A Regional Geography of the United States and Canada: Toward a Sustainable Future [1 ed.] 9780742556898

Citation preview

a regional geography of

the united states and canada

a regional geography of

the united states and canada

Toward a Sustainable Future

chris mayda

Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 10 Thornbury Road, Plymouth PL6 7PP, United Kingdom Copyright © 2013 by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mayda, Chris, 1948– A regional geography of the United States and Canada : toward a sustainable future / Chris Mayda. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7425-5689-8 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-7425-5730-7 (ebook) 1. United States—Geography. 2. Canada—Geography. 3. Human geography—United States. 4. Human geography—Canada. 5. Sustainable development—United States. 6. Sustainable development—Canada. 7. United States—Environmental conditions. 8. Canada—Environmental conditions. 9. United States—Economic conditions. 10. Canada—Economic conditions. I. Title. E161.3.M343 2013 917.3—dc22 2008018423 ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

Brief Contents

Detailed Contents vii List of Illustrations xvii Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxv

9 South Atlantic: Gentry Tidewater, Hardscrabble Piedmont, and the Northern Invasion of Dixie 205 10 Florida: A Victim of Its Own Geography 233 11 Gulf Coastal Plains and Mississippi Valley: Juxtaposition Squared 255

Part One MOVING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY: Themes

12

The Ozarks: Unexpected Economic Miracles 287

13 The Midwest: Corn, Cars, Conundrums, and Hope 305 1

Regions and Ecoregions: An Approach to Sustainable Geography 3

2 The Nonhuman World: Understanding the Limits 19

14 The Great Plains and Canadian Prairie: Land of Opportunity, or Where the Buffalo Roam? 345 15 The Rocky Mountains: High in Elevations, Aspirations, and Appreciation 381 16 Intermontane: Baked, Beguiling, and Booming 409

3

Sustainability: Redefining Progress 47

4

Population and Consumption: Quantity versus Quality 63

17 Pacific Northwest: Environment as Lifestyle 439 18 Alaska, Pacific Borderlands, and Arctic Boreal Canada: Feeling the Heat 465

Part Two MOVING TOWARD ECOREGIONS: Places

19 California: Having It All, and Then Some 503 20 Hawai`i: Aloha 535

5

The Canadian Corridor: A Shift in Core Value 95

6

The North Atlantic Provinces and Northern New England: New Economic Hopes 121

7

Megalopolis: Setting Sustainable Standards 151

8

Appalachia: Trying to Love the Mountains 177

Notes 557 Glossary 573 Index 589 About the Author

603

A head

v

Detailed Contents

Brief Contents v List of Illustrations xvii Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxv

Introduction 19 Physical Geography

20

A Brief Geologic History of the United States and Canada 20 How the United States and Canada Formed

21

Landforms and Processes 22

Part One MOVING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY: Themes 1 Regions and Ecoregions: An Approach to Sustainable Geography 3

Chapter Highlights Terms

24

Water—Hydrography

25

Surface Water 26 Groundwater 28 Wetlands 29 Glaciers 29

Climate

3

32

Climate Regions 34

3

Introduction

Soils

3

The United States and Canada: Climate Change Regional: Tennessee River Coal Slurry Spill 7

Regions and Ecoregions

5

8

9

Regions of Canada and the United States

12

The Importance of Ecoregions in a Sustainable World 15 Questions for Discussion 16 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

38

Ecological Communities

Systems 4

Borders

Mountains

16

41

Eastern Community 41 Western Community 41 Boreal Forest 41 Vegetation and Climate Change

Natural Hazards

42

42

Sustainability 43 Questions for Discussion 44 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

44

44

17 3 Sustainability: Redefining Progress 47 2 The Nonhuman World: Understanding the Limits 19 Chapter Highlights

Chapter Highlights Terms

19

19

Terms

47

47

Introduction 47

vii

Water

48

Resource Use Energy

Questions for Discussion 90 49

Suggested Readings

50

Internet Sources

90

91

Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative Energy Sources 52

Built Environment

Part Two Moving toward Ecoregions: Places

54

Reducing Dependencies

56

Sustainability 56 5 The Canadian Corridor: A Shift in Core Value 95

A Sustainable World 58

Questions for Discussion 60 Suggested Readings

60

Internet Sources 60

Chapter Highlights Terms

4 Population and Consumption: Quantity versus Quality 63

95

Places 95 Introduction 96 Physical Geography

Chapter Highlights Terms

Water 63

Population Size and Growth 65 World, Canadian, and U.S. Population Growth

66

68

Consumption Patterns Carrying Capacity

Population Structure

71

Historical Components 75 Ethnic Components 78 Waves of Immigration 79

U.S. Distribution 84 Canadian Distribution

viii

104

105

Population 105 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 107

111

115

Questions for Discussion 118 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

84

Urban, Suburban, and Rural Populations

84

85

A Sustainable Future

104

A Sustainable Future

83

Population and Environment

Cultural Perspectives

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 112 Industry and Postindustrial 114 Tourism 115

75

Population Distribution

99

Quebec 100 Ontario 103

Economy

74

Population Composition

Historical Geography and Settlement

Regional Life

70

Birthrate and Death Rate Migration Patterns 71

99

The French Canadian Landscape

68

Population Basics: The Demographic Process 71

Aging Population

98

Climate

Less Developed, Developing, and Developed Countries: Growth Rate and Consumption 64

Population Growth

96

Corridor Lowlands 97 Niagara Escarpment 97

63

63

Introduction

95

86

89

detailed contents

118

118

Introduction 6 The North Atlantic Provinces and Northern New England: New Economic Hopes 121

152

Unintended Consequences 152 Local and Ecoregional Impacts 152 External Costs 152

Physical Geography Chapter Highlights Terms

121

Boundaries 153 Physiography 153 Subregions 153 The Fall Line 155

121

Places 121 Introduction

122

Physical Geography

Water

123

124

Climate

Maritimes 124 Northern New England 124 Bay of Fundy 124

Climate

126

The Atlantic Provinces 130

Cultural Perspectives

134

“Lobstah” 134 Northern New England 134 Maritimes 135 Newfoundland 135

135

Population 135 A Growing Demographic 137 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 137

Economy

138

158

159

Cultural Perspectives

126

Historical Geography and Settlement

158

Historical Geography and Settlement Cultural Hearths

Climate Change

155

158

Acid Rain (Acid Deposition)

125

Regional Life

155

Glacial Past, Sustainable Future Chesapeake Bay 157

Regions 123

Water

153

159

Urban Density and Sustainability 159

Regional Life

160

Populations 160 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 160

Economy

168

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 169 Early Manufacturing 169 Tourism 170

A Sustainable Future

170

Questions for Discussion 174 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

174

175

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 139 Industry and Postindustrial 143

A Sustainable Future

146

8 Appalachia: Trying to Love the Mountains 177

Questions for Discussion 147 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

147

148

Chapter Highlights Terms

7 Megalopolis: Setting Sustainable Standards 151

177

Places 177 Introduction

178

Physical Geography Chapter Highlights Terms

151

Places 151

151

177

179

The Blue Ridge Province 179 Ridge and Valley 180 Appalachian Plateau 180 Interior Low Plateaus 181

detailed contents

ix

Water

183

Climate

Regional Life

185

Historical Geography and Settlement

Population 216 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 217

185

Economy

Native Americans 185 European Arrival 185

Cultural Perspectives

221

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 222 Tourism 228

186

Folk Culture 186 Moonshine 187 Cultural Isolation and the Second Great Awakening

Regional Life

A Sustainable Future

189

Suggested Readings Internet Sources

Agriculture 193 Primary Industry 194 Tourism 199

Terms

200

205

206 206

239 240

241

Native Americans 241 Europeans 241

Cultural Perspectives

211

Cultural Perspectives

236

Historical Geography and Settlement

209

Historical Geography and Settlement

211

214

Gullah 214 Food Geography: BBQ 215 NASCAR 216 Crackers and Rednecks 216

x

Water

Hurricanes

Water Wars 210

Climate

The Floridian Coastal Plain 234 The Lake District 235 The Everglades 235 The Keys 236

Climate

The Southeastern Coast and Plain 207 The Piedmont 209

Water

234

Subsurface Water Features 237 Intracoastal Waterway 237 Dredging 237 The Everglades 238

Places 205 Physical Geography

234

Physical Geography

205

Introduction

233

Introduction

202

9 South Atlantic: Gentry Tidewater, Hardscrabble Piedmont, and the Northern Invasion of Dixie 205

Terms

233

Places 233

Internet Sources 203

Chapter Highlights

231

Chapter Highlights

Questions for Discussion 202 Suggested Readings

230

10 Florida: A Victim of Its Own Geography 233

193

A Sustainable Future

228

Questions for Discussion 230 187

Population 189 Alleghenies 189 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 190

Economy

216

detailed contents

241

Coquina 241 The Conch Republic (The Florida Keys) Boom-Bust Florida 243

Regional Life

243

Population 243 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 245

242

Economy

246

A Sustainable Future

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 248 Industry and Postindustrial 250 Tourism 251

A Sustainable Future

283

Questions for Discussion 284 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

284

285

251

Questions for Discussion 252 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

12 The Ozarks: Unexpected Economic Miracles 287

252

252

11 Gulf Coastal Plains and Mississippi Valley: Juxtaposition Squared 255

Chapter Highlights Terms

287

287

Places 287 Introduction Chapter Highlights Terms

255

Physical Geography

255 256

Physical Geography

257

Water

East Gulf Coastal Plain 258 Mississippi Alluvial Plain 258 West Gulf Coastal Plain 259 Rio Grande Plain 259

Water

Climate

291

Climate Change

291

Historical Geography and Settlement

Mississippi River 259 Gulf of Mexico 262 Rio Grande 263

Cultural Perspectives

Regional Life

263

Historical Geography and Settlement

263

Native Americans 263 European Immigration and Settlement 263 New South 266

Cultural Perspectives

266

Disease and Pests 266 The Blues 270 Creole Culture 270 The Cultural Black Belt 270

Regional Life

291

292

Hillbillies 292 Religion 292

263

Hurricanes

290

Rivers 290 Springs 290

259

Climate

289

Ozark Plateau 289 Arkansas River Valley 290 Ouachita Mountains 290

Places 255 Introduction

288

271

293

Population Distribution 293 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 294

Economy

297

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 297 Food Processing 301 Tourism 301

A Sustainable Future

301

Questions for Discussion 303 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

303

303

Population 271 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 272

Economy

277

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 277 Industry 282 Tourism 282

detailed contents

xi

Introduction 13 The Midwest: Corn, Cars, Conundrums, and Hope 305

Chapter Highlights Terms

305

305

Places 305 Introduction

306

Physical Geography

307

Water

Wetlands 310 The Great Lakes 311 Smaller Lakes 312 The Upper Mississippi River Basins and Ohio River

Mound Builders 314 Iroquoians 314 European Settlement 315 Indian Territory, Oklahoma

Cultural Perspectives

312

Regional Life

314

315

316

Farmsteads and Industry

316

317

Population 317 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 318

Economy

323

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 323 Industry and Postindustrial 333 Tourism 337

A Sustainable Future

Canadian Prairie and Northern Great Plains 347 Dissected Missouri Plateau 347 Sand Hills, Nebraska 348 High Plains 348 Pecos River Valley 348 Raton Mesa and Basin 348 Edwards Plateau and Central Texas Uplift 349

349

Climate

312

Historical Geography and Settlement

346

Missouri River 350 North Platte River 350 Arkansas River 350 Ogallala Aquifer 350

309

Climate

Physical Geography

Water

Physical Regions 307

346

337

350

Historical Geography and Settlement Native Americans 354 Spanish Period 354 The Great American Desert 354 From Nomadic to Reservations 354 The Cowboy and Cattle 355 Farming and Ranching 356 Northern Plains 357 The Canadian Prairie 357

Cultural Perspectives

359

Dwellings: Vernacular Architecture The 49th Parallel 360

Regional Life

Population 360 Urban Life 362 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 363

Economy

363

Primary Economy and Natural Resources 364

A Sustainable Future

Suggested Readings

Questions for Discussion 377

Internet Sources 343

Suggested Readings Internet Sources

14 The Great Plains and Canadian Prairie: Land of Opportunity, or Where the Buffalo Roam? 345

Chapter Highlights Terms

Places 345

xii

375 377

378

15 The Rocky Mountains: High in Elevations, Aspirations, and Appreciation 381

345

345

detailed contents

359

360

Questions for Discussion 342 342

353

Chapter Highlights Terms

381

381

Columbia River 413 Colorado River 414 Rio Grande 415 Salt Lakes 416 Sinks 416 Humboldt River 416 Central Arizona Project 416 The Sustainable Use of Water 416

Places 381 Introduction

382

Physical Geography

382

Formation and Ecological Issues Rocky Mountains 383

Water

383

386

Rivers 386 Lakes 386 Water Transfers 386

Climate

Climate

Historical Geography and Settlement

388

Climate Change

389

Historical Geography and Settlement

389

Cultural Perspectives

391

Geography of Wealth: Aspenization and Community Development Needs 391 Boom and Bust Towns 393

394

Population 394 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 395

Economy

398

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 398 Tourism 404

A Sustainable Future

405

Questions for Discussion 406 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

Native Americans 417 European Incursion 418 Opening Up the Intermontane

Cultural Perspectives

Mountain Men 390 Exploration 391 Settlement 391

Regional Life

417

406

407

Terms

409

409

Regional Life

422

Population 422 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 423

Economy

427

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 427 Industry and Postindustrial 434 Tourism 434

A Sustainable Future

435

Questions for Discussion 436 Suggested Readings Internet Sources

436

437

17 Pacific Northwest: Environment as Lifestyle 439

Chapter Highlights Terms

439

439

Introduction

410

Physical Geography

410

Columbia Plateau 411 Basin and Range 411 Colorado Plateau 413

Water

419

Places 439

Places 409 Introduction

418

Native American Culture 420 Hispanic Culture 420 Mormon Culture 421 The Basques 422 Retirement Culture 422

16 Intermontane: Baked, Beguiling, and Booming 409

Chapter Highlights

417

440

Physical Geography

440

Coast Ranges and Coast Mountains 441 Puget Sound 442

413

detailed contents

xiii

Water

443

Climate

Columbia River 443 Fraser River 445 Water Pollution 445

Climate

Climate Change

448

Historical Geography and Settlement

448

Native Americans 448 Hudson’s Bay/Fort Vancouver 448 Settling the Pacific Northwest Cities 448

Cultural Perspectives Salmon Culture

Regional Life

448

448

Cultural Perspectives

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 455

A Sustainable Future

460

483

Habitat Destruction: The Inuit Language 484 Religion 485

486

489

Primary Economy and Natural Resources 489 Industry and Postindustrial 498 Tourism 498

Questions for Discussion 463

A Sustainable Future

Suggested Readings

Questions for Discussion 500

463

Internet Sources 463

Suggested Readings Internet Sources

18 Alaska, Pacific Borderlands, and Arctic Boreal Canada: Feeling the Heat 465

Chapter Highlights Terms

465

465

Introduction

Physical Geography

501

Chapter Highlights

503

503

Introduction

467

Pacific Borderlands 467 Boreal Forest—Taiga 468 Arctic Slope—Tundra 472

473

Rivers 473 Lakes 473

xiv

500

Places 503 466

Alaska 466 Canadian Territories 466

Water

499

19 California: Having It All, and Then Some 503

Terms

Places 465

483

Population 486 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 487

Economy

455

detailed contents

478

Native Peoples and Initial European Contact 478 Evolution of the Alaskan State 480 Evolution of the Canadian Territories 480 The Canadian Territories and Alaska from 1939 to the Present 481

Regional Life

449

Population 449 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 450

Economy

476

Historical Geography and Settlement

447

Climate Change

475

504

Physical Geography

505

Sierra Nevada and Coastal Range 505 South Coast and Los Angeles Basin 506 Central Valley 506

Water Climate

506 508

San Francisco Bay 509 Central Valleys 509 Sierra Nevada 509 Smog 509 Natural Hazards 510

Historical Geography and Settlement

511

Introduction

Native Americans 511 The Spanish Period 511 The Anglo Period 512 The Multicultural Period 512

Cultural Perspectives

Water Climate

Kapu 543 Hawaiian Diet

Regional Life

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 521 Manufacturing to Postindustrial 527 Tourism 529

529

Questions for Discussion 532 Internet Sources

541

Cultural Perspectives

521

Suggested Readings

537

Historical Geography and Settlement

515

A Sustainable Future

544

544

Population 544 Traditional and Sustainable City 547

Economy

549

Primary Industry and Natural Resources 549 Industry and Postindustrial 552 Tourism 553

Suggested Readings

Terms

535

535

553

Questions for Discussion 555

532

Chapter Highlights

543

543

A Sustainable Future

532

20 Hawai`i: Aloha

536

537

Water Issues

513

Population 515 Traditional and Sustainable Cities 517

Economy

536

Physical Geography

At Least Two Californias 513 Homes and Homeless 513 Gangs 514

Regional Life

Places 535

555

Internet Sources

555

Notes 557 Glossary 573 Index 589 About the Author

603

535

detailed contents

xv

Illustrations

Boxes 1.1. How Regions Influence Culture 13 1.2. Urban Development 15 2.1. Did You Know . . . the Ground We Stand On 22 2.2. Swamps, Bogs, Pocosins, Marshes, Bayous, and Fens 31 2.3. Did You Know . . . Glaciers 33 2.4. Global Warming and Climate Change 35 2.5. The Carbon Cycle 36 2.6. Geo-Tales: Stranded in the Snow in Raleigh, North Carolina 39 2.7. Sea Level Rise 43 3.1. Triple Bottom Line 48 3.2. Did You Know . . . Energy Use 51 3.3. Did You Know . . . Wind Energy 55 3.4. Ecological Footprint 57 4.1. Population History 65 4.2. Demographic Transition 67 4.3 Did You Know . . . U.S. and Canadian Population 73 4.4 Assimilation—Acculturation 74 4.5. Primary to Quaternary Sectors of the Economy 75 4.6. Sprawl 86 5.1. Inner and Outer Canada 97 5.2. The St. Lawrence Seaway 102 5.3. The Quiet Revolution 105 5.4. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 113 5.5. Great Lakes Invasive Species and Systems Thinking 116 6.1. Labrador 125 6.2. The Adirondack Park 126 6.3. The Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current 128 6.4. Thermohaline Circulation 129 6.5 Resettlement 131 6.6. Geo-Tales: Great Harbour Deep 132 6.7. Tragedy of the Commons 141 6.8. Women and the Fish Plants 142 7.1. “‘Corporate Hippies’ Seek Their Bliss in a New Environmental Economy” 153 7.2. Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, and the Sound 154 7.3. Hutcheson Memorial Forest 155 7.4. The Positive and Negative Results of Draining Wetlands and Cleaning Estuaries 156 7.5. Garbage in the City 165 7.6. The Boroughs 167 7.7. Atlantic City 171 7.8. Platinum LEED in Chesapeake Bay 173 8.1. Coves 181 8.2. Coal 182

8.3. Canebrakes 184 8.4. Appalachian Coal Company Towns 188 8.5. Centralia, Pennsylvania 191 8.6. Hemp and Tobacco 194 8.7. Did You Know . . . Sources of Energy 196 8.8. How to Remove a Mountain 197 8.9. Wind Farms in Appalachia 201 9.1. Kudzu 207 9.2. Princeville, North Carolina 212 9.3. Sustainable Carpet 222 10.1. Karst 235 10.2. Celebration, Florida 247 11.1. Salt Domes and Hydrocarbons 260 11.2. Did You Know . . . Louisiana Wetlands 261 11.3. Atchafalaya Basin: French Acadian “Cajun” 265 11.4. Geo-Tales: Mound Bayou, Mississippi—Southern Hospitality 268 11.5. Colonias 272 11.6. Public Housing in New Orleans 274 11.7. Subsidence 275 11.8. Shrimping in Port Arthur, Texas 280 12.1. Water Utilization 292 12.2. Mountain Medicine 293 12.3. Salt and Organochlorines 294 12.4. New Madrid and the Earthquakes 295 12.5. Meth 296 12.6. Hmong Poultry Farmers 299 12.7. Branson, Missouri 302 13.1. Black Swamp 310 13.2. Natural and Artificial River Levees 313 13.3. Land Ordinance of 1785 316 13.4. Five Civilized Tribes 317 13.5. Bicycling in America 322 13.6. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) 326 13.7. The Impact of the Erie Canal 327 13.8. Coal-Burning Power Plants and Industrial Air Pollutants 334 13.9. Iowa and Wind 337 13.10. Rust Belt 338 13.11. Principles of Sustainable Development Minnesota 339 14.1. Geo-Tales: My 49th-Parallel Walk 349 14.2. Missouri River Dams and Navigation 351 14.3. Did You Know . . . High Plains and Ogallala Aquifer 352 14.4. Sustainable Buffalo? 354 14.5. John Wesley Powell and His Vision for the West 355 14.6. Paha Sapa 356 14.7. The Dust Bowl and Soil Conservation 365

xvii

14.8. Subsidies 366 14.9 Energy and Food 368 14.10. Sustainable Meat 372 14.11. Contract Farming 373 15.1. Did You Know . . . The Rockies 384 15.2. Reintroducing Gray Wolves 385 15.3. Yellowstone National Park 390 15.4. Jedediah Smith and Geography 391 15.5. Ghost Town Boom, Bust, Boom, Bust 396 15.6. Mineral Extraction in Montana 401 15.7. Anaconda, Montana 402 15.8. Canmore, Alberta 403 16.1. Mono Lake 414 16.2. Salton Sea 415 16.3. Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) 418 16.4. Black Mesa 421 16.5. Cosanti and Arcosanti, Arizona 435 17.1. Columbia River Power 445 17.2. Hood Canal 446 17.3. The Lewis and Clark Route and the Oregon Trail 449 17.4. Potlatch, Aboriginal Rights, and Title 450 17.5. Lifestyles: The Compact Neighborhood 452 17.6. Dairying 457 17.7. Lumber Management Systems 458 17.8. The Spotted Owl 459 17.9. Did You Know . . . Salmon Preservation 460 17.10. Hatcheries 461 17.11. Fish Farms: Floating Feedlots? 462 18.1. Good Friday Earthquake, 1964 467 18.2. Northern Mountain Ranges 470 18.3. Did You Know . . . Tundra and Taiga 471 18.4. Climate Change and the Taiga 472 18.5. Caribou, Reindeer of the Americas 474 18.6. Inuit Villages and Climate Change 478 18.7. Kotzebue 479 18.8. Alaska Transportation 490 18.9. Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) and CAFE 493 18.10. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) 494 18.11. Fort McMurray and Oil Sands 496 19.1. San Francisco Bay 507 19.2. Monterey Submarine Canyon 508 19.3. Did You Know . . . Water Usage 509 19.4. Los Angeles Water 510 19.5. The Gold Rush 512 19.6. Largest California Cities, 2010 519 19.7. Did You Know . . . California Farms 524 19.8. Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach 528 19.9. Environmental Innovations 531 20.1. The Major Hawaiian Islands 538 20.2. Waste Disposal and Garbage 542 20.3. The Big Five 547 20.4. Moloka`i Ranch and La`au Point: Shifting Winds 548

Charts 3.1. U.S. Energy Consumption, 2010 54 3.2. Share of Energy Consumed by Major Sectors of the Economy, 2009 55 4.1. The Demographic Transition Model 67 4.2. World Population Growth 68

xviii

illustrations

4.3. Per Capita Energy Consumption, 2005 and 2008 71 4.4. Annual Number of Legal U.S. Immigrants by Decade and Region of Origin, 1960–2009 73 4.5. Population Pyramids, 2000 77 4.6. Fifteen Largest U.S. Ancestries, 2000 78 4.7. Asian Household Population by State, 2004 83 4.8. U.S. Regional Share of Population, 2010 85 8.1. West Virginia Population, 2010 189 8.2. Kentucky Crop Values per Acre, 2006 194 9.1. Black Net Migration from Regions, 1990–2000 218 11.1. Crude Oil–Producing States, 2011 281 12.1. Chicken Production in the Ozarks 298 13.1. Farm Organization Types 325 14.1. U.S. per Capita Meat Consumption, 1950–2005 372 16.1. Energy Consumption in the Intermontane, 2005 432 19.1. Gross Production, California, 2006 522 19.2. California’s Top Five Agricultural Counties, 2009 523 19.3. Milk Production, Top Ten States, 2010 525 19.4. Sources for California Energy 527

Maps 1.1. The Relationship of Regions, Water, and Crops 6 1.2. Map after Fenneman, “Physiographic Divisions of the United States” 9 1.3. Ecosystem Divisions 10 1.4. Ecoregions of Canada 11 1.5. The Ecoregional Divisions of the United States and Canada as Used in This Book 14 2.1. The Basic Physical Landforms of the United States and Canada 23 2.2. The North American Craton 24 2.3. Rodinia, Formed about 1.2 Billion Years Ago 25 2.4. Pangaea as It Broke Apart 26 2.5. Major Canadian and U.S. Watershed Drainage Areas 30 2.6. Percentage of Wetlands Acreage Lost, 1780s–1980s 32 2.7. Maximum Extent of Glaciation 34 2.8. Basic U.S. and Canadian Climate Regions 37 2.9. U.S. Precipitation 38 2.10. Soil Type and Major Vegetation Regions 40 3.1. Wind Power Capacity in Canada and the United States 53 3.2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy National Equivalents 59 4.1. Percent Change in U.S. Population by State, 2000–2010 76 4.2. Percent Black by State, 2010 81 4.3. Percent Hispanic by State, 2010 82 4.4. U.S. Population Density, 2010 87 5.1. The Frontenac Axis 98 5.2. The Corridor Lowlands 99 5.3. The Great Lakes Lowlands 100 5.4. The Niagara Escarpment 101 5.5. Canadian Confederation, 1876 and 1873 103 5.6. Canada’s Population Density, 2001 106 5.7. The Golden Horseshoe 108 6.1. Bay of Fundy 127 6.2. The Meeting of the Cold Labrador Current and the Warmer Gulf Stream 128 6.3. Acadian Expulsion, 1755–1763 133 7.1. Megalopolis Population Densities 160 7.2. Borough Map of New York City and Surrounding Area 166 8.1. Coal Bodies in the United States 182 8.2. Tennessee Valley Authority 184

9.1. Extent of Kudzu in the United States 207 9.2. Barbeque in the South 215 9.3. Tobacco and Cotton, Harvested Acres, 2002 223 10.1. Karst Coverage of the United States 235 10.2. The Everglades Ecosystem 236 10.3. Everglades Historical and Current Water Flow 240 10.4. Population of Florida, 2010 244 10.5. U.S. Orange Crop, 2002 248 10.6. Sugarcane and Sugar Beets, 2002 249 11.1. Traditional Counties of the Alabama Black Belt 258 11.2. Cajun Parishes of Louisiana 265 12.1. Ozark Plateau Subregions 289 12.2. New Madrid and Wabash Valley Seismic Zones 295 12.3. Methamphetamine Incidents, 2010 296 13.1. The Great Lakes Watershed 308 13.2. The Prairie Peninsula, Extending across the Midwest 309 13.3. The Black Swamp 310 13.4. The Erie Canal, New York 327 13.5. Corn for Grain, Harvested Acres, 2002 329 13.6. Soybeans, Harvested Acres, 2002 329 13.7. Hogs and Pigs, 2002 332 13.8. Predominant Forest Types, Michigan 332 13.9. Union Membership as a Percentage of Total Workers, 2000 336 14.1. Ogallala Aquifer 352 14.2. Tornadoes by Severity, 1950–2004 353 14.3. Canadian Prairie 358 14.4. Wheat, Harvested Acres, 2002 369 14.5. Corn Harvested and Water Dependency on the Ogallala Aquifer, 2002 369 14.6. The Bakken Formation, North Dakota 375 15.1. Historical Annual Stream Flow, Colorado 389 15.2. The Colorado Mineral Belt 400 16.1. Snake River Plain, Idaho 411 16.2. Manifest Destiny Territorial Acquisitions in the Far West 418 16.3. Intermontane Exploration 419 16.4. Four Corners Reservations 420 16.5. Acres of Irrigated Harvested Cropland as Percentage of All Harvested Cropland Acreage 429 16.6. Federal Land as a Percentage of Total Land Area 431 17.1. Volcanoes in the Cascade Mountains 443 17.2. The Glacially Created Hood Canal 446 17.3. Precipitation in the U.S. Pacific Northwest 447 17.4. Washington Ferry System 454 18.1. The Aleutian Archipelago and Volcanoes 468 18.2. North American Permafrost 469 18.3. The Canadian Shield 471 18.4. The Mackenzie River 475 18.5. Cook Inlet 475 18.6. Northern Pacific Ocean Currents 477 18.7. Canada’s Oil Sands Deposits 496 19.1. California Regions 505 19.2. San Francisco Bay, Filled-In Lands 507 19.3. Monterey Submarine Canyon 508 19.4. California Population Density, 2010 516 19.5. The World’s Largest Ports 528 19.6. States with Greenhouse Gas Emissions Targets, 2011 530 20.1. The Major Hawaiian Islands 539 20.2. Ahupua`a Ownership of Land on O`ahu 546

Photos 1.1. Lower Colorado River Valley in Arizona and California 2 1.2. Coal Fly Ash Slurry Spill, Kingston, Tennessee 7 1.3. The Colorado River 12 1.4. Chicago, Illinois 15 1.5. Las Vegas, Nevada 15 2.1. Arches National Park, Utah 18 2.2. Housing Tract near Atlanta, Georgia 21 2.3. Mount Washington 28 2.4. Volcanic Mount Hood 29 2.5. Snowstorm in Raleigh, North Carolina 39 3.1. Wind Turbines near Rock Springs, Wyoming 46 4.1. Monterey, California 62 5.1. Ville de Quebec 96 5.2. Welland Canal, St. Catherine’s, Ontario 102 5.3. The Long Lots of the Original French Settlers 103 5.4. Condominiums and Apartment Buildings, Toronto 110 5.5. Underground Mall, Toronto 111 6.1. Prospect, Nova Scotia 122 6 2. Mount Monadnock, New Hampshire 125 6.3. Salvage, Newfoundland 130 6.4. Floating Homes 131 6.5. Great Harbour Deep, Newfoundland 132 6.6. Boatbuilding in Great Harbour Deep 132 6.7. Lobster Restaurant, Antigonish County, Nova Scotia 134 6.8. New England Stone Wall 135 6.9. Flakes at St. John’s, Newfoundland, 1964 139 6.10. Weigh-in, Great Harbour Deep 142 6.11. Paper Mill at Berlin, New Hampshire 144 6.12. Lakeside Vacation Homes in Vermont 145 7.1. New York City Skyscrapers 152 7.2. Cleopatra’s Needle near the Metropolitan Museum, New York City 158 7.3. Cotton Mill Reborn, Lowell, Massachusetts 161 7.4. Old State House, Boston, Massachusetts 162 7.5. Textile Mill, Pawtucket, Rhode Island 163 7.6. Skyscrapers, Downtown Philadelphia 168 7.7. A Study in Contrasts, Atlantic City, New Jersey 171 7.8. Philip Merrill Environmental Center, Annapolis, Maryland 173 8.1. Billboard in Beckley, West Virginia 178 8.2. The Blue Ridge Mountains near Asheville, North Carolina 179 8.3. Cades Cove, Great Smoky Mountain National Park, Tennessee 181 8.4. Cumberland Plateau in Raleigh County, West Virginia 183 8.5. Marsh Fork Elementary School, Raleigh County, West Virginia 187 8.6. Company Town, Prenter, West Virginia 188 8.7. Slow-Burning Coal Fire at Centralia, Pennsylvania 191 8.8. Steel Production at Birmingham, Alabama 192 8.9. Lake Seneca, Finger Lakes Region, New York 195 8.10. Coal Seam in Raleigh County, West Virginia 196 8.11. Kayford Mountain, Raleigh County, West Virginia 197 9.1. Fall Line on the Savannah River, Augusta, Georgia 206 9.2. A Blackwater River near New Ellenton, South Carolina 210 9.3. 1999 Devastation in Princeville, North Carolina 212 9.4. Sibley Textile Mill, Augusta, Georgia 213 9.5. Rainbow Row, Charleston, South Carolina 220 9.6. Atlanta, Georgia 221 9.7. Gathering Oysters at Harris Neck, Georgia 228

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10.1. Everglades Marsh 234 10.2. Florida Bay at Sunset 237 10.3. Dredging at Palm Beach, Florida 238 10.4. Whitehall, Palm Beach, Florida 242 10.5. Celebration, Florida 247 10.6. Sugarcane Fires at Belle Glade, Florida 250 11.1. Mardi Gras, New Orleans, Louisiana 256 11.2. Post-Katrina Destruction, Ocean Springs, Mississippi 257 11.3. French-Creole House, Ste. Genevieve, Missouri 264 11.4. Barbeque at Mound Bayou, Mississippi 268 11.5. Southern Louisiana Cemetery 269 11.6. Colonia along the Rio Grande Border, Texas 272 11.7. Rebuilt Home in the Ninth Ward, New Orleans, Louisiana 274 11.8. Post-Alicia Baytown, Texas 275 11.9. Riverwalk, San Antonio, Texas 276 11.10. Shrimp Boat, Dauphin Island, Alabama 279 11.11. Hyundai Plant, Montgomery, Alabama 283 12.1. Ozark Landscape, Van Buren, Missouri 288 12.2. Offloading Cargo at Tulsa, Oklahoma 291 12.3. Sanitarium Ruins, Welch Springs, Missouri 293 12.4. Methamphetamine Warning 296 12.5. Nineteenth-Century Iron Furnace, Maramec Spring, Southeastern Missouri 300 12.6. Hot Springs, Arkansas 301 12.7. Branson, Missouri 302 13.1. Ohio Rural Landscape 306 13.2. The Driftless, Southwestern Wisconsin 309 13.3. LeFurge Woods Wetland Creation Project, Southeastern Michigan 311 13.4. Bridge Collapse in Minneapolis, Minnesota 314 13.5. Round Barn near Muncie, Indiana 317 13.6. Eight Mile Road, Detroit, Michigan 322 13.7. St. Anthony Falls, Minneapolis, Minnesota 323 13.8. Flour Mill, Minneapolis, Minnesota 325 13.9. The Erie Canal 327 13.10. Pollutants in Cheshire, Ohio 335 13.11. Protest Billboard near Lansing, Michigan 340 13.12. River Rouge Plant, Detroit, Michigan 341 14.1. Oklahoma Panhandle 346 14.2. Big Muddy Badlands, Saskatchewan 348 14.3. Gypsum Hills, Kansas 349 14.4. Declining Lake McConaughy, Nebraska 351 14.5. Sod House in Texas County, Oklahoma 360 14.6. Grain Elevators, Southern Saskatchewan 362 14.7. Irrigation 367 14.8. Hog Barns and Lagoons, Texas County, Oklahoma 371 14.9. “Egg Beater” Wind Turbines, Pincher Creek, Alberta 376 15.1. Front Range Rising behind Denver, Colorado 382 15.2. Bighorn River, Alberta, Canadian Rockies 383 15.3. The Idaho Batholith 386 15.4. Athabasca Glacier, Columbia Icefield, Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada 387 15.5. Ghost Town, Garnet, Montana 394 15.6. Gondola in Kellogg, Idaho 395 15.7. Casinos in Blackhawk, Colorado 396 15.8. San Miguel Mission, Santa Fe, New Mexico 398 15.9. Kelowna, Okanagan Valley, British Columbia 399

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15.10. Smokestack, Anaconda, Montana 402 15.11. Condominiums in Canmore, Alberta 403 15.12. Old Stanley Mine, Idaho Springs, Colorado 404 16.1. The Basin and Range 410 16.2. Death Valley, California 412 16.3. Mono Lake, Southeast California 413 16.4. Three Regions Meeting at Galisteo, New Mexico 414 16.5. Grand Canyon, Arizona 415 16.6. Hoover Dam and Lake Mead, Nevada 416 16.7. Aerial View of Las Vegas, Nevada 425 16.8. Coachella Valley, Southeastern California 429 16.9. Arches National Park, Moab, Utah 434 16.10. Arcosanti, Arizona 435 17.1. Mount Rainier, Washington 440 17.2. Arch Cape, Oregon 441 17.3. Humboldt Redwood State Park, Northern California 442 17.4. Mount Hood, Oregon 444 17.5. Crater Lake, Oregon 444 17.6. Cannery Remains at Astoria, Oregon 445 17.7. Downtown Seattle on the Puget Sound 451 17.8. Vancouver, British Columbia 453 17.9. The Capitol, Victoria, British Columbia 455 17.10. Clear-Cuts in Oregon as Seen from the Air 458 18.1. Tormented Valley, Northern British Columbia 466 18.2. Portage, Alaska, and Its Ghost Forest after the 1964 Earthquake 467 18.3. Canadian Shield, Ontario 472 18.4. The Braided Susitna River, North of Anchorage, Alaska 474 18.5. Indigenous Sod “Pit” House in Alaska 484 18.6. Building on Permafrost in Nome, Alaska 485 18.7. “Spirit Houses” at Eklutna, Alaska 486 18.8. Downtown Anchorage, Alaska 489 18.9. Bush Plane 490 18.10. Matanuska Valley, Alaska 491 18.11. Dredging for Gold in Nome, Alaska 492 18.12. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) 493 18.13. Syncrude, Fort McMurray, Alberta 496 18.14. Unalaska, Alaska, on the Aleutian Islands 498 19.1. Mission San Juan Capistrano 504 19.2. Northridge Earthquake Damage 511 19.3. Fortress Living in Marina Del Rey 514 19.4. Los Angeles Skid Row 515 19.5. Los Angeles Business District 515 19.6. U.S.-Mexico Border near San Diego 519 19.7. San Francisco Presidio 521 19.8. San Francisco Bay Bridges 522 19.9. Salinas Valley Harvest 523 19.10. Long Beach Oil Rigs 526 19.11. Yosemite Valley Aerial View 529 20.1. Deserted Shoreline, Moloka`i 536 20.2. Coral Reef off Moloka`i 541 20.3. Kapu: “No Trespassing” Sign on Moloka`i 544 20.4. Opposition to La`au Development 548 20.5. Honolulu Skyline 549 20.6. Waikīkī Beach Looking toward Diamond Head 550 20.7. Taro Growing at Hanalei, Kaua`i 552 20.8. Honolulu Tourism 553

Tables 2.1. Physical Makeup of Canadian and American Geographic Extent 24 2.2. Major Mountain Systems in the United States and Canada 27 2.3. Major U.S. and Canadian Rivers 31 2.4. Most Recent Pleistocene North American Glaciations 33 3.1. U.S. Recycling Activity, 1960–2008 49 3.2. Carbon Dioxide Emissions per Capita 58 4.1. Population of the World and Its Major Areas, 1750–2050 66 4.2. Population Growth, 2010 69 4.3. World Population, Years to Achieve 69 4.4. Estimates of Socially Sustainable Carrying Capacity 72 4.5. Economy Sectors 75 4.6. U.S. Ancestry 79 4.7. Waves of U.S. and Canadian Immigration 79 4.8. U.S. Ethnic and Racial Population Characteristics, 2010 81 4.9. U.S. Ethnic Group Statistics 83 4.10 Ten Most Populous States, 2000 and 2010 84 4.11. Largest Ancestry Group for Ten High-Population Cities, 2000 87 4.12. Ten Largest-Census Canadian Metropolitan Areas, 1971–2006 88 4.13. Percent of U.S. and Canadian Populations over 65 88 4.14. Senior Populations, United States and Canada: Percentages and Locations 89 5.1. Population Density, 2010 105 5.2. Quebec Population and Number of Roman Catholics in Appalachian Uplands and St. Lawrence Lowlands, 1860 107 5.3 Canadian Farms, 2006 113 5.4. Environmental Report Card for Seventeen Developed Countries, 2008 117 6.1. Atlantic Canada Population, 2011 136 6.2. Percent White Population in Northern New England States 137 6.3. Percentage of Vacant Homes 137 6.4. Rockingham County, New Hampshire, Agricultural Land 143 6.5. Education and Income in North Atlantic 147 7.1. Megalopolis Population Densities, 2010 161 7.2. Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century New England Cities and Their Specialized Industries 170 7.3. Renewable Portfolio Standards for Megalopolis States 172 8.1. Population Change in Appalachia and the United States, 1950–1970 190 8.2. Changes in Population in Anthracite-Producing Cities 191 9.1. Coastal Characteristic along Atlantic Coastal Plain 208 9.2. Middle Atlantic Fall Line Cities and Their Rivers 209 9.3. Textile Mill Employment for the United States 214 9.4. Number of Cities in the Atlantic South, 1860 and 1880 217 9.5. Percentage of Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics in Atlantic Southern States, 2010 (1990) 217 9.6. Population of Southern Cities, 1860–2010 218 9.7. Acres of Upland Cotton Harvested in the Atlantic South and Texas, 1960–2008 225 9.8. U.S. per Capita Meat Availability, 1910–2007 226 10.1. Florida Residents’ Background 244 10.2. Florida State, Counties, and Cities Population over 65, 2010 245 11.1. Wetlands Loss in the Gulf Coast 261 11.2. Black Migration to and from the South, 1965–2000 266 11.3. Comparison of Poverty and Education in the Black Belt Region of Alabama with the State and Country, 2007 271 11.4. Mississippi State, Coastal Counties, and Tunica Population Density and Economics, 2010 271

11.5. Chemicals Produced in Louisiana Plants 281 13.1. Population and Growth Rates: Midwest, Regional, and U.S., 2010 318 13.2. Midwestern Economics and Unemployment 319 13.3. Population Growth/Decline in Midwestern Snow Belt Cities 319 13.4. Midwestern City Matrix 320 13.5. The Shrinking of Detroit 322 13.6. GMO Crops Grown in the United States, 2011 326 13.7. Significance of Dairy Products: Michigan, Wisconsin, California, 2007 330 13.8. Hog Inventory Rank in Top-Ranked States, 1987–2007 331 13.9. National Rankings of the Top Four Polluting Midwestern States 334 13.10. Coal-Burning Power Plants 335 13.11. Manufacturing Job Losses, January 2000 to January 2009 338 13.12. Top Ten American and Canadian Cities for Green Roofs, 2008 340 14.1. Average Temperatures in the Great Plains and Prairies 353 14.2. Net Immigration in Canada, 1871–1920 359 14.3. Population in Low-Population-Density Counties in North Dakota, 2000 and 2010 361 14.4. Great Plains Agriculture and Livestock Variables 364 15.1. Major Rivers Whose Headwaters Are in the Rockies 388 15.2. Wealthy Counties in the Rockies, 2010 392 15.3. Telluride, Colorado, Facts, 2000 and 2010 394 15.4. Western States Oil Drilling, 1993–2004 403 16.1. Intermontane Rate of Growth 422 16.2. Hispanic and White Population 423 16.3. U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) Population, 2000–2010 424 16.4. Population Growth of Phoenix, Arizona 425 16.5. Population Increase, Washington County, Utah (St. George Metro) 426 16.6. Rocky Mountain Snowpack 426 16.7. Percentage of Intermontane Unemployment Rates 427 16.8. Intermontane Irrigated Areas and Their Crops 428 16.9. Crops, Imperial Valley, California 430 16.10. Electric Power Net Generation by Primary Energy Source, 2008, Intermontane Percentage Share 433 16.11. Renewable Electricity Generation, 2009 433 17.1. Percentage of Residents in Compact Neighborhoods 452 18.1. Alaska and Canadian Territories Average Weather Conditions 476 18.2. Alaskan or Arctic Canadian Language Spoken at Home 485 18.3. Alaska Natives as Percentage of Total Population, 1930–2010 487 18.4. Age Structure of Canadian Territories 488 18.5. Population of Canadian Territories and Capital Cities 488 19.1. Central Valley Hispanic Population Growth 517 19.2. Percentage of Ethnic and Racial Groups in Los Angeles County, California, and New York City, 2010 517 19.3. Percentage of California’s Contribution to Specialty-Crop Fruits and Vegetables 524 20.1. Hawai`i’s Major Ethnic Group Populations, Percent Change, 2000–2010 545 20.2. Land Ownership Estates and Acreage, 2006 547 20.3. Top Five Agricultural Commodities, 2009 550 20.4. Sugar Production in Hawai`i 551 20.5. Percentage of Gross State Product in Hawai`i for Three Major Economic Sectors 552

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Preface

T

his book is about the United States of America and Canada, two countries I truly love. And it is about what has happened and what can happen in leading the world—leading in a new way, of course. Leading does not have to be a pounding-on-thechest scream for monetary power alone. We can re-create the word leadership in our vocabulary and adopt and move into an ecological age. We need to stop turning our back on nature, conquering nature, and begin working with and respecting nature. Beginning our education in what has happened to our countries and how we are beginning to change our zeitgeist is the goal of this book. It is my belief that the United States along with Canada can lead the world from the modern age into the ecological age, However, we both lag behind in understanding the changing zeitgeist and climate of the world. The United States still hangs onto its belief that it is the one superpower, but it has failed to understand that the kind of power exemplified is no longer appropriate. Canada, ahead of the United States in its acceptance of climate change (because it must be, as a far north country), still lags behind in relation to the more forward-looking countries of the EU and is tempted mightily by the last bastions of oil production. The United States has been resting on past laurels and, in so doing, has stopped leading and become a country that is afraid of change, because change means something different. As the last man standing in the twentieth-century superpower race, why change? Ask Britain. Ask China, a country that continues to build coal power plants even as they corner the renewable energy market. The U.S. powers that be are afraid of what change might bring and want to keep what they have, but nothing is static. The laws of thermodynamics continue, and entropy reigns supreme when the energy of power dissipates. A leader does not cower in fear, but leads, even into the future. Instead, the United States has separated into polarized groups—none of which are dealing with the issue at hand. Instead of partisan political battles, we need leaders who have in mind the common good of the state, its people, and its environment; we need leaders, statesmen and stateswomen, not politicians. We need to begin educating our future leaders about the state of the economy, the environment, and social issues in the United States and Canada. We live in a global economy and

environment where everything is connected. So we can begin at home, local if you will, and set a positive example that leads the world in a healthy balance of cooperation and competition (“coop-etition”). We are at a radical break with history, equal to the last great break of industrialization, as we harnessed nonrenewable energy sources. We have seven billion people living in the world, seven times the number of people who lived on the planet during the period of industrialization, seven times as many people living and polluting as at the beginning of the nineteen