A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’: The Development of Principles for an Holistic and Effective Leadership Framework 3658415770, 9783658415778

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Gabler Theses

Michael Hagemann

A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’ The Development of Principles for an Holistic and Effective Leadership Framework

Gabler Theses

In der Schriftenreihe „Gabler Theses“ erscheinen ausgewählte, englischsprachige Doktorarbeiten, die an renommierten Hochschulen in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz entstanden sind. Die Arbeiten behandeln aktuelle Themen der Wirtschaftswissenschaften und vermitteln innovative Beiträge für Wissenschaft und Praxis. Informationen zum Einreichungsvorgang und eine Übersicht unserer Publikationsangebote finden Sie hier.

Michael Hagemann

A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’ The Development of Principles for an Holistic and Effective Leadership Framework

Michael Hagemann Bonn, Germany The degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Law, Education and Development was conferred upon Michael Hagemann on 16th January 2023 by Pegaso International, Malta. The dissertation has been fully assessed as “with distinction/outstanding” (summa cum laude) by Prof. Dr. PhDr. Robert Sturm.

ISSN 2731-3220 ISSN 2731-3239 (electronic) Gabler Theses ISBN 978-3-658-41577-8 ISBN 978-3-658-41578-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer Gabler imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany

Foreword Prof. Dr. Bianca Ksienzyk-Kreuziger

There will hardly be a reader who has not been confronted with the topic of leadership in some way, be it as a leader or as a follower in the most diverse contexts. These experiences will be very colourful, ranging from negative leadership experiences to those in the middle to those leadership experiences that you will be unlikely to forget because they also touched your heart. It is precisely this aspect of leadership that has come to the fore in the past decades under emotional, empathetic, servant, holistic, strength-oriented, and many other approaches, whereas previously leadership resp. management was executed and studied rather mechanically with the purpose of purely generating effective results. But which leadership style helps in which situation? What needs to be considered when leadership competence is being developed? All those who have asked themselves both scientifically whether the models could be systematized and practically what the real essentials of good leadership are, will find what they are looking for in the outstanding work of Dr. Michael Hagemann. In order not to simply paraphrase the hermeneutic and empirical investigation as well as its synthetic reflection and model creation, I would like to refer to some partial and lateral aspects. They make the book worth reading in a way which is not exclusively for scientific eyes and ears. One should mention the great historical overview and the humanistic classification of a topic that is inherent in human history. In particular, detailed accounts of evolutionary history and neuroscience should be mentioned here. In the overall style of the work, they are given a special touch, as they make clear how much the topic of leadership is connected to the philosophical, physiological, psychological, and sociological understanding of man as a communal being. The famous dictum borrowed from Watzlawick (“you cannot not communicate”) and interpreted by Michael Hagemann in terms of leadership (“You

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cannot not lead”), has a special connotation that immediately raises the question of how it is possible to lead. The answer that Michael Hagemann gives is scientifically sound and highly relevant in practice and can be found in the Eclectic Leadership Model. It is clearly not just another model among many. It provides instead the opportunity to zoom into different contexts whilst giving situationally appropriate application tips—thereby application orientated, universal valid, and effective. This helps leaders who have already been active for many years as well as newly appointed ones who want to reflect on and question their leadership skills in order to personally develop. The neuroscientific and evolutionary classification of leadership is particularly worth reading and mentioning, especially the elaboration of the anthropological essence is impressive and of the highest current relevance—also from the perspective of observable “dark leadership”. Dr. Hagemann succeeds extraordinarily in elaborating the essentials in such a way that they lead to the finale of the new leadership framework and herald a paradigm shift. As a psychologist, I cannot emphasize enough the importance of the personality of the leader, and am grateful that this aspect of leadership is presented so clearly and fundamentally. The nature-nurture tension may be elevated to the comprehensive personality level, where the question is not so much how specific individual traits were formed in the past, but rather how they can be developed in the future. The second part of the work gives good appropriation and learning hints here, but these may certainly be deepened further—both in scientific reflection and in a practical setting. From my perspective, the analysis and development of the leadership personality should in any case be strength-oriented. The core traits of trust and authenticity have already been elaborated upon, and authenticity will certainly deepen in a strength-oriented reassurance of one’s own leadership personality. In contrast to other theses that delve into one aspect of a topic, Dr. Hagemann’s work can be described as being both fully comprehensive and holistic. The author succeeds in reflecting on all essential leadership models, systematizing them, evaluating their basic principles, relating them in an intellectually significant way, and designing a meta-model that whilst theoretically robust and directly applicable in practice, also contains all of the essential elements without losing clarity. From my point of view, this approach and its meta-reflective result are unique in the scientific landscape. There is another aspect that makes this thesis absolutely outstanding: it places the human being at the centre—both in the form of the leader and in that of the follower. From my point of view as a professor as well as a trainer and coach, leadership can only be understood if the human being is understood as a personal relationship in all its physiological,

Foreword Prof. Dr. Bianca Ksienzyk-Kreuziger

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psychological, social as well as sociological components. In any case, I highly recommend reading this work, which is both an intellectual challenge and a pleasure in the progress of knowledge. Therefore, I hope that especially leaders and those responsible for leadership programs in business, politics, and society will find nourishment in a book that makes leadership attractive to followers and, for that very reason, effective for their respective organizations. I wish the author a wide distribution of the book and all the best personally and professionally! Berlin, Germany

Prof. Dr. Bianca Ksienzyk-Kreuziger

Foreword Dr. Yury Boshyk

Two questions have come up again and again in the course of my extensive work with top executives from around the world: What exactly constitutes leadership? How can leaders learn in the best possible way? For over three decades, as CEO of Global Executive Learning (GEL) and as the founder of Business-Driven Action Learning (BDAL), my organization and our international network, have deep experience in supporting, developing, and comprehensively helping numerous multinationals and individuals in leadership programs, workshops, coaching sessions, consultations, and through our research and publications. This is the context of my comments on Dr. Michael Hagemann’s thesis on “A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’”—it is truly outstanding, both in terms of its theoretical foundation and deep reflection, as well as its empirical research and practical relevance. An important insight in the Action Learning environment is that organizational business challenges and personal leadership challenges can interpenetrate. They cross-fertilize each other in addressing opportunities and challenges. Hence, the consideration and understanding of the personality and values of leaders are of utmost importance. These foundational features of the Eclectic Leadership Model should not be underestimated. As we know, leadership can be learned, as behavioral theories have taught us for several decades. At the same time, traits, values, and personality matter, especially when leaders reflect, with intention, on their behaviors, personal challenges, self-knowledge, and self-awareness. This in turn can lead to both personal and organizational transformation—important elements of application-oriented and effective leadership. Business-driven Action Learning clearly has a transformative character. The tension between transactional and transformational leadership forms a very good

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basis for understanding of transformation, because both aspects, management fundamentals as well as the elements of transformational and emotionally intelligent leadership, are essential for organizations of all kinds. This indicates that leadership can only be considered holistically. As Dr. Hagemann impressively demonstrates, hermeneutics and empiricism point to “situational leadership”. He has now set out the decisive principles that can also be replicated, whereby specific application of these principles also remains situationally variable. Every framework necessarily simplifies. Nevertheless, the Eclectic Leadership Model can be said to take a new and different direction. Based on this model, researchers can overcome any monolithic narrowness and develop the holistic expanse of complementarity. Practitioners should use this work as a reference point from which to further leadership development and translate this into specific contexts for their leaders and organization. Dr. Yury Boshyk CEO of Global Executive Learning, former Professor of Strategy and the International Environment of Business IMD (International Institute for Management Development, Lausanne, Switzerland) Ottawa, Canada

Foreword by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin R. Wolf

The topic of leadership is still highly relevant, even though it has been studied extensively from various perspectives. Due to this extensive research, both academics and practitioners seem to have lost sight of what is truly essential; scientifically proven, practical, and relevant theories for implementation. The numerous parallel, often unconnected and sometimes contradictory strands of research can be confusing. While there are countless individual theses and empirical studies, they often do not build on each other, leading to the lack of a holistic overview. This dissertation takes a new, surprising, scientifically sound, and practically relevant perspective on the topic. A holistic approach is chosen, which considers different perspectives and systematically relates them to one another. The guiding principle of the research is to holistically describe practical and effective components which can be derived from all directions, serving as guidance for further scientific research and practical application. The dissertation starts with a hermeneutic approach, allowing both the scientifically and practically interested reader to understand the main strands of management and leadership, leading to a new framework. An empirical study is also conducted, observing leadership in popular leadership literature as well as successful and engaging companies, with a highlight being the study of leadership in a globally operating company. The diversity of the factual study corresponds to the holistic approach of the dissertation and leads to the outlining of an Eclectic Leadership Model, which unites essential principles and provides focus for them. Finally, the thesis concludes with an outline of how to acquire and implement eclectic leadership in the corporate context. It is impressive due to its scope, detailed knowledge, depth, and analytical level of reflection. The Eclectic Leadership Model enriches the current discussion on leadership, uniting opposing

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perspectives and relating science and practice. The indisputable findings support the thesis that effective leadership requires a dialectic of transactional management and transformational leadership, as well as a decisive personality of the leader and the inclusion of follower needs. Further studies are required to apply the Eclectic Leadership Model in different contexts, and it is hoped that the model will be socialized and popularized to demonstrate its practicality. Leadership will continue to be a relevant topic, especially for the emerging generation of leaders in the 21st century. I would like to thank the author for his outstanding valuable and inspiring work. It deserves wide distribution as it provides an effectively applicable contribution to our community. Cologne, Germany

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin R. Wolf

Foreword by Prof. Dr. PhDr. Robert Sturm

Whether in business, politics, or society, I am constantly confronted with the question of how exactly leadership is to be understood, how it can be designed in the best possible way, and, above all, how leadership should look in concrete terms and how it should be learned if it is to produce the best possible results for the respective institution. Despite numerous publications on this topic, it has not yet been possible to close this gap. Both on the scientific side, the research results stand unconnected to each other and have not really led to a comprehensive answer, and on the popular side, although there are countless approaches, they stand just as unconnected to each other, contradict each other and leave more questions than answers. Dr. Hagemann has succeeded in building up a horizon of answers with his extraordinarily scientifically well-founded, intellectually demanding, and practical application-oriented thesis. This in itself is an achievement that cannot be overestimated since theory and practice are often completely detached from each other. Both the hermeneutic and the empirical analysis in this thesis show that the basic principles of holistic, application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership can be described with the duality of transactional management and transformational leadership principles, taking into account core traits and alignment with follower needs. These in turn lead to a collection of essential principles for effective leadership known as the “eclectic leadership framework”. The essential finding is that the basic principles are complementary and that a clear focus on people and their needs is the most effective way to lead. The solidity of the framework proves itself in its promising implementation. In order to build a bridge between theory and practice, the thesis concludes with a description of the holistic framework, an orientation towards implementation, and perspectives for

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acquirement resp. adoption, to reflect more deeply on the question of how this framework can be translated into practice and concretely adopted by leaders resp. managers. The thesis is rightly seen as a paradigm shift so that both the academic and the practitioner world are strongly advised to study, consult and apply this fundamental work in depth. In the future, it will no longer be necessary to build up another model of functioning leadership but rather to ask how the principles of leadership can be learned even more and even better—also in different cultural contexts. Therefore, I wish the author a wide dissemination of his thesis—beyond the world of science—because, properly applied, fundamental questions of human appreciation, but also organizational effectiveness, are positively and successfully answered from the Eclectic Leadership Model. I wish the author a wide distribution of this thesis and many users much success! Neuhausen, Switzerland

Prof. Dr. PhDr. Robert Sturm

Abstract

The starting point of this thesis on the topic ‘A leadership paradigm shift to “Eclectic Leadership”: The development of principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework including perspectives for their acquirement and implementation’ is a twofold observation. From a scientific perspective, there are a bewilderingly large number of theses and models on the topic of leadership, most of which stand unconnected next to each other, partly contradict each other, and overall do not provide an overarching framework for this basic topic that is unanimously considered important. From a practical perspective, many concepts and methods can also be found, which in turn often describe their own as the only promising model. Therefore, this work aims to develop leadership principles from both directions—the scientific and the practical perspectives—that are applicationoriented, universally applicable, and effective and flow into a holistic leadership framework. This holistic perspective also leads to the search for and application of the appropriate methodology, which proceeds both hermeneutically-synthetically and empirically-inductively. In the hermeneutic study, core elements of the respective understanding of leadership are investigated both historically and systematically using a summative analysis and an integrative review. The empirical investigation is designed so broadly that it contains as many elements as possible that can be approached inductively. Popular leadership literature is examined using the integrative review, and best-performing companies and the corresponding leadership approaches of attractive and committed enterprises are also consulted by observing the available material concerning the research question. Both methods are

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supplemented by a practical examination, which is carried out on the hermeneutic side as a review of a case study and on the empirical side as a study through interviews with managers of an internationally operating company. Both the hermeneutic and the empirical analysis show that the basic principles of holistic, application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership can be described with the duality of transactional management and transformational leadership principles, taking core traits and alignment with follower needs into account. These in turn lead to a collection of essential principles of effective leadership known as the Eclectic Leadership Framework. The essential finding is that the basic principles are complementary and that a clear focus on people and their needs is the most effective way to lead. The solidity of the framework is supported by its promising implementation. To build a bridge between theory and practice, the thesis concludes with a description of the holistic framework, an orientation towards implementation, and perspectives for the acquirement and adoption, to reflect more deeply on the question of how this framework can be translated into practice and concretely adopted by leaders and managers.

Contents

1 Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Research Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Structure of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 3 10

2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Critical Literature Review of Meta-Analyses of Chronological and Systematic Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Critical Literature Review of Individual Attempts to Create a Comprehensive or Holistic Leadership Model Independent of the Existing Ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Critical Literature Review of Individual Approaches to Building a New, Inclusive Meta-Model From Existing Leadership Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 Theoretical Frame for the Research—Research Design and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Epistemological Overview of Relevant Principles of Scientific Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 The Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Hermeneutic-Synthetic Insight into Leadership Principles and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 The Origins of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Evolutionary Insights into Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.3

4.4

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4.6 4.7

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4.2.1 Introduction and Historical Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Systematic Evolutionary Leadership Research . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership From the Industrial Revolution to the 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Scientific Management Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Administrative Management Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 The Beginning of Human Management Theories . . . . . . 4.3.4 Trait-Oriented Management Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5 Contingency Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.6 Behavioural Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.7 Autocratic, Democratic and Laissez-Faire Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modern Leadership Theories Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Emotionally Intelligent Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Transactional and Transformational Leadership . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Servant Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Holistic Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.5 Positive Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.6 Spiritual Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.7 Integral Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.8 Other Leadership Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership Approaches From a Neuroleadership Perspective . . . 4.5.1 Content Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effective Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Additional Leadership Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1 Leadership in Other Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2 Culture-Specific Leadership? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3 The Dark Side of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interim Result and Quintessence: Principles for an Application-Oriented, Universally Applicable, and Effective Leadership Framework From a Hermeneutic-Synthetic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 Science meets reality—empirical investigation of leadership approaches in literature and companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Leadership approaches in popular leadership literature . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Methodological preliminary considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Leadership models from Amazon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Leadership models from the NYT Bestseller List . . . . . . 5.1.4 Leadership models from Business Insider . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Leadership models from TopManagementDegrees.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.6 Synopsis and result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Leadership in successful companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Heuristic-methodological pre-reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Microsoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco) . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5 Amazon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6 Alphabet/Google . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.7 Facebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.8 Tencent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.9 Tesla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.10 Alibaba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.11 Berkshire Hathaway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.12 Summary and evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Leadership at the best/most popular companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Samsung Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 IBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Adobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.4 BMW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.5 Daimler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Leadership in attractive enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Leadership for engaged employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Synopsis and preliminary result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 Practical examination and review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Example Case: Oxygen Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Empirical Study in a Dax-30 Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Methodological Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Discussion and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Classification in the Overall Ductus of the Work . . . . . .

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7 Eclectic Leadership as a New and Summarising Model of Effective Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Summary of Results: Principles From Which an Application-oriented, Universally Applicable, and Effective Leadership Framework can be Formed . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Comparison with selected management and leadership approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Restrictions and Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8 Looking to the Future: A Contribution to Leadership Futures Research for Acquiring, Learning, and Implementing Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Existing Learning Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Principles of Adult Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Who Learns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 What is Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Leadership Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2 Transactional Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.3 Transformational Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 How to Learn—Learning Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Fulfil Basic Follower Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Systemic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 The Leadership Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 Further Research—Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abbreviations

ABL ACES ACTIVE AKTIV ALE AQAL C-Suite EG EOS EQ ER ERIC GLOBE GPTW GROW HR IC II IM IS KPI LMX MLQ NYT

Adobe Business Leadership Analytical Conceptual Emotional Spiritual Analysis Consistency Profile Transformation Inconsistency Avoidance Verification Analyse Konsistenzprofil Transformation Inkonsistenzvermeidung Vereinbarung Adobe Leadership Experience All Quadrants All Levels C-level position (e.g.: CEO) External Goal Entrepreneurial Operating System Emotional Intelligence External Reward Education Resources Information Center Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Great Place To Work Goal Reality/Resource Options Will/Wrap-up Human Resources Individualized Consideration Idealised influence Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Key Performance Indicator Leader-Member-Exchange-Theory Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire New York Times

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OKR PERFEKT PERMA ROTC SCARF SD SDT SQ TLF US USP VW

Abbreviations

Objectives and Key Results Potenzialförderung Ermutigung Rückmeldung Freiheit Emotionale Führung Kommunikation Transparenz Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning, Accomplishment Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, Reserve Officers’ Training Corps Status Certainty Autonomy Relatedness Fairness Standard Deviation Self Determination Theory Spiritual Intelligence Transformational leadership Framework United States of America Unique Selling Proposition Volkswagen

List of Figures

Figure 3.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2

Figure Figure Figure Figure

5.3 7.1 8.1 8.2

Overview of the holistic research approach adopted in this thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 10 largest companies in the world by market capitalization in 2021 in billion $ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adapted from Roger Rosner’s Discretionary Leadership: https://hbr.org/2020/11/how-apple-is-organi zed-for-innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Net income of Microsoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eclectic Leadership Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learning path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38 145

147 149 217 233 241

xxiii

List of Tables

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8

Table Table Table Table Table

5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20

Published articles according to leadership style . . . . . . . . . . . Human needs—summary from different authors . . . . . . . . . . Holistic leadership overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data sources for leadership book analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amazon books with Full Leadership model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amazon’s overall TA/TF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amazon ranking places 1–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amazon’s TA/TF from average places 1–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ranking Frequency places 1–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ranking >1 and transactional/transformational . . . . . . . . . . . Numbers and percentage of books in respective places 1–10 in NYT bestseller list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Top 28 books according to different topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NYT bestsellers Books and personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Books and transactional/transformational leadership . . . . . . . Business Insider’s 31 most influential business books . . . . . Books from TopManagementDegrees.com, evaluated on transactional/transformational and leadership personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synopsis of the top books from all sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison and analysis of top bestsellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of company evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Best companies and respective Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GPTW and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gallup and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synopsis of all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 83 95 105 108 111 114 115 116 118 124 125 127 128 131

135 138 140 157 161 168 171 174

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List of Tables

Table Table Table Table

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Table Table Table Table Table

6.5 6.6 8.1 8.2 8.3

Range of age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Span of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interviews—responses to questions according to main topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MLQ-6s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task-relationship-relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learning concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership competency learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learning needs with EQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189 190 190 192 196 203 225 239 244

1

Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

While the topic of leadership is considered an implicit basic concept in human history, its scientific reflection and practical orientation are still a recent phenomenon. In the first approach to the research project, the environment will be spotlighted, from which the research question will then emerge and the structure of this thesis results.

1.1

Introduction

The phenomenon of leadership is ubiquitous. In purely linguistic terms, the expression ‘leading one’s life’ highlights the fact that leadership, understood in the broadest sense, can be construed as a principle of human existence. Strictly speaking, this phenomenon is not limited to humanity at all, but can also be observed in the animal world (Allee et al., 1947; Conradt & Roper, 2007; Couzin et al., 2005). In the course of the past 70 years, and exponentially increasing in recent decades, the phenomenon of leadership has been studied to such an extent that one of the best-known researchers was able to say more than 40 years ago: ‘Leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth’ (Burns, 1978, p. 2). The mass of new models and attempts to formulate leadership in novel and different ways has exacerbated the problem. Even the definition of leadership is a challenge, as ‘there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept’ (Stogdill, 1974, p. 259). In 2012, Barbara Kellerman noted that there are about 1,500 definitions and over 40 theories of leadership (Kellerman, 2012). Only a few years later, other researchers counted more than 60 leadership theories (Mango, 2018). As early as 2013, Harvard reported that, including the popular literature, over 15,000 books on leadership have been published (Shinagel, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_1

1

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Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

2013). A Google Scholar search on leadership yields over 5 million hits. One of the books that deal most extensively with the topic of leadership in the Germanspeaking world is ‘Führen und Führen lassen’, which describes the phenomenon of leadership on more than 900 pages (Neuberger, 2002). Year after year there are new publications. Another example is the book ‘Aktuelle Führungstheorien und -konzepte’ by Rainhart Lang and Irma Rybnikova, recently published in its second edition, which has ‘only’ 540 pages (Rybnikova & Lang, 2021). On the one hand, the brief overview presented here already indicates where the problem lies: the many unconnected, juxtaposed, partly contradictory concepts that do not build on each other create confusion. A scientific approach would lead one to expect that novel discoveries would build on old ones, that various theses would be put forward, and subsequently be tested or even refuted, and that in this respect a learning process would emerge, and deeper knowledge would grow. Although a deeper understanding of leadership certainly emerges over time, a holistically epistemologically grounded learning and building process can only be observed in a rudimentary way in the scientific context. On the other hand, the simultaneous growth in the number of popular frameworks, theories, and concepts, which are often based on scientific knowledge with little or no reflection, further contributes to the lack of clarity in the field. Almost 30 years ago, Hogan et al. (1994) already indicated that there is a gap between scientific research and practical relevance, so that on the one hand there are countless scientific studies and on the other hand there are some key popular leadership books that are still being studied and which are only partially aligned with scientific research. The call for a closer alignment between theory and practice has frequently been raised by renowned researchers, with several noting that ‘There is a lack of collaborative effort between academics and practitioners’ (Gordon & Yukl, 2004, p. 359). More than 10 years ago, the renowned researcher Barbara Kellerman also noted that something was fundamentally wrong here, as popular dissemination and scientific research on leadership were diametrically opposed: ‘I’m uneasy, increasingly so, about leadership in the twenty-first century and the gap between the teaching of leadership and the practice of leadership’ (Kellerman, 2012, p. 136). The ductus of this work follows these latter views of renowned scholars and focuses on the problem that arises from the fact that the extensive preoccupation with the topic of leadership in the past decades—which can be observed from the exponentially increasing volume of publications—does not seem to solve the challenges associated with leadership.

1.2 The Research Question

3

The challenge is twofold. From a scientific perspective, the need to build a common, comprehensive framework out of the multitude of topics is becoming increasingly clear. From a practical perspective, there is a growing need to cover the phenomenon of leadership in-depth and to also build a corresponding framework in this context. The objection that a further framework is simply to be added to the existing ones is contradicted by the structure and direction of this study. It is not about adding a framework at the same level, but about researching whether there can be a truly comprehensive framework that encompasses all the individual theories, models, and currently unconnected frameworks, which helps to better process the existing ones from a holistic view and makes them more effectively applicable, and what such a framework could look like. When academia and practice move further away from each other instead of towards each other, theory loses relevance, while practice becomes scientifically incorrect or unproven (Anderson et al., 2001), and subsequently academic knowledge about leadership and practical relevance diverge too much (Latham, 2014). Academic action is needed here. Furthermore, the question arises whether the leadership models of the past are no longer applicable or need to be re-interpreted and re-understood, so that, for example, Martin (2018) posits a completely new approach to leadership—non-traditional leadership—that integrates change and transformation in particular. The deeper motivation that led to the emergence of this work is thus, in summary, to be found in the need to provide clarity and assistance in the holistic understanding of leadership. Clarity is to be provided from a conceptual perspective, to examine the various theories concerning what they have in common and to distil the essentials of leadership in practice; assistance is needed, both to give scientific research a new basis from which to continue its investigations in this field and to provide a framework for practical application from which concrete leadership concepts can be derived. A common theme that runs through this work is the aspect of facilitating a dialogue between theory and practice as described by Zaccaro and Horn (2003) which is accomplished by working both hermeneutically and empirically, and examining leadership theories, their implementation concepts, and the leadership models of practice in depth as the object of investigation and final synthesis.

1.2

The Research Question

While the topic of ‘leadership’ itself is old in the history of mankind, as an explicit reflection of the role of an individual in relation to others in the context

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Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

of organisations, it is still a relatively young topic. Prompted by industrialisation and organisational development, it has been increasingly developed and reflected upon over the last few decades. However, precisely because of this, different approaches have been planned and carried out, which for their part lack the big picture on the one hand and the presentation of the decisive elements of successful leadership on the other. The fact that the scientific treatment of the topic of leadership has increased exponentially in the past decades shows that it is a topic that is highly significant, interesting for research, and relevant for practice. At the interface of theory and practice, the question then arises as to how, on the one hand, the scientific topic (originating from practice) can be researched in a theoretical reflection in such a way that it provides impulses relevant to practice for effective implementation and how, on the other hand, practical application and experience provide impulses for scientific theory and valid method formation. In other words: where does the topic of leadership pose questions for science from a practical perspective and in which cases can theoretical reflection provide impulses for practical implementation? Leadership in practice that is not theoretically grounded and develops further with corresponding impulses, and theoretical reflection that has no relevance to practice each lead to dead ends. From a theoretical perspective, although many individual scientific tasks can still be derived to deal with this vast subject, as seen for instance in the topics of virtual, digital, mindful, agile, or spiritual leadership, this work takes a different research direction. In the background of the practical experience of leadership, there is usually one main question, namely ‘How does leadership actually work and what does leadership have to be like so that it has the best possible outcome for all stakeholders involved?’ Over time, this question has been discussed in many different ways, in ever new attempts, from many different perspectives, and with various novel impulses. As a result, a wide variety of principles and models have emerged, sometimes in conjunction with each other, but on the whole unconnected, sometimes contradictory and at best complementary, as the literature review will show. By definition, scientific research aims to systematically promote knowledge and develop its methods. In theoretical work, theses are developed, tested, and verified or falsified; in empirical work, observations are analysed, interpreted, and conclusions are drawn. The topic of leadership has already been examined many times and extensively from many perspectives and many findings have been systematised and published, which will be presented in broad lines in the course of the work. However, it is precisely when extensive detailed work is carried out and countless facets of one large topic are discovered that the question concerning

1.2 The Research Question

5

the big picture arises, especially regarding the common aspects that give unity to the various concepts and can also be practically utilised. The twofold perspective on leadership that results from this reflection has several implications. From a theoretical perspective, it can be said that, especially in an environment characterised by information overload, parallel societies, discontinuities, and continuously evolving agile adaptability challenges, the question of simplicity of presentation and insight arises. Every single leadership principle, model, consideration, and practical suggestion may—depending on the individual personality, the person to be led, and the context—set important and correct suggestions and implementation initiatives in motion. The danger, however, lies in the dispersed and ineffective application of models that seem to work in one context but come to nothing in another. From a preliminary literature check, it can be deduced that there are a few attempts that systematise different approaches and, in some cases, create meta-models. These erratic approaches, as the initial review shows, have systematic and structural limitations. However, they do indicate that there is a scholarly interest in examining different approaches from the perspective of their unifying essence to derive new impulses for future research. The existing attempts will thus have to be examined in depth. From the second perspective on the topic, namely the utilisation of theoretical research for practical application, some research guiding aspects can also be derived as the topic of leadership is interpreted differently in various contexts. ‘How does effective leadership work?’ is the summarising and comprehensive question that practitioners in a wide variety of professions, social and societal contexts of life, and also different branches of research ask themselves. Excluded from this work are possible unethical leadership approaches that aim to determine how to gain as much power and self-interest as possible, even if they could bring disaster, manipulate people, or otherwise define and implement unethical practices that are against the common values of humanity. Among all ethically defensible approaches, principles, and models, the practitioner wants to know what he can concretely implement, which model he can follow, or which principles he can lead to application. Due to the multitude of models, the practitioner’s search for guiding principles or principles on what form leadership should take today currently leads nowhere. In principle, it could be asked whether principles of leadership that are generally valid or easily applicable can be derived at all. The assumption of the existence of connecting and common elements of different leadership frameworks and principles as well as their simplicity in terms of implementation is a basic one that results from an initial review of the material. However, if it should emerge

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Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

based on the findings that all concepts and models stand completely unconnected next to each other, have nothing in common, and that leadership looks different for each person, this would also be an important insight. In this context, an analogy may help explain the research perspective. Imagine that there were countless studies on the subject of driving. In addition to the historical origins, the use of different models, the latest findings on environmentally friendly driving, the implications of side topics such as listening to meditative music while driving, the relationship of the driving style to the car, passengers, other cars, the infrastructure, and to the environment, to driving in different countries and with different personalities, there would also be topics on how to drive ‘effectively’. One would probably define the effective or successful driver as the one who avoids accidents, is anticipatory, environmentally friendly, limits costs, acts sustainably, is independent of personal style or the respective country, or who could drive fast and there would be a multitude of studies on each of these individual topics. Nevertheless, the question would then arise as to what the essence of successful driving is. What are the three main principles of successful driving? The answer to this question could be derived from a variety of approaches. One would be able to distil the essence from a multitude of theoretical books and articles, but also draw the right conclusions from practical observation and the study of relevant literature as well as from everyday observations. The result would be an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective driving model from which learning implications would have to be derived. Every analogy evokes the determination of inequalities and driving a car and leading people naturally have many of these inequalities and differences. Nevertheless, analogies can point to something in a different way than rationally deductively composed lines of reasoning. The core of this analogy is the multiplicity of models and the desire and need to reduce these to their essentials. Thus, in the analogy of driving a car, one could elaborate as a research result that the description of the same or similar elements of effective driving is essential for the scientific study of successful driving. And, also from a practical perspective, it would be essential to describe the main principles of successful driving to further develop successful driving from there. The use of the analogy can make explicit what the challenge of the research topic is and how it is to be unfolded. Leaving the analogy behind, however, further elements will be described that guide the research question. In addition to the common, comprehensive, holistic model, the concept of success or effectiveness has already emerged although the term ‘effective leadership’ will still need to be defined. In order to ask the right research question, preliminary questions first emerge such as: ‘What is the essence, meaning and goal of leadership?’

1.2 The Research Question

7

Here, too, a variety of approaches and formulations are possible. Does leadership exist at all, is it important, and is it needed? Should leadership engage, motivate, lead towards a goal, contain financial goals, and be individual-, group-, or organisation-centred? A variety of orientations are possible. Since this work comprehensively deals with the topic of leadership in general but also focuses on the topic of leadership in organisations in a business context, a description of leadership is sought that is both as comprehensive as possible but also sufficiently concrete. Here, the elements of effective leadership suggest themselves, whereby the question of effective leadership is in itself an assumption. Naturally, one could also question whether leadership should have any effect at all. Analogous to ‘you cannot not communicate’ (Watzlawick), one could claim: ‘you cannot lead without impact’ as a quick reflection immediately reveals that every instance of leadership and non-leadership has at least one impact. One can also consider the effects of leadership that do have an impact but are nevertheless ineffective in the corporate or political context because they do not initiate change in the long run. For example, leadership could ensure that those being led are satisfied—without, however, generating a measurable economic consequence. In this work, the question of effective leadership in the sense of producing results is posed. The guiding principle of the research is to determine the principles of a leadership model that drives effectiveness. Another element of the research question is application orientation. An initial review of the research literature on leadership shows that although a large number of models are theoretically meaningful and there is also an empirical study for almost every new approach, the practical relevance is sometimes intransparent or at least not self-explanatory if the model is too complicated, complex, and not user-oriented enough. Therefore, the application orientation is a guiding principle of the research question. This means, first of all, a general relationship in the direction of application. That is, principles are not sought that are generally valid but have nothing to do with practice but rather principles of effective leadership that can be implemented, both for the user and the object. An application-oriented leadership principle thus includes, on the one hand, an orientation towards the follower and, on the other hand, the ease of carrying out the leadership activity. Another element that results from the effort to simplify and find universally valid principles can be summarised under the term ‘universal leadership’ which is commonly understood to mean models or principles that are valid across cultures. Cultural specifics and culturally universal components of leadership form separate objects of research. However, in this context, universal can also be understood analogously to holistic. While holistic is often understood as an expression of the

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Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

integration of personality traits, universal is understood as the validity or applicability to cultural, situational, contextual, trait- and individual-specific personality traits. Since there are always the above-mentioned specifics, universally applicable means the level above, i.e. characteristics of leadership that are applicable regardless of culture, situation, context, trait, and personality. To avoid arriving at banal, generally accepted behaviours whose relevance is minimised by their generality, this research work understands universal applicability to mean the potentiality of the concrete application of a characteristic that is independent of the situation, context, and personality trait; a potentiality that may or may not become apparent depending on the circumstances. Since the background of this research work is the unconditional relevance to practice as a ‘proof of concept’ and thus as an indispensable quality criterion, the research question can be outlined along the following system based on the preceding discussion and reflection. Firstly, the interest lies in determining the principles of effective leadership from which a leadership model can be derived that is valid in as many situations and contexts as possible. Universal applicability means applicability independent of context, situation, and personality. The question of cross-cultural principles can always be considered in the margins but must remain open when the investigation takes on an in-depth approach, as it contains its own research topic. In order to be able to present both the hermeneutic holistic aspect and the practical implementation-oriented aspect, principles should be sought that are application-oriented. Application orientation means turning to the follower and ease of application. Before the actual research question can be posed, two aspects must be considered: firstly, the question of how leadership is to be understood, also in relation to ‘management’, and secondly, the question of what is understood by principles and a leadership model or framework. At this point, the focus does not yet lie on the semantic distinction, historical development, and classification of leadership and management, but rather on an initial distinction and classification of the two terms and the concepts behind them with regard to the research question. For many years now, a distinction has been made between management and leadership. Managers tend to stand for processes, problem-solving, and goal achievement whereas leadership is more about enthusiasm, the ‘big picture’, and influence (Zaleznik, 2004). Many definitions draw on the famous distinction between efficiency and effectiveness, whereby leadership means ‘doing the right thing’ and management ‘doing things right’ (Bennis & Goldsmith, 2003). John Kotter’s distinction is also well known

1.2 The Research Question

9

in this context. He regards management more as planning, budgeting, organising, staffing, controlling, and problem-solving, and leadership more as vision, alignment, motivation, and influence (Kotter, 2015). However, it is increasingly being seen that both aspects belong together and that ‘true leaders are also managers’ (Sutton, 2011). Almost 50 years ago, Skogdill said that ‘management is the technology of human accomplishment’ (Hamel, 2012). Therefore, the research first works with the term leadership, which does not necessarily exclude managerial tasks, or with the term management, which also includes ‘leading’ as a task. Leadership and management are thus both used for the concept of the task of a person responsible for achieving goals with the involvement of others, whereby leadership tends to emphasise the aspects of vision, motivation, and commitment, and management tends to focus on organisation, planning, and problem-solving. A leader is willing, able, and given the mandate to achieve a larger goal of a group of people beyond individual goals by coordinating, cooperating, and inspiring, thereby giving the individual and the group an advantage that has a positive impact on the environment. What is also deliberately viewed broadly is the level of leadership as one could distinguish between C-level, middle management, and frontline leadership and there may be special questions for all three levels. On the other hand, one could make even more distinctions, such as how large the leadership span is, whether the leader himself is the direct report of another (as is the case in most instances), and which very different tasks the respective leader has, etc. While all these distinctions are important and have been dealt with in thousands of studies, the ductus of this study is different as it attempts to examine the phenomenon of leadership from a higher or deeper perspective and thereby determine ‘what is always true’. Again, an analogy may help to illustrate this approach. Parenthood could be defined very broadly, for example with the concept of responsibility, which takes on different forms at different times, but always remains a role characterised by responsibility. However, being a parent to a two-year-old child definitely looks different than it does in the case of an 18-year-old or 30-year-old child. Nevertheless, there is always the phenomenon of being a parent. Despite its limitations, the analogy illustrates the underlying emphasis of the research, namely to describe principles that are so comprehensive that they apply and can be used in different situations, while simultaneously also being so concrete that they offer tangible indications for implementation that can be further developed depending on the situation.

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Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

The definition of leadership is therefore deliberately kept broad because the answer to the research question is part of the problem that there are so many different definitions of leadership and management, some of which are mutually exclusive or prominently juxtaposed. Finally, the question of what is understood by principles remains to be answered. The Latin principium means beginning, origin, or basis (Pfeifer, 1993). Principles are therefore elements that are referred to, stand above something, are greater or more fundamental, and thus are the basis for something else. In the context of the research question, it is therefore in the broadest sense about elements that are formative for leadership. The context is then also made even clearer by the descriptive elements of the principles: it is about a certain foundation of leadership, namely that which is generally valid, application-oriented, and effective—as described above. These principles subsequently form a leadership framework that fulfils the above criteria and, in this sense, is comprehensive and holistic. Accordingly, the following research question arises from the above considerations: From which principles can an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework be derived and what could the approaches for the acquirement/adoption and implementation of such a framework look like?

1.3

Structure of the Thesis

The relevance of why it makes sense to go in search of principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership model has already been alluded to, namely that the topic of leadership continues to receive a great deal of academic and popular attention. Since this work approaches the research matter with a comprehensive, holistic view, while subsequently also exploring the essential principles that are scientifically sound but also have practical relevance, it indicates that both hermeneutic and empirical work is done. However, after the formulation of the research question in this first chapter, the journey of discovery commences with a literature review in the second chapter, which examines whether it has been attempted to approach the research question as a whole or also in parts and if so, which attempts have been made to date.

1.3 Structure of the Thesis

11

The third chapter is dedicated to the design of the methodology whereby the most suitable methods for answering the research question in the best possible way are determined. Following the holistic nature of the work, a comprehensive approach is also chosen here. Since the work adopts many different perspectives on one reality to derive valid and reliable results, different methods are needed for various contents. These will then be explored and explicated in more detail in the respective sub-chapters. In the fourth chapter, the first major methodological focus is on hermeneuticsynthetic research on the research question. The aim is to distil answers to the research question along the main findings of the different research strands in a large historical-systematic throw. For systematic heuristic reasons, two focal points are set. Firstly, insights from evolutionary history are researched in depth, since evolutionary facts have a direct impact on the universality, application orientation, and ultimately also the effectiveness of the principles. Secondly, the same applies to neuro-leadership in which the answers to human needs are examined for their leadership relevance. In all sub-chapters, it is always a matter of extracting the essential elements of how application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective the description of leadership is in the wealth of material, before consolidating the findings and examining them for their essential characteristics. This chapter concludes with a first major summary. The fifth chapter is dedicated to the second major part of this research, namely the empirical-inductive approach to the research question. The first major focus is on observing leadership in popular leadership literature from different sources. The subsequent chapters approach the research topic with a ‘reverse question’. Based on the assumption that leadership affects the success, popularity, and attractiveness of an organisation, and the engagement of its employees, which still has to be shown, it is then asked what kind of leadership can be distilled in the corresponding companies or approaches for attractiveness and engagement. In the sixth chapter, a practice-oriented approach is chosen, as the research question is of interest from both a scientific and a practical implementation perspective. The practical examination and review, i.e. the examination or comparison of the results, again considers both methodological perspectives: from a hermeneutic-synthetic perspective, the Oxygen Project is examined with regard to its practical implementation, and from an empirical-inductive perspective, an empirical investigation is conducted using interviews in a globally operating company. Both studies serve as a practical reality check and lead to the drafting of a new leadership framework, which is developed in Chapter 7.

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Basic Principles and Explanation of the Research Project

Finally, the thesis ends with the thematic processing of acquisition/adoption/learning and implementation perspectives of the new leadership framework. On the one hand, this chapter provides a future outlook and, on the other hand, serves to make the application orientation of the research question more tangible. As long as leadership models and frameworks are only theoretical models without practical relevance, they will not lead to a real change in the understanding of leadership. Therefore, the outline of a concrete application orientation paves the way for the acceptance and relevance of the newly developed Eclectic Leadership Framework.

2

Literature Review

The history of the development of leadership theories has produced many different models over time. However, it should be noted that the history of theories has demonstrably not been one of building on and developing each other but rather that certain themes developed over time that sometimes simply emerged side by side and only later, and even then only partially, referred to each other as indicated in the literature by the critical remark that ‘different theoretical perspectives are neither compared nor combined in meaningful ways’ (Glynn, M. A., & Raffaelli, R., 2010, p. 390). The opposite is true for the diversity of methodology as 85% of all studies use quantitative research, which reinforces the trend of testing already existing theses without considering others (Glynn, M. A., & Raffaelli, R., 2010). Since qualitative methods are more likely to be used to establish new theses or develop novel theories, their infrequent use indicates the lack of real dialogue between the different approaches. To systematise the multitude of literature and narrow it down with regard to the main research question of this thesis, a threefold approach is pursued in the critical literature review. • A critical literature review of meta-analyses of chronological and systematic papers is performed. • A critical literature review of individual attempts to create a comprehensive or holistic leadership model (but independent of existing ones) is conducted. • A critical literature review of individual approaches to building a new inclusive meta-model resp. -framework from existing leadership theories is undertaken.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_2

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Critical Literature Review of Meta-Analyses of Chronological and Systematic Papers

In addition to trait theories, which primarily refer to the personality of the leader, the best-known major theories are behavioural theories, which assume that leadership can be learned (‘made leaders’ not ‘born leaders’), and contingency theories, which primarily consider leadership situations, and the ‘new theories’, under which countless different approaches are subsumed. Over time, individual works have both attempted to look back chronologically and systematically find and name commonalities in research. In addition, there are more comprehensive approaches that look back over several decades. The set of leadership theories including their mutual demarcation challenges and cultural biases have only occasionally been criticised (Uslu, 2019) and hence only the broad lines can and should be pointed out. First of all, there are individual attempts by researchers who have tried to find similarities between the different leadership directions and integrate various aspects. Almost half a century ago, Ralph Melvin Stogdill (1974) already said that the amount of data on leadership had not yet led to an integral understanding of leadership. House and Shamir (1993), for example, tried to integrate transformational and charismatic or visionary models while DeRue et al. (2011) examined how leadership effectiveness is influenced by traits and behaviours and developed an integrated trait-behavioural model. Chemers (2000) tried to integrate all known models under a new triad of image management (a leader must generate trust among subordinates), relationship development (a leader motivates individual and collective goal achievement), and resource deployment (a leader ensures the effective use of material and immaterial resources). In addition to the individual attempts, more comprehensive approaches have been undertaken that look back on several decades of leadership research and try to systematise the different directions. For example, Lord et al. (2017) present their research based on three waves, paying particular attention to the publication of articles in The Journal of Applied Psychology. The first wave up to 1961 is entitled ‘behavioural’; the second, up to 1989, summarises several topics, such as gender, social cognitive, contingency, or transformational leadership approaches; and the third wave up to 2007 is subsumed under trait, team, and transformational and charismatic leadership. Although the presentation and summary of the topics are impressive, this approach raises many questions. First, the singling out of certain articles without a clear criteriology is surprising, especially since it includes a particular psychological perspective of the journal. Secondly, the topics seem arbitrarily chosen and occasionally overlap. Gender leadership, for example, is

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also a highly topical issue today and it is thus surprising that it was only chosen as a topic until 1989. A different approach is taken in the review of three decades of the well-known academic journal The Leadership Quarterly. This shows, with other main themes, which topics were predominant in the different decades: In the first decade (1990–1999), most articles turned to neo-charismatic approaches (34%) such as charismatic leadership (26%) or transformational leadership (18%) while the second-largest groups are new directions (14%) and prominent approaches (14%). Contingency theories (12%) contain many individual approaches that do not occur so frequently in themselves (Lowe & Gardner, 2000). In the second decade (2000–2009), the share of the neo-charismatic leadership group still comprises a large number (12.6%) but this clearly decreased compared to previous years while multiple-level approaches (13%) and the category of new directions (44.4%) are also highly rated (W. L. Gardner et al., 2010). From the evaluation, it is clear that the share of and interest in the classic leadership theories such as trait theories, contingency theories, power, and behavioural theories has fallen sharply. In the third decade studied (2010–2019), the research methodology is adapted to the focal theory which makes transformational leadership appear as the theory that has been studied the most, i.e. that has aroused the greatest interest (7.6 %). Equally numerous is the group of articles that cannot be assigned to any particular theory, i.e. not to a focal theory. The reason for this is, among other things, that these articles are based on several theories of which the third largest group is leadership development (5.8 %), followed by Leader-Member-Exchange-Theory (LMX) (5.7 %), and trait theories (5.0 %) (W. L. Gardner et al., 2020). Although these systematic historical attempts are impressive, one cannot derive greater clarity from them, and they have evidently not led to any real progress in the theory or practice of leadership. As scientists became more aware over time that there was an extensive multiplication of theories and models, and that the confusion relating to them was also increasing, there was a growing desire to standardise and simplify (Avolio, 2007). Some tried to find common ground by defining a new concept, such as the concept of ‘self-expansion’ (Dansereau et al., 2013). At the same time, the meta-analysis of leadership approaches increased the awareness that leadership should not be defined statically but rather dynamically in terms of the three main systems of the leader-follower-context (Dinh et al., 2014).

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According to Meuser et al. (2016) who examined 293 articles from the years 2000 to 2013, six leadership theories can be described as focal theories: transformational, charismatic, strategic, diverse, participative, and trait leadership. This is another attempt to bring ‘order’ into the multitude of approaches although the correlation of the different theories is still lacking here. Zhao and Li (2019) take a completely new approach to comparing and relating the different models and theories to each other. Using an IT-supported computerised approach (science mapping) they develop five clusters and 56 topic terms under which they group 2,115 leadership articles from 1990 to 2017. The five clusters (Zhao & Li, 2019) are: • • • • •

Leadership emergence and development Relational approach Change-related approach Top manager approach Emotional and cognitive approach

While articles in the first cluster deal with leadership development, including content that can usually be subsumed under ‘traits’ (such as age, personality, human capital, etc.), the second cluster is concerned with the relational approach. This classically includes the LMX theories. The third cluster, namely the change-related approach, not only covers all concepts related to transformational leadership, but also topics such as learning, motivation, self-efficacy, innovation, and creativity. The fourth cluster, the top manager approach, includes all topics related to strategic leadership, governance etc., but also charismatic or inspirational leadership. The fifth cluster contains the topics ‘emotion, cognition, identity, authentic leadership, and followership’ (Zhao & Li, 2019). Interestingly, the most frequently appearing topics are transformational leadership (cluster 3), human capital (cluster 1), LMX (cluster 2), personality (cluster 1), and charismatic leadership (cluster 4). The latter is not subsumed with transformational leadership under neo-charismatic approaches in this study but is viewed as a separate direction. Zhu et al. (2019) also use the visualisation tool CiteSpace to conduct a computerised bibliometric review of leadership articles from 1990 to 2017. In addition to the many individual results of this highly relevant study, for the present research area, it can be noted that at the top of the so-called ‘landmark works’, i.e. the articles or books that are very frequently co-cited, are works on transformational, charismatic, and transactional leadership (Zhu et al., 2019). While many

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articles in the first decade from 2000 onwards dealt with social exchange theory, the main focus in the second decade was on value-based leadership and the dark side of leadership and topics such as mutual influence instead of unilateral influence and team leadership were also important. The literature review of meta-analyses of chronological and systematic studies reveals several interesting aspects that are outlined here. The first literature review of meta-analyses of leadership models shows that there is a bewilderingly large number of leadership understandings, approaches, and models that have often developed side by side without building on each other, while the various attempts to systematise them chronologically and in terms of content come to very different results. At the same time, all studies uniformly highlight a great need to systematise a large number of leadership theories, standardise them, and create an overview of all the findings to date. The attempts at systematisation scale the theories according to the frequency of scientific debate and from there derive main themes that usually stand unconnected in relation to each other. There is no attempt to distil the essence, i.e. to derive authoritative and applicable principles from the multitude of theories. In particular, the aspects of the research question of this thesis are either touched on only marginally or not at all and no meta-analysis could be found that leaves a historical listing and distils the principles from which an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership model can be formed.

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Critical Literature Review of Individual Attempts to Create a Comprehensive or Holistic Leadership Model Independent of the Existing Ones

Unlike the chronological-systematic studies that reference many models and systematise them chronologically from a meta-perspective, some studies claim to design comprehensive (new) leadership models. These studies do not represent the great chronology and do not form a superordinate meta-model from existing models, but rather design new models using a novel kind of approach that is independent of existing and widely received models but claims to be comprehensive. Ambidextrous leadership theory Robert B. Duncan was the first to use the term ‘ambidextrous organisation’ (Duncan, 1976) although it was not until the 1990s that interest in the subject grew. In particular, James G. March (1991) conducted further research on the need

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for organisations to both work on normal ‘production’ or continuous improvement and efficiency (exploitation) and on innovative projects, with flexibility, experimentation, and risk-taking (exploration). Organisations that undertake both exploitation and exploration activities need appropriate management, although ambidextrous organisations and ambidextrous management cannot simply be equated. The bi-manual or ambidextrous management approach has been taken up over time by many authors, and also by companies, to show that effective management ensures that existing processes are successful while remaining open to new possibilities. Lis et al. (2018) present a systematic literature review and Rosing et al. (2011) describe a concept that defines ambidextrous leadership as the competence to exhibit opening behaviours for exploration, closing behaviours for exploitation, and the ability to switch between them. In doing so, other leadership styles, notably transactional and transformational, can be demonstrated. Although the concept of Gerlach et al. (2020) has been further developed, it has recently been refuted as being inadequate and weak in its conception (Klonek et al., 2020). Overall, it can be said that ambidextrous leadership contains interesting conceptions regarding innovation and leadership, or leadership and ambidextrous organisations, but that this theory cannot claim to be a comprehensive leadership theory. It is also a theory that claims to be comprehensive but is detached from most others (except transaction/transformational). Similarly, there are still many questions about the level (micro vs macro) of leadership and the factors that influence it (Mueller et al., 2020). However, what can be stated concerning the research topic from the study of ambidextrous leadership is that leadership is not static and that leaders must be able to show different types of leadership, according to different situations and people. Integrative leadership theory As early as the 1980s, Wofford (1982) presented an ‘Integrative Theory of Leadership’, the core of which is the ‘Leader-Environment-Follower-Interaction Model’. It is one of many models that does not comprehensively describe the applicable principles of leadership. Martin Chemers published a book in 1997 in which he presents and discusses the contemporary leadership theories of the time. He highlights the elements of social influence, the common task, and group activity that are constitutive of leadership (Chemers, 2014). From the overall perspective of the different models, the selection seems arbitrary and, while it is not factually incorrect, it does not constitute principles for an effective leadership model.

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Paramanandam (2021) also proposes an ‘Integrative Model of Leadership’, which indicates that the characteristics of leaders, followers, and the situation influence the performance outcomes and are all interrelated. However, apart from categorising and presenting or summarising different approaches, the model has no specific output. Hernandez et al. (2011) propose grouping all approaches under their locus (dyad, follower, context) and mechanism (affect). While this is another interesting systematisation, it nonetheless is weak in justification and enforcement. All the approaches mentioned attempt to systematise without deriving a real model and their direct application orientation is also only partially given. Nevertheless, a triad can be identified from the different approaches, which runs through all models as a comprehensive framework: in the triangle leader-follower-context, the constitutive elements of each model are represented from a systemic perspective. Furthermore, even in approaches that consciously want to disregard the situational context, it is precisely this fading out that is systemically relevant. Universal leadership theory In contrast to the situational leadership approach, which states that leaders should show a different type of leadership in different leadership situations, or contextual models, which assign leadership behaviours to different contexts, universal leadership approaches have attempted to formulate traits and skills that are universally valid regardless of the situation. For example, some behaviours are described that fundamentally improve leadership effectiveness but do not apply independently to all situations (Yukl, 2002). Others describe a new construct—albeit for the special model of expatriate leadership—consisting of the four dimensions of ability, adaptability, ambassadorship, and awareness (Jones et al., 2014). Hurt and Homan (2008) also describe four factors of universal leadership: consideration, task orientation, vision, and problem-solving. All these approaches are rather to be understood as not deeply founded individual attempts to derive universal principles of leadership. Many researchers understand universal leadership to mean cross-cultural leadership and have carried out corresponding studies, both in principle and, for example, with regard to the question of whether transformational leadership can be applied cross-culturally (Dickson et al., 2012; Hartog et al., 1999; House et al., 2002; Leong & Fischer, 2011). The studies by Hofstede (2001) which describe culture with the different dimensions of individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity-femininity, and long/short-term orientation, point to precisely these cultural differences, which can of course also be applied to leadership in the respective cultural context. This is particularly evident

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in the GLOBE project, which describes 64 different cultures with nine dimensions (House et al., 2002). Leadership characteristics have been described that are universal in the sense of being cross-culturally accepted (e.g., trustworthiness and honesty) or rejected (e.g., ruthlessness). Some leadership characteristics are also culturally contingent (e.g., risk-taking) (Hartog et al., 1999). Campbell (2005) describes nine universal leadership competencies that are especially required in view of globalisation (vision, management, empowerment, diplomacy, feedback, entrepreneurialism, personal style, personal energy, multi-cultural awareness), but without formulating a universal model. Some researchers fundamentally doubt whether it is possible to establish a universal leadership model at all (Wilson et al., 2018). When critically appreciating the concepts of universal leadership, it can first be said that especially the studies on cross-cultural leadership are important and interesting, as they consider that leadership in different cultural contexts can have common and different characteristics. The studies also show that the cultural conditions of leadership represent a separate field of research. At the same time, the respective approaches do not form their own—universally valid—model, but rather describe individual aspects of leadership that are culture-dependent or culture-independent. Research regarding the naming of ‘common’, ‘heterogeneous’, ‘synergetic’, or ‘synthetic’ leadership theory revealed that no theories are falling under these headings. A critical evaluation of the above-mentioned individual approaches to a comprehensive or holistic model can be summarised by stating that no model can claim to represent leadership in an application-oriented way in a truly universal model. However, individual findings should be pointed out that are interesting for the framework and should be considered including: • the realisation that leadership is not static but needs different imprints according to different situations. • the triad leader-follower-context, which provides the framework for each model. • cross-cultural leadership characteristics, which cover a separate field of research.

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Critical Literature Review of Individual Approaches to Building a New, Inclusive Meta-Model From Existing Leadership Theories

In addition to the approaches mentioned above, which—independently of existing models—aim to describe a comprehensive model, other approaches combine or elaborate commonalities or simply relate different theories to form a (new) metamodel. Two, in particular, are worth mentioning here. In 2015, Alberto Silva attempted to unify different leadership theories based on the triad leader-follower-context as complementary (A. Silva, 2015). He distinguishes between theories that are oriented toward the leader (e.g. trait, behaviour, contingency), theories that describe the relationship between the leader and follower (e.g. transformational, power-influence, servant, LMX, etc.), and models that describe the context in particular. According to Silva, either the combination or the mutual complementation of these three aspects results in four principles of an integrated leadership model (A. Silva, 2015): 1) Leadership means achieving goals in the triad of the leader-follower-context relationship. 2) Leaders are made and born, whereby the latter is not sufficient, i.e. leaders must be developed. 3) The main task of a leader is change (of followers and the organisation). 4) External factors (e.g. culture or historical context) significantly influence the leadership process. Concerning the research question, it can be said that fundamental principles are presented here, but they have not been compiled to form an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership model. Nevertheless, it is clear that the leader-follower-context triad is essential in this context. Secondly, Emmanuel Mango is one of the few researchers who try to relate the different leadership theories and models and form a new, comprehensive model in a real synthesis (Mango, 2018). He emphasises that making individual theories absolute is a mistake in itself, but on the other hand, it is clear that no one knows their way through the jungle of over 60 models and theories or can unite the essences of the different approaches. Mango distils 22 theories (Great Man, trait, psychodynamic leadership, authentic leadership, skills, behavioural, situational, Fiedler’s contingency leadership, Vroom-Yetton’s decision process, level-five leadership, adaptive leadership, charismatic leadership, Kouzes and Posner’s leadership challenge, transactional leadership, leader-member exchange,

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path-goal, transformational leadership, servant leadership, team leadership, strategic leadership, ethical leadership, and upper echelon) from all the models known to date. From these theories, an integrative and effective leadership model is described with six domains, namely character, characteristics, people practices, institutional practices, outcomes, and context (Mango, 2018). Even if Emmanuel Mango’s study does not answer the research question, fundamental insights are processed here, for example, that a comprehensive model must retain the existing categories to provide something like a toolbox that offers leaders different types of leadership in different situations. However, the practical relevance and applicability of the result are less clear in Mango’s work, as it focuses more on the theoretical view of the unified system. The—altogether few—attempts to align the different existing theories, unify them, and make them manageable, show how challenging it is to relate the approaches to each other from the meta-perspective and to create an approach that is so generally valid that it can be applied in different situations and sufficiently concrete that the practical relevance does not become obsolete. Essence of the literature review Although, or perhaps because, the topic of leadership has been examined in so many studies and from so many different perspectives, the literature review has identified several interesting insights: • A bewilderingly large number of theories, models, representations, and reflections on leadership have led to a broadly diversified landscape on the topic. Although the individual reflections do not build on each other, in certain years specific topics seem to be more relevant, new ones are developed, and older ones resurface. • There is a great need to systematise a large number of theories and attempts have been made to do so in individual studies. However, as these are again inconsistent in themselves, no essence in the sense of the research question is created from the systematisation. • In particular, there is no scientific study or meta-analysis that addresses the research topic of this thesis of establishing principles for an applicationoriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. • Even individual approaches such as ambidextrous, integral, or universal leadership approaches do not specify principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework.

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• The studies that form a meta-model from which principles could be derived are incoherent, not very application-oriented, and ultimately not universally applicable. Overall, it can be said that the literature review shows that no approach ties the different models together in a simple model or even creates a new model that is both effective and universal and has practical relevance. However, the literature review has also shown that it is important to understand and process the baselines for leadership as it has emerged in the different theories and models over time, without getting lost in the details. The question, therefore, arises as to which methodology can best answer the research question.

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Theoretical Frame for the Research—Research Design and Methodology

Every scientific approach is concerned with gaining knowledge using the appropriate methods and a purposeful, systematic process. Knowledge gain means that there is an insight into a fact that—without the research—would not have been apparent or well-established or would otherwise have remained unknown. The selection of methods that help answer the research question in a comprehensive, informed, reflective, and honest way is purposeful and goal-oriented so that the methods are appropriate to the goal. A systematic approach is understood as providing a structure that selects the appropriate methods concerning the objective. Applied to the content and procedure of this work, this means that for the research question of which principles can be used to form an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework, a research design can be described in such a way that this question can be answered meaningfully, methodologically soundly, and according to scientific criteriology. To present the methodological framework and the scientific procedure in this thesis in a well-founded manner, an epistemological overview of the principles of scientific research and methodological design relevant to the topic is first provided to classify the thesis correctly, not only in terms of content but also methodologically. Subsequently, the research methodology is reflected and explicated to discuss the research design in consideration of the overall research question and to describe the methodological procedure.

3.1

Epistemological Overview of Relevant Principles of Scientific Research

In the context of leadership, the epistemological question of the conditions of possibility of knowledge behind observable phenomena can be explored. In itself, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_3

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leadership is not a material object that can be measured, observed, and analysed in the laboratory. Since the methodological meta-discourse of this thesis is to be kept brief and strictly applied to the research question, only those epistemological topoi that have emerged from analytical systematic reflection around the topic of leadership will be named, discussed, and synthesised: history and evolutionary epistemology; the conception of man and philosophy of mind; sociology and systemics; pragmatism and constructivism; multipolar research methods and anything goes; and bias and noise. A) History and evolutionary epistemology Although leadership mechanisms are also observed in the animal kingdom, the scope of this work is limited to the anthropological horizon. Therefore, the fundamental question arises as to how the topic can be researched when, on the one hand, there are experiences of a historical nature that can be abstracted from situations and historical circumstances, and when, on the other hand, there are genetic, epigenetic, or simply evolutionary findings that always precede empirical observations and also scientific reflection. Historical knowledge, and indeed all knowledge in general, is always mediated knowledge and interpretation. This pragmatic approach, which will be explained in more detail later on, permeates the methodology of this work as although leadership as an anthropological sociological phenomenon may have diversified and differentiated historical manifestations, the phenomenon behind it remains. This epistemological reflection is in turn based on the a priori of Kant’s transcendental idealism (Kant, 1996). In contrast to this, the evolutionary epistemological theory that originally goes back to Herbert Spencer and Georg Simmel, and was best systematized by Vollmer (1994) is used as an argument. It understands categories of knowledge as a posteriori, i.e. acquired through evolution. However, these patterns of interpretation do not have to imply a contradiction, as Maturana and Varela (2005) have shown. Therefore, this work follows an equidistant approach that takes transcendental a priori and evolutionary development into account without entering into detailed discussions. B) The idea of man and philosophy of mind Since the basic understanding of leadership implies that there is at least a leader and someone being led, the question of the methodological implications of the corresponding idea of man and epistemological reflections concerning the philosophy of mind arise of their own accord. Since leadership takes place in the context of relationships, the problem of freedom, for example, becomes conscious. What does one’s own and others’ freedom mean and how can it be considered methodically? The problem of body and mind/soul, which is at the

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origin of the question, has also been answered and resolved in very different ways in the course of history. At its core is a philosophical, and also an epistemological question of what constitutes a human being when he says ‘I’ and the outwardly visible manifestation of this in body, language, emotion and action (Sattig, 2017). From the different and manifold answers which have been formulated in various ways in the course of history, a corresponding image of the human being emerges and crystalizes. A more recent influence on the philosophy of mind and the corresponding idea of man can be seen in neurobiological and -psychological scientific investigations and findings as well as their extrapolation to leadership. The self-assurance and deepening of neurobiological connections flow at least epiphenomenologically into the research methodology. C) Sociology and systemics Reflecting on a historical phenomenon also poses a question about the sociological context. The question to be considered in the background is what do the overall social, economic, scientific, pedagogical, or even political temporarily contingent circumstances look like, which influence and are influenced by an existing or emerging phenomenon. In terms of methodological selection, limitations would have to be made and found phenomena would at least have to be named so that potential factors influencing the methodology become conscious. Systemics has recently come to the fore as its own variety of contextual hermeneutics. In the intracorporeal game, the mind takes on the cybernetic role of controlling somatic functions (Bateson & Holl, 1983) whereas, in systems theory, which was decisively shaped by Niklas Luhmann, society as a whole is seen as a system, especially concerning communication (Baecker & Luhmann, 2009). In the context of this study, sociological and systemic factors of influence on methodology, hermeneutics, and heuristics are to be considered in such a way that the contextual conditions of the possibility of methodological variance are pointed out and at least included in the reflection. D) Pragmatism and constructivism While the philosophical tradition has long been concerned with the ontological question of reality, constructivism, which only emerged in the 20th century, describes the world as subjective and thus multifaceted: everyone has or creates their own reality (Löwenstein & Emirbayer, 2017). While this immediately raises the question concerning generally valid principles and their methodology, subjective constructivism does not exclude multilaterally similar phenomena. Rather, the naming of constructivist philosophy and the awareness of its influence on leadership theory may be interpreted as a critical reference to methodology. From this point of view, pragmatism as a complementary principle is

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to be seen as supportive. Pragmatism takes things as they are and examines their effect (James & Horstmann, 1994). Accordingly, the methodological prereflection needs to be aware of the relativity of the perception of reality and its constructivist hermeneutics, as well as reality-oriented pragmatism. E) Multipolar research methods and ‘anything goes’ From the context already raised, it follows pre-methodologically that no exclusive methodology is suitable for adequately addressing the research question. Paul Feyerabend has repeatedly expounded and defended against misunderstandings concerning the philosophical orientation that has become known as ‘anything goes’ (Feyerabend, 1981, 2016) and described it in a way that methodological narrowness does not lead to further scientific knowledge, since such approaches partly build on each other and do not allow for new knowledge. It is precisely the violations of universally valid scientific rules that have produced advances in knowledge. Since the topic of leadership is to be examined from a holistic perspective under the influence of multiple relationships and factors, it is obvious that multipolar research methods will be selected. These are chosen with deliberation, reflection, and scientific probity, but with the Feyerabendian freedom and the necessity to choose what is most appropriate to achieve substantial progress in knowledge. F) Bias and noise Finally, two potentially diluting factors should be mentioned: bias and noise. The latter has been widely developed and investigated by Kahneman et al. (2021). Whereas bias refers to a systematic distortion, such as a bias towards certain groups of people or professions, cultures, or gender, noise refers to a random scattering, such as when the same person has many job interviews and these all differ from one another on the hiring side because they are based on different criteria (Kahneman et al., 2016). Both phenomena could be applied to all studies that are referenced. Methodological bias mainly appears in quantitative, statistical studies and its causes and remedies have been studied in detail by Podsakoff et al. (2003). Since an extensive application of both principles would in themselves be a comprehensive, large, and very intensive as well as extensive undertaking, the scope of this thesis is limited to a basic consideration of both principles. Noise can be recognised and reduced if the judging person is an expert in a specific area, is intelligent, questions himself, and is willing to learn new things (Kahneman et al., 2021). All three aspects may be subjective in themselves, but they serve as a guideline for this research. Since there are countless biases, a more fundamental approach is again taken here: besides knowledge of the ‘two systems’ (Kahneman, 2012),

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awareness of possible biases, counteracting them, and working with data is a valid way to scientifically base judgements.

3.2

The Research Methodology

Taking the fundamental considerations into account, the question must now concretely be addressed as to what the best possible research methodology looks like to derive the most well-founded and relevant scientific knowledge. The main questions that need to be answered in this concrete epistemic reflection are, firstly, whether it is in principle possible to find a scientifically sound answer to the research question. Subsequently, it needs to be reflected on whether there is already a general methodology that can be fully applied here. The next questions to be answered are whether the work should be descriptive or exploratory and whether the best possible methodology should be hermeneutic or empirical or a mix of the two. Subsequently, it will be discussed which methodology enables theory-based practical relevance and practice-induced theory building. In principle, it should be considered whether the research should be deductive, inductive, or abductive and finally the question should be answered whether the research should be fundamentally quantitative, qualitative, or with ‘mixed methods’. Is it possible, in principle, to find a scientifically sound answer to the research question? In the introductory considerations, fundamental reflections on the research object were already made and the focus shifts to concretely addressing the research question on the basis of the fundamental considerations to determine which methodology and corresponding methods can be used to answer it in the best possible way. First of all, the question must be asked once again—now turning the abstract into the concrete—whether it is possible in principle to find a scientifically sound answer to the research question of which principles can be used to form an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. If a closer look at the question is taken, it can also be extrapolated to the idea of whether there is a framework or methodology that covers the intensity and extensiveness of methodological research in equal measure. In this context, intensity is understood to mean methodological depth. Is it possible to design a methodology in such a way that the methodological considerations and applications penetrate the essence of the question? Extensiveness in this context is understood to mean methodological breadth. This refers to the need to design a methodology in such

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a way that it maps the essential elements of the question in its different aspects. As a rule, in scientific work, a distinction is made between basic research, which has a broad focus, and empirical research, which goes more into depth. The topic of leadership can be researched from both perspectives. In addition to the fundamental research, also along with the major methodologies, there is a multitude of studies that take on individual aspects of leadership from every conceivable direction. It follows from the research question that a combination of both aspects is important for this work. Concerning the fundamental nature of the question, it should be stated in the sense of ‘anything goes’ that every methodology and every scientific research approach has its limits and that it is necessary for a sense of professionalism and scientific honesty to point out these limits and to assure oneself of them. The latter is precisely the purpose of this section in this thesis. Through a clear reflection and choice of methodology, it is determined exactly what is being researched, how, and why, and where the limits of the respective methodology lie. It should be noted here that methodological research is possible in terms of intensity and extensity, as long as the limits of the research, which are inherent to every research approach, are clearly defined. Is there already a methodology that can be fully applied here? From the basic affirmation that the research question can be addressed with scientific methodology, the next question is whether there is a specific methodology that can be applied. The fundamental distinction between a hermeneutic and an empirical approach will be discussed later. Appropriate to the question would be a methodology that takes both aspects into account, since neither purely theoretical reflection without practical insight nor the observation of practice without theoretical reflection are purposeful, especially since the interface of theory and practice receives special attention in this work. The only methodology that could come into question here would be the ‘Grounded Theory Methodology’. This qualitative methodology, originally based on the work of Glaser and Strauss (2017), and which aims to build a theory through interviews, coding, and sampling, would be appropriate insofar as it navigates between theory building and practical observation to generate knowledge. However, it is inappropriate for this work because it does in-depth theory-building research (Mey & Mruck, 2011; Strauss & Corbin, 2010) and because there are already many theories in the research question that are to be investigated. In addition, a purely empirical and qualitative approach is not appropriate either and working with different methods and approaches is recommended by many academics as it offers a broader perspective on the research object (Lancaster, 2007).

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Should the work be descriptive or exploratory? At a superficial glance, the basic question of whether research should be descriptive or explorative (Bortz & Döring, 2006) seems to be answered quickly. Although the research question is holistic and theory-building, it approaches the topic in such a way as to explore commonalities and underlying principles from existing approaches. At the same time, it could be said that the construction of such a holistic framework opens up a completely new field of research, so that here at least an inclusive explorative research approach would be present. Here, too, a methodologically holistic approach is preferred. Is the best possible methodology more hermeneutic or empirical or a mix? The question of whether to conduct research hermeneutically or empirically or with both approaches must specifically be considered. The hermeneutic method— which is originally derived from the humanities—analyses, understands and interprets. Since the research question deals with understanding, analysing, evaluating, and synthesising a new framework, a hermeneutic approach is appropriate. Since the hermeneutic method does not exist in this way, three principles of hermeneutic enquiry in the social science context are applied in this thesis, since the final object of enquiry is embedded in the social sciences: reconstructive, distancing, and pluralising hermeneutics. Reconstructive hermeneutics investigates from the perspective and context of others, distancing hermeneutics reflects one’s own pre-understanding, and pluralising hermeneutics constructs contexts of meaning, especially in the relationship of the individual and the totality (Kurt & Herbrik, 2014). However, the question now arises whether the research question cannot be answered just as well or better with the empirical research method. Empirical enquiry, which focuses on observation, is the common type of enquiry in social research, although here too there is no one methodology but rather many different approaches. Moreover, it should be considered that empirical observation also has its limitations and must always be supplemented by interpretation, analysis, and ordering of knowledge: ‘We need to integrate empiricism with rational thinking so that the two work together. This is what science does’ (Graziano & Raulin, 2014). In general, however, empiricism defines itself as the observation that generalises from the observation and subsequent comparison of different experiences (Kromrey, 2009) and it is precisely this empirical approach that appears to be essential for answering the research question. Since leadership, leadership models, and leadership principles do not have to be invented but already exist in

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many ways and can be applied both directly (e.g. observation of concrete leadership models) and indirectly (e.g. observation or derivation of leadership principles from popular literature), they can be classified and conversely used to derive general principles: ‘Empirical scientific work thus pursues … two important goals: to classify the phenomena of the real world … to find the … rules by which the events in the real world can be explained and … predicted’ (own translation) (Kromrey, 2009, p. 14). Since, consequently, both the hermeneutic and the empirical approaches are seen as the best possible methodological approaches to answering the research question, in principle, both approaches will be pursued in this thesis. What methodology enables theory-based practical relevance and practice-induced theory building? Related to this, a next methodological question can be posed and addressed, namely which methodology enables theory-based practical relevance and practice-induced theory formation. While the hermeneutic approach tends to work in a theory-based way, empiricism always approaches observable reality. The basic choice of complementary hermeneutics and empiricism ensures that there is both the theory-guided and reflexive path of knowledge and the practice-oriented research path that is shaped by observable phenomena to follow. Furthermore, it should be noted here that for the empirical research design, those qualities are selected that can contribute as extensively and meaningfully as possible to answering the research question. Since under no circumstances can all phenomena be observed and investigated, the question always arises as to which objects of investigation and which research methodology are chosen. As the main qualifications of the research work were described as ‘application-oriented’, ‘universally applicable’, and ‘effective’, these substantive goals must also be reflected methodologically in the design. ‘Application-oriented’ therefore needs a perspective of implementation. Among many different possibilities, the popular leadership literature review is chosen. ‘Effective’ can be determined from the (financial) success or other relevant KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) of companies, which must be examined with the appropriate methodology. ‘Universal applicability’ can be achieved, on the one hand, by identifying recurring principles and on the other hand by empirical observation of the same. The investigation of successful, globally positioned companies operating in multiple contexts can lead to the conclusion that the principles to be defined are universally applicable. As a possible partial research design, this can result in an approach that examines successful companies in terms of their leadership principles.

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Should this research follow in principle deductive, inductive, or abductive methodology? In both general and simplified terms, scientific work can be described as either deductive (deriving individual cases from general principles) or inductive (concluding by generalising principles from individual observations). Abductive knowledge is upstream of inductive and deductive knowledge since it first develops hypotheses and is used to form theoretical models (Schurz, 1990). For the research question, again both approaches come into play: the inductive approach since a fundamental and generally valid theory is to be derived from empirical observation of individual phenomena and the deductive approach since individual elements—which are generally valid—are to be derived from larger leadership theories in the hermeneutic investigation. The inductive approach will tend to predominate, which will infer the big picture, a comprehensive framework, from the empirical observation and analysis of individual phenomena. Should this research, in general, be quantitative, qualitative, or use ‘mixed methods’? The research question of which principles can be used to form an applicationoriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework is fundamentally one that can only be approached holistically, as it must both consider many (existing) models and then also refer back to some principles that can be derived in empirical observation. To be able to examine reality from different perspectives, the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods is indicated. Furthermore, this approach is also more strongly pursued in business studies (Greener, 2008). A mixture of quantitative and qualitative approaches is usually referred to as a ‘mixed method’, whereby the method of triangulation, which is still to be explained in more detail, is understood as a more comprehensive combination of quantitative and qualitative methodology. As an independent methodological approach, the ‘mixed method’ is not erratic. As R. B. Johnson et al. (2007) explained in detail, not only the poles of qualitative and quantitative methodology but also the mixture of these are fluid and the result more comprehensive. Without going into the related discussions in detail, all that is necessary for the research question at hand is to reflect on which (mixed) method is the most appropriate and what a corresponding framework must look like. The heuristics that need to be applied have already been presented, namely which methodological approach should be chosen, and which is demanding in itself due to the multitude of sub-methods but still corresponds to the comprehensive question in the best possible way. The underlying philosophical approach of pragmatism seeks the methodology that is most adequate to the corresponding sub-question,

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and it is precisely from complementarity that a holistically valid picture emerges. Especially for the formation of common principles from a multitude of sources or the integration of different theories, the method of triangulation suggests itself (Jick, 1979). The distinction between four fields in triangulation (data, investigator, theory and methodological triangulation) is derived from the work of Norman K. Denzin (Denzin, 1978). Data triangulation integrates different data sources, investigator triangulation means that different researchers are involved, theory triangulation integrates different theories concerning the research question, and methodological triangulation is partly equivalent to the mixed method, whereby a distinction is made here between within-methods and between-methods. For this research, the data, theory, and methodological triangulation fields are relevant. Concerning the multiple sources of data, in addition to the historical review, which not only describes the state of research but also distils the main elements of leadership along the major historical development lines, popular leadership literature, models in successful, engaged, and attractive companies as well as case studies are used as data sources. Due to the nature of the work, different theories are consulted and examined with regard to theory triangulation. Concerning methodology triangulation in the narrower sense, qualitative methods, in particular, are consulted: ratings are produced quantitatively, but a methodology is also considered qualitative if it produces a content analysis of textual material. Although content analysis is usually used quantitatively (Bryman & Bell, 2011), some researchers distinguish between conventional, directed, and summative content analysis with qualitative aspects (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). While conventional analysis derives categories directly from the text, the directed analysis starts with a selected theory and codes from there. The summative analysis starts more comprehensively through comparison, keywords, and the interpretation of the same, and is therefore also qualitatively applicable and used in this work. Following the definition of Jonker and Pennink (2010) of the conceptual model, the research commences with a historical overview of the literature, from which the approach for examining the phenomenon of leadership principles is subsequently derived. Strictly along the lines of the research question, a structure is built that can answer the research question and enables a systemic view of the overall system of leadership.

3.3 The Research Design

3.3

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The Research Design

Now that the basic orientation of the research methodology has been clarified, the research design can be built up in more detail concerning how the research question, from which principles an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework can be formed, can be answered in the best possible way. The holistic approach has shown that the combination of a hermeneutic and empirical investigation will produce the most well-founded result since the research question is at the interface of theory and practice and must be both theory-based and practice-relevant. The hermeneutic approach has the challenge of systematising the immense number of approaches, methods, reflections, books, and articles in such a way that the result is purposeful with regard to the research question. The multitude of (different) approaches is, after all, part of the problem that is to be solved or at least addressed with the help of this work. Concerning the research design, synthetic reflection lends itself as a further qualification of the hermeneutic approach. While analytical research methods tend to go into more depth, the synthetic method examines the interrelation and interaction of individual parts. To be able to develop principles for an effective leadership framework, it is possible to build on many analytical preliminary investigations and, in a hermeneutic synthetic approach, to attempt to integrate the connections or the essence of the models into one model whereby an essential, epistemic heuristic is incorporated here. As already mentioned, the basic constellation of leadership can be described in the leader-follower-context triangle. All three levels must therefore be considered, whereby both the content of leadership and the precise description of followers and elements of the context must be explicated in more detail. The hermeneutic synthetic block should cover a wide range, starting with word meanings and general origins, and then going into more detail on evolutionary insights. It should subsequently examine the progression from the ‘historical overview’ to ‘modern theories’ and a separate deepening of neuro-leadership. Four types of review are distinguished, namely integrative, systematic, metaanalysis, and qualitative reviews (H. M. Cooper, 1982). The integrative review means that studies from different methods are brought together. In the content analysis from the triangulation, the methodology of the summative analysis and the integrative review (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005) is applied in particular which is the most appropriate due to the nature of the work. The inclusion of the evolutionary consideration of leadership is based on the view that leadership in-depth concerns the human being itself so that the question can be raised to what extent leadership can be presented as a fundamental quality

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of human beings (cf. basic reflection in Section 3.1). For this purpose, insights into leadership research from an evolutionary perspective will be used. The guiding idea here is that leadership is a quality of human beings and action and is, therefore, also part of human genetics. Evolutionary ways of being and behaving in humans shape them regardless of their context and hence examining them for leadership implications contributes to the question of universally applicable principles. An overview is then created that focuses on exploring how the topic of leadership has developed in the economic and corporate contexts. The guiding principle here is not the analytical deep-dive into individual questions, but—in accordance with the research question—the synthetic overview of the most common leadership developments and their resulting models with the help of summative analysis. Recently, insights from neurobiology and neuropsychology have also been applied to the topic of leadership. Building on evolutionary and historical knowledge, the interrogation of neuroleadership approaches not only contributes to the universality but also to the effectiveness and applicability of leadership principles. Since neurobiological and neuropsychological approaches deal with the structure of the brain, they apply to all people—universally. As leadership is not a purely economic phenomenon but a general organisational one, organisations outside the economic context will be examined, at least as a peripheral area. Approaching the research question empirically evokes multiple heuristic challenges. As no approach can observe and analyse all available systems, every research design has to select various methods. Since it is not to be deduced from general principles, but principles are to be inferred from individual observations, the approach is inductive and not deductive. The goal of generalisation, however, is fed by (individual) observation. Therefore, the question arises of how to proceed empirically as comprehensively as possible to be able to derive leadership principles from individual observations. A first approach to observing reality regarding leadership principles is derived from the study of popular leadership literature as by observing and analysing the most popular leadership books and the models behind them, principles can be derived that have a strong resonance. As will be shown, the ideal form of leadership is effective in the sense that it brings about positive change. Therefore, another approach advances toward the research question with the perspective of examining the leadership models of the most successful and best companies. In a first open question, it is investigated whether successful companies have similar leadership models or at least models that can be traced back to similar principles.

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From the basic triangular relationship of leadership-follower-context, another approach emerges as effective leadership must have an impact on employee engagement. Therefore, in the most comprehensive model for engaged employees, the leadership model will be examined to see if there is an impact of leadership on engagement and if so, what this looks like. Another empirical approach examines attractive companies which are companies that are assessed based on a wide range of criteria concerning the attractiveness of the workplace in a comprehensive sense. Whether, and if so, how leadership plays a role here will have to be examined. For the hermeneutic approach, a theoretical case study was chosen to apply and test the findings. Since a case study per se comes from practice, a case was sought that provides the most comprehensive data possible in terms of a theoretical basis, that is as extensive as possible in terms of the object, and does not date too far back in terms of topicality. With the Oxygen Project, a case was found that best matched the above criteria. The company Alphabet, which is behind the project, will specifically be investigated as freely accessible and comprehensive material on this globally operating group is available, and the experiences portrayed are a maximum of 20 years old. For the empirical part, a practical example of a company was sought that is as large as possible and operates worldwide which, on the one hand, makes it possible to get the perspective of different managers in interviews, and on the other hand can minimise differences in the set-up due to similar structures and culture. A globally operating company offered the opportunity to conduct a corresponding empirical study through interviews. The empirical design of the interviews is subsequently developed as outlined below. As described, this thesis aims to gain a holistic view of the topic of leadership to be able to derive principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. In addition to the empirical study of companies as described above, a possibility was sought to study leadership with and among those who lead in as practical a way as possible. Since the object of the research is very large and diverse, the research object of this part should be narrowed down in such a way that it provides a broad insight, is feasible in terms of research economy, and at the same time produces valid and reliable results. To achieve this, the following limitations of the topic were decided: • The research subject should consist of leaders who all come from or share the same or at least a similar leadership culture, but at the same time, there are

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differences in the level of responsibility, content orientation, and local colour to increase reliability. • The main research method will be qualitative semi-structured interviews to explore the original perspectives of different managers concerning the research question. • As a quantitative supplement, additional questions of a recognised leadership continuum were integrated, the details of which will be elaborated further. The basic considerations of scientific research, research methodology, and research design result in a methodological holistic research approach as illustrated in Figure 3.1.

Holisc Research Approach Hermeneucal Synthecal

Empirical Inducve

Origins of Leadership

Leadership in popular business literature

Evoluonary Insights

Leadership with successful enterprises

Modern Theories

Principles for an applicaon-oriented, universally applicable, and effecve leadership model

Neuro-Leadership Effecve Leadership

Addional Leadership

Theorecal case-study: Oxygen project

Reverse queson

17th – 20th Century

Leadership with “best”/ popular enterprises Leadership with aracve enterprises Leadership for engaged employees

Praccal examinaon and review

Empirical study: Interviews

Figure 3.1 Overview of the holistic research approach adopted in this thesis

This is divided into a hermeneutic-synthetic and empirical-inductive part. Since multiple methods are applied according to the respective research challenge in such a way that the method that describes the highest fit is assigned to the research object, the respective chosen method will always be referred back to in the following sub-chapters.

4

Hermeneutic-Synthetic Insight into Leadership Principles and Models

The following is a hermeneutic-synthetic overview of the origins and history of leadership and its emerging principles and models. Because the study must balance breadth and depth in its approach, the most important lines and models must be consulted to subsequently be able to distil an input from the overall synthesis of individual principles and main elements of the respective approach. Therefore, summative content analysis is used. Concerning the research question, it is important to understand the origins of leadership, including evolutionary insights. From the evolutionary study, it may be possible to deduce what is deeply anchored in human beings and therefore still valid today. This is why the study of this topic receives special attention. Since leadership in the narrower sense of the economic and organisational context only emerges or is reflected in the Industrial Revolution, a separate chapter is devoted to this historical context. Due to the multitude of theories that have emerged in recent decades, the most important ones will be considered under the heading of ‘modern theories’. As one of the newer leadership models, the topic of neuroleadership will be dealt with in particular and also more intensively, since it, similar to evolutionary insights, refers to the human being per se, i.e. it contains a holistic approach in itself and, due to its ‘need’-centricity, it fits well with the application orientation and effectiveness of leadership.

4.1

The Origins of Leadership

The first challenge one encounters when dealing with the history of leadership from the perspective of deriving principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework is, firstly, the question of definition, secondly, the demarcation of management and leadership, and thirdly, the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_4

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observation that management/leadership existed even when the terms as such did not yet exist. Originally from the Latin manus (hand) and agere (to put on), the verb ‘to manage’ first appears in the 16th century in reference to ‘the handling or training of a horse; horsemanship’ (Online Etymology Dictionary) and the noun ‘management’ with the meaning ‘act of managing by direction or manipulation’ (Online Etymology Dictionary). In its original meaning, to lead means ‘cause to go with oneself; march at the head of, go before as a guide, accompany and show the way; carry on; sprout forth, bring forth; pass (one’s life)’ (Online Etymology Dictionary). An interesting 16th -century meaning for ‘lead (someone) by the nose’ is handed down as ‘guide by persuasion’ (Online Etymology Dictionary). The word ‘leadership’, on the other hand, only appears in the 19th century with the meaning ‘position of a leader, command’ (Online Etymology Dictionary). The Cambridge Dictionary has very similar definitions for manage/lead: ‘to manage’ is understood in the sense of ‘to be responsible for controlling or organizing someone or something, especially a business or employees’ (Cambridge Dictionary) and ‘to lead’ in the sense of ‘to control a group of people, a country or a situation’ (Cambridge Dictionary). Even though the definitions of manage and lead are very similar, they have different aspects that are still evident today. While ‘to manage’ tends to emphasise this concrete aspect of ‘taking things in hand’ or ‘to handle’ (Latin: manus), ‘to lead’ contains the aspect of moving to the right place. Steven Covey connotes the distinction between management and leadership with efficiency and effectiveness: ‘Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things’ (S. R. Covey, 2013, p. 101). Management tends to emphasise organisation and implementation, while leadership tends to emphasise leadership as such with the aspects of ‘making decisions’ and ‘bringing people along’ as is aptly described by the perspective that ‘Leaders get people moving. They energize and mobilize. They take people and organisations to places they have never been before… inspire people to do things differently…’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2012, p. 1). While this distinction is still valid today, it has only been reflected in recent times (cf. Section 1.2). Although the use of the word management/leadership can only be traced back a few hundred years, the question arises to what extent and in what way the underlying activity of organising and leading institutions and people became apparent in the course of history. When one says, for example, that one can manage one’s own life in the sense of controlling and organising, this already illuminates something that is formalised later and in a different context. In the orientation of this study, management/leadership is about the organisation of business and the leadership of groups, people, and organisations. Although management/leadership has

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appeared in all kinds of sociological forms of organisations throughout history, the focus of this work is on companies in an economic context. Before the focus shifts to the evolutionary consideration of ‘leadership’, it should be summarised at this point from a historical perspective in which context and how the topic of leadership was thought of and treated from the time of the first thinkers and philosophers up to the industrial revolution. Since neither the terms management and leadership existed as such, nor were they distinguished, this study will include both the more managerial and leadership aspects and highlight the differences in the respective contexts. There is written evidence of administrative and organisational activities from about the 3rd millennium BC onwards (Pindur et al., 1995). For example, Moses is known in the Bible as a leader who led the Israelites out of Egypt into the ‘Promised Land’ (Albertz, 2017). There is also evidence of reflections on leadership by some philosophers and historical figures. The most well-founded information is available on Socrates and Plato. For example, Plato is known to have established a kind of leadership academy in which leaders were to be trained (Korac-Kakabadse et al., 2001). The further, then rather rudimentary testimonies on leadership/management are limited to individual historical personalities such as Attila, who for example already applied the principle of delegation (W. Roberts, 1989). Until the 18th century, there are no specific reflections on the topic of management and leadership and it is only with the advent of the industrial revolution that reflection on leadership begins. However, since leadership is an implicit phenomenon that pervades human history, the topic of leadership will especially be examined from an evolutionary perspective. With regard to the research question, at this point, it can already be stated that leadership/management was only defined and distinguished later in time in the literal sense of the term but it seems to be an inherent phenomenon in the history of mankind, which is to be specifically examined in the evolutionary study of leadership. Detailed results with regard to the research topic ✓ Leadership and management are inherent in human history ✓ Leadership and management are complementary

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Evolutionary Insights into Leadership

First, a historical classification reflects on the influence of evolutionary theory on leadership and how evolutionary insights can be classified from a leadership perspective. In a second step, there is a systematic examination and reflection on evolution and leadership, which is then summarised once again to highlight the most important elements.

4.2.1

Introduction and Historical Classification

Only rudimentary historical writings on leadership and management have survived up to the 18th century. This is due to the lack of terminology on the one hand, but also to the lack of context as except in the military, state, or church, no explicit leadership was necessary. Furthermore, the hierarchical or monarchical conceptions of organisations that were prevalent in all three forms of society until the French Revolution made reflection on leadership obsolete. On the other hand, the idea of management/leadership in the above sense of organisation and leadership, regardless of the terminology, is deeply inscribed in human history. What can be known at all from evolutionary human history, how this knowledge is arrived at, and how fact and theory fit together here (Gould, 1981) is discussed in detail in evolutionary science. In this thesis, the detailed discussions cannot be explored and hence the generally accepted research results on evolution, particularly evolutionary psychology (Buss, 2016), are assumed to be valid hypotheses until they are falsified (Simpson, J. A., & Campbell, L, 2015). The historical data situation is not such that final verifiable assumptions about leadership can be made from early human history. Nevertheless, research is putting forward hypotheses that at least make a rough time frame probable. As Marc van Vugt et al. show, there is a first stage or period older than 2.5 million years called ‘pre-human leadership’ which describes pre-human leadership activities, for example in insects or non-human primates (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). Stage 2, which is described as ‘band and tribal leadership’, applies to the period from 2.5 million years BC to 13,000 years BC. Here, there are hunter/gatherer bands and clans of 50–150 people, but no formal leadership role. The best hunters and warriors are considered the ‘big men’ who have a great influence, but whose power is limited to the area of their expertise. As far as one can trace back to this time, there was more of a democratic leadership style as the subordinates worked together, and leadership was there when it was needed. From

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an evolutionary biological perspective, this longest phase has the most formative influence on the development of human beings and thus also on the development and emergence of sociological patterns. Leadership is, after all, always part of group events and without a group of people, leadership makes no sense. In other words, followership is essential for leadership. From an evolutionary point of view, it can be said that leadership exists when it creates benefits, for example, helping a group of primates find something to eat and drink (Boehm, 2001), to ensure that there is no murder and killing within a group but that peace is maintained (Waal, 1997), or to defend one group against another. Van Vugt states that there are two different theories in this context (van Vugt, 2006b). On the one hand, there is the dominance theory, which proposes that leadership is a kind of ‘dominance byproduct’, and on the other hand the theory of social coordination, which suggests that leadership emerges and is important when a group needs to be organised, coordinated, or protected (King et al., 2009). The extent to which leadership is genetically determined or results from the environment is discussed in different ways. However, there are strong arguments for the fact that the person of the leader is important as ‘Individuals are more likely to emerge as leaders if they have a particular morphological, physiological, or behavioural trait increasing their propensity to act first in coordination problems’ (King et al., 2009, p. 2). This trait may be due to the fact that the leader is motivated (for various reasons) to lead a group and at the same time wants to have a certain independence from the group’s interest, that the leader is extroverted and ‘talkative’ or generally shows a certain dominance, or that he simply has a certain knowledge or expertise that others do not have (King et al., 2009). Stage 3, described as ‘chiefs, kings, and warlords’, begins around 13,000 BC and lasts until the Industrial Revolution. When the hunter-gatherer phase was over and people settled down in communities, the question of organisation and differentiation from other tribes became relevant. Warlords arose who needed obedience from their followers and in turn used their power to provide for the welfare of the group or even to enrich themselves at the group’s expense. The general orientation of leadership, consisting of group organisation and contribution to the group’s benefit, is continued here and only the context changes as the hunter-gatherers settle down, different forms of society emerge, and the military, religious, or ecclesiastical organisation builds leadership from warlords to kings, generals, popes, or other functions. Regardless of the specifics, it is fundamentally always about organising and influencing a group. When leadership becomes negative for those who are being led, especially in dictatorships, it does not survive long (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008).

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With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, new types of social entities emerged. Significantly, the big difference from the previous phase is that large businesses emerged at this stage which needed good organisation and strong leadership. The larger a group becomes, and the more people there are, the more leadership is needed. While the world population of 10,000 years ago is estimated at approximately 5 to 10 million and that of 2,000 years ago at 170 to 400 million, the population growth has (only) been increasing exponentially since the beginning of the 18th century. As a result, at the beginning of the 19th century there were approximately 1 billion, at the beginning of the 20th century 2 billion, and at the end of the 20th century approximately 6 billion people in the global population (Wikipedia, 2021c). The demographic growth necessitated a new social organisation on the one hand and had a major impact on the economy on the other. This period since the Industrial Revolution is known as Stage 4 (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). As this is the first time that the topic of leadership was explicitly addressed, this period will be developed in greater depth below (Section 4.3). Before this, however, all the findings from human evolutionary theory that are related to the topic of leadership will be systematically presented. Since leadership must always be contextualised as an element of group formation, clan and hierarchy, these systemic elements are also taken into account. The overall view later enables a deeper analysis concerning the research question of which principles can be derived for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework from insights gained in the history of evolution. Therefore, the focus is first on the question of which evolutionary (meta)-characteristics can be derived from the triangle of leadership-followercontext that have become constitutive for humans or the human experience due to evolutionary development.

4.2.2

Systematic Evolutionary Leadership Research

Before examining individual elements of possible evolutionary leadership behaviours or group and organisational frameworks, fundamental insights should be named. • Behind every evolutionary leadership theory is the basic assumption that the principles of evolutionary theory, which are reflected in evolutionary biology and psychology, can also be applied to the development of sociological forms.

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For example, the principle of natural adaptation and selection can be extrapolated to the development of the human brain (biological) or the development of human behaviour (psychological). Just as it is good and important for the survival of babies to be able to recognise faces at an early age, or just as humans need to distinguish tasty/healthy from disgusting/dangerous food, it was important for the survival of homo sapiens from the very beginning to ensure peace within the group or to strengthen each other in the struggle against the outside world—among other things, through the phenomenon of leadership. In other words: the group, tribe, or band that was able to deal with problems of finding food, fighting enemies, or other challenges through cooperation, coordination, or move and carried out by leaders was more likely to survive and was thus more successful in evolutionary terms (Antonakis & Day, 2018b; Buss, 2016). • However, there is no direct causal relationship between genetic predetermination and specific behaviour, because taken to its logical conclusion, this would lead to deterministic behaviour, i.e. genetically predetermined and predictable behaviour in a given situation. There is no such thing as ‘the one leadership gene’. Nevertheless, the research is ambivalent. On the one hand, it is found that the genetic make-up of the human brain precisely allows for a variety of behaviours, each adapted to the specific challenges (Dunbar, 2005). On the other hand, twin research, among other things, suggests that elements of leadership characteristics can be inherited, or at least that there may be a genetically determined probability of leadership emergence (Ilies et al., 2006; Neve et al., 2013). • A basic assumption of Darwinian evolutionary theory, ‘the survival of the fittest’, which means that the chances of survival and reproduction are greatest for those individuals who best adapt to their environment, cannot be comprehensively applied to behaviour but culturally remains a guiding question. Evolutionary psychology assumes that just as physiological adaptations were formative for further development, there are also psychological adaptations, under which the phenomenon of leadership can also be subsumed (Ruthus, 2019). The evolutionary assumption then states that leadership has positive effects on the survival of the group and therefore arose since ‘Leadership offered an additional evolutionary benefit because it could reduce conflicts and improve coordinated interaction’ (Alznauer, 2016). • There is a difference of opinion as to whether behaviour is really transmitted genetically (nature) or learned through—in the broadest sense—the environment (nurture). The so-called nature-nurture dichotomy is still controversially

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discussed and thus for this work the (still current) basic assumption is followed that both influence each other and that an absolute statement endorsing one or the other side is not appropriate (Dunbar, 2005; Pinker, 2004). What exactly is to be understood under natural selection and what rather belongs to social conditioning and learning is sometimes unclear and ultimately not yet scientifically clarified (Kenney, 2012). • Evolutionary mismatch theory describes the process whereby the environment that gave rise to a particular behaviour or mechanism changes faster than the mechanism can adapt. Since basic human behaviours and interactions in social systems are assumed to have evolved during the 2.5 million year huntergatherer period, even the transition to agriculture over 10,000 years ago and of course even more so the context of the current human environment is completely different, and thus behaviours that were helpful during the longest period of human history no longer automatically fit new environments. For example, among our ancestors, a leader was often chosen if he was male, tall, and physically strong. These cues still have an impact today, even if these characteristics are irrelevant to today’s leadership challenges (Li et al., 2018) and they no longer ‘fit’ (hence: mismatch theory) because today’s leadership requirements have changed. • The leadership-followership dichotomy requires deeper consideration. Evolutionary leadership psychology sometimes tends to presuppose phenomena that are part of the explanation. For example, the phenomenon of a ‘group’ is usually assumed to explain the need for coordination and cooperation whereas a deeper look encourages us to see the necessity and emergence of different roles from a broader perspective. Leadership is thus not exhausted in a coordinating and ultimately authoritative role, but contains the element of the artistic, creative, or also spiritual in the sense of serving the individual. Followership is subsequently also not primarily defined by carrying out orders or simply following, but can be understood as discipleship or also as the possibility of developing oneself or simply being part of a greater whole (Pietraszewski, 2020). • As much as evolutionary leadership theories emphasise that traits are crucial, it is not clear exactly which ones are meant and how one can imagine the evolutionary transmission. Moreover, most traits are always situation-dependent, and thus trait and contingency come together again. Some researchers, for example, consider trust and influence as ubiquitous behaviours of a leader in action and leader emergence (Nicholson, 2015).

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According to the leader-follower-context triad, the evolutionary findings for the respective area will now be described. Leader Why does the leadership phenomenon exist? This is the main question that evolutionary scientists keep asking themselves. The key leadership activities can be summarised under the keywords of coordination and cooperation. Various studies on group dynamics and other evolutionary biology research (King et al., 2009) have shown that groups, both animals and humans, require coordination and that leadership thus provides an evolutionary advantage regarding this coordination. For example, groups of people regularly had to decide whether to stay in one place or move on. Likewise, cooperation helps to defend oneself externally and to keep the peace internally. In case of disagreements about food, housing, mating, or others, someone needed to decide on or organise the fight with another, hostile group. This evolutionary origin of leadership seems to be genetically and/or culturally woven into humanity (Dyer et al., 2009; van Vugt, 2006a). From an evolutionary perspective, the phenomenon of leadership (and followership) follows only one principle: in the sense of the ‘survival of the fittest’, only those behaviours have crystallised and multiplied that in the long term have produced an advantage for the entire group, i.e. that in particular ensure a larger number of offspring, but also better health, a longer life, and prosperity. An important question that has been discussed and currently confirmed in the empirical evolutionary literature is whether leadership is judged only by its results or also by its procedure. Put differently: followers are not only interested in the outcome of a decision, but also ask how this decision was made. This is based on the evolutionary experience that ‘selfish leaders’ who only want to be leaders to exercise power are not good for the group in the long run and have to be kept in check. ‘Procedural justice’ (K. B. Smith et al., 2007) means that the perceived quality of leadership leads to high followership especially when the decision-making process is perceived as just and good or the leader is judged as morally good. In addition, there are different strategies as to why individuals reach a leadership position whereby a distinction is made between dominance and prestige (van Vugt & Smith, 2019) and, by some researchers, charisma (Grabo et al., 2017). Dominant leaders show dominant behaviour such as intimidation, prestige leaders primarily stand out through their personal competence, and charismatic leaders know how to bind emotional followers to them (Bastardoz & van Vugt, 2019). There is some evidence to understand the dominance-prestige duality as

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the main driver for the emergence of leadership from an evolutionary perspective, with the charismatic leader subsumed as a manifestation of prestige. The dominance style indicates that the costs of not following a leader are too high, or that the leader wields power in such a way that it is better in terms of ‘fitness’ to submit to the leader. The prestige style, on the other hand, shows that the benefits are higher if one follows the leader. The dominance-prestige distinction can be attributed to two philosophical traditions. Machiavelli stands for the dominance style, in which non-following is punished, so the costs of non-following are high, and Confucius for the prestige style, in which the leader appears skilled and charismatic, but also humble and serving, so the benefits for the followers are high (van Vugt & Smith, 2019). The dominance-prestige model is not to be understood in such a way that there is a mutually exclusive (either one or the other) leadership style, but that there is evidence for both directions and they can be understood as being both situationally and trait-driven. Thus, for example, the dominance style is more likely to be called for in war situations and the prestige style in peace situations, and people with strongly represented characteristics for dominance are also more likely to adopt the dominance style (van Vugt, M. & Grabo, A. E., 2015). In both cases, it is a matter of emotional influence from the leader’s perspective and cost-benefit consideration by the follower as to whether this leader should be followed. The leader who creates social identity through emotional manipulation is probably more successful (McDermott, 2020). van Vugt and Ahuja (2010) distinguish six cognitive ancestral leader prototypes: warrior, scout, diplomat, arbiter, manager, and teacher, but describe their existence as speculative. Furthermore, from an evolutionary perspective, it can be said that leaders are those who are motivated, socially or emotionally intelligent enough to recognise a coordination problem, take the initiative to solve it, have the expertise or competence to do so, and generally behave generously and fairly (King et al., 2009; van Vugt, 2006a). Followers Just as the question can be posed why leadership exists in the first place one can also ask why followership exists. Barbara Kellerman (2008) has dealt with this in detail, and a thorough and largely scientifically recognised overview of the different types of followership is provided here. If one or more leaders emerge from a group of individuals, this does not mean that all the others automatically become followers. Evolutionarily, there are clear advantages for individuals to become leaders which is why everyone should actually have tried to lead instead of following (Bastardoz & van Vugt, 2019) and on the other hand, there must have

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been some ‘advantage’ for individuals to give up some of their autonomy and no longer pursue their own goals exclusively, but to join a leader, in other words, to become a follower. One could also formulate this fact from the other perspective: the a-normal is to become a leader, while the norm is to be a follower (van Vugt & Ahuja, 2010). Evolutionary researchers say that the habit of following is deeply embedded in the human psyche. Furthermore, for most people, this tendency toward followership is stronger than to lead, because evolutionarily many advantages have resulted from followership: there is someone who protects, helps to find food and shelter, and therefore ensures one’s long-term survival. To ensure survival and generate offspring, individuals have formed groups. Group membership in itself increases the chances of survival, as survival inside a group was considerably greater due to external dangers. The ‘management’ of these groups required cooperation and coordination and to ensure this, both leadership and individuals who accepted and submitted to that leadership were required. From this inherent striving, it follows that leadership is not automatically better than followership, but followership—as long as it ensures group membership—already provides survival advantages. Moreover, leadership not only means greater benefits (more resources, better reproductive opportunities, etc.) but also greater dangers (such as suffering an attack by an enemy). Since not everyone can be a leader or it would make no sense at all, the default mode is to be a follower. Even in the smallest group, the family, it is learning-inherent to follow others, which is called social learning (Alznauer, 2016) and children learn by example and by following their parents. Therefore, from an evolutionary perspective, it can be said that followers do not become leaders if they are prevented from doing so by cost-benefit consideration or if no one follows the potential leader for other reasons. Only through followership does the leader become a leader. Not all individuals are suitable or willing to lead, for example, because they have too little self-confidence or are too fearful. From this perspective, the triggers for the emergence of leadership appear when what guarantees survival is in danger for example, when group homogeneity is no longer guaranteed, when there is a shortage of food, or when it is unclear where the path leads (move), or when there are inherent motives in individuals (wealth, status, sex) that motivate them to become a leader (van Vugt & Ahuja, 2010). A special evolutionary challenge is the emergence of so-called free-riders. These are individuals who, for personal or other reasons, leave the clan, do not care about the common good, do not participate in the exchange of goods or for other reasons do not fit into the social structure of the group. In order to either integrate them or at least prevent them from too much ‘free-riding’ by threatening punishment, the power of leadership is needed (Tooby et al., 2006).

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Followers can also temporarily take on a leadership role. In evolutionary terms, followers become leaders if they have a special aptitude for it or are particularly willing because they are stronger, smarter, or otherwise superior to others (Bastardoz & van Vugt, 2019). Finally, followership can also have disadvantages or be dangerous as every follower gives up some of their freedom, and it is possible to follow an egoistic, exploitative leader (van Vugt & Ahuja, 2010). Context What are situations for leadership, and when is leadership needed? For the longest time in human history, people have lived together in small societies of about 150 individuals. The original ‘seat’ of leadership can be seen in the evolutionary challenges that humans have faced here. These are above all the challenges of survival, i.e. ‘peace’ within the clan and in the struggle against other clans, as well as ensuring the best possible conditions for the survival of offspring, i.e. foraging, abode-search, social coordination, and collective migration. In emergencies, there is more of a ‘demand’ for leadership and in crises, dominant and authoritarian leadership is more likely to be accepted or demanded than in times of peace, where coordinating and prestige-based leadership is more likely to be preferred. Similarly, there are situations of groups that are so coordinated and ‘at peace’ that they do not need leadership at all (van Vugt, 2006a). In the evolutionary leadership genesis, a distinction is also made between leadership in egalitarian, non-egalitarian hunter-gatherer societies, egalitarian horticulturalists, and pastoralists (Garfield, Rueden, & Hagen, 2019). The characteristics vary depending on the context, sociological structure, and external challenges. In egalitarian settings, in particular, leadership tends to be context-dependent and trait-specific. The context of leadership always has a cultural aspect and, from an evolutionary perspective, the conformity bias must be taken into account. People follow the masses, even if they are convinced that the path of the masses is the wrong one and their own is the right one (Dunbar, 2005).

4.2.3

Summary

The findings from evolutionary history are particularly important in terms of the research question of this thesis since they claim universal applicability per se and are application-oriented and effective in depth. Since research in this area is still, relatively speaking, in its infancy and also inconsistent, the aspects of leadership

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that have received broad recognition in the research ductus and are relevant to the research question of this thesis will be highlighted once again: • The topic of leadership/management has existed since the advent of humanity. It can be understood in evolutionary terms as a function that helps to organise life and ensure survival, for example when a group of people moves from one place to another, when there is conflict within the group, or when the group is attacked by outsiders (Vugt, M. V., & Ronay, R., 2014). • It is at least as important to understand followership as it is leadership as, without followership, there is no leadership. Successful leaders know how to create followers—through persuasion, but also through manipulation. At the same time, the follower-leader relationship remains in constant tension. For example, some followers may have tried to become a leader and then have to live with the ‘rejection’ of not having been successful in this undertaking (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). Some may even then try to make it difficult for the leader. The roots of genocides that dictators have carried out on supposed rivals can be understood in no other way. In the corporate context, it can be observed that team members who do not accept a colleague who has become a leader from among them (have to) leave. • Leadership becomes a more important issue, especially in situations of danger or stress as it ensures harmony within the group and peace and security towards the outside. • The person of the leader matters, and it can be said that some have a higher aptitude or talent to lead than others (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). Of the so-called ‘Big 5’ personality traits, extroversion stands out, particularly from an evolutionary perspective (Judge et al., 2002). Another fundamental characteristic of leaders is intelligence (Garfield, Hubbard, & Hagen, 2019; Hartog et al., 1999; Judge et al., 2004). Intelligence allows an individual to recognise and evaluate a (potentially dangerous) situation more quickly than others. In the case of political leaders, it is known that competence and warmth enter into the assessment (Bor, 2020). The one who emerges as a leader is the one who makes decisions quickly (‘first mover’). Leadership can provide for the best in a group and solve complex intra- or interrelational problems but can also be selfish and dominant and exploit followers out of self-interest. The latter type of leadership has entered scientific research under the concept of the ‘dark side of leadership’ and is more closely examined in Section 4.7.3. The fundamental relationship between personality traits and leadership perceptions is described in more detail in the work of Lord et al. (1986).

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• Independently of the aspects outlined, there are the ‘Great Men’. These are people who, due to their ontogenetics and/or phylogenetics, have a strong drive towards leadership and do everything they can to live it. In the (morally) positive phenomenon, these are, for example, religious leaders like Gandhi or leaders who are said to make altruistic decisions and act like the CEOs Dan Price or Mike Brady (Efron, 2015). However, there are also leaders who cannot be called ‘Great Men’ in the strict sense of the word, but who share the same strong motivation to be a ruler at all costs. In the (morally) negative phenomenon, leaders should be mentioned here who are described by the socalled dark triad of personality, which includes narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy (Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M., 2002). Besides the wellknown cases of Hitler and Stalin, Idi Amin, Charles Taylor, Robert Mugabe, and Pol Pot should also be mentioned here. • The evolutionary leader prototype is characterised by trust and integrity, fairness and generosity, humility and decisiveness, intelligence, competence and vision (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). • Stage 3 (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008) of evolutionary leadership development, which marks the time of chiefs, kings and warlords, shows that—even today—authoritarian leadership, often perceived as not respectful, always comes into play when conflict situations increase. Especially when democratically legitimised control bodies lose power, warlords can assert themselves particularly well. • Conversely, this means that whenever groups can work on and solve an issue without leadership, they are effective without leadership: ‘Except for certain well-defined situations, people will perform better if they are left alone’ (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). This means that leadership is both situationspecific and ‘based on charisma and personalized influence’ (Vugt, M. V., & Ronay, R., 2014). • Leaders want to stay in power when it pays off for them, i.e. when they have benefits (power, recognition, sex) and the strategies for ensuring this are ‘carrot and stick’. Loyalty is rewarded, and they also protect the group and show themselves to be fair and generous (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008). Those who rebel against the leader are punished. • The environment defines what kind of leadership/management is needed and the span of leadership is a maximum of 150. • Leadership is needed evolutionarily to: ◯ coordinate activities within a group with a maximum group size of 150, and thereby avoid arguments and disputes,

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◯ gain security in the uncertainty of being on the road and reaching the intended destination, ◯ positively differentiate oneself from others to ensure one’s own survival. • Overall, it can be concluded that there seem to be human-inherent foundations in terms of leadership followers. This is also supported by cross-cultural studies, which show that some of the attributes associated with transformational leadership occur in all cultures (Dorfman et al., 2012; Hartog et al., 1999). At the same time, it can also be stated that some leadership mechanisms were learned in evolutionary history but are no longer needed in today’s context, as described in the mismatch theory (van Vugt, Johnson, et al., 2008). Detailed results with regard to the research topic ✓ Fundamental insight: Evolutionary insights into leadership are fundamental because they are universal and based on human needs. ✓ Leadership and management are inherent in human history. ✓ Leadership is both trait or person-specific and learnable or behaviour-specific. There is no such thing as the one way to lead. ✓ Universal leadership attributes include: visionary, inspirational, performanceoriented, honest, and integer (Dorfman et al., 2012). ✓ Followership is the norm and serves the need to learn. ✓ The need for leadership depends on the situation: in times of peace more prestige and cooperation, in times of war more dominance and coordination. ✓ Leadership works ad intram (peace in the group and organisation of the group) and ad extram (finding vision and way, as well as the struggle to outthink others).

4.3

Leadership From the Industrial Revolution to the 20th Century

In evolutionary history, the previous phases lasted considerably longer and were therefore formative for humankind, since it is assumed that behavioural mechanisms are (also) genetically determined and learned. The context, which demands leadership in a completely different way, changed abruptly and revolutionarily with the great transformation movement of the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution, and therefore most reflections on the history of leadership only begin with

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the Industrial Revolution (Hunt & Fedynich, 2019). The world of work underwent a decisive transformation in the 18th century that continues today. When people talk about ‘Industry 4.0’ today, they implicitly also refer to another industrial revolution. ‘Industry 1.0’ stands for the first industrial revolution, which is associated with the invention of the steam engine, the emergence of companies, and the organisation of work. The second industrial revolution is associated with electrification and assembly line work, the third with the development of IT systems at the end of the 20th century, and the fourth industrial revolution with the complete digital networking of everything. When many people work together in a process, this work must be planned and organised on the one hand, while on the other hand it must also be ensured that the workers are in the right place at the right time and do the right thing. This is the birth of classical management, the basic features of which still have an impact today. In other words, until the 18th century, management and leadership are implicit but less explicitly reflected, while the increase in complexity through the emergence of industry and increased trade rapidly increases the need for management, organisation, and leadership. The reflection of this process and its contents in the literature of management and leadership theories has been increasing exponentially since the 1950s (Bass & Bass, 2008). In this thesis, only the most important management and leadership theories that are repeatedly mentioned in various meta-researches can be considered. The chronological-thematic system of Pindur et al. (1995), Meuser et al. (2016), and Bass and Bass (2008) is followed as their systematics find the greatest agreement on the part of different scholars. A purely historical account is difficult to establish because the individual leadership theories interpenetrate, are sometimes repeated, or reappear in a slightly different context (Antonakis & Day, 2018a).

4.3.1

Scientific Management Theories

Frederick Winslow Taylor is considered the protagonist of scientific management theory. His approach is about using scientific methods to improve the productivity and efficiency of work processes. To this end, he developed four principles that still have an impact on management methods today. The first principle is about using scientific methods that replace ‘rule-ofthumb’ to set the best way of doing work as the standard for all. The second principle is about the proper selection, training, and development of workers. The third principle is about supervising workers so that they do their jobs properly

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and paying them adequately, including bonuses. The last principle is about the distinction between management and labour. Management plans and ensures that workers do their work properly, carefully, and quickly (Taylor, 1998). Taylor’s work from the first decade of the 20th century still has an impact today, especially concerning the basic distinction between (manual) labour and (intellectual) management. Another protagonist of scientific management is Henry Lawrence Gantt, who worked with Taylor at Bethlehem Steel and is still known today for the so-called ‘Gantt chart’, on which the expected and actual production is visualised.

4.3.2

Administrative Management Theories

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Frenchman Henry Fayol is associated with administrative management theory, which focuses on the organisation with the aim of management ensuring that the company is more effective and efficient. The basic distinctions between the main elements of management are derived from his work, namely planning, organising, commanding, coordinating, and controlling (Pindur et al., 1995). Max Weber developed the bureaucracy model, which did not yet contain the negative connotations of the present. It contained a hierarchical organisational model that was based on the competence of the respective level. While traditional organisational models could subject the individual to the fate of the leadership, the bureaucracy model was primarily intended to prevent arbitrariness through favouritism or disadvantage. At each hierarchical level, the respective employee knows what is required of them; each department is led by its own manager and is controlled by the department one hierarchical level above it. Strict rules ensure good coordination and career opportunities (Pindur et al., 1995). This hierarchical system of authority and reporting is still found in many organisations today.

4.3.3

The Beginning of Human Management Theories

In the 1930s, triggered and influenced by the ‘Great Depression’ and the massive unemployment that accompanied it, people increasingly became the focus of attention and it was thus no longer only a question of effective processes, but also of what kind of working environment people needed to be able to do good work.

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Among others, Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger are particularly worthy of mention and have gone down in history under the heading of the ‘Hawthorne Effect’ (Walter-Busch, 1989). They investigated and found that productivity is increased above all when there are good relationships between the respective worker and their supervisor, peers, and subordinates, when there are good psychosocial conditions such as individual recognition for the work done, or when employees are included in decisions. Since up to this point the processes or the organisation as such had been the focus of research, this discovery was a real novelty. The Hawthorne Effect still describes that the result of research can be changed in people simply because they receive attention. For this work, however, it should be noted that a non-directive leadership style that pays attention to employees contributes to higher productivity. A few decades later, this idea was systematised by Douglas McGregor in Theory X and Y. In The Human Side of Enterprise (D. McGregor & CutcherGershenfeld, 2006), McGregor distinguished a more authoritarian, controlling management style (Theory X) and a more participative, democratic one, which assumes that employees contribute to higher productivity through trust, intrinsic motivation, and personal responsibility (Theory Y). This distinction still exists today as control is seen as an essential management technique (Malik, 2019) and the participative management style, which builds on employees’ intrinsic motivation, can also be found in many management methods of the following period, which will be outlined. Human management theories exist in countless other facets, some of which will be referred to later.

4.3.4

Trait-Oriented Management Theories

Originally, leadership was associated with the idea that only those people who have the competencies for it in their genes are or can be leaders. The so-called Great Man theory (Carlyle, 2012) from the 19th century goes back to Thomas Carlyle. In it, the author describes great leaders such as Muhammad, Luther, and Napoleon, who have had a lasting influence on human history. For many decades, the following idea prevailed: leaders are born—not made. Closely linked to this Great Man theory is the trait theory, which was predominant until the 1950s and stated that leaders have certain traits that non-leaders do not have and that these character traits can have different expressions. For example, Francis Galton described in Hereditary Genius that leadership qualities explicitly cannot be learned, but are genetically inherited (Galton, 1869). In the 1920s, W. H. Cowley stated that leadership cannot be narrowly reduced to

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a single trait but consists of a multiplicity of different ones: ‘The approach to the study of leadership usually has been and perhaps always must be through the study of traits. Leadership obviously is not a simple trait but rather a complex of many traits fashioned together as a unity’ (Cowley, 1928, p. 144). Even if this school of thought was initially overruled in the following years, researchers have always returned to the question and today continue to ask to what extent personality traits and individual characteristics are decisive for a leader as a person and for their effectiveness, and how the behaviours and skills that can be learned differ from these. For example, Judge et al. (2002) examined the relationship between leadership and personality traits along the five-factor model or the relationship between intelligence and leadership in a large meta-analysis (Judge et al., 2004). Stephen Zaccaro also comes back to trait-based leadership and proposes an integration of traits and attributes (Zaccaro, 2007b). An excellent overview of the history of trait leadership theory is presented in Zaccaro et al. (2004). However, the definition of traits is inconsistent. Another profound definition can be found in the work of John Antonakis, who describes traits as psychological characteristics and sees them as ‘individual characteristics that (a) are measurable, (b) vary across individuals, (c) exhibit temporal and situational stability, and (d) predict attitudes, decisions, or behaviours and consequently outcomes’ (Antonakis, 2011, p. 4). After the disaster of the Second World War, Ralph Stogdill developed the insight that leadership is not only person-dependent but also situation-dependent, i.e. that a leader is not a ‘born leader’ who is always and everywhere the best leader in all situations, but that leadership is also situation-dependent (Stogdill, 1948). Seventy years later, Stogdill’s remarks are still highly relevant, as can be seen from the fact that his article has been cited well over 5,000 times (Google Scholar, 2021). Subsequently, these two directions are unfolded repeatedly, each under a different sign: personality and situation/environment/appropriation of skills. Stogdill explicitly states that both are important: A person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession of some combination of traits, but the pattern of personal characteristics of the leader must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities, and goals of the followers. Thus, leadership must be conceived in terms of the interaction of variables which are in constant flux and change. The factor of change is especially characteristic of the situation... The evidence suggests that leadership is a relation that exists between persons in a social situation, and that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Must it then be assumed that leadership is

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entirely incidental, haphazard, and unpredictable? Not at all. The very studies which provide the strongest arguments for the situational nature of leadership also supply the strongest evidence indicating that leadership patterns as well as non-leadership patterns of behaviour are persistent and relatively stable. (Stogdill, 1948).

On the question of which traits make a leader effective, there is a great deal of partly complementary, and partly contradictory literature. With Yukl, it can be stated that the following traits have an influence on leadership effectiveness: ‘high self-confidence, energy, initiative, emotional maturity, stress tolerance, and belief in internal locus of control… pragmatic and results oriented’ (Yukl, 1989, p. 260). In addition, countless other lists of traits are considered essential for leaders and it is not uncommon for physical and mental attributes to be mixed with attitudes and talents. John W. Gardner’s attributes are those that have both scientific evidence and are repeatedly picked up by many others. In addition to vitality and intelligence, they include elements related to self-awareness and self-management, such as self-confidence, assertiveness and flexibility, elements related to capability for people management, such as motivation, encouragement, empathy, elements related to getting things done, achievement orientation, and values such as courage, reliability, and trustworthiness (J. W. Gardner, 1989). Zaccaro et al. state that while it is certain that leaders differ from non-leaders in several characteristics, these can vary depending on the situation, context, leadership emergence, and many other variables but are crucial in terms of leader effectiveness. There is no single character trait that is required for leadership, but rather a range of cognitive skills, personality traits, values, relationship skills, problem-solving skills, and general or domain-specific skills (Zaccaro et al., 2004).

4.3.5

Contingency Theories

From the middle of the 20th century onwards, with Fred Edward Fiedler (1967) the contingency approach became widespread for a few decades, which assumes that different situations require different management, i.e. that there is no one right way to lead and manage, but that the right way to lead depends on the environment, the circumstances, and the respective situation. On the other hand, this also means that a leader who leads excellently in a certain environment will no longer lead well or will even lead poorly in another situation or circumstance. If one assumes that the personality of the leader is important—and does not quickly adapt or easily change from situation to situation—then this

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means that a leader leads particularly effectively when he himself (and his leaders or the environment) is aware of the situations in which he can lead in the best possible way and which situations are not suitable for his leadership style. Learning to lead therefore does not mean acquiring a certain leadership style, but rather becoming aware of oneself and one’s own (already existing) leadership style to define from there what the environment and situation must look like so that this leadership style can develop to its fullest potential. Fiedler distinguishes an approach that also has far-reaching consequences, namely whether the leader is more task-oriented or relationship-oriented. It has also been advocated in different terms, but in the same direction, by other researchers, such as Blake and Mouton, who have designed a managerial grid with the orientation people and production (Bass & Bass, 2008). Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard also take up this thread by linking the situational leadership model with the maturity level of subordinates. The four fields resulting from the matrix of task orientation and relationship orientation are applied to the maturity of the employee and result in four different leadership styles: telling, selling, participating, and delegating (Hersey & Blanchard, 1982). Another focus since the 1970s has been the question of the relationship between the leader and follower. Thus, the LMX theory describes (Graen & UhlBien, 1995) that high-quality relationships between the leader and their teams are based on trust and then achieve particularly good results. The task of the leader is to put themself in the shoes of the employee and invest in trust, which in turn leads to high job satisfaction and thus good performance and high productivity.

4.3.6

Behavioural Theories

In contrast to trait theories, behavioural theories emphasise that a leader does not so much need a certain attitude or that leadership is primarily defined by certain personal (innate) character traits, but that leadership consists of behavioural traits that can be learned. This implies that in some situations and circumstances a certain leadership behaviour becomes more necessary than in other environments. In addition to the first fundamental distinction between task orientation and relationship orientation as basic leadership behaviours, there is also a very extensive body of literature on the diverse behavioural theories. The most frequently mentioned managerial behaviours revolve around the topics of planning, problemsolving, and decision-making (Yukl, 1989). Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed the Leader Participation Model (Vroom, V. H., & Yetton, P. W, 1973) to which Arthur Jago later contributed. It distinguishes five styles, ranging from a

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more autocratic to a consultative and participative leadership style. The participative leadership style, which is less directing and more involving or empowering, repeatedly appears in the ‘modern’ styles (cf. Section 4.4) and is considered more effective than the pure ‘telling’ style. Likewise, motivational behaviour and networking behaviour are considered effective leadership behaviour (Yukl, 1989). The fundamental question of whether leaders are born (Great Man) or made (behaviour) continues to be openly debated and permeates both the leadership literature and perceptions in popular literature and in the practitioner world (Organ, 1996).

4.3.7

Autocratic, Democratic and Laissez-Faire Approaches

Kurt Lewin is probably the most prominent exponent of the distinction between three leadership styles, namely the authoritarian, participative, and delegative leadership styles. Although the representativeness of his field study with tenyear-old boys that investigated how both the group dynamics and the outcome orientation of the respective group change (Lewin et al., 1939) can be questioned in terms of the age, gender, culture, non-business context, etc. of the participants, this distinction between the different leadership styles has now persisted for over 80 years. In the authoritarian leadership style, the leader dictates what should be done and there is little room for decision-making by the followers. In contrast, the participative or democratic style involves the followers more as the leader sets goals, priorities, and values, but takes suggestions from the group and also participates in the goal-setting process. In the delegative or laissez-faire approach, the leader stays completely out of things and the group is in charge. Both the authoritarian and democratic leadership styles produce a good group result. However, the motivation and atmosphere in the democratic style are more pleasant and friendly than in the authoritarian style. In the laissez-faire approach, there is neither a good result nor do the followers like the atmosphere, as chaos tends to prevail. The key learnings derived from the overview of management and leadership from the Industrial Revolution to the 20th century can be summarised as follows: • The difference between management tasks and workers (Taylor) can still be found as an organisational principle today. • Important management tasks consist of planning, organising (incl. standards and recruiting), problem-solving, decision making, coordinating, and controlling.

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• The more employees know or the more independently they can work, the less leadership they need. • Relationships matter: good relationships (with superiors, peers, subordinates) and especially attention from leadership make people more satisfied and increase productivity. • Self-motivation increases through participation and the advantages of a participative leadership style outweigh the disadvantages. • There are leadership traits that make people effective leaders, and specific situations or circumstances as well as learnable behaviours that make them good leaders. • Leadership traits such as self-confidence, assertiveness, flexibility, motivation, encouragement, empathy, and achievement orientation correlate strongly with effective leadership. • The distinction between task and relationship orientation helps to assign the right leadership style. • When selecting a leader for a particular role, it is important to consider what the subordinates need, as high-quality relationships between leaders and followers achieve maximum results. Detailed results with regard to the research topic: In the sense of the research question, it makes sense not to generalise a certain leadership philosophy, but to abstract those partial elements to the essence that provide indications for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. In this regard, it can be stated that: ✓ The classic distinction between management and leadership essentially describes different tasks whereby management is described as planning, organising, commanding, coordinating, and controlling (Fayol) or planning, problem-solving, and decision taking (Yukl). ✓ Effective leadership has task orientation and relationship orientation as guiding principles. ✓ A universal model is characterised by particular traits and learned behaviour and contingency. ✓ Depending on the situation, authoritarian and participative and delegative leadership styles can be effective. ✓ The ‘either-or’ becomes a ‘both-and’ as only a holistic view of leadership is effective. ✓ A large number of studies and approaches suggest that it is not one style or type of leadership that is the ‘right’ one, but that an effective leadership framework

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results from taking the person of the leader, the followers, and the context into account. ✓ An application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework must be holistic and flexible.

4.4

Modern Leadership Theories Overview

In addition to the major leadership directions mentioned, many other leadership theories have emerged in recent years which are now examined.

4.4.1

Emotionally Intelligent Leadership

The concept of different types of intelligence was put forward by Howard Gardner who distinguishes between linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, naturalist, and intrapersonal intelligence (H. Gardner, 2006). Even though some scientific research is opposed to this distinction, several other distinctions have been made concerning intelligence (Rost, 2009) and, with time, many other types of intelligence have been presented, including the systematics of emotional intelligence. The concept of emotional intelligence is usually associated with Daniel Goleman, who popularised the approach (Goleman, 2004). Originally, the concept is based on the research of John Mayer and Peter Salovey, who first published an article on emotional intelligence in the early 1990s. In it, they presented a definition that has undergone countless variations in the following decades but has been widely received. It is about perceiving and controlling one’s own emotions as well as understanding and controlling those of others. Emotional intelligence is thus defined ‘as the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions’ (Salovey & Mayer, 1990b, p. 189). Popular literature has adapted this approach in many ways. Paradigmatic for many approaches is for example Bradberry et al. (2009) who make the concept workable by using a matrix that combines self, relationship, awareness, and management, resulting in the areas of self-awareness and social awareness as well as self-management and relationship management. Subsequently, the concept has been deepened in various ways and, in particular, scales for measuring emotional intelligence have been developed.

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Salovey and Mayer themselves vary the definition of emotional intelligence many times, for example as seen in the description that emotional intelligence is ‘the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion and thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others’ (Mayer et al., 2000, p. 396). Nevertheless, it is easy to see that here, too, the four-part harmony of identifying, using/assimilating, understanding, and regulating/managing already shines through. David Caruso and Peter Salovey comprehensively applied the concept of emotional intelligence to the topic of leadership and describe the main dimensions in ‘The Emotionally Intelligent Manager’ with identifying, using, understanding, and managing emotions (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). In contrast to Goleman’s matrix mentioned above, this model is based strictly on the perspective of the manager. The four essential skills of the emotionally intelligent manager are, firstly, being able to adequately express and perceive their own emotions, secondly, being able to adequately use and apply these emotions to increase their ability to think and reflect, thirdly, being able to understand emotions in-depth and, finally, fourthly, being able to use them in a problem-solving manner. It is striking that few concepts explicitly refer to emotionally intelligent leadership or present an explicit theory of emotionally intelligent leadership. Even in scientific reviews, the connection between emotional intelligence and leadership is presented as opposed to emotionally intelligent leadership as such (McCleskey, 2014). It should also not go unmentioned that there are researchers who reject a connection between emotional intelligence and leadership (cf. here, in particular, Antonakis, 2003; Antonakis et al., 2009).

4.4.2

Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is usually seen as a counter-concept to transactional leadership and goes back to the research and development of Bernhard Bass and James MacGregor Burns in particular. While transactional leadership is based on the philosophy of ‘give and take’ (Burns, 1978), i.e. the transaction is that the worker ‘gives’ their work and performance and receives wages and rewards in return, the background of transformational leadership is the vision of the leader as an influencer who takes the group with him. Bernhard Bass sees transactional and transformational leadership as a continuum represented in the Full Range Leadership Model, with transformational

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leadership being the most effective and active form (Bass & Riggio, 2005). Transactional leadership consists of the elements of active/passive management-byexception and contingent reward. Laissez-faire leadership is usually also included, although in a narrower sense it is neither transactional nor transformational, but non-leadership. Management-by-exception can exist in the active and passive variants. In the active variant, the manager observes and evaluates whether and how goals are achieved, or mistakes are made; in the passive variant, the manager waits for these mistakes to happen. In both cases, it is the manager’s task to take corrective action. Contingent reward is the normal way for most companies to manage behaviour by agreeing to targets and then rewarding achievement monetarily (bonus). Laissez-faire leadership is found on the diametrically opposite side of the continuum from transformational leadership and thus stands for passivity and ineffectiveness. This form of leadership could also be described as the absence of leadership as decisions are not made, and goals are not set and implemented. Transformational leadership goes beyond these transactions (reward for goal achievement), has the big picture in mind, wants to transform existing self-interest into the good of the company or society based on personal appreciation, and wants to motivate followers to give more than they should without immediately rewarding a certain behaviour financially. A transformational type of leader stands out through their motivational competence, empowerment, inspiration, involvement, shared vision, and development. While there are some overlaps between transformational and charismatic leadership, they can also be distinguished from each other, especially in that charismatic leadership focuses primarily on the person of the leader and the competence of influencing, while transformational leadership is explicitly concerned with the well-being of the follower and their positive transformation. The model of transformational leadership, which can be measured with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), consists of four components (Bass & Riggio, 2005), namely idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration. • Idealised influence includes the areas of role-modelling, risk-taking, consistency, and persistence. The more a leader is respected or even admired, the more employees can identify with them and are willing to make a high-level commitment and show a greater willingness to perform.

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• Inspirational motivation means, above all, developing an appealing vision that motivates a high level of commitment. The vision gives rise to high expectations and the inspirational leader knows how to inspire the followers with a lot of optimism to achieve the ambitious goals. • Intellectual stimulation stands for a style that challenges the status quo and invites people to think laterally and differently. It is about creative problemsolving in an error-friendly environment. It explicitly encourages the leader to first understand problems in depth and then try new things and novel approaches. • Individualised consideration highlights the fact that the manager is less of a command giver, but rather acts as a coach who focuses on the needs and concerns of the individual. This is personnel development in the true sense: the manager has the personal development of the follower in mind, respects individual differences, can listen well and therefore knows what the individual needs. Such a manager can delegate well and is there for all the employee’s concerns. Transformational leadership is one of the forms that has received much, if not the most, scholarly resonance: ‘Of all the leadership theories in organisational research, charismatic/transformational leadership has captured scholars’ interest most over the past decade’ (Judge et al., 2006, p. 203). The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is one of the tools that have been most intensively researched and validated in different studies to measure effective leadership behaviour (Bass & Avolio, 1996). In addition to the four-part transformational model, there are others that are similar but with minor variations, such as those of Kouzes and Posner (2012) with five fundamental practices (modelling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, enabling others to act, encouraging the heart), or that of Podsakoff et al. (1990) which describes six transformational leadership elements (articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high-performance expectations, providing individualised support, individualised consideration). However, Bass’ original four-part model has prevailed and is therefore used as a reference in this thesis.

4.4.3

Servant Leadership

Servant leadership is derived from the work of Robert K. Greenleaf and emphasises that the first and most important task of the leader is to serve their

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subordinates, to respond to their needs, to help them to develop and grow and thereby ultimately achieve the defined goals. This type of leadership is very similar to elements of transformational leadership and has a clear focus: people orientation. Robert Greenleaf himself mentions that every manager has to answer the question in which business he works: ‘I am in the business of growing people—people who are stronger, healthier, more autonomous, more self-reliant, more competent. Incidentally, we also make and sell at a profit things that people want to buy so we can pay for all this’ (Greenleaf, 2002, p. 159). The typical management task of defining goals, making plans, motivating people, and achieving results does not appear here—at first. Servant leadership is rather a revolutionary reversed mindset, which first and foremost asks whether and how the people entrusted to one’s care as a leader grow personally and as human beings, and whether they themselves can become servant leaders. Practically, servant leadership manifests itself in ‘listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualisation, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community’ (Spears, 2010, p. 25). Some attributes such as listening, empathy, or awareness also appear in the other conceptions. While foresight may be associated with vision and decision-making, healing may be more surprising in a business context.

4.4.4

Holistic Leadership

First of all, in a general understanding, holistic leadership refers to a comprehensive approach that contains different elements that make up a person, such as analytical skills, but also empathic, reflective, decisive, implementation-oriented, or visionary skills. Professor Stinder Dhiman’s model not only contains elements of self-mastery, self-motivation, and emotional intelligence, but also of creativity, appreciative inquiry, spiritual leadership, and purpose (Dhiman, 2017). For others, holistic leadership consists of taking a systemic view of the respective processes and interactions between the leader, follower, and environment (Best, 2011). Mitsuru Kodama primarily conceives holistic leadership in the perspective of centralised, distributed, and dialectical leadership and places it in the context of innovation and organisational adaptability (Kodama, 2017, 2019). Robert Cooper speaks of three brains (head, heart, gut) that should be served by a leader (R. K. Cooper, 2000). This basic concept has been taken up by others (Orlov, 2003). The ACES Leadership model is considered a holistic leadership development programme and consists of Analytical, Conceptual, Emotional, and Spiritual elements. The Analytical element relates to the management of complexity, the

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Conceptual element to project planning and development skills, the Emotional element to emotional intelligence, empathy, and employee involvement, and the Spiritual element to basic ethical standards (Quatro et al., 2007). Key skills are assigned to the respective areas: • Analytical domain: quantitative analysis, logical reasoning, decisiveness • Conceptual domain: qualitative analysis, creativity, curiosity • Emotional domain: persuasive communication, empathic understanding, selfmonitoring • Spiritual domain: self-reflection, integrity, and meditative thinking (Quatro et al., 2007). Stefan Brauckmann and Petros Pashiardis developed a holistic leadership framework that distinguishes between five styles: instructional, structuring, participative, entrepreneurial, and personnel development (Brauckmann & Pashiardis, 2011). However, it is intended from and for the school context and does not integrate any of the common leadership theories from business or psychology. There is no consistent model for holistic leadership that has really gained widespread acceptance. However, it can be deduced from the academic work of many researchers on the subject that there is a need for a comprehensive understanding of leadership and hence a purely analytical understanding of management should therefore not be seen as purposeful. Head-leadership should be complemented by heart- and gut-leadership which reflects the need to simplify and unify the multitude of models and approaches that are available. Finally, all monochromatically narrow models should be softened and potentially have the openness to perceive their own self-limitation and therefore be open to other systematics and a systemic approach that considers the person leading, the person being led, the environment, and the system as a whole is therefore advisable.

4.4.5

Positive Leadership

Although Abraham Maslow used the term ‘Positive Psychology’ as early as 1954 (Maslow, 1970), Martin Seligmann is considered the father of positive psychology. The paradigm shift that has taken place here and to which other renowned scientists have also contributed—such as Mihály Csíkszentmihály, who became known for the flow effect (Csikszentmihalyi, 2010), Donald Clifton, whose Clifton’s strengthfinder is well-known (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001), or Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, who developed the grid approach (Blake &

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Mouton, 1994)—marks a turning point. Whereas classical psychology was more deficit-oriented and based on clinical symptoms, positive psychology, building on humanistic psychology, consciously seeks the existing positive and tries to strengthen it. Utho Creusen and Gordon Müller-Seitz presented the positive leadership grid by combining the grid approach of Blake/Mouton with positive leadership concerning the individual, team, and organisation (Creusen & Müller-Seitz, 2010). Ruth Seliger describes positive leadership from a practical perspective and applies it to self-leadership through reflection, leading others through communication and resource focus, and leading organisations including designing change (Seliger, 2017). Kim Cameron sees three main aspects of positive leadership: positively deviant performance, affirmative bias, and a focus on virtuousness and eudaemonism. The former means that positive leadership fundamentally achieves better results; affirmation refers to a fundamentally positive and optimistic orientation towards strengths. Eudaemonism posits that people are intrinsically good and leadership is about bringing out the best in them. Leaders achieve this by creating a positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication, and positive meaning (Cameron, 2012). Markus Ebner presents a detailed and scientifically well-founded presentation of positive leadership (Ebner, 2019). He bases his approach on Seligman’s PERMA model (Seligman, 2014). This well-being theory defines five elements that ensure that people ‘flourish’: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. • Positive Emotions are about all the pleasant feelings that contribute to a person’s well-being. • Engagement, similar to the flow experience that Csikszentmihalyi (2010) described in detail, is about experiencing (precisely between over- and under-challenge) those challenges that allow one to develop one’s potential. • Every person needs positive relationships in which they feel comfortable and which in turn help to raise their potential. • Some speak of purpose, others of meaning: it is about a person’s need to collaborate or engage in something that is considered meaningful and significant. • And finally, it is about experiencing that goals can be achieved. Accomplishment is the experience of not being a passive victim but being able to actively shape the world.

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Markus Ebner’s PERMA Lead Model states that it is the task of leadership to strengthen the different PERMA elements of the employee. Positive leadership, therefore, leads to greater life satisfaction, lower stress levels, better health, and hence also to improved customer ratings and higher productivity (Ebner, 2019). In concrete terms, this means that leadership ensures that there is a good working atmosphere, and even fun at work (P), that employees are deployed in such a way that they can use their strengths (E), and that there are positive working relationships (R), that employees experience a sense of meaning in their work (M), and that employees achieve goals and receive appropriate feedback (A).

4.4.6

Spiritual Leadership

Similarly to emotionally intelligent leadership, which is based on the concept of emotional intelligence, there is also some (limited) research on spiritual intelligence. Here, in particular, the research of Danah Zohar and Marshall (2001) and Cindy Wigglesworth (2014) should be mentioned. While Zohar lists scientific evidence for spiritual intelligence (SQ) including the so-called ‘God Spot’, Wigglesworth defines four quadrants of 21 abilities, so that SQ can be described as ‘the ability to behave wisely and compassionately and to maintain outer and inner peace regardless of the situation’ (Wigglesworth, 2014). The four quadrants are similar to Goleman’s system in that they consist of self-awareness and self-management, and social or universal awareness and its corresponding management (Wigglesworth, 2014). Unlike the concept of the emotionally intelligent leader, which is explicitly based on the concept of emotional intelligence, or positive leadership, which derives a PERMA-LEAD concept from the PERMA-wellbeing concept, the various concepts of spiritual leadership do not draw on the concepts of spiritual intelligence (SQ). This may be due on the one hand to the fact that neither a concept of SQ nor spiritual leadership has become established, or on the other hand to the fact that both theories have not yet been researched deeply and comprehensively enough. Before elaborating on the concept of spiritual leadership, it is worth noting that there is another branch of research around spirituality, namely that of ‘spirituality at work’ (K. Rhodes, 2006). This term has sometimes been chosen as a counterconcept to institutionalised religion, especially in the traditional churches, and is mainly related to the above-mentioned concepts of SQ. In addition to concepts of emotional intelligence, elements of mindfulness, commitment to the environment, universal thinking, and other elements of ethical behaviour then emerged. For the

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first time at the end of the 1990 s, it was investigated what spirituality at work actually means (Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L., 2010) and how spirituality as part of normal human life can also be taken into account at work: ‘No organisation can survive for long without spirituality and soul. We must examine ways of managing spirituality without separating it from the other elements of management’ (Mitroff & Denton, 1999, p. 91). In the following years, based on spirituality as such and workplace spirituality, in particular, the first theory on spiritual leadership was developed (Fry, 2003) after which the subject as a whole increasingly became an object of scientific interest, so that there was, for example, a special issue in the renowned journal ‘The Leadership Quarterly’ on the subject of spiritual leadership (Fry, 2005). Fry’s model is very influential and many scholars refer to it. He places it in the area of the transformation of an organisation. It consists of the elements of vision, hope/faith, and love, which lead to a ‘sense of membership’, which means that one feels understood and valued. The vision is to create a sense of calling toward a life that makes sense and the whole movement leads to higher well-being and performance (Fry, 2005; Fry et al., 2005). In a nutshell, Fry defines spiritual leadership as ‘the values, attitudes, and behaviours necessary to intrinsically motivate self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership’ (Fry, 2003, p. 694). Some (few) scholars see spiritual leadership as more religiously situated. Oswald Sanders, for example, can be mentioned here as an example of someone who provides a concept of spiritual leadership explicitly based on Christian biblical principles (Sanders, 2017). Many locate their leadership model more in wisdom from ‘Eastern’ religions or spiritual movements, such as Ulrich (2018) who essentially define leadership in terms of mindfulness and centricity. Gilbert W. Fairholm, along with Louis W. Fry, is certainly the scientist who has dealt with the subject most extensively, especially at the beginning of scientific investigations (detailed, for example, in Fairholm, 1997; Fairholm, 2000). For Fairholm, spiritual leadership is embedded in values leadership, which describes a way ‘to think about leadership founded in individual and corporate values. It emphasises the individual in the group, not just the organisation. Individual, not corporate, values predominate…. The true essence of leadership is… in setting and teaching values to followers’ (Fairholm, 2000, p. 47). This paradigm shift from a pure goal- and result-oriented to values-based leadership is an important momentum in the further development of leadership theories. As principles of values-based leadership, Fairholm names the further development or transformation of oneself and one’s employees, leading with an inspiring vision, a values-based culture, turning to the individual, teaching and empowering, and

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finally high-performance orientation through high intrinsic motivation (Fairholm, 2000). Starting from this values-based leadership, he then defines spirituality as such as the source of these values that give meaning to life and therefore spiritual leadership as a comprehensive and holistic system that integrates the different spiritual elements: ‘Our spirituality is a source guide for personal values and… another word for personal awareness. … Integrating the many components of one’s work and personal life into a comprehensive system for managing the workplace defines the holistic or spiritual leadership approach’ (Fairholm, 2000, p. 97). According to Fairholm, spirituality is composed of the following elements: inner certainty; an essence of self; a basis of comfort, strength, and happiness; a source of personal meaning, values, and life purposes; a personal belief system; an emotional level; a feeling, and experience of the transcendent in life (Fairholm, 2000). However, the derivation of what this means concerning leadership remains somewhat vague. Fairholm describes several leadership tasks including vision setting, servanthood, task competence (teaching, trusting, inspiring, acquiring knowledge), and spiritual leadership process elements that comprise building the community, setting a higher moral standard, wholeness, and stewardship. Furthermore, he defines continuous improvement as the prime leadership goal (Fairholm, 2000). A good overview of many other models, ideas, and well over a hundred tests to measure spirituality and its impact on people and human work, but also the conceptual challenges, can be found in the work of Nicolae et al. (2017). In summary, there is not (yet) a single concept of spiritual leadership that has gained acceptance, and considerably more research is needed on all concepts, firstly to distinguish them from other leadership concepts, and secondly to investigate the impact of spiritual leadership on productivity and performance. Most recently, however, from a review of all existing concepts and studies Jihye Oh and Jia Wang (2020) put forward the following main descriptions for spiritual leadership: it is characterised by a value-driven stronger ethical character, stronger relationships, and connectedness with others, as well as stronger motivation through vision and purpose/meaning. Fry’s core elements of vision, trust, and love are thereby confirmed as, ‘In essence, spiritual leaders are those who inspire and motivate followers/coworkers based on organisational and ethical values to build a meaningful and connected work environment’ (Jihye Oh & Jia Wang, 2020, p. 8).

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Integral Leadership

Integral philosophy emerged in the course of the 1990s. In the German-speaking world it goes back to Johannes Heinrichs, for example (Heinrichs, 2014), whereas, in the international sphere, Ken Wilber in particular is regarded as the protagonist of this current of thought (Wilber & Schuhmacher, 2010). Integral philosophy or theory shows that the human spheres of life, such as society, nature, or the economy, are all interconnected. As an answer, so to speak, to the multitude of different approaches to life and the world, the integral approach tries to show the interconnectedness of everything and the interdependence and commonality of all approaches. Ken Wilber, in particular, also integrates spiritual experiences into his overall approach (Wilber, 2007). Wilber’s AQAL approach (All Quadrants All Levels) is widely known and accepted. The continuum ‘interior-exterior’ and ‘individual-collective’ results in four quadrants. Briefly, the interior-collective quadrant describes the collective consciousness of a society (‘we’), while the interior-individual quadrant focuses on the self and inner experiences (‘I’). The exterior-individual targets individual observable behaviour (‘it’) and the exterior-collective targets societal observable behaviour (‘they’). Since the integral approach tries to unite all areas of life, it naturally also ‘integrates’ the topic of leadership (Wilber, 2000). However, Wilber’s integral approach is not simply a new theory or model that could easily be applied, but in its comprehensive philosophical, psychological, pedagogical, and sociological approach is more an object of research than easily penetrable systematics (Pauchant, 2005). While there have been some attempts to apply Wilber’s model in a leadership theory (Akiyama et al., 2012; Reams, 2005), no model has prevailed on the scientific level to date.

4.4.8

Other Leadership Models

Stogdill already noted 50 years ago that ‘there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept’ (Stogdill, 1974, p. 7). Therefore, only a few models that are most closely related to the topic of this thesis will be presented here. Adaptive leadership ‘Adaptive leadership is the practice of mobilising people to tackle tough challenges and thrive’ (Heifetz et al., 2009, p. 14). Heifetz et al. apply this very general description to change leadership: people, as beings capable of change,

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can and should change in order to thrive. After a comprehensive diagnosis, where observation is central, the leader will interpret what they have observed and will then activate and mobilise the people in the system, which involves reflection and implementation of effective interventions and also shapes the culture. It is about being able to lead oneself and inspire others. Adaptive leadership takes the person of the leader, the followers, and the environment into account. Being able to adapt to changing environments has become even more important in recent years as the pace of change continues to increase. Authentic leadership Although the topic of authenticity has naturally been highly relevant as a human issue for a long time (S. Harter, 2002) it has only become stronger as a leadership issue since the beginning of the 21st century. From a scientific perspective, the reflections of Luthans and Avolio (2003) and from a practical perspective George and Bennis (2003) are to be mentioned. In principle, the approach assumes that authentic leadership, which is characterised by positive self-awareness and selfmanagement, leads to higher authenticity, i.e. the congruence of word and deed according to ethical principles, also among followers. The dedication of an entire issue of ‘The Leadership Quarterly’ to this topic in 2005 marks the beginning of this rising interest (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). The most in-depth overview of the topic and a distinction from other types of leadership is provided by W. L. Gardner et al. (2011). Ethical leadership Ethical leadership is one of the newest leadership concepts. The reason why this topic has become more important is often seen in the fact that many managers have made the headlines in the press because of mismanagement, taboo-breaking, lying, or massive violations of rules. In the German-speaking world, these were, for example, the former CEO of the Bertelsmann Group, Thomas Middelhoff (Business Insider Deutschland, 2020), the executives of VW and Audi (Bender, 2018) and most recently Wirecard (Holtermann, 2021). While there is still a lack of concepts on how to present ethically-based leadership in a scientifically sound manner—although a very good overview is given by M. E. Brown and Treviño (2006)—it is evident that the need for leadership that adheres to moral principles is growing. A comprehensive overview of the topic with a focus on international organisations is also provided by Varaki and Vilaça (2021).

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Charismatic leadership Charismatic leadership has already been discussed in the evolutionary review. It has many similarities to transformational leadership and presents several challenges from a differentiation point of view. Banks et al. (2017) provide a good overview of this leadership concept while further models that are rather singular or duplicate each other can be found in Ingo Winkler (2009). Agile leadership In the context of software development, the topic of agility has become increasingly important since the 1990s and has also become highly relevant for other, non-IT-related areas in the last 20 years or so. Particularly in recent years, when the change challenges of the VUCA (Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, Ambiguity) world have become increasingly pronounced, organisations and their leaders are expected to respond to the major change challenges with adaptability and agility, and hence the term ‘agile leadership’ was coined. This agility of leadership is closely and directly related to agile organisations, which try to meet current market, development, and environmental challenges in a different (agile) way. Rigid systems, with long-lasting processes designed for consistency, efficiency, and longevity, can no longer cope with the increasing speed of change with its corresponding rapid and recurring challenges. In harmony with changing systems, a different form of leadership is needed and an overview of the relevant literature indicates a broad field of possibilities. In this thesis, the main elements of agile leadership are presented in a condensed form. There is no single approach, but rather a multitude of different studies, which are well summarised and presented in the meta-analysis of Theobald et al. (2020). Accordingly, agile leadership can be described using the terms speed, decentralisation, customer centricity, no or flat hierarchies, and fast decision-making by senior management. Agile leadership delegates instead of primarily controlling results with commandand-control, moderates instead of pushing through decisions alone, ensures that knowledge is shared, and creates an atmosphere of trust in everything (Nold, 2012). In essence, agile leadership contains the same elements as transformational leadership, especially in terms of the aspects of a visionary, value-driven character, turning to the individual, inspiration, and influence. To summarise, an interesting overview of published articles is provided by the Institute of Education Sciences of the American government on the ERIC (Institute of Education Sciences, 2022) platform. Additionally, the search of Google Scholar (2022) under the restriction of naming the corresponding designation in the title shows the topics that have been published with priority and positive and

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transformational leadership stand out here. For validation, the general search was supplemented by ProQuest.com (2022) and Google Scholar Overall (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Published articles according to leadership style Leadership style

ERIC numbers

Google Scholar title

ProQuest

Google Scholar overall

Emotionally intelligent leadership

24

7

171,123

120,000

Transactional leadership

401

26

272,825

233,000

2,566

224

378,721

731,000

Servant leadership

351

85

711,078

744,000

Holistic leadership

627

4

472,985

943,000

Positive leadership

4,233

30

4,732,515

4,190,000

Spiritual leadership

388

24

710,136

2,630,000

Integral leadership

395

2

1,016,890

2,530,000

Adaptive leadership

305

26

347,696

1,240,000

Authentic leadership

634

45

507,748

1,080,000

Ethical leadership 1,036

75

873,683

4,370,000

Charismatic leadership

33

268,152

294,000

Transformational leadership

102

Source: ERIC, Google Scholar, ProQuest

The very large number of articles and books that are available again shows how scientifically interesting and broad the topic of leadership is. The literature review has also already shown, in terms of numbers, which topics have primarily been dealt with in the relevant journals, although here too only singular priorities are visible which are not clear at all levels.

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Methodologically, the summative analysis highlighted the main themes that are to be noted again in the detailed results. Detailed results with regard to the research topic: ✓ Relationship-orientation in leadership means leading with emotional intelligence, paying special attention to the development of followers (servant and spiritual leadership), and leading holistically (holistic leadership). ✓ Transactional and transformational leadership are to be seen as a recognised continuum that leads to adapted leadership depending on the situational challenge. ✓ Transformational leadership contains those elements that are both applicationoriented, universal, and effective with the main areas of idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration.

4.5

Leadership Approaches From a Neuroleadership Perspective

Since the topic of neuroleadership is of particular importance for answering the research question, the basics of neuroscience and its leadership implications will first be described in a content-related outline to then distil the essentials reflectively concerning the research question.

4.5.1

Content Description

One of the more recent leadership concepts has been reinforced with the rapid development in the understanding of the brain through neuroscience, especially neurobiology and neuropsychology. Since it can be considered universal, it will be explored in depth here. The human brain, which weighs about 1.5 kg in an adult, consists of approximately 100 billion nerve cells, each of which can have up to 15,000 synapses to other nerve cells so that the total network of the brain can consist of more than 100 trillion synapses (Elger, 2009). The findings of neuroscience point to the lifelong development potential of the brain with the concept of neuroplasticity. Furthermore, in the course of the last two decades, a deeper understanding of the limbic system responsible for feelings and drives has been derived, which

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indicates that the amygdala functions in controlling emotions, the neocortex as the seat of decisions, and the hippocampus serves as a type of ‘working memory’ of the brain, the hypothalamus as the controller of all vegetative functions, and the basal ganglia for controlling the cognitive, physiological, and mostly unconscious processes. Hence, it can be said that the basic task of the brain is first of all to provide for individual and also social survival. This is achieved, among other things, by the human ability not only to perceive and recognise the behaviour of the environment but also to make predictions—even if they turn out to be wrong—and to plan possible reactions (c.f. the theory-of-mind research, e.g. Förstl, 2007). There is thus an inherent tendency in the brain to make sense of interactions through presumed cause-effect relationships. In doing so, the neural system compares old with new information, whereby the way it deals with this is ambivalent. On the one hand, the brain prefers predictions to surprises while on the other hand, it desires new stimuli to avoid distractions. Emotional stimuli are always given priority, especially pain-related information (Garland, 2012). In addition, the most important neurological functions that also play an important role in the context of neuroleadership are outlined in the following (Elger, 2009). On the one hand, the brain evaluates stimuli according to their exceptionality and everything that is recurring becomes ‘normal’ and a routine. On the other hand, new stimuli are consciously perceived and also processed with priority, unless the consciousness concentrates on one particular thing and blocks out other stimuli (Simons & Chabris, 1999). New stimuli can act like a ‘wake-up stimulus’, thereby causing other stimuli given after a new stimulus to receive a particularly high level of attention (‘shock novel stimulus’, c.f. Elger, 2009, p. 55). These neuroscientific findings are now being applied to leadership by examining, in a variety of ways, what effects leadership mechanisms have on the leader themselves, and also on employees (followers) and the system as a whole (context). From a neuro perspective, the research focuses on how ‘brain-friendly’ leadership can be and what the findings of neuroscience mean for the entire topic of leadership. However, critics either do not see the new value that neuroleadership brings to the table (J. McGregor, 2007) or doubt the empirical evidence despite recommending its implementation (Reinhardt, 2014). Although both the neurosciences and the topic of neuroleadership are still relatively new and therefore work with many assumptions, it appears that the topic will deepen in the coming years. Neuroscientific findings provide a different view of the topic of leadership as they start with the human brain, and thereby examine the personality, human behaviour, deep-seated drivers of behaviour, reactions to behaviour, and possibilities for changing behaviour. In this respect, the findings in this section form a bracket with those from evolutionary science.

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Before delving into the neuroleadership theses, some basic assumptions should be reflected. Neuroleadership works with the deep human needs that arise from the neural brain structure. For a long time, social psychologists, following Maslow’s famous pyramid of needs (Maslow, 1943) have been investigating basic human needs (Pittman & Zeigler, 2007) whereby a distinction is made between the needs to exist or to survive (e.g. water, food, air, sleep) and the needs to thrive (e.g. belonging, autonomy). In the context of neuroleadership, the focus is more on the needs required to thrive and over the years, many different concepts have been developed, sometimes with many different needs. Maslow distinguishes the basic physiological needs such as food, water, and shelter, on which the next needs are built hierarchically, i.e. in terms of importance: safety (security and protection), social (sense of belonging), esteem (self-esteem, recognition, status), and self-actualisation (self-development and realisation) (Ward, D., & Lasen, M., 2009). These needs were later expanded by Maslow himself, in particular with the levels of aesthetic and transcendence needs (Maslow, 1971). Over the years, Maslow’s model has been modified and expanded, and many other models have emerged, not all of which can be discussed in detail in this work (Ward, D., & Lasen, M., 2009). The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) stands out here because of its simplicity in collecting needs under competence, autonomy, and relatedness and has been applied and tested in very different contexts for several years (Deci et al., 2017; Deci & Ryan, 1996, 2012; Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M., 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). A current overview of many meta-analyses that show that the three needs play a major role—also across cultures—can be found in Vansteenkiste et al. (2020). Competence or effectance motivation describes the need for effective interaction with the environment. Although it is distinguished from the need for achievement, it cannot be completely separated from it. Autonomy is a broad field but can primarily be described in terms of self-regulation and self-control whereas relatedness describes the deep need for relationships and the desire to belong. Transformational leadership supports the basic needs more than other forms of leadership (Deci et al., 2017). Fundamentally, the fulfilment of these needs in the work context leads to higher motivation, greater well-being, better health, and thus also to higher customer satisfaction and ultimately also to better financial performance (Deci et al., 2017; Doshi & McGregor, 2015; Pink, 2011). The brain structures ensure that rewards are maximised and threats minimised or avoided. Lewin (1970) was probably the first to describe this need, which was later widely adopted in psychology as approach-avoidance-conflict or approachavoidance-motivation. It was probably most comprehensively described by Elliot (2006) and Elliot (2010) and states that behaviour is motivated by positive stimuli (approach) or negative (avoidance). Conflict arises, for example, when there is a

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goal or an event that contains both a reward and a threat, even in temporal shifts. The classic example of this is eating sweets, which triggers a short-term reward in the limbic system and at the same time can have long-term disadvantages for the body. Neuroleadership now incorporates many neurobiological and psychological findings and extrapolates them to leadership and related topics. Prominent, and the first to present the findings and communicate them in a way that is suitable for business, is David Rock, who also wrote a dissertation on the subject (Rock, 2010). Then there are Christian Elger (2013), Theo Peters and Argang Ghadiri (Ghadiri et al., 2012) whereby the research of Klaus Grawe (1998) should also be mentioned in this context. The term neuroleadership goes back to David Rock, who in the SCARF model (Status, Certainty, Autonomy, Relatedness, Fairness) describes how leaders can lead their employees by taking the five deep human needs into account (Rock, 2008). The increase in social status is rewarded by the amygdala in a similar way to a financial reward, for example. Status here means self-assessment in relation to others. If someone feels better than others in comparison, their status is higher; if they feel worse, this triggers ‘pain’. Social pain activates the same regions in the brain that are activated by physical pain, and both types of pain influence each other (Eisenberger & Lieberman, 2004). In contrast, not perceiving one’s status as threatened and being able to develop oneself touches the reward centre. A primal human need is to strive for certainty, which in the present focuses on the knowledge that one’s own life and the lives of those one cares about (clan) are not threatened, and regarding the future, that there are no life-threatening bad surprises on the road ahead. Current uncertain situations and lack of clarity about the future touch the threat centre whereas transparency about planning in the future, as well as habits, repetitions, and routines, are a ‘reward’. Closely related to the need for freedom to decide for oneself is the need for autonomy. To be in control of oneself and a situation, to be able to shape it, to be able to realise oneself in the best sense, touches the reward centre and represents the need for autonomy. Humans are relational beings and always live in relation to a group, be it family, neighbourhood, acquaintances, or friends. There is a deep distinction between in or out groups, i.e. whether someone belongs to one’s own group or not. This expresses relatedness and not belonging to a group or meeting new individuals touches the threat centre. Fairness builds on a deep-seated human need that rewards fair behaviour and punishes unfair behaviour.

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Neuroleadership suggests that, according to the approach-avoidance-theory, the five areas should be considered and that, in the daily routine of leadership, the leader should ensure that the five basic human needs are fulfilled in terms of the internal (often unconscious) reward structure. This applies to self-management as well as to the management of subordinates. At this point, two activities can already be mentioned that are helpful when the threat response is triggered, i.e. when an area in the SCARF is violated as effective means to deal with a negatively created emotion: to put the feelings into words (Lieberman et al., 2007) or to reframe them (Ochsner & Gross, 2005). The brain researcher Christian Elger (2009) distinguishes the four most important brain systems (reward system, emotional system, memory system, and decision-making system) as well as the four most important basic needs (relationship, learning, avoiding losses, growth). From this, he derives the seven basic rules for neuroleadership, which can be applied to different areas of leadership. In general, they can be described as follows (Elger, 2009, 158 ff.): • Activation of the reward system leads to motivation, whether it is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. • Fairness is an important driver of our actions. • Predictions or expectations of future behaviour are influenced by prior information. • Brain plasticity enables continuous growth, learning, and change • Emotion and cognition cannot be separated from one another and pure facts without emotion do not exist. • Routines and experiences determine behaviour. • Events and situations develop a momentum that should not be underestimated. Klaus Grawe, for his part, refers to Seymur Epstein in the theory of basic human needs (cf. the presentation of his integrative Theory of Personality in S. Epstein, 2014) and sets out the four basic human needs: orientation and control; pleasure gain and displeasure avoidance; attachment/bonding; and self-esteem enhancement (Grawe, 1998, 385 ff.). The need for orientation, control and understanding refers to the human need for a consistent understanding of reality into which (new) human experiences can be woven. Some researchers also speak of the need for coherence, others rather for consistency. Like all needs, this one can appear in people in varying degrees of strength and depending on the situation, but it is there in everyone and must be fulfilled to avoid illnesses or personality deformations.

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The need to create or increase positive emotions (pleasure gain) and to minimise or avoid negative ones (displeasure avoidance) is another deep-seated human endeavour. Both early childhood attachment and partner relationships belong to the realm of the need for attachment, which is also deeply rooted in the human being and has negative effects if neglected. The complex way humans deal with their own self-esteem is quite variant. What is meant in depth by the need for self-esteem enhancement is the striving for self-love, recognition, and to feel valuable, i.e. to maintain a positive self-image. Theo Peters and Argang Ghadiri base their work on Grawe’s consistency theory model and extend it or create implementation-oriented models (Theo Peters & Ghadiri, 2014). In particular, they present the ACTIV model and the PERFEKT scheme. The ACTIV model begins with an analysis (A) of the employee’s initial situation by the manager. This is followed by the creation of a consistency profile (Konsistenz in German), which represents the discrepancy between the current and desired states. The third step, transformation (T), is about choosing and motivating new options for action. Inconsistency avoidance (I) is about adjusting the environment to lead to consistency. Agreement (Vereinbarung in German) is about agreeing on concrete steps. In the English version of their book, the ACTIV Model is described with analysis, consistency profile, transformation, inconsistency avoidance, and verification (Ghadiri et al., 2012). The PERFECT scheme focuses on concrete recommendations for action: potential development, encouragement, feedback, freedom, emotional leadership, communication, and transparency (Theo Peters & Ghadiri, 2014, 139 ff.).

4.5.2

Summary

According to the renowned Gabler Business Encyclopedia, neuroleadership refers to ‘the application of neuroscientific findings and methods for employee management and the design of an appropriate working environment’ (Ghadiri, 2018). At present, neuroscientific findings are very diverse, and the topic of employee management and the working environment is also very broad. The question thus arises as to what the quintessence of neuroleadership findings means with regard to the question posed in this paper, namely from which principles an applicationoriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework can be formed. Relevant to answering this question is primarily those neuroscientific findings and principles that have been widely received and have a broad scientific basis.

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Provided that in the 21st century, the mechanistic worldview that views employees purely as executors of their managers’ instructions is seen as outdated, it is important to first note that leadership can only be viewed holistically, including the insights of cognition and emotion. Research into the limbic system and especially the functionality of the amygdala, as well as the connection between emotion, decision, and action, suggest that successful—and above all effective—leadership is emotionally intelligent, i.e. it understands how people react to external action, what they need to live and work in the best possible way, and what intrinsically motivates them. In other words, neuroleadership reinforces the view that emotional intelligence is essential for effective leadership. The approach/avoidance model can be seen as a motivational, overarching scheme. In order to satisfy their needs, the person moves ‘towards’ a goal to be pursued or ‘away from’ a goal to be avoided. This generally recognised basic datum of motivation comes before all individual needs. One can make use of it in the context of leadership by including in all activities the question of what motivates people in one direction or away from another, especially in the context of goal-setting and goal-achievement. This does not mean, however, that the ‘carrot-stick model’ is propagated here concerning extrinsic motivation, but only takes a look at the follower’s needs. In terms of the research question, the analysis of the different models shows that they all revolve around three thematic fields. The first field revolves around the ‘I’, namely the individual. The second thematic field is about the need in relation to the ‘you’. Finally, the third field is about needs directed at the environment, i.e. at the outside. Both Elger’s ‘avoiding losses’ and Grawe’s ‘avoiding pleasure/unpleasure’ go in the direction of the approach/avoidance motivation and are, therefore ‘in front of the parenthesis’ which means that they always apply, also to the other needs. The individual has different needs, which can be summarised well with Grawe’s self-esteem enhancement although the need for autonomy, status, learning, growth, self-esteem and self-actualisation, competence, and certainty also fit in. The need for attachment and relationship as well as belonging is consistently described as a basic need by all models. The need for the outside, for ‘they’ is again diverse and orientation and control, as well as fairness and safety, can be assigned to it. Neuroleadership, which involves knowing and capitalising on emotionally intelligent and motivational schemas, applies the findings of needs research in the following way: the leader is primarily responsible for ensuring that their needs and those of their employees are met in the professional context. This also means that the individual needs have to be thought through in relation to the respective employee and situation: the manager must first become aware of their own needs

4.6 Effective Leadership

83

and how they can be addressed, what the needs of others are, and then also what the situation requires. In everyday leadership situations, for example in change or conflict situations, the application of neuroscientific findings can be helpful or even decisive (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 Human needs—summary from different authors I

I-YOU

IT/THEY

Self-esteem enhancement

Binding

Orientation/ control

Rock (2008)

Autonomy, status, certainty

Relatedness

Fairness

Elger (2013)

Learning, growth

Social relations

Maslow (1971)

Self-esteem, self-actualization

Belonging

SDT

Competence, autonomy

Relatedness

Grawe (1998)

Safety

Detailed results with regard to the research topic: ✓ Effective and application-oriented leadership is emotionally intelligent. ✓ Effective leadership knows the needs of the employees and starts with them. ✓ Effective and application-oriented leadership considers the needs of the individual (especially for self-esteem, autonomy, status, learning, growth, self-esteem, self-actualisation, competence, and certainty), as well as the needs for relationship (bonding, belonging, relatedness), and for the environment (orientation, control, fairness, safety).

4.6

Effective Leadership

How the principles of effective leadership are defined is part of the research question. Effective leadership can be understood very broadly in the sense that every type of leadership achieves something. In the definition of leadership, goal orientation or goal achievement is usually mentioned as part of the leadership continuum. At this point, however, a more detailed view is presented concerning what different scholars understand under the concept of leadership effectiveness, what effective leadership looks like, how it is treated in research, and what exactly the effects of effective leadership are.

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A large and groundbreaking five-year study was presented by Harvard Business School Prof. Nitin Nohria et al. (2003). According to this study, which became known as the Evergreen Project, the most successful companies with the most sustainable performance are characterised by good management practices in the basics of strategy, execution, culture, and structure, but also in two out of four secondary practices, talent, leadership, innovation, and mergers/partnerships. Leaders of these successful companies are characterised by their commitment to and knowledge of the business, and their strong communication and problemsolving skills. The primary practices include many that are directly related to management and leadership and therefore contribute to the effectiveness of leadership, such as strategic communication, focus, flat hierarchy and empowerment, inspiration, and rewards. The level of influence of top management on the success or performance of the company has also been described many times and is well summarised by A. Mackey (2008), here at almost 30 %, or by D. C. Hambrick and Quigley (2014)—here estimated at 20 %. McKinsey found that there are four effective leadership behaviours: support orientation, results orientation, different perspectives, and problem-solving (Feser et al., 2015). J. K. Harter et al. (2002) describe the relationship between employee satisfaction and business outcomes, whereby leadership also influences employee satisfaction (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2021). Others examine the relationship between the age, functions, career experiences, formal education, socioeconomic background, financial position, or group heterogeneity of top executives and how this relates to business outcomes (Donald C. Hambrick & Mason, 1984). There are even authors who describe precise leadership practices that offer a competitive advantage in the 21st century and lead to sustainable success (Ireland & Hitt, 1999). The path-goal theory of leadership originally described that leadership behaviour influences performance, especially when goals are made attractive, whereby other variables such as traits, personality, and the task environment are not to be neglected (House & Mitchell, 2007). Whatever the relationship between leadership and results may be, in most cases what Drucker (1996) described in detail and what has also been very intensively emphasised by Malik (2019) applies, namely that effective leadership means achieving results. Non-effective leadership is then that which only lives or carries out partial aspects of leadership, such as organising a group or pure inspiration but without achieving results.

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In leadership research, contradictions sometimes are created where there are none, for example when Malik criticises elements of transformational leadership such as inspiration, motivation, or emotionally intelligent leadership (Malik, 2019). Effective leadership is made up of many elements and can be traced back to different drivers and to examine these in detail is a separate undertaking. For this thesis, it is important to note that most authors consider the creation of results, if not as the main goal, then at least as a partial goal of leadership. After all, as mentioned earlier, leadership always produces results. The crucial question in the context of economic organisations is whether leadership brings about the achievement of the goals that the organisation has set for itself. Since these goals can be very extensive, diverse, or even contradictory, the most extensive context is referred to obtain the broadest definition. This arises from the key functions of any business: it consists of employees, produces a product or service for a market, needs to make money, and should have an impact on society beyond the immediate one (Mango, 2018). Along these key functions of every company, effective leadership is defined in this work as leadership that comprehensively achieves the results that are desired and wanted by the organisation, in particular financial results, results for the employees, and results for the customer and external partners or society.

4.7

Additional Leadership Aspects

The explicit topic of this thesis and the given scope is leadership in business organisations. Not explicitly in scope is leadership in other organisations such as the military, church, or education, although much academic research on leadership is consulted regardless of its origin or organisational setting, and some scholars emphasise that leadership has the same definitions and implications whether in the private, public, or political sectors (Bolman & Deal, 2021). Although political leadership is not in the explicit scope of this work, it will be briefly referenced, as political leadership is experienced by citizens in everyday life and important elements of leadership can be well examined here. Moreover, the ‘locus’ of political leadership is one of the oldest, next to the military context. Although culture-specific leadership is also not the focus of this work, since the research question asks for universal elements, the area should at least be touched on and examined for its relevance to the research question. Finally, there is an aspect of leadership that appears again and again, which is also not in the explicit scope of this work but which must nevertheless be questioned for its impact or relevance: the so-called dark side of leadership.

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Leadership in Other Organisations

Leadership appears in organisations and institutions whereby the family can be regarded as the smallest social institution. In the ancient Roman Empire, the pater familias was the head of the household and represented the family internally and externally (Honsell, 2010). This ancient structure still has an impact in many countries and is also effective in some local legislation today. In contrast, there is evidence that for today’s families transformational leadership prevails which influences intra-family well-being (Galbraith, 2005). Other old institutions and organisations where leadership and management can be observed are the military, religion, educational institutions, and politics. Leadership and the military To date, ‘The Art of war’ by Sun Tzu (2007), which was written 2,500 years ago, is still one of the contemporary bestsellers, as is the 100-year-old book on war by Carl von Clausewitz (2018). Both of these works describe warfare, among other things. Other authors look to Napoleon’s strategy for warfare for clues on how to deal with crises today (Feigen et al., 2020). As an example of how military leadership is demonstrated, a leadership programme for reserve officers at the University of Akron, the Army leadership programme ROTC—Army Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (The University of Akron, 2022)—will be presented. Under the headline ‘Be, know, do’ (University of Akron, 2022), leadership is described using ontological leadership (trait or personality), behaviour (knowledge and skills), and action categories (ethical behaviour). The definition of leadership follows the transformational orientation whereby influencing, vision, purpose, direction, and motivation are mentioned. The ‘be’ modalities include the belief that the leader’s personality is important and that their identity is values- and ethics-driven and also includes empathy. Under the heading ‘presence’, qualities such as charisma of authority, physical fitness, emotional balance, self-confidence, and resilience are summarised. The ‘know’ modalities include intellectual capacity elements such as mental agility, judgement capacity, innovation, interpersonal capabilities, and domain knowledge while the ‘do’ modalities are about leading, developing, and achieving. The ROTC programme also distinguishes management from leadership and emphasises that both are needed. This military leadership programme should not be seen as representative, but as one that is based at a university and is therefore scientifically embedded and available in more detail than others. It is only meant to exemplify how leadership can be understood in the military today. Both the trilogy of ‘Be, know, do’ and the emphasis on leadership traits and behaviours,

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as well as the distinction between management and leadership, indicate that the basic elements of leadership in the military context are not as different to how they are described in other organisations. From this, it can be concluded that case studies and scientific research on leadership in the military context are not invalid per se in relation to an economic context of leadership. However, since the aim of this thesis is not to make a fundamental comparison of leadership in an economic and military context, the intention behind this summary is only to shed light on possible overlaps and demarcations to further clarify the research question. In summary, it can be stated that the basic principles of leadership can also be found in the institution of the military, but that leadership is context-dependent and therefore needs to be examined specifically and in-depth here. Leadership and religion Spiritual leadership is a separate topic (Hagemann, 2022b) that will not be explored in depth here and the focus here lies more on the question of what can be said about leadership in religious institutions and organisations. A look at the major world religions and a large amount of available literature immediately shows that this is a research topic in its own right and hence these remarks can only be understood as taking a closer but not an in-depth look. It can and should be shown that leadership in religion is a topic both from the leader’s perspective and from the constituted organisational perspective. One of the generally accepted partial definitions of leadership, even outside religious institutions, is that leaders are defined by followers since, if no one follows a given person, that person cannot be a leader. Positively formulated: only those who are able to generate and retain followers can be leaders as ‘The only definition of a leader is someone who has followers’ (Drucker, 1996, p. 54). In this respect, leadership exists in religious organisations as in all institutions. If one only examines the great world religions, it is clear that their founders and leaders were people who understood how to inspire followers in such a way that they were followed (followership), aligned themselves with them (inspiration), and a community was created through them (community building). In different forms, but observable everywhere, this applies to Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Buddha gave Buddhism its name, Hinduism has a leading priestly caste, the followers of Islam still refer to Mohammed today, and Moses as a religious leader is closely associated with Judaism, while Jesus Christ is at the centre of Christianity. Religious leaders are characterised by the fact that they create an identity and establish a culture for a group of followers. They are often an authority,

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and convince through their being and doing, their consistent authenticity, their role-modelling, and their direction-giving (Barentsen, 2017). From a constitutional organisational perspective, leadership plays a different role in religions, which has to do with the respective self-image of a given religion. There are more than 100 religious leadership roles of different categories alone (Wikipedia, 2018). If one were only to try to collect and structure the studies on leadership in the biblical context, one would find a bewilderingly large number of studies and approaches (Burchard, 2012). One recent example is the book Biblical Organizational Leadership, in which Jesus is described as a transformational leader (Henson, 2021). From the research perspective of this book, it can be stated that leadership is also a major topic in all religions. Both the leader in their personality and the organisation that relies on or is shaped by a leader play an important role in religious leadership. Leadership and pedagogical institutions Pedagogical institutions such as universities and schools lend themselves as research objects in their own right (ex sese) due to their proximity to research and educational institutions, which is why students, in particular, are often used as ‘research objects’. At the same time, there are also countless studies on leadership in schools or in higher education institutions. An example of this is the study by Bolden et al. (2012) while a good historical overview of leadership in higher education can be found in Middlehurst et al. (2009). A comprehensive study on effective leadership in higher education concludes that both managerial and leadership tasks are essential. Among others, it mentions: providing direction; creating a structure to support the direction; fostering a supportive and collaborative environment; establishing trustworthiness as a leader; having personal integrity; having the credibility to act as a role model; facilitating participation in decision-making; providing communication about developments; representing the department/institution to advance its cause(s) and networking on its behalf; respecting existing culture while seeking to instil values through a vision for the department/institution; and protecting staff autonomy (Bryman, 2007). In summary, it can be said that leadership in (higher) education represents a separate field of research, in which, however, similar regularities, such as the coexistence of management and leadership and the preference for transformational leadership, seem to apply as they do in business.

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Leadership in politics The Oxford handbook of political leadership (R. A. W. Rhodes & Hart, 2014) provides a good insight into the content and challenges of leadership in the political environment. In it, Keohane (2014) provides a historical overview of the crucial elements in the emergence and meaning of leadership among ‘politicians’ in society. Historically, the regulation of violence is one purpose of leadership. It addresses the opposition between the politician and institution, the temptation of power, the ‘content’ of leadership, and the special nature of leadership in democracies. The distinction between transactional and transformational leadership, which was originally developed in the political context by Burns (1978) has been completely adopted in the economic context. Political leadership is special in that it is very contextual and a democratically legitimised leader acts differently from a despot or tribal ruler. In the democratic context, a special feature of the political leader is that a leader is elected, i.e. they are also dependent on the voters. Although parliamentary democracy gives greater freedom and independence, the politician is still dependent on the support of the electorate, or on his ability to persuade. Another aspect that resembles the leadership concepts of other institutions is strategic development, including the related legislation. In the final analysis, political leaders are always measured by the classical achievement of results. Political leadership—which here really means leadership in the context of politics, i.e. in the public sector, and not ‘political’ leadership in the private sector—has both a management component as large bureaucratic institutions often have to be managed, and a leadership component as coalitions always have to be forged and people have to be inspired or influenced to achieve a given goal (Hartley, 2010). While the details and specifics of political leadership cannot be developed within the framework of this thesis, they can easily be found, for example, in the work of Hart and Uhr (2008). With regard to the research question, it remains to be said that the dynamics of political leadership follow their own laws but are similar in many elements to those found in the private sector. In particular, the origin of transformational leadership should be noted, in addition to the Great Man theory, management-leadership-relationship, and influence with regard to a goal to be achieved.

4.7.2

Culture-Specific Leadership?

The literature review (cf. Section 2.2) already touched on the cultural dimension of leadership and the distinction from the ‘universal’. The extent to which cultural

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specifics influence leadership and organisations is a separate field of investigation. Since leadership never takes place in a culturally neutral space, but always takes place in a culturally shaped environment through the participants (leaders, followers, and organisations), one can assume a formative variable on the one hand and on the other hand a matter of course since no human activity occurs in a cultural vacuum. All research, all human thought and action, and every idea and its implementation are culturally and socially determined (Hanges et al., 2016). The cultural dimensions of different countries have been comprehensively and extensively described by Hofstede et al. (2010) with power distance; individualism vs collectivism; masculinity vs femininity; uncertainty avoidance index; long-term orientation; and indulgence vs restraint. These cultural dimensions naturally also have an impact on the respective leadership preferences. At the same time, cultural attributions are often complex and a cultural attribute being associated with a given country, for example, does not mean that all inhabitants of this country without exception behave according to this attribute. In an increasingly multicultural world, there are also mixtures of cultures of origin and, especially in the business context, it can be observed that every company can claim to build its own culture. Since the 1990s, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project has studied leadership and organisational behaviour. It was found that the culture of a country has an indirect influence on leadership, as there are national and culturally coloured expectations of a leader. A leader, therefore, leads according to cultural expectations and is considered most effective when adhering to these. Furthermore, a distinction can be made between globally valid or effective leadership behaviour and locally promoted leadership behaviour (Dorfman et al., 2012). The global leadership dimensions include charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, participative, humane-oriented, autonomous, and self-protective leadership (Dorfman et al., 2012). Interestingly, there is no causal relationship between national culture and CEO behaviour (Dorfman et al., 2012). The relationship between employee performance and transformational leadership might be moderated by culture as well (Crede et al., 2019). Concerning the research question, it should be noted that performance orientation, visionary abilities, integrity, and inspirational qualities are considered desirable leadership dimensions and the following attributes are considered universally desirable for a leader, who should be: trustworthy, dynamic, decisive, intelligent, dependable, plan ahead, excellence oriented, a team builder, encouraging, a confidence builder, informed, honest, an effective bargainer, a motive

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arouser, a win-win problem solver, positive, in possession of foresight, just, communicative, motivational, a coordinator, and administratively skilled (House et al., 2014). Furthermore, it can be said that transformational or charismatic leadership is also universally supported, especially with the visionary, inspirational, integrity, decisive, and performance-oriented attributes (House et al., 2014). Team orientation is regarded as medium important as culturally it is practised very differently (House et al., 2014).

4.7.3

The Dark Side of Leadership

When leaders lead people, their motivation or character may be morally reprehensible, the way they lead people may be unethical, or the direction in which they lead people may be wrong. Visionary leaders, for example, are also described as autocratic, or abuse their power, falsify results and then end up in court (Conger, 1990). Precisely because it is the task of leadership to carry people along towards a goal, the areas mentioned are sensitive and can easily be abused while the boundary between influence and manipulation may be blurred. The whole area of dark leadership is a major research topic in its own right, most recently addressed in a meta-study by J. D. Mackey et al. (2021) under the heading ‘destructive leadership’. There are also countless definitions and elements for dark or destructive leadership. A comprehensive definition, which will be adopted here, was developed by Krasikova et al. (2013) who describe it as intentional harmful behaviour that attempts to achieve goals that are contrary to the good of the organisation. The various aspects of destructive leadership were summarised in the aforementioned meta-study from over 400 individual studies and summarised with the following styles: destructive leadership, abusive supervision, aversive, corrupt, derailed, despotic, evil, exploitative, insincere, insular leadership, leader bullying, leader exclusion, leader incivility, leader narcissism, leader undermining, negative leadership, personalised charismatic leadership, pseudo-transformational leadership, petty tyranny, toxic leadership, and tyrannical leadership (J. D. Mackey et al., 2021). These aspects of leadership, some of which are very different, already make it clear how broad the field of dark leadership is. Barbara Kellerman (2014) described in detail that bad leadership should not simply be understood as an ‘accident’, but that it is still leadership—despite being unethical or even despicable—and that the situation or followership must also be taken into account.

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The aim of this thesis, namely to describe principles for leadership, explicitly refers to morally and ethically sound behaviour. At the same time, the question can and must be posed concerning the conditions that potentially give rise to this negative behaviour. If leadership means exerting influence, the temptation of power is inherent and the knowledge of the necessary defence against this temptation as well as the resulting corresponding actions are fundamental. An examination of the current political landscape highlights the attribute of bad or dark leadership among some state leaders. Viewed soberly, it can only be deduced that dark leadership is a fact that cannot be attributed to individual (historical) personalities who behave immorally but which needs to be regarded as a fact that runs through history and is of multi-causal origin. If leaders are to be trained in such a way that they show as little ‘dark leadership’ as possible and followers are to be so self-confident that they prevent dark leadership, a wide field of moral action, ethically responsible mindset, and the respective education in a comprehensive sense opens up here. The dark side of leadership also prevents any premature preference for a certain leadership style, especially with regard to influencing and charismatic styles, and sensitises for leadership traits, the responsibility of followership, and the overall classification of leadership in the systemic context.

4.8

Interim Result and Quintessence: Principles for an Application-Oriented, Universally Applicable, and Effective Leadership Framework From a Hermeneutic-Synthetic Perspective

This research work deals with the search and compilation of principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. In a first step, a hermeneutic synthetic overview of the existing leadership models was collected and an enquiry of the respective models with regard to the research question was conducted using summative analysis and an integrative review. The detailed results are now to be synthesised and systematised along the lines of the research question concerning the structuring triad of the leader-follower context. All partial findings that cannot be subsumed under this triad will be collected separately under ‘General findings’.

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Leader ✓ Leadership is both trait or person-specific and learnable or behaviour-specific. There is no such thing as the one way to lead. ✓ Universal leadership attributes that are repeatedly mentioned are visionary, inspirational, performance-oriented, honest, and integer (Dorfman et al., 2012). ✓ The classic distinction between management and leadership essentially describes different tasks: management is described as planning, organising, commanding, coordinating, and controlling (Fayol) or planning, problemsolving, and decision taking (Yukl). ✓ Effective leadership has task orientation and relationship orientation as guiding principles. ✓ Transactional and transformational leadership are to be seen as a recognised continuum that leads to adapted leadership depending on the situational challenge. ✓ Transformational leadership is effective and contains those elements that are both application-oriented, universal, and effective with the main areas of idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration. ✓ Effective and application-oriented leadership is emotionally intelligent. ✓ Destructive or dark leadership is a possibility of leadership that always appears under a morally negative sign when the leader has less of an eye on the followers and more of an eye on their own advantages. Followers ✓ Followership is the norm and serves the need to learn. ✓ Relationship-orientation in leadership means leading with emotional intelligence, paying special attention to the development of followers (servant and spiritual leadership), and leading holistically with head, heart, and guts. ✓ Effective leadership knows the needs of the followers and starts with them. ✓ Effective and application-oriented leadership considers the needs of the individual (especially for self-esteem, autonomy, status, learning, growth, selfesteem, self-actualisation, competence, and certainty), as well as the needs for relationship (bonding, belonging, relatedness), and of the environment (orientation, control, fairness, safety).

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Context ✓ The need for leadership depends on the situation, whereby in times of peace more prestige and cooperation, and in times of war more dominance and coordination are required. ✓ Leadership works ad intram (peace in the group and organisation of the group) and ad extram (finding vision and way, as well as the struggle to outthink others). ✓ Depending on the situation, authoritarian and participative and delegative leadership styles can be effective. General findings ✓ In the sense of the research question, the findings suggest not to generalise a certain leadership philosophy, but to abstract those partial elements to the essence that provided indications for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. ✓ Leadership and management are inherent in human history and appear in different contexts. ✓ A universal model is characterised by particular traits and learned behaviour and contingency. ✓ The ‘either-or’ becomes a ‘both-and’: only a holistic view of leadership is effective. ✓ The large number of studies and approaches that are available suggest that it is not one style or type of leadership that is the ‘right’ one, but that an effective leadership model is a result of taking the person of the leader, the followers, and the context into account. ✓ A leadership framework must be holistic and flexible. The basic assumption of the research question is that there are unifying elements of different leadership models and principles (cf. Section 1.2) and that by reducing them to their essentials, a comprehensive holistic model can be established with the essential principles of leadership that are applicationoriented, universally applicable, and effective. Application-orientation refers to implementation-orientation, follower-orientation, and ease of implementation, whereas by universal the potentiality of the concrete application of a situation-, context-, and personality trait-independent characteristic is meant. In terms of the research question, the three main characteristics are not free of overlap but should rather be seen as an approach from different perspectives (Table 4.3).

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Table 4.3 Holistic leadership overview

Leader

Mindset

Application orientation

Universal

Performance orientation

Trait and Performance orientation behaviour complementary

Task orientation Key traits: and relationship extroversion, orientation integrity, fairness, generosity, humility, decisiveness, intelligence, competence, visionary

Effective

Task-orientation and relationship-orientation

Emotionally intelligent and positive leadership Activity

Key management activities: planning, organising, commanding, coordinating, controlling, problem-solving, decision taking Key leading activities: visionary/inspirational, value-driven, integrity, honesty

Framework Transactional Management Transactional and and and leadership transformational as main transformational complementary framework as main framework Follower Mindset

Habit to follow Inherent learn tendency

Activity

Knowledge of followers’ needs

Framework Leadership only needed when situationally indicated (continued)

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Table 4.3 (continued)

Context

Application orientation

Universal

Mindset

Situational application: dominance (‘war’), prestige (‘peace’)

Human need orientation (individual, relationship, context)

Activity

Different situations require different ways of leading

Coordination and cooperation

Framework

Effective

ad intram—ad extram Authoritarian, participative, delegative

Source: own illustration

What can already be said after a preliminary analysis is that there is no single model or principle that can claim to be comprehensively applicable to leadership. It is precisely the holistic view, which tries to focus on the essential elements, that seems to be the most likely to break down the complexity of leadership into simple principles by subsuming different aspects of leadership under higher principles. The main principles of a holistic, application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework can thus be outlined as follows: A) B) C) D) E) F)

Management and leading Trait and behaviour Task orientation and relationship orientation Transactional and transformational Prestige/cooperation and dominance/coordination Follower orientation and performance orientation

The dichotomy of management vs leading is dissolved as application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership consists of both elements. Management can be understood more as a ‘craft’ that can be learned, while leadership

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is more about the personality of the leader. Effective leadership, however, requires both, depending on the situation. The classic distinction between task and relationship orientation can also be more easily broken down into the poles of a continuum. The continuum of transactional and transformational leadership describes, from different perspectives, that different types of leadership are needed for different situations. Both the evolutionary and the neuroscientific view of leadership are naturally based on universal principles since the basic brain structures and evolutionary assumptions are the same everywhere. Situations that are more characterised by ‘peace’, i.e. that show the usual, standard, and routine, require cooperation and are best led to a result by prestige-based leadership. Situations that are more characterised by ‘war’, i.e. where there is disagreement or threatening situations outside the standard, are more likely to need coordination and therefore more ‘dominant’ style. Effective leadership ultimately balances the needs of the individual followers and the needs of the overall organisation or the performant direction. The results of the hermeneutic synthetic research on principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework already show a holistic leadership approach that does not yet exist in this way in the scientific literature and research. As already mentioned with regard to the research design in Chapter 3, the development of the principles should also be holistic. This means, in particular, to not only theoretically investigate the model, but also empirically in practice in terms of whether specific principles can be elicited for a holistic leadership framework and, if so, which ones are most suitable.

5

Science meets reality—empirical investigation of leadership approaches in literature and companies

Scientific reflection and practice do not always go in the same direction. Most scientists claim to have the right approach. However, since there are more than 60 models and more than 1,500 definitions of leadership, as well as countless other insights, models, and ideas on what successful leadership looks like, after the scientific reflection and hermeneutic insight in the sense of a holistic approach to the research topic, the focus now shifts to empirical work. As already mentioned in the methodological reflection (cf. Chapter 3), empiricism means observation or experiential knowledge in a comprehensive sense. Where and how to observe what kind of guidance is taking place is the first question the researcher asks. If this is to be done in a comprehensive sense, institutions and companies come to mind. Even if this work includes this type of research in interviews during the empirical study—in the sense of proceeding as comprehensively as possible—there are other possibilities of empiricism that are also applied. The guiding principle here is the need of the scientifically working practitioner and the scientist coming from practice to bring both entities together. It thus makes sense to examine the reality that is on the borderline between scientific reflection and practical implementation, namely popular literature on leadership topics. Scientific knowledge is not automatically received in popular science and literature and some examples show that the relationship between scientific knowledge and the marketing of the same in popular literature is not always free of tension. For example, the original topic of ‘emotional intelligence’ (Salovey & Mayer, 1990a) was investigated and introduced to the scientific world by Peter Salovey and Jack Mayer in 1990. Daniel Goleman built on this model, modified it, and published a bestseller, the model of which is referred to by almost everyone in the popular sphere (Goleman, 2004). Goleman’s model is viewed critically in the scientific world but has nevertheless become widely accepted (McCleskey, 2014). Another example is the topic of ‘integral leadership’, which goes back to Ken Wilber in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_5

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particular (Wilber, 2000). Although AQAL (All Quadrants All Levels) only plays a subordinate role in scientific reflection, there are countless consultancies and practical books that refer to it as a concept that is at the core of the integral leadership model. As one of the countless examples, see for example Kuhlmann and Horn (2020). At the very least, however, these tensions show that scientifically reflected themes emerge in popular leadership literature and that empirical observation can be used here to pursue the question of which principles of leadership can be distilled from the various approaches, theories, and models. The first empirical approach of this thesis will therefore be dedicated to the examination of popular leadership literature and investigate whether, and if so, which insights arise here to answer the research question. The further empirical approaches are based on a reversal of the question that anticipates the understanding of effective leadership in the sense of positive result generation for employees, shareholders, and customers. If leadership is effective, then—and this will have to be examined—this should also be reflected in the success of the companies. Therefore, the reverse question here first examines what kind of leadership is evident in the most successful and then in the ‘best’ companies. Based on the well-known research on the connection between the attractiveness of a company and employee engagement, the question is also pursued here as to which leadership models show themselves in the approach for attractive and subsequently engaged companies. The multiple heuristic challenges of the respective questions will still have to be discussed. However, the very different, complementary empirical approaches promise, like a mosaic, to repeatedly approach the research question from different perspectives and thus, in the overall view, to provide a picture that, empirically founded, can describe principles for application-oriented, universal, and effective leadership.

5.1

Leadership approaches in popular leadership literature1

The study of popular leadership literature was chosen as the first empirical approach to the research question. Before going into the individual systematics,

1

The main statements from this chapter were published in the Journal Managing Global Transitions: Hagemann (2022a). Does current popular leadership literature show a preference for transformational leadership? Vol. 20, No. 2 (June).

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preliminary methodological considerations first serve to clarify the exact research procedure.

5.1.1

Methodological preliminary considerations

Following the basic methodological considerations in Chapter 3, the empirical approach for the study of leadership approaches in popular leadership literature will now be presented. The philosophical question of whether the correctness of a model results from its consistent analysis, its widespread dissemination and reception, or both, cannot be dealt with in this thesis. Rather, the overview of which leadership themes, theories, and models are most popular is intended to provide a further perspective on the fundamental question of principles for a comprehensive and effective leadership model: what are the best-selling and best-ranked leadership books, what leadership principles or even models do they reflect, and what does this say about the most effective leadership theories? There is a multiple heuristic challenge in this question: • With the increase of non-print media, for example on social platforms, via blogs, podcasts, videos etc., it can quite fundamentally be asked whether the information strength and penetration of print media are not being overtaken by other media. This is a legitimate question that is worthy of investigation. Nevertheless, print media still play an essential role in the dissemination of models. Also, the question of whether e-books have not long replaced print books can be answered in the negative, c.f. a comprehensive study on bestsellers (Yucesoy et al., 2018). This thesis, therefore, works on the basic assumption that the dissemination of print media can still be used as an influencing factor or at least as an indication of topics that are or were of interest at the time. • Leadership models are not necessarily disseminated through typical leadership books and there may be books that are not classified as leadership books, but which nevertheless strongly influence managers in their leadership behaviour. Goleman, whose emotional intelligence concept is very influential even though it is not explicitly a leadership book, may serve as an example here. On the other hand, large corporations can promote a specific leadership model that can be traced back to a certain book without influencing the book’s sales figures. In publishing their leadership models and their sources, corporations are extremely reticent, so the data situation is not transparent.

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• Thereafter, it can be argued whether it is possible in principle (if at all) to determine which books on the subject of leadership are sold the most. In the last 15 years, about 500,000 new books have been produced annually in Europe alone, and more than 3 million books worldwide (Weidenbach, 2021). The total number of leadership books is impossible to determine, and it is also challenging to define which leadership books have sold the most copies (best sellers), as sales figures are not necessarily made public by publishers. Moreover, the few existing bestseller lists are more meaningful for regional markets and are not globally relevant. Those that are accessible and based on a broad database are limited to the North American market (e.g. New York Times bestseller lists). In the German-speaking market, for example, the Spiegel bestseller list is well-known. Interestingly, however, there is not a single book on the subject of leadership on the Spiegel-bestseller list in the category ‘non-fiction’ that has made it recently to the top of the list (Wikipedia, 2021a). • From the sales figures, an assumption cannot necessarily be made for the dissemination of the model with the corresponding principles as a book may also have high sales figures simply because the advertising is going well. Furthermore, a high sales figure does not necessarily mean that the book has been read, understood and, above all, its contents implemented. • Evaluating all publications is not feasible due to a large number of publishers and the figures that are not made publicly available. With 3,000 publishers in Germany alone, for example, and thousands more around the world, it is not easy to determine whether they publish leadership books and, if so, which ones, especially since the sales figures are usually not public. • The period under consideration can lead to very different results as some books may currently top the bestseller list but not have an impact in the long run. Taking these heuristic limitations into account, an approach will nevertheless be attempted using the methodology outlined here. Using sales figures from Amazon and the New York Times business bestseller list, the best-selling or highest-rated business books will be analysed, and the books will be examined concerning their explicit or underlying leadership principles to determine which aspects of leadership generate a great response. Even though the New York Times (NYT) Bestseller List explicitly refers to the American market, it is assumed that there are similar focal points in other countries and cultures, as the underlying models are not necessarily culture-specific—as already shown in Section 4.7.2. In the area of transformational leadership, in particular, some attributes are demonstrably culture-independent or cross-cultural (Hartog et al., 1999) wherefore it can be

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assumed that basic leadership elements that are recognised in the US will also find acceptance in other countries. Amazon Inc. already had a share of more than 50% of the German online book trade in 2017 (Handelsblatt, 2019). Since Amazon has been maintaining and publishing bestseller lists for several years, it is a useful source of data which can be used as long as the following limitations are considered: firstly, it does not represent a ‘world bestseller list’ and secondly, it reflects Amazon’s sales figures and not those of all retailers. Although the German and English editions of Amazon were mirrored in the study, it cannot ultimately be guaranteed that the bestseller list is an international one as verifiable data on this question is not available. Although Amazon’s market share is very large, the largest distribution channel for books in 2019 was still brick-and-mortar bookstores (Handelsblatt, 2019). Nevertheless, and especially because of Amazon’s great influence on sales behaviour, bestseller lists from Amazon can at least give an indication of the influence of popular leadership books. For the analysis of the data, it has to be considered that Amazon’s bestseller list is adjusted daily and the research result thus provides an insight into a specific point in time and should be understood as representing a snapshot. On amazon.com, different categories, each with their own lists, can be found under the umbrella term ‘leadership and management’, all of which were investigated. The categories are: ‘leadership and motivation’, ‘management and leadership’, ‘leadership and human resource management’, ‘business administration and management’, ‘strategic management’, and ‘management science’. This research reflects the period from 10 to 20 May 2021. Subsequent samples showed that the ranking is always slightly adjusted and that especially new market entries quickly make it onto the bestseller list but that, on the other hand, the rough ranking does not change every week. The survey thus provides a rough insight, but a valid tendency and, in the sum of the various lists, a good impression of which leadership literature is of interest at a given time and, in particular, which underlying topics seem to appeal to people at that time. To keep the amount of data manageable, and given the goal of this chapter which is to determine which management and leadership topics people are currently interested in, the top 20 books in each category are considered. In contrast to Amazon, the NYT Bestseller List can be related to a longer period and at least gives a valid statement about sales figures in the US. It is made up of weekly or monthly sales figures, both from local shops and online retailers (Times Insider, 2020b). The study covers a period of about 3 years, which makes the result more comprehensive. It should be noted, however, that it exclusively

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refers to the American market. The NYT provides a business bestseller list, which necessarily has a broader horizon than Amazon’s leadership categories. In addition to the two main data sources specialising in books, two other digital data sources will be considered, namely the Business Insider and TopMan agementDegrees.com platforms. The company behind ‘Business Insider’, Insider Inc., is part of the Bertelsmann Group, which is the world’s fourth-largest book publisher (Statista, 2021b). The largest publishers do not report bestseller lists, but at least a large reach can be assumed. According to its own figures, Insider Inc. has 203 million followers (Insider Inc., 2021). This Business Insider list used for the analysis, compiled by Maria Leighton, was compiled from both bestseller lists and recommendations from influential business leaders: ‘We researched and cross-referenced lists of the best business books according to influential business people and major media outlets to bring you this list’ (Leighton, 2019). This means that, once again, a separate perspective is taken, namely the recommendation of well-known and influential business leaders. As a further, supplementary online data source, TopManagementDegrees.com was selected. This educational business study platform compiled a top list of management books, which takes different criteria into account. In total, over 400 management books from more than 20 sources (including the Washington Post, Forbes, and the Financial Times) were examined (TopManagementDegrees.com, 2019). It is precisely through the broad examination of different sources that at least a multi-dimensional perspective can be assumed. While amazon.com is more of a point-in-time view and the NYT Bestseller List includes 3 years in the consideration, the last two data sources refer to a longer period, which is not specified in the data sources but includes books that were first published more than 30 years ago and which subsequently limits their reliability. Consequently, these two data sources are only used for an initial comparison without going into depth here. The following sources were deliberately not consulted (Table 5.1): • The Wallstreet Journal’s bestseller list is made up of figures from Nielsen BookScan, which regularly compiles US sales data (Wikipedia, 2021b). These figures are made up of most sales data but do not include all sales stores, although they still reflect approximately 80 % of all sales figures (Grahl, 2016). However, since the NYT Bestseller List is already consulted, this study does not include the Wall Street Journal Bestseller List, as both lists refer to the same local (US) market.

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• Numerous other compilations of most-recommended lists. One example is the list from Bookauthority, which consists of a huge list of books recommended by business personalities such as Jeff Bezos, Warren Buffet, or Eric Schmidt (Bookauthority, 2021). Since, according to the homepage, there are a further 182 recommending business personalities, no other criteria are applied apart from the recommendations and the website profits from books that are then bought via these recommendations, which is why this page was not considered as a source. The same applies to numerous others who recommend books based on their individual preferences and not based on objective criteria.

Table 5.1 Data sources for leadership book analysis Source

Amazon

NYT Bestseller List

Business Insider

TopManagemen tDegrees.com

Time Reach

10 days

3 years

> 30 years

> 30 years

Germany

US

Global

Sources

Global

German sales figures

US book market

Other lists Recommendations of influencers

> 20 sources

Source: Own illustration

5.1.2

Leadership models from Amazon

Amazon’s bestseller lists are continuously adjusted and should therefore strictly be understood as a snapshot. The analysis conducted here reflects the time from 10 to 20 May 2021. Amazon creates various lists on different topics, which overlap especially on the topic of leadership and management. Since they nevertheless also show different results, all lists were included in the analysis. Amazon distinguishes between books (hardcover and Softcover) and e-books. Both genres were integrated without distinction. The first 20 entries were considered for the different lists and each book was evaluated according to the following criteria: • Full leadership theory or elements of leadership or no leadership, as not all books are really about leadership and some contain a full theory, and others only elements or even no elements of leadership theory. The books with a

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full leadership/management theory need a deeper consideration, but the books with elements of leadership theories should also be considered. • As already shown, there is a vast number of leadership and management models and theories. Nevertheless, it is evident that the transactionaltransformational system can be applied to almost any theory. Even if Bernhard Bass in the Full Range Leadership Model describes transactional and transformational more as poles of a continuum (Bass & Riggio, 2005) the following elements of a criteriology can be selected for this study: ◯ Transactional leadership consists in particular of management-by-exception and contingent reward in external motivational control: (external) goals are set and the achievement of the goals is rewarded to control desired behaviour. External goal setting and reward through goal achievement are the main qualities of this leadership style. ◯ Transformational leadership with the four areas of idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration emphasises the role-modelling of the leader and the visionary development of the employee aiming at intrinsic motivation control. Visionary goal setting, supported by role-modelling and intrinsic motivation are the main qualities of this leadership style. ◯ Since there is also a continuum in the Bass model, ‘transformational and transactional’ is set as a criterion here in addition to transformational, transactional, and a ‘none’ for non-existent models. • The qualitative summative analysis also examines leadership personality, management tactics, and leadership activities. • In the six different Amazon categories (A: leadership and motivation, B: management and leadership, C: leadership and human resource management, D: business administration and management, E: strategic management, and F: management science), a total of 57 books were examined and found to have occupied a place between 1 and 20 in the respective category at least once. Since many books occupy a place up to 20 in several of the Amazon categories mentioned, the frequency of the number of places is first calculated to then form an average ranking from the number of ranking places from 1 to 10. In addition to this average ranking, the number of times a book is ranked in places 1–10 is also calculated, since there are also books that have only been ranked once and thus receive an average rating of 1.0 but cannot be assumed to have a stronger resonance because they have only been ranked once. In

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contrast, other books make it to places 1–10 several times, from which it can be assumed that they have higher penetration and distribution. In the perspective of the research question, namely which principles of leadership that can be summarised into a framework are most evident in the best-selling books, the first step will be to examine all books that contain a full leadership theory and to present the main elements of the respective theory. Three books, which are worth mentioning here, will be briefly presented in their main lines, along the lines of the research question: Peter Drucker, The Effective Executive; Jocko Wilink, Leadership strategy and tactics; Gino Wickman, Traction. Only Wickman made it into the 1–10 places once. Whereas Wilink can be classified as transformational, the other two can be considered a mixture of transactional and transformational leadership (Table 5.2). With his book The Effective Executive, Peter Drucker has gone down in history (Drucker, 1967) and many management theories still refer to him. He is explicitly concerned with self-effectiveness, more precisely with learning to manage oneself as being the basis and prerequisite for being able to manage others. Drucker believes that effectiveness is simple, i.e. it consists of a few principles, and can (and must) be learned. The eight practices (Drucker, 1967) consist of: • Doing what needs to be done: This is about prioritising what leads to success and focusing on exactly that. • Related to this: Doing what is right for the enterprise. • Developing action plans and writing them down. They can be adjusted, and it is the basis for deciding how the manager spends their time. • Taking responsibility for decisions. • Taking responsibility for communication, including that the action plans are communicated, and that the manager’s communication is understood. • Focusing on opportunities rather than on problems. • Running productive meetings by knowing the different kinds of meetings and preparing and executing them accordingly. • Thinking and saying ‘we’ instead of ‘I’. Interestingly, Drucker describes these principles in the preface, while the main part of his book is first devoted to the basic theme that effectiveness can be learned, and then looks at the main issues, especially time management, becoming clear about the individual’s contribution, strength-based management, and an indepth view about making the right decisions.

16

B

D

10

C

18

12

E

12 14

F

1×12 1×14

1×16

1×10 1×12 1×18

# places

N/A

N/A

10

Average ranking for places 1–10 1

1 500 7.26 employees (0.95)

expe-rience

7.42

Factor 4

Factor 6

6.73

6.73

6.73

Transactional leadership

Factor 5

2.95

2.95

Laissez-faire leadership

Factor 7

8.00 (0.58)

.260

7.10 (1.27)

7.80 (0.83)

.608

7.60 (1.03)

6.83 (1.35)

7.11 (1.41)

.172

7.50 (0.85)

7.33 (1.38)

.516

7.33 (0.93)

7.75 (1.85)

6.66 (1.25)

.333

7.13 (0.96)

6.33 (1.19)

.383

6.77 (1.20)

6.58 (0.88)

6.88 (1.22)

.329

6.93 (1.14)

6.53 (1.47)

.505

6.54 (1.29)

7.5 (1.14)

(continued)

2.93 (1.05)

.786

3.03 (1.26)

2.87 (1.08)

.383

3.08 (1.16)

2.42 (1.03)

6

p-value

7.06 (1.06)

.720

< 500 7.46 employees (0.94)

7.69 (1.04)

.773

7.25 (0.91)

male

7.17 (1.04)

span

7.83 (1.00)

female

Gender

7.45

Factor 3

Inspiratio-nal Intellec-tual Individua-lized Contingent Management-by-exception Laissez-faire motivation sti-mulation consi-deration reward (Mean/SD) leadership (Mean/SD) (Mean/ (Mean/SD) (Mean/SD) (Mean/SD) SD)

p-value

Idealised influence (Mean/SD)

Variance analysis

7.58

7.37

Mean

Mean/leadership 7.45 style

Transformational leadership

Leadership style

Factor 2

Factor 1

MLQ-6s Factors

Table 6.5 MLQ-6s

196 Practical examination and review

> 40 years

P-value is significant from .05

.601

7.43 (0.97)

< 40 years

p-value

7.22 (0.89)

.746

age

.216

7.98 (0.76)

6.66 (1.07)

.915

8.09 (0.82)

> 10 years

7.27 (1.01)

Factor 2

Factor 1

p-value

MLQ-6s Factors

Table 6.5 (continued)

.166

7.11 (1.14)

8.22 (0.54)

.061

7.00 (1.26)

Factor 3

.149

7.66 (0.84)

6.83 (1.53)

.058

7.66 (0.79)

Factor 4

.718

6.95 (1.04)

6.22 (1.26)

.589

6.79 (1.08)

Factor 5

.233

6.69 (1.42)

6.83 (1.07)

.598

6.60 (1.40)

Factor 6

.364

2.98 (1.12)

2.88 (1.31)

.791

2.97 (1.27)

Factor 7

6.2 Empirical Study in a Dax-30 Enterprise 197

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the interviews and is to be seen as the main result of this part of the empirical study.

6.2.2.2 Narrative Content Analysis After the main results have been presented in a first overview, it is now a question of deepening the detailed results from a twofold perspective and hence the coding results and the answers to the respective questions are deepened in terms of content. As described, most statements are found on the topic of cooperation/relationship orientation, which with coordination/task orientation depicts the bipolarity of leadership according to the findings of evolutionary history and the task/relationship duality. In cooperation/relationship orientation, statements such as ‘teamwork’, ‘taking people along’, ‘communicating’, ‘creating common understanding’, and ‘investing in relationships’ can be found. Abstracting the different expressions, this category basically subsumes a closeness to people that expresses itself in intensive communication. ‘You have to like people’ expresses the apex of a mindset that is not objectively neutral but rather turned towards people, and which is expressed in concrete behaviours such as ‘asking a lot’, ‘taking a personal interest’, or also ‘creating community’ and ‘involving stakeholders’. On the other hand, there is the area of coordination/task orientation which includes many classic management tasks such as ‘organising’, ‘arranging’, ‘giving orientation’, ‘solving problems’, ‘deciding’, ‘managing’, ‘controlling’, or ‘coordinating’. Statements on the overall topic of ‘goal’ occur so frequently that they are again coded separately. Again, abstracting the individual statements, it is striking that, almost as a counterpart to the inspiring, absolutely people-oriented leadership, there is a downright sober, fact-oriented management that appears in the various questions. Goal orientation is also found in different variations as one of the most frequently mentioned expressions, and thus it was specifically coded. The interview results show that there are two different dimensions of goal orientation. On the one hand, there is a more performance and result-oriented managerial orientation of goals, and on the other hand, a more inspirational, intrinsically motivating leadership perspective. The managerial perspective of goals mainly talks about ‘prioritising’, ‘goal orientation’, ‘goal achievement’ but also ‘setting goals’ and ‘monitoring’. Above all, it is about clarity of expectation and unconditional performance orientation.

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Goal orientation from a leadership perspective speaks more of ‘giving meaning’, ‘motivating’, ‘inspiring’, ‘convincing’, ‘vision’, ‘bringing people along to a goal’, and ‘telling stories to inspire for a goal’. Even though the quantitatively coded elements on the managerial aspect predominate, both perspectives seem to play a role and be important. Interestingly, the topic of situational leadership especially emerges in the question about the best leaders the interviewee knows and will be discussed at this point. The four elements of EQ are also named in different questions, whereby empathy is by far the most frequently mentioned. The first element—self-awareness— includes elements such as ‘knowing oneself’, ‘knowing one’s strengths and weaknesses’, ‘knowing one’s limitations’, and ‘self-reflection’. Even though no correlation with age or leadership experience could be found, some interviewees mention multiple elements, while others mention only a few elements that belong to self-awareness. In contrast to self-awareness, the number of mentions of self-management is much lower. Here, ‘time management’, ‘practising composure’, or ‘improving one’s own prioritisation’ are mentioned most often. Social awareness or empathy forms the third area of EQ and in this case the large number of mentions that could be coded stands out. The word ‘empathy’ is frequently mentioned, but also the associated attitudes and behaviours such as ‘listening attentively’, ‘being appreciative’, ‘understanding’, or ‘taking a personal interest’. Relationship management in the field of EQ refers to the concrete shaping of relationships and includes statements such as ‘giving feedback’, ‘saying what is expected’, or ‘being in personal contact’. A total of 77 expressions can be coded in the area of emotional intelligence, which indicates that this is an important area for the topic of leadership. As individual codes, there are statements on role-modelling, enabling, and empowerment as basic and important behaviours of leadership. Role-modelling explicitly refers to ‘setting an example’, as well as ‘setting a good example’, or ‘leading others along a path that you yourself exemplify’. Enabling is about ‘deploying people in a strengths-based way’, about ‘empowering’, but most importantly about ‘deploying people where they are most effective’. Empowering, above all, subsumes behaviours such as ‘delegate’, ‘leave room for manoeuvre’, and ‘give scope for creativity’ whereby ‘giving freedom’ and ‘delegating responsibility’ are the most frequently mentioned elements in this category.

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For the trait category, the evolutionary insights (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008) were considered and a search was subsequently conducted for evolutionary and other core traits. Among the evolutionary core traits, two stand out that are frequently mentioned explicitly or implicitly: extroversion and intelligence. Extroversion is also about ‘charisma’, ‘leading by presence’, and ‘sovereignty’. Especially from an evolutionary perspective, expressions such as ‘The leader should radiate such certainty that people say: “I want to follow him”’ are interesting. However, traits such as ‘decisiveness’, ‘persistence’, ‘self-confidence’, ‘fairness’, ‘generosity’, ‘respect’, and ‘integrity’ are also mentioned. ‘Authenticity’ and ‘openness’ stand out among the other core traits. Before a comprehensive evaluation of the results is made, from the perspective of the questions posed it will once again be examined which elements were mentioned particularly frequently in the narrative and which specifics result from this for answering the research question. When asked why leadership exists, two observations are noteworthy. On the one hand, both leadership and management aspects are mentioned, i.e. leadership in practice considers both aspects. Secondly, there is a strong emphasis on goal orientation from a management perspective. Although the aspects of transformational leadership predominate overall, the first reaction, so to speak, to the need for leadership is ‘that everyone goes in one direction’, ‘because everyone needs guard rails’, or ‘that everything runs towards one goal’. The main things that a leader does, from which the application-oriented principles can be derived, are also divided quite evenly between the management parts of coordination/task orientation or goal achievement from a management perspective and the leadership parts of cooperation/relationship orientation or goal achievement from a leadership perspective. Application-oriented leadership consists of coordination and cooperation. Interestingly, situational leadership is referenced in the question of what makes the best leaders. Both ‘situational leadership’ is explicitly mentioned and paraphrased: ‘having a feeling for situations’, ‘change adaptable’, and ‘contextdependent leadership’. This shows that situational leadership plays an important role in regard to leadership principles. Among the universal leadership characteristics, empathy and relationship orientation from transformational leadership play a role, as well as essential elements of personality. ‘Social competence’ and ‘being able to approach people’ best describe relationship orientation. In the evolutionary core traits, extroversion stands out as well as further core traits, which name values such as ‘authentic’, ‘honest’, ‘respectful’ as well as socially competent characteristics such as

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‘friendly’, ‘committed’, ‘interested’, and ‘appreciative’. These core traits can be summarised under the headings of ‘socially competent’ and ‘values driven’. While the effectiveness of a leader’s actions is explicitly examined in one question, it also appears implicitly in the other questions. The answers in the explicit question come from various sources. The focus is on managerial, but also leadership goal orientation, on cooperation/relationship orientation as well as on self-awareness, empathy, and empowerment. Goal-oriented effective leadership is mainly described by the ability to ‘prioritise’, ‘stop what is not effective’, and a ‘clear focus’. This managerial competence is complemented by leadership characteristics such as ‘motivating’, ‘taking responsibility’, ‘being empathetic’, ‘trusting’, ‘being close to people’, and ‘enabling everyone to do their part’. The explicit questions about leadership and management in daily work are supplemented by the implicit answers to other questions. In the explicit questions, the focus is on ‘taking people along’ in the case of leadership, and on ‘numbers’, ‘evaluation’, and ‘decision-making’ in the case of management task orientation. In the tension between task and relationship orientation, concrete activities are once again mentioned here. Task-orientation shows up in everyday life with factual issues, control, numbers, data, facts and KPIs, while relationship orientation means human contact in every direction: ‘investing in relationship’, ‘relationship plays a strong role’, and ‘people are incredibly important’. In terms of the principles of leadership relevant to everyday life, empathy is mentioned above all: ‘listening, even to what is said in subordinate clauses’, ‘understanding the pain of the employees’, in addition to ‘being authentic’ and managerial elements such as ‘setting clear goals’, ‘taking responsibility’, as well as ‘solution and goal orientation’. In addition to the multitude of individual perspectives, the overall view of the qualitative analysis also reveals elements that repeatedly emerge and are named. In the sense of the research question, these will be examined again separately.

6.2.2.3 Summary Interviews were conducted with 20 senior managers on the topic of leadership using questions that revolve around the theme of the work to establish principles for an application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership framework. The questions reflect the findings of the hermeneutic part but are formulated in an open-ended way to gain as much knowledge as possible. Through category formation and coding along Mayring (2015), the quantitative/qualitative analysis allows for the definition of focal points. The second part of the interview explicitly numerically queries the MLQ-6s and evaluates it. The MLQ-6s part is statistically medium robust due to the small population and can

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and should be verified or falsified by applying it to a larger population from the same or a comparable unit. However, it can be taken as a verification mirror for the qualitative part, as intended. A narrative analysis concludes the analytical part. In summary, it can first be said that the answers offer a great deal of consistency, which was also (and especially) shown by the examination of the standard deviation and the presentation of the p-value. In this study, variances according to age, gender, leadership experience, and leadership span can be excluded. It can be observed that the core elements of leadership, from which the respective principles can be derived, revolve around the substantive emphases of transformational and transactional leadership. Regarding the question of whether there might not be a model bias here, which presupposes exactly what is being asked, one can refer to the open questions with which the interviews began, especially the questions of why leadership exists, what leadership is, and what key activities the interviewed leader does in everyday life. These open questions were answered in all interviews without exception with the duality of leadership and management or relationship orientation and task orientation or cooperation and coordination or transformational and transactional leadership. When asked why, the management side gave answers such as: ‘so that order prevails’, ‘organising the individual parts’, ‘prioritising’, ‘coordinating’, and on the leadership side answers such as ‘motivating’, ‘bringing people along’, and ‘giving meaning’. Similarly, when asked about the definition of leadership, both areas are represented: ‘deciding’, ‘giving direction’, ‘acting in a goal-oriented way’ on the one hand, and ‘dealing with people’, ‘liking people’, ‘inspiring’ on the other hand. The question about what the leader does on a daily basis also reflects the areas: ‘checking whether goals are achieved’, ‘ensuring clear processes’, ‘organising and controlling’ on the management side, and ‘being personally close to the people’, ‘explaining the why’, and ‘creating common understanding’ on the leadership side. Since the interviews were semi-structured, it was possible to ask all interviewees how they would assess the two sides in terms of quantifiable weight (time) using the example of task-relationship orientation (Table 6.6). Thirteen respondents (75%) describe a balance, with relationship-orientation predominating in four (20%) and task-relation predominating in three (15%). This result confirms the balance between the areas of management and leadership with the emphasis on (transformational) leadership. The bipolarity of coordination and cooperation is also striking and points to both application-oriented and universal principles. What stands out here is the

6.2 Empirical Study in a Dax-30 Enterprise Table 6.6 Task-relationship-relation

203

Task-relationship-relation in %

Number of ratings

10–90

1

20–80

2

30–70

1

40–60

4

50–50

8

60–40

1

70–30

1

80–20

2

topic of ‘communication’, which is repeatedly mentioned as the main activity of the interviewed managers. In the questioning regarding the connection between leadership and personality traits, all interviewees without exception said that personality is important— even if leadership itself is sometimes overestimated in terms of achieving results. In terms of individual characteristics, extroversion, authenticity, intelligence, respect, and openness stand out. With regard to the effectiveness of leadership, on the one hand, bipolarity points to the complex of goal setting and achievement with special emphasis on prioritisation and on the other hand to people-centredness. To put it a little more pointedly, one could say that the leader who knows how to communicate and prioritise goals, but cannot inspire and engage employees in achieving them, is just as ineffective as the leader who knows how to address and inspire employees in a people-oriented way but gets lost in the multitude of challenges of everyday life and is not able to prioritise enough. In the context of this thesis, this empirical study offers a perspective on the overall topic and should therefore be viewed again from the larger perspective, classified, and examined on the topic of the thesis.

6.2.3

Classification in the Overall Ductus of the Work

This thesis deals with the question of how application-oriented, universal, and effective principles of leadership can be described. To this end, interviews were conducted with senior managers of a German Dax 30 company to elicit their understanding of leadership and, if possible, to derive from this what principles

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of leadership might look like. The semi-structured interviews are designed in such a way that they begin with a broad question horizon (what is leadership, why do we need it, and what does it look like in everyday life?) and lead into specific indepth questions (what would universal behavioural characteristics look like, what would personality characteristics be, and what does effective leadership mean?). To verify the qualitative statements, the quantitative scale of the MLQ-6s was built into the interview. The background for the research question is both epistemological and praxological. The epistemological perspective asks about the ‘holon’ of theories, about the comprehensive and essential from which the individual perspectives can be derived or classified. The praxological perspective examines the concrete application and simplification of what is important, without compromising on the essence. To answer the research question holistically, an approach was chosen that repeatedly examines the question from different perspectives. The empirical investigation in the form of interviews is to be understood as one instrument in the symphony of different approaches. From the perspective of the research question, the following elements can now be noted that contribute to the creation of leadership principles: • A holistic leadership model consists of the principle of the unifying dynamics of two opposing but complementary poles, which can be well described as transformational-transactional leadership, task-relationship-orientation, or leading-managing or coordination-cooperation. • From both perspectives, goal orientation and goal achievement are fundamental aspects and principles of effective leadership. • Fundamentally, effective leadership is situational. This describes a necessity for leaders to build the ability to adapt to different people in different situations, each individually. This is constitutive and represents a further principle of effective leadership. • The contrast of ‘born’ vs ‘made’ leader is considered overcome in the sense of ‘et-et’ (both-and) whereby essential personality traits are extroversion, authenticity, intelligence, respect, openness. • The personality of the leader matters which is why all four areas of EQ are important, with empathy being of paramount importance. • Effective leaders like people, and people orientation is one of the most frequently mentioned expressions describing both everyday leadership and leadership effectiveness.

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• On the other hand, the attention paid to people is complemented by the more ‘technical expertise’ of management and planning, organising, deciding, initiating, coordinating, and controlling are essential aspects of effective task-orientation. Holistic leadership thus requires flexibility in application and the ability to repeatedly balance two important basic principles of everyday management, which can be well reflected in task-relationship orientation. To progress towards the application orientation, an outline of whether and how a holistic model of effective leadership could be formed from the principles will now be presented.

7

Eclectic Leadership as a New and Summarising Model of Effective Leadership

This thesis deals with the search for a comprehensive model of effective leadership. The principles should be application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective. Behind this is the concern, guided from both a practical and a research perspective, to build a framework from the multitude of models that is so robust that it can be applied in different situations and for different people. To take the most comprehensive yet concrete look possible at the research field, both a hermeneutic and empirical approach was chosen. In particular, the evolutionary and neuroscientific, but also the comprehensive findings from the history of leadership and the empirical findings were able to show that certain main principles appear repeatedly, and could both be supported by countless theoretical considerations or investigations as well as empirical experiments. The results of both the hermeneutic and empirical parts will now be compiled and discussed to answer the research question. The limitations of the research approach and the need for further research will also be explicated.

7.1

Summary of Results: Principles From Which an Application-oriented, Universally Applicable, and Effective Leadership Framework can be Formed

Both the hermeneutic and empirical parts examine which principles can be distilled from the material studied. The hermeneutic part both traces a historical arc from the beginnings of leadership to modern theories and examines leadership from an evolutionary and neuroscientific perspective. The empirical view examines leadership in popular leadership literature, and in successful, popular, attractive, and engaged companies whereby companies are examined regarding their leadership foundations from both a hermeneutic and empirical perspective. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_7

207

208

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Eclectic Leadership as a New and Summarising Model …

The hermeneutic investigation already made it clear that application-oriented, universally valid, and effective leadership principles do not follow one ‘school’ or one historical direction but are holistic in the sense that they integrate— seemingly contradictory—aspects and bring them to bear either as fundamentally complementary or, depending on the situation, preferring one style. Hermeneutics particularly emphasised that leadership takes place in the continuum of management and leading, trait and behaviour, taskorientation and relationship-orientation, transactional and transformational, prestige/cooperation and dominance/coordination, and follower-orientation and performance-orientation. The empirical study also showed that both management and leadership and especially the personality of the leader are important and confirms that leadership takes place in the continuum of the poles and cannot be resolved to one side. Effective leadership shows a clear result and performance orientation with clear expectations, but must also be able to emotionally connect, care, develop, and foster growth and learning. The continuum of transactional and transformational leadership is evident in most of the companies studied. Transformational leadership is usually lived with vision and inspiration but is also very application-oriented with clear goals, positive problem solving and praise. The person and traits of the leader are important and the outstanding traits highlighted in this context are trust, credibility, respect, and fairness. Effective leadership has a strong people orientation and is emotionally intelligent. Synthesising and abstracting these results once again, it can be said that the personality of the leader is important, especially in terms of being positive, inspiring, people-oriented, emotionally intelligent, and caring for or developing the staff (being/leading). Furthermore, the technique, the skills, and the management of leadership are equally important: these are fact and execution centred, want to produce results, plan, control, measure, and strive for high performance (doing/managing). This insight may seem self-evident at first glance, but it is little reflected from a scientific-historical and practical perspective. As explained in Chapter 4, the history of the scientific study of leadership shows how differently the phenomenon has been seen and assessed at different times. Significantly, even syntheses that have sought either to bring together the individual threads or to create a new model and have been appraised in the literature review were not very convincing because they were either inconsistent or not sufficiently holistic.

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209

The newly found framework of holistic leadership, directly results from the hermeneutic and empirical investigation and will now be explained in more depth, both in its entirety and in its individual aspects. When describing the research question, it was stated as a maxim guiding the research that there should be a reduction to the essentials. The principles should be holistic in the sense of being comprehensive, but also concrete in the sense of being close to implementation. The overall view of the results first of all shows that the principles found are holistic in the sense of their comprehensiveness and at the same time have great proximity to implementation. The holistic perspective is not only derived from the overall view, but also from the individual results since the elements found in the model can almost all be found several times in different models. The same applies to the proximity to implementation as both the empirical study, which takes a special look at leadership in reality and especially the case study and the interviews as part of the empirical study analyse practice and examine it regarding the principles behind it. Interestingly, there are few deviations here and almost all descriptions of leadership can be traced back to similar principles. After the holistic view of the model as a whole, the individual aspects of the different principles will now be explained. In this work, the principles were defined as elements that are formative for leadership. These elements should be effective as a whole (produce results), application-oriented (easy to implement and focused on the follower), and universal (independent of culture, situation, context, trait, and personality). In the methodological discussion of this thesis, it was indicated that it is not a matter of some principles being application-oriented and others effective, i.e. that separate principles can be derived for each attribute, but that the principles as a whole, also in their breadth and contradictoriness, relate to a holistic model. The application orientation of the principles was especially elicited in the empirical part and all parts of the model are both theoretically sound and tested in practice. Complexity was reduced by eliminating redundancies, a radical follower perspective was ensured, and ease of implementation was observed. That the principles should be universally applicable was understood not only in the narrow cultural sense but also in the broad sense of independence of culture, situation, context, and trait. Methodologically, it was determined that the principles can occur, and not that they have to, and that they can be lived more or less strongly depending on the context. Effectiveness was specifically introduced as a guiding criterion and is also explicitly considered in the model.

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With these main elements of the research question in mind, the different aspects of the principles can now be explored in more depth. Zacharo already pointed out that a consensus on the traits that distinguish a leader from a non-leader would probably be difficult to reach (Zaccaro et al., 2018). This thesis suggests that the long-held dichotomy of leaders’ trait-behaviour, nature-nurture, and emergence-selection needs to be abolished. The hermeneutic investigations even indicate that it is futile to carry out further scientific investigations here because paradoxically, previous investigations have found sufficient scientific evidence for the opposite views in each case. It is precisely the empiricism of this work that points to a holistic view: a narrowing of the understanding of leadership as a pure trait, as the big man who has the leadership gene that others do not have, should be avoided just as much as an interpretation that sees leadership for everyone as pure attributes, skills, and behaviours that in principle can be learned by everyone. The principle of the holistic, trait- and behaviourcomprehensive perspective says that both are important and that both must be taken into account. At this point, it is not (yet) important whether these can also be ‘learned’ but rather it is relevant to emphasise that behaviour and traits are important. From the empirical study, the attribute of authenticity stands out and the congruence of word and deed, and inner and outer coherence count for leadership in particular. Fundamental implications for companies can be derived from this. As most companies see it as a core task of their further development to provide for the next generation of leaders and to train corresponding high potentials, it is perhaps more important to create an environment that promotes authenticity than to identify the ‘right’ potential leadership candidates. Can people be as they are, with strengths and weaknesses, with idiosyncrasies, and rough edges? The more it is possible to create such an environment that promotes exactly this, the more likely it is that leaders are encouraged to be authentic and that leadership will be effective since followers hardly value anything as much as authenticity. One of the special research results of this work is the incorporation of evolutionary core traits and their examination for practical relevance. This has shown that they are still valid today, even if, as the mismatch theory suggests, some of them are no longer needed. The core traits are extroversion, trust, integrity, fairness, generosity, humility, decisiveness, intelligence, competence, and visionary ability. They are supplemented by other core traits, among which self-confidence, determination, and sociability stand out. The holistic leadership framework does not say that every leader must have every trait but it does indicate that effective leadership is undertaken by people who exhibit a variety of these traits. It is interesting to note that the evolutionary traits, in particular,

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211

have come up repeatedly in the empirical part of this thesis. Two elements from the evolutionary study of leadership are particularly worthy of consideration here. Evolutionarily, two types of leadership were identified for two different contexts. The ‘dominance’ style emerged above all in times of war and consists of very concrete—rather managerial and coordinating—activities. The orientation of the dominant style is to ensure ‘external peace’. In contrast, the prestige or charisma style is more common in times of peace and has more of an orientation to ensure ‘internal peace’, good cooperation, and collaboration. Different situations thus require different types of leadership. There are also situations of ‘war’ today; in the corporate context, one can think of ‘attacks’ by competitors or other situations that affect peace. This can also take place through micromanagement at the team level. Whenever there is an external threat or when major disagreements arise, the dominant leadership style is needed to coordinate and restore peace. If, on the other hand, the mission in peaceful situations is rather to take the staff along on the journey, engage them, and ensure good cooperation and a high level of motivation overall, the prestige or charisma style is more helpful. In both situations, there is a (different) need for leadership. However, whether the same person can serve both styles to the same extent is another question. The research in this thesis also shows that at some times certain leaders are more likely to be in their position than at other times and that for some situational challenges certain leadership styles are more helpful than others. In addition to removing the trait-behaviour dichotomy, one of the main principles of effective leadership is that it consists of management and leadership activities. This aspect also unfolds a great scope. As shown, leadership has been and frequently is reduced to one perspective or the other in the academic and popular literature. Then, there is either the merely effective manager (Malik, 2019) for whom any form of empathy and touches of transformational leadership are superfluous and to be eliminated as soft talk or the spiritual leader who meditates and performs self-centred mindfulness (Ulrich, 2018). Both the hermeneutic and empirical parts showed that leadership contains two perspectives, which for the sake of simplicity are described as management and leadership. This dichotomy should also be seen as complementary, as pure management does not engage people, while pure leadership engages but can become ineffective. The empirical part confirmed this complementarity once again and highlighted that a leader must demonstrate both aspects. This holds true regardless of the level of the leader, the environment, and the culture as planning, organising, deciding, and controlling are just as important as influencing, inspiring, stimulating, and listening. Depending on the situation, one or the other may be more prominent and depending on their personality, a leader may prefer one side or the other. However, both are

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important in complementing each other. Under the heading of coordination and cooperation, both elements are already evident in evolutionary terms which also means that, depending on the situation, one or the other style may be required. The better leaders can reflect both styles, the more effective they are and the more recognition they receive. Transactional and transformational leadership are two of the few descriptions of leadership that—despite isolated criticism—have gained general recognition and few models have been studied so intensively. Even though transformational leadership plays a greater role both in academic discourse and in practical application, transactional leadership often appears implicitly as a complement to it. Therefore, it is added to the ‘management side’ in the model of this paper, as it contains typical managerial tasks with ‘management by exception’ and ‘contingent reward’. However, it is important to note here that the continuum counts. Again, empirical research has shown how transactional and transformational leadership are interrelated and complementary and one could thus even say that it would be wrong to dissolve leadership in one direction or the other as there are situational reasons and personal preferences for both focal points. Here again, the more a leader succeeds in reflecting both aspects in their everyday leadership, the more effective they will be. While the management basics are added to transactional leadership/management, transformational leadership with its four well-known elements of idealised influence, individualised consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation is supplemented by EQ and PERMA Lead. Both concepts were presented in the hermeneutic part and were shown to be predominant in the empirical part. Application-oriented and effective leadership is therefore emotionally intelligent and shows the characteristics of PERMA Lead: it provides positive emotions, promotes individual commitment, ensures good relationships, conveys meaning, and ensures that goals are achieved. Again, not every leader can demonstrate all the attributes all the time, but as a structuring principle for sustainable success, it is recommended to place value on these attributes of transformational leadership. Both elements, transactional and transformational leadership, correspond to the basic follower needs, which will be discussed later. The latter has (newly) come into consciousness mainly through neuroscientific research, although some elements were already known previously, especially under the heading of task and relationship orientation. The distinction between task and relationship orientation has been developed by different scholars and, in part, also interpreted or presented differently, as described in the hermeneutic part of this thesis. However, the empirical part was also able to present this dichotomy as complementary. Effective leadership shows

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task orientation, not only, but among other things, in results and performance orientation and in the setting of clear expectations, and it shows relationship orientation, especially in the trilogy of emotional connection, which comprises empathy, caring/developing, and learning/growing. From the results, it is easy to see that task orientation is more in the management section and relationship orientation is more in the leadership section. Application-oriented, universal, and effective leadership establishes clear goals, wants to achieve results, and therefore contains a high-performance orientation. Charismatic leadership may be misunderstood as soft engagement. It is about the ability to address people emotionally and to take them along on a path to a goal—a core task of leadership. The task orientation indicates that effective leadership is about setting clear expectations and achieving good results with high performance. This part of the duality is complemented by the more human aspects, one of which should be particularly emphasised, as it also emerged most frequently and clearly in the empirical part: the ability to emotionally connect. EQ consists of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social management. While the aspect of understanding another person could technically be misunderstood as superficial listening and expressing ‘I understand you’, deep empathy allows the other person to experience and feel that there is a connection on an emotional level. Hence, not just mirroring superficial understanding but being able to connect in depth with another’s self and from there build a very different kind of emotional connection is understood under the term ‘emotionally connect’. Nor does ‘to care/develop’ mean a superficial enquiry about how the weekend was, in order to talk about business the next moment, but caring means a deep interest, in the professional and private sense, in the other person. Caring for someone in depth automatically leads to the question of what the manager can do for the employee’s further development which also extends beyond simple career development. Again, it is about personal development in depth and caring for the best interests of the other person. Intrinsically motivated learning and wanting to develop further is also a characteristic of effective leadership. Emotionally intelligent leadership always begins with the individual, and thus further development is also an activity that begins with the self. In the leader-follower-context triangle, it was made clear through the neuroleadership perspective, but also through the empirical research in this thesis, how much leadership must be oriented towards the needs of the followers. First and foremost, these needs refer to all ‘exclusive’ employees who are led by a leader, but who do not lead others. At the same time, however, these needs can also be extrapolated to leaders who are themselves led, which applies to almost

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all leaders. In the sense of role modelling, one can say that leaders should not only ensure that these basic follower needs are fulfilled for their employees, but that their own needs are also fulfilled. The followers’ needs have a threefold perspective: 1) I: Individual perspective According to neuroscientific findings, every individual has certain basic needs such as self-worth increase, autonomy, status, learning, growth, self-esteem, selfactualisation, and competence. The more a leader understands how to respond to and fulfil these needs of their follower, the more the follower is in a situation of inner balance, which also leads to an increase in performance. Similarly, the more a leader understands and responds to these needs in himself, the more the leader is in a situation of inner balance, which also leads to better leadership. For each of the individual elements, an analysis could be carried out regarding the concrete implementation. The Google case study contributes here, as it illustrates what leadership that respects and wants to fulfil basic follower needs concretely looks like and shows that can also be learned. 2) I-You: Relationship perspective Another area of basic follower needs concerns relationships. Whether it is ‘belonging’ or ‘relatedness’, it is always about social relationships and their quality. Here again, the dual perspective applies that a leader ensures that the follower can live these basic relationships—also in the professional context—and that he himself experiences stable professional relationships. 3) It/They: Ambient perspective The third perspective of follower needs concerns the environment in the broadest sense. People need orientation, control, certainty, fairness, and safety. An external and internal quality can be worked out for the individual elements. For example, fair working conditions, fair wage compensation, or occupational health and safety have an external perspective, which is also important and must be ensured by the employer. However, the internal perspective is even more important. Orientation in everyday life can mean that employees are clear about what is required of them. Fairness points to the treatment by the supervisor in comparison with others. Again, the relevant neuroleadership literature presented in this thesis provides countless examples of what leadership can do to best respond to basic follower needs in relation to the environment. The synopsis of application-oriented, universal, and effective leadership principles will be called the ‘Eclectic Leadership Framework’. The Cambridge

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Dictionary defines eclectic as: ‘Methods, beliefs, ideas, etc. that are eclectic combine whatever seem the best or most useful things from many different areas or systems, rather than following a single system’ (Cambridge Dictionary, 2022). The combination of the best things from different areas lies at the heart of this thesis and while the compilation of these principles can be called a framework, it is explicitly not about adding another meta-model. Rather, this thesis is about a paradigm shift, which will now be further elaborated. As described at the beginning of this thesis, this work is intended to contribute from both a theoretical and a practical perspective. The need driven from a theoretical perspective consists precisely in synthesising and simplifying the multitude of models to set a new impulse for future scientific research. However, it is not about a model in the sense of a presentation of individual elements whose implementation is recommended. The ‘Eclectic Leadership Framework’ sees itself as a comprehensive overall picture from which individual models or concrete instructions for action can be derived and the framework can function as an umbrella under which all theoretical reflections can be found. At the same time, the framework makes it possible to leave the discussions of polarities behind. It is not the proof of the born or made leader that is important—enough arguments can be found for both—but the discussion of what the possible conditions are, how the concepts complement each other, in which situations which aspect is possibly more important, etc. The practical benefit of the knowledge gained from this work is immediately evident. No matter what institution or economic sector is involved, leadership is and will always be important because it is inherent to humanity. Whenever an organisation wants leadership to be application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective, it can draw on the Eclectic Leadership Framework and use the principles that are most helpful for the situation or challenge at hand. The main message of the framework is that any absolute definition of a particular style can be inherently limiting. If, for example, leadership is to be purely transformational and there is no practice of ‘management basics’ or other transactional elements, the effectiveness of this leadership is questioned from the outset. And the same is true in reverse. It is important to identify leadership situations. If it is more about repositioning externally, where a lot of headwinds are to be expected—then a lot of coordination is required—or if it is about managing groups and positions with an inherent mandate to cooperate in this case transformational leadership would be indicated. In any case, the ‘et-et’ (the both/and), is essential for success and, in particular, the task- and relationship orientation must be brought to the fore as both are

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important. It needs to be clearly defined what exactly performance orientation means and how it can be observed, or how leaders can be empowered to connect emotionally with people through empathy. Both aspects of leadership can and must be learned. The dichotomy between leadership and management, which is often advocated and sometimes incomprehensible, can be well explained in evolutionary terms, especially with the dominance-prestige model. This is not intended to represent a purely situational or contingency approach as the model par excellence, but merely to argue that in some situations, periods, or cultures a certain leadership style is preferred to others. A current example illustrates this: although popular leadership literature tends to favour a transformational leadership style, there is also the other more dominant direction that exerts a certain fascination and is lived by political leaders in many countries of the world. In the person of former American President Donald Trump, for example, it has been established that he lives a certain kind of leadership that seems to contradict the European-Western mainstream of ethical, authentic, and transformational leadership, but which makes perfect sense in the light of evolutionary science (McAdams, 2017). Once again, it should be emphasised that universal leadership does not mean that there is only one model or one way of leading that is to be propagated, but rather that universal refers to the framework from which the principles can be derived, which is then applied concretely yet also with variance. Since most leaders are also followers (Pietraszewski, 2020), the framework provides a comprehensive approach that can be applied across all hierarchical levels if the company they work for is hierarchical. Even if the answer to the research question only comes to fruition in the holistic overall view, the core principles should be formulated once again: Leadership principle 1: Leadership principle 2:

Leadership principle 3:

Leadership principle 4:

The personal characteristics of a leader are important. The bipolarity of management-leadership, transactional-transformational, and task-relationship and coordination-cooperation are cancelled out in the holistic view of both/and, and reveal situation-dependent characteristics. The transformational-transactional leadership continuum best describes what type of leadership is most effective. Goal and performance orientation, and application of management basics, to care, emotionally connect and

7.1 Summary of Results: Principles From Which an Application-oriented …

Leadership principle 5:

217

learn/grow incl. inspiration and emotional intelligence are core characteristics of effective leadership. Effective leadership knows and satisfies basic follower needs.

Acquirement mechanisms are not in the actual scope of this thesis but are at least envisaged and scaffolded in Chapter 8. To test the holistically oriented practicability of the framework, it will first be compared with some common models and examined concerning practical implications. The implications and restrictions of the Eclectic Leadership Framework will subsequently be outlined (Figure 7.1).

Applicaon oriented, universally applicable, and effecve leadership principles

Management Management by excepon Conngent reward Ability to apply management basics (plan, organize, decide, command, coordinate, control)

Holisc Leadership coordinaon dominance

To guarantee external ‘peace’ Key behaviours • Result orientaon • Performance orientaon • Management basics

Leadership

Task orientaon

cooperaon presge/charisma

Evoluonary core traits: extroversion, trust , integrity, fairness, generosity, humility, decisiveness, intelligence, competence, visionary

Idealized influence Individualized consideraon Inspiraonal movaon Intellectual smulaon Emoonal intelligence PERMA

To guarantee internal ‘peace’ Relaonship orientaon

Further core traits (expl): self-confidence, determinaon, sociability

Key behaviours • To care • To emoonally connect • To learn/grow

Flexibility in applicaon according to situaon and needs

Fulfil basic follower needs I: autonomy, status, learning, growth, self-esteem, self-actualizaon, competence, certainty I-You: bonding, relaon/relatedness, belonging IT/THEY: orientaon, control, fairness, safety

Figure 7.1 Eclectic Leadership Framework. (Own illustration)

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Comparison with selected management and leadership approaches

The Eclectic Leadership Framework claims to offer a robust, holistic, comprehensive model of leadership that is broad in scope so that many situations can be mapped, while simultaneously sufficiently deep and concrete so that it is easy to apply. As a reality check, three approaches to leadership will be confronted with the framework to test the robustness of the framework, i.e. to check whether the principles found appear in a similar way in other frameworks and whether there are any differences. Since there are more than 60 different leadership models and over 100 approaches, those that have a scientific foundation, a practical orientation, and wider dissemination are selected as examples. In addition to a single study by McKinsey, which stands out because of its large sample and focus on effective leadership, ‘Introduction to leadership’ (Northouse, 2021) is examined as this is an approach that many academics repeatedly refer to, as well as ‘The truth about Leadership’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2010) as this approach is widely used and recognised both academically and practically. In a comprehensive academic and practical survey, the consulting firm McKinsey (Feser et al., 2015) surveyed more than 180,000 people from around the world, thereby including various industries and organisation sizes, on leadership behaviours. Of the 20 different behaviours, four stand out as being responsible for 89% of leadership effectiveness. These are: being supportive, operating with a strong results orientation, seeking different perspectives, and solving problems effectively. Under the term ‘be supportive’ leadership behaviour is indicated that is empathic, authentic, trust-building, inspiring, effective, and threat- and conflictreducing. ‘Be supportive’ correlates with many of the behaviours that are attributed to leadership in this work: inspirational motivation from transformational leadership, empathy, cooperation, and overall ‘caring’. ‘Operating with strong results orientation’ includes vision and goal setting but emphasises goal achievement through efficiency and productivity. This behaviour is particularly evident in the task orientation and the result and performance orientation. ‘Seeking different perspectives’ emphasises monitoring trends, paying attention to a continuously changing environment, encouraging creative participation in solutions, prioritising, and analytical decision-making. Trend monitoring is only implicit in the holistic model, and the other behaviours are mapped in ‘learn/grow, prioritise, coordinate’, and in response to basic follower needs.

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‘Solving problems effectively’ is described as an activity that precedes decision-making and includes information gathering and analysis. Transformational leadership creates a climate of ‘psychological safety’, which in turn contributes to creative problem-solving (Carmeli et al., 2014). The McKinsey study, based on academic and empirical research, highlights four behaviours of effective leadership that are also found in the Eclectic Leadership Framework. Differently located, ordered, and formulated but similarly presented, strong goal orientation, problem-solving ability, and analytical skills are highlighted (‘management’) on the one hand, and empathetic, trust-building, visionary, and creativity-enabling behaviour (‘leadership’) on the other, so that this study can be seen as an overall confirmation of the holistic framework. Emeritus communication scholar Paul Northouse continuously updated his oeuvre and added respective new findings to it. While, for example, the topic of ‘followership’ was not yet discussed in the seventh edition (Northouse, 2016) it was given its own chapter in the eighth edition, along with other topics (Northouse, 2019). In this overview, Northouse already balances the different approaches, which are, however, still dealt with chapter by chapter and stand side by side. In ‘Introduction to Leadership’ (Northouse, 2021) on the other hand, the different approaches are united, with a scientific foundation and a simultaneous practical orientation. Even though Northouse does not formally divide the approach into leadership and management, both aspects are present. On the management side, there is conflict management, structure, norms, and standards, while on the leadership side different leadership styles (strengths-based and vision-oriented) are found. To this end, he describes the importance, and also the challenge, of traits. The GLOBE study already mentioned and also referred to by House et al. (2014) describes 22 cross-culturally recognised positive traits (trustworthy, foresighted, positive, builds confidence, is just, plans ahead, dynamic, motivational, honest, encouraging, motivator, dependable, intelligent, win-win, problem solver, administratively skilled, excellence oriented, decisive, communicative, coordinator, effective bargainer, informed, team builder) and eight negative leadership traits (loner, irritable, ruthless, asocial, nonexplicit, dictatorial, noncooperative, egocentric), while other researchers describe other core traits (Judge et al., 2002). In this confusing situation, House proposes the following six core traits: intelligence, confidence, charisma, determination, sociability, and integrity (Northouse, 2021). These core traits appear in different variations in the studies conducted so far in this work and the selection has a direct commonality with the evolutionary

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core traits (van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2008): intelligence and integrity. However, confidence is also related to competence, charisma to visionary behaviour, determination to decisiveness, and sociability to fairness. Northouse (2021) explicitly describes task and relationship styles on a continuum. He also includes core leadership skills, which are divided into three groups: administrative, interpersonal, and conceptual (Northouse, 2021). At first glance, the classification appears odd, as ‘managing people’ is counted as administrative and ‘problem-solving’ as conceptual. Under the heading of management-leadership, however, all skills without exception can be assigned to the Eclectic Leadership Framework. Northouse explicitly refers to Gallup and strength-based leadership (Northouse, 2021) which is also clearly reflected in this work and incorporated into the model. Interestingly, Northouse devotes a separate chapter to the topic of vision and conflict management and both topics are also integrated in the eclectic model. Other topics such as diversity or outgroup members are deliberately not part of the Eclectic Leadership Framework, not because they are unimportant, but because this model describes effective, application-oriented, and universal principles. Overall, it can be said that all core topics of the Eclectic Leadership Framework are also described in Northouse’s detailed, and scientifically and practically oriented approach, so that the robustness of the model is confirmed from this perspective. James Kouzes and Barry Posner have also transferred their academic work into popular science literature. Of the millions of books they have sold, ‘The Truth about Leadership’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2010), ‘The Leadership Challenge’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2012), and ‘Learning Leadership’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2016) stand out, which will now be evaluated in terms of the Eclectic Leadership Framework. The model is thereby used as a template, to describe whether and which elements correspond. What cannot and should not be done here is to describe the content of the books in depth. In ‘The Truth about Leadership’ Kouzes and Posner (2010) present 10 elements related to leadership from different perspectives. ‘You make a difference’ is about self-confidence and the ability to lead oneself, while ‘credibility is the foundation of leadership’ is about authenticity with its four main characteristics being honesty, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent. The third element, ‘values drive commitment’, is about clarity about one’s own values. The fourth element is ‘focusing on the future sets leaders apart’. This is about vision, as leaders have a long-term perspective. ‘You can’t do it alone’ describes the need to relate with, listen to, and empower others. ‘Trust rules’ describes the foundation of trust, which is demonstrated in predictable, consistent, communicative, honest, sincere, and direct behaviour. The seventh element describes ‘challenge

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is the crucible for greatness’. This is about change and challenges, but also about resilience and courage. ‘You either lead by example or you don’t lead at all’ is about role-modelling, and ‘the best leaders are the best learners’ is about personal development and continuous improvement. The last element describes leadership as an ‘affair of the heart’ and is about love as the deepest driver for all action. All elements are exclusively found in the leadership part of the Eclectic Leadership Framework. However, there are no elements that cover the management part and especially the task orientation. In ‘The Leadership Challenge’ Kouzes and Posner describe five practices: ‘model the way’, ‘inspire a shared vision’, ‘challenge the process’, ‘enable others to act’, and ‘encourage the heart’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). These practices also form part of the book ‘The Truth about Leadership’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2010). The first two practices refer to role-modelling and vision sharing described in transformational leadership, the third refers to innovative change, the fourth to trust-based leadership, and the fifth to recognition. All elements appear in the Eclectic Leadership Framework, even if they are ordered or presented differently there. While there is a clear focus on transformational leadership and people orientation, transactional elements such as reward through goal achievement are also present. In ‘Learning Leadership’, Kouzes and Posner describe five fundamentals for becoming an exemplary leader, namely ‘believe you can’, ‘aspire to excel’, ‘challenge yourself’, ‘engage support’, and ‘practice deliberately’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2016). In other words, this is not so much a description of leadership, but rather the process of becoming a leader, with the basic assumption of the authors being that everyone is a leader. Summarising the approach of Kouzes and Posner, it can be said that they tend to observe and define leadership from the perspective of transformational leadership and elements of transactional, coordination, task orientation, or overall ‘management’ are not frequently found in their approach. However, both the leadership aspects and the definitions of the core traits reflect the main elements of the Eclectic Leadership Framework. All three approaches described serve to confirm the Eclectic Leadership Framework in that, although different emphases are set and other frameworks are used, the main elements are nevertheless present so that the robustness of the framework can be confirmed.

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Restrictions and Future Research

Fundamental and comprehensive work has an inherent limitation that results from the task. Especially when the view is to be broadened to capture as many aspects as possible and to find holistic answers, not every detailed aspect can be considered. This fundamental limitation is also found in this scientific work. For example, in the hermeneutic part, only the broadest and most important lines of the history of leadership could be traced, without describing every single model in depth. Similarly, in the empirical part, a pre-selection of the material to be examined was found. Other approaches could have been chosen here but were excluded for reasons of research economics, for example. The empirical interview part, for example, could also have been extended to several companies to also capture other perspectives. Another limitation is the rudimentary comparison of individual models. Even if such an activity was again set out of scope for reasons of research economics, a deeper look into the mutual conditions of different models could point to possible causalities or at least correlations. Finally, the validity of the framework remains to be proven and hence, further studies, both hermeneutic and empirical, are needed. The following reflection is intended to provide a glimpse into future research. First of all, practical tests are recommended that can either prove, falsify, or correct the extent to which the framework as a whole and subsequently also its individual parts are sustainable. Together with companies, models can be worked out from the framework for how the individual aspects can be implemented. Both the evolutionary and the neuroscientific parts are young in terms of research history and both aspects offer great potential for embedding leadership into a larger human-essential context. If the mechanisms of leadership are not seen as singular activities to be applied as quasi-machine-like principles, but as deeply connected to being human on a biological and psychological level, a new horizon for human-empathic and at the same time highly effective leadership opens up here. In this field, both hermeneutic and empirical research is still in their infancy. The aspect of acquisition mechanisms has only marginally been mentioned in this work because learning and implementing leadership would in turn open up a separate topic. Nevertheless, in a separate examination in the next chapter, the focus will shift to the future, especially because one of the concerns of this work is to link theory and practice.

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Looking to the Future: A Contribution to Leadership Futures Research for Acquiring, Learning, and Implementing Leadership

Are management and leadership learnable practices (Posner, B. Z., & Kouzes, J. M., 1996) that can be taught to young people at university or are they not something that can be learned in an (MBA) study programme (Mintzberg, 2004) but are to be regarded as more of an art? In the literature dealing explicitly with ‘learning’ leadership or management, there is an implicit assumption that when a certain style, skill, or behaviour is proposed, a manager is like a blank white sheet with unlimited possibilities and should only choose and ‘show’ a certain behaviour in a certain situation and thereby become more effective and achieve better results. What exactly the material is that a leader should learn is also not clearly outlined. There is still the (often unconscious) view that in courses leaders (should) above all learn how to ‘motivate’ employees and there is ‘movement’ in this, i.e. to move them in a direction they may not want to go: ‘participants in management trainings normally want to hurriedly learn just a few tricks, how to get employees to do what they want them to do more effectively’ (Alznauer, 2016, p. 191). In this thesis, the scientifically supported assumption, based on neuroscientific knowledge, is made that the basics of leadership can be learned like any other activity and behaviour (Avolio et al., 2009). At the same time, however, the person of the leader is important, which means that learning skills are far from sufficient and that learning must include the personality, character, and being of the leader. Therefore, in the following section, the questions concerning what exactly is to be learned in leadership training, who the learner is, how learning takes place, and what other circumstances influence the topic of leadership need to be systemically considered. Before this, currently existing scientifically inspired learning frameworks are presented and discussed. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 M. Hagemann, A Leadership Paradigm Shift to ‘Eclectic Leadership’, Gabler Theses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41578-5_8

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Existing Learning Frameworks

In the purely popular leadership literature, there are countless books dedicated to leadership, which often include elements on how to learn leadership skills. These have already been examined in Chapter 5. Now, three academically inspired frameworks will be discussed to explore what is learned, who the learner is, how learning takes place, and what other systemic circumstances exist. Besides ‘Learning Leadership’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2016), Yukl’s taxonomy of behaviour (Yukl et al., 2002) and Hogan’s four domains for management (Hogan & Warrenfeltz, 2003) will be examined, as these frameworks have been developed on a scientific basis and by scientists who are also practitioners. All authors are renowned and influential researchers in the field of leadership. The framework of Kouzes and Posner (2016) speaks of the ‘five fundamentals of becoming an exemplary leader’ which consist of: modelling the way (values and role-modelling), inspiring a shared vision (compelling future), challenging the process (innovation and experimenting), enabling others to act (collaboration and strength orientation), and encouraging the heart (recognition, appraisal) (Posner et al., 2015). While the learner is generally assumed to be an emotionally intelligent person, the main message is that anyone can learn leadership through self-coaching and a mindset shift. However, this learning model does not provide a statement about the system used. Yukl et al. (2002) divide leadership behaviour into three categories: task, relationship, and change. To the distinction of task and relationship on which this paper is based, the dimension of change is added, whereby change behaviour is defined by monitoring the external environment, innovative strategy, thinking, and risk-taking (Yukl et al., 2002). The behaviours described for task and relationship are largely consistent with the Eclectic Leadership Framework. In a later study, Yukl et al. (2019) examine the relationship between the three behaviours and leadership effectiveness and confirm that the corresponding task, relationship, and change behaviours support leadership effectiveness. At this point, the implications for the change aspect cannot and should not be explored in depth, but it can be stated that the Yukl framework supports leadership effectiveness and, in principle, the behavioural patterns relating to leadership can be learned as shown in ‘Leadership in Organizations’ (Yukl, 2002) which explores how this can take place through training, and developmental and self-help activities. A deeper reflection on what exactly learning means to a leader is provided by Hogan and Warrenfeltz (2003). They distinguish four domains for management competencies:

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• Intrapersonal (self-confidence, inner stability, resilience, socially adaptable, impulse control) • Interpersonal (relationship building with empathy, interpersonal perception, managing expectations, focus) • Leadership skills (team building, retaining talent, motivating, visioning, persistence) • Business skills (planning, budget, strategic mapping, coordination) There is a strong distinction between learning skills (what people do) and learning concepts or mindset (why people do what they do). Both elements are important and complement each other and it is strongly recommended to start each learning programme with an assessment to develop a highly individualised learning journey for the participant (Table 8.1). Table 8.1 Learning concepts Kouzes & Posner

Yukl

Hogan & Warrenfeltz

What

values and role-modelling vision innovation collaboration recognition love

task-oriented behaviour relation-oriented behaviour change-oriented behaviour

intrapersonal interpersonal leadership skills business skills

Who

everybody the person matters

everybody situation dependent

everybody

How

self-coaching mindset

training developmental activities self-help activities

skills and conceptualization assessment

System

N/A

according to the situation

N/A

All frameworks can be seen as confirming the Eclectic Leadership Framework content. In terms of how learning takes place, the frameworks emphasise mindset/reflection, training, coaching, and assessment. The focus of this work now shifts to once again fundamentally reflect how the principles of the Eclectic Leadership Framework can be learned or acquired.

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Principles of Adult Learning

In research, different learning theories are distinguished, which are clustered very diversely and six clusters under which most theories can be grouped are presented here. In the context of adult learning, the theories of humanist learning, experiential learning, and transformative learning are added to the basic three theories (behaviourist, cognitivist, and constructivist) (Bélanger, 2011). The insights of andragogy are outlined to formulate theses that form the basis for leadership learning. The behavioural approach assumes that a learning experience can be broken down into skills, which can then be learned, in the sense of being ‘rehearsed’ (Bélanger, 2011). The cognitive approach, which is closely linked to the emergence of Gestalt therapy, asks about the inner dimension of outer behaviour. In this sense, learning describes acquiring and transferring knowledge, while competences are understood as a ‘mix of tacit and codified knowledge’ (Bélanger, 2011, p. 25). Constructivism assumes that reality and therefore knowledge are created, whereby the external perspective is decidedly included. Learning is therefore less focused on the acquisition of knowledge but rather is a process of making sense of experience (Merriam, 1999). To ensure this sense-making, so that the learner can grasp a new meaning, it is important on the part of the teacher to create a ‘cognitive conflict’ (Merriam, 1999), i.e. a situation in which the learner leaves their comfort zone. From another perspective, this is described as a growth mindset, which is a prerequisite for experiential learning (Heslin & Keating, 2017). The humanist theory primarily goes back to Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (Bélanger, 2011). Central to this theory is the idea that learning is not an end in itself but satisfies the human need for self-actualisation. Furthermore, it is important that learning is seen as a comprehensive holistic process that runs cognitively and emotionally, requires a purpose on the part of the learner or is relevant and self-directed. This also means that the relationship between learner and teacher is important and that the teacher is empathetic, accepting, and transparent (Bélanger, 2011). Experiential learning is action-oriented and understands learning as a process that begins with a concrete experience, followed by critical reflection so that a theory is formed, which in turn is tested (Kolb, 2015). Transformative learning involves the aspect of change: Learning leads to a changed perception of reality (Bélanger, 2011).

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The term andragogy was coined by Malcom Shepherd Knowles (1913– 1997) as a synonym for adult learning as distinct from children’s learning in the context of schools (Knowles, 1980). Adult learning differs above all in the more mature personality and the associated personal responsibility, motivation, and application orientation of the learners. The development of selfmotivation, and problem/solution-oriented experiential learning is essential for the learning process. Self-directedness, which corresponds to Maslow’s need for self-actualisation, as well as a consideration of existing learning experience, experience-oriented learning (which implies concrete solving of concrete problems), are to be ensured in learning (Knowles, 1980). The practical implications begin with the creation of a learning climate that includes both external aspects such as the learning space and internal aspects such as a friendly atmosphere of acceptance. Adult learning starts with a diagnosis and the creation of a need to learn, also by taking the learner into a situation outside their comfort zone. The learning process should not be planned by the teacher but rather the learner should be involved in the process and become part of the learning experience. Finally, learners should be led to evaluate themselves and their learning experience (Knowles, 1980). The holistic approach to the acquisition of leadership requires, similar to the formulation of the principles of effective leadership, a focus on central, effective learning elements. Therefore, the essentials will be distilled from the above-mentioned major learning theories and recorded as theses. Thesis 1: The personality of the learner matters. Learning as a leader first means becoming self-aware. Self-awareness precedes selfactualisation. Not everyone can learn everything. Learning is part of autosociography.

Thesis 2: A distinction must be made between cognitive, affective, and behavioural learning. Learning is always holistic and must encompass all aspects of being human.

Thesis 3: Learning means change. Leaders must change and adapt their behaviour, break down behavioural patterns through practice, and learn new ones. Factors such as resistance to change, psychological safety, and fundamental insights of change must therefore be considered.

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Thesis 4: Motivation and practice are crucial in the learning process. Insight into the desires or needs of the learner precedes the learning process. The learner needs a purpose and a deeper understanding of why the thing to be learned is relevant.

Thesis 5: Learning is a practical process. Although the cognitive part of learning is important, it is important not to underestimate the practical part, i.e. ‘learning by doing’ (Tsang, 2013). Learning takes place through implementation.

Thesis 6: Learning starts through an intentional out-of-comfort-zone-experience and evaluation. Especially at the beginning of the learning process, the learner should have the experience of not knowing or not knowing enough, which accelerates the learning process whereby continuous evaluation measures progress and motivates the learner.

Thesis 7: Feedback is a crucial learning lever. An essential lever of adult learning is learning to see oneself through the eyes of another. Giving and receiving feedback is a crucial learning lever.

Thesis 8: Learning by example. The ‘teacher’, the direct leader, and also other role models are crucial for both the learning goal and the learning process.

Thesis 9: Learning is self-directed. Adult learning cannot be prescribed. An individualised learning journey description increases commitment.

Thesis 10: The (learning) culture promotes or hinders the learning process. Not only ‘teacher’ and learner, but the whole environment and especially the organisation of the participants either have a supporting or a mitigating effect on the learning process. A ‘culture of learning’ is an important feature of successful learning organisations.

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Building on these theses, which reflect the principles of adult learning, it can now be explained in more detail how the Eclectic Leadership Framework can be learned, and how leaders can acquire the principles of application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership. The first question to consider is who these leaders are and how they are selected.

8.3

Who Learns

Remaining in the dichotomy of the ‘born vs made leader’, one could either restrict oneself in the direction of born leaders to identify the leaders who naturally have the prerequisites to be good leaders and then marginally accompany them in the development process. All leadership competences would be inherent in them and would thus only have to be uncovered. On the other hand, the concept of the ‘made leader’ suggests that, in principle, anyone can become a leader, i.e. that there is no genetic or epigenetic prerequisite for leadership. The overall ductus of this work, which attempts to avoid one-sidedness with a holistic view, makes it advisable to include both aspects here as well. The concept of a ‘born leader’ is often misinterpreted to mean that there is a certain ‘leader gene’ that some leaders have, and others do not. However, at this point, the intention is not to refer to all the relevant academic literature, which, incidentally, exists for both aspects whereby one of the best overviews is provided by Antonakis (2011). Instead, the feedback from the empirical study of this thesis on the question of whether and to what extent the personality or character of a leader is important will be considered in more depth. Without exception, all interviewees—before explaining what this character looks like—immediately and spontaneously confirmed that personality is important. The resulting implication for learning the Eclectic Leadership Framework means that it is central to seek leaders who meet the framework’s fundamental requirements. This in turn means that, through a selection process, leaders can be identified who have the aptitudes for management and task orientation on the one hand and the aptitudes for emotional intelligence on the other. This selection process can be carried out in several ways. However, since the effectiveness of leadership is shown by the extent to which the followers adhere to the leader’s directives or implement the goals to be achieved, a process that allows potential leaders to be evaluated by employees would both be conceivable and recommended. It is precisely the core traits that tend to show up in everyday life that may sometimes not even be conscious to the respective manager himself

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(‘blind spot’), while employees very well perceive the extent to which a respective manager shows a certain behaviour. Of course, such a process requires a high degree of organisational maturity, which a company would sometimes have to work hard to achieve. But, at the same time, it would help to ensure that the ‘right’ leaders are selected. On the other hand, it is equally true that leadership can be learned and, in the above-mentioned process the ‘made-leader approach’ would follow seamlessly because none of the selected leaders can be expected to be perfect in all dimensions. The ‘situational’ leadership theory suggests that certain leadership behaviour is advisable in one situation and counterproductive in another. Situational leadership also suggests that when selecting a leader, attention should be paid to the exact organisation and task for which the leader is being sought, which is where the aspect of role description and expectation comes into play. It is now common knowledge that the best expert does not necessarily have to be the best leader at the same time. When searching for and selecting a leader for a particular position, it is therefore not only important to prepare a technical role description, but also from a leadership perspective to ask what kind of leadership seems most suitable for this particular role. Fundamentally, however, it can be assumed—and this is what the Eclectic Leadership Framework says—that in the search for and selection of leaders, it is not only the skills that matter, but also the personality. The selection process should therefore also look at aspects such as how the potential leader leads themselves, and, to name just a few of the evolutionary and other core traits, how they demonstrate trust and integrity, fairness, generosity, humility, decisiveness, intelligence, competence, determination, and sociability. The ability to be both goal- and performance-oriented, as well as focused on fulfilling the followers’ needs, can and should also be assessed and observed. Once the right leaders are selected, the focus can then turn to what is to be learned and how.

8.4

What is Learned

As the existing learning frameworks show, some main themes are essential for learning leadership and that largely coincide with the Eclectic Leadership Framework: task/change orientation, vision, intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, and leadership and business skills. Applied to the structure of the Eclectic Leadership Framework, the learning content described in this section is derived.

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As the framework shows and research confirms, the person of the leader is crucial, and hence the first major part is devoted to the development of personality traits and key behaviours. The second major part is dedicated to the craft of management. This includes, among other things, the management basics. In the third area, the main elements of transformational leadership and emotional intelligence are learned, which can be described using the (not overlapping) elements of leading self, leading others, and leading organisation. Since leadership never takes place in a neutral space, but must always be understood systemically, a separate section (cf. Section 8.7) is devoted to the development of the environment (organisation and culture).

8.4.1

Leadership Personality

As described, this thesis does not follow the continuous discussion of what leadership is inherited and what can be learned. Instead, building on the findings of neuropsychology, it is assumed that traits adapt in the course of life (B. W. Roberts et al., 2006), and that personality (Dweck, 2008a) or traits (Hudson & Fraley, 2015) can also be consciously changed, even by using digital interventions (Stieger et al., 2021). Building on this insight, it is then important to determine what the main personality traits or related behaviours are that a leader should learn or develop. Again taking the holistic approach into account and following the application orientation and effectiveness, not too many traits and behaviours can be named here, as the development of a new habit takes at least 2 months (Lally et al., 2010) and a leader cannot learn a new behaviour that becomes a new habit every 2 months. Therefore, in the behavioural characteristic to be learned, reference will be made in particular to the empirical study, since the hermeneutic part clearly showed how inconsistent the research is. Nevertheless, with regard to the hermeneutic aspect, it can be stated that in the very profound meta-analysis of Judge et al. (2002) the findings of eight influential and recognised researchers are analysed, i.e. Stogdill, Hogan, Mann, Northouse, Bass, Kirkpatrick, and Yukl, and more than 50 different traits of effective leaders emerge. The only trait from this meta-analysis that appears almost consistently is self-confidence. There is also a great deal of agreement concerning extroversion as a personality description in this context. From evolutionary leadership research, the two main traits are dominance and prestige/charisma (Garfield, Hubbard, & Hagen, 2019).

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The empirical analysis from the Oxygen case study revealed EQ as being the main characteristic of a leader, while the empirical analysis in the interviews shows a focus on extroversion, intelligence, authenticity, and openness. Openness is understood as a comprehensive orientation toward the individual and contains discrete categories such as listening, understanding, and being attuned to the individual, and is therefore compatible with both the comprehensive term empathy and EQ. Since emotional intelligence is also a key element of transformational leadership, the core trait used here is that of greater people-centredness, which was repeatedly emphasised in the empirical analysis. This results in the following core traits: • Extroversion • People orientation (human kindness) • Authenticity All elements are understood holistically and comprehensively: extroversion (which subsumes self-confidence, dominance, and prestige/charisma), peopleorientation/human kindness (which includes empathy and emotional intelligence), and authenticity (which means inner personality coherence, in accordance with one’s speech and actions). In addition to all the other traits, which are also important either fundamentally or situationally, this trilogy of essential traits represents a continuum that on the one hand includes the extroverted, forward-looking, goaloriented, self-confident, sometimes dominant, but also prestige-oriented, often business-oriented character, while on the other hand, it describes the emotionally intelligent character in a comprehensive sense, which is characterised above all by its orientation towards people, a high degree of self-awareness and also, in particular, by a high degree of empathy, openness and, overall, a commitment to people (‘people-pleaser’). In this context, extroversion is not adequately described as the opposite of introversion as even an introverted leader can show extroversion if they are self-confident and goal-oriented. This continuum is balanced by authenticity as pretending to be someone else is considered more negative than showing a weakness of character. However, authenticity should not be misunderstood as cementing the as-is (‘that’s just how I am’), but as an invitation to show oneself, together with one’s strengths and weaknesses, while also having a desire to work on them. The main characteristics of authenticity can be found in a clear presentation in Kernis and Goldman (1972) and are defined as follows. Firstly, knowing oneself in the most comprehensive sense is called ‘awareness’ and forms the basis of authenticity. The second element, ‘unbiased processing’, means the colloquial ‘that’s just the way

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I am’, which includes the authentic presentation of one’s personality. The element ‘consistent behaviour’ means behaving according to one’s values, i.e. not making one’s behaviour dependent on external influences such as reward or punishment. ‘Relational orientation’ refers to the openness and honesty with which one approaches others in close relationships (Figure 8.1). Authencity

Extroversion

People orientaon

Figure 8.1 Leadership Traits. (Own illustration)

The main characteristics of the respective traits can be described as follows: Extroversion: • • • •

Self-confidence Goal orientation Dominance Prestige/charisma

People orientation: • • • • •

Integrity Fairness Generosity Humility Sociability

Authenticity: • • • •

Awareness Unbiased processing Consistent behaviour Relational orientation

After describing the traits or personality characteristics that are important for a leader within the framework of the Eclectic Leadership Framework, the two poles of management and leadership can now be discussed.

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Transactional Management

Both the hermeneutic part of this work and the empirical part have shown that application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective leadership principles can to some extent be attributed to transactional leadership or management, which for the sake of simplicity, and factually more correctly, is categorised as transactional management. In the sometimes rather emphatic promotion of transformational leadership, especially in popular science literature, the inspiring, responsive, and highly emotionally intelligent leader is portrayed. However, both hermeneutic reflection and empirical research have shown that in practice, transactional and management craftsmanship are important alongside transformational leadership. In the reflection and search for the essential and learnable behaviours and activities of leadership, the goal and performance orientation stand out from both strands of the study. In both the management-by-exception style and the contingent-reward style, the focus is on rewards for goal achievement, which are clearly imposed top-down. Furthermore, in the empirical study—especially in the interviews with managers—goal setting and achievement are almost universally mentioned as the main elements of leadership. Related and connected to this, prioritising and focused action are also mentioned as important elements of effective leadership while performance orientation, despite its relatedness, is also more distinct from it. Goals are only achieved with a performance orientation, which is at the core of effective management. Even a hundred years after Henri Fayol first published the five management principles (planning, organising, coordinating, commanding, controlling), they have lost none of their relevance from a research perspective (Fells, 2000). However, empirical research has also confirmed the importance of the individual elements, as all are mentioned equally and taken for the more task-oriented management process. One of those who most strikingly wants to overcome the management-leadership distinction is the Swiss professor of management, Fredmund Malik. He describes the tasks of effective leadership as setting goals, organising, deciding, controlling, and developing people (Malik, 2019). In his work, the relationship-oriented tasks are assigned to leadership and the taskoriented tasks to management. The five management principles formulated by Fayol are also found in Malik’s work but are expanded by the relationshiporiented ones whereby one element, in particular, should be emphasised, namely decision-making. Since ‘decision-making’ is also repeatedly mentioned in the interviews as one of the main management tasks, this element is added to the management basics in the framework.

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This results in the following main elements to be learned in the Eclectic Leadership Framework: • Goal-oriented leadership (set, prioritise, focus, achieve goals) • Performance-oriented leadership • Apply management basics (plan, organise, decide, command, coordinate, control) Learning to lead in a goal-oriented way covers the elements of goal setting, prioritising, focusing, and goal achievement. Performance-oriented leadership is closely related to goal orientation but goes beyond it and the ability to define performance, describe the way to achieve it, and introduce and implement the mindset of performance orientation must be learned. The management basics extend to the elements mentioned above: plan describes the ability to give structure to the path to goal achievement; organise, in a comprehensive sense, means to bring one’s own work and that of the organisation into a form so that all individual elements know what they have to do, while also harmonising well with others; decide means to give direction and to select the effective from options; command describes the process of distributing tasks; coordinate describes the ability to create order in the system through the clear distribution of tasks, and control means to ensure the fulfilment of tasks. While there is a tool for all activities, all of them also have a personal aspect, which in turn refers to the personality of the leader, who needs to learn and apply the basics for themselves. Self-management precedes the management of others. In the sense of setting an example, but also in the sense of shaping, the leader must learn how to plan and organise their everyday life, how to decide, become effective, maintain order, and control themselves. The same must be applied to the employees and the organisation.

8.4.3

Transformational Leadership

The effectiveness of transformational leadership was highlighted several times throughout this thesis and has been confirmed in many studies and meta-studies (Bass, 1999). The field of leadership is understood comprehensively in the Eclectic Leadership Framework, i.e. it includes explicit transformational leadership with the four elements of idealised influence, individualised consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation, while also going beyond this. The empirical studies show that the topic of EQ emotional intelligence is particularly relevant.

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Idealised influence describes the role model function of the leader, which is closely linked to the person and the traits of the leader. However, there is one quality that is also referred to as competence and can therefore be learned and that is central to the leader’s role model function, namely trust. If employees do not trust the leader, their behaviour cannot be seen as (positive) trust. A comprehensive and clear study on the meaning, origin, and measurement of trust can be found in Morrone et al. (2009). According to S. M. Covey and Conant (2016), trust consists of these three learnable steps: declaring intent, demonstrating respect, and delivering results. Closely related to the development of trust is the concept of ‘psychological safety’ (Kahn, 1990) which is also one of the main findings of Google’s Aristotle Project (Duhigg, 2016): employees feel safe in the team when they are not punished or humiliated for making a mistake or coming up with a new idea. Individualised consideration means that the leader responds to the individual needs of the employees. This is where the leader as coach is most in demand and the leader can learn questioning techniques as well as comprehensive coaching frameworks such as GROW (Whitmore, 2017). Inspirational motivation starts with the generation of intrinsic motivation in employees and extends to the communication of purpose. Developing a vision, maintaining it, and then taking employees along on the path to fulfilment describes the core competencies of this attribute. While this competence is also closely linked to the person of the leader, it also contains concrete competences that can be learned including developing a vision, communicating the vision, and ensuring the achievement of the vision. Intellectual stimulation refers to stimulating creativity, innovation, and questioning the status quo. This competence is also an attribute that the manager must live and integrate. One of the creative methods such as design thinking, which consists of mindset principles as well as concretely applicable tools, can be used as a competence development tool here (Curedale, 2019). The topic of emotional intelligence is very comprehensive. To follow the line of this work, and to make the essential visible with a holistic view, the four main elements of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Bradberry et al., 2009) will be referred to whereby all four competencies can be learned. From the PERMA Lead Model by Markus Ebner (2019), the elements that are not already represented by the above-mentioned emotional intelligence model, but which were identified as essential in the empirical study, should be mentioned: positive emotions and meaning. While accomplishment is more likely to be found in goal achievement, and engagement and relationship are parts of the emotional

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intelligence model, the aspects of positive leadership and meaning are not otherwise mentioned so strongly, and hence they are included as competences that can be learned. In summary, the main components to be learned in transformational leadership can be described as follows: • • • • •

Idealised influence: trust Individualised consideration: coaching framework GROW Inspirational motivation: developing, communicating, and achieving the vision Intellectual stimulation: innovative creating (design thinking) Emotional intelligence: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship management • PERMA-Lead: positive emotions; meaning

8.5

How to Learn—Learning Leadership

The research literature usually speaks about ‘leadership development’ and less frequently mentions ‘learning leadership’. This is a significant difference as ‘development’ suggests that already existing competences are trained, while ‘learning’ is mainly understood cognitively. In this work, which applies the holistic approach, the terms are used analogously. However, the term ‘learning’ is used more to emphasise that leadership is something that can be learned (potential) but does not necessarily have to be acquired (limitation) since learning potential is always limited by the person of the learner. However, since most of the literature on leadership learning is classified under the heading ‘leadership development’, this thesis also refers to the corresponding research. As a rule, a distinction is made between intrapersonal and interpersonal factors (Day et al., 2014). Intrapersonal development concerns the leader as a person, while interpersonal development refers to the process and includes the followers. The complex phenomenon of leadership development involves many different factors, starting with the foundation in childhood, experiences in the course of life, competencies and personality, and ending with types of development such as feedback or skill development (Day et al., 2014). On the one hand, a holistic view of learning focuses on the essential elements, i.e. those that have frequently been confirmed in research, and on the other hand on the manageable elements, i.e. those that are compatible with implementation. These include the leader as a person and the leadership process under the heading of change.

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Research shows that one of the most critical elements for how leadership is learned and developed is mentoring leaders with challenging tasks and guiding this process through self-reflection, skill development, and mentorship (Heslin & Keating, 2017). Learning through challenge and reflection is not automatic, but requires a process of setting learning goals (approach), providing experiences and feedback (action), and reflecting deeply through lessons learned (reflection) (Ashford & DeRue, 2012). The prerequisite for this is the development of a growth mindset (Dweck, 2008b). The learning process as such will need to be adapted for each context. Leaders need the appropriate challenges in everyday life to create the situation outside their comfort zone, and mentors to accompany the process, as well as processes to reflect on the experience, are needed. At this point, the acquisition of competences as such should be highlighted whereby the main competences to be learned are the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Growth mindset Extroversion (self-confidence, goal orientation, dominance, prestige/charisma) People skills (integrity, fairness, generosity, humility, sociability) Authenticity (awareness, unbiased processing, consistent behaviour, relational orientation) Goal-oriented leadership (set, prioritise, focus, achieve goals) Performance-oriented leadership Apply management basics (plan, organise, decide, command, coordinate, control) Trust Coaching framework GROW Develop, communicate, and achieve the vision Innovative creating (design thinking) Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship management Positive emotions and meaning

A deeper look at the competences to be learned or developed shows that there are three areas: • Intrapersonal (growth mindset, self-confidence, dominance, prestige/charisma, integrity, trust, self-awareness, and self-management) • Interpersonal (fairness, generosity, humility, sociability, performance orientation, GROW, developing, communicating, achieving the vision, social awareness, relationship management, positive emotions, and meaning)

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• Organisational (goal orientation, setting goals, prioritising, focusing, achieving, mgmt basics, and innovative creating) From a holistic change perspective, the learning process can be understood as a process of adaptation that, according to van Dam (2013), takes place in the cognitive, affective, and behavioural dimensions. One could also say that to fully acquire the competence, a positive understanding must be generated, in conjunction with an emotional connection and anchoring as well as an outwardly visible action on which developmental feedback can also be given. The essential learning activities in the cognitive domain are reflecting, observing, defining, learning, and engaging, while in the affective domain it is mindfulness, anchoring, experiencing empathy, and trust, and in the behavioural domain it is feedback, rehearsal, intent/respect/result, journaling, demonstrating, being direct, and doing (Table 8.2). Table 8.2 Leadership competency learning Dimension

Competency

Cognitive

Affective

Behavioural

Intrapersonal

growth mindset

reflection

mindfulness

feedback

self-confidence

reflecting

mindfulness

feedback

Interpersonal

dominance

reflecting

anchoring

rehearsal

prestige/charisma

reflecting

anchoring

rehearsal

integrity

reflecting

anchoring

feedback

trust

reflecting

anchoring

intent; respect result

self-awareness

observing

mindfulness

journaling

self-management

observing

mindfulness

feedback

fairness

defining

anchoring

demonstrating

generosity

defining

anchoring

demonstrating

humility

defining

anchoring

demonstrating

sociability

defining

anchoring

demonstrating

performance orientation

defining

anchoring

demonstrating

GROW

learning

experiencing

doing (continued)

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Table 8.2 (continued) Dimension

Organisational

Competency

Cognitive

Affective

Behavioural

develop, communicate, achieve the vision

learning

experiencing

doing

social awareness

observing

empathy

demonstrating

relationship management

engaging

trust

being direct

positive emotions

reflecting

anchoring

demonstrating

meaning

reflecting

anchoring

demonstrating

goal orientation

learning

anchoring

doing

set goals

learning

anchoring

doing

prioritise

learning

anchoring

doing

focus

learning

anchoring

doing

reach

learning

anchoring

doing

management basics

learning

anchoring

doing

innovative creating

learning

anchoring

doing

The learning of competences is deliberately focused on one key element, which can be supplemented by others. In practice, it will be important to first check on which basis the corresponding competences need to be developed, i.e. which competences are already more strongly represented and which need to be newly developed (Figure 8.2). However, leadership does not only depend on the person of the leader, but also on the group of followers and the embedding in the respective culture.

Figure 8.2 Learning path

Learning journey competencies: • Intrapersonal • Interpersonal • Organizational

Transformational leadership • Idealized influence (trust), individualized consideration (GROW), inspirational motivation (develop, communicate, achieve vision), and intellectual stimulation (innovative creating) • Emotional intelligence: self-awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness, relationship management • PERMA-Lead: positive emotions, meaning

Adaptation process: • Cognitive (reflecting, observing, defining, learning, engaging) • Affective (mindfulness, anchoring, experiencing empathy, and trust) • Behavioural (feedback, rehearsal, journaling, demonstrating, being direct, and doing)

Learning path path Learning

Transactional management • Target orientation (set goals, prioritise, focus, achievement) • Performance orientation • Management basics (plan, organize, decide, command, coordinate, control)

Content: • Personality development • Transactional management • Transformational leadership

Personality • Extroversion (self-confidence, target orientation, dominance, prestige) • Human orientation (integrity, fairness, generosity, humility, sociability) • Authenticity (awareness, unbiased processing, consistent behaviour, relational orientation)

Criteria: • Personality (core traits) • Task-orientation • Emotional intelligence • Learning potential

Recruiting

Learning culture: role-modelling, learning prioritisation, self-directed learning

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Fulfil Basic Follower Needs

The concept of neuroleadership is based on the exploration of the understanding of basic human needs developed in Section 4.5. Since this chapter deals with the acquisition, learning, and implementation of leadership, the focus will now shift to delving into how leadership can be implemented within the Eclectic Leadership Framework, which is based on knowing and serving the followers’ needs, to ultimately increase the leader’s effectiveness. The needs of followers can be divided into three areas: the needs that the individual has in relation to themselves, the needs that extend to relationships with others, and the needs that concern the environment. The following individual seeds emerged from the different frameworks: Individual perspective (I-I): • • • • • • •

Autonomy Status Learning Growth Self-esteem Self-actualisation Competence

Relationship perspective (I-You): • Bonding • Relation/Relatedness • Belonging Ambient perspective (I-It/They): • • • • •

Orientation Control Certainty Fairness Safety

To learn how to fulfil these needs, the four-part grid of EQ emotional intelligence can be used as a learning framework. In the first step, the leader may perceive

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how the respective need is satisfied in himself, in order to subsequently learn to fulfil it in the second step. The third step then consists of perceiving the fulfilment of the respective need in others and also deriving activities that lead to a (higher) fulfilment of the respective need. The principles of adult learning (see Section 8.2) see self-directedness as the main aspect of a successful acquisition. In this perspective, key questions are formulated that effectively trigger this learning process. The key questions are understood as core questions that help to address the corresponding need along the four dimensions of EQ emotional intelligence (Table 8.3). As part of the acquisition and development process, the core questions help to identify and respond to the most important follower needs, while taking the fact that most leaders are also followers themselves into account. It now remains to illuminate the aspect of the environment in the broadest sense, i.e. the systemic embedding of leadership.

8.7

Systemic Aspects

Leadership does not take place in a neutral space but is always integrated into a system that can be represented by the elements of organisation, strategy, and culture. Organisation refers to the structure of an entity, its hierarchical level, reporting, work processes, and work organisation in the broadest sense. Strategy implies the orientation of the organisation, its business model, and its priorities. Culture is understood in the broadest sense as artefacts, values, and basic premises (Schein, 2010). The introduction of a leadership framework, and also its adaptation through prioritisation or any other activity that requires a change from those affected, induces change and the specific reactions to it. This transformation will only be successful if mindset, capability, and infrastructure are taken into account accordingly (Hagemann, 2020). From this perspective, the following considerations can be derived: Leaders who want to lead according to the Eclectic Leadership Framework need an organisation that supports the corresponding behaviours. While strongly hierarchical leadership levels will contradict the transformational leadership approach, an overly chaotic approach may also hamper the transactional management approach. The extent to which the hierarchical set-up supports the framework thus needs to be examined. The same applies to the reporting and performance measurement process as the elements of transformational leadership, in particular, require a great deal of empowerment and an excessively

How dependent am I on external rewards? What do my learning opportunities look like? What do my growth How can I increase opportunities look my growth like? opportunities? How does my self-esteem look? How does my self-actualization look? What are my strengths and weaknesses?

Status

Learning

Growth

Self-esteem

Self-actualisation

Competence

How can I develop my strengths?

How can I increase my self-actualization?

How can I increase my self-esteem?

How can I increase my learning opportunities?

How can I increase their learning opportunities?

How can I increase their status feeling?

How can I increase their area of decision-making authority?

Relationship management

What are their strengths?

How does their self-actualization look?

How does their self-esteem look?

(continued)

How can I develop their strengths?

How can I increase their self-actualization?

How can I increase their self-esteem?

What do their growth How can I increase opportunities look their growth like? opportunities?

What do their learning opportunities look like?

How can I decrease How threatened is my dependency on their status feeling? external rewards?

What does their area of decision-making authority look like?

Social awareness

8

How can I increase my area of decision-making authority?

What does my area of decision-making authority look like?

Autonomy

Self-management

Individual perspective (I-I):

Self-awareness

Need

Perspective

Table 8.3 Learning needs with EQ

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How satisfied am I with my relationships? What is my experience of belonging?

Relation/ relatedness

Belonging

Control

What is my perception of my control?

What is my perception of my orientation?

What is my experience of bonding?

What is my level of certainty?

Certainty

Bonding

Self-awareness

Need

Ambient perspective Orientation (I-It/They):

Relationship perspective (I-You):

Perspective

Table 8.3 (continued)

What is their experience of bonding?

How can I increase their satisfaction with relationships?

How can I increase their experience of bonding?

How well does the environment provide orientation?

(continued)

How can I increase their level of control?

How can I increase the level of orientation?

What is their level of How can I increase belonging? their experience of belonging?

How can I increase How well do they my level of control? control the environment?

How can I increase my level of orientation?

How can I increase my belonging experience?

Relationship management

What is their level of How can I increase certainty? their experience of certainty?

Social awareness

How can I increase What does their my satisfaction with relationship my relationships? capability look like?

How can I increase my bonding experience?

How can I increase my feeling of certainty?

Self-management

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Perspective

Table 8.3 (continued) Self-awareness What is my perception of fairness in my environment? What is my perception of safety?

Need

Fairness

Safety

How can I increase my perception of safety?

How can I improve their perception of fairness in their environment?

Relationship management

What is their How can I improve perception of safety? their perception of safety?

How do they perceive fairness in their environment?

Social awareness

8

How can I increase fairness in my environment?

Self-management

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narrow interpretation with too little room for manoeuvre could contradict this. The organisation of work processes and of work, in general, must be examined to determine whether they support the framework. For example, it must be determined how a stringent performance and goal-achievement orientation on the one hand and a working method oriented towards relationship orientation on the other are reflected in the work processes and the work organisation. The strategic direction may also need to be adjusted and the organisation needs to ask itself whether its strategy reflects the goals of leadership and whether the strategy supports the kind of leadership the organisation wants. The whole business model should be questioned to see how the leadership framework can be introduced and sustained. Existing priorities can be used to check whether they reflect, confirm, or counteract the priorities of the leadership framework. Cultural descriptions are comprehensive and organisation specific and hence examining the artefacts, i.e. the visible expressions of the respective organisation, can indicate a fit with the leadership framework or define the potential for change. If, for example, the observable language style of the leaders is not very appreciative, this indicates a need for adjustment with regard to the values of the Eclectic Leadership Framework. The same applies to the values of the organisation as these need to be examined and also evaluated to determine if they are in line with the values of future leadership. The most challenging analysis concerns the basic premises of the culture, which can be seen in the unconscious perceptions, feelings, and resulting behaviours of individuals. Again, those elements that support the leadership framework need to be developed, while those that contradict it need to be adapted. In itself, leadership shapes culture and thus in all top-down organisations, the leadership framework itself can be used to shape the culture. It is advisable to see this process as a holistic one, which on the one hand uses the strengths of the current culture and on the other hand makes the transformation successful by involving as many people as possible.

8.8

The Leadership Academy

From the importance given to the topic of leadership, which is also reflected in the myriad of books and scientific studies concerning it, one could conclude that leadership is so essential that a large number of different courses of study in the university context are dedicated to it, where young people can learn about leadership. However, the research shows that there are almost no recognised university courses that are comprehensively dedicated to the topic of leadership. Of

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course, one can ask whether leadership can be learned at all and, in principle, in a university context and whether this is not a subject that should rather be done part-time. Since an important component of adult learning, as shown above, is application-oriented learning while, on the other hand, learning cannot be mapped into a one-week seminar, a comprehensive learning programme is proposed for which a leadership academy should be established. Following the aforementioned focal points, this academy is about cognitive knowledge transfer as well as emotional experience and behaviourally adapted application. Based on the cultural transformational insights, any kind of knowledge transfer should be done by the leaders themselves, who can be accompanied by coaches at the beginning. The main content is derived from the Eclectic Leadership Framework but can also include some side topics that could not be explored in depth in this thesis. For emotional learning, the place of learning, which may not be the place of the organisation, is important and should be carefully chosen. Emotional learning involves nature, physicality, and psychological safety so that the leader has the opportunity to face themselves. The most crucial element of learning is the application with the corresponding feedback processes. This requires (external) coaches who individually accompany the learning and help to steer it in a goal-oriented way. It is recommended to establish a baseline at the beginning, both at the individual and organisational levels so that the learning path and process can be better tracked. The selection and promotion of leaders is also a core process that should be considered. Finally, a scientific evaluation of the implementation and enforcement process is recommended to measure effectiveness. This also leads to the need for further research.

8.9

Further Research—Outlook

The creation of the Eclectic Leadership Framework has filled an important gap in current research. From the multitude of approaches, both from a hermeneutic and empirical perspective, a holistic framework has been created that contains application-oriented, universally applicable, and effective principles of leadership. The first and major need for further research is now to apply this framework in different industries, contexts, sectors, and cultures. As a proof-of-concept, the framework should be applied in different industries to see if it can be generalised to different industries, such as manufacturing,

8.9 Further Research—Outlook

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technology, or finance. It should also be examined whether different industries have their own challenges with regard to leadership to determine which elements are more generalisable or more specific. The context of leadership includes the size of a company, its historical emergence, and its organisational structure. In the empirical part of this thesis, a large corporation was studied. In addition to different industries, it should be examined to what extent the size of a company moderates the outcome of the framework. The genesis of the company in question may also have an influence on leadership as whether a company was founded 50 years ago or looks back on a 500-year tradition may have some influence on the context of leadership in the respective company. The organisational structure of the respective company, which is often related to the history of its origins, may also influence the framework for leadership. This also raises the question of applicability to different (hierarchical) levels in the organisation. The distinction between C-level, middle management, and supervisor level was not considered in this work due to the design intention as, by definition, the holistic model should apply to all levels as a framework and not as a concrete impulse for action. Nevertheless, it can be examined whether and how the framework affects different hierarchical levels. The framework of this work was set in the area of private companies and the topic of leadership for the public sector was only touched on in passing. It thus needs to be examined whether the framework is robust for the private as well as the public and non-profit sectors, and which (if any) adaptations are necessary for the other sectors. Cultural diversity includes nationality in particular, but also extends to other cultural characteristics that result, for example, from the respective corporate culture. Future research should investigate the influence of cultural diversity and which cultural specifics moderate elements of the framework. An additional requirement for future research concerns the research itself. As shown, there have been individual attempts to unify the different and sometimes contradictory strands of research. It would thus be helpful for further research if there could be agreement on a certain ‘umbrella framework’ that unites the different perspectives in such a way that they can be related to each other— all ‘under one roof’. As shown, this is one of the challenges from a theoretical perspective as different leadership approaches simply stand (unconnected) next to each other, and claim (often exclusive) correctness for themselves. This is well illustrated in two examples. On the one hand, there is the ‘Great Man Theory’, which places the personality of the leader in the foreground, and which has repeatedly been questioned or supplemented by many other models, in particular by behavioural theories, which

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claim that leadership consists of behavioural patterns that can be learned by all those who are willing. Although both approaches have their relevance, they usually stand asyndetically next to each other. The holistic framework of this work can and should be refined and deepened to precisely explore the interplay of the different styles. Another example is the continuum of transactional and transformational leadership. Many other leadership theories are consistent with elements of transformational leadership, such as servant, spiritual, emotionally intelligent, authentic, ethical, or adaptive leadership—to name a few. These erratic blocks are currently difficult to relate to each other and there is a large academic gap here that should be filled over time. The aim will not be to present a single model as the only correct one, but rather to work out the complementarity of the different models by relating them to each other since no model contains all the essential elements for effective leadership. The third area of further research concerns empirical investigation. Here, a comprehensive review of the Eclectic Leadership Framework is necessary, both concerning the individual elements and the framework as such. In particular, the methodology should not only be based on interviews and self-assessments but on comprehensive research methods. In particular, 360-degree feedback should be considered, in addition to studies that show the connection between financial performance or other important KPIs and the respective leadership style. Another area of future research can be devoted to the emergence of leadership within the framework. The guiding research question is how the selection of leaders can ensure that they meet the requirements of the Eclectic Leadership Framework to a high degree, or how they can raise their competences accordingly in a short period. Finally, the learning of the principles for application-oriented, universal, and effective leadership can be scientifically accompanied and investigated more deeply. In particular, the matching of findings on adult learning and the determination of effective learning methods can be deepened, both hermeneutically and empirically. Overall, the Eclectic Leadership Framework can deepen the issue of leadership in different areas of society and make it more effective and thereby contribute to the creation of an environment in which the life satisfaction of individuals is significantly increased.

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