A Study of Some Michigan Indians 9781951519667, 9781949098426

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN No.1

A Study of Some Michigan Indians by FRANCES DENSMORE

ANN ARBOR UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS 1949

© 1949 by the Regents of the University of Michigan The Museum of Anthropology All rights reserved ISBN (print): 978-1-949098-42-6 ISBN (ebook): 978-1-951519-66-7 Browse all of our books at sites.lsa.umich.edu/archaeology-books. Order our books from the University of Michigan Press at www.press.umich.edu. For permissions, questions, or manuscript queries, contact Museum publications by email at [email protected] or visit the Museum website at lsa.umich.edu/ummaa.

FOREWORD

This study is concerned with the present status and to some extent the background of the Indians in Michigan. The research was made possible by a Homeopathic Hospital Guild Scholarship in Michigan Ethnology, supplemented by a generous gift from Dr. ChaseS. Osborn, former governor of Michigan, and Miss Stella Brunt Osborn, through the Friends of the Michigan Indian Research Fund of the University of Michigan .. The intention was to begin the work on Sugar Island and in the adjacent part of Canada, but a change of plan was made necessary by difficulties of transportation due to war conditions. I went to Ashland, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1945, to make the Great Lakes Indian Agency the headquarters of the work. The Indians of northern Michigan and certain adjacent islands are under the jurisdiction of this agency, and the superintendent, Mr. Jesse C. Cavill, extended full co-operation. This included the use of an office and access to his records and other documents, as well as personal consultation with him and aid from members of his office staff. From Ashland I made two trips to Indian reservations. The first trip was by bus to W~tersmeet, where certain Indians from Lac Vieux Desert were living. This is the most conservative group of Indians in Michigan. The second trip was by automobile to the L'Anse reservation, which has the largest group of Indians in the state. This trip I made with Mr. Charles H. Racey, forest supervisor. Four places on this reservation were visited, and the Indians were interviewed. The Chippewa in northern Michigan are reputed to come from the settlements at the foot of Chequamegon Bay and on Madeline Island in Wisconsin, and I visited these localities on a trip by bus and boat from Ashland. f had visited them previously in 1910, in connection with my study of Chippewa music for the Bureau of American Ethnology. iii

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A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

Grateful acknowledgment is made of the assistance of Jesse C. Cavill, superintendent, and Charles H. Racey, forest supervisor, of the Great Lakes Indian Agency at Ashland, Wisconsin, and of that of Eugene J. Warren, field aid in charge of the government substation at L'Anse, Michigan. Information concerning the Indians of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan was courteously supplied by Peru Farver, superintendent of the Tomah Indian Agency at Green Bay, Wisconsin. The work at Watersmeet was aided by suggestions from Pat Kelly, a resident of the town who has had long experience with the Lac Vieux Desert band of Chippewa. On this, as on many previous field trips, I had the helpful companionship of my sister, Miss Margaret Densmore. Frances Densmore

CONTENTS Page Present Status

l

Keweenaw Bay Indian Community

4

Bay Mills Indian Community

29

Hannahville Indian Community

31

Isabella Indian Community

33

Indians of Beaver Island and the Adjacent Region

34

Summary

37

References

40

v

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS PRESENT

STATUS

The historic Indian life disappeared many years ago in Michigan as in other regions. Memories remain with the old people, but the traveler of today sees the Indians in towns and villages, living according to the pattern of the white men. Yet the government keeps the Indians on its records, aids their adjustment, and gives any assistance that may be needed. The Indians in northern Michigan, including those at Beaver and certain other islands, are under the jurisdiction of the Great Lakes Indian Agency at Ashland, Wisconsin. In 1945 Jesse C. Cavill was superintendent of the agency and Peru Farver was superintendent of the Tomah Indian agency at Green Bay, Wisconsin, which has the Indians of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan under its jurisdiction. There is a subagency in Lansing, Michigan, which keeps all records of these Indians. Data on the number of Indians actually living in Michigan are not available. The following figures on the Indian population are from the .. Statistical Supplement". to the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1944 (Table II, p. 7) and represent "the number under the jurisdiction of Indian agencies .... either enrolled at agency office or estimated by the agency superintendent," except that the figures for tl}e group at Hannahville are according to the census roll. The Hannahville Indians are Pottawatomi; the others are Chippewa, except a limited number on Beaver Island and adjacent to that region. Four communities in Michigan have been incorporated under the Indian Reorganization Act. These are the Keweenaw Bay, Bay Mills, Hannahville, and Isabella communities with a total population of 1,670 Indians. The Indians living on Beaver and the adjacent islands and at Detour, Nahma, and elsewhere are not incorporated under the Reorganization Act. The Keweenaw Bay community

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A STUDY OF SOME MICIDGAN INDIANS

comprises Indians living on the L'Anse reservation, at Ontonagon and Lac Vieux Desert; the Bay Mills community, the Indians living at Bay Mills and on Sugar and Drummond Islands; and the Hannahville community, those living at Hannahville, Wilson, and Harris. The Isabella community itself, in Isabella County, "is in Chippewa Township approximately three and one-half miles east of the city of Mount Pleasant; however, a considerable number of the tribe reside around Rosebush and there is a small group near Pinconning in Arenac County" (R. E. Miller, acting superintendent, Tomah Indian Agency, in letter, · August 2 7, 1948) . Michigan Indians under the Great Lakes Indian Agency Keweenaw Bay community (Chippewa) 928 Bay Mills community (Chippewa) . . . 150 Hannahville community (Pottawatomi) 157 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,235 Michigan Indians under the Tomah Agency Isabella or Saginaw Reservation (Chippewa) Other Indians in Lower Peninsula Total . . . . . . . . Grand total .

435 3,500 3,935 5,170

Information concerning the care of the health of Michigan Indians was courteously supplied by Mr. J. C. Cavill, superintendent of the Great Lakes Indian Agency (correspondence, 1945): During the fiscal year 1944, ther.e were 2,241 outpatient treatments given the Indians of Michigan under the jurisdiction of the Great Lakes Indian Agency. A few were treated at the Indian Hospital at Hayward, Wisconsin, under this agency, but the Michigan Indians constituted only 5 per cent of the total number of patients because of the distance of this institution from their communities. "In the state of Michigan, and in certain areas of Wisconsin, Indian patients are treated by do~tors under governmental contract, or are treated at state or private hospitals. The government reimburses private hospitals for treating Indian patients, providing approval for admission of the patient is procured from the government. In the state of Michigan, state hospitals are obliged to treat Indian patients under the provisions of the Mount Pleasant agreement. Resident Indian patients are given the same treatment at state

PRESENT STATUS

3

hospitals as that afforded non-Indians in similar circumstances, and without cost to the Federal Governmeqt. The state of Michigan extended this privilege (which covers all state institutions) to resident Indians in exchange for a grant of the Mount Pleasant Indian School, located at Mount Pleasant, Michigan, 'such grant to include the land and _buildings and such equipment as may be designated by the Secretary of the Interior.' " (Public Act No. 95, 73rd Con..: gress, S.2152~an act approved Febru3:ry 19, 1934.)

4

A

STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

KEWEENAW

BAY

INDIAN

COMMUNITY

The Indians of L'Anse, Ontonagon, and Lac Vieux Desert are incorporated under the reorganization act as the Keweenaw Bay Indian community. These Indians "accepted the Indian Reorganization Act of June 18, 19 34, by a vote of 327 'For' and 94 'Against,' by a referendum vote of June 17, 1935, at L'Anse and Baraga, Michigan. Total eligible voters 558. On November 7, 1936, this group of Indians adopted a constitution and by-laws by a vote of 239 'For' and 16 'Against.' This instrument was approved by the Secretary of the Interior, Dec. 17, 1936 . . . . This vote was a clear indication of the tribe's desire and wish to carry on as an independent and self-governing body." The first officers were Charles Picard, president, William Curtis, vice-president, John Thomas, secretary, James St. Arnold, assistant secretary, and Nancy Picard, treasurer {McKinsey, 1937). Their charter was ratified July 17, 1937 ("Stat.Suppl.," 1944, Table XVIII, p.85). The following data concerning the benefits under the reorganization act were supplied by J. C. Cavill: The sum of $6,500 was made available as a loan for use in making loans to individuals to assist in the general rehabilitation plans. Thirteen loans, amounting to $3,114.80 have been made for purchase of livestock and farm equipment, these being supplemented by loans from the tribal rehabilitation fund for the construction of houses, barns, and similar building projects. The repairs on old homes and building of new homes has had a marked influence in bettering living conditions. During the time that the land-purchase program has been under way 4,022 acres of submarginal land have been purchased under the resettlement administration and l ,357 acres of improved land under the reorganization act. A total of 15,736 acres is government, tribal and Indian owned. Keweenaw Bay.-The coming of the white man to the south shore of Lake Superior is part of the history of Michigan and is familiar to students of that subject. French traders preceded the .Tesuit missionaries and a "map drawn about 1680 and showing all the mission posts in the West has crosses . . . . at Keweenaw Bay, at Chequamegon Bay, at the site of modern Duluth, on the

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

5

southeast shore at Lake Nipigon and at Sault Ste Marie" (l'J"ute, 1944, p. 25}. Among the trading posts established by the North West Company at an early date were those at L'Anse and Ontonagon. John Johnston, whose daughter married Henry R. Schoolcraft, wrote An Account of Lake Superior 1792-1807, and in that work he referred to "the tongue of land called by the French L'Anse and the Indians 'keewaynan' or 'the way made straight by means of a portage' .... here the Indians have a summer village and cultivate some maize" (Nute, p. 34}. No name is more prominent in connection with missions on Lake Superior than that of Frederic Baraga, the ·first bishop of Sault Ste Marie, who began building a log church at L'Anse in 1843 (Nute, p. 93}. Protestant missionaries also entered the new country, and in 1844 John H. Pitezal "was sent to the Methodist mission at the bottom of Keweenaw Bay, opposite Baraga's new post. There he remained for some time" (Nute, p.l07}. The Indians who accepted the Catholic faith settled on the west side of Keweenaw Bay and were granted land by the church. According to Shirley N. McKinsey, distriCt credit agent, Great Lakes States, "they raised good gardens, potatoes., and other crops, and in recent years obtained their living by working for the lumber companies who started operations in this area about 1880. Those who accepted the Methodist faith settled near the church at Zeba, on the east side of the bay, and carried on in much the same manner as those on the west side. A considerable part of their living was made by fishing, hunting and trapping and for many years they were a self-sustaining band" (McKinsey, 19 3 7}. The following information is from McKinsey. Two early leaders of the L'Anse group were Assinins, Little Stone, chief of the Baraga group, and David .King, chief of the Zeba group: "These men were leaders of their respective groups and were responsible for their moral, social and economic welfare .... They furnished excellent leadership, moral restraint, and a code of ethics which has been partially carried down to the present generation." A settlement known as Assinins is north of Baraga. Members of David King's family are buried in the old cemetery near Zeba.

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A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

"The treaty of 1842 between the Lake Superior Chippewa and the United States of America was for the purchase of three kinds of minerals; iron, copper, and lead, and large areas of land in which these minerals abound. The contracting Chippewa bands of Lake Superior at that time were as follows: L'Anse, Ontonagon, Bad River, or La Pointe, Fond du Lac, Grand Portage and Red Cliff." The L'Anse reservation, when established in 1854, did not include any part of the Upper Peninsula where copper was found or mined. North of the reservation, on Keweenaw Point, known as the copper country, extensive mining operations have been carried on for years. South and east of the reservation valuable iron mines have been in operation many years and are still producing large amounts of high-grade iron ore. Although there has been much prospecting for minerals on the L'Anse reservation as late as 1937, yet, in spite of geographic location and nearness to great mineral deposits, no discoveries have been made. Eugene J. Warren, government field aid at L'Anse, stated that the first Indian settlement in the region was along the shore of Keweenaw Bay where Zeba is now situated. He called attention to the fact that bays were almost always chosen as sites for permanent villages, as they are easier to defend against enemies than are the more exposed parts of the shore. Zeba is a common pronunciation of the Chippewa word meaning river (E. J. Warren, 1945 b). Ontonagon.-This beautiful region was the site of trading between the white men and Indians at an early date. Two translations are given for the Chippewa name, one, by Baraga, is "place of the bowl," and the other "place where game can be shot without seeing it." No mention has been made of warlike activities by the Chippewa at L'Anse, but it is said that the Indians of Ontonagon "had driven the Odugamees {Foxe~ from this section of the country, also from the St. Croix rice lakes and the head waters of the On-ton-a-gun." Mention is also made of danger from "prowling war parties" of the Dakotas" (W. W. Warren,, 1885, p.l90). The Ontonagon River, then called the Tenaugon (which is obviously a contraction of Ontonagon), is mentioned in the report of the region written by James Duane

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

7

Doty and presented to Governor Lewis Cass, September 2 7, 1820. In this report he said: "The Tenaugon is ascended thirty-six miles, where a portage commences of two hundred pauses to the 'old plantation place,' which is on a small lake of the same name about four miles long and three broad." The river and the portages are shown on a map of "Rivers flowing into Lake Superior from the south" (Doty, Wis. Hist. Soc. Coli., VII ..[i90iij: 202,204). An old trail extends along the river, which is marked at frequent intervals by rapids and waterfalls necessitating the portages mentioned by Doty. This interesting river is noted in connection with John Baptiste Cadotte and Alexander Henry and the copper deposits of the region: "It is even said that Mons. Cadotte, through his influence with the Indians, and knowledge of the former mining localities of the French, being acquainted with rich deposits of copper ore and masses of the virgin metal, he in conjunction with Mr. Henry, carried on mining operations in connection with their trade on the Ontonagon River" (W. W. Warren, 1885, p.221). "The first modern copper mining about Lake Superior was done in 1844. The Minnesota mine, in Ontonagon County, was opened shortly after" (Nute, p. 165). A great mass of copper known as the Ontonagon boulder was· a source of early tradition, even befor~ the coming of Father Dablon, French missionary explorer, in 1667. The Indians are believed to have venerated the boulder, now preserved in the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. Schoolcraft examined it in 1819 and found many marks of chisels and axes on it. He estimated the metallic copper content to be not in excess of 2200 pounds (condensed from Michigan Guide, 1941, p. 598). The following information is condensed from McKinsey (1937): "The Ontonagon reservation is located approximately forty-five miles west of L'Anse on the south shore of Lake Superior and on the west side of Keweenaw Point. The original reservation consists of 2,551.35 acres, of which 1,827 acres have been alienated, leaving a total of 724.35 acres as restricted property .... The contour of this area is exceedingly changeable due to glacial action and the recession of the original lake area. This has resulted in a low coastal line and a high plateau, extending a considerable distance to the east, west, and south .... The area once

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A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

was thickly timbered with both pine and hard wood trees and was abundant with wild game and birds and the waters were full of fish. Life in the early days was relatively a simple matter, as food, clothing and shelter were to be had on every hand .... This area .... has been severely denuded of its timber stand during the past fifty years and it is no longer of economic importance from this viewpoint. Some types of agriculture have been developed and these are furnishing a living for many families. The scope of this type of economic development is greatly limited, however, due to the extreme distance from suitable markets and to the relatively small number of agricultural pursuits that can be followed." Under the resettlement policy land acquired by white people from the Indians was bought from them by the government and sold back to its original owners, to be paid for over a period of years. As a result many Indians were able to return to land which they had previously sold at less than its actual value. Mr. Eugene J. Warren, field aid in charge of the government substation at L'Anse since 1935, in reviewing the status of the Indians on that reservation, stated: "The L'Anse .... Chippewa have occupied this point on Lake Superior for the past one hundred and fifty years.... LBu.!l it was not until the year 1854 that the L'Anse, Lac Vieux Sert, Ontonagon reservation was established. Under the Act of Congress in ratifying the treaty of that date .... allotments in severalty of eighty acres each were made to them and restricted patents in fee were issued permitting the sale of the land and timber by Presidential approval. This resulted in the wholesale disposal of the land and timber at much less than its real value. The money received from these sales was quickly dissipated, causing widespread poverty in a country abounding in a wealth of natural resources and beauty. "The whites quickly moved in and began the exploitation of the Indian and everything of value he possessed. Then began, on a larger scale, the association and the intercourse of the Indian population with the whites, who on the most part were of a transient class of workers with little or any regard for right living. This has gone on for a period of over fifty years and in that time it has taken its toll. Strong drink is the curse and with it goes other evils which tend to blot out self respect, ambition and the need for sober and righteous living. This condition has greatly

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

9

lessened the desire of the Indians of the present generation to live up to the ideals and to preserve the nobler practices of their progenitors. Thus, the absence at the present time of the old Indian culture which has all but become merged in the white man's way of life. "Before this time there were many good Indians at L'Anse who lived their lives in the Indian fashion, maintaining tribal customs and adhering to Indian traditions. Some of the old homes, old clearings and other improvements are still discernible. The old Indian cemetery among the pine several miles from the village, with the little old houses over the graves, is still in use but the ·practise of covering the graves has long since been abandoned. "We have a few old Indians who are still living who speak the Indian language but not any who do not speak English. The Grand Medicine, the clan system, community Indian dances, houses over the graves, the use of herbs, and the Indian arts of any sort are all things of the past. We have made an effort to revive the arts, the dance and the song. To this end we produced an Indian pageant or play, taken from Longfellow's Hiawatha, which we called 'The Arrow Maker's Daughter.' After a great deal of work .... over a period of several months, with the help of Mrs. Warren and my daughter, we were successful in developing the dance, the song and some very good acting on the part of the older Indians, using the Indian language as much as possible .... and keeping the play free of the 'Pow Wow' type of Indian life that is so often portraye"d on the stage and screen. The play was put on in theaters and in the open at various places in Upper Michigan. It was well received by the public, who seemed surprised that the Indians could do so well in the production of something worthwhile. Such a pageant project has great possibilities in a commercial way and as a means of educating the public to appreciate the Indian and, in a measure, defeat the false thinking which has failed to give him his proper place in the history of our country. "The Grand Medicine Lodge or the 'Me-da-we' .... seems to have originated generations ago before the exodus of the tribe from the shores of the Atlantic. Tradition tells us that during great trouble and strife it was given to them by the 'Great Spirit' at the intercession of 'Ma-ab-asho,. the common uncle of the 'An-ish-in-aub,' wherewith

10

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

life is restored and prolonged. ( •An-ish-in-a ub' is the word used to denote their race.) The Me-da-we rite or religion was carried from there on westward during the migration which finally carried the main body of the tribe to a point on Lake Superior called La Pointe where they dwelt for several generations. The final dispersion from this point occurred some two hundred years later, at which time the main body was scattered in bands and smaller villages on the adjacent shores of Lake Superior. One of these villages was established on the south shore of Lake Superior then known in the Indian country as 'We-qua-dong' (L'Anse) where this little group lived as Indians for many years. "It was then that the missionaries, the schools and the intercourse with the whites began to exert a greater influence on the Indian way of life. The Me-da-we with its traditions which had been such an important factor in the lives of the Indian people of old, soon became legendary. The few old Indians who are now living tell us that their forefathers practised the rites of the Grand Medicine and even now there are a few who pretend to know its secrets and its powers but it is plain to be seen that their knowledge is vague indeed. It is more commonly spoken of now as the 'Bear Walk' comparative to the white man's witchcraft. "In the development of the Indian play which I mentioned it was necessary to teach them the Indian dance, the Indian song and the Indian technic in romance, but I will say that they were apt students. The instinct is still there and it is surprising how quickly it returns under proper influence" (E. J. Warren, 1945 a). L'Anse, Pequaming, Baraga, Assinins, and Ontonagon. -A pleasant event of the summer was the trip to L'Anse, Pequaming, Baraga, Assinins, and Ontonagon in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Mr. Charles R. Racey, forest supervisor, was going by automobile to L'Anse and Ontonagon and kindly consented to take us to these localities. Other villages in the region were visited by the courtesy of Mr. Eugene J. Warren. Leaving Ashland on the morning of August 20, we arrived at L'Anse in time for a conference with Mr. Warren that afternoon. Another conference was held the next morning, much valuable information being obtained, and that afternoon Mr. Warren, accompanied by Mrs. Warren,

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

11

took us on an extended drive in the region and introduced us to prominent Chippewa of the group. The first historic place visited was Zeba, and on the way we paused at an old burial ground, containing many graves of Indians and early settlers. It is still in use, and graves are scattered through the woods known as the Pinery. At least half of the old Chippewa graves are covered by the low wooden structures commonly called grave houses. Most of these have a ridge roof with a small opening in front, like a window. One of a slightly different type was low and broad, with a wide, flat board along the top. The former type is generally seen in Minnesota, and many of the latter type were noted at Lac du Flambeau, Wisconsin (Densmore, 1932, Pl. 23a). Two or three grave houses had a tray or shallow box about six inches square fastened inside the opening so that food could be placed inside. In an interesting group of early graves, of the King family, each has a marble marker. The oldest marker is inscribed: "Henry J ., son of Benjamin G. and Clara King, Jan. 6, 1835." Near it is a marker with the words: "Lucy Jane, daughter of Benjamin G. and Clara King, died Jan. 20, 1842, aged 25 days. Our baby sleeps." A larger marble is inscribed as follows: ''Erected by David King, Indian chief, to the memory of his wife, April 1866, ae. 35 years. Embraced Christianity 28 years ago. Goodbye... Beneath the words is a hand with one finger pointing upward. David King, chief of the Chippewa at Zeba, was a man of high moral- character. Zeba is on the site of the first Protestant mission in the region. Today there are two Indian churches in the village, a Methodist and a Seventh Day Adventist and an Indian community hall. Mr. Warren took us to call on Mrs. Mary Duggan, a recognized leader in the group. She is a kindly, intelligent woman, married to a Sioux. She did not appear to be well acquainted with the old Chippewa customs and traditions. We then went to a house farther north, on the shore of the bay, where we talked with Mary Sturgeon Curtis, who is ninety-three years of age and came from Lac Vieux Desert after her marriage, forty or fifty years ago. She is blind and dependent, and the conversation was through an interpreter. In the same house we spoke with Mrs. Johnson, who is older than Mary Sturgeon Curtis and is bedridden. It was a privilege to talk with these aged women, but neither was qualified as

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A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

an informant. A third house visited in Zeba was that of Dan Curtis, who made us welcome in his comfortable kitchen, seeming rather proud of the fact that he lived alone. He said that he knew the old traditions and proceeded to outline the familiar story of the flood and the beaver that held a little earth in his paw, from which the present world was made. Some differences from other versions were noticed, but he was not questioned as to details. He said that he knew the stories about Winabo~ jo and related one or two, singing the songs that go with them. Curtis was said to be about eighty years old, but his memory was clear; he expressed an interest in the preservation of the old traditions and would be willing to give information and record songs if desired. Like Mrs. Duggan, he did not require an interpreter. From Zeba we went north to Pequaming, a beautiful wooded peninsula which was a favorite gathering place of the Indians in old times and is still used for that purpose. Mr. Warren stated that the word Pequaming is a mispronunciation of the Chippewa word Wiquct' dong ("a ballshaped point" or "a piece of land extending into the lake with an end like a ball"). The common equivalent is "head of the bay." On our return we saw the granite monument recently erected at Mr. Warren's suggestion on the site of the first trading post established in the region. It occupies a sightly position on a knoll, overlooking the road and the bay. In Baraga a call was made on James St. Arnold, one of the leaders of the L'Anse Chippewa. He said without hesitation that he knew the Winabo' jo stories and would relate them if there were an opportunity. He is not a singer, but said that his friend Thomas Shelfoe knew all of the songs and would undoubtedly be willing to record them. Shelfoe lived north of Baraga, at a village known as Bear Town, but it was impossible to call upon him. At Assinins, north of Baraga, we saw the site of the historic Baraga mission, near the shore of the bay. A part of one of the original buildings is incorporated in a building now used by the Catholic Church. Our stay was limited in time, and the next morning (August 22), after another conference with Mr. Warren, we took our departure. Mr. Racey had completed his business at L'Anse, and we went with him to Ontonagon. Mr. Warren

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

l3

suggested that we call upon Benjamin Oshway in Ontonagon, and Mr. Racey kindly took us to his home. Mr. Oshway said that he is the only Indian living in Ontonagon and that he knew nothing of the old Indian ways, either by experience or tradition. After a drive to the Porcupine Mountain Lookout, on the shore of Lake Superior, we returned to Ashland, having enjoyed the marvelous beauty of scenery that characterizes this region. Lac Vieux Desert.-This region is historic and a lake identifiable as Lac Vieux Desert appears on a map by Marquette (1673) which accompanied his journal and was reproduced in the Jesuit Relations. On this map the lake has an outlet into "Lac Superieur" (Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., XVI: map facing p. 88). In early times a band of Chippewa lived on its northern shore. This part of the country received consideration from George Washington, who suggested the boundaries of certain regions, dividing the land on parallels of latitude. Classical names were applied to these regions, and Lac Vieux Desert was in the region to be called Sylvania (Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., XI: 452). These suggestions were made in correspondence with a member of Congress from New York and dated September 7, 1783. Congress adopted his suggestions on'October 15, 1783, "in establishing a region for colonization north of the Ohio, into which no red man was thereafter to be allowed a foot-hold if the law could stop him" {Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., XI: 452, footnote reference to "Secret Journals of Congress," i, p. 258). On a map designated as the "Jefferson Plan," dated l 784, a river flows from Lac Vieux Desert into Lake Michigan. This does not appear on a map dated l 78 7 which shows the lake with outlets to Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, these being the Montreal and "Menomonee" rivers (Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., XI: 452). Governor Lewis Cass took a great interest in the region west of Lake Michigan which was then little known. In 1820 he organized an "exploratory expedition" with himself at its head, the members including Henry Schoolcraft, James D. Doty, and C. C. Trowbridge. In his report dated Detroit, September 20, 1820, James Doty referred to "the 'old plantation,' as commonly called, but by the French 'vieux desert,' 'old deserted place,' which is on a small lake of the same name about four miles long and three

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A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

broad" {Wis. Hist. Soc: Call., VII: 202}. A map was published in 1838 "by order of the legislative assembly of Wiskonsin" which was "supposed to be the most accurate extant." This map represented the Montreal and Menomonee rivers as meeting in Lac Vieux Desert, thus making an island out of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan {Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., XI: 4 72}. This mistake was corrected two years later by Captain Thomas Jefferson Cram of the United States topographical engineers who made an extensive survey in the region {Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., III: 388-89). According to his report, published in 1840: "Lac Vieux Desert, wrongfully called 'Lake of the Desert,' is really the headwaters of the Wisconsin river and has no connection whatever either with the Menomonee or Montreal rivers" {Wis. Hist. Soc. Call., XI: 476). Captain Cram said: "The country in the vicinity of this beautiful lake is called, in the Chippewa language, Katakittekon, and the lake bears the same name. On South Island there is an old ["India:rJ potato-planting ground; hence, the appellation of 'Vieux Desert' which in mongrel French mea,ns 'old planting ground.' There is more reason for calling it 'Lac Vieux Desert' than for the appellation 'Lake of the Desert.' "' {Wis. Hist. Soc. Call., XI: 476, footnote). Th:e meaning of the Chippewa word "Katakittekon," or "Katikitegon," was a subject of inquiry with George Cadotte and John Ackley at Watersmeet, Michigan, on August 9, 1945. In response to my question, Cadotte gave the following information in which Ackley concurred: Long ago there was a tract of land on which the Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa lived. {Concerning the status of the land occupied by the Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa prior to 1863, Mr. Charles H. Racey, forest supervisor, Great Lakes Indian Agency, stated in correspondence (1945): "It may be that the Indians merely occupied certain land of the Public Domain without authority. It seems likely that there was considerable Public Domain tand in the vicinity in 1863, for the Indians bought their land under the 'Sale of Public Lands' Act.") They were widely scattered over the tract. This was before the land purchase of 1863. Then came an epidemic. Many died, and the houses were burned, some of the people moved away. They did not like living among strangers, and after a while they came back. They called the place Gete" {"old") git'igan ("planted place") referring to the planted ground connected with the settlement prior

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

15

to the epidemic. An effort has been made, without avail, to ascertain whether such an epidemic is a matter of histo ric record. It is said that the tract of land occupied by the Chippewa on Lac Vieux Desert in early days was "one allotment, patented to the original chief of this band. This allotment was not trust land and was placed upon tax rolls .... and ever since that time it has passed from one generation to another until at this time it is in the possession of Chief Silver Scott, who inherited it from his ancestors. Each successive chief from the beginning of this settlement has kept his little band intact and permitted them to live with him upon this land, and when the treaty of 1854 was enacted and put into effect, this band of Indians were included with the L'Anse and Ontonagon bands as members of the L'Anse, Lac Vieux Desert, and Ontonagon reservation" (E. J. Warren, 1935). The land in the original settlement at Lac Vieux Desert is said to have been very choice, with high timber and plenty of game. The present town of Watersmeet, Michigan, is about six miles north of the western end of Lac Vieux Desert and is on the peak of three watersheds from which the waters flow in three directions. Marshes and low land intervene between the headwaters of the Ontonagon River and Lac Vieux Desert as well as between the headwaters of the Menominee River and the lake, these being reached from the lake by portages. As determined by the Cram survey, the only outlet of Lac Vieux Desert is the Wisconsin river, emptying into the Mississippi. The affairs of the Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa, as of other Chippewa in the region, were conducted firsf at Mackinac, Michigan. This agency was moved to Baraga, Michigan, where it was known as the Mackinac Agency. This was abolished July l, 192 7, and all government activity pertaining to the L'Anse group, including the Lac Vieux Desert band, was transferred to the agency at Lac du Flambeau, Wisconsin. Later, the Lac Vieux Desert band was included in a general consolidation of Indians of northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and since February l, 1936, they have been under the jurisdiction of the Great Lakes Indian Agency at Ashland, Wisconsin. The Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa shared in the treaty made at La Pointe, Wisconsin, on September 30, 1854,

16

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

between "commissioners on the part of the United States and the Chippewa Indians of Lake Superior and Mississippi by their chiefs and headmen" (Kappler, 1904, p.648}. Under the terms of this treaty the United States agreed "to set apart and withhold from sale, for the use of the Chippewa of Lake Superior," certain tracts of land, providing further that "all annuity payments to the Chippewa· of Lake Superior shall hereafter be made at L'Anse, La Pointe, Grand Portage, and on the St. Louis River, and the Indians shall not be required to remove from the homes hereby set apart for them. And such of them as reside in the territory hereby ceded, shall have the right to hunt and fish therein, until otherwise ordered by the President." The land acquired under this treaty was known as the L'Anse, Ontonagon, and Lac Vieux Desert Reservation, and by this treaty the three bands became, in a measure, amalgamated and thenceforth were treated as one, though "there is distinct and marked band affiliation among these Indians .... There are a number of the Indians of the Lac Vieux Desert band actually living within the boundaries of the L'Anse reservation. This, of course, is a natural condition, for the reason that all of the Lac Vieux Desert Indians were allotted upon the L'Anse reservation. While most of their allotments have been disposed of there is still quite a little inherited land" (E. J. Warren, 1935). As the tract of land occupied by the Chippewa in 1862 was not considered enough for their use, the chief, Gaga gawac* with two of his men, went on foot to Marquette where they bought ( 1863) additional land, the price being paid in furs, moccasins, and other commodities. In 1944, Charles H. Racey, forest supervisor, Great Lakes Indian Agency, checked the record of this and a succeeding purchase (1873} in the offices of the register of deeds, treasurer, clerk, and judge of probate of Gogebic County at Bessemer, Michigan. In his memorandum to Superintendent Cavill dated September 11, 1944, Mr. Racey said: "The original land was acquired by presidential grants to three Indians and consisted of Government Lots 2 and 3, and the SW. l/4, NE 1/4 of Section 5, T. 43 N., R 38 W., M.M. *Except in Chippewa words occurring in quotations, the following phonetics are used: Vowels have the continental sounds except u as in but. Consonants are pronounced as in English, except c , pronounced like sh in shall; tc, pronounced as in~; and j, has the sound of zh

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

17

Apparently these lands were fee patented.... According to Mr. Pat Kelly, Assessor, Watersmeet, Michigan, the Indians have paid taxes on all three pieces of land for the past few years, for the entire 88 acres is carried on the tax rolls as taxable Indian land." The following information was courteously supplied by Mr. Racey: "Of the above described land, Lot 2, Section 5, T. 43 N., R. 38 (27 acres) was acquired by purchase from the United States of America (Act of April 24, 1820-- 'Sale of Public Lands') by Cog gog e was on January 15, 1863, the patent having been signed by President Lincoln. "The second purchase of land comprising Lot 3 and the SW.l/4, NE. 1/4 of Section 5, T. 43 N., R. 38 W., M.M., was obtained from the United States of America on May 2, 1873, by Mush ko wa go na bi and Nah ah gna gah bo, the patent being signed by President Grant (LiberA, page 457), Register of Deeds, Gogebic County." The original paper connected with each of these transactions has been preserved by the Indians. The paper bearing the signature of President Lincoln has been placed in a neat black frame and was seen by me. It had been entrusted for safe keeping to Mrs. Virginia Koepke of Watersmeet. The paper signed by President Grant was said to be in the possession of John Pete in 1945. Photostatic copies of both papers have been filed at Bessemer. John Pete is said to keep valuable papers in a short log, hollowed like a box and having a fitted cover made of the bark. The place of its concealment, out of doors, is • known only to himself. Its appearance is not such as to suggest its contents, which are thus protected during his absence. The Indians expressed a wish that both these valuable papers might be put in a safe and permanent depository. The inheritance of these two tracts of land is not of present interest, but Mr. Racey stated that "from 19 30 to 1942 the Lac Vieux Desert Indians evidently considered this tract .... as communal lands, as a majority of the Indian people contributed toward a collection to pay taxes. The taxes were paid either to the Town Supervisor or Town Treasurer." The timber on this land, according to Mr. Racey, consisted of "a mature to over-mature stand of hard maple, mixed with yellow birch, elm, and occasional basswood."

18

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

A few years ago a part of this timber was illegally purchased from Indians who received only a small part of its value. This was brought to the attention of Superintendent J. C. Cavill. An investigation followed and on May 23, 1945, Mr. Racey reported the securing of "a settlement amounting to approximately the full average value of the timber illegally cut." The Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa are combined with those on the L'Anse Reservation under the Indian Reorganization Act, but have not shared in its benefits because of the unrestricted status of their land. The succession of chiefs in the Lac Vieux Desert band has been in one family, but the descent has not always been from father to son. The first chief, who signed the "Lincoln paper" in 1873, was Gaga gawac ("Flying Raven"}. The second chief was his son John Scott, who was one of the signers of the "Grant paper" in 1873. His Chippewa name_ was Ginigd j1g {"Noise in the Sky"). The third chief was Silver Scott, who was a nephew of John Scott, the chief who preceded him. Silver Scott's Chippewa name was Agwa~oce. The fourth {present} chief is John Ackley. He is a half-brother of his predecessor, Silver Scott. Ackley said that if his young son should succeed him as chief his mother would act as regent. The settlement at Lac Vieux Desert before the Indians moved to Watersmeet consisted of five log houses and a number of frame dwellings. It was the custom to raise vegetables and to store a part for winter use. The animals formerly trapped in that locality included beaver, mink, weasels, and muskrats. Fur traders never went to Lac Vieux Desert, and the Indians took their furs to a trading post at Iron River. They formerly made twine of basswood bark and cedar roots. It is said these Indians never went to war, but were ready to do so if necessary. They found stone arrow points in the region, these being attributed to former inhabitants. There are two graveyards at the village, one containing burials prior to the epidemic and the other used since that time. Before the removal to Watersmeet, the Indian children attended a district school which, for several years, was taught by Lynus D. Kelly, a nephew of Pat Kelly of Watersmeet. He was a graduate of Armour Institute, Chicago, and in addition to his qualifications as a teacher

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

19

he had a knowledge of simple medicine that was often useful to the Indians. The result of his teaching was shown by the record made by his pupils when brought into contact with white children. In a contest with white children of similar grades they took the second prize in spelling and stood well in other tests. These children now attend the public school at Watersmeet. I met Lyman Kelly, who made an excellent impression; he stated that he would be glad to resume teaching at the old village if the school were reopened. In 1942 the entire group living at Lac Vieux Desert moved to Watersmeet, except John Pete and his crippled sister. The men were employed in the mill or the woods adjacent to the town and the families moved in order that the men might be near their work. According to John Ackley and George Cadotte, the group living at Watersmeet in 1945 consisted of sixteen families comprising seventytwo individuals. They live in three log houses and a number of tar paper or old frame houses. Six or more of the young men have automobiles. The women do a small amount of headwork which is sold chiefly to visitors at near-by summer resorts. It is said that many of the men are drinking heavily. The native religion of the Chippewa is the Mide'wiwi'n ("Grand Medicine"), and a ceremony is held annually at the old village, attended by Indians from Watersmeet and vicinity. John Pete is the leader of the ceremony, which :is followed by a drum dance, as among the Chippewa in Wisconsin. George Cadotte stated that a ceremony of the Grand Medic_ine would be held that year "as soon as the wild rice gathering is over," about the first of October. New members, both children and adults, are still being initiated and are given "dream names" as among the Chippewa in Minnesota (Densmore, 1929, p. 52). An old person may give his or her "dream name" to either an adult or a child and the person, or the parents of the child, who receives the name is expected to give presents to the donor of the name and to provide food for a feast. The teachings of the Grand Medicine (Midewiwin) here, as elsewhere, are concerning personal character, exhorting to upright living. (The subject of the Grand Medicine is given extended consideration in Densmore, 1910.) Everything that pertains to the Grand Medicine is held in the highest respect. It was said that about ten

20

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STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

years ago a certain man let a woman take a picture of the ceremonial drum. He fell sick of a fever and died. This happened at Lac Vieux Desert. The meetings of the Midewiwin are held in a lodge constructed especially for the occasion. A few years ago Eugene Warren, field aid at L'Anse, was present at meetings of the Midewiwin when only members of society were allowed to enter the lodge. At the present time, everyone is admitted to the lodge during the "shooting with the medicine bags," which is an important part of the ceremony. The details of the ceremony as observed at Lac Vieux Desert were not a subject of inquiry as they have been studied by Vernon Kinietz. The drum used in that locality is similar to that used by the Chippewa in Minnesota and is made of a hollowed log, placed upright like a keg and containing a small amount of water, the drumhead being stretched across the open end. Rattles made of birchbark are used in Minnesota, and pictures of these were shown to Ackley and Cadotte, who said they had never seen any like them. It was understood that the rattle used at Lac Vieux Desert is made of a tin box, pierced by a stick and containing shot or small stones. The use of mnemonics, or pictures outlined on . birchbark, is an important custom of the Grand Medicine in Minnesota, such pictures being used for the songs and also in recording the history and teachings of the society (Densmore, 1910, p. 15f£.). Many examples of such drawings were shown to Ackley, his wife, and Cadotte, but they had never seen anything like them. Among the Chippewa in Minnesota the soft smooth bark of the white birch tree provides an excellent surface on which to trace such drawings with a pointed instrument. The white1 birch is not among the trees at Lac Vieux Desert. As the Chippewa of Minnesota came from the region around Chequamegon Bay in Wisconsin it was thought possible they might have brought the custom from that locality. If so, there seemed a possibility that, if the Chippewa of Lac Vieux Desert were in contact with the northern Chippewa in early days, they might have acquired the custom. Accordingly, an inquiry was made of Mr. Charles H. Racey as to whether white birch was abundant in that region. He replied: "There was white birch in the Chequamegon Bay region originally, although I believe this species was not as abundant in Wisconsin as in Minnesota. Judging from the type of

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

21

hard-maple forest at Lac Vieux Desert, I do not believe there was much white birch in the immediate vicinity of the lake originally" (Racey, 1945). Thus, it appears that the Chippewa of Lac Vieux Desert were not in communication with members of the Midewiwin living in the north. It was said that John Pete has a small amount of birchbark, but does not remember where he got it. An instance of John Pete's action as leader of the Grand Medicine was related by Pat Kelly. About two years ago the crippled sister of John Pete died, and Pete was in charge of the burial, which was according to the custom of the Grand Medicine. While this was in progress a certain Protestant minister intruded and "talked for a long time." Mr. Kelly said the Indians did not understand what the intruder said and that he gained nothing by it. Pete was displeased and "got rid of the man as soon as possible." Then he made a long speech and the procession moved to the place of burial, Pete leading and shaking his rattle. The treatment of the sick by individual members of the Midewiwin is an important custom and is carried on at the present time by John Pete. In accordance with the Chippewa custom, he sings in connection with his treatments. Josie Ackley said that she had an operation for appendicitis at a hospital, and her recovery was very slow. Pete treated her and she "became strong and well again." A friend of hers was injured in an automobile accident and was "jittery" for a long time. When John Pete treated her she was entirely restored to health. Immediately after the Midewiwin a drum dance is held. This dance was not a subject of inquiry at Watersmeet, for it has been studied by Vernon Kinietz, but a description of the drum shows a resemblance to those seen among the Menominee in Wisconsin. On two occasions I attended a teremony in which the Chippevya presented two drums to the Menominee at Zoar, on the Menominee reservation, where it was called the drum-presentation ceremony. (Densmore, 1913, pp. 142-82, idem, 1932, pp. 150-54.} The Chippewa came for that purpose from the Lac du Flambeau reservation in Wisconsin. One drum was known as the chief drum and the other as the warrior drum. Only the chief drum was presented to the Chippewa at Lac Vieux Desert, and Ackley and Cadotte said it was presented to them by the Chippewa at Odanah, Wisconsin,

22

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

together with the ceremonial pipe, tobacco box, and other articles pertaining to the drum. The Odanah Chippewa also taught them the songs and speeches to be used in connection with the drum. The speeches, as among other groups, are concerning the benefits of peace supported by law. The Chippewa say that the drum and its teachings came to them from the Sioux, and a trace of such origin was seen in the statement that the women at a drum ceremony, sing 'VI{ith the men and "hold one hand in front of the mouth." This custom was seen at the drum dance at Lac du Flambeau and was photographed among the Sioux, a woman holding her hand cupped at one side of her mouth when singing . Two photographs taken by Vernon Kinietz were lent to me by George Cadotte. As the drum at Lac Vieux Desert was a chief drum, John Ackley, as chief, was honored in connection with its use. In explanation, Cadotte said "Ackley is th'e lighter of the pipe and hands it to the head drummer who is John Pete." The photograph includes George Cadotte. The drum is similar to that seen at Lac du Flambeau and is made of a washtub the sides of which are concealed by a cloth which is tied underneath. The decorations on this covering consist of a band of fur around the upper edge and a wide band of bead work below the fur. This band is trimmed with tassels of beads; each tassel ends with a thimble like a little bell and has insets of curved panels, some having the beaded outline of a man. The drumhead is of home-tanned cowhide. Under it are fastened two cords or "snares" at right- angles to one another. Attached t£> these are short pegs, which a twisting of the cord causes to vibrate against the surface of the drumhead when it is struck. A similar arrangement was seen on a moccasin game drum at Lac du Flambeau (Densmore, 1913, p. 44, Pl. 9). The ceremonial pipe has a bowl of pipestone and a long, wide carved stem. This is stored with the drum and other ceremonial articles, which include a box of tobacco, the special drumstick used by the head drummer, and the ordinary drumsticks used by the other drummers. A drum dance lasts four days, and during that time the drum is suspended between four stakes with curved ends, as at Lac du Flambeau. Six or eight drummers sit around the drum. Each has a song, received with the

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

23

John Ackley, George Cadotte, and John Pete, with drum.

drum, and these are sung in succession. The drum may, if desired, be used at other dances or gatherings. When not in use the drum is shown great respect. It is covered with a white cotton cloth made in two sections, separated by a band of red, white, and blue and edged with little points in the three colors, as shown in the photograph. On each section are five large, fivepointed stars of red cloth. The drum is never left in the dark, a candle being kept burning near it. A group of people living a long time in one locality generally have leg.e nds of supe:rnatural beings who also

24

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

live in the region. As the Lac Vieux Desert band have lived long in the locality an inquiry was made on this subject. In reply it was said that the rocks come down like cliffs at one side of Lac Vieux Desert, and at a certain place in these rocks there is a hole where a manido ("spirit") is said to have lived long ago. One foggy morning a man was paddling his canoe on the lake, and he heard noises like those made by waterfowl. He looked up and saw swan or similar birds in the fog, all swimming toward that place in the rock. There were several of the birds and they were swimming from one end of the lake to the other to visit the manido who lived in the rock. Another legend of the locality is about Round Island, now called Everest Island, where there are three elms. John Pete showed them to George Cadotte and pointed out the stump of one of the trees. This stump was peculiar in that the lower part of the trunk was straight, then it turned at right angles for a short distance and then went up straight again. John Pete said that long ago a man went to that island to fast and lay down on the horizontal section of the tree trunk. He chose this as the place for fasting and was gone so long that the people went to look for him. They found him so weak from fasting that he could scarcely get back to the village. John Pete called attention to the fact that the upper part of the trunk had decayed but not the horizontal section where the man lay while he was fasting. A manido was formerly believed to have lived in Lac Vieux Desert, but another legend of old times at the lake is not connected with the supernatural. The Lac Vieux Desert band has only a tradition of war, but one of John Pete's stories is about a war scare that took place many years ago. A woman was so frightened that she took refuge in the lake. She went under the water so that only her mouth and nose were above the surface, and she stayed there two days. Then the alarm was over and she came out. The Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa at Watersmeet.-The Chippewa from Lac Vieux Desert are now living at or near Watersmeet, Michigan, except one family that remains at the lake. A trip to Watersmeet was made by bus on August 8, 1945, in order to become somewhat acquainted with this band of Chippewa. On the evening of my arrival I talked with Pat Kelly,

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

25

a prominent citizen of the little town, who has known these Indians for many years. His suggestions were of much assistance in planning the work. It is my custom, when going to a new locality, to call first upon the chief of the band. As John Ackley, chief of this band of Chippewa, was employed in the woods I called upon his wife, Josie Ackley, the next morning. She was hospitable and placed chairs for my sister and myself in front of her little dwelling. I explained the purpose of my visit, and she gave information that was of assistance. That afternoon I met George A. Cadotte through the courtesy of Pat Kelly and outlined my plan of work. In the evening a long conference was held with John Ackley and his wife and George Cadotte. They came to the hotel where I was staying·. Ackley and Cadotte described the purchases of land by the Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa in 1863 and 1873 and replied to questions as to whether the old customs I had recorded among the Chippewa in Wisconsin were followed by the Lac Vieux Desert band. The next day, August 10, other calls were made, the principal call being on Julia White, an expert beadworker. That evening George Cadotte came to the hotel for another long conference, and I saw him again the following morning. One of my first inquiries had been for John Pete, the most conservative member of the band, who still lived at the old village on Lac Vieux Desert. By good fortune he came to Watersmeet the next day, and I met him, with two other Indians. My work was explained, and I asked him to come to the hotel and talk with me. Then I went to the store and bought tobacco for him and cigarettes for the young men who were with him. He soon came to the hotel, and we had a short conversation. He spoke little English, but understands it and was able to add some facts to the information already received. Later in the day my sister and I returned to Ashland. After returning to my home in Red Wing I sent George Cadotte a typed script of my work at Watersmeet, and he arranged to read and discuss it with John Pete. They supplied translations of some Chippewa words and corrected certain statements. My Chippewa informants at Watersmeet were the following: John Ackley, chief of the Lac Vieux Desert band, is apparently not more than forty years of age. His Chippewa

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STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

name Oza wag( jig {"Yellow Sky") was given him by John Scott who preceded Silver Scott, Ackley's immediate predJohn Ackley performs the regular duties ecessor as chief. of a chief, sends messengers to call the people together when a meeting is desired, and presides at the meeting. Josie Ackley, the wife of John Ackley, is an attracHer Chippewa name is Bija gajiwe~ tive young woman. gijigo""kwe {"Rising Sun Woman"}. John Pete is an elderly man and is the most conHe continues to live at servative member of the group. His Chippewa name is Ojon imig( jig Lac Vieux Desert. He is leader of the Grand Medicine {Mide{"Busy Sky"}. wiwin} and treats the sick, using herbs that he gathers and He sings while performing his treatments and prepares. appears to swallow one or more bones, which he afterward removes from his mouth {Densmore, 1910, pp. 119-20, concerning this custom of Chippewa medicine men}. George A. Cadotte is somewhat older than John He is the youngest son of Charles Cadotte, Jr., Ackley. and a grandson of Charles Cadotte, Sr., thus being a direct descendant of a man of that name who came to the region The Cadotte family are descended from in early days. M. Cadotte who "came to the Ojibway country in 1671, in His the train of the French envoy, Sieur de St. Lusson. son, John Baptiste Cadotte .... became a trader among the Ojibways, and was engaged for a time with Alexander He Henry who in his work mentions him very frequently. was married by a Catholic priest to an Ojibway woman of the A-waus-e clan, and made his ·residence at Sault Ste She bore him two sons, John Baptiste Cadotte Marie.... Jr., and Michel Cadotte, who also became traders among the Ojibways and were men of energy and ability in their Michel Cadotte was calling" (W. W. Warren, 1885, p. 10}. Chippewa tribe in the in family Warren the the ancestor of George Cadotte belongs to the Fond duLac Minnesota. band of Chippewa and was born at Superior, Wisconsin. He There he was educated and worked for many years. was drafted and ready to go to World War I, but the war His acquaintended and he was not called into service. ance with the Lac Vieux Desert band of Chippewa began in 1926, and he has been living among them since 1930, first at the lake and then moving with them to Watersmeet in the fall of 1942, when the entire village moved to a place where the men could obtain employment.

KEWEENAW BAY INDIAN COMMUNITY

27

George Cadotte is now employed in the mill of the Gogebic* Timber and Lumber Company. He is commonly known by a nickname that was given him as a boy. He said that when he went to town he usually saw a little porcupine and mentioned this to the Indians. He did not pronounce the Chippewa word correctly so they called him Gaguc' ("Little Porcupine") and that became his nickname. Mrs. Julia White is a half-sister of John Ackley and niece of John Pete. Her Chippewa name is Ne' tiimabi~k*e ("Woman Sitting on the Head"). She is an expert beadworker. Prominent members of the group who could not be interviewed were Mrs. Minnie Polax-, who was in Wisconsin, and Frank Bronk, who was working in the woods. • The handicraft of a tribe is an important phase of its culture and this was a matter of inquiry among the Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa. The women are familiar with the old technique of headwork, but are limited by difficulty in securing beads. None of their work is offered for sale in the village, but Mrs. Virginia Koepke had a few articles for sale at a filling station which she owns. This is situated at a junction of highways a few miles south of Watersmeet, where tourists and visitors at the adjacent summer resorts are her customers. She has a small supply of beads and said that she can sell all the headwork that the Indians can make. Two articles were purchased of Mrs. Koepke, the more interesting being -a rabbit-foot ornament the price of which was sixty-five cents. This is artistic, neat and well made. The other, at thirty-five cents, is lacking in artistic quality, but is an example of work that is often seen among Indians at the present day. A call was made upon Mrs. Julia White who made the rabbit-foot ornament. She said that she supplied the beads and that it took an entire day to make the ornament. She obtains the rabbit feet, dries them, and has them ready for use. The body of the little figure is made- of cedar bark which is covered with outing cloth. This forms a soft foundation on which beads are sewed. As the manner of sewing beads on such a figure was not familiar, I asked *Cadotte said that the word Gogebic is derived from the Chippewa word gogibing', which means a diving place, indicating that the water there is deep enough for diving. It was not known when the word was first used by the Chippewa.

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STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

Mrs. White whether she had an unfinished piece on which she could show me the process. From her box she took a small, unfinished rabbit-foot ornament, threaded a needle on double thread and showed how sh~ passes the needle through a bead from her box, then through a bead in the lowest row already sewed on the outing cloth, then through another bead from her box, then through the next bead on the little figure, thus making a smooth surface of beads that resembles woven work. This unfinished ornament shows a face, black hair, and the upper part of a blue garment, with a generous strip of soft leather, securely fastened. The technique and standard of work are the same as in the larger specimen. A finished specimen of the. same type has little "arms" of blue beads and a skirt of latticework in beads. Mrs. White's husband is employed by the lumber company, and she has several small children. In view of the time required for preparing the rabbit feet, the cost of the beads, and the time required for the work, it must be admitted that the financial return is exceedingly small. These Chippewa make twine of basswood and cedar roots. A detailed study of their handicraft, comparing it with that of the Chippewa farther west, would yield interesting results and show the influence of environment on the handicraft of a group. Miscellaneous notes.-Canoes were used in the old village. Th.ere is a tradition th~t the Indians once had a herd of ponies. These ponies became mired in low, wet land, cold weather came before they could be rescued and all perished. The Chippewa who were questioned did not recall the use of a tripod in outdoor cooking nor the use of a wooden hook for hanging a kett~e over the fire. Lacrosse has been played by this band but not in an expert manner, only in a rather free form of the game. Cadotte remembered seeing the moccasin played only once or twice and the "plate game" was unknown {cf. bawl-and-dice game, Densmore, 1932, pp. 27-34, Pl. 9). Flutes were unknown in the old village. Whistles were made of willow and used only for amusement. The sweat lodge was not used at Lac Vieux Desert.

BAY MILLS INDIAN COMMUNITY

BAY

MILLS

INDIAN

29

COMMUNITY

The groups of Chippewa comprising this community are those living at Bay Mills, Sugar Island, and Drummond Island. They are organized under the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), their constitution being approved November 11, 1936, and the charter ratified on November 27, 1937 (Statistical Suppl., 1944, p.85, Table XVIII). The president of the tribal council is George Teeple and the secretary is John Cameron. ( 1945). Sugar and Drummond Islands are subchartered from Bay Mills. Bay Mills .-The Indians at Bay Mills number about 150 and are descendants of the Chippewa who settled there in 1882 when the sawmill was established. Near the mission is an old Chippewa burial ground. "Today the men at the mission work on the roads in summer and fish in winter" (Mich. Guide, 1941, p. 556). The following information concerning this locality is condensed from the Great Lakes Indian Agency Reservations Programs .( 1944): "The Bay Mills Indian reservation is located in the north-central part of Chippewa County, which is on the extreme northeastern ~ide of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The reservation proper is located in townships nineteen and twenty-four north, ranges two and three west. It borders to the east on the St. Mary's River, which is the principal ship route from the eastern Great Lakes into Lake Superior, and extends west to include the major part of Spectacle Lake. T,he village of Bay Mills is located about five miles west and north of Brimley, Michigan, and twenty miles west of Sault Ste Marie, Michigan.... The reservation area totals 1, 748 acres, which amount includes the original area of 692 acres and the newly purchased area of 1,056 acres. "The land comprising the original Bay Mills reservation was purchased by the Methodist Missionary Society for the purpose of establishing an Indian mission at Bay Mills. Under the Act of Congress of June 19, 1860, this same property was purchased by the United States Government to be held in trust for the Bay Mills Indians. "The band represented on this reservation is a part of the Sault Ste Marie Band of Chippewa Indians of Michigan.

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STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

....Very little farming has ever been attempted on the reservation. The -only agricultural ventures consist of small gardens, which have been on a subsistence basis .... The location of the reservation is ideal for fishing. While quite a number engage in commercial fishing, no- great amount of income is derived from such enterprise. It requires quite an investment in equipment to carry on a large-scale fishing operation and very little equipment is owned by the Indians. The only resources of the Bay Mills group are the 1, 748 ac.res of tribal and government land on the reservation. While this land has never been put to any production purpose it is possible that the land could be assigned in small units to individuals and used by them in the development of subsistence farming. An attempt had been made in this direction by the approval of two farm loans from the IRA funds, for the purchase of farm equipment and stock .... More than 80 per cent of the Bay Mills income is now derived from outside labor." After the group was organized under the IRA "the home conditions were improved under the home-repair and construction projects that were carried out with the use of rehabilitation funds and WPA assistance .... The improved living conditions and the added opportunity of securing employment by reason of the present national emergency have greatly improved the economic conditions and the standard of living generally." The total land under Indian control in 1945 was 1, 748 acres. Sugar Island.-A majority of the Indians on Sugar Island live along the highway which extends the length of the isla:rid, a distance of about twenty' miles. All are Chippewa and many are of Canadian origin. According to the Final Project Program (1937): "Very little land occupied by the Indians of Sugar Island is in any form of Indian control. There are possibly two Indian families who at present occupy their original allotments and are financially competent. During the long period in which these people have lived among the whites a limited number (mostly mixed-bloods) have succeeded in establishing themselves in the community on a self-sustaining basis. Such families either rent or own small tracts of land or village lots as home sites and earn a livelihood by employment of various natures offered by the community." An arts and crafts project was started in 1939 in

HANNAHVILLE INDIAN COMMUNITY

31

order to relieve the more destitute families. "This was sponsored by the state in co-operation with the University of Michigan and this office" (Cavill, 1941). An old building, privately owned, was used to house and develop the project which gave employment to about fifty Indians and developed a successful industry in the making of rustic furniture. A new building was needed and a tract of 607.75 acres was purchased by the government later in that year. "There is approximately 240 acres of this tract (east part), which is fertile and practically free from rocks. 80 acres of the tract is free from rocks but is sandy. Balance is sandy with scattered rocks and fertile patches. All now covered with second growth timber, much of which could be used as fuel. The tract borders on Hay Lake and has over one mile of desirable lake frontage. About 15 families live near this purchase site which is well supplied with transportation facilities" (Great Lakes Indian Agency Reserv. Frog., 1944). This is in a community known as Wilwalk. A comfortable community house was erected by the government on this tract of land. The climate of Sugar Island "is not favorable for extensive agricultural enterprises. The growing- season is limited to about 3-1/2 months. Forage crops and pastures usually do exceptionally well and this is also true of root crops and the more common garden vegetables which are benefitted by a short, rapid growing season" (Great Lakes Indian Agency Reserv. Prog., 1944). Drmnmond Island.-The few Indians on this island are Chippewa. No purchases of land on the island have been made by the government and exact information on the group was not available.

HANNAHVILLE

INDIAN

COMMUNITY

The Indians living at Hannahville, Wilson, and Harris are incorporated as the Hannahville Indian Community under the Indian Reorganization Act, their constitution being approved July 23, 1936, and their charter ratified on August 21, 1937 (Stat. Suppl., 1944, p. 85, Table XVIII). Hannahville.-This group of Indians is chiefly Pottawatomi. The reservation was created by Act of Congress

32

A

STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

dated June 23, 1913, and is part of the purchase of approximately 3,359 acres of land in Menominee County, Michigan. The total resident population numberp one hundred fortyfive including five Indians belong on other reservations and six intermarried whites. Approximately 85 per cent of the Indians are full blood. All the families are provided with fairly good houses of wood construction built about twenty-five years ago. Under the recent rehabilitation program these houses have been repaired, reroofed, and painted, some new houses and barns have been built, old barns have been repaired, chicken houses built, and sixteen wells drilled. The average income of the twenty-eight families has been materially increased by outside work, particularly at Escanaba, to which some families have moved to be near their work. Household furniture, radios, and the general dress and appearance of the people• indicate that their standard of living is generally superior to that of the Forest County Pottawatomi on the same census roll, though not up to that of their white neighbors. They do not continue any tribal dances nor customs as do the Forest County Pottawatomi and most of them are connected with some religious sect. The Roman Catholic, Methodist, and Pentacostal churches are represented with the Pentacostal apparently in the ascendancy. A Methodist church was founded in the community some thirty-five years ago. A community house built from rehabilitation funds is available for meetings and social gatherings, and a one-room schoolhouse is operated by the local school district. No tuition is _paid for Indian pupils through the federal agency. The administration is left in the hands' of the community council whenever possible, and the road construction was completed under the WPA program, but in matters pertaining to extension work, credit loans, forestry, rehabilitation, and miscellaneous activities the community is visited at frequent intervals by government officials from the Great Lakes Indian Agency, the Crandon subagency at Crandon, Wisconsin, and the field aid at L'Anse, Michigan. The Indians who are unable or unwilling to avail themselves of opportunities for general work derive a considerable income from the sale of baskets and native bark canoes and from the gathering and selling of berries, greens, and ferns. The timber provides an abundant wood

ISABELLA INDIAN COMMUNITY

33

supply for the inhabitants, but is no source of income from sale (Great Lakes Indian Agency Reserv. Frog., 1944). This community was included in a study by McKeel (1937), who said: "This community on the whole is quite distinctly Indian. There 'i& some arts and crafts work still practised, particularly basket-maki:ng. Bows and arrows and model canoes of birch and elm bark are also made for the tourist trade. These Indians are closely associated and intermarried with the groups at Nahma and Manistique. The secretary of the tribal council, Percy Thunder, took a FRRA art course last year in painting. He is doing very good work." Wilson and Harris .-The Indians at Wilson and Harris are combined with those at Hannahville as the Hannah ville Community. The town of Harris "was named for the first permanent settler, M. B. Harris, who during a smallpox epidemic earned the gratitude and admiration of a neighboring band of Pottawatomi. The quarantined Indians were saved from starvation by food and milk that Harris carried to a designated point near the settlement . . . . . Left from Harris, on a graveled road to the Hannah ville Indian Settlement, part of the Wilson-Harris group are scattered along the five-mile stretch of road south .... Farming is the chief pursuit of the 185 Indians who live in the settlement, although native handicrafts are still practised for the tourist trade" (Mich. Guide, 1941 ,. p. 544).

ISABELLA

INDIAN

COMMUNITY

The location of this community and the fact that these Indians are under the jurisdiction of the Tomah Indian Agency at Green Bay, Wisconsin, has been noted. In reply to an inquiry, Mr. Peru Farver, superintendent of the Tomah Indian Agency, wrote (1945): "Regarding your question as to whether these people have adopted the 'Drum Dance' or continue the Grand Medicine and native rp.ethods of healing the sick, we wish to advise that we have no knowledge of the existence of any native trends along this line. As far as we know, the Ottawas, Chippewa, and P.ottawatomies of lower Michigan are completely orientated to the present-day civilization. It is believed that it would be safe to say that where native cJ,ances, native

34

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

costumes, or any display of aboriginal customs are used, it is done purely for commercial purposes and has no

bearing on their present thinking or mode of living. With the exception of ten or fifteen Indian children away in Government Boarding Schools, their children attend district or rural schools. A recent trip was made by the writer to most of the Indian communities of lower Michigan and, without exception, school authorities reported that the attendance of the Indian children was comparable to that of other children in rural areas and that their progress in school is good. "The great need of these people, as a minority group, is that the public, generally, be made aware that their assimilation, as far as habits, thinking, and mode of living are concerned, is complete and that the picturesque Indian of history no longer exists and that they should be accepted and dealt with on the same basis as any other citizens. Many people still have the idea that an Indian is not a citizen of the United States, nor the state in which he lives, but that he is a ward of the Federal Government. The Indians of lower Michigan, as a whole, have been independent of the Federal Government for the past thirtyfive years, and it will be found that they follow the same pattern of living and obtaining a livelihood as that of all other racial groups of similar economic status. It would be gratifying, indeed, if a study was made and the information made available on the Indian of today rather than on what he was 75 or 100 years ago."

INDIANS AND

THE

OF

. BEAVER

ISLAND

ADJACENT

REGION

A group of Michigan Indians not incorporated under the Indian Reorganization Act is living on Beaver Island, at Nahma, Detour, and elsewhere in the region. Beaver Island.-This is the largest of a group of islands about thirty-five miles west of the Straits of Mackinac. "From evidence thus far uncovered, the first people to live on Big Beaver were mound builders. Their mounds for burial and worship mark the terrain in many places .... The Chippewa and Ottawa were in possession of the Archipelago when the Colonial period began and many

INDIANS OF BEAVER ISLAND

35

of their descendants still remain .... The first white men were the French coureurs de bois, they called Big Beaver Isle du Castor" {Mich. Guide, 1941, p. 602). It is said that all of the Indians live on Beaver Island at present and that none live on the other islands of the group. According to the town chairman, 347 Indians were on Beaver Island in 1941. The following information is quoted or condensed from the report by H. S. McKeel {1937) then field representative, U.S. Indian Service: "The islands known as the Beaver Island group are Beaver {the largest), Garden, High, Trout, Squaw, Whiskey, Gulf, and Hog Islands. They form part of Charlevoix County in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. To the south of these islands are two others 0u.t of the group, North and South Fox, on which there were made trust allotments on public domain for some of the Beaver Island band of Indians. The Fox Islands belong to another group." Indians of Pottawatomi ancestry were found here by McKeel, who said: "The Pottawatomi blood I found in the Nahma and Beaver Island Indians undoubtedly came from the Hannahville groups .... The Ottawa, as well as some Pottawatomi and Menominee blood, was brought into the Beaver Island band by adoption and/or marriage. Legally, by Indian custom, the descendants, whether full Ottawa or mixed with Chippewa, belong completely to the Beaver Island band of Chippewa." According to this authority, "all but three families could classify as one-half or more of Indian blood. Aside from these three families the blood quantum is ;high although none are full-blood." With this survival of Indian blood, predominantly Chippewa, it is a surprise to note that "the aboriginal Chippewa institutions are gone. There is little to distinguish them from the white except race, pattern of thought, and certain mannerisms of behaviour. They are, in other words, a stranded folk group." Concerning the industries of Indians in the Beaver Island group it is said that "almost every family has one man employed as fisherman's assistant at fifteen dollars a week. Before 19 28 many of this group were independent fishermen with their own equipment. At this time there was still a demand for salt fish. Indians then lived mainly on Garden and High Islands. They would come in to Beaver Island with barrels of salt fish, sell them, and

36

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

return with more barrels and salt. Now with no demand for salt fish it is impossible to live by fishing for several months at a time on the other islands." A detailed study of eleven families on Beaver Island was made by McKeel, the first being that of John Antoine, comprising four persons. Antoine is "the chief of his group by inheritance. The chieft~incy has passed patrilinearly, which is according to the Chippewa usage. The personal name descending with it is 'One man hollering' .... This is John's official name as chief. His grandfather signed the treaty of 1855 .... John Antoine works as fisherman's assistant and receives fifteen dollars a week. Fishspearing during the winter months brings in about forty dollars. He owns his own house lot, clear of any mortgage (lot 21, block 4, of Stephen's Point, St. James). Taxes amount to seven or eight dollars a year." Among the three households studied by McKeel was that of George Ninegaw, comprising eleven persons. "Ninegaw is an independent fisherman with a power boat and gill nets. He spears fish in the winter, making about thirty dollars from this source. The family puts in a garden and possesses one horse. George owns the land and pays taxes." Another family living on High Island is that of Joe Kinowabikisse. The family has "a garden and seven chickens. They own their land. Joe fishes on a partnership basis with a relative. This brings in about three hundred a year. During the war Joe was in training three 'months at Camp Custer." The inadequacy of these means of support in two typical instances is evident. The data present an appealing picture of an isolated Indian group. Nahma.-An important group in the Sault Ste Marie district consists of Indians living at Bay du Noc. These constitute the Bay du Noc band of Chippewa. According to McKeel (1937), "their own band name in Chippewa translates 'Big Bay people' .... These Indians are living at Nahma, Indian Point, St. Jaques, Stonington, and Manistique. At present the group at Nahma, Indian Point, and St. Jaques number about 150. There are only two families at Stonington which used to be a fairly large settlement .... At Nahma there are at present 18 householc!.s." Concerning the Bay dt:. Noc or Nahma Chippewa, McKeel said: "There is absolutely no question in the minds of the Indians that

SUMMARY

37

they are a separate and distinct band. They are so named in the treaty of 1855. Reference is h'ere made to the treaty of July 31, 1855, between GeorgeW.Manypenny and Henry C. Gilbert, com_rnissioners on the part of the United States, and the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan. By the terms of this treaty certain lands in Michigan were set aside for various bands of Indians, Article 4 designating land 'for the Cross Village, L'Arborchroche, and Bear Creek bands, and of such Bay du Noc and Bear Island Indians as may prefer to live with them." First among the chiefs who signed this and the treaty of August 2, 1855, were "Oshaw-waw-no-kain-ze and Waw-bo-jeeg." By the latter treaty the Chippewa of Sault Ste Marie "surrendered to the United States the right of fishing at the falls of St. Mary's and of encampment convenient to the fishing ground, secured to them by the treaty of June 16, 1820" (Kappler, 1904, pp. 725, 732). "Nahma (nay-ma, Ind. sturgeon) is a sawmill village on Big Bay du Noc at the mouth of Sturgeon river .... West of Nahma, directly across the Sturgeon River, is the Nahma Indian settlement (90 pop.) where remnants of the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Pottawatomi tribes live on land owned by the Bay du Nocquette Company, paying rent of $ 1.00 a year ff'o that they may not claim squatters rights" (Mich. Guide, 1941, p.542). A few of these Indians make baskets and other articles of handicraft, but the majority are employed in the mill at Nahma and in the woods.

SUMMARY The results of observations at the several localities visited will be considered separately. Three important _points were established by the study of the Chippewa of Lac Vieux Desert. The Chippewa in that locality do not use, and have no tradition of the use of, picture writing in the songs a~d records of the Grand Medicine (Midewiwin). As Vernon Kinietz had witnessed a Grand Medicine ceremony it did not seem advisable to seek a conference with John Pete, the leader of the ceremony, nor to question John Ackley and George Cadotte concerning its procedure. Therefore, the investigation was conducted by showing Mr. and Mrs. Ackley and George Cadotte my material on the subject, especially the song pictures (Densmore, 1910).

38

A STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

They are familiar with the ceremony at Lac Vieux Desert and readily recognized the pictures of ceremonial posture, but said they had never seen nor heard of song pictures nor the picture writing of records. Their reaction was tested repeatedly and carefully, but the whole subject was strange to them. This suggests a possibility that picture writing, in early days, may have been limited to regions where the white birch tree, with its soft, smooth bark, was abundant and may even have originated in such a region. The Chippewa traveled westward from Sault Ste Marie to Chequamegon Bay and Madeline Island in Wisconsin and thence to northern Minnesota, where picture writing on birchbark is an important custom of the Grand Medicine society. The early migration of the Chippewa to Lac Vieux Desert forms an interesting subject of investigation. The informants said that John Pete had a small supply of birchbark, but did not know where he obtained it. The tree is not among the trees of this region. The receptivity of these people to ideas was shown by the intention of Ackley to make birchbark rattles like those illustrated in my report on "Chippewa Music" (Densmore, 1910). The sign language was described as a further test of their isolation. They had never heard of it and immediately tried to imitate a few simple signs that I showed them. Cadotte said, later, that on their way home after the conference John Ackley suggested that it might be well for them to devise and use a few signs, so that they could communicate with persons too far away to be reached by the voice. This use of the sign language had not been mentioned in the conversation and was original with Ackley. The second item established is that the drum dance which follows the Grand Medicine is the same that I witnessed twice on the Menominee reservation in Wisconsin (Densmore, 1913, pp. 142-83; 1932, pp.l68-84). Ackley and Cadotte said their group received the drum, with instructions for its use, from ~he Chippewa at Odanah, together with the proper songs. The attitude toward the drum is similar to that of the Chippewa in Wisconsin, and Cadotte wrote that the drum is suspended from four curved stakes when in use, which is the custom in the other localities. Among the Wisconsin Chippewa the drum and its use were said to have originated with the Sioux. A trace of Sioux origin was found in the statement that in the

SUMMARY

39

drum dance the women sit with the men and sing with one hand beside the mouth. This custom was seen at the drum dance on the Menominee reservation, a few women sitting behind the men around the drum and having one hand cupped, but not covering the mouth. This mannerism has been noted by me only among the Sioux. The third item noted among the Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa is the continuance of the treatment of the sick by native methods which include the singing of songs. This is a subject that merits investigation for c~mparison with the custom in other bands of Chippewa as well as in other tribes of Indians. The opportunity for securing this and similar information will be gone in a few years. John Pete is a man of middle age, and the younger men are generally employed in the lumber industry. The isolation of the Lac Vieux Desert band of Chippewa ,will soon disappear. At Zeba and Baraga there still are old men who remember the stories about Winabojo and are willing to relate them ~nd to sing the songs connected with them. There is no opportunity for research at Ontonagon, for the only Indian living in that region said that he knew nothing about the old customs or traditions. In Michigan, as in other parts of the United States, the Indian is rapidly taking his place in the white man's world.

40

A

STUDY OF SOME MICHIGAN INDIANS

REFERENCES Cavill, Jesse C., Official Correspondence, Jan. 28. 1941 1945 Ibid., Sept. 28. Densmore, Frances Chippewa Music. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull., 45. 1910 Chippewa Music, II. Ibid., 53. 1913 Teton Sioux Music. Ibid., 61. 1918 Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians. Forty1928 fourth Ann. Rept., Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1926-1927: 275-397. Chippewa Customs. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull., 8-6. 1929 1932 Menominee Music. Ibid., 102. Doty, James D. 1908 Report. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. VII (reprint from 1876). 1888 Ibid. , Vol. XI. Farver, Peru 1945 Official Correspondence, Oct. 10. Great Lakes Indian Agency Reservation Programs, 1944. Kappler, Charles J. 1904 Indian Affairs,. Laws and Treaties. Washington. Vol. II. McKeel, H. Scudder 1937 Report on the Michigan Indians.

(Indian Agency.)

McKinsey, Shirley N. 1937 An Economic Survey of the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community, Consisting of the L'Anse, Lac Vieux Desert and Ontonagon Indian Reservations of Michigan. (Indian Agency.) Michigan, A Guide to the Wolverine State. Guide Series. 1941.

American

REFERENCES Nute, Grace Lee 1944 Lake Superior.

41

Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co.

Racey, Charles H. Official Correspondence, Sept. 11. 1944 1945a Ibid., May 23. 1945b Ibid., Sept. 30. Statistical Suppl. Ann. Rept. of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C. 1944. Warren, 1935 1938 1945a 1945b

Eugene J. Official Correspondence, May.24. Ibid., July 7. Ibid., Aug. 11. Ibid., Sept. 28.

Warren, William W. )885 History of the Ojibway Nation. Soc., Vol. 5.

Coll. Minn. Hist.

Wisconsin State Historical Society Collections. Vol. III (reprint from 1857), 1904.

Madison.