argument for/ against B (Solution C) Conclusion

UNIT

2.4

Case Studies

Essays, reports and theses in disciplines such as Medicine and Engineering often include case studies, which are detailed examples illustrating the topic under discussion. One case study may be the main subject of an essay, or several may be included to illustrate different situations.

1 Using case studies A case study attempts to explore a concrete, real-world situation. For example, if you are discussing methods of fighting malaria in rural areas, a case study might follow the real-life efforts of a medical team in a specific district of Indonesia over a period of months. This may have more value than a purely theoretical discussion, since it shows what really happened in one place. However, by being specific these results may not be valid in other situations. Case studies often form part of an essay or thesis and are widely used in Business, Medicine, Science, Engineering and Law Studies. They commonly illustrate various solutions to particular problems, for example: Problem: Case study: ■

How to design earthquake-proof road bridges? How three bridges in Chile reacted to the 2010 earthquake.

Match the topics on the left with the example case studies on the right.

Topics

Case studies

The social effects of developing wind farms in rural areas

A programme to cut smoking among pregnant women in a Greek clinic

Improving crop yields in semi-deserts

Work and learning – how a Brazilian scheme encouraged convicts to stay out of jail

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-20

2.4: Case Studies

121

Topics

Case studies

Reducing infant mortality

The Berlin experiment: increasing public participation in collecting and sorting waste

Ecological implication of reintroducing large mammals into the wild

Using solar power to operate irrigation pumps in Ethiopia

Dealing with reoffending among prisoners

Releasing wolves in the mountains of northern Italy

Improving recycling rates in large cities

A comparison of wind farms and community response in two regions of central Spain

■

Discuss with a partner the value of using case studies in your subject area.

2 Planning a case study A case study usually begins with a problem: Why is obesity increasing in many Western countries? This is a common question, but you need to research the background to establish a clear context (Where is it increasing? By how much?). This should be followed by research proposals: Is obesity caused by poor diet? Lack of physical activity? Genetic predisposition? You could then search for reports of programmes for combatting obesity. What methods did they use? How effective were they in reducing obesity? It might be interesting to describe several such schemes, especially if they varied significantly in their results. Why was one more successful than another? A failure can be as instructive as a success. Your case study may well challenge the accepted theories in this area. This comparison should then lead to proposals for running similar programmes in the future.

3 Background research ■

Discuss the following question with a partner:

What are the benefits and drawbacks of constructing large dams? To answer the question you first need to study the background: Why are dams built? What are the arguments about their construction? Where are dams currently being built?

122

Part 2: Writing Types

This background research could involve using websites, newspapers, magazines, documentaries or interviews; contemporary material can be valuable but you should remember to assess all sources for bias. A variety of case studies could be of value with this topic. With dam construction, an analysis of benefits and drawbacks could involve looking at dams constructed 100 years ago as well as current projects, in order to consider their long-term impact. It might be useful to consider three cases, for example a dam built in the 1930s in the USA, a recently completed project in East Africa, and a current development in Turkey. ■

With a partner, do an internet search for possible sources for these examples. Discuss which are the most useful.

Clearly, depending on your needs, case studies can vary considerably in length. However, the format will normally include these components: Introduction

Background and context to the topic Problem question and research proposals Reference to any theoretical models that are relevant Reasons for choosing particular cases – how they help to answer the problem question These may include maps, charts, photographs or video footage Comparison of different cases referring to their strong and weak aspects Summary of your findings and possible reference to theories Implications for future situations All references must be correctly cited

Development Case studies A/B/C Discussion Conclusion References

4 Model case study ■

Read the following example of a case study taken from a longer essay and answer the questions below. Topic:

Adapting international brands to local markets

Case Study:

The experience of IKEA in China

INTRODUCTION The Chinese economy has expanded at an average annual rate of about 8% for the past 30 years. Parallel to this, the Chinese furniture industry has grown vigorously, with annual sales recently rising by over 20% a year. Legislation to privatise home ownership and rapidly rising income levels have created unprecedented growth in the home improvement market, and China is now the world’s second largest furniture market. This demand has boosted domestic production and also prompted multinational furniture manufacturers to enter this lucrative market. International brands entering a national market must decide how much they need to adapt to local market conditions. According to Chu et al. (2013) they need to

2.4: Case Studies

123

offset the advantages of producing on a global scale against the benefits of closely targeting a particular market. IKEA, a Swedish furniture company, was one of the international companies which moved into China. It is a major furniture retailer operating in over 50 countries around the world and had annual sales of over 38.8 billion euros in 2018 (IKEA website). It entered the Chinese market in 1998 with its first store in Beijing, and sees great potential in the country, having already expanded to 28 stores and five distribution centres. Despite this successful growth, IKEA has found itself facing a number of challenges in terms of local differences in culture and business practices. Marketing IKEA in China Marketing management needs to be largely tailored to local contexts. IKEA has kept this notion in mind when designing marketing strategies and trying to appeal to local tastes while maintaining profitability. The company attempts to find the best possible compromise between standardisation and adaptation to local markets. The store layouts reflect the floor plan of many Chinese apartments, and since many of these have balconies, the stores include a balcony section. In contrast with traditional Chinese furniture, which is dark with much carving, IKEA introduces a lighter and simpler style. However, efforts have been made to adapt its products to Chinese taste. For instance, it has released a series of products just before each Chinese New Year. In 2008, the year of the rat, the series ‘Fabler’ was designed, using the colour red which is associated with good luck. Changes were also made to some product ranges. In Sweden, people are used to sleeping in single beds, or to putting two single beds together to form a double bed. However, this idea was not well received by Chinese couples, due to the fact that sleeping in separate beds symbolises a poor relationship and is believed to bring bad luck. In addition, Chinese brand names should have positive connotations. The Chinese name of IKEA (Yi Jia) means ‘comfortable home’, which gives the company a useful advantage in the market. An important feature of a retailer is the services it offers. The Shanghai store, for instance, has a children’s playground and a large restaurant, which make it distinctive. However, Chinese consumers expect free delivery and installation, and although IKEA has reduced its charges for these, it still compares unfavourably with its competitors. When the company first entered China its target market was couples with an income of 5–8,000 Rmb per month. Following steady price reductions this has now been lowered to families with just over 3,000 Rmb. Various strategies have been adopted to achieve these reductions; the most effective being to source locally. Seventy percent of its products sold in China are now made in the country. Furthermore, IKEA replaced its thick annual catalogue with thinner brochures which now appear five times a year. These not only cut printing costs but also give greater flexibility to adjust prices.

124

Part 2: Writing Types

Accessibility is an important issue for the Chinese market. In most countries IKEA stores are sited near main roads, but as only 41% of likely customers own cars in China, easy access to public transport is vital. Advertising also plays an important role in the total promotional mix. IKEA uses advertising effectively, with adverts in the local newspapers to keep customers informed of special offers. All TV commercials are produced locally with Chinese characters. Public relations are vital to building a good corporate image, and in China IKEA cooperates with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) on forest projects. The company insists on using environmentally friendly and recyclable materials for the packaging of its products, as part of its efforts to build a good corporate image. Discussion and conclusion IKEA’s product policy in China has been to successfully standardise products as much as possible, but also to customise as much as needed. But it has learned that service is also vital: free delivery and installation are the perceived rules in the local market which it needs to follow. It has further found that it is better to locate in a downtown area, easily accessible with public transport, when free delivery is not provided. International companies which operate in China, such as IKEA, face more complicated marketing decisions than local companies. They must become culture-conscious and thoroughly research local requirements rather than simply introduce a standard model of business.

Questions a) Give examples of problems the company has faced in this market.

b) What has IKEA done to adapt to the Chinese market?

c) Is anything missing from this case study?

UNIT

2.5

Literature Reviews

Literature reviews are sections of a paper in which the writer summarises relevant published work on the topic. They are standard in dissertations and theses, and allow the writer to show awareness of the leading authorities in the field and the state of the current debate.

1 What is a literature review? Introductions to essays commonly refer to the main sources used by the writer, but in longer papers, dissertations and theses there is usually a separate section in which relevant works are discussed. This may be headed ‘Literature review’ or a similar phrase such as ‘State of the debate’ or ‘Current state of the literature’. In some cases the whole focus of an essay may be a lengthy literature review, but in most undergraduate and graduate writing it will form only a relatively short section of the paper. In all cases, however, it is necessary to show that you are familiar with the views of the main authorities in the relevant field, to provide your work with credibility and so that your writing can build on these sources. A literature review is not simply a list of sources that you have studied. It can be used to show that there is a gap in the research that your work attempts to fill: This article has a different standpoint from other studies, because it believes that the influence of the state on the market has structurally increased since the neo-liberal era. This article focuses on information production, not information accessibility. That is the difference between this research and previous studies. It is also common to use the literature section to clarify and differentiate the varying positions held by other researchers:

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-21

126

Part 2: Writing Types

The political competition literature comprises two main strands – voter monitoring and political survival. ► See Unit 1.9 Contrasting Sources

2 Examples of literature reviews ■

Read this extract from an article on the subject of a ‘political class’.

A. A solution to the ‘political class’ problem begins with conceptual clarity. A meaningful solution must be attached to a well-defined problem. Has this clarity been produced by scholars? Certainly, it is a subject that has attracted the attention of many, but there is still ambiguity in the literature (see Borchert and Zeiss, 2003; Burch and Moran, 1985; Cotta and Best, 2007; Guttsman, 1965; Kavanagh, 1992; King, 1983; Mosca, 1939; Rush and Cromwell, 2000; Stanworth and Giddens, 1974; Weber, 1919). For example, Mosca (1939, pp. 50–1) describes a ruling or political class that ‘performs all political functions, monopolises power and enjoys the advantages that power brings’. The political class has power, dominates all of politics and is drawn from a privileged socio-economic background. This example presents: a) justification for further research: ‘… but there is still ambiguity in the literature’. b) a comprehensive list of previous writers, going back over 100 years. c) summaries of their views, beginning with Mosca. ■

Study another example which focuses on the transport infrastructure of Dubai, and answer the question which follows.

B. Yet within the literature on Dubai, only a few studies have addressed the impact of port infrastructure and logistics on wider patterns of capital accumulation (Jacobs and Hall, 2007; Ramos, 2010; Akhaven, 2017). This article aims to contribute to this scant literature by tracing the impact of Dubai’s state-owned conglomerates and labour regime on the emergence of the city as a global trade hub. ●

What phrases does the writer use to justify his study?

■

Read the next extract, which deals with issues of city governance in Leeds.

C. The uniqueness of this article is to bring together developing insights from co-production and urban labs and to explore the novel institutional personae that can be developed to unlock more effective and progressive ways of designing, managing and living in cities. [ … ] Our discussion builds on ongoing debates on soft spaces and fuzzy boundaries (Allmendinger and Haughton,

2.5: Literature Reviews

127

2009; Haughton et al., 2013; Heley, 2013), the role of policy intermediaries (Evans, 2009; Guy et al., 2011), emotions in policy, (Collins, 2016), and place leadership (Sotarauta and Beer, 2016). ● ●

How do the writers explain what is special about their study while referring to previous scholars? What is the difference between the way citations are organised in example A and examples B and C?

3 Writing a literature review ■

Study the following stages of writing a literature review as part of a long essay or thesis. 1.

Search the literature which relates to your subject area and research question. Depending on the length of your paper you may choose to use primary or secondary sources; the latter are more convenient if there is a wide range of sources. Use keywords in your search as practised in Unit 1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources.

2.

Critically examine the sources. You will not have time to read every word published on the topic. Successful work depends on pruning the possibilities to focus just on the most relevant sections of articles and books. In some subjects, such as Medicine, only recent papers are likely to be of value, whereas in the Humanities, older sources may still have value, as in the frst example above.

3.

Find the themes which link some sources and identify any gaps which your work can fll. You may be able to show the position of other writers in the current debate and then where your paper relates to this ongoing discussion. This is important for establishing your position in the academic community.

4.

As with other types of academic writing a literature review needs a coherent structure; it is not just a collection of citations. It may not always be organised as Introduction, Discussion and Conclusion but it needs a pattern of logical development.

5.

When you have planned the structure, you can then start to write the review. As with other types of academic writing it is important not to postpone the writing stage too long; until you begin you will not be able to judge whether you have found enough sources.

► See Unit 4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

4 Model literature review ■

Study the following example from a student paper on motivation theory. Answer the questions which follow.

128

Part 2: Writing Types

CONTENT AND PROCESS THEORIES The various theories of motivation are usually divided into content theories and process theories. The former attempt to ‘develop an understanding of fundamental human needs’ (Cooper et al., 1992: 20). Among the most significant are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, McClelland’s achievement theory and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. The process theories deal with the actual methods of motivating workers, and include the work of Vroom, Locke and Adams. Content theories Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was first published in 1943 and envisages a pyramid of needs on five levels, each of which has to be satisfied before moving up to the next level. The first level is physiological needs such as food and drink, followed by security, love, esteem and self-fulfilment (Rollinson, 2005: 195–6). This theory was later revised by Alderfer, who reduced the needs to three: existence, relatedness and growth, and re-named it the ERG theory. In addition, he suggested that all three needs should be addressed simultaneously (Steers et al., 2004: 381). McClelland had a slightly different emphasis when he argued that individuals were primarily motivated by three principal needs: for achievement, affiliation and power (Mullins, 2006: 199). In contrast, Herzberg suggested, on the basis of multiple interviews with engineers and accountants during the 1950s, a two-factor theory: that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction had differing roots. He claimed that so-called hygiene factors such as conditions and pay were likely to cause negative attitudes if inadequate, while positive attitudes came from the nature of the job itself. In other words, workers were satisfied if they found their work intrinsically interesting, but would not be motivated to work harder merely by good salaries or holiday allowances. Instead, workers needed to be given more responsibility, more authority or more challenging tasks to perform (Vroom and Deci, 1992: 252). Herzberg’s work has probably been the most influential of all the theories in this field, and is still widely used today, despite being the subject of some criticism, which will be considered later. Process theories Vroom’s expectancy theory hypothesises a link between effort, performance and motivation. It is based on the idea that an employee believes that increased effort will result in improved performance. This requires a belief that the individual will be supported by the organisation in terms of training and resources (Mullins, 2006). In contrast, Locke emphasised the importance of setting clear targets to improve worker performance in his goal theory. Setting challenging but realistic goals is necessary for increasing employee motivation: ‘goal specificity, goal difficulty and goal commitment each served to enhance task performance’ (Steers et al., 2004: 382). This theory has implications for the design and conduct of staff appraisal

2.5: Literature Reviews

129

systems and for management by objective methods focusing on the achievement of agreed performance targets. Another approach was developed by Adams in his theory of equity, based on the concept that people value fairness. He argued that employees appreciate being treated in a transparently equitable manner in relation to other workers doing similar functions, and respond positively if this is made apparent (Mullins, 2006). This approach takes a wider view of the workplace situation than some other theories, and stresses the balance each worker calculates between ‘inputs’, i.e. the effort made, and ‘outputs’, which are the rewards obtained. As several of these theorists did their research over 60 years ago there has clearly been a huge change in the nature of employment since then. Therefore it is worth asking whether they still have relevance to the situation of many workers in the modern, post-industrial economy, and this study attempts to answer that question.

Questions a) How many types of motivation theory are described?

b) How many different theorists are mentioned?

c) How many sources are cited?

d) Why has the writer not referred to the work of the theorists directly but used secondary sources instead?

UNIT

2.6

Writing Longer Papers

Long essays of 3,000–5,000 words may be required as part of a module assessment. These require more time, research and organisation than short essays, and this unit provides a guide to how this type of assignment can be approached.

1 Introduction ■

What are the differences between writing shorter and longer papers? Discuss with a partner.

The important differences are not the number of words. ● ● ● ●

A longer paper allows a student to study a topic in greater depth, so requires more research and planning. The structure of the paper can be more complex, which means that the writer needs to control the material carefully, and keep a suitable balance between the sections. This type of assignment also gives you time to rethink and reorganise your ideas as the process develops. In addition, the paper may contain sections not found in a shorter essay (see 3) below).

2 Planning your work Longer assignments are normally set many weeks before their deadline, which means that students should have plenty of time to organise their work. However, it is worth remembering that at the end of a semester you may have to submit several writing tasks, so it could be a good idea to finish one or more well before the deadline.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-22

2.6: Writing Longer Papers

131

You should also check the submission requirements of your department. These include style of referencing, method of submission (i.e. electronic, hard copy or both) and place and time of submission. Being clear about these will avoid last-minute panic. ► See Unit 1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process a) The first thing is to prepare a schedule for your work. An eight-week schedule might look like this: Week

Stages of work

Relevant units in this book

1

Study title and make frst outline. Look for and evaluate suitable sources.

1.2, 1.3

2

Reading and note-making. Keep record of all sources used.

1.3, 1.4, 1.5

3

Reading, note-making, paraphrasing and summarising. Modify outline.

1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.8

4

Write draft of main body.

1.10

5

Write draft introduction and conclusion.

1.11

6

Rewrite introduction, main body and conclusion, checking for logical development of ideas and relevance to title.

1.12

7

Organise list of references, contents, list of fgures and appendices if required. Check all in-text citations.

1.7

8

Proofread the whole essay before handing it in. Make sure that the overall presentation is clear and accurate (e.g. is page numbering correct?).

1.12

b) How you actually plan your schedule is up to you, but the important thing is to organise your time effectively. At some point you have to stop researching and start writing (Week 4 in the example above). Leaving the writing stage until the last minute will not lead to a good mark, however much research you have done. There is little value in collecting a large quantity of data or ideas if you cannot use it to answer the question effectively. Although you may be tempted to postpone writing, the sooner you start, the sooner you will be able to begin refining your ideas. Remember that late submission of coursework is usually penalised.

132 Part 2: Writing Types

3 Formatting the paper Longer papers may include the following features, in this order. Note that not all of these are required (e.g. a 3,000-word essay may not need a contents page or acknowledgements). Title page

Apart from the title, this usually shows the student’s name and module title and number.

Contents page

This should show the reader the basic organisation of the paper, with page numbers.

List of tables or fgures

If the essay includes visual features such as tables, maps and graphs, these need to be listed by title and page number.

Introduction

See Unit 1.11 Introductions

Main body

The main body may be divided into sections with subheadings in bold for each. Your paper may include a literature review and case studies, but these do not have to be labelled as such. Your department may require a numbering system, so the sections of the main body are normally numbered 1, 2, 3 and then subdivided 1.1, 1.2 etc.

Conclusion

See Unit 1.11 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

A space to thank any tutors or others who have assisted the writer.

Notes

These are used to give extra detail without interfering with the main narrative. They are indicated in superscript within the main body of the text. Arabic numerals should be used for these.

List of references

This is a complete list of all the sources cited in the text. Writers occasionally also include a bibliography, which is a list of sources read but not cited.

Appendices (Singular – appendix)

These sections are for data related to the topic which the reader may want to refer to. Appendices should be numbered, have a title and be mentioned in the main body.

You must check with your department for guidelines regarding typeface, line spacing, margins and other criteria. With regard to notes you may have the choice of using endnotes, which are collected in a section before the list of references, or footnotes at the bottom of each page. The word count is important, and should not be exceeded. Note that only the bibliography and appendices are normally exempt, so footnotes must usually be included in the count.

2.6: Writing Longer Papers

133

Page numbers: use Roman numbers (i, ii, iii) for the preliminary section from the title page to the end of the contents page, and then use Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3) to number the rest of the text. Overall, success with longer papers depends on: ●

having a schedule and keeping to it;

●

starting to write the main body early enough;

●

being ready to modify your outline if necessary;

●

allowing adequate time for editing and proofreading;

●

being consistent in formatting e.g. with references.

UNIT

2.7

Reports

Students of Science, Engineering, Medicine and Business (among others) may often have to write reports instead of essays. Reports and essays are similar in many ways, but the differences are explained and illustrated in this unit.

1 Essays and reports ■

Work with a partner. Discuss possible differences between essays and reports. Make a list of the differences.

Essays

Reports

► See Unit 2.4 Case Studies

2 Writing reports a) While essays are often concerned with abstract or theoretical subjects, a report is a description of a situation or something that has happened. In academic terms it might describe: i) a problem that you have studied and developed several solutions for; ii) a survey you have carried out; iii) a proposal for a new product or service. Most reports should include the following features (though see the more detailed outline of scientific reports in the next section): DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-23

2.7: Reports

135

Introduction – background to the subject – reasons for carrying out the work – review of other research in the area Method – how you did your research – description of the tools/ materials/ equipment used Results – what you discovered – comments on the likely accuracy of the results Discussion – of your main fndings – comments on the effectiveness of your research Conclusion – summary of your work – practical implications of the research – suggestions for further research

b) In comparison with essays, reports are likely to i) be based on primary as well as secondary research; ii) be more specific and detailed; iii) use numbering (1.1, 1.2) and subheadings for different sections. In most other respects reports are similar to essays since both: ● ● ● ● ●

have a clear and logical format use objective and accurate academic style may include citations and references make use of visual information in the form of graphs, diagrams and tables include appendices where necessary.

c) While an essay will generally be written for your lecturer or tutor, a report could also be prepared for a manager, a customer or an organisation. You are far more likely to write reports than essays in your future career, and so it is a skill worth practising. ■

Decide whether the following titles are more likely to be written as reports or essays.

Topic 1. The development of trade unions in South Africa (1900–2018) 2. Two alternative plans for improving the College Open Days for prospective students

Report

Essay

136

Part 2: Writing Types

3. A survey you conducted to compare male and female attitudes to writing essays 4. An overview of recent research on the human genome 5. The arguments for and against capital punishment

3 Scientifc reports Scientific research is usually conducted in order to support a hypothesis or to validate the work of others. An accurate written record of the experiment is important because it allows other researchers to share your work. At graduate level or above your research is adding to an international body of data on your particular area of study. In general, scientific reports follow the same guidelines as other academic writing in terms of style and vocabulary. However, your department may well have its own requirements for the organisation of a report, so it is advisable to ask if these exist.

Format Reports of laboratory experiments in disciplines such as Biology, Chemistry and Physics generally include the following sections: a) Title This should contain the essential elements of the report in (ideally) no more than 12 words: The effect of temperature changes on the germination of wheat (Triticum aestivum) b) Abstract The function of an abstract is to help potential readers identify whether your report is relevant to their research interests. It is essentially a summary in about 200 words of each part of the report, and so it is commonly written after the last draft is finalised. It should include the principal conclusions and be written in the same tenses as the main report. ► See Unit 1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources c) Introduction The introduction should contextualise your work with reference to other similar research. It should cite previous research papers which you have studied in order to explain the purpose of your work e.g. to confirm or extend their findings. It must contain a purpose statement (why you did this experiment) or a hypothesis you wished to evaluate, or both.

2.7: Reports

137

d) Method This section explains how you did the research. It should allow another researcher to repeat your work, so it needs to include a description of equipment and materials used, as well as the process you followed. You may wish to include diagrams or photographs to illustrate the set-up in the laboratory. The passive is normally used (three samples were prepared) rather than the active (we prepared three samples). Because the research is already concluded, the past tense should be used throughout. e) Results Again using the past tense, here you summarise all the results obtained. Detailed data may be presented in tables and graphs, with only the most important features highlighted in the text. You must include all results, including unexpected ones which do not conform to your hypothesis. f) Discussion This section links back to the introduction by comparing your results with the original purpose or hypothesis. It aims to evaluate the experiment in terms of your findings and compare them to your expectations. It may be necessary to refer to the relevant literature. g) Conclusion The conclusion should make it clear whether you feel that your hypothesis has been supported and whether there are changes that you would make to the design of the experiment if you were to repeat it. h) References As in all academic writing, this provides a list of all the sources you have specifically mentioned in your report. ► See Unit 1.7 References and Quotations

4 Practice ■

The order of the following six sentences (a–f), which form the introduction to a report on student accommodation at a university college, has been mixed up. Rearrange the sentences in their logical order (i–vi). The frst one has been done for you. a) However, as the estimated cost of these new residences is about £2.75 million ($3.4m) there is a counter-proposal to spend the money on better teaching facilities and instead rely on private landlords to provide accommodation off-campus. b) On the basis of the survey results, we then attempted to evaluate the two main options available to the College. c)

This is a crucial issue for the College as the quality of accommodation is a vital concern for most students: having comfortable and affordable housing can be seen as essential for focussing on academic work.

138 Part 2: Writing Types

d) Rising student numbers are putting pressure on existing student residences on the campus, so that the College is currently considering building three new blocks in the College grounds which would accommodate approximately 350 students. e) In order to research these questions we conducted a survey of 194 current students living in a range of accommodation. f)

Therefore this report sets out to establish what kind of accommodation students prefer, and secondly to discuss how this can be best provided, given the current fnancial climate.

A report on student accommodation at Bullbridge College 1. Introduction i) d ii) iii) iv) v) vi) ■

Now read the rest of the report and answer the questions which follow.

2. Accommodation survey We tried to find out why a cross-section of students had chosen their current rooms and how satisfied they were with their choices by conducting a short survey. About 250 students were sent an online questionnaire and 194 of these were completed. Of these, 55% (106) were from female students and 45% (88) were from males. This broadly reflects the gender balance of the College. Question 1: What kind of accommodation do you have now? Type

College residence on-campus

Student residence off-campus

Shared house or fat – private landlord

At home with parents

Male

36

14

33

5

Female

57

11

29

9

Total

93

25

62

14

It can be seen that the most common type of accommodation is in the College residences, and that only a small minority live with their parents. The results also demonstrate that substantially more females than males live in college residences and with their families.

2.7: Reports

139

Question 2: How satisfied are you with your current accommodation? (Rated 1–5, average results) Type

College residence on-campus

Student residence off-campus

Shared house or fat – private landlord

At home with parents

Male

3.7

4.6

3.4

2.9

Female

4.2

4.1

3.6

4.0

Average

3.95

4.35

3.5

3.45

These results show that the highest levels of satisfaction are found with the off-campus purposebuilt residences, provided by private companies. The on-campus College residences are also quite well-liked, but shared houses and flats seem less satisfactory. Question 3: What do you like and dislike about your current accommodation? Type

College residence on-campus

Student residence off-campus

Shared house or fat – private landlord

At home with parents

Likes

Convenient Make friends

Well-equipped Near town centre

Cheap Can choose friends to share with

Economical Comfortable

Dislikes

Expensive Noisy

Small rooms Expensive

Arguments with fatmates Poor quality fttings

Less freedom Can’t have friends to stay

3. Analysis The survey might have been improved by asking a greater number of students, but 194 responses does provide a significant sample. Perhaps a more serious drawback is that it did not distinguish between different years: first-year students may well have different priorities (e.g. making friends) to final-year students (who may value the independence of a shared house). However, the results obtained do support anecdotal reports of student preferences. 4. Conclusion Clearly living with parents is an option only open to a limited number of students with families living locally, so there are basically three types of student accommodation. Some students will prefer to save money by sharing flats and houses with their friends, and in fact there is a good supply of this type of accommodation provided by private landlords.

140

Part 2: Writing Types

The off-campus student residences appear to be rather more popular than the College residences, and from the College’s point of view they require no investment. Provided that more of these can be built to accommodate rising student numbers it would seem better for the College to spend its limited capital on new teaching facilities. a) Is anything missing from the report? b) How could the report be improved?

UNIT

2.8

Refective Writing

As part of studying a course in Nursing, Teaching, Social Sciences, Business or similar subjects it is increasingly common for students to be asked to reflect on their performance in various practical activities as part of the learning process. This unit explains the purpose of this reflection and illustrates some ways it can be approached.

1 The purpose of refective writing Reflective writing aims to enhance the benefit that students gain from various activities on their academic course, especially from more practical ones which involve other students such as taking part in a group project or conducting a survey. It recognises the value to students of assessing their experience, thinking about the positive and negative aspects, and drawing conclusions from this which will inform future performance. Various models have been developed to illustrate this process. One of the most comprehensive was by Gibbs (1988), which portrayed reflective writing as a cycle, moving from a description of what happened to an analysis of a student’s reactions to the event, followed by an explanation of the situation and then an evaluation of how well they dealt with the issue. Finally the student could consider how this might impact on their behaviour in future.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-24

142 Part 2: Writing Types

(Source: Modified from Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. Oxford: Oxford Further Education Unit)

2 Example ■

Study the following extract from a piece of refective writing on a recently conducted survey as part of a group project on public transport. Answer the questions which follow.

The first stage of our course required each group to research different types of local public transport. Our group decided to research the demand for local bus services and developed a questionnaire which consisted of ten questions, all with a yes/ no format. The survey was carried out in the Intu shopping precinct on May 19th, with the group working in pairs. We completed 112 questionnaires during the morning, with 74 women and 38 men taking part. The results showed that a majority of respondents (67% overall) would pay more to use the bus service if it was more reliable. I was quite nervous about interviewing people in the street but almost everyone we asked agreed to take part. However, I feel that the format of our questions was too rigid and some ‘open’ questions would have been more productive. Due to the timing, most of the interviewees were women shoppers, and we should have tried to get a better male/ female balance. Looking back, I think we could have trialled the questionnaire with a test group and been

2.8: Reflective Writing

143

prepared to modify some of the questions. I had thought about this earlier, but was worried about suggesting it to the group. In future I must be prepared to give my opinions even if it creates extra work for the team. Overall it seems difficult to design a set of questions in a large group of 10 people and perhaps it would be better to form a subcommittee to deal with this.

a) What has the writer learned from the experience about her behaviour? b) What does the writer suggest might improve group work in future? c)

How does this report conform to the Gibbs model?

3 Structure In general, a piece of reflective writing has four main sections, with the emphasis on the last two: Introduction – a brief overview of the background Description – a summary of what happened Interpretation – how you felt about the events Outcome – what you learnt from the experience ■

Use these descriptors to break down the example in 2) above.

Introduction

The first stage of our course required each group to research different types of local public transport.

Description Interpretation Outcome

4 Style Reflective writing is different in style from the bulk of academic writing. As it is more personal, using ‘I’ or ‘we’, it will be more subjective than normal, explaining your feelings. However, like other academic genres, it aims to be clear and precise as well as logical. The emphasis will be on critical analysis rather than description. As with other types of academic writing, your comments should be based on clear evidence where possible.

144 Part 2: Writing Types

The following phrases may be useful in writing about interpretation and outcome: It might have been better to …. We should have considered …. Another approach would have been to …. Perhaps a more effective method could be … In future I will take a different approach I need to improve my timing A smaller team could be more productive Overall I feel it was a useful exercise

5 Practice A ■

■

Work with a partner. Think about a seminar or lecture you have both recently attended, or a project you have been involved in. Ask each other questions such as: •

What did you expect from this?

•

What beneft did you get from it?

•

How could it have been improved?

•

Would you change your behaviour at a similar event in future?

Write a short account of the event with a brief description of what happened and then an account of your reactions to it and an analysis of any changes you might make to your participation in future.

6 Practice B Everyone makes mistakes, but in order to learn from them you could consider keeping a learning journal. This is a kind of diary which records some of the academic tasks you are required to do and your analysis of how useful they were, as well as how well you dealt with them. This is just for your own interest and nobody else need read it. Example: October 5th

October 6th

■

We were given two weeks to write a 1,000-word report on ante-natal services at the local clinic, working in groups of three. I felt rather nervous at first, but after meeting the other two I thought we got on well and we made a plan for our research. We talked to a nurse at the clinic. She gave us some leads, but we should have prepared our questions better before meeting her. However, on the basis of this we modified our plans for researching the services, which I thought was useful and should give us a better outcome.

Select two days in the past week and write journal entries for them. Your emphasis should be on interpretation of events rather than just description.

Progress Check C

These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Part 2: Writing Types. 1

This paragraph discusses the advantages and disadvantages of electric vehicles. Complete the gaps with suitable words and phrases. One important …………… of battery-powered vehicles is their lack of polluting emissions. Another…………… is that they are simpler to construct, while lower running costs are a further …………… . However, one serious ……………. must be their restricted range, as they require recharging after about 250 miles. Price is an additional …………, since the cost of the battery makes these vehicles more expensive than petrol-driven models. A final issue may be the source of the electricity, because if it is generated by coal or gas there is little ……………. for the environment.

2 Complete these sentences about electric vehicles, with counter arguments given first. a) It is frequently claimed that EVs have a very short range, but ……………………… b) Although it has been argued that EVs will reduce air pollution …………………………… c) Currently EVs are relatively expensive, yet ……………………………………………….…. 3

Complete the text with suitable words or phrases. The Covid-19 pandemic had a major effect on the aviation industry. a) ……………………… many countries closed their borders, airlines were forced to b) ……………………… . In addition, many people were afraid to travel by c) ……………………… . This situation d) ………………………………………… the closure of some airports and thousands of staff e) ……………………… . A further f) ……………………… was the impact on airplane builders such as Airbus, which experienced a severe fall in demand for their products.

4

Complete each sentence with synonyms for ‘problem’ or ‘solution’. a) The main ……………… facing the engineers was the extreme cold. b) The only ………………… was to repeat the experiment. c) One …………… faced by the company was public mistrust of internet security. d) The safe disposal of nuclear waste is a ……………without an easy ……………… .

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-25

146

Part 2: Writing Types

5

Some of these sentences contain factual errors. Find and correct them. a) Case studies are mainly used by students of Medicine. b) Most longer papers should include a literature review. c) A good literature review will only include primary sources. d) When writing a longer paper you should start by writing the introduction. e) One purpose of reflective writing is to improve your study habits. f) Reflective writing must be objective. g) Reports are generally less theoretical than essays. h) Reports deal with an analysis of events in the past.

6

The plans below illustrate two proposals for redeveloping a site on a university campus. Study the plans and then read the five sentences (a–e) which are the introduction to a report on the redevelopment. The order of the sentences has been mixed up. Put them in the correct order.

Plan A

Plan B

Progress Check C

147

a) The report also takes into account a consultation exercise with staff and students carried out last autumn. b) Two alternatives schemes for redevelopment have been put forward, as can be seen in Plans A and B above. c) This report attempts to compare the two schemes and to establish which is the more suitable. d) The aim of the redevelopment is to improve facilities for both staff and students, and at the same time enhance the appearance of this part of the campus. e) Due to the recent closure of the maintenance depot, a site approximately 250 metres long and 100 metres wide has recently become vacant on the west side of the university campus, and is ready for redevelopment. ■

Write the rest of the report under the three headings: Proposals, Discussion and Recommendations in less than 250 words.

Writing Tools

PART

3

Part 3 examines the skills needed to write any kind of academic work, such as using examples, making generalisations and providing correct punctuation. Presented in alphabetical order, these writing tools can be accessed for reference as needed or studied in conjunction with units in Part 1, e.g. Unit 3.8 Style with Unit 1.12 Editing and Proofreading.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-26

UNIT

3.1

Cohesion

Cohesion means joining a text together with suitable reference words (he, she, theirs, the former) and conjunctions (but, then) so that the whole text is clear, interesting and logical for the reader. This unit deals with the use of reference words.

1 Reference words Reference words are used to avoid repetition: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a fifteenth-century Italian genius who produced only a handful of finished artworks. However, they include Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, the former perhaps the most famous painting in the world. Although he is remembered mainly as an artist, he was also an innovative engineer, scientist and anatomist. His designs include tanks and flying machines, and although few of these were built in his lifetime he is still remembered as the man who saw their possibility. Here the reference words function as follows: Leonardo da Vinci

fnished artworks

Mona Lisa

designs

He/His

they

the former

these/their

Examples of reference words and phrases: Pronouns

he/ she/ it/ they

Possessive pronouns

his/ her/ hers/ its/ their/ theirs

Object pronouns

her/ him/ them

Demonstrative pronouns

this/ that/ these/ those

Other phrases

the former/ the latter/ the frst/ the second/ the last DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-27

152 Part 3: Writing Tools

2 Practice A ■

Read the following paragraph and complete the table with reference words.

Capital glamour? In the last 10 years at least 15 British universities such as Warwick and Loughborough have opened campuses in London, the former in the Shard building. They believe that an outpost in the capital is attractive for some students, especially international ones. For that reason many of them offer English-language classes alongside their academic courses. These campuses tend to offer more vocational subjects such as Management, although the bright lights of the capital offer no guarantee of subsequent employment. But among the drawbacks of such courses is the lack of sports facilities or other student union-based activities in the cramped conditions of the capital. Reference

Reference word/phrase

Warwick

The former

15 British universities some students an outpost in the capital is attractive campuses in London more vocational subjects

3 Preventing confusion To avoid confusing the reader it is important to use reference words only when the reference is clear and unambiguous. For example: Pablo Picasso moved to Paris in 1904 and worked with Georges Braque from 1908 to 1909. He became interested in the analysis of form, which led to cubism. In this case it is not clear which person (Picasso or Braque) ‘he’ refers to. So to avoid this write: Pablo Picasso moved to Paris in 1904 and worked with Georges Braque from 1908 to 1909. Picasso/ The former became interested in the analysis of form, which led to cubism. ■

Read a short text in your subject area and underline the reference words.

3.1: Cohesion

153

4 Practice B ■

In the following paragraph, insert suitable reference words in the gaps.

Famous for? When Andy Warhol died at the age of 58 in 1987 few people guessed that a) ………. would soon become one of the most valuable artists in the world. In 2007 total sales of b) ………. work at auction reached $428 million. When, a year later, c) ………. painting ‘Eight Elvises’ sold for over $100 million, d) ………. was one of the highest prices ever paid for a work of art. In e) ………. working life f) ………. made about 10,000 artworks, and dealers believe that g) ………. will continue to be popular with collectors in future. h) ………. is because of Warhol’s huge reputation as a super-cool trendsetter and innovator. i) ………. is also remembered for j) ………. remark: ‘In the future everyone will be famous for 15 minutes’, which seems to forecast today’s celebrity culture.

5 Implied language In various written forms certain words may be omitted for convenience. For instance, in emails the pronoun is frequently missed out: (I) Hope to see you on Friday. (We are) Looking forward to reading your article. In other cases, nouns may be implied, to avoid repetition: Various metals are used to make alloys with nickel. One such (metal) is chromium. Oil (production) and gas production have fallen since 2015. It is hoped to select suitable candidates from the 10,000 (candidates) who apply each year. In places a whole phrase might be implied: They are hoping to reach that goal soon. By 2025 they probably will (reach that goal). Implied language, also called ellipsis, is frequently found in comparisons: The price of land in rural areas is much less than (the price of land) in cities. Until you are a confident writer it is better not to omit such words or phrases since it may lead to confusion, but it is useful to understand why it is done.

154

Part 3: Writing Tools

6 Practice C ■

Read the paragraphs below and replace the words in bold with reference words.

Velcro Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. Velcro was invented by a Swiss engineer called George de Mestral. Mestral’s idea was derived from studying the tiny hooks found on some plant seeds. The tiny hooks cling to animals and help disperse the seeds. Velcro has two sides, one of which is covered in small hooks and the other in loops. When the hooks and loops are pressed together they form a strong bond. Mestral spent eight years perfecting Mestral’s invention, which Mestral called ‘Velcro’ from the French words ‘velour’ and ‘crochet’. The invention was patented in 1955 and today over 60 million metres of Velcro are sold annually.

7 Practice D ■

In the following paragraph, insert suitable reference words in the gaps.

Gillette’s blades Thin, disposable razor blades were first marketed in America by King Gillette at the beginning of the twentieth century. a) ………… had realised that as all men had to shave daily, there was a huge market for a product that would make b) …………. easier. c) ………….. was a simple idea, but at first d) ………… found it very hard to sell e) ………… . f) ………… was because nobody had marketed a throw-away product before. However, g) ………… use of advertising to stimulate demand rapidly increased sales and h) …………… became very popular. Within a few years i) ………… was a millionaire.

8 Practice E ■

Use the following information to write a paragraph about the invention of Kevlar, paying careful attention to the use of reference words.

Kevlar Inventor Background: Company: Kwolek’s position:

Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014) Her parents were Polish immigrants to America DuPont Corporation (USA) Research chemist

3.1: Cohesion

Kwolek’s education:

155

BSc from Carnegie Mellon University. She had planned a medical career, but took a temporary job with DuPont Kevlar ‘s properties: Synthetic fibre, stronger than steel Patented: 1965 Commercially produced: 1971 Applications: Car tyres, bullet-proof vests, skis, ropes, motorcycling clothing

UNIT

3.2

Comparison

It is often necessary to make comparisons in academic writing. The comparison might be the subject of the essay, or might provide evidence for the argument. In all cases it is important to explain clearly what is being compared and to make the comparison as accurate as possible. This unit deals with different forms of comparison and practises their use.

1 Comparison structures ■

Working with a partner, write three sentences comparing the weather today with the weather two days ago. Example: Today is much cooler and windier than (it was) on Tuesday. a) b) c)

The two basic comparative forms are: i) France is larger than Switzerland. The students were happier after the exam. (–er is added to one-syllable adjectives, some two-syllable adjectives (clever, cleverer) and two-syllable adjectives ending in –y, which changes into an ‘i’) ii) Learning Chinese is more difficult than learning English. Washington is less crowded than New York. (more/ less … are used with other adjectives of two or more syllables)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-28

3.2: Comparison

157

These comparisons can be modified by the use of adverbs such as: slightly, marginally (for small amounts) considerably, significantly, substantially (for large amounts) France is substantially larger than Switzerland. Switzerland is slightly smaller than Holland. Winters in Poland are significantly colder than in Portugal. Similarity or near-similarity can be noted by the use of as …… as or the same as: The population of France is approximately the same as the population of Britain. Summers in Tokyo are as wet as in Singapore. The ‘as … as …’ form can be used for quantitative comparison: Britain is half as large as France. The journey by plane is five times as fast as by train. ► See Unit 3.6 Numbers and Visual Information

2 Practice A Some papers are based on a comparison: The purpose of this study is to compare Chinese and American consumers on their propensity to use self-service technology in a retail setting. In other cases a comparison provides useful context: The first attempt to decode the human genome took 10 years; now it can be done in less than a week. ■

Read the text below and underline the comparison phrases. The frst has been done.

One result of the Covid-19 pandemic has been to further increase the popularity of online shopping. Choosing and ordering goods via a mobile phone or laptop has significant advantages compared to visiting the high street or a shopping centre. Many people find it more convenient to be able to shop at any time of day, rather than when a shop is open. Online shopping also offers significantly greater choice, since a much wider range of goods can be kept in large warehouses rather than in showrooms. It is also generally less expensive, as the retailer does not have the cost of running a physical store, while reading reviews from other buyers is helpful for many customers. Clearly, it is also much quicker compared with making a journey to the shops. However, physically handling goods, whether furniture or clothes, can be more reassuring than seeing the same products on a screen. In addition, many people enjoy the interaction of shopping in person, and find it more satisfying to speak to an assistant. Overall, it seems inevitable that more shopping will take place online, but the pleasure of browsing will ensure that some brick-andmortar shops remain open.

158

Part 3: Writing Tools

3 Using superlatives (e.g. the largest/ smallest) When using superlatives take care to define the group, e.g. ‘the cheapest car’ has no meaning without a context: The cheapest car in the Ford range/ in the USA. The most/ the least are usually followed by an adjective: The most interesting example is the position of Ireland. The most/ the fewest are used in relation to numbers: The fewest students studied insurance. (i.e. the lowest number)

4 Practice B ■

Study the table, which shows the changes in house prices in ten countries 2007–2017. Complete the following paragraph with one word in each gap. Country

Real % change

Canada

+47

New Zealand

+36

Australia

+35

Germany

+31

China

+30

Japan

+5

United Kingdom

−4

USA

−15

Ireland

−35

Spain

−36

(Source: The Economist)

In the decade between 2007 and 2017, the a)……………... rise in house prices among these countries was in Canada, where prices rose by 47%. This increase was b) ……………... greater c) ……………... in New Zealand (36%) or Australia (35%). Rises in Germany were nearly the d) ……………... as in China (31% and 30%). The e) ……………... falls were in Spain and Ireland (−36% and −35%), f) ……………... greater than declines in the USA (−15%) or the UK (−4%).

3.2: Comparison

159

5 Forms of comparison ■

Compare these three possible structures: House prices in China have risen more than in Japan. Chinese house prices have risen more than Japanese (prices). The price of houses in China has risen more than in Japan. Note that high/ low are used for comparing abstract ideas (e.g. rates): The birth rate was higher 20 years ago. more/ less must be used with than + comparison: This module is more diffcult than the previous one. Current spending on health is less than last year’s (rate).

6 Practice C ■

Study the table, which shows the income of the top ten clubs in European football. Then read the comparisons. Each sentence contains one error. Find and correct it. Income of top ten European football clubs (2020) Club

Revenue euros m.

FC Barcelona

840

Real Madrid

757

Manchester United

711

Bayern Munich

660

Paris Saint-Germain

635

Manchester City

610

Liverpool

604

Tottenham Hotspur

521

Chelsea

513

Juventus

459

(Source: Deloitte)

a) FC Barcelona had the highest income. b) Real Madrid’s income was almost twice much as Juventus’. c)

FC Barcelona earned marginally more than Chelsea.

d) Tottenham Hotspur had less revenue Liverpool. e) Liverpool’s income was substantially less than Manchester City’s. f)

Liverpool earned approximately same as Manchester City.

160

Part 3: Writing Tools

7 Practice D ■

The table shows the percentage of GDP spent on health in a range of countries. Complete the sentences below and write two more. Then combine all the sentences into a paragraph using linking phrases. Country

Health spending as % of GDP

USA

14

Switzerland

11

Canada

9.5

South Africa

8.6

Denmark

8.4

Bangladesh

3.5

Oman

3.0

Indonesia

2.4

Madagascar

2.0

Azerbaijan

0.9

(Source: WHO)

a) There are wide

in the percentage of GDP spent on health globally.

b) The USA spends

times as much as Bangladesh.

c)

South Africa spends

more than Denmark.

d) Madagascar’s spending on health is

the same as Indonesia’s.

e) f)

8 Practice E ■

Study the table below, which shows the share of total energy consumption produced from renewable sources in various European countries in 2016. Write a paragraph comparing them. Country

% of total

Sweden

54

Finland

41

Denmark

35

Austria

32

Portugal

28

3.2: Comparison

Romania

24

Italy

18

Germany

15

UK

10

Netherlands

6

161

(Source: Eurostat)

Among various European nations, Sweden produces the greatest amount of its energy from renewable sources …

9 Practice F ■

Study the data below about Barcelona, then complete the right-hand column about a city you know well. Finally, write a comparison of the two cities in 150–200 words. Barcelona

Location

Port city, on the northern Spanish Mediterranean coast

History

A town has been on this site for over 2,000 years

Status

Capital of the autonomous region of Catalonia

Population

1.6 million

Employment

Government offces, banking, tourism, car manufacturing

Culture

Over 55 museums, plus many art galleries, theatres and cinemas

Public transport

12 Metro lines, plus trams, buses and funicular railways

Climate

Warm wet winters, hot dry summers. Summer average approximately 25°C.

Housing

Mainly fats, typically in blocks of six storeys.

Main visitor attractions

The buildings of Gaudi, especially the Sagrada Familia cathedral

Your city

Defnitions

UNIT

3.3

Definitions are often found in introductions (see Unit 1.11). They are not needed in every paper, but if the title includes an unfamiliar phrase, or if the writer wants to use a term in a special way, it is important to make clear to the reader exactly what is meant in this context. This unit presents ways of writing both simple and complex definitions.

1 Simple defnitions Basic definitions, as found in a dictionary, are formed by giving a category and the application: Word

Category

Application

An agenda

is a set of issues

to be discussed in a meeting.

A Master’s degree

is an academic award

for postgraduate students, given on successful completion of a dissertation.

A grant

is a sum of money

given for a specifc purpose.

A seminar

is an academic class

meeting with a tutor for study.

2 Category words These are useful for making definitions. ■

Match the examples on the left with the categories on the right. Then write a full defnition for each one.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-29

3.3: Definitions

163

Example: Reinforced concrete is a building material consisting of cement, aggregates and steel rods, used in structures such as bridges. Example

Category word

Reinforced concrete Malaria Autocracy Weaving Oats Limited company Parking fne Sculpture

Disease Cereal Organisation Visual arts Political system Building material Penalty Process

■

Complete the following defnitions by inserting a suitable category word or phrase from the box (there are more words than gaps).

textile instrument

theory

behaviour

organisation

period

profession

organs

process

a) A barometer is a scientifc …………… designed to measure atmospheric pressure. b) Kidneys are …………… that separate waste fuid from the blood. c)

A multi-national company is a business …………… that operates in many countries.

d) Linen is a …………… made from fax. e) Bullying is a pattern of anti-social …………… found in many schools. f)

Recycling is a …………… in which materials are used again.

g) A recession is a …………… of reduced economic activity. ■

Write defnitions for the following: h) A lecture is

■

i)

Tuberculosis (TB) is

j)

The Red Cross is

k)

An idiom is

Write two defnitions from your own subject area:

164

Part 3: Writing Tools

3 Complex defnitions It can be difficult to define terms that you may feel are widely used and understood. For instance, what exactly is an ‘urban area’, a ‘non-governmental organisation’ or the ‘international community’? Although these and many similar terms are commonly employed in discussion, if you have to write about them it can be vital to make clear, at the beginning of a paper, what you understand by such a phrase in the context of your paper. ■

The following examples illustrate the variety of methods that can be used in giving defnitions. Study the examples and underline the terms being defned. a) The defnition for a failed project ranges from abandoned projects to projects that do not meet their full potential or simply have schedule overrun problems. b) Development is a socio-economic-technological process having the main objective of raising the standards of living of the people. c)

Bowlby (1982) suggested that attachment is an organized system whose goal is to make individuals feel safe and secure.

d) … the non-linear effect called ‘self-brightening’ in which large-amplitude waves decay more slowly than small-amplitude ones … e) Globalisation, in an economic sense, describes the opening up of national economies to global markets and global capital, the freer movement and diffusion of goods, services, fnance, people, knowledge and technology around the world. ■

Which of the above example(s) i)

quotes a defnition from another writer?

ii) gives a variety of relevant situations? iii) explains a process? iv) uses category words?

4 Practice A ■

Study the following titles, underline the terms that are worth defning, and write defnitions for three of them. Example: Title: Higher education should be free and open to all – Discuss. Defnition: Higher education usually means university-level study for frst or higher degrees, normally at the age of 18 or above. a) Capital punishment has no place in the modern legal system – Discuss. b) How can the management of an entrepreneurial business retain its entrepreneurial culture as it matures? c)

E-books are likely to replace printed books in the next 20 years. Do you agree?

3.3: Definitions

165

d) As urban areas continue to expand worldwide, will agriculture be able to feed the growing population of cities? e) Given the medical dangers of obesity, what is the best way of reducing its incidence?

5 Practice B ■

Think of a topic you are currently studying and write three defnitions for terms used in that topic that need clarifcation. Example: (Education) a) pre-school b) learning disability c)

mixed-ability class

UNIT

3.4

Examples

Examples are used in academic writing for support and illustration. Suitable examples can strengthen the argument, and they can also help the reader to understand a point. This unit demonstrates the different ways in which examples can be introduced, and practises their use.

1 Using examples Generalisations are commonly used to introduce a topic: Many plants and animals are threatened by global warming. But if the reader is given an example for illustration, the idea becomes more concrete: Many plants and animals are threatened by global warming. Polar bears, for example, are suffering from the lack of Arctic ice. Without examples writing can seem too theoretical: The overuse of antibiotics has had serious negative consequences. But an example makes the idea easier to understand: The overuse of antibiotics has had serious negative consequences. Hospital-acquired infections such as MRSA have become more difficult to treat and this has resulted in many deaths.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-30

3.4: Examples

167

The example may also support the point the writer is making: The past decade has seen International Relations enthusiastically embrace popular culture as a classroom resource. George Orwell’s ‘1984’ has long had traction as a metaphor for a meta-regional dystopia … ► See Unit 3.5 Generalisations ■

Read the following text and note the way that examples are used. Underline the examples.

Droning on For some years there have been predictions that drones could be used to deliver goods to customers. Amazon was one company that expressed an interest. Yet issues with regulators have delayed the arrival of airborne parcels in most countries, owing to concerns with privacy and safety. However, in remote rural regions drone deliveries are already in operation. In Rwanda, for instance, an American startup called Zipline is flying medical supplies, especially blood, to isolated clinics and hospitals. There are various reasons for beginning to operate in these places: medicines are valuable yet lightweight, while most deliveries are between a small number of fixed points. By comparison, travel by road is likely to be slower and more expensive. The pioneer companies such as Zipline and Matternet claim to be operating profitably already, and there are plans to begin the service in less remote places: Zipline will bring its expertise from Africa to North Carolina.

2 Phrases to introduce examples a) for instance, for example, (with commas) Some car manufacturers, for instance Kia, now offer seven-year guarantees. b) such as, e.g. (e.g. normally in brackets) Extreme weather events such as hurricanes are becoming more frequent. c) particularly, especially (to give a focus) Certain Master’s courses, especially American ones, take two years. d) a case in point (for single examples) A few diseases have been successfully eradicated. A case in point is smallpox. ■

Add a suitable example to each sentence and introduce it with one of the phrases above. Example:

A number of sports have become very proftable due to the sale of television rights. A number of sports, for instance motor racing, have become very proftable due to the sale of television rights.

168

Part 3: Writing Tools

a) Some twentieth-century inventions affected the lives of most people. b) Since 2005 many countries have introduced fees for university courses. c)

Various companies have built their reputation on the strength of one product.

d) In recent years more women have become political leaders. e) Certain countries are frequently affected by earthquakes. f)

Many musical instruments use strings to make music.

g) Ship canals facilitate world trade. h) Politicians have discussed a range of alternative punishments to prison.

3 Practice A ■

Read the text below and add suitable example phrases from the box where appropriate.

such as Diet Coke including eggs, butter, salt, sugar, fats and smoked meats for example, bread or rice e.g. swimming, running or cycling in other words, a food may be condemned by one scientist but approved by another such as fruit and meat

Eating for health A hundred years ago most people’s diets consisted of a few staple items that were cheap and also filling. Today many people are able to afford more variety, and regularly eat more expensive foods. But along with the wider choice has come anxiety about the possible threats to health contained in certain foods. In recent years a broad range of products have been considered a risk to health. This has left many people confused, as much of the ‘research’ behind these claims is contradictory. One beneficiary of this process is the health food industry, a booming sector which promotes food and drink products to health-conscious young people. In fact, many doctors argue that instead of focusing exclusively on what they eat or drink, people’s health would be improved by doing more exercise.

3.4: Examples

169

4 Practice B ■

Read the text below and then insert suitable examples where needed to illustrate the points.

Climate chaos? In the last ten years extreme weather events have become more common, and climate scientists generally agree that they are partly a product of global warming, as a result of the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These events have two types of negative consequences: the immediate damage and injuries caused by the event, and the long-term effects for farmers and others. Although engineers point out that the dangers can be minimised by investing in better defences, those countries which are most at risk are also those least able to afford this investment.

5 Restatement Another small group of phrases is used when there is only one 'example'. (Brackets may also be used for this purpose). This is a kind of restatement to clarify the meaning: The world’s second largest gold producer, namely Australia, has been faced with a number of technical difficulties.

in other words

namely

that is (to say)

i.e.

NB: ‘i.e.’ and ‘e.g.’ are commonly confused. Both are from Latin: i.e. = id est/ e.g. = exempli gratia ■

Study these examples: The world’s largest company, i.e. Walmart has reported increased profts. (that is) Many of the world’s largest companies, e.g. BP are in the oil business. (for example)

■

Add a suitable phrase from the box below to the following sentences, to make them clearer. a) The company’s overheads doubled last year. b) The Roman Empire was a period of autocratic rule. c)

Two Spanish cities are long-standing football rivals.

d) Survival rates for the most common type of cancer are improving. e) Participation rates in many democracies are in decline.

170

Part 3: Writing Tools

that is to say, fewer people are voting in other words the fixed costs namely Madrid and Barcelona (27 BCE–476 CE) i.e. breast cancer

UNIT

3.5

Generalisations

Generalisations may be a good way to introduce a topic. They can be powerful statements because they are simple and easy to understand. But they must be used with care, to avoid being inaccurate or simplistic. This unit explains how to generalise clearly and effectively.

1 Using generalisations a) Generalisations can be used to give an outline introduction to a topic. Compare: In 1974 46% of British adults smoked cigarettes; today the figure is about 15%. In the last 50 years smoking has declined sharply in Britain. Although the first sentence is more accurate, the second is easier to understand and remember. The writer must decide when accuracy is necessary, and when a generalisation will be acceptable. A generalisation in the introduction should help the reader to understand the main focus of a paper: Since the break-up of the Soviet Union, Russia has aimed to redefine its identity in international politics and regain its great power status. b) You should avoid using generalisations which are not supported by evidence or research, or are unclear: Young children learn second languages easily. Smoking causes lung cancer. It can be dangerous to use statements like those above because there may well be exceptions. Instead, it is better to use cautious phrases such as: DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-31

172

Part 3: Writing Tools

Young children often learn second languages easily. Smoking can cause lung cancer. ■

Decide which of the following generalisations are valid:

a) b) c) d) e)

Students dislike writing essays. Earthquakes are often difficult to predict. There appears to be a link between poverty and disease. Women work harder than men. Travel by air is faster than train travel.

► See Unit 3.8.6 Style: The use of caution

2 Structure Generalisations can be made in two ways: a) Most commonly using the plural: Computers have transformed the way society functions. b) Using the singular + definite article (the): The computer has transformed the way society functions. (more formal)

3 Practice A ■

Write generalisations on the following topics: Example: fresh fruit/ health – Eating fresh fruit is important for health. a) regular rainfall/ good crop yields b) honest judges/ respect for the law c)

adequate sleep/ academic success

d) industrial growth/ pollution e) cold weather/ demand for gas f)

job satisfaction/ interesting work

g) regular training/ sporting success h) creativity and skill/ great art

4 Practice B ■

Study the table and write fve generalisations about student study habits.

3.5: Generalisations

173

Results of a college survey on where students prefer to study Undergraduates (%)

Graduates (%)

Male

Female

Male

Female

Library

20

17

47

32

Own room in silence

21

27

26

38

Own room with music

25

13

12

14

Own room in bed

15

24

6

10

Outdoors

6

9

4

2

Other

13

10

5

4

(Source: Author)

5 Building on generalisations Generalisations can be used in various ways when introducing a subject, presenting the results of research or developing a thesis. ■

Read the following text and note the generalisations in italics. Answer the questions that follow.

The wood and the trees Around the world there is concern that deforestation is contributing to global warming, while planting trees is seen as a useful remedy, because of their ability to absorb carbon dioxide. Actually, most EU countries have experienced an expansion of forests in the past 25 years: areas of woodland the size of Portugal have been added. France, for instance, now has 31% forest cover. This is partly caused by the decline in agriculture on marginal land, but also due to the creation of more protected natural parks, such as the Baronnies Provençales in the southeast of France, established in 2015. Yet such parks are not always welcomed by local people: some fear restrictions on hunting or the return of wild animals such as wolves. a) What is the function of the first generalisation? b) What is the purpose of the sections not in italics? c) What would be the effect of using only generalisations i.e. only including the sections in italics?

6 Practice C Most essays move from the general to the specific, as a generalisation has to be supported and developed. For example, an essay with the title ‘Can higher fees in higher education be justified?’ might develop in this way:

174

Part 3: Writing Tools

Generalisation

Support

Development > Specifc

In the past 20 years many countries have introduced substantial fees for students in higher education.

As a result many students have to take out a loan to complete their degree courses.

In England, for example, the average student debt is now about £40,000 at the end of a three-year undergraduate course.

■

Underline the support and development in the following: Urbanists have shown how modernist ideals of the orderly and healthy metropolis have been at the heart of liberal projects of state making. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, for instance, engineers were at the forefront of efforts at instilling ideals of urban sanitation, cleanliness and order in rapidly industrialising Western cities.

■

Choose a title from the list below (or select one from your own subject), then write a generalisation and develop it in the same way. a) Does tourism always have a negative effect on the host country? b) Should governments use taxation to promote public health? c)

Is it more important to protect forests or to grow food?

d) Is it better for the state to spend money on primary or university education? Generalisation

Support

Development > Specifc

► See Units 1.11 Introductions and Conclusions and 3.4 Examples

UNIT

3.6

Numbers and Visual Information

Students in many subjects, such as Medicine, Business or Agriculture, are required to write clearly and accurately about statistical data. This unit first explains and practises the language of numbers and percentages, and then deals with presenting data in charts and tables.

1 The language of numbers a) In introductions numbers are often used to give the scale of a situation: Approximately 1,800 children between the ages of five and 12 years were selected. The earth’s atmosphere appears to be gaining 3.3 billion metric tons of carbon annually. The words figures and numbers are both used to talk about statistical data in a general sense: The figures/ numbers in the report need to be read critically. But number is used more widely: 13 is an unlucky number in some cultures. Digits are individual numbers. 4,539 is a four-digit number. Both fractions (½) and decimals (0.975) may be used. Three quarters of the sample group expressed support for the project. (not ¾) DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-32

176

Part 3: Writing Tools

b) There is no final ‘s’ on hundred/ thousand/ million used with whole numbers. Compare Six million people live there. with: Thousands of people were forced to move from the flooded valley. (+ ‘of’) When discussing money, put the currency symbol first: $440 m (440 million US dollars). Rates are normally expressed as percentages (e.g. the literacy rate is 75%) but may also be per thousand (e.g. the Austrian birth rate is 8.7 per thousand). It is common practice for whole numbers to be written as words from one to ten and as digits above ten: There were 16 students in the class, but only eight came to the lecture. But note that to begin a sentence only words should be used: Fourteen species of beetle live in the national park.

2 Percentages These are commonly used for expressing differences, and rates of change: Most of the earth’s surface (71%) is covered by water. Since 2018 the number of prisoners has risen by 6% per year. ■

Complete the following sentences using the data in the table below. a) Between 2017 and 2018 the number of Law students increased by ……… %. b) The number increased by ……… % the following year. c)

Between 2017 and 2020 there was a ……… % increase.

Students studying Law 2017–2020 2017

2018

2019

2020

200

300

600

1000

3 Simplifcation Although the accurate use of numbers is vital, if a text is overloaded with statistics it can be difficult to read. If the exact number is not important, words such as various, dozens or scores may be used instead:

3.6: Numbers and Visual Information

177

The snowstorm closed 47 schools. The snowstorm closed dozens of schools. a couple/ a pair

2

informal

few

a small number, less than expected

has negative connotation

a few

approximately 3–6 depending on context

has more positive connotation

several

approximately 3–4

various

approximately 4–6

dozens of

approximately 30–60

scores of

approximately 60–100

■

Rewrite the following sentences using one of the words or phrases from the table above. Example: Only three people attended the meeting. Few people attended the meeting. a) Seventy-seven students applied for the scholarship. b) Since 1975 53 primary schools have been rebuilt. c)

Five names were suggested but rejected for the new chocolate bar.

d) Last year four books were published on biogenetics in French.

4 Further numerical phrases The expressions listed below can also be used to present and simplify statistical information. For example: The course fees rose from $1,200 to $2,500 in two years. could be written: The course fees doubled in two years. If more accuracy is wanted, roughly or approximately can be added: The course fees roughly doubled in two years.

178

Part 3: Writing Tools

one in three

One in three engineering students is from China.

twice as many

Twice as many women as men study business law.

three times as many

There were three times as many cases as expected.

a fve/ tenfold increase

There was a fvefold increase in the price of oil.

to double

Their profts have doubled every year.

to halve

The rate of infection halved after 2011.

the highest/ lowest

The lowest rate of home ownership was in Germany.

on average/ the average

On average, each judge hears two cases per day.

a small/ large proportion

The website generates a large proportion of their sales.

majority/ minority

The majority of births take place in hospital.

Majority/ minority are often qualified: these figures are approximate: 5–20% 21–39% 40–49% 51–55% 56–79% 80%+ ■

a small minority a minority a substantial/ signifcant minority a small majority a majority a large majority

Re-write each sentence in a simpler way, using a suitable expression from the tables above. a) In 1973 a litre of petrol cost 12p, while the price is now £1.20. b) The new high-speed train reduced the journey time to Madrid from seven hours to three hours 20 minutes. c)

The number of students applying for the Psychology course has risen from 350 last year to 525 this year.

d) More than 80% of students in Britain complete their frst degree course; in Italy the fgure is 35%. e) Tap water costs 0.07p per litre, while bottled water costs, on average, 50p per litre. f)

Fifty-seven per cent of the members supported the suggestion, but of these 83% had some doubts.

3.6: Numbers and Visual Information

179

5 Practice A ■

Study the data in the table below and write sentences using suitable numerical phrases.

Selected Olympic Games 1896–2012: Participation by gender Year

Host

Sports e.g. athletics

Events e.g. 100 metres

Athletes

% Women

1896

Athens

9

43

241

0.0

1924

Paris

17

126

3,089

4.4

1964

Tokyo

19

163

5,151

13.2

1992

Barcelona

32

257

9,356

28.9

2008

Beijing

28

302

10,942

42.4

2012

London

28

302

10,700

45.0

(Source: IOC)

a) At the Paris Olympics in 1924 a small minority of athletes were female. b) c) d) e) f)

6 Visual information: Types of visuals Visual devices such as graphs and tables are a convenient way of displaying large quantities of information in a form that is easy to understand. Below are examples of some of the main types of visual devices used in academic texts. Note that they are often combined e.g. a bar chart with a line graph. ■

Complete the box below to show the example (A–I) of each type.

Types

Use

Example

1. Diagram

illustration of structure

F

2. Table

statistical display

3. Map

location - small scale

4. Pie chart

comparison

180 Part 3: Writing Tools

5. Flow chart

sequence of process

6. Line graph

changes in time

7. Bar chart

proportion

8. Plan

location - large scale

9. Scatter graph/ plot

relation between two sets of variables

A. Average monthly rainfall

B. Average life expectancy

(inches)

(both sexes, in years, 2017)

Average monthly rainfall 5

City 1 City 2

4 3 2

Japan

83.7

France

82.4

United States

79.3

United Arab Emirates

77.1

India

68.3

South Africa

62.9

Afghanistan

60.5

Nigeria

54.5

Angola

52.4

1 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

C. Electricity output from coal (2015)

D. Origins of international students

Electricity output % from coal 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Far East N.America Europe Other Africa China

Australia

India

United States

Germany

3.6: Numbers and Visual Information

181

E. Planning an essay

F. The human eye

H. The states of the USA

G. Layout of the language centre

I. Height versus armspan Height (cm) 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 100

120

140 160 Armspan (cm)

180

200

182 Part 3: Writing Tools

7 The language of change (past tenses in brackets) Verb

Adverb

grow (grew)

slightly

rise (rose)

gradually

increase (increased)

steadily

climb (climbed)

sharply

Verb

Adjective + noun

drop (dropped)

a slight drop

fall (fell)

a gradual fall

decrease (decreased)

a sharp decrease

decline (declined)

a steady decline

(Also: a peak, to peak, a plateau, to level off, a trough) ■

Study the graph and the description below. The graph (Fig. 1) shows that the rate of infation was 2% in January, and then rose to 2.5% in February. After that it levelled off until April, and then increased steadily to over 4% in July. Infation fell slightly in August, but then climbed to a peak of 5% in September. From there it dropped sharply to below 2% in December.

Figure 1 Infation (%) January–December 2019. (Source: IMF)

3.6: Numbers and Visual Information

183

8 Describing visuals Although visuals do largely speak for themselves, it is common to help the reader interpret them by briefly commenting on their main features. The graph The map The diagram ■

shows illustrates displays

the changes in the price of oil since 1990. the main sources of copper in Africa. the organisation of both companies.

Read the following descriptions of the chart below. Which is better, and why? i)

The chart (Fig. 2) shows the quantity of tea consumed by the world’s leading teaconsuming nations. India and China together consume more than half the world’s tea production, with India alone consuming about one third. Further signifcant tea consumers are Turkey, Russia and Britain. ‘Others’ includes the United States, Iran and Egypt.

ii) The chart (Fig. 2) shows that 31% of the world’s tea is consumed by India, 23% by China, and 8% by Turkey. The fourth largest consumers are Russia, Japan and Britain, with 7% each, while Pakistan consumes 5%. Other countries account for the remaining 12%. Others 12% Pakistan 5%

India 31%

Japan 7% Britain 7% Russia 7% Turkey 8%

Figure 2 World tea consumption. (Source: The Tea Council)

China 23%

184

Part 3: Writing Tools

9 Labelling visuals When referring to visual information in the text, the word ‘figure’ is used for almost everything (such as maps, charts and graphs) except tables (see examples in sections 8 and 10). Figures and tables should be numbered and given a title. Titles of tables are written above the data, while titles of figures are written below. As with other data, sources must be given for all visual information. If you are writing a lengthy work such as a dissertation you will need to provide lists of tables and figures, showing numbers, titles and page numbers, after the contents page.

● ●

●

10 Practice B ■

Complete the following description of the table below (one word per gap).

Table 1 Projected population changes in various European countries 2018–2050 Country

Population 2018 (million)

Projected population 2050 (million)

Change (%)

France

62

67

+5

Germany

82

71

– 11

Italy

60

57

–3

Poland

38

32

–6

Portugal

10.7

10

– 0.7

Russia

140

116

– 24

Spain

45

51

+6

UK

62

72

+ 11

(Source: UN)

Table 1 a) ……………….. the projected population changes in various European countries b) ……………….. 2018 and 2050. It can be seen that in a c) ……………….. the population is expected to fall, in some cases (e.g. Germany and Russia) quite d) ……………….. . However, the populations of France, e) ……………….. and the UK are predicted to f) …………….., in the case of the latter by more g) ……………….. 10%.

3.6: Numbers and Visual Information

11 Practice C ■

Write a paragraph commenting on the main features of the chart below.

Figure 3 The world’s fastest mammals (maximum speed, miles per hour) (Source: Author)

185

UNIT

3.7

Punctuation

Accurate punctuation and the correct use of capital letters help the reader to understand exactly what the writer means. While some aspects of punctuation, such as the use of commas, can be a matter of individual style, correct punctuation in areas such as quotation is vital.

1 Capital letters Carelessness with capitals can lead to confusion. Can you correct the following? The polish polish can be used on wood or leather. It is difficult to give precise rules about the use of capital letters in modern English, where nowadays there is a tendency to use them less than before. However, they should always be used in the following cases: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)

The first word in a sentence Days and months Nationality words Languages Names of people/ places Book titles (main words only) Historical periods Names of organisations The first person pronoun Ideologies Academic subjects

NB: seasons are not capitalised DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-33

In the beginning … Friday 21st July Indonesia and the Indonesians Most Swiss speak French and German Dr Martin Lee from Sydney, Australia Power and the State The Industrial Revolution, the Great Depression Nottingham Trent University By Monday I had finished the book The coalition included Socialists and Communists In her second year she dropped Maths The course began in autumn

3.7: Punctuation

187

When discussing general concepts such as ‘empire’ (a common noun) no capital is needed: Rome developed one of the world’s earliest empires. But a capital form is used when specific (a proper noun): The Roman Empire stretched from Britain to Syria.

2 Full stops (.) [US: period] These are used to show the end of a sentence: The first chapter provides a clear introduction to the topic. They are also used with certain abbreviations formed from the first part of a word: govt./ Jan./ p.397/ etc. But do not use full stops with acronyms such as: BBC/ UN/ VIP ► See Written British and American English – Section 4 It is also now less common to use full stops with initials in people’s names: DH Lawrence ► See Unit 4.1.7 Approaches to Vocabulary – Abbreviations

3 Commas (,) These are one of the commonest punctuation marks, but also one of the hardest to provide guidance for, because comma use is partly a matter of individual style. Overuse can slow down the reader, but equally the lack of commas can be confusing. Some instances of general comma usage are: a) after introductory words or phrases: However, further cases should be considered before reaching a conclusion. On the whole, there were more winners than losers. b) around examples or comments (these are phrases that can be left out without loss of meaning): Certain investments, for instance shares, are highly volatile. Privatisation, it is widely recognised, has a positive and a negative aspect.

188

Part 3: Writing Tools

c) around non-restrictive relative clauses (i.e. clauses which can be left out): His essay, which had taken him weeks to write, was submitted a day late. d) in lists of three or more items: Apostrophes, colons, semi-colons and commas must all be used with care. e) finishing direct speech: ‘Don’t forget the deadline’, the teacher told them. f) with a group of adjectives: It was a long, rambling, humorous and controversial book.

4 Apostrophes (’) These can be one of the most confusing features of English punctuation, but their correct use is grammatically vital. They are mainly used in two situations: a) to show contractions NB: contractions are not common in academic English. It is usually better to write the full form: b) with possessives

NB: It’s is the contraction of it is The third person singular possessive form is its

He’s the leading authority on Marx. He is the leading authority on Marx.

The professor’s secretary (singular – one professor) Students’ marks (plural – many students) Dickens’ novels (names ending in ‘s’) Women’s rights (for irregular plurals) It’s possible the course will be cancelled. ‘Civilization and its Discontents’ (Freud)

There is no need to use the apostrophe with generic plurals: 1980s, HGVs

5 Semi-colons (;) Semi-colons are used to show the link between two connected clauses, each of which could stand on its own: Seven people applied for the post; six were shortlisted and then interviewed. Nobody questioned the results; they were quite conclusive.

3.7: Punctuation

189

Semi-colons are also used to divide up items in a list when they have a complex structure, as in a multiple citation: (Maitland, 2006; Rosenor, 1997; The Economist, 2017b; University of Michigan, 2000).

6 Colons (:) Colons have three main uses: a) to introduce explanations b) to start a list c) to introduce a quotation

The meeting was postponed: the Dean was ill. Three aspects were identified: financial, social and ethical. As Keynes said: ‘In the long run we are all dead’.

7 Quotation marks/ inverted commas (“ ”/ ‘ ’) a) Single quotation marks are generally used to show quotations from other writers: Goodwin’s (1977) analysis of habit indicates that, in general, ‘It will be more difficult to reverse a trend than to accentuate it’. NB: Make sure that the final quotation mark comes before the full stop. Longer quotations are usually indented (i.e. have a wider margin) and/ or are set in smaller type. They do not need inverted commas: More recently, she has stated the point even more directly: Government, I hold, should not give people an option to be treated with respect and nonhumiliation … Government should treat all people respectfully and should refuse to humiliate them (Nussbaum, 2011b, p. 26).

b) Double quotation marks are used to show quotations inside quotations (nested quotations): As Kauffman remarked: ‘his concept of "internal space" requires close analysis’. NB: American English uses double quotation marks to show standard quotations. c) They are also used to emphasise a word or phrase: The word ‘ factory’ was first used in the seventeenth century. The Swedish ‘third way’ or welfare state is a possible model. d) To show direct speech: ‘Can anyone find the answer?’ asked the lecturer.

190

Part 3: Writing Tools

► See Written British and American English e) In references, depending on the referencing style, quotation marks may be used for the titles of articles and chapters, but book or journal titles normally use italics: Russell, T. (1995) ‘A future for coffee?’ Journal of Applied Marketing 6, 14–17. ► See Unit 1.7 References and Quotations

8 Others a) Hyphens (-) are used with certain words which fit together, such as ‘long-lived’ or high-profile’, and in some structures: A well-researched, thought-provoking book. Her three-year-old daughter is learning to read. But note that the use of hyphens is generally declining e.g. ‘proofreading’ rather than ‘proof-reading’. Many words with prefixes re-, pre- and co- no longer require hyphens: Cooperation is vital for successful group projects. If in doubt, consult a good dictionary. b) Exclamation marks (!) and question marks (?): ‘Well!’ he shouted, ‘who would believe it?’ NB: Exclamation marks are not usually used in academic writing. c) Brackets or parentheses ( ) can be used to give additional detail, without interfering with the flow of the main idea: This led to the loss of several defence contracts (of around US$ 10 billion). Brackets are also used for in-text citations: Indeed, as Foucault (1989: 339) observed …

9 Practice A ■

Punctuate the following sentences. a) the study was carried out by christine zhen-wei qiang of the national university of singapore

3.7: Punctuation

191

b) professor rowans new book the end of privacy 2019 is published in new york c)

as keynes said its better to be roughly right than precisely wrong

d) banks such as hsbc and barclays were in penny pinching mode in the 1990s e) as matheson 1954 wrote it was the germ that was the villain f)

thousands of new words such as vlog enter the english language each year

g) the bbcs world service is broadcast in 33 languages including somali and vietnamese h) she scored 56% on the main course the previous semester she had achieved 67% i)

their article a reassessment of the changing patterns of the indian monsoon 20152020 was well received

j)

before submitting her essay on t s eliot she checked it for spelling grammar and punctuation

10 Practice B ■

Punctuate the following text.

studying will play a vital part in your life as an oxford student but you will also find an enormous amount to do in oxford in your spare time oxford is the youngest city in england and wales and has two universities oxford university and oxford brookes 35% of people who live here are aged 15 29 and 27% 40,000 of a total population of 150,000 are university students if you ever feel like a change of scene the bus to london takes around 90 minutes and runs 24 hours a day there are now two railway stations the central oxford station and the recently opened oxford parkway oxford is a youthful and cosmopolitan city with plenty to see and do there are dozens of historic and iconic buildings including the bodleian library ashmolean museum sheldonian theatre the cathedral and the colleges in the city centre you will find lots of shops cafés restaurants theatres cinemas pubs and clubs there are plenty of green spaces too riverside walks englands oldest botanic garden the university parks and college gardens

NB: Because many aspects of punctuation (e.g. use of hyphens or use of capitals) are not standardised, the most important point in your writing is to be consistent throughout your work. For example, if you decide to capitalise ‘Western influence’ you must also capitalise ‘Eastern ethos’.

UNIT

3.8

Style

Acceptable academic style can vary from subject to subject, but in all disciplines a good written style displays accuracy, objectivity and clarity. Students should make these criteria their priority, while aiming eventually to develop their own individual ‘voice’. This unit gives guidelines for an appropriate style, and provides practice with varying sentence length and the use of caution.

1 Developing an academic style ■

Working with a partner if possible, read the text below, and discuss and list any examples of poor style that you fnd.

In the last few years there’s been lots of debate about trains. Trains are often run by the state. The state pays for new lines and new equipment. This is because they do an important job moving people around. What’s more, developing the railways costs lots of money, which only governments can find. But in some countries like England the railways have been privatised, so as to offer more choice to passengers. The problem is that the private trains still need money from the government to keep running. They’re the only way to get everyone to work in big cities. So either way I think that there’s no easy answer to the problem. Poor style •

In the last few years

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-34

Reason Vague – how many years?

3.8: Style

193

Some of the problems with the style of this paragraph can be analysed as follows: Poor style

Reason

In the last few years

Vague – how many years?

there’s been

Avoid contractions

lots of discussion, lots of money

Avoid ‘lots of’ – too informal

trains

Imprecise vocabulary – use ‘railways’

Trains are often run by the state. The state pays for new lines and new equipment.

Repetition, and sentences too short

do an important job

Too informal

What’s more

Too idiomatic

like England

Avoid ‘like’, use ‘such as’ ‘England’ is not a state, use ‘Britain’ or ‘the UK’

The only way … either way

Repetition

That’s the only way

Caution needed – ‘that is an effective method’

to get everyone to work

Avoid ‘get’ phrases: ‘to enable millions of people to travel …’

So either way I think

Too personal

The paragraph could be rewritten using a more suitable style like this: In the past two decades there has been considerable debate about the ownership of national railway networks. In many countries these are operated by the state, partly because the provision of mass transit is seen as a public service, but also because railway systems demand large-scale capital investment which is often beyond the reach of the private sector. However, there has been a trend towards railway privatisation, as for example in Britain and Germany, since in these countries it was thought useful to introduce some competition into the industry. Yet even these systems still often require public money to subsidise passenger services, which are essential to enable millions of people to travel safely to work each day. Neither the public nor the private model seems to provide a fully satisfactory answer to the issue.

2 Guidelines There are no rules for academic style which apply to all situations and all academic disciplines. However, there are some principles that apply to most contexts, and these are given below. In addition, reading journal articles in your discipline will provide you with useful models of what is generally acceptable.

194 Part 3: Writing Tools

Vocabulary a) Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: kids, boss. Instead use standard English: children, manager. b) Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and law, or weather and climate, which you are expected to know if you study these subjects. c) Avoid the following: ● like for introducing examples. Use such as or for instance. ● thing and combinations nothing or something. Use factor, issue or topic. ● lots of. Use a significant/ considerable number. ● little/ big. Use small/ large. ● ‘get’ phrases such as get better/ worse. Use improve and deteriorate. ● good/ bad are simplistic. Use positive/ negative e.g. the changes had several positive aspects d) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably, surprisingly. e) Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a suitable synonym e.g. continue or raise. ► See Unit 4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

General f) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid vague phrases such as about a hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is necessary to estimate numbers, use approximately rather than about. g) Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute statements such as unemployment causes crime. Instead use cautious phrases: unemployment may cause crime or is often cited as a cause of crime. h) Do not contract auxiliary verb forms: don’t, can’t. Use the full form: do not, cannot. i) Avoid complicated expressions of gender. Instead of writing: each candidate had his or her presentation prepared write: all candidates had their presentations prepared Try not to use gendered language such as chairman or policeman. Use chairperson or police officer. j) Do not use rhetorical question forms such as Why did war break out in 1914? Instead use statements: There were three reasons for the outbreak of war … k) Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in reports and long essays. Use conjunctions and signposting expressions to introduce new sections: Turning to the question of detecting cancer … ► See Unit 1.10 Organising Paragraphs

3.8: Style

195

l) When writing lists, avoid using etc. or and so on. Insert and before the last item: The main products were pharmaceuticals, electronic goods and confectionery.

3 Practice A ■

In the following sentences, underline examples of bad style and rewrite them in a more suitable way. a) Another thing to think about is the chance of crime getting worse. b) Regrettably, these days lots of people don’t have jobs. c)

Sometime soon they’ll fnd a jab for malaria.

d) Luckily, the fremen soon got the fre under control. e) You can’t always trust the numbers in that report. f)

Sadly, the bad infation led to poverty, social unrest and so on.

g) He was over the moon when he won the prize. h) I think we should pay students to study. i)

Years ago they allowed women to vote.

j)

What were the main causes of the Russian Revolution?

4 Avoiding repetition and redundancy Instead of repeating the same word in a short text: Most family businesses employ fewer than ten people. These businesses … Try to make the text more interesting by using synonyms: Most family businesses employ fewer than ten people. These firms … ► See Unit 4.5 Synonyms Redundancy, i.e. repeating an idea or including an irrelevant point, suggests that the writer is not fully in control of the material. It gives the impression that either they do not properly understand the language or are trying to ‘pad’ the essay by repeating the same point. Avoid statements such as: Homelessness is a global problem in the whole world. Good writing aims for economy and precision: Homelessness is a global problem.

196 Part 3: Writing Tools

■

In the following text, remove all repetition and redundancy, rewriting where necessary.

All around Europe, people are living longer and having fewer children. There are several reasons for this trend to longevity and smaller families in Europe. One reason for the second trend is that people are marrying later, and one reason they are marrying later is the cost of housing. Other reasons are the cost of childcare and women’s preference for building their careers. If women prefer to work professionally rather than stay at home to look after their children they have to pay nurseries to do that caring. But a negative result of the trend is that there are fewer young taxpayers to support the old people who are living longer.

5 Varying sentence length After reading some academic texts you may think that good academic writing involves using only very long and complex sentences! But until you feel confident in your writing, it is better to use shorter rather than longer sentences, though without making them simplistic. This should make your meaning as clear as possible. Effective writing normally uses a mixture of long and short sentences. Often short sentences will be used to introduce the topic, since these are clear and easy to read: Many companies are trying to develop driverless cars. But too many short sentences are monotonous: Many companies are trying to develop driverless cars. These vehicles may be functioning by 2023. Their use will radically alter road transport. Individual car ownership may become outdated. Driverless cars could be used more intensively. This would reduce congestion on the roads. A mixture of long and short sentences makes reading more interesting: Many companies are trying to develop driverless cars. These may be functioning by 2023, and their use will radically alter road transport. Individual car ownership may become outdated, since driverless cars could be used more intensively, and this would reduce congestion on the roads. ■

Rewrite the following paragraph so that instead of six short sentences there are two long and two short sentences.

Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In many European countries over half of all young people enter college. Similar trends are seen in China and South America. This growth has put financial strain on state university systems. Many countries are requiring students and parents to contribute to the cost. This leads to a debate about whether individual students or society as a whole benefits from tertiary education.

3.8: Style

■

197

The following sentence is too long. Divide it into shorter ones.

China is one country (but not the only one) which has imposed fees on university students (starting in 1997), but the results have been surprising: enrolments, especially in the most expensive universities, have continued to rise steeply; it seems in this case that higher fees attract rather than discourage students, who see them as a sign of a good education, and compete more fiercely for places, leading to the result that a place at a good college can cost $10,000 per year for fees and maintenance.

6 The use of caution A cautious style is necessary in many areas of academic writing to avoid making statements that can be contradicted in some way, and to show that writers are aware of possible limitations to their claims: Demand for healthcare usually exceeds supply. Most students find writing exam essays difficult. Fertility rates tend to fall as societies get richer. Areas where caution is particularly important include: a) b) c) d)

outlining a hypothesis which needs to be tested (e.g. in an introduction) discussing the results of a study, which may not be conclusive commenting on the work of other writers making predictions (normally by using may or might, rather than will)

Caution is also needed to avoid making statements which are too simplistic: Crime is linked to poor education. Such statements are rarely completely true. There is usually an exception which needs to be considered. Caution can be shown in several ways: Crime may be linked to poor education. Crime is frequently linked to poor education. Crime tends to be linked to poor education. ■

List other phrases that express caution.

(modal verb) (adverb) (verb)

198

Part 3: Writing Tools

7 Using modifers Another way to express caution is to use quite, rather or fairly before an adjective: a fairly accurate summary a rather inconvenient location quite a significant discovery NB: quite is often used before the indefinite article, as above. It is mainly used positively, while rather tends to be used negatively. ■

Insert quite/ rather/ fairly in the following to emphasise caution. a) The company’s efforts to save energy were successful. b) The survey was a comprehensive study of student opinion. c)

His second book had a hostile reception.

d) The frst-year students were fascinated by her lectures. e) The latest type of arthritis drug is expensive. f)

This mountain tiger has become rare.

► See Unit 3.5 Generalisations

8 Practice B ■

Rewrite the following sentences in a more cautious way. a) Private companies are more effcient than state-owned businesses. b) Exploring space is a waste of valuable resources. c)

Older students perform better at university than younger ones.

d) Word-of-mouth is the best kind of advertising. e) Some cancers are caused by psychological factors. f)

Most shopping will be done on the internet in 10 years’ time.

g) Online education is inferior to taught classes. h) By 2025 driverless cars will be in common use.

THE WRITER’S ‘VOICE’ Academic writers should aim to develop their own distinctive ‘voice’; their personal style. But this may only emerge in the course of writing a lengthy paper such as a thesis, and when writers have confidence in their familiarity with the fundamentals of the written language.

UNIT

Progress Check D

These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Part 3: Writing Tools. 1

Rewrite the paragraph using reference words (i.e. pronouns) where suitable. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon in 1564, into a wealthy landowning family. When Shakespeare was only 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who was six years older than William. Anne subsequently had three children, but William and Anne’s only son, Hamnet, died young. Apparently William spent most of his time in London after their marriage, where he acted and started to write plays. The plays were mainly comedies at first, and were very successful. In the early 1600s Shakespeare’s work became darker, and this is when William wrote his most famous plays, such as ‘Hamlet’ and ‘King Lear’. These famous plays have secured Shakespeare’s world-wide reputation as a great dramatist and poet. William Shakespeare died in 1616, aged only 52, while Anne lived for another seven years.

2

Write 3 sentences comparing Australia with New Zealand, using the data below: Australia

New Zealand

Area (square kilometres)

7.6 million

270,000

Population

21.5 million

4.3 million

GDP per head

$ 50,750

$ 32,370

3

Write definitions for: a) A semester b) A thesis c) A midwife d) Influenza e) A hammer

4

Insert suitable examples into each sentence. a) Certain capital cities are smaller than the commercial centres of their country. b) Many varieties of fruit contain vital vitamins. DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-35

200

Part 3: Writing Tools

c) A few kinds of mammals live in the sea. d) Most planets in our solar system have moons. 5

In the following text, underline any generalisations that are possibly invalid. In the past century, photography has gone from being an exclusive hobby to something accessible to everyone. This is largely due to the invention of the digital camera. In the last 20 years this has made it simple to take colour photographs cheaply, and also to modify pictures easily by using editing programmes. So now that everyone has a smart phone, with its built-in camera, photography has become democratic and high-quality photographs can be produced by anybody.

6

What are the following visuals usually used to show? a) Line graph b) Diagram c) Pie chart d) Table Write a paragraph commenting on the data in the table below.

Table 2 Student survey of library facilities: % students rating facilities as good Library facilities

Undergraduates (%)

Postgraduates (%)

Opening hours

72

63

Staff helpfulness

94

81

Ease of using electronic catalogue

65

87

Availability of working space

80

76

Café area

91

95

Availability of short loan stock

43

35

Quality of main book stock

69

54

(Source: Author)

7

Punctuate the following text. the school of biomedical sciences at borchester university is offering two undergraduate degree courses in neuroscience this year students can study either neuroscience with pharmacology or neuroscience with biochemistry there is also a masters course which runs for four years and involves a period of study abroad during november and december professor andreas fischer is course leader for neuroscience and enquiries should be sent to him via the website

8

Rewrite the following in a more suitable academic style. Sadly, these days lots of kids don’t get enough exercise. Instead they sit on the sofa all day watching telly or playing games on their phones. That’s why they get fat. Lots of research shows they’d be healthier if they went for a walk every day. On top of that I think they’d feel better too. You can’t beat exercise in the fresh air.

Lexis

PART

4

Students may be understandably concerned by the quantity and complexity of vocabulary required for reading academic texts. But developing an effective vocabulary in English involves more than learning lists of words. These units provide a range of approaches to improving students’ understanding in this area, from using prefixes to finding synonyms.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-36

UNIT

4.1

Approaches to Vocabulary

This unit examines some of the key issues students face when reading academic texts, such as processing new vocabulary, understanding abbreviations, avoiding confusion with similar words and recognising phrases from other languages. The vocabulary needed to discuss language features is also practised.

1 Vocabulary issues ■

The text below, taken from a journal article about the global fnancial crisis, illustrates some of the vocabulary diffculties students may experience when reading academic texts. Read it carefully and underline any words or phrases you do not understand.

The postmodern rejection of ‘grand narratives’ that swept the social sciences (apart from Economics) during the 1990s and dissatisfaction with conventional methodological strictures have combined to produce a revived empiricism that is thinly disguised behind a methodological eclecticism that is intended to license a greater degree of ontological freedom. To put it simply, one can choose one’s fundamental axioms, select from the range of available data while applying the desired measures of inductive and deductive reasoning, and reach conclusions that were possibly in view from the start but which now rest upon a much more respectable, ostensibly scientific, edifice. Likely problems include: postmodern methodological strictures empiricism eclecticism ontological axioms DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-37

204

Part 4: Lexis

inductive deductive ■

Discuss the meaning of these words with a partner. Are they nouns or adjectives? Look up any that you still don’t understand in a dictionary.

The vocabulary highlighted above is typical of much academic language, which uses words which are rather formal and not found in general conversation or writing. You must learn to deal with these words, some of which may be specifc to your subject, whereas others (e.g. empiricism) are found more widely in many academic texts. Building vocabulary is more than learning ‘lists of words’. It is useful to adopt a critical approach as you read, and focus on the most important terms, such as those rather formal academic items listed above.

2 Dealing with new vocabulary Instead of trying to learn all the new vocabulary you encounter, you should screen it to select which words are worth learning. These may be words which are repeated, or printed in italics or bold type. It can be a mistake to attempt to learn too many new words at once: for most students subjectspecific language will have priority. The process can be understood as shown in the diagram:

It is vital not to be put off by unfamiliar vocabulary. Reusing the new vocabulary items you have come across and learnt within your own writing will help you to understand and remember them better. When you have selected a word or phrase to learn, make a note of its part of speech and any useful related words, along with its meaning: empiricism (noun) – an approach relying on practice rather than theory empirical (adjective) empirically (adverb)

4.1: Approaches to Vocabulary

205

3 Language features The following words (all nouns) are used to describe and discuss common features of language. ■

Discuss the words in the list with a partner. Which of these features are not normally used in academic writing?

Ambiguity

Where more than one interpretation is possible; lack of clarity Few people supported his proposal, but equally there was little opposition to it.

Cliché

An over-used idea or phrase; lacking in freshness Come to Paris, the capital of romance, the city for lovers.

Euphemism

Word or phrase used to avoid naming something unpleasant directly The author of the report passed away on November 21st.

Idiom

Phrase used more often in colloquial speech, the meaning of which is not directly obvious He was over the moon when he won the scholarship.

Metaphor

A word or phrase used to convey an idea in an unrelated context He told the class that their new course was a voyage over an uncharted ocean.

Paradox

An idea that seems wrong or illogical yet may be true She said that the older she got, the less she seemed to know.

Proverb

A traditional statement or rhyme containing advice or a moral It is said that the early bird catches the worm.

Saying

An often-repeated comment that seems to contain some truth There’s no such thing as a free lunch, he warned them.

Simile

An idea conveyed through a comparison of two things, using ‘like’ or ‘as’ After the price rise, sales fell like a stone.

Slogan

A frequently repeated phrase used in advertising or politics ‘Finger lickin’ good’ has sold millions of chicken meals.

Statement

A rather formal comment on a situation The President said she regretted the loss of life in the typhoon and commiserated with the survivors.

Synopsis

A summary of something Their teacher explained that the report consisted of two parts; the frst an overview of the topic, the second a case study.

206

Part 4: Lexis

4 Confusing pairs Certain common words can cause confusion because they appear similar but have distinct spellings and meanings: The drought affected the wheat harvest in Australia. One effect of the drought was a rise in the price of flour. ‘Affect’ and ‘effect’ are two different words. ‘Affect’ is usually used as a verb, while ‘effect’ is commonly used as a noun. ■

Study the differences between other similar confusing pairs (the most common form of usage in brackets).

accept (verb)/ except (preposition) It is diffcult to accept their fndings. The report is fnished except for the conclusion. compliment (noun/ verb)/ complement (verb) Her colleagues complimented her on her presentation. His latest book complements his previous research on South African fauna. criticism (noun)/ critique (noun/ verb) Their criticism of his teaching was quite unfair. She wrote a lengthy critique of Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex. economic (adj.)/ economical (adj.) Infation was one economic result of the war. Sharing a car to go to work was an economical move. its (possessive pronoun)/ it’s (subject pronoun + verb) The car’s low price was its most distinct feature. It’s widely agreed that carbon emissions are rising. lose (verb)/ loose (adj.) No general ever plans to lose a battle. He stressed the loose connection between religion and psychology. principal (adj.)/ noun/ principle (noun) Zurich is the principal city of Switzerland. All economists recognise the principle of supply and demand. rise (verb – past tense rose)/ raise (verb – past tense raised) The population of Sydney rose by 35% in the last century. The university raised its fees by 10% last year. site (noun)/ sight (noun) The site of the battle is now covered by an airport. His sight began to weaken when he was in his eighties.

4.1: Approaches to Vocabulary

■

207

Choose the correct word in each sentence. a) The company was founded on the principals/ principles of quality and value. b) Millions of people are attempting to lose/ loose weight. c)

Sunspots have been known to affect/ effect radio communication.

d) Professor Poledna received their compliments/ complements politely. e) The ancient symbol depicted a snake eating it’s/ its tail. f)

The Eiffel tower is one of the most famous sites/ sights in Paris.

5 Words and phrases from other languages When reading academic texts you may meet words and phrases from other languages, usually Latin, German or French. They are commonly used because there is no exact English equivalent, and they are often printed in italics: During her father’s illness she was the de facto sales manager. You are not expected to use these phrases in your own writing, but it is useful to understand them when you read. They can be found in a dictionary, but some of the more common ones are listed below: Latin ad hoc de facto de jure inter alia pro rata French à propos de ancien régime coup d’état déjà vu fait accompli raison d’être vis à vis German Bildungsroman Mitteleuropa Realpolitik Schadenfreude Weltanschauung Zeitgeist

unplanned as it really is according to law among others proportional on the subject of old ruling system military take-over sensation of having seen something before something that has already happened reason for living with relation to a story of growing-up central Europe political reality pleasure from another’s misfortune world view spirit of the times

208

Part 4: Lexis

6 Practice A ■

Look back over this unit. List the new vocabulary that you think is worth learning. Add any related words, note the meaning and an example. Try to use the words in conversation or writing where possible.

Word

Meaning

Example

empiricism – noun empirical – adj. empirically – adv.

Based on observation or experience.

In Europe, empirical research began in the sixteenth century.

7 Abbreviations Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of contemporary English, widely used for convenience and space-saving. At times the overuse of abbreviations may be confusing: The UK approval rate for GM foods is approx. 45%, according to her PhD thesis (ibid.). Unless they are commonly understood (as listed below) abbreviations should be explained at their first use in a paper: The local Community Empowerment Network (CEN) was established in 2020 … Abbreviations take the form of shortened words, acronyms or a set of letters, as shown below. a) Shortened words are often used without the writer being aware of the original form. ‘Bus’ comes from ‘omnibus’, which is hardly used in modern English, and ‘disco’ is more common than ‘discothèque’, but ‘refrigerator’ is still better in written English than the informal ‘fridge’. Yet ‘lab’ for ‘laboratory’, ‘memo’ for ‘memorandum’ and ‘vet’ for ‘veterinary surgeon’ are quite acceptable. b) Acronyms are made up of the initial letters of a name or phrase (e.g. UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation). They are pronounced as words. In some cases users have forgotten that these are acronyms and they are treated as ordinary words e.g. ‘radar’ comes from ‘radio detection and ranging’. c) Other abbreviations are read as sets of individual letters. They include names of countries, organisations and companies (USA/ BBC/ IBM), and also abbreviations which are only found in written English (e.g. PTO means ‘please turn over’). Note that in many cases abbreviations are used without most users knowing what the individual letters stand for (e.g. DNA, DVD).

4.1: Approaches to Vocabulary

209

8 Common abbreviations There are thousands of abbreviations in ordinary use, but here are some of those more frequently employed in an academic context. AGM BA BSc CAD CV EU FE GM HE HR(M) ICT LLB MA MSc PG PGCE PhD STEM UCAS UG URL VC

annual general meeting Bachelor of Arts Bachelor of Sciences computer aided design curriculum vitae European Union further education (non-university study above the age of 18) genetically modified higher education (university study above the age of 18) human resources (management) information and communications technology Bachelor of Laws Master of Arts Master of Sciences postgraduate Postgraduate Certificate of Education Doctor of Philosophy Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UK) undergraduate uniform resource locator (website address) Vice-Chancellor

However, writers often employ or create more specialised, subject-specific abbreviations: Starting from the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm, it is argued that ... The Technology Readiness Index (TRI) was introduced by Parasuraman. Note that the first time such a phrase is used in a paper it must be written in full before the abbreviation (in brackets), but on subsequent occasions the abbreviation should be used alone.

9 Punctuation There are many standard abbreviations which have a full stop at the end to show that they are shortened forms of a word, e.g. govt. (government). Other examples are co. (company) and Oct. (October). However, with acronyms and other abbreviations it is now normal to write the letters without full stops e.g. BBC, ABS.

210

Part 4: Lexis

10 Duplicate abbreviations Abbreviations can be confusing. PC, for example, may stand for ‘personal computer’ but also ‘politically correct’ or ‘police constable’. It is useful to be aware of these potential confusions. A good dictionary should be used to understand more unusual abbreviations.

11 Abbreviations only found in writing While all academic subjects have their own abbreviations, there are certain abbreviations common to most types of academic writing. They include: anon. BCE c. CE cf. ed. e.g. et al. etc. Fig. ibid. i.e. NB n.d. n.p. No. op. cit. p.a. pp. PS PTO re: sic vs.

anonymous (no author) before the common era (in dates, previously BC) circa (in dates – about) common era (previously AD) compare editor/edition for example and others (used for multiple authors) et cetera (and so on – do not use this in formal academic work) figure (for labelling charts and graphs) in the same place (to refer to a source mentioned just before) that is take careful note no date (i.e. an undated source) no page number in the source mentioned previously (per annum), yearly pages postscript please turn over with reference to in quotations, used to show a mistake in the original versus

12 Practice B ■

Explain the abbreviations in the following sentences. a) The failure rate among ICT projects in HE reaches 40% (Smith et al., 2015). b) NB: CVs must be submitted to HR by Sep. 30th.

4.1: Approaches to Vocabulary

c)

Her PhD thesis examined the threat of TB in SE Asia.

d) The VC is meeting the PGCE students in the SU lounge. e) Re: next month’s AGM: the report is needed asap. f)

Dr Wang argued that the quality of MSc and MA research was falling.

► See Units 1.7 References and Quotations and 3.7 Punctuation

211

UNIT

4.2

Academic Vocabulary Nouns and Adjectives

To read and write academic papers effectively students need to be familiar with the rather formal vocabulary widely used in this genre. This unit focuses on nouns and adjectives; Unit 4.3 looks at verbs and adverbs.

1 Introduction The quantity and complexity of vocabulary needed to understand academic texts often concerns students. But it is worth remembering that much of that vocabulary is specific to your subject area. For example, in the sentence: The process of disintermediation, whereby banks withdraw from their traditional role as the takers of deposits and providers of loans, has meant that the role of ‘reputational intermediary’ has come to be assumed by credit rating agencies. ‘Disintermediation’ will be understood by students of Finance and Business, while ‘process’ and ‘providers’ are general academic vocabulary which all students need to understand. The focus of this unit is on the general vocabulary common to most disciplines.

2 Nouns Nouns are words that refer to things (thesis), people (scientist), places (Beijing), ideas (Boyle’s Law), qualities (hardness) or actions (writing). They are usually the subject of the verb. Most sentences contain several nouns: A notable feature of the co-production experiment discussed here is the broad range of actors involved. NB: nouns can be used to describe other nouns (co-production experiment), effectively acting as adjectives. DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-38

4.2: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives

■

213

Study the following list of common academic nouns, with examples of use. With a partner, discuss the meaning of any nouns you fnd unclear.

actor

The two main actors in the 1986 coup were the army and the opposition.

analysis

His analysis of the alloy showed a high percentage of copper.

approach

Professor Han has brought a new approach to the study of genetics.

assessment

She failed the frst module assessment but passed the fnal one.

assumption

He made the assumption that all the students spoke French.

authority

Dr James is our leading authority on marine law.

claim

Their claim that the island was frst inhabited in 550 BCE is false.

clarity

They achieved greater clarity by repeating the experiment.

concept

The concept of ‘class’ was not developed until the early nineteenth century.

consensus

The President tried to achieve a consensus in Congress around law reform.

correlation

They found a correlation between height and health.

deterrent

The harsh climate of the desert acted as a deterrent to exploration.

differentiation

Our policy of product differentiation led to an overall rise in sales.

domain

The professor’s domain was the iconography of the Catalan Romanesque.

extract

He read a short extract from his paper on Hegel to the class.

hierarchy

The peasant class formed the base of the Russian hierarchy.

ideology

At the heart of Roman ideology was military power.

implication

The implication of the report is that we need to do more research.

innovation

Steam power was a signifcant innovation in the eighteenth century.

interaction

There was little interaction between students and teachers.

intuition

Intuition has been described as ‘a gut feeling’.

motivation

Financial reward is claimed to be the primary motivation for most workers.

narrative

The principal narrative in that period was the growth of the middle class.

perspective

Sigmund Freud’s work opened up a new perspective on human behaviour.

phenomenon

Earthquakes are an unusual phenomenon in Britain. (NB: irregular plural – phenomena)

presumption

In law, there is a presumption of innocence unless guilt is established.

process

The drug trials involved a three-stage process that took two years.

proposal

The professor’s proposal for more seminars was rejected.

provision

The library has increased its provision of Wi-Fi hotspots by 100%.

sequence

Writing is a sequence of reading, note-taking, planning and drafting.

stricture

His tutor’s strictures had an effect: his next essay achieved A−.

substitute

To what extent can natural gas be a substitute for oil?

synthesis

Our aim was to make a synthesis of folk remedies for treating headaches.

technique

She developed a new technique for collecting the beetles.

tendency

He noticed a growing tendency among his students to arrive late.

thesis

Our thesis on the causes of child poverty has been widely debated.

typology

The Saxon bowl she found belonged to the Kentish typology.

validity

Events confrmed the validity of his prediction.

214

Part 4: Lexis

Note the differences between the three nouns: Economics is a demanding undergraduate degree course. (academic subject) The Greek economy is heavily in debt. (national economy, countable) Economy is needed to reduce the deficit. (saving money, uncountable) ■

Complete each sentence with a suitable noun. a) Many great discoveries were based on

rather than logic.

b) Due to the rising birth rate c)

was made for more school places.

Few believed Galileo’s

that the earth went round the sun.

d) Hurricanes and typhoons are both weather e) The new f)

.

for making steel boosted production by 60%.

They looked for a

between birth month and longevity.

3 Nouns and adjectives Adjectives modify nouns: His tedious and rambling lecture lasted over an hour. It is easy to confuse the noun and adjective forms of some words e.g. ‘probable’ (adjective) and ‘probability’ (noun). ■

Complete the gaps in the table. Noun

Adjective

strategy

strategic necessary

exterior particular danger relevant reason confdent A simple way of expanding vocabulary is to learn related parts of speech. Many of the nouns in the list in 2) above have a related adjective e.g. analysis/ analytical. ■

Write example sentences to show the meaning of the related adjectives given below.

4.2: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives

analytical approachable

215

His analytical skill helped them to solve the problem faster.

authoritative ideological innovative intuitive motivational phenomenal provisional sequential synthetic technical valid

4 Similar adjectives Certain common adjectives have two forms, with slightly different meanings: Martin Luther King made his historic speech in Washington. Cleopatra was a historical character, born in 69 BCE. The electric guitar was developed in the 1930s. Electrical Engineering was a popular course. The Jaguar E-type is a famous classic car. Beethoven was a leading composer of classical music.

(memorable or significant) (real person in the past) (worked by electricity) (relating to electricity) (something seen as the best of its kind) (belonging to a tradition in the past)

5 Academic adjectives One approach to these adjectives is to learn them as pairs of opposites: absolute/relative ■

Complete the list of opposite pairs.

abstract accurate ambiguous analytical effective exclusive logical metaphorical precise rational

concrete

216

Part 4: Lexis

reliable relevant specifc subjective theoretical

6 Practice A ■

Complete each sentence with a suitable adjective from the table in 5). a) The teacher complained that the quotes were to the title. b) His approach led him to ignore some inconvenient facts. c) examples are needed to make the argument clear. d) It is suffcient to give fgures for national populations. e) Poverty is usually regarded as a concept. f) They approached the task in a way by frst analysing the title. g) The students preferred examining case studies to discussion. h) The results were : the victims had defnitely been poisoned. i) In Europe, research began in the sixteenth century. j) The study of engineering is very to architecture. k) Her paper on women in education was criticised for being too

7 Practice B ■

Underline the adjective in each sentence and write the related noun in brackets. Example: Several steel producers are likely to shut down next year. (likelihood) a) The HR team have just completed a strategic review of pay. ( ) b) Dr Lee adopted an analytical approach to the inquiry. ( ) c) Nylon was one of the earliest synthetic fbres. ( ) d) Her major contribution to the research was her study of ante-natal care. ( e) Some progress was made in the theoretical area. ( ) f) A frequent complaint is that too much reading is expected. ( ) g) We took a more critical approach to marketing theory. ( ) h) Finally, the practical implications of my fndings will be examined. (

)

)

Students wishing to develop their academic vocabulary should study the Academic Word List (AWL). This is a list of 570 items commonly found in academic texts across various disciplines, created by Averil Coxhead. See: https://canvas.bham.ac.uk/courses/12947/pages/vocabulary-and-the-academic-word-list

UNIT

4.3

Academic Vocabulary Verbs and Adverbs

When reading a paragraph of text it can be helpful to identify and understand the main verbs before anything else, since these are often the key to understanding the whole passage. This unit looks at the more formal verbs used in academic writing, and the use of adverbs.

1 Understanding main verbs Verbs are words which describe an action (to walk), a state (to feel) or a happening (to become). Virtually every sentence includes at least one verb. Verbs should be learnt in the infinitive form (to ). ■

Read the following paragraph, from a journal article about drainage in Singapore, and underline the main verbs.

This article scrutinises the relationship between governmental reform and infrastructural change in Singapore. Focusing on the role of engineers, it is argued that neoliberal decentralisation has occurred through the physical reconfiguration of drainage. Neoliberalisation is conceived of as a localised technical response to a public health crisis resulting from infrastructural enclosure, which is orchestrated on and through the material-ecological environment. A closed drainage system consisting of trapezoidal canals and concrete culverts had produced an ideal breeding ground for dengue-carrying mosquitoes, undermining the state’s centralised approach to water governance.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-39

218

■

■

Part 4: Lexis

As you read it may be helpful to think of approximate synonyms for these verbs. Complete the table by matching the verbs from the text above with the synonyms given below. Verbs in text (in order)

Infnitive form

Synonym

scrutinises

to scrutinise

to examine to concentrate on to claim to happen to understand to arise to develop to comprise to create to weaken

Underline the verbs in the following text from the same article and complete the table in the same way.

Since the 1960s, local catchment has been progressively expanded into Singapore’s urban areas to augment imported water from Malaysia and protected reservoirs in the Central Water Catchment Area (CWCA). Amounting to a mere 11% in 1965, catchment areas now constitute two-thirds of Singapore’s limited land surface, which divert rainwater into 17 reservoirs as part of a separate sewerage and storm water system. Verbs in text

Infnitive form

Synonym

2 Common academic verbs Academic writing tends to use rather formal verbs to express the writer’s meaning accurately: In the last decade the pace of change has accelerated. Could Darwin have envisaged the controversy his work would cause? In spoken English we are more likely to use ‘speeded up’ and ‘imagined’.

4.3: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

■

219

Study the list below and fnd a synonym in each case. Note that synonyms may have different meanings in different contexts.

► See Unit 4.5 Synonyms Some of these verbs e.g. ‘hold’ are used in academic writing with a special meaning. Verb

Example of use

Synonym (infnitive)

to adapt

the health system has been adapted from France

to modify

to arise

a similar situation arises when we look at younger children

to conduct

the largest study was conducted in Finland

to characterise

developing countries are characterised by ….

to clarify

the project was designed to clarify these contradictions

to concentrate on

that study concentrated on older children

to be concerned with

the programme is concerned primarily with …

to demonstrate

further research has demonstrated that few factors …

to determine

the water content was experimentally determined

to discriminate

a failure to discriminate between the two species

to establish

the northern boundary was established frst

to exhibit

half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement

to focus on

her work focused on female managers

to generate

a question which has generated a range of responses

to hold

Newton's second Law, F=ma, holds everywhere

to identify

three main areas have been identifed

to imply

his absence implies a lack of interest

to interact

understand how the two systems interact

to interpret

the result can be interpreted as a limited success

to manifest

as manifested in anti-social behaviour

to overcome

both diffculties were overcome in the frst week

to propose

they propose that social class is the main factor

to prove

the use of solar power is proving successful

to recognise

he is now recognised as a leading expert

to relate to

the pattern was related to both social and physical factors

to supplement

the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine

to undergo

the system underwent major changes in the 1980s

to yield

both surveys yielded mixed results

► See Unit 1.7.3 References and Quotations – Reference verbs

220

Part 4: Lexis

3 Using adverbs 1. Adverbs are words which mainly modify verbs (she wrote carefully) and adjectives (an extremely interesting book). They often, but not always, end in –ly. In the sentence below the adverbs are used to give information about time (currently) and degree (completely). The author concludes that no reasonable alternative is currently available to replace constitutional democracy, even though he does not completely reject the possibility of creating a better political system in the future. 2. Adverbs are used in academic writing in a variety of ways. Among the most important are: a)

to provide more detail: Reasonably good data are available for only the first two years. Decomposition eventually ceases in modern landfills.

b)

individually, often at the beginning of a sentence, to introduce new points or link sentences together: Currently, the Earth’s atmosphere appears to be warming up. Alternatively, the use of non-conventional renewable energies is worth exploring.

NB: Adverbs used individually need to be employed with care. It is dangerous to overuse them, since they can be like the author’s ‘voice’, commenting on the topic. As an academic writer aims to be objective, adverbs such as 'fortunately' or 'remarkably' may be unsuitable. 3. Adverbs linked to verbs and adjectives usually fall into three groups. a) Time (when?) previously published retrospectively examined b)

Degree (how much?) declined considerably contribute substantially

c)

Manner (in what way?) medically complicated remotely located

4.3: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

221

Further common examples include: Time

Degree

Manner

recently historically originally presently currently traditionally lately frstly

clearly particularly broadly highly wholly crucially emphatically increasingly

(un)surprisingly factually politically locally alternatively similarly psychologically continuously

4 Practice A ■

Insert suitable adverbs from the table above into the gaps in the sentences. a) Most houses do not have electricity. chance of improving living standards. b) c)

, then, there is little

, the internet was mainly used for academic purposes. Some courses are assessed purely by exams. may be employed.

d)

, coursework

, there has been growing concern about fnancing the health service.

e) Many birds use bright colours to attract a mate. advertise their position to fertilising insects. f)

, fowers

, the development should be acceptable environmentally.

g) Despite some disagreement, the team were next step. h) Although

united on the

correct, many details were missing from the report.

5 Practice B ■

Complete the text on p. 224 by inserting a suitable adverb from the box into each gap.

virtually illicitly

conventionally basically significantly substantially

originally

recently

222

Part 4: Lexis

A key history the and are

first

keys

were

made

by

the same: a piece of metal with teeth,

from

wood,

produced by

a new technology, 3D printing, has made it pos-

sible to manufacture much more intricate designs which are offer remarkable security.

Egyptians

improved by the Romans, who used metal. Today’s keys

cutting and stamping. But copy

the

. Although

impossible to

more expensive, these high-tech keys

UNIT

4.4

Prefxes and Suffxes

Prefixes and suffixes are the first and last parts of certain words, added to the base form. Understanding the meaning of prefixes and suffixes can help you work out the meaning of a word, and is particularly useful when you find specialist new vocabulary.

1 How prefxes and suffxes work New words are often created in academia by adding prefixes (and suffixes) to established words e.g. ‘ecocriticism’ or ‘biosemiotics’. It is easier to understand ‘ecocriticism’ if you realise that the prefix ‘eco’ indicates a relationship between the physical world (eco) and literary criticism, while the second is a science that deals with signification (semiotics) in living systems (bio). In general: Prefixes change or give the meaning. Suffixes show the word class (e.g. noun, verb) and sometimes give meaning. 'Unsustainable' is an example of a word containing a prefix and a suffix. Prefx

Meaning

STEM

Meaning

Suffx

Word class/ Meaning

un-

negative

sustain

support

-able

adjective/ ability

The rate of growth was unsustainable (i.e. could not be continued). ■

Study the meaning of the words in bold:

Prefabrication of the flats accelerated the building process. He was revitalised by his holiday in the mountains. Prefx

Meaning

STEM

Meaning

Suffx

Word class

pre-

before

fabric

manufacture

-ation

noun

re-

again

vital

full of life

-ise

verb

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-40

224

Part 4: Lexis

2 Prefxes a) Negative prefixes: non-, un-, in-, im-, mis-, de- and dis- often give nouns, adjectives and verbs a negative meaning: nonsense, unclear, incapable, impossible, mishear, decrease, disagree NB: There are a few exceptions e.g. ‘invaluable’ means very useful. b) A wide variety of prefixes define meaning e.g. pre- usually means ‘before’, hence: prequel, prehistory and, of course, prefix! ■

Find the meaning(s) of 10 of these prefxes (NB: some have more than one meaning).

Prefx

Example

Example sentence

Meaning

Anglo*

Anglosphere

The Anglosphere includes Canada and the USA.

English

anti

antidepressant

Antidepressant drugs are often overprescribed.

against

auto

automatically

Over-18s automatically have the right to vote.

bio

biodegradable

Most paper bags are biodegradable.

co

co-ordinator

The co-ordinator invited them to a meeting.

eco

ecosystem

The river’s ecosystem was damaged by the foods.

ex

ex-president

The ex-president gave a speech on climate change.

fore

forecast

The long-term forecast is for higher infation.

inter

intervention

Government intervention in the market is needed.

intra

intra-state

Intra-state confict can lead to civil war.

macro

macroeconomics

Keynes focused on macroeconomics.

meta

metascience

Metascience aims to critique scientifc methods.

micro

microscope

She examined the tiny animals with a microscope.

multi

multinational

Ford is a multinational motor company.

neo

Neolithic

The Neolithic period saw the frst farmers.

4.4: Prefixes and Suffixes

over

oversleep

He missed the lecture because he overslept.

pan

pan-European

The pan-European games were held in Trieste.

poly

polyglot

She was a true polyglot, speaking fve languages.

post

postpone

The meeting is postponed until next Monday.

pro

promote

Their website promoted the college’s facilities.

quasi

quasi-monopoly

The tech giant developed a quasi-monopoly.

re

retrain

The frm retrained staff to use the new software.

self

self-regulating

The media business prefers to be self-regulating.

sub

subtitle

Chinese flms often have subtitles in the West.

tele

televise

Parliament was frst televised in 1989.

trans

transmitter

Early radio transmitters were short-range.

under

undervalue

Buying undervalued assets can be proftable.

*Other common national prefxes include Franco-, Hispano- and Sino- (e.g. Sinocentric).

NB: A few words contain two prefixes e.g. ‘disintermediation’.

3 Practice A Prefixes allow new words to be created, e.g. ‘unfriend’ (to delete a ‘friend’ from social media). ■

Suggest possible meanings for the words in bold. a) The growth of internet shopping has depersonalised the retail experience. b) The microclimate in this district allows early vegetables to be grown. c)

It is claimed that technology has created a post-industrial economy.

d) Staycations became very popular during the pandemic. e) The class was underwhelmed by the quality of the lecture. f)

The couple decided to draw up a prenuptial agreement.

g) The company is looking for a proactive manager. h) She felt that much of the comedian’s humour was self-referential.

225

226

Part 4: Lexis

NB: It can be difficult to know whether to use a hyphen with a prefix, and sometimes there is no fixed rule, e.g. ‘co-operate’ or ‘cooperate’? Make sure you use the same format for a particular word throughout your work. ► See Unit 3.7 Punctuation

4 Suffxes a) Some suffixes like –ion, -ive or –ly help the reader find the word class, e.g. noun, adjective or adverb. b) Other suffixes add to the meaning, e.g. –ful or –less after an adjective have a positive or negative effect (thoughtful/ careless).

Word class suffxes Nouns

–er often indicates a role: teacher, gardener –ee can show a person who is on the receiving end of a transaction: employee, trainee –ism and –ist are often used with belief systems and their supporters: socialism/ socialist –ness converts an adjective into a noun: sad/ sadness –ion helps change a verb to a noun: convert/ conversion

Adjectives

–ive effective, constructive –al commercial, agricultural –ious precious, serious

Verbs

–ise/–ize to form verbs from adjectives: private/ privatise NB: in the USA only the –ize spelling is used, whereas both forms are accepted in the UK

Adverbs

–ly to form adverbs from adjectives: happily, radically NB: most (but not all) adverbs have this suffx

Meaning suffxes A few suffixes contribute to the meaning of the word: ● ● ●

–phobe means ‘hater’ and –phile means ‘lover’: As a keen Francophile she visited Paris every spring. able has the meaning of ‘ability’: an unwatchable film, changeable weather wards means ‘in the direction of’: the ship sailed northwards, he walked homewards

4.4: Prefixes and Suffixes

5 Practice B ■

Give the word class for the following underlined words: a) The cancellation of the exams delighted the students. b) The fact that both books were published in June was coincidental. c)

The team worked cooperatively on their project.

d) Their evolutionary process was studied in detail. e) The bacteria live symbiotically in the cow’s stomach. f)

The weather was unpredictable all month.

g) Although forty years old, the Jaguar was very saleable. h) The frst interviewee appeared very nervous. i)

Consumerism involves a focus on the interests of private buyers.

j)

The symbolism of the fag’s colours impressed the children.

► See Unit 4.2 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives

227

UNIT

4.5

Synonyms

Synonyms are different words with a similar meaning, such as ‘figures’ and ‘numbers’. A good writer uses synonyms to avoid repetition and thus provide more interest for the reader. Synonyms should also be used when paraphrasing or note-making, to avoid plagiarism.

1 How synonyms work ■

Underline the synonyms in the following text and complete the table.

Royal Dutch Shell is an Anglo-Dutch business, and is one of the largest oil companies in the world, with a significant share of the global hydrocarbon market. Founded over a hundred years ago, the giant firm now employs over 80,000 people internationally, including more than 6,000 employees in Britain. As part of its move away from fossil fuels, Shell is installing recharging points for electric vehicles at many of its UK service stations, and aims to have over 200 available by the end of next year. Word/ phrase

Synonym

business

company, firm

largest oil in the world now people Britain

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-41

4.5: Synonyms

229

Synonyms are rarely exactly the same in meaning, so that in the example above ‘employees’ is more precise than ‘people’. But it is important not to change the register: ‘firm’ is a good synonym for ‘company’, but ‘boss’ is too informal to use for ‘manager’. The next table illustrates the validity of some synonyms for ‘company’: Possible synonyms for ‘company’

Validity

frm business enterprise corporation organisation

Good Good Suggests a small entrepreneurial business Widely used for larger companies Can also be used for non-commercial bodies

■

Discuss the validity of the following synonyms for ‘doctor’ with a partner and make notes.

surgeon specialist quack physician general practitioner (GP)

Note that many common words, e.g. culture, science, economy and industry, have no effective synonyms. But writing a good paraphrase involves more than replacing some words with others; the writer should change the structure of the text as well. ► See Unit 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing

230

Part 4: Lexis

2 Common synonyms in academic writing ■

Match the academic synonyms in each list. Use each word once only.

Nouns authority behaviour beneft category component controversy diffculty drawback expansion feeling framework goal interpretation issue method option results statistics study thesis trend

Verbs (infnitive form) advantage part argument disadvantage tendency source emotion target explanation conduct topic possibility research increase fgures dissertation type structure system fndings problem

accelerate analyse assist attach challenge clarify concentrate on conduct confne develop evaluate found maintain predict prohibit raise reduce respond show strengthen synthesise

take apart help question explain evolve examine establish insist speed up join decrease demonstrate increase reinforce put together focus on forecast ban carry out limit reply

NB: These pairs are commonly synonymous, but not in every situation.

3 Practice A ■

Find synonyms for the words and phrases underlined, rewriting the sentences where necessary. a) Professor Hicks questioned the fndings of the research. b) The statistics show a steady increase in survival rates. c)

The institute’s prediction has caused a major controversy.

d) Cost seems to be the leading drawback to that system. e) They will concentrate on the frst option. f)

After the lecture she tried to clarify her concept.

g) Three issues need to be examined. h) The framework can be retained but the goal needs to be altered.

4.5: Synonyms

231

4 Practice B ■

Identify the synonyms in this text by underlining them and linking them to the word they are substituting for.

A dog’s life? Keeping pets has become increasingly popular in wealthier countries. In the USA 95% of owners of domestic animals say that they regard them as part of their family. In Asia, since most city dwellers live in flats, felines are more popular there, as they require less care from urban apartment dwellers. Alongside this trend is the growth of businesses that specially cater for dogs and cats. Specialist companies offer a huge variety of pet foods, including canine ice cream and vegan fare, while luxurious pet hotels pamper their guests in South Korea. But there is debate about the benefits of keeping animals in the home: there is conflicting evidence of whether owners gain any tangible advantages from keeping pets, though it is clear that the animals themselves do.

5 Practice C ■

In the following text, replace all the words or phrases in bold type with suitable synonyms.

Many motor manufacturers are currently introducing electric cars. Their aim is to manufacture cars which are cheaper to run and less polluting. But these motor manufacturers face several key difficulties. One key difficulty is the limited range of the battery, while another difficulty is its cost and weight. But the motor manufacturers predict that these difficulties will soon be overcome and predict that 20% of cars will be powered by electricity in five years’ time. However, electrical power must be generated by something, and unless it is generated by renewables (e.g. wind or solar power) such cars may not be as ‘green’ as their makers claim.

Progress Check E

These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Part 4 – Lexis. 1

Several of the following should be avoided in academic writing. Which? a) a cliché

b) a synopsis

c) a proverb

d) an idiom

e) a simile

2

Choose the correct form in each sentence. a) He said that you should never judge a book by its/ it’s cover. b) I finished the essay accept/ except for the conclusion. c) The site/ sight of the accident was guarded by police. d) Please give our compliments/ complements to the doctor for his excellent lecture. e) She explained the basic principal/ principle of their study: transparency.

3

Give the opposite adjectives: a) relative b) literal c) objective d) vague e) unambiguous f) empirical

4

Rewrite the sentences using verbs of reference (i.e. referring verbs). a) X: I have found that drinking black coffee is healthier than white. b) Y: I don’t agree with X’s finding; it is based on very limited research. c) Z: I support Y’s opinion of X’s work.

5

Add a suitable adverb from the box to each sentence (use each once only). rarely

particularly

traditionally

DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-42

locally

increasingly

continuously

Progress Check E

a) b) c) d) e) f) 6

The site of London has been occupied …………… since Roman times. As central government was weak, decisions were taken ……………. In the past, there was a high mortality rate among children, …………… the youngest. Young adults are …………… delaying marriage until their late 20s. ……………, becoming a carpenter required a seven-year apprenticeship. Students are …………… allowed to park their cars on campus.

Find the word class of the following: a) saleable b) salvation c) privatise d) attendee e) agnosticism

7 Link the words on the left to the meanings on the right, using the prefixes.

8

233

antidote

under the skin

exclusive

preliminary section of book

foreword

relation of one thing to another

polytechnic

institute where many scientifc subjects are taught

proportion

assess worth of something too cheaply

subcutaneous

medicine that works against the effects of poison

undervalue

limited to a select few

Find synonyms for the underlined words, rewriting the sentence where necessary. a) Their research method caused serious argument. b) The statistics demonstrate the benefits of increased investment. c) There is a possibility of studying the family records. d) Her findings reinforce Schrödinger’s thesis. e) My goal was to challenge the conventional theory. f) They conducted a survey into the behaviour of international students.

Written British and American English – A Short Guide

Speakers of British and American English can usually understand each other easily, with only minor confusions due to some variations in vocabulary or pronunciation. However, with written academic work more differences need to be understood. The main issues are explained below. NB: Academic writers in Australia, New Zealand and many other English-speaking areas tend to use British English; in Canada American English is more common.

1 Vocabulary There are many vocabulary items which differ between British (UK) and American (US) English, e.g. autumn (UK) and fall (US). However, these are generally well known and widely understood. The two main problematic areas in everyday vocabulary are: a) words which are not commonly understood in both countries, e.g. tap (UK) and faucet (US). b) words with different meanings in each country, e.g. gas is used for cooking in Britain but in the USA gas powers cars (or automobiles). Further examples: UK flat underground queue timetable high street lift toilet company property trade union

US apartment subway line schedule main street elevator restroom or bathroom corporation real estate labor union

236

Written British and American English – A Short Guide

For a full list of differences see: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/usage/british-and-american -terms

2 Spelling There are many minor differences in spelling, but among those worth noting are: a) In American English the ‘u’ is commonly dropped from words ending in -our (e.g. neighbour becomes neighbor, behaviour becomes behavior). b) Words ending in -ise or -yse in British English (e.g. sanitise, analyse) change to sanitize and analyze in American English. c) A group of technical nouns such as haemophiliac and foetus lose the ‘ae’ or ‘oe’ in American English and become hemophiliac and fetus. d) British English spells the noun practice but the verb practise. In American English both forms are spelt with a ‘c’. But defence is British English, defense American. e) Many words ending in -re in British English (e.g. metre, theatre) become meter and theater in American English. NB: Even if you are writing in an environment where British English is used, you should retain American spelling when quoting or giving references: i.e. do not change the original spelling.

3 Academic language There are many minor variations between the language of the educational systems of Britain and the US. These are some of the more important ones: a) A college in the UK is usually any post-school institution which provides mainly vocational training but doesn’t award degrees (although a few universities such as Oxford are organised in colleges). In the US a college is usually part of a university and does give first degrees. b) Most teaching in UK universities is done by lecturers, while a professor is a senior academic position. In US colleges and universities teaching is mainly done by professors and assistant professors. c) In Britain students read/ do/ study a subject. In the US they study or major in a subject (the latter as the main part of a two-part degree). d) Someone studying for a Master’s degree in the UK is a postgraduate, while in the US they are a graduate student. e) Students in Britain sit or take exams, but in America exams are just taken. Before taking an exam, British students may revise the subject, but in the US they review the topic. UK students generally receive marks for their work, while American students get grades. f) In the UK a dissertation is written for a Master’s degree, while in the US this is generally called a thesis. The reverse applies at PhD level, where British students usually write a thesis but Americans prepare a dissertation.

Written British and American English – A Short Guide

237

4 Punctuation a) In Britain quotations are shown by single quotation marks, while nested quotations (those inside quotations) use double. In the US the convention is, confusingly, the opposite. UK: As Kauffman remarked: ‘His concept of “internal space” requires close analysis’. US: As Kauffman remarked: “His concept of ‘internal space’ requires close analysis.” Note that in British English the full stop comes after the quotation marks, while in the US it is inside them. b) In American English the ‘Oxford comma’ is standard, i.e. the comma before the final ‘and’ in a list: Vision, knowledge, courage, and luck are the attributes of a successful entrepreneur. In British English this is usually omitted: Vision, knowledge, courage and luck are the attributes of a successful entrepreneur. c) Dates are generally written with the month first in American English: 11.30.2019 = November 30, 2021 In British English dates usually begin with the day: 30.11.2019 = 30 November 2021 ► See Units 1.7 References and Quotations and 3.7 Punctuation

Glossary

Abbreviation The short form of a word or phrase (see 4.1) Abstract A short summary of the aims and scope of a journal article (see 1.3) Acknowledgements A list of people the author wishes to thank for their assistance, found in books and articles Appendix (plural – appendices) A section at the end of a book or article containing supplementary information Assignment A task given to students, normally for assessment Authority A well-known expert or reference work on a subject Back issue A previous issue of a journal or magazine Bias A subjective preference for one point of view Bibliography A list of sources an author has read but not specifically cited Brainstorm A process of collecting ideas on a topic at random (see 1.2) Case study A section of an essay which examines one example in detail (see 2.4) Citation An in-text reference providing a link to the source (see 1.6)

Glossary

Cohesion Linking ideas in a text together by use of reference words (see 3.1) Coursework Assessed assignments given to students to complete during a course Conclusion The final section of an essay or report (see 1.11) Contraction A shortened form of pronoun and verb, e.g. she’s, I’d Criteria (singular – criterion) The principles on which something is judged or based Deadline The final date for completing a piece of work Draft An unfinished version of a piece of writing Edited book A book with contributions from a number of writers, controlled by an editor Extract A piece of text taken from a longer work Flowchart A diagram that illustrates the stages of a process Formality In written work, the use of a non-idiomatic style and vocabulary Format The standard organisation of a text Heading The title of a section of text Higher degree A Master’s degree (e.g. MSc) or Doctorate (PhD) Hypothesis A theory which a researcher is attempting to explore or test Introduction The first part of an essay or article (see 1.11) Journal An academic publication in a specialised area, usually published quarterly (see 1.3)

239

240

Glossary

Literature review A section of an article describing other research on the topic in question (see 2.5) Main body The principal part of an essay after the introduction and before the conclusion Margin The strip of white space on a page around the text Module Most academic courses are divided into modules, each of which focuses on a specified topic Outline A preparatory plan for a piece of writing (see 1.2) Paraphrase A rewriting of a text with substantially different wording and organisation but similar ideas (see 1.8) Peer review The process of collecting comment from academic authorities on an article before publication in a journal. This system gives increased validity to the publication Phrase A few words which are commonly combined (see 1.1) Plagiarism Using another writer’s work without acknowledgement in an acceptable manner (see 1.6) Primary research Original research, e.g. a laboratory experiment or a sociological enquiry Quotation Use of the exact words of another writer to illustrate an argument or idea (see 1.7) Redundancy The unnecessary repetition of ideas or information (see 3.8) References A list of all the sources cited in a paper (see 1.7) Register The level of formality in language Restatement Repeating a point in order to explain it more clearly Scan A method of reading in which the eyes move quickly over the page to find a specific item

Glossary

Skim A related reading technique to quickly find out the main ideas of a text Source The original text used to obtain an idea or piece of information Summary A shorter version of something (see 1.8) Synonym A word or phrase with a similar meaning to another (see 4.5) Synopsis A summary of an article or book Term A word or phrase used to express a special concept Word class A grammatical category, e.g. noun, adjective

241

Answers

ANSWERS 243

Providing answers for a writing course is less clear-cut than for other language areas. In some exercises there is only one possible answer, but in other cases several possibilities exist. Teachers need to use common sense, and accept any reasonable answer. In the case of exercises where students can choose their own topic and it is therefore impossible to provide a definite answer, students may still appreciate having a model answer, and so some have been given.

Academic writing quiz 1 5 9 13 17

b (see Unit 1.1) a (see Unit 1.11) c (see Unit 1.10) a (see Unit 4.5) b (see Unit 1.5)

2 6 10 14 18

a, b (see Unit 1.1) c (see Unit 1.5) b (see Unit 1.12) b (see Unit 4.2) b (see Unit 3.6)

3 7 11 15 19

a (see Unit 1.2) a (see Unit 1.7) c (see Unit 1.4) b (see Unit 1.3) c (see Unit 1.1)

PART 1 THE WRITING PROCESS 1.1 Writing Basics 1

The purposes of academic writing Other reasons might include: ● To present a hypothesis for consideration by others ● To make notes on something read or heard or seen

2 How is academic writing different from other writing genres? i) Possible genres include journalism, fiction, poetry, advertising. ii) Academic writing is different from other genres as it employs: ● Semi-formal vocabulary, with a lack of idioms ● Use of citation/references ● Use of both passive and active voices ● Precision ● Caution ● Impersonal, objective style 3

Common types of academic writing a) Dissertation/thesis b) Paper c) Report d) Essay e) Case study f ) Reflection g) Notes h) Proposal

4 8 12 16 20

c (see Unit 1.11) b (see Unit 1.8) c (see Unit 3.7) c (see Unit 4.4) a (see Unit 1.11)

244

4

ANSWERS

The format of written assignments – Introduction – Literature review – Case study – Discussion – Conclusion – References – Appendices

a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

abstract references appendix acknowledgements literature review case study preface

6

Writing clear sentences (Example sentences) a) In 2020 the Human Resources programme had predominantly female students. b) There was a majority of female students on the Marketing programme. c) The Finance programme had the greatest gender imbalance: over 70% of the students were male. d) There was a small majority of male students studying Economics, but in the Accounting programme there was a substantial majority of men.

7

Writing in paragraphs See Unit 1.10.1 Organising Paragraphs for initial questions. para 2 begins: para 3 begins: para 4 begins:

8

However, some economists … But this effect … The macroeconomic model …

Practice (Example sentences) a) Energy efficiency was thought to benefit both consumers and the environment. b) More efficient engines should reduce demand for fossil fuel. c) Recent research has questioned this idea, using the example of the USA from 1960 to 2011. d) Researchers claim that cheaper energy costs lead to more energy being used, with no overall benefit for the environment.

ANSWERS 245

1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process 2

Analysing essay questions a) Summarise/Discuss Give the factors behind the development, and explore the possible consequences. Context: since 2010 b) Describe/Suggest List the most likely causes of this situation. Propose ways of improvement. c) What/Are there Give the advantages and disadvantages. Context: at primary school (age 6–10) d) What/Evaluate List the most important sources, and say how useful they are in reducing CO² emissions. Context: in the last 15 years e) Discuss/Indicating Describe how earthquakes affect different types of structures with reference to the soil characteristics, and explain how the structures can be made more resilient. f) To what extent Explain how much governments can do to make people’s behaviour healthier.

3

Practice: key words Analyse – Break down into the various parts and their relationships Assess/Evaluate – Decide the value or worth of a subject Describe – Give a detailed account of something Discuss – Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and drawbacks Examine/Explore – Divide into sections and discuss each critically Illustrate – Give examples Outline Trace – Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to the main elements Suggest/Indicate – Make a proposal and support it Summarise – Explain a topic briefly and clearly (NB: ‘summarise’ and ‘outline’ are very similar)

5

Brainstorming (Possible answers) Benefits Girls often do better academically in single sex schools Girls and boys have different academic interests and learning styles Children in these schools are less self-conscious

● ● ●

Drawbacks Provides poor preparation for adult world Can promote gender stereotypes Denies opportunities to make friends with the opposite sex

● ● ●

246

ANSWERS

6

Essay length (NB: These figures are only a guide and individual students may have a different approach) a) Describe/How can Approximately 60/40 b) How can/Illustrate Approximately 60/40 c) Outline/Suggest Approximately 50/50

7

Outlines c) Lists can help develop a logical structure and make it easier to allocate space, but are rather inflexible. Mind maps are more flexible as extra items can be added easily.

8

Practice (Model outline – list) The likely results ● Retailers must compete on logistics (delivery times) ● Increased demand for warehouse space esp. near big cities ● New businesses created (e.g. returns) ● More delivery traffic > demand for drivers ● Many stores will close ● Character of shopping streets will change > more cafes and entertainment

1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources 1

Types of text (Possible answers) Text type

Advantages

Disadvantages

Website

Easily accessed, probably up-to-date

Possibly unreliable and/or unedited

Journal article

Often focuses on a very particular area

May be too specialised or complex

Offcial report (e.g. from government body)

Contains a lot of detail

May have a narrow focus

Newspaper or magazine article

Easy to read and up-to-date

May not be objective and not give sources

e-book

Easily accessible

Must be read on screen

Edited book

A variety of contributors provide a range of views

May lack focus

ANSWERS 247

3

Assessing texts A. Worldwide pressures – Possibly – it mentions two sources, and contains a lot of information, but some of the language is subjective e.g. ‘reckless lack of control’, ‘shrinking alarmingly’. B. A drying world? – No – no sources are mentioned, and the style is very informal e.g. ‘the stuff we drink’. C. Measuring scarcity – Yes – a more critical, formal and objective style, and a citation provided. (Possible answers) Feature

Examples

Formal or semiformal vocabulary

The more complex indicators are not widely applied because data are lacking to apply them and the defnitions are not intuitive.

Sources are cited

Rijsberman (2006)

Objective, impersonal style

It is surprisingly diffcult to determine whether water is truly scarce in the physical sense at a global scale (a supply problem) or whether it is available but should be used better (a demand problem).

4

Using reading lists Books: Author(s), Title, Edition, Publisher, Date Journals: Author(s), Date, Article title, Journal name, Issue number, Page numbers

5

Searching library catalogues Title 1 appears to be an edited general study, recently published. Title 2 is also quite up-to-date and general. Title 4 is a third edition, so might be worth consulting although rather dated. The others seem to be too specific or outdated.

7

Reading abstracts a) How engineering in the context of urban socio-economic challenges is practically and effectively mobilized has been the subject of some debate. Numerous professional bodies have encouraged engineers to approach socio-environmental issues through increased engagement with, and accountability to, the public through effective participatory practices. b) This article presents a close empirical analysis of a major engineering project in London to argue that engineering has a more complex relationship with social, political and environmental conditions than the idealistic participatory conception supposes. In fact, the spatial, technical and economic arrangements of engineering practice may limit the potential for public participation.

248

ANSWERS

c)

Through a detailed analysis of the London Water Ring Main (from around 1988 to 1994) … d) … this article shows how myriad sometimes conflicting engineering issues and responsi bilities interfered with key elements of effective participation. e) Therefore, although increased public engagement in engineering may be desirable in theory, substantial professional, institutional and political change may have to occur before this is possible in practice. 8

Practice: varying search terms Variations/precipitation/rain/trends/SE Asia

10 Reading strategies

Other reading skills – possible answers: Text genre recognition Dealing with new vocabulary

● ●

11 Practice a) Text is relevant b) Three sources are mentioned which could be useful

ANSWERS 249

1.4 Reading: Developing Critical Approaches 2

Fact and opinion A a) opinion b) fact (not true) c) opinion d) fact (true) + fact (true) e) fact (true) + opinion B (Model objective version with facts [underlined] corrected) New Zealand is an island nation in the southern Pacific Ocean, consisting of two main islands. Nearly 1,000 miles east of Australia, it was one of the last places on Earth to be settled by man: by the Polynesians who arrived in about 1250 CE, and who developed the Maori culture. In the eighteenth century European settlers started to land, and in 1841 New Zealand became part of the British Empire. Due to its long period of isolation many distinctive plants and animals evolved, such as the kiwi, now the nation’s symbol. Today the country is famous for its successful rugby team, the All Blacks, and is a popular holiday destination.

4 Domain name suffixes Judging from the domain names, the websites likely to be biased in favour of vegetarianism are: https://www.vegsoc.org http://www.meatismurder.com https://www.vegansociety.com https://www.meatlessfarm.com https://vegetariantimes.com 5 Practice A The responses to these questions will vary from student to student, which is the nature of the critical approach. (Model Answer) Statements

Comments

A It is claimed that in one year nearly half of Harvard’s history professors were on sabbatical leave. As a consequence, students work less …

The link between these two situations is not made clear.

B … it has been calculated that the average UK university graduate will earn £400,000 ($600,000) more over their lifetime compared to a non-graduate.

Who has made this calculation? What basis is there for this claim?

250

ANSWERS

The tone of the first article, ‘College concerns’, is more critical and is from a more independent source, and so seems more reliable. 6 Practice B (Example answers) A. Volkswagen plugs in

B. How electric cars will change the world

Negative points

Subjective language – ‘tough talking’, ‘exciting new technology’ Inaccurate – ‘11 billion vehicles’ is clearly a mistake Narrow focus on one company

Rather an uncritical acceptance of the scenario with no counter-arguments presented

Positive points

Some useful information about the economics of building vehicles Contains up-to-date news of the company

Presents a global view of the situation Reference to other studies and reports

1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making 1 Why make notes? (Other answers possible) b) To avoid plagiarism c) To keep a record of reading/lectures d) To revise for exams e) To help remember main points 2

Finding key points (Example titles) The cost of internet fraud Compensating victims of internet scams Key points: ● Internet fraud is increasing – in the USA may be + $50bn per year ● Scammers becoming more sophisticated ● Victims often wealthier, retired, well-educated people who overestimate financial ability ● Normally banks refuse to compensate people who have lost money ● In Britain some victims may be compensated – but who will fund the scheme?

ANSWERS 251

3

Finding relevant points (Key points) a) The last few years have seen the rise of environmental activists using shame as a weapon against polluting businesses b) This includes flygskam (a Swedish word meaning ‘flight shame’) and campaigns against animal-based products, such as milk c) … they appear to be having a significant effect on certain companies, for instance the Dutch airline KLM is suggesting that customers should take a train on some routes d) This appears to be a worldwide movement – many Chinese consumers are also aware of the environmental dimension … e) New startup businesses seek to make a brand out of sustainability – the car maker Tesla f) Investors are also becoming concerned about the long-term outlook for polluting businesses like airlines – In Sweden passenger numbers were falling before the Covid-19 outbreak g) Fashion is another industry in which companies are becoming concerned about the opinions of young buyers h) In 2019 many of the leading fashion houses agreed to clean up their practices i) Pressure on the food industry from vegetarians and vegans has been growing for some time j) … both McDonalds and Burger King have introduced burgers made from plants k) … it is not clear how reducing consumption of locally sourced dairy products in favour, for example, of imported soya milk is going to help the planet l) … firms should be aware that many of these campaigns have been successful in the past

4

Practice A (Other answers possible) The notes are paraphrased, not copied from the text The source is included Symbols are used (>) Abbreviations are used (e.g. esp.) to save space Notes are organised in numbered lists

6

Practice B (Example notes) Is shame an effective behaviour changer? a) Recent growth in environmental campaigns to shame customers of polluting companies b) Examples: airlines, animal products, fashion c) Campaigns are having an effect e.g. KLM encouraging train use, fast food businesses offering vegetarian meals d) Investors are concerned about long-term future of polluting companies e.g. airlines

252

ANSWERS

e) Not clear that these campaigns will all result in lower CO² emissions e.g. soya milk f) Previous campaigns e.g. against apartheid have been effective (Source: Radickova, E. (2020). International Perspectives 5: 89)

7

Practice C (Model notes) PISA tests • • • • • • •

The Programme for International Student Assessment publishes its test results every 3 years Tests assess performance of 15/16 year-olds in OECD nations in maths, science and reading Aim = compare effectiveness of national educational systems In 2000 Finland had best results, with well-respected teachers and well-resourced schools But today China and Singapore have better scores, while overall performance has changed little Now considered that factors other than education system are important influences e.g. national work ethic/literacy rates Local factors are also critical e.g. Estonia scores highly but has small classes due to significant emigration

1.6 Avoiding Plagiarism 4

Degrees of plagiarism 1. Y 2. Y 3. Y 4. N 5. Y 6. N 7. Y 8. N 9. Y/N 10. Y

ANSWERS 253

5

Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing a) Plagiarised – no citation given b) Plagiarised – original wording with minor changes c) Acceptable – a correctly referenced summary of the original d) Acceptable – a correctly referenced summary and quotation e) Technically plagiarism – mistake in spelling the author’s name

6

Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits (Possible further suggestions) ● Check that your quotations are exactly the same wording as the original. ● When paraphrasing, alter the structure as well as the vocabulary. ● Make sure your in-text citations are all included in the list of references.

7

Practice A Kaufman (2017) argues that wealth (expressed as GDP per head) rather than size of population is the key to national success in the Olympics. Large populations alone do not guarantee good national results at the Olympics. Countries must also be wealthy enough to have healthy citizens and be able to provide resources for training. As Kaufman points out: ‘When many people are affected by poverty and illness it is not easy to be ordinarily healthy, let alone be an Olympic athlete’ (Kaufman, 2017: 3).

8

Practice B Source – The origin of ideas or information Citation – Short in-text note giving the author’s name and publication date To summarise – To reduce the length of a text while keeping the main points Quotation – Using the exact words of the original text in your work Reference – Full publication details of a text or other source To cheat – To gain advantage dishonestly Paraphrase – Using different words or word order to restate a text

Progress Check A 1

a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

T see p. 4 F see p. 7 T see p. 25 F see p. 22 F see p. 23 T see p. 26 T see p. 47 F see p. 15

254

ANSWERS

i) T see p. 43 j) T see p. 33 k) F see p. 17 2 (Example sentences) a) A large majority of students have been satisfied with the teaching quality. b) Student satisfaction with the college facilities has declined since 2018. c) Satisfaction with teaching quality fell between 2017 and 2019, but increased significantly in 2020. d) Overall student satisfaction at Bullbridge College was 73% in 2018, then fell to 62.5% the following year. 3 a) The objective of this study was to investigate the use of and expenditure on 17 of the most popular forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) by adult Australians, the sociodemographic characteristics of CAM users, and communication between CAM users and their doctors. b) In May–June 2005, a sample of 1067 adults, 18 years and older, from all Australian states and territories, was recruited by random-digit telephone dialling and interviewed about their CAM use in the previous 12 months. c) In the 12-month period, 68.9% of those interviewed used at least one of the 17 forms of CAM and 44.1% visited a CAM practitioner. The estimated number of visits to CAM practitioners by adult Australians in the 12-month period (69.2 million) was almost identical to the estimated number of visits to medical practitioners (69.3 million). The annual ‘out of pocket’ expenditure on CAM, nationally, was estimated as 4.13 billion Australian dollars (US $3.12 billion). Less than half of the users always informed their medical practitioners about their use of CAM. The most common characteristics of CAM users were: age, 18–34; female; employed; well-educated; private health insurance coverage; and higher-than-average incomes. d) CAM use nationally in Australia appears to be considerably higher than estimated from previous Australian studies. This may reflect an increasing popularity of CAM; however, regional variations in CAM use and the broader range of CAM included in the current study may contribute to the difference. Most frequently, doctors would not appear to be aware of their patient’s use of CAM. 4 (Other points possible) Positive points

Negative points

Presents the arguments for relaxing controls and provides some relevant facts

Imprecise: ‘Five large English cities’ – which? ‘Lots of people’ – style ‘Academic research’ – by whom? ‘Rocketing property prices’ – no fgures provided Lack of balance in the facts given

ANSWERS 255

1.7 References and Quotations 1 Why give references? a) N b) Y c) Y d) N e) Y f) N g) Y 2

Citations and references Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is irrational, as despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view ‘they are bad for road safety, the environment and road congestion’ (Smith, 2009:37). The first is a summary, the second a quotation. A summary allows the writer to condense ideas, while a quotation uses the words of the original author, which have authenticity and may be difficult to improve.

4

Practice A a) Allinson admitted that he might have made a mistake in his calculations on energy loss. b) Becher denied saying that women make/made better doctors than men. c) Curanovic claimed/argued that small firms are/were more dynamic than large ones. d) De Haas agreed with Curanovic’s views on small firms. e) Eden presumed that most people work/worked for money. f) Freire concluded that allergies are/were becoming more common. g) Gvosdev doubted that electric cars will/would replace conventional ones. h) Heisbourg hypothesised/suggested a link between crime and sunspot activity.

7

Practice (Example answers) a) According to Kelman (2016), McEwan (2015) points out that with an increasingly diverse body of both students and teaching staff, the need to reduce the gap in their distinct expectations is vital. b) McEwan maintains that ‘student success at university level is partly dependent on narrowing the difference between student and staff expectations’ (Kelman, 2016:45). c) According to Kelman, McEwan (2015) points out that with an increasingly diverse body of both students and teaching staff, the need to reduce the gap in their distinct expectations is vital: ‘the student body includes an increasing proportion of international students, who may take longer to adapt to the university culture’ (Kelman, 2016:45).

11 Organising the list of references a) i) Any of: Social Research Methods/A Handbook for Deterring Plagiarism in Higher Education/Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition

256

ANSWERS

ii) iii) iv) v)

‘First year student expectations: results from a university-wide student survey’ ’Canaries in the coalmine: International students in Western universities’ Embracing diversity ‘Differences between students' and lecturers' perceptions of factors influencing students' academic success at university’ vi) Introduction to the Practice of Statistics b) Books: Author/Date/Title/Place of publication/Publisher Journal article: Author/Date/Article title/Journal name/Issue number/Page numbers c) Book titles and journal titles d) Book titles are capitalised/Article titles are not capitalised e) Name of publication e.g. The Times f) i) Bryman (2004) ii) Carroll (2007) iii) Cook and Leckey (1999) iv) Crisp et al. (2009) v) Killen (1994)

1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing 1 What makes a good summary? A good summary requires: ● selection of most important aspects ● clear organisation ● accuracy 2

Stages of summarising 1 Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary. 2 Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting. 3 Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible. 4 Write the summary from your notes, reorganising the structure if needed. 5 Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been changed or lost.

3

Practice A 1 = c (includes all essential details; clearly written) 2 = b (does not specify the advantages of digital cameras) 3 = a (lacks detail and includes information – expensive film – not in original)

4

Practice B (Model answers) b)

i) Mobile phones have helped to establish new businesses in Africa. ii) Link between higher phone ownership and increase in GDP.

ANSWERS 257

iii) Only half of Africans (wealthier and urban) have a mobile phone. iv) New developments should reduce costs and increase availability of telecom services. v) But growth is still held back by high levels of taxation on telecom companies.

c) (Model summary)

The impact of mobile phones in Africa Recently, mobile phones have helped to establish new businesses in Africa, and there is a link between higher phone ownership and an increase in GDP. However, only half of Africans (mainly the wealthier and urban ones) currently have a mobile phone. New technical developments should reduce costs and increase the availability of telecom services, but growth is still held back by high levels of taxation on telecom companies. d) (Example summary) Although mobiles help create new businesses in Africa, their use is limited to wealthier people. Advanced technology may make them more accessible, but high taxes threaten the providers. 5

Practice C – The uneasy rise of videoconferencing (Example summary) The trend to using videoconferencing to save time and money travelling to meetings was increased by the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020. The technology allows users to watch the facial expressions of other participants, but the drawback is that many find they become self-conscious on camera, while technical glitches with sound or picture quality can also be stressful. (57 words)

7

Practice D – The causes of the Industrial Revolution 1) b. The best paraphrase, with all main points included and a significantly different structure. 2) a. Quite good, but lack of precision (at that time) and unsuitable register (bosses). 3) c. A poor paraphrase, with only a few words changed and extra and inaccurate information added (Britain was the only country …).

9

Practice E – Team players (A number of possibilities are acceptable here. These are suggestions) a) Teams allow members to specialise, both in a game of football and in a company. In a football team, for instance, success depends on both defenders and attackers cooperating successfully. The same applies to business, where a sales expert complements a colleague who is an excellent accountant. But the crucial question in many areas is, what is the optimum number for a team? b) In sport this may be dependent on the size of the playing area, so that indoor sports like basketball have smaller teams (five) than outdoor ones such as football (11). Seemingly fifteen (rugby) is the maximum size, and in practice this may be the limit in terms of

258

ANSWERS

coaching and management. In armies, units tend to be around 100, as used by the Romans; today an American army company has 180. Presumably there would be difficulties building and maintaining relationships with a larger body. c) The way groups of primates interact has been studied by Robin Dunbar, an Oxford University anthropologist, who argues that brain size is critical in forming bands. Humans can benefit from greater specialisation due to their larger brains, which permit larger groups. Many people belong to a range of groups of varying sizes, he thinks, having about five close friends, 15 good friends and around 50 social friends. d) Small businesses have distinct advantages, since decisions can be made rapidly and explained speedily to every worker. According to Dunbar the best size of committee for decision-making is four or five. Actually, small businesses are more crucial to the British economy than is generally understood: under 1% of British firms had more than 150 staff, according to research in 2015. Unlike workers in huge organisations, employees may feel more positive about their roles if they know the majority of their colleagues. 10 Practice F – The past below the waves (Example answers) a) Archaeologists can learn about multiple aspects of historic societies by studying shipwrecks, but most of the millions lying on the ocean floor are too deep for divers to examine. They can only work above 50 metres; restricting them to coastal wrecks which are more likely to have been disturbed. Research in mid-ocean has required expensive submarines with their support vessels, limiting the number of wrecks that can be explored. But this may change due to the latest craft, called an automatic underwater vehicle (AUV). Not requiring a support ship and operating independently, this will be used by an American team to examine part of the sea bed off the northern Egyptian coast close to the site of a harbour used around 2,000 BCE. b) There are millions of shipwrecks on the sea floor, providing historians with a vital insight into past trade and technology. Previously, most wrecks were too deep to explore economically, but a new small automatic submarine (called an AUV) has been developed which should allow these deeper sites to be investigated.

1.9 Contrasting Sources 1

Referring to sources a) 6 (Ramsden and Crisp are cited twice) b) Dalglish and Chan c) academic support d) Ramsden e) Source is a journal article

ANSWERS 259

2

ii) iii) iv) v) 3

Practice A a) Difficulties faced by international students b) Period of adjustment to new academic environment needed by international students Cultural adjustments international students must make Linguistic adjustments Length of time these adjustments require Contrasting sources (Example answers)

3.2 Ziadah

3.3 Summary

However, it appears that most of the change has been seen in offce work, and in other areas there has been little recent progress. In fact, across the economy men still work mainly with other men, and women with women.

Ziadah (2018), however, points out that as there has been little progress in employment patterns since the 1970s and 80s, the process may have stalled.

… women … are less likely than men to get work in that feld, and are more likely to leave it, possibly due to discrimination. Motherhood poses a further barrier to integration.

Discrimination and the demands of their families, she maintains, are probably both signifcant contributory factors.

a) emphasises, considers, points out, argues, maintains b) however c) though 5

Practice B (Example answer) One of the most intriguing scientific questions of the past century has been the reason for the extinction of the dinosaurs, the huge reptiles that dominated life on Earth for over one hundred million years. According to Sunderland (2016), huge volcanic eruptions leading to rapid climate cooling were seen as a likely cause of the extinction until the 1980s. Then Luis and Walter Alvarez claimed that the agent was the devastation caused by the impact of a large meteor, which struck near the Yucatan Peninsula about 66 million years ago, a theory that has been widely accepted. Nevertheless, the Alvarez hypothesis has been challenged by Gerta Keller (Kazepov, 2018). She argues for the role of volcanoes (in what is now India) in cooling the planet, hundreds of thousands of years before the meteor struck, thereby making the Earth inhospitable for the dinosaurs.

260

ANSWERS

1.10 Organising paragraphs 1

Paragraph structure a) Decentralising government b) By using conjunctions

2 Practice A

3

Topic sentence

Today’s civil servants no longer need to all work in the same district and be able to meet face-to-face.

Reason

Recent developments such as video-conferencing make this pattern of dispersal, which has many apparent benefts, more feasible.

Result 1

One beneft of dispersal is to improve the quality of life of the civil servants, detached from overcrowded and expensive capitals.

Result 2

Moreover, away from the pressures of the capital with its lobbyists and politicians, workers may have a more objective and detached viewpoint.

Result 3

Finally, there should be economic benefts for remote and possibly run-down regions in receiving an injection of well-paid employment.

Practice B a) Topic sentence

Despite these advantages there are serious drawbacks to relocating government departments.

Supporting point 1

One of the gravest is that many employees, especially younger ones, are reluctant to leave lively capital cities to live in remote provincial towns.

Example 1

In some cases, more than half the staff has resigned rather than move, fearing the loss of social life.

Supporting point 2

In addition, new locations may be chosen for political rather than economic reasons.

Example 2

Politicians may attempt to bring jobs to their own constituencies, as when Pinochet moved Chile’s congress to his home town, Valparaiso.

Summary

So although there are many apparent gains from relocation, putting such a move into practice can be full of problems.

b) c)

One of the/In some cases/In addition/as when/So although Despite these

ANSWERS 261

4

6

Practice C (Example answers) Title: Decentralising government 1

Background > Current trend + examples

2

Reasons + Advantages of process

3

Disadvantages of process

Practice D (Example answer)

Trams Trams were first introduced in the late nineteenth century, when they provided cheap and convenient mass transport in many cities in America and Europe. But their drawbacks were that the rail-based systems were expensive to maintain, and the fixed tracks made them inflexible as cities developed. Consequently, by the 1950s many European and Asian cities had closed their tramway systems. Today, however, trams are regaining their popularity. They are seen as less polluting than cars and relatively cheap to operate. As a result, cities such as Paris and Manchester have built new systems. Despite this, the high cost of constructing tramways and difficulties with traffic congestion blocking the tracks mean that trams remain a controversial transport option.

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions 1

Introduction components a) Components

Y/N

i) A defnition of any unfamiliar terms in the title

Y

ii) Your personal opinion on the subject of the essay

N

iii) Mention of some sources you have read on the topic

Y

iv) A provocative idea or question to interest the reader

N

v) A suitable quotation from a famous authority

N

vi) Your aim or purpose in writing

Y

vii) The method you adopt to answer the question

Y

viii) Some background or context of the topic

Y

ix) Any limitations you set yourself

Y

x) An outline of the main body

Y

262

ANSWERS

b)

A) B) C) D) E) F) G)

Background (viii) Outline (x) Method (vii) Sources (iii) Definition (i) Limitation (ix) Aim (vi)

2

Introduction structure a) Definition: … in this paper ‘e-learning’ refers to any type of learning situation where content is delivered via the internet. b) Context: Learning is one of the most vital components of the contemporary knowledgebased economy. With the development of computing power and technology the internet has become an essential medium for knowledge transfer. c) Reference to other researchers: Various researchers (Webb and Kirstin, 2003; Honig et al., 2006) have evaluated e-learning in a healthcare and business context … d) Aim: The purpose of this study was to examine students’ experience of e-learning in an HE context. e) Method: A range of studies was first reviewed, and then a survey of 200 students was conducted to assess their experience of e-learning. f) Limitations: Clearly a study of this type is inevitably restricted by various constraints, notably the size of the student sample … students of Pharmacy and Agriculture. g) Outline: The paper is structured as follows …. the delivery of e-learning programmes.

3

Opening sentences (Example answers) a) In recent years there has been steady criticism of the lack of women in senior management positions. b) In the past decade global warming or climate change has become one of the most pressing issues on the international agenda. c) In the developing world there has been some decline in rates of infant mortality over the last 20 years, but in many countries progress has been slow. d) Steady internal migration from the countryside to the cities is a feature of many developing societies. e) Although the rate of incarceration has increased in many countries, there is concern that this is not accompanied by a decrease in crime.

4

Conclusions i) Yes ii) Yes iii) No iv) Yes v) Yes vi) Yes

ANSWERS 263

vii) Yes No viii) A) B) C) D) E) F) 6

vi ii v i vii iv

Practice 1. e 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. d

1.12 Editing and Proofreading 2

Practice A Comments on the first draft might include some of the following: a) No sources are mentioned b) Too much space given to basic points c) Sentences are too short d) Style: e.g. I personally think not suitable e) Question in title not fully addressed

3

Practice B (Example rewrite) Organisations inevitably face risks by permitting researchers to interview employees, so these must be understood and minimised by the design of the research project. If employees criticise other workers in the organisation they may be punished, or alternatively they may feel unable to express their true feelings and so invalidate the interview. Consequently, researchers must protect the reputation of the organisation and the value of their own work by carefully explaining the purpose of the study and insisting on strict anonymity through the use of false names. This will protect the credibility of the project and by doing this both parties should benefit from the research. 5

Practice C i) Africa is not a country: such as Nigeria ii) Relative is an adjective. Adverb is needed: relatively

264

ANSWERS

iii) Question mark needed iv) Present perfect needed with ‘since’: Since 2017 there have been … v) Money is incorrect. Use currency vi) ‘pervious’ is incorrect: previous vii) ‘one of the …’ needs plural noun: one of the largest cities … viii) Repetition: a multinational business by definition operates in many countries ix) Time periods need the definite article: the nineteenth century x) Three skills are needed for success … xi) Use of etc. is poor style: recent studies mention racism and misogyny xii) Verb should agree with ‘intensity’: … is different 6

Practice D a) Style – avoid adverbs which express opinions: The study shows … (xi) b) Singular/plural – their lines (vii) c) Vocabulary – ‘torment’ is too strong, use ‘frustration’ (v) d) Word ending – different effects (ii) e) Factual – 1973 (i) f) Word order – Many students applied for the grant (x) g) Punctuation – its (iii) h) Spelling – Hungary (vi) i) Missing word – the world (ix) j) Tense: were (iv) k) Agreement: advantages (xii)

7

Practice E (Model introduction) In the past five years, cyberbullying has become an increasingly grave international problem, because of rapid development in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The most frequently used feature of ICT is computer-mediated communication (McCleod, 2019), which provides a medium for the development and growth of a plethora of social media channels. Social media has enjoyed fast-growing popularity, providing benefits for socialising and communicating in people’s lives. Despite the benefits, the rise of social media has also brought risks. Studies (Nitoiu, 2017, Allen and Cairney, 2019) point out that the growth in the use of ICT or social media has resulted in new means of cyber aggression emerging, such as hate speech, vulgar language and cyberbullying. Among this negative behaviour, the global phenomenon of cyberbullying presents some new challenges, as well as opportunities, for researchers.

8

Practice F (Corrections underlined)

The Panama Canal Ship canals are an important element in the development of world trade, as most manufactured goods travel by ship. Unlike the Suez Canal in Egypt, crossing the Panamanian isthmus involves lifting ships 26 metres and then lowering them on the other side. Construction was so difficult

ANSWERS 265

and dangerous that the original French engineers were defeated by disease, after over 20,000 men had died working on the project. In the early twentieth century the American government became involved and after ten years’ work the canal opened to shipping in 1914, thereby avoiding the difficult route around South America. But since the 1970s container ships have steadily grown too large to fit the canal’s locks, and so in 2007 the Canal Authority began a major development to expand the canal’s capacity with locks 60% wider. When this was completed in 2016, at a cost of over $5 billion, the canal was able to handle almost all ships, including the giant cruise vessels now being operated. 9

Summary 1. E/P 2. E 3. P 4. E 5. P 6. E 7. P 8. E

Progress Check B 1 (Other answers may be possible) a) title b) schedule, timetable c) outline, plan d) sources e) making, taking f) techniques, skills g) draft h) plagiarism i) conclusion j) carefully, thoroughly k) references l) proofread 2 a) T b) T c) T d) F e) F f) F g) T h) T i) F j) T

266

ANSWERS

3 (Model summary) Wild bison nearly became extinct in Europe 100 years ago, but today herds have been re-established in several eastern European countries. This has been made possible by the expansion of forests which happened during the Communist period, which was followed by an exodus of population from rural areas after 1989. This has created a richly diverse habitat in which large animals can thrive alongside birds and insects. Today new businesses are being established to cater for the eco-tourists attracted by these developments. Nitoiu, C. (2019) Rewilding Europe. Frankfurt: Freihaus 4 (Model paraphrase) Crow behaviour has been studied by a team of Oxford University scientists, and they have discovered that crows have a remarkable tool-making ability, ‘a skill which was thought to be unique to man and other primates’ (Grummitt, 2010:15). They set up an experiment in which a crow had to fashion a piece of wire in order to extract some meat from inside a glass cylinder. The bird did this by bending the wire using its beak and feet. The hook was then used to reach the meat, usually in under two minutes.

PART 2: WRITING TYPES 2.1 Argument and Discussion 1

Discussion vocabulary (Model paragraph) Universities are increasingly using online teaching to deliver certain courses. This has distinct benefits for students, as they can listen to lectures at any time, from anywhere. This also brings advantages for the university, since it does not have to provide a lecture hall, thereby saving money, and can also teach larger numbers of students. However, many students find such online classes impersonal, and miss the chance to meet their fellow students and discuss the content of the lecture with them. 2

Organisation Vertical: a simpler pattern suitable for short essays Horizontal: this allows a more complex approach in longer essays

3

Practice A Possible ideas include: +

−

No time wasted commuting to work Gives employees more fexibility Saves expensive offce space Reduces infection during Covid-19 pandemic

Employees may feel isolated May not suit all employees Home may contain distractions Requires different management style

Example outline with vertical structure:

ANSWERS 267

a) b) c) d)

Introduction: Reasons for growth of home-working: development in communication technology, demand for more flexible work patterns. Drawbacks: Employees may feel isolated and be distracted by activities at home. May not suit all employees, some prefer more direct management. Benefits: Companies need to provide less office space, less time spent on commuting = more work time, employees have more flexibility. Discussion: Of benefit to certain employees in some roles, but necessary to have regular contact with colleagues and managers.

6

Practice B Counter-arguments: It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from society, and to provide punishment for wrong-doing. The writer’s position is essentially critical of the way prisons currently work. (Example answers)

7

8

Counter-argument

Your position

It has been claimed that employees may waste time at home,

but in practice there seems little evidence for this.

Although home-working may save companies money by reducing the need for expensive offce space,

employees need to have a wellequipped workspace in their home.

Providing evidence a) 2 b) The education system c) Many young people do not use ‘digital tools’ d) Sceptical of the ‘digital native’ theory

Practice C (Example answer) At present marijuana is an illegal drug in most countries, although a few states have now legalised it. The advantages of legalisation are considered to be the removal of a fairly harmless drug from the black economy, thereby reducing criminal activity. As a legal product, the state could raise money by taxing its sale, as is done with tobacco and alcohol. But critics of this policy maintain that marijuana is a gateway to more harmful drugs such as cocaine, and legalisation would eventually encourage the use of these ‘harder’ drugs. They insist that marijuana can often do serious damage to users’ mental health, which will create medical costs for society. Few conclusions can yet be drawn from those countries which have legalised the drug. But there is no evidence of significant negative effects, and police forces claim that they can focus on more serious crime. These cases are worth monitoring, and may suggest new approaches to a difficult issue.

268

ANSWERS

2.2 Cause and effect 1 Causes and effects The 2008–2009 recession resulted from a loss of confidence in the international financial system and led to a housing price crash, higher unemployment and the failure of various banks. The trigger may have been rash mortgage lending to unsuitable borrowers in the USA, causing house-price inflation. When this bubble burst some financial institutions, such as Lehman Brothers, found they were holding worthless assets, and this led to their collapse. Other consequences of the recession were higher government debt, reduced government spending and more unemployment. 3

Practice A (Example answers) a) Higher rates of literacy often lead to greater demand for secondary education. Greater demand for secondary education may result from higher literacy rates. b) As a result of the new airport more tourists arrived. More tourist arrivals were due to the construction of a new airport. c) Due to last year’s national election a new government was formed. A new government was formed because of the national election last year. d) Installing speed cameras on main roads leads to a fall in the number of fatal accidents. A fall in the number of fatal accidents results from installing speed cameras on main roads. e) Opening a new hospital in 2019 reduced infant mortality. The reduction in infant mortality was due to the opening of a new hospital in 2019. f) More people shopping on the internet results in stores closing on the high street. Stores are closing on the high street owing to more people shopping on the internet.

4

Practice B (Example answers) a) The violent storms last week damaged power lines in the region. b) The new vaccine for tuberculosis (TB) will result in lower child mortality. c) Building a high-speed railway line caused journey times to fall by 25%. d) The invention of the jet engine made cheap mass travel possible. e) The high price of bread is owing to the poor harvest last summer. f) The increase in obesity is a result of a more sedentary lifestyle. g) Earthquakes are often caused by movements in tectonic plates. h) The rising prison population was due to a harsher sentencing policy.

5

Practice C – Unhappy workers owing to the stress … resulting from restructuring … due to a feeling … because of industry-wide … creating a sense …

ANSWERS 269

lead to a fear … leads to a concern … generates an awareness … 6

Practice D (Example chart and paragraph) a)

b) The introduction of driverless cars and trucks would have various significant results. First, it would lead to many redundancies among truck drivers, but would also result in reduced freight costs, since driverless trucks could work 24 hours a day. Taxi firms would also be able to lower their prices, but fewer taxi drivers would be needed. In addition, demand for driver training would fall, leading to some driving schools having to close, with the loss of jobs for instructors. Moreover, potential customers would postpone purchases while they assessed the new technology, causing a fall in sales of new vehicles and then lay-offs and short-time working at vehicle manufacturers.

2.3 Problems and Solutions 1

Vocabulary (Other answers possible) a) issue/question b) answer/approach c) approach/avenue/suggestion/proposal d) remedy/approach e) approach/avenue/suggestion/proposal f) solution/answer

270 ANSWERS

4

Practice A – The housing dilemma (Example answer) In many expanding urban areas there is a serious housing shortage, caused by people moving from the country to seek urban opportunities. There are various possible answers to this problem, but each has its drawbacks. The traditional response is to build family houses with gardens, which offer privacy and space but require a lot of land. Building these is slow and the growth of suburbs creates longer journeys to work. A second option is to build prefabricated three-storey houses, which can be erected more quickly and cheaply than traditional houses, and can be designed to achieve a higher density of population. In some places these may be the best solution, but they also require a lot of space and are too expensive for the average citizen. A better solution is to construct tall blocks of flats, which will accommodate more people at a high density quite cheaply, while preventing cities from sprawling too widely. Although some families may find them cramped, for the majority they are a convenient and affordable answer to the housing problem. 5

Practice B (Model paragraph) There is widespread concern that the common use of plastic for packaging is causing serious problems on both land and sea. Various solutions have been proposed; for instance to use biodegradable plastic, although this material is still under development. Another proposal is to use glass containers which can be recycled, but their weight is likely to increase freight costs. More effort should be made to recycle all types of plastic, yet this is rarely an economic process. Perhaps the best answer is simply to use less plastic packaging in the first place.

6

Practice C (Model answer) Problem

Solution A

Solution B

Solution C

Night clubs in city centres create a noise nuisance

Close the night clubs

Move the night clubs to industrial zones

Make the clubs ft sound-proofng

Night clubs in city centres often create a noise nuisance for their neighbours in nearby flats. Clearly one response is just to close the clubs if they continue to disturb the district, but this seems rather harsh. Another answer might be to relocate the clubs to industrial zones where there is no housing, but this would be expensive and inconvenient. Perhaps the best solution is to force the clubs to fit effective sound-proofing.

ANSWERS 271

2.4 Case Studies 1

Using case studies Topics

Case studies

The social effects of developing wind farms in rural areas

A comparison of wind farms and community response in two regions of central Spain

Improving crop yields in semi-deserts

Using solar power to operate irrigation pumps in Ethiopia

Reducing infant mortality

A programme to cut smoking among pregnant women in a Greek clinic

Ecological implications of reintroducing large mammals into the wild

Releasing wolves in the mountains of northern Italy

Dealing with reoffending among prisoners

Work and learning – how a Brazilian scheme encouraged convicts to stay out of jail

Improving recycling rates in large cities

The Berlin experiment: increasing public participation in collecting and sorting waste

3 Background research Possible benefits include: storing water for irrigation or domestic and industrial use, flood prevention, electricity generation. Possible drawbacks could be: flooding of agricultural land, displacement of local people, loss of cultural sites, loss of animal habitats, cost. 4

Model case study (Additional answers are possible here) a) Competition from rivals offering free delivery Some products e.g. single beds not suited to Chinese tastes b) Store layouts match Chinese apartments Products linked to New Year celebrations Reduced prices by sourcing production locally Produces thinner but more frequent catalogues Uses local characters in adverts Attempts to provide better service Stores located in downtown areas for public transport c) More financial details of IKEA’s sales and profits in the Chinese market More information about IKEA’s main competitors in this market

272 ANSWERS

2.5 Literature reviews 2

Examples of literature reviews B. only a few studies/this scant literature C. to bring together developing insights from co-production and urban labs and to explore the novel institutional personae …. Our discussion builds on ongoing debates … A = alphabetical, B and C = chronological

4.

Model literature review a) 2 (content & process) b) 7 (Maslow, McClellan, Herzberg, Vroom, Locke, Adams, Alderfer) c) 5 d) It is more convenient to use secondary sources in this kind of short literature review. If you were studying just one of these theorists e.g. Herzberg you might be expected to use primary sources.

2.7 Reports 1

Essays and reports Essays: Deal with topics in a more general or theoretical way/Generally use secondary sources/ Use signposting expressions (e.g. ‘Moving on to …’) Reports: Tend to be more specific/May deal with a particular situation in past or future proposal/Often use primary sources/Usually use numbering system for sections 2

Writing reports 1. Essay 2. Report 3. Report 4. Either 5. Essay

4

Practice i) d ii) a iii) c iv) f v) e vi) b (Other comments possible) a) There is a lack of detail in the report, and no mention is made of the cost of running and maintaining student residences on campus. Nor does it really consider the situation of the students who prefer to live on campus for convenience and socialising.

ANSWERS 273

b) The report should examine the question of whether companies are prepared to build new halls off-campus, since this is an essential part of the alternative proposal.

2.8 Refective Writing 2

Example a) She has learned that she needs to be more confident about giving her opinions as she had correctly predicted some of the difficulties they met. b) She suggests that with a large group it may be productive to form subcommittees to deal with particular issues. c) This report covers all six stages of the Gibbs model. However the first paragraph is all description, and it could be argued that the remaining five stages need more development.

3

Structure Introduction

The frst stage … local public transport.

Description

Our group decided … yes/no format. The survey was carried out … was more reliable.

Interpretation

I was quite nervous … I feel that the format … more productive. I had thought about this earlier … to the group.

Outcome

I think we could have trialled … questions. In future I must … for the team. Overall it seems … to deal with this.

5

Practice A (Model answer) I went to the first seminar in our new module on Economic History last week. Professor Lee outlined the course and then we watched a short film about inflation in Weimar Germany. I realised that I should have read the article he had sent us last week as background reading, since I knew nothing about this period. I found that I couldn’t take part in the discussion. I shall have to prepare better for these seminars in future or I won’t be able to keep up.

Progress Check C 1 (Model paragraph, other answers possible) One important advantage of battery-powered vehicles is their lack of polluting emissions. Another benefit is that they are simpler to construct, while lower running costs are a further positive aspect. However, one serious drawback must be their restricted range, as they require recharging after about 250 miles. Price is an additional disadvantage, since the cost of the battery makes these

274 ANSWERS

vehicles more expensive than petrol-driven models. A final issue may be the source of the electricity, because if it is generated by coal or gas there is little benefit for the environment. 2 (Model sentences) a) … for most users 200 miles is sufficient. b) … this depends on the source of the electricity. c) … in future they will become cheaper. 3 (Other answers possible) a) Because/Since b) cancel flights c) plane/air d) led to/caused e) were laid off/made redundant f) consequence/result 4 (Other answers possible) a) issue/difficulty b) remedy/answer c) challenge/issue dilemma/question d) answer/remedy 5 (Possible revisions of incorrect sentences) a) Case studies are used by students of many subjects, including Medicine. c) A good literature review will often contain both primary and secondary sources. d) When writing a longer paper you should start by writing the main body. f) Reflective writing will often be subjective. h) Reports can deal with both an analysis of past events and proposals for future action. 6.

(Model report) Introduction e) d) b) c) a)

Proposals Plan A suggests a central green area, with trees and seats. To one side is a small car park with 40 spaces, and on the other side is a set of tennis courts. In contrast, Plan B proposes a larger car park of 100 spaces along Access Road, and behind that a small lake, a café and a shop. The cost of the two schemes is roughly the same, but Plan B would generate some income from the shop and café. Discussion It can be argued that Plan A is the healthier option, since it encourages sport and provides a pleasant outdoor space. The students who were consulted tended to favour this proposal.

ANSWERS 275

However, Plan B would help to alleviate the shortage of on-campus parking, and was popular with members of staff in the consultation exercise. But there are several cafes on the campus, and it is not clear that another one is needed. Recommendations It seems clear that Plan A would have a more positive visual impact on the campus, with the green area, instead of the site being dominated by a large car park. This is the students’ preferred scheme, combining sports facilities with tree planting, although the alternative (Plan B) might generate some income from the shop and café. Overall the students’ preferences should be the main consideration, and so Plan A appears the better option.

PART 3: WRITING TOOLS 3.1 Cohesion 2 Practice A – Capital glamour? Reference

Reference word/phrase

Warwick

the former

15 British universities

they

some students

international ones

an outpost in the capital is attractive

for that reason

campuses in London

these

more vocational subjects

such courses

4 Practice B – Famous for? a) he b) his c) his d) it/this e) his f) he g) they/he h) This i) He j) his 6 Practice C – Velcro Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. It was invented by a Swiss engineer called George de Mestral. His idea was derived from studying the tiny hooks found on some

276 ANSWERS

plant seeds. They cling to animals and help disperse the seeds. Velcro has two sides, one of which is covered in small hooks and the other in loops. When they are pressed together they form a strong bond. Mestral spent eight years perfecting his invention, which he called ‘Velcro’ from the French words ‘velour’ and ‘crochet’. It was patented in 1955 and today over 60 million metres of Velcro are sold annually. 7

Practice D – Gillette’s blades a) He b) it/this c) His/it d) he e) them f) This g) his h) they i) he

8

Practice E (Model answer) Kevlar was developed by Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014), whose parents were Polish immigrants to the USA. After studying for a BSc at Carnegie Mellon University she took a temporary job with the DuPont Corporation as a research chemist. There she developed Kevlar, a synthetic fibre which is stronger than steel. Among its applications are car tyres, bullet-proof vests and skis. It was patented in 1965 and first produced commercially in 1971.

3.2 Comparison 2 Practice A One result of the Covid-19 pandemic has been to further increase the popularity of online shopping. Choosing and ordering goods via a mobile phone or laptop has significant advantages compared to visiting the high street or a shopping centre. Many people find it more convenient to be able to shop at any time of day, rather than when a shop is open. Online shopping also offers significantly greater choice, since a much wider range of goods can be kept in large warehouses rather than in showrooms. It is also generally less expensive, as the retailer does not have the cost of running a physical store, while reading reviews from other buyers is helpful for many customers. Clearly, it is also much quicker compared with making a journey to the shops. However, physically handling goods, whether furniture or clothes, can be more reassuring than seeing the same products on a screen. In addition, many people enjoy the interaction of shopping in person, and find it more satisfying to speak to an assistant. Overall, it seems inevitable that more shopping will take place online, but the pleasure of browsing will ensure that some brick-and-mortar shops remain open.

ANSWERS 277

4

Practice B a) largest/greatest b) significantly/substantially c) than d) same e) largest f) substantially/considerably

6

Practice C (Model answers) a) FC Barcelona had the highest income among the top European clubs. b) Real Madrid’s income was almost twice as much as Juventus’. c) FC Barcelona earned substantially/significantly more than Chelsea. d) Tottenham had less revenue than Liverpool. e) Liverpool’s income was slightly less than Manchester City’s. f) Liverpool earned approximately the same as Manchester City.

7

Practice D (Other answers possible) a) There are wide variations in the percentage of GDP spent on health globally. b) The USA spends four times as much as Bangladesh. c) South Africa spends slightly more than Denmark. d) Madagascar’s spending on health is approximately the same as Indonesia’s. e) Canada spends three times as much on health as Oman. f) Swiss health spending is significantly higher than Bangladeshi.

8

Practice E (Model paragraph) Among various European nations, Sweden produced the greatest amount of its energy from renewable sources in 2016, while Denmark and Finland produced between a third and a half of their energy from these. For Austria, Portugal and Romania the proportion was around a third. But with Italy, Germany and the UK less than 20% of the total came from renewable sources.

3.3 Defnitions 2

Category words (Model examples) Malaria is a disease transmitted by mosquito bite. Autocracy is a political system in which the ruler has total power. Weaving is the process of making cloth from threads. Oats is a cereal crop that grows in cool damp climates. A limited company is a type of business organisation with limited liability. A parking fine is a penalty imposed for breaking parking rules.

278 ANSWERS

Sculpture is a branch of the visual arts that employs metal, wood or stone. a) instrument b) organs c) organisation d) fabric/textile e) behaviour f) process g) period (Example answers) h) A lecture is an academic talk used for teaching purposes. i) Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease mainly affecting the lungs. j) The Red Cross is a humanitarian organisation which helps people affected by disasters. k) An idiom is a colloquial phrase. 3 Complex definitions a) a failed project b) development c) attachment d) self-brightening e) globalisation i) ii) iii) iv) 4

c a b, d, e b, c

Practice A (Example definitions) a) Capital punishment means the execution by the state of convicted criminals. b) An entrepreneurial business is set up by somebody who demonstrates the effective application of a number of enterprising attributes, such as creativity, initiative, risk-taking, problem-solving ability and autonomy, and will often risk his or her own capital. c) E-books are books in digital form which can be read on electronic devices. d) Urban areas are predominantly built-up areas in which roads, housing or commercial buildings are found. e) Obesity is a medical term meaning unhealthily overweight.

3.4 Examples 1 Using examples – Droning on For some years there have been predictions that drones could be used to deliver goods to customers. Amazon was one company that expressed an interest. Yet issues with regulators have delayed the arrival of airborne parcels in most countries, owing to concerns with privacy and safety. However, in remote rural regions drone deliveries are already in operation. In Rwanda,

ANSWERS 279

for instance, an American startup called Zipline is flying medical supplies, especially blood, to isolated clinics and hospitals. There are various reasons for beginning to operate in these places: medicines are valuable yet lightweight, while most deliveries are between a small number of fixed points. By comparison, travel by road is likely to be slower and more expensive. The pioneer companies such as Zipline and Matternet claim to be operating profitably already, and there are plans to begin the service in less remote places: Zipline will bring its expertise from Africa to North Carolina. 2

Phrases to introduce examples (Example answers) a) Some twentieth-century inventions, such as TV and the internet, affected the lives of most people. b) Lately many countries, for instance China, have introduced fees for university courses. c) Various companies have built their reputation on the strength of one product; a case in point is Microsoft Windows. d) In recent years more women, e.g. Angela Merkel, have become political leaders. e) Certain countries such as Japan are frequently affected by earthquakes. f) Many musical instruments, for example guitars, use strings to make music. g) Ship canals, for instance the Panama Canal, facilitate world trade. h) Politicians have discussed a range of possible alternative punishments to prison, for instance community work.

3

Practice A – Eating for health (Model answer) A hundred years ago most people’s diets consisted of a few staple items that were cheap and also filling, for example bread or rice. Today many people are able to afford more variety, and regularly eat more expensive foods, such as fruit and meat. But along with the wider choice has come anxiety about the possible threats to health contained in certain foods. In recent years a broad range of products including eggs, butter, salt, sugar, fats and smoked meat have been considered a risk to health. This has left many people confused, as much of the ‘research’ behind these claims is contradictory, in other words, a food may be condemned by one scientist but approved by another. One beneficiary of this process is the health food industry, a booming sector which promotes food and drink products such as Diet Coke to health-conscious young people. In fact, many doctors argue that instead of focusing exclusively on what they eat or drink, people’s health would be improved by doing more exercise e.g. swimming, running or cycling.

4 Practice B – Climate chaos? (Model answer) In the last ten years extreme weather events such as hurricanes and heatwaves have become more common, and climate scientists generally agree that they are partly a product of global warming, as a result of the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These events have two types of negative consequences: the immediate damage and injuries caused by the event, for instance flooded homes, and the long-term effects for farmers and others, for example loss of soil fertility. Although engineers point out that the dangers can be minimised by investing

280

ANSWERS

in better defences e.g. flood barriers, those countries which are most at risk, especially island states, are also those least able to afford this investment. 5

Restatement a) The company’s overheads, in other words the fixed costs, doubled last year. b) The Roman empire (27 BCE–476 CE) was a period of autocratic rule. c) Two Spanish cities, namely Madrid and Barcelona, are long-standing football rivals. d) Survival rates for the most common type of cancer, i.e. breast cancer, are improving. e) Participation rates in many democracies are in decline, that is to say, fewer people are voting.

3.5 Generalisations 1

Using generalisations a) This may often be the case but there are some exceptions! b) A widely accepted fact, supported by evidence. c) Similar to b), this is a well-researched link. d) This may be true in some cases but is a very sweeping generalisation. e) Although technically true, this ignores time spent at airports.

3

Practice A (Example answers) a) Regular rainfall is necessary for good crop yields. b) Honest judges are needed to ensure respect for the law. c) Adequate sleep is vital for academic success. d) Industrial growth tends to cause pollution. e) Cold weather is likely to increase demand for gas. f) Job satisfaction generally depends on having interesting work. g) Regular training is essential for sporting success. h) Creativity and skill are both needed to produce great art.

4

Practice B (Example generalisations) a) Graduates are more likely than undergraduates to study in the library. b) Female undergraduates generally prefer to work in silence. c) Few students choose to study outdoors. d) Male graduates prefer to study in the library, while females prefer their own room. e) More undergraduates than graduates work in bed.

5

Building on generalisations – The wood and the trees a) To introduce the topic. b) To provide explanations and examples. c) The text would seem very theoretical.

ANSWERS 281

6 Practice C Urbanists have shown how modernist ideals of the orderly and healthy metropolis have been at the heart of liberal projects of state-making. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, for instance, engineers were at the forefront of efforts at instilling ideals of urban sanitation, cleanliness and order in rapidly industrialising Western cities. (Example) a) The growth of tourism is often seen as being detrimental to the host society. It is claimed that growth in visitor numbers causes pollution, overcrowding and even leads to crime. But the weakness of this argument can be shown by comparing several countries which have experienced equally rapid growth in tourist numbers, with very different results, both positive and negative.

3.6 Numbers and Visual Information 2

Percentages a) 50% b) 100% c) 400%

3 Simplification a) Scores of students applied for the scholarship. b) Since 1975 dozens of primary schools have been rebuilt. c) Various/several names were suggested but rejected for the new chocolate bar. d) Last year several books were published on biogenetics in French. 4

Further numerical phrases (Example answers) a) The price of petrol has increased tenfold since 1973. b) The new high-speed train halved the journey time to Madrid. c) The number of students applying for the Psychology course has risen by 50% since last year. d) More than twice as many British students as Italian students complete their first degree course. e) Tap water is 700 times cheaper than bottled water. f) A majority of members supported the suggestion, but a large proportion of these expressed some doubts.

5

Practice A (Example answers) b) There were twice as many sports at the Paris Olympics compared to the Athens games. c) The number of athletes competing doubled between the Tokyo and Beijing Olympics. d) In the Barcelona Olympics nearly a third of the athletes were women. e) The number of Olympic sports rose threefold between 1896 and 2008. f) A substantial minority of athletes at the London Olympics were women.

282

6

8

ANSWERS

Visual information – Types of visuals Types

Example

1. Diagram

F

2. Table

B

3. Map

H

4. Pie chart

D

5. Flow chart

E

6. Line graph

A

7. Bar chart

C

8. Plan

G

9. Scatter graph/plot

I

Describing visuals is better. It comments on the main features of the chart but does not repeat the statistics. i)

10 Practice B a) shows/illustrates b) between c) majority substantially/significantly d) e) Spain f) rise/increase g) than 11 Practice C (Example paragraph) Figure 3 compares the maximum speeds attained by some of the fastest mammals on earth. Humans are only capable of running at about 28 mph, while the fastest creature, the cheetah, can reach 70 mph. This is much greater than the speed lions or hares can reach (50 mph), while animals such as greyhounds, horses and tigers are only capable of speeds in the 40–45 mph range.

3.7 Punctuation 1

Capital letters The Polish polish can be used on wood or leather.

9

Practice A a) The study was carried out by Christine Zhen-Wei Qiang of the National University of Singapore.

ANSWERS 283

b) Professor Rowan’s new book ‘The End of Privacy’ (2019) is published in New York. or Professor Rowan’s new book The End of Privacy (2019) is published in New York. c) As Keynes said: ‘It’s better to be roughly right than precisely wrong’. d) Banks such as HSBC and Barclays were in penny-pinching mode in the 1990s. e) As Matheson (1954) wrote: ‘It was the germ that was the villain’. f) Thousands of new words such as ‘vlog’ enter the English language each year. g) The BBC’s World Service is broadcast in 33 languages including Somali and Vietnamese. h) She scored 56% on the main course; the previous semester she had achieved 67%. i) Their article, a reassessment of the changing patterns of the Indian monsoon 2015–2020, was well received. j) Before submitting her essay on TS Eliot she checked it for spelling, grammar and punctuation. 10 Practice B Studying will play a vital part in your life as an Oxford student, but you will also find an enormous amount to do in Oxford in your spare time. Oxford is the youngest city in England and Wales and has two universities: Oxford University and Oxford Brookes. Thirty-five per cent of people who live here are aged 15–29 and 27% (40,000 of a total population of 150,000) are university students. If you ever feel like a change of scene, the bus to London takes around 90 minutes and runs 24 hours a day. There are now two railway stations: the central Oxford station and the recently opened Oxford Parkway. Oxford is a youthful and cosmopolitan city with plenty to see and do. There are dozens of historic and iconic buildings, including the Bodleian Library, Ashmolean Museum, Sheldonian Theatre, the cathedral and the colleges. In the city centre you will find lots of shops, cafés, restaurants, theatres, cinemas, pubs and clubs. There are plenty of green spaces too: riverside walks, England’s oldest botanic garden, the University Parks and college gardens.

3.8 Style 3

Practice A (Example sentences) a) Another factor to consider is the possibility of crime increasing. b) Currently the rate of unemployment is high. c) In the near future a vaccine for malaria may be discovered. d) The firefighters were quickly able to control the fire. e) The statistics in that report are unreliable. f) The severe inflation led to poverty and social unrest. g) He was delighted to win the prize. h) Students should be paid to study. i) Women were enfranchised in 1987. j) The main causes of the Russian revolution were war and misgovernment.

284

ANSWERS

4

Avoiding repetition and redundancy (Model answer) All around Europe, people are living longer and having fewer children. There are several reasons for this trend. One is that people are marrying later, and this is partly due to the cost of housing. Other reasons are the cost of childcare and women’s preference for building their careers. If women prefer to work rather than stay at home they have to pay nurseries to do that caring. But a negative result of the trend is that there are fewer young taxpayers to support the old people who are living longer. 5

Varying sentence length (Example answers) Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In many European countries over half of all young people enter college, while similar trends are seen in China and South America. This growth has put financial strain on state university systems, so that many countries are requiring students and parents to contribute to the cost. This leads to a debate about whether students or society benefit from tertiary education. China is one country (but not the only one) which has imposed fees on university students, starting in 1997. But the results have been surprising: enrolments, especially in the most expensive universities, have continued to rise steeply. It seems in this case that higher fees attract rather than discourage students, who see them as a sign of a good education. They compete more fiercely for places, leading to the result that a place at a good college can cost $10,000 per year for fees and maintenance.

6

The use of caution Caution may also be shown by phrases such as: It is commonly seen that … In general, most cases are …

7 Using modifiers a) The company’s efforts to save energy were quite/fairly successful. b) The survey was (a fairly/quite a) comprehensive study of student opinion. c) His second book had a rather hostile reception. d) The first year students were quite fascinated by her lectures. e) The latest type of arthritis drug is rather expensive. f) This mountain tiger has become quite/rather rare. 8

Practice B (Example answers) a) Private companies are often more efficient than state-owned businesses. b) Exploring space seems to be a waste of valuable resources. c) Older students may perform better at university than younger ones. d) Word-of-mouth is commonly the best kind of advertising. e) Some cancers may be caused by psychological factors.

ANSWERS 285

f) Most shopping may be done on the internet in 10 years’ time. g) Online education can be inferior to taught classes. h) By 2025 driverless cars might be in common use.

Progress Check D 1 (Model paragraph) William Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon in 1564, into a wealthy landowning family. When he was only 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who was six years older than him. Anne subsequently had three children, but their only son, Hamnet, died young. Apparently William spent most of his time in London after their marriage, where he acted and started to write plays. These were mainly comedies at first, and were very successful. In the early 1600s his work became darker, and this is when he wrote his most famous plays, such as ‘Hamlet’ and ‘King Lear’, which have secured his worldwide reputation as a great dramatist and poet. William Shakespeare died in 1616, aged only 52, while Anne lived for another seven years. 2 (Model examples) Australia is approximately 30 times larger than New Zealand. The population density of New Zealand is substantially higher than Australia’s. Australians are significantly wealthier than New Zealanders. 3 (Model definitions) a) A semester is each of the two divisions of the academic year. b) A thesis is a lengthy paper usually written by a candidate for a higher degree. c) A midwife is a medical professional specialising in delivering babies. d) Influenza is a common disease causing fever and muscular pain. e) A hammer is a tool with a metal head used for driving in nails. 4 (Model examples) a) Certain capital cities e.g. Canberra are smaller than the commercial centres of their country. b) Many varieties of fruit, such as oranges, contain vital vitamins. c) A few kinds of mammals e.g. whales and seals live in the sea. d) Most planets in our solar system, for example Jupiter, have moons. 5

In the past century, photography has gone from being an exclusive hobby to something accessible to everyone. This is largely due to the invention of the digital camera. In the last twenty years this has made it simple to take colour photographs cheaply, and also to modify pictures easily by using editing programmes. So now that everyone has a smart phone, with its built-in camera, photography has become democratic and high-quality photographs can be produced by anybody.

286 ANSWERS

6

a) b) c) d)

change over time function proportion statistical display

(Model example) The table illustrates the results of a survey of student evaluation of library facilities, contrasting undergraduate with graduate opinion. Most facilities are rated highly by both groups, especially the café and staff helpfulness. Both student groups are least satisfied with the availability of short loan stock. In most areas graduates seem slightly more critical of facilities than undergraduates. 7 The School of Biomedical Sciences at Borchester University is offering two undergraduate degree courses in Neuroscience this year. Students can study either Neuroscience with Pharmacology or Neuroscience with Biochemistry. There is also a Master’s course which runs for four years and involves a period of study abroad during November and December. Professor Andreas Fischer is course leader for Neuroscience and enquiries should be sent to him via the website. 8 (Model example) Currently, many children do not take sufficient exercise, choosing instead to sit indoors watching television or playing games on their smartphones. This behaviour may be one cause of childhood obesity, and there is considerable research showing that their health would be improved by outdoor exercise, and which would have the additional benefit of enhancing their state of mind.

PART 4: LEXIS 4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary 3

Language features The following are not generally found in academic writing: Cliché, euphemism, idiom, proverb, saying, slogan (ambiguity may be used in certain situations).

4

Confusing pairs a) principles b) lose c) affect d) compliments e) its f) sights

ANSWERS 287

12 Practice B a) information and communications technology/higher education/Smith and others b) take note/curricula vitae/Human Resources/September 30th c) Doctor of Philosophy/tuberculosis/south east d) Vice Chancellor/Post-Graduate Certificate in Education/Students’ Union e) With reference to/Annual General Meeting/as soon as possible f) Doctor/Master of Science/Master of Arts

4.2 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 2

Nouns (Other answers possible) a) intuition b) provision c) thesis/theory d) phenomena e) process f) correlation

3

Nouns and adjectives Noun

Adjective

strategy

strategic

necessity

necessary

exterior

external

particularity

particular

danger

dangerous

relevance

relevant

reason

rational/reasonable

confdence

confdent

(Model examples) Sherlock Holmes solved crimes by analytical methods; examining each clue. Although quite famous, the professor was always approachable for students. Her book is the most authoritative work on the subject. My objection to the book is ideological, despite it being well written. California offers an innovative culture where new ideas are welcomed. She had an intuitive feeling she would get the job. In addition to money, praise and recognition are both highly motivational. The Harry Potter books have been a phenomenal publishing success. Until it is approved by the council the agreement is only provisional.

288

ANSWERS

The courses in this faculty are sequential: you must pass one to move to the next. The synthetic fabric is much stronger than natural materials. Technical support for computer users is available 24/7. Your bus pass is valid until October next year. 5

Academic adjectives (Other answers possible) concrete inaccurate unambiguous synthetic ineffective inclusive illogical literal approximate/vague irrational unreliable irrelevant non-specific objective practical/empirical/pragmatic

6

Practice A a) irrelevant b) subjective/irrational c) Concrete/Relevant d) approximate/rough e) relative f) logical/rational g) theoretical/abstract h) unambiguous i) empirical j) relevant k) subjective

7

Practice B a) strategic – strategy b) analytical – analysis c) synthetic – synthesis d) major – majority e) theoretical – theory f) frequent – frequency g) critical – criticism/critic h) practical – practice

ANSWERS 289

4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 1

Understanding main verbs This article scrutinises the relationship between governmental reform and infrastructural change in Singapore. Focusing on the role of engineers, it is argued that neoliberal decentralisation has occurred through the physical reconfiguration of drainage. Neoliberalisation is conceived of as a localised technical response to a public health crisis resulting from infrastructural enclosure, which is orchestrated on and through the material-ecological environment. A closed drainage system consisting of trapezoidal canals and concrete culverts had produced an ideal breeding ground for dengue-carrying mosquitoes, undermining the state’s centralised approach to water governance. Verbs in text (in order)

Infnitive form

Synonym

scrutinises focusing on argued occurred conceived of resulting from orchestrated consisting of produced undermining

to scrutinise to focus on to argue to occur to conceive of to result from to orchestrate to consist of to produce to undermine

to examine to concentrate on to claim to happen to understand to arise to develop to comprise to create to weaken

Since the 1960s, local catchment has been progressively expanded into Singapore’s urban areas to augment imported water from Malaysia and protected reservoirs in the Central Water Catchment Area (CWCA). Amounting to a mere 11% in 1965, catchment areas now constitute two-thirds of Singapore’s limited land surface, which divert rainwater into 17 reservoirs as part of a separate sewerage and storm water system. (Other synonyms possible)

2

Verb in text

Infnitive form

Synonym

expanded augment amounting to constitute divert

to expand to augment to amount to to constitute to divert

to increase to supplement to consist of to comprise to reroute

Common academic verbs (Approximate synonyms – infinitive form) adapt = modify arise = occur

290

ANSWERS

conduct = carry out characterise = have features of clarify = explain concentrate on = look at closely be concerned with = deal with demonstrate = show determine = find discriminate = distinguish establish = found exhibit = show focus on = look at closely generate = create hold = be true identify = pick out imply= suggest interact = work together interpret = explain manifest = show overcome = defeat propose = suggest prove = turn out recognise = accept relate to = link to supplement = add to undergo = experience yield = produce 4

Practice A (Other adverbs may be possible) a) Clearly b) Originally c) Alternatively d) Recently e) Similarly f) Crucially g) broadly h) factually

5

Practice B – A key history Originally, the earliest keys were made by the Egyptians from wood, and (significantly/substantially) improved by the Romans, who used metal. Today’s keys are basically the same: a piece of metal with teeth, conventionally produced by cutting and stamping. But recently a new technology, 3D printing, has made it possible to manufacture much more intricate designs which are virtually impossible to copy illicitly. Although (substantially/significantly) more expensive, these high-tech keys offer remarkable security.

ANSWERS 291

4.4 Prefxes and Suffxes 2 Prefixes (Approximate meanings) auto by itself bio life co together eco environmental ex (i) previous (ii) outside fore in front/in advance inter between intra inside one group macro large meta transcending micro small multi many neo new over too much pan across poly many post later pro in support of quasi partially re again self autonomous sub below tele distance trans across under (i) below (ii) not enough 3

Practice A a) human interaction removed b) very local climate c) economy based on information not production d) holiday in local area, instead of abroad e) disappointed

292

ANSWERS

f) before marriage g) able to anticipate and control situations h) focussed on his experience 5

Practice B a) noun b) adjective c) adverb adjective d) e) adverb f) adjective adjective g) h) noun i) noun j) noun

4.5 Synonyms 1

How synonyms work Word/phrase

Synonym

business

company, frm

largest

giant

oil

hydrocarbon

in the world

global/internationally

people

employees

Britain

the UK

surgeon specialist quack physician GP

doctor who specialises in surgery doctor who focusses on one area e.g. skin conditions derogatory term for unqualifed doctor a valid synonym a valid synonym

ANSWERS 293

2

Common synonyms in academic writing (NB: Some of these pairs are approximate synonyms) Nouns authority behaviour beneft category component controversy diffculty drawback expansion feeling framework goal interpretation issue method option results statistics study thesis trend

Verbs source conduct advantage type part argument problem disadvantage increase emotion structure target explanation topic system possibility fndings fgures research theory tendency

accelerate analyse assist attach challenge clarify concentrate on conduct confne develop evaluate found maintain predict prohibit raise reduce respond show strengthen synthesise

3

Practice A (Others are possible) a) Professor Hicks challenged the results of the study. b) The figures demonstrate a steady rise in survival rates. c) The institute’s forecast has caused a major debate. d) Cost seems to be the principal disadvantage to that method. e) They will focus on the first possibility. f) After the lecture she tried to explain her idea. g) Three topics need to be evaluated. h) The structure can be kept but the aim needs to be modified.

4

Practice B cities/urban flats/apartment felines/cats businesses/companies dogs/canine food/fare benefits/advantages domestic/home

speed up take apart help join question explain focus on carry out limit evolve examine establish insist forecast ban increase decrease reply demonstrate reinforce put together

294

5

ANSWERS

Practice C (Example answers – others possible) build/make vehicles car makers principal problem obstacle automobile producers challenges forecast energy produced vehicles/machines

Progress Check E 1 Generally, clichés, proverbs and idioms should be avoided. 2 a) its b) except c) site d) compliments e) principle 3 a) absolute b) metaphorical c) subjective d) precise e) ambiguous f) theoretical 4 (Other verbs possible) a) X claims/claimed that drinking black coffee is healthier than white (coffee). b) Y disputes/disputed X’s finding as it was based on very limited research. c) Z agrees/agreed with Y about X’s work. 5 (Others may be possible) a) continuously b) locally c) particularly d) increasingly e) traditionally f) rarely

ANSWERS 295

6

7

8

a) b) c) d) e)

adjective noun verb noun noun

antidote – medicine that works against the effects of poison exclusive – limited to a select few foreword – preliminary section of a book polytechnic – institute where many scientific subjects are taught proportion – relation of one thing to another subcutaneous – under the skin undervalue – assess worth of something too cheaply a) b) c) d) e) f)

system/debate figures/show/advantages option/researching results/strengthen aim/question/standard carried out/conduct

Index

abbreviations in citations 63 abbreviations in writing 210 abbreviations, common 209 abbreviations, types of 208 abstracts, reading 26 academic adjectives 215 academic vocabulary 212 academic writing, format of 5, 132 academic writing, types of 4 acknowledging sources 46 adjectives, academic 215 adverbs 220 adverbs and verbs 217 apostrophes 188 argument 108 argument, organisation of 106 assessing internet sources critically 33 brainstorming 15 capital letters 186 case studies 120 case study, model 122 category words 162 cause and effect 111 caution 197 change, language of 182 citation and quotation 58 citation and summary 58 citations and references 58 citations, abbreviations in 63 cohesion 151 colons 189 commas 187 comparison structures 159 comparisons 156 conclusion structure 94 conclusions 93 confusing pairs 207 contrasting sources 77

counter-arguments 108 critical thinking 31 definitions 162 definitions, complex 164 definitions, simple 162 describing visuals 183 discussion 105 discussion language 105, 107 discussion organisation 106 discussion, vocabulary of 105 domain name suffixes 34 editing 95 electronic resources, searching 25 essay length 15 essay questions 12 evaluation criteria 13 evidence, providing 109 examples 166 examples, introductory phrases 167 format of academic writing 5, 132 full stops 187 generalisations 171 generalisations, structure 172 hyphens 190 implied language 153 internet references 64 internet resources, assessing critically 33 introductions 89 introductions, contents 89 introductions, structure 90 inverted commas 189 key points, finding 39 key words in titles 13

Index labelling visuals 184 language features 205 language of change 182 language of discussion 105, 107 library catalogues 23 library websites 25 linking paragraphs 86 list of references 64 literature review, model 127 literature reviews 125 longer papers 130

reference words 151 references 57 references, list of 64 references, secondary 64 reflective writing 141 relevant points, finding 40 repetition and redundancy, avoiding 197 reports 134 reports, scientific 136 resources, academic 19 restatement 169

main verbs, understanding 217 modifiers 198

searching electronic resources 27 secondary references 64 semi-colons 188 sentence length, varying 196 sentences, opening 92 sentences, simple and longer 7 sources, acknowledging 46 sources, balancing 80 sources, contrasting 77 sources, finding 19 sources, mentioning 76 study habits, positive 51 style 192 style guidelines 193 suffixes 226 summarising 49, 67 summarising, stages of 68 superlatives 158 synonyms 228

note-making 39 note-making methods 43 nouns and adjectives 212 numbers 175 numbers, simplification of 176 numerical phrases 177 opening sentences 92 organisation of argument 106 organising paragraphs 83 outlines 16 paragraph structure 83, 117 paragraphs 9 paragraphs, linking 86 paragraphs, organising 83 paraphrasing 49, 71 paraphrasing techniques 72 percentages 176 plagiarism 47 plagiarism, degrees of 48 planning essays 131 planning process 11 prefixes 224 problems and solutions, structure 117 problems and solutions, vocabulary 116 proofreading 97 providing evidence 109 punctuation 186 purposes of writing 3 quotation marks 189 quotations 61 reading academic texts 19 reading lists 22 reading methods 28 reading texts, types of 19 reference systems 60 reference verbs 58

text features 7, 27 texts, assessing 20 titles, essay 12 titles, key words in 13 titles, understanding 12 types of academic writing 4 types of reading texts 19 varying sentence length 196 verbs and adverbs 217 verbs of reference 58 verbs, academic 218 verbs, understanding main 217 visual information 179 visuals, describing 183 visuals, labelling 184 vocabulary approaches to 203 vocabulary, academic 203 vocabulary, new 204 words from other languages 207 writing, reflective 141

297

ACADEMIC WRITING: A HANDBOOK FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS Now in its ffth edition, Academic Writing helps international students succeed in writing essays and reports for their English-language academic courses. Thoroughly revised and updated, it explains and practises every stage of essay writing, from choosing the best sources, reading and note-making, through to referencing and proofreading. A progress check at the end of each part allows students to assess their learning. All units are fully cross-referenced, and a complete set of answers to the practice exercises is included. Written to deal with the specifc language issues faced by international students, this practical, userfriendly book is an invaluable guide to academic writing in English. © 2018 – Routledge B • 344 pages // Pb: 9781138048744 • Hb: 9781138048737 • eBook: 9781315169996

THE ESSENTIALS OF ACADEMIC WRITING FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS The Essentials of Academic Writing is designed to help international students achieve success in their written work. This concise book explains the essential skills writing process from start to fnish. From selecting and reading suitable sources to note-making, summarising and referencing, this book provides clear examples and effective exercises. The Essentials of Academic Writing teaches students critical skills such as generalising, referencing, making comparisons and using graphs. All international students wanting to achieve academic success will fnd this practical and easy-to-use book a valuable guide to improving their written English— quickly! © 2015 – Routledge • 230 pages // Pb: 9781138885622 • Hb: 9781138885615 • eBook: 9781315715346

3RD EDITION

ACADEMIC WRITING FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS Academic Writing for International Students of Business and Economics has been written to assist overseas students studying Business or Economics courses in English. Both accessible and practical, it explains the writing process from start to fnish and also encourages users to practice key writing skills. This new edition has been thoroughly revised and updated to refect the interests and issues of contemporary Business and Economics studies. This user-friendly text is an invaluable guide to academic writing in English. © 2020 – Routledge • 346 pages // Pb: 9780367280314 • Hb: 9780367280307 • eBook: 9780429299278